|| The infinite list of all prime numbers.\n\nThe list of potential prime numbers starts as all integers from 2 onwards;as each prime is returned, all the following numbers that can exactly bedivided by it are filtered out of the list of candidates.> primes = sieve [2..]> sieve (p:x) = p : sieve [n | n <- x; n mod p ~= 0]\nHere, we have some more examples\nmax2 :: num -> num -> num\nmax2 a b = a, if a>b\n = b, otherwise\n\nmax3 :: num ->","-25.801976872375235"],["themselves and the number one, then a knows that 8683317618811886495518194401279999999 is prime (since this number is only divisible by itself and the number one). That is to say, under the modal interpretation of knowledge, when a knows the definition of a prime number, a knows that this number is prime. It should be clear at this point that a is not human. This shows that epistemic modal logic is an idealized account of knowledge, and explains objective, rather than subjective knowledge (if anything).","-25.718976939329877"],["Table of prime factors The tables contain the prime factorization of the natural numbers from 1 to 1000.\nWhen n is a prime number, the prime factorization is just n itself, written in bold below.\nThe number 1 is called a unit. It has no prime factors and is neither prime nor composite.\nSee also: Table of divisors (prime and non-prime divisors for 1 to 1000)","-25.70627506238816"],["of primes is infinite. Proof by construction Filip Saidak gave the following proof by construction, which does not use reductio ad absurdum or Euclid's Lemma (that if a prime p divides ab then it must divide a or b).\nSince each natural number (> 1) has at least one prime factor, and two successive numbers n and (n + 1) have no factor in common, the product n(n + 1) has more different prime factors than the number n itself. So the chain of pronic numbers:\n1×2 = 2 {2}, 2×3 = 6 {2, 3}, 6×7 = 42 {2,3, 7}, 42×43 = 1806 {2,3,7, 43},","-25.675579764530994"],["Prime element In mathematics, specifically in abstract algebra, a prime element of a commutative ring is an object satisfying certain properties similar to the prime numbers in the integers and to irreducible polynomials. Care should be taken to distinguish prime elements from irreducible elements, a concept which is the same in UFDs but not the same in general. Definition An element p of a commutative ring R is said to be prime if it is not the zero element or a unit and whenever p divides ab for some a and b in R, then p divides a or p","-25.440448532404844"],["a number, and some of them included it as the first prime number. In the mid-18th century Christian Goldbach listed 1 as prime in his correspondence with Leonhard Euler; however, Euler himself did not consider 1 to be prime. In the 19th century many mathematicians still considered 1 to be prime, and lists of primes that included 1 continued to be published as recently as 1956.\nIf the definition of a prime number were changed to call 1 a prime, many statements involving prime numbers would need to be reworded in a more awkward way. For example, the fundamental theorem of","-25.394872985270922"],["In abstract algebra, objects that behave in a generalized way like prime numbers include prime elements and prime ideals. History The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, from around 1550 BC, has Egyptian fraction expansions of different forms for prime and composite numbers. However, the earliest surviving records of the explicit study of prime numbers come from ancient Greek mathematics. Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC) proves the infinitude of primes and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, and shows how to construct a perfect number from a Mersenne prime. Another Greek invention, the Sieve of Eratosthenes, is still used to construct lists of primes.\nAround","-25.359972845908487"],["Prime-counting function In mathematics, the prime-counting function is the function counting the number of prime numbers less than or equal to some real number x. It is denoted by π(x) (unrelated to the number π).","-25.33726804779144"],["Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of special forms, such as Mersenne numbers. As of December 2018 the largest known prime number has 24,862,048 decimal digits.\nThere are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC. No known simple formula separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes within the natural numbers in the large can be statistically modelled. The first result in that direction is the prime number theorem, proven at the end of the 19th century, which says that the probability of a randomly chosen number being prime is inversely proportional to its number","-25.305169886734802"],["of prime factors of a given number), Smarandache–Wellin numbers (the concatenations of the first prime numbers), and the Champernowne and Copeland–Erdős constants (the real numbers formed by the decimal representations of the positive integers and the prime numbers, respectively).","-25.27068922261242"],["Harvey Dubner Harvey Dubner is a retired engineer and mathematician living in New Jersey, noted for his contributions to finding large prime numbers. In 1984, he and his son Robert collaborated in developing the 'Dubner cruncher', a board which used a commercial finite impulse response filter chip to speed up dramatically the multiplication of medium-sized multi-precision numbers, to levels competitive with supercomputers of the time, though nowadays his focus has changed to efficient implementation of FFT-based algorithms on personal computers.\nHe has found many large prime numbers of special forms: repunits, prime Fibonacci and Lucas numbers, twin primes, Sophie Germain","-25.11829096148722"],["the implement indicates an understanding of decimals or prime numbers. Though these propositions are in doubt, it is considered likely by some scholars that the tool was used for simple mathematical procedures or to construct a numeral system.\nThe third column has been interpreted as a \"table of prime numbers\", but it is more likely to be a coincidence. Historian of mathematics Peter S. Rudman argues that prime numbers were probably not understood until about 500 BC, and were dependent on the concept of division, which he dates to no earlier than 10,000 BC. \nAlexander Marshack speculated that the Ishango bone","-25.07847669062903"],["finding all prime numbers up to any given limit. It does so by iteratively marking as composite, i.e., not prime, the multiples of each prime, starting with the multiples of 2. The multiples of a given prime are generated starting from that prime, as a sequence of numbers with the same difference, equal to that prime, between consecutive numbers. This is the sieve's key distinction from using trial division to sequentially test each candidate number for divisibility by each prime. Works Eratosthenes was one of the most pre-eminent scholarly figures of his time, and produced works covering a vast area","-25.040183496952523"],["numbers than they are for 1. By the early 20th century, mathematicians began to agree that 1 should not be listed as prime, but rather in its own special category as a \"unit\". Open questions Many conjectures revolving about primes have been posed. Often having an elementary formulation, many of these conjectures have withstood proof for decades: all four of Landau's problems from 1912 are still unsolved. One of them is Goldbach's conjecture, which asserts that every even integer greater than 2 can be written as a sum of two primes. As of 2014, this conjecture has been","-24.930833693879322"],["that the principal ideal generated by a prime element is a prime ideal, are an important tool and object of study in commutative algebra, algebraic number theory and algebraic geometry. The prime ideals of the ring of integers are the ideals (0), (2), (3), (5), (7), (11), ... The fundamental theorem of arithmetic generalizes to the Lasker–Noether theorem, which expresses every ideal in a Noetherian commutative ring as an intersection of primary ideals, which are the appropriate generalizations of prime powers.\nThe spectrum of a ring is a geometric space whose points are the prime ideals of the ring. Arithmetic geometry","-24.88902019568195"],["Consecutive primes in arithmetic progression refers to at least three consecutive primes which are consecutive terms in an arithmetic progression. Note that unlike an AP-k, all the other numbers between the terms of the progression must be composite. For example, the AP-3 {3, 7, 11} does not qualify, because 5 is also a prime.\nFor an integer k ≥ 3, a CPAP-k is k consecutive primes in arithmetic progression. It is conjectured there are arbitrarily long CPAP's. This would imply infinitely many CPAP-k for all k. The middle prime in a CPAP-3 is called a balanced prime. The largest known as","-24.87912121420959"],["a prime, which is useful for the quadratic sieve method of integer factorization.\nIn 1974, Shanks and John Wrench did some of the first computer work on estimating the value of Brun's constant, the sum of the reciprocals of the twin primes, calculating it over the twin primes among the first two million primes.","-24.846175401296932"],["long-standing question and placed PRIMES in P. However, PRIMES is not known to be P-complete, and it is not known whether it lies in classes lying inside P such as NC or L. It is known that PRIMES is not in AC⁰. Number-theoretic methods Certain number-theoretic methods exist for testing whether a number is prime, such as the Lucas test and Proth's test. These tests typically require factorization of n + 1, n − 1, or a similar quantity, which means that they are not useful for general-purpose primality testing, but they are often quite powerful when the tested number n is","-24.818328903376823"],["John B. Cosgrave Dr. John B. Cosgrave (born 5 January 1946) is an Irish mathematician specialising in number theory. Educated at Royal Holloway College, London, he lectured in Carysfort College (Blackrock, Dublin) and St Patrick's College of Education (Drumcondra). Other In January 1999, while preparing some work for his students, he identified a highly structured prime number with exactly two thousand digits. Dubbing this prime a millennium prime, he wrote an email about it to a niece and nephew, which was subsequently published by Floating Landscapes, the publishing house of the cartographer Tim Robinson. He donated his author royalties to","-24.802187753055478"],["Truncatable prime In number theory, a left-truncatable prime is a prime number which, in a given base, contains no 0, and if the leading (\"left\") digit is successively removed, then all resulting numbers are prime. For example, 9137, since 9137, 137, 37 and 7 are all prime. Decimal representation is often assumed and always used in this article.\nA right-truncatable prime is a prime which remains prime when the last (\"right\") digit is successively removed. 7393 is an example of a right-truncatable prime, since 7393, 739, 73, and 7 are all prime.\nA left-and-right-truncatable prime is a prime which remains prime if","-24.719826723332517"],["can be expressed symbolically under the dataflow paradigm as\n primes = [2, 3, ...] \\ [[p², p²+p, ...] for p in primes],\nusing list comprehension notation with \\ denoting set subtraction of arithmetic progressions of numbers.\nPrimes can also be produced by iteratively sieving out the composites through divisibility testing by sequential primes, one prime at a time. It is not the sieve of Eratosthenes but is often confused with it, even though the sieve of Eratosthenes directly generates the composites instead of testing for them. Trial division has worse theoretical complexity than that of the sieve of Eratosthenes in generating","-24.622019777765672"],["question 'Is 15 a prime number?' and A knows what a prime number is and B doesn't; the sentence then doesn't have a meaning for B.","-24.565008733832656"],["prime is congruent to 1 mod 24, given that the prime is above 3.\nThe factorial of an integer ends in 0, given that the integer is above 4.","-24.557922041232814"],["in the integers.\nBeing prime is relative to which ring an element is considered to be in; for example, 2 is a prime element in Z but it is not in Z[i], the ring of Gaussian integers, since 2 = (1 + i)(1 − i) and 2 does not divide any factor on the right. Connection with prime ideals An ideal I in the ring R (with unity) is prime if the factor ring R/I is an integral domain.\nA nonzero principal ideal is prime if and only if it is generated by a prime element. Irreducible elements Prime elements should not","-24.424317960685585"],["Prime model In mathematics, and in particular model theory, a prime model is a model which is as simple as possible. Specifically, a model is prime if it admits an elementary embedding into any model to which it is elementarily equivalent (that is, into any model satisfying the same complete theory as ). Cardinality In contrast with the notion of saturated model, prime models are restricted to very specific cardinalities by the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem. If is a first-order language with cardinality and a complete theory over then this theorem guarantees a model for","-24.37019351910567"],["2,147,483,647 Barlow's prediction At the time of its discovery, 2,147,483,647 was the largest known prime number. In 1811, Peter Barlow, not anticipating future interest in perfect numbers, wrote (in An Elementary Investigation of the Theory of Numbers):\nEuler ascertained that 2³¹ − 1 = 2147483647 is a prime number; and this is the greatest at present known to be such, and, consequently, the last of the above perfect numbers [i.e., 2³⁰(2³¹ − 1)], which depends upon this, is the greatest perfect number known at present, and probably the greatest that ever will be discovered; for as they are merely curious, without being useful, it is","-24.271680371552065"],["11881 = 109², and S₄₄₁ = 1164241 = 1079² (sequence A054318 in the OEIS).\nA star prime is a star number that is prime. The first few star primes (sequence A083577 in the OEIS) are\n13, 37, 73, 181, 337, 433, 541, 661, 937.\nThe term \"star number\" or \"stellate number\" is occasionally used to refer to octagonal numbers.","-24.241515056521166"],["4, 9 and 14.\nAs five is a prime number, only the reciprocals of the powers of five terminate, although its location between two highly composite numbers (4 and 6) guarantees that many recurring fractions have relatively short periods. Notation It is possible that the Iñupiaq have very high visual perceptual skills and this might be the connection why the numeral system is also very symbolic visually.\nA complication came with writing the number 20. Since it was a base for the system, 20 should be written with a symbol for one and zero but the Iñupiaq language does not have a","-24.173033855622634"],["number is prime by testing every possible nontrivial factor. Although much more efficient methods of primality testing are known, the existence of any effective method is enough to establish decidability. Decidability A decision problem A is decidable or effectively solvable if A is a recursive set. A problem is partially decidable, semidecidable, solvable, or provable if A is a recursively enumerable set. Problems that are not decidable are undecidable. For those it is not possible to create an algorithm, efficient or otherwise, that solves them.\nThe halting problem is an important undecidable decision problem; for more examples, see list","-24.127406410116237"],["divides b. Equivalently, an element p is prime if, and only if, the principal ideal (p) generated by p is a nonzero prime ideal. (Note that in an integral domain, the ideal (0) is a prime ideal, but 0 is an exception in the definition of 'prime element'.)\nInterest in prime elements comes from the Fundamental theorem of arithmetic, which asserts that each nonzero integer can be written in essentially only one way as 1 or −1 multiplied by a product of positive prime numbers. This led to the study of unique factorization domains, which generalize what was just illustrated","-24.118618992128177"],["Pythagorean prime A Pythagorean prime is a prime number of the form 4n + 1. Pythagorean primes are exactly the odd prime numbers that are the sum of two squares; this characterization is Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares.\nEquivalently, by the Pythagorean theorem, they are the odd prime numbers p for which √p is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with integer legs, and they are also the prime numbers p for which p itself is the hypotenuse of a primitive Pythagorean triangle. For instance, the number 5 is a Pythagorean prime; √5 is the hypotenuse of a","-24.114205921447137"],["Cunningham number In mathematics, specifically in number theory, a Cunningham number is a certain kind of integer named after English mathematician A. J. C. Cunningham. Primality Establishing whether or not a given Cunningham number is prime has been the main focus of research around this type of number. Two particularly famous families of Cunningham numbers in this respect are the Fermat numbers, which are those of the form C⁺(2,2ᵐ), and the Mersenne numbers, which are of the form C⁻(2,n).\nCunningham worked on gathering together all known data on which of these numbers were prime. In 1925 he published tables which","-24.100440300651826"],["the tenth Mersenne prime for GIMPS.\nOn January 25, 2013, Cooper found his third Mersenne prime of 2⁵⁷ ⁸⁸⁵ ¹⁶¹ − 1.\nOn September 17, 2015 (but not actually noticed until January 7, 2016), Cooper discovered yet another Mersenne prime, 2⁷⁴ ²⁰⁷ ²⁸¹ - 1, which was the largest known prime number at 22,338,618 decimal digits. Areas of research Cooper's own work has mainly been in elementary number theory, especially work related to digital representations of numbers. He collaborated extensively with Robert E. Kennedy. They have worked with Niven numbers, among other results, showing that no 21 consecutive integers can all be","-23.988090850703884"],["Prime gap As an arithmetic function The gap gₙ between the nth and (n + 1)st prime numbers is an example of an arithmetic function. In this context it is usually denoted dₙ and called the prime difference function. The function is neither multiplicative nor additive.","-23.959281365503557"],["the trivial factors are not possible for prime n, so all factors are of the form 2kn + 1. In general, all factors of (bⁿ − 1)/(b − 1) are of the form 2kn + 1, where b ≥ 2 and n is prime, except when n divides b − 1, in which case (bⁿ − 1)/(b − 1) is divisible by n itself.\nCunningham numbers of the form bⁿ − 1 can only be prime if b = 2 and n is prime, assuming that n ≥ 2; these are the Mersenne numbers. Numbers of the form bⁿ + 1 can only be prime if b is even and n is a power of 2, again assuming n ≥ 2; these are the","-23.898603738925885"],["infinitely many prime values is conjectured to take infinitely many prime values.","-23.84884370128566"],["generated by a prime element is a prime ideal, it is not true in general that an ideal generated by an irreducible element is an irreducible ideal. However if is a GCD domain and is an irreducible element of , then as noted above is prime, and so the ideal generated by is a prime ideal of .","-23.820888222617214"],["Prime constant Irrationality The number is easily shown to be irrational. To see why, suppose it were rational.\nDenote the th digit of the binary expansion of by . Then, since is assumed rational, there must exist , positive integers such that\n for all and all .\nSince there are an infinite number of primes, we may choose a prime . By definition we see that . As noted, we have for all . Now consider the case . We have , since is composite because . Since","-23.80646508418431"],["primes whereas Goldbach's conjecture and Lemoine's conjecture deal with such sums only individually. This conjecture and the open questions about numbers at levels two and three are of interest in their own right because of the issues they raise within this fascinating and often baffling additive realm of the prime numbers.\" Role in modern triangle geometry Lemoine has been described by Nathan Altshiller Court as a co-founder (along with Henri Brocard and Joseph Neuberg) of modern triangle geometry, a term used by William Gallatly, among others. In this context, \"modern\" is used to refer to geometry developed from the late","-23.792685903783422"],["to be prime, the index n cannot be congruent to 4 or 5 (modulo 6). Also, for a positive integer m, the Woodall number W₂ᵐ may be prime only if 2ᵐ + m is prime. As of January 2019, the only known primes that are both Woodall primes and Mersenne primes are W₂ = M₃ = 7, and W₅₁₂ = M₅₂₁.","-23.76692649596953"],["Prime signature The prime signature of a number is the multiset of exponents of its prime factorization. The prime signature of a number having prime factorization is .\nFor example, all prime numbers have a prime signature of {1}, the squares of primes have a prime signature of {2}, the products of 2 distinct primes have a prime signature of {1,1} and the products of a square of a prime and a different prime (e.g. 12,18,20,... ) have a prime signature of {2,1}.","-23.741601588611957"],["Megaprime A megaprime is a prime number with at least one million decimal digits (whereas titanic prime is a prime number with at least 1,000 digits, and gigantic prime has at least 10,000 digits).\nAs of December 2018, 449 (probable) megaprimes are known, including 421 definite primes and 28 probable primes. The first to be found was the Mersenne prime 2⁶⁹⁷²⁵⁹³−1 with 2,098,960 digits, discovered in 1999 by Nayan Hajratwala, a participant in the distributed computing project GIMPS.\nThe term bevaprime has been proposed as a term for a prime with at least 1,000,000,000 digits.\nIn fact, \"almost all\" primes are megaprimes, as the","-23.741281782160513"],["prime, then φ(p) = p − 1. In 1932 D. H. Lehmer asked if there are any composite numbers n such that φ(n) | n − 1. None are known.\nIn 1933 he proved that if any such n exists, it must be odd, square-free, and divisible by at least seven primes (i.e. ω(n) ≥ 7). In 1980 Cohen and Hagis proved that n > 10²⁰ and that ω(n) ≥ 14. Further, Hagis showed that if 3 divides n then n > 10¹⁹³⁷⁰⁴² and ω(n) ≥ 298848. Carmichael's conjecture This states that there is no number n with the property that","-23.690559573296923"],["result is now known as the prime number theorem. Another important 19th century result was Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions, that certain arithmetic progressions contain infinitely many primes.\nMany mathematicians have worked on primality tests for numbers larger than those where trial division is practicably applicable. Methods that are restricted to specific number forms include Pépin's test for Fermat numbers (1877), Proth's theorem (c. 1878), the Lucas–Lehmer primality test (originated 1856), and the generalized Lucas primality test.\nSince 1951 all the largest known primes have been found using these tests on computers. The search for ever larger primes has generated interest outside","-23.665251640588394"],["Bertrand's postulate Prime number theorem The prime number theorem (PNT) implies that the number of primes up to x is roughly x/ln(x), so if we replace x with 2x then we see the number of primes up to 2x is asymptotically twice the number of primes up to x (the terms ln(2x) and ln(x) are asymptotically equivalent). Therefore the number of primes between n and 2n is roughly n/ln(n) when n is large, and so in particular there are many more primes in this interval than are guaranteed by Bertrand's Postulate. So Bertrand's postulate is comparatively weaker than","-23.6556897831033"],["exist a set of primes, {p₁, p₂, ..., pₜ}, such that N = p₁ᵏ + p₂ᵏ + ... + pₜᵏ, where t is at most some constant value?\nThe case, k=1, is a weaker version of the Goldbach conjecture. Some progress has been made on the cases k=2 to 7. Heuristic justification By the prime number theorem, the number of k-th powers of a prime below x is of the order x1/ᵏ/log x.\nFrom this, the number of t-term expressions with sums ≤x is roughly xᵗ/ᵏ/(log x)ᵗ.\nIt is reasonable to assume that for some sufficiently large number t this is x-c, i.e., all numbers up to x are t-fold sums of","-23.64960127120139"],["for odd primes p. It obeys the same rules as the Jacobi symbol (i.e., reciprocity and the supplementary formulas for () and () and multiplicativity of the \"numerator\".)\nProblem: Given that 9907 is prime, calculate ().","-23.633840748691"],["neither a perfect power nor −4k⁴ with k positive integer, then there are infinity many base b repunit primes. History Although they were not then known by that name, repunits in base 10 were studied by many mathematicians during the nineteenth century in an effort to work out and predict the cyclic patterns of repeating decimals.\nIt was found very early on that for any prime p greater than 5, the period of the decimal expansion of 1/p is equal to the length of the smallest repunit number that is divisible by p. Tables of the period of reciprocal of primes","-23.63162613598979"],[" 20 15 6 \n 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 Prime numbers, contra proof via factors Determine the number of prime numbers (prime # is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself) up to some number N. Ken Iverson is credited with the following one-liner APL solution to","-23.626639960806642"],["32 × 15. Put another way, they have fairly regular bit patterns. Mersenne and Fermat primes A prime number that is one less than a power of two is called a Mersenne prime. For example, the prime number 31 is a Mersenne prime because it is 1 less than 32 (2⁵). Similarly, a prime number (like 257) that is one more than a positive power of two is called a Fermat prime—the exponent itself is a power of two. A fraction that has a power of two as its denominator is called a dyadic rational. The numbers that","-23.604701186879538"],["would be represented by combining characters for simpler thoughts. Leibniz saw that the uniqueness of prime factorization suggests a central role for prime numbers in the universal characteristic, a striking anticipation of Gödel numbering. Granted, there is no intuitive or mnemonic way to number any set of elementary concepts using the prime numbers.\nBecause Leibniz was a mathematical novice when he first wrote about the characteristic, at first he did not conceive it as an algebra but rather as a universal language or script. Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of \"algebra of thought\", modeled on and including","-23.58117389099789"],["of the topic dates to at least November 1969 issue of Mathematics Magazine, where truncatable primes were called prime primes by two co-authors (Murray Berg and John E. Walstrom).","-23.564799968444277"],["probable primes.\nSince 1999, four further probably prime repunits have been found, but it is unlikely that any of them will be proven prime in the foreseeable future because of their huge size.\nThe Cunningham project endeavours to document the integer factorizations of (among other numbers) the repunits to base 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, and 12. Demlo numbers Kaprekar has defined Demlo numbers as concatenation of a left, middle and right part, where the left and right part must be of the same length (up to a possible leading zero to the left) and must add up to a","-23.558615382375137"],["is_prime(n):\n // n is prime, omit multiples of its square; this is sufficient \n // because square-free composites can't get on this list\n for c ≤ limit, c ← n² × (60 × w + x) where w ∈ {0,1,...}, x ∈ s:\n is_prime(c) ← false// one sweep to produce a sequential list of primes up to limit:output 2, 3, 5for 7 ≤ n ≤ limit, n ←","-23.509060791460797"],["shattered in the 1970s, when it was publicly announced that prime numbers could be used as the basis for the creation of public key cryptography algorithms.\nThese applications have led to significant study of algorithms for computing with prime numbers, and in particular of primality testing, methods for determining whether a given number is prime.\nThe most basic primality testing routine, trial division, is too slow to be useful for large numbers. One group of modern primality tests is applicable to arbitrary numbers, while more efficient tests are available for numbers of special types. Most primality tests only tell whether their argument","-23.501515139170806"],["Prime (symbol) Designation of units The prime symbol ( ′ ) is commonly used to represent feet (ft) and arcminutes (arcmin). However, for convenience, a ( ' ) (single quote mark) is commonly used.\nThe double prime ( ″ ) represents inches (in) and arcseconds (arcsec). However, for convenience, a ( \" ) (double quotation mark) is commonly used.\nThus, 3′ 5″ could mean 3 feet and 5 inches (of length), or 3 minutes and 5 seconds (of arc). As an angular measurement, 3° 5′ 30″ means 3 degrees, 5 arcminutes and 30 arcseconds.\nThe triple prime ( ‴ ) in watchmaking represents a ligne or 1/12 of an inch. It is also occasionally found in historical astronomical","-23.47082294995198"],["one is a multiple of a prime number. More generally, a subsequence of the prime numbers forms a Behrend sequence if and only if the sum of reciprocals of diverges.\nThe semiprimes, the products of two prime numbers, also form a Behrend sequence. The only integers that are not multiples of a semiprime are the prime powers. But as the prime powers have density zero, their complement, the multiples of the semiprimes, have density one. History The problem of characterizing these sequence was described as \"very difficult\" by Paul Erdős in 1979.\nThese sequences were named \"Behrend sequences\" in 1990","-23.468002888460433"],["prime number theory, working on the Riemann zeta function and allied functions. Apart from prime number theory, he made substantial contributions to the theory of transcendental number theory, in which he is known for his proof of the six exponentials theorem, achieved independently of Serge Lang. He also contributed to many other areas of number theory.\nIn 1978 he founded the Hardy–Ramanujan journal, and published it on behalf of the Hardy–Ramanujan society until his death.","-23.38745161378756"],["theory of primes in Europe dates to the Renaissance and later eras.\nIn 1796, Adrien-Marie Legendre conjectured the prime number theorem, describing the asymptotic distribution of primes. Other results concerning the distribution of the primes include Euler's proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges, and the Goldbach conjecture, which claims that any sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes. Yet another conjecture related to the distribution of prime numbers is the Riemann hypothesis, formulated by Bernhard Riemann in 1859. The prime number theorem was finally proved by Jacques Hadamard and Charles de la Vallée-Poussin","-23.381027876093867"],["regular primes, integer prime numbers connected with the failure of unique factorization in the cyclotomic integers.\nThe question of how many integer prime numbers factor into a product of multiple prime ideals in an algebraic number field is addressed by Chebotarev's density theorem, which (when applied to the cyclotomic integers) has Dirichlet's theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions as a special case. Group theory In the theory of finite groups the Sylow theorems imply that, if a power of a prime number divides the order of a group, then it has a subgroup of order . By Lagrange's theorem, any","-23.35337547105155"],["(cf. wheel factorization), so that the list will start with the next prime, and all the numbers in it below the square of its first element will be prime too.\nThus, when generating a bounded sequence of primes, when the next identified prime exceeds the square root of the upper limit, all the remaining numbers in the list are prime. In the example given above that is achieved on identifying 11 as next prime, giving a list of all primes less than or equal to 80.\nNote that numbers that will be discarded by a step are still used while marking the","-23.334331415593624"],[", one of the two factors and is less than or equal to the square root of . Another optimization is to check only primes as factors in this range.\nFor instance, to check whether 37 is prime, this method divides it by the primes in the range from 2 to √37, which are 2, 3, and 5. Each division produces a nonzero remainder, so 37 is indeed prime.\nAlthough this method is simple to describe, it is impractical for testing the primality of large integers, because the number of tests that it performs grows exponentially as a function of","-23.323195587610826"],["relatively prime to n is written as (Z/nZ)×; it forms a group under the operation of multiplication. This group is not always cyclic, but is so whenever n is 1, 2, 4, a power of an odd prime, or twice a power of an odd prime (sequence A033948 in the OEIS). \nThis is the multiplicative group of units of the ring Z/nZ; there are φ(n) of them, where again φ is the totient function. For example, (Z/6Z)× = {1,5}, and since 6 is twice an odd prime, this is a cyclic group. In contrast, (Z/8Z)× = {1,3,5,7} is a","-23.170647781531443"],[" ⍝ There are twenty-five prime numbers in the range up to 100.\nExamining the converse or opposite of a mathematical solution is frequently needed (integer factors of a number): Prove for the subset of integers from 1 through 15 that they are non-prime by listing their decomposition factors. What are their non-one factors (#'s divisible by, except 1)?\n ⎕CR 'ProveNonPrime'Z←ProveNonPrime R⍝Show all factors of an integer R - except 1 and the number itself,⍝ i.e., prove Non-Prime. String 'prime' is returned for","-23.142140452633612"],["N − 1. It does not matter whether B is prime.\nWe merely need to verify that no prime that divides A also divides B, that is, that A and B are relatively prime.\nThen, for every prime factor p of A, find an which fulfills conditions (6) and (7) of the corollary.\nIf such s can be found, the Corollary implies that N is prime.\nAccording to Koblitz, = 2 often works.","-23.115421931783203"],["prime numbers are odd, with one exception: the prime number 2. All known perfect numbers are even; it is unknown whether any odd perfect numbers exist.\nGoldbach's conjecture states that every even integer greater than 2 can be represented as a sum of two prime numbers.\nModern computer calculations have shown this conjecture to be true for integers up to at least 4 × 10¹⁸, but still no general proof has been found. Group theory The parity of a permutation (as defined in abstract algebra) is the parity of the number of transpositions into which the permutation can be decomposed. For example","-23.108601258136332"],["Safe prime Applications These primes are called \"safe\" because of their relationship to strong primes. A prime number q is a strong prime if q + 1 and q − 1 both have some large prime factors. For a safe prime q = 2p + 1, the number q − 1 naturally has a large prime factor, namely p, and so a safe prime q meets part of the criteria for being a strong prime. The running times of some methods of factoring a number with q as a prime factor depend partly on the size of the","-23.10172313672956"],["that for large enough N, the probability that a random integer not greater than N is prime is very close to 1 / log(N). Consequently, a random integer with at most 2n digits (for large enough n) is about half as likely to be prime as a random integer with at most n digits. For example, among the positive integers of at most 1000 digits, about one in 2300 is prime (log(10¹⁰⁰⁰) ≈ 2302.6), whereas among positive integers of at most 2000 digits, about one in 4600 is prime (log(10²⁰⁰⁰) ≈ 4605.2). In other words, the average gap between consecutive","-23.069687378709204"],["simplified by instead considering only prime values of k. This is because if for a composite where p is prime, then this can simply be rewritten as . Because of this result, the minimal value of k must necessarily be prime.\nIf the full factorization of n is known, say where the are distinct primes, then n is a perfect power if and only if where gcd denotes the greatest common divisor. As an example, consider n = 2⁹⁶·3⁶⁰·7²⁴. Since gcd(96, 60, 24) = 12, n is a perfect 12th power (and a perfect 6th power,","-23.03435543901287"],["share some properties with primes, such as asymptotic behaviour according to the prime number theorem; also, a version of Goldbach's conjecture has been extended to them. There are infinitely many lucky numbers. However, if Lₙ denotes the n-th lucky number, and pₙ the n-th prime, then Lₙ > pₙ for all sufficiently large n.\nBecause of these apparent connections with the prime numbers, some mathematicians have suggested that these properties may be found in a larger class of sets of numbers generated by sieves of a certain unknown form, although there is little theoretical basis for this conjecture. Twin lucky","-23.02258693164913"],["arithmetic would need to be rephrased in terms of factorizations into primes greater than 1, because every number would have multiple factorizations with different numbers of copies of 1. Similarly, the sieve of Eratosthenes would not work correctly if it handled 1 as a prime, because it would eliminate all multiples of 1 (that is, all other numbers) and output only the single number 1. Some other more technical properties of prime numbers also do not hold for the number 1: for instance, the formulas for Euler's totient function or for the sum of divisors function are different for prime","-23.00939508869851"],["is prime or not. Routines that also provide a prime factor of composite arguments (or all of its prime factors) are called factorization algorithms.\nPrime numbers are also used in computing for checksums, hash tables, and pseudorandom number generators. Trial division The most basic method of checking the primality of a given integer is called trial division. This method divides by each integer from 2 up to the square root of . Any such integer dividing evenly establishes as composite; otherwise it is prime.\nIntegers larger than the square root do not need to be checked because, whenever","-22.98334724828601"],["primes are invertible modulo and it follows that there is a morphism Thus it is possible to define congruence subgroups in , whose level is always coprime to all primes in .","-22.978541341028176"],["U.S. prime rate Uses The prime rate is used often as an index in calculating rate changes to adjustable rate mortgages (ARM) and other variable rate short term loans. It is used in the calculation of some private student loans. Many credit cards with variable interest rates have their rate specified as the prime rate (index) plus a fixed value commonly called the spread.","-22.900528747091812"],["As 65,537 is prime, there are 32,767 regular forms generated by Schläfli symbols {65537/n} for all integers 2 ≤ n ≤ 32768 as .","-22.829002450598637"],["Woodall number History Woodall numbers were first studied by Allan J. C. Cunningham and H. J. Woodall in 1917, inspired by James Cullen's earlier study of the similarly-defined Cullen numbers. Woodall primes Woodall numbers that are also prime numbers are called Woodall primes; the first few exponents n for which the corresponding Woodall numbers Wₙ are prime are 2, 3, 6, 30, 75, 81, 115, 123, 249, 362, 384, … (sequence A002234 in the OEIS); the Woodall primes themselves begin with 7, 23, 383, 32212254719, … (sequence A050918 in the OEIS).\nIn 1976 Christopher Hooley showed that almost all Cullen numbers","-22.70072869757132"],["Mersenne prime Perfect numbers Mersenne primes Mₚ are also noteworthy due to their connection with perfect numbers. In the 4th century BC, Euclid proved that if 2ᵖ − 1 is prime, then 2ᵖ ⁻ ¹(2ᵖ − 1) is a perfect number. This number, also expressible as , is the Mₚth triangular number and the 2ᵖ ⁻ ¹th hexagonal number. In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler proved that, conversely, all even perfect numbers have this form. This is known as the Euclid–Euler theorem. It is unknown whether there are any odd perfect numbers. Searching for Mersenne primes Fast algorithms for finding","-22.698416863393504"],["Strong pseudoprime In number theory, a probable prime is a number that passes a primality test.\nA strong probable prime is a number that passes a strong version of a primality test.\nA strong pseudoprime is a composite number that passes a strong version of a primality test.\nAll primes pass these tests, but a small fraction of composites also pass, making them \"false primes\".\nUnlike the Fermat pseudoprimes, for which there exist numbers that are pseudoprimes to all coprime bases (the Carmichael numbers), there are no composites that are strong pseudoprimes to all bases. Properties of strong pseudoprimes A strong pseudoprime to base","-22.653734276478644"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"are based on the mathematics of prime numbers. For instance the checksums used in International Standard Book Numbers are defined by taking the rest of the number modulo 11, a prime number. Because 11 is prime this method can detect both single-digit errors and transpositions of adjacent digits. Another checksum method, Adler-32, uses arithmetic modulo 65521, the largest prime number less than .\\nPrime numbers are also used in pseudorandom number generators including linear congruential generators and the Mersenne Twister. Other applications Prime numbers are of central importance to number theory but also have many applications to other areas within mathematics,\",\n \"-29.24249772397161\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime number A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that cannot be formed by multiplying two smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number. For example, 5 is prime because the only ways of writing it as a product, 1 × 5 or 5 × 1, involve 5 itself.\\nHowever, 6 is composite because it is the product of two numbers (2 × 3) that are both smaller than 6. Primes are central in number theory because of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic: every natural\",\n \"-29.174658500705846\"\n ],\n [\n \"examples. Examples The prime numbers are the natural numbers bigger than 1 that have no divisors but 1 and themselves. Taking these in their natural order gives the sequence (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...). The prime numbers are widely used in mathematics and specifically in number theory.\\nThe Fibonacci numbers comprise the integer sequence whose elements are the sum of the previous two elements. The first two elements are either 0 and 1 or 1 and 1 so that the sequence is (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...).\\nFor a large\",\n \"-28.899139839908457\"\n ],\n [\n \"of digits, that is, to its logarithm.\\nSeveral historical questions regarding prime numbers are still unsolved. These include Goldbach's conjecture, that every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes, and the twin prime conjecture, that there are infinitely many pairs of primes having just one even number between them. Such questions spurred the development of various branches of number theory, focusing on analytic or algebraic aspects of numbers. Primes are used in several routines in information technology, such as public-key cryptography, which relies on the difficulty of factoring large numbers into their prime factors.\",\n \"-28.839933771290816\"\n ],\n [\n \"Primes in arithmetic progression In number theory, primes in arithmetic progression are any sequence of at least three prime numbers that are consecutive terms in an arithmetic progression. An example is the sequence of primes (3, 7, 11), which is given by for .\\nAccording to the Green–Tao theorem, there exist arbitrarily long sequences of primes in arithmetic progression. Sometimes the phrase may also be used about primes which belong to an arithmetic progression which also contains composite numbers. For example, it can be used about primes in an arithmetic progression of the form , where a and b are\",\n \"-28.154334770471905\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime number theorem In number theory, the prime number theorem (PNT) describes the asymptotic distribution of the prime numbers among the positive integers. It formalizes the intuitive idea that primes become less common as they become larger by precisely quantifying the rate at which this occurs. The theorem was proved independently by Jacques Hadamard and Charles Jean de la Vallée Poussin in 1896 using ideas introduced by Bernhard Riemann (in particular, the Riemann zeta function).\\nThe first such distribution found is π(N) ~ , where π(N) is the prime-counting function and log(N) is the natural logarithm of N. This means\",\n \"-28.02743623915012\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime Pages The Prime Pages is a website about prime numbers maintained by Chris Caldwell at the University of Tennessee at Martin.\\nThe site maintains the list of the \\\"5,000 largest known primes\\\", selected smaller primes of special forms, and many \\\"top twenty\\\" lists for primes of various forms. As of 2018, the 5,000th prime has around 412,000 digits.\\nThe Prime Pages has a wealth of articles on primes and primality testing. It includes \\\"The Prime Glossary\\\" with articles on hundreds of glosses related to primes, and \\\"Prime Curios!\\\" with thousands of curios about specific numbers.\\nThe database started as a list\",\n \"-27.34266208394547\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gigantic prime A gigantic prime is a prime number with at least 10,000 decimal digits. \\nThe term appeared in Journal of Recreational Mathematics in the article \\\"Collecting gigantic and titanic primes\\\" (1992) by Samuel Yates. Chris Caldwell, who continued Yates' collection in The Prime Pages, reports that he changed the requirement from Yates' original 5,000 digits to 10,000 digits, when he was asked to revise the article after the death of Yates. Few primes of that size were known then, but a modern personal computer can find many in a day.\\nThe first discovered gigantic prime was the Mersenne prime 2⁴⁴⁴⁹⁷\",\n \"-27.249221783733447\"\n ],\n [\n \"including abstract algebra and elementary geometry. For example, it is possible to place prime numbers of points in a two-dimensional grid so that no three are in a line, or so that every triangle formed by three of the points has large area. Another example is Eisenstein's criterion, a test for whether a polynomial is irreducible based on divisibility of its coefficients by a prime number and its square.\\nThe concept of prime number is so important that it has been generalized in different ways in various branches of mathematics. Generally, \\\"prime\\\" indicates minimality or indecomposability, in an appropriate sense. For\",\n \"-27.119423791213194\"\n ],\n [\n \"as a connected sum of prime knots. The prime decomposition of 3-manifolds is another example of this type.\\nBeyond mathematics and computing, prime numbers have potential connections to quantum mechanics, and have been used metaphorically in the arts and literature. They have also been used in evolutionary biology to explain the life cycles of cicadas. Quantum mechanics Beginning with the work of Hugh Montgomery and Freeman Dyson in the 1970s, mathematicians and physicists have speculated that the zeros of the Riemann zeta function are connected to the energy levels of quantum systems. Prime numbers are also significant in quantum information\",\n \"-27.04901861619146\"\n ],\n [\n \"mathematical circles, through the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search and other distributed computing projects. The idea that prime numbers had few applications outside of pure mathematics was shattered in the 1970s when public-key cryptography and the RSA cryptosystem were invented, using prime numbers as their basis.\\nThe increased practical importance of computerized primality testing and factorization led to the development of improved methods capable of handling large numbers of unrestricted form. The mathematical theory of prime numbers also moved forward with the Green–Tao theorem (2004) that there are arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions of prime numbers, and Yitang Zhang's 2013 proof that\",\n \"-26.955410414608195\"\n ],\n [\n \"Unusual number Relation to prime numbers All prime numbers are unusual.\\nFor any prime p, its multiples less than p² are unusual, that is p, ... (p-1)p, which have a density 1/p in the interval (p,p²).\",\n \"-26.943319723941386\"\n ],\n [\n \"integers. The first few prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11. There is no such simple formula as for odd and even numbers to generate the prime numbers. The primes have been widely studied for more than 2000 years and have led to many questions, only some of which have been answered. The study of these questions belongs to number theory. An example of a still unanswered question is, whether every even number is the sum of two primes. This is called Goldbach's conjecture.\\nThe question, whether every integer greater than one is a product of\",\n \"-26.571341477683745\"\n ],\n [\n \"Industrial-grade prime Industrial-grade primes (the term is apparently due to Henri Cohen) are integers for which primality has not been certified (i.e. rigorously proven), but they have undergone probable prime tests such as the Miller-Rabin primality test, which has a positive, but negligible, failure rate, or the Baillie-PSW primality test, which no composites are known to pass.\\nIndustrial-grade primes are sometimes used instead of certified primes in algorithms such as RSA encryption, which require the user to generate large prime numbers. Certifying the primality of large numbers (over 100 digits for instance) is significantly harder than showing they are industrial-grade primes.\",\n \"-26.537314650158805\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime omega function In number theory, the prime omega functions and count the number of prime factors of a natural number Thereby counts each distinct prime factor, whereas the related function counts the total number of prime factors of honoring their multiplicity (see arithmetic function). For example, if we have a prime factorization of of the form for distinct primes (), then the respective prime omega functions are given by and . These prime factor counting functions have many important number theoretic relations.\",\n \"-26.475484524678905\"\n ],\n [\n \"Provable prime In number theory, a provable prime is an integer that has been calculated to be prime using a primality-proving algorithm. Contrast with probable prime, which is likely (but not certain) to be prime, based on the output of a probabilistic primality test. In principle, every prime number can be proved to be prime in polynomial time by using the AKS primality test. In practice, other methods which guarantee that their result is prime, but which do not work for all primes, are useful for the random generation of provable primes.\",\n \"-26.368351814569905\"\n ],\n [\n \"prime numbers among the first N integers is roughly log(N). History of the proof of the asymptotic law of prime numbers Based on the tables by Anton Felkel and Jurij Vega, Adrien-Marie Legendre conjectured in 1797 or 1798 that π(a) is approximated by the function a / (A log a + B), where A and B are unspecified constants. In the second edition of his book on number theory (1808) he then made a more precise conjecture, with A = 1 and B = −1.08366. Carl Friedrich Gauss considered the same question at age 15 or 16 \\\"in the year\",\n \"-26.357083127979422\"\n ],\n [\n \"Formula for primes In number theory, a formula for primes is a formula generating the prime numbers, exactly and without exception. No such formula which is efficiently computable is known. A number of constraints are known, showing what such a \\\"formula\\\" can and cannot be.\",\n \"-26.21443063247716\"\n ],\n [\n \"Probable prime In number theory, a probable prime (PRP) is an integer that satisfies a specific condition that is satisfied by all prime numbers, but which is not satisfied by most composite numbers. Different types of probable primes have different specific conditions. While there may be probable primes that are composite (called pseudoprimes), the condition is generally chosen in order to make such exceptions rare.\\nFermat's test for compositeness, which is based on Fermat's little theorem, works as follows: given an integer n, choose some integer a that is not a multiple of n; (typically, we choose a in the\",\n \"-26.20877289091004\"\n ],\n [\n \"number of primes with less than a million digits is finite. However, the vast majority of known primes are not megaprimes.\",\n \"-26.09523397445446\"\n ],\n [\n \"primes in only one way, except for a rearrangement of the primes, has been answered to the positive: this proven claim is called fundamental theorem of arithmetic. A proof appears in Euclid's Elements. Other classes of integers Many subsets of the natural numbers have been the subject of specific studies and have been named, often after the first mathematician that has studied them. Example of such sets of integers are Fibonacci numbers and perfect numbers. For more examples, see Integer sequence. Algebraic, irrational and transcendental numbers Algebraic numbers are those that are a solution to a polynomial equation with integer\",\n \"-25.941570561844856\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime ideal In algebra, a prime ideal is a subset of a ring that shares many important properties of a prime number in the ring of integers. The prime ideals for the integers are the sets that contain all the multiples of a given prime number, together with the zero ideal.\\nPrimitive ideals are prime, and prime ideals are both primary and semiprime. Uses One use of prime ideals occurs in algebraic geometry, where varieties are defined as the zero sets of ideals in polynomial rings. It turns out that the irreducible varieties correspond to prime ideals. In the modern abstract\",\n \"-25.86329401587136\"\n ],\n [\n \"gives the list of all prime numbers\\n> || The infinite list of all prime numbers.\\n\\nThe list of potential prime numbers starts as all integers from 2 onwards;as each prime is returned, all the following numbers that can exactly bedivided by it are filtered out of the list of candidates.> primes = sieve [2..]> sieve (p:x) = p : sieve [n | n <- x; n mod p ~= 0]\\nHere, we have some more examples\\nmax2 :: num -> num -> num\\nmax2 a b = a, if a>b\\n = b, otherwise\\n\\nmax3 :: num ->\",\n \"-25.801976872375235\"\n ],\n [\n \"themselves and the number one, then a knows that 8683317618811886495518194401279999999 is prime (since this number is only divisible by itself and the number one). That is to say, under the modal interpretation of knowledge, when a knows the definition of a prime number, a knows that this number is prime. It should be clear at this point that a is not human. This shows that epistemic modal logic is an idealized account of knowledge, and explains objective, rather than subjective knowledge (if anything).\",\n \"-25.718976939329877\"\n ],\n [\n \"Table of prime factors The tables contain the prime factorization of the natural numbers from 1 to 1000.\\nWhen n is a prime number, the prime factorization is just n itself, written in bold below.\\nThe number 1 is called a unit. It has no prime factors and is neither prime nor composite.\\nSee also: Table of divisors (prime and non-prime divisors for 1 to 1000)\",\n \"-25.70627506238816\"\n ],\n [\n \"of primes is infinite. Proof by construction Filip Saidak gave the following proof by construction, which does not use reductio ad absurdum or Euclid's Lemma (that if a prime p divides ab then it must divide a or b).\\nSince each natural number (> 1) has at least one prime factor, and two successive numbers n and (n + 1) have no factor in common, the product n(n + 1) has more different prime factors than the number n itself. So the chain of pronic numbers:\\n1×2 = 2 {2}, 2×3 = 6 {2, 3}, 6×7 = 42 {2,3, 7}, 42×43 = 1806 {2,3,7, 43},\",\n \"-25.675579764530994\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime element In mathematics, specifically in abstract algebra, a prime element of a commutative ring is an object satisfying certain properties similar to the prime numbers in the integers and to irreducible polynomials. Care should be taken to distinguish prime elements from irreducible elements, a concept which is the same in UFDs but not the same in general. Definition An element p of a commutative ring R is said to be prime if it is not the zero element or a unit and whenever p divides ab for some a and b in R, then p divides a or p\",\n \"-25.440448532404844\"\n ],\n [\n \"a number, and some of them included it as the first prime number. In the mid-18th century Christian Goldbach listed 1 as prime in his correspondence with Leonhard Euler; however, Euler himself did not consider 1 to be prime. In the 19th century many mathematicians still considered 1 to be prime, and lists of primes that included 1 continued to be published as recently as 1956.\\nIf the definition of a prime number were changed to call 1 a prime, many statements involving prime numbers would need to be reworded in a more awkward way. For example, the fundamental theorem of\",\n \"-25.394872985270922\"\n ],\n [\n \"In abstract algebra, objects that behave in a generalized way like prime numbers include prime elements and prime ideals. History The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, from around 1550 BC, has Egyptian fraction expansions of different forms for prime and composite numbers. However, the earliest surviving records of the explicit study of prime numbers come from ancient Greek mathematics. Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC) proves the infinitude of primes and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, and shows how to construct a perfect number from a Mersenne prime. Another Greek invention, the Sieve of Eratosthenes, is still used to construct lists of primes.\\nAround\",\n \"-25.359972845908487\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime-counting function In mathematics, the prime-counting function is the function counting the number of prime numbers less than or equal to some real number x. It is denoted by π(x) (unrelated to the number π).\",\n \"-25.33726804779144\"\n ],\n [\n \"Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of special forms, such as Mersenne numbers. As of December 2018 the largest known prime number has 24,862,048 decimal digits.\\nThere are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC. No known simple formula separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes within the natural numbers in the large can be statistically modelled. The first result in that direction is the prime number theorem, proven at the end of the 19th century, which says that the probability of a randomly chosen number being prime is inversely proportional to its number\",\n \"-25.305169886734802\"\n ],\n [\n \"of prime factors of a given number), Smarandache–Wellin numbers (the concatenations of the first prime numbers), and the Champernowne and Copeland–Erdős constants (the real numbers formed by the decimal representations of the positive integers and the prime numbers, respectively).\",\n \"-25.27068922261242\"\n ],\n [\n \"Harvey Dubner Harvey Dubner is a retired engineer and mathematician living in New Jersey, noted for his contributions to finding large prime numbers. In 1984, he and his son Robert collaborated in developing the 'Dubner cruncher', a board which used a commercial finite impulse response filter chip to speed up dramatically the multiplication of medium-sized multi-precision numbers, to levels competitive with supercomputers of the time, though nowadays his focus has changed to efficient implementation of FFT-based algorithms on personal computers.\\nHe has found many large prime numbers of special forms: repunits, prime Fibonacci and Lucas numbers, twin primes, Sophie Germain\",\n \"-25.11829096148722\"\n ],\n [\n \"the implement indicates an understanding of decimals or prime numbers. Though these propositions are in doubt, it is considered likely by some scholars that the tool was used for simple mathematical procedures or to construct a numeral system.\\nThe third column has been interpreted as a \\\"table of prime numbers\\\", but it is more likely to be a coincidence. Historian of mathematics Peter S. Rudman argues that prime numbers were probably not understood until about 500 BC, and were dependent on the concept of division, which he dates to no earlier than 10,000 BC. \\nAlexander Marshack speculated that the Ishango bone\",\n \"-25.07847669062903\"\n ],\n [\n \"finding all prime numbers up to any given limit. It does so by iteratively marking as composite, i.e., not prime, the multiples of each prime, starting with the multiples of 2. The multiples of a given prime are generated starting from that prime, as a sequence of numbers with the same difference, equal to that prime, between consecutive numbers. This is the sieve's key distinction from using trial division to sequentially test each candidate number for divisibility by each prime. Works Eratosthenes was one of the most pre-eminent scholarly figures of his time, and produced works covering a vast area\",\n \"-25.040183496952523\"\n ],\n [\n \"numbers than they are for 1. By the early 20th century, mathematicians began to agree that 1 should not be listed as prime, but rather in its own special category as a \\\"unit\\\". Open questions Many conjectures revolving about primes have been posed. Often having an elementary formulation, many of these conjectures have withstood proof for decades: all four of Landau's problems from 1912 are still unsolved. One of them is Goldbach's conjecture, which asserts that every even integer greater than 2 can be written as a sum of two primes. As of 2014, this conjecture has been\",\n \"-24.930833693879322\"\n ],\n [\n \"that the principal ideal generated by a prime element is a prime ideal, are an important tool and object of study in commutative algebra, algebraic number theory and algebraic geometry. The prime ideals of the ring of integers are the ideals (0), (2), (3), (5), (7), (11), ... The fundamental theorem of arithmetic generalizes to the Lasker–Noether theorem, which expresses every ideal in a Noetherian commutative ring as an intersection of primary ideals, which are the appropriate generalizations of prime powers.\\nThe spectrum of a ring is a geometric space whose points are the prime ideals of the ring. Arithmetic geometry\",\n \"-24.88902019568195\"\n ],\n [\n \"Consecutive primes in arithmetic progression refers to at least three consecutive primes which are consecutive terms in an arithmetic progression. Note that unlike an AP-k, all the other numbers between the terms of the progression must be composite. For example, the AP-3 {3, 7, 11} does not qualify, because 5 is also a prime.\\nFor an integer k ≥ 3, a CPAP-k is k consecutive primes in arithmetic progression. It is conjectured there are arbitrarily long CPAP's. This would imply infinitely many CPAP-k for all k. The middle prime in a CPAP-3 is called a balanced prime. The largest known as\",\n \"-24.87912121420959\"\n ],\n [\n \"a prime, which is useful for the quadratic sieve method of integer factorization.\\nIn 1974, Shanks and John Wrench did some of the first computer work on estimating the value of Brun's constant, the sum of the reciprocals of the twin primes, calculating it over the twin primes among the first two million primes.\",\n \"-24.846175401296932\"\n ],\n [\n \"long-standing question and placed PRIMES in P. However, PRIMES is not known to be P-complete, and it is not known whether it lies in classes lying inside P such as NC or L. It is known that PRIMES is not in AC⁰. Number-theoretic methods Certain number-theoretic methods exist for testing whether a number is prime, such as the Lucas test and Proth's test. These tests typically require factorization of n + 1, n − 1, or a similar quantity, which means that they are not useful for general-purpose primality testing, but they are often quite powerful when the tested number n is\",\n \"-24.818328903376823\"\n ],\n [\n \"John B. Cosgrave Dr. John B. Cosgrave (born 5 January 1946) is an Irish mathematician specialising in number theory. Educated at Royal Holloway College, London, he lectured in Carysfort College (Blackrock, Dublin) and St Patrick's College of Education (Drumcondra). Other In January 1999, while preparing some work for his students, he identified a highly structured prime number with exactly two thousand digits. Dubbing this prime a millennium prime, he wrote an email about it to a niece and nephew, which was subsequently published by Floating Landscapes, the publishing house of the cartographer Tim Robinson. He donated his author royalties to\",\n \"-24.802187753055478\"\n ],\n [\n \"Truncatable prime In number theory, a left-truncatable prime is a prime number which, in a given base, contains no 0, and if the leading (\\\"left\\\") digit is successively removed, then all resulting numbers are prime. For example, 9137, since 9137, 137, 37 and 7 are all prime. Decimal representation is often assumed and always used in this article.\\nA right-truncatable prime is a prime which remains prime when the last (\\\"right\\\") digit is successively removed. 7393 is an example of a right-truncatable prime, since 7393, 739, 73, and 7 are all prime.\\nA left-and-right-truncatable prime is a prime which remains prime if\",\n \"-24.719826723332517\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be expressed symbolically under the dataflow paradigm as\\n primes = [2, 3, ...] \\\\ [[p², p²+p, ...] for p in primes],\\nusing list comprehension notation with \\\\ denoting set subtraction of arithmetic progressions of numbers.\\nPrimes can also be produced by iteratively sieving out the composites through divisibility testing by sequential primes, one prime at a time. It is not the sieve of Eratosthenes but is often confused with it, even though the sieve of Eratosthenes directly generates the composites instead of testing for them. Trial division has worse theoretical complexity than that of the sieve of Eratosthenes in generating\",\n \"-24.622019777765672\"\n ],\n [\n \"question 'Is 15 a prime number?' and A knows what a prime number is and B doesn't; the sentence then doesn't have a meaning for B.\",\n \"-24.565008733832656\"\n ],\n [\n \"prime is congruent to 1 mod 24, given that the prime is above 3.\\nThe factorial of an integer ends in 0, given that the integer is above 4.\",\n \"-24.557922041232814\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the integers.\\nBeing prime is relative to which ring an element is considered to be in; for example, 2 is a prime element in Z but it is not in Z[i], the ring of Gaussian integers, since 2 = (1 + i)(1 − i) and 2 does not divide any factor on the right. Connection with prime ideals An ideal I in the ring R (with unity) is prime if the factor ring R/I is an integral domain.\\nA nonzero principal ideal is prime if and only if it is generated by a prime element. Irreducible elements Prime elements should not\",\n \"-24.424317960685585\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime model In mathematics, and in particular model theory, a prime model is a model which is as simple as possible. Specifically, a model is prime if it admits an elementary embedding into any model to which it is elementarily equivalent (that is, into any model satisfying the same complete theory as ). Cardinality In contrast with the notion of saturated model, prime models are restricted to very specific cardinalities by the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem. If is a first-order language with cardinality and a complete theory over then this theorem guarantees a model for\",\n \"-24.37019351910567\"\n ],\n [\n \"2,147,483,647 Barlow's prediction At the time of its discovery, 2,147,483,647 was the largest known prime number. In 1811, Peter Barlow, not anticipating future interest in perfect numbers, wrote (in An Elementary Investigation of the Theory of Numbers):\\nEuler ascertained that 2³¹ − 1 = 2147483647 is a prime number; and this is the greatest at present known to be such, and, consequently, the last of the above perfect numbers [i.e., 2³⁰(2³¹ − 1)], which depends upon this, is the greatest perfect number known at present, and probably the greatest that ever will be discovered; for as they are merely curious, without being useful, it is\",\n \"-24.271680371552065\"\n ],\n [\n \"11881 = 109², and S₄₄₁ = 1164241 = 1079² (sequence A054318 in the OEIS).\\nA star prime is a star number that is prime. The first few star primes (sequence A083577 in the OEIS) are\\n13, 37, 73, 181, 337, 433, 541, 661, 937.\\nThe term \\\"star number\\\" or \\\"stellate number\\\" is occasionally used to refer to octagonal numbers.\",\n \"-24.241515056521166\"\n ],\n [\n \"4, 9 and 14.\\nAs five is a prime number, only the reciprocals of the powers of five terminate, although its location between two highly composite numbers (4 and 6) guarantees that many recurring fractions have relatively short periods. Notation It is possible that the Iñupiaq have very high visual perceptual skills and this might be the connection why the numeral system is also very symbolic visually.\\nA complication came with writing the number 20. Since it was a base for the system, 20 should be written with a symbol for one and zero but the Iñupiaq language does not have a\",\n \"-24.173033855622634\"\n ],\n [\n \"number is prime by testing every possible nontrivial factor. Although much more efficient methods of primality testing are known, the existence of any effective method is enough to establish decidability. Decidability A decision problem A is decidable or effectively solvable if A is a recursive set. A problem is partially decidable, semidecidable, solvable, or provable if A is a recursively enumerable set. Problems that are not decidable are undecidable. For those it is not possible to create an algorithm, efficient or otherwise, that solves them.\\nThe halting problem is an important undecidable decision problem; for more examples, see list\",\n \"-24.127406410116237\"\n ],\n [\n \"divides b. Equivalently, an element p is prime if, and only if, the principal ideal (p) generated by p is a nonzero prime ideal. (Note that in an integral domain, the ideal (0) is a prime ideal, but 0 is an exception in the definition of 'prime element'.)\\nInterest in prime elements comes from the Fundamental theorem of arithmetic, which asserts that each nonzero integer can be written in essentially only one way as 1 or −1 multiplied by a product of positive prime numbers. This led to the study of unique factorization domains, which generalize what was just illustrated\",\n \"-24.118618992128177\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pythagorean prime A Pythagorean prime is a prime number of the form 4n + 1. Pythagorean primes are exactly the odd prime numbers that are the sum of two squares; this characterization is Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares.\\nEquivalently, by the Pythagorean theorem, they are the odd prime numbers p for which √p is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with integer legs, and they are also the prime numbers p for which p itself is the hypotenuse of a primitive Pythagorean triangle. For instance, the number 5 is a Pythagorean prime; √5 is the hypotenuse of a\",\n \"-24.114205921447137\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cunningham number In mathematics, specifically in number theory, a Cunningham number is a certain kind of integer named after English mathematician A. J. C. Cunningham. Primality Establishing whether or not a given Cunningham number is prime has been the main focus of research around this type of number. Two particularly famous families of Cunningham numbers in this respect are the Fermat numbers, which are those of the form C⁺(2,2ᵐ), and the Mersenne numbers, which are of the form C⁻(2,n).\\nCunningham worked on gathering together all known data on which of these numbers were prime. In 1925 he published tables which\",\n \"-24.100440300651826\"\n ],\n [\n \"the tenth Mersenne prime for GIMPS.\\nOn January 25, 2013, Cooper found his third Mersenne prime of 2⁵⁷ ⁸⁸⁵ ¹⁶¹ − 1.\\nOn September 17, 2015 (but not actually noticed until January 7, 2016), Cooper discovered yet another Mersenne prime, 2⁷⁴ ²⁰⁷ ²⁸¹ - 1, which was the largest known prime number at 22,338,618 decimal digits. Areas of research Cooper's own work has mainly been in elementary number theory, especially work related to digital representations of numbers. He collaborated extensively with Robert E. Kennedy. They have worked with Niven numbers, among other results, showing that no 21 consecutive integers can all be\",\n \"-23.988090850703884\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime gap As an arithmetic function The gap gₙ between the nth and (n + 1)st prime numbers is an example of an arithmetic function. In this context it is usually denoted dₙ and called the prime difference function. The function is neither multiplicative nor additive.\",\n \"-23.959281365503557\"\n ],\n [\n \"the trivial factors are not possible for prime n, so all factors are of the form 2kn + 1. In general, all factors of (bⁿ − 1)/(b − 1) are of the form 2kn + 1, where b ≥ 2 and n is prime, except when n divides b − 1, in which case (bⁿ − 1)/(b − 1) is divisible by n itself.\\nCunningham numbers of the form bⁿ − 1 can only be prime if b = 2 and n is prime, assuming that n ≥ 2; these are the Mersenne numbers. Numbers of the form bⁿ + 1 can only be prime if b is even and n is a power of 2, again assuming n ≥ 2; these are the\",\n \"-23.898603738925885\"\n ],\n [\n \"infinitely many prime values is conjectured to take infinitely many prime values.\",\n \"-23.84884370128566\"\n ],\n [\n \"generated by a prime element is a prime ideal, it is not true in general that an ideal generated by an irreducible element is an irreducible ideal. However if is a GCD domain and is an irreducible element of , then as noted above is prime, and so the ideal generated by is a prime ideal of .\",\n \"-23.820888222617214\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime constant Irrationality The number is easily shown to be irrational. To see why, suppose it were rational.\\nDenote the th digit of the binary expansion of by . Then, since is assumed rational, there must exist , positive integers such that\\n for all and all .\\nSince there are an infinite number of primes, we may choose a prime . By definition we see that . As noted, we have for all . Now consider the case . We have , since is composite because . Since\",\n \"-23.80646508418431\"\n ],\n [\n \"primes whereas Goldbach's conjecture and Lemoine's conjecture deal with such sums only individually. This conjecture and the open questions about numbers at levels two and three are of interest in their own right because of the issues they raise within this fascinating and often baffling additive realm of the prime numbers.\\\" Role in modern triangle geometry Lemoine has been described by Nathan Altshiller Court as a co-founder (along with Henri Brocard and Joseph Neuberg) of modern triangle geometry, a term used by William Gallatly, among others. In this context, \\\"modern\\\" is used to refer to geometry developed from the late\",\n \"-23.792685903783422\"\n ],\n [\n \"to be prime, the index n cannot be congruent to 4 or 5 (modulo 6). Also, for a positive integer m, the Woodall number W₂ᵐ may be prime only if 2ᵐ + m is prime. As of January 2019, the only known primes that are both Woodall primes and Mersenne primes are W₂ = M₃ = 7, and W₅₁₂ = M₅₂₁.\",\n \"-23.76692649596953\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime signature The prime signature of a number is the multiset of exponents of its prime factorization. The prime signature of a number having prime factorization is .\\nFor example, all prime numbers have a prime signature of {1}, the squares of primes have a prime signature of {2}, the products of 2 distinct primes have a prime signature of {1,1} and the products of a square of a prime and a different prime (e.g. 12,18,20,... ) have a prime signature of {2,1}.\",\n \"-23.741601588611957\"\n ],\n [\n \"Megaprime A megaprime is a prime number with at least one million decimal digits (whereas titanic prime is a prime number with at least 1,000 digits, and gigantic prime has at least 10,000 digits).\\nAs of December 2018, 449 (probable) megaprimes are known, including 421 definite primes and 28 probable primes. The first to be found was the Mersenne prime 2⁶⁹⁷²⁵⁹³−1 with 2,098,960 digits, discovered in 1999 by Nayan Hajratwala, a participant in the distributed computing project GIMPS.\\nThe term bevaprime has been proposed as a term for a prime with at least 1,000,000,000 digits.\\nIn fact, \\\"almost all\\\" primes are megaprimes, as the\",\n \"-23.741281782160513\"\n ],\n [\n \"prime, then φ(p) = p − 1. In 1932 D. H. Lehmer asked if there are any composite numbers n such that φ(n) | n − 1. None are known.\\nIn 1933 he proved that if any such n exists, it must be odd, square-free, and divisible by at least seven primes (i.e. ω(n) ≥ 7). In 1980 Cohen and Hagis proved that n > 10²⁰ and that ω(n) ≥ 14. Further, Hagis showed that if 3 divides n then n > 10¹⁹³⁷⁰⁴² and ω(n) ≥ 298848. Carmichael's conjecture This states that there is no number n with the property that\",\n \"-23.690559573296923\"\n ],\n [\n \"result is now known as the prime number theorem. Another important 19th century result was Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions, that certain arithmetic progressions contain infinitely many primes.\\nMany mathematicians have worked on primality tests for numbers larger than those where trial division is practicably applicable. Methods that are restricted to specific number forms include Pépin's test for Fermat numbers (1877), Proth's theorem (c. 1878), the Lucas–Lehmer primality test (originated 1856), and the generalized Lucas primality test.\\nSince 1951 all the largest known primes have been found using these tests on computers. The search for ever larger primes has generated interest outside\",\n \"-23.665251640588394\"\n ],\n [\n \"Bertrand's postulate Prime number theorem The prime number theorem (PNT) implies that the number of primes up to x is roughly x/ln(x), so if we replace x with 2x then we see the number of primes up to 2x is asymptotically twice the number of primes up to x (the terms ln(2x) and ln(x) are asymptotically equivalent). Therefore the number of primes between n and 2n is roughly n/ln(n) when n is large, and so in particular there are many more primes in this interval than are guaranteed by Bertrand's Postulate. So Bertrand's postulate is comparatively weaker than\",\n \"-23.6556897831033\"\n ],\n [\n \"exist a set of primes, {p₁, p₂, ..., pₜ}, such that N = p₁ᵏ + p₂ᵏ + ... + pₜᵏ, where t is at most some constant value?\\nThe case, k=1, is a weaker version of the Goldbach conjecture. Some progress has been made on the cases k=2 to 7. Heuristic justification By the prime number theorem, the number of k-th powers of a prime below x is of the order x1/ᵏ/log x.\\nFrom this, the number of t-term expressions with sums ≤x is roughly xᵗ/ᵏ/(log x)ᵗ.\\nIt is reasonable to assume that for some sufficiently large number t this is x-c, i.e., all numbers up to x are t-fold sums of\",\n \"-23.64960127120139\"\n ],\n [\n \"for odd primes p. It obeys the same rules as the Jacobi symbol (i.e., reciprocity and the supplementary formulas for () and () and multiplicativity of the \\\"numerator\\\".)\\nProblem: Given that 9907 is prime, calculate ().\",\n \"-23.633840748691\"\n ],\n [\n \"neither a perfect power nor −4k⁴ with k positive integer, then there are infinity many base b repunit primes. History Although they were not then known by that name, repunits in base 10 were studied by many mathematicians during the nineteenth century in an effort to work out and predict the cyclic patterns of repeating decimals.\\nIt was found very early on that for any prime p greater than 5, the period of the decimal expansion of 1/p is equal to the length of the smallest repunit number that is divisible by p. Tables of the period of reciprocal of primes\",\n \"-23.63162613598979\"\n ],\n [\n \" 20 15 6 \\n 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 Prime numbers, contra proof via factors Determine the number of prime numbers (prime # is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself) up to some number N. Ken Iverson is credited with the following one-liner APL solution to\",\n \"-23.626639960806642\"\n ],\n [\n \"32 × 15. Put another way, they have fairly regular bit patterns. Mersenne and Fermat primes A prime number that is one less than a power of two is called a Mersenne prime. For example, the prime number 31 is a Mersenne prime because it is 1 less than 32 (2⁵). Similarly, a prime number (like 257) that is one more than a positive power of two is called a Fermat prime—the exponent itself is a power of two. A fraction that has a power of two as its denominator is called a dyadic rational. The numbers that\",\n \"-23.604701186879538\"\n ],\n [\n \"would be represented by combining characters for simpler thoughts. Leibniz saw that the uniqueness of prime factorization suggests a central role for prime numbers in the universal characteristic, a striking anticipation of Gödel numbering. Granted, there is no intuitive or mnemonic way to number any set of elementary concepts using the prime numbers.\\nBecause Leibniz was a mathematical novice when he first wrote about the characteristic, at first he did not conceive it as an algebra but rather as a universal language or script. Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of \\\"algebra of thought\\\", modeled on and including\",\n \"-23.58117389099789\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the topic dates to at least November 1969 issue of Mathematics Magazine, where truncatable primes were called prime primes by two co-authors (Murray Berg and John E. Walstrom).\",\n \"-23.564799968444277\"\n ],\n [\n \"probable primes.\\nSince 1999, four further probably prime repunits have been found, but it is unlikely that any of them will be proven prime in the foreseeable future because of their huge size.\\nThe Cunningham project endeavours to document the integer factorizations of (among other numbers) the repunits to base 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, and 12. Demlo numbers Kaprekar has defined Demlo numbers as concatenation of a left, middle and right part, where the left and right part must be of the same length (up to a possible leading zero to the left) and must add up to a\",\n \"-23.558615382375137\"\n ],\n [\n \"is_prime(n):\\n // n is prime, omit multiples of its square; this is sufficient \\n // because square-free composites can't get on this list\\n for c ≤ limit, c ← n² × (60 × w + x) where w ∈ {0,1,...}, x ∈ s:\\n is_prime(c) ← false// one sweep to produce a sequential list of primes up to limit:output 2, 3, 5for 7 ≤ n ≤ limit, n ←\",\n \"-23.509060791460797\"\n ],\n [\n \"shattered in the 1970s, when it was publicly announced that prime numbers could be used as the basis for the creation of public key cryptography algorithms.\\nThese applications have led to significant study of algorithms for computing with prime numbers, and in particular of primality testing, methods for determining whether a given number is prime.\\nThe most basic primality testing routine, trial division, is too slow to be useful for large numbers. One group of modern primality tests is applicable to arbitrary numbers, while more efficient tests are available for numbers of special types. Most primality tests only tell whether their argument\",\n \"-23.501515139170806\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prime (symbol) Designation of units The prime symbol ( ′ ) is commonly used to represent feet (ft) and arcminutes (arcmin). However, for convenience, a ( ' ) (single quote mark) is commonly used.\\nThe double prime ( ″ ) represents inches (in) and arcseconds (arcsec). However, for convenience, a ( \\\" ) (double quotation mark) is commonly used.\\nThus, 3′ 5″ could mean 3 feet and 5 inches (of length), or 3 minutes and 5 seconds (of arc). As an angular measurement, 3° 5′ 30″ means 3 degrees, 5 arcminutes and 30 arcseconds.\\nThe triple prime ( ‴ ) in watchmaking represents a ligne or 1/12 of an inch. It is also occasionally found in historical astronomical\",\n \"-23.47082294995198\"\n ],\n [\n \"one is a multiple of a prime number. More generally, a subsequence of the prime numbers forms a Behrend sequence if and only if the sum of reciprocals of diverges.\\nThe semiprimes, the products of two prime numbers, also form a Behrend sequence. The only integers that are not multiples of a semiprime are the prime powers. But as the prime powers have density zero, their complement, the multiples of the semiprimes, have density one. History The problem of characterizing these sequence was described as \\\"very difficult\\\" by Paul Erdős in 1979.\\nThese sequences were named \\\"Behrend sequences\\\" in 1990\",\n \"-23.468002888460433\"\n ],\n [\n \"prime number theory, working on the Riemann zeta function and allied functions. Apart from prime number theory, he made substantial contributions to the theory of transcendental number theory, in which he is known for his proof of the six exponentials theorem, achieved independently of Serge Lang. He also contributed to many other areas of number theory.\\nIn 1978 he founded the Hardy–Ramanujan journal, and published it on behalf of the Hardy–Ramanujan society until his death.\",\n \"-23.38745161378756\"\n ],\n [\n \"theory of primes in Europe dates to the Renaissance and later eras.\\nIn 1796, Adrien-Marie Legendre conjectured the prime number theorem, describing the asymptotic distribution of primes. Other results concerning the distribution of the primes include Euler's proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges, and the Goldbach conjecture, which claims that any sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes. Yet another conjecture related to the distribution of prime numbers is the Riemann hypothesis, formulated by Bernhard Riemann in 1859. The prime number theorem was finally proved by Jacques Hadamard and Charles de la Vallée-Poussin\",\n \"-23.381027876093867\"\n ],\n [\n \"regular primes, integer prime numbers connected with the failure of unique factorization in the cyclotomic integers.\\nThe question of how many integer prime numbers factor into a product of multiple prime ideals in an algebraic number field is addressed by Chebotarev's density theorem, which (when applied to the cyclotomic integers) has Dirichlet's theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions as a special case. Group theory In the theory of finite groups the Sylow theorems imply that, if a power of a prime number divides the order of a group, then it has a subgroup of order . By Lagrange's theorem, any\",\n \"-23.35337547105155\"\n ],\n [\n \"(cf. wheel factorization), so that the list will start with the next prime, and all the numbers in it below the square of its first element will be prime too.\\nThus, when generating a bounded sequence of primes, when the next identified prime exceeds the square root of the upper limit, all the remaining numbers in the list are prime. In the example given above that is achieved on identifying 11 as next prime, giving a list of all primes less than or equal to 80.\\nNote that numbers that will be discarded by a step are still used while marking the\",\n \"-23.334331415593624\"\n ],\n [\n \", one of the two factors and is less than or equal to the square root of . Another optimization is to check only primes as factors in this range.\\nFor instance, to check whether 37 is prime, this method divides it by the primes in the range from 2 to √37, which are 2, 3, and 5. Each division produces a nonzero remainder, so 37 is indeed prime.\\nAlthough this method is simple to describe, it is impractical for testing the primality of large integers, because the number of tests that it performs grows exponentially as a function of\",\n \"-23.323195587610826\"\n ],\n [\n \"relatively prime to n is written as (Z/nZ)×; it forms a group under the operation of multiplication. This group is not always cyclic, but is so whenever n is 1, 2, 4, a power of an odd prime, or twice a power of an odd prime (sequence A033948 in the OEIS). \\nThis is the multiplicative group of units of the ring Z/nZ; there are φ(n) of them, where again φ is the totient function. For example, (Z/6Z)× = {1,5}, and since 6 is twice an odd prime, this is a cyclic group. In contrast, (Z/8Z)× = {1,3,5,7} is a\",\n \"-23.170647781531443\"\n ],\n [\n \" ⍝ There are twenty-five prime numbers in the range up to 100.\\nExamining the converse or opposite of a mathematical solution is frequently needed (integer factors of a number): Prove for the subset of integers from 1 through 15 that they are non-prime by listing their decomposition factors. What are their non-one factors (#'s divisible by, except 1)?\\n ⎕CR 'ProveNonPrime'Z←ProveNonPrime R⍝Show all factors of an integer R - except 1 and the number itself,⍝ i.e., prove Non-Prime. String 'prime' is returned for\",\n \"-23.142140452633612\"\n ],\n [\n \"N − 1. It does not matter whether B is prime.\\nWe merely need to verify that no prime that divides A also divides B, that is, that A and B are relatively prime.\\nThen, for every prime factor p of A, find an which fulfills conditions (6) and (7) of the corollary.\\nIf such s can be found, the Corollary implies that N is prime.\\nAccording to Koblitz, = 2 often works.\",\n \"-23.115421931783203\"\n ],\n [\n \"prime numbers are odd, with one exception: the prime number 2. All known perfect numbers are even; it is unknown whether any odd perfect numbers exist.\\nGoldbach's conjecture states that every even integer greater than 2 can be represented as a sum of two prime numbers.\\nModern computer calculations have shown this conjecture to be true for integers up to at least 4 × 10¹⁸, but still no general proof has been found. Group theory The parity of a permutation (as defined in abstract algebra) is the parity of the number of transpositions into which the permutation can be decomposed. For example\",\n \"-23.108601258136332\"\n ],\n [\n \"Safe prime Applications These primes are called \\\"safe\\\" because of their relationship to strong primes. A prime number q is a strong prime if q + 1 and q − 1 both have some large prime factors. For a safe prime q = 2p + 1, the number q − 1 naturally has a large prime factor, namely p, and so a safe prime q meets part of the criteria for being a strong prime. The running times of some methods of factoring a number with q as a prime factor depend partly on the size of the\",\n \"-23.10172313672956\"\n ],\n [\n \"that for large enough N, the probability that a random integer not greater than N is prime is very close to 1 / log(N). Consequently, a random integer with at most 2n digits (for large enough n) is about half as likely to be prime as a random integer with at most n digits. For example, among the positive integers of at most 1000 digits, about one in 2300 is prime (log(10¹⁰⁰⁰) ≈ 2302.6), whereas among positive integers of at most 2000 digits, about one in 4600 is prime (log(10²⁰⁰⁰) ≈ 4605.2). In other words, the average gap between consecutive\",\n \"-23.069687378709204\"\n ],\n [\n \"simplified by instead considering only prime values of k. This is because if for a composite where p is prime, then this can simply be rewritten as . Because of this result, the minimal value of k must necessarily be prime.\\nIf the full factorization of n is known, say where the are distinct primes, then n is a perfect power if and only if where gcd denotes the greatest common divisor. As an example, consider n = 2⁹⁶·3⁶⁰·7²⁴. Since gcd(96, 60, 24) = 12, n is a perfect 12th power (and a perfect 6th power,\",\n \"-23.03435543901287\"\n ],\n [\n \"share some properties with primes, such as asymptotic behaviour according to the prime number theorem; also, a version of Goldbach's conjecture has been extended to them. There are infinitely many lucky numbers. However, if Lₙ denotes the n-th lucky number, and pₙ the n-th prime, then Lₙ > pₙ for all sufficiently large n.\\nBecause of these apparent connections with the prime numbers, some mathematicians have suggested that these properties may be found in a larger class of sets of numbers generated by sieves of a certain unknown form, although there is little theoretical basis for this conjecture. Twin lucky\",\n \"-23.02258693164913\"\n ],\n [\n \"arithmetic would need to be rephrased in terms of factorizations into primes greater than 1, because every number would have multiple factorizations with different numbers of copies of 1. Similarly, the sieve of Eratosthenes would not work correctly if it handled 1 as a prime, because it would eliminate all multiples of 1 (that is, all other numbers) and output only the single number 1. Some other more technical properties of prime numbers also do not hold for the number 1: for instance, the formulas for Euler's totient function or for the sum of divisors function are different for prime\",\n \"-23.00939508869851\"\n ],\n [\n \"is prime or not. Routines that also provide a prime factor of composite arguments (or all of its prime factors) are called factorization algorithms.\\nPrime numbers are also used in computing for checksums, hash tables, and pseudorandom number generators. Trial division The most basic method of checking the primality of a given integer is called trial division. This method divides by each integer from 2 up to the square root of . Any such integer dividing evenly establishes as composite; otherwise it is prime.\\nIntegers larger than the square root do not need to be checked because, whenever\",\n \"-22.98334724828601\"\n ],\n [\n \"primes are invertible modulo and it follows that there is a morphism Thus it is possible to define congruence subgroups in , whose level is always coprime to all primes in .\",\n \"-22.978541341028176\"\n ],\n [\n \"U.S. prime rate Uses The prime rate is used often as an index in calculating rate changes to adjustable rate mortgages (ARM) and other variable rate short term loans. It is used in the calculation of some private student loans. Many credit cards with variable interest rates have their rate specified as the prime rate (index) plus a fixed value commonly called the spread.\",\n \"-22.900528747091812\"\n ],\n [\n \"As 65,537 is prime, there are 32,767 regular forms generated by Schläfli symbols {65537/n} for all integers 2 ≤ n ≤ 32768 as .\",\n \"-22.829002450598637\"\n ],\n [\n \"Woodall number History Woodall numbers were first studied by Allan J. C. Cunningham and H. J. Woodall in 1917, inspired by James Cullen's earlier study of the similarly-defined Cullen numbers. Woodall primes Woodall numbers that are also prime numbers are called Woodall primes; the first few exponents n for which the corresponding Woodall numbers Wₙ are prime are 2, 3, 6, 30, 75, 81, 115, 123, 249, 362, 384, … (sequence A002234 in the OEIS); the Woodall primes themselves begin with 7, 23, 383, 32212254719, … (sequence A050918 in the OEIS).\\nIn 1976 Christopher Hooley showed that almost all Cullen numbers\",\n \"-22.70072869757132\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mersenne prime Perfect numbers Mersenne primes Mₚ are also noteworthy due to their connection with perfect numbers. In the 4th century BC, Euclid proved that if 2ᵖ − 1 is prime, then 2ᵖ ⁻ ¹(2ᵖ − 1) is a perfect number. This number, also expressible as , is the Mₚth triangular number and the 2ᵖ ⁻ ¹th hexagonal number. In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler proved that, conversely, all even perfect numbers have this form. This is known as the Euclid–Euler theorem. It is unknown whether there are any odd perfect numbers. Searching for Mersenne primes Fast algorithms for finding\",\n \"-22.698416863393504\"\n ],\n [\n \"Strong pseudoprime In number theory, a probable prime is a number that passes a primality test.\\nA strong probable prime is a number that passes a strong version of a primality test.\\nA strong pseudoprime is a composite number that passes a strong version of a primality test.\\nAll primes pass these tests, but a small fraction of composites also pass, making them \\\"false primes\\\".\\nUnlike the Fermat pseudoprimes, for which there exist numbers that are pseudoprimes to all coprime bases (the Carmichael numbers), there are no composites that are strong pseudoprimes to all bases. Properties of strong pseudoprimes A strong pseudoprime to base\",\n \"-22.653734276478644\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":73,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"v9t7z"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Mulholland Drive (film)"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Well you've got it pretty much. The most widespread interpretation is that the first part of the story (Betty) is a dream, dreamed by Diane. The second part is real but full of flashbacks, so it can be confusing. Basically, in chronological order: Diane comes to Hollywood hoping to become a famous actress. She meets Camilla and falls in love with her. The truth is that she's a failed star as you said, and Camilla is actually toying with her. So she hires a hitman to kill Camilla. She then dreams the perfect life for her and Camilla (as Betty and Rita) which is the whole first hour or so of the movie. Then she wakes up, full of guilt and regret, and kills herself when confronted with her inner demons. The movie makes much more sense if you watch it knowing this. Through the story of Diane, it's a piece about the Hollywood life and how it corrupted and destroyed a naïve young woman.","How many times have you been told not to watch these channels when your mother and father aren't home? They are scrambled for a reason. Where the Hell was the babysitter? This is no movie for a five year old.","It's the essence of the all the David Lynch work, there is not a only way to understand his films. Make your own interpretations. Watch him talk about his movies and you figured it out how he's working","You will *get* the movie once you realize it was intended to be a TV series like Twin Peaks, which was then cut together to 140 min. There was no way it could make sense after that. The greatest trick the devil ever pulled was persuading us that it should.","- YAY! Hollywood is awesome! - Oops! No it isn't. You're actually a failed actress/girlfriend so you've shot yourself in the head and you've been hallucinating. - Don't do drugs.","I just watched it as well. I believe Mulholland drive is about a young woman who comes to Hollywood to become an actress, at the start her name is betty(blonde). The brunette is her alter ego type character who is confused at the start but guides Betty to adapt to the corruption and fakeness of Hollywood, which explains the theatre scene where we are shown the need for illusion as a movie star. As the movie star persona takes over, the innocent blonde girl suffers and becomes jealous of her her alter ego (everyone knowing her movie star personality and not her true personality, as we see at the fancy dinner near the end where the blonde is like a helpless bystander). She and the director both came to Hollywood to make art but find success only when they go along with the corruption. The dead body is a vision of the death of her innocence later in the film. I'm not sure about the hobo, he may just represent the hidden underbelly of hollywood: giving up your innocence in order to become a movie star, which would explain why he was in procession of the blue box which transforms the actress into a star earlier in the film. There isn't much importance in deciphering what is real or fake, dream/awake in my opinion, its more of a commentary on this internal struggle and corruption of art.","I saw this in Seattle really high. I walked into the wrong theater halfway through a showing. I sat through it and stuck around to watch the first part I'd missed. I had no idea what was going on. I've since seen it as intended and I can honestly say I have no better understanding.","I'd love to answer this question, but when I watched it I got up to the bit where the horrible monster jumps out from behind the wall, got really scared, and turned it off. I'm a massive wuss.","I once watched Inland Empire - 3 hours of wtf"],"string":"[\n \"Well you've got it pretty much. The most widespread interpretation is that the first part of the story (Betty) is a dream, dreamed by Diane. The second part is real but full of flashbacks, so it can be confusing. Basically, in chronological order: Diane comes to Hollywood hoping to become a famous actress. She meets Camilla and falls in love with her. The truth is that she's a failed star as you said, and Camilla is actually toying with her. So she hires a hitman to kill Camilla. She then dreams the perfect life for her and Camilla (as Betty and Rita) which is the whole first hour or so of the movie. Then she wakes up, full of guilt and regret, and kills herself when confronted with her inner demons. The movie makes much more sense if you watch it knowing this. Through the story of Diane, it's a piece about the Hollywood life and how it corrupted and destroyed a naïve young woman.\",\n \"How many times have you been told not to watch these channels when your mother and father aren't home? They are scrambled for a reason. Where the Hell was the babysitter? This is no movie for a five year old.\",\n \"It's the essence of the all the David Lynch work, there is not a only way to understand his films. Make your own interpretations. Watch him talk about his movies and you figured it out how he's working\",\n \"You will *get* the movie once you realize it was intended to be a TV series like Twin Peaks, which was then cut together to 140 min. There was no way it could make sense after that. The greatest trick the devil ever pulled was persuading us that it should.\",\n \"- YAY! Hollywood is awesome! - Oops! No it isn't. You're actually a failed actress/girlfriend so you've shot yourself in the head and you've been hallucinating. - Don't do drugs.\",\n \"I just watched it as well. I believe Mulholland drive is about a young woman who comes to Hollywood to become an actress, at the start her name is betty(blonde). The brunette is her alter ego type character who is confused at the start but guides Betty to adapt to the corruption and fakeness of Hollywood, which explains the theatre scene where we are shown the need for illusion as a movie star. As the movie star persona takes over, the innocent blonde girl suffers and becomes jealous of her her alter ego (everyone knowing her movie star personality and not her true personality, as we see at the fancy dinner near the end where the blonde is like a helpless bystander). She and the director both came to Hollywood to make art but find success only when they go along with the corruption. The dead body is a vision of the death of her innocence later in the film. I'm not sure about the hobo, he may just represent the hidden underbelly of hollywood: giving up your innocence in order to become a movie star, which would explain why he was in procession of the blue box which transforms the actress into a star earlier in the film. There isn't much importance in deciphering what is real or fake, dream/awake in my opinion, its more of a commentary on this internal struggle and corruption of art.\",\n \"I saw this in Seattle really high. I walked into the wrong theater halfway through a showing. I sat through it and stuck around to watch the first part I'd missed. I had no idea what was going on. I've since seen it as intended and I can honestly say I have no better understanding.\",\n \"I'd love to answer this question, but when I watched it I got up to the bit where the horrible monster jumps out from behind the wall, got really scared, and turned it off. I'm a massive wuss.\",\n \"I once watched Inland Empire - 3 hours of wtf\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Since its release, Mulholland Drive has received \"both some of the harshest epithets and some of the most lavish praise in recent cinematic history\". On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 83% based on 173 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"David Lynch's dreamlike and mysterious Mulholland Drive is a twisty neo-noir with an unconventional structure that features a mesmerizing performance from Naomi Watts as a woman on the dark fringes of Hollywood.\" On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average","-33.84309217124246"],["The concept for the series turned into David Lynch's groundbreaking film Mulholland Drive. In David Lynch: The Man from Another Place, Dennis Lim states that \"While working on Twin Peaks, Lynch and Frost also toyed with the idea of a spin-off series for Sherilyn Fenn's character, Audrey Horne, that would transplant the backwoods femme fatale to Hollywood. They planned to call it Mulholland Drive. While Lynch began to adapt the idea into a feature script, he abandoned it in order to make Lost Highway. Theme music Angelo Badalamenti composed the leitmotifs Audrey's Dance, Audrey's Prayer, and Audrey for the character.","-32.13843438127515"],["another tale about broken dreams in Hollywood, and early in the film Rita is shown crossing Sunset Boulevard at night. Apart from both titles being named after iconic Los Angeles streets, Mulholland Drive is \"Lynch's unique account of what held Wilder's attention too: human putrefaction (a term Lynch used several times during his press conference at the New York Film Festival 2001) in a city of lethal illusions\". The title of the film is a reference to iconic Hollywood culture. David Lynch lives near Mulholland Drive, and stated in an interview, \"At night, you ride on the top of the","-31.93040238498179"],["Drive and Back to Mulholland Drive, and several interviews with people involved in making the film. It is the second David Lynch film in this line of Blu-rays after The Elephant Man.\nOn July 15, 2015, The Criterion Collection announced that it would release Mulholland Drive, newly restored through a 4K digital transfer, on DVD and Blu-ray on October 27, 2015, both of which include new interviews with the film's crew and the 2005 edition of Chris Rodley's book Lynch on Lynch, along with the original trailer and other extras. It was Lynch's second film to receive a Criterion Collection release","-31.80740939383395"],["that arise from the film. Stephen Holden of The New York Times writes, \"Mulholland Drive has little to do with any single character's love life or professional ambition. The movie is an ever-deepening reflection on the allure of Hollywood and on the multiple role-playing and self-invention that the movie-going experience promises ... What greater power is there than the power to enter and to program the dream life of the culture?\" J. Hoberman from The Village Voice echoes this sentiment by calling it a \"poisonous valentine to Hollywood\".\nMulholland Drive has been compared with Billy Wilder's film noir classic Sunset Boulevard (1950),","-31.58656373761187"],["location mostly used the same short stretch of road, at the very top of the Rock, shot from numerous different angles. The beach defences seen at the foot of the Rock in the initial shot were also added solely for the film, to an otherwise non-military area. The action involving the Land Rover switched from Gibraltar, to Beachy Head in the UK for the shot showing the vehicle actually getting airborne. Trial runs of the stunt with the Land Rover, during which Bond escapes by parachute from the tumbling vehicle, were filmed in the Mojave Desert, although the final cut","-30.479401487042196"],["failure, stating that \"in many ways, it's Lynch at his most daring, emotional, and personal\". Writing for Little White Lies, William Carroll considered the film a prelude to Mulholland Drive due to its \"Los Angeles' iconic topography\", and felt that it deserves to be regarded as one of the director's best works. Similarly, Daily Vanguard editor Victoria Castellanos remarked that the film \"serves as a wonderful companion to Mulholland Drive and Inland Empire, and in many ways is more surreal and emotional than some of Lynch's other films\".\nAs a cult film, Lost Highway was included in The A.V. Club's \"The","-30.353223035950577"],["the film. CG supervisor Jason Crosby pointed out that their studio was mainly selected for the highway sequence after the crew realized real logs only bounced about an inch off the road when dropped from a logging truck. \"They were concerned about how they would make the shot happen, not knowing if CG would work. The timing was great because we had just finished a test shot of our CG logs bouncing on the freeway. We sent a tape to Vancouver and after seeing it the crew was convinced that any of the log shots could be done with CG,\"","-30.343844131435617"],["Mulholland Drive History The main portion of the road, from Cahuenga Pass in Hollywood westward past Sepulveda Pass, was originally called Mulholland Highway and was opened in 1924. It was built by a consortium of developers investing in the Hollywood Hills. DeWitt Reaburn, the construction engineer responsible for the project, said while it was being built, \"The Mulholland Highway is destined to be one of the heaviest traveled and one of the best known scenic roads in the United States.\" Geography The 21-mile (34 km) long mostly two-lane, minor arterial road loosely follows the ridgeline of the eastern Santa Monica","-30.245762569567887"],["[9] Filming location A World War II scene in the 2007 movie Atonement with Keira Knightley and James McAvoy was produced in this road as was a scene from Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1. The road was also used as part of the car chase scene from the James Bond film Skyfall.","-29.817600655231217"],["Ben Hur (1907 film) Development The film was directed by Canadian director Sidney Olcott and Frank Oakes Rose. At fifteen minutes long, only a small portion of the story was put on screen. The focus of the piece was the chariot race, which was filmed on a beach in New Jersey with local firemen playing the charioteers and the horses that normally pulled the fire wagons pulling the chariots.\nIn 1908, perhaps seeking to capitalize on the publicity of the case and the film, Harper & Brothers published a lavishly designed and illustrated book, The Chariot Race from Ben-Hur, which excerpted","-29.647849194749142"],["enigma.\" Soundtrack The soundtrack of Mulholland Drive was supervised by Angelo Badalamenti, who collaborated on previous Lynch projects Blue Velvet and Twin Peaks. Badalamenti, who was nominated for awards from the American Film Institute (AFI) and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) for his work on the film, also has a cameo as an espresso aficionado and mobster.\nReviewers note that Badalamenti's ominous score, described as his \"darkest yet\", contributes to the sense of mystery as the film opens on the dark-haired woman's limousine, that contrasts with the bright, hopeful tones of Betty's first arrival in Los Angeles,","-29.089508112927433"],["humor essayist Robert Benchley provides some wry commentary that is interspersed throughout the movie (Benchley died several months before the film's release). There are also jabs at Paramount Pictures (the studio that originally released the film) and a reference to Frank Sinatra, not to mention many instances of \"breaking the fourth wall\" and general wackiness. During Crosby's fake incantation at the beginning of the film include the phrase \"presto-sturgando\", which is a reference to Paramount writer-director Preston Sturges.\nIn her autobiography, Dorothy Lamour said that the release of Road to Utopia may have been delayed by Paramount to not jeopardize","-28.929686882416718"],["on today,\" Neville said.\nParts of the film were shot in the Hampstead district of London, and a house in South Hill Park was used as the exterior of Greer's home. Until his death, South Hill Park was the home of Anthony Minghella, the film director and father of Max Minghella. All Saint's Road was also used as a substitute for King's Road. Release delays In August 2008, controversy surrounding Miller's personal life led to a delay in the film's release.\nIn July 2009, \"creative differences\" led Beeban Kidron to quit during post-production; her husband, screenwriter Lee Hall, had left the production","-28.61762597402776"],["Trailer Park Boys History In 1998, director Mike Clattenburg wrote and directed a short film titled One Last Shot, which was shot in black-and-white. The film followed the exploits of two friends, Rob (Robb Wells) and Gary Williams or GW (John Paul Tremblay), although it is not based in the same setting as Trailer Park Boys. It was the first time Robb, John Paul and John Dunsworth worked together. In the 1999 feature film Trailer Park Boys, the character Julian states to the camera that he wanted his life to be documented after receiving a telephone psychic's prediction","-28.608126232866198"],["Ham Churchyard' (\"the largest in England\" noted the narrator Paul Scofield) opposite Beckton Alps. Asylum, a 2000 film of Iain Sinclair and Chris Petit for Channel 4, was partially shot at Beckton Alps while it was still a dry-ski slope.\nIn the final hour or so of Full Metal Jacket, Stanley Kubrick's 1987 movie portraying the Vietnam War, Matthew Modine (Private Joker), Adam Baldwin (Animal Mother) and their platoon go into Huế, a Vietnamese city, to clear it of Viet Cong and snipers. Kubrick had the whole gasworks selectively demolished and the art department then dressed the 'set' with latticework and","-28.591315038560424"],["published in 2002, along with a documentary film of the same name and subject. It describes a series of trips he took tracing the M25, London's outer-ring motorway, on foot. Sinclair followed this with Edge of the Orison in 2005, a psychogeographical reconstruction of the poet John Clare's walk from Dr Matthew Allen's private lunatic asylum, at Fairmead House, High Beach, in the centre of Epping Forest in Essex, to his home in Helpston, near Peterborough. Sinclair also writes about Claybury Asylum, another psychiatric hospital in Essex, in Rodinsky's Room, a collaboration with the artist Rachel Lichtenstein.\nSinclair's book Ghost Milk","-28.57857610564679"],["London Road (film) Production The film was shot in Bexley in London. A number of cast members from the original production reprise their roles in the film, including Fleetwood, Burt, Moore, Shaeffer, Thornley, Fowler, and Holder. Release The live film premiere was screened in cinemas across the UK as part of National Theatre Live on 9 June 2015 and was released on 12 June 2015. Critical reception London Road received generally positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports 76% of 67 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 6.8/10. The site's critical","-28.52763269020943"],["eight-day cross country drive. The movie tells the story of a troubled man who videotapes women discussing their lives and sexuality, and his impact on the relationship of a married couple. Soderbergh submitted the film to the Cannes Film Festival where it won a variety of awards, including the Palme d'Or. Its critical performance led it to become a worldwide commercial success, grossing $36.7 million on a $1.2 million budget. The film was considered to be the most influential catalyst of the 1990s Independent Cinema movement. At age 26, Soderbergh became the youngest solo director and the second youngest director to win","-28.511334093484038"],["Principal photography on the film began in March 2017 in Whannell's hometown of Melbourne; The chase scene taking place on the southern section of the Craigieburn bypass Hume Freeway (M31) and is actually going the opposite direction to what would have been normal traffic flow to appear that it was filmed in a left hand drive country. Editing took place in Sydney. Release After premiering on 10 March 2018 at South by Southwest and winning the Midnighters Award, the film was released on 1 June in the United States, and 14 June in Australia by Blumhouse Tilt.\nUpgrade is setup for","-28.382700041343924"],["nightmares and fantasies, nonlinear story lines, camera work, sound and lighting, he presents a film that challenges viewers to suspend belief of what they are experiencing. Many of the characters in Mulholland Drive are archetypes that can only be perceived as cliché: the new Hollywood hopeful, the femme fatale, the maverick director and shady powerbrokers that Lynch never seems to explore fully. Lynch places these often hackneyed characters in dire situations, creating dream-like qualities. By using these characters in scenarios that have components and references to dreams, fantasies and nightmares, viewers are left to decide, between the extremes, what is","-28.349778835920006"],["Sierra Highway, near Acton. The film is about an unseen truck driver who stalks and attempts to kill an innocent motorist trapped in the truck's game. It prominently shows the desert portions of Sierra Highway. With Duel's status, one of the trucks used in the film is still on the road and in the process of being restored. The current owner has driven the truck along Sierra Highway for nostalgia, enjoying the terrified looks he receives from passing motorists who recognize it. Other movies have since been filmed in the vicinity, including scenes in The Terminator.","-28.347262492825394"],["Road to Utopia Production Filmed from December 1943 to March 1944, the film is the only Road to … film without a real place in its title, though Alaska with its gold mines is referred to as \"Utopia\" several times in the film. Bob Hope, Bing Crosby and Dorothy Lamour starred, as they did in all but one of the series. The film is also the only \"Road\" film that did not take place in modern times though the film begins and ends with the cast made up to look older who flashback to the past. \nAs a “narrator”,","-28.300232472261996"],["drove to Melbourne via Cape York, Einasleigh, Hughenden, Tambo, Roma, Toowoomba, and Brisbane, arriving in Melbourne at the end of September 1915 having covered 7,000 miles in seven months. He then drove from Melbourne to Swan Hill and Menindee to finish the movie of the Burke and Wills' track. The film was called 'Across Australia: In the Tracks of Burke and Wills' and was released by The Co-Operative Film Exchange Ltd of Melbourne, and opened in Melbourne at Hoyt's Olympia Theatre on Christmas Day 1915.\nAs a publicity stunt, Birtles was commissioned by Barlow Motors, the Melbourne agent for the Bean","-28.273039028339554"],["Tate's Cairn Highway Tate's Cairn Highway (Chinese: 大老山公路; pinyin: Dàlǎoshān Gōnglù; Cantonese Yale: daai5 lou5 saan1 gung1 lou6), opened on June 26, 1991, is a dual-3 lane expressway in Hong Kong. It links Tate's Cairn Tunnel and Ma Liu Shui Interchange, forming a part of Route 2 (formerly known as Route 6). \nFrom the Ma Liu Shui Interchange, where it connects with Route 9, the highway crosses the estuary of the Shing Mun River. It then turns southwards, interchanging at Shek Mun with a distributor road (Tai Chung Kiu Road), and reaches Siu Lek Yuen, where the highway splits its","-28.27177681279136"],["to that of Baja California, where most of the story takes place), mostly in wilderness and small villages. Critics Bob Porfiero and Alain Silver, in a review and analysis of the film, praised Lupino's use of shooting locations. They wrote, \"The Hitch-Hiker's desert locale, although not so graphically dark as a cityscape at night, isolates the protagonists in a milieu as uninviting and potentially deadly as any in film noir.\"","-28.244988273065246"],["in 1961. During its design it was known as Link Road 17/7. The scheme lies over the geological West Manchester Fault.\nIt would be the first elevated main road to be built outside London, and the UK's second aerial motorway after the Hammersmith flyover. The road is 3,232 ft (985 m) long and has 28 spans of 105 ft (32 m), and two spans of 60 ft (18 m).\nThe spans are made out of precast concrete, with hollow box-units post-tensioned to form a spine beam. Each of the 105 ft spans is made out of 14 precast concrete hollow box-units 7 ft 3in long. Freyssinet (named","-28.21112976630684"],["to be no more than a \"little side road\" for his career, expecting it to be released directly to video. Reception A trailer of Taken was released on 20 June 2008. The film saw its release on 27 February in France, 9 April in China and 26 September in UK in the year of 2008. It was released on 30 January in United States and 22 August in Japan in the year of 2009. The film was released under the title of 96 Hours in Germany, Io vi troverò (I Will Find You) in Italy and Заложница (Hostage) in Russia.","-28.197105144168745"],["the first trailer, with Cobie Smulders introducing the footage. The official Jack Reacher Twitter account announced that a full trailer would be released on June 22, 2016. A browser game, titled Jack Reacher: Never Stop Punching, was also released to promote the film.\nIn September 2015, Paramount set Jack Reacher: Never Go Back a release date of October 21, 2016. Home media Jack Reacher: Never Go Back was released on Digital HD on January 17, 2017, and on Blu-ray, Ultra HD Blu-ray and DVD on January 31, 2017.\nBy May 2018, the film had made $14.5 million in domestic region","-28.17834540785043"],["Eastwood County Road The Eastwood County Road was a planned freeway route in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, intended to link the Kissing Point Road at Dundas to Epping Road at North Ryde, via Eastwood.","-28.16686677976395"],["ending An alternate ending of the film was featured on the DVD release. In this version, Eddie Rodney Fleming is seen hitchhiking along a desolate road. A car stops and Barry Walls (Caton) offers him a ride. Fleming accepts and they drive away, followed at a distance by Steele (Martin) on his motorcycle, no doubt intending to enforce some vigilante justice. Box office The Interview grossed $556,263 at the box office in Australia. Home media The Interview was released on DVD by Umbrella Entertainment in July 2011. The DVD is compatible with all region codes and includes special features such","-28.127434226189507"],["The film was partially scripted and amateur actors played the main roles. The resulting film offended the TMPD, which refused to use it. Reception The film won several foreign and domestic awards in 1964. The film critic Chris Fujiwara, commenting about the DVD, called On the Road: A Document \"a breakthrough film . . . Constantly imaginative and vigorous in depicting movement but never fetishising it in a facile or celebratory way, On the Road has the working-class speed and grimness of an early-1930s Warner Bros film, at the same time reshaping stray observational surprises in the manner of Beat","-28.118354340054793"],["Road Movie trilogy Conception Director Wim Wenders didn't conceive of the three films as a trilogy, and they were first labelled as one by U.S. critic Richard Roud. However, U.S. filmmaker Michael Almereyda writes that \"they are unified by shared themes, an exacting formal rigor, and the presence of Rüdiger Vogler.\" Almereyda remarks that Wenders' earliest feature films, Summer in the City and The Goalkeeper's Fear of the Penalty, also involved \"aimless journeys,\" but the Road Movie trilogy was distinct as \"travel not only propels the story but also absorbs and reshapes it.\" The films were also made on small","-28.071593222746742"],["Vukovar, jedna priča Plot The film takes place in Vukovar, a city on the border between Serbia and Croatia, in a country which used to be called SFR Yugoslavia, on the eve of the country's breakup. It is a typical love story, between a Croat woman Ana (Mirjana Joković) and a Serb man Toma (Boris Isaković), who marry one another with the blessing of both families right before the Battle of Vukovar. Their harmonic community is brutally broken apart with the start of a civil war. Not only they but everyone around them, against their will, are brought into the","-28.068478517627227"],["where both boys live are approximately 1,200 metres apart, being located next to Berkhamsted Castle. They are the two most exclusive residential roads in the town. The film also shot at the Richborough Power Station in Sandwich, which was then disused. The film includes a vintage clip of Jan Pinkava winning the BBC Screen Test competition. The minor role of Danny, an acolyte of Didier, a glamorous French exchange student, is played by Stanley Kubrick's grandson, Sam Kubrick-Finney. The film includes excerpts from First Blood and is endorsed by Sylvester Stallone, the star of the Rambo franchise. Critical reception Son","-27.989718338340026"],["a profanity-laden rant at him, which would eventually become Mr. Eddy's road rage scene. Lost Highway also features the final motion picture performance of Richard Pryor. Filming and editing Lost Highway was shot in Los Angeles, California, in about 54 days, from November 29, 1995, to February 22, 1996. Some of the film's exterior and driving scenes were shot in Griffith Park, while the scenes of the Lost Highway Hotel were filmed at the Amargosa Opera House and Hotel in Death Valley. Lynch owns the property that was used for Fred and Renee's mansion, which is located on the same","-27.967071547580417"],["TV shows.\nHankley Common was used in the James Bond films The World Is Not Enough, Die Another Day, and Skyfall. The sets depicted a pier in the Caspian Sea where James Bond was attacked by a helicopter saw, a chase scene through the Korean Demilitarized Zone on hovercraft, and as the site of James Bond's ancestral Scottish mansion respectively.\nHankley Common has been popular with fictional time travellers having featured in Doctor Who and the Silurians and in Blackadder Back and Forth.\nIn the fourth series of Ultimate Force, the Drop Zone huts and surrounding area were used to shoot a Colombian","-27.952484579989687"],["totalling 186 minutes including a \"What happened last night\" recap and second credit roll. Lynch disavowed this version and had his name removed from the credits, Alan Smithee being credited instead. This version (without recap and second credit roll) has occasionally been released on DVD as Dune: Extended Edition. Several longer versions have been spliced together. Although Universal has approached Lynch for a possible director's cut, Lynch has declined every offer and prefers not to discuss Dune in interviews. Release Dune premiered in Washington, D.C., on December 3, 1984, at The Kennedy Center and was released worldwide on December 14.","-27.949381582726346"],["using the starkly beautiful street scenes in Not Wanted and the gorgeous, ever-present loneliness of empty highways in The Hitch-Hiker to set her characters apart.\nTime Out Film Guide wrote of the film, \nAbsolutely assured in her creation of the bleak, noir atmosphere – whether in the claustrophobic confines of the car, or lost in the arid expanses of the desert – Lupino never relaxes the tension for one moment. Yet her emotional sensitivity is also upfront: charting the changes in the menaced men's relationship as they bicker about how to deal with their captor, stressing that only through friendship can","-27.902335490332916"],["to take place along a road on the perimeter of the Grangemouth Refinery in Grangemouth, Scotland. The location was chosen for the length of the road which is crucial to the shot. A few days later Paramount announced the film would be released on December 21, 2012. Later in the same month, filming began in Glasgow. The location manager for the film said Glasgow had been chosen because of its architecture, wide roads, and grid layout. Scenes were also filmed aboard the Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship RFA Argus, before the Glasgow shoot. The ship was turned into the \"USS Madison\",","-27.882797435071552"],["motorway bridge and the exhaust tower, and the final crash-landing. For the later sequences, stunt dummies fixed to the Tiger Moth's wings and undercarriage represent the characters of Alan, Tin-Tin, Parker, Brains and the White Ghost agents, while Hughes doubles for Penelope in the cockpit. The location filming was based at Wycombe Air Park.\nThe M40 motorway, which was nearing completion at the time of production, doubled for the fictitious M104. In the run-up to the filming of the plane's near-miss with the bridge between Junctions 4 and 5, at Lane End on the High Wycombe Bypass, the Ministry of Transport","-27.857174998207483"],["filmed her movie The Invasion in downtown Baltimore, opposite Daniel Craig.\nScenes in \"Runaway Bride\" with Julia Roberts and Richard Gere were filmed at Gill's Garage on West Joppa Road. Ruxton Road Ruxton Road is a 1½-mile road, bearing the name of the area, and is the main west-east road running through the area. The road is mostly lined with upscale housing, but also has an interchange with the Jones Falls Expressway (exit 12). The road begins as a physical continuation to Old Court Road (though an extension to Old Court exists following a left turn), and ends at Bellona Avenue","-27.83255952235413"],["del Monte, Sulmona, Castelvecchio Calvisio, Calascio and Campo Imperatore in the Province of L'Aquila (Abruzzo); in Rome, and in Östersund, Jämtland and other locations. As the Clooney character drives from Rome to Castel del Monte, there is an impressively long drive through the 4600-meter long San Domenico Tunnel (Galleria San Domenico) that is between the exits of Pescina and Cocullo on the A25 highway that connects Rome to Torano and Pescara. The car driven by Jack in the movie is a Fiat Tempra with Pescara licence plates.\nThe film's \"most romantic moment\", according to director Anton Corbijn—when Jack takes Clara to","-27.828550579200964"],["to lend Novak to Vertigo if Stewart would agree to co-star with Novak in Bell, Book and Candle, a Columbia production released in December 1958. Initial on-site principal photography Vertigo was filmed from September to December 1957. Principal photography began on location in San Francisco in September 1957 under the working title From Among the Dead (the literal translation of D'entre les morts). The film uses extensive location footage of the San Francisco Bay Area, with its steep hills and tall, arching bridges. In the driving scenes shot in the city, the main characters' cars are almost always pictured heading","-27.81326732598245"],["scenes set in the floor. Swinden noted that the traders were \"interesting guys\" to work with, and told the producers the story was \"very close to home.\" The producers borrowed two expensive cars, more prominently an Aston Martin DB9 convertible, which were driven by Armitage and Norris. Armitage was asked to drive the car for only 10 yards, but the actor ended up getting carried away by wheel-spinning and driving the car around a city block. Another car was a Bentley used for Denham's suicide. Because it was on loan, Firth's options on acting as if he was trying to","-27.808224151129252"],["used for Sanchez's lavish villa, and the La Rumorosa Mountain Pass in Tecate was used as the filming site for the tanker chase during the climax of the film. Sanchez's Olympiatec Meditation Institute was shot at the Otomi Ceremonial Center in Temoaya. Other underwater sequences were shot at the Isla Mujeres near Cancún.\nIn August 1988, production moved to the Florida Keys, notably Key West. Seven Mile Bridge towards Pigeon Key was used for the sequence in which the armoured truck transporting Sanchez, following his arrest, is driven off the edge. Other locations there included Ernest Hemingway House, Key West International","-27.8081598531935"],["Sacro GRA Synopsis The film depicts life along the Grande Raccordo Anulare, the ring-road highway that circles Rome. Rosi spent over two years in filming, while the film's editing required eight months of work. According to the director, the film was inspired by Italo Calvino's novel Invisible Cities (1972), in which the explorer Marco Polo is imagined describing his travels to the Emperor of China Kublai Khan.","-27.807357563258847"],["Drive, Laurel Canyon Boulevard, Sunset Boulevard, Beverly Drive, and Coldwater Canyon Drive, Leno makes several references to Lelouch's classic film.\nIn 2010, Jeremy Clarkson used the film as a basis for the opening scene of his DVD/Blu-ray The Italian Job.\nIn 2013, Phoenix used the film as a backdrop for live shows during the song \"Love Like a Sunset Part I\".\nOn 17 February 2017, Ford Motor Company in association with Claude Lelouch released a 360 degree view remake of the film using a Ford Mustang. Unlike the original, the 2017 version contains several cut scenes and does not show the entire (original)","-27.769533939659595"],["in humorous but appreciative reviews of B-movies and cult films, which he calls \"drive-in movies\" (as distinguished from \"indoor bullstuff\"). In addition to his usual parody of urbane, high-brow movie criticism, his columns characteristically include colorful tales of woman-troubles and high-spirited brushes with the law, tales which inevitably conclude with his rush to catch a movie at a local drive-in, usually with female companionship. Briggs revealed in an interview with James Rolfe that he intended the character to have an ambiguous sounding name and initially thought of calling himself \"Bubba Rodriguez\", but was told that the name Rodriguez would","-27.755848320259247"],["documentary to fit both soundtracks.\nRoad to Perdition was released on Blu-ray Disc on August 3, 2010, featuring a widescreen transfer, a DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 soundtrack, and all of the features from the DVD release.","-27.75491439597681"],["the films, such as Leeds Bridge or Roundhay Garden Scene. Actually, all current online versions (e.g., GIF, FLV, SWF, OGG, WMV, etc.) are derived from the NMPFT files. However, Leeds Bridge is believed to be the original title, as the traffic sequence was referred to as such by Frederick Mason, one of Le Prince's mechanics. Man Walking Around a Corner (16-Lens Camera) The only existing images from Le Prince's 16-lens camera are a sequence of 16 frames of a man walking around a corner. This appears to have been shot onto a single glass plate (which has since broken), rather","-27.754473076973227"],["screenplay. In September, Lew Landers was tagged to direct the film, while Maury Cohen was selected to handle the production. In mid-September, it was announced that John Beal and Sally Eilers would join the cast, followed shortly by the addition of Harry Carey, Lee Patrick, Frank Thomas, Ed Gargan, Paul Guilfoyle, and Herman Brix. The picture was filmed during September, and by the 22nd was being edited. At the beginning of October RKO changed the title of the film from Highway to Hell to Danger Patrol. In early November it was announced that RKO would be releasing Danger Patrol on","-27.7384265774308"],["there wasn't an agreement with Loggia and Close, we had always designed the project to go either as a sequel or on its own terms.\"\nThe film was distributed by Columbia Pictures between in the United States and Canada, with Rank Film Distributors handling foreign distribution. The film was produced by Martin Ransohoff who formed with Columbia, Rank Film Distributors and Vestron Video in 1986.\nThe male lead went to Burt Reynolds who had just made Switching Channels for Ransohoff. \"Joe is a ballsy character,\" said Reynolds, \"kind of like Dirty Harry gone amok. He's around the edge of having a nervous","-27.71348861370643"],["film uses many of the classic road movie motifs such as break downs, fuel stops and long stretches of empty road, with a cinematography that is conventionally modern. Release The film premiered on 1 May 2008 in Australia. It was part of the Brooklyn International Film Festival in June 2008 and the Munich Film Festival on 28 June 2008.","-27.644323755434016"],["The Highwayman (TV series) Synopsis The movie and subsequent series follow the adventures of \"The Highwayman\", one of a mysterious group, presumably of U.S. Marshals, conducting crime-fighting missions and solving bizarre mysteries. Each Highwayman in this group is equipped with a high-tech, multi-function truck.\nThe pilot movie used a different opening narration, also voiced by William Conrad:\nThey say he came into this world from someplace off the clock.\n\nAnd his mother was an ice-cold wind; his pa a fiery rock.\n\nIt's told that on some starless nights his rig could up and glow,\n\nAnd folks who say they saw it coming swear they didn't","-27.632814179029083"],["around Elizabeth Bay and Potts Point, and at Spencer's Wonderland City studio in Bondi.\nFilming took six weeks. The original director was George Musgrove, but he soon realised he was out of his depth, and Longford – who had written the screenplay – took over. (However advertising would claim that \"the whole of the production has been carried out under the personal supervision of Mr George Musgrove\".)\nAccording to a later report, when Longford wanted to \"film a landing, he begged permission to land at Crecy,","-27.622561744428822"],["it was still a slum, a fact which is central to the film. The principal street location of the film was Testerton Street, and its Southern junction with Barandon Street, although its Northern junction with Blechyden Street, where Grenfell Tower currently stands, is visible in some shots. Kidulthood (2006) and Adulthood (2008), written and directed by British filmmaker Noel Clarke, were partially filmed on the estate.","-27.62249069245445"],["few yards short of the estate church, where the walker is instructed to return the way they came. There is no access through to the public road a short distance further on. Cultural references Compton Wynyates inspired the Croft Manor in the Tomb Raider series.\nIn 1955 the splendid view of the manor from the drive opened the Rank Organisation film \"The Black Tent\". (Technicolor/Vistavision).\nIn 1969, Compton Wynyates appeared in the film Carry On Camping as a monastery. (Coincidentally these establishing shots are said to have come from the earlier Black Tent footage.)\nIn 1977, Compton Wynyates served as a filming","-27.61140275037178"],["documentary, producer Deeley was unsatisfied with the four written endings and conceived the current ending as a literal cliffhanger appropriate to an action film which left an opportunity for a sequel. The documentary describes how helicopters would save the bus seen on the cliff at the end of the first film. The grateful gang would soon discover that it is the Mafia that has saved them, and the sequel would have been about stealing the gold bullion back from them.\nIn interviews in 2003 and 2008, Michael Caine revealed that the ending would have had Croker \"crawl up, switch on the","-27.581738336390117"],["of Things. The Road Movie trilogy established Wenders' prominence in international cinema and has attained minor cult film status among Wenders and Müller fans.\nA number of issues, such as rights issues concerning the soundtracks of the films, have made the three Road Movie films hard to find on video in the United States. However, in 2016 The Criterion Collection released the films on DVD and Blu-ray as Wim Wenders: The Road Trilogy.","-27.578271631155076"],["by pack horse and foot. A second unit under Carl Kayser was brought out to location to assist production.\nAfter six months on location, the unit moved to the studios of Cinesound Productions in Bondi. They filmed there for two months then returned to Queensland for a further five months. In March 1948 they returned to the Bondi studio and reshot several scenes. Shooting took eighteen months in total. Charles Chauvel then shot an alternative ending in the Blue Mountains. This ending was eventually discarded.\nWhile Chauvel was filming in Sydney, his home was robbed. Reception The movie had cost so much","-27.567929614502646"],["that collectively give the film its consistent tone\". Drive's title sequence is hot-pink, which was inspired by Risky Business (1983). Refn has also indicated that the film's romance was partly inspired by the films of writer-director John Hughes.\nRefn's inspiration for Drive came partly from reading Grimms' Fairy Tales, and his goal was to make \"a fairy tale that takes Los Angeles as the background,\" with The Driver as the hero. To play with the common theme of fairy tales, The Driver protects what is good while at the same time killing degenerate people in violent ways. Refn said Drive turns","-27.564698507107096"],["set in Bonnie Doon, and a very small portion of it was shot there.\nThe name Kerrigan was chosen for the family so that tow trucks for the film could be borrowed from an existing Melbourne tow-truck company with that name. The company still operates today.\nIn January 2011, 3491 Maintongoon Road, Bonnie Doon was listed for sale. The property appeared in the film as the Kerrigan family holiday house. The property's real estate agent reported that many people called and after requesting the vendor's asking price, replied with a quote from the movie: \"Tell him he's dreamin'.\" Alternative versions In the","-27.543183688248973"],["feature film since Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, which was released in 1992 as a prequel to the television series Twin Peaks. He came across the phrase \"lost highway\" in the book Night People by Barry Gifford. Because Lynch knew Gifford very well and had previously adapted his novel Wild at Heart into a film by the same name, he told the writer that he loved it as a title and the two agreed to write a screenplay together. Originally, both men had their own different ideas of what Lost Highway should be and ended up rejecting each other's","-27.540726900246227"],["1987 pilot movie starred Sam J. Jones. The lead character is more mysterious than any of the other Highwaymen in that his real name is never revealed (he is only known as \"The Highwayman\" or \"Highway\"). He drives a large, black, computerized truck with a bullet-shaped cabin, which is the nose of a concealed helicopter (an Aérospatiale Gazelle) which can detach from the rest of the truck. The truck can also operate in \"stealth mode\" to become invisible. A concealed futuristic sports car (a Lotus Esprit) can emerge from the truck's rear. Some elements of the futuristic dashboard","-27.540363553001953"],["of the California Division of Highways' Bridge Department. In popular culture Actor Clint Eastwood bought five parcels totaling 283 acres (115 ha) on the south side of Malpaso Creek during the 1960s. He named his production company The Malpaso Company after the location. The company was established in 1967 by Eastwood's financial adviser Irving Leonard for the film Hang 'Em High, using profits from the Dollars Trilogy. He later bought more land until he owned 650 acres (260 ha). The land stretched from the eastern side of Highway 1 to the coastal ridge. In 1995, Monterey County bought the land from","-27.53427655994892"],["The Rock n' Roll Cops Plot This film follows its lead character, Detective Jake Blade (played by Shaw) who is pursuing the Russian crime lord Rinaldi (played by Smith). \nThis film is traditional of Scott Shaw's directorial work in that it follows a non-linear storyline that it riddled with strange dialogue and unexpected edits, where the central characters leave behind the storyline and interact solely by the presentation of visual images in association with Techno music. This film also possesses the obvious references to Blaxploitation Cinema apparent in virtually all Scott Shaw films. Hollywood Similar to many Scott Shaw","-27.522748574043362"],["2002 movie Virginia's Run starring Gabriel Byrne and Joanne Whalley. John Dunsworth plays a local cop while John Paul Tremblay and Robb Wells play active and verbal townsmen similar to their Trailer Park Boys characters. Actors are credited as the cop for John Dunsworth, J.P. for John Paul Tremblay (credits as J.P. Tremblay), and Robb Wells as Rob. The movie was filmed in Shelburne, Nova Scotia. Trailer Park Boys: The Movie The second Trailer Park Boys movie to be produced (the first being the original black and white production that sparked the series), Trailer Park Boys: The Movie (also known","-27.520899646840917"],["The Crooked Road Production The film was shot in Yugoslavia over two months. Reception The New York Times said the film \"bounces along nicely\".","-27.50682059886458"],["Warninglid in West Sussex to three lanes, removing an accident prone bend, were given the go ahead. Work started in autumn 2011 and the scheme was completed and opened in October 2014, with a better-than-expected improvement to safety. London to Brighton Veteran Run The 53-mile (85 km) road from London to Brighton forms the basis of the route of the annual London to Brighton Veteran Car Run. This is featured in the film Genevieve, although most of the rural motoring scenes were shot in Buckinghamshire. The A23 is also used for various other London to Brighton events, although in many","-27.500849474366987"],["Woolworth's in Palmdale\" the next shot shows them driving up a dirt road through a Tehachapi wind farm. Similarly, Terminal Velocity (1994) has a fight sequence filmed on top of a hill in one of the farms.\nHerbie: Fully Loaded (2005) shot a sequence at a wind farm and on Oak Creek Road, which winds through several farms.\nOther movies filmed in Tehachapi include Face to Face (2001), Fault (2002), Batman: Revenge (2003), The Gentleman Don La Mancha (2004), I.F.O. (Identified Flying Object) (1985), Motor Mansions (2005), The Legend of Mary Worth (2006), The Grapes of Wrath (film) (1940), featuring the scene","-27.496010928727628"],["on Mars (2013). Total filming time for the film lasted approximately 70 days.\nA special Mars rover model was built for the filming; the movie cast and team presented the rover model to Jordan in return for the hospitality they had received. The rover is now exhibited in Jordan's Royal Automobile Museum.\nWeir avoided writing Watney as lonely and depressed in his novel. While Watney's humor is preserved in the film, Scott also depicted the character's isolation in the vast, dusty Martian landscape. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: \"The scenes back on Earth provide a hectic, densely populated counterweight to","-27.475700181967113"],["make any sense. There's no purpose or logic to events. Lynch is playing a big practical joke on us.\" Film theorist Ray Carney notes, \"You wouldn't need all the emotional back-flips and narrative trap doors if you had anything to say. You wouldn't need doppelgangers and shadow-figures if your characters had souls.\"\nLater, Mulholland Drive was named the best film of the decade by the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, Cahiers du cinéma, IndieWire, Slant Magazine, Reverse Shot, The Village Voice and Time Out New York, who asked rhetorically in a reference to the September 11 attacks, \"Can there be another","-27.46651419866248"],["Van Nuys Blvd. (film) Plot The film tells the story of a small-town boy who hears about the wild nights of cruising Van Nuys Boulevard in California. He drives out there to check it out, and gets involved with drag racers, topless dancers and bikers.\nBecause director William Sachs' style is often rather surrealist, a number of comedic scenes of a police officer on a beach, being handcuffed to his car, show a gradually more and more surrealist tone as the film progresses. In the course of the film, he gets approached by a mysterious biker stealing his possessions, a dog","-27.462741528463084"],["film Drive with \"...this abstruse, neon-dunked nightmare that spits in the face of coherence and flicks at the earlobes of good taste\".\nPeter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave it five out of five stars, calling it gripping and praising the \"pure formal brilliance\" of every scene and frame, though he notes that it will \"have people running for the exits, and running for the hills\" with its extreme violence. In an alternative review published in The Guardian, John Patterson was highly critical of the film, citing its lack of originality and the low degree of focus on plot: \"Somewhere in here","-27.45170489031989"],["than an extended chase sequence. The shots are neat and well-framed but aren't grand enough to explore the natural beauty, a cardinal sin when treating any road movie.\"\nGibran Khalil of DAWN said, \"Instead of embodying the spirit of a road trip film by evoking a smooth sense of movement, Lahore Se Aagey feels more like a collection of short sketches. I'll admit that it looks like the LSA team had a ball making the movie.\"\nThe both critics rated the film 2/5.\nShubham Bahukhandi of Dekh News rated 3.5/5 and praised its direction, while said that it has the worst screenplay ever","-27.450058456219267"],["next to last, as well as the final Road film in which Dorothy Lamour's role would be the female lead. Nine years later, The Road to Hong Kong instead featured Joan Collins, with a cameo by Lamour. Filming started on April 21, 1952 and continued until July of the same year.\nRoad to Bali was a co-production of Bing Crosby Enterprises, Hope Enterprises and Paramount. Filming The giant squid that threatens Bob Hope in an underwater scene was previously seen attacking Ray Milland in the Paramount production Reap the Wild Wind (1942), directed by Cecil B. DeMille. The erupting volcano climax","-27.435948423168156"],["Jaywalking: On the Road to Nowhere, originally broadcast in 1974 which, according to an ATV press release at the time, won an award for Best Programme in the Sociological Film the San Francisco International TV and Film Festival that year. 2011 MACE released From ATVLand in Colour a 2 disc DVD documentary which tells the story of the affectionately known ‘ATVLand’ – the ATV Centre in Birmingham, from its beginnings to its ultimate closure in 1997 and beyond, celebrating the programmes that came from the studios throughout its working life. The DVD includes a mix of rare archive footage of","-27.4265719592222"],["stagecoach beneath an unfinished modern freeway overpass. \"All that stuff came from the Warner Bros. film studios lot,\" Tom Johnston said. \"It must've been a lot of work for the guys who brought up the horse team and the carriage and the clothes. It was fun to do - they had coffins out there, all kinds of crazy stuff.\" The photography was done by Michael and Jill Maggid. The setting for the cover was located at the Newhall Pass interchange of the Interstate 5 and California State Route 14 freeways near Sylmar, California that collapsed during the 1971 San Fernando","-27.403310655827227"],["untitled film about Van Helsing, but there have been no updates on the film since 2010. At the Mountains of Madness On July 28, 2010, del Toro announced that he would direct a film adaptation of H. P. Lovecraft's At the Mountains of Madness for Universal Pictures, with Canadian film director James Cameron as producer. The movie was originally set up as a DreamWorks project in 2004, but was later cancelled. Cameron suggested casting Tom Cruise in the lead role and releasing the film in 3-D.\nIn June 2010, del Toro said that the adaptation probably would not happen at all.","-27.399288174361573"],["introspection (often on themes such as national identity), and depicting the road trip as a search on the part of the characters.\nThe German filmmaker Wim Wenders explored the American themes of road movies through his European reference point in his Road Movie trilogy in the mid-1970s. They include Alice in the Cities (1974), The Wrong Move (1975), and Kings of the Road (1976). All three films were shot by cinematographer Robby Müller and mostly take place in West Germany. Kings of the Road includes stillness, which is unusual for road movies, and quietness (except for the rock soundtrack).","-27.39301635218908"],["Shotover Shotover is a hill and forest in Oxfordshire, England.\nShotover Hill is 3 miles (4.8 km) east of Oxford. Its highest point is 557 feet (170 m) above sea level. Shotover Road The road between London and Oxford used to pass over the top of Shotover Hill. The road was made into a turnpike under the 1719 Stokenchurch Turnpike Act. Shotover Park Shotover Park and garden were begun in about 1714 for James Tyrrell of Oakley. Tyrell died in 1718 and the house was completed by his son, General James Tyrell. There is no known record of the name of the architect.","-27.387218534888234"],["train wreck scene in The Fugitive was filmed 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Sylva in the town of Dillsboro. The scene of Harrison Ford walking on railroad tracks in an old tunnel was also close by in Cowee Tunnel. The town was also the site of filming for the 2017 film Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri.","-27.3454722877359"],["the 2009 Cinequest Film Festival and also screened at the Reel Women International Film Festival in Los Angeles. Going Attractions: The Definitive Story of the American Drive-in Movie The production of Going Attractions: The Definitive Story of the American Drive-in Movie was a lengthy process for Wright. Growing up outside of Chicago, Wright loved to go to the drive-in with her family in the summer. When drive-ins began to close down, Wright became fascinated with the abandoned structures. This motivated April to begin shooting the documentary, which took seven years to complete. During this time, Wright performed","-27.343527691497002"],["him along to \"nowhere special\". The two friends ride off into the sunset — in a chauffeured limousine. Production The idea for the film came from a story outline written by Andrew Bergman that he originally intended to develop and produce himself. \"I wrote a first draft called Tex-X\" (a play on Malcolm X's name), he said. \"Alan Arkin was hired to direct and James Earl Jones was going to play the sheriff. That fell apart, as things often do.\" Brooks was taken with the story, which he described as \"hip talk—1974 talk and expressions—happening in 1874 in the Old","-27.324855241080513"],["co-winner Joel Coen for The Man Who Wasn't There. It drew positive reviews from many critics and some of the strongest audience reactions of Lynch's career. Box office Universal Pictures released Mulholland Drive theatrically in 66 theaters in the United States on October 12, 2001, grossing $587,591 over its opening weekend. It eventually expanded to its widest release of 247 theaters, ultimately grossing $7,220,243 at the U.S. box office. TVA Films released the film theatrically in Canada on October 26, 2001. In other territories outside the United States, the film grossed $12,892,096 for a worldwide total of $20,112,339. Critical reception","-27.31175946732401"],["shot at Zion-Mount Carmel Highway, Zion Lodge, Checkerboard Mesa, the Narrows, the Hanging Gardens, the bridge over the Virgin River, and the Cave Route below the Cerberus Gendarme. Additional scenes were also shot in Monument Valley at the Tyrolean Transfer, where a rope had been rigged by climber Eric Bjornstad, who noted that Eastwood was not only very fit but very capable when it came to performing physical stuntwork like this. Scenes were also shot at Rock Door mesa above Goulding's Lodge, where Eastwood and company stayed. After completing principal photography in late September 1974 in Carmel-by-the-Sea and Monterey in","-27.28806873205758"],["venue for several films. Hopewell long planned a hotel project, Mega Tower Hotel at the east of the street but received opposition from the surrounding residents and environmental groups. It is because the project would also involve demolition of the historical building of the famous haunted house, Nam Koo Terrace (南固臺) and felling of various climbing fig trees. The lower part between Johnston Road and Queen's Road East is designated to become a pedestrianised street after the completion of a major Urban Renewal Authority project.\nThe hotel project has been recently modified. In the modified planning, Nam Koo Terrace","-27.27778988747741"],["Verax (film) Plot The film has four parts. The first depicts Central Intelligence Agency employees discussing the Snowden case. The second involves a newspaper journalist corresponding with Snowden. The third involves Hong Kong police officers and Chinese Ministry of State Security employees discussing and trying to find Edward Snowden. The fourth involves the characters waiting for Snowden to appear, and when Snowden reveals himself in the media. The end of the film includes extracts of Snowden's interview with The Guardian. The final captions state that Snowden departed Hong Kong on 23 June. The film features The Mira, the Hong Kong","-27.264206760388333"],["2003. The cars were designed to show characterisation and detail in the world, including the characters' feelings of guilt, loss, and their attempts to recycle the remains of civilisation. Both the Doof Wagon and the Doof Warrior's guitar are fully functional – none of his scenes were rendered in CGI. The War Rig and the Doof Wagon were based on the three-axle 6x6 and four-axle Tatra 815, although they were thoroughly rebuilt.\nCinematographer John Seale came out of retirement to shoot Fury Road. He replaced Dean Semler, the cinematographer of the previous two films, after Semler left. Seale outfitted his camera","-27.25124270118249"],["at Amboseli and Hell's Gate, with the remainder of the picture filmed on soundstages in the United Kingdom. One scene in the film was set in Shanghai, but it was shot on a set and not on location.\nThe film also featured the new 2003 Jeep Wrangler Rubicon, first seen when Lara parachutes into the moving vehicle in Africa and takes over the wheel from Kosa. As part of Jeep's advertising campaign, it was specially customised for the film by Jeep's design team along with the film's production designers, with three copies constructed for filming. 1,001 limited-run Tomb Raider models","-27.246221050896565"],["film. This was later confirmed by Warner Bros., which also stated that the film would be loosely based on real-life events surrounding Ed and Lorraine Warren. In January 2012, Vera Farmiga and Patrick Wilson were cast to star in the film. That month, Ron Livingston and Lili Taylor were also confirmed for roles in the film, which at that time was developing under the working title of The Untitled Warren Files Project. The film's title was temporarily changed to The Warren Files based on a suggestion by Wan, but was later reverted to The Conjuring prior to the commencement of","-27.221081413459615"],["for the fictional RAF Sutton Craddock bomber airfield. The riverbank where Robertson's character romances Maria Perschy was Hurley Lock on the river Thames and was also used in a similar early scene in the Bond film From Russia with Love. Some scenes were filmed at Staverton Airport, Gloucestershire, and the nearby Churchdown Hill could be seen in some shots. The pub in which the aircrew relax was The Three Compasses in Aldenham, Watford, which still exists as a pub today.\nThe Lairig Ghru pass in the Cairngorms was used for the training flight sequences and scenes with the Norwegian resistance. Special","-27.212191553662706"],["lot alongside the highway at 2354 Beach Boulevard (Pacific Coast Highway), Malibu and near the ocean; for the rest of the series, the trailer is at Paradise Cove (address 29 Cove Road), adjacent to a pier and a restaurant (\"The Sand Castle\", now known as the \"Paradise Cove Beach Cafe\"). In the television movies from 1994 to 1999, Rockford is still living and working at the same Paradise Cove location, but in a much newer trailer that has been extensively enlarged and remodeled.\nIn contrast to most television private eyes, Rockford wears low-budget \"off the rack\" clothing and does his best","-27.208148441306548"],["Crossroads of Laredo Crossroads of Laredo is a Western film compiled by extant silent footage of the unfinished Streets of Laredo (c. 1948), the first known film project of Ed Wood. It lasts 23 minutes. Wood was the director, the writer, and one of the actors of the film. The film includes a music score by Ben Weisman and narration by Cliff Stone.\nThe footage of the original were located by Brett Thompson, John Crawford Thomas, and Dolores Fuller. They were responsible for editing the film and adding narration. The film was released alongside the documentary The Haunted World of Edward","-27.19607407087142"],["road movie Vanishing Point, notable for its on-location filming across the southwest United States, used several sections of US 50 as part of the driving sequences.\nIn 1991, Stephen King drove along US 50 as part of a cross country trip. He stopped at Ruth, a small town near Ely. Studying the town, King fantasized about the fate of the residents. King then heard a local legend about how the ghosts of Chinese miners, who died while trapped in a cave-in, can be seen crossing Highway 50 to haunt the city of Ruth. King merged these details into his own story, including references to","-27.18705624213908"],["The drive-in was located near the intersection of Burwood Highway and McComas Grove, in a natural amphitheatre setting, provided by the Gardiners Creek Valley. The screen was located on a high point on the other side of the creek from the viewing area. The first film publicly screened was On the Riviera, starring Danny Kaye and Gene Tierney. The drive in was very popular in its early years, often causing traffic jams in the local area. A playground was provided for children, which included a motorised carousel.\nFollowing a decline in audience numbers over a number of years, the drive-in closed","-27.185142847389216"],["bulk on Shepperton's 'H' Stage, pick-ups on Pinewood's Bond Stage and on the Bluebell Railway who are owners of a 423 unit (3417 \"Gordon Pettitt\") which is similar design to the 421, and background plates shot from a freight train. The Last Passenger production team visited Kent & East Sussex Railway in November 2011 to shoot the carriage fire scenes at the end of the film. The level crossing crash scene was filmed using CGI, but the location was at Milford in Surrey, a bit of a distance from the Hastings Line.\nIn an interview about the film, editor Joe Walker","-27.163384673185647"],["The Highwayman (poem) Plot The poem, set in 18th-century rural England, tells the story of an unnamed highwayman who is in love with Bess, a landlord's daughter. Betrayed to the authorities by Tim, a jealous ostler, the highwayman escapes ambush when Bess sacrifices her life by shooting her chest to warn him. Learning of her death, he dies in a futile attempt at revenge, shot down on the highway. In the final stanza, the ghosts of the lovers meet again on winter nights. Background The poem was written on the edge of a desolate stretch of land known as","-27.15937527801725"],["directed by King Vidor, and a few television episodes of Bonanza. The \"Duel in the Sun\" reference is known to be false. Spahn Ranch is also often cited as the filming location for the B-movie The Creeping Terror.\n\"Spahn Movie Ranch\" is featured in the Quentin Tarantino movie Once Upon a Time in Hollywood, set in 1969 at the time of the Manson Family murders. The scenes for the movie were actually filmed at the nearby Corriganville Park in Simi Valley, which was also a Movie ranch at one time.\nIn the movie, a character played by Brad Pitt checks on his","-27.141664550727"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Since its release, Mulholland Drive has received \\\"both some of the harshest epithets and some of the most lavish praise in recent cinematic history\\\". On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 83% based on 173 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \\\"David Lynch's dreamlike and mysterious Mulholland Drive is a twisty neo-noir with an unconventional structure that features a mesmerizing performance from Naomi Watts as a woman on the dark fringes of Hollywood.\\\" On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average\",\n \"-33.84309217124246\"\n ],\n [\n \"The concept for the series turned into David Lynch's groundbreaking film Mulholland Drive. In David Lynch: The Man from Another Place, Dennis Lim states that \\\"While working on Twin Peaks, Lynch and Frost also toyed with the idea of a spin-off series for Sherilyn Fenn's character, Audrey Horne, that would transplant the backwoods femme fatale to Hollywood. They planned to call it Mulholland Drive. While Lynch began to adapt the idea into a feature script, he abandoned it in order to make Lost Highway. Theme music Angelo Badalamenti composed the leitmotifs Audrey's Dance, Audrey's Prayer, and Audrey for the character.\",\n \"-32.13843438127515\"\n ],\n [\n \"another tale about broken dreams in Hollywood, and early in the film Rita is shown crossing Sunset Boulevard at night. Apart from both titles being named after iconic Los Angeles streets, Mulholland Drive is \\\"Lynch's unique account of what held Wilder's attention too: human putrefaction (a term Lynch used several times during his press conference at the New York Film Festival 2001) in a city of lethal illusions\\\". The title of the film is a reference to iconic Hollywood culture. David Lynch lives near Mulholland Drive, and stated in an interview, \\\"At night, you ride on the top of the\",\n \"-31.93040238498179\"\n ],\n [\n \"Drive and Back to Mulholland Drive, and several interviews with people involved in making the film. It is the second David Lynch film in this line of Blu-rays after The Elephant Man.\\nOn July 15, 2015, The Criterion Collection announced that it would release Mulholland Drive, newly restored through a 4K digital transfer, on DVD and Blu-ray on October 27, 2015, both of which include new interviews with the film's crew and the 2005 edition of Chris Rodley's book Lynch on Lynch, along with the original trailer and other extras. It was Lynch's second film to receive a Criterion Collection release\",\n \"-31.80740939383395\"\n ],\n [\n \"that arise from the film. Stephen Holden of The New York Times writes, \\\"Mulholland Drive has little to do with any single character's love life or professional ambition. The movie is an ever-deepening reflection on the allure of Hollywood and on the multiple role-playing and self-invention that the movie-going experience promises ... What greater power is there than the power to enter and to program the dream life of the culture?\\\" J. Hoberman from The Village Voice echoes this sentiment by calling it a \\\"poisonous valentine to Hollywood\\\".\\nMulholland Drive has been compared with Billy Wilder's film noir classic Sunset Boulevard (1950),\",\n \"-31.58656373761187\"\n ],\n [\n \"location mostly used the same short stretch of road, at the very top of the Rock, shot from numerous different angles. The beach defences seen at the foot of the Rock in the initial shot were also added solely for the film, to an otherwise non-military area. The action involving the Land Rover switched from Gibraltar, to Beachy Head in the UK for the shot showing the vehicle actually getting airborne. Trial runs of the stunt with the Land Rover, during which Bond escapes by parachute from the tumbling vehicle, were filmed in the Mojave Desert, although the final cut\",\n \"-30.479401487042196\"\n ],\n [\n \"failure, stating that \\\"in many ways, it's Lynch at his most daring, emotional, and personal\\\". Writing for Little White Lies, William Carroll considered the film a prelude to Mulholland Drive due to its \\\"Los Angeles' iconic topography\\\", and felt that it deserves to be regarded as one of the director's best works. Similarly, Daily Vanguard editor Victoria Castellanos remarked that the film \\\"serves as a wonderful companion to Mulholland Drive and Inland Empire, and in many ways is more surreal and emotional than some of Lynch's other films\\\".\\nAs a cult film, Lost Highway was included in The A.V. Club's \\\"The\",\n \"-30.353223035950577\"\n ],\n [\n \"the film. CG supervisor Jason Crosby pointed out that their studio was mainly selected for the highway sequence after the crew realized real logs only bounced about an inch off the road when dropped from a logging truck. \\\"They were concerned about how they would make the shot happen, not knowing if CG would work. The timing was great because we had just finished a test shot of our CG logs bouncing on the freeway. We sent a tape to Vancouver and after seeing it the crew was convinced that any of the log shots could be done with CG,\\\"\",\n \"-30.343844131435617\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mulholland Drive History The main portion of the road, from Cahuenga Pass in Hollywood westward past Sepulveda Pass, was originally called Mulholland Highway and was opened in 1924. It was built by a consortium of developers investing in the Hollywood Hills. DeWitt Reaburn, the construction engineer responsible for the project, said while it was being built, \\\"The Mulholland Highway is destined to be one of the heaviest traveled and one of the best known scenic roads in the United States.\\\" Geography The 21-mile (34 km) long mostly two-lane, minor arterial road loosely follows the ridgeline of the eastern Santa Monica\",\n \"-30.245762569567887\"\n ],\n [\n \"[9] Filming location A World War II scene in the 2007 movie Atonement with Keira Knightley and James McAvoy was produced in this road as was a scene from Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1. The road was also used as part of the car chase scene from the James Bond film Skyfall.\",\n \"-29.817600655231217\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ben Hur (1907 film) Development The film was directed by Canadian director Sidney Olcott and Frank Oakes Rose. At fifteen minutes long, only a small portion of the story was put on screen. The focus of the piece was the chariot race, which was filmed on a beach in New Jersey with local firemen playing the charioteers and the horses that normally pulled the fire wagons pulling the chariots.\\nIn 1908, perhaps seeking to capitalize on the publicity of the case and the film, Harper & Brothers published a lavishly designed and illustrated book, The Chariot Race from Ben-Hur, which excerpted\",\n \"-29.647849194749142\"\n ],\n [\n \"enigma.\\\" Soundtrack The soundtrack of Mulholland Drive was supervised by Angelo Badalamenti, who collaborated on previous Lynch projects Blue Velvet and Twin Peaks. Badalamenti, who was nominated for awards from the American Film Institute (AFI) and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) for his work on the film, also has a cameo as an espresso aficionado and mobster.\\nReviewers note that Badalamenti's ominous score, described as his \\\"darkest yet\\\", contributes to the sense of mystery as the film opens on the dark-haired woman's limousine, that contrasts with the bright, hopeful tones of Betty's first arrival in Los Angeles,\",\n \"-29.089508112927433\"\n ],\n [\n \"humor essayist Robert Benchley provides some wry commentary that is interspersed throughout the movie (Benchley died several months before the film's release). There are also jabs at Paramount Pictures (the studio that originally released the film) and a reference to Frank Sinatra, not to mention many instances of \\\"breaking the fourth wall\\\" and general wackiness. During Crosby's fake incantation at the beginning of the film include the phrase \\\"presto-sturgando\\\", which is a reference to Paramount writer-director Preston Sturges.\\nIn her autobiography, Dorothy Lamour said that the release of Road to Utopia may have been delayed by Paramount to not jeopardize\",\n \"-28.929686882416718\"\n ],\n [\n \"on today,\\\" Neville said.\\nParts of the film were shot in the Hampstead district of London, and a house in South Hill Park was used as the exterior of Greer's home. Until his death, South Hill Park was the home of Anthony Minghella, the film director and father of Max Minghella. All Saint's Road was also used as a substitute for King's Road. Release delays In August 2008, controversy surrounding Miller's personal life led to a delay in the film's release.\\nIn July 2009, \\\"creative differences\\\" led Beeban Kidron to quit during post-production; her husband, screenwriter Lee Hall, had left the production\",\n \"-28.61762597402776\"\n ],\n [\n \"Trailer Park Boys History In 1998, director Mike Clattenburg wrote and directed a short film titled One Last Shot, which was shot in black-and-white. The film followed the exploits of two friends, Rob (Robb Wells) and Gary Williams or GW (John Paul Tremblay), although it is not based in the same setting as Trailer Park Boys. It was the first time Robb, John Paul and John Dunsworth worked together. In the 1999 feature film Trailer Park Boys, the character Julian states to the camera that he wanted his life to be documented after receiving a telephone psychic's prediction\",\n \"-28.608126232866198\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ham Churchyard' (\\\"the largest in England\\\" noted the narrator Paul Scofield) opposite Beckton Alps. Asylum, a 2000 film of Iain Sinclair and Chris Petit for Channel 4, was partially shot at Beckton Alps while it was still a dry-ski slope.\\nIn the final hour or so of Full Metal Jacket, Stanley Kubrick's 1987 movie portraying the Vietnam War, Matthew Modine (Private Joker), Adam Baldwin (Animal Mother) and their platoon go into Huế, a Vietnamese city, to clear it of Viet Cong and snipers. Kubrick had the whole gasworks selectively demolished and the art department then dressed the 'set' with latticework and\",\n \"-28.591315038560424\"\n ],\n [\n \"published in 2002, along with a documentary film of the same name and subject. It describes a series of trips he took tracing the M25, London's outer-ring motorway, on foot. Sinclair followed this with Edge of the Orison in 2005, a psychogeographical reconstruction of the poet John Clare's walk from Dr Matthew Allen's private lunatic asylum, at Fairmead House, High Beach, in the centre of Epping Forest in Essex, to his home in Helpston, near Peterborough. Sinclair also writes about Claybury Asylum, another psychiatric hospital in Essex, in Rodinsky's Room, a collaboration with the artist Rachel Lichtenstein.\\nSinclair's book Ghost Milk\",\n \"-28.57857610564679\"\n ],\n [\n \"London Road (film) Production The film was shot in Bexley in London. A number of cast members from the original production reprise their roles in the film, including Fleetwood, Burt, Moore, Shaeffer, Thornley, Fowler, and Holder. Release The live film premiere was screened in cinemas across the UK as part of National Theatre Live on 9 June 2015 and was released on 12 June 2015. Critical reception London Road received generally positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports 76% of 67 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 6.8/10. The site's critical\",\n \"-28.52763269020943\"\n ],\n [\n \"eight-day cross country drive. The movie tells the story of a troubled man who videotapes women discussing their lives and sexuality, and his impact on the relationship of a married couple. Soderbergh submitted the film to the Cannes Film Festival where it won a variety of awards, including the Palme d'Or. Its critical performance led it to become a worldwide commercial success, grossing $36.7 million on a $1.2 million budget. The film was considered to be the most influential catalyst of the 1990s Independent Cinema movement. At age 26, Soderbergh became the youngest solo director and the second youngest director to win\",\n \"-28.511334093484038\"\n ],\n [\n \"Principal photography on the film began in March 2017 in Whannell's hometown of Melbourne; The chase scene taking place on the southern section of the Craigieburn bypass Hume Freeway (M31) and is actually going the opposite direction to what would have been normal traffic flow to appear that it was filmed in a left hand drive country. Editing took place in Sydney. Release After premiering on 10 March 2018 at South by Southwest and winning the Midnighters Award, the film was released on 1 June in the United States, and 14 June in Australia by Blumhouse Tilt.\\nUpgrade is setup for\",\n \"-28.382700041343924\"\n ],\n [\n \"nightmares and fantasies, nonlinear story lines, camera work, sound and lighting, he presents a film that challenges viewers to suspend belief of what they are experiencing. Many of the characters in Mulholland Drive are archetypes that can only be perceived as cliché: the new Hollywood hopeful, the femme fatale, the maverick director and shady powerbrokers that Lynch never seems to explore fully. Lynch places these often hackneyed characters in dire situations, creating dream-like qualities. By using these characters in scenarios that have components and references to dreams, fantasies and nightmares, viewers are left to decide, between the extremes, what is\",\n \"-28.349778835920006\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sierra Highway, near Acton. The film is about an unseen truck driver who stalks and attempts to kill an innocent motorist trapped in the truck's game. It prominently shows the desert portions of Sierra Highway. With Duel's status, one of the trucks used in the film is still on the road and in the process of being restored. The current owner has driven the truck along Sierra Highway for nostalgia, enjoying the terrified looks he receives from passing motorists who recognize it. Other movies have since been filmed in the vicinity, including scenes in The Terminator.\",\n \"-28.347262492825394\"\n ],\n [\n \"Road to Utopia Production Filmed from December 1943 to March 1944, the film is the only Road to … film without a real place in its title, though Alaska with its gold mines is referred to as \\\"Utopia\\\" several times in the film. Bob Hope, Bing Crosby and Dorothy Lamour starred, as they did in all but one of the series. The film is also the only \\\"Road\\\" film that did not take place in modern times though the film begins and ends with the cast made up to look older who flashback to the past. \\nAs a “narrator”,\",\n \"-28.300232472261996\"\n ],\n [\n \"drove to Melbourne via Cape York, Einasleigh, Hughenden, Tambo, Roma, Toowoomba, and Brisbane, arriving in Melbourne at the end of September 1915 having covered 7,000 miles in seven months. He then drove from Melbourne to Swan Hill and Menindee to finish the movie of the Burke and Wills' track. The film was called 'Across Australia: In the Tracks of Burke and Wills' and was released by The Co-Operative Film Exchange Ltd of Melbourne, and opened in Melbourne at Hoyt's Olympia Theatre on Christmas Day 1915.\\nAs a publicity stunt, Birtles was commissioned by Barlow Motors, the Melbourne agent for the Bean\",\n \"-28.273039028339554\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tate's Cairn Highway Tate's Cairn Highway (Chinese: 大老山公路; pinyin: Dàlǎoshān Gōnglù; Cantonese Yale: daai5 lou5 saan1 gung1 lou6), opened on June 26, 1991, is a dual-3 lane expressway in Hong Kong. It links Tate's Cairn Tunnel and Ma Liu Shui Interchange, forming a part of Route 2 (formerly known as Route 6). \\nFrom the Ma Liu Shui Interchange, where it connects with Route 9, the highway crosses the estuary of the Shing Mun River. It then turns southwards, interchanging at Shek Mun with a distributor road (Tai Chung Kiu Road), and reaches Siu Lek Yuen, where the highway splits its\",\n \"-28.27177681279136\"\n ],\n [\n \"to that of Baja California, where most of the story takes place), mostly in wilderness and small villages. Critics Bob Porfiero and Alain Silver, in a review and analysis of the film, praised Lupino's use of shooting locations. They wrote, \\\"The Hitch-Hiker's desert locale, although not so graphically dark as a cityscape at night, isolates the protagonists in a milieu as uninviting and potentially deadly as any in film noir.\\\"\",\n \"-28.244988273065246\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 1961. During its design it was known as Link Road 17/7. The scheme lies over the geological West Manchester Fault.\\nIt would be the first elevated main road to be built outside London, and the UK's second aerial motorway after the Hammersmith flyover. The road is 3,232 ft (985 m) long and has 28 spans of 105 ft (32 m), and two spans of 60 ft (18 m).\\nThe spans are made out of precast concrete, with hollow box-units post-tensioned to form a spine beam. Each of the 105 ft spans is made out of 14 precast concrete hollow box-units 7 ft 3in long. Freyssinet (named\",\n \"-28.21112976630684\"\n ],\n [\n \"to be no more than a \\\"little side road\\\" for his career, expecting it to be released directly to video. Reception A trailer of Taken was released on 20 June 2008. The film saw its release on 27 February in France, 9 April in China and 26 September in UK in the year of 2008. It was released on 30 January in United States and 22 August in Japan in the year of 2009. The film was released under the title of 96 Hours in Germany, Io vi troverò (I Will Find You) in Italy and Заложница (Hostage) in Russia.\",\n \"-28.197105144168745\"\n ],\n [\n \"the first trailer, with Cobie Smulders introducing the footage. The official Jack Reacher Twitter account announced that a full trailer would be released on June 22, 2016. A browser game, titled Jack Reacher: Never Stop Punching, was also released to promote the film.\\nIn September 2015, Paramount set Jack Reacher: Never Go Back a release date of October 21, 2016. Home media Jack Reacher: Never Go Back was released on Digital HD on January 17, 2017, and on Blu-ray, Ultra HD Blu-ray and DVD on January 31, 2017.\\nBy May 2018, the film had made $14.5 million in domestic region\",\n \"-28.17834540785043\"\n ],\n [\n \"Eastwood County Road The Eastwood County Road was a planned freeway route in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, intended to link the Kissing Point Road at Dundas to Epping Road at North Ryde, via Eastwood.\",\n \"-28.16686677976395\"\n ],\n [\n \"ending An alternate ending of the film was featured on the DVD release. In this version, Eddie Rodney Fleming is seen hitchhiking along a desolate road. A car stops and Barry Walls (Caton) offers him a ride. Fleming accepts and they drive away, followed at a distance by Steele (Martin) on his motorcycle, no doubt intending to enforce some vigilante justice. Box office The Interview grossed $556,263 at the box office in Australia. Home media The Interview was released on DVD by Umbrella Entertainment in July 2011. The DVD is compatible with all region codes and includes special features such\",\n \"-28.127434226189507\"\n ],\n [\n \"The film was partially scripted and amateur actors played the main roles. The resulting film offended the TMPD, which refused to use it. Reception The film won several foreign and domestic awards in 1964. The film critic Chris Fujiwara, commenting about the DVD, called On the Road: A Document \\\"a breakthrough film . . . Constantly imaginative and vigorous in depicting movement but never fetishising it in a facile or celebratory way, On the Road has the working-class speed and grimness of an early-1930s Warner Bros film, at the same time reshaping stray observational surprises in the manner of Beat\",\n \"-28.118354340054793\"\n ],\n [\n \"Road Movie trilogy Conception Director Wim Wenders didn't conceive of the three films as a trilogy, and they were first labelled as one by U.S. critic Richard Roud. However, U.S. filmmaker Michael Almereyda writes that \\\"they are unified by shared themes, an exacting formal rigor, and the presence of Rüdiger Vogler.\\\" Almereyda remarks that Wenders' earliest feature films, Summer in the City and The Goalkeeper's Fear of the Penalty, also involved \\\"aimless journeys,\\\" but the Road Movie trilogy was distinct as \\\"travel not only propels the story but also absorbs and reshapes it.\\\" The films were also made on small\",\n \"-28.071593222746742\"\n ],\n [\n \"Vukovar, jedna priča Plot The film takes place in Vukovar, a city on the border between Serbia and Croatia, in a country which used to be called SFR Yugoslavia, on the eve of the country's breakup. It is a typical love story, between a Croat woman Ana (Mirjana Joković) and a Serb man Toma (Boris Isaković), who marry one another with the blessing of both families right before the Battle of Vukovar. Their harmonic community is brutally broken apart with the start of a civil war. Not only they but everyone around them, against their will, are brought into the\",\n \"-28.068478517627227\"\n ],\n [\n \"where both boys live are approximately 1,200 metres apart, being located next to Berkhamsted Castle. They are the two most exclusive residential roads in the town. The film also shot at the Richborough Power Station in Sandwich, which was then disused. The film includes a vintage clip of Jan Pinkava winning the BBC Screen Test competition. The minor role of Danny, an acolyte of Didier, a glamorous French exchange student, is played by Stanley Kubrick's grandson, Sam Kubrick-Finney. The film includes excerpts from First Blood and is endorsed by Sylvester Stallone, the star of the Rambo franchise. Critical reception Son\",\n \"-27.989718338340026\"\n ],\n [\n \"a profanity-laden rant at him, which would eventually become Mr. Eddy's road rage scene. Lost Highway also features the final motion picture performance of Richard Pryor. Filming and editing Lost Highway was shot in Los Angeles, California, in about 54 days, from November 29, 1995, to February 22, 1996. Some of the film's exterior and driving scenes were shot in Griffith Park, while the scenes of the Lost Highway Hotel were filmed at the Amargosa Opera House and Hotel in Death Valley. Lynch owns the property that was used for Fred and Renee's mansion, which is located on the same\",\n \"-27.967071547580417\"\n ],\n [\n \"TV shows.\\nHankley Common was used in the James Bond films The World Is Not Enough, Die Another Day, and Skyfall. The sets depicted a pier in the Caspian Sea where James Bond was attacked by a helicopter saw, a chase scene through the Korean Demilitarized Zone on hovercraft, and as the site of James Bond's ancestral Scottish mansion respectively.\\nHankley Common has been popular with fictional time travellers having featured in Doctor Who and the Silurians and in Blackadder Back and Forth.\\nIn the fourth series of Ultimate Force, the Drop Zone huts and surrounding area were used to shoot a Colombian\",\n \"-27.952484579989687\"\n ],\n [\n \"totalling 186 minutes including a \\\"What happened last night\\\" recap and second credit roll. Lynch disavowed this version and had his name removed from the credits, Alan Smithee being credited instead. This version (without recap and second credit roll) has occasionally been released on DVD as Dune: Extended Edition. Several longer versions have been spliced together. Although Universal has approached Lynch for a possible director's cut, Lynch has declined every offer and prefers not to discuss Dune in interviews. Release Dune premiered in Washington, D.C., on December 3, 1984, at The Kennedy Center and was released worldwide on December 14.\",\n \"-27.949381582726346\"\n ],\n [\n \"using the starkly beautiful street scenes in Not Wanted and the gorgeous, ever-present loneliness of empty highways in The Hitch-Hiker to set her characters apart.\\nTime Out Film Guide wrote of the film, \\nAbsolutely assured in her creation of the bleak, noir atmosphere – whether in the claustrophobic confines of the car, or lost in the arid expanses of the desert – Lupino never relaxes the tension for one moment. Yet her emotional sensitivity is also upfront: charting the changes in the menaced men's relationship as they bicker about how to deal with their captor, stressing that only through friendship can\",\n \"-27.902335490332916\"\n ],\n [\n \"to take place along a road on the perimeter of the Grangemouth Refinery in Grangemouth, Scotland. The location was chosen for the length of the road which is crucial to the shot. A few days later Paramount announced the film would be released on December 21, 2012. Later in the same month, filming began in Glasgow. The location manager for the film said Glasgow had been chosen because of its architecture, wide roads, and grid layout. Scenes were also filmed aboard the Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship RFA Argus, before the Glasgow shoot. The ship was turned into the \\\"USS Madison\\\",\",\n \"-27.882797435071552\"\n ],\n [\n \"motorway bridge and the exhaust tower, and the final crash-landing. For the later sequences, stunt dummies fixed to the Tiger Moth's wings and undercarriage represent the characters of Alan, Tin-Tin, Parker, Brains and the White Ghost agents, while Hughes doubles for Penelope in the cockpit. The location filming was based at Wycombe Air Park.\\nThe M40 motorway, which was nearing completion at the time of production, doubled for the fictitious M104. In the run-up to the filming of the plane's near-miss with the bridge between Junctions 4 and 5, at Lane End on the High Wycombe Bypass, the Ministry of Transport\",\n \"-27.857174998207483\"\n ],\n [\n \"filmed her movie The Invasion in downtown Baltimore, opposite Daniel Craig.\\nScenes in \\\"Runaway Bride\\\" with Julia Roberts and Richard Gere were filmed at Gill's Garage on West Joppa Road. Ruxton Road Ruxton Road is a 1½-mile road, bearing the name of the area, and is the main west-east road running through the area. The road is mostly lined with upscale housing, but also has an interchange with the Jones Falls Expressway (exit 12). The road begins as a physical continuation to Old Court Road (though an extension to Old Court exists following a left turn), and ends at Bellona Avenue\",\n \"-27.83255952235413\"\n ],\n [\n \"del Monte, Sulmona, Castelvecchio Calvisio, Calascio and Campo Imperatore in the Province of L'Aquila (Abruzzo); in Rome, and in Östersund, Jämtland and other locations. As the Clooney character drives from Rome to Castel del Monte, there is an impressively long drive through the 4600-meter long San Domenico Tunnel (Galleria San Domenico) that is between the exits of Pescina and Cocullo on the A25 highway that connects Rome to Torano and Pescara. The car driven by Jack in the movie is a Fiat Tempra with Pescara licence plates.\\nThe film's \\\"most romantic moment\\\", according to director Anton Corbijn—when Jack takes Clara to\",\n \"-27.828550579200964\"\n ],\n [\n \"to lend Novak to Vertigo if Stewart would agree to co-star with Novak in Bell, Book and Candle, a Columbia production released in December 1958. Initial on-site principal photography Vertigo was filmed from September to December 1957. Principal photography began on location in San Francisco in September 1957 under the working title From Among the Dead (the literal translation of D'entre les morts). The film uses extensive location footage of the San Francisco Bay Area, with its steep hills and tall, arching bridges. In the driving scenes shot in the city, the main characters' cars are almost always pictured heading\",\n \"-27.81326732598245\"\n ],\n [\n \"scenes set in the floor. Swinden noted that the traders were \\\"interesting guys\\\" to work with, and told the producers the story was \\\"very close to home.\\\" The producers borrowed two expensive cars, more prominently an Aston Martin DB9 convertible, which were driven by Armitage and Norris. Armitage was asked to drive the car for only 10 yards, but the actor ended up getting carried away by wheel-spinning and driving the car around a city block. Another car was a Bentley used for Denham's suicide. Because it was on loan, Firth's options on acting as if he was trying to\",\n \"-27.808224151129252\"\n ],\n [\n \"used for Sanchez's lavish villa, and the La Rumorosa Mountain Pass in Tecate was used as the filming site for the tanker chase during the climax of the film. Sanchez's Olympiatec Meditation Institute was shot at the Otomi Ceremonial Center in Temoaya. Other underwater sequences were shot at the Isla Mujeres near Cancún.\\nIn August 1988, production moved to the Florida Keys, notably Key West. Seven Mile Bridge towards Pigeon Key was used for the sequence in which the armoured truck transporting Sanchez, following his arrest, is driven off the edge. Other locations there included Ernest Hemingway House, Key West International\",\n \"-27.8081598531935\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sacro GRA Synopsis The film depicts life along the Grande Raccordo Anulare, the ring-road highway that circles Rome. Rosi spent over two years in filming, while the film's editing required eight months of work. According to the director, the film was inspired by Italo Calvino's novel Invisible Cities (1972), in which the explorer Marco Polo is imagined describing his travels to the Emperor of China Kublai Khan.\",\n \"-27.807357563258847\"\n ],\n [\n \"Drive, Laurel Canyon Boulevard, Sunset Boulevard, Beverly Drive, and Coldwater Canyon Drive, Leno makes several references to Lelouch's classic film.\\nIn 2010, Jeremy Clarkson used the film as a basis for the opening scene of his DVD/Blu-ray The Italian Job.\\nIn 2013, Phoenix used the film as a backdrop for live shows during the song \\\"Love Like a Sunset Part I\\\".\\nOn 17 February 2017, Ford Motor Company in association with Claude Lelouch released a 360 degree view remake of the film using a Ford Mustang. Unlike the original, the 2017 version contains several cut scenes and does not show the entire (original)\",\n \"-27.769533939659595\"\n ],\n [\n \"in humorous but appreciative reviews of B-movies and cult films, which he calls \\\"drive-in movies\\\" (as distinguished from \\\"indoor bullstuff\\\"). In addition to his usual parody of urbane, high-brow movie criticism, his columns characteristically include colorful tales of woman-troubles and high-spirited brushes with the law, tales which inevitably conclude with his rush to catch a movie at a local drive-in, usually with female companionship. Briggs revealed in an interview with James Rolfe that he intended the character to have an ambiguous sounding name and initially thought of calling himself \\\"Bubba Rodriguez\\\", but was told that the name Rodriguez would\",\n \"-27.755848320259247\"\n ],\n [\n \"documentary to fit both soundtracks.\\nRoad to Perdition was released on Blu-ray Disc on August 3, 2010, featuring a widescreen transfer, a DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 soundtrack, and all of the features from the DVD release.\",\n \"-27.75491439597681\"\n ],\n [\n \"the films, such as Leeds Bridge or Roundhay Garden Scene. Actually, all current online versions (e.g., GIF, FLV, SWF, OGG, WMV, etc.) are derived from the NMPFT files. However, Leeds Bridge is believed to be the original title, as the traffic sequence was referred to as such by Frederick Mason, one of Le Prince's mechanics. Man Walking Around a Corner (16-Lens Camera) The only existing images from Le Prince's 16-lens camera are a sequence of 16 frames of a man walking around a corner. This appears to have been shot onto a single glass plate (which has since broken), rather\",\n \"-27.754473076973227\"\n ],\n [\n \"screenplay. In September, Lew Landers was tagged to direct the film, while Maury Cohen was selected to handle the production. In mid-September, it was announced that John Beal and Sally Eilers would join the cast, followed shortly by the addition of Harry Carey, Lee Patrick, Frank Thomas, Ed Gargan, Paul Guilfoyle, and Herman Brix. The picture was filmed during September, and by the 22nd was being edited. At the beginning of October RKO changed the title of the film from Highway to Hell to Danger Patrol. In early November it was announced that RKO would be releasing Danger Patrol on\",\n \"-27.7384265774308\"\n ],\n [\n \"there wasn't an agreement with Loggia and Close, we had always designed the project to go either as a sequel or on its own terms.\\\"\\nThe film was distributed by Columbia Pictures between in the United States and Canada, with Rank Film Distributors handling foreign distribution. The film was produced by Martin Ransohoff who formed with Columbia, Rank Film Distributors and Vestron Video in 1986.\\nThe male lead went to Burt Reynolds who had just made Switching Channels for Ransohoff. \\\"Joe is a ballsy character,\\\" said Reynolds, \\\"kind of like Dirty Harry gone amok. He's around the edge of having a nervous\",\n \"-27.71348861370643\"\n ],\n [\n \"film uses many of the classic road movie motifs such as break downs, fuel stops and long stretches of empty road, with a cinematography that is conventionally modern. Release The film premiered on 1 May 2008 in Australia. It was part of the Brooklyn International Film Festival in June 2008 and the Munich Film Festival on 28 June 2008.\",\n \"-27.644323755434016\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Highwayman (TV series) Synopsis The movie and subsequent series follow the adventures of \\\"The Highwayman\\\", one of a mysterious group, presumably of U.S. Marshals, conducting crime-fighting missions and solving bizarre mysteries. Each Highwayman in this group is equipped with a high-tech, multi-function truck.\\nThe pilot movie used a different opening narration, also voiced by William Conrad:\\nThey say he came into this world from someplace off the clock.\\n\\nAnd his mother was an ice-cold wind; his pa a fiery rock.\\n\\nIt's told that on some starless nights his rig could up and glow,\\n\\nAnd folks who say they saw it coming swear they didn't\",\n \"-27.632814179029083\"\n ],\n [\n \"around Elizabeth Bay and Potts Point, and at Spencer's Wonderland City studio in Bondi.\\nFilming took six weeks. The original director was George Musgrove, but he soon realised he was out of his depth, and Longford – who had written the screenplay – took over. (However advertising would claim that \\\"the whole of the production has been carried out under the personal supervision of Mr George Musgrove\\\".)\\nAccording to a later report, when Longford wanted to \\\"film a landing, he begged permission to land at Crecy,\",\n \"-27.622561744428822\"\n ],\n [\n \"it was still a slum, a fact which is central to the film. The principal street location of the film was Testerton Street, and its Southern junction with Barandon Street, although its Northern junction with Blechyden Street, where Grenfell Tower currently stands, is visible in some shots. Kidulthood (2006) and Adulthood (2008), written and directed by British filmmaker Noel Clarke, were partially filmed on the estate.\",\n \"-27.62249069245445\"\n ],\n [\n \"few yards short of the estate church, where the walker is instructed to return the way they came. There is no access through to the public road a short distance further on. Cultural references Compton Wynyates inspired the Croft Manor in the Tomb Raider series.\\nIn 1955 the splendid view of the manor from the drive opened the Rank Organisation film \\\"The Black Tent\\\". (Technicolor/Vistavision).\\nIn 1969, Compton Wynyates appeared in the film Carry On Camping as a monastery. (Coincidentally these establishing shots are said to have come from the earlier Black Tent footage.)\\nIn 1977, Compton Wynyates served as a filming\",\n \"-27.61140275037178\"\n ],\n [\n \"documentary, producer Deeley was unsatisfied with the four written endings and conceived the current ending as a literal cliffhanger appropriate to an action film which left an opportunity for a sequel. The documentary describes how helicopters would save the bus seen on the cliff at the end of the first film. The grateful gang would soon discover that it is the Mafia that has saved them, and the sequel would have been about stealing the gold bullion back from them.\\nIn interviews in 2003 and 2008, Michael Caine revealed that the ending would have had Croker \\\"crawl up, switch on the\",\n \"-27.581738336390117\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Things. The Road Movie trilogy established Wenders' prominence in international cinema and has attained minor cult film status among Wenders and Müller fans.\\nA number of issues, such as rights issues concerning the soundtracks of the films, have made the three Road Movie films hard to find on video in the United States. However, in 2016 The Criterion Collection released the films on DVD and Blu-ray as Wim Wenders: The Road Trilogy.\",\n \"-27.578271631155076\"\n ],\n [\n \"by pack horse and foot. A second unit under Carl Kayser was brought out to location to assist production.\\nAfter six months on location, the unit moved to the studios of Cinesound Productions in Bondi. They filmed there for two months then returned to Queensland for a further five months. In March 1948 they returned to the Bondi studio and reshot several scenes. Shooting took eighteen months in total. Charles Chauvel then shot an alternative ending in the Blue Mountains. This ending was eventually discarded.\\nWhile Chauvel was filming in Sydney, his home was robbed. Reception The movie had cost so much\",\n \"-27.567929614502646\"\n ],\n [\n \"that collectively give the film its consistent tone\\\". Drive's title sequence is hot-pink, which was inspired by Risky Business (1983). Refn has also indicated that the film's romance was partly inspired by the films of writer-director John Hughes.\\nRefn's inspiration for Drive came partly from reading Grimms' Fairy Tales, and his goal was to make \\\"a fairy tale that takes Los Angeles as the background,\\\" with The Driver as the hero. To play with the common theme of fairy tales, The Driver protects what is good while at the same time killing degenerate people in violent ways. Refn said Drive turns\",\n \"-27.564698507107096\"\n ],\n [\n \"set in Bonnie Doon, and a very small portion of it was shot there.\\nThe name Kerrigan was chosen for the family so that tow trucks for the film could be borrowed from an existing Melbourne tow-truck company with that name. The company still operates today.\\nIn January 2011, 3491 Maintongoon Road, Bonnie Doon was listed for sale. The property appeared in the film as the Kerrigan family holiday house. The property's real estate agent reported that many people called and after requesting the vendor's asking price, replied with a quote from the movie: \\\"Tell him he's dreamin'.\\\" Alternative versions In the\",\n \"-27.543183688248973\"\n ],\n [\n \"feature film since Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, which was released in 1992 as a prequel to the television series Twin Peaks. He came across the phrase \\\"lost highway\\\" in the book Night People by Barry Gifford. Because Lynch knew Gifford very well and had previously adapted his novel Wild at Heart into a film by the same name, he told the writer that he loved it as a title and the two agreed to write a screenplay together. Originally, both men had their own different ideas of what Lost Highway should be and ended up rejecting each other's\",\n \"-27.540726900246227\"\n ],\n [\n \"1987 pilot movie starred Sam J. Jones. The lead character is more mysterious than any of the other Highwaymen in that his real name is never revealed (he is only known as \\\"The Highwayman\\\" or \\\"Highway\\\"). He drives a large, black, computerized truck with a bullet-shaped cabin, which is the nose of a concealed helicopter (an Aérospatiale Gazelle) which can detach from the rest of the truck. The truck can also operate in \\\"stealth mode\\\" to become invisible. A concealed futuristic sports car (a Lotus Esprit) can emerge from the truck's rear. Some elements of the futuristic dashboard\",\n \"-27.540363553001953\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the California Division of Highways' Bridge Department. In popular culture Actor Clint Eastwood bought five parcels totaling 283 acres (115 ha) on the south side of Malpaso Creek during the 1960s. He named his production company The Malpaso Company after the location. The company was established in 1967 by Eastwood's financial adviser Irving Leonard for the film Hang 'Em High, using profits from the Dollars Trilogy. He later bought more land until he owned 650 acres (260 ha). The land stretched from the eastern side of Highway 1 to the coastal ridge. In 1995, Monterey County bought the land from\",\n \"-27.53427655994892\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Rock n' Roll Cops Plot This film follows its lead character, Detective Jake Blade (played by Shaw) who is pursuing the Russian crime lord Rinaldi (played by Smith). \\nThis film is traditional of Scott Shaw's directorial work in that it follows a non-linear storyline that it riddled with strange dialogue and unexpected edits, where the central characters leave behind the storyline and interact solely by the presentation of visual images in association with Techno music. This film also possesses the obvious references to Blaxploitation Cinema apparent in virtually all Scott Shaw films. Hollywood Similar to many Scott Shaw\",\n \"-27.522748574043362\"\n ],\n [\n \"2002 movie Virginia's Run starring Gabriel Byrne and Joanne Whalley. John Dunsworth plays a local cop while John Paul Tremblay and Robb Wells play active and verbal townsmen similar to their Trailer Park Boys characters. Actors are credited as the cop for John Dunsworth, J.P. for John Paul Tremblay (credits as J.P. Tremblay), and Robb Wells as Rob. The movie was filmed in Shelburne, Nova Scotia. Trailer Park Boys: The Movie The second Trailer Park Boys movie to be produced (the first being the original black and white production that sparked the series), Trailer Park Boys: The Movie (also known\",\n \"-27.520899646840917\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Crooked Road Production The film was shot in Yugoslavia over two months. Reception The New York Times said the film \\\"bounces along nicely\\\".\",\n \"-27.50682059886458\"\n ],\n [\n \"Warninglid in West Sussex to three lanes, removing an accident prone bend, were given the go ahead. Work started in autumn 2011 and the scheme was completed and opened in October 2014, with a better-than-expected improvement to safety. London to Brighton Veteran Run The 53-mile (85 km) road from London to Brighton forms the basis of the route of the annual London to Brighton Veteran Car Run. This is featured in the film Genevieve, although most of the rural motoring scenes were shot in Buckinghamshire. The A23 is also used for various other London to Brighton events, although in many\",\n \"-27.500849474366987\"\n ],\n [\n \"Woolworth's in Palmdale\\\" the next shot shows them driving up a dirt road through a Tehachapi wind farm. Similarly, Terminal Velocity (1994) has a fight sequence filmed on top of a hill in one of the farms.\\nHerbie: Fully Loaded (2005) shot a sequence at a wind farm and on Oak Creek Road, which winds through several farms.\\nOther movies filmed in Tehachapi include Face to Face (2001), Fault (2002), Batman: Revenge (2003), The Gentleman Don La Mancha (2004), I.F.O. (Identified Flying Object) (1985), Motor Mansions (2005), The Legend of Mary Worth (2006), The Grapes of Wrath (film) (1940), featuring the scene\",\n \"-27.496010928727628\"\n ],\n [\n \"on Mars (2013). Total filming time for the film lasted approximately 70 days.\\nA special Mars rover model was built for the filming; the movie cast and team presented the rover model to Jordan in return for the hospitality they had received. The rover is now exhibited in Jordan's Royal Automobile Museum.\\nWeir avoided writing Watney as lonely and depressed in his novel. While Watney's humor is preserved in the film, Scott also depicted the character's isolation in the vast, dusty Martian landscape. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: \\\"The scenes back on Earth provide a hectic, densely populated counterweight to\",\n \"-27.475700181967113\"\n ],\n [\n \"make any sense. There's no purpose or logic to events. Lynch is playing a big practical joke on us.\\\" Film theorist Ray Carney notes, \\\"You wouldn't need all the emotional back-flips and narrative trap doors if you had anything to say. You wouldn't need doppelgangers and shadow-figures if your characters had souls.\\\"\\nLater, Mulholland Drive was named the best film of the decade by the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, Cahiers du cinéma, IndieWire, Slant Magazine, Reverse Shot, The Village Voice and Time Out New York, who asked rhetorically in a reference to the September 11 attacks, \\\"Can there be another\",\n \"-27.46651419866248\"\n ],\n [\n \"Van Nuys Blvd. (film) Plot The film tells the story of a small-town boy who hears about the wild nights of cruising Van Nuys Boulevard in California. He drives out there to check it out, and gets involved with drag racers, topless dancers and bikers.\\nBecause director William Sachs' style is often rather surrealist, a number of comedic scenes of a police officer on a beach, being handcuffed to his car, show a gradually more and more surrealist tone as the film progresses. In the course of the film, he gets approached by a mysterious biker stealing his possessions, a dog\",\n \"-27.462741528463084\"\n ],\n [\n \"film Drive with \\\"...this abstruse, neon-dunked nightmare that spits in the face of coherence and flicks at the earlobes of good taste\\\".\\nPeter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave it five out of five stars, calling it gripping and praising the \\\"pure formal brilliance\\\" of every scene and frame, though he notes that it will \\\"have people running for the exits, and running for the hills\\\" with its extreme violence. In an alternative review published in The Guardian, John Patterson was highly critical of the film, citing its lack of originality and the low degree of focus on plot: \\\"Somewhere in here\",\n \"-27.45170489031989\"\n ],\n [\n \"than an extended chase sequence. The shots are neat and well-framed but aren't grand enough to explore the natural beauty, a cardinal sin when treating any road movie.\\\"\\nGibran Khalil of DAWN said, \\\"Instead of embodying the spirit of a road trip film by evoking a smooth sense of movement, Lahore Se Aagey feels more like a collection of short sketches. I'll admit that it looks like the LSA team had a ball making the movie.\\\"\\nThe both critics rated the film 2/5.\\nShubham Bahukhandi of Dekh News rated 3.5/5 and praised its direction, while said that it has the worst screenplay ever\",\n \"-27.450058456219267\"\n ],\n [\n \"next to last, as well as the final Road film in which Dorothy Lamour's role would be the female lead. Nine years later, The Road to Hong Kong instead featured Joan Collins, with a cameo by Lamour. Filming started on April 21, 1952 and continued until July of the same year.\\nRoad to Bali was a co-production of Bing Crosby Enterprises, Hope Enterprises and Paramount. Filming The giant squid that threatens Bob Hope in an underwater scene was previously seen attacking Ray Milland in the Paramount production Reap the Wild Wind (1942), directed by Cecil B. DeMille. The erupting volcano climax\",\n \"-27.435948423168156\"\n ],\n [\n \"Jaywalking: On the Road to Nowhere, originally broadcast in 1974 which, according to an ATV press release at the time, won an award for Best Programme in the Sociological Film the San Francisco International TV and Film Festival that year. 2011 MACE released From ATVLand in Colour a 2 disc DVD documentary which tells the story of the affectionately known ‘ATVLand’ – the ATV Centre in Birmingham, from its beginnings to its ultimate closure in 1997 and beyond, celebrating the programmes that came from the studios throughout its working life. The DVD includes a mix of rare archive footage of\",\n \"-27.4265719592222\"\n ],\n [\n \"stagecoach beneath an unfinished modern freeway overpass. \\\"All that stuff came from the Warner Bros. film studios lot,\\\" Tom Johnston said. \\\"It must've been a lot of work for the guys who brought up the horse team and the carriage and the clothes. It was fun to do - they had coffins out there, all kinds of crazy stuff.\\\" The photography was done by Michael and Jill Maggid. The setting for the cover was located at the Newhall Pass interchange of the Interstate 5 and California State Route 14 freeways near Sylmar, California that collapsed during the 1971 San Fernando\",\n \"-27.403310655827227\"\n ],\n [\n \"untitled film about Van Helsing, but there have been no updates on the film since 2010. At the Mountains of Madness On July 28, 2010, del Toro announced that he would direct a film adaptation of H. P. Lovecraft's At the Mountains of Madness for Universal Pictures, with Canadian film director James Cameron as producer. The movie was originally set up as a DreamWorks project in 2004, but was later cancelled. Cameron suggested casting Tom Cruise in the lead role and releasing the film in 3-D.\\nIn June 2010, del Toro said that the adaptation probably would not happen at all.\",\n \"-27.399288174361573\"\n ],\n [\n \"introspection (often on themes such as national identity), and depicting the road trip as a search on the part of the characters.\\nThe German filmmaker Wim Wenders explored the American themes of road movies through his European reference point in his Road Movie trilogy in the mid-1970s. They include Alice in the Cities (1974), The Wrong Move (1975), and Kings of the Road (1976). All three films were shot by cinematographer Robby Müller and mostly take place in West Germany. Kings of the Road includes stillness, which is unusual for road movies, and quietness (except for the rock soundtrack).\",\n \"-27.39301635218908\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shotover Shotover is a hill and forest in Oxfordshire, England.\\nShotover Hill is 3 miles (4.8 km) east of Oxford. Its highest point is 557 feet (170 m) above sea level. Shotover Road The road between London and Oxford used to pass over the top of Shotover Hill. The road was made into a turnpike under the 1719 Stokenchurch Turnpike Act. Shotover Park Shotover Park and garden were begun in about 1714 for James Tyrrell of Oakley. Tyrell died in 1718 and the house was completed by his son, General James Tyrell. There is no known record of the name of the architect.\",\n \"-27.387218534888234\"\n ],\n [\n \"train wreck scene in The Fugitive was filmed 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Sylva in the town of Dillsboro. The scene of Harrison Ford walking on railroad tracks in an old tunnel was also close by in Cowee Tunnel. The town was also the site of filming for the 2017 film Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri.\",\n \"-27.3454722877359\"\n ],\n [\n \"the 2009 Cinequest Film Festival and also screened at the Reel Women International Film Festival in Los Angeles. Going Attractions: The Definitive Story of the American Drive-in Movie The production of Going Attractions: The Definitive Story of the American Drive-in Movie was a lengthy process for Wright. Growing up outside of Chicago, Wright loved to go to the drive-in with her family in the summer. When drive-ins began to close down, Wright became fascinated with the abandoned structures. This motivated April to begin shooting the documentary, which took seven years to complete. During this time, Wright performed\",\n \"-27.343527691497002\"\n ],\n [\n \"him along to \\\"nowhere special\\\". The two friends ride off into the sunset — in a chauffeured limousine. Production The idea for the film came from a story outline written by Andrew Bergman that he originally intended to develop and produce himself. \\\"I wrote a first draft called Tex-X\\\" (a play on Malcolm X's name), he said. \\\"Alan Arkin was hired to direct and James Earl Jones was going to play the sheriff. That fell apart, as things often do.\\\" Brooks was taken with the story, which he described as \\\"hip talk—1974 talk and expressions—happening in 1874 in the Old\",\n \"-27.324855241080513\"\n ],\n [\n \"co-winner Joel Coen for The Man Who Wasn't There. It drew positive reviews from many critics and some of the strongest audience reactions of Lynch's career. Box office Universal Pictures released Mulholland Drive theatrically in 66 theaters in the United States on October 12, 2001, grossing $587,591 over its opening weekend. It eventually expanded to its widest release of 247 theaters, ultimately grossing $7,220,243 at the U.S. box office. TVA Films released the film theatrically in Canada on October 26, 2001. In other territories outside the United States, the film grossed $12,892,096 for a worldwide total of $20,112,339. Critical reception\",\n \"-27.31175946732401\"\n ],\n [\n \"shot at Zion-Mount Carmel Highway, Zion Lodge, Checkerboard Mesa, the Narrows, the Hanging Gardens, the bridge over the Virgin River, and the Cave Route below the Cerberus Gendarme. Additional scenes were also shot in Monument Valley at the Tyrolean Transfer, where a rope had been rigged by climber Eric Bjornstad, who noted that Eastwood was not only very fit but very capable when it came to performing physical stuntwork like this. Scenes were also shot at Rock Door mesa above Goulding's Lodge, where Eastwood and company stayed. After completing principal photography in late September 1974 in Carmel-by-the-Sea and Monterey in\",\n \"-27.28806873205758\"\n ],\n [\n \"venue for several films. Hopewell long planned a hotel project, Mega Tower Hotel at the east of the street but received opposition from the surrounding residents and environmental groups. It is because the project would also involve demolition of the historical building of the famous haunted house, Nam Koo Terrace (南固臺) and felling of various climbing fig trees. The lower part between Johnston Road and Queen's Road East is designated to become a pedestrianised street after the completion of a major Urban Renewal Authority project.\\nThe hotel project has been recently modified. In the modified planning, Nam Koo Terrace\",\n \"-27.27778988747741\"\n ],\n [\n \"Verax (film) Plot The film has four parts. The first depicts Central Intelligence Agency employees discussing the Snowden case. The second involves a newspaper journalist corresponding with Snowden. The third involves Hong Kong police officers and Chinese Ministry of State Security employees discussing and trying to find Edward Snowden. The fourth involves the characters waiting for Snowden to appear, and when Snowden reveals himself in the media. The end of the film includes extracts of Snowden's interview with The Guardian. The final captions state that Snowden departed Hong Kong on 23 June. The film features The Mira, the Hong Kong\",\n \"-27.264206760388333\"\n ],\n [\n \"2003. The cars were designed to show characterisation and detail in the world, including the characters' feelings of guilt, loss, and their attempts to recycle the remains of civilisation. Both the Doof Wagon and the Doof Warrior's guitar are fully functional – none of his scenes were rendered in CGI. The War Rig and the Doof Wagon were based on the three-axle 6x6 and four-axle Tatra 815, although they were thoroughly rebuilt.\\nCinematographer John Seale came out of retirement to shoot Fury Road. He replaced Dean Semler, the cinematographer of the previous two films, after Semler left. Seale outfitted his camera\",\n \"-27.25124270118249\"\n ],\n [\n \"at Amboseli and Hell's Gate, with the remainder of the picture filmed on soundstages in the United Kingdom. One scene in the film was set in Shanghai, but it was shot on a set and not on location.\\nThe film also featured the new 2003 Jeep Wrangler Rubicon, first seen when Lara parachutes into the moving vehicle in Africa and takes over the wheel from Kosa. As part of Jeep's advertising campaign, it was specially customised for the film by Jeep's design team along with the film's production designers, with three copies constructed for filming. 1,001 limited-run Tomb Raider models\",\n \"-27.246221050896565\"\n ],\n [\n \"film. This was later confirmed by Warner Bros., which also stated that the film would be loosely based on real-life events surrounding Ed and Lorraine Warren. In January 2012, Vera Farmiga and Patrick Wilson were cast to star in the film. That month, Ron Livingston and Lili Taylor were also confirmed for roles in the film, which at that time was developing under the working title of The Untitled Warren Files Project. The film's title was temporarily changed to The Warren Files based on a suggestion by Wan, but was later reverted to The Conjuring prior to the commencement of\",\n \"-27.221081413459615\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the fictional RAF Sutton Craddock bomber airfield. The riverbank where Robertson's character romances Maria Perschy was Hurley Lock on the river Thames and was also used in a similar early scene in the Bond film From Russia with Love. Some scenes were filmed at Staverton Airport, Gloucestershire, and the nearby Churchdown Hill could be seen in some shots. The pub in which the aircrew relax was The Three Compasses in Aldenham, Watford, which still exists as a pub today.\\nThe Lairig Ghru pass in the Cairngorms was used for the training flight sequences and scenes with the Norwegian resistance. Special\",\n \"-27.212191553662706\"\n ],\n [\n \"lot alongside the highway at 2354 Beach Boulevard (Pacific Coast Highway), Malibu and near the ocean; for the rest of the series, the trailer is at Paradise Cove (address 29 Cove Road), adjacent to a pier and a restaurant (\\\"The Sand Castle\\\", now known as the \\\"Paradise Cove Beach Cafe\\\"). In the television movies from 1994 to 1999, Rockford is still living and working at the same Paradise Cove location, but in a much newer trailer that has been extensively enlarged and remodeled.\\nIn contrast to most television private eyes, Rockford wears low-budget \\\"off the rack\\\" clothing and does his best\",\n \"-27.208148441306548\"\n ],\n [\n \"Crossroads of Laredo Crossroads of Laredo is a Western film compiled by extant silent footage of the unfinished Streets of Laredo (c. 1948), the first known film project of Ed Wood. It lasts 23 minutes. Wood was the director, the writer, and one of the actors of the film. The film includes a music score by Ben Weisman and narration by Cliff Stone.\\nThe footage of the original were located by Brett Thompson, John Crawford Thomas, and Dolores Fuller. They were responsible for editing the film and adding narration. The film was released alongside the documentary The Haunted World of Edward\",\n \"-27.19607407087142\"\n ],\n [\n \"road movie Vanishing Point, notable for its on-location filming across the southwest United States, used several sections of US 50 as part of the driving sequences.\\nIn 1991, Stephen King drove along US 50 as part of a cross country trip. He stopped at Ruth, a small town near Ely. Studying the town, King fantasized about the fate of the residents. King then heard a local legend about how the ghosts of Chinese miners, who died while trapped in a cave-in, can be seen crossing Highway 50 to haunt the city of Ruth. King merged these details into his own story, including references to\",\n \"-27.18705624213908\"\n ],\n [\n \"The drive-in was located near the intersection of Burwood Highway and McComas Grove, in a natural amphitheatre setting, provided by the Gardiners Creek Valley. The screen was located on a high point on the other side of the creek from the viewing area. The first film publicly screened was On the Riviera, starring Danny Kaye and Gene Tierney. The drive in was very popular in its early years, often causing traffic jams in the local area. A playground was provided for children, which included a motorised carousel.\\nFollowing a decline in audience numbers over a number of years, the drive-in closed\",\n \"-27.185142847389216\"\n ],\n [\n \"bulk on Shepperton's 'H' Stage, pick-ups on Pinewood's Bond Stage and on the Bluebell Railway who are owners of a 423 unit (3417 \\\"Gordon Pettitt\\\") which is similar design to the 421, and background plates shot from a freight train. The Last Passenger production team visited Kent & East Sussex Railway in November 2011 to shoot the carriage fire scenes at the end of the film. The level crossing crash scene was filmed using CGI, but the location was at Milford in Surrey, a bit of a distance from the Hastings Line.\\nIn an interview about the film, editor Joe Walker\",\n \"-27.163384673185647\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Highwayman (poem) Plot The poem, set in 18th-century rural England, tells the story of an unnamed highwayman who is in love with Bess, a landlord's daughter. Betrayed to the authorities by Tim, a jealous ostler, the highwayman escapes ambush when Bess sacrifices her life by shooting her chest to warn him. Learning of her death, he dies in a futile attempt at revenge, shot down on the highway. In the final stanza, the ghosts of the lovers meet again on winter nights. Background The poem was written on the edge of a desolate stretch of land known as\",\n \"-27.15937527801725\"\n ],\n [\n \"directed by King Vidor, and a few television episodes of Bonanza. The \\\"Duel in the Sun\\\" reference is known to be false. Spahn Ranch is also often cited as the filming location for the B-movie The Creeping Terror.\\n\\\"Spahn Movie Ranch\\\" is featured in the Quentin Tarantino movie Once Upon a Time in Hollywood, set in 1969 at the time of the Manson Family murders. The scenes for the movie were actually filmed at the nearby Corriganville Park in Simi Valley, which was also a Movie ranch at one time.\\nIn the movie, a character played by Brad Pitt checks on his\",\n \"-27.141664550727\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":74,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2roz9j"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do some Muslims get offended about pictures of Mohammad?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["In Islam, portraits and photos of their figures is forbidden. Check out a mosque sometime. . No photos but lots of geometrical art and Arabic calligraphy.","Well, portraits or Mohammed were forbidden to prevent Muslims from worshipping Mohammed instead of God. And about what's happening nowadays, I was talking to my Dad about all this stuff and he put it like that these cartoons make him feel like the rest of the work is making fun of us, the normal Muslims. And that's because most of the pictures he saw on the front page were relatively offensive. We don't approve of any of the violence either. But we feel like the whole religion shouldn't be facing the backlash of just a few extremists.","Sunni Muslims believe that visually depicting their Prophet or their God is dangerously close to idolatry. Drawings of Muhammed, especially cartoons, are considered by many to be extremely disrespectful to all Muslims.","It's not in the Quran but it's said in the Hadith that any representation of something with a soul is forbidden although from my experience even among incredibly devout or strict Muslims this isn't enforced. The idea is that you're representing a creation of god imperfectly.","From what I learned it was by his request saying that he and his image where not nearly as important since he merely the voice of Allah","Because they are childish morons who need to grow up","I know this has been stated before, but Islam forbids any depiction of any person or animal (be it the Prophet Mohammad or yourself), ie no paintings, no statues, no likenesses of any kind. You won't see people or animal designs on prayer rugs or in mosques, because either Islamic scholars or Mohammad himself (I can't remember witch) didn't want Muslims to warship idols. When television came to the middle east, many conservative Muslims protested for this reason.","Just to note that offence over depictions of religious figures isn't limited to Islam; To give 2 examples here's [Christians being offended over the \"Piss Christ\" sculpture]( URL_0 ) and [Buddhists getting offended over tattoos of Buddha]( URL_1 ).","Because they're idiots. Just like the fundamentalist Christians, they're not representative of the religion. We should think of them as terrorists who happen to have chosen Islam as an excuse to fuck about, rather than Muslims.","Drawings of Mohammed were made illegal around 16-17th century. There is nothing in the Qu'ran stating it is not allowed."],"string":"[\n \"In Islam, portraits and photos of their figures is forbidden. Check out a mosque sometime. . No photos but lots of geometrical art and Arabic calligraphy.\",\n \"Well, portraits or Mohammed were forbidden to prevent Muslims from worshipping Mohammed instead of God. And about what's happening nowadays, I was talking to my Dad about all this stuff and he put it like that these cartoons make him feel like the rest of the work is making fun of us, the normal Muslims. And that's because most of the pictures he saw on the front page were relatively offensive. We don't approve of any of the violence either. But we feel like the whole religion shouldn't be facing the backlash of just a few extremists.\",\n \"Sunni Muslims believe that visually depicting their Prophet or their God is dangerously close to idolatry. Drawings of Muhammed, especially cartoons, are considered by many to be extremely disrespectful to all Muslims.\",\n \"It's not in the Quran but it's said in the Hadith that any representation of something with a soul is forbidden although from my experience even among incredibly devout or strict Muslims this isn't enforced. The idea is that you're representing a creation of god imperfectly.\",\n \"From what I learned it was by his request saying that he and his image where not nearly as important since he merely the voice of Allah\",\n \"Because they are childish morons who need to grow up\",\n \"I know this has been stated before, but Islam forbids any depiction of any person or animal (be it the Prophet Mohammad or yourself), ie no paintings, no statues, no likenesses of any kind. You won't see people or animal designs on prayer rugs or in mosques, because either Islamic scholars or Mohammad himself (I can't remember witch) didn't want Muslims to warship idols. When television came to the middle east, many conservative Muslims protested for this reason.\",\n \"Just to note that offence over depictions of religious figures isn't limited to Islam; To give 2 examples here's [Christians being offended over the \\\"Piss Christ\\\" sculpture]( URL_0 ) and [Buddhists getting offended over tattoos of Buddha]( URL_1 ).\",\n \"Because they're idiots. Just like the fundamentalist Christians, they're not representative of the religion. We should think of them as terrorists who happen to have chosen Islam as an excuse to fuck about, rather than Muslims.\",\n \"Drawings of Mohammed were made illegal around 16-17th century. There is nothing in the Qu'ran stating it is not allowed.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["stylised or do not show Muhammad's face. Within Muslim communities, views about pictorial representations have varied: Shi'a Islam has been generally tolerant of pictorial representations of human figures while Sunni Islam generally forbids any pictorial representation of living beings, albeit with some variation in practice outside a religious context. Some contemporary interpretations of Islam, such as those followed by adherents of Wahhabism, are entirely aniconistic and condemn pictorial representations of any kind. Insulting Muhammad In Muslim societies, insulting Muhammad is considered one of the gravest of all crimes. According to Ana Belen Soage of the University of Granada, \"The Islamic","-35.27549907017965"],["1.1% Jains as the other major religious groups. Depiction of Muhammad Depictions of Muhammad have long been an issue of concern in the Muslim religion, and many consider it to be blasphemous. While written and oral descriptions are universally accepted by Islam, the Hadith (a supplemental teaching of the Quran) prohibits Muslims from creating any visual representation Muhammed. The biggest concern in this tradition is that an image could promote idolatry. This tradition has been long lasting and the few depictions that do exist throughout Islamic history, Muhammad is veiled or he is represented by symbols such as","-34.431778641883284"],["and Muhammad, Islamic religious art is focused on the word. Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not images or sculptures. Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%). While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past, Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare. They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since","-34.31738474970916"],["drawings but did not call for protests. Al-Sistani suggested that militant Muslims were partly to blame for distorting Islam's image.\nIn the United Arab Emirates, the periodical Al-Ittihad published an opinion piece which argued that,\nThe world has come to believe that Islam is what is practiced by Bin Laden, Zawahiri, Zarqawi, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Salafis, and others who have presented a distorted image of Islam. We must be honest with ourselves and admit that we are the reason for these drawings.\nFormer Iranian president Mohammad Khatami, who is also the theorist of Dialogue Among Civilizations, strongly criticized the Danish cartoons for","-33.40999992832076"],["the artists have denied representing Muhammad as a terrorist, many Muslims felt that a bomb in a turban, with a lit fuse and the Islamic creed written on the bomb suggested a connection between Muhammad and terrorism.\nSome Liberal Muslims, mainly in Europe, have supported the republication of the images so that individual Muslims can make up their own minds and welcomed the debate on the issues that the cartoons have raised.\nIt has also been pointed out that cartoons in the Arab and Islamic press \"demonizing\" Jews and Israelis are common.\nLouay M. Safi, scholar and Muslim American leaders argued that the","-33.365221163709066"],["why I draw you.\" He was to collect an award of $12,500. Though images of Muhammad are not explicitly banned by the Quran, prominent Islamic views oppose human images, especially those of prophets. Such views have gained ground among certain militant Islamic groups.\nThe event featured speeches by Pamela Geller, president of the AFDI, and Geert Wilders, a Dutch lawmaker and outspoken critic of Islam. Congressmen Keith Ellison and André Carson had tried unsuccessfully to block Wilders from entering the United States. At the time of the attack, the \"First Annual Muhammad Art Exhibit and Contest\" exhibit was attended by approximately","-33.128281822253484"],["mosque and were drafted by Mohammed Mandi Al Tamimi of the UAE, Farouk Haddad of Syria and Mohammed Allam of Jordan. Controversy In 2013, US-based singer Rihanna received negative criticism for taking photographs, with the Mosque in the background, during a private visit. During the incident she was reported to have posed in a manner deemed offensive and provocative. Staff asked her to leave following the incident.\nMore recently, Selena Gomez was criticised by Instagram users for posing for pictures at the mosque with her ankle shown.","-32.58444169925497"],["(CAIR), which had previously tweeted out the video as an example of discrimination against Muslims, demanded an apology from Saleh and Akbar stating \"Muslims are already under the microscope and to do this just to gain some cheap publicity is totally unacceptable. There should be no attempt to justify it; they should just apologize and ask people to forgive them for their irresponsible actions.\"\nIn another YouTube video, Saleh claimed to have flown inside a suitcase in the baggage hold on a Tigerair flight from Melbourne to Sydney. However, Melbourne Airport security footage proved the incident was a hoax after they","-32.518852860084735"],["\"because Muhammad created a new community, the religion that was its raison d'être had to meet the political needs of its adherents.\"\nIn 2012 a film titled Innocence of Muslims and alternatively The Real Life of Muhammad and Muhammad Movie Trailer was released by Nakoula Basseley Nakoula. A Vanity Fair article described the video as \"Exceptionally amateurish, with disjointed dialogue, jumpy editing, and performances that would have looked melodramatic even in a silent movie, the clip is clearly designed to offend Muslims, portraying Mohammed as a bloodthirsty murderer and Lothario and pedophile with omnidirectional sexual appetites.\" Reacting to the release of","-32.323658274021"],["that's their decision not to show the image of Muhammad or not — it's Parker and Stone\", he said. \"Like little whores, they'll sit there and grab the bucks. They'll sit there and they'll whine and they'll take their shot at Jesus. That's their stock in trade.\" In response to these criticisms, Parker and Stone agreed with these groups, noting that while images of Muhammed were forbidden, it instead appeared to be “open season” on Jesus, hence their depiction to illustrate the hypocrisy of the network. The duo subsequently made Donohue a villain in the 2007 episode \"Fantastic Easter Special\".\nThe","-32.29001667746343"],["against the Pope and the worshippers of Idols [the Muslims mistakenly thought that Catholic Christians worshipped images of the saints and Christ, not understanding the Catholic principle of image veneration as elaborated in church councils]; they also told them not to hate the Muslims because they are the sword of God in the world against the idol-worshippers. That is why they side with the Muslims.\n— Al-Hajari, The Book of the Protector of Religion against the Unbelievers \nHe then met with Erpenius there, as well as with the future explorer Peter Nuyts. In the series of Moroccan envoys to the Dutch Crown,","-32.28433685400523"],["Torah and the New Testament. In another scene, the Muhammad is seen speaking to the donkey known as Ya'fur in Islamic tradition. Reviews A Vanity Fair article described the video as \"Exceptionally amateurish, with disjointed dialogue, jumpy editing, and performances that would have looked melodramatic even in a silent movie, the clip is clearly designed to offend Muslims, portraying Mohammed as a bloodthirsty murderer and Lothario and pedophile with omnidirectional sexual appetites.\"\nReuters said \"it portrays Mohammad as a fool, a philanderer and a religious fake and in one clip posted on YouTube, he was shown in an apparent sexual act","-32.20493634069862"],["Muslims are in practice treated as a group based on their religion, and that the cartoons were intended to represent all of Islam and all Muslims in a negative way, not just Muhammad. Erik Bleich said that while the cartoons did essentialise Islam in a potentially racist way, they ranged from offensive to pro-Muslim so labelling them as a group was problematic. The Economist said Muslims were not targeted in a discriminatory way, since unflattering cartoons about other religions or their leaders are frequently printed. For Noam Chomsky, the cartoons were inspired by a spirit of \"ordinary racism under","-32.138000603663386"],["depicting Muhammad In December 1999, the German news magazine Der Spiegel printed on the same page pictures of \"moral apostles\" Muhammad, Jesus, Confucius, and Immanuel Kant. Few weeks later, the magazine received protests, petitions and threats against publishing depictions of Muhammad. The Turkish TV-station Show TV broadcast the telephone number of an editor who then received daily calls. A picture of Muhammad had been published by the magazine once before in 1998 in a special edition on Islam, without evoking similar protests.\nIn 2008, several Muslims protested against the inclusion of Muhammad's depictions in the English Wikipedia's Muhammad article. An online","-32.00046317465603"],["and unverified—she has a history of posting misleading videos. Describing herself on her Twitter account as \"faithful to God and Britannia\", she had made over 15,000 tweets since opening the account in mid-2016. One of the videos (titled \"Muslim migrant beats up Dutch boy on crutches!\") purported to show an assault by a Muslim immigrant. According to the Dutch embassy in the US, the teenage perpetrator was \"born and raised in the Netherlands\"; and the embassy later confirmed that he was not Muslim. Another video (\"Muslim Destroys a Statue of Virgin Mary!\") was filmed during the Syrian Civil War in","-31.742081279749982"],["Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which do present still and moving representations of living beings) have an exceptional impact on public opinion, sometimes, as in the case of Al-Jazira, with a global reach, beyond the Arabic speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes and coins, in streets and offices (e.g.: presidents like Nasser and Mubarak, Arafat, Al-Asad or Hezbollah's Nasrallah and ayatollah Khomeini). Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to be found in most Muslim countries (Saddam Hussain's are infamous","-31.57286103462684"],["Muhammad, which was responded to with reactions of violent riots, global protests and death threats toward the artists. As a result of those incidents, many publications and television studios have refused to broadcast images of Muhammad whatsoever, which was the inspiration behind Tom Cruise's efforts to harvest Muhammad's apparent immunity to satire and ridicule. Parker and Stone addressed the Muhammad issue in their two-part tenth season episode \"Cartoon Wars\", during which they attempt to show an image of the prophet, only to reveal that Comedy Central has forbidden any such image from being broadcast on their network. However, Muhammad had","-31.472945805755444"],["as terrorists in media, so we should look into backgrounds and reasons for an activity before labelling people.\" \nHe criticizes the portrayal of Muslims in films saying, \"Hundreds of movies were made in Hollywood to malign the image of Islam that a non-Muslim gets scared when he heard a Muslim saying 'Allah Akbar', thinking that he is going to kill him. If anyone really wants to know how good Islam is, he or she has to study its authentic sources; the glorious Quran and Hadith rather than looking to its followers (Muslims) as is the case with a motorist whose","-31.405409356113523"],["over depictions of Muhammad, questionning issues relating to the religious offense to minorities in secular countries. A key case was the 1989 fatwa against English author Salman Rushdie for his 1988 book entitled The Satanic Verses, the title of which refers to an account that Muhammad, in the course of revealing the Quran, received a revelation from Satan and incorporated it therein until made by Allah to retract it. Several translators of his book into foreign languages have been murdered. In the UK, many supporters of Salman Rushdie and his publishers advocated unrestricted freedom of expression and the abolition of","-31.350572142982855"],["are part of our society, not strangers. The cartoons are including, rather than excluding, Muslims.\" The publication of the cartoons was also accompanied by an editorial titled 'Truslen fra mørket ('The Threat from the Darkness) condemning Islamic spiritual leaders \"who feel entitled to interpret the prophet's word, and cannot abide the insult that comes from being the object of intelligent satire.\" In October 2005, Politiken, another leading Danish newspaper, published its own poll of thirty-one of the forty-three members of the Danish cartoonist association. Twenty-three said they would be willing to draw Muhammad. One had doubts, one would not","-31.30608501128154"],["The footage of Muhammad was compared to other iconic images of children under attack: the boy in the Warsaw ghetto (1943), the Vietnamese girl doused with napalm (1972), and the firefighter carrying the dying baby in Oklahoma (1995). Catherine Nay, a French journalist, argued that Muhammad's death \"cancels, erases that of the Jewish child, his hands in the air before the SS in the Warsaw Ghetto.\"\nPalestinian children were distressed by the repeated broadcasting of the footage, according to a therapist in Gaza, and were re-enacting the scene in playgrounds. Arab countries issued postage stamps bearing the images. Parks and streets","-31.272241931641474"],["Muslims promote the idea that if we \"insult\" him (despite the fact that he's dead), that we should be killed.\" The website says that Mohammad was a \"false prophet\" and that the \"Islamic ideology itself is clearly one of hatred and violence, which is declaring war against the entire non-Islamic world... it is determined to dominate the world, just as Nazism was.\" The website came out against plans to build an Islamic cultural center near Ground Zero in New York, and said this was the reason why. \"Because Islam is a hateful and violent ideology which preaches hate and violence","-31.17639901652001"],["Yemen and he could see the gates of Sana. According to Muslim historians, these prophesies were fulfilled in subsequent times. Visual representation In Islam, although nothing in the Quran explicitly bans images, some supplemental aḥādīth (Arabic: أَحَادِيث, 'traditions') explicitly ban the drawing of images of any living creature. Hence, Muslims generally avoid visual depictions of Muhammad or any other prophet such as Moses or Abraham. Most Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets of Islam should be prohibited and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad. The key concern is that the use of images can encourage","-31.152254606888164"],["they refused and instead taunted Muhammad by claiming his God is poor. Islamic tradition says that the Quran verse 3:118 was revealed because of the comments. It states:\nO you who believe! do not take for intimate friends from among others than your own people; they do not fall short of inflicting loss upon you; they love what distresses you; vehement hatred has already appeared from out of their mouths, and what their breasts conceal is greater still; indeed, We have made the communications clear to you, if you will understand.\nQuran 3:12 and 3:13 is also related to this event.","-31.071584563178476"],["publication in September 2005 of 12 cartoons depicting Islam and Muhammad. The most notorious of these showed Muhammed with a bomb in his turban. This drew protests from Muslims living in Denmark, followed in early 2006 by protests throughout the Muslim world.\nThe newspaper has been accused of misusing freedom of speech by Muslim groups and a number of ethnic Danish intellectuals. The Muhammad cartoons controversy resulted in withdrawal of the ambassadors of Libya, Saudi Arabia and Syria from Denmark, as well as consumer boycotts of Danish products in a number of Islamic countries.\nThe newspaper has apologised for offending Muslims, but","-30.944117195438594"],["idea, not only because depicting Mohammed \"is inconsiderate of the sensibilities of others\", but also because \"it defines those others—Muslims—as being outside of our culture, unworthy of the courtesy we readily accord to insiders.\" Bill Walsh of Bedford Minuteman wrote critically of the initiative, which seemed \"petulant and childish\" to him: \"It attempts to battle religious zealotry with rudeness and sacrilege, and we can only wait to see what happens, but I fear it won’t be good.\" Janet Albrechtsen wrote in The Australian, \"As a cartoon, it was mildly amusing. As a campaign, it's crass and gratuitously offensive.\" Writing for","-30.92847037652973"],["bin Fahd, Muhammad Al-Munajid, Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan, and Saleh al-Maghamsi and thousands of Saudi clerics viewed the series negatively. Traditional historicitic and depictional controversy In the events of the Islamic prophet Muhammad's living era, Muhammad himself, his children and wives were not depicted but many direct actions of him have been shown redirected from any other sahaba near to him for the restrictions and limitations of Muhammad's visual depiction in the Islamic world. Although in a sequence before the death of Abu Bakr, there was a shadow depiction of Aisha shown silently conversing with her father. The dress","-30.89289267687127"],["within the meaning of the relevant international human rights instruments\" although \"some of the more controversial pictures may nevertheless be judged 'gratuitously offensive' to the religious beliefs of Muslims in accordance with the applicable case-law of the European Court of Human Rights.\" This means that the Danish authorities probably could have prohibited the drawings' dissemination if they had chosen to. Randall Hansen said that the cartoons were clearly anti-Islamic, but that this should not be confused with racism because a religion is a system of ideas not an inherent identity. Tariq Modood said that the cartoons were essentially racist because","-30.858129827684024"],["and a Qur'an in the other\". Commissioner Elliot Cohen described Condell's comments as \"insulting, degenerating and racist\".\nCondell then accused Cohen of being \"motivated by his own narrow personal and political agenda which has nothing to do with [Condell] or the video clip\". The video was initially sent to them by fellow Peace and Justice Commissioner Jonathan Wornick, who said it \"tries to expose intolerance in the Muslim world\", such as \"the intolerance of radical Islamists who say if you insult Allah, you should have your head cut off\". Condell said that its popularity proves \"there is an enthusiastic audience for","-30.587914549396373"],["Aniconism in Islam Theological views The Quran, the Islamic holy book, does not explicitly prohibit the depiction of human figures; it merely condemns idolatry. Interdictions of figurative representation are present in the hadith, among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter part of the period when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, they need to be interpreted in order to be applied in any general manner.\nSunni exegetes of tafsir, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions against producing and","-30.562919397372752"],["Koeppel replied that he did not consider the caricatures of Muhammad in the same vein. Islamic governments and NGOs The public anger was accompanied by a condemnation from Arabic and Islamic governments as well as Islamic non-governmental organizations (NGOs).\nThe Justice and Islamic Affairs Minister of the United Arab Emirates, Mohammed Al Dhaheri, called it \"cultural terrorism, not freedom of expression\", according to the official WAM news agency. \"The repercussions of such irresponsible acts will have adverse impact on international relations.\"\nIn Tunisia, Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri, president of the Islamic Organization for Education, Science and Culture (ISESCO, the Islamic world's counterpart to","-30.53090840106597"],["the Muslims, wrapped in the garb of treachery and knavery. Such writings have resulted in creating the Dutch mental-image of Muslims as poly-haremic, licentious, barbaric and mis-managers.\"\nWhat is remarkable in such impassioned criticism is that it finds nothing wrong in the notion of No-go areas in today's world based upon one's religious affiliation. On the other hand, the mindset behind it actively seeks justification for condemning those who dare defy it. In fact according to L.I. Graf, there was no other possibility for Snouck Hurgronje to be admitted to Mecca without becoming a practicing Muslim:\n\"Wel bestond voor SH natuurlijk geen","-30.424249784089625"],["asked people not to follow the calls from those proposing to publish caricatures of Muhammad in all countries, especially in Ukraine, where mutual understanding and friendship between Ukrainians is very important against the background of the information and armed war against our country. He thought that not without reason Khodorkovsky had called for the publication of caricatures of Muhammad. S. Ismagilov asked journalists to be correct, not to incite resentment within the country over the crimes of individuals and expressed willingness to explain the position of Islam and answer questions. Political career S.Ismagilov participated in parliamentary election for the Verkhovna","-30.2775616615545"],["Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among others) as People of the Book since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have a divine origin. Christians however neither recognize the Qur'an as a genuine book of divine revelation, nor agree with its assessment of Jesus as a mere prophet, on par with Muhammad, nor for that matter accept that Muhammad was a genuine prophet.\nMuslims, for their part, believe that parts of the Gospels, Torah and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten, misinterpreted, or distorted by their followers. Based on that perspective, Muslims view","-30.252576878854597"],["by other Muslims, on the grounds that the artifacts are idolatrous or shirk. However, sometimes those who profess aniconism will practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Talibans from the Kandahar photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography).\nFor Shia communities, portraits of the major figures of Shiite history are important elements of religious devotion. In Iran, portraits of Muhammad and of Ali, printed on pieces of cloth or woven into carpets, are called temsal (\"likenesses\") and can be bought around shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself. In Pakistan, India and Bangladesh portraits","-30.224660900305025"],["Jyllands-Posten published an article entitled \"Muhammeds ansigt\" (\"The face of Muhammad\") incorporating the cartoons. The article consisted of the 12 cartoons and an explanatory text, in which Rose wrote:\nModern, secular society is rejected by some Muslims. They demand a special position, insisting on special consideration of their own religious feelings. It is incompatible with contemporary democracy and freedom of speech, where one must be ready to put up with insults, mockery and ridicule. It is certainly not always attractive and nice to look at, and it does not mean that religious feelings should be made fun of at any","-30.164411660574842"],["the most righteous. They believe in God as a single entity, not as the Trinity accepted by the vast majority of Christians. Neither do Muslims accept Jesus' crucifixion. Since Muslims believe only in the worship of a strictly monotheistic God who never assumed human flesh, they do not accept the use of icons, and see this as shirk (idolatry). Muslim influence played a part in the initiation of iconoclasm and their conquests caused the iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire. For the same reason, they do not worship or pray to Muhammad, Jesus, or any other prophets; only to God.\nAdherents of","-30.03863359769457"],["of Muhammad. The cover of a 2011 issue retitled Charia Hebdo (French for Sharia Weekly), featured a cartoon of Muhammad, whose depiction is forbidden in some interpretations of Islam. The newspaper's office was fire-bombed and its website hacked. In 2012, the newspaper published a series of satirical cartoons of Muhammad, including nude caricatures; this came days after a series of violent attacks on U.S. embassies in the Middle East, purportedly in response to the anti-Islamic film Innocence of Muslims, prompting the French government to close embassies, consulates, cultural centres, and international schools in about 20 Muslim countries. Riot police surrounded","-30.011449010344222"],["by Muslims who objected to her statements. The Prosecutor's office decided not to initiate a case, because her critique did \"not put forth any conclusions in respect to Muslims and their worth as a group is not denied\". Film with Theo van Gogh Working with writer and director Theo van Gogh, Hirsi Ali wrote the script and provided the voice-over for Submission (2004), a short film that criticised the treatment of women in Islamic society. Juxtaposed with passages from the Qur'an were scenes of actresses portraying Muslim women suffering abuse. An apparently nude actress dressed in a semi-transparent burqa was","-30.0044286751654"],["website published a video which falsely claimed a Muslim migrant beat up a Dutch boy on crutches. \nGeller denies she is anti-Muslim, saying \"I love Muslims. I help them.\" She has said the only \"moderate Muslim is a secular Muslim\", and that when Muslims pray, they are cursing Jews and Christians. She has claimed that Muslims practice bestiality. Geller has said that \"Islam is the most anti-Semitic, genocidal ideology in the world\". She has said terrorists don't spring from \"perversions of Islam but from the religion itself\". \nShe has been criticized by the Anti-Defamation League, Council on American-Islamic Relations and","-29.93887891707709"],["depict Muhammad as a \"sexual pervert\" for the consummation of his marriage to Aisha when she was nine or ten years old at the time. In one clip, Muhammad is shown with an erection, taking the girl to a mosque adorned with a Nazi swastika, in preparation of her deflowering. Following calls from the Minister of Justice, Ernst Hirsch Ballin, to not increase tension in society, Jami decided against its release. He spoke of his fears that the Dutch police would be unable to adequately protect his safety, and of the possibility of a fatwa calling for his death being","-29.92544590635225"],["Criticism of Muhammad Ex-Muslim Atheist/Agnostic criticism Many early former Muslims such as Ibn al-Rawandi, Al-Ma'arri, and Abu Isa al-Warraq were famous religious skeptics, polymaths, and philosophers that criticized Islam, the alleged authority and reliability of the Qu'ran, Muhammad's morality, and his claims to be a prophet.\nThe Quran also mentions critics of Muhammad; for example Quran 25:4-6 says the critics complained that Mohammad was passing off what others were telling him as revelations:\nThose who disbelieve say, \"This is nothing but a lie that he made up, and others have helped him at it...Tales of the ancients; he wrote them down; they","-29.789264420978725"],["Muhammad Although depictions of Muhammad are often forbidden, the few that exist often include images of angels. Specifically, the Archangel Gabriel is frequently shown alongside the prophet. For example, in The Timurid Book of the Prophet Muhammad’s Ascension, the Archangel Gabriel appears to the Prophet Muhammad in Mecca to announce his ascension. Kneeling before Muhammad, Gabriel is shown with colorful wings and a crown. Later in The Timurid Book, Muhammad is shown with Gabriel meeting a group of angels in heaven. In the Jami' al-tawarikh, a Persian history from the 14th century, Muhammad is depicted beside al-Buraq, whose tail is","-29.762202540616272"],["Reactions to Innocence of Muslims Context of reactions The late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen several major incidents of the Islamic world taking offence at pictorial or written representation of Muhammad and his teachings. In practice people have been brought to trial, killed or had a fatwa called on them for a wide range of acts that have been cited as blasphemous, including depicting Mohammad either in writing or in some other manner that was perceived as insulting. Background A trailer for a movie called Innocence of Muslims, described by Reuters as depicting the Islamic prophet, Muhammad \"as","-29.661416184622794"],["of Ali can be found on notoriously ornate trucks, buses and rickshaws. Contrary to the Sunni tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shiite tombs. A curiosity in Iran is an Orientalist photography supposed to represent Muhammad as a young boy. The Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwā declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect. Circumvention methods Medieval Muslim artists found various ways to represent especially sensitive figures such as Muhammad. He is sometimes shown with a","-29.6298227327934"],["dirty movie or video, the internet pornography. That is becoming a real problem... And if this is a difficulty for you, then do talk to someone about it in confidence. You see, it is the intending to look in order to have that arousal that Jesus has in his sights.\" Islam In Islam, intentional lascivious glances are forbidden. Lascivious thoughts are disliked, for they are the first step towards adultery, rape and other antisocial behaviors. Prophet Muhammad also stressed the magnitude of the \"second glance\", as the first glance towards an attractive member of the opposite sex could be just","-29.606398725751205"],["images of Muhammad next to cards identifying him by name. Schapira also obtained, from a Palestinian journalist, what appeared to be footage of him arriving at the hospital on a stretcher. During an emotional public funeral in the Bureij refugee camp, Muhammad was wrapped in a Palestinian flag and buried before sundown on the day of his death, in accordance with Muslim tradition.\nJamal was taken at first to the Al-Shifa Hospital in Gaza. Dr. Ahmed Ghadeel said Jamal had received multiple wounds from high-velocity bullets striking his right elbow, right thigh and the lower part of both legs; his femoral","-29.470619979780167"],["was ok and he personally apologised to the cartoonist Westergaard. Westergaard responded by saying \"I met a man who has converted from being an Islamist to become a humanist who understands the values of our society. To me, he is really sincere, convincing and strong in his views.\" A spokesman for the Islamic Society of Denmark said \"It is still not OK to publish drawings of Muhammad. We have not changed our position.\" Charlie Hebdo controversies and attacks The French satirical weekly newspaper Charlie Hebdo was taken to court for publishing the cartoons; it was acquitted of charges that it","-29.41590709378943"],["were named in Muhammad's honour, and Osama bin Laden mentioned him in a \"warning\" to President George Bush after 9/11. The images were blamed for the 2000 Ramallah lynching and a rise in antisemitism in France. One image could be seen in the background when journalist Daniel Pearl, an American Jew, was beheaded by al-Qaeda in February 2002.\nSections of the Jewish and Israeli communities, including the Israeli government in 2013, described the statements that IDF soldiers had killed the boy as a \"blood libel,\" a reference to the centuries-old allegation that Jews sacrifice Christian children for their blood. Comparisons were","-29.414313993416727"],["not the true Islam.\" Professor Clive Williams, who teaches at Macquarie University's Centre for Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, believes Mohammad's extremist videos should be taken off the internet.","-29.411944715830032"],["like Muhammad, the only prophet that Muslims do not share with Jews and Christians, was perceived as the last in a long list of humiliations and assaults: it is probably not a coincidence that the more violent demonstrations were held in countries like Syria, Iran and Libya, whose relations with the West are tense.\" Yusuf al-Qaradawi, a prominent Islamic theologian, called for a day of anger from Muslims in response to the cartoons. He supported calls for a UN resolution that \"categorically prohibits affronts to prophets—to the prophets of the Lord and His messengers, to His holy books, and to","-29.402672259675455"],["allegations made by Islamic organisations including the Tamil Nadu Muslim Munnetra Kazagham (TMMK), while negotiations are still in progress. TMMK leader M. H. Jawahirullah claimed, \"There is a danger that the public may view any Muslim with a beard as a terrorist waiting for an opportunity to plant a bomb\". Kamal Haasan released a protest note, criticising them for using an \"icon bashing\" tactic in order to politically profile themselves. Contrary to Jawahirullah, he also stated, that the movie would be giving Muslims a sense of pride. Haasan took the matter to the Madras High Court, seeking an immediate rollback","-29.371112319349777"],["zealots who would deny that others at other times and places perceived and illustrated Muhammad in different ways.\"\nBoston College professor Jonathan Laurence, co-author of Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, has said that he told the Press that it should reproduce the original Jyllands-Posten newspaper page that included the cartoon. \"I was consulted by the press about the decision whether or not to publish. I suggested that they publish the newspaper page in its entirety as documentary evidence of the episode being discussed,\" he told The Times. \"I actually know another professor who was","-29.32833568235219"],["mistrust of Islam\".\nIn 2018, Conservative MP Michael Fabricant apologised for tweeting a photoshopped image depicting a balloon caricature of Sadiq Khan (mimicking the Trump baby balloon during the president's visit to the UK) having sex with a pig. The image was condemned by Hope not Hate as well as Warsi. Labour MP Wes Streeting raised the issue with the government's chief whip. No action was taken against Fabricant.\nIn October 2018, recently selected London Mayoral candidate Shaun Bailey was accused of Islamophobia and Hinduphobia after it was reported that had written a pamphlet in 2005, entitled No Man’s Land, for the","-29.30966634536162"],["website, on a page tiled \"Religious apartheid in Saudi Arabia\", a picture of a sign showing Muslim-only and non-Muslim roads.\nIn 2007, there were news reports that according to Saudi policy for tourists it was not permissible to bring non-Muslim religious symbols and books into the kingdom as they were subject to confiscation, and that the U.S. State Department disputed this, saying that the regulation restrictions were no longer in place. The 2007 U.S The U.S State Department International Religious Freedom (IRF) report detailed several cases in which bibles were confiscated in Saudi Arabia, but said that there were fewer reports","-29.27457109023817"],["in homes or carried with oneself, while in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh they notoriously ornate trucks, buses and rickshas. Contrary to the Sunni tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shi'ite tombs. A curiosity in Iran is a Orientalist photography supposed to represent Prophet Muhammad as a young boy. The Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwa declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the Prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect.\nPast – Neither is the representation of living beings in Islamic countries a modern phenomenon","-29.18274505645968"],["utensils and pure silk spreads in the household in order to avoid luxurious lifestyles in the home. Statues are also prohibited in homes, and Muslims are prohibited from participating in making statues because of the idea of negating the Oneness of Allah. Shirk It is considered a sin for a Muslim to worship anyone other than Allah, which is known as shirk.\nThe following is a Quranic verse on shirk:\nSay: I am forbidden to worship those on whom ye call instead of God. Say: I will not follow your desires, for then should I go astray and I should not","-29.173894562452915"],["goes on to suggest his \"visions\" came as a result of epileptic seizures and the interventions of a renegade Nestorian monk named Sergius. Later presentations The depiction of Islam in the Travels of Sir John Mandeville is also relatively positive, though with many inaccurate and mythical features. It is said that Muslims are easily converted to Christianity because their beliefs are already so similar in many ways, and that they believe that only the Christian revelation will last until the end of the world. The moral behaviour of Muslims at the time is shown as superior to that of Christians,","-29.169843774754554"],["about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.\nThe earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad. During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events. Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a \"broader","-29.14523863210343"],["early work, while feeling the singer remained \"as flashy\" and confident as ever. Reception Contemporary critics universally commended the music video for its themes and production values. The video was both heralded and criticized for confronting women's rights in Saudi Arabia; the portrayal of women wearing the niqab driving cars is strictly prohibited in Saudi Arabia, while some media outlets accused the video of propagating Arab stereotypes. Claire Suddath of Time agreed that at first glance, the video appeared to be a political statement on women drivers in Saudi Arabia and a stylish, aesthetically pleasing piece, stating that the video","-29.13769995587063"],["all Muslims if they saw another Muslim under attack.\"\nIn response to the Quebec City mosque shooting he promoted the controversial view that, rather than being the act of a lone shooter, the involvement of an accomplice had been covered up by the Canadian government and police.\nAccording to the National Post he has also said \"Islam is riddled with termites ... and if we don’t cleanse ourselves with truth, the stench of our lies will drive us mad\", and that there are \"hateful sermons in almost every mosque\" in Canada – Fatah himself does not attend a mosque and encourages Muslim parents","-29.133716048905626"],["said that followers of other religions also did not accept the notion that terrorism is associated with Muslims, and that \"this is an auspicious development for restoring peace among different cultures in the world.\"\nUnited Arab Emirates Foreign minister, Abdullah Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, condemned the film as being critical and insulting to Muhammad.\nThe Yemeni parliament condemned the film, calling it inflammatory, discriminatory towards Muslims, and promoting religious violence and hatred, whilst stressing the need to respect all religions, cultures, and civilizations without prejudice. Europe In Denmark, Kurt Westergaard, the cartoonist from one of the Jyllands-Posten cartoons of Muhammed, has expressed","-29.075484878674615"],["In the original video, Ahok says, \"Ladies and gentlemen […] you have been deceived by the use of Al Maidah 51 [of the Quran]\", while in the accompanying texts, Buni wrote, \"Ladies and gentlemen [Muslim voters] have been deceived by Al Maidah 51.\"\nThe videos went viral and Basuki was criticised in social media such as Facebook and Twitter. A Change.org petition criticising him gained tens of thousands of signatures. Several organizations, including the Islamic Defenders Front (Indonesian acronym: FPI) and a local chapter of the Indonesian Ulema Council, reported Basuki to the police, accusing him of having violated Indonesia's Law","-29.064040224882774"],["terms of its relationships with its neighbours\". In response to these accusations, Bassma Kodmani published a response explaining that the video was fabricated in order to hurt her reputation as it took her answers out of context and cut everything that she said in defense of the rights of Arabs, Muslims and Palestinians. She described this video as nothing more than an attempt of the government to destabilize the Syrian National Council.","-29.051530272932723"],["at least 2001 until the cartoon crisis. Aniconism The Qur'an condemns idolatry, and this has led some Islamic scholars to interpret it as prohibiting figurative representation; this is known as aniconism. However, since Islam has many centres of religious authority, opinion and tradition about this is not uniform. In popular practice today there is no general injunction against pictorial representation of people outside of religious contexts. Generally, images of Muhammad have been prohibited throughout history. In practice, images of Muhammad have been made on many occasions, generally in a restricted and socially regulated way; for example, they are often","-29.034447509562597"],["scripture, nor did you inscribe one with your right hand. Otherwise the falsifiers would have had [cause for] doubt\", is thought to indicate that Muhammad was illiterate and had not read any earlier scriptures.\nThe Quran disclaims any superhuman characteristics for Muhammad but describes him as a man possessing the highest moral excellence (Quran 68:5 \"And thou dost, surely, possess sublime moral excellences\"). God made him a good example or a \"goodly model\" for Muslims to follow (68:4, and 33:21). full of sympathy for Muslims (\"Grievous to him is what you suffer; [he is] concerned over you and to the believers","-29.032379096955992"],["the picture. [Through the media] it lands at the government, who then act surprised at the existence of ex-Muslims in Malaysia and that something needs to be done. (...) A lot of people, especially those involved in the photos, are now going into hiding because we don't know what's gonna happen. (...) Of course [I'm afraid too].\"\nIn November 2017 the government and the Internet regulator Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission had demanded that Atheist Republic's page and similar atheist pages on Facebook be taken down. However, Facebook refused to do so because the pages did not violate any of the","-28.99450380401686"],["that certain fanatical Muslims displayed, but the foundation for such ills in the Koran and core Islamic texts. The Jerusalem Post writes, \"Sina, who runs Faith Freedom International – an Internet forum dedicated to debunking Islam – considers himself 'probably the biggest anti-Islam person alive.' His latest book is titled, Understanding Muhammad: A Psychobiography of Allah's Prophet. In it, Sina suggests that Muhammad suffered from a series of mental disorders, including narcissistic personality disorder, temporal lobe epilepsy and obsessive compulsive disorder. 'These disorders,' he says, 'can explain the phenomenon known as Islam... which is nothing but one man's insanity.'\"\nThrough his","-28.991915812017396"],["of the 14-minute video were uploaded to YouTube in July 2012, under the titles The Real Life of Muhammad and Muhammad Movie Trailer. Videos dubbed in Arabic were uploaded during early September 2012. Anti-Islamic content had been added in post-production by dubbing, without the actors' knowledge.\nWhat was perceived as denigrating of the Islamic prophet Muhammad resulted in demonstrations and violent protests against the video to break out on 11 September in Egypt and spread to other Arab and Muslim nations and to some western countries. The protests have led to hundreds of injuries and over 50 deaths. Fatwas calling for","-28.962312763324007"],["Expert Finder, pointing out that despite aniconism the depiction of Muhammad is not wholly forbidden in Islam, and so in principle it should be possible for non-Muslims to draw him as well, although stating, \"What should be an issue, however, are all possible implications between visual representation and bigotry.\" He also defended the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution in the way that it's an important right of all Americans. Threat on Molly Norris's life, forced into hiding On July 11, 2010, it was reported that the Yemeni-American al-Qaeda cleric Anwar al-Awlaki had put Molly Norris on a hitlist. In","-28.959360934677534"],["Muhammad was \"an absolute wild-eyed fanatic ... a robber and a brigand.\" On the July 14, 2005 broadcast of The 700 Club, he claimed that \"Islam, at its core, teaches violence.\"\nOn the March 13, 2006 broadcast of The 700 Club Robertson stated that Muslims want global domination and that the outpouring of rage elicited by cartoon drawings of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad \"just shows the kind of people we're dealing with. These people are crazed fanatics, and I want to say it now: I believe it's motivated by demonic power. It is Satanic and it's time we recognize what we're","-28.940789984655567"],["should not keep using phrases such as \"the corrupt culture of the west\" etc. in our words. As it's also said in the Holy Koran, \"Do not insult the gods of others, otherwise you are indirectly insulting your God\".\n— February 15, 2006. Bewilderment Certain secular Muslims have expressed bewilderment at the reaction these cartoons have provoked. A Danish member of parliament, Muslim Naser Khader stated, \"My impression from different Arabic media is that the dominant position – perhaps surprising for some – can be summarised as follows: We cannot as Muslims dictate that non-Muslims comply with the allegedly prohibited depiction","-28.93852340709418"],["attacks against Muslims, particularly Muslim women who wear the hijab. Many blamed the attacks on the divisive rhetoric surrounding the debate, and accused the PQ of exploiting the debate for political gain.\nIn 2015, then Prime Minister Stephen Harper, while answering questions about terrorism suspects, said \"it doesn't matter what the age of the person is, or whether they're in a basement, or whether they're in a mosque or somewhere else.\" The remarks were seen as casting mosques as \"venues of terrorism\", by the NCCM, who expressed concerns about increased attacks on mosques as a result of this perception. The leader","-28.92236070265062"],["the fact that a Holocaust survivor like Tommy Lapid reacted to the image of a Palestinian woman foraging in the rubble by thinking of his grandmother who died in Auschwitz. The use of cartoons insulting Muslims by depicting Muhammad as a bomber is defended as \"freedom of speech\", while using the Holocaust in drawings is deplored as \"hatred against the Jews\".\nLatuff was included in Simon Wiesenthal Center's 2012 Top Ten Anti-Israel/Anti-Semitic Slurs list, which he considered \"a joke worthy of a Woody Allen movie\". He also claimed that Zionist lobbying groups try to associate him with well-known extremists and racists","-28.911049933783943"],["on March 28, 2008, condemning the film for reinforcing prejudices by implying that all Muslims are terrorists. The Committee said that the portrayal of Muslims in this manner was counterproductive, and that the Dutch Jewish community, along with the Dutch Muslim community and all of Dutch society, has a duty to combat all religious-based terrorism, and to protect everyone against those who wish to overthrow democracy or promote religious hatred.\nPolitician, and former Muslim, Ehsan Jami had intended to release an animated cartoon entitled The Life of Mohammed on April 20, 2008. The film, critical of Islam and Muhammad, was to","-28.902017891909054"],["process where individuals are putting on a religious identity. It's all about being a Muslim, you shed the rest of it or you downplay the rest of it and you try to make everyone else as pious as yourself. And this would be, looking back at San Bernardino, the telltale signs. These changes that the family, the friends, the close circle of relatives should have observed.\" Muhammad Hirsi Ali criticises the central Islamic prophet on morality and personality traits (criticisms based on biographical details or depictions by Islamic texts and early followers of Muhammad). In January 2003 she told the","-28.854076960444218"],["depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to Western security and values. Benn and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and Muslims are \"closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as barbaric, irrational, primitive and sexist.\"\nThere have been various instances in the media about how the Muslim community are often misrepresented to society, mostly in a way that centers heavily on terrorism, and paints Islam with a very broad brush. This is something that is seen in two major magazines, Newsweek and Time, which have been covering relations between the U.S. and Afghanistan over the last decade. Both of","-28.83486571907997"],["suis Palestinian\" while watching the Republican marches, which together with other comments drew condemnation from his party leader, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg.\nOn 16 January 2015, protests against the continued creation of cartoons depicting Muhammad turned violent in several countries, including Algeria, Nigeria and Pakistan. Protesters shouted \"I am not Charlie, I am Muhammad\" and President of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated that the cartoons had nothing to do with freedom of expression, but rather with \"terrorising the freedom of others.\" In the city of Zinder, 4 died and 45 were wounded battling police.\nIn response to the issue of Charlie","-28.833278620208148"],["be willing because of fear of possible reprisals, and six artists would not be willing because they respected the Muslim ban on depicting Muhammad. Description of the cartoons The 12 cartoons were drawn by 12 professional cartoonists in Denmark. Four of the cartoons have Danish texts, one deliberately evades the issue and depicts a school child in Denmark named Muhammad rather than the Islamic prophet, one is based on a Danish cultural expression, and one includes a Danish politician. Response The immediate responses to the publication included newspaper sellers refusing to distribute that day's paper. In the following days, the","-28.807604675123002"],["so hypocritical against our own thoughts, if we said, 'Okay, well let's not make fun of them because they might hurt us. Okay, we'll rip on the Catholics because they won't hurt us, but we won't rip on [Muslims] because they might hurt us.'\" The Muhammad subplot in \"200\", like the \"Cartoon Wars\" episodes, advocates for free speech and speaks out against censorship, both of Muhammad's image and any subject considered taboo. \"200\" also demonstrates the double standard in the handling of offensive images of Muhammad and other religious figures, particularly in the scene in which Muhammad is censored altogether,","-28.774915820293245"],["that \"All this behavior has nothing to do with Islam... But it is actually a conspiracy planned by Zionism and some Christians with Zionist orientations and it aims at undermining and giving a bad image of Islam.\" He further added that media portrayal of the attack the Our Lady of Salvation Church in Baghdad was \"a conspiracy against Arabs and the pre-dominantly Muslim Arab world that aims at depicting Arabs and Muslims in Arab countries as terrorist and fundamentalist murderers in order to deny them their rights and especially those of the Palestinians.”\nIn March 2011 Patriarch Gregory said “we Christians","-28.765777402208187"],["to the show. The group's spokesman, Ibrahim Hooper, said, \"People are pretty tired of this whole 'Let's insult the prophet Muhammad thing.'\" Revolution Muslim entry The website for the organization Revolution Muslim, a New York-based organization, posted an entry that included a warning to creators Parker and Stone that they risk retribution for their depictions of Muhammad. It said that they \"will probably wind up like Theo van Gogh for airing this show.\" Filmmaker Theo van Gogh was murdered by an Islamist in 2004 for making a short documentary on the violence against women in some Islamic societies. The posting","-28.76277886866592"],["Party, Lars Hedegaard, gave an interview in which he declared that Muslims \"rape their own children. It is heard of all the time. Girls in Muslim families are raped by their uncles, their cousins or their fathers.\" He also stated that \"Whenever it is prudent for a Muslim to hide his true intentions by lying or making a false oath in his own or in Islam’s service, then it is ok to do it.\"\nSøren Krarup a fellow party member, said that Hedegaard's remarks were justified, though they could have been more \"carefully\" stated. He instead blamed the controversy on a","-28.748708700411953"],["of the prophet.\" One Arab journalist based in Brussels wrote that \"It is perplexing that a few crude cartoons can spark an international crisis overshadowing war, political oppression and economic and social injustice. It has hurt the image of Muslims and reflects poorly on their tolerance.\" Support for free speech Khaled Diab argues that Muslims cannot impose their own values on people of other faiths. Freedom of expression should permit people to express whatever opinions they have, even if they are offensive, he argues. Yet responsibility, respect, and sensitivity should lead mainstream media outlets to assess the effect the material","-28.714699353004107"],["are sometimes even decorated with images. These images are usually important islamic landmarks, such as the Kaaba, but they are never animate objects. This is because the drawing of animate objects is forbidden in islam.\nWhen praying, a niche, representing the mihrab of a mosque, at the top of the mat must be pointed to the Islamic center for prayer, Mecca. All Muslims are required to know the qibla or direction towards Mecca from their home or where they are while traveling. The Transylvanian miracle: Islamic rugs in Protestant Churches The Saxon Lutheran Churches, parish storerooms and museums of Transylvania safeguard","-28.708120760740712"],["response to the 2015 Charlie Hebdo shooting Chinese state-run media attacked Charlie Hebdo for publishing the cartoons insulting Muhammad, with the state-run Xinhua advocated limiting freedom of speech, while another state-run newspaper Global Times said the attack was \"payback\" for what it characterised as Western colonialism and accusing Charlie Hebdo of trying to incite a clash of civilizations.\nDifferent Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government in regards to religious freedom. Religious freedom is present for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build Mosques, and have their children attend Mosques, while more controls are","-28.684164999052882"],["Los Angeles, the Jewish Journal weekly changed its masthead that week to Jewish Hebdo and published the offending Muhammad cartoons.\nThe Guardian reported that many Muslims and Muslim organisations criticised the attack while some Muslims support it and other Muslims stated they would only condemn it if France condemned the killings of Muslims worldwide\". Zvi Bar'el argued in Haaretz that believing the attackers represented Muslims was like believing that Ratko Mladić represented Christians. Al Jazeera English editor and executive producer Salah-Aldeen Khadr attacked Charlie Hebdo as the work of solipsists, and sent out a staff-wide e-mail where he argued: \"Defending freedom","-28.6572732408531"],["Democrat parliamentary candidate Maajid Nawaz, a secular Muslim, posted a \"Jesus and Mo\" image on his Twitter account. The image depicts Jesus saying \"Hey\" and Mohammed saying \"How ya doin'\". Shafiq then posted on Twitter \"We will notify all muslim organisations in the UK of his despicable behaviour and also notify Islamic countries.\" Shafiq further Tweeted \"Ghustaki Rasool Quilliam,\" so linking Nawaz's anti-extremist think tank with an Urdu term which means \"defamer of the prophet\", which under Islamic law is a crime that carries a death penalty. Maajid Nawaz has since received a number of death threats. Shafiq","-28.657105558319017"],["Muhammad, Fatima, Ali, Hasan and Husayn implying they are only members of \"Ahl al-Bayt\". Under this dogma, only Muhammad's direct lineage holds a spiritual leadership and governorship over the Muslim community. In contrast, the Sunnis believe Muhammad was not referring solely to the five people in the room. Instead, Sunnis hold any muslim of good faith can attain spiritual leadership and governorship. The discrepancy between the two interpretations stems from Umm Salama's narration of the verse of purification and Hadith of Cloak.\nSome exegesis, including Amina Wadud interpret the first line, \"stay quietly in your houses, and make not a dazzling","-28.633380790241063"],["animals. Muhammad has been described as being more bashful than a maiden.\nModesty in dressing has particularly been emphasized. According to Islamic Law, known as sharia, Muslims are required to cover their body parts with proper dressing. Sharia has also laid down specific guidelines for men and women regarding their dressing. Covering everything from 'navel to knee' is mandatory for men. In some Muslim societies, women wear the niqab, a veil that covers the whole face except the eyes, or the full burqa, a full-body covering garment that occasionally does cover the eyes. Following is the most frequently cited verse of","-28.609606630867347"],["Medieval Christian views on Muhammad Overview In contrast to the views of Muhammad in Islam, the Christian image stayed highly negative for over a millennium. Early Middle Ages The earliest written Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from Byzantine sources, written shortly after Muhammad's death in 632. In the anti-Jewish polemic the Teaching of Jacob, a dialogue between a recent Christian convert and several Jews, one participant writes that his brother \"wrote to [him] saying that a deceiving prophet has appeared amidst the Saracens\". Another participant in the Doctrina replies about Muhammad: \"He is deceiving. For do prophets come with sword","-28.576679293997586"],["Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam Image veneration Sunnis are particularly critical of the \"love of visual imagery evident in Shia popular devotionalism\" and regularly cite this characteristic (often referred to as 'Shia iconography') as proof of Shia deviance or heresy.\nThe Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwā declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect. The Occultation In the tradition of Twelver Shia Islam, the twelfth and final Shia Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is also considered by Twelver Shia to be the prophesied redeemer","-28.561338262748905"],["Muslims as 'the Mothers of all Believers'.\nOther issues many Muslims have found offensive include Abraham being called a \"bastard\" for casting Hagar and Ishmael in the desert; and a character named Salman the Persian who serves as one of the Prophet's scribes, an apparent reference to the story, controversial among Muslims, of a Meccan convert by the name of Ibn Abi Sarh, who left Islam after the Prophet failed to notice small changes he had made in the dictation of the Qur'an.\nDaniel Pipes identified other more general issues in the book likely to have angered pious Muslims: A complaint in","-28.559955560718663"],["price, but that is of minor importance in the present context. ... we are on our way to a slippery slope where no-one can tell how the self-censorship will end. That is why Morgenavisen Jyllands-Posten has invited members of the Danish editorial cartoonists union to draw Muhammad as they see him.\n— Flemming Rose, \nLater, Rose explained his intent further in The Washington Post: \"The cartoonists treated Islam the same way they treat Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and other religions. And by treating Muslims in Denmark as equals they made a point: We are integrating you into the Danish tradition of satire because you","-28.54903532145545"],["Sunni scholars, Muslims of the past should be considered companions if they had any contact with Muhammad, and they were not liars or opposed to him and his teachings. If they saw him, heard him, or were in his presence even briefly, they are companions. All companions are assumed to be just (udul) unless they are proven otherwise; that is, Sunni scholars do not believe that companions would lie or fabricate hadith unless they are proven liars, untrustworthy or opposed to Islam.\nSome Quranic references are important to Sunni Muslim views of the reverence due to all companions; It sometimes admonishes","-28.54154212283902"],["web site, Sina lists references to Muhammad's actions and offers $50,000 to anyone who can disprove his charge that Muhammad was \"a narcissist, a misogynist, a rapist, a pedophile, a lecher, a torturer, a mass murderer, a cult leader, an assassin, a terrorist, a madman and a looter\". When asked why he fights Islam, he replied, \"When I read the Quran and felt blood dripping from every verse of it, when I saw that Islam reduces humans into beasts and makes monsters out of good people, when it became clear to me that there is NOTHING good in Islam and","-28.506614056415856"],["name of Islam are not equally condemned by Muslims.\nVarious commentators across the political spectrum view the Muslim reaction to the cartoons, be it the actual violence or the non-violent justification for the violence, as evidence of what Samuel Huntington predicted in his 1993 book, The Clash of Civilizations, namely, \"…the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic…the dominating source of conflict will be cultural…\"\nDaniel Pipes argues that the pattern of events shows Muslim hypocrisy and supremacism:\n...will Westerners accede to a double standard by which Muslims are free to insult Judaism, Christianity,","-28.506433563190512"],["critical of Mohammed called 'The Innocence of Muslims'. The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt have put out an arrest warrant for seven Copt Christians in Canada and America for their alleged involvement in the making of the film, which also led to worldwide riots by Muslims. In March 2013 the al Qaeda English-language magazine Inspire published a poster stating \"Wanted dead or alive for crimes against Islam\" with a prominent image of Terry Jones.\nIran's news agency, Press TV, reported on April 8, 2013, that Terry Jones plans another Quran burning event on September 11, 2013. On April 11, Press TV published","-28.480391344754025"],["friend, so a non-Muslim could be your associate but they can't be a friend. They're not your friend because they don't understand your religious principles and they cannot because they don't understand your faith.\" He later contextualized his comment, explaining that Muslim people, including him, invariably have friends, neighbors and colleagues who are non-Muslims, but that does not mean that non-Muslims should influence Muslims' religious or moral decisions.\nYasin has lectured to students at universities as a guest speaker and on debate panels. He also addresses crowds at events aimed at young people. Yasin has made statements describing western civilization's academic","-28.466441020311322"],["Not all of the cartoons submitted in response to his invitation featured images of Muhammed. Two of them caricatured Bluitgen, one mocked Jyllands-Posten itself, while others caricatured Danish politicians. The most famous of the cartoons, by Kurt Westergaard, depicted Muhammad with a bomb in his turban.\nIn February 2006, Rose wrote an essay for the Washington Post entitled \"Why I Published Those Cartoons.\" He noted that Kurt Westergaard had previously drawn outrageous cartoons of Jesus and the Star of David, neither of which had led to \"embassy burnings or death threats\". Rose asked: \"Has Jyllands-Posten insulted and disrespected Islam?...When I visit","-28.45046927081421"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"stylised or do not show Muhammad's face. Within Muslim communities, views about pictorial representations have varied: Shi'a Islam has been generally tolerant of pictorial representations of human figures while Sunni Islam generally forbids any pictorial representation of living beings, albeit with some variation in practice outside a religious context. Some contemporary interpretations of Islam, such as those followed by adherents of Wahhabism, are entirely aniconistic and condemn pictorial representations of any kind. Insulting Muhammad In Muslim societies, insulting Muhammad is considered one of the gravest of all crimes. According to Ana Belen Soage of the University of Granada, \\\"The Islamic\",\n \"-35.27549907017965\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.1% Jains as the other major religious groups. Depiction of Muhammad Depictions of Muhammad have long been an issue of concern in the Muslim religion, and many consider it to be blasphemous. While written and oral descriptions are universally accepted by Islam, the Hadith (a supplemental teaching of the Quran) prohibits Muslims from creating any visual representation Muhammed. The biggest concern in this tradition is that an image could promote idolatry. This tradition has been long lasting and the few depictions that do exist throughout Islamic history, Muhammad is veiled or he is represented by symbols such as\",\n \"-34.431778641883284\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Muhammad, Islamic religious art is focused on the word. Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not images or sculptures. Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%). While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past, Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare. They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since\",\n \"-34.31738474970916\"\n ],\n [\n \"drawings but did not call for protests. Al-Sistani suggested that militant Muslims were partly to blame for distorting Islam's image.\\nIn the United Arab Emirates, the periodical Al-Ittihad published an opinion piece which argued that,\\nThe world has come to believe that Islam is what is practiced by Bin Laden, Zawahiri, Zarqawi, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Salafis, and others who have presented a distorted image of Islam. We must be honest with ourselves and admit that we are the reason for these drawings.\\nFormer Iranian president Mohammad Khatami, who is also the theorist of Dialogue Among Civilizations, strongly criticized the Danish cartoons for\",\n \"-33.40999992832076\"\n ],\n [\n \"the artists have denied representing Muhammad as a terrorist, many Muslims felt that a bomb in a turban, with a lit fuse and the Islamic creed written on the bomb suggested a connection between Muhammad and terrorism.\\nSome Liberal Muslims, mainly in Europe, have supported the republication of the images so that individual Muslims can make up their own minds and welcomed the debate on the issues that the cartoons have raised.\\nIt has also been pointed out that cartoons in the Arab and Islamic press \\\"demonizing\\\" Jews and Israelis are common.\\nLouay M. Safi, scholar and Muslim American leaders argued that the\",\n \"-33.365221163709066\"\n ],\n [\n \"why I draw you.\\\" He was to collect an award of $12,500. Though images of Muhammad are not explicitly banned by the Quran, prominent Islamic views oppose human images, especially those of prophets. Such views have gained ground among certain militant Islamic groups.\\nThe event featured speeches by Pamela Geller, president of the AFDI, and Geert Wilders, a Dutch lawmaker and outspoken critic of Islam. Congressmen Keith Ellison and André Carson had tried unsuccessfully to block Wilders from entering the United States. At the time of the attack, the \\\"First Annual Muhammad Art Exhibit and Contest\\\" exhibit was attended by approximately\",\n \"-33.128281822253484\"\n ],\n [\n \"mosque and were drafted by Mohammed Mandi Al Tamimi of the UAE, Farouk Haddad of Syria and Mohammed Allam of Jordan. Controversy In 2013, US-based singer Rihanna received negative criticism for taking photographs, with the Mosque in the background, during a private visit. During the incident she was reported to have posed in a manner deemed offensive and provocative. Staff asked her to leave following the incident.\\nMore recently, Selena Gomez was criticised by Instagram users for posing for pictures at the mosque with her ankle shown.\",\n \"-32.58444169925497\"\n ],\n [\n \"(CAIR), which had previously tweeted out the video as an example of discrimination against Muslims, demanded an apology from Saleh and Akbar stating \\\"Muslims are already under the microscope and to do this just to gain some cheap publicity is totally unacceptable. There should be no attempt to justify it; they should just apologize and ask people to forgive them for their irresponsible actions.\\\"\\nIn another YouTube video, Saleh claimed to have flown inside a suitcase in the baggage hold on a Tigerair flight from Melbourne to Sydney. However, Melbourne Airport security footage proved the incident was a hoax after they\",\n \"-32.518852860084735\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"because Muhammad created a new community, the religion that was its raison d'être had to meet the political needs of its adherents.\\\"\\nIn 2012 a film titled Innocence of Muslims and alternatively The Real Life of Muhammad and Muhammad Movie Trailer was released by Nakoula Basseley Nakoula. A Vanity Fair article described the video as \\\"Exceptionally amateurish, with disjointed dialogue, jumpy editing, and performances that would have looked melodramatic even in a silent movie, the clip is clearly designed to offend Muslims, portraying Mohammed as a bloodthirsty murderer and Lothario and pedophile with omnidirectional sexual appetites.\\\" Reacting to the release of\",\n \"-32.323658274021\"\n ],\n [\n \"that's their decision not to show the image of Muhammad or not — it's Parker and Stone\\\", he said. \\\"Like little whores, they'll sit there and grab the bucks. They'll sit there and they'll whine and they'll take their shot at Jesus. That's their stock in trade.\\\" In response to these criticisms, Parker and Stone agreed with these groups, noting that while images of Muhammed were forbidden, it instead appeared to be “open season” on Jesus, hence their depiction to illustrate the hypocrisy of the network. The duo subsequently made Donohue a villain in the 2007 episode \\\"Fantastic Easter Special\\\".\\nThe\",\n \"-32.29001667746343\"\n ],\n [\n \"against the Pope and the worshippers of Idols [the Muslims mistakenly thought that Catholic Christians worshipped images of the saints and Christ, not understanding the Catholic principle of image veneration as elaborated in church councils]; they also told them not to hate the Muslims because they are the sword of God in the world against the idol-worshippers. That is why they side with the Muslims.\\n— Al-Hajari, The Book of the Protector of Religion against the Unbelievers \\nHe then met with Erpenius there, as well as with the future explorer Peter Nuyts. In the series of Moroccan envoys to the Dutch Crown,\",\n \"-32.28433685400523\"\n ],\n [\n \"Torah and the New Testament. In another scene, the Muhammad is seen speaking to the donkey known as Ya'fur in Islamic tradition. Reviews A Vanity Fair article described the video as \\\"Exceptionally amateurish, with disjointed dialogue, jumpy editing, and performances that would have looked melodramatic even in a silent movie, the clip is clearly designed to offend Muslims, portraying Mohammed as a bloodthirsty murderer and Lothario and pedophile with omnidirectional sexual appetites.\\\"\\nReuters said \\\"it portrays Mohammad as a fool, a philanderer and a religious fake and in one clip posted on YouTube, he was shown in an apparent sexual act\",\n \"-32.20493634069862\"\n ],\n [\n \"Muslims are in practice treated as a group based on their religion, and that the cartoons were intended to represent all of Islam and all Muslims in a negative way, not just Muhammad. Erik Bleich said that while the cartoons did essentialise Islam in a potentially racist way, they ranged from offensive to pro-Muslim so labelling them as a group was problematic. The Economist said Muslims were not targeted in a discriminatory way, since unflattering cartoons about other religions or their leaders are frequently printed. For Noam Chomsky, the cartoons were inspired by a spirit of \\\"ordinary racism under\",\n \"-32.138000603663386\"\n ],\n [\n \"depicting Muhammad In December 1999, the German news magazine Der Spiegel printed on the same page pictures of \\\"moral apostles\\\" Muhammad, Jesus, Confucius, and Immanuel Kant. Few weeks later, the magazine received protests, petitions and threats against publishing depictions of Muhammad. The Turkish TV-station Show TV broadcast the telephone number of an editor who then received daily calls. A picture of Muhammad had been published by the magazine once before in 1998 in a special edition on Islam, without evoking similar protests.\\nIn 2008, several Muslims protested against the inclusion of Muhammad's depictions in the English Wikipedia's Muhammad article. An online\",\n \"-32.00046317465603\"\n ],\n [\n \"and unverified—she has a history of posting misleading videos. Describing herself on her Twitter account as \\\"faithful to God and Britannia\\\", she had made over 15,000 tweets since opening the account in mid-2016. One of the videos (titled \\\"Muslim migrant beats up Dutch boy on crutches!\\\") purported to show an assault by a Muslim immigrant. According to the Dutch embassy in the US, the teenage perpetrator was \\\"born and raised in the Netherlands\\\"; and the embassy later confirmed that he was not Muslim. Another video (\\\"Muslim Destroys a Statue of Virgin Mary!\\\") was filmed during the Syrian Civil War in\",\n \"-31.742081279749982\"\n ],\n [\n \"Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which do present still and moving representations of living beings) have an exceptional impact on public opinion, sometimes, as in the case of Al-Jazira, with a global reach, beyond the Arabic speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes and coins, in streets and offices (e.g.: presidents like Nasser and Mubarak, Arafat, Al-Asad or Hezbollah's Nasrallah and ayatollah Khomeini). Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to be found in most Muslim countries (Saddam Hussain's are infamous\",\n \"-31.57286103462684\"\n ],\n [\n \"Muhammad, which was responded to with reactions of violent riots, global protests and death threats toward the artists. As a result of those incidents, many publications and television studios have refused to broadcast images of Muhammad whatsoever, which was the inspiration behind Tom Cruise's efforts to harvest Muhammad's apparent immunity to satire and ridicule. Parker and Stone addressed the Muhammad issue in their two-part tenth season episode \\\"Cartoon Wars\\\", during which they attempt to show an image of the prophet, only to reveal that Comedy Central has forbidden any such image from being broadcast on their network. However, Muhammad had\",\n \"-31.472945805755444\"\n ],\n [\n \"as terrorists in media, so we should look into backgrounds and reasons for an activity before labelling people.\\\" \\nHe criticizes the portrayal of Muslims in films saying, \\\"Hundreds of movies were made in Hollywood to malign the image of Islam that a non-Muslim gets scared when he heard a Muslim saying 'Allah Akbar', thinking that he is going to kill him. If anyone really wants to know how good Islam is, he or she has to study its authentic sources; the glorious Quran and Hadith rather than looking to its followers (Muslims) as is the case with a motorist whose\",\n \"-31.405409356113523\"\n ],\n [\n \"over depictions of Muhammad, questionning issues relating to the religious offense to minorities in secular countries. A key case was the 1989 fatwa against English author Salman Rushdie for his 1988 book entitled The Satanic Verses, the title of which refers to an account that Muhammad, in the course of revealing the Quran, received a revelation from Satan and incorporated it therein until made by Allah to retract it. Several translators of his book into foreign languages have been murdered. In the UK, many supporters of Salman Rushdie and his publishers advocated unrestricted freedom of expression and the abolition of\",\n \"-31.350572142982855\"\n ],\n [\n \"are part of our society, not strangers. The cartoons are including, rather than excluding, Muslims.\\\" The publication of the cartoons was also accompanied by an editorial titled 'Truslen fra mørket ('The Threat from the Darkness) condemning Islamic spiritual leaders \\\"who feel entitled to interpret the prophet's word, and cannot abide the insult that comes from being the object of intelligent satire.\\\" In October 2005, Politiken, another leading Danish newspaper, published its own poll of thirty-one of the forty-three members of the Danish cartoonist association. Twenty-three said they would be willing to draw Muhammad. One had doubts, one would not\",\n \"-31.30608501128154\"\n ],\n [\n \"The footage of Muhammad was compared to other iconic images of children under attack: the boy in the Warsaw ghetto (1943), the Vietnamese girl doused with napalm (1972), and the firefighter carrying the dying baby in Oklahoma (1995). Catherine Nay, a French journalist, argued that Muhammad's death \\\"cancels, erases that of the Jewish child, his hands in the air before the SS in the Warsaw Ghetto.\\\"\\nPalestinian children were distressed by the repeated broadcasting of the footage, according to a therapist in Gaza, and were re-enacting the scene in playgrounds. Arab countries issued postage stamps bearing the images. Parks and streets\",\n \"-31.272241931641474\"\n ],\n [\n \"Muslims promote the idea that if we \\\"insult\\\" him (despite the fact that he's dead), that we should be killed.\\\" The website says that Mohammad was a \\\"false prophet\\\" and that the \\\"Islamic ideology itself is clearly one of hatred and violence, which is declaring war against the entire non-Islamic world... it is determined to dominate the world, just as Nazism was.\\\" The website came out against plans to build an Islamic cultural center near Ground Zero in New York, and said this was the reason why. \\\"Because Islam is a hateful and violent ideology which preaches hate and violence\",\n \"-31.17639901652001\"\n ],\n [\n \"Yemen and he could see the gates of Sana. According to Muslim historians, these prophesies were fulfilled in subsequent times. Visual representation In Islam, although nothing in the Quran explicitly bans images, some supplemental aḥādīth (Arabic: أَحَادِيث, 'traditions') explicitly ban the drawing of images of any living creature. Hence, Muslims generally avoid visual depictions of Muhammad or any other prophet such as Moses or Abraham. Most Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets of Islam should be prohibited and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad. The key concern is that the use of images can encourage\",\n \"-31.152254606888164\"\n ],\n [\n \"they refused and instead taunted Muhammad by claiming his God is poor. Islamic tradition says that the Quran verse 3:118 was revealed because of the comments. It states:\\nO you who believe! do not take for intimate friends from among others than your own people; they do not fall short of inflicting loss upon you; they love what distresses you; vehement hatred has already appeared from out of their mouths, and what their breasts conceal is greater still; indeed, We have made the communications clear to you, if you will understand.\\nQuran 3:12 and 3:13 is also related to this event.\",\n \"-31.071584563178476\"\n ],\n [\n \"publication in September 2005 of 12 cartoons depicting Islam and Muhammad. The most notorious of these showed Muhammed with a bomb in his turban. This drew protests from Muslims living in Denmark, followed in early 2006 by protests throughout the Muslim world.\\nThe newspaper has been accused of misusing freedom of speech by Muslim groups and a number of ethnic Danish intellectuals. The Muhammad cartoons controversy resulted in withdrawal of the ambassadors of Libya, Saudi Arabia and Syria from Denmark, as well as consumer boycotts of Danish products in a number of Islamic countries.\\nThe newspaper has apologised for offending Muslims, but\",\n \"-30.944117195438594\"\n ],\n [\n \"idea, not only because depicting Mohammed \\\"is inconsiderate of the sensibilities of others\\\", but also because \\\"it defines those others—Muslims—as being outside of our culture, unworthy of the courtesy we readily accord to insiders.\\\" Bill Walsh of Bedford Minuteman wrote critically of the initiative, which seemed \\\"petulant and childish\\\" to him: \\\"It attempts to battle religious zealotry with rudeness and sacrilege, and we can only wait to see what happens, but I fear it won’t be good.\\\" Janet Albrechtsen wrote in The Australian, \\\"As a cartoon, it was mildly amusing. As a campaign, it's crass and gratuitously offensive.\\\" Writing for\",\n \"-30.92847037652973\"\n ],\n [\n \"bin Fahd, Muhammad Al-Munajid, Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan, and Saleh al-Maghamsi and thousands of Saudi clerics viewed the series negatively. Traditional historicitic and depictional controversy In the events of the Islamic prophet Muhammad's living era, Muhammad himself, his children and wives were not depicted but many direct actions of him have been shown redirected from any other sahaba near to him for the restrictions and limitations of Muhammad's visual depiction in the Islamic world. Although in a sequence before the death of Abu Bakr, there was a shadow depiction of Aisha shown silently conversing with her father. The dress\",\n \"-30.89289267687127\"\n ],\n [\n \"within the meaning of the relevant international human rights instruments\\\" although \\\"some of the more controversial pictures may nevertheless be judged 'gratuitously offensive' to the religious beliefs of Muslims in accordance with the applicable case-law of the European Court of Human Rights.\\\" This means that the Danish authorities probably could have prohibited the drawings' dissemination if they had chosen to. Randall Hansen said that the cartoons were clearly anti-Islamic, but that this should not be confused with racism because a religion is a system of ideas not an inherent identity. Tariq Modood said that the cartoons were essentially racist because\",\n \"-30.858129827684024\"\n ],\n [\n \"and a Qur'an in the other\\\". Commissioner Elliot Cohen described Condell's comments as \\\"insulting, degenerating and racist\\\".\\nCondell then accused Cohen of being \\\"motivated by his own narrow personal and political agenda which has nothing to do with [Condell] or the video clip\\\". The video was initially sent to them by fellow Peace and Justice Commissioner Jonathan Wornick, who said it \\\"tries to expose intolerance in the Muslim world\\\", such as \\\"the intolerance of radical Islamists who say if you insult Allah, you should have your head cut off\\\". Condell said that its popularity proves \\\"there is an enthusiastic audience for\",\n \"-30.587914549396373\"\n ],\n [\n \"Aniconism in Islam Theological views The Quran, the Islamic holy book, does not explicitly prohibit the depiction of human figures; it merely condemns idolatry. Interdictions of figurative representation are present in the hadith, among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter part of the period when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, they need to be interpreted in order to be applied in any general manner.\\nSunni exegetes of tafsir, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions against producing and\",\n \"-30.562919397372752\"\n ],\n [\n \"Koeppel replied that he did not consider the caricatures of Muhammad in the same vein. Islamic governments and NGOs The public anger was accompanied by a condemnation from Arabic and Islamic governments as well as Islamic non-governmental organizations (NGOs).\\nThe Justice and Islamic Affairs Minister of the United Arab Emirates, Mohammed Al Dhaheri, called it \\\"cultural terrorism, not freedom of expression\\\", according to the official WAM news agency. \\\"The repercussions of such irresponsible acts will have adverse impact on international relations.\\\"\\nIn Tunisia, Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri, president of the Islamic Organization for Education, Science and Culture (ISESCO, the Islamic world's counterpart to\",\n \"-30.53090840106597\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Muslims, wrapped in the garb of treachery and knavery. Such writings have resulted in creating the Dutch mental-image of Muslims as poly-haremic, licentious, barbaric and mis-managers.\\\"\\nWhat is remarkable in such impassioned criticism is that it finds nothing wrong in the notion of No-go areas in today's world based upon one's religious affiliation. On the other hand, the mindset behind it actively seeks justification for condemning those who dare defy it. In fact according to L.I. Graf, there was no other possibility for Snouck Hurgronje to be admitted to Mecca without becoming a practicing Muslim:\\n\\\"Wel bestond voor SH natuurlijk geen\",\n \"-30.424249784089625\"\n ],\n [\n \"asked people not to follow the calls from those proposing to publish caricatures of Muhammad in all countries, especially in Ukraine, where mutual understanding and friendship between Ukrainians is very important against the background of the information and armed war against our country. He thought that not without reason Khodorkovsky had called for the publication of caricatures of Muhammad. S. Ismagilov asked journalists to be correct, not to incite resentment within the country over the crimes of individuals and expressed willingness to explain the position of Islam and answer questions. Political career S.Ismagilov participated in parliamentary election for the Verkhovna\",\n \"-30.2775616615545\"\n ],\n [\n \"Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among others) as People of the Book since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have a divine origin. Christians however neither recognize the Qur'an as a genuine book of divine revelation, nor agree with its assessment of Jesus as a mere prophet, on par with Muhammad, nor for that matter accept that Muhammad was a genuine prophet.\\nMuslims, for their part, believe that parts of the Gospels, Torah and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten, misinterpreted, or distorted by their followers. Based on that perspective, Muslims view\",\n \"-30.252576878854597\"\n ],\n [\n \"by other Muslims, on the grounds that the artifacts are idolatrous or shirk. However, sometimes those who profess aniconism will practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Talibans from the Kandahar photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography).\\nFor Shia communities, portraits of the major figures of Shiite history are important elements of religious devotion. In Iran, portraits of Muhammad and of Ali, printed on pieces of cloth or woven into carpets, are called temsal (\\\"likenesses\\\") and can be bought around shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself. In Pakistan, India and Bangladesh portraits\",\n \"-30.224660900305025\"\n ],\n [\n \"Jyllands-Posten published an article entitled \\\"Muhammeds ansigt\\\" (\\\"The face of Muhammad\\\") incorporating the cartoons. The article consisted of the 12 cartoons and an explanatory text, in which Rose wrote:\\nModern, secular society is rejected by some Muslims. They demand a special position, insisting on special consideration of their own religious feelings. It is incompatible with contemporary democracy and freedom of speech, where one must be ready to put up with insults, mockery and ridicule. It is certainly not always attractive and nice to look at, and it does not mean that religious feelings should be made fun of at any\",\n \"-30.164411660574842\"\n ],\n [\n \"the most righteous. They believe in God as a single entity, not as the Trinity accepted by the vast majority of Christians. Neither do Muslims accept Jesus' crucifixion. Since Muslims believe only in the worship of a strictly monotheistic God who never assumed human flesh, they do not accept the use of icons, and see this as shirk (idolatry). Muslim influence played a part in the initiation of iconoclasm and their conquests caused the iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire. For the same reason, they do not worship or pray to Muhammad, Jesus, or any other prophets; only to God.\\nAdherents of\",\n \"-30.03863359769457\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Muhammad. The cover of a 2011 issue retitled Charia Hebdo (French for Sharia Weekly), featured a cartoon of Muhammad, whose depiction is forbidden in some interpretations of Islam. The newspaper's office was fire-bombed and its website hacked. In 2012, the newspaper published a series of satirical cartoons of Muhammad, including nude caricatures; this came days after a series of violent attacks on U.S. embassies in the Middle East, purportedly in response to the anti-Islamic film Innocence of Muslims, prompting the French government to close embassies, consulates, cultural centres, and international schools in about 20 Muslim countries. Riot police surrounded\",\n \"-30.011449010344222\"\n ],\n [\n \"by Muslims who objected to her statements. The Prosecutor's office decided not to initiate a case, because her critique did \\\"not put forth any conclusions in respect to Muslims and their worth as a group is not denied\\\". Film with Theo van Gogh Working with writer and director Theo van Gogh, Hirsi Ali wrote the script and provided the voice-over for Submission (2004), a short film that criticised the treatment of women in Islamic society. Juxtaposed with passages from the Qur'an were scenes of actresses portraying Muslim women suffering abuse. An apparently nude actress dressed in a semi-transparent burqa was\",\n \"-30.0044286751654\"\n ],\n [\n \"website published a video which falsely claimed a Muslim migrant beat up a Dutch boy on crutches. \\nGeller denies she is anti-Muslim, saying \\\"I love Muslims. I help them.\\\" She has said the only \\\"moderate Muslim is a secular Muslim\\\", and that when Muslims pray, they are cursing Jews and Christians. She has claimed that Muslims practice bestiality. Geller has said that \\\"Islam is the most anti-Semitic, genocidal ideology in the world\\\". She has said terrorists don't spring from \\\"perversions of Islam but from the religion itself\\\". \\nShe has been criticized by the Anti-Defamation League, Council on American-Islamic Relations and\",\n \"-29.93887891707709\"\n ],\n [\n \"depict Muhammad as a \\\"sexual pervert\\\" for the consummation of his marriage to Aisha when she was nine or ten years old at the time. In one clip, Muhammad is shown with an erection, taking the girl to a mosque adorned with a Nazi swastika, in preparation of her deflowering. Following calls from the Minister of Justice, Ernst Hirsch Ballin, to not increase tension in society, Jami decided against its release. He spoke of his fears that the Dutch police would be unable to adequately protect his safety, and of the possibility of a fatwa calling for his death being\",\n \"-29.92544590635225\"\n ],\n [\n \"Criticism of Muhammad Ex-Muslim Atheist/Agnostic criticism Many early former Muslims such as Ibn al-Rawandi, Al-Ma'arri, and Abu Isa al-Warraq were famous religious skeptics, polymaths, and philosophers that criticized Islam, the alleged authority and reliability of the Qu'ran, Muhammad's morality, and his claims to be a prophet.\\nThe Quran also mentions critics of Muhammad; for example Quran 25:4-6 says the critics complained that Mohammad was passing off what others were telling him as revelations:\\nThose who disbelieve say, \\\"This is nothing but a lie that he made up, and others have helped him at it...Tales of the ancients; he wrote them down; they\",\n \"-29.789264420978725\"\n ],\n [\n \"Muhammad Although depictions of Muhammad are often forbidden, the few that exist often include images of angels. Specifically, the Archangel Gabriel is frequently shown alongside the prophet. For example, in The Timurid Book of the Prophet Muhammad’s Ascension, the Archangel Gabriel appears to the Prophet Muhammad in Mecca to announce his ascension. Kneeling before Muhammad, Gabriel is shown with colorful wings and a crown. Later in The Timurid Book, Muhammad is shown with Gabriel meeting a group of angels in heaven. In the Jami' al-tawarikh, a Persian history from the 14th century, Muhammad is depicted beside al-Buraq, whose tail is\",\n \"-29.762202540616272\"\n ],\n [\n \"Reactions to Innocence of Muslims Context of reactions The late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen several major incidents of the Islamic world taking offence at pictorial or written representation of Muhammad and his teachings. In practice people have been brought to trial, killed or had a fatwa called on them for a wide range of acts that have been cited as blasphemous, including depicting Mohammad either in writing or in some other manner that was perceived as insulting. Background A trailer for a movie called Innocence of Muslims, described by Reuters as depicting the Islamic prophet, Muhammad \\\"as\",\n \"-29.661416184622794\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Ali can be found on notoriously ornate trucks, buses and rickshaws. Contrary to the Sunni tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shiite tombs. A curiosity in Iran is an Orientalist photography supposed to represent Muhammad as a young boy. The Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwā declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect. Circumvention methods Medieval Muslim artists found various ways to represent especially sensitive figures such as Muhammad. He is sometimes shown with a\",\n \"-29.6298227327934\"\n ],\n [\n \"dirty movie or video, the internet pornography. That is becoming a real problem... And if this is a difficulty for you, then do talk to someone about it in confidence. You see, it is the intending to look in order to have that arousal that Jesus has in his sights.\\\" Islam In Islam, intentional lascivious glances are forbidden. Lascivious thoughts are disliked, for they are the first step towards adultery, rape and other antisocial behaviors. Prophet Muhammad also stressed the magnitude of the \\\"second glance\\\", as the first glance towards an attractive member of the opposite sex could be just\",\n \"-29.606398725751205\"\n ],\n [\n \"images of Muhammad next to cards identifying him by name. Schapira also obtained, from a Palestinian journalist, what appeared to be footage of him arriving at the hospital on a stretcher. During an emotional public funeral in the Bureij refugee camp, Muhammad was wrapped in a Palestinian flag and buried before sundown on the day of his death, in accordance with Muslim tradition.\\nJamal was taken at first to the Al-Shifa Hospital in Gaza. Dr. Ahmed Ghadeel said Jamal had received multiple wounds from high-velocity bullets striking his right elbow, right thigh and the lower part of both legs; his femoral\",\n \"-29.470619979780167\"\n ],\n [\n \"was ok and he personally apologised to the cartoonist Westergaard. Westergaard responded by saying \\\"I met a man who has converted from being an Islamist to become a humanist who understands the values of our society. To me, he is really sincere, convincing and strong in his views.\\\" A spokesman for the Islamic Society of Denmark said \\\"It is still not OK to publish drawings of Muhammad. We have not changed our position.\\\" Charlie Hebdo controversies and attacks The French satirical weekly newspaper Charlie Hebdo was taken to court for publishing the cartoons; it was acquitted of charges that it\",\n \"-29.41590709378943\"\n ],\n [\n \"were named in Muhammad's honour, and Osama bin Laden mentioned him in a \\\"warning\\\" to President George Bush after 9/11. The images were blamed for the 2000 Ramallah lynching and a rise in antisemitism in France. One image could be seen in the background when journalist Daniel Pearl, an American Jew, was beheaded by al-Qaeda in February 2002.\\nSections of the Jewish and Israeli communities, including the Israeli government in 2013, described the statements that IDF soldiers had killed the boy as a \\\"blood libel,\\\" a reference to the centuries-old allegation that Jews sacrifice Christian children for their blood. Comparisons were\",\n \"-29.414313993416727\"\n ],\n [\n \"not the true Islam.\\\" Professor Clive Williams, who teaches at Macquarie University's Centre for Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, believes Mohammad's extremist videos should be taken off the internet.\",\n \"-29.411944715830032\"\n ],\n [\n \"like Muhammad, the only prophet that Muslims do not share with Jews and Christians, was perceived as the last in a long list of humiliations and assaults: it is probably not a coincidence that the more violent demonstrations were held in countries like Syria, Iran and Libya, whose relations with the West are tense.\\\" Yusuf al-Qaradawi, a prominent Islamic theologian, called for a day of anger from Muslims in response to the cartoons. He supported calls for a UN resolution that \\\"categorically prohibits affronts to prophets—to the prophets of the Lord and His messengers, to His holy books, and to\",\n \"-29.402672259675455\"\n ],\n [\n \"allegations made by Islamic organisations including the Tamil Nadu Muslim Munnetra Kazagham (TMMK), while negotiations are still in progress. TMMK leader M. H. Jawahirullah claimed, \\\"There is a danger that the public may view any Muslim with a beard as a terrorist waiting for an opportunity to plant a bomb\\\". Kamal Haasan released a protest note, criticising them for using an \\\"icon bashing\\\" tactic in order to politically profile themselves. Contrary to Jawahirullah, he also stated, that the movie would be giving Muslims a sense of pride. Haasan took the matter to the Madras High Court, seeking an immediate rollback\",\n \"-29.371112319349777\"\n ],\n [\n \"zealots who would deny that others at other times and places perceived and illustrated Muhammad in different ways.\\\"\\nBoston College professor Jonathan Laurence, co-author of Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, has said that he told the Press that it should reproduce the original Jyllands-Posten newspaper page that included the cartoon. \\\"I was consulted by the press about the decision whether or not to publish. I suggested that they publish the newspaper page in its entirety as documentary evidence of the episode being discussed,\\\" he told The Times. \\\"I actually know another professor who was\",\n \"-29.32833568235219\"\n ],\n [\n \"mistrust of Islam\\\".\\nIn 2018, Conservative MP Michael Fabricant apologised for tweeting a photoshopped image depicting a balloon caricature of Sadiq Khan (mimicking the Trump baby balloon during the president's visit to the UK) having sex with a pig. The image was condemned by Hope not Hate as well as Warsi. Labour MP Wes Streeting raised the issue with the government's chief whip. No action was taken against Fabricant.\\nIn October 2018, recently selected London Mayoral candidate Shaun Bailey was accused of Islamophobia and Hinduphobia after it was reported that had written a pamphlet in 2005, entitled No Man’s Land, for the\",\n \"-29.30966634536162\"\n ],\n [\n \"website, on a page tiled \\\"Religious apartheid in Saudi Arabia\\\", a picture of a sign showing Muslim-only and non-Muslim roads.\\nIn 2007, there were news reports that according to Saudi policy for tourists it was not permissible to bring non-Muslim religious symbols and books into the kingdom as they were subject to confiscation, and that the U.S. State Department disputed this, saying that the regulation restrictions were no longer in place. The 2007 U.S The U.S State Department International Religious Freedom (IRF) report detailed several cases in which bibles were confiscated in Saudi Arabia, but said that there were fewer reports\",\n \"-29.27457109023817\"\n ],\n [\n \"in homes or carried with oneself, while in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh they notoriously ornate trucks, buses and rickshas. Contrary to the Sunni tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shi'ite tombs. A curiosity in Iran is a Orientalist photography supposed to represent Prophet Muhammad as a young boy. The Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwa declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the Prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect.\\nPast – Neither is the representation of living beings in Islamic countries a modern phenomenon\",\n \"-29.18274505645968\"\n ],\n [\n \"utensils and pure silk spreads in the household in order to avoid luxurious lifestyles in the home. Statues are also prohibited in homes, and Muslims are prohibited from participating in making statues because of the idea of negating the Oneness of Allah. Shirk It is considered a sin for a Muslim to worship anyone other than Allah, which is known as shirk.\\nThe following is a Quranic verse on shirk:\\nSay: I am forbidden to worship those on whom ye call instead of God. Say: I will not follow your desires, for then should I go astray and I should not\",\n \"-29.173894562452915\"\n ],\n [\n \"goes on to suggest his \\\"visions\\\" came as a result of epileptic seizures and the interventions of a renegade Nestorian monk named Sergius. Later presentations The depiction of Islam in the Travels of Sir John Mandeville is also relatively positive, though with many inaccurate and mythical features. It is said that Muslims are easily converted to Christianity because their beliefs are already so similar in many ways, and that they believe that only the Christian revelation will last until the end of the world. The moral behaviour of Muslims at the time is shown as superior to that of Christians,\",\n \"-29.169843774754554\"\n ],\n [\n \"about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.\\nThe earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad. During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events. Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a \\\"broader\",\n \"-29.14523863210343\"\n ],\n [\n \"early work, while feeling the singer remained \\\"as flashy\\\" and confident as ever. Reception Contemporary critics universally commended the music video for its themes and production values. The video was both heralded and criticized for confronting women's rights in Saudi Arabia; the portrayal of women wearing the niqab driving cars is strictly prohibited in Saudi Arabia, while some media outlets accused the video of propagating Arab stereotypes. Claire Suddath of Time agreed that at first glance, the video appeared to be a political statement on women drivers in Saudi Arabia and a stylish, aesthetically pleasing piece, stating that the video\",\n \"-29.13769995587063\"\n ],\n [\n \"all Muslims if they saw another Muslim under attack.\\\"\\nIn response to the Quebec City mosque shooting he promoted the controversial view that, rather than being the act of a lone shooter, the involvement of an accomplice had been covered up by the Canadian government and police.\\nAccording to the National Post he has also said \\\"Islam is riddled with termites ... and if we don’t cleanse ourselves with truth, the stench of our lies will drive us mad\\\", and that there are \\\"hateful sermons in almost every mosque\\\" in Canada – Fatah himself does not attend a mosque and encourages Muslim parents\",\n \"-29.133716048905626\"\n ],\n [\n \"said that followers of other religions also did not accept the notion that terrorism is associated with Muslims, and that \\\"this is an auspicious development for restoring peace among different cultures in the world.\\\"\\nUnited Arab Emirates Foreign minister, Abdullah Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, condemned the film as being critical and insulting to Muhammad.\\nThe Yemeni parliament condemned the film, calling it inflammatory, discriminatory towards Muslims, and promoting religious violence and hatred, whilst stressing the need to respect all religions, cultures, and civilizations without prejudice. Europe In Denmark, Kurt Westergaard, the cartoonist from one of the Jyllands-Posten cartoons of Muhammed, has expressed\",\n \"-29.075484878674615\"\n ],\n [\n \"In the original video, Ahok says, \\\"Ladies and gentlemen […] you have been deceived by the use of Al Maidah 51 [of the Quran]\\\", while in the accompanying texts, Buni wrote, \\\"Ladies and gentlemen [Muslim voters] have been deceived by Al Maidah 51.\\\"\\nThe videos went viral and Basuki was criticised in social media such as Facebook and Twitter. A Change.org petition criticising him gained tens of thousands of signatures. Several organizations, including the Islamic Defenders Front (Indonesian acronym: FPI) and a local chapter of the Indonesian Ulema Council, reported Basuki to the police, accusing him of having violated Indonesia's Law\",\n \"-29.064040224882774\"\n ],\n [\n \"terms of its relationships with its neighbours\\\". In response to these accusations, Bassma Kodmani published a response explaining that the video was fabricated in order to hurt her reputation as it took her answers out of context and cut everything that she said in defense of the rights of Arabs, Muslims and Palestinians. She described this video as nothing more than an attempt of the government to destabilize the Syrian National Council.\",\n \"-29.051530272932723\"\n ],\n [\n \"at least 2001 until the cartoon crisis. Aniconism The Qur'an condemns idolatry, and this has led some Islamic scholars to interpret it as prohibiting figurative representation; this is known as aniconism. However, since Islam has many centres of religious authority, opinion and tradition about this is not uniform. In popular practice today there is no general injunction against pictorial representation of people outside of religious contexts. Generally, images of Muhammad have been prohibited throughout history. In practice, images of Muhammad have been made on many occasions, generally in a restricted and socially regulated way; for example, they are often\",\n \"-29.034447509562597\"\n ],\n [\n \"scripture, nor did you inscribe one with your right hand. Otherwise the falsifiers would have had [cause for] doubt\\\", is thought to indicate that Muhammad was illiterate and had not read any earlier scriptures.\\nThe Quran disclaims any superhuman characteristics for Muhammad but describes him as a man possessing the highest moral excellence (Quran 68:5 \\\"And thou dost, surely, possess sublime moral excellences\\\"). God made him a good example or a \\\"goodly model\\\" for Muslims to follow (68:4, and 33:21). full of sympathy for Muslims (\\\"Grievous to him is what you suffer; [he is] concerned over you and to the believers\",\n \"-29.032379096955992\"\n ],\n [\n \"the picture. [Through the media] it lands at the government, who then act surprised at the existence of ex-Muslims in Malaysia and that something needs to be done. (...) A lot of people, especially those involved in the photos, are now going into hiding because we don't know what's gonna happen. (...) Of course [I'm afraid too].\\\"\\nIn November 2017 the government and the Internet regulator Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission had demanded that Atheist Republic's page and similar atheist pages on Facebook be taken down. However, Facebook refused to do so because the pages did not violate any of the\",\n \"-28.99450380401686\"\n ],\n [\n \"that certain fanatical Muslims displayed, but the foundation for such ills in the Koran and core Islamic texts. The Jerusalem Post writes, \\\"Sina, who runs Faith Freedom International – an Internet forum dedicated to debunking Islam – considers himself 'probably the biggest anti-Islam person alive.' His latest book is titled, Understanding Muhammad: A Psychobiography of Allah's Prophet. In it, Sina suggests that Muhammad suffered from a series of mental disorders, including narcissistic personality disorder, temporal lobe epilepsy and obsessive compulsive disorder. 'These disorders,' he says, 'can explain the phenomenon known as Islam... which is nothing but one man's insanity.'\\\"\\nThrough his\",\n \"-28.991915812017396\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the 14-minute video were uploaded to YouTube in July 2012, under the titles The Real Life of Muhammad and Muhammad Movie Trailer. Videos dubbed in Arabic were uploaded during early September 2012. Anti-Islamic content had been added in post-production by dubbing, without the actors' knowledge.\\nWhat was perceived as denigrating of the Islamic prophet Muhammad resulted in demonstrations and violent protests against the video to break out on 11 September in Egypt and spread to other Arab and Muslim nations and to some western countries. The protests have led to hundreds of injuries and over 50 deaths. Fatwas calling for\",\n \"-28.962312763324007\"\n ],\n [\n \"Expert Finder, pointing out that despite aniconism the depiction of Muhammad is not wholly forbidden in Islam, and so in principle it should be possible for non-Muslims to draw him as well, although stating, \\\"What should be an issue, however, are all possible implications between visual representation and bigotry.\\\" He also defended the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution in the way that it's an important right of all Americans. Threat on Molly Norris's life, forced into hiding On July 11, 2010, it was reported that the Yemeni-American al-Qaeda cleric Anwar al-Awlaki had put Molly Norris on a hitlist. In\",\n \"-28.959360934677534\"\n ],\n [\n \"Muhammad was \\\"an absolute wild-eyed fanatic ... a robber and a brigand.\\\" On the July 14, 2005 broadcast of The 700 Club, he claimed that \\\"Islam, at its core, teaches violence.\\\"\\nOn the March 13, 2006 broadcast of The 700 Club Robertson stated that Muslims want global domination and that the outpouring of rage elicited by cartoon drawings of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad \\\"just shows the kind of people we're dealing with. These people are crazed fanatics, and I want to say it now: I believe it's motivated by demonic power. It is Satanic and it's time we recognize what we're\",\n \"-28.940789984655567\"\n ],\n [\n \"should not keep using phrases such as \\\"the corrupt culture of the west\\\" etc. in our words. As it's also said in the Holy Koran, \\\"Do not insult the gods of others, otherwise you are indirectly insulting your God\\\".\\n— February 15, 2006. Bewilderment Certain secular Muslims have expressed bewilderment at the reaction these cartoons have provoked. A Danish member of parliament, Muslim Naser Khader stated, \\\"My impression from different Arabic media is that the dominant position – perhaps surprising for some – can be summarised as follows: We cannot as Muslims dictate that non-Muslims comply with the allegedly prohibited depiction\",\n \"-28.93852340709418\"\n ],\n [\n \"attacks against Muslims, particularly Muslim women who wear the hijab. Many blamed the attacks on the divisive rhetoric surrounding the debate, and accused the PQ of exploiting the debate for political gain.\\nIn 2015, then Prime Minister Stephen Harper, while answering questions about terrorism suspects, said \\\"it doesn't matter what the age of the person is, or whether they're in a basement, or whether they're in a mosque or somewhere else.\\\" The remarks were seen as casting mosques as \\\"venues of terrorism\\\", by the NCCM, who expressed concerns about increased attacks on mosques as a result of this perception. The leader\",\n \"-28.92236070265062\"\n ],\n [\n \"the fact that a Holocaust survivor like Tommy Lapid reacted to the image of a Palestinian woman foraging in the rubble by thinking of his grandmother who died in Auschwitz. The use of cartoons insulting Muslims by depicting Muhammad as a bomber is defended as \\\"freedom of speech\\\", while using the Holocaust in drawings is deplored as \\\"hatred against the Jews\\\".\\nLatuff was included in Simon Wiesenthal Center's 2012 Top Ten Anti-Israel/Anti-Semitic Slurs list, which he considered \\\"a joke worthy of a Woody Allen movie\\\". He also claimed that Zionist lobbying groups try to associate him with well-known extremists and racists\",\n \"-28.911049933783943\"\n ],\n [\n \"on March 28, 2008, condemning the film for reinforcing prejudices by implying that all Muslims are terrorists. The Committee said that the portrayal of Muslims in this manner was counterproductive, and that the Dutch Jewish community, along with the Dutch Muslim community and all of Dutch society, has a duty to combat all religious-based terrorism, and to protect everyone against those who wish to overthrow democracy or promote religious hatred.\\nPolitician, and former Muslim, Ehsan Jami had intended to release an animated cartoon entitled The Life of Mohammed on April 20, 2008. The film, critical of Islam and Muhammad, was to\",\n \"-28.902017891909054\"\n ],\n [\n \"process where individuals are putting on a religious identity. It's all about being a Muslim, you shed the rest of it or you downplay the rest of it and you try to make everyone else as pious as yourself. And this would be, looking back at San Bernardino, the telltale signs. These changes that the family, the friends, the close circle of relatives should have observed.\\\" Muhammad Hirsi Ali criticises the central Islamic prophet on morality and personality traits (criticisms based on biographical details or depictions by Islamic texts and early followers of Muhammad). In January 2003 she told the\",\n \"-28.854076960444218\"\n ],\n [\n \"depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to Western security and values. Benn and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and Muslims are \\\"closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as barbaric, irrational, primitive and sexist.\\\"\\nThere have been various instances in the media about how the Muslim community are often misrepresented to society, mostly in a way that centers heavily on terrorism, and paints Islam with a very broad brush. This is something that is seen in two major magazines, Newsweek and Time, which have been covering relations between the U.S. and Afghanistan over the last decade. Both of\",\n \"-28.83486571907997\"\n ],\n [\n \"suis Palestinian\\\" while watching the Republican marches, which together with other comments drew condemnation from his party leader, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg.\\nOn 16 January 2015, protests against the continued creation of cartoons depicting Muhammad turned violent in several countries, including Algeria, Nigeria and Pakistan. Protesters shouted \\\"I am not Charlie, I am Muhammad\\\" and President of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated that the cartoons had nothing to do with freedom of expression, but rather with \\\"terrorising the freedom of others.\\\" In the city of Zinder, 4 died and 45 were wounded battling police.\\nIn response to the issue of Charlie\",\n \"-28.833278620208148\"\n ],\n [\n \"be willing because of fear of possible reprisals, and six artists would not be willing because they respected the Muslim ban on depicting Muhammad. Description of the cartoons The 12 cartoons were drawn by 12 professional cartoonists in Denmark. Four of the cartoons have Danish texts, one deliberately evades the issue and depicts a school child in Denmark named Muhammad rather than the Islamic prophet, one is based on a Danish cultural expression, and one includes a Danish politician. Response The immediate responses to the publication included newspaper sellers refusing to distribute that day's paper. In the following days, the\",\n \"-28.807604675123002\"\n ],\n [\n \"so hypocritical against our own thoughts, if we said, 'Okay, well let's not make fun of them because they might hurt us. Okay, we'll rip on the Catholics because they won't hurt us, but we won't rip on [Muslims] because they might hurt us.'\\\" The Muhammad subplot in \\\"200\\\", like the \\\"Cartoon Wars\\\" episodes, advocates for free speech and speaks out against censorship, both of Muhammad's image and any subject considered taboo. \\\"200\\\" also demonstrates the double standard in the handling of offensive images of Muhammad and other religious figures, particularly in the scene in which Muhammad is censored altogether,\",\n \"-28.774915820293245\"\n ],\n [\n \"that \\\"All this behavior has nothing to do with Islam... But it is actually a conspiracy planned by Zionism and some Christians with Zionist orientations and it aims at undermining and giving a bad image of Islam.\\\" He further added that media portrayal of the attack the Our Lady of Salvation Church in Baghdad was \\\"a conspiracy against Arabs and the pre-dominantly Muslim Arab world that aims at depicting Arabs and Muslims in Arab countries as terrorist and fundamentalist murderers in order to deny them their rights and especially those of the Palestinians.”\\nIn March 2011 Patriarch Gregory said “we Christians\",\n \"-28.765777402208187\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the show. The group's spokesman, Ibrahim Hooper, said, \\\"People are pretty tired of this whole 'Let's insult the prophet Muhammad thing.'\\\" Revolution Muslim entry The website for the organization Revolution Muslim, a New York-based organization, posted an entry that included a warning to creators Parker and Stone that they risk retribution for their depictions of Muhammad. It said that they \\\"will probably wind up like Theo van Gogh for airing this show.\\\" Filmmaker Theo van Gogh was murdered by an Islamist in 2004 for making a short documentary on the violence against women in some Islamic societies. The posting\",\n \"-28.76277886866592\"\n ],\n [\n \"Party, Lars Hedegaard, gave an interview in which he declared that Muslims \\\"rape their own children. It is heard of all the time. Girls in Muslim families are raped by their uncles, their cousins or their fathers.\\\" He also stated that \\\"Whenever it is prudent for a Muslim to hide his true intentions by lying or making a false oath in his own or in Islam’s service, then it is ok to do it.\\\"\\nSøren Krarup a fellow party member, said that Hedegaard's remarks were justified, though they could have been more \\\"carefully\\\" stated. He instead blamed the controversy on a\",\n \"-28.748708700411953\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the prophet.\\\" One Arab journalist based in Brussels wrote that \\\"It is perplexing that a few crude cartoons can spark an international crisis overshadowing war, political oppression and economic and social injustice. It has hurt the image of Muslims and reflects poorly on their tolerance.\\\" Support for free speech Khaled Diab argues that Muslims cannot impose their own values on people of other faiths. Freedom of expression should permit people to express whatever opinions they have, even if they are offensive, he argues. Yet responsibility, respect, and sensitivity should lead mainstream media outlets to assess the effect the material\",\n \"-28.714699353004107\"\n ],\n [\n \"are sometimes even decorated with images. These images are usually important islamic landmarks, such as the Kaaba, but they are never animate objects. This is because the drawing of animate objects is forbidden in islam.\\nWhen praying, a niche, representing the mihrab of a mosque, at the top of the mat must be pointed to the Islamic center for prayer, Mecca. All Muslims are required to know the qibla or direction towards Mecca from their home or where they are while traveling. The Transylvanian miracle: Islamic rugs in Protestant Churches The Saxon Lutheran Churches, parish storerooms and museums of Transylvania safeguard\",\n \"-28.708120760740712\"\n ],\n [\n \"response to the 2015 Charlie Hebdo shooting Chinese state-run media attacked Charlie Hebdo for publishing the cartoons insulting Muhammad, with the state-run Xinhua advocated limiting freedom of speech, while another state-run newspaper Global Times said the attack was \\\"payback\\\" for what it characterised as Western colonialism and accusing Charlie Hebdo of trying to incite a clash of civilizations.\\nDifferent Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government in regards to religious freedom. Religious freedom is present for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build Mosques, and have their children attend Mosques, while more controls are\",\n \"-28.684164999052882\"\n ],\n [\n \"Los Angeles, the Jewish Journal weekly changed its masthead that week to Jewish Hebdo and published the offending Muhammad cartoons.\\nThe Guardian reported that many Muslims and Muslim organisations criticised the attack while some Muslims support it and other Muslims stated they would only condemn it if France condemned the killings of Muslims worldwide\\\". Zvi Bar'el argued in Haaretz that believing the attackers represented Muslims was like believing that Ratko Mladić represented Christians. Al Jazeera English editor and executive producer Salah-Aldeen Khadr attacked Charlie Hebdo as the work of solipsists, and sent out a staff-wide e-mail where he argued: \\\"Defending freedom\",\n \"-28.6572732408531\"\n ],\n [\n \"Democrat parliamentary candidate Maajid Nawaz, a secular Muslim, posted a \\\"Jesus and Mo\\\" image on his Twitter account. The image depicts Jesus saying \\\"Hey\\\" and Mohammed saying \\\"How ya doin'\\\". Shafiq then posted on Twitter \\\"We will notify all muslim organisations in the UK of his despicable behaviour and also notify Islamic countries.\\\" Shafiq further Tweeted \\\"Ghustaki Rasool Quilliam,\\\" so linking Nawaz's anti-extremist think tank with an Urdu term which means \\\"defamer of the prophet\\\", which under Islamic law is a crime that carries a death penalty. Maajid Nawaz has since received a number of death threats. Shafiq\",\n \"-28.657105558319017\"\n ],\n [\n \"Muhammad, Fatima, Ali, Hasan and Husayn implying they are only members of \\\"Ahl al-Bayt\\\". Under this dogma, only Muhammad's direct lineage holds a spiritual leadership and governorship over the Muslim community. In contrast, the Sunnis believe Muhammad was not referring solely to the five people in the room. Instead, Sunnis hold any muslim of good faith can attain spiritual leadership and governorship. The discrepancy between the two interpretations stems from Umm Salama's narration of the verse of purification and Hadith of Cloak.\\nSome exegesis, including Amina Wadud interpret the first line, \\\"stay quietly in your houses, and make not a dazzling\",\n \"-28.633380790241063\"\n ],\n [\n \"animals. Muhammad has been described as being more bashful than a maiden.\\nModesty in dressing has particularly been emphasized. According to Islamic Law, known as sharia, Muslims are required to cover their body parts with proper dressing. Sharia has also laid down specific guidelines for men and women regarding their dressing. Covering everything from 'navel to knee' is mandatory for men. In some Muslim societies, women wear the niqab, a veil that covers the whole face except the eyes, or the full burqa, a full-body covering garment that occasionally does cover the eyes. Following is the most frequently cited verse of\",\n \"-28.609606630867347\"\n ],\n [\n \"Medieval Christian views on Muhammad Overview In contrast to the views of Muhammad in Islam, the Christian image stayed highly negative for over a millennium. Early Middle Ages The earliest written Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from Byzantine sources, written shortly after Muhammad's death in 632. In the anti-Jewish polemic the Teaching of Jacob, a dialogue between a recent Christian convert and several Jews, one participant writes that his brother \\\"wrote to [him] saying that a deceiving prophet has appeared amidst the Saracens\\\". Another participant in the Doctrina replies about Muhammad: \\\"He is deceiving. For do prophets come with sword\",\n \"-28.576679293997586\"\n ],\n [\n \"Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam Image veneration Sunnis are particularly critical of the \\\"love of visual imagery evident in Shia popular devotionalism\\\" and regularly cite this characteristic (often referred to as 'Shia iconography') as proof of Shia deviance or heresy.\\nThe Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwā declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect. The Occultation In the tradition of Twelver Shia Islam, the twelfth and final Shia Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is also considered by Twelver Shia to be the prophesied redeemer\",\n \"-28.561338262748905\"\n ],\n [\n \"Muslims as 'the Mothers of all Believers'.\\nOther issues many Muslims have found offensive include Abraham being called a \\\"bastard\\\" for casting Hagar and Ishmael in the desert; and a character named Salman the Persian who serves as one of the Prophet's scribes, an apparent reference to the story, controversial among Muslims, of a Meccan convert by the name of Ibn Abi Sarh, who left Islam after the Prophet failed to notice small changes he had made in the dictation of the Qur'an.\\nDaniel Pipes identified other more general issues in the book likely to have angered pious Muslims: A complaint in\",\n \"-28.559955560718663\"\n ],\n [\n \"price, but that is of minor importance in the present context. ... we are on our way to a slippery slope where no-one can tell how the self-censorship will end. That is why Morgenavisen Jyllands-Posten has invited members of the Danish editorial cartoonists union to draw Muhammad as they see him.\\n— Flemming Rose, \\nLater, Rose explained his intent further in The Washington Post: \\\"The cartoonists treated Islam the same way they treat Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and other religions. And by treating Muslims in Denmark as equals they made a point: We are integrating you into the Danish tradition of satire because you\",\n \"-28.54903532145545\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sunni scholars, Muslims of the past should be considered companions if they had any contact with Muhammad, and they were not liars or opposed to him and his teachings. If they saw him, heard him, or were in his presence even briefly, they are companions. All companions are assumed to be just (udul) unless they are proven otherwise; that is, Sunni scholars do not believe that companions would lie or fabricate hadith unless they are proven liars, untrustworthy or opposed to Islam.\\nSome Quranic references are important to Sunni Muslim views of the reverence due to all companions; It sometimes admonishes\",\n \"-28.54154212283902\"\n ],\n [\n \"web site, Sina lists references to Muhammad's actions and offers $50,000 to anyone who can disprove his charge that Muhammad was \\\"a narcissist, a misogynist, a rapist, a pedophile, a lecher, a torturer, a mass murderer, a cult leader, an assassin, a terrorist, a madman and a looter\\\". When asked why he fights Islam, he replied, \\\"When I read the Quran and felt blood dripping from every verse of it, when I saw that Islam reduces humans into beasts and makes monsters out of good people, when it became clear to me that there is NOTHING good in Islam and\",\n \"-28.506614056415856\"\n ],\n [\n \"name of Islam are not equally condemned by Muslims.\\nVarious commentators across the political spectrum view the Muslim reaction to the cartoons, be it the actual violence or the non-violent justification for the violence, as evidence of what Samuel Huntington predicted in his 1993 book, The Clash of Civilizations, namely, \\\"…the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic…the dominating source of conflict will be cultural…\\\"\\nDaniel Pipes argues that the pattern of events shows Muslim hypocrisy and supremacism:\\n...will Westerners accede to a double standard by which Muslims are free to insult Judaism, Christianity,\",\n \"-28.506433563190512\"\n ],\n [\n \"critical of Mohammed called 'The Innocence of Muslims'. The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt have put out an arrest warrant for seven Copt Christians in Canada and America for their alleged involvement in the making of the film, which also led to worldwide riots by Muslims. In March 2013 the al Qaeda English-language magazine Inspire published a poster stating \\\"Wanted dead or alive for crimes against Islam\\\" with a prominent image of Terry Jones.\\nIran's news agency, Press TV, reported on April 8, 2013, that Terry Jones plans another Quran burning event on September 11, 2013. On April 11, Press TV published\",\n \"-28.480391344754025\"\n ],\n [\n \"friend, so a non-Muslim could be your associate but they can't be a friend. They're not your friend because they don't understand your religious principles and they cannot because they don't understand your faith.\\\" He later contextualized his comment, explaining that Muslim people, including him, invariably have friends, neighbors and colleagues who are non-Muslims, but that does not mean that non-Muslims should influence Muslims' religious or moral decisions.\\nYasin has lectured to students at universities as a guest speaker and on debate panels. He also addresses crowds at events aimed at young people. Yasin has made statements describing western civilization's academic\",\n \"-28.466441020311322\"\n ],\n [\n \"Not all of the cartoons submitted in response to his invitation featured images of Muhammed. Two of them caricatured Bluitgen, one mocked Jyllands-Posten itself, while others caricatured Danish politicians. The most famous of the cartoons, by Kurt Westergaard, depicted Muhammad with a bomb in his turban.\\nIn February 2006, Rose wrote an essay for the Washington Post entitled \\\"Why I Published Those Cartoons.\\\" He noted that Kurt Westergaard had previously drawn outrageous cartoons of Jesus and the Star of David, neither of which had led to \\\"embassy burnings or death threats\\\". Rose asked: \\\"Has Jyllands-Posten insulted and disrespected Islam?...When I visit\",\n \"-28.45046927081421\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":75,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3ln11h"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why are human eyes usually blue, brown or green as opposed to any other colors?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["The stroma (top layer of the iris) is what determines eye color. For those with no melanin (pigment that makes eyes or skin a warm brown), the only color comes from the Tyndall effect of light scattering in the iris. This creates a blue color, like water with glacial flour or dirty smoke. When the stroma has a little melanin, it looks green because this blue combines with the the orangey brownish melanin. When it has a lot of melanin, the brown color takes over completely.","The most unsatisfying but efficient answer is probably that there hasn't been a genetic mutation for a different eye color that has persisted. It can happen though. Blue is actually a relatively recent addition being traced back to a single mutation about 6000 years ago. It's possible that pigments that produce other colors would carry some sort of disadvantage either directly to one's eyesight, or at least they drastically lowered their suitability to potential mates. I'm assuming you're counting Hazel as a shade of brown btw Outside your list there is also occasionally gray eyes.","Follow-up to that: how can my eyes \"change color?\" I have a blue/grey look most of the time, but my eyes get more grey and foggy when I'm sick.","Hey! Finally!!! Anyone know how a person gets reddish-brown eyes with amber rings? Those are my eyes and I often get asked what color they are, to which I just say \"brown\", but people often correct me, saying no....they're like....goldish...or the color of watered cola....yesterday someone described them as \"indian red\" (she says its a crayon color...idk) My mother has brown eyes and my dad has green. My sisters have blue-grey and green eyes. edit: sorry for the delay! URL_0 edit: someone says amber but I think amber eyes are lighter than mine. I think mine are just both light and dark brown at the same time. Depending on the type of light reflecting on them they lean more towards red-brown or more towards yellow-brown. for reference this was taken in the evening yesterday. My hair is auburn. I dyed it to match my eyes :)","Everyone tells me I have yellow demon eyes or \"baby shit\" coloured eyes. Never know whether to take either as an insult or compliment"],"string":"[\n \"The stroma (top layer of the iris) is what determines eye color. For those with no melanin (pigment that makes eyes or skin a warm brown), the only color comes from the Tyndall effect of light scattering in the iris. This creates a blue color, like water with glacial flour or dirty smoke. When the stroma has a little melanin, it looks green because this blue combines with the the orangey brownish melanin. When it has a lot of melanin, the brown color takes over completely.\",\n \"The most unsatisfying but efficient answer is probably that there hasn't been a genetic mutation for a different eye color that has persisted. It can happen though. Blue is actually a relatively recent addition being traced back to a single mutation about 6000 years ago. It's possible that pigments that produce other colors would carry some sort of disadvantage either directly to one's eyesight, or at least they drastically lowered their suitability to potential mates. I'm assuming you're counting Hazel as a shade of brown btw Outside your list there is also occasionally gray eyes.\",\n \"Follow-up to that: how can my eyes \\\"change color?\\\" I have a blue/grey look most of the time, but my eyes get more grey and foggy when I'm sick.\",\n \"Hey! Finally!!! Anyone know how a person gets reddish-brown eyes with amber rings? Those are my eyes and I often get asked what color they are, to which I just say \\\"brown\\\", but people often correct me, saying no....they're like....goldish...or the color of watered cola....yesterday someone described them as \\\"indian red\\\" (she says its a crayon color...idk) My mother has brown eyes and my dad has green. My sisters have blue-grey and green eyes. edit: sorry for the delay! URL_0 edit: someone says amber but I think amber eyes are lighter than mine. I think mine are just both light and dark brown at the same time. Depending on the type of light reflecting on them they lean more towards red-brown or more towards yellow-brown. for reference this was taken in the evening yesterday. My hair is auburn. I dyed it to match my eyes :)\",\n \"Everyone tells me I have yellow demon eyes or \\\"baby shit\\\" coloured eyes. Never know whether to take either as an insult or compliment\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["eye's iris and the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris. In humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black. The appearance of blue, green, and hazel eyes results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, an optical effect similar to what accounts for the blueness of the sky. The irises of the eyes of people with blue eyes contain less dark melanin than those of people with brown eyes, which means that they absorb less short-wavelength blue light, which is instead reflected out to the viewer.","-35.2931926465244"],["have amber eyes as a common color, whereas in humans this color occurs less frequently. Blue There is no blue pigmentation either in the iris or in the ocular fluid. Dissection reveals that the iris pigment epithelium is brownish black due to the presence of melanin. Unlike brown eyes, blue eyes have low concentrations of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which lies in front of the dark epithelium. Longer wavelengths of light tend to be absorbed by the dark underlying epithelium, while shorter wavelengths are reflected and undergo Rayleigh scattering in the turbid medium of the stroma. This","-34.26913895615144"],["to ten different classes of visual pigment in their eyes. By comparison, humans have three with maximum sensitivities in the blue (442 nm), green (543 nm) and yellow (570 nm). It is the differential responses of these receptor cells that enable color vision.\nIt has been known for a long time that a light attracts fish, shrimp and insects at night. But what is the best color for a light attractor? Based on the biology of visual receptors discussed above, the light should be blue or green — the space colors of fish and members of their food chain. However, while blue or green","-33.92953079205472"],["presence of a brighter color contrast. Yellow, orange, red, or rose objects are still perceived as such if the general illumination level is low, despite reflecting the same amount of red or orange light as a brown object would in normal lighting conditions. Brown eyes In humans, brown eyes result from a relatively high concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is most common in East","-33.92703400211758"],["an eye that is light brown/amber near the pupil and charcoal or dark green on the outer part of the iris (or vice versa) when observed in sunlight.\nDefinitions of the eye color hazel vary: it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with light brown or gold, as in the color of a hazelnut shell.\nHazel eyes occur throughout Caucasoid populations, in particular in regions where blue, green and brown eyed peoples are intermixed. Red and violet The eyes of people with severe forms of albinism may appear red under certain lighting conditions owing to the extremely low quantities of melanin, allowing","-33.33872237819014"],["absorbing at 600 nm. The amount of red light emerging from the pupil depends on the amount of melanin in the layers behind the retina. This amount varies strongly between individuals. Light-skinned people with blue eyes have relatively low melanin in the fundus and thus show a much stronger red-eye effect than dark-skinned people with brown eyes. The same holds for animals. The color of the iris itself is of virtually no importance for the red-eye effect. This is obvious because the red-eye effect is most apparent when photographing dark-adapted subjects, hence with fully dilated pupils. Photographs taken with infrared light","-33.10548048838973"],["research purposes, Seddon et al. developed a graded system based on the predominant iris color and the amount of brown or yellow pigment present. There are three pigment colors that determine, depending on their proportion, the outward appearance of the iris, along with structural color. Green irises, for example, have blue and some yellow. Brown irises contain mostly brown. Some eyes have a dark ring around the iris, called a limbal ring.\n\nEye color in non-human animals is regulated differently. For example, instead of blue as in humans, autosomal recessive eye color in the skink species Corucia zebrata is black, and","-33.08115271606948"],["amounts of yellow and brown color in the iris. Green As with blue eyes, the color of green eyes does not result simply from the pigmentation of the iris. The green color is caused by the combination of: 1) an amber or light brown pigmentation in the stroma of the iris (which has a low or moderate concentration of melanin) with: 2) a blue shade created by the Rayleigh scattering of reflected light. Green eyes contain the yellowish pigment lipochrome.\nGreen eyes probably result from the interaction of multiple variants within the OCA2 and other genes. They were present in south","-33.06830385199282"],["concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed.\nDark brown eyes are dominant in humans and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is common in Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa and the Americas. The majority of people in the world overall have brown eyes to dark brown eyes.\nLight or medium-pigmented brown eyes can also be commonly found in South Europe, among the Americas, and parts of Central","-33.01262755168136"],["color is halfway between white and black. Red's complement is green which is also halfway between white and black. With red and green, the retina's qualitatively divided activity consists of two equal halves.\nRed and green are two completely equal qualitative halves of the retina's activity. Orange is 2/3 of this activity, and its complement, blue, is only 1/3. Yellow is ¾ of the full activity, and its complement, violet, is only ¼.\nThe range of all colors contains a continuous series of innumerable shades that blend into each other. Why are red, green, orange, blue, yellow, and violet given names and","-32.99557653191732"],["pheomelanin (also known as lipochrome), is dominant within the iris. Pheomelanin is also found on individuals with green eyes in much smaller amounts. This is because green eyes have a strong presence of both melanin and pheomelanin. Often in poor lighting, one may mistake amber eyes for brown. This also happens when viewed from far away or in pictures with poor lighting as well. However, in natural or well lit areas, it is very easy to tell the difference between the two colors. Another common mistake people make is referring to amber eyes as hazel. Although similar, hazel eyes","-32.94582877516223"],["due to the deposition of the yellow pigment called lipochrome in the iris (which is also found in green eyes). Amber eyes should not be confused with hazel eyes; although hazel eyes may contain specks of amber or gold, they usually tend to comprise many other colors, including green, brown and orange. Also, hazel eyes may appear to shift in color and consist of flecks and ripples, while amber eyes are of a solid gold hue. Even though amber is considered to be like gold, some people have russet or copper colored amber eyes that many people mistake for hazel,","-32.82405667146668"],["Green eyes There is no green pigment in green eyes; like the color of blue eyes, it is an optical illusion; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma, given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin, with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light. Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe. They can also be found in Southern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. In Iceland, 89% of women and 87% of men have either blue or green","-32.73724859813228"],["a blue-green can be brightened but retain the same hue. The system is not perfect, as it does not distinguish yellow from a red-green mixture, but can powerfully detect subtle environmental changes.\nThe existence of cells sensitive to three different wavelength ranges (most sensitive to yellowish green, cyanish-green, and blue – not red, green and blue) was first shown in 1956 by Gunnar Svaetichin. In 1983 it was validated in human retinas in an experiment by Dartnall, Bowmaker, and Mollon, who obtained microspectrophotopic readings of single eye cone cells. Earlier evidence for the theory had been obtained by looking at light","-32.527749726199545"],["often called blue, green, and red, but more accurately known as short, medium, and long wavelength-sensitive cone subtypes. It is a lack of one or more of the cone subtypes that causes individuals to have deficiencies in colour vision or various kinds of colour blindness. These individuals are not blind to objects of a particular colour, but are unable to distinguish between colours that can be distinguished by people with normal vision. Humans have this trichromatic vision, while most other mammals lack cones with red sensitive pigment and therefore have poorer dichromatic colour vision. However, some animals have four spectral","-32.519818212022074"],["that individuals with temporally eccentric pupils see red in front of blue, while with nasally eccentric pupils the relief is reversed.\" Einthoven first explained chromatic aberration in the eye, which means that the eyes will not focus all the colors at the same time. Depending on the wavelength, the focal point in the eyes varies. He concluded that the reason why people see red in front of blue is because light with different wavelengths project onto different parts of the retina. When the vision is binocular, a disparity is created, which causes depth perception. Since red is focused temporally, it","-32.40560856962111"],["not just due to the white colour of the human sclera, which many other species share, but also to the fact that the human iris is relatively small and comprises a significantly smaller portion of the exposed eye surface compared to other animals. It is theorized that this adaptation evolved because of our social nature as the eye became a useful communication tool in addition to a sensory organ. It is believed that the conspicuous sclera of the human eye makes it easier for one individual to identify where another individual is looking, increasing the efficacy of this particular form","-32.37583442479081"],["Cooperative eye hypothesis The cooperative eye hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the appearance of the human eye. It suggests that the eye's distinctive visible characteristics evolved to make it easier for humans to follow another's gaze while communicating or while working together on tasks. Differences in primate eyes Unlike other primates, human beings have eyes with a distinct colour contrast between the white sclera, the coloured iris, and the black pupil. This is due to a lack of pigment in the sclera. Other primates have pigmented sclerae that are brown or dark in colour. There is also a higher","-32.25141742188134"],["red are all \"red\" but \"blue\" and \"red\" focal colors are different). This is to say that infants respond to different hues of color in much the same way as adults do, demonstrating the presence of color vision at an age younger than previously expected. Kessen, Bornstein and Weiskopf therefore claim that the ability to perceive the same distinct focal colors is present even in small children. Gladstone and Geiger In their paper Language and thought: Which side are you on anyway?, Regier et al. discuss the presence of a universalist perspective on the color debate in the","-32.126157146383775"],["the autosomal dominant color is yellow-green.\nAs the perception of color depends on viewing conditions (e.g., the amount and kind of illumination, as well as the hue of the surrounding environment), so does the perception of eye color. Changes in eye color Most new-born babies who have European ancestry have light-colored eyes. As the child develops, melanocytes (cells found within the iris of human eyes, as well as skin and hair follicles) slowly begin to produce melanin. Because melanocyte cells continually produce pigment, in theory eye color can be changed. Adult eye color is usually established between 3 and 6 months","-32.07666432810947"],["with age. However, when an optician examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present.\"\nBecause individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.\nThe human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate \"red eye\", due to the red of the","-32.02445513312705"],["to the Icelandic Sagas. Even in modern times, tribal societies whose language appears to have changed little over time also lack a word for blue. As they can distinguish the said color in tests designed for visual acuity, this absence suggests that the difference in perception might lie in the mind rather than the eyes.","-31.898078007783624"],["must be considered an acquired characteristic. Eye color It is fairly common for mammalian eyes to change color in the first years of life. This happens, with human infants and kittens being some well-known examples, because the eyes of the baby, just like the rest of its body, are still developing. This change can be as simple as blue to brown, or can involve multiple color changes in which neither the child's parents nor his/her doctors know when the changes will stop and what the final eye color will be.\nChanges in eye color signal changes in the arrangement and concentration","-31.80004867259413"],["amulets. Blue has been considered especially effective against the evil eye, possibly owing to the relative rarity of the color among Semitic peoples and because blue is so rare in the plant and animal world.\nIn the Torah, the Israelites were commanded to make tassels, tzitzit, on the corners of their garments, and to weave within these tassles a \"twisted thread of blue-violet (Tekhelet).\" The oral law requires that this blue thread be made from a dye extracted from a sea creature known in rabbinic literature as the Ḥilazon. Maimonides claimed that this blue was the color of \"the clear noonday","-31.71265417896211"],["scattering and selective absorption from the posterior epithelium. If melanin is deposited substantially, there will be brown or black color, if not, they will remain blue or gray.\nAll the contributing factors towards eye color and its variation are not fully understood. Autosomal recessive/dominant traits in iris color are inherent in other species but coloration can follow a different pattern. Amber eyes Amber colored eyes are extremely rare in humans. They consist of a solid orange/gold color that may contain lighter shades of the same pigment within the iris. This is an unusual occurrence that happens when the yellow pigment called","-31.70378222706495"],["results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, a phenomenon similar to that which accounts for the blueness of the sky called Rayleigh scattering. Neither blue nor green pigments are ever present in the human iris or ocular fluid. Eye color is thus an instance of structural color and varies depending on the lighting conditions, especially for lighter-colored eyes.\nThe brightly colored eyes of many bird species result from the presence of other pigments, such as pteridines, purines, and carotenoids. Humans and other animals have many phenotypic variations in eye color. The genetics of eye color are complicated, and","-31.655594564278317"],["distinguish the full range of the colors of the spectrum visible to humans, but many kinds of mammals, such as dogs and cattle, have dichromacy, which means they can see blues and yellows, but cannot distinguish red and green (both are seen as gray). Bulls, for instance, cannot see the red color of the cape of a bullfighter, but they are agitated by its movement. (See color vision).\nOne theory for why primates developed sensitivity to red is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and inedible vegetation. This may have driven further adaptations by species taking","-31.626639110734686"],["through night vision devices always show very bright pupils because, in the dark, the pupils are fully dilated and the infrared light is not absorbed by any ocular pigment.\nThe role of melanin in red-eye effect is demonstrated in animals with heterochromia: only the blue eye displays the effect. The effect is still more pronounced in humans and animals with albinism. All forms of albinism involve abnormal production and/or deposition of melanin.\nRed-eye effect is seen in photographs of children also because children's eyes have more rapid dark adaption: in low light a child's pupils enlarge sooner, and an enlarged pupil accentuates","-31.598626926424913"],["but the iris pigment epithelium is not, mammalian eyes appear blue. Melanin in the pigment epithelium is critical for visual acuity and contrast.\nLoss of melanogenesis function is linked to the gene that encodes tyrosinase. Certain alleles of this gene, TYR, at the Color locus, cause oculocutaneous albinism type 1 in humans and the familiar red-eyed albino conditions in mice and other mammals. In other vertebrates Other vertebrates, such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, produce a variety of non-melanin pigments. Disruption of melanin production does not affect the production of these pigments. Non-melanin pigments in other vertebrates are produced by","-31.59271912114491"],["the region of the OCA2 gene among blue-eyed people suggests they may have a single common ancestor.\nAs of 2016, the earliest light-pigmented and blue-eyed remains of Homo sapiens were found in 7,700 years old Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from Motala, Sweden.\nA 2002 study found that the prevalence of blue eye color among the white population in the United States to be 33.8% for those born from 1936 through 1951 compared with 57.4 percent for those born from 1899 through 1905. As of 2006, one out of every six people, or 16.6% of the total population, and 22.3% of whites, has blue","-31.52037300067059"],["green and blue are better received than red and yellow, strongly saturated colors are more common to be chosen, and bright colors are the favor. \nFurthermore, plenty of variables, such as gender and age, have notable effects on individuals' colors' preferences; gender of humans influences conformance and force of colors tendency, and young people are more enjoyable in warm colors including orange and red rather than intense colors such as green which are preferred by older adults. Moreover, several personal characteristics related to colors; outgoing people are more partial to warm colors, and on the other hand, introverts engage in intense","-31.44079450785648"],["light eyes are in a significant excess compared to the levels found in the general population, while, in the UK, models with brown or intermediate eyes were in significant excess over their frequency in the general population. This suggests that eye color rarity plays a role in sexual attraction, people with rare eye colors being perceived as being more attractive. Some research indicates that eye color variation is greater in women than in men, which may reflect sexual selection of mates with rare eye colors. Selection though imprinting of parental eye color In contrast to the phenomenon of selection for","-31.259130240534432"],["Eye color Eye color is a polygenic phenotypic character determined by two distinct factors: the pigmentation of the eye's iris and the frequency-dependence of the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris.\nIn humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black, depending on the concentration of melanin in the iris pigment epithelium (located on the back of the iris), the melanin content within the iris stroma (located at the front of the iris), and the cellular density of the stroma. The appearance of blue and green, as well as hazel eyes,","-31.172748841228895"],["entirely overlaid with broad dark cinnamon-brown striping. Both juveniles and adults have a barred tail, with 3 to 5 dark brown or black bars. Adults always have a white eye stripe or supercilia, which tends to be broader in northern Eurasian and North American birds. In North America, juveniles have pale-yellow eyes, and adults develop dark red eyes usually after their second year, although nutrition and genetics may affect eye color as well. In Europe and Asia, juveniles also have pale-yellow eyes while adults typically develop orange-colored eyes, though some may have only brighter yellow or occasionally ochre or brownish","-31.172375251640915"],["color is determined by multiple genes. So far, as many as 15 genes have been associated with eye color inheritance. Some of the eye-color genes include OCA2 and HERC2. The earlier belief that blue eye color is a simple recessive trait has been shown to be incorrect. The genetics of eye color are so complex that almost any parent-child combination of eye colors can occur. However, OCA2 gene polymorphism, close to proximal 5′ regulatory region, explains most human eye-color variation. Ancient DNA and eye color in Europe People of European descent show the greatest variety in eye color of any","-31.0817190897651"],["of age, though this can be later. Observing the iris of an infant from the side using only transmitted light with no reflection from the back of the iris, it is possible to detect the presence or absence of low levels of melanin. An iris that appears blue under this method of observation is more likely to remain blue as the infant ages. An iris that appears golden contains some melanin even at this early age and is likely to turn from blue to green or brown as the infant ages.\nChanges (lightening or darkening) of eye colors during early childhood,","-31.02242745796684"],["Asia (Middle East and South Asia). Gray Like blue eyes, gray eyes have a dark epithelium at the back of the iris and a relatively clear stroma at the front. One possible explanation for the difference in the appearance of gray and blue eyes is that gray eyes have larger deposits of collagen in the stroma, so that the light that is reflected from the epithelium undergoes Mie scattering (which is not strongly frequency-dependent) rather than Rayleigh scattering (in which shorter wavelengths of light are scattered more). This would be analogous to the change in the color of the sky,","-30.935643955366686"],["but cannot distinguish red. Research indicates that their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, in which certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear more green.\nDichromatic vision is the result of the animal having two types of cones in their eyes: a short-wavelength-sensitive cone (S) that is optimal at 428 nm (blue), and a middle-to-long wavelength sensitive cone (M/L) which sees optimally at 539 nm, more of a yellowish color. This structure may have arisen because horses are most active at dawn and dusk, a time when the rods of the eye are especially useful.\nThe horse's limited ability","-30.865716085769236"],["more light than normal to reflect off the retina and out of the eye. Because of this, the pupillary reflex is much more pronounced in albino individuals, and this can emphasize the red eye effect in photographs. Selection for rare iris colors A study compared the frequency of eye color in commercial advertising models in Brazil and the UK, these countries were chosen because they have inverted frequencies of eye-coloration, with Brazil having an excess of brown and the UK an excess of light-colored eyes. Models are chosen for their attractiveness, and it was found that, in Brazil, models with","-30.845525198907126"],["Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect Lightness Even when they have the same luminance, colored lights seem brighter to human observers than white light does. The way humans perceive the brightness of the lights will be different for everyone. When the colors are more saturated, our eyes interpret it as the color's luminance and chroma. This makes us believe that the colors are actually brighter. An exception to this is when the human observer is red-green colorblind, they cannot distinguish the differences between the lightness of the colors. Certain colors do not have significant effect, however, any hue of colored lights still seem brighter","-30.831767642404884"],["can be a calming color, and symbolize reliability. In the Catholic Church, the Virgin Mary is most often depicted wearing blue, to symbolize being \"full of grace\" by divine favor. Blue is widely used for baby boys' clothes or bedrooms, although the reason blue is so strongly associated with boys is debated. Yellow Yellow is a primary color. It is a color often associated with sunshine or joy. It is sometimes used in association with cowardice or fear, i.e., the phrase \"yellow-bellied\". Children tend to like this color, and it is used to market products to children; it is also","-30.812057688250206"],["of melanin within the iris tissues. Although the processes determining eye color are not fully understood, it is known that inherited eye color is determined by multiple genes. Environmental or acquired factors can alter these inherited traits.\nThe human iris can be seen in a number of various colors. There are three true colors in human eyes that determine the outward appearance: brown, yellow, and grey. The amount of each color an individual has determines the appearance of the eye color.\nCentral heterochromia appears to be prevalent in irises containing low amounts of melanin.\nA famous case of a person with central heterochromia","-30.751986875286093"],["of red–green, blue–yellow, and light–dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue–yellow opponency, but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.\nVisual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via","-30.721437110798433"],["the adnexa. Eye color Although usually dark brown, the iris may be a variety of colors, including blue, hazel, amber, and green. Blue eyes are not uncommon and are associated with white markings or patterns. The white spotting patterns most often linked to blue eyes are splashed white, frame overo, and sometimes sabino. In the case of horses with white markings, one or both eyes may be blue, or part-blue.\nHomozygous cream dilutes, sometimes called double-dilutes, always have light blue eyes to match their pale, cream-colored coats. Heterozygous or single-dilute creams, such as palominos and buckskins, often have light brown eyes.","-30.6988426267053"],["have a stronger presence of melanin with two very distinct colors within the iris (usually green/brown) and often contain many speckles or blotches of mixed hues. Different colors in the two eyes Heterochromia (also known as a heterochromia iridis or heterochromia iridum) is an ocular condition in which one iris is a different color from the other iris (complete heterochromia), or where the part of one iris is a different color from the remainder (partial heterochromia or sectoral heterochromia). Uncommon in humans, it is often an indicator of ocular disease, such as chronic iritis or diffuse iris melanoma, but may","-30.68660794419702"],["appears to be in front. However, under monocular vision, this phenomenon is not observed.\nHowever, Bruecke objected to Einthoven's theory on grounds that not all people see red as closer than blue. Einthoven explained that this negative chromostereopsis is probably due to eccentrically positioned pupils because shifting the pupil can change the position of where light wavelengths focus in the eye. Negative chromostereopsis was further studied by Allen and Rubin who suggested that changing the angle between the pupillary center and visual axis can change the direction of chromostereopsis. If the pupillary center is located temporal to the visual axis, red","-30.637501025688834"],["is sufficient to produce eyeshine that is highly visible to humans (despite our inferior night vision). Eyeshine occurs in a wide variety of colors including white, blue, green, yellow, pink and red. However, since eyeshine is a type of iridescence, the color varies with the angle at which it is seen and the minerals which make up the reflective tapetum-lucidum crystals.\nWhite eyeshine occurs in many fish, especially walleye; blue eyeshine occurs in many mammals such as horses; green eyeshine occurs in mammals such as cats, dogs, and raccoons; and red eyeshine occurs in coyote, rodents, opossums and birds.\nAlthough human eyes","-30.588046555174515"],["Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa, Americas, etc. as well as parts of Eastern Europe and Southern Europe. The majority of people in the world overall have dark brown eyes. Light or medium-pigmented brown eyes are common in Europe, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India, as well as some parts of the Middle East. (See eye color). Brown hair Brown is the second most common color of human hair, after black. It is caused by higher levels of the natural dark pigment eumelanin, and lower levels of the pale pigment pheomelanin. Brown eumelanin is more common among Europeans,","-30.555290865784627"],["almost half of both men and women as their favourite colour. The same surveys also showed that blue was the colour most associated with the masculine, just ahead of black, and was also the colour most associated with intelligence, knowledge, calm and concentration. Shades and variations Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Hues of blue include indigo and ultramarine, closer to violet; pure blue, without any mixture of other colours; Cyan, which is midway in the spectrum between blue and green, and the other blue-greens turquoise, teal, and aquamarine.\nBlue also varies in","-30.475212102697697"],["disrupted by albinism. Abnormal eye development and appearance Melanin functions in the normal development of various parts of the eye, including the iris, retina, eye muscles, and optic nerve. The absence of melanin results in abnormal development of eyes and leads to problems with focusing, and depth perception. The eyes of albino animals appear red because the colour of the red blood cells in the retina can be seen through the iris, which has no pigment to obscure this. Some albino animals may have pale-blue eyes due to other colour generating processes. Albino vertebrates exposed to intense","-30.440380366460886"],["Blue and Lutino). The natural, or 'normal' color is green. There are two types of blue, one blue winged and the second is bright blue wings and bright blue head.","-30.40901334467344"],["in that it is darker than white and brighter than black. The difference between grays and colors, though, is as follows. Light is activity of the retina. Darkness is retinal inactivity. Grays appear when the intensity or strength of the retina's activity is lessened. Colors appear when the whole activity of the retina is divided into partial complementary poles according to ratios. With the merely quantitative, intensive division of the retina's activity, there is only a gradual (by degrees) diminution of the intensity or strength of the retina's full activity. No fractional division of activity in ratios occurs. This lessening","-30.35983674414456"],["Blue in Judaism Blue in Judaism is used to symbolise divinity, because blue is the color of the sky and sea. It can also represent equilibrium, since its hue suggests a shade midway between white and black, day and evening. History From ancient times, blue has been considered a lucky color among the peoples of the Middle East and North Africa. Not unlike their Arab neighbors, Jews of this region have painted their doorposts, heads, and other parts of their bodies with blue dyes; have ornamented their children with blue ribbons and markings; and have used this color in protective","-30.353338912362233"],["mammals, this is because the majority of mammals have only one pigment, melanin. Many animals have pigments other than melanin, and some also have structural colours. Some definitions of albinism, whilst taking most taxa into account, ignore others. So, \"a person or animal with very pale skin, white hair or fur, and pink eyes caused by a medical condition that they were born with\" and \"a person or animal with white skin and hair and pink eyes\" do not include feathers, scales or cuticles of birds, fish and invertebrates. Nor do they include plants. Some definitions","-30.27355372882448"],["from the red toward the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. For that reason bees cannot distinguish red from black (colorless), but they can distinguish the colors white, yellow, blue and violet. Color pigments which reflect UV radiation expand the spectrum of colors which can be differentiated. For example, several blossoms which may appear to humans to be of the same yellow color will appear to bees as having different colors (multicolored patterns) because of their different proportions of ultraviolet.\nFrisch's investigation of a bee's powers of orientation were significant. He discovered that bees can recognize the desired compass direction in three","-30.252268213953357"],["men, and as intelligent by 81 percent. Brown skin A majority of people in the world have skin that is a shade of brown, from a very light honey brown or a golden brown, to a copper or bronze color, to a coffee color or a dark chocolate brown. Skin color and race are not the same; many people classified as \"white\" or \"black\" actually have skin that is a shade of brown. Brown skin is caused by melanin, a natural pigment which is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes. Skin pigmentation in humans evolved to primarily regulate","-30.24413416677271"],["green, barely discernible for most people. The Himba have created a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark shades (zuzu in Himba), very light (vapa), vivid blue and green (buru) and dry colors as an adaptation to their specific way of life.\nPerception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented. For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects)","-30.189866834989516"],["colour is a light, buttery yellow to a pale orange. Their eyes are green and their pupils are black. Their belly colour is mother-of-pearl, the same as it is for normals.\nT-Albinos (Tyrosinase negative albinos) are very similar to the T+ in appearance. They are usually red in body colour with white body markings and a bright white belly. The eyes are green with red pupils.\nAnerythristic Characterized by a grey/blue overtone, some mild yellow colour is not uncommon on the sides, similar to Anery corn snakes. The markings on the body are similar to that of the normals, pale cream/white in","-30.15643405605806"],["color is actually the activity of the eye's retina. It is a sensation. The external body is perceived as the cause of the sensation of color. We say, \"The body is red.\" In reality, though, color exists only in the retina of the eye. It is separate from the external object. Color is a mere sensation in the sense organ. The external object is perceived by the intellect's understanding as being the cause of sensations. § 2 Newton, Goethe, and all other color theorists began by investigating light and colored bodies in order to find the cause of color. They","-30.091045222827233"],["abnormally vascularised iris. Despite the wide range of colors, the only pigment that contributes substantially to normal human iris color is the dark pigment melanin. The quantity of melanin pigment in the iris is one factor in determining the phenotypic eye color of a person. Structurally, this huge molecule is only slightly different from its equivalent found in skin and hair. Iris color is due to variable amounts of eumelanin (brown/black melanins) and pheomelanin (red/yellow melanins) produced by melanocytes. More of the former is found in brown-eyed people and of the latter in blue and green-eyed people. Genetic and physical","-30.043625301099382"],["blue all within the same eye, without any sign of eye disease.\nOne eye with a white or bluish-white iris is also known as a walleye. Iridology Iridology (also known as iridodiagnosis) is an alternative medicine technique whose proponents believe that patterns, colors and other characteristics of the iris can be examined to determine information about a patient's systemic health. Practitioners match their observations to iris charts which divide the iris into zones corresponding to specific parts of the human body. Iridologists see the eyes as \"windows\" into the body's state of health.\nIridology is not supported by quality research studies and","-30.031044299917994"],["the living eye except when viewed with light from which red has been filtered. Function Structures in the macula are specialized for high-acuity vision. Within the macula are the fovea and foveola that both contain a high density of cones, which are nerve cells that are photoreceptors with high acuity.\nIn details, the normal human eye contains three different types of cones, with different ranges of spectral sensitivity. The brain combines the signals from neighboring cones to distinguish different colors. There is only one type of rod, but the rods are more sensitive than the cones, so in dim light","-30.014112683595158"],["most common places where pigmentation is visible are the nose, lips, gums, feet, tail, and the rims of the eyes, which may be black, brown, light yellow-brown (\"liver\", caused by having two genes for chocolate), or several other colours. A Labrador can carry genes for a different colour, for example a black Labrador can carry recessive chocolate and yellow genes, and a yellow Labrador can carry recessive genes for the other two colours. DNA testing can reveal some aspects of these. Less common pigmentations (other than pink) are a fault, not a disqualification, and hence such dogs are still permitted","-30.00535923219286"],["effect in the blue eye, but not in the other eye. This is due to the combined effect of the (normal) presence of a tapetum lucidum in both eyes and the absence of melanin in the blue eye. The tapetum lucidum produces eyeshine in both eyes, but in the non-blue eye a layer of melanin over the tapetum lucidum selectively removes some colors of light.","-29.986391824684688"],["common in Tabby cats as well as the Chinchilla Longhair and its shorthaired equivalents are notable for their black-rimmed sea-green eyes. Hazel Hazel eyes are due to a combination of Rayleigh scattering and a moderate amount of melanin in the iris' anterior border layer. Hazel eyes often appear to shift in color from a brown to a green. Although hazel mostly consists of brown and green, the dominant color in the eye can either be brown/gold or green. This is how many people mistake hazel eyes to be amber and vice versa. This can sometimes produce a multicolored iris, i.e.,","-29.983007680013543"],["so important as that the colour should be even and extend to the belly or undercut and no eye circles. In fact, a self colour free from chinchillation on cheeks and hind feet. Eyes hazel.\nDescription of terms used:\nFlecking or Mealiness - Individual hairs more than one colour in selfs. e.g. Blacks should be black at the tip of the fur, that colour carrying down the fur as far as possible, then merging into blue. In flecked or mealy exhibits the individual fur would be black, then dark grey, then a deeper shade before merging into blue at the base.\nChinchillation -","-29.846043449651916"],["Humans and primates are unique as they possess trichromatic color vision, and are able to discern between violet [short wave (SW)], green [medium wave (MW)], and yellow-green [long wave (LW)]. Mammals other than primates generally have less effective two-receptor color perception systems, allowing only dichromatic color vision; marine mammals have only a single cone type and are thus monochromats. Honey- and bumblebees have trichromatic color vision, which is insensitive to red but sensitive in ultraviolet to a color called bee purple.\nOther animals, such as tropical fish and birds, have more complex color vision systems than humans. There is evidence that","-29.841609768845956"],["eyes; both colours cause a different outcome.","-29.750550117343664"],["colors. Researchers prove that humans who have high optimum stimulation level are more likely to choose red colors rather than blue.\nStudies, which refer to the link between colors and particular individual responses, includes notions of size affected by colors, personal evaluations, and beliefs influenced by colors of goods packaging and sale surroundings. It also contains physiological responses which are suggested by a numerous of studies that warm colors and high saturated colors create stronger physical stimulation, emotional responses produced by different colors, and behavioral reactions which connect with the choices of products. Hypotheses According to literature, colors' components affect personal","-29.65943632100243"],["associated with heat, blue with cold, and green with an agreeable temperature. Red is associated with dry, blue with wet, and green, in the middle, with dampness. Red is the most active color, blue the most passive; green, in the middle, is the color of neutrality and calm, sometimes used in architecture and design for these reasons. Blue and green together symbolize harmony and balance. Jealousy and envy Green is often associated with jealousy and envy. The expression \"green-eyed monster\" was first used by William Shakespeare in Othello: \"it is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds","-29.65357061184477"],["the halobacteria.\nAnimals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment. Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment. Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment. For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light. Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially. Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet.","-29.642532757570734"],["the English word \"green\"). However, in Japan, although the traffic lights have the same colors that other countries have, the green light is described using the same word as for blue, aoi, because green is considered a shade of aoi; similarly, green variants of certain fruits and vegetables such as green apples, green shiso (as opposed to red apples and red shiso) will be described with the word aoi.\nSimilarly, languages are selective when deciding which hues are split into different colors on the basis of how light or dark they are. English splits some hues into several distinct colors according","-29.6203255460714"],["the blood vessels to show through. In addition, flash photography can sometimes cause a \"red-eye effect\", in which the very bright light from a flash reflects off the retina, which is abundantly vascular, causing the pupil to appear red in the photograph. Although the deep blue eyes of some people such as Elizabeth Taylor can appear violet at certain times, \"true\" violet-colored eyes occur only due to albinism. Medical implications Those with lighter iris color have been found to have a higher prevalence of age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) than those with darker iris color; lighter eye color is also associated","-29.579494241334032"],["is the same frequency-dependence of scattering that accounts for the blue appearance of the sky. The result is a \"Tyndall blue\" structural color that varies with external lighting conditions.\nIn humans, the inheritance pattern followed by blue eyes is considered similar to that of a recessive trait (in general, eye color inheritance is considered a polygenic trait, meaning that it is controlled by the interactions of several genes, not just one). In 2008, new research tracked down a single genetic mutation that leads to blue eyes. \"Originally, we all had brown eyes,\" said Eiberg. Eiberg and colleagues suggested in a study","-29.5776238462131"],["MC1R, ASIP, OCA2, and TYR. There is evidence that as many as 16 different genes could be responsible for eye color in humans; however, the main two genes associated with eye color variation are OCA2 and HERC2, and both are localized in Chromosome 15. Analysis of blood proteins Before the discovery of DNA, scientists used blood proteins (the human blood group systems) to study human genetic variation. Research by Ludwik and Hanka Herschfeld during World War I found that the incidence of blood groups A and B differed by region; for example, among Europeans 15 percent were group B and","-29.533934630919248"],["existence and into the open, although most species kept their relatively poor color vision. Exceptions occur for some marsupials (which possibly kept their original color vision) and some primates—including humans. Primates, as an order of mammals, began to emerge around the beginning of the Paleogene Period.\nPrimates have re-developed trichromatic color vision since that time, by the mechanism of gene duplication, being under unusually high evolutionary pressure to develop color vision better than the mammalian standard. Ability to perceive red and orange hues allows tree-dwelling primates to discern them from green. This is particularly important for primates in the detection of","-29.529809015686624"],["the background “space” color and one or more visual pigments offset from this blue-green region, say, in the red or ultraviolet region of the spectrum. This imparts a clear survival advantage to these animals because they can detect not only changes in light intensity but also contrasts in color. Many fish, for example, have two color receptors, one in the blue region of the spectra (425-490 nm) and the other in the near UV (320-380 nm). Insects and shrimp, members of the fish food chain, have blue, green (530 nm) and near UV receptors. In fact, some aquatic animals have up","-29.462287551141344"],["shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white. Darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue; while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. (For a more complete list see the List of colours). Types For more, see section Pigments and dyes., Blue pigments were originally made from minerals such as lapis lazuli, cobalt and azurite, and blue dyes were made from plants; usually woad in Europe, and Indigofera tinctoria, or true indigo, in Asia and Africa. Today most blue pigments and dyes","-29.461645239032805"],["white people is why the olm is called human fish in some languages. However, its skin retains the ability to produce melanin, and will gradually turn dark when exposed to light; in some cases the larvae are also colored. Its pear-shaped head ends with a short, dorsoventrally flattened snout. The mouth opening is small, with tiny teeth forming a sieve to keep larger particles inside the mouth. The nostrils are so small as to be imperceptible, but are placed somewhat laterally near the end of the snout. The regressed eyes are covered by a layer of skin. The olm breathes","-29.455167013642495"],["Brown (racial classification) Brown or light-brown is a racial and ethnic term. Like black people and white people, it is a metaphor for race based solely on human skin color. In racialist ideas, the color brown and the term brown people were used to describe a series of hypothesized racial groups that included South Asians, Southeast Asians, people from the Horn of Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, and Latin Americans. Bronze skin tones are commonly also placed under the brown racial classification, in Mexico (and Southwestern United States) and the Philippines the term is associated with mestizo","-29.37680569535587"],["professional. Aniridia Aniridia is a congenital condition characterized by an extremely underdeveloped iris, which appears absent on superficial examination. Ocular albinism and eye color Normally, there is a thick layer of melanin on the back of the iris. Even people with the lightest blue eyes, with no melanin on the front of the iris at all, have dark brown coloration on the back of it, to prevent light from scattering around inside the eye. In those with milder forms of albinism, the color of the iris is typically blue but can vary from blue to brown. In severe forms of","-29.37462196769775"],["blue as a reference to \"Heavens-Father-God\" and to the ideals of \"liberty and cleanliness, the unbound space\"; whereas green is a stand-in for \"Mother Earth\". Balogh also notes that the two stripes can be deciphered \"without any particular cultural background knowledge\" as being the sky, implicitly a symbol of \"freedom and transcendence\", and the earth; she views the red as a reference to blood, with its dual meaning: \"blood is the symbol of life, on the one hand, and the blood spilled on wars and destruction.\"\nAs sociologist Oana Marcu argues, the reference to \"perpetual movement\" signified that the Romanies were","-29.195303569649695"],["albinism, there is no pigment on the back of the iris, and light from inside the eye can pass through the iris to the front. In these cases, the only color seen is the red from the hemoglobin of the blood in the capillaries of the iris. Such albinos have pink eyes, as do albino rabbits, mice, or any other animal with a total lack of melanin. Transillumination defects can almost always be observed during an eye examination due to lack of iridial pigmentation. The ocular albino also lacks normal amounts of melanin in the retina as well, which allows","-29.143592246749904"],["has a black half-collar edged with white on its nape from which it gets its name. The short legs are red and the bill is black. The iris is red, but from a distance the eyes appear to be black, as the pupil is relatively large and only a narrow rim of reddish-brown iris can be seen around the black pupil. The eye is surrounded by a small area of bare skin, which is either white or yellow. The two sexes are virtually indistinguishable; juveniles differ in having a poorly developed collar, and a brown iris. Taxonomy There are two","-29.134793588949833"],["with at least six colour distinctions (the other two being black and white). These colours roughly correspond to the sensitivities of the retinal ganglion cells. (The retinal ganglia process colour by positioning it within a blue to yellow range, and separately positioning it within a red to green range.)","-29.130368161015213"],["predators. Albino animals have characteristic pink or red eyes because the lack of pigment in the iris allows the blood vessels of the retina to be visible. Familiar albino animals include in-bred strains of laboratory animals (rats, mice and rabbits), but populations of naturally occurring albino animals exist in the wild, e.g. Mexican cave tetra. Albinism is a well-recognized phenomenon in molluscs, both in the shell and in the soft parts. It has been claimed by some, e.g. that \"albinism\" can occur for a number of reasons aside from inheritance, including genetic mutations, diet, living conditions, age, disease,","-29.112123370883637"],["light is desirable it is not essential. Even if the eyes of fish or members of its food chain have color receptors most sensitive to the blue or green, these same receptors have a broad but decreased sensitivity to other colors. So, if a fishing light source is intense enough, other light colors will also attract. For example, a sodium vapor light with its characteristic yellow color will attract fish — if intense enough. A fishing light attractor can also be white light because a portion of its total energy is in the blue to green region.\nThe perfect fishing light","-29.100271567353047"],["do not contribute to the color of the human eye, but interference phenomena are important in the brilliantly colored iris pigment cells (iridophores) in many animals. Interference effects can occur at both molecular and light microscopic scales, and are often associated (in melanin-bearing cells) with quasi-crystalline formations which enhance the optical effects. Interference is recognised by characteristic dependence of color on the angle of view, as seen in eyespots of some butterfly wings, although the chemical components remain the same.\nWhite babies are usually born blue-eyed since there is no pigment in the stroma, and their eyes appear blue due to","-29.09534937349963"],["cells in their retinas giving them good night vision while making them colorblind. The remaining seven species had in addition to rods a single type of cone photoreceptor sensitive to green and, seeing only in shades of grey and green, are believed to be effectively colorblind. The study indicates that an object's contrast against the background, rather than colour, may be more important for object detection. Other examples Small fish often school together for safety. This can have visual advantages, both by visually confusing predator fishes, and by providing many eyes for the school regarded as a body. The \"predator","-29.064562561979983"],["introduced to the colour pink, dolls, dresses, and playing house where they are taking care of the dolls as if they were children. The norm of blue is for boys and pink is for girls is cultural and has not always historically been around. These paths set by parents or other adult figures in the child's life set them on certain paths. This leads to a difference in personality, career paths, or relationships. Throughout life, males and females are seen as two very different species who have very different personalities and should stay on separate paths.\nResearcher Janet Hyde found that,","-29.04190698984894"],["rather than the traditional blue or white milky seas effect seen by the rest of the world. It is not known whether this difference depends on the area, or simply a perception of a cyanic colour as being green. Etymology The phenomenon is known as mareel in Shetland. This term is derived from the Norn word *mareld, which is itself derived from the Old Norse word mǫrueldr, which is a compound of marr (mere, sea) and eldr (fire).","-29.032735065047746"],["puberty, pregnancy, and sometimes after serious trauma (like heterochromia) do represent cause for a plausible argument stating that some eyes can or do change, based on chemical reactions and hormonal changes within the body.\nStudies on Caucasian twins, both fraternal and identical, have shown that eye color over time can be subject to change, and major demelanization of the iris may also be genetically determined. Most eye-color changes have been observed or reported in the Caucasian population with hazel and amber eyes. Amber Amber eyes are of a solid color and have a strong yellowish/golden and russet/coppery tint. This may be","-29.00502345705172"],["and tuxedo cats) prevents melanin (pigment) granules from reaching one eye during development, resulting in a cat with one blue eye and one green, yellow, or brown eye. The condition only rarely occurs in cats that lack both the dominant white and the white spotting gene. Kittens As with some other newborn mammals, all cats are blue-eyed as kittens, and may change as the newborn ages. The differences in an odd-eyed kitten's eye color might not be noticeable, save upon close inspection. Odd-eyed kittens have a different shade of blue in each eye. The color of the odd eye changes","-28.973391304083634"],["single color that was a mixture of the primaries:\n[The] experiments of Professor J. D. Forbes, which I witnessed in 1849… [established] that blue and yellow do not make green, but a pinkish tint, when neither prevails in the combination…[and the] result of mixing yellow and blue was, I believe, not previously known.\n— James Clerk Maxwell, Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness (1855), Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh\nMaxwell took this a step further by using a circular scale around the rim with which to measure the ratios of the primaries, choosing vermilion (V), emerald","-28.959157701174263"],["preferred the longer wavelength (red and yellow) to the short-wavelength (blue and green) stimuli, while adults had the opposite. However, both adults and infants preferred colored stimuli over non-colored stimuli. This study suggested that infants had a general preference for colored stimuli over non-colored stimuli at birth, though infants were not able to distinguish the different colored stimuli prior to the age of three months.\nResearch into the development of color vision using infant female Japanese monkeys indicates that color experience is critical for normal vision development. Infant monkeys were placed in a room with monochromatic lighting limiting their access to","-28.861954099673312"],["from the blue given by the Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by small gas molecules when the sky is clear, to the gray caused by Mie scattering of large water droplets when the sky is cloudy. Alternatively, it has been suggested that gray and blue eyes might differ in the concentration of melanin at the front of the stroma.\nGray eyes are most common in Northern and Eastern Europe. Gray eyes can also be found among the Algerian Shawia people of the Aurès Mountains in Northwest Africa, in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. Under magnification, gray eyes exhibit small","-28.849155102390796"],["have normal colouring in their eyes. It is distinguished biologically from albinism in that it causes a reduced pigmentation in all skin types, and not just melanin. Myth and legend White deer hold a place in the mythology of many cultures. The Celtic people considered them to be messengers from the otherworld; they also played an important role in other pre-Indo-European cultures, especially in the north. The Celts believed that the white stag would appear when one was transgressing a taboo, such as when Pwyll trespassed into Arawn's hunting grounds. Arthurian legend states that the creature has a perennial ability","-28.81667934777215"],["amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite, which would protect and give vigor to the deceased. It also symbolized the sea, which was called the \"Very Green.\"\nIn Ancient Greece, green and blue were sometimes considered the same color, and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees. The philosopher Democritus described two different greens: cloron, or pale green, and prasinon, or leek green. Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black, symbolizing the earth, and white, symbolizing water. However, green was not counted among the four classic colors of","-28.794433256902266"],["red and orange fruit, as well as nutrient-rich new foliage, in which the red and orange carotenoids have not yet been masked by chlorophyll.\nAnother theory is that detecting skin flushing and thereby mood may have influenced the development of primate trichromate vision. The color red also has other effects on primate and human behavior, as discussed in the color psychology article.\nToday, among simians, the catarrhines (Old World monkeys and apes, including humans) are routinely trichromatic—meaning that both males and females possess three opsins, sensitive to short-wave, medium-wave, and long-wave light—while, conversely, only a small fraction of platyrrhine primates (New World","-28.7912953660707"],["our perception of orange. Thus, the orange appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously but to different degrees.\nUse of the three primary colors is not sufficient to reproduce all colors; only colors within the color triangle defined by the chromaticities of the primaries can be reproduced by additive mixing of non-negative amounts of those colors of light. History of RGB color model theory and usage The RGB color model is based on the Young–Helmholtz theory of trichromatic color vision, developed by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz in","-28.72543989084079"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"eye's iris and the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris. In humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black. The appearance of blue, green, and hazel eyes results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, an optical effect similar to what accounts for the blueness of the sky. The irises of the eyes of people with blue eyes contain less dark melanin than those of people with brown eyes, which means that they absorb less short-wavelength blue light, which is instead reflected out to the viewer.\",\n \"-35.2931926465244\"\n ],\n [\n \"have amber eyes as a common color, whereas in humans this color occurs less frequently. Blue There is no blue pigmentation either in the iris or in the ocular fluid. Dissection reveals that the iris pigment epithelium is brownish black due to the presence of melanin. Unlike brown eyes, blue eyes have low concentrations of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which lies in front of the dark epithelium. Longer wavelengths of light tend to be absorbed by the dark underlying epithelium, while shorter wavelengths are reflected and undergo Rayleigh scattering in the turbid medium of the stroma. This\",\n \"-34.26913895615144\"\n ],\n [\n \"to ten different classes of visual pigment in their eyes. By comparison, humans have three with maximum sensitivities in the blue (442 nm), green (543 nm) and yellow (570 nm). It is the differential responses of these receptor cells that enable color vision.\\nIt has been known for a long time that a light attracts fish, shrimp and insects at night. But what is the best color for a light attractor? Based on the biology of visual receptors discussed above, the light should be blue or green — the space colors of fish and members of their food chain. However, while blue or green\",\n \"-33.92953079205472\"\n ],\n [\n \"presence of a brighter color contrast. Yellow, orange, red, or rose objects are still perceived as such if the general illumination level is low, despite reflecting the same amount of red or orange light as a brown object would in normal lighting conditions. Brown eyes In humans, brown eyes result from a relatively high concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is most common in East\",\n \"-33.92703400211758\"\n ],\n [\n \"an eye that is light brown/amber near the pupil and charcoal or dark green on the outer part of the iris (or vice versa) when observed in sunlight.\\nDefinitions of the eye color hazel vary: it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with light brown or gold, as in the color of a hazelnut shell.\\nHazel eyes occur throughout Caucasoid populations, in particular in regions where blue, green and brown eyed peoples are intermixed. Red and violet The eyes of people with severe forms of albinism may appear red under certain lighting conditions owing to the extremely low quantities of melanin, allowing\",\n \"-33.33872237819014\"\n ],\n [\n \"absorbing at 600 nm. The amount of red light emerging from the pupil depends on the amount of melanin in the layers behind the retina. This amount varies strongly between individuals. Light-skinned people with blue eyes have relatively low melanin in the fundus and thus show a much stronger red-eye effect than dark-skinned people with brown eyes. The same holds for animals. The color of the iris itself is of virtually no importance for the red-eye effect. This is obvious because the red-eye effect is most apparent when photographing dark-adapted subjects, hence with fully dilated pupils. Photographs taken with infrared light\",\n \"-33.10548048838973\"\n ],\n [\n \"research purposes, Seddon et al. developed a graded system based on the predominant iris color and the amount of brown or yellow pigment present. There are three pigment colors that determine, depending on their proportion, the outward appearance of the iris, along with structural color. Green irises, for example, have blue and some yellow. Brown irises contain mostly brown. Some eyes have a dark ring around the iris, called a limbal ring.\\n\\nEye color in non-human animals is regulated differently. For example, instead of blue as in humans, autosomal recessive eye color in the skink species Corucia zebrata is black, and\",\n \"-33.08115271606948\"\n ],\n [\n \"amounts of yellow and brown color in the iris. Green As with blue eyes, the color of green eyes does not result simply from the pigmentation of the iris. The green color is caused by the combination of: 1) an amber or light brown pigmentation in the stroma of the iris (which has a low or moderate concentration of melanin) with: 2) a blue shade created by the Rayleigh scattering of reflected light. Green eyes contain the yellowish pigment lipochrome.\\nGreen eyes probably result from the interaction of multiple variants within the OCA2 and other genes. They were present in south\",\n \"-33.06830385199282\"\n ],\n [\n \"concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed.\\nDark brown eyes are dominant in humans and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is common in Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa and the Americas. The majority of people in the world overall have brown eyes to dark brown eyes.\\nLight or medium-pigmented brown eyes can also be commonly found in South Europe, among the Americas, and parts of Central\",\n \"-33.01262755168136\"\n ],\n [\n \"color is halfway between white and black. Red's complement is green which is also halfway between white and black. With red and green, the retina's qualitatively divided activity consists of two equal halves.\\nRed and green are two completely equal qualitative halves of the retina's activity. Orange is 2/3 of this activity, and its complement, blue, is only 1/3. Yellow is ¾ of the full activity, and its complement, violet, is only ¼.\\nThe range of all colors contains a continuous series of innumerable shades that blend into each other. Why are red, green, orange, blue, yellow, and violet given names and\",\n \"-32.99557653191732\"\n ],\n [\n \"pheomelanin (also known as lipochrome), is dominant within the iris. Pheomelanin is also found on individuals with green eyes in much smaller amounts. This is because green eyes have a strong presence of both melanin and pheomelanin. Often in poor lighting, one may mistake amber eyes for brown. This also happens when viewed from far away or in pictures with poor lighting as well. However, in natural or well lit areas, it is very easy to tell the difference between the two colors. Another common mistake people make is referring to amber eyes as hazel. Although similar, hazel eyes\",\n \"-32.94582877516223\"\n ],\n [\n \"due to the deposition of the yellow pigment called lipochrome in the iris (which is also found in green eyes). Amber eyes should not be confused with hazel eyes; although hazel eyes may contain specks of amber or gold, they usually tend to comprise many other colors, including green, brown and orange. Also, hazel eyes may appear to shift in color and consist of flecks and ripples, while amber eyes are of a solid gold hue. Even though amber is considered to be like gold, some people have russet or copper colored amber eyes that many people mistake for hazel,\",\n \"-32.82405667146668\"\n ],\n [\n \"Green eyes There is no green pigment in green eyes; like the color of blue eyes, it is an optical illusion; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma, given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin, with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light. Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe. They can also be found in Southern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. In Iceland, 89% of women and 87% of men have either blue or green\",\n \"-32.73724859813228\"\n ],\n [\n \"a blue-green can be brightened but retain the same hue. The system is not perfect, as it does not distinguish yellow from a red-green mixture, but can powerfully detect subtle environmental changes.\\nThe existence of cells sensitive to three different wavelength ranges (most sensitive to yellowish green, cyanish-green, and blue – not red, green and blue) was first shown in 1956 by Gunnar Svaetichin. In 1983 it was validated in human retinas in an experiment by Dartnall, Bowmaker, and Mollon, who obtained microspectrophotopic readings of single eye cone cells. Earlier evidence for the theory had been obtained by looking at light\",\n \"-32.527749726199545\"\n ],\n [\n \"often called blue, green, and red, but more accurately known as short, medium, and long wavelength-sensitive cone subtypes. It is a lack of one or more of the cone subtypes that causes individuals to have deficiencies in colour vision or various kinds of colour blindness. These individuals are not blind to objects of a particular colour, but are unable to distinguish between colours that can be distinguished by people with normal vision. Humans have this trichromatic vision, while most other mammals lack cones with red sensitive pigment and therefore have poorer dichromatic colour vision. However, some animals have four spectral\",\n \"-32.519818212022074\"\n ],\n [\n \"that individuals with temporally eccentric pupils see red in front of blue, while with nasally eccentric pupils the relief is reversed.\\\" Einthoven first explained chromatic aberration in the eye, which means that the eyes will not focus all the colors at the same time. Depending on the wavelength, the focal point in the eyes varies. He concluded that the reason why people see red in front of blue is because light with different wavelengths project onto different parts of the retina. When the vision is binocular, a disparity is created, which causes depth perception. Since red is focused temporally, it\",\n \"-32.40560856962111\"\n ],\n [\n \"not just due to the white colour of the human sclera, which many other species share, but also to the fact that the human iris is relatively small and comprises a significantly smaller portion of the exposed eye surface compared to other animals. It is theorized that this adaptation evolved because of our social nature as the eye became a useful communication tool in addition to a sensory organ. It is believed that the conspicuous sclera of the human eye makes it easier for one individual to identify where another individual is looking, increasing the efficacy of this particular form\",\n \"-32.37583442479081\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cooperative eye hypothesis The cooperative eye hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the appearance of the human eye. It suggests that the eye's distinctive visible characteristics evolved to make it easier for humans to follow another's gaze while communicating or while working together on tasks. Differences in primate eyes Unlike other primates, human beings have eyes with a distinct colour contrast between the white sclera, the coloured iris, and the black pupil. This is due to a lack of pigment in the sclera. Other primates have pigmented sclerae that are brown or dark in colour. There is also a higher\",\n \"-32.25141742188134\"\n ],\n [\n \"red are all \\\"red\\\" but \\\"blue\\\" and \\\"red\\\" focal colors are different). This is to say that infants respond to different hues of color in much the same way as adults do, demonstrating the presence of color vision at an age younger than previously expected. Kessen, Bornstein and Weiskopf therefore claim that the ability to perceive the same distinct focal colors is present even in small children. Gladstone and Geiger In their paper Language and thought: Which side are you on anyway?, Regier et al. discuss the presence of a universalist perspective on the color debate in the\",\n \"-32.126157146383775\"\n ],\n [\n \"the autosomal dominant color is yellow-green.\\nAs the perception of color depends on viewing conditions (e.g., the amount and kind of illumination, as well as the hue of the surrounding environment), so does the perception of eye color. Changes in eye color Most new-born babies who have European ancestry have light-colored eyes. As the child develops, melanocytes (cells found within the iris of human eyes, as well as skin and hair follicles) slowly begin to produce melanin. Because melanocyte cells continually produce pigment, in theory eye color can be changed. Adult eye color is usually established between 3 and 6 months\",\n \"-32.07666432810947\"\n ],\n [\n \"with age. However, when an optician examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present.\\\"\\nBecause individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.\\nThe human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate \\\"red eye\\\", due to the red of the\",\n \"-32.02445513312705\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the Icelandic Sagas. Even in modern times, tribal societies whose language appears to have changed little over time also lack a word for blue. As they can distinguish the said color in tests designed for visual acuity, this absence suggests that the difference in perception might lie in the mind rather than the eyes.\",\n \"-31.898078007783624\"\n ],\n [\n \"must be considered an acquired characteristic. Eye color It is fairly common for mammalian eyes to change color in the first years of life. This happens, with human infants and kittens being some well-known examples, because the eyes of the baby, just like the rest of its body, are still developing. This change can be as simple as blue to brown, or can involve multiple color changes in which neither the child's parents nor his/her doctors know when the changes will stop and what the final eye color will be.\\nChanges in eye color signal changes in the arrangement and concentration\",\n \"-31.80004867259413\"\n ],\n [\n \"amulets. Blue has been considered especially effective against the evil eye, possibly owing to the relative rarity of the color among Semitic peoples and because blue is so rare in the plant and animal world.\\nIn the Torah, the Israelites were commanded to make tassels, tzitzit, on the corners of their garments, and to weave within these tassles a \\\"twisted thread of blue-violet (Tekhelet).\\\" The oral law requires that this blue thread be made from a dye extracted from a sea creature known in rabbinic literature as the Ḥilazon. Maimonides claimed that this blue was the color of \\\"the clear noonday\",\n \"-31.71265417896211\"\n ],\n [\n \"scattering and selective absorption from the posterior epithelium. If melanin is deposited substantially, there will be brown or black color, if not, they will remain blue or gray.\\nAll the contributing factors towards eye color and its variation are not fully understood. Autosomal recessive/dominant traits in iris color are inherent in other species but coloration can follow a different pattern. Amber eyes Amber colored eyes are extremely rare in humans. They consist of a solid orange/gold color that may contain lighter shades of the same pigment within the iris. This is an unusual occurrence that happens when the yellow pigment called\",\n \"-31.70378222706495\"\n ],\n [\n \"results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, a phenomenon similar to that which accounts for the blueness of the sky called Rayleigh scattering. Neither blue nor green pigments are ever present in the human iris or ocular fluid. Eye color is thus an instance of structural color and varies depending on the lighting conditions, especially for lighter-colored eyes.\\nThe brightly colored eyes of many bird species result from the presence of other pigments, such as pteridines, purines, and carotenoids. Humans and other animals have many phenotypic variations in eye color. The genetics of eye color are complicated, and\",\n \"-31.655594564278317\"\n ],\n [\n \"distinguish the full range of the colors of the spectrum visible to humans, but many kinds of mammals, such as dogs and cattle, have dichromacy, which means they can see blues and yellows, but cannot distinguish red and green (both are seen as gray). Bulls, for instance, cannot see the red color of the cape of a bullfighter, but they are agitated by its movement. (See color vision).\\nOne theory for why primates developed sensitivity to red is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and inedible vegetation. This may have driven further adaptations by species taking\",\n \"-31.626639110734686\"\n ],\n [\n \"through night vision devices always show very bright pupils because, in the dark, the pupils are fully dilated and the infrared light is not absorbed by any ocular pigment.\\nThe role of melanin in red-eye effect is demonstrated in animals with heterochromia: only the blue eye displays the effect. The effect is still more pronounced in humans and animals with albinism. All forms of albinism involve abnormal production and/or deposition of melanin.\\nRed-eye effect is seen in photographs of children also because children's eyes have more rapid dark adaption: in low light a child's pupils enlarge sooner, and an enlarged pupil accentuates\",\n \"-31.598626926424913\"\n ],\n [\n \"but the iris pigment epithelium is not, mammalian eyes appear blue. Melanin in the pigment epithelium is critical for visual acuity and contrast.\\nLoss of melanogenesis function is linked to the gene that encodes tyrosinase. Certain alleles of this gene, TYR, at the Color locus, cause oculocutaneous albinism type 1 in humans and the familiar red-eyed albino conditions in mice and other mammals. In other vertebrates Other vertebrates, such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, produce a variety of non-melanin pigments. Disruption of melanin production does not affect the production of these pigments. Non-melanin pigments in other vertebrates are produced by\",\n \"-31.59271912114491\"\n ],\n [\n \"the region of the OCA2 gene among blue-eyed people suggests they may have a single common ancestor.\\nAs of 2016, the earliest light-pigmented and blue-eyed remains of Homo sapiens were found in 7,700 years old Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from Motala, Sweden.\\nA 2002 study found that the prevalence of blue eye color among the white population in the United States to be 33.8% for those born from 1936 through 1951 compared with 57.4 percent for those born from 1899 through 1905. As of 2006, one out of every six people, or 16.6% of the total population, and 22.3% of whites, has blue\",\n \"-31.52037300067059\"\n ],\n [\n \"green and blue are better received than red and yellow, strongly saturated colors are more common to be chosen, and bright colors are the favor. \\nFurthermore, plenty of variables, such as gender and age, have notable effects on individuals' colors' preferences; gender of humans influences conformance and force of colors tendency, and young people are more enjoyable in warm colors including orange and red rather than intense colors such as green which are preferred by older adults. Moreover, several personal characteristics related to colors; outgoing people are more partial to warm colors, and on the other hand, introverts engage in intense\",\n \"-31.44079450785648\"\n ],\n [\n \"light eyes are in a significant excess compared to the levels found in the general population, while, in the UK, models with brown or intermediate eyes were in significant excess over their frequency in the general population. This suggests that eye color rarity plays a role in sexual attraction, people with rare eye colors being perceived as being more attractive. Some research indicates that eye color variation is greater in women than in men, which may reflect sexual selection of mates with rare eye colors. Selection though imprinting of parental eye color In contrast to the phenomenon of selection for\",\n \"-31.259130240534432\"\n ],\n [\n \"Eye color Eye color is a polygenic phenotypic character determined by two distinct factors: the pigmentation of the eye's iris and the frequency-dependence of the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris.\\nIn humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black, depending on the concentration of melanin in the iris pigment epithelium (located on the back of the iris), the melanin content within the iris stroma (located at the front of the iris), and the cellular density of the stroma. The appearance of blue and green, as well as hazel eyes,\",\n \"-31.172748841228895\"\n ],\n [\n \"entirely overlaid with broad dark cinnamon-brown striping. Both juveniles and adults have a barred tail, with 3 to 5 dark brown or black bars. Adults always have a white eye stripe or supercilia, which tends to be broader in northern Eurasian and North American birds. In North America, juveniles have pale-yellow eyes, and adults develop dark red eyes usually after their second year, although nutrition and genetics may affect eye color as well. In Europe and Asia, juveniles also have pale-yellow eyes while adults typically develop orange-colored eyes, though some may have only brighter yellow or occasionally ochre or brownish\",\n \"-31.172375251640915\"\n ],\n [\n \"color is determined by multiple genes. So far, as many as 15 genes have been associated with eye color inheritance. Some of the eye-color genes include OCA2 and HERC2. The earlier belief that blue eye color is a simple recessive trait has been shown to be incorrect. The genetics of eye color are so complex that almost any parent-child combination of eye colors can occur. However, OCA2 gene polymorphism, close to proximal 5′ regulatory region, explains most human eye-color variation. Ancient DNA and eye color in Europe People of European descent show the greatest variety in eye color of any\",\n \"-31.0817190897651\"\n ],\n [\n \"of age, though this can be later. Observing the iris of an infant from the side using only transmitted light with no reflection from the back of the iris, it is possible to detect the presence or absence of low levels of melanin. An iris that appears blue under this method of observation is more likely to remain blue as the infant ages. An iris that appears golden contains some melanin even at this early age and is likely to turn from blue to green or brown as the infant ages.\\nChanges (lightening or darkening) of eye colors during early childhood,\",\n \"-31.02242745796684\"\n ],\n [\n \"Asia (Middle East and South Asia). Gray Like blue eyes, gray eyes have a dark epithelium at the back of the iris and a relatively clear stroma at the front. One possible explanation for the difference in the appearance of gray and blue eyes is that gray eyes have larger deposits of collagen in the stroma, so that the light that is reflected from the epithelium undergoes Mie scattering (which is not strongly frequency-dependent) rather than Rayleigh scattering (in which shorter wavelengths of light are scattered more). This would be analogous to the change in the color of the sky,\",\n \"-30.935643955366686\"\n ],\n [\n \"but cannot distinguish red. Research indicates that their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, in which certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear more green.\\nDichromatic vision is the result of the animal having two types of cones in their eyes: a short-wavelength-sensitive cone (S) that is optimal at 428 nm (blue), and a middle-to-long wavelength sensitive cone (M/L) which sees optimally at 539 nm, more of a yellowish color. This structure may have arisen because horses are most active at dawn and dusk, a time when the rods of the eye are especially useful.\\nThe horse's limited ability\",\n \"-30.865716085769236\"\n ],\n [\n \"more light than normal to reflect off the retina and out of the eye. Because of this, the pupillary reflex is much more pronounced in albino individuals, and this can emphasize the red eye effect in photographs. Selection for rare iris colors A study compared the frequency of eye color in commercial advertising models in Brazil and the UK, these countries were chosen because they have inverted frequencies of eye-coloration, with Brazil having an excess of brown and the UK an excess of light-colored eyes. Models are chosen for their attractiveness, and it was found that, in Brazil, models with\",\n \"-30.845525198907126\"\n ],\n [\n \"Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect Lightness Even when they have the same luminance, colored lights seem brighter to human observers than white light does. The way humans perceive the brightness of the lights will be different for everyone. When the colors are more saturated, our eyes interpret it as the color's luminance and chroma. This makes us believe that the colors are actually brighter. An exception to this is when the human observer is red-green colorblind, they cannot distinguish the differences between the lightness of the colors. Certain colors do not have significant effect, however, any hue of colored lights still seem brighter\",\n \"-30.831767642404884\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be a calming color, and symbolize reliability. In the Catholic Church, the Virgin Mary is most often depicted wearing blue, to symbolize being \\\"full of grace\\\" by divine favor. Blue is widely used for baby boys' clothes or bedrooms, although the reason blue is so strongly associated with boys is debated. Yellow Yellow is a primary color. It is a color often associated with sunshine or joy. It is sometimes used in association with cowardice or fear, i.e., the phrase \\\"yellow-bellied\\\". Children tend to like this color, and it is used to market products to children; it is also\",\n \"-30.812057688250206\"\n ],\n [\n \"of melanin within the iris tissues. Although the processes determining eye color are not fully understood, it is known that inherited eye color is determined by multiple genes. Environmental or acquired factors can alter these inherited traits.\\nThe human iris can be seen in a number of various colors. There are three true colors in human eyes that determine the outward appearance: brown, yellow, and grey. The amount of each color an individual has determines the appearance of the eye color.\\nCentral heterochromia appears to be prevalent in irises containing low amounts of melanin.\\nA famous case of a person with central heterochromia\",\n \"-30.751986875286093\"\n ],\n [\n \"of red–green, blue–yellow, and light–dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue–yellow opponency, but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.\\nVisual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via\",\n \"-30.721437110798433\"\n ],\n [\n \"the adnexa. Eye color Although usually dark brown, the iris may be a variety of colors, including blue, hazel, amber, and green. Blue eyes are not uncommon and are associated with white markings or patterns. The white spotting patterns most often linked to blue eyes are splashed white, frame overo, and sometimes sabino. In the case of horses with white markings, one or both eyes may be blue, or part-blue.\\nHomozygous cream dilutes, sometimes called double-dilutes, always have light blue eyes to match their pale, cream-colored coats. Heterozygous or single-dilute creams, such as palominos and buckskins, often have light brown eyes.\",\n \"-30.6988426267053\"\n ],\n [\n \"have a stronger presence of melanin with two very distinct colors within the iris (usually green/brown) and often contain many speckles or blotches of mixed hues. Different colors in the two eyes Heterochromia (also known as a heterochromia iridis or heterochromia iridum) is an ocular condition in which one iris is a different color from the other iris (complete heterochromia), or where the part of one iris is a different color from the remainder (partial heterochromia or sectoral heterochromia). Uncommon in humans, it is often an indicator of ocular disease, such as chronic iritis or diffuse iris melanoma, but may\",\n \"-30.68660794419702\"\n ],\n [\n \"appears to be in front. However, under monocular vision, this phenomenon is not observed.\\nHowever, Bruecke objected to Einthoven's theory on grounds that not all people see red as closer than blue. Einthoven explained that this negative chromostereopsis is probably due to eccentrically positioned pupils because shifting the pupil can change the position of where light wavelengths focus in the eye. Negative chromostereopsis was further studied by Allen and Rubin who suggested that changing the angle between the pupillary center and visual axis can change the direction of chromostereopsis. If the pupillary center is located temporal to the visual axis, red\",\n \"-30.637501025688834\"\n ],\n [\n \"is sufficient to produce eyeshine that is highly visible to humans (despite our inferior night vision). Eyeshine occurs in a wide variety of colors including white, blue, green, yellow, pink and red. However, since eyeshine is a type of iridescence, the color varies with the angle at which it is seen and the minerals which make up the reflective tapetum-lucidum crystals.\\nWhite eyeshine occurs in many fish, especially walleye; blue eyeshine occurs in many mammals such as horses; green eyeshine occurs in mammals such as cats, dogs, and raccoons; and red eyeshine occurs in coyote, rodents, opossums and birds.\\nAlthough human eyes\",\n \"-30.588046555174515\"\n ],\n [\n \"Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa, Americas, etc. as well as parts of Eastern Europe and Southern Europe. The majority of people in the world overall have dark brown eyes. Light or medium-pigmented brown eyes are common in Europe, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India, as well as some parts of the Middle East. (See eye color). Brown hair Brown is the second most common color of human hair, after black. It is caused by higher levels of the natural dark pigment eumelanin, and lower levels of the pale pigment pheomelanin. Brown eumelanin is more common among Europeans,\",\n \"-30.555290865784627\"\n ],\n [\n \"almost half of both men and women as their favourite colour. The same surveys also showed that blue was the colour most associated with the masculine, just ahead of black, and was also the colour most associated with intelligence, knowledge, calm and concentration. Shades and variations Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Hues of blue include indigo and ultramarine, closer to violet; pure blue, without any mixture of other colours; Cyan, which is midway in the spectrum between blue and green, and the other blue-greens turquoise, teal, and aquamarine.\\nBlue also varies in\",\n \"-30.475212102697697\"\n ],\n [\n \"disrupted by albinism. Abnormal eye development and appearance Melanin functions in the normal development of various parts of the eye, including the iris, retina, eye muscles, and optic nerve. The absence of melanin results in abnormal development of eyes and leads to problems with focusing, and depth perception. The eyes of albino animals appear red because the colour of the red blood cells in the retina can be seen through the iris, which has no pigment to obscure this. Some albino animals may have pale-blue eyes due to other colour generating processes. Albino vertebrates exposed to intense\",\n \"-30.440380366460886\"\n ],\n [\n \"Blue and Lutino). The natural, or 'normal' color is green. There are two types of blue, one blue winged and the second is bright blue wings and bright blue head.\",\n \"-30.40901334467344\"\n ],\n [\n \"in that it is darker than white and brighter than black. The difference between grays and colors, though, is as follows. Light is activity of the retina. Darkness is retinal inactivity. Grays appear when the intensity or strength of the retina's activity is lessened. Colors appear when the whole activity of the retina is divided into partial complementary poles according to ratios. With the merely quantitative, intensive division of the retina's activity, there is only a gradual (by degrees) diminution of the intensity or strength of the retina's full activity. No fractional division of activity in ratios occurs. This lessening\",\n \"-30.35983674414456\"\n ],\n [\n \"Blue in Judaism Blue in Judaism is used to symbolise divinity, because blue is the color of the sky and sea. It can also represent equilibrium, since its hue suggests a shade midway between white and black, day and evening. History From ancient times, blue has been considered a lucky color among the peoples of the Middle East and North Africa. Not unlike their Arab neighbors, Jews of this region have painted their doorposts, heads, and other parts of their bodies with blue dyes; have ornamented their children with blue ribbons and markings; and have used this color in protective\",\n \"-30.353338912362233\"\n ],\n [\n \"mammals, this is because the majority of mammals have only one pigment, melanin. Many animals have pigments other than melanin, and some also have structural colours. Some definitions of albinism, whilst taking most taxa into account, ignore others. So, \\\"a person or animal with very pale skin, white hair or fur, and pink eyes caused by a medical condition that they were born with\\\" and \\\"a person or animal with white skin and hair and pink eyes\\\" do not include feathers, scales or cuticles of birds, fish and invertebrates. Nor do they include plants. Some definitions\",\n \"-30.27355372882448\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the red toward the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. For that reason bees cannot distinguish red from black (colorless), but they can distinguish the colors white, yellow, blue and violet. Color pigments which reflect UV radiation expand the spectrum of colors which can be differentiated. For example, several blossoms which may appear to humans to be of the same yellow color will appear to bees as having different colors (multicolored patterns) because of their different proportions of ultraviolet.\\nFrisch's investigation of a bee's powers of orientation were significant. He discovered that bees can recognize the desired compass direction in three\",\n \"-30.252268213953357\"\n ],\n [\n \"men, and as intelligent by 81 percent. Brown skin A majority of people in the world have skin that is a shade of brown, from a very light honey brown or a golden brown, to a copper or bronze color, to a coffee color or a dark chocolate brown. Skin color and race are not the same; many people classified as \\\"white\\\" or \\\"black\\\" actually have skin that is a shade of brown. Brown skin is caused by melanin, a natural pigment which is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes. Skin pigmentation in humans evolved to primarily regulate\",\n \"-30.24413416677271\"\n ],\n [\n \"green, barely discernible for most people. The Himba have created a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark shades (zuzu in Himba), very light (vapa), vivid blue and green (buru) and dry colors as an adaptation to their specific way of life.\\nPerception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented. For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects)\",\n \"-30.189866834989516\"\n ],\n [\n \"colour is a light, buttery yellow to a pale orange. Their eyes are green and their pupils are black. Their belly colour is mother-of-pearl, the same as it is for normals.\\nT-Albinos (Tyrosinase negative albinos) are very similar to the T+ in appearance. They are usually red in body colour with white body markings and a bright white belly. The eyes are green with red pupils.\\nAnerythristic Characterized by a grey/blue overtone, some mild yellow colour is not uncommon on the sides, similar to Anery corn snakes. The markings on the body are similar to that of the normals, pale cream/white in\",\n \"-30.15643405605806\"\n ],\n [\n \"color is actually the activity of the eye's retina. It is a sensation. The external body is perceived as the cause of the sensation of color. We say, \\\"The body is red.\\\" In reality, though, color exists only in the retina of the eye. It is separate from the external object. Color is a mere sensation in the sense organ. The external object is perceived by the intellect's understanding as being the cause of sensations. § 2 Newton, Goethe, and all other color theorists began by investigating light and colored bodies in order to find the cause of color. They\",\n \"-30.091045222827233\"\n ],\n [\n \"abnormally vascularised iris. Despite the wide range of colors, the only pigment that contributes substantially to normal human iris color is the dark pigment melanin. The quantity of melanin pigment in the iris is one factor in determining the phenotypic eye color of a person. Structurally, this huge molecule is only slightly different from its equivalent found in skin and hair. Iris color is due to variable amounts of eumelanin (brown/black melanins) and pheomelanin (red/yellow melanins) produced by melanocytes. More of the former is found in brown-eyed people and of the latter in blue and green-eyed people. Genetic and physical\",\n \"-30.043625301099382\"\n ],\n [\n \"blue all within the same eye, without any sign of eye disease.\\nOne eye with a white or bluish-white iris is also known as a walleye. Iridology Iridology (also known as iridodiagnosis) is an alternative medicine technique whose proponents believe that patterns, colors and other characteristics of the iris can be examined to determine information about a patient's systemic health. Practitioners match their observations to iris charts which divide the iris into zones corresponding to specific parts of the human body. Iridologists see the eyes as \\\"windows\\\" into the body's state of health.\\nIridology is not supported by quality research studies and\",\n \"-30.031044299917994\"\n ],\n [\n \"the living eye except when viewed with light from which red has been filtered. Function Structures in the macula are specialized for high-acuity vision. Within the macula are the fovea and foveola that both contain a high density of cones, which are nerve cells that are photoreceptors with high acuity.\\nIn details, the normal human eye contains three different types of cones, with different ranges of spectral sensitivity. The brain combines the signals from neighboring cones to distinguish different colors. There is only one type of rod, but the rods are more sensitive than the cones, so in dim light\",\n \"-30.014112683595158\"\n ],\n [\n \"most common places where pigmentation is visible are the nose, lips, gums, feet, tail, and the rims of the eyes, which may be black, brown, light yellow-brown (\\\"liver\\\", caused by having two genes for chocolate), or several other colours. A Labrador can carry genes for a different colour, for example a black Labrador can carry recessive chocolate and yellow genes, and a yellow Labrador can carry recessive genes for the other two colours. DNA testing can reveal some aspects of these. Less common pigmentations (other than pink) are a fault, not a disqualification, and hence such dogs are still permitted\",\n \"-30.00535923219286\"\n ],\n [\n \"effect in the blue eye, but not in the other eye. This is due to the combined effect of the (normal) presence of a tapetum lucidum in both eyes and the absence of melanin in the blue eye. The tapetum lucidum produces eyeshine in both eyes, but in the non-blue eye a layer of melanin over the tapetum lucidum selectively removes some colors of light.\",\n \"-29.986391824684688\"\n ],\n [\n \"common in Tabby cats as well as the Chinchilla Longhair and its shorthaired equivalents are notable for their black-rimmed sea-green eyes. Hazel Hazel eyes are due to a combination of Rayleigh scattering and a moderate amount of melanin in the iris' anterior border layer. Hazel eyes often appear to shift in color from a brown to a green. Although hazel mostly consists of brown and green, the dominant color in the eye can either be brown/gold or green. This is how many people mistake hazel eyes to be amber and vice versa. This can sometimes produce a multicolored iris, i.e.,\",\n \"-29.983007680013543\"\n ],\n [\n \"so important as that the colour should be even and extend to the belly or undercut and no eye circles. In fact, a self colour free from chinchillation on cheeks and hind feet. Eyes hazel.\\nDescription of terms used:\\nFlecking or Mealiness - Individual hairs more than one colour in selfs. e.g. Blacks should be black at the tip of the fur, that colour carrying down the fur as far as possible, then merging into blue. In flecked or mealy exhibits the individual fur would be black, then dark grey, then a deeper shade before merging into blue at the base.\\nChinchillation -\",\n \"-29.846043449651916\"\n ],\n [\n \"Humans and primates are unique as they possess trichromatic color vision, and are able to discern between violet [short wave (SW)], green [medium wave (MW)], and yellow-green [long wave (LW)]. Mammals other than primates generally have less effective two-receptor color perception systems, allowing only dichromatic color vision; marine mammals have only a single cone type and are thus monochromats. Honey- and bumblebees have trichromatic color vision, which is insensitive to red but sensitive in ultraviolet to a color called bee purple.\\nOther animals, such as tropical fish and birds, have more complex color vision systems than humans. There is evidence that\",\n \"-29.841609768845956\"\n ],\n [\n \"eyes; both colours cause a different outcome.\",\n \"-29.750550117343664\"\n ],\n [\n \"colors. Researchers prove that humans who have high optimum stimulation level are more likely to choose red colors rather than blue.\\nStudies, which refer to the link between colors and particular individual responses, includes notions of size affected by colors, personal evaluations, and beliefs influenced by colors of goods packaging and sale surroundings. It also contains physiological responses which are suggested by a numerous of studies that warm colors and high saturated colors create stronger physical stimulation, emotional responses produced by different colors, and behavioral reactions which connect with the choices of products. Hypotheses According to literature, colors' components affect personal\",\n \"-29.65943632100243\"\n ],\n [\n \"associated with heat, blue with cold, and green with an agreeable temperature. Red is associated with dry, blue with wet, and green, in the middle, with dampness. Red is the most active color, blue the most passive; green, in the middle, is the color of neutrality and calm, sometimes used in architecture and design for these reasons. Blue and green together symbolize harmony and balance. Jealousy and envy Green is often associated with jealousy and envy. The expression \\\"green-eyed monster\\\" was first used by William Shakespeare in Othello: \\\"it is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds\",\n \"-29.65357061184477\"\n ],\n [\n \"the halobacteria.\\nAnimals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment. Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment. Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment. For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light. Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially. Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet.\",\n \"-29.642532757570734\"\n ],\n [\n \"the English word \\\"green\\\"). However, in Japan, although the traffic lights have the same colors that other countries have, the green light is described using the same word as for blue, aoi, because green is considered a shade of aoi; similarly, green variants of certain fruits and vegetables such as green apples, green shiso (as opposed to red apples and red shiso) will be described with the word aoi.\\nSimilarly, languages are selective when deciding which hues are split into different colors on the basis of how light or dark they are. English splits some hues into several distinct colors according\",\n \"-29.6203255460714\"\n ],\n [\n \"the blood vessels to show through. In addition, flash photography can sometimes cause a \\\"red-eye effect\\\", in which the very bright light from a flash reflects off the retina, which is abundantly vascular, causing the pupil to appear red in the photograph. Although the deep blue eyes of some people such as Elizabeth Taylor can appear violet at certain times, \\\"true\\\" violet-colored eyes occur only due to albinism. Medical implications Those with lighter iris color have been found to have a higher prevalence of age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) than those with darker iris color; lighter eye color is also associated\",\n \"-29.579494241334032\"\n ],\n [\n \"is the same frequency-dependence of scattering that accounts for the blue appearance of the sky. The result is a \\\"Tyndall blue\\\" structural color that varies with external lighting conditions.\\nIn humans, the inheritance pattern followed by blue eyes is considered similar to that of a recessive trait (in general, eye color inheritance is considered a polygenic trait, meaning that it is controlled by the interactions of several genes, not just one). In 2008, new research tracked down a single genetic mutation that leads to blue eyes. \\\"Originally, we all had brown eyes,\\\" said Eiberg. Eiberg and colleagues suggested in a study\",\n \"-29.5776238462131\"\n ],\n [\n \"MC1R, ASIP, OCA2, and TYR. There is evidence that as many as 16 different genes could be responsible for eye color in humans; however, the main two genes associated with eye color variation are OCA2 and HERC2, and both are localized in Chromosome 15. Analysis of blood proteins Before the discovery of DNA, scientists used blood proteins (the human blood group systems) to study human genetic variation. Research by Ludwik and Hanka Herschfeld during World War I found that the incidence of blood groups A and B differed by region; for example, among Europeans 15 percent were group B and\",\n \"-29.533934630919248\"\n ],\n [\n \"existence and into the open, although most species kept their relatively poor color vision. Exceptions occur for some marsupials (which possibly kept their original color vision) and some primates—including humans. Primates, as an order of mammals, began to emerge around the beginning of the Paleogene Period.\\nPrimates have re-developed trichromatic color vision since that time, by the mechanism of gene duplication, being under unusually high evolutionary pressure to develop color vision better than the mammalian standard. Ability to perceive red and orange hues allows tree-dwelling primates to discern them from green. This is particularly important for primates in the detection of\",\n \"-29.529809015686624\"\n ],\n [\n \"the background “space” color and one or more visual pigments offset from this blue-green region, say, in the red or ultraviolet region of the spectrum. This imparts a clear survival advantage to these animals because they can detect not only changes in light intensity but also contrasts in color. Many fish, for example, have two color receptors, one in the blue region of the spectra (425-490 nm) and the other in the near UV (320-380 nm). Insects and shrimp, members of the fish food chain, have blue, green (530 nm) and near UV receptors. In fact, some aquatic animals have up\",\n \"-29.462287551141344\"\n ],\n [\n \"shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white. Darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue; while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. (For a more complete list see the List of colours). Types For more, see section Pigments and dyes., Blue pigments were originally made from minerals such as lapis lazuli, cobalt and azurite, and blue dyes were made from plants; usually woad in Europe, and Indigofera tinctoria, or true indigo, in Asia and Africa. Today most blue pigments and dyes\",\n \"-29.461645239032805\"\n ],\n [\n \"white people is why the olm is called human fish in some languages. However, its skin retains the ability to produce melanin, and will gradually turn dark when exposed to light; in some cases the larvae are also colored. Its pear-shaped head ends with a short, dorsoventrally flattened snout. The mouth opening is small, with tiny teeth forming a sieve to keep larger particles inside the mouth. The nostrils are so small as to be imperceptible, but are placed somewhat laterally near the end of the snout. The regressed eyes are covered by a layer of skin. The olm breathes\",\n \"-29.455167013642495\"\n ],\n [\n \"Brown (racial classification) Brown or light-brown is a racial and ethnic term. Like black people and white people, it is a metaphor for race based solely on human skin color. In racialist ideas, the color brown and the term brown people were used to describe a series of hypothesized racial groups that included South Asians, Southeast Asians, people from the Horn of Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, and Latin Americans. Bronze skin tones are commonly also placed under the brown racial classification, in Mexico (and Southwestern United States) and the Philippines the term is associated with mestizo\",\n \"-29.37680569535587\"\n ],\n [\n \"professional. Aniridia Aniridia is a congenital condition characterized by an extremely underdeveloped iris, which appears absent on superficial examination. Ocular albinism and eye color Normally, there is a thick layer of melanin on the back of the iris. Even people with the lightest blue eyes, with no melanin on the front of the iris at all, have dark brown coloration on the back of it, to prevent light from scattering around inside the eye. In those with milder forms of albinism, the color of the iris is typically blue but can vary from blue to brown. In severe forms of\",\n \"-29.37462196769775\"\n ],\n [\n \"blue as a reference to \\\"Heavens-Father-God\\\" and to the ideals of \\\"liberty and cleanliness, the unbound space\\\"; whereas green is a stand-in for \\\"Mother Earth\\\". Balogh also notes that the two stripes can be deciphered \\\"without any particular cultural background knowledge\\\" as being the sky, implicitly a symbol of \\\"freedom and transcendence\\\", and the earth; she views the red as a reference to blood, with its dual meaning: \\\"blood is the symbol of life, on the one hand, and the blood spilled on wars and destruction.\\\"\\nAs sociologist Oana Marcu argues, the reference to \\\"perpetual movement\\\" signified that the Romanies were\",\n \"-29.195303569649695\"\n ],\n [\n \"albinism, there is no pigment on the back of the iris, and light from inside the eye can pass through the iris to the front. In these cases, the only color seen is the red from the hemoglobin of the blood in the capillaries of the iris. Such albinos have pink eyes, as do albino rabbits, mice, or any other animal with a total lack of melanin. Transillumination defects can almost always be observed during an eye examination due to lack of iridial pigmentation. The ocular albino also lacks normal amounts of melanin in the retina as well, which allows\",\n \"-29.143592246749904\"\n ],\n [\n \"has a black half-collar edged with white on its nape from which it gets its name. The short legs are red and the bill is black. The iris is red, but from a distance the eyes appear to be black, as the pupil is relatively large and only a narrow rim of reddish-brown iris can be seen around the black pupil. The eye is surrounded by a small area of bare skin, which is either white or yellow. The two sexes are virtually indistinguishable; juveniles differ in having a poorly developed collar, and a brown iris. Taxonomy There are two\",\n \"-29.134793588949833\"\n ],\n [\n \"with at least six colour distinctions (the other two being black and white). These colours roughly correspond to the sensitivities of the retinal ganglion cells. (The retinal ganglia process colour by positioning it within a blue to yellow range, and separately positioning it within a red to green range.)\",\n \"-29.130368161015213\"\n ],\n [\n \"predators. Albino animals have characteristic pink or red eyes because the lack of pigment in the iris allows the blood vessels of the retina to be visible. Familiar albino animals include in-bred strains of laboratory animals (rats, mice and rabbits), but populations of naturally occurring albino animals exist in the wild, e.g. Mexican cave tetra. Albinism is a well-recognized phenomenon in molluscs, both in the shell and in the soft parts. It has been claimed by some, e.g. that \\\"albinism\\\" can occur for a number of reasons aside from inheritance, including genetic mutations, diet, living conditions, age, disease,\",\n \"-29.112123370883637\"\n ],\n [\n \"light is desirable it is not essential. Even if the eyes of fish or members of its food chain have color receptors most sensitive to the blue or green, these same receptors have a broad but decreased sensitivity to other colors. So, if a fishing light source is intense enough, other light colors will also attract. For example, a sodium vapor light with its characteristic yellow color will attract fish — if intense enough. A fishing light attractor can also be white light because a portion of its total energy is in the blue to green region.\\nThe perfect fishing light\",\n \"-29.100271567353047\"\n ],\n [\n \"do not contribute to the color of the human eye, but interference phenomena are important in the brilliantly colored iris pigment cells (iridophores) in many animals. Interference effects can occur at both molecular and light microscopic scales, and are often associated (in melanin-bearing cells) with quasi-crystalline formations which enhance the optical effects. Interference is recognised by characteristic dependence of color on the angle of view, as seen in eyespots of some butterfly wings, although the chemical components remain the same.\\nWhite babies are usually born blue-eyed since there is no pigment in the stroma, and their eyes appear blue due to\",\n \"-29.09534937349963\"\n ],\n [\n \"cells in their retinas giving them good night vision while making them colorblind. The remaining seven species had in addition to rods a single type of cone photoreceptor sensitive to green and, seeing only in shades of grey and green, are believed to be effectively colorblind. The study indicates that an object's contrast against the background, rather than colour, may be more important for object detection. Other examples Small fish often school together for safety. This can have visual advantages, both by visually confusing predator fishes, and by providing many eyes for the school regarded as a body. The \\\"predator\",\n \"-29.064562561979983\"\n ],\n [\n \"introduced to the colour pink, dolls, dresses, and playing house where they are taking care of the dolls as if they were children. The norm of blue is for boys and pink is for girls is cultural and has not always historically been around. These paths set by parents or other adult figures in the child's life set them on certain paths. This leads to a difference in personality, career paths, or relationships. Throughout life, males and females are seen as two very different species who have very different personalities and should stay on separate paths.\\nResearcher Janet Hyde found that,\",\n \"-29.04190698984894\"\n ],\n [\n \"rather than the traditional blue or white milky seas effect seen by the rest of the world. It is not known whether this difference depends on the area, or simply a perception of a cyanic colour as being green. Etymology The phenomenon is known as mareel in Shetland. This term is derived from the Norn word *mareld, which is itself derived from the Old Norse word mǫrueldr, which is a compound of marr (mere, sea) and eldr (fire).\",\n \"-29.032735065047746\"\n ],\n [\n \"puberty, pregnancy, and sometimes after serious trauma (like heterochromia) do represent cause for a plausible argument stating that some eyes can or do change, based on chemical reactions and hormonal changes within the body.\\nStudies on Caucasian twins, both fraternal and identical, have shown that eye color over time can be subject to change, and major demelanization of the iris may also be genetically determined. Most eye-color changes have been observed or reported in the Caucasian population with hazel and amber eyes. Amber Amber eyes are of a solid color and have a strong yellowish/golden and russet/coppery tint. This may be\",\n \"-29.00502345705172\"\n ],\n [\n \"and tuxedo cats) prevents melanin (pigment) granules from reaching one eye during development, resulting in a cat with one blue eye and one green, yellow, or brown eye. The condition only rarely occurs in cats that lack both the dominant white and the white spotting gene. Kittens As with some other newborn mammals, all cats are blue-eyed as kittens, and may change as the newborn ages. The differences in an odd-eyed kitten's eye color might not be noticeable, save upon close inspection. Odd-eyed kittens have a different shade of blue in each eye. The color of the odd eye changes\",\n \"-28.973391304083634\"\n ],\n [\n \"single color that was a mixture of the primaries:\\n[The] experiments of Professor J. D. Forbes, which I witnessed in 1849… [established] that blue and yellow do not make green, but a pinkish tint, when neither prevails in the combination…[and the] result of mixing yellow and blue was, I believe, not previously known.\\n— James Clerk Maxwell, Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness (1855), Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh\\nMaxwell took this a step further by using a circular scale around the rim with which to measure the ratios of the primaries, choosing vermilion (V), emerald\",\n \"-28.959157701174263\"\n ],\n [\n \"preferred the longer wavelength (red and yellow) to the short-wavelength (blue and green) stimuli, while adults had the opposite. However, both adults and infants preferred colored stimuli over non-colored stimuli. This study suggested that infants had a general preference for colored stimuli over non-colored stimuli at birth, though infants were not able to distinguish the different colored stimuli prior to the age of three months.\\nResearch into the development of color vision using infant female Japanese monkeys indicates that color experience is critical for normal vision development. Infant monkeys were placed in a room with monochromatic lighting limiting their access to\",\n \"-28.861954099673312\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the blue given by the Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by small gas molecules when the sky is clear, to the gray caused by Mie scattering of large water droplets when the sky is cloudy. Alternatively, it has been suggested that gray and blue eyes might differ in the concentration of melanin at the front of the stroma.\\nGray eyes are most common in Northern and Eastern Europe. Gray eyes can also be found among the Algerian Shawia people of the Aurès Mountains in Northwest Africa, in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. Under magnification, gray eyes exhibit small\",\n \"-28.849155102390796\"\n ],\n [\n \"have normal colouring in their eyes. It is distinguished biologically from albinism in that it causes a reduced pigmentation in all skin types, and not just melanin. Myth and legend White deer hold a place in the mythology of many cultures. The Celtic people considered them to be messengers from the otherworld; they also played an important role in other pre-Indo-European cultures, especially in the north. The Celts believed that the white stag would appear when one was transgressing a taboo, such as when Pwyll trespassed into Arawn's hunting grounds. Arthurian legend states that the creature has a perennial ability\",\n \"-28.81667934777215\"\n ],\n [\n \"amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite, which would protect and give vigor to the deceased. It also symbolized the sea, which was called the \\\"Very Green.\\\"\\nIn Ancient Greece, green and blue were sometimes considered the same color, and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees. The philosopher Democritus described two different greens: cloron, or pale green, and prasinon, or leek green. Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black, symbolizing the earth, and white, symbolizing water. However, green was not counted among the four classic colors of\",\n \"-28.794433256902266\"\n ],\n [\n \"red and orange fruit, as well as nutrient-rich new foliage, in which the red and orange carotenoids have not yet been masked by chlorophyll.\\nAnother theory is that detecting skin flushing and thereby mood may have influenced the development of primate trichromate vision. The color red also has other effects on primate and human behavior, as discussed in the color psychology article.\\nToday, among simians, the catarrhines (Old World monkeys and apes, including humans) are routinely trichromatic—meaning that both males and females possess three opsins, sensitive to short-wave, medium-wave, and long-wave light—while, conversely, only a small fraction of platyrrhine primates (New World\",\n \"-28.7912953660707\"\n ],\n [\n \"our perception of orange. Thus, the orange appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously but to different degrees.\\nUse of the three primary colors is not sufficient to reproduce all colors; only colors within the color triangle defined by the chromaticities of the primaries can be reproduced by additive mixing of non-negative amounts of those colors of light. History of RGB color model theory and usage The RGB color model is based on the Young–Helmholtz theory of trichromatic color vision, developed by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz in\",\n \"-28.72543989084079\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":76,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2vvciy"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why haven't we made ski boots that don't hurt yet?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Normal shoes will adapt to your feet after a while. Ski boots shouldn't adapt, they should brace your foot. You can get the inner shoe shaped to fit your foot. it costs like $300-500. But a far cheaper thing that people don't know about is that you can take your boot to a (good) ski shop and they can stretch your off-the-shelf boot where it hurts your foot. About half an inch or so. It's usually like $30-80. It works out great for many people. Edit: but they ski boots are not as bad as they used to be, right?","You haven't spent enough money for a comfortable pair","We have. If your boots hurt they're not the right ones for you.","They do. Spend the money and go see a boot fitter. If after a break in period your feet still have hot spots go see the same boot fitter and they'll usually make adjustments for free. Source: I have two comfortable pairs of ski boots.","Former boot tech here. In a previous life, I fitted ski boots for a living. How many pairs? I suppose I've worked on over 200 pairs of boots. I've also been a skier for 30 years, and snowboarder for perhaps 15 years. Here are my views on the subject at hand...ski boots and the fitting there of. In normal life, people wear shoes...normally runners or dress shoes. They are soft, light and flexible and are available in many sizes...usually length and sometimes width. They are made this way because feet come in a HUGE array of sizes...I've never seen 2 sets the same...and believe me, I've seen a lot. A soft shoe, while perhaps not a perfect fit to a foot, can bend, twist and adapt itself to the foot it is on. The main purpose of a shoe for most of us is to protect the very bottom of the foot when we *walk* or *run*. Not a difficult challenge. Now for skiing, you need to basically attach a 170-190cm long board to each foot. There is a *lot* of load that needs to be dealt with here...a ski provides a lot of leverage. You can't use a canvas or plastic shoe to provide this...you need to move up to stronger materials. Ski boots are made from injection molded plastic. They need to be to transfer the energy of the skier to the skis. The boot is *rigid* but the foot inside is *not*. So the challenge here is to make the inside of the boot match the foot as closely as possible, and still be able to transfer load effectively. This is the challenge! Let's look at the extremes. Let's say you took a huge boot (several sizes too big), and filled it with soft foam. Nice and comfortable for sure, but the foam will *not transfer load*. Let's look at the other extreme...a small boot...several sizes too small. You can mash your foot in there, and the energy transfer will be great, but this boot will hurt like hell, you will have cold feet, and likely hate life. Ok? The trick then, is to get the hard outer part (the shell) to fit as closely as possible. The inside part (the liner) needs to help take up the space where things are a bit big, and provide some insulation against the cold, and manage moisture (foot sweat). Making a mold for a shell is *very expensive*. Each manufacturer uses biometric data (foot sizes) from large population samples to size their shells. Some data leads to wider shells, some narrower. Some fit feet with higher arches, some with lower. When I was in the business, Dachstein and Koflach tended to fit wide feet, while any of the Italian boots (Munari, I think...) fit narrow feet. These days, things are probably different. Also, know that the boot shell does not change for every boot size... there are normally 2 or 3 boot sizes per shell size. The shell changes dramatically at the \"jump\"... the liners will just have more or less padding. The best fit will happen when the shell all by itself fits closely, with only the smallest possible liner. The lesson here is to fit the shell first...with no liner. If your boot fitter does not fit the shell first, seek another fitter. Some liners are better than others. Some are heat moldable over time, some have variable density foam. In the end, the more performance oriented the skier, the tighter (and probably less comfortable) the fit needs to be. A common trick used by shops is to sell a boot that is too large. Nice and comfy in the store, but the skier will hate it on the hill... they try to crank all the buckles down to take up volume, and it does not work. Almost all boots I've ever fitted could use a modification. Grind the boot board down to drop it and create more space. Dremel out the toe box a bit to make room for fat toes. Cut the back down to allow better circulation for big calves. A note on cold feet. Your feet are cold because of a crappy fit, not because the \"boots are cold\". The key to warm feet is circulation, not insulation. Any pressure point on the surface blood vessels will hinder blood getting in and out of the foot. A note on putting boots on. Stand up. You don't ski sitting down, do you? Open the boot and make sure the liner and tongue are straight. Put in your foot in one smooth motion. Buckle the top buckles first (a bit) and flex the boot as much as you can. This drives the heel back into the boot. Do this a few more times, and tighten the buckles on the top. Flex forward, and do the toe buckles now. There should be minimal pressure on the toe buckles...just enough to keep the shell from flexing open. Final note, wear one pair of ski socks...preferably on the thinner side. Don't wear two pairs thinking you will be warmer...remember what I said about circulation? Feel free to comment or question. tl; dr: Ski boots are doing a much harder job than running shoes, and have to be made accordingly. Don't expect them to fit like Nikes. Edits: fixed typos, added paragraphs breaks.","Ski boots aren't made for comfort. They're made to brace your ankles so that they don't snap when the skis go a different direction than the rest of your body. To make them comfortable, they'd have to be softer and looser, which means your ankle would be much more breakable.","as others have said they have if you're willing to spend the money and go to the correct place. If you only rent boots chances are they will hurt but if you buy a pair they wont and will work out cheaper in the long run. Renting a pair of boots can easily cost £50-100 for a week, lets say you get a deal and pay £50 for a week, you can easily buy a pair for £300 and an extra £100 for custom fitting so £400 in total, so if you go for a week a year in 8 years they will have paid for themselves and still have a lot of use in them (my current boots have done 20+ weeks ones before did 30+). If I have convinced you to buy a pair DO NOT LOOK FOR A PAIR in the nicest way you don't know what you want or what you are looking for. If you buy a pair which match your ski outfit you will probably buy the wrong ones. Go to a ski shop which have a large selection of boots and ideally research who has the best reviews for boot fitting. Go to the shop and instead of looking at the boots ask for their boot technician and explain you want a pair of boots (sometimes you will have to book an appointment, if it's far from where you live might be worth calling ahead). The boot tech should look at your feet and ask you about your skiing style and experience. They should then give you a selection of boots which they think will fit your feet and your skiing style. Once you have selected your boot they can then Mould the liners to your feet and if necessary stretch the boot as well. They should also advise you on if a custom insole is necessary and if so what type, I have high arches so this made a huge difference, this can be an extra £60-80 it's worth it. Once all this is done you should find your boots a lot more comfy and warm and should help you improve your skiing :) any questions let me know! Source: used to be a ski instructor spent over a year in the mountains, I'll happily finish skiing go to apres, have dinner and go to a club in my ski boots.","Ski instructor here, either get your boot properly fitted, or stop your bitchin. < 3 happy valentines day","They have made *more* comfortable boots but just without pain is asking too much. They have to be stiff enough to not fail when having hundreds of pounds of lateral torsion put on them. Also, you're probably wearing them to tight or they could be the wrong size.","LPT: dont wear thick socks with your ski boots. They will just pinch your feet and cut off circulation. Wear thin liner type socks just to help wick away moisture. Its your boots that keep your feet warm, not your socks.","I suggest you look into geting Full Tilts. Everyone who has them loves how comfortable they are. They seem to be catered more towards freestyle and park skiers but they are way more than that.","You need to get ski boots from a professional boot fitter. This is not from some guy at the boot section of Sport Chalet who knows nothing and certainly not from the internet. You want a guy who fits boots as a career. Every brand of ski boot has a totally different fit and only certain brands are shaped appropriately for your feet. If you get boots picked out and adjusted for you by a boot fitter worth his snuff your boots will be snug yet very comfortable. A lot of quality boots these days will also have a liner which you sort of \"cook\" and then put on so they mold to the shape of your foot for an even more precise fit. Here's a little guide to buying boots. If your fitter is legit he will sort you out, but it's good to have some basic knowledge so you can tell if a fitter knows what he is doing at a basic level at least . There are some red flags which should make you simply walk out of a place. URL_0 Getting boots fit is free usually with purchase, however it generally means paying MSRP which sucks since you can get all your other gear way below MSRP. But for your boots, it's worth it. My $700 custom fit Lange boots are not uncomfortable at all.","We totally have. Some shells are even moldable now. My guess would be you have never had a properly fitted boot. I spend 12 hours a day 6 months a year in ski boots. A well fit and molded boot should be like a slipper. Good boot fitting is worth every penny. Especially if it's what you do for a living. Investigate a service like Surefoot. Mostly it comes down to your foot, the brand, the mold last, and a bunch of different factors.Find a good boot fitter, feed them beer. It's totally possible.","Not an explanation but a tip: try using some decent insoles (like superfeet) and buy your own boots so you get to wear them in (well as much as you can ski boots).","Hey OP, boots are an overlooked and key part of any ski/snowboard set up. If your boots hurt, they are probably not fit to your foot well. If your boot is fitted correctly, you should have no major pressure points, good circulation (probably the number one cause of pain and coldness is bad circulation), and you should not have to crank the hell out of your buckles to feel snug. Any quality shop should be able to get you a decent custom foot bed for $50-100. This will go a looooong way to help, because instead of trying feel snug against a flat squishy factory footbed, you will snugging down against a semi rigid foot bed shaped like the bottom of your foot. You can also remove pressure points by *lighltly* sanding the liner if it is a removable one. To be frank, I am not up to speed on the latest liner tech...so depends quite a bit kon your boot. Don't lean on your boots when standing, lean on your poles, this will take pressure off your shins and help blood flow. The shins are over looked, but alot of foot cramping is because you want your heel to feel secure and not slippy. The thing is if your boots fit well, you won't feel slippy, you won't overcrank your buckles, and your sweet blood will flow. Do not wear more than one pair of socks, this is an easy friction surface, that's why you find the outer sock all packed into the toe and falling off at the end of they day. Again, a well fit boot and a good light to mid weight weight sock is better than a sloppy boot and compensation through filler and tightening. TL:DR rental boots will always suck.","Higher end Solomon boots come with heat moldable shells. Where I work, we heat mold for free if you buy boots. They're comfy as shit. We also sell Full Tilt boots which includes Intuition liners, which are an aftermarket liner that typically costs 200$. Intuition liners are heat moldable and come with extra addable ankle support and they're like wearing a dream. To get the extra comfort, pull out your basic boot sole and replace them with arch supports called Super Feet. At the end of thr day, your feet feel just fine. Source: work in ski shop","Full tilt ski boots URL_0 Source: im a semi-pro freeskier","If they hurt, you don't have properly fitted boots.","Here are the factors that affect your boot fit: Size you wear Shape of your foot and leg (wide/narrow, high arch/flat feet, long calves/short calves, Morton's toes, etc.) Thickness of socks you wear Flexibility of your foot, and how much your foot splays when full weight is on it. Level of skier, style of skiing, terrain you like to ski, weather you like to ski in Number of days you ski per season Whether or not you know how to buckle your boots correctly Whether or not you invest in custom footbeds People who have never had problems with boots either have very easy feet to fit, have been fit by an expert fitter, or don't ski very athletically or very many days per season. People who always have problems with boots either have never been properly fit, or have very difficult feet to fit. When you buy from a good ski shop and are fit by an expert fitter, it typically includes as many free adjustments throughout the lifetime of the boot as it takes to get things right (cash tips always good). An expert fitter will not just measure your foot, but look at it, flex it, study your stance, and ask you questions about your skiing. And, with any new boot, you need to give it 8-10 days on the slopes with a little pain/discomfort to let the boot pack out naturally. If after that you're still not right, take it back and ask your fitter to get it right. (Pro tip: take baby steps when adjusting hot spots. Big adjustments can cause a counter issue that makes things worse instead of better: lift the heel too dramatically, now your pinkie toes are jammed. Grind out the pinkie toe too much, now you're banging in the toe box.) So, one thing at a time, and ski on the adjustment a few days to get a feel for whether it's right before you take it in again. Sometimes things just need to pack out and settle in. The most common mistake people make is buckling down too tightly to keep their foot snug in a too-big boot. This cuts off circulation, your feet get cold, your calves get bruised, your toenails get bruised, you hate to ski. For 4 buckle boots: the most important buckles are the second and third. When putting on your boot, stand up. Start with the power strap, then buckle the second buckle down from the cuff. Now buckle the top buckle, then the third and the toe. NOW GO BACK AND DO IT ALL AGAIN. Adjust the power strap again. Tighten/loosen all other buckles in same order. You should be able to pop open each buckle without too much effort; it should be snug but not tight. With 3 buckle boots, same process, but the cuff and second buckle are most important. Never tuck your pants, long underwear into your boots. The only thing that should be in your boot are your feet and your socks (and toe warmers if you need them). Long underwear should be pulled up over your knee when you're putting on your boot, and then pulled down to cover the top of the sock after your boots are buckled. Oh, there's so much more I could say about this, but I'll just say \"custom footbeds\" one more time and stop for now.","Ok, ski instructor here, my chance to shine. Lots of people saying pay money for comfortable boots. They are missing the point a little. Top end race boots hurt. They are painful. Ever seen a racer's feet? Or a ski instructor's? Rather hideous. The reason for this, in contrast to say a snowboarding boot, is that the boots have to be stiff. They have to be made of a firm plastic in order to ski well. In fact the more high end the skiing the stiffer and firmer the boot will be (freestyle being the exception). Race boots are really hard to flex, the plastic is designed too not change to much in heat or cold and the whole boot is meant to be as tight as you can stand without doing medical damage. Of course there is room to move with in this. You can get the right boot to begin with that is more likely to fit your foot shape (wide last, narrow or wide ankles and calves that sort of thing). You can then get them molded or the inners injected and molded. A holiday skier should not be in pain, but nor will they ever feel like a slipper. To be clear again; the best top end boots in terms of performance will never be a comfortable fit. The most you can hope for in really well performing boots is that they don't damage your feet. Source: I spend hundreds of pounds/euros/CHF and thousands of hours in boots.","Boot fitter here. The easy answer is that we have. A bunch of companies (like Salomon, Atomic, and Fischer) have relatively quick custom molding techniques that allow for the actual plastic boot shell to be matched perfectly to your foot. Moreover, ski manufacturers are getting a lot better at material science, allowing them to make the plastic stiff where it needs to be (on the sides) and relatively flexible elsewhere. Ski boots won't ever be as comfortable as skate shoes, but if you're in a properly fit boot then there's no reason for it to hurt. I also like to give a few tips for making your own boots way more comfortable: 1. Never wear more than 1 pair of socks. More than that and you'll wind up trapping moisture and making yourself far colder. 2. If it takes more than the pressure of one thumb to close a buckle, it's too tight and you're cutting off your own blood flow, making yourself colder and less comfortable. 3. Buckle from top to bottom, and kick your heel back into your boot's heel pocket. Modern ski boots have a tight heel pocket that adds a lot of support, but if you clamp down your toes first and don't allow your foot to settle back properly, you'll wind up with your toes jammed in the front, and all kinds of blisters.","They do. You just need to buy a good pair that fits you well and let them mold to your feet. Mine have a velvet like material that is extremely comfortable. The only pain you should be experiencing is in your shins after hitting big jumps, but that's normal. Also, protip: it really helps if you shave the bottom portion of your legs if your a frequent skier. The boots get so tight around your socks that any time the boot flexes it will feel like your leg hair is getting yanked out. My legs are super hairy and I ski every other day so it makes a huge difference for me and the other guys I ski with. Plus it's not like anyone sees your legs in the winter anyway. It's a really common thing among good skiers. And if you are using rental boots, you are just asking for pain. Do some research, try some on, get the right amount of stiffness you need, then you'll be able to ski all day without taking a break.","It depends where they are hurting, many new boots (even ones that have been fitted) hurt because the foam on the inner of the boot has not been squashed, this means that there is more pressure being put onto your foot. This is something you usually just have to grit your teeth and push through. However it may also be that the shell of the boot is too small, or may not be a comfortable shape for your foot, this can be solved by taking your boots to a ski shop where they can either grind or blow out the shells to make more room, and will usually do so for free. It is also a good idea to have a sole made for the inside of your boots as it can help reduce pain and stress on your knees if you are flat footed. Source: been skiing since I was 2 years old, and racing competitively in FIS races since the age of 10, and have had many race boots fitted over that time.","Ski tech here, this question is asked by 80 percent of the people that come into my shop and the answers pretty simple, you're wearing the wrong boots. People who buy boots online or rent equipment will usually get an Ill fitting product. A boot fitter can adjust for your skier type, find a flex and last that is good for you, as well as find a boot that fits your needs. You'd be surprised how many cankle moms come in complaining that their 130 flex boot with a 99 last is hurting them. It's like getting a 2 seater Porsche when you have a whole family to bus around","Your boots don't fit you, I've done several seasons as a ski instructor which means 8 hours a day in ski boots 6 days a week for the entire winter, my boots don't hurt at all. Go to a shop and try on **EVERY SINGLE PAIR THEY HAVE** then pick the most comfortable of them all, consider nothing else about the boot comfort is the only thing you should care about. The key is finding a boot that's the right shape for your foot, because ski-boots won't change shape over time like shoes will, so if its not right from the beginning it will never be right. Forget renting boots.","They do make ski boots that are comfortable but you need to see a boot fitter to get them fitted to your feet and you need to be willing to spend a good amount of money on them. I just bought a new pair and while they were quite expensive ($600) they are very comfortable with a custom fitted intuition liner and will likely last a long time. My previous boots were second, possibly third hand hand-me-downs that were so old the liner was basically useless and the were 2.5 sizes too big. TL;DR. Get the correct size boots and get them custom fitted by a good boot fitter","Decent boots have heat-molded liners that conform to your foot when you first buy them, and these days the shells are being made with newer construction techniques that enable them to be shaped more closely to a human ankle. Do not, I repeat DO NOT go buy a new liner for 500 bucks like RespawnerSE said. The right answer here is from Jweeze: you just have to pony up and get brand new boots. Dalbello has been making big strides in comfort technology in the last five or so years. Take $600 to an actual ski shop with industry professionals and you'll find what you're looking for.","Take your current boots to a GOOD ski shop. Not a big box store like Dick's sporting goods or the like. Explain to them where the boots make your feet hurt. They will either be able to point you to a boot that fits your foot shape better (personally I cannot wear Salomon or Lange boots...but I love my Atomics). Or they will be able to get you a boot that is close and then heat and reshape the boot a little to make it fit your foot better.","Speaking as someone who just bought new ski boots for the first time in eight years this year, and has size 14 extra wide feet they have! Fischer Vacuum Fit ski boots! They're the most comfortable things I've ever had on my feet! The ski shop will heat them up then the boots are cooled and fitted to your feet using air pressure. I had to get my left boot refitted three times to get it right, but it was worth it!","Your feet hurt because your boots do not fit. My skiboots feel like my feet are sitting in velvet because I have gone to a boot fitter, received a proper shell and liner for my foot shape. Don't order ski or snowboard boots online, get them at a GOOD store who will spend time measuring your feet and getting a proper fits for your feet.","Ski boots have to provide a very firm mechanical coupling to your very skeleton so that you can effectively control the ski. This requirement is pretty contrary to comfort, so I am not sure how much they can really do for a reasonable price.","Sounds like you didn't have proper fitting boots. If you get the shell molded and a custom foot bed it makes all the difference. Go to a boot fitter. They will pick out a boot that fits your gate and foot.","Go to a boot fitter and have orthotics made. I do this on my snowboard boots which are 100x more comfortable to begin with. Ski boot is supposed to hold your foot in place.","I've had the same pair of boots for almost ten years. Very comfortable, and I've never had an issue. The comfy boots are out there. You just haven't found a pair for yourself yet","Ummm they have.... You need to buy a pair and get measured up. I can ski in mine for 4 days in a row and don't have any problems at all.","It's down to luck if you happen to get the perfect ones. I had the luck but they still hurt in the getting use to after summer phase.","I always assumed that they have but as a casual I always hire low end ones that aren't broken in to my feet.","no expert, but its probably about safety. its pretty easy to snap an angle or leg if you fall on skis","[Try moldable insoles designed for ski boots?]( URL_0 ) Same as the $300 ones you'd get through a doctor","Went skiing last weekend, had the exact same ELI5......but was too lazy to post it. Upvote for sticktoitiveness","In the words of skis bums, \"stop being a pussy and get out of the back seat\"","ski boots dont hurt if you go to a bootfitter and get the right pair, derp.","Try telemark or cross country skis both of those can be perfectly comfortable without molding.","Everyone here is talking about ski boots And I'm just sitting here feeling poor","Snowboard boots are way more comfortable. Big part of why I switched.","Because most people are doing it wrong. Try this instead, URL_0 ","Because you haven't found ski boots that fit you properly.","The government wants you to be alert while skiing.","Paraphrasing /u/RespawnerSE ; we have, they're just very expensive.","Because I didn't know that you were interested."],"string":"[\n \"Normal shoes will adapt to your feet after a while. Ski boots shouldn't adapt, they should brace your foot. You can get the inner shoe shaped to fit your foot. it costs like $300-500. But a far cheaper thing that people don't know about is that you can take your boot to a (good) ski shop and they can stretch your off-the-shelf boot where it hurts your foot. About half an inch or so. It's usually like $30-80. It works out great for many people. Edit: but they ski boots are not as bad as they used to be, right?\",\n \"You haven't spent enough money for a comfortable pair\",\n \"We have. If your boots hurt they're not the right ones for you.\",\n \"They do. Spend the money and go see a boot fitter. If after a break in period your feet still have hot spots go see the same boot fitter and they'll usually make adjustments for free. Source: I have two comfortable pairs of ski boots.\",\n \"Former boot tech here. In a previous life, I fitted ski boots for a living. How many pairs? I suppose I've worked on over 200 pairs of boots. I've also been a skier for 30 years, and snowboarder for perhaps 15 years. Here are my views on the subject at hand...ski boots and the fitting there of. In normal life, people wear shoes...normally runners or dress shoes. They are soft, light and flexible and are available in many sizes...usually length and sometimes width. They are made this way because feet come in a HUGE array of sizes...I've never seen 2 sets the same...and believe me, I've seen a lot. A soft shoe, while perhaps not a perfect fit to a foot, can bend, twist and adapt itself to the foot it is on. The main purpose of a shoe for most of us is to protect the very bottom of the foot when we *walk* or *run*. Not a difficult challenge. Now for skiing, you need to basically attach a 170-190cm long board to each foot. There is a *lot* of load that needs to be dealt with here...a ski provides a lot of leverage. You can't use a canvas or plastic shoe to provide this...you need to move up to stronger materials. Ski boots are made from injection molded plastic. They need to be to transfer the energy of the skier to the skis. The boot is *rigid* but the foot inside is *not*. So the challenge here is to make the inside of the boot match the foot as closely as possible, and still be able to transfer load effectively. This is the challenge! Let's look at the extremes. Let's say you took a huge boot (several sizes too big), and filled it with soft foam. Nice and comfortable for sure, but the foam will *not transfer load*. Let's look at the other extreme...a small boot...several sizes too small. You can mash your foot in there, and the energy transfer will be great, but this boot will hurt like hell, you will have cold feet, and likely hate life. Ok? The trick then, is to get the hard outer part (the shell) to fit as closely as possible. The inside part (the liner) needs to help take up the space where things are a bit big, and provide some insulation against the cold, and manage moisture (foot sweat). Making a mold for a shell is *very expensive*. Each manufacturer uses biometric data (foot sizes) from large population samples to size their shells. Some data leads to wider shells, some narrower. Some fit feet with higher arches, some with lower. When I was in the business, Dachstein and Koflach tended to fit wide feet, while any of the Italian boots (Munari, I think...) fit narrow feet. These days, things are probably different. Also, know that the boot shell does not change for every boot size... there are normally 2 or 3 boot sizes per shell size. The shell changes dramatically at the \\\"jump\\\"... the liners will just have more or less padding. The best fit will happen when the shell all by itself fits closely, with only the smallest possible liner. The lesson here is to fit the shell first...with no liner. If your boot fitter does not fit the shell first, seek another fitter. Some liners are better than others. Some are heat moldable over time, some have variable density foam. In the end, the more performance oriented the skier, the tighter (and probably less comfortable) the fit needs to be. A common trick used by shops is to sell a boot that is too large. Nice and comfy in the store, but the skier will hate it on the hill... they try to crank all the buckles down to take up volume, and it does not work. Almost all boots I've ever fitted could use a modification. Grind the boot board down to drop it and create more space. Dremel out the toe box a bit to make room for fat toes. Cut the back down to allow better circulation for big calves. A note on cold feet. Your feet are cold because of a crappy fit, not because the \\\"boots are cold\\\". The key to warm feet is circulation, not insulation. Any pressure point on the surface blood vessels will hinder blood getting in and out of the foot. A note on putting boots on. Stand up. You don't ski sitting down, do you? Open the boot and make sure the liner and tongue are straight. Put in your foot in one smooth motion. Buckle the top buckles first (a bit) and flex the boot as much as you can. This drives the heel back into the boot. Do this a few more times, and tighten the buckles on the top. Flex forward, and do the toe buckles now. There should be minimal pressure on the toe buckles...just enough to keep the shell from flexing open. Final note, wear one pair of ski socks...preferably on the thinner side. Don't wear two pairs thinking you will be warmer...remember what I said about circulation? Feel free to comment or question. tl; dr: Ski boots are doing a much harder job than running shoes, and have to be made accordingly. Don't expect them to fit like Nikes. Edits: fixed typos, added paragraphs breaks.\",\n \"Ski boots aren't made for comfort. They're made to brace your ankles so that they don't snap when the skis go a different direction than the rest of your body. To make them comfortable, they'd have to be softer and looser, which means your ankle would be much more breakable.\",\n \"as others have said they have if you're willing to spend the money and go to the correct place. If you only rent boots chances are they will hurt but if you buy a pair they wont and will work out cheaper in the long run. Renting a pair of boots can easily cost £50-100 for a week, lets say you get a deal and pay £50 for a week, you can easily buy a pair for £300 and an extra £100 for custom fitting so £400 in total, so if you go for a week a year in 8 years they will have paid for themselves and still have a lot of use in them (my current boots have done 20+ weeks ones before did 30+). If I have convinced you to buy a pair DO NOT LOOK FOR A PAIR in the nicest way you don't know what you want or what you are looking for. If you buy a pair which match your ski outfit you will probably buy the wrong ones. Go to a ski shop which have a large selection of boots and ideally research who has the best reviews for boot fitting. Go to the shop and instead of looking at the boots ask for their boot technician and explain you want a pair of boots (sometimes you will have to book an appointment, if it's far from where you live might be worth calling ahead). The boot tech should look at your feet and ask you about your skiing style and experience. They should then give you a selection of boots which they think will fit your feet and your skiing style. Once you have selected your boot they can then Mould the liners to your feet and if necessary stretch the boot as well. They should also advise you on if a custom insole is necessary and if so what type, I have high arches so this made a huge difference, this can be an extra £60-80 it's worth it. Once all this is done you should find your boots a lot more comfy and warm and should help you improve your skiing :) any questions let me know! Source: used to be a ski instructor spent over a year in the mountains, I'll happily finish skiing go to apres, have dinner and go to a club in my ski boots.\",\n \"Ski instructor here, either get your boot properly fitted, or stop your bitchin. < 3 happy valentines day\",\n \"They have made *more* comfortable boots but just without pain is asking too much. They have to be stiff enough to not fail when having hundreds of pounds of lateral torsion put on them. Also, you're probably wearing them to tight or they could be the wrong size.\",\n \"LPT: dont wear thick socks with your ski boots. They will just pinch your feet and cut off circulation. Wear thin liner type socks just to help wick away moisture. Its your boots that keep your feet warm, not your socks.\",\n \"I suggest you look into geting Full Tilts. Everyone who has them loves how comfortable they are. They seem to be catered more towards freestyle and park skiers but they are way more than that.\",\n \"You need to get ski boots from a professional boot fitter. This is not from some guy at the boot section of Sport Chalet who knows nothing and certainly not from the internet. You want a guy who fits boots as a career. Every brand of ski boot has a totally different fit and only certain brands are shaped appropriately for your feet. If you get boots picked out and adjusted for you by a boot fitter worth his snuff your boots will be snug yet very comfortable. A lot of quality boots these days will also have a liner which you sort of \\\"cook\\\" and then put on so they mold to the shape of your foot for an even more precise fit. Here's a little guide to buying boots. If your fitter is legit he will sort you out, but it's good to have some basic knowledge so you can tell if a fitter knows what he is doing at a basic level at least . There are some red flags which should make you simply walk out of a place. URL_0 Getting boots fit is free usually with purchase, however it generally means paying MSRP which sucks since you can get all your other gear way below MSRP. But for your boots, it's worth it. My $700 custom fit Lange boots are not uncomfortable at all.\",\n \"We totally have. Some shells are even moldable now. My guess would be you have never had a properly fitted boot. I spend 12 hours a day 6 months a year in ski boots. A well fit and molded boot should be like a slipper. Good boot fitting is worth every penny. Especially if it's what you do for a living. Investigate a service like Surefoot. Mostly it comes down to your foot, the brand, the mold last, and a bunch of different factors.Find a good boot fitter, feed them beer. It's totally possible.\",\n \"Not an explanation but a tip: try using some decent insoles (like superfeet) and buy your own boots so you get to wear them in (well as much as you can ski boots).\",\n \"Hey OP, boots are an overlooked and key part of any ski/snowboard set up. If your boots hurt, they are probably not fit to your foot well. If your boot is fitted correctly, you should have no major pressure points, good circulation (probably the number one cause of pain and coldness is bad circulation), and you should not have to crank the hell out of your buckles to feel snug. Any quality shop should be able to get you a decent custom foot bed for $50-100. This will go a looooong way to help, because instead of trying feel snug against a flat squishy factory footbed, you will snugging down against a semi rigid foot bed shaped like the bottom of your foot. You can also remove pressure points by *lighltly* sanding the liner if it is a removable one. To be frank, I am not up to speed on the latest liner tech...so depends quite a bit kon your boot. Don't lean on your boots when standing, lean on your poles, this will take pressure off your shins and help blood flow. The shins are over looked, but alot of foot cramping is because you want your heel to feel secure and not slippy. The thing is if your boots fit well, you won't feel slippy, you won't overcrank your buckles, and your sweet blood will flow. Do not wear more than one pair of socks, this is an easy friction surface, that's why you find the outer sock all packed into the toe and falling off at the end of they day. Again, a well fit boot and a good light to mid weight weight sock is better than a sloppy boot and compensation through filler and tightening. TL:DR rental boots will always suck.\",\n \"Higher end Solomon boots come with heat moldable shells. Where I work, we heat mold for free if you buy boots. They're comfy as shit. We also sell Full Tilt boots which includes Intuition liners, which are an aftermarket liner that typically costs 200$. Intuition liners are heat moldable and come with extra addable ankle support and they're like wearing a dream. To get the extra comfort, pull out your basic boot sole and replace them with arch supports called Super Feet. At the end of thr day, your feet feel just fine. Source: work in ski shop\",\n \"Full tilt ski boots URL_0 Source: im a semi-pro freeskier\",\n \"If they hurt, you don't have properly fitted boots.\",\n \"Here are the factors that affect your boot fit: Size you wear Shape of your foot and leg (wide/narrow, high arch/flat feet, long calves/short calves, Morton's toes, etc.) Thickness of socks you wear Flexibility of your foot, and how much your foot splays when full weight is on it. Level of skier, style of skiing, terrain you like to ski, weather you like to ski in Number of days you ski per season Whether or not you know how to buckle your boots correctly Whether or not you invest in custom footbeds People who have never had problems with boots either have very easy feet to fit, have been fit by an expert fitter, or don't ski very athletically or very many days per season. People who always have problems with boots either have never been properly fit, or have very difficult feet to fit. When you buy from a good ski shop and are fit by an expert fitter, it typically includes as many free adjustments throughout the lifetime of the boot as it takes to get things right (cash tips always good). An expert fitter will not just measure your foot, but look at it, flex it, study your stance, and ask you questions about your skiing. And, with any new boot, you need to give it 8-10 days on the slopes with a little pain/discomfort to let the boot pack out naturally. If after that you're still not right, take it back and ask your fitter to get it right. (Pro tip: take baby steps when adjusting hot spots. Big adjustments can cause a counter issue that makes things worse instead of better: lift the heel too dramatically, now your pinkie toes are jammed. Grind out the pinkie toe too much, now you're banging in the toe box.) So, one thing at a time, and ski on the adjustment a few days to get a feel for whether it's right before you take it in again. Sometimes things just need to pack out and settle in. The most common mistake people make is buckling down too tightly to keep their foot snug in a too-big boot. This cuts off circulation, your feet get cold, your calves get bruised, your toenails get bruised, you hate to ski. For 4 buckle boots: the most important buckles are the second and third. When putting on your boot, stand up. Start with the power strap, then buckle the second buckle down from the cuff. Now buckle the top buckle, then the third and the toe. NOW GO BACK AND DO IT ALL AGAIN. Adjust the power strap again. Tighten/loosen all other buckles in same order. You should be able to pop open each buckle without too much effort; it should be snug but not tight. With 3 buckle boots, same process, but the cuff and second buckle are most important. Never tuck your pants, long underwear into your boots. The only thing that should be in your boot are your feet and your socks (and toe warmers if you need them). Long underwear should be pulled up over your knee when you're putting on your boot, and then pulled down to cover the top of the sock after your boots are buckled. Oh, there's so much more I could say about this, but I'll just say \\\"custom footbeds\\\" one more time and stop for now.\",\n \"Ok, ski instructor here, my chance to shine. Lots of people saying pay money for comfortable boots. They are missing the point a little. Top end race boots hurt. They are painful. Ever seen a racer's feet? Or a ski instructor's? Rather hideous. The reason for this, in contrast to say a snowboarding boot, is that the boots have to be stiff. They have to be made of a firm plastic in order to ski well. In fact the more high end the skiing the stiffer and firmer the boot will be (freestyle being the exception). Race boots are really hard to flex, the plastic is designed too not change to much in heat or cold and the whole boot is meant to be as tight as you can stand without doing medical damage. Of course there is room to move with in this. You can get the right boot to begin with that is more likely to fit your foot shape (wide last, narrow or wide ankles and calves that sort of thing). You can then get them molded or the inners injected and molded. A holiday skier should not be in pain, but nor will they ever feel like a slipper. To be clear again; the best top end boots in terms of performance will never be a comfortable fit. The most you can hope for in really well performing boots is that they don't damage your feet. Source: I spend hundreds of pounds/euros/CHF and thousands of hours in boots.\",\n \"Boot fitter here. The easy answer is that we have. A bunch of companies (like Salomon, Atomic, and Fischer) have relatively quick custom molding techniques that allow for the actual plastic boot shell to be matched perfectly to your foot. Moreover, ski manufacturers are getting a lot better at material science, allowing them to make the plastic stiff where it needs to be (on the sides) and relatively flexible elsewhere. Ski boots won't ever be as comfortable as skate shoes, but if you're in a properly fit boot then there's no reason for it to hurt. I also like to give a few tips for making your own boots way more comfortable: 1. Never wear more than 1 pair of socks. More than that and you'll wind up trapping moisture and making yourself far colder. 2. If it takes more than the pressure of one thumb to close a buckle, it's too tight and you're cutting off your own blood flow, making yourself colder and less comfortable. 3. Buckle from top to bottom, and kick your heel back into your boot's heel pocket. Modern ski boots have a tight heel pocket that adds a lot of support, but if you clamp down your toes first and don't allow your foot to settle back properly, you'll wind up with your toes jammed in the front, and all kinds of blisters.\",\n \"They do. You just need to buy a good pair that fits you well and let them mold to your feet. Mine have a velvet like material that is extremely comfortable. The only pain you should be experiencing is in your shins after hitting big jumps, but that's normal. Also, protip: it really helps if you shave the bottom portion of your legs if your a frequent skier. The boots get so tight around your socks that any time the boot flexes it will feel like your leg hair is getting yanked out. My legs are super hairy and I ski every other day so it makes a huge difference for me and the other guys I ski with. Plus it's not like anyone sees your legs in the winter anyway. It's a really common thing among good skiers. And if you are using rental boots, you are just asking for pain. Do some research, try some on, get the right amount of stiffness you need, then you'll be able to ski all day without taking a break.\",\n \"It depends where they are hurting, many new boots (even ones that have been fitted) hurt because the foam on the inner of the boot has not been squashed, this means that there is more pressure being put onto your foot. This is something you usually just have to grit your teeth and push through. However it may also be that the shell of the boot is too small, or may not be a comfortable shape for your foot, this can be solved by taking your boots to a ski shop where they can either grind or blow out the shells to make more room, and will usually do so for free. It is also a good idea to have a sole made for the inside of your boots as it can help reduce pain and stress on your knees if you are flat footed. Source: been skiing since I was 2 years old, and racing competitively in FIS races since the age of 10, and have had many race boots fitted over that time.\",\n \"Ski tech here, this question is asked by 80 percent of the people that come into my shop and the answers pretty simple, you're wearing the wrong boots. People who buy boots online or rent equipment will usually get an Ill fitting product. A boot fitter can adjust for your skier type, find a flex and last that is good for you, as well as find a boot that fits your needs. You'd be surprised how many cankle moms come in complaining that their 130 flex boot with a 99 last is hurting them. It's like getting a 2 seater Porsche when you have a whole family to bus around\",\n \"Your boots don't fit you, I've done several seasons as a ski instructor which means 8 hours a day in ski boots 6 days a week for the entire winter, my boots don't hurt at all. Go to a shop and try on **EVERY SINGLE PAIR THEY HAVE** then pick the most comfortable of them all, consider nothing else about the boot comfort is the only thing you should care about. The key is finding a boot that's the right shape for your foot, because ski-boots won't change shape over time like shoes will, so if its not right from the beginning it will never be right. Forget renting boots.\",\n \"They do make ski boots that are comfortable but you need to see a boot fitter to get them fitted to your feet and you need to be willing to spend a good amount of money on them. I just bought a new pair and while they were quite expensive ($600) they are very comfortable with a custom fitted intuition liner and will likely last a long time. My previous boots were second, possibly third hand hand-me-downs that were so old the liner was basically useless and the were 2.5 sizes too big. TL;DR. Get the correct size boots and get them custom fitted by a good boot fitter\",\n \"Decent boots have heat-molded liners that conform to your foot when you first buy them, and these days the shells are being made with newer construction techniques that enable them to be shaped more closely to a human ankle. Do not, I repeat DO NOT go buy a new liner for 500 bucks like RespawnerSE said. The right answer here is from Jweeze: you just have to pony up and get brand new boots. Dalbello has been making big strides in comfort technology in the last five or so years. Take $600 to an actual ski shop with industry professionals and you'll find what you're looking for.\",\n \"Take your current boots to a GOOD ski shop. Not a big box store like Dick's sporting goods or the like. Explain to them where the boots make your feet hurt. They will either be able to point you to a boot that fits your foot shape better (personally I cannot wear Salomon or Lange boots...but I love my Atomics). Or they will be able to get you a boot that is close and then heat and reshape the boot a little to make it fit your foot better.\",\n \"Speaking as someone who just bought new ski boots for the first time in eight years this year, and has size 14 extra wide feet they have! Fischer Vacuum Fit ski boots! They're the most comfortable things I've ever had on my feet! The ski shop will heat them up then the boots are cooled and fitted to your feet using air pressure. I had to get my left boot refitted three times to get it right, but it was worth it!\",\n \"Your feet hurt because your boots do not fit. My skiboots feel like my feet are sitting in velvet because I have gone to a boot fitter, received a proper shell and liner for my foot shape. Don't order ski or snowboard boots online, get them at a GOOD store who will spend time measuring your feet and getting a proper fits for your feet.\",\n \"Ski boots have to provide a very firm mechanical coupling to your very skeleton so that you can effectively control the ski. This requirement is pretty contrary to comfort, so I am not sure how much they can really do for a reasonable price.\",\n \"Sounds like you didn't have proper fitting boots. If you get the shell molded and a custom foot bed it makes all the difference. Go to a boot fitter. They will pick out a boot that fits your gate and foot.\",\n \"Go to a boot fitter and have orthotics made. I do this on my snowboard boots which are 100x more comfortable to begin with. Ski boot is supposed to hold your foot in place.\",\n \"I've had the same pair of boots for almost ten years. Very comfortable, and I've never had an issue. The comfy boots are out there. You just haven't found a pair for yourself yet\",\n \"Ummm they have.... You need to buy a pair and get measured up. I can ski in mine for 4 days in a row and don't have any problems at all.\",\n \"It's down to luck if you happen to get the perfect ones. I had the luck but they still hurt in the getting use to after summer phase.\",\n \"I always assumed that they have but as a casual I always hire low end ones that aren't broken in to my feet.\",\n \"no expert, but its probably about safety. its pretty easy to snap an angle or leg if you fall on skis\",\n \"[Try moldable insoles designed for ski boots?]( URL_0 ) Same as the $300 ones you'd get through a doctor\",\n \"Went skiing last weekend, had the exact same ELI5......but was too lazy to post it. Upvote for sticktoitiveness\",\n \"In the words of skis bums, \\\"stop being a pussy and get out of the back seat\\\"\",\n \"ski boots dont hurt if you go to a bootfitter and get the right pair, derp.\",\n \"Try telemark or cross country skis both of those can be perfectly comfortable without molding.\",\n \"Everyone here is talking about ski boots And I'm just sitting here feeling poor\",\n \"Snowboard boots are way more comfortable. Big part of why I switched.\",\n \"Because most people are doing it wrong. Try this instead, URL_0 \",\n \"Because you haven't found ski boots that fit you properly.\",\n \"The government wants you to be alert while skiing.\",\n \"Paraphrasing /u/RespawnerSE ; we have, they're just very expensive.\",\n \"Because I didn't know that you were interested.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["design fell from popularity in the 1990s due to their shunning by racers in search of a closer fit. Recent improvements to front-entry and mid-entry boots, primarily in the areas of comfort and ease of entry/exit, have diminished the popularity of rear-entry designs even in recreational roles, though mid-range models remain common as rental boots. Three-piece Three-piece (or \"open-throat\") boots were first developed by Mel Dalebout (around 1969), who introduced a rigid magnesium boot shell in that year (Brixia did the same thing with their aluminum shell at around the same time). The big advantage was that the main shell","-26.703261541682878"],["only one boot, not a pair, and Chris stopped work on the design.\nAround the same time, Bob Lange started work on a new ski boot design using plastics in place of leather. It took several years of development before he had a suitable design, and widespread sales started in the winter of 1965-66. These early designs were very stiff and offered a tremendous improvement in control, but they became even more uncomfortable than the leather designs they replaced when the inner liner lost its elasticity around pressure points. The area around the leg cuff and especially the ankle would wear","-26.416106441713055"],["manufacturers took steps to address issues of fit by introducing taller, better fitting styles this was ultimately blamed for their decline in popularity. Where protection from the elements was needed, Russian boots were increasingly replaced by fashionable variants of the rubber Wellington boot. Mass popularity was also seen as a barrier to chic women adopting boots as a fashion item. Although they were still popular as late as the beginning of the 1930s, within a few years Russian boots had fallen out of favor. It was not until the 1950s that boots were again regarded as fashion items for","-25.73621543488116"],["many skiers prefer lightweight, fatter models that may be heavier but do not sacrifice performance in deep snow, which is a common desire for skiing off-piste. This tradeoff is common in backcountry skis, but manufacturers attempt to narrow this gap each year. Skins Ski skins allow skis to travel uphill. A narrow strip of nylon or mohair fabric designed to mimic sealskin and allow skis to be slid forward, uphill, but not backwards, downhill. Synthetic skins typically grip better while mohair skins made from Angora Goat hair slide better. Commonly, skins are attached to skis or a splitboard with a","-25.081945137368166"],["users do not wear protective gear because the shoes are worn for everyday use (unlike more specialized sporting equipment such as inline skates).","-24.908604384152568"],["shoes have won appeal for their ethical origins from eco-friendly recycled materials, simple elegance, and adaptability to various circumstances. Manufacture The manufacture of furlanes is generally more complex than that of slippers. The upper part is the most sophisticated part.","-24.901519477090915"],["them to market. These have since been released under the new Full Tilt brand. Roxa, the Italian boot maker who produces Flexon for K2, also sells the boot under their own name. Numerous companies are now producing three-piece designs. Before Flexon Today's plastic ski boots evolved from leather designs that in turn evolved from conventional winter hiking boots. These all followed the same basic layout; the boot was built on top of a semi-stiff sole of leather or (for a stiffer boot) wood. The upper shell consisted of single layer or multiple layers of leather and stiffeners that were formed","-24.731091577006737"],["ski designs, consisting largely of a sheet of plywood. A contemporary ski's torsion box design greatly improved torsional stiffness and would allow even greater sidecut to be effective. But in spite of the snowboard demonstrating that modern skis could carry much wider sidecuts, and that such a sidecut resulted in excellent turn performance, little came of this development. The snowboard market was ignored by the major ski companies through the 1970s and 80s.\nExperiments with slightly greater sidecut on skis did appear during this period, including the Head Yahoo and especially the Atomic Powder Plus. Further developments followed due to","-24.674160641348863"],["the hills himself, selling them out of the back of his station wagon. By the end of the year, 300 pairs of the $85 skis were sold. One last problem needed to be solved; the mirror-like topsheet was distracting in the sun, so a thin sheet of black plastic was added to the top. The result was the Head Standard, which would remain largely unchanged for over a decade.\nOn the slopes, skiers found they could turn the ski far easier than wooden designs. Head later noted that \"...lightness is not what makes a ski better. In trying to build a","-24.168702466020477"],["style of sheepskin boot. In many other countries, however, UGG boots are a well-known brand of footwear owned by Deckers. The boots are made of twin-faced sheepskin with fleece on the inside and with a tanned outer surface, often with a synthetic sole. The boots originated in Australia and New Zealand, initially as utilitarian footwear worn for warmth and comfort. UGG boots emerged as a fashion trend in the United States in the late 1990s and as a world-wide trend in the late 2000s. Trademark law in the United States The Lanham Act is the primary federal trademark statute of","-24.117783224130108"],["variety of skis with differing sidecuts, and older designs were derisively dismissed as \"skinny skis\". These older designs clogged the discount racks, and top-of-the-line models from the previous year could now be purchased for $29.95. It became clear that skis should have always been shaped this way, and one designer later noted that \"It turned out that everything we thought we knew for forty years was wrong.\"\nBy the 1997/98 season every ski company was producing parabolic designs, and only parabolic designs. In spite of fire-sale prices on older designs, parabolics accounted for 70% of all ski sales by 1999. Over","-24.071754667266987"],["and skiing conditions. Atomic developed the LiveFit (2009), a ski boot which automatically adapts to the shape of the foot. Since 2009, Atomic's skis have also been available with various Rocker technologies. Atomic has recently developed Memory Fit, a heat fitting technology that adapts the boot to the users foot, which can be found on two of the market's top selling boots.\nAtomic is also committed to the development of more environmentally-friendly production methods: the factory in Altenmarkt uses a wood pellet heating system during the manufacturing process. The \"Renu\" line comprises skis and boots largely made of recyclable and renewable","-24.01770565455081"],["contemporary ski's torsion box design greatly improved torsional stiffness and would allow even greater sidecut to be effective. But in spite of the snowboard demonstrating that modern skis could carry much wider sidecuts, and that such a sidecut resulted in excellent turn performance, little came of this development. The snowboard market was ignored by the major ski companies through the 1970s and 80s.\nExperiments with slightly greater sidecut on skis did appear during this period, including the Head Yahoo and especially the Atomic Powder Plus. Further developments followed due to changes in competitive giant slalom, as the gates were moved","-23.997824635211146"],["dominating the world market. History There are different claims to the origins of the ugg boot style. Artisanal sheepskin boots were known in rural Australia during the 1920s, and were reportedly worn by shearers as they found them resistant to wool yolk (Lanolin), which would rot their ordinary boots. However, the date of commercial manufacturing began remains unclear. The boots were reportedly being manufactured in 1933 by Blue Mountains Ugg Boots of New South Wales. Frank Mortel of Mortels Sheepskin Factory has stated that he began manufacturing the boots in the late 1950s. Surfer Shane Stedman of Australia has stated","-23.907402897675638"],["Taylor and Neil Robinson, who assured Head that he would love to use his skis if they did not break. Throughout that winter Head would make a ski pair and send it out to Robinson, who returned it to Head after it broke. Head figured out the flaws of his design, came up with modifications, sent the new ski pair to Robinson, and the process repeated. By the end of the winter of 1947, Head came up with skis that were as strong as wooden skis but were half the weight.\nIn order to make his skis more efficient,","-23.850814111239742"],["and strongest available.\nThe party's ski boots, specially designed by Amundsen, were the product of two years' testing and modification in search of perfection. The party's polar clothing included suits of sealskin from Northern Greenland, and clothes fashioned after the style of the Netsilik Inuit from reindeer skins, wolf skin, Burberry cloth and gabardine. The sledges were constructed from Norwegian ash with steel-shod runners made from American hickory. Skis, also fashioned from hickory, were extra long to reduce the likelihood of slipping into crevasses. The tents—\"the strongest and most practical that have ever been used\"—had built-in floors and required a single","-23.79115827118585"],["Ugg boots Ugg boots are a unisex style of sheepskin boot originating in Australia and New Zealand. The boots are typically made of twin-faced sheepskin with fleece on the inside, a tanned outer surface and a synthetic sole. The term, ugg boots, originated from Australia, initially for utilitarian footwear worn for warmth, and which were often worn by surfers during the 1960s. In the 1970s, the boots were introduced to the surf culture of the United Kingdom and the United States. Sheepskin boots became a fashion trend in the U.S. in the late 1990s and as a worldwide trend in","-23.711880594906688"],["not built up to dangerous levels. Although it did not release the boot from the ski, it did release the force from the boot. To mount it, the boot was fastened to a metal plate, which was in turn cut into the upper surface of the ski in a mortise joint about a centimetre deep. The system was difficult to install, weakened the ski, and also heavy.\nBeyl wanted a sexy name for the company, and took one from a US photo magazine. Look was formed in Nevers, France in 1948. The system saw limited sales, but was in use on","-23.673377683175204"],["sheepskin boots, which were made from sheepskin sourced from Jackson's Tannery in Geelong, Victoria. Seeing the popularity of the boots among American surfers, Australian surfer Brian Smith, then living in Santa Monica, California, bought boots from Country Leather but was unhappy with the brand and decided to register UGG as his own trademark. Family friends invested $20,000 into the new venture and the group set up Ugg Imports. Due to other business commitments, in 1979 Jensen handed over his share of the company to Smith. In 1987 Smith registered Ugg Holdings Inc. and in 1985 registered a U.S. trademark on","-23.628425564245845"],["need to provide mechanical support only in the fore and aft directions. These typically consist of an external frame, generally L shaped, which the snowboarder steps into and then fastens down using straps over the boot. The boot itself is not as responsible for transmitting forces, and can be much softer than a typical downhill boot. When the sport was first introduced, normal winter boots were used, but today it is much more common to use semi-stiff snowboarding boots. Some specialty disciplines use harder boots with step-in bindings more similar to downhill systems, but these are not widely used outside","-23.54685912997502"],["\"female-friendly\" ski equipment. Thoren's position was that women's physical characteristics are completely different from those of men, so just shorter skis will not suffice. Thoren has made many appearances in Geiger's ski stores, urging women to demand and ski manufacturers to design better equipment.\nGeiger's has been active in America's Best Bootfitters, a worldwide association of independent ski and snowboard retailers that offers certification in the science of fitting ski and snowboard boots. These boots are a substantial investment (up to as much as $1,000/pair) and are integral to good, safe skiing.\nExecutive Vice President and Co-owner Gordon Geiger is very active","-23.508522703297785"],["shoes that could be quickly removed if embers landed in the shafts. Engineer boots were overtaken in the shoe market during World War II by the production of lace-up combat boots and demand dramatically decreased. Widespread use Both Chippewa and Wesco heavily increased sales of engineer boots in the late 1940s. There was a post-war production boom for the boots, with high demand coming from returning veterans and bikers. The latter adopted engineer boots because the laceless design would not interfere with motorcycle drive belts, the shafts were well insulated from heat, and they provided full lower leg protection in","-23.507713264949416"],["used heavier leather in its construction, and had several minor changes from the 1917 Boot, including a thicker sole and improved waterproofing. Due to the boots' greater size, they were known as \"little tanks\" by the soldiers who received them.","-23.30260695177276"],["subject to wear; Nava's soft plate and boot eliminated both problems.\nNava first showed the system in April 1983 in Italy, and started sales in the winter of 83/84, and Canada in 1985. Frank Vener, an American who marketed a number of European brands in the US, started Nava Leisure USA and started sales in February 1986. There were two models, the Sansicario sold for $495 while the Cortina sold for $595, both well at the high end of the market.\nEarly reviews were generally positive. Reviewers noted how easy it was to ski all day long without the discomfort of normal","-22.940534837936866"],["Hanson Industries (ski boots) Flo-fit Alden Hanson Sr. was the chief scientist at Dow Chemical during the 1950s and '60s. He led development of a Silly Putty-like plastic known as \"Flo-fit\" and started looking for applications. Alden's son Chris used some in an effort to make a better ski boot, which at the time were simple leather boots that were extremely uncomfortable and quickly wore out. Chris built a fiberglass shell that fitted over the entire foot area of the boot to provide support, and then filled the gap with Flo-fit to provide cushioning between the two. The prototype was","-22.919313584261545"],["Tailwheel aircraft are also more suitable for fitting with skis in wintertime.","-22.869851787385414"],["them tending to sink in soft snow. This left powder skiing and off-piste skis among the few markets not being served by parabolic designs. Several skis aimed at the powder market had appeared over the years, including the Volant Chubb and other \"fat-boy skis\" from the early to mid 1990s.\nFree skier Shane McConkey was skiing on the Elan designs in 1996, but found they sank in the snow. As an experiment to get more \"float\" on the snow, he tried mounting ski bindings on waterskis while skiing in Alaska. He began working with Volant on skis that combined their metal-based","-22.768852159453672"],["require the use of such boots in some settings, and may mandate certification of such boots and the display of such certification directly on the boots. The markings on the boot label will indicate the national or international standards that the boot was intended to meet, and identify the level of protection offered for impact, penetration, electric shock, and chemical hazards. Safety shoes are effective in keeping the feet of industrial workers safe from sharp and heavy objects while working in factories. Footwear for use in chemical processing or semiconductor manufacturing may also be rated to dissipate static electricity while","-22.76793424661446"],["prevents snow or debris from gathering between the tread of the tire and the inner side of the woven fabric.\nWhen winter tires aren’t enough, snow socks help to enhance the grip on snowy roads. Sizing and deployment Snow socks are sold in pairs and come in sizes that are specific to a range of tire codes. Snow sock sizes are available for different motor vehicle classes, but most snow sock brands focus on cars and pickup trucks rather than semi-trailer trucks or larger vehicles. Since the largest variation of snow socks is in the market for cars and pickup trucks,","-22.7003495494464"],["wide or low-profile tires are often covered. Buses, semi-trailer trucks or larger vehicles require snow sock models that can support the heavier axle load and larger wheel dimensions. Some brands also offer snow socks for specialized vehicles such as forklifts or airport ground support equipment (e.g. pushback tugs or loaders).\nDriving with snow socks usually reduces the maximum allowable speed to between 30 km/h (20mph) and 50 km/h (30 mph) depending on the snow sock brand, snow sock size and vehicle class. These restrictions are normally stated in the product's or vehicle's owner’s manual. Neither snow socks nor snow chains are","-22.635553752463238"],["the mid-2000s. In Australia, they are worn predominantly as slippers and often associated with \"daggy\" fashion sense and \"bogan\" culture.\nPrior legal disputes between some manufacturers of sheepskin boots arose as to distinguish whether \"ugg\" is a protected trademark, or a generic term and thus ineligible for trademark protection. There are more than 70 registered trademarks that include the term \"ugg\" in various logos and designs in Australia and New Zealand, as the term is considered a generic reference to a type of shoe. Outside Australia and New Zealand, UGG is a brand manufactured by the California-based Deckers Outdoor Corporation, with","-22.47581376913513"],["Red Wing Shoes Products Though Red Wing Shoes is known primarily for their leather boots intended for heavy work, in recent years the company has expanded its line-up to include athletic-styled work shoes and footwear designed for specific job applications (such as slip-resistant shoes designed for the service industry and boots ideal for the mining industry that utilize a metatarsal guard). The company produces Oxfords, chukkas, hiking boots, and logger styles, as well as 6-inch and 8-inch work boots. While the core of Red Wing's focus is on work boots, in 2008 Red Wing Shoes added a Heritage catalog and","-22.422812056727707"],["used for racing because it uses two connection points so that the skier has more stability and control over the ski. As these boots are intended for travel over generally flat terrain, they are optimized for light weight and efficiency of motion.\nTelemark refers to a specific technique for making downhill turns on Nordic equipment. This has resulted in highly specialized equipment designed for better performance in a downhill setting. Until 1992 Telemark boots were basically heavy leather boots with the front of the sole adapted to the 75mm Nordic Norm. The introduction of the New Telemark Norm (NTN) binding","-22.421494020120008"],["that would reliably release a ski boot in a fall, but remain in place for normal skiing maneuvers. While laid up in the hospital, he had an inspiration for a new design, which became the Saf-Ski, the world's first ski safety bindings. The bindings made it to Europe for use by the 10th Mountain Division in World War II.\nAfter the war, the design caught on and became popular around the world into the 1960s. Hvam sold and rented thousands of pairs until the early 1970s, when insurance premiums for sale of the bindings became too expensive and the Saf-Ski","-22.275668646667327"],["more quickly, however they do not need to be dressed. Applications Common applications include: steering rack components, transmission components, fuel injector components, camshaft lobes, hydraulic cylinder rods, bearing races, needle rollers, and sharpening stones and wheels.\nIt has been proven that superfinishing certain parts makes them more durable. For example, if the teeth in a gear are superfinished they will last up to four times as long.","-22.266987546754535"],["In Russia light vehicles and buses must be equipped with snow M+S or 3PMSF tires on all axles from December through February and have a minimum tread depth of 4 millimetres (0.2 in).\nAll prefectures of Japan, except for the southernmost prefecture of Okinawa, require the motorized vehicles to be fitted with winter tires or tire chains if the road is icy or slushy. If tread grooves of snow tires are worn off for more than 50% of its original depth, tires must be replaced to meet the legal requirements. Drivers will be fined for failing to comply with the snow tire","-22.26491197856558"],["to 1900, there were very similar models made in North America, like the Donaghue from USA. Recreational skates Inexpensive skates for recreational skaters usually resemble either figure skates or hockey skates, but recreational ice skates resembling inline skates with a molded plastic boot are also available. These recreational skates are commonly rented from ice rinks by beginners who do not own their own skates. In the non-American English-speaking world they are sometimes called 'death wellies' by skaters who own their own equipment because of their appearance and their reputation for giving the wearer blisters. People who own their own","-22.21377174858935"],["in interviews that he invented the ugg boot. Perth sheepskin boot manufacturers Bruce and Bronwyn McDougall of Uggs-N-Rugs have manufactured the boots since the late 1970s.\nThe origin of the term \"ugg\" is also unclear. Stedman registered the trademark \"UGH-BOOTS\" in Australia in 1971, and in 1982 registered the \"UGH\" trademark. Frank Mortel claims that he named his company's sheepskin boots \"ugg boots\" in 1958 after his wife commented that the first pair he made were \"ugly.\" Some accounts have suggested that the term grew out of earlier variations, such as the \"fug boots\" worn by United Kingdom Royal Air","-22.202275005987758"],["equipment similar in appearance to their ice hockey counterparts for safety but partly also to help block more of the goal area. However, such goalie equipment used in street hockey is generally lighter than that used in ice hockey due to the reduced weight and density of the ball (or puck) that is typically used in street hockey as compared to the hard vulcanized rubber puck used in ice hockey.\nA street hockey stick is similar to an ice hockey stick in shape and size, but made of materials that will better stand up to use on asphalt or a","-22.155476008643745"],["skiing much easier and reinforced edges to withstand rails. Eric Pollard designed the first two symmetrical skis, the Anthem and the Invader. Pollard now has his own pro model skis from Line skis called the EP Pro (Mr. Pollard's Opus - 2012), the Elizabeth and the Sir Francis Bacon. Some new powder and all-mountain skis are created with 'reverse camber' (aka 'rocker') meaning that the tips and tails are bent up slightly to make powder landings easier.","-22.13284616792589"],["needed to be solved. Skis of the 1970s were largely identical in shape to those of the 1800s.\nSkis with narrower waist profiles had been experimented with, but had never become widely used. In 1939, Dick Durrance ordered a custom ski from Thor Groswold's factory in Denver with a 7 mm sidecut, and this became a new standard for slalom skis. During the winter of 1948/49, Jerry Hiatt and Thor's son Jerry decided to experiment with even bigger sidecuts. Taking a pair of the company's standard hickory Rocket skis, they cut away wood until they produced a 15 millimetres (0.59 in) sidecut. When","-22.051999336558538"],["brand and marketing, with terms such as \"full rocker\", \"all mountain rocker\", \"hybrid\" and others. Gender-specificity Skis were once unisex, but today skis are designed to suit both men and women. Compared to men's skis, women's skis are built for smaller, less powerful frames, and have a waist that’s farther forward to better match a woman’s relatively lower center of gravity relative to a man. Sidecut Sidecut is the subtle hourglass shape of the ski, viewed from the top. Skis have had some sidecut since before 1808, when it was invented by Norwegian artisans. Since that time, the straight ski","-22.036694216076285"],["by the 1930 and 1936 Pattern boot followed by the introduction of the Sidcot suit and more ordinary knee-length fleece-lined boots were then used. Arctic pilots needed especially warm wear and continued to use heavy suspender boots of sheepskin in place of trousers. Both clothing and boots were electrically heated as the technology for this became available.\nIn Australia, a soft, slip-on sheepskin boot was developed which were known as ugg boots (There are a number or derivations given for this name, including a cartoon character, shorthand for \"ugly\", and the \"fug\" boots worn in World War I).","-22.000782744027674"],["who were previously issued with the Gore-Tex boot.\nUnlike the predecessor Gore-Tex boots, which were neatly padded and waterproof, the Frontier designers removed the padding, added an ankle support strip, and added two \"water outlets\", making the boot very uncomfortable.\nWith the change, the waterproof feature was also gone, resulting in criticism from the reserve conscripts who were previously issued with the Gore-Tex boots which were waterproof. However, it allowed the water to drain out of the boot after a river-crossing. Also, the boot become more ventilated (and \"cooling\") once the padding was removed.\nDurability was also an issue in both the 2nd","-21.93034978453943"],["and torsional stiffness of a ski along its length. Hexcel, a manufacturer of aluminium honeycomb sheet, became well known for its branded skis, using this same advanced material.\nSporting uses may be every bit as demanding as aerospace needs. Particularly in cycling, materials may be loaded more highly than in aerospace use, the risk of possible failure being seen as more acceptable than for aircraft.\nMany uses of aerospace materials for sporting goods have been as the result of a 'peace dividend'. After World War II, Hiduminium alloy appeared in bicycle brake components as its maker sought to expand new markets to","-21.883646029687952"],["After a five-year research project, the SX series of ski boots was introduced in the beginning of the 1980s. The boot was the result of collaboration with the French designer Roger Tallon.\nThe SX91 ski boot was launched in 1984, the result of collaboration with the young French designer Roger Pitiot. The boot contained a number of innovations such as the sliding forward-flex control.\nSalomon's dedicated design center is in Annecy, France.","-21.80947790103005"],["that did not require much (or any) sidecut, and did not experiment with other designs as styles changed. Snowboards had to invent their equipment and techniques fresh, and found the deep sidecut was best through experimentation.\nAlpine skis were for many years shaped similarly to cross-country skis, simply shorter and wider. Experiments with deeper sidecuts had been carried out with limited success, but the much deeper sidecuts of snowboards led to further experiments. In 1993 the Elan SCX introduced a radical sidecut design that dramatically improved performance of alpine skis. Other companies quickly followed the Elan SCX design, and it was","-21.7945495186068"],["parabolic skis. Plus, since the classic snowboard has a nonuniform flex, mainly characterized as insignificant flex between the riders feet, then the DES has more than twice as much edge control. Other advantages are also defined: seamless edge-to-edge transition, smoother ride, no toe/heel drag, better tip/tip flex and less chance of catching the leading edge. Disadvantages These systems' combined board weight can be roughly the same weight as a single snowboard. Since the total system weight also includes a mechanism, then these systems are likely to always be heavier than the classic snowboard due to the added","-21.62544209648331"],["Bunny boots Type I The black pairs, called Mickey Mouse boots (due to their oversized appearance resembling the feet of the eponymous cartoon mouse), weigh 44 oz. (1.25 kg) apiece, are rated for temperatures down to −20 °F (−28.9 °C) and are made with oil/diesel resistant rubber. They are less common and predate the post-Korea white pairs (\"bunny boots\") which are still issued today. Type II The white \"Bunny boot\" is an improved version of the Type I \"Mickey Mouse boot\", designed for use in even more extreme cold weather, and is rated all the way down to −65 °F (−53.8 °C). Given the","-21.583458103443263"],["selected as the new ADF combat boots, they were comfortable in hot weather provided good support. However these were found to fail prematurely and were never issued on a large scale.\nAs a result, Redback were tasked with once again providing a range of combat boots to the ADF including a General Purpose boot, a Jungle Style boot and a Flame Resistant boot. These boots are being issued on a very limited basis and are currently undergoing limited testing. However early reports are not favourable with complaints of failing eyelets and lack of water resistance. Danners are still being retained as","-21.464934182120487"],["Indoor Often called Spinning shoes, after the company that popularized fitness club classes led by an instructor using stationary bicycles. A few companies have developed shoe models intended to cater to the indoor cyclist, including Nike, Lake, SIDI, Specialized, Exustar and others. These shoes have not been widely accepted due to their limited availability and a fragmented consumer market. US retail prices as of 2010 are generally under $90, with the normal range of sizes available. Winter Cycling shoes with insulated, over-the-ankle coverage have been available for a number of years from Lake, Sidi, Northwave, Exustar, Gaerne and others. ","-21.425715789635433"],["materials were scarce and it was then when the company introduced the concept of using old car tyres as a soling for boots.\nGradually since then the methods of manufacturing footwear have changed as petroleum based products such as glues, rubbers and plastics have replaced the traditional ones of leather, nails and threads. More modern machinery has been introduced than can directly mould soles to the bottom of boots and can easily pull leather over a last.\nAt the end of 1987 the company moved from Unley to Hilton. The move allowed production to be carried out in a more modern, fit-for-purpose","-21.41355697135441"],["Head made several other changes, like substituting plywood for honeycomb plastic, covering the bottom of the ski with polyethylene to avoid the problem of icy bottoms and adopting continuous steel edges to harden the edges of the ski. The new improved skis were almost as heavy as the conventional wooden skis, but were stronger and easier to control. Head skis helped to popularize alpine skiing in the U.S.; the innovative equipment made turning significantly easier.\nIn 1950, Head founded the Head Ski Company, which became very successful. Within a couple of years it was the major supplier of","-21.409822356952645"],["major source for parts to keep Flexon boots working. Skiers like Seth Morrison built up large stocks of spare parts to keep their boots on the hill. After Flexon In 2004, K2 Sports bought the original Flexon moulds, planning to enter the boot business. However, they initially did nothing with the design. In 2006, K2 purchased Line Skis, and Line decided to immediately re-launch the Flexon under the new brand-name, Full Tilt. Immediate turned out to be a relative term, and the new boots did not reach the market until early 2006 in Japan, Canada at the end of that","-21.40461989166215"],["deicing boots, the company built a large indoor facility in Akron to replicate bad weather and icing on aircraft wings. Ice bridging 'Ice bridging' is the theory that activating boots early may lead to a condition where slushy ice is pushed into a hollow shell around the inflated boot, then freezes in place. This shell can then no longer be dislodged by any further operation of the boot. Bridging was described by the aviation writer Ernest Gann in his memoir Fate Is the Hunter.\nThe bridging theory is now disputed. In 2008 the NTSB issued an alert that pilots should,","-21.388021720988036"],["more modern materials, such as rubber, foam, plastic, leather, suede, and even fabric. Thongs made of polyurethane have caused some environmental concerns; because polyurethane is a number 7 resin, they can't be easily discarded, and they persist in landfills for a very long time. In response to these concerns, some companies have begun selling flip-flops made from recycled rubber, such as that from used bicycle tires, or even hemp, and some offer a recycling program for used flip flops.\nBecause of the strap between the toes, flip-flops are typically not worn with socks. In colder weather, however, some people wear flip-flops","-21.27782549239589"],["late fifties provided a good grip to gloved fingers.\nCar speeds were quite slow due to very icy conditions [see also lake effect snow]. It was not something to be encouraged but was widely practiced. Motorcycle skitching In motorcycle skitching, the driver of the motorcycle flips their legs over the saddle and drags their feet on the ground while holding onto the handlebars. This is similar to ghost-riding in motor vehicles. Motorcycle skitching requires metal plates on the soles of the rider's shoes to protect them from the road surface. Dangers Because skitching is often done in traffic, on inadequate equipment","-21.257571016583825"],["why having four different titles on one bottle was confusing for a consumer.\nMuddy Boots got the importance of brand essence but had got their design and structure wrong. With almost unanimous results, their market research on the packaging proved that too much of the beefburger was shown and that it was squashed and unappealing.\nIt was back to the drawing board for both of them.\nWith the help of two London design agencies, they both had brand emersions and new concepts designed.\nThey were then set the challenge of pitching their products to the customers in a large London Tesco store. \nAt the","-21.256735577356608"],["car: it was ordinary sport scuba gear.\nAfter about 1990 the rapid growth in the number of sport diving rebreather brands has clouded this distinction, while advanced sport divers increasingly tackle longer, deeper, riskier dives using equipment once available only to armed forces or professionals. This means that even \"less-lethal\" techniques for trapping them underwater, disorienting them, or (especially) forcing them to the surface would be an ever-increasing risk to civilian divers' lives.\nIn former times, civilian diving was only for work, and needed standard diving dress and large, readily visible surface support craft. Sport scuba diving has changed that.\nAnother result of","-21.236766366884694"],["slogan for luxury goods, particularly for cars and sporting goods. Bicycles, golf clubs, sailing yachts and even torches are all sold on the basis of their high-performance materials, whether these are relevant or not. Since their appearance in 1979, Maglite have advertised their use of 6061 aluminium for their torch bodies, one of the first to make a deliberate feature of aerospace materials for a non-performance reason.\nSome sporting uses have been for the material's actual qualities. Many ski makers have produced skis wholly from cloth and resin composite materials, using the tailorability of such construction to vary the stiffness, damping","-21.151540857594227"],["16 March 2011. Both boots received two initial launch colourways: Plum Red/White/Volt and Marine Blue/Platinum/Orange.\nThis update of Nike's lightweight football boots transpired to be largely cosmetic; rather than any new innovations being added to the Mercurial Vapor and Superfly (as the Nike SENSE adaptive traction system was with the Superfly II), the sole, studs, last and weight all remained the same on both football boots.\nThe only change came in the form of a new graphical design on the upper, which was designed to make the boots even more visible on the pitch.\nWhilst many players were seen training and playing in","-21.124904000782408"],["Swiss company Raichle-Molitor; the company introduced it in 1979 as the Flexon, which became very popular among downhill racers and mogul skiers. The Flexon was extremely popular among professional skiers, especially for moguls and freestyle, but a series of business blunders put Raichle out of business in the late 1990s. Several companies produce three-piece designs today, often referred to as \"cabrio\" boots (after convertible-top cabriolet vehicles), and they are once again becoming popular models.\nThe design closely resembles a conventional front-entry design, with separate foot and leg sections riveted at the ankle. However, the overlapping flaps of these designs are cut","-21.10571657196124"],["a lighter aluminum-based alloy. Marugg later sold the device to parking lot owners, hotels and ski resorts, as well as a Jumbo version for farm equipment and larger vehicles. The Smithsonian Institution now has a copy of Marugg's boot on display in Washington, D.C. By 1970 Marugg had sold 2,000 boots. Although the patent ran out in 1976 and modern car and truck wheels necessitated a redesign, Marugg's daughter kept up the business until 1986. Clancy Systems International, later bought the rights to the boot. The boot allowed Denver to maintain one of the largest collection rates for parking fines","-21.009719164503622"],["favoring a smoother surface and wetter, warmer snow favoring a textured surface. Wax solvents Wax can be dissolved by non-polar solvents like mineral spirits. However, some commercial wax solvents are made from citrus oil, which is less toxic, harder to ignite, and gentler on the ski base. Health Ski wax may contain chemicals with potential health affects including perfluorinated chemicals. Levels of perfluorinated carboxylic acids, especially perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), have been shown to increase in ski wax technicians during the ski season. Environment When skiing, the friction between the snow and skis causes wax to abrade and remain in the","-21.003494587464957"],["Deckers, some Australian manufacturers formed the Australian Sheepskin Association to fight the corporation's claim, arguing that \"ugg\" is a generic term referring to flat-heeled, pull-on sheepskin boots. One of these manufacturers, Perth's Uggs-N-Rugs, who had been manufacturing ugg boots since 1978 and selling them online since 1996, appealed to Australian trademark regulators. The officer who heard the case stated that the \"evidence overwhelmingly supports the proposition that the terms (ugg, ugh and ug boots) are interchangeably used to describe a specific style of sheepskin boot and are the first and most natural way in which to describe these goods.\" In","-20.97457667173876"],["environments as the deep sea floor, and the surfaces of the Moon and Mars. Snowmobiles once used cleated tracks, but racing snowmobiles are banned from using cleated track for safety reasons and instead use rubber tracks.\nProtrusions molded into rubber tractor tire treads are known as lugs, as are cleats for round wheels, which perform a similar function. Unlike metal grousers, these rubber tire treads or crawler-track shoes/pads may be more suitable for driving on roads.","-20.964784949319437"],["standard are recorded on the boot as levels which help the user determine a good boot for their risk. For example the requirements of a trials bike rider are quite different from those of a courier - impact protection vs abrasion.\nIt is important to note that most of the motorcycle footwear on the market is non CE marked and will not meet these standards. This includes many products that look like they offer protection against impacts and abrasions for example, most of these are illegally making claims of safety. The standards are put in place for the buyer's safety and","-20.959506665898516"],["no longer uses Flywire but uses a thin layer of microfibre that has a suede finish, which is said to have been for control. Not only does the new Mercurials provide light weight and traction, now it also provides control.\nThese boots have also been released in the Miracle, Glide, and Victory versions, all version III (three). Although it appears that all three of the lower versions have at least a little bit of fiberglass on their sole plate, except for the Victory versions, it is actually just a sticker to improve marketing ability. The sticker on Miracle version has a","-20.95172346552863"],["being produced.\nOver time the name of these skis changed. Originally termed parabolic by their designer Jurij Franko, the term carver soon became common as these skis were being sold largely on their ability to allow even beginners to perform the efficient carved turn. This changed again to shaped ski by the early 2000s, as the design was applied to a wider variety of ski types and some level of parabolic shaping became universal from training skis to downhill racers. Variations Different types of skis have different sidecuts. Skis with drastic sidecuts tend to make quicker sharper turns and have","-20.889745487671462"],["realized in retrospect that \"It turns out that everything we thought we knew for forty years was wrong.\" Since then, \"shaped\" skis have dominated alpine ski design. Early ski designs Early modern skis, made in Telemark, Norway by Sondre Norheim, were handmade from a single piece of hardwood and featured a relatively modest sidecut of about 4 to 5 mm. After this, advances were made in materials and construction, but in terms of shape, skis of the 1970s were largely identical to those of the 1800s.\nIn 1939, Dick Durrance ordered a custom ski from Thor Groswold's factory in Denver with","-20.85207152852672"],["of downhill skiing. The design evolved from existing leather boot through several steps.\nIn 1956, the Swiss factory Henke introduced the buckle boot, using over-center levered latches patented by Hans Martin to replace laces. Laces spread the load across a number of eyelets in the leather, whereas the buckles concentrated the load at only a few points. To spread it back out again, the boots featured C-shaped flaps that stretched over the opening where the laces would be, to the side where the buckles were located. These had the added advantage of also helping block snow from entering the front of","-20.84750610797346"],["Nava System The Nava System was a ski binding and custom ski boot offered for sale in the 1980s. The system used a combination of flexible sole plate to keep the boot centered, and a spring-loaded plastic arm on the rear binding that was used to transmit sideways motions of the leg to the ski. This eliminated the need for a hard shell on the boot; the Nava boot was soft and resembled a knee-high winter boot. In spite of numerous endorsements by racing stars, the system never caught on and sales ended by the late 1980s. History The system","-20.804763236097642"],["is called skredstång in Swedish. Modern skis Around 1850, artisans in Telemark, Norway, invented the cambered ski. This ski arches up in the middle, under the binding, which distributes the skier's weight more evenly across the length of the ski. Earlier plank-style skis had to be thick enough not to bow downward and sink in the snow under the skier’s weight. This new design made it possible to build a thinner, lighter ski, that flexed more easily to absorb the shock of bumps, and that maneuvered and ran faster and more easily. The design also included a sidecut that narrowed","-20.802220862620743"],["reports from 2005-2006 due to their tussle with Deckers Outdoor Corporation and their registered trademarks. In early 2006 Uggs-N-Rugs was successful in having the Australian trademarks for ug, ugh and ugg removed from the register for non-use. IP Australia (the Australian trade marks office) declared that the words are interchangeable and used generically to describe sheepskin boots. As part of their action the McDougalls provided volumes of evidence showing the term (and its derivatives) being used in a generic sense. In addition, they showed that Deckers Outdoor Corporation failed to use their trademark properly and consistently. This battle was portrayed","-20.785580496725743"],["introduction of the so-called \"Moon Shoe\" in 1972, so named because the waffle tread was said to resemble the footprints left by astronauts on the moon. Further refinement resulted in the \"Waffle Trainer\" in 1974, which helped fuel the explosive growth of Blue Ribbon Sports/Nike. While Bowerman was experimenting with shoe design, he worked in a small, unventilated space, using glue and solvents with toxic components that caused him severe nerve damage. The nerve damage to his lower legs left him with significant mobility problems; as Kenny Moore notes in his book Bowerman and the Men of Oregon, Bowerman had","-20.775762784527615"],["skateboarding is and that's what Mark is.\nMuska has named a variety of influences in regard to his shoe design work, such as Louis Vuitton and the Nike \"Jordan\" range, further explaining that he has attempted to merge the aesthetics of the fashion and sneaker cultures. In an interview to promote the third Skytop model, Muska elaborated on his future direction:\n\nPersonally design-wise, I’m definitely all over the place and I’m thinking of so many new and exciting designs, but it’s hard for me to find places to sell a lot of the stuff, because it will be too crazy for what","-20.767551469056343"],["adversely affect aerodynamic properties. This is why sports cars typically have very low clearances, while off-road vehicles and SUVs have higher ones. Two well-known extremes of each are the Ferrari F40 and the Hummer.\nFor armored fighting vehicles (AFV), ground clearance presents an additional factor in a vehicle's overall performance: a lower ground clearance means that the vehicle minus the chassis is lower to the ground and thus harder to spot and harder to hit. The final design of any AFV reflects a compromise between being a smaller target on one hand, and having greater battlefield mobility on the other. Very","-20.76008575978358"],["in-flight de-icing. The rubber coverings are periodically inflated, causing ice to crack and flake off. Once the system is activated by the pilot, the inflation/deflation cycle is automatically controlled. In the past, it was thought such systems can be defeated if they are inflated prematurely; if the pilot did not allow a fairly thick layer of ice to form before inflating the boots, the boots would merely create a gap between the leading edge and the formed ice. Recent research shows “bridging” does not occur with modern boots. Electric systems Some aircraft may also use electrically heated resistive elements embedded","-20.753082838535192"],["the high demand during the Polish-Soviet war in 1920.\nMany Model Ts were converted into vehicles which could travel across heavy snows with kits on the rear wheels (sometimes with an extra pair of rear-mounted wheels and two sets of continuous track to mount on the now-tandemed rear wheels, essentially making it a half-track) and skis replacing the front wheels. They were popular for rural mail delivery for a time. The common name for these conversions of cars and small trucks was \"snowflyers\". These vehicles were extremely popular in the northern reaches of Canada, where factories were set up to","-20.73020028607425"],["test reports on skis. To avoid upsetting advertisers, none of the reports were negative. Due to the timing of new model releases, the skis being tested and the conditions under which they were being tested did not typically match the skis and conditions that the readers would be experiencing. Pfeiffer was followed as editor by John Jerome and then Al Greenberg.\nIn 1985, Ziff Davis sold Skiing and other magazines to the broadcaster CBS, and in 1987 CBS sold the magazines to Peter Diamandis. Later that year, Skiing magazine was bought for $25 million by the Times Mirror company, which also","-20.729371867186273"],["Force pilots during World War I.\nThe 1970s saw the emergence of advertising using the UGG and UGH terms both in trade names and as a generic term in Australia. The Macquarie Dictionary of the Australian language first included a definition for \"ugg boot\" as a generic term for sheepskin boots in its 1981 edition. (After Stedman complained to the editors of Macquarie, a trademark notation was added to subsequent editions indicating that \"UGH\" was a trade mark).\nIn the 1970s, ugg boots became popular among competitive surfers. After movie theatres in Sydney banned ugg boots and ripped jeans, the footwear became","-20.722884351722314"],["production method, producing the aluminum-based Volant Huckster. In 1998 he was testing the Huckster with his friend Scott Gaffney, who reported that his bent Chubbs skied better than the new design because the tips didn't sink in the snow. McConkey took the design and used it to produce the radical Volant Spatula in 2002, which featured not only a banana-like reverse-camber but also a negative sidecut radius. On firm snow the skis were difficult to turn at all, but in powder the tips and tails bent up to produce the curved shape that caused them to carve. McConkey moved to","-20.646068865018606"],["some paraplegic ski chairs.\nDeuce Snowboards introduced a modern version of the DES that has undergone extensive engineering design and testing. According to Deuce Snowboards, the DES is the next evolutionary step of the snowboard, but it appears that they are evolving the ski sport as well.\nThere are various other attempts, which typically, were only patented, and were likely not technically or production viable. For example, one was a more modern version like the Deuce Snowboard, it was fundamentally based on a gear mechanism, instead of a four-bar mechanism on which the Deuce DES, and possibly, the SwingBo are","-20.60169155948097"],["and Rossignol.\nIn the spring of 1993, a number of pre-production SCX skis were sent to instructors in the US for practical experimentation. They invariably reported dramatic results, with intermediate skiers able to produce carving turns easily, even in poor conditions that experts would normally find difficult. Realizing they had a winning design, the Elan team started designing a series aimed at the training market, including a 163 cm long design for the instructors, and a 143 cm long version for students and junior racers. This was much shorter than most skis of the era, further differentiating them from other skis on the","-20.55691839310748"],["a skateboard, allowing the skateboard to move through the snow. The \"Ski\" portion of the snow skate is made of a hard plastic with rubber straps that went over the skateboard wheels to hold them together. Other mentionable early snowskate brands were The \"Skeeter\" and the \"Snodad\". Designs of this early era ranged from two skiblades on the lower deck (Like the Skeeter) to four blades on the lower deck. Sometimes, the early snowskates used metal runners, similar to ice skate blades, enabling the snowskater to use the momentum to ride well.\nThe \"Snodad\" came about much later in time.","-20.536332188874894"],["advances in technology in the Nordic camp allowed for the development of special skis for skating and ski jumping. Asymmetrical skis This type of ski was used at least in northern Finland and Sweden until the 1930s. On one leg, the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. The bottom of the short ski was either plain or covered with animal skin to aid this use, while the long ski supporting the weight of the skier was treated with animal fat in similar manner to modern ski waxing. Early","-20.52031946751231"],["changes in competitive giant slalom, as the gates were moved further apart and resulted in much more turning. K2 responded with the GS Race with a 10 mm sidecut, and several similar designs followed. In spite of reports that these skis were easier to turn, they were considered specialty items and the designs offered only to the race and performance markets.\nOne particularly notable experiment was made at Olin during the early 1980s. In 1984, one of the Olin executives asked ski designer Frank Meatto if it were possible to make a beginner's ski that would make skiing easier to learn. Meatto","-20.465541591416695"],["Advantages From Deuce Snowboards and anecdotal accounts of the SwingBo, the DES is predominantly about offering the \"grip\" that the classic snowboard lacks. This is audibly known by skiers as the scraping noise that is associated with snowboarders. This improved grip is also described as better control, which improves carve technique (shredding) and reduces stopping distance. Deuce Snowboards claims that the better carve is not only due to the additional edge, but also to the fact that the mechanism attaches to the longitudinal center, thus fully and uniformly flexing the boards similar to the design intent of","-20.45927232574104"],["have a recess in the bottom of the sole for fitting the smaller cleats and therefore it does not protrude, while conventional clipless road pedals are designed for road cycling shoes which have smooth soles with large protruding cleats, which are awkward for walking. The SPD range, in addition to other off-road refinements, were designed to be used with treaded soles that more closely resemble rugged hiking boots. SPD pedals and shoes soon established themselves as the market standard in this sector, although many other manufacturers have developed alternatives which may be less prone to being clogged by mud or","-20.459067619391135"],["their ability to manufacture enough to meet demand. Entries from Nordica and the three-part designs from Raichle propelled the rear-entry design to the forefront, making up about 80% of the market in 1987. After Hanson After selling the company, the Hanson brothers continued to work with the Flo-fit material, founding the Flolite company and offering a number of products outside the ski industry. These included boot inserts, bike seats and wheel chair cushions, among others.\nDuring the 2000s, Denny re-entered the ski boot market with the Apex ski boot. The Apex consists of two entirely separate parts, a semi-stiff boot that","-20.453261806003866"],["but they’re also crazy comfortable\", while Connie Loizos of Tech Crunch compared the sneakers to Vans. Kavita Varma-White of Today described Rothy's as the \"perfect travel shoe\", writing that she was \"immediately impressed by the shoe's comfort and sturdiness\" and noting the \"flair for detail\" in the design of the navy and white sneakers she bought. Lauren Hubbard of Town & Country noted that like their grown-up counterparts, the children's shoes were \"machine washable (so your kids can be as tough on them as they want)\".\nMegan O'Neill of Parade noted a new trend among celebrities, in that many are now","-20.427233696434996"],["during his experience as an aircraft engineer. In a warehouse he rented from Albert Gunther Inc in an alley off of Biddle Street in downtown Baltimore, he used a technique known as metal sandwich construction. The first skis he made consisted of two light layers of aluminum bonded to sidewalls of thin plywood, with a center filling of honeycomb plastic. Although these skis were very light, they all broke quite quickly during trials. Head did not give up on his idea, and was encouraged by several professional skiers, including 1939 World Champion Emile Allais and ski instructors Clif","-20.423175252668443"],["the sidecut would normally add. Hiatt and Groswold's experiment required such a deep sidecut that the waist had little vertical stiffness, another problem for the design. Snowboards arrive A radical change in design did not occur until the mid-1970s introduction of the first modern snowboards. With no previous designs to set the mould, snowboard designers had to experiment to find the right layout. The 1975 Burton Backhill had a 17 millimetres (0.67 in) sidecut, giving the board a very short turning radius. The Backhill was extremely low-tech in comparison to contemporary ski designs, consisting largely of a sheet of plywood. A","-20.41039091613493"],["to the carp and therefore lack some attraction. Also, since in order to keep freezer baits fresh they need to be frozen soon after being rolled, not only will the ingredients used be of a much higher quality than in shelf lives but the ingredients used to make them will not lose much of their nutrients and attraction before being used in a fishing situation (much like frozen vegetables). Due to these facts freezer baits are often much more expensive than their shelf life counterparts.\nThe most commonly used set-up anglers use to present a boilie is a hair rig (the","-20.399344936922716"],["everything used by freeskiers is designed specifically for use in freeskiing rather than ordinary skiing. Types of skis There are three kinds of newschool skis: powder, all-mountain and park (twin tip). Powder Powder skis, also called big-mountain or backcountry skis, have a wide waist width, making them ideal for places with heavy powder. The extra surface area helps skiers to float above premium powder. However, they can be difficult to use on slopes with less snow or groomed trails, especially for beginning to moderate skiers. Experienced skiers sometimes buy powder skis as an alternate pair, to be used when conditions","-20.3951428579021"],["225 Ski-Doos; four years later, 8,210 were sold. Bombardier slowed down promotion of the Ski-Doo line to prevent it from dominating the other company products, while still dominating the snowmobile industry against competitors Polaris Industries and Arctic Cat.\nIn 1963, Roski was created in Roxton Falls, Quebec as a manufacturer of composite parts for the Ski-Doo. In the 1960s, V-8 engines were added.\nOn February 18, 1964, J. Armand Bombardier died of cancer at age 56. Until then, he oversaw all areas of operation and controlled the research department, making all the drawings himself. The younger generation took over, led by Armand's","-20.382672822808672"],["design improved on this design by allowing the skis to carve their edges into the snow as traditional snowplanes's rear skis will skid laterally during a turn. The major advancement of the Kristi tilt ski system apparently made no impact on the commercial or amateur snowplane industry as it did not appear to be used in practical application. Perhaps because of the mechanical complexity of the original design, no snowplanes are known to exist that employ the \"Christi Ski Action\" concept. Kristi's track driven vehicles Kristi was technically interesting, but the company failed to produce quantities of snowcats","-20.35220120724989"],["while still holding a good edge. This combination was so impressive that it became known as \"The Cheater\" for the way it allowed beginners to turn like pros. The Standard, and models that followed it, were so successful that half the downhill skis in the US in the 1960s were Heads. Early attempts A number of metal skis were introduced over the years, among them the 1942 All Magnesium, a post-war run of 1,000 Truflex aluminum skis (made of Metalite, a sandwich of aluminum and balsa wood) from Chance Vought, the stainless steel Chris Ski, the TEY Alu-60 (later known","-20.3264918247296"],["out quickly and could draw blood.\nIn 1968, Alden Hanson started negotiations with Bob Lange to add Flo-fit to Lange's boot designs. Lange proved interested, and hired Chris, an industrial designer, and his brother Denny (Alden Hanson Jr.), a salesman for Head Skis, to help design a system to incorporate the newly christened \"Lange-flo\" into their boot lineup. However, Chris proved more interested in developing a new boot design than working on Lange-flo, and Lange dismissed them both in 1969.\nHowever, the liners ended up failing when the Lange-flo interacted with the vinyl in cold weather. This allowed the Lange-flo to squeeze","-20.26920525742753"],["the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. The bottom of the short ski was either plain or covered with animal skin to aid this use, while the long ski supporting the weight of the skier was treated with animal fat in similar manner to modern ski waxing. Early record of this type of skis survives in works of Olaus Magnus. He associates them to Sami people and gives Sami names of savek and golos for the plain and skinned short ski. Finnish names for these are lyly and","-20.245663215813693"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"design fell from popularity in the 1990s due to their shunning by racers in search of a closer fit. Recent improvements to front-entry and mid-entry boots, primarily in the areas of comfort and ease of entry/exit, have diminished the popularity of rear-entry designs even in recreational roles, though mid-range models remain common as rental boots. Three-piece Three-piece (or \\\"open-throat\\\") boots were first developed by Mel Dalebout (around 1969), who introduced a rigid magnesium boot shell in that year (Brixia did the same thing with their aluminum shell at around the same time). The big advantage was that the main shell\",\n \"-26.703261541682878\"\n ],\n [\n \"only one boot, not a pair, and Chris stopped work on the design.\\nAround the same time, Bob Lange started work on a new ski boot design using plastics in place of leather. It took several years of development before he had a suitable design, and widespread sales started in the winter of 1965-66. These early designs were very stiff and offered a tremendous improvement in control, but they became even more uncomfortable than the leather designs they replaced when the inner liner lost its elasticity around pressure points. The area around the leg cuff and especially the ankle would wear\",\n \"-26.416106441713055\"\n ],\n [\n \"manufacturers took steps to address issues of fit by introducing taller, better fitting styles this was ultimately blamed for their decline in popularity. Where protection from the elements was needed, Russian boots were increasingly replaced by fashionable variants of the rubber Wellington boot. Mass popularity was also seen as a barrier to chic women adopting boots as a fashion item. Although they were still popular as late as the beginning of the 1930s, within a few years Russian boots had fallen out of favor. It was not until the 1950s that boots were again regarded as fashion items for\",\n \"-25.73621543488116\"\n ],\n [\n \"many skiers prefer lightweight, fatter models that may be heavier but do not sacrifice performance in deep snow, which is a common desire for skiing off-piste. This tradeoff is common in backcountry skis, but manufacturers attempt to narrow this gap each year. Skins Ski skins allow skis to travel uphill. A narrow strip of nylon or mohair fabric designed to mimic sealskin and allow skis to be slid forward, uphill, but not backwards, downhill. Synthetic skins typically grip better while mohair skins made from Angora Goat hair slide better. Commonly, skins are attached to skis or a splitboard with a\",\n \"-25.081945137368166\"\n ],\n [\n \"users do not wear protective gear because the shoes are worn for everyday use (unlike more specialized sporting equipment such as inline skates).\",\n \"-24.908604384152568\"\n ],\n [\n \"shoes have won appeal for their ethical origins from eco-friendly recycled materials, simple elegance, and adaptability to various circumstances. Manufacture The manufacture of furlanes is generally more complex than that of slippers. The upper part is the most sophisticated part.\",\n \"-24.901519477090915\"\n ],\n [\n \"them to market. These have since been released under the new Full Tilt brand. Roxa, the Italian boot maker who produces Flexon for K2, also sells the boot under their own name. Numerous companies are now producing three-piece designs. Before Flexon Today's plastic ski boots evolved from leather designs that in turn evolved from conventional winter hiking boots. These all followed the same basic layout; the boot was built on top of a semi-stiff sole of leather or (for a stiffer boot) wood. The upper shell consisted of single layer or multiple layers of leather and stiffeners that were formed\",\n \"-24.731091577006737\"\n ],\n [\n \"ski designs, consisting largely of a sheet of plywood. A contemporary ski's torsion box design greatly improved torsional stiffness and would allow even greater sidecut to be effective. But in spite of the snowboard demonstrating that modern skis could carry much wider sidecuts, and that such a sidecut resulted in excellent turn performance, little came of this development. The snowboard market was ignored by the major ski companies through the 1970s and 80s.\\nExperiments with slightly greater sidecut on skis did appear during this period, including the Head Yahoo and especially the Atomic Powder Plus. Further developments followed due to\",\n \"-24.674160641348863\"\n ],\n [\n \"the hills himself, selling them out of the back of his station wagon. By the end of the year, 300 pairs of the $85 skis were sold. One last problem needed to be solved; the mirror-like topsheet was distracting in the sun, so a thin sheet of black plastic was added to the top. The result was the Head Standard, which would remain largely unchanged for over a decade.\\nOn the slopes, skiers found they could turn the ski far easier than wooden designs. Head later noted that \\\"...lightness is not what makes a ski better. In trying to build a\",\n \"-24.168702466020477\"\n ],\n [\n \"style of sheepskin boot. In many other countries, however, UGG boots are a well-known brand of footwear owned by Deckers. The boots are made of twin-faced sheepskin with fleece on the inside and with a tanned outer surface, often with a synthetic sole. The boots originated in Australia and New Zealand, initially as utilitarian footwear worn for warmth and comfort. UGG boots emerged as a fashion trend in the United States in the late 1990s and as a world-wide trend in the late 2000s. Trademark law in the United States The Lanham Act is the primary federal trademark statute of\",\n \"-24.117783224130108\"\n ],\n [\n \"variety of skis with differing sidecuts, and older designs were derisively dismissed as \\\"skinny skis\\\". These older designs clogged the discount racks, and top-of-the-line models from the previous year could now be purchased for $29.95. It became clear that skis should have always been shaped this way, and one designer later noted that \\\"It turned out that everything we thought we knew for forty years was wrong.\\\"\\nBy the 1997/98 season every ski company was producing parabolic designs, and only parabolic designs. In spite of fire-sale prices on older designs, parabolics accounted for 70% of all ski sales by 1999. Over\",\n \"-24.071754667266987\"\n ],\n [\n \"and skiing conditions. Atomic developed the LiveFit (2009), a ski boot which automatically adapts to the shape of the foot. Since 2009, Atomic's skis have also been available with various Rocker technologies. Atomic has recently developed Memory Fit, a heat fitting technology that adapts the boot to the users foot, which can be found on two of the market's top selling boots.\\nAtomic is also committed to the development of more environmentally-friendly production methods: the factory in Altenmarkt uses a wood pellet heating system during the manufacturing process. The \\\"Renu\\\" line comprises skis and boots largely made of recyclable and renewable\",\n \"-24.01770565455081\"\n ],\n [\n \"contemporary ski's torsion box design greatly improved torsional stiffness and would allow even greater sidecut to be effective. But in spite of the snowboard demonstrating that modern skis could carry much wider sidecuts, and that such a sidecut resulted in excellent turn performance, little came of this development. The snowboard market was ignored by the major ski companies through the 1970s and 80s.\\nExperiments with slightly greater sidecut on skis did appear during this period, including the Head Yahoo and especially the Atomic Powder Plus. Further developments followed due to changes in competitive giant slalom, as the gates were moved\",\n \"-23.997824635211146\"\n ],\n [\n \"dominating the world market. History There are different claims to the origins of the ugg boot style. Artisanal sheepskin boots were known in rural Australia during the 1920s, and were reportedly worn by shearers as they found them resistant to wool yolk (Lanolin), which would rot their ordinary boots. However, the date of commercial manufacturing began remains unclear. The boots were reportedly being manufactured in 1933 by Blue Mountains Ugg Boots of New South Wales. Frank Mortel of Mortels Sheepskin Factory has stated that he began manufacturing the boots in the late 1950s. Surfer Shane Stedman of Australia has stated\",\n \"-23.907402897675638\"\n ],\n [\n \"Taylor and Neil Robinson, who assured Head that he would love to use his skis if they did not break. Throughout that winter Head would make a ski pair and send it out to Robinson, who returned it to Head after it broke. Head figured out the flaws of his design, came up with modifications, sent the new ski pair to Robinson, and the process repeated. By the end of the winter of 1947, Head came up with skis that were as strong as wooden skis but were half the weight.\\nIn order to make his skis more efficient,\",\n \"-23.850814111239742\"\n ],\n [\n \"and strongest available.\\nThe party's ski boots, specially designed by Amundsen, were the product of two years' testing and modification in search of perfection. The party's polar clothing included suits of sealskin from Northern Greenland, and clothes fashioned after the style of the Netsilik Inuit from reindeer skins, wolf skin, Burberry cloth and gabardine. The sledges were constructed from Norwegian ash with steel-shod runners made from American hickory. Skis, also fashioned from hickory, were extra long to reduce the likelihood of slipping into crevasses. The tents—\\\"the strongest and most practical that have ever been used\\\"—had built-in floors and required a single\",\n \"-23.79115827118585\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ugg boots Ugg boots are a unisex style of sheepskin boot originating in Australia and New Zealand. The boots are typically made of twin-faced sheepskin with fleece on the inside, a tanned outer surface and a synthetic sole. The term, ugg boots, originated from Australia, initially for utilitarian footwear worn for warmth, and which were often worn by surfers during the 1960s. In the 1970s, the boots were introduced to the surf culture of the United Kingdom and the United States. Sheepskin boots became a fashion trend in the U.S. in the late 1990s and as a worldwide trend in\",\n \"-23.711880594906688\"\n ],\n [\n \"not built up to dangerous levels. Although it did not release the boot from the ski, it did release the force from the boot. To mount it, the boot was fastened to a metal plate, which was in turn cut into the upper surface of the ski in a mortise joint about a centimetre deep. The system was difficult to install, weakened the ski, and also heavy.\\nBeyl wanted a sexy name for the company, and took one from a US photo magazine. Look was formed in Nevers, France in 1948. The system saw limited sales, but was in use on\",\n \"-23.673377683175204\"\n ],\n [\n \"sheepskin boots, which were made from sheepskin sourced from Jackson's Tannery in Geelong, Victoria. Seeing the popularity of the boots among American surfers, Australian surfer Brian Smith, then living in Santa Monica, California, bought boots from Country Leather but was unhappy with the brand and decided to register UGG as his own trademark. Family friends invested $20,000 into the new venture and the group set up Ugg Imports. Due to other business commitments, in 1979 Jensen handed over his share of the company to Smith. In 1987 Smith registered Ugg Holdings Inc. and in 1985 registered a U.S. trademark on\",\n \"-23.628425564245845\"\n ],\n [\n \"need to provide mechanical support only in the fore and aft directions. These typically consist of an external frame, generally L shaped, which the snowboarder steps into and then fastens down using straps over the boot. The boot itself is not as responsible for transmitting forces, and can be much softer than a typical downhill boot. When the sport was first introduced, normal winter boots were used, but today it is much more common to use semi-stiff snowboarding boots. Some specialty disciplines use harder boots with step-in bindings more similar to downhill systems, but these are not widely used outside\",\n \"-23.54685912997502\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"female-friendly\\\" ski equipment. Thoren's position was that women's physical characteristics are completely different from those of men, so just shorter skis will not suffice. Thoren has made many appearances in Geiger's ski stores, urging women to demand and ski manufacturers to design better equipment.\\nGeiger's has been active in America's Best Bootfitters, a worldwide association of independent ski and snowboard retailers that offers certification in the science of fitting ski and snowboard boots. These boots are a substantial investment (up to as much as $1,000/pair) and are integral to good, safe skiing.\\nExecutive Vice President and Co-owner Gordon Geiger is very active\",\n \"-23.508522703297785\"\n ],\n [\n \"shoes that could be quickly removed if embers landed in the shafts. Engineer boots were overtaken in the shoe market during World War II by the production of lace-up combat boots and demand dramatically decreased. Widespread use Both Chippewa and Wesco heavily increased sales of engineer boots in the late 1940s. There was a post-war production boom for the boots, with high demand coming from returning veterans and bikers. The latter adopted engineer boots because the laceless design would not interfere with motorcycle drive belts, the shafts were well insulated from heat, and they provided full lower leg protection in\",\n \"-23.507713264949416\"\n ],\n [\n \"used heavier leather in its construction, and had several minor changes from the 1917 Boot, including a thicker sole and improved waterproofing. Due to the boots' greater size, they were known as \\\"little tanks\\\" by the soldiers who received them.\",\n \"-23.30260695177276\"\n ],\n [\n \"subject to wear; Nava's soft plate and boot eliminated both problems.\\nNava first showed the system in April 1983 in Italy, and started sales in the winter of 83/84, and Canada in 1985. Frank Vener, an American who marketed a number of European brands in the US, started Nava Leisure USA and started sales in February 1986. There were two models, the Sansicario sold for $495 while the Cortina sold for $595, both well at the high end of the market.\\nEarly reviews were generally positive. Reviewers noted how easy it was to ski all day long without the discomfort of normal\",\n \"-22.940534837936866\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hanson Industries (ski boots) Flo-fit Alden Hanson Sr. was the chief scientist at Dow Chemical during the 1950s and '60s. He led development of a Silly Putty-like plastic known as \\\"Flo-fit\\\" and started looking for applications. Alden's son Chris used some in an effort to make a better ski boot, which at the time were simple leather boots that were extremely uncomfortable and quickly wore out. Chris built a fiberglass shell that fitted over the entire foot area of the boot to provide support, and then filled the gap with Flo-fit to provide cushioning between the two. The prototype was\",\n \"-22.919313584261545\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tailwheel aircraft are also more suitable for fitting with skis in wintertime.\",\n \"-22.869851787385414\"\n ],\n [\n \"them tending to sink in soft snow. This left powder skiing and off-piste skis among the few markets not being served by parabolic designs. Several skis aimed at the powder market had appeared over the years, including the Volant Chubb and other \\\"fat-boy skis\\\" from the early to mid 1990s.\\nFree skier Shane McConkey was skiing on the Elan designs in 1996, but found they sank in the snow. As an experiment to get more \\\"float\\\" on the snow, he tried mounting ski bindings on waterskis while skiing in Alaska. He began working with Volant on skis that combined their metal-based\",\n \"-22.768852159453672\"\n ],\n [\n \"require the use of such boots in some settings, and may mandate certification of such boots and the display of such certification directly on the boots. The markings on the boot label will indicate the national or international standards that the boot was intended to meet, and identify the level of protection offered for impact, penetration, electric shock, and chemical hazards. Safety shoes are effective in keeping the feet of industrial workers safe from sharp and heavy objects while working in factories. Footwear for use in chemical processing or semiconductor manufacturing may also be rated to dissipate static electricity while\",\n \"-22.76793424661446\"\n ],\n [\n \"prevents snow or debris from gathering between the tread of the tire and the inner side of the woven fabric.\\nWhen winter tires aren’t enough, snow socks help to enhance the grip on snowy roads. Sizing and deployment Snow socks are sold in pairs and come in sizes that are specific to a range of tire codes. Snow sock sizes are available for different motor vehicle classes, but most snow sock brands focus on cars and pickup trucks rather than semi-trailer trucks or larger vehicles. Since the largest variation of snow socks is in the market for cars and pickup trucks,\",\n \"-22.7003495494464\"\n ],\n [\n \"wide or low-profile tires are often covered. Buses, semi-trailer trucks or larger vehicles require snow sock models that can support the heavier axle load and larger wheel dimensions. Some brands also offer snow socks for specialized vehicles such as forklifts or airport ground support equipment (e.g. pushback tugs or loaders).\\nDriving with snow socks usually reduces the maximum allowable speed to between 30 km/h (20mph) and 50 km/h (30 mph) depending on the snow sock brand, snow sock size and vehicle class. These restrictions are normally stated in the product's or vehicle's owner’s manual. Neither snow socks nor snow chains are\",\n \"-22.635553752463238\"\n ],\n [\n \"the mid-2000s. In Australia, they are worn predominantly as slippers and often associated with \\\"daggy\\\" fashion sense and \\\"bogan\\\" culture.\\nPrior legal disputes between some manufacturers of sheepskin boots arose as to distinguish whether \\\"ugg\\\" is a protected trademark, or a generic term and thus ineligible for trademark protection. There are more than 70 registered trademarks that include the term \\\"ugg\\\" in various logos and designs in Australia and New Zealand, as the term is considered a generic reference to a type of shoe. Outside Australia and New Zealand, UGG is a brand manufactured by the California-based Deckers Outdoor Corporation, with\",\n \"-22.47581376913513\"\n ],\n [\n \"Red Wing Shoes Products Though Red Wing Shoes is known primarily for their leather boots intended for heavy work, in recent years the company has expanded its line-up to include athletic-styled work shoes and footwear designed for specific job applications (such as slip-resistant shoes designed for the service industry and boots ideal for the mining industry that utilize a metatarsal guard). The company produces Oxfords, chukkas, hiking boots, and logger styles, as well as 6-inch and 8-inch work boots. While the core of Red Wing's focus is on work boots, in 2008 Red Wing Shoes added a Heritage catalog and\",\n \"-22.422812056727707\"\n ],\n [\n \"used for racing because it uses two connection points so that the skier has more stability and control over the ski. As these boots are intended for travel over generally flat terrain, they are optimized for light weight and efficiency of motion.\\nTelemark refers to a specific technique for making downhill turns on Nordic equipment. This has resulted in highly specialized equipment designed for better performance in a downhill setting. Until 1992 Telemark boots were basically heavy leather boots with the front of the sole adapted to the 75mm Nordic Norm. The introduction of the New Telemark Norm (NTN) binding\",\n \"-22.421494020120008\"\n ],\n [\n \"that would reliably release a ski boot in a fall, but remain in place for normal skiing maneuvers. While laid up in the hospital, he had an inspiration for a new design, which became the Saf-Ski, the world's first ski safety bindings. The bindings made it to Europe for use by the 10th Mountain Division in World War II.\\nAfter the war, the design caught on and became popular around the world into the 1960s. Hvam sold and rented thousands of pairs until the early 1970s, when insurance premiums for sale of the bindings became too expensive and the Saf-Ski\",\n \"-22.275668646667327\"\n ],\n [\n \"more quickly, however they do not need to be dressed. Applications Common applications include: steering rack components, transmission components, fuel injector components, camshaft lobes, hydraulic cylinder rods, bearing races, needle rollers, and sharpening stones and wheels.\\nIt has been proven that superfinishing certain parts makes them more durable. For example, if the teeth in a gear are superfinished they will last up to four times as long.\",\n \"-22.266987546754535\"\n ],\n [\n \"In Russia light vehicles and buses must be equipped with snow M+S or 3PMSF tires on all axles from December through February and have a minimum tread depth of 4 millimetres (0.2 in).\\nAll prefectures of Japan, except for the southernmost prefecture of Okinawa, require the motorized vehicles to be fitted with winter tires or tire chains if the road is icy or slushy. If tread grooves of snow tires are worn off for more than 50% of its original depth, tires must be replaced to meet the legal requirements. Drivers will be fined for failing to comply with the snow tire\",\n \"-22.26491197856558\"\n ],\n [\n \"to 1900, there were very similar models made in North America, like the Donaghue from USA. Recreational skates Inexpensive skates for recreational skaters usually resemble either figure skates or hockey skates, but recreational ice skates resembling inline skates with a molded plastic boot are also available. These recreational skates are commonly rented from ice rinks by beginners who do not own their own skates. In the non-American English-speaking world they are sometimes called 'death wellies' by skaters who own their own equipment because of their appearance and their reputation for giving the wearer blisters. People who own their own\",\n \"-22.21377174858935\"\n ],\n [\n \"in interviews that he invented the ugg boot. Perth sheepskin boot manufacturers Bruce and Bronwyn McDougall of Uggs-N-Rugs have manufactured the boots since the late 1970s.\\nThe origin of the term \\\"ugg\\\" is also unclear. Stedman registered the trademark \\\"UGH-BOOTS\\\" in Australia in 1971, and in 1982 registered the \\\"UGH\\\" trademark. Frank Mortel claims that he named his company's sheepskin boots \\\"ugg boots\\\" in 1958 after his wife commented that the first pair he made were \\\"ugly.\\\" Some accounts have suggested that the term grew out of earlier variations, such as the \\\"fug boots\\\" worn by United Kingdom Royal Air\",\n \"-22.202275005987758\"\n ],\n [\n \"equipment similar in appearance to their ice hockey counterparts for safety but partly also to help block more of the goal area. However, such goalie equipment used in street hockey is generally lighter than that used in ice hockey due to the reduced weight and density of the ball (or puck) that is typically used in street hockey as compared to the hard vulcanized rubber puck used in ice hockey.\\nA street hockey stick is similar to an ice hockey stick in shape and size, but made of materials that will better stand up to use on asphalt or a\",\n \"-22.155476008643745\"\n ],\n [\n \"skiing much easier and reinforced edges to withstand rails. Eric Pollard designed the first two symmetrical skis, the Anthem and the Invader. Pollard now has his own pro model skis from Line skis called the EP Pro (Mr. Pollard's Opus - 2012), the Elizabeth and the Sir Francis Bacon. Some new powder and all-mountain skis are created with 'reverse camber' (aka 'rocker') meaning that the tips and tails are bent up slightly to make powder landings easier.\",\n \"-22.13284616792589\"\n ],\n [\n \"needed to be solved. Skis of the 1970s were largely identical in shape to those of the 1800s.\\nSkis with narrower waist profiles had been experimented with, but had never become widely used. In 1939, Dick Durrance ordered a custom ski from Thor Groswold's factory in Denver with a 7 mm sidecut, and this became a new standard for slalom skis. During the winter of 1948/49, Jerry Hiatt and Thor's son Jerry decided to experiment with even bigger sidecuts. Taking a pair of the company's standard hickory Rocket skis, they cut away wood until they produced a 15 millimetres (0.59 in) sidecut. When\",\n \"-22.051999336558538\"\n ],\n [\n \"brand and marketing, with terms such as \\\"full rocker\\\", \\\"all mountain rocker\\\", \\\"hybrid\\\" and others. Gender-specificity Skis were once unisex, but today skis are designed to suit both men and women. Compared to men's skis, women's skis are built for smaller, less powerful frames, and have a waist that’s farther forward to better match a woman’s relatively lower center of gravity relative to a man. Sidecut Sidecut is the subtle hourglass shape of the ski, viewed from the top. Skis have had some sidecut since before 1808, when it was invented by Norwegian artisans. Since that time, the straight ski\",\n \"-22.036694216076285\"\n ],\n [\n \"by the 1930 and 1936 Pattern boot followed by the introduction of the Sidcot suit and more ordinary knee-length fleece-lined boots were then used. Arctic pilots needed especially warm wear and continued to use heavy suspender boots of sheepskin in place of trousers. Both clothing and boots were electrically heated as the technology for this became available.\\nIn Australia, a soft, slip-on sheepskin boot was developed which were known as ugg boots (There are a number or derivations given for this name, including a cartoon character, shorthand for \\\"ugly\\\", and the \\\"fug\\\" boots worn in World War I).\",\n \"-22.000782744027674\"\n ],\n [\n \"who were previously issued with the Gore-Tex boot.\\nUnlike the predecessor Gore-Tex boots, which were neatly padded and waterproof, the Frontier designers removed the padding, added an ankle support strip, and added two \\\"water outlets\\\", making the boot very uncomfortable.\\nWith the change, the waterproof feature was also gone, resulting in criticism from the reserve conscripts who were previously issued with the Gore-Tex boots which were waterproof. However, it allowed the water to drain out of the boot after a river-crossing. Also, the boot become more ventilated (and \\\"cooling\\\") once the padding was removed.\\nDurability was also an issue in both the 2nd\",\n \"-21.93034978453943\"\n ],\n [\n \"and torsional stiffness of a ski along its length. Hexcel, a manufacturer of aluminium honeycomb sheet, became well known for its branded skis, using this same advanced material.\\nSporting uses may be every bit as demanding as aerospace needs. Particularly in cycling, materials may be loaded more highly than in aerospace use, the risk of possible failure being seen as more acceptable than for aircraft.\\nMany uses of aerospace materials for sporting goods have been as the result of a 'peace dividend'. After World War II, Hiduminium alloy appeared in bicycle brake components as its maker sought to expand new markets to\",\n \"-21.883646029687952\"\n ],\n [\n \"After a five-year research project, the SX series of ski boots was introduced in the beginning of the 1980s. The boot was the result of collaboration with the French designer Roger Tallon.\\nThe SX91 ski boot was launched in 1984, the result of collaboration with the young French designer Roger Pitiot. The boot contained a number of innovations such as the sliding forward-flex control.\\nSalomon's dedicated design center is in Annecy, France.\",\n \"-21.80947790103005\"\n ],\n [\n \"that did not require much (or any) sidecut, and did not experiment with other designs as styles changed. Snowboards had to invent their equipment and techniques fresh, and found the deep sidecut was best through experimentation.\\nAlpine skis were for many years shaped similarly to cross-country skis, simply shorter and wider. Experiments with deeper sidecuts had been carried out with limited success, but the much deeper sidecuts of snowboards led to further experiments. In 1993 the Elan SCX introduced a radical sidecut design that dramatically improved performance of alpine skis. Other companies quickly followed the Elan SCX design, and it was\",\n \"-21.7945495186068\"\n ],\n [\n \"parabolic skis. Plus, since the classic snowboard has a nonuniform flex, mainly characterized as insignificant flex between the riders feet, then the DES has more than twice as much edge control. Other advantages are also defined: seamless edge-to-edge transition, smoother ride, no toe/heel drag, better tip/tip flex and less chance of catching the leading edge. Disadvantages These systems' combined board weight can be roughly the same weight as a single snowboard. Since the total system weight also includes a mechanism, then these systems are likely to always be heavier than the classic snowboard due to the added\",\n \"-21.62544209648331\"\n ],\n [\n \"Bunny boots Type I The black pairs, called Mickey Mouse boots (due to their oversized appearance resembling the feet of the eponymous cartoon mouse), weigh 44 oz. (1.25 kg) apiece, are rated for temperatures down to −20 °F (−28.9 °C) and are made with oil/diesel resistant rubber. They are less common and predate the post-Korea white pairs (\\\"bunny boots\\\") which are still issued today. Type II The white \\\"Bunny boot\\\" is an improved version of the Type I \\\"Mickey Mouse boot\\\", designed for use in even more extreme cold weather, and is rated all the way down to −65 °F (−53.8 °C). Given the\",\n \"-21.583458103443263\"\n ],\n [\n \"selected as the new ADF combat boots, they were comfortable in hot weather provided good support. However these were found to fail prematurely and were never issued on a large scale.\\nAs a result, Redback were tasked with once again providing a range of combat boots to the ADF including a General Purpose boot, a Jungle Style boot and a Flame Resistant boot. These boots are being issued on a very limited basis and are currently undergoing limited testing. However early reports are not favourable with complaints of failing eyelets and lack of water resistance. Danners are still being retained as\",\n \"-21.464934182120487\"\n ],\n [\n \"Indoor Often called Spinning shoes, after the company that popularized fitness club classes led by an instructor using stationary bicycles. A few companies have developed shoe models intended to cater to the indoor cyclist, including Nike, Lake, SIDI, Specialized, Exustar and others. These shoes have not been widely accepted due to their limited availability and a fragmented consumer market. US retail prices as of 2010 are generally under $90, with the normal range of sizes available. Winter Cycling shoes with insulated, over-the-ankle coverage have been available for a number of years from Lake, Sidi, Northwave, Exustar, Gaerne and others. \",\n \"-21.425715789635433\"\n ],\n [\n \"materials were scarce and it was then when the company introduced the concept of using old car tyres as a soling for boots.\\nGradually since then the methods of manufacturing footwear have changed as petroleum based products such as glues, rubbers and plastics have replaced the traditional ones of leather, nails and threads. More modern machinery has been introduced than can directly mould soles to the bottom of boots and can easily pull leather over a last.\\nAt the end of 1987 the company moved from Unley to Hilton. The move allowed production to be carried out in a more modern, fit-for-purpose\",\n \"-21.41355697135441\"\n ],\n [\n \"Head made several other changes, like substituting plywood for honeycomb plastic, covering the bottom of the ski with polyethylene to avoid the problem of icy bottoms and adopting continuous steel edges to harden the edges of the ski. The new improved skis were almost as heavy as the conventional wooden skis, but were stronger and easier to control. Head skis helped to popularize alpine skiing in the U.S.; the innovative equipment made turning significantly easier.\\nIn 1950, Head founded the Head Ski Company, which became very successful. Within a couple of years it was the major supplier of\",\n \"-21.409822356952645\"\n ],\n [\n \"major source for parts to keep Flexon boots working. Skiers like Seth Morrison built up large stocks of spare parts to keep their boots on the hill. After Flexon In 2004, K2 Sports bought the original Flexon moulds, planning to enter the boot business. However, they initially did nothing with the design. In 2006, K2 purchased Line Skis, and Line decided to immediately re-launch the Flexon under the new brand-name, Full Tilt. Immediate turned out to be a relative term, and the new boots did not reach the market until early 2006 in Japan, Canada at the end of that\",\n \"-21.40461989166215\"\n ],\n [\n \"deicing boots, the company built a large indoor facility in Akron to replicate bad weather and icing on aircraft wings. Ice bridging 'Ice bridging' is the theory that activating boots early may lead to a condition where slushy ice is pushed into a hollow shell around the inflated boot, then freezes in place. This shell can then no longer be dislodged by any further operation of the boot. Bridging was described by the aviation writer Ernest Gann in his memoir Fate Is the Hunter.\\nThe bridging theory is now disputed. In 2008 the NTSB issued an alert that pilots should,\",\n \"-21.388021720988036\"\n ],\n [\n \"more modern materials, such as rubber, foam, plastic, leather, suede, and even fabric. Thongs made of polyurethane have caused some environmental concerns; because polyurethane is a number 7 resin, they can't be easily discarded, and they persist in landfills for a very long time. In response to these concerns, some companies have begun selling flip-flops made from recycled rubber, such as that from used bicycle tires, or even hemp, and some offer a recycling program for used flip flops.\\nBecause of the strap between the toes, flip-flops are typically not worn with socks. In colder weather, however, some people wear flip-flops\",\n \"-21.27782549239589\"\n ],\n [\n \"late fifties provided a good grip to gloved fingers.\\nCar speeds were quite slow due to very icy conditions [see also lake effect snow]. It was not something to be encouraged but was widely practiced. Motorcycle skitching In motorcycle skitching, the driver of the motorcycle flips their legs over the saddle and drags their feet on the ground while holding onto the handlebars. This is similar to ghost-riding in motor vehicles. Motorcycle skitching requires metal plates on the soles of the rider's shoes to protect them from the road surface. Dangers Because skitching is often done in traffic, on inadequate equipment\",\n \"-21.257571016583825\"\n ],\n [\n \"why having four different titles on one bottle was confusing for a consumer.\\nMuddy Boots got the importance of brand essence but had got their design and structure wrong. With almost unanimous results, their market research on the packaging proved that too much of the beefburger was shown and that it was squashed and unappealing.\\nIt was back to the drawing board for both of them.\\nWith the help of two London design agencies, they both had brand emersions and new concepts designed.\\nThey were then set the challenge of pitching their products to the customers in a large London Tesco store. \\nAt the\",\n \"-21.256735577356608\"\n ],\n [\n \"car: it was ordinary sport scuba gear.\\nAfter about 1990 the rapid growth in the number of sport diving rebreather brands has clouded this distinction, while advanced sport divers increasingly tackle longer, deeper, riskier dives using equipment once available only to armed forces or professionals. This means that even \\\"less-lethal\\\" techniques for trapping them underwater, disorienting them, or (especially) forcing them to the surface would be an ever-increasing risk to civilian divers' lives.\\nIn former times, civilian diving was only for work, and needed standard diving dress and large, readily visible surface support craft. Sport scuba diving has changed that.\\nAnother result of\",\n \"-21.236766366884694\"\n ],\n [\n \"slogan for luxury goods, particularly for cars and sporting goods. Bicycles, golf clubs, sailing yachts and even torches are all sold on the basis of their high-performance materials, whether these are relevant or not. Since their appearance in 1979, Maglite have advertised their use of 6061 aluminium for their torch bodies, one of the first to make a deliberate feature of aerospace materials for a non-performance reason.\\nSome sporting uses have been for the material's actual qualities. Many ski makers have produced skis wholly from cloth and resin composite materials, using the tailorability of such construction to vary the stiffness, damping\",\n \"-21.151540857594227\"\n ],\n [\n \"16 March 2011. Both boots received two initial launch colourways: Plum Red/White/Volt and Marine Blue/Platinum/Orange.\\nThis update of Nike's lightweight football boots transpired to be largely cosmetic; rather than any new innovations being added to the Mercurial Vapor and Superfly (as the Nike SENSE adaptive traction system was with the Superfly II), the sole, studs, last and weight all remained the same on both football boots.\\nThe only change came in the form of a new graphical design on the upper, which was designed to make the boots even more visible on the pitch.\\nWhilst many players were seen training and playing in\",\n \"-21.124904000782408\"\n ],\n [\n \"Swiss company Raichle-Molitor; the company introduced it in 1979 as the Flexon, which became very popular among downhill racers and mogul skiers. The Flexon was extremely popular among professional skiers, especially for moguls and freestyle, but a series of business blunders put Raichle out of business in the late 1990s. Several companies produce three-piece designs today, often referred to as \\\"cabrio\\\" boots (after convertible-top cabriolet vehicles), and they are once again becoming popular models.\\nThe design closely resembles a conventional front-entry design, with separate foot and leg sections riveted at the ankle. However, the overlapping flaps of these designs are cut\",\n \"-21.10571657196124\"\n ],\n [\n \"a lighter aluminum-based alloy. Marugg later sold the device to parking lot owners, hotels and ski resorts, as well as a Jumbo version for farm equipment and larger vehicles. The Smithsonian Institution now has a copy of Marugg's boot on display in Washington, D.C. By 1970 Marugg had sold 2,000 boots. Although the patent ran out in 1976 and modern car and truck wheels necessitated a redesign, Marugg's daughter kept up the business until 1986. Clancy Systems International, later bought the rights to the boot. The boot allowed Denver to maintain one of the largest collection rates for parking fines\",\n \"-21.009719164503622\"\n ],\n [\n \"favoring a smoother surface and wetter, warmer snow favoring a textured surface. Wax solvents Wax can be dissolved by non-polar solvents like mineral spirits. However, some commercial wax solvents are made from citrus oil, which is less toxic, harder to ignite, and gentler on the ski base. Health Ski wax may contain chemicals with potential health affects including perfluorinated chemicals. Levels of perfluorinated carboxylic acids, especially perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), have been shown to increase in ski wax technicians during the ski season. Environment When skiing, the friction between the snow and skis causes wax to abrade and remain in the\",\n \"-21.003494587464957\"\n ],\n [\n \"Deckers, some Australian manufacturers formed the Australian Sheepskin Association to fight the corporation's claim, arguing that \\\"ugg\\\" is a generic term referring to flat-heeled, pull-on sheepskin boots. One of these manufacturers, Perth's Uggs-N-Rugs, who had been manufacturing ugg boots since 1978 and selling them online since 1996, appealed to Australian trademark regulators. The officer who heard the case stated that the \\\"evidence overwhelmingly supports the proposition that the terms (ugg, ugh and ug boots) are interchangeably used to describe a specific style of sheepskin boot and are the first and most natural way in which to describe these goods.\\\" In\",\n \"-20.97457667173876\"\n ],\n [\n \"environments as the deep sea floor, and the surfaces of the Moon and Mars. Snowmobiles once used cleated tracks, but racing snowmobiles are banned from using cleated track for safety reasons and instead use rubber tracks.\\nProtrusions molded into rubber tractor tire treads are known as lugs, as are cleats for round wheels, which perform a similar function. Unlike metal grousers, these rubber tire treads or crawler-track shoes/pads may be more suitable for driving on roads.\",\n \"-20.964784949319437\"\n ],\n [\n \"standard are recorded on the boot as levels which help the user determine a good boot for their risk. For example the requirements of a trials bike rider are quite different from those of a courier - impact protection vs abrasion.\\nIt is important to note that most of the motorcycle footwear on the market is non CE marked and will not meet these standards. This includes many products that look like they offer protection against impacts and abrasions for example, most of these are illegally making claims of safety. The standards are put in place for the buyer's safety and\",\n \"-20.959506665898516\"\n ],\n [\n \"no longer uses Flywire but uses a thin layer of microfibre that has a suede finish, which is said to have been for control. Not only does the new Mercurials provide light weight and traction, now it also provides control.\\nThese boots have also been released in the Miracle, Glide, and Victory versions, all version III (three). Although it appears that all three of the lower versions have at least a little bit of fiberglass on their sole plate, except for the Victory versions, it is actually just a sticker to improve marketing ability. The sticker on Miracle version has a\",\n \"-20.95172346552863\"\n ],\n [\n \"being produced.\\nOver time the name of these skis changed. Originally termed parabolic by their designer Jurij Franko, the term carver soon became common as these skis were being sold largely on their ability to allow even beginners to perform the efficient carved turn. This changed again to shaped ski by the early 2000s, as the design was applied to a wider variety of ski types and some level of parabolic shaping became universal from training skis to downhill racers. Variations Different types of skis have different sidecuts. Skis with drastic sidecuts tend to make quicker sharper turns and have\",\n \"-20.889745487671462\"\n ],\n [\n \"realized in retrospect that \\\"It turns out that everything we thought we knew for forty years was wrong.\\\" Since then, \\\"shaped\\\" skis have dominated alpine ski design. Early ski designs Early modern skis, made in Telemark, Norway by Sondre Norheim, were handmade from a single piece of hardwood and featured a relatively modest sidecut of about 4 to 5 mm. After this, advances were made in materials and construction, but in terms of shape, skis of the 1970s were largely identical to those of the 1800s.\\nIn 1939, Dick Durrance ordered a custom ski from Thor Groswold's factory in Denver with\",\n \"-20.85207152852672\"\n ],\n [\n \"of downhill skiing. The design evolved from existing leather boot through several steps.\\nIn 1956, the Swiss factory Henke introduced the buckle boot, using over-center levered latches patented by Hans Martin to replace laces. Laces spread the load across a number of eyelets in the leather, whereas the buckles concentrated the load at only a few points. To spread it back out again, the boots featured C-shaped flaps that stretched over the opening where the laces would be, to the side where the buckles were located. These had the added advantage of also helping block snow from entering the front of\",\n \"-20.84750610797346\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nava System The Nava System was a ski binding and custom ski boot offered for sale in the 1980s. The system used a combination of flexible sole plate to keep the boot centered, and a spring-loaded plastic arm on the rear binding that was used to transmit sideways motions of the leg to the ski. This eliminated the need for a hard shell on the boot; the Nava boot was soft and resembled a knee-high winter boot. In spite of numerous endorsements by racing stars, the system never caught on and sales ended by the late 1980s. History The system\",\n \"-20.804763236097642\"\n ],\n [\n \"is called skredstång in Swedish. Modern skis Around 1850, artisans in Telemark, Norway, invented the cambered ski. This ski arches up in the middle, under the binding, which distributes the skier's weight more evenly across the length of the ski. Earlier plank-style skis had to be thick enough not to bow downward and sink in the snow under the skier’s weight. This new design made it possible to build a thinner, lighter ski, that flexed more easily to absorb the shock of bumps, and that maneuvered and ran faster and more easily. The design also included a sidecut that narrowed\",\n \"-20.802220862620743\"\n ],\n [\n \"reports from 2005-2006 due to their tussle with Deckers Outdoor Corporation and their registered trademarks. In early 2006 Uggs-N-Rugs was successful in having the Australian trademarks for ug, ugh and ugg removed from the register for non-use. IP Australia (the Australian trade marks office) declared that the words are interchangeable and used generically to describe sheepskin boots. As part of their action the McDougalls provided volumes of evidence showing the term (and its derivatives) being used in a generic sense. In addition, they showed that Deckers Outdoor Corporation failed to use their trademark properly and consistently. This battle was portrayed\",\n \"-20.785580496725743\"\n ],\n [\n \"introduction of the so-called \\\"Moon Shoe\\\" in 1972, so named because the waffle tread was said to resemble the footprints left by astronauts on the moon. Further refinement resulted in the \\\"Waffle Trainer\\\" in 1974, which helped fuel the explosive growth of Blue Ribbon Sports/Nike. While Bowerman was experimenting with shoe design, he worked in a small, unventilated space, using glue and solvents with toxic components that caused him severe nerve damage. The nerve damage to his lower legs left him with significant mobility problems; as Kenny Moore notes in his book Bowerman and the Men of Oregon, Bowerman had\",\n \"-20.775762784527615\"\n ],\n [\n \"skateboarding is and that's what Mark is.\\nMuska has named a variety of influences in regard to his shoe design work, such as Louis Vuitton and the Nike \\\"Jordan\\\" range, further explaining that he has attempted to merge the aesthetics of the fashion and sneaker cultures. In an interview to promote the third Skytop model, Muska elaborated on his future direction:\\n\\nPersonally design-wise, I’m definitely all over the place and I’m thinking of so many new and exciting designs, but it’s hard for me to find places to sell a lot of the stuff, because it will be too crazy for what\",\n \"-20.767551469056343\"\n ],\n [\n \"adversely affect aerodynamic properties. This is why sports cars typically have very low clearances, while off-road vehicles and SUVs have higher ones. Two well-known extremes of each are the Ferrari F40 and the Hummer.\\nFor armored fighting vehicles (AFV), ground clearance presents an additional factor in a vehicle's overall performance: a lower ground clearance means that the vehicle minus the chassis is lower to the ground and thus harder to spot and harder to hit. The final design of any AFV reflects a compromise between being a smaller target on one hand, and having greater battlefield mobility on the other. Very\",\n \"-20.76008575978358\"\n ],\n [\n \"in-flight de-icing. The rubber coverings are periodically inflated, causing ice to crack and flake off. Once the system is activated by the pilot, the inflation/deflation cycle is automatically controlled. In the past, it was thought such systems can be defeated if they are inflated prematurely; if the pilot did not allow a fairly thick layer of ice to form before inflating the boots, the boots would merely create a gap between the leading edge and the formed ice. Recent research shows “bridging” does not occur with modern boots. Electric systems Some aircraft may also use electrically heated resistive elements embedded\",\n \"-20.753082838535192\"\n ],\n [\n \"the high demand during the Polish-Soviet war in 1920.\\nMany Model Ts were converted into vehicles which could travel across heavy snows with kits on the rear wheels (sometimes with an extra pair of rear-mounted wheels and two sets of continuous track to mount on the now-tandemed rear wheels, essentially making it a half-track) and skis replacing the front wheels. They were popular for rural mail delivery for a time. The common name for these conversions of cars and small trucks was \\\"snowflyers\\\". These vehicles were extremely popular in the northern reaches of Canada, where factories were set up to\",\n \"-20.73020028607425\"\n ],\n [\n \"test reports on skis. To avoid upsetting advertisers, none of the reports were negative. Due to the timing of new model releases, the skis being tested and the conditions under which they were being tested did not typically match the skis and conditions that the readers would be experiencing. Pfeiffer was followed as editor by John Jerome and then Al Greenberg.\\nIn 1985, Ziff Davis sold Skiing and other magazines to the broadcaster CBS, and in 1987 CBS sold the magazines to Peter Diamandis. Later that year, Skiing magazine was bought for $25 million by the Times Mirror company, which also\",\n \"-20.729371867186273\"\n ],\n [\n \"Force pilots during World War I.\\nThe 1970s saw the emergence of advertising using the UGG and UGH terms both in trade names and as a generic term in Australia. The Macquarie Dictionary of the Australian language first included a definition for \\\"ugg boot\\\" as a generic term for sheepskin boots in its 1981 edition. (After Stedman complained to the editors of Macquarie, a trademark notation was added to subsequent editions indicating that \\\"UGH\\\" was a trade mark).\\nIn the 1970s, ugg boots became popular among competitive surfers. After movie theatres in Sydney banned ugg boots and ripped jeans, the footwear became\",\n \"-20.722884351722314\"\n ],\n [\n \"production method, producing the aluminum-based Volant Huckster. In 1998 he was testing the Huckster with his friend Scott Gaffney, who reported that his bent Chubbs skied better than the new design because the tips didn't sink in the snow. McConkey took the design and used it to produce the radical Volant Spatula in 2002, which featured not only a banana-like reverse-camber but also a negative sidecut radius. On firm snow the skis were difficult to turn at all, but in powder the tips and tails bent up to produce the curved shape that caused them to carve. McConkey moved to\",\n \"-20.646068865018606\"\n ],\n [\n \"some paraplegic ski chairs.\\nDeuce Snowboards introduced a modern version of the DES that has undergone extensive engineering design and testing. According to Deuce Snowboards, the DES is the next evolutionary step of the snowboard, but it appears that they are evolving the ski sport as well.\\nThere are various other attempts, which typically, were only patented, and were likely not technically or production viable. For example, one was a more modern version like the Deuce Snowboard, it was fundamentally based on a gear mechanism, instead of a four-bar mechanism on which the Deuce DES, and possibly, the SwingBo are\",\n \"-20.60169155948097\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Rossignol.\\nIn the spring of 1993, a number of pre-production SCX skis were sent to instructors in the US for practical experimentation. They invariably reported dramatic results, with intermediate skiers able to produce carving turns easily, even in poor conditions that experts would normally find difficult. Realizing they had a winning design, the Elan team started designing a series aimed at the training market, including a 163 cm long design for the instructors, and a 143 cm long version for students and junior racers. This was much shorter than most skis of the era, further differentiating them from other skis on the\",\n \"-20.55691839310748\"\n ],\n [\n \"a skateboard, allowing the skateboard to move through the snow. The \\\"Ski\\\" portion of the snow skate is made of a hard plastic with rubber straps that went over the skateboard wheels to hold them together. Other mentionable early snowskate brands were The \\\"Skeeter\\\" and the \\\"Snodad\\\". Designs of this early era ranged from two skiblades on the lower deck (Like the Skeeter) to four blades on the lower deck. Sometimes, the early snowskates used metal runners, similar to ice skate blades, enabling the snowskater to use the momentum to ride well.\\nThe \\\"Snodad\\\" came about much later in time.\",\n \"-20.536332188874894\"\n ],\n [\n \"advances in technology in the Nordic camp allowed for the development of special skis for skating and ski jumping. Asymmetrical skis This type of ski was used at least in northern Finland and Sweden until the 1930s. On one leg, the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. The bottom of the short ski was either plain or covered with animal skin to aid this use, while the long ski supporting the weight of the skier was treated with animal fat in similar manner to modern ski waxing. Early\",\n \"-20.52031946751231\"\n ],\n [\n \"changes in competitive giant slalom, as the gates were moved further apart and resulted in much more turning. K2 responded with the GS Race with a 10 mm sidecut, and several similar designs followed. In spite of reports that these skis were easier to turn, they were considered specialty items and the designs offered only to the race and performance markets.\\nOne particularly notable experiment was made at Olin during the early 1980s. In 1984, one of the Olin executives asked ski designer Frank Meatto if it were possible to make a beginner's ski that would make skiing easier to learn. Meatto\",\n \"-20.465541591416695\"\n ],\n [\n \"Advantages From Deuce Snowboards and anecdotal accounts of the SwingBo, the DES is predominantly about offering the \\\"grip\\\" that the classic snowboard lacks. This is audibly known by skiers as the scraping noise that is associated with snowboarders. This improved grip is also described as better control, which improves carve technique (shredding) and reduces stopping distance. Deuce Snowboards claims that the better carve is not only due to the additional edge, but also to the fact that the mechanism attaches to the longitudinal center, thus fully and uniformly flexing the boards similar to the design intent of\",\n \"-20.45927232574104\"\n ],\n [\n \"have a recess in the bottom of the sole for fitting the smaller cleats and therefore it does not protrude, while conventional clipless road pedals are designed for road cycling shoes which have smooth soles with large protruding cleats, which are awkward for walking. The SPD range, in addition to other off-road refinements, were designed to be used with treaded soles that more closely resemble rugged hiking boots. SPD pedals and shoes soon established themselves as the market standard in this sector, although many other manufacturers have developed alternatives which may be less prone to being clogged by mud or\",\n \"-20.459067619391135\"\n ],\n [\n \"their ability to manufacture enough to meet demand. Entries from Nordica and the three-part designs from Raichle propelled the rear-entry design to the forefront, making up about 80% of the market in 1987. After Hanson After selling the company, the Hanson brothers continued to work with the Flo-fit material, founding the Flolite company and offering a number of products outside the ski industry. These included boot inserts, bike seats and wheel chair cushions, among others.\\nDuring the 2000s, Denny re-entered the ski boot market with the Apex ski boot. The Apex consists of two entirely separate parts, a semi-stiff boot that\",\n \"-20.453261806003866\"\n ],\n [\n \"but they’re also crazy comfortable\\\", while Connie Loizos of Tech Crunch compared the sneakers to Vans. Kavita Varma-White of Today described Rothy's as the \\\"perfect travel shoe\\\", writing that she was \\\"immediately impressed by the shoe's comfort and sturdiness\\\" and noting the \\\"flair for detail\\\" in the design of the navy and white sneakers she bought. Lauren Hubbard of Town & Country noted that like their grown-up counterparts, the children's shoes were \\\"machine washable (so your kids can be as tough on them as they want)\\\".\\nMegan O'Neill of Parade noted a new trend among celebrities, in that many are now\",\n \"-20.427233696434996\"\n ],\n [\n \"during his experience as an aircraft engineer. In a warehouse he rented from Albert Gunther Inc in an alley off of Biddle Street in downtown Baltimore, he used a technique known as metal sandwich construction. The first skis he made consisted of two light layers of aluminum bonded to sidewalls of thin plywood, with a center filling of honeycomb plastic. Although these skis were very light, they all broke quite quickly during trials. Head did not give up on his idea, and was encouraged by several professional skiers, including 1939 World Champion Emile Allais and ski instructors Clif\",\n \"-20.423175252668443\"\n ],\n [\n \"the sidecut would normally add. Hiatt and Groswold's experiment required such a deep sidecut that the waist had little vertical stiffness, another problem for the design. Snowboards arrive A radical change in design did not occur until the mid-1970s introduction of the first modern snowboards. With no previous designs to set the mould, snowboard designers had to experiment to find the right layout. The 1975 Burton Backhill had a 17 millimetres (0.67 in) sidecut, giving the board a very short turning radius. The Backhill was extremely low-tech in comparison to contemporary ski designs, consisting largely of a sheet of plywood. A\",\n \"-20.41039091613493\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the carp and therefore lack some attraction. Also, since in order to keep freezer baits fresh they need to be frozen soon after being rolled, not only will the ingredients used be of a much higher quality than in shelf lives but the ingredients used to make them will not lose much of their nutrients and attraction before being used in a fishing situation (much like frozen vegetables). Due to these facts freezer baits are often much more expensive than their shelf life counterparts.\\nThe most commonly used set-up anglers use to present a boilie is a hair rig (the\",\n \"-20.399344936922716\"\n ],\n [\n \"everything used by freeskiers is designed specifically for use in freeskiing rather than ordinary skiing. Types of skis There are three kinds of newschool skis: powder, all-mountain and park (twin tip). Powder Powder skis, also called big-mountain or backcountry skis, have a wide waist width, making them ideal for places with heavy powder. The extra surface area helps skiers to float above premium powder. However, they can be difficult to use on slopes with less snow or groomed trails, especially for beginning to moderate skiers. Experienced skiers sometimes buy powder skis as an alternate pair, to be used when conditions\",\n \"-20.3951428579021\"\n ],\n [\n \"225 Ski-Doos; four years later, 8,210 were sold. Bombardier slowed down promotion of the Ski-Doo line to prevent it from dominating the other company products, while still dominating the snowmobile industry against competitors Polaris Industries and Arctic Cat.\\nIn 1963, Roski was created in Roxton Falls, Quebec as a manufacturer of composite parts for the Ski-Doo. In the 1960s, V-8 engines were added.\\nOn February 18, 1964, J. Armand Bombardier died of cancer at age 56. Until then, he oversaw all areas of operation and controlled the research department, making all the drawings himself. The younger generation took over, led by Armand's\",\n \"-20.382672822808672\"\n ],\n [\n \"design improved on this design by allowing the skis to carve their edges into the snow as traditional snowplanes's rear skis will skid laterally during a turn. The major advancement of the Kristi tilt ski system apparently made no impact on the commercial or amateur snowplane industry as it did not appear to be used in practical application. Perhaps because of the mechanical complexity of the original design, no snowplanes are known to exist that employ the \\\"Christi Ski Action\\\" concept. Kristi's track driven vehicles Kristi was technically interesting, but the company failed to produce quantities of snowcats\",\n \"-20.35220120724989\"\n ],\n [\n \"while still holding a good edge. This combination was so impressive that it became known as \\\"The Cheater\\\" for the way it allowed beginners to turn like pros. The Standard, and models that followed it, were so successful that half the downhill skis in the US in the 1960s were Heads. Early attempts A number of metal skis were introduced over the years, among them the 1942 All Magnesium, a post-war run of 1,000 Truflex aluminum skis (made of Metalite, a sandwich of aluminum and balsa wood) from Chance Vought, the stainless steel Chris Ski, the TEY Alu-60 (later known\",\n \"-20.3264918247296\"\n ],\n [\n \"out quickly and could draw blood.\\nIn 1968, Alden Hanson started negotiations with Bob Lange to add Flo-fit to Lange's boot designs. Lange proved interested, and hired Chris, an industrial designer, and his brother Denny (Alden Hanson Jr.), a salesman for Head Skis, to help design a system to incorporate the newly christened \\\"Lange-flo\\\" into their boot lineup. However, Chris proved more interested in developing a new boot design than working on Lange-flo, and Lange dismissed them both in 1969.\\nHowever, the liners ended up failing when the Lange-flo interacted with the vinyl in cold weather. This allowed the Lange-flo to squeeze\",\n \"-20.26920525742753\"\n ],\n [\n \"the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. The bottom of the short ski was either plain or covered with animal skin to aid this use, while the long ski supporting the weight of the skier was treated with animal fat in similar manner to modern ski waxing. Early record of this type of skis survives in works of Olaus Magnus. He associates them to Sami people and gives Sami names of savek and golos for the plain and skinned short ski. Finnish names for these are lyly and\",\n \"-20.245663215813693\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":77,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"1hfuuc"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"why don't babies have wrinkly skin when they are born, considering they spend 9 months in fluids?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["\"Vernix caseosa, also known as vernix, is the waxy or cheese-like white substance found coating the skin of newborn human babies. Vernix starts developing on the baby in the womb around 18 weeks into pregnancy.\" - URL_0 or \"What's that cheesy stuff that's all over newborn babies?\"","Like doc_daneeka said, wrinkled skin is cause by a central nervous system response. It's been known for decades that people with nerve damage in the limbs don't get wrinkled skin from exposure to fluid. That being said, my best guess would be that infants have yet to develop that particular response to the external stimuli. Again, only speculation.","From what I recall/was told, babies have a special secretion on their skin while that protects the skin from becoming wrinkled or extra dry. According to my parents, I was born rather late (4ish weeks due to my first-time mom messing up the \"when was your last period\" question) and that coating of secretion had started to wear off. After I was born I had horribly dry skin, and developed cracks in my skin at wrists, ankles, and under my toes. At least, this is what some peds doc told my parents who then told me at some point......","Water (or other liquids) don't cause skin to wrinkle, in general. That's a reflex action limited to the palms of the hands, fingers, soles of the feet, and toes. It's quite possible that babies do come out wrinkled in those areas. I'm not sure, and google isn't helpful here.","Wrinkles aren't caused by fluid balance, osmosis, or any such thing. Wrinkles occur as a evolutionary trait that helped humans grip things better when in water - thus why our palms and bottom of our feet get wrinkly. Those parts get wrinkled to increase friction when in water. It's not about being in a fluid itself. The human body when in a womb knows it has no biological need at the time for increased grip.","While we're on the topic of child birth, how can a baby survive in the womb without oxygen? May seem like a dumb question but I don't get how a baby can survive in fluid for 9 months then in a second be surrounded by oxygen.","Our first kid came 12 days late and he was definitely wrinkled. Then over the next three weeks most of his body began flaking/peeling skin.... Yum."],"string":"[\n \"\\\"Vernix caseosa, also known as vernix, is the waxy or cheese-like white substance found coating the skin of newborn human babies. Vernix starts developing on the baby in the womb around 18 weeks into pregnancy.\\\" - URL_0 or \\\"What's that cheesy stuff that's all over newborn babies?\\\"\",\n \"Like doc_daneeka said, wrinkled skin is cause by a central nervous system response. It's been known for decades that people with nerve damage in the limbs don't get wrinkled skin from exposure to fluid. That being said, my best guess would be that infants have yet to develop that particular response to the external stimuli. Again, only speculation.\",\n \"From what I recall/was told, babies have a special secretion on their skin while that protects the skin from becoming wrinkled or extra dry. According to my parents, I was born rather late (4ish weeks due to my first-time mom messing up the \\\"when was your last period\\\" question) and that coating of secretion had started to wear off. After I was born I had horribly dry skin, and developed cracks in my skin at wrists, ankles, and under my toes. At least, this is what some peds doc told my parents who then told me at some point......\",\n \"Water (or other liquids) don't cause skin to wrinkle, in general. That's a reflex action limited to the palms of the hands, fingers, soles of the feet, and toes. It's quite possible that babies do come out wrinkled in those areas. I'm not sure, and google isn't helpful here.\",\n \"Wrinkles aren't caused by fluid balance, osmosis, or any such thing. Wrinkles occur as a evolutionary trait that helped humans grip things better when in water - thus why our palms and bottom of our feet get wrinkly. Those parts get wrinkled to increase friction when in water. It's not about being in a fluid itself. The human body when in a womb knows it has no biological need at the time for increased grip.\",\n \"While we're on the topic of child birth, how can a baby survive in the womb without oxygen? May seem like a dumb question but I don't get how a baby can survive in fluid for 9 months then in a second be surrounded by oxygen.\",\n \"Our first kid came 12 days late and he was definitely wrinkled. Then over the next three weeks most of his body began flaking/peeling skin.... Yum.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Epidermolytic hyperkeratosis Presentation Epidermolytic hyperkeratosis is a skin disorder that is present at birth. Affected babies may have very red skin (erythroderma) and severe blisters. Because newborns with this disorder are missing the protection provided by normal skin, they are at risk of becoming dehydrated and developing infections in the skin or throughout the body (sepsis).\nAs affected individuals get older, blistering is less frequent, erythroderma becomes less evident, and the skin becomes thick (hyperkeratotic), especially over joints, on areas of skin that come into contact with each other, or on the scalp or neck. This thickened skin is usually darker","-36.74951229512226"],["soon after birth; but newer reports confirm that washing skin surface after birth reduces evaporative water losses compared to surface of newborns in which vernix is left in situ. Vernix is hydrophobic. Vernix is believed to assist in the development of the human intestinal microbiota. Secretion The sebum in vernix is produced in utero by the sebaceous glands around the 20th week of gestation. Vernix appears primarily in full term infants, while premature and postmature births generally do not display any.\nPostdates desquamation (flakey skin in babies born >42 weeks) is thought to be due to loss of vernix. Functions","-36.31579272542149"],["colouring of amniotic fluid, which is caused by the buildup of bilirubin. Splenomegaly, cardiomegaly and hepatomegaly may occur in the baby. Excessive tissue fluid may accumulate in the stomach, lungs or scalp. These are typically signs of hydrops fetalis. \nAfter birth, the symptoms of the child are similar to that of incompatible blood transfusion in adults. The baby may have pale skin due to anaemia. The yellowing of the umbilical cord, skin and eyes, also known as jaundice, may arise within 24 to 36 hours of birth. Signs of hydrops fetalis such as the enlargement of spleen, heart and liver,","-35.12387457100158"],["is a temporary condition. Females (and even males) may actually discharge milk from their nipples (sometimes called witch's milk), or a bloody or milky-like substance from the vagina. In either case, this is considered normal and will disappear with time. Umbilical cord The umbilical cord of a newborn is bluish-white in color. After birth, the umbilical cord is normally cut, leaving a 1–2 inch stub. The umbilical stub will dry out, shrivel, darken, and spontaneously fall off within about 3 weeks. This will later become a belly-button after it heals. Occasionally, hospitals may apply triple dye to the umbilical stub to","-34.34962351387367"],["the infant's body to prevent the infant from having body odor when they reach adolescence. Squeezing the infant's nipples does this. This milk is present in newborns due to the high level of the mother's hormones from the womb and breastfeeding, causing them to lactate for a period of time. There are no visible negative side effects caused by the act of squeezing the nipples of the infant.","-33.590790752656176"],["substance covers the surface of the skin of the infant. This is characterized by aggregating membranes in the upper layer of skin on epidermal cells. Desquamating skin Red endemic skin as well as spongy and desquamating (peeling) skin are consistent with this syndrome. Respiratory problems After premature delivery, the baby often has neonatal asphyxia from breathing amnionic debris mainly composed of shedding skin cells. Neonatal refers to the very young infant and amniotic fluid refers to the liquid environment the baby is bathed in inside the uterus. Eosinophilia Eosinophils are a kind of a white blood cell which help protect","-33.49583669152344"],["milk from the mother, the pup is more likely to quadruple its initial weight before weaning. The mother seal also loses a tremendous amount of weight while nursing.","-33.36655125742254"],["off or \"shed\" 2 to 4 weeks after birth, revealing the underlying skin disorder.\nThe condition can resemble but is different from harlequin type ichthyosis. Long term course The appearance can be caused by several skin diseases, and it is most often not associated with other birth defects. In most cases, the baby develops an ichthyosis or ichthyosis-like condition or other rare skin disorder.\nMost cases (approximately 75%) of collodion baby will go on to develop a type of autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis (either lamellar ichthyosis or congenital ichthyosiform erythrodema).\nIn around 10% of cases the baby sheds this layer of skin and","-33.29895503586158"],["newborn's vulva may be swollen or enlarged as a result of having been exposed, via the placenta, to her mother's increased levels of hormones. The labia majora are closed. These changes disappear over the first few months. During childhood before puberty, the lack of estrogen can cause the labia to become sticky and to ultimately join firmly together. This condition is known as labial fusion and is rarely found after puberty when oestrogen production has increased. Puberty Puberty is the onset of the ability to reproduce, and takes place over two to three years, producing a number of changes. The","-33.24903130851453"],["Baby oil Baby oil is a skin-care product for infants.\nThe skin of an infant, especially a premature one, is sensitive, thin and fragile. Its neutral pH on the surface significantly reduces the protection against excessive bacterial growth. The epidermis and dermis are thinner than those of adults and the epidermal barrier is not yet fully developed. Consequences can for example be dry skin, infections, peeling, blister formation and poor thermoregulation. The application of different oils to the skin of the newborn is routinely practiced in many countries. In general, these oils are used for cleansing, to maintain the skin's moisture","-33.1577218020102"],["the child in the birth canal, which coves the skin, and enters the baby’s eyes, ears, nose, and mouth. These microbes often travel down into the gut after being swallowed. It is said that these microbes are important in the postnatal development of the immune system of the baby.\nIn the event that a C-section is done before labour starts or before a woman’s water breaks, the infant won't come into contact with maternal vaginal fluid or bacteria. Instead, they come in contact with skin microbes, a very different set of species. These differences, in turn, have been associated with increased","-33.12879528745543"],["made from a five month old fetus (the 'oldest' of the aborted fetuses thus far), seems to have a positive effect on Mrs. Li's libido, yet it also causes her skin to exhibit a fishy smell. Eventually, Mei has to move out when the authorities are about to capture her. Mrs. Li, now two months pregnant despite being declared infertile earlier, is still desperate for a rejuvenation and chooses to abort her own fetus, presumably to make it into dumplings. Cut A successful film director has to face a night of misery when a man who appeared in five of","-33.02192429761635"],["prior to birth. Infants born with Fraser syndrome often have eyes that are malformed and completely covered by skin. Also the child is born with fingers and toes that are fused together along with abnormalities within the urine tract. As this disorder relates to vaginal atresia, infants born with Fraser syndrome are also born with malformations in their genitals. McKusick-Kaufman syndrome A female with McKusick-Kaufman syndrome has vaginal atresia that is often present with imperforate anus, heart defects, hydrometrocolpos, and/or polydactyly, The female will still develop secondary sexual characteristics. Treatment There are several methods of treatment for individuals with","-33.004956062999554"],["a small chin, and, in some cases, an opening in the roof of the mouth called a cleft palate. The abdomen is enlarged, and excess fluid may build up in the body before birth (a condition called hydrops fetalis).\nAs a result of these serious health problems, infants are usually premature and stillborn or die shortly after birth from respiratory failure. Some infants have lived for a time, however, with intensive medical support. Babies who live past the newborn period are usually reclassified as having spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita, a related disorder on the spectrum of abnormal bone growth.","-32.7719610693166"],["sinovaginal bulbs (where Müllerian ducts meet the urogenital sinus), and normally becomes perforate before or shortly after birth.\nThe hymen has no nerve innervation. In newborn babies, still under the influence of the mother's hormones, the hymen is thick, pale pink, and redundant (folds in on itself and may protrude). For the first two to four years of life, the infant produces hormones that continue this effect. Their hymenal opening tends to be annular (circumferential).\n\nPast neonatal stage, the diameter of the hymenal opening (measured within the hymenal ring) widens by approximately 1 mm for each year of age. During puberty, estrogen causes","-32.73964013706427"],["on the ground. Infants are born with dark-brown hair. They consume their first solid food at five to six weeks old, and can forage independently from their mothers by seven weeks. A mother carries her infant on her belly for its first four weeks. After this time, the mother carries her infant on her back, as well. Infants continue to be carried past a year. A mother and her infant tend to avoid other troop members, and the mother may socialize again very slowly. However, alloparenting has been observed, usually by females which have not had infants of their own.","-32.682809405829175"],["woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely, late, or in the case of stillbirth, do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infant's immune system, and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of","-32.44338080345187"],["was true for humans. It is generally accepted that newborn babies are sterile at birth and very sensitive to bad bacteria before they establish a microbial flora of their own. This flora should preferably come from their mother. Ivan was quite sure about that Lactobacillus reuteri was one of these bacteria that the mother should transfer to her offspring, whether a chicken, a human baby or any other mammal.\nIvan analysed breast milk from many mothers in the USA where he lived and also from South American mothers in Lima, Peru, without finding any L. reuteri. However, he was still convinced","-32.43152551833191"],["the baby. A piece of cloth was tied around the newborn's waist for six week to protect the navel area which was thought to easily rupture due to its weakness. The newborn’s hair could not be cut during the first few weeks of life for fear of death before six months of age. If a child whose hair was cut too early did not die, it was feared that the child would become a thief later in life. If someone stepped over the child, this would stunt the newborn’s growth. The day of the week on which the child was","-32.391553048277274"],["feeding, when the baby has infrequent feeds or has problems suckling the milk out of the breast.\nThe presence of cracks or sores on the nipples increases the likelihood of infection. Tight clothing or ill-fitting bras may also cause problems as they compress the breasts. There is a possibility that infants carrying infectious pathogens in their noses can infect their mothers; the clinical significance of this finding is still unknown.\nMastitis, as well as breast abscess, can also be caused by direct trauma to the breast. Such injury can occur for example during sports activities or due to seat belt injury.\nMastitis","-32.37023919535568"],["infant is being born, the vagina undergoes significant changes. A gush of blood from the vagina may be seen right before the baby is born. Lacerations to the vagina that can occur during birth vary in depth, severity and the amount of adjacent tissue involvement. The laceration can be so extensive as to involve the rectum and anus. This event can be especially distressing to a new mother. When this occurs, fecal incontinence develops and stool can leave through the vagina. Close to 85% of spontaneous vaginal births develop some form of tearing. Out of these, 60–70% require suturing. Lacerations","-32.34036202693824"],["lingers for several months after birth, thus providing the newborn with a carbon copy of the mother's long-term humoral immunity to see the infant through the crucial first months of extrauterine life. IgM, however, cannot cross the placenta, which is why some infections acquired during pregnancy can be hazardous for the fetus.\nFurthermore, the placenta functions as a selective maternal-fetal barrier against transmission of microbes. However, insufficiency in this function may still cause mother-to-child transmission of infectious diseases. Other The placenta also provides a reservoir of blood for the fetus, delivering blood to it in case of hypotension and vice versa,","-32.333260809711646"],["Prelabor rupture of membranes Signs and symptoms Most women will experience a painless leakage of fluid out of the vagina. They may notice either a distinct \"gush\" or a steady flow of small amounts of watery fluid in the absence of steady uterine contractions. Loss of fluid may be associated with the baby becoming easier to feel through the belly (due to the loss of the surrounding fluid), decreased uterine size, or meconium (fetal stool) seen in the fluid. Infection Infection and inflammation likely explains why membranes break earlier than they are supposed to. In studies, bacteria have been found","-32.32169004547177"],["or fruity breath odor due to ketones, and seizures in advanced cases. Pregnancy toxemia appears to be most common in hot climates. Other serious complications during pregnancy can include a prolapsed uterus, hypocalcaemia, and mastitis.\nFemales that do not give birth may develop an irreversible fusing of the pubic symphysis, a joint in the pelvis, due to calcification which may occur between 6 and 10 months of age. If they become pregnant after this has happened, the birth canal will probably not widen sufficiently and this may lead to dystocia and death as they attempt to give birth. Calcification of the","-32.29777976567857"],["pass, and to transform the fat packed rigid skin at the opening to the birth canal into paper thin stretchy elastic skin, all without using the baby's head. \nIf the external skin (perineal skin) opening has been stretched before birth, to 10 cm, then there is no reason to perform an episiotomy to increase the diameter of the opening of the birth canal. Tearing is less likely as the external skin at the opening has been stretched already and is lax, whilst the underlying muscular pelvic floor has not been damaged. Episiotomy permanently damages the pelvic floor muscle, as the","-32.162434102152474"],["in the skin as a baby grows in the womb. Dermoid cysts are present at birth (congenital) and are common. It can be months or years before a dermoid cyst is noticed on a child because the cysts grow slowly.\nDermoid cyst symptoms are minor and the cysts are usually painless. They are not harmful to a child’s health. If they become infected, the infection must be treated and the cyst should be removed. It is easier to remove cysts and prevent scars if the cyst is removed before it gets infected. Differential diagnosis A small dermoid cyst on the ","-32.08650541183306"],["the size of the growth. Since Bhagat had no placenta, the growth had connected directly to his blood supply. In an extremely unusual case, a 2-year-old boy became pregnant with his parasitic twin inside his stomach feeding off him like a normal fetus would feed on its mother. The boy required a Caesarean section. It is virtually impossible that the fetus could survive this process due to being underdeveloped.","-31.971555803262163"],["not a reliable indicator that a female has been vaginally penetrated because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event. Furthermore, in rare cases, some girls are born without hymens.\nThe hymen is a ring of fleshy tissue that sits just inside the vaginal opening. Normal variations range from thin and stretchy to thick and somewhat rigid. The only variation that may require medical intervention is the imperforate hymen, which either completely prevents the passage of menstrual fluid or slows it significantly. In either case, surgical intervention may be needed to allow menstrual fluid to","-31.962791042635217"],["Although exposure to amniotic fluid is eliminated after birth, breast fed babies have continued contact with cues from the mother’s nipple and areola area. This causes breast odors to become more familiar and attractive, while amniotic fluid loses its positive value. Maternal breast odors are individually distinctive, and provide a basis for recognition of the mother by her offspring. Role of olfaction in maternal bonding and subsequent development As demonstrated by animals in the wild (the great apes, for example), the offspring is held by the mother immediately after birth without cleaning and is continually exposed to the familiar odor","-31.885660047410056"],["the buttocks in a breech birth) of the baby is pushed against the cervix, which gradually dilates until is fully dilated at 10 cm diameter. At some time, the amniotic sac bursts and the amniotic fluid escapes (also known as rupture of membranes or breaking the water). In stage two, starting when the cervix is fully dilated, strong contractions of the uterus and active pushing by the mother expels the baby out through the vagina, which during this stage of labour is called a birth canal as this passage contains a baby, and the baby is born with umbilical cord","-31.772410881720134"],["of their child, making suffocation more likely. When using a pouch sling, wearers should be sure to keep the baby's face elevated and clearly visible. Wraps Wraps (sometimes called \"wraparounds\" or \"wraparound slings\") are lengths of fabric (usually between 2 metres and 6 metres, or 2.5-7 yards long, and 15-30 inches wide), which are wrapped around both the baby and the wearer and then tied. There are different carrying positions possible with a wrap, depending on the length of the fabric. A baby or toddler can be carried on the wearer's front, back or hip. With shorter wraps it is","-31.68055369128706"],["postpartum chills, after the birth.\nMost authorities suggest the infant be placed in skin-to-skin contact with the mother for 1–2 hours immediately after birth, putting routine cares off until later.\nUntil recently babies born in hospitals were removed from their mothers shortly after birth and brought to the mother only at feeding times. Mothers were told that their newborn would be safer in the nursery and that the separation would offer the mother more time to rest. As attitudes began to change, some hospitals offered a \"rooming in\" option wherein after a period of routine hospital procedures and observation, the","-31.646510074089747"],["coating that keeps skin supple and moist. The sebum builds overly, between every 2–3 days for the average adult. Those with delicate skin such as children may experience a longer interval. Sebum also imparts a protective coating to hair strands. For babies, the sebaceous gland production is not at peak, thus daily washing is not typically needed. Common ingredients Most contain sodium trideceth sulfate, which is formulated to act as a low-irritation cleansing agent.\nAlternatively, baby shampoo may be formulated using other classes of surfactants, most notably non-ionics which are much milder than any charged anionics used.","-31.63075968764315"],["Perineal tear Cause In humans and some other primates, the head of the term fetus is so large in comparison to the size of the birth canal that delivery may result in some degree of trauma.\nAs the head passes through the pelvis, the soft tissues are stretched and compressed. The risk of severe tear is greatly increased if the fetal head is oriented occiput posterior (face forward), if the mother has not given birth before or if the fetus is large.\nA surgical incision on the perineum skin called an episiotomy was historically used routinely in order to reduce perineal","-31.621045638632495"],["females the uterus and upper vagina may be absent. Other abnormalities include anal atresia, absence of the rectum and sigmoid colon, esophageal and duodenal atresia, and a single umbilical artery. Presence of a diaphragmatic hernia is also common in these fetuses/infants. Additionally, the alveolar sacs of the lungs fail to properly develop as a result of the reduced volume of amniotic fluid. Labor is often induced between 22 and 36 weeks of gestation (however, some of these pregnancies may go to term) and unaborted infants typically survive for only a few minutes to a few hours. These infants will eventually","-31.59159554040525"],["to grow in the infant's intestines, which protects the mucosal barrier of the infant's stomach. This prevents harmful pathogens from harming the infant's intestinal lining. The infant's digestive mucosa is unable to produce antibodies until they are about four to six months old, which makes the infant susceptible to many infections. However, breast milk provides the antibodies needed for the infant to stay protected until they are able to produce their own antibodies. Breast milk also stimulates a microbiota, which results in the production of IgA. IgA is an immunoglobulin that is a first line of defense to protect the","-31.542019119719043"],["uterus to the vagina. The elasticity of the vagina allows it to stretch to many times its normal diameter in order to deliver the child.\nVaginal births are more common, but if there is a risk of complications a caesarean section (C-section) may be performed. The vaginal mucosa has an abnormal accumulation of fluid (edematous) and is thin, with few rugae, a little after birth. The mucosa thickens and rugae return in approximately three weeks once the ovaries regain usual function and estrogen flow is restored. The vaginal opening gapes and is relaxed, until it returns to its approximate pre-pregnant state","-31.51575658848742"],["of SIDS, occur less frequently for infants who are breastfed when compared to babies that are not breastfed, thus reducing the risk. Also, breast milk provides necessary nutrition for the infant's brain to develop. This allows the brain of the baby to mature quickly enough so that he or she will have the response to gasp for air when needed. Lastly, breastfed babies tend to sleep for shorter periods at a time and awaken more easily. Research has shown that babies who sleep shorter and awaken from their sleep easily tend to have a lower risk of SIDS. Conclusively, most","-31.465079668327235"],["on, children may develop symptoms related to problems with blood flow and an enlarged heart. They may experience dizziness or shortness of breath, fainting or near-fainting episodes, chest pain, abnormal tiredness or fatigue, headaches, or nosebleeds. They have cold legs and feet or have pain in their legs with exercise (intermittent claudication).\nIn cases of more severe coarctations, babies may develop serious problems soon after birth because not enough blood can get through the aorta to the rest of their body.\nArterial hypertension in the arms with low blood pressure in the lower extremities is classic. In the lower extremities, weak pulses","-31.314974990207702"],["risks of asthma, allergies, obesity, and immune deficiencies. Thus, these differences appear more often in infants after a caesarean delivery than after a vaginal delivery, according to certain epidemiological data.\nThe purpose behind the practice of vaginal seeding or micro birthing is that it allows an infant delivered via caesarean section to come in contact with microbes from the birth canal. The expectation is that this may boost their gut bacteria and lessen the danger of health issues normally associated with caesarian infants. It contributes to the seeding of the infant gut. Evidence It is unclear whether vaginal seeding has long","-31.274865352315828"],["the female's behavior transitions to support of her future offspring. Females hold the embryos in the womb without a placenta. Instead, the embryos absorb nutrients from a yolk sac, and after the sac is depleted, the mother provides uterine \"milk\".\nAfter birth, the offspring generally disassociate from the mother and swim away, having been born with the instinctual abilities to protect and feed themselves. In a very small number of species, like the freshwater whipray (Himantura chaophraya), the mother \"cares\" for her young by having them swim with her until they are one-third of her size.\nAt the Sea Life London Aquarium,","-31.26935449964367"],["unheard of. When they are born, the puppies only weigh a few ounces (about 100 grams) and are small enough to fit in the palm of an adult's hand. They can get leg and heart problems from an early age. Cleft palate One issue that is typically fatal for the puppies is having a cleft palate. It results in the puppy not receiving nourishment from the mother and eventually starvation. It is uncommon but, depending on the size of the cleft, it is possible for the puppy to survive whereas it becomes older surgery can be done","-31.265269795898348"],["Pyloric stenosis Signs and symptoms Babies with this condition usually present any time in the first weeks to months of life with progressively worsening vomiting. The vomiting is often described as non-bile stained (\"non bilious\") and \"projectile vomiting\", because it is more forceful than the usual spitting up (gastroesophageal reflux) seen at this age. Some infants present with poor feeding and weight loss but others demonstrate normal weight gain. Dehydration may occur which causes a baby to cry without having tears and to produce less wet or dirty diapers due to not urinating for hours or for a","-31.236448118113913"],["growth of harmful bacteria. Without protein, the baby cannot produce the immunity that its body desperately needs, resulting in a higher risk of disease and malnutrition. Breast milk provides the best source of protein for an infant.\nAnother immunoglobulin breast milk provides to the infant is known as IgG. IgG provides passive immunity from the mother to the infant. This means that antibodies for common childhood diseases like diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis, and rubella are passed onto the infant naturally, if the mother was vaccinated for this in her lifetime. The infant is then protected for about 3 months, just enough time","-31.169497061287984"],["others, particularly caucasian infants, may have very fine hair or may even be bald. Amongst fair-skinned parents, this fine hair may be blonde, even if the parents are not. Infants hair color and texture change. Red can give way to blond. Curly can go straight and baby's thick, dark hair could make its reappearance a lot sparser and lighter. The scalp may also be temporarily bruised or swollen, especially in hairless newborns, and the area around the eyes may be puffy. Skin Immediately after birth, a newborn's skin is often grayish to dusky blue in color. As soon as the","-31.16703238734044"],["infants caused by the rupture of fragile blood vessels within the germinal matrix of premature babies. The germinal matrix is a highly vascularized area within an unborn infant's brain from which brain cells, including neurons and glial cells, originate. Infants are at most risk to germinal matrix hemorrhages when they are born prematurely, before 32 weeks. The stresses exposed after birth, along with the fragile blood vessels, increase risk of hemorrhage. Signs and symptoms include flaccid weakness, seizures, abnormal posturing, or irregular respiration.\nCADASIL is an inherited disorder caused by mutations in the Notch 3 gene located on chromosome 19. The","-31.13449693887378"],["group. Gestation is usually 3.5–4 months but can be as long as 7 months when there's delayed embryonic development. The female gives birth while perching and the newborn emerges unaided, head first. The mothers will eat the placenta. Mothers carry their pups when they are one day old but later leave them in the roosting area for the day. The female’s nipples become enlarged during lactation. Young are weaned by 15 days. Young gain a full, permanent set of teeth at 40 days and can fly by 50 days when their forearms are fully developed. Females are sexually","-31.096447340445593"],["sphincter are not well understood, however there is evidence that the foetus does defecate routinely into the amniotic cavity even in the absence of distress. The presence of fetal intestinal enzymes have been found in the amniotic fluid of women who are as early as 14–22 weeks pregnant. Thus, suggesting there is free passage of the intestinal contents into the amniotic fluid. \nMotilin is found in higher concentrations in post-term than pre-term foetal gastrointestinal tracts. Similarly, intestinal parasympathetic innervation and myelination also increases in later gestations. Therefore, the increased incidence of MAS in post-term pregnancies may reflect the maturation","-31.095282755122753"],["in the vagina during pregnancy. The juvenile remains in the nest for some time. Both parents care for the young, masticating food and bringing it to their offspring in their mouths, their cheeks swelling to the size of tangerines.","-31.056897923583165"],["most dangerous of the three because it can be basically anything small enough to be inhaled. This may also be due to the fact that brain growth begins within the first month of conception. Low-birth weight (LBW), and preterm delivery A previous study conducted in the Los Angeles Basin of Southern California reported a consistent association between levels of CO and particulate matter during the first trimester and the last six weeks prior to birth and risk of preterm birth. Prematurity in babies is accompanied by an array of health complications. Children born prematurely are at highest risk for developing","-31.049002403509803"],["Baby shampoo Baby shampoo /ˈbā-bē/ /ʃæmˈpuː/ is a hair care product that is used for the removal of oils, dirt, skin particles, dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that gradually build up in hair; specially formulated for use on infants and young children by means of substituting chemicals which are purportedly less irritating to the eyes than those commonly found in regular shampoo. Purpose Scalp skin of babies is characterized by subdued sebaceous gland production, due to hormonal levels. The sebaceous gland secretes sebum, a waxy ester, which maintains the acid mantle of the scalp and provides a","-31.02486780358595"],["midline to form the hard palate. This condition manifests as a cleft palate. Later in gestation (at around 12 to 14 weeks), extension of the neck of the fetus releases the pressure on the mandible, allowing it to grow normally from this point forward. At birth however, the mandible is still much smaller (hypoplastic) than it would have been with normal development. After the child is born, the mandible continues to grow until the child reaches maturity. Genetic basis Alternatively, PRS may also be caused by a genetic disorder. In the case of PRS which is due to a genetic","-30.972300021909177"],["delicatessen meats, and cheese.\nNeonatal infection can also occur in term and post-term infants. Infections that develop one month after the birth of the infant are more likely due to Gram-positive bacteria and coagulase positive staphylococci.\nAcquired maternal infection and subsequent inflammation from Ureaplasma urealyticum is accompanied by a strong immune response and is correlated with the need for prolonged mechanical ventilation.\nClostridium tetani can cause a generalised form of tetanus in the neonate. This usually occurs when the mother has not been vaccinated against tetanus and the baby has not acquired passive immunity. The umbilical cord region is the most susceptible.\nOther bacterial","-30.946350852493197"],["Menkes disease Signs and symptoms Affected infants may be born prematurely. Signs and symptoms appear during infancy, typically after a two- to three-month period of normal or slightly slowed development that is followed by a loss of early developmental skills and subsequent developmental delay. Patients exhibit hypotonia (weak muscle tone), failure to thrive, hypothermia (subnormal body temperature), sagging facial features, seizures, and metaphyseal widening. Hair appears strikingly peculiar: kinky, colorless or silvery, and brittle. There can be extensive neurodegeneration in the gray matter of the brain. Arteries in the brain can also be twisted with frayed and split inner walls.","-30.926910258363932"],["and usually four or five young are born per litter. From time to time, it is possible for the female to give birth to up to seven young at one time. When the young are born, they weigh about 2 grams. The young dormice open their eyes at two weeks, and start eating solid food a week later. During the dependency period, the mother provides food, milk, grooming, and protection to the young. They leave the nest after about another three weeks and become sexually mature in the following year.\nThere has not been much evidence for paternal care. However, it","-30.925679238513112"],["vagina at birth. The most prevalent pathogen causing CAP in newborns is Streptococcus agalactiae, also known as group-B streptococcus (GBS). GBS causes more than half of CAP in the first week after birth. Other bacterial causes of neonatal CAP include Listeria monocytogenes and a variety of mycobacteria. CAP-causing viruses may also be transferred from mother to child; herpes simplex virus (the most common) is life-threatening, and adenoviridae, mumps and enterovirus can also cause pneumonia. Another cause of CAP in this group is Chlamydia trachomatis, acquired at birth but not causing pneumonia until two to four weeks later; it usually presents","-30.913063331274316"],["is poor.\nDuring pregnancy, pressure from the fetus on the abdomen and hormonal changes cause the hemorrhoidal vessels to enlarge. The birth of the baby also leads to increased intra-abdominal pressures. Pregnant women rarely need surgical treatment, as symptoms usually resolve after delivery. Pathophysiology Hemorrhoid cushions are a part of normal human anatomy and become a pathological disease only when they experience abnormal changes. There are three main cushions present in the normal anal canal. These are located classically at left lateral, right anterior, and right posterior positions. They are composed of neither arteries nor veins, but blood vessels called sinusoids,","-30.904422060004435"],["continue delivery, but this is often difficult to do. Nuchal cord After the baby crowns, the umbilical cord may be found to be wrapped around the neck or body of the baby, which is known as nuchal cord. This is common, occurring in up to 37% of term pregnancies, and most do not cause any long-term problems. This wrapped cord should be slipped over the head so it is not pulled during delivery. If the wrap is not removed, it can choke the baby or can cause the placenta to detach suddenly which can cause severe maternal bleeding and loss","-30.866370174335316"],["can also cause vaginal rugae to disappear. The absence of vaginal rugae may also be an indicator of pelvic organ prolapse. Vaginal rugae disappear in those with an estrogen deficiency. Childbirth Vaginal rugae can disappear during the second stage of labor. After a vaginal birth the rugae are not visible and the walls of the vagina are smooth. By the third week postpartum the vagina has become much smaller and the rugae begin to reform on the vaginal walls. Six weeks after birth, the rugae have returned to approximately the same size as they were before the birth. The number","-30.8575637221511"],["mother. They also cannot regulate their body temperature for the first three weeks, so kittens born in temperatures less than 27 °C (81 °F) can die from hypothermia if their mother does not keep them warm. The mother's milk is very important for the kittens' nutrition and proper growth. This milk transfers antibodies to the kittens, which helps protect them against infectious disease. Newborn kittens are unable to produce concentrated urine, and so have a very high requirement for fluids. Kittens open their eyes about seven to ten days after birth. At first, the retina is poorly developed and vision is poor.","-30.827236641314812"],["the head and face, from pressure against the mother’s pelvis or pressure caused by forceps or a vacuum device (see ventouse) used in delivery. Bone fractures Bone fractures can occur during a difficult delivery. Fracture of the clavicle is the most common birth injury. Meconium aspiration syndrome Meconium is a sticky substance that usually makes up the child’s first bowel movement. If the fetus is stressed before or during delivery, the meconium may be released and may mix with the amniotic fluid. If it gets into the child's airways or lungs, it can cause meconium aspiration syndrome. Serious cases may","-30.82224765654246"],["its own shortly after birth. Not long after, the placenta eventually falls off on its own. The person assisting the birth may also sever the umbilical cord. Parental care A human baby is nearly helpless and the growing child requires high levels of parental care for many years. One important type of early parental care is lactation, feeding the baby milk from the mother's mammary glands in her breasts.","-30.780972414417192"],["which continues for around nine months as the foetus develops. When the foetus has developed to a certain point, pregnancy is concluded with childbirth, involving labor. During labor, the muscles of the uterus contract and the cervix dilates over the course of hours, and the baby passes out of the vagina. Human infants are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care. Infants rely on their caregivers for comfort, cleanliness, and food. Food may be provided by breastfeeding or formula feeding.\nThe female reproductive system has two functions: to produce egg cells, and to protect and nourish the fetus until","-30.7807563279639"],["children up until about the age of four. These may have been due to increased risk from disease once the protective antibodies in a mother's milk ended after weening. There was also greater exposure to hard and soft tissue trauma, and subsequent infection, as children became more mobile by crawling and toddling. Iron deficiency anaemia was common among children, probably caused by long-term breastfeeding by mothers that were themselves deficient in minerals. Common childhood diseases included measles, diphtheria and whooping-cough, while parasites were also common. The most badly affected individuals rarely made it beyond the age of 25, thus many","-30.778694412554614"],["days; births can occur at any time of year. The infant's fur is silver at birth, but turns pale or gold after a few days. After that, the fur starts to darken, and the infant takes on the adult coloration at about 3 months old.\nThe infant is carried under its mother, clinging to its mother's chest, for the first 2 or 3 weeks of its life. After that, it is carried on its mother's back. At about 3 months the mother will usually start to push the infant off, but will still carry the infant some of the time until","-30.774348781131266"],["are probably the most common complaint after the birth. They are generally reported by the second day after delivery but improve within 5 days. Pain beyond the first week, severe pain, cracking, fissures or localized swelling is not normal. The mother should see a doctor for further evaluation. Sore nipples, a common cause of pain, often come from the baby not latching on properly. Factors include too much pressure on the nipple when not enough of the areola is latched onto and an improper release of suction at the end of the feeding. Improper use of breast pumps or topical","-30.76316625711297"],["beneficial for both the mother and baby. A review done by the World Health Organization found that skin-to-skin contact between mothers and babies after birth reduces crying, improves mother–infant interaction, and helps mothers to breastfeed successfully. They recommend that neonates be allowed to bond with the mother during their first two hours after birth, the period that they tend to be more alert than in the following hours of early life. Postnatal period The postnatal period, also referred to as the puerperium, begins immediately after delivery and extends for about six weeks. During this period, the mother's body","-30.725657338101882"],["around. Nevertheless, infanticide does occur in these groups, and is suggested that such practices serve to return a female to estrous and gain the opportunity to mate.\nFemales usually give birth to a single infant, although twins do occur. Most births occur during the night. Infants are born with thin, dark brown or black hair and pale skin. Infants spend their first week attach themselves to their mothers' chests and mostly just suckle or sleep. They do not move much in terms of locomotion for the first two weeks of their life. As they approach their sixth week of life, infants","-30.710020364029333"],["underwear, or bath towels, and from non-sexual touching during routine care such as diapering. Genital warts in children are less likely to be caused by HPV subtypes 6 and 11 than adults, and more likely to be caused by HPV types that cause warts elsewhere on the body (\"cutaneous types\"). Surveys of pediatricians who are child abuse specialists suggest that in children younger than 4 years old, there is no consensus on whether the appearance of new anal or genital warts, by itself, can be considered an indicator of sexual abuse. Diagnosis The diagnosis of genital warts is most often","-30.70337792596547"],["mother, Barbary macaques from all age and sex groups participate in alloparental care of infants. Male care of infants has been of particular interest to research because high levels of care from males is uncommon in groups where paternity is highly uncertain. Males even act as true alloparents of infant macaques by carrying them and caring for them for hours at a time as opposed to just demonstrating more casual interactions with the infants. Female social status plays a role in female alloparental interactions with infants. Higher ranking females have more interactions whereas younger, lower ranking females have less access","-30.69258652359713"],["pulselessness 6% of the time, and breech presentation 3% of the time Breech presentation Normally, the head is the first part of the body to present out of the birth canal. However, other parts such as the buttocks or feet can present first, which is referred to as breech presentation. Risk for breech presentation may increase with multiple pregnancies (more than one baby), when there is too little or too much fluid in the uterus, or if the uterus is abnormally shaped. Babies in breech presentation can be delivered vaginally depending on the experience of the provider and if the","-30.67204277359997"],["until the female raises her tail and calls out prior to copulation.\nGestation lasts for about two months, and results in the birth of a litter of up to six young, with three being typical. The young are initially blind and weigh 27 to 52 grams (0.95 to 1.83 oz). They open their eyes at seven days, begin to take solid food at twelve days, and are fully weaned by the end of their first month. Litter mates frequently spar with one another, and disperse to establish their own burrow systems after around two months, by which time they have already reached","-30.670445310883224"],["and cortisol—are also involved, but their roles are not yet well understood. Although biochemical markers indicate that Secretory Activation begins about 30–40 hours after birth, mothers do not typically begin feeling increased breast fullness (the sensation of milk \"coming in the breast\") until 50–73 hours (2–3 days) after birth.\nColostrum is the first milk a breastfed baby receives. It contains higher amounts of white blood cells and antibodies than mature milk, and is especially high in immunoglobulin A (IgA), which coats the lining of the baby's immature intestines, and helps to prevent pathogens from invading the baby's system. Secretory IgA also","-30.620200608100276"],["done to determine whether the individual has this syndrome and reduces the chances of misdiagnoses with other cutaneous diseases. Treatment The infant is intubated post delivery to stabilize the respiratory problems experienced. Often the skin condition becomes less severe resolving itself to flaky dry skin as the individual grows. No intervention is usually required and the condition becomes less severe as the patient grows. The dry skin symptoms can be managed with topical ointments or creams and the individual remains otherwise healthy. Prognosis There are no life-threatening complications after the perinatal period (around the time of birth) and the skin","-30.591009604220744"],["too close to the tip of the nipple. This poor attachment can cause sore and cracked nipples and a reluctance of the mother to continue to breastfeed. After the birth of the infant, the milk supply increases based upon the continuous and increasing stimulation of the nipple by the infant. If the baby increases nursing time at the nipple, the mammary glands respond to this stimulation by increasing milk production. Pain Nipple pain can be a disincentive for breastfeeding. Sore nipples that progress to cracked nipples is of concern since many woman cease breastfeeding due to the pain. In some","-30.58448542001861"],["almost at birth due to his connection with/being a Divine Power. They also state that for members \"the skull enlarges and expands into a fine rounded shape\" due to their faith, making them more intelligent. They state their women suffer from no morning sickness when pregnant and that their childbirth is naturally without pain.","-30.56691601726925"],["during the first two months of an infant's life, breast-fed infants with a higher chance. Male and female infants are affected equally. Treatment Hospitalization for the diseased person is suggested because of the controlled environment because it may prevent nutritional deficiencies and skin infections. A decrease in severity of symptoms usually happens after a few weeks when treated redness and scaliness usually do not recur. In 10 percent of cases, the result of uncontrolled infections or severe electrolyte loss may be fatal. Epidemiology The cause of this disease is unknown; some infants may have a severe case, others","-30.541634524590336"],["gives birth around one month later. After birth the newborn young climbs unaided by its mother from the birth canal to the pouch.\nWhen it reaches the pouch, the underdeveloped joey suckles the teat of one of the four mammary glands while the others recede. The joey remains attached to the teat for 100–125 days, after which it ceases its attachment but remains in the pouch and continues to suckle, but more intermittently. The joey begins to leave the pouch and eat grass at around 200 days when it is more developed. It still suckles, more forcefully but less regularly. By","-30.48668043743237"],["keratinization of skin is complete. Then the relationship between fluid and fetal growth stops. It reaches a plateau of 800ml by the 28-week gestational age. The amount of fluid declines to roughly 400 ml at 42 weeks. There is about 500 cc to1L of amniotic fluid at birth. Rupture of membranes The forewaters are released when the amnion ruptures. This is commonly known as the time when a woman's \"water breaks\". When this occurs during labour at term, it is known as \"spontaneous rupture of membranes\". If the rupture precedes labour at term, however, it is referred to as","-30.47420810465701"],["do not make it to reproductive age, so cannot be a parent. Carriers (N/J) do not display symptoms and have normal skin.\nMutations in the genes LAMB3, LAMC2, and COL17A1, are the cause of JEB. These genes are associated with the protein responsible for skin attachment to the underlying layers, laminin 332. When the genes undergo mutations, the protein is altered, making it dysfunctional. As a result, the skin is very fragile and may be damaged by even minor trauma.\nAnother protein, called type XVII collagen, is affected by a mutation in COL17A1. Due to this mutation, the defective protein is not","-30.467819959216285"],["the fetus to settle or \"drop\" into the pelvis. As the fetus settles into the pelvis, pain from the sciatic nerves, increased vaginal discharge, and increased urinary frequency can occur. While these symptoms are likelier to happen after labor has begun for women who have given birth before, they may happen ten to fourteen days before labor in women experiencing labor for the first time.\nThe fetus begins to lose the support of the cervix when contractions begin. With cervical dilation reaching a diameter of more than 10 cm (4 in) to accommodate the head of the fetus, the head moves from the","-30.461002064912464"],["since she does not store fat. The father has no part in helping raise the cub.\nWhen the cub is first born, it is pink, blind, and toothless, weighing only 90 to 130 grams (3.2 to 4.6 ounces), or about th of the mother's weight, proportionally the smallest baby of any placental mammal. It nurses from its mother's breast six to 14 times a day for up to 30 minutes at a time. For three to four hours, the mother may leave the den to feed, which leaves the cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns grey where","-30.4152663180721"],["to have very low birth weight is controversial, and a decision concerning the route and time of delivery probably needs to be made on a case by case basis. Neonatal care After delivery, plastic wraps or warm mattresses are useful to keep the infant warm on their way to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). In developed countries premature infants are usually cared for in an NICU. The physicians who specialize in the care of very sick or premature babies are known as neonatologists. In the NICU, premature babies are kept under radiant warmers or in incubators (also called isolettes),","-30.406219852273352"],["process of\nchildbirth is not finished until the baby has safely transferred from placental to mammary nutrition.\" They advise that the newborn be placed skin-to-skin with the mother, postponing any routine procedures for at least one to two hours. The WHO suggests that any initial observations of the infant can be done while the infant remains close to the mother, saying that even a brief separation before the baby has had its first feed can disturb the bonding process. They further advise frequent skin-to-skin contact as much as\npossible during the first days after delivery, especially if it was interrupted","-30.36186863866169"],["cause (perinatal) infection. Often, microorganisms that produce minor illness in the mother are very dangerous for the developing embryo or fetus. This can result in spontaneous abortion or major developmental disorders. For many infections, the baby is more at risk at particular stages of pregnancy. Problems related to perinatal infection are not always directly noticeable. During childbirth Babies can also become infected by their mothers during birth. Some infectious agents may be transmitted to the embryo or fetus in the uterus, while passing through the birth canal, or even shortly after birth. The distinction is important because when transmission is","-30.330111530071008"],["no reproductive purpose, such as playful and same-sex mounting, and females will attempt to initiate copulation even after they have conceived. Gestation usually last 166–200 days or slightly more. Females tend to give birth at night or in the early morning. The mothers then eat the placenta and lick their infants clean. The young begin to eat solid foods at six weeks and are weaned at seven months old. The nose of a young male grows slowly until reaching adulthood. The mother will allow other members of her group to hold her infant. When a resident male in a one-male","-30.319645373616368"],["an infant was born, the umbilical cord was cut and tied, and then the baby was washed, rubbed with salt and oil, and wrapped with strips of cloth. These strips kept the newborn child warm and also ensured that the child's limbs would grow straight. Ezekiel 16:4 describes Israel as unswaddled, a metaphor for abandonment.\nDuring Tudor times, swaddling involved wrapping the new baby in linen bands from head to foot to ensure the baby would grow up without physical deformity. A stay band would be attached to the forehead and the shoulders to secure the head. Babies would be swaddled","-30.309448616142618"],["with a distended abdomen, had a small hernia. He was dehydrated and like many babies in that region, underfed, for mothers are often unable to obtain the adequate protein diet so necessary for a good flow of breast milk. Besides, she was still suckling another child of about two-and-a-half years.\n\"I reduced the size of the hernia, but it was obvious that if it was not operated on it would recur and eventually strangulate. In that case, unless the mother was able to walk the 10 miles or so to the river and then bring the baby by canoe to the","-30.30799585999921"],["the body and also with age. Body contouring is the removal of this excess skin and fat from numerous areas of the body, restoring the appearance of skin elasticity of the remaining skin, enhancing the contouring an tone of the body. Abdominoplasty Also known as a tummy tuck, this form of surgery removes the excess skin and fat from the abdominal area. Commonly the surgery will also restore the muscles which have been weakened and/or separated by carrying excess weight for long periods of time. Sclerotherapy Common in women due to the hairless trend within society, numerous women seek medical","-30.30664113431476"],["in sebum production, because the skin notices the scalp skin is lacking sufficient moisture. In cases of scalp disorders, however, this may not be the case. For babies and elderly, the sebaceous gland production is not at peak, thus daily washing is not typically needed. Split ends Split ends, known formally as trichoptilosis, happen when the protective cuticle has been stripped away from the ends of hair fibers.\nThis condition involves a longitudinal splitting of the hair fiber. Any chemical or physical trauma, such as heat, that weathers the hair may eventually lead to split ends. Typically, the damaged hair fiber","-30.298111996729858"],["just after they had given birth, demonstrated that low maternal age, high body mass index, weight gain over 15 kg (33 pounds) and higher neonatal birth weight were independently correlated with the occurrence of striae. Teenagers were found to be at the highest risk of developing severe striae.\nThese off-color blemishes are symptoms of pregnancy caused by the tearing of the dermis, resulting in atrophy and loss of rete ridges. These scars often appear as reddish or bluish streaks on the abdomen, and can also appear on the breasts and thighs. Some of these striae disappear with time, while others remain as","-30.297980895382352"],["of rugae after childbirth decreases. In women who have not given birth, the rugae are more prominent than in those who have given birth multiple times.","-30.24951800145209"],["feed. Almost immediately, the mother's sexual cycle starts again. Another egg descends into the uterus and she becomes sexually receptive. Then, if she mates and a second egg is fertilised, its development is temporarily halted. Meanwhile, the neonate in the pouch grows rapidly. After approximately 190 days, the baby (called a joey) is sufficiently large and developed to make its full emergence out of the pouch, after sticking its head out for a few weeks until it eventually feels safe enough to fully emerge. From then on, it spends increasing time in the outside world and eventually, after around 235 days, it","-30.236075836626696"],["be damaged, so if she has children, they could be infertile due to the exposure in their mother's womb.","-30.234193462412804"],["effective for maintaining favorable moisture levels in baby skin (in comparison to not using baby lotion).\nIn February 2013 Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing published a research by academics at The University of Manchester that showed that washing newborn babies with Johnson’s Baby Top-to-Toe wash is just as safe as using water alone. Research has been sponsored by Johnson & Johnson \"but carried out under strict, independent scientific protocols, including blind testing and peer review\".","-30.218418510747142"],["primarily during or after birth, medical intervention can help prevent infections in the infant.\nDuring birth, babies are exposed to maternal blood, body fluids, and to the maternal genital tract without the placental barrier intervening. Because of this, blood-borne microorganisms (hepatitis B, HIV), organisms associated with sexually transmitted disease (e.g., Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis), and normal fauna of the genitourinary tract (e.g., Candida albicans) are among those commonly seen in infection of newborns. Virulence versus symbiosis In the spectrum of optimal virulence, vertical transmission tends to evolve benign symbiosis. It is, therefore, a critical concept for evolutionary medicine. Because a","-30.200517359015066"],["the vaginal wall and near the pudendal nerve. Because the pudendal nerve carries motor and sensory fibers that innervate the pelvic muscles, a pudendal nerve block relieves birth pain. The medicine does not harm the child, and is without significant complications. Infections, diseases, and safe sex Vaginal infections or diseases include yeast infection, vaginitis, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and cancer. Lactobacillus gasseri and other Lactobacillus species in the vaginal flora provide some protection from infections by their secretion of bacteriocins and hydrogen peroxide. The healthy vagina of a woman of child-bearing age is acidic, with a pH normally ranging between","-30.198242764919996"],["Ichthyosis prematurity syndrome Signs and symptoms The symptoms associated with the disorder are often confused for other dermatological disorders. The symptoms below are ones specifically associated with IPS. Premature birth Pregnancies that have a foetus affected with this syndrome are complicated because of polyhydramnion. Complications arise because of opaque amnionic fluid resulting from the shedding of skin. As a result, ultrasounds are difficult to conduct. Triggered by the harsh environment in the uterus, delivery results around 30– 34 weeks of gestation (pregnancy) and the baby is born in prematurely. Thick caseous layer of skin A white layer of thick scaly","-30.187653180677444"],["Gastroschisis Signs and symptoms There are no signs during pregnancy. About sixty percent of infants with gastroschisis are born prematurely. At birth, the baby will have a relatively small (<4 cm) hole in the abdominal wall, usually just to the right of the belly button. Some of the intestines are usually outside the body, passing through this opening. In rare circumstances, the liver and stomach may also come through the abdominal wall. After birth these organs are directly exposed to air. Causes The cause of gastroschisis is not known. There may be genetic causes in some cases, and","-30.172259408747777"],["as an individual goes through the various stages of sexual and reproductive development. Neonatal In neonates, vaginal discharge sometimes occurs in the first few days after birth. This is due to exposure to estrogen while in utero. Neonatal vaginal discharge may be white or clear with a mucous texture, or it may be bloody from normal transient shedding of the endometrium. Pediatric The vagina of girls before puberty is thinner and has a different bacterial flora. Vaginal discharge in pre-pubertal girls is minimal with a neutral to alkaline pH ranging from 6 to 8. The composition of the bacterial population","-30.163654839037918"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Epidermolytic hyperkeratosis Presentation Epidermolytic hyperkeratosis is a skin disorder that is present at birth. Affected babies may have very red skin (erythroderma) and severe blisters. Because newborns with this disorder are missing the protection provided by normal skin, they are at risk of becoming dehydrated and developing infections in the skin or throughout the body (sepsis).\\nAs affected individuals get older, blistering is less frequent, erythroderma becomes less evident, and the skin becomes thick (hyperkeratotic), especially over joints, on areas of skin that come into contact with each other, or on the scalp or neck. This thickened skin is usually darker\",\n \"-36.74951229512226\"\n ],\n [\n \"soon after birth; but newer reports confirm that washing skin surface after birth reduces evaporative water losses compared to surface of newborns in which vernix is left in situ. Vernix is hydrophobic. Vernix is believed to assist in the development of the human intestinal microbiota. Secretion The sebum in vernix is produced in utero by the sebaceous glands around the 20th week of gestation. Vernix appears primarily in full term infants, while premature and postmature births generally do not display any.\\nPostdates desquamation (flakey skin in babies born >42 weeks) is thought to be due to loss of vernix. Functions\",\n \"-36.31579272542149\"\n ],\n [\n \"colouring of amniotic fluid, which is caused by the buildup of bilirubin. Splenomegaly, cardiomegaly and hepatomegaly may occur in the baby. Excessive tissue fluid may accumulate in the stomach, lungs or scalp. These are typically signs of hydrops fetalis. \\nAfter birth, the symptoms of the child are similar to that of incompatible blood transfusion in adults. The baby may have pale skin due to anaemia. The yellowing of the umbilical cord, skin and eyes, also known as jaundice, may arise within 24 to 36 hours of birth. Signs of hydrops fetalis such as the enlargement of spleen, heart and liver,\",\n \"-35.12387457100158\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a temporary condition. Females (and even males) may actually discharge milk from their nipples (sometimes called witch's milk), or a bloody or milky-like substance from the vagina. In either case, this is considered normal and will disappear with time. Umbilical cord The umbilical cord of a newborn is bluish-white in color. After birth, the umbilical cord is normally cut, leaving a 1–2 inch stub. The umbilical stub will dry out, shrivel, darken, and spontaneously fall off within about 3 weeks. This will later become a belly-button after it heals. Occasionally, hospitals may apply triple dye to the umbilical stub to\",\n \"-34.34962351387367\"\n ],\n [\n \"the infant's body to prevent the infant from having body odor when they reach adolescence. Squeezing the infant's nipples does this. This milk is present in newborns due to the high level of the mother's hormones from the womb and breastfeeding, causing them to lactate for a period of time. There are no visible negative side effects caused by the act of squeezing the nipples of the infant.\",\n \"-33.590790752656176\"\n ],\n [\n \"substance covers the surface of the skin of the infant. This is characterized by aggregating membranes in the upper layer of skin on epidermal cells. Desquamating skin Red endemic skin as well as spongy and desquamating (peeling) skin are consistent with this syndrome. Respiratory problems After premature delivery, the baby often has neonatal asphyxia from breathing amnionic debris mainly composed of shedding skin cells. Neonatal refers to the very young infant and amniotic fluid refers to the liquid environment the baby is bathed in inside the uterus. Eosinophilia Eosinophils are a kind of a white blood cell which help protect\",\n \"-33.49583669152344\"\n ],\n [\n \"milk from the mother, the pup is more likely to quadruple its initial weight before weaning. The mother seal also loses a tremendous amount of weight while nursing.\",\n \"-33.36655125742254\"\n ],\n [\n \"off or \\\"shed\\\" 2 to 4 weeks after birth, revealing the underlying skin disorder.\\nThe condition can resemble but is different from harlequin type ichthyosis. Long term course The appearance can be caused by several skin diseases, and it is most often not associated with other birth defects. In most cases, the baby develops an ichthyosis or ichthyosis-like condition or other rare skin disorder.\\nMost cases (approximately 75%) of collodion baby will go on to develop a type of autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis (either lamellar ichthyosis or congenital ichthyosiform erythrodema).\\nIn around 10% of cases the baby sheds this layer of skin and\",\n \"-33.29895503586158\"\n ],\n [\n \"newborn's vulva may be swollen or enlarged as a result of having been exposed, via the placenta, to her mother's increased levels of hormones. The labia majora are closed. These changes disappear over the first few months. During childhood before puberty, the lack of estrogen can cause the labia to become sticky and to ultimately join firmly together. This condition is known as labial fusion and is rarely found after puberty when oestrogen production has increased. Puberty Puberty is the onset of the ability to reproduce, and takes place over two to three years, producing a number of changes. The\",\n \"-33.24903130851453\"\n ],\n [\n \"Baby oil Baby oil is a skin-care product for infants.\\nThe skin of an infant, especially a premature one, is sensitive, thin and fragile. Its neutral pH on the surface significantly reduces the protection against excessive bacterial growth. The epidermis and dermis are thinner than those of adults and the epidermal barrier is not yet fully developed. Consequences can for example be dry skin, infections, peeling, blister formation and poor thermoregulation. The application of different oils to the skin of the newborn is routinely practiced in many countries. In general, these oils are used for cleansing, to maintain the skin's moisture\",\n \"-33.1577218020102\"\n ],\n [\n \"the child in the birth canal, which coves the skin, and enters the baby’s eyes, ears, nose, and mouth. These microbes often travel down into the gut after being swallowed. It is said that these microbes are important in the postnatal development of the immune system of the baby.\\nIn the event that a C-section is done before labour starts or before a woman’s water breaks, the infant won't come into contact with maternal vaginal fluid or bacteria. Instead, they come in contact with skin microbes, a very different set of species. These differences, in turn, have been associated with increased\",\n \"-33.12879528745543\"\n ],\n [\n \"made from a five month old fetus (the 'oldest' of the aborted fetuses thus far), seems to have a positive effect on Mrs. Li's libido, yet it also causes her skin to exhibit a fishy smell. Eventually, Mei has to move out when the authorities are about to capture her. Mrs. Li, now two months pregnant despite being declared infertile earlier, is still desperate for a rejuvenation and chooses to abort her own fetus, presumably to make it into dumplings. Cut A successful film director has to face a night of misery when a man who appeared in five of\",\n \"-33.02192429761635\"\n ],\n [\n \"prior to birth. Infants born with Fraser syndrome often have eyes that are malformed and completely covered by skin. Also the child is born with fingers and toes that are fused together along with abnormalities within the urine tract. As this disorder relates to vaginal atresia, infants born with Fraser syndrome are also born with malformations in their genitals. McKusick-Kaufman syndrome A female with McKusick-Kaufman syndrome has vaginal atresia that is often present with imperforate anus, heart defects, hydrometrocolpos, and/or polydactyly, The female will still develop secondary sexual characteristics. Treatment There are several methods of treatment for individuals with\",\n \"-33.004956062999554\"\n ],\n [\n \"a small chin, and, in some cases, an opening in the roof of the mouth called a cleft palate. The abdomen is enlarged, and excess fluid may build up in the body before birth (a condition called hydrops fetalis).\\nAs a result of these serious health problems, infants are usually premature and stillborn or die shortly after birth from respiratory failure. Some infants have lived for a time, however, with intensive medical support. Babies who live past the newborn period are usually reclassified as having spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita, a related disorder on the spectrum of abnormal bone growth.\",\n \"-32.7719610693166\"\n ],\n [\n \"sinovaginal bulbs (where Müllerian ducts meet the urogenital sinus), and normally becomes perforate before or shortly after birth.\\nThe hymen has no nerve innervation. In newborn babies, still under the influence of the mother's hormones, the hymen is thick, pale pink, and redundant (folds in on itself and may protrude). For the first two to four years of life, the infant produces hormones that continue this effect. Their hymenal opening tends to be annular (circumferential).\\n\\nPast neonatal stage, the diameter of the hymenal opening (measured within the hymenal ring) widens by approximately 1 mm for each year of age. During puberty, estrogen causes\",\n \"-32.73964013706427\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the ground. Infants are born with dark-brown hair. They consume their first solid food at five to six weeks old, and can forage independently from their mothers by seven weeks. A mother carries her infant on her belly for its first four weeks. After this time, the mother carries her infant on her back, as well. Infants continue to be carried past a year. A mother and her infant tend to avoid other troop members, and the mother may socialize again very slowly. However, alloparenting has been observed, usually by females which have not had infants of their own.\",\n \"-32.682809405829175\"\n ],\n [\n \"woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely, late, or in the case of stillbirth, do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infant's immune system, and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of\",\n \"-32.44338080345187\"\n ],\n [\n \"was true for humans. It is generally accepted that newborn babies are sterile at birth and very sensitive to bad bacteria before they establish a microbial flora of their own. This flora should preferably come from their mother. Ivan was quite sure about that Lactobacillus reuteri was one of these bacteria that the mother should transfer to her offspring, whether a chicken, a human baby or any other mammal.\\nIvan analysed breast milk from many mothers in the USA where he lived and also from South American mothers in Lima, Peru, without finding any L. reuteri. However, he was still convinced\",\n \"-32.43152551833191\"\n ],\n [\n \"the baby. A piece of cloth was tied around the newborn's waist for six week to protect the navel area which was thought to easily rupture due to its weakness. The newborn’s hair could not be cut during the first few weeks of life for fear of death before six months of age. If a child whose hair was cut too early did not die, it was feared that the child would become a thief later in life. If someone stepped over the child, this would stunt the newborn’s growth. The day of the week on which the child was\",\n \"-32.391553048277274\"\n ],\n [\n \"feeding, when the baby has infrequent feeds or has problems suckling the milk out of the breast.\\nThe presence of cracks or sores on the nipples increases the likelihood of infection. Tight clothing or ill-fitting bras may also cause problems as they compress the breasts. There is a possibility that infants carrying infectious pathogens in their noses can infect their mothers; the clinical significance of this finding is still unknown.\\nMastitis, as well as breast abscess, can also be caused by direct trauma to the breast. Such injury can occur for example during sports activities or due to seat belt injury.\\nMastitis\",\n \"-32.37023919535568\"\n ],\n [\n \"infant is being born, the vagina undergoes significant changes. A gush of blood from the vagina may be seen right before the baby is born. Lacerations to the vagina that can occur during birth vary in depth, severity and the amount of adjacent tissue involvement. The laceration can be so extensive as to involve the rectum and anus. This event can be especially distressing to a new mother. When this occurs, fecal incontinence develops and stool can leave through the vagina. Close to 85% of spontaneous vaginal births develop some form of tearing. Out of these, 60–70% require suturing. Lacerations\",\n \"-32.34036202693824\"\n ],\n [\n \"lingers for several months after birth, thus providing the newborn with a carbon copy of the mother's long-term humoral immunity to see the infant through the crucial first months of extrauterine life. IgM, however, cannot cross the placenta, which is why some infections acquired during pregnancy can be hazardous for the fetus.\\nFurthermore, the placenta functions as a selective maternal-fetal barrier against transmission of microbes. However, insufficiency in this function may still cause mother-to-child transmission of infectious diseases. Other The placenta also provides a reservoir of blood for the fetus, delivering blood to it in case of hypotension and vice versa,\",\n \"-32.333260809711646\"\n ],\n [\n \"Prelabor rupture of membranes Signs and symptoms Most women will experience a painless leakage of fluid out of the vagina. They may notice either a distinct \\\"gush\\\" or a steady flow of small amounts of watery fluid in the absence of steady uterine contractions. Loss of fluid may be associated with the baby becoming easier to feel through the belly (due to the loss of the surrounding fluid), decreased uterine size, or meconium (fetal stool) seen in the fluid. Infection Infection and inflammation likely explains why membranes break earlier than they are supposed to. In studies, bacteria have been found\",\n \"-32.32169004547177\"\n ],\n [\n \"or fruity breath odor due to ketones, and seizures in advanced cases. Pregnancy toxemia appears to be most common in hot climates. Other serious complications during pregnancy can include a prolapsed uterus, hypocalcaemia, and mastitis.\\nFemales that do not give birth may develop an irreversible fusing of the pubic symphysis, a joint in the pelvis, due to calcification which may occur between 6 and 10 months of age. If they become pregnant after this has happened, the birth canal will probably not widen sufficiently and this may lead to dystocia and death as they attempt to give birth. Calcification of the\",\n \"-32.29777976567857\"\n ],\n [\n \"pass, and to transform the fat packed rigid skin at the opening to the birth canal into paper thin stretchy elastic skin, all without using the baby's head. \\nIf the external skin (perineal skin) opening has been stretched before birth, to 10 cm, then there is no reason to perform an episiotomy to increase the diameter of the opening of the birth canal. Tearing is less likely as the external skin at the opening has been stretched already and is lax, whilst the underlying muscular pelvic floor has not been damaged. Episiotomy permanently damages the pelvic floor muscle, as the\",\n \"-32.162434102152474\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the skin as a baby grows in the womb. Dermoid cysts are present at birth (congenital) and are common. It can be months or years before a dermoid cyst is noticed on a child because the cysts grow slowly.\\nDermoid cyst symptoms are minor and the cysts are usually painless. They are not harmful to a child’s health. If they become infected, the infection must be treated and the cyst should be removed. It is easier to remove cysts and prevent scars if the cyst is removed before it gets infected. Differential diagnosis A small dermoid cyst on the \",\n \"-32.08650541183306\"\n ],\n [\n \"the size of the growth. Since Bhagat had no placenta, the growth had connected directly to his blood supply. In an extremely unusual case, a 2-year-old boy became pregnant with his parasitic twin inside his stomach feeding off him like a normal fetus would feed on its mother. The boy required a Caesarean section. It is virtually impossible that the fetus could survive this process due to being underdeveloped.\",\n \"-31.971555803262163\"\n ],\n [\n \"not a reliable indicator that a female has been vaginally penetrated because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event. Furthermore, in rare cases, some girls are born without hymens.\\nThe hymen is a ring of fleshy tissue that sits just inside the vaginal opening. Normal variations range from thin and stretchy to thick and somewhat rigid. The only variation that may require medical intervention is the imperforate hymen, which either completely prevents the passage of menstrual fluid or slows it significantly. In either case, surgical intervention may be needed to allow menstrual fluid to\",\n \"-31.962791042635217\"\n ],\n [\n \"Although exposure to amniotic fluid is eliminated after birth, breast fed babies have continued contact with cues from the mother’s nipple and areola area. This causes breast odors to become more familiar and attractive, while amniotic fluid loses its positive value. Maternal breast odors are individually distinctive, and provide a basis for recognition of the mother by her offspring. Role of olfaction in maternal bonding and subsequent development As demonstrated by animals in the wild (the great apes, for example), the offspring is held by the mother immediately after birth without cleaning and is continually exposed to the familiar odor\",\n \"-31.885660047410056\"\n ],\n [\n \"the buttocks in a breech birth) of the baby is pushed against the cervix, which gradually dilates until is fully dilated at 10 cm diameter. At some time, the amniotic sac bursts and the amniotic fluid escapes (also known as rupture of membranes or breaking the water). In stage two, starting when the cervix is fully dilated, strong contractions of the uterus and active pushing by the mother expels the baby out through the vagina, which during this stage of labour is called a birth canal as this passage contains a baby, and the baby is born with umbilical cord\",\n \"-31.772410881720134\"\n ],\n [\n \"of their child, making suffocation more likely. When using a pouch sling, wearers should be sure to keep the baby's face elevated and clearly visible. Wraps Wraps (sometimes called \\\"wraparounds\\\" or \\\"wraparound slings\\\") are lengths of fabric (usually between 2 metres and 6 metres, or 2.5-7 yards long, and 15-30 inches wide), which are wrapped around both the baby and the wearer and then tied. There are different carrying positions possible with a wrap, depending on the length of the fabric. A baby or toddler can be carried on the wearer's front, back or hip. With shorter wraps it is\",\n \"-31.68055369128706\"\n ],\n [\n \"postpartum chills, after the birth.\\nMost authorities suggest the infant be placed in skin-to-skin contact with the mother for 1–2 hours immediately after birth, putting routine cares off until later.\\nUntil recently babies born in hospitals were removed from their mothers shortly after birth and brought to the mother only at feeding times. Mothers were told that their newborn would be safer in the nursery and that the separation would offer the mother more time to rest. As attitudes began to change, some hospitals offered a \\\"rooming in\\\" option wherein after a period of routine hospital procedures and observation, the\",\n \"-31.646510074089747\"\n ],\n [\n \"coating that keeps skin supple and moist. The sebum builds overly, between every 2–3 days for the average adult. Those with delicate skin such as children may experience a longer interval. Sebum also imparts a protective coating to hair strands. For babies, the sebaceous gland production is not at peak, thus daily washing is not typically needed. Common ingredients Most contain sodium trideceth sulfate, which is formulated to act as a low-irritation cleansing agent.\\nAlternatively, baby shampoo may be formulated using other classes of surfactants, most notably non-ionics which are much milder than any charged anionics used.\",\n \"-31.63075968764315\"\n ],\n [\n \"Perineal tear Cause In humans and some other primates, the head of the term fetus is so large in comparison to the size of the birth canal that delivery may result in some degree of trauma.\\nAs the head passes through the pelvis, the soft tissues are stretched and compressed. The risk of severe tear is greatly increased if the fetal head is oriented occiput posterior (face forward), if the mother has not given birth before or if the fetus is large.\\nA surgical incision on the perineum skin called an episiotomy was historically used routinely in order to reduce perineal\",\n \"-31.621045638632495\"\n ],\n [\n \"females the uterus and upper vagina may be absent. Other abnormalities include anal atresia, absence of the rectum and sigmoid colon, esophageal and duodenal atresia, and a single umbilical artery. Presence of a diaphragmatic hernia is also common in these fetuses/infants. Additionally, the alveolar sacs of the lungs fail to properly develop as a result of the reduced volume of amniotic fluid. Labor is often induced between 22 and 36 weeks of gestation (however, some of these pregnancies may go to term) and unaborted infants typically survive for only a few minutes to a few hours. These infants will eventually\",\n \"-31.59159554040525\"\n ],\n [\n \"to grow in the infant's intestines, which protects the mucosal barrier of the infant's stomach. This prevents harmful pathogens from harming the infant's intestinal lining. The infant's digestive mucosa is unable to produce antibodies until they are about four to six months old, which makes the infant susceptible to many infections. However, breast milk provides the antibodies needed for the infant to stay protected until they are able to produce their own antibodies. Breast milk also stimulates a microbiota, which results in the production of IgA. IgA is an immunoglobulin that is a first line of defense to protect the\",\n \"-31.542019119719043\"\n ],\n [\n \"uterus to the vagina. The elasticity of the vagina allows it to stretch to many times its normal diameter in order to deliver the child.\\nVaginal births are more common, but if there is a risk of complications a caesarean section (C-section) may be performed. The vaginal mucosa has an abnormal accumulation of fluid (edematous) and is thin, with few rugae, a little after birth. The mucosa thickens and rugae return in approximately three weeks once the ovaries regain usual function and estrogen flow is restored. The vaginal opening gapes and is relaxed, until it returns to its approximate pre-pregnant state\",\n \"-31.51575658848742\"\n ],\n [\n \"of SIDS, occur less frequently for infants who are breastfed when compared to babies that are not breastfed, thus reducing the risk. Also, breast milk provides necessary nutrition for the infant's brain to develop. This allows the brain of the baby to mature quickly enough so that he or she will have the response to gasp for air when needed. Lastly, breastfed babies tend to sleep for shorter periods at a time and awaken more easily. Research has shown that babies who sleep shorter and awaken from their sleep easily tend to have a lower risk of SIDS. Conclusively, most\",\n \"-31.465079668327235\"\n ],\n [\n \"on, children may develop symptoms related to problems with blood flow and an enlarged heart. They may experience dizziness or shortness of breath, fainting or near-fainting episodes, chest pain, abnormal tiredness or fatigue, headaches, or nosebleeds. They have cold legs and feet or have pain in their legs with exercise (intermittent claudication).\\nIn cases of more severe coarctations, babies may develop serious problems soon after birth because not enough blood can get through the aorta to the rest of their body.\\nArterial hypertension in the arms with low blood pressure in the lower extremities is classic. In the lower extremities, weak pulses\",\n \"-31.314974990207702\"\n ],\n [\n \"risks of asthma, allergies, obesity, and immune deficiencies. Thus, these differences appear more often in infants after a caesarean delivery than after a vaginal delivery, according to certain epidemiological data.\\nThe purpose behind the practice of vaginal seeding or micro birthing is that it allows an infant delivered via caesarean section to come in contact with microbes from the birth canal. The expectation is that this may boost their gut bacteria and lessen the danger of health issues normally associated with caesarian infants. It contributes to the seeding of the infant gut. Evidence It is unclear whether vaginal seeding has long\",\n \"-31.274865352315828\"\n ],\n [\n \"the female's behavior transitions to support of her future offspring. Females hold the embryos in the womb without a placenta. Instead, the embryos absorb nutrients from a yolk sac, and after the sac is depleted, the mother provides uterine \\\"milk\\\".\\nAfter birth, the offspring generally disassociate from the mother and swim away, having been born with the instinctual abilities to protect and feed themselves. In a very small number of species, like the freshwater whipray (Himantura chaophraya), the mother \\\"cares\\\" for her young by having them swim with her until they are one-third of her size.\\nAt the Sea Life London Aquarium,\",\n \"-31.26935449964367\"\n ],\n [\n \"unheard of. When they are born, the puppies only weigh a few ounces (about 100 grams) and are small enough to fit in the palm of an adult's hand. They can get leg and heart problems from an early age. Cleft palate One issue that is typically fatal for the puppies is having a cleft palate. It results in the puppy not receiving nourishment from the mother and eventually starvation. It is uncommon but, depending on the size of the cleft, it is possible for the puppy to survive whereas it becomes older surgery can be done\",\n \"-31.265269795898348\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pyloric stenosis Signs and symptoms Babies with this condition usually present any time in the first weeks to months of life with progressively worsening vomiting. The vomiting is often described as non-bile stained (\\\"non bilious\\\") and \\\"projectile vomiting\\\", because it is more forceful than the usual spitting up (gastroesophageal reflux) seen at this age. Some infants present with poor feeding and weight loss but others demonstrate normal weight gain. Dehydration may occur which causes a baby to cry without having tears and to produce less wet or dirty diapers due to not urinating for hours or for a\",\n \"-31.236448118113913\"\n ],\n [\n \"growth of harmful bacteria. Without protein, the baby cannot produce the immunity that its body desperately needs, resulting in a higher risk of disease and malnutrition. Breast milk provides the best source of protein for an infant.\\nAnother immunoglobulin breast milk provides to the infant is known as IgG. IgG provides passive immunity from the mother to the infant. This means that antibodies for common childhood diseases like diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis, and rubella are passed onto the infant naturally, if the mother was vaccinated for this in her lifetime. The infant is then protected for about 3 months, just enough time\",\n \"-31.169497061287984\"\n ],\n [\n \"others, particularly caucasian infants, may have very fine hair or may even be bald. Amongst fair-skinned parents, this fine hair may be blonde, even if the parents are not. Infants hair color and texture change. Red can give way to blond. Curly can go straight and baby's thick, dark hair could make its reappearance a lot sparser and lighter. The scalp may also be temporarily bruised or swollen, especially in hairless newborns, and the area around the eyes may be puffy. Skin Immediately after birth, a newborn's skin is often grayish to dusky blue in color. As soon as the\",\n \"-31.16703238734044\"\n ],\n [\n \"infants caused by the rupture of fragile blood vessels within the germinal matrix of premature babies. The germinal matrix is a highly vascularized area within an unborn infant's brain from which brain cells, including neurons and glial cells, originate. Infants are at most risk to germinal matrix hemorrhages when they are born prematurely, before 32 weeks. The stresses exposed after birth, along with the fragile blood vessels, increase risk of hemorrhage. Signs and symptoms include flaccid weakness, seizures, abnormal posturing, or irregular respiration.\\nCADASIL is an inherited disorder caused by mutations in the Notch 3 gene located on chromosome 19. The\",\n \"-31.13449693887378\"\n ],\n [\n \"group. Gestation is usually 3.5–4 months but can be as long as 7 months when there's delayed embryonic development. The female gives birth while perching and the newborn emerges unaided, head first. The mothers will eat the placenta. Mothers carry their pups when they are one day old but later leave them in the roosting area for the day. The female’s nipples become enlarged during lactation. Young are weaned by 15 days. Young gain a full, permanent set of teeth at 40 days and can fly by 50 days when their forearms are fully developed. Females are sexually\",\n \"-31.096447340445593\"\n ],\n [\n \"sphincter are not well understood, however there is evidence that the foetus does defecate routinely into the amniotic cavity even in the absence of distress. The presence of fetal intestinal enzymes have been found in the amniotic fluid of women who are as early as 14–22 weeks pregnant. Thus, suggesting there is free passage of the intestinal contents into the amniotic fluid. \\nMotilin is found in higher concentrations in post-term than pre-term foetal gastrointestinal tracts. Similarly, intestinal parasympathetic innervation and myelination also increases in later gestations. Therefore, the increased incidence of MAS in post-term pregnancies may reflect the maturation\",\n \"-31.095282755122753\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the vagina during pregnancy. The juvenile remains in the nest for some time. Both parents care for the young, masticating food and bringing it to their offspring in their mouths, their cheeks swelling to the size of tangerines.\",\n \"-31.056897923583165\"\n ],\n [\n \"most dangerous of the three because it can be basically anything small enough to be inhaled. This may also be due to the fact that brain growth begins within the first month of conception. Low-birth weight (LBW), and preterm delivery A previous study conducted in the Los Angeles Basin of Southern California reported a consistent association between levels of CO and particulate matter during the first trimester and the last six weeks prior to birth and risk of preterm birth. Prematurity in babies is accompanied by an array of health complications. Children born prematurely are at highest risk for developing\",\n \"-31.049002403509803\"\n ],\n [\n \"Baby shampoo Baby shampoo /ˈbā-bē/ /ʃæmˈpuː/ is a hair care product that is used for the removal of oils, dirt, skin particles, dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that gradually build up in hair; specially formulated for use on infants and young children by means of substituting chemicals which are purportedly less irritating to the eyes than those commonly found in regular shampoo. Purpose Scalp skin of babies is characterized by subdued sebaceous gland production, due to hormonal levels. The sebaceous gland secretes sebum, a waxy ester, which maintains the acid mantle of the scalp and provides a\",\n \"-31.02486780358595\"\n ],\n [\n \"midline to form the hard palate. This condition manifests as a cleft palate. Later in gestation (at around 12 to 14 weeks), extension of the neck of the fetus releases the pressure on the mandible, allowing it to grow normally from this point forward. At birth however, the mandible is still much smaller (hypoplastic) than it would have been with normal development. After the child is born, the mandible continues to grow until the child reaches maturity. Genetic basis Alternatively, PRS may also be caused by a genetic disorder. In the case of PRS which is due to a genetic\",\n \"-30.972300021909177\"\n ],\n [\n \"delicatessen meats, and cheese.\\nNeonatal infection can also occur in term and post-term infants. Infections that develop one month after the birth of the infant are more likely due to Gram-positive bacteria and coagulase positive staphylococci.\\nAcquired maternal infection and subsequent inflammation from Ureaplasma urealyticum is accompanied by a strong immune response and is correlated with the need for prolonged mechanical ventilation.\\nClostridium tetani can cause a generalised form of tetanus in the neonate. This usually occurs when the mother has not been vaccinated against tetanus and the baby has not acquired passive immunity. The umbilical cord region is the most susceptible.\\nOther bacterial\",\n \"-30.946350852493197\"\n ],\n [\n \"Menkes disease Signs and symptoms Affected infants may be born prematurely. Signs and symptoms appear during infancy, typically after a two- to three-month period of normal or slightly slowed development that is followed by a loss of early developmental skills and subsequent developmental delay. Patients exhibit hypotonia (weak muscle tone), failure to thrive, hypothermia (subnormal body temperature), sagging facial features, seizures, and metaphyseal widening. Hair appears strikingly peculiar: kinky, colorless or silvery, and brittle. There can be extensive neurodegeneration in the gray matter of the brain. Arteries in the brain can also be twisted with frayed and split inner walls.\",\n \"-30.926910258363932\"\n ],\n [\n \"and usually four or five young are born per litter. From time to time, it is possible for the female to give birth to up to seven young at one time. When the young are born, they weigh about 2 grams. The young dormice open their eyes at two weeks, and start eating solid food a week later. During the dependency period, the mother provides food, milk, grooming, and protection to the young. They leave the nest after about another three weeks and become sexually mature in the following year.\\nThere has not been much evidence for paternal care. However, it\",\n \"-30.925679238513112\"\n ],\n [\n \"vagina at birth. The most prevalent pathogen causing CAP in newborns is Streptococcus agalactiae, also known as group-B streptococcus (GBS). GBS causes more than half of CAP in the first week after birth. Other bacterial causes of neonatal CAP include Listeria monocytogenes and a variety of mycobacteria. CAP-causing viruses may also be transferred from mother to child; herpes simplex virus (the most common) is life-threatening, and adenoviridae, mumps and enterovirus can also cause pneumonia. Another cause of CAP in this group is Chlamydia trachomatis, acquired at birth but not causing pneumonia until two to four weeks later; it usually presents\",\n \"-30.913063331274316\"\n ],\n [\n \"is poor.\\nDuring pregnancy, pressure from the fetus on the abdomen and hormonal changes cause the hemorrhoidal vessels to enlarge. The birth of the baby also leads to increased intra-abdominal pressures. Pregnant women rarely need surgical treatment, as symptoms usually resolve after delivery. Pathophysiology Hemorrhoid cushions are a part of normal human anatomy and become a pathological disease only when they experience abnormal changes. There are three main cushions present in the normal anal canal. These are located classically at left lateral, right anterior, and right posterior positions. They are composed of neither arteries nor veins, but blood vessels called sinusoids,\",\n \"-30.904422060004435\"\n ],\n [\n \"continue delivery, but this is often difficult to do. Nuchal cord After the baby crowns, the umbilical cord may be found to be wrapped around the neck or body of the baby, which is known as nuchal cord. This is common, occurring in up to 37% of term pregnancies, and most do not cause any long-term problems. This wrapped cord should be slipped over the head so it is not pulled during delivery. If the wrap is not removed, it can choke the baby or can cause the placenta to detach suddenly which can cause severe maternal bleeding and loss\",\n \"-30.866370174335316\"\n ],\n [\n \"can also cause vaginal rugae to disappear. The absence of vaginal rugae may also be an indicator of pelvic organ prolapse. Vaginal rugae disappear in those with an estrogen deficiency. Childbirth Vaginal rugae can disappear during the second stage of labor. After a vaginal birth the rugae are not visible and the walls of the vagina are smooth. By the third week postpartum the vagina has become much smaller and the rugae begin to reform on the vaginal walls. Six weeks after birth, the rugae have returned to approximately the same size as they were before the birth. The number\",\n \"-30.8575637221511\"\n ],\n [\n \"mother. They also cannot regulate their body temperature for the first three weeks, so kittens born in temperatures less than 27 °C (81 °F) can die from hypothermia if their mother does not keep them warm. The mother's milk is very important for the kittens' nutrition and proper growth. This milk transfers antibodies to the kittens, which helps protect them against infectious disease. Newborn kittens are unable to produce concentrated urine, and so have a very high requirement for fluids. Kittens open their eyes about seven to ten days after birth. At first, the retina is poorly developed and vision is poor.\",\n \"-30.827236641314812\"\n ],\n [\n \"the head and face, from pressure against the mother’s pelvis or pressure caused by forceps or a vacuum device (see ventouse) used in delivery. Bone fractures Bone fractures can occur during a difficult delivery. Fracture of the clavicle is the most common birth injury. Meconium aspiration syndrome Meconium is a sticky substance that usually makes up the child’s first bowel movement. If the fetus is stressed before or during delivery, the meconium may be released and may mix with the amniotic fluid. If it gets into the child's airways or lungs, it can cause meconium aspiration syndrome. Serious cases may\",\n \"-30.82224765654246\"\n ],\n [\n \"its own shortly after birth. Not long after, the placenta eventually falls off on its own. The person assisting the birth may also sever the umbilical cord. Parental care A human baby is nearly helpless and the growing child requires high levels of parental care for many years. One important type of early parental care is lactation, feeding the baby milk from the mother's mammary glands in her breasts.\",\n \"-30.780972414417192\"\n ],\n [\n \"which continues for around nine months as the foetus develops. When the foetus has developed to a certain point, pregnancy is concluded with childbirth, involving labor. During labor, the muscles of the uterus contract and the cervix dilates over the course of hours, and the baby passes out of the vagina. Human infants are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care. Infants rely on their caregivers for comfort, cleanliness, and food. Food may be provided by breastfeeding or formula feeding.\\nThe female reproductive system has two functions: to produce egg cells, and to protect and nourish the fetus until\",\n \"-30.7807563279639\"\n ],\n [\n \"children up until about the age of four. These may have been due to increased risk from disease once the protective antibodies in a mother's milk ended after weening. There was also greater exposure to hard and soft tissue trauma, and subsequent infection, as children became more mobile by crawling and toddling. Iron deficiency anaemia was common among children, probably caused by long-term breastfeeding by mothers that were themselves deficient in minerals. Common childhood diseases included measles, diphtheria and whooping-cough, while parasites were also common. The most badly affected individuals rarely made it beyond the age of 25, thus many\",\n \"-30.778694412554614\"\n ],\n [\n \"days; births can occur at any time of year. The infant's fur is silver at birth, but turns pale or gold after a few days. After that, the fur starts to darken, and the infant takes on the adult coloration at about 3 months old.\\nThe infant is carried under its mother, clinging to its mother's chest, for the first 2 or 3 weeks of its life. After that, it is carried on its mother's back. At about 3 months the mother will usually start to push the infant off, but will still carry the infant some of the time until\",\n \"-30.774348781131266\"\n ],\n [\n \"are probably the most common complaint after the birth. They are generally reported by the second day after delivery but improve within 5 days. Pain beyond the first week, severe pain, cracking, fissures or localized swelling is not normal. The mother should see a doctor for further evaluation. Sore nipples, a common cause of pain, often come from the baby not latching on properly. Factors include too much pressure on the nipple when not enough of the areola is latched onto and an improper release of suction at the end of the feeding. Improper use of breast pumps or topical\",\n \"-30.76316625711297\"\n ],\n [\n \"beneficial for both the mother and baby. A review done by the World Health Organization found that skin-to-skin contact between mothers and babies after birth reduces crying, improves mother–infant interaction, and helps mothers to breastfeed successfully. They recommend that neonates be allowed to bond with the mother during their first two hours after birth, the period that they tend to be more alert than in the following hours of early life. Postnatal period The postnatal period, also referred to as the puerperium, begins immediately after delivery and extends for about six weeks. During this period, the mother's body\",\n \"-30.725657338101882\"\n ],\n [\n \"around. Nevertheless, infanticide does occur in these groups, and is suggested that such practices serve to return a female to estrous and gain the opportunity to mate.\\nFemales usually give birth to a single infant, although twins do occur. Most births occur during the night. Infants are born with thin, dark brown or black hair and pale skin. Infants spend their first week attach themselves to their mothers' chests and mostly just suckle or sleep. They do not move much in terms of locomotion for the first two weeks of their life. As they approach their sixth week of life, infants\",\n \"-30.710020364029333\"\n ],\n [\n \"underwear, or bath towels, and from non-sexual touching during routine care such as diapering. Genital warts in children are less likely to be caused by HPV subtypes 6 and 11 than adults, and more likely to be caused by HPV types that cause warts elsewhere on the body (\\\"cutaneous types\\\"). Surveys of pediatricians who are child abuse specialists suggest that in children younger than 4 years old, there is no consensus on whether the appearance of new anal or genital warts, by itself, can be considered an indicator of sexual abuse. Diagnosis The diagnosis of genital warts is most often\",\n \"-30.70337792596547\"\n ],\n [\n \"mother, Barbary macaques from all age and sex groups participate in alloparental care of infants. Male care of infants has been of particular interest to research because high levels of care from males is uncommon in groups where paternity is highly uncertain. Males even act as true alloparents of infant macaques by carrying them and caring for them for hours at a time as opposed to just demonstrating more casual interactions with the infants. Female social status plays a role in female alloparental interactions with infants. Higher ranking females have more interactions whereas younger, lower ranking females have less access\",\n \"-30.69258652359713\"\n ],\n [\n \"pulselessness 6% of the time, and breech presentation 3% of the time Breech presentation Normally, the head is the first part of the body to present out of the birth canal. However, other parts such as the buttocks or feet can present first, which is referred to as breech presentation. Risk for breech presentation may increase with multiple pregnancies (more than one baby), when there is too little or too much fluid in the uterus, or if the uterus is abnormally shaped. Babies in breech presentation can be delivered vaginally depending on the experience of the provider and if the\",\n \"-30.67204277359997\"\n ],\n [\n \"until the female raises her tail and calls out prior to copulation.\\nGestation lasts for about two months, and results in the birth of a litter of up to six young, with three being typical. The young are initially blind and weigh 27 to 52 grams (0.95 to 1.83 oz). They open their eyes at seven days, begin to take solid food at twelve days, and are fully weaned by the end of their first month. Litter mates frequently spar with one another, and disperse to establish their own burrow systems after around two months, by which time they have already reached\",\n \"-30.670445310883224\"\n ],\n [\n \"and cortisol—are also involved, but their roles are not yet well understood. Although biochemical markers indicate that Secretory Activation begins about 30–40 hours after birth, mothers do not typically begin feeling increased breast fullness (the sensation of milk \\\"coming in the breast\\\") until 50–73 hours (2–3 days) after birth.\\nColostrum is the first milk a breastfed baby receives. It contains higher amounts of white blood cells and antibodies than mature milk, and is especially high in immunoglobulin A (IgA), which coats the lining of the baby's immature intestines, and helps to prevent pathogens from invading the baby's system. Secretory IgA also\",\n \"-30.620200608100276\"\n ],\n [\n \"done to determine whether the individual has this syndrome and reduces the chances of misdiagnoses with other cutaneous diseases. Treatment The infant is intubated post delivery to stabilize the respiratory problems experienced. Often the skin condition becomes less severe resolving itself to flaky dry skin as the individual grows. No intervention is usually required and the condition becomes less severe as the patient grows. The dry skin symptoms can be managed with topical ointments or creams and the individual remains otherwise healthy. Prognosis There are no life-threatening complications after the perinatal period (around the time of birth) and the skin\",\n \"-30.591009604220744\"\n ],\n [\n \"too close to the tip of the nipple. This poor attachment can cause sore and cracked nipples and a reluctance of the mother to continue to breastfeed. After the birth of the infant, the milk supply increases based upon the continuous and increasing stimulation of the nipple by the infant. If the baby increases nursing time at the nipple, the mammary glands respond to this stimulation by increasing milk production. Pain Nipple pain can be a disincentive for breastfeeding. Sore nipples that progress to cracked nipples is of concern since many woman cease breastfeeding due to the pain. In some\",\n \"-30.58448542001861\"\n ],\n [\n \"almost at birth due to his connection with/being a Divine Power. They also state that for members \\\"the skull enlarges and expands into a fine rounded shape\\\" due to their faith, making them more intelligent. They state their women suffer from no morning sickness when pregnant and that their childbirth is naturally without pain.\",\n \"-30.56691601726925\"\n ],\n [\n \"during the first two months of an infant's life, breast-fed infants with a higher chance. Male and female infants are affected equally. Treatment Hospitalization for the diseased person is suggested because of the controlled environment because it may prevent nutritional deficiencies and skin infections. A decrease in severity of symptoms usually happens after a few weeks when treated redness and scaliness usually do not recur. In 10 percent of cases, the result of uncontrolled infections or severe electrolyte loss may be fatal. Epidemiology The cause of this disease is unknown; some infants may have a severe case, others\",\n \"-30.541634524590336\"\n ],\n [\n \"gives birth around one month later. After birth the newborn young climbs unaided by its mother from the birth canal to the pouch.\\nWhen it reaches the pouch, the underdeveloped joey suckles the teat of one of the four mammary glands while the others recede. The joey remains attached to the teat for 100–125 days, after which it ceases its attachment but remains in the pouch and continues to suckle, but more intermittently. The joey begins to leave the pouch and eat grass at around 200 days when it is more developed. It still suckles, more forcefully but less regularly. By\",\n \"-30.48668043743237\"\n ],\n [\n \"keratinization of skin is complete. Then the relationship between fluid and fetal growth stops. It reaches a plateau of 800ml by the 28-week gestational age. The amount of fluid declines to roughly 400 ml at 42 weeks. There is about 500 cc to1L of amniotic fluid at birth. Rupture of membranes The forewaters are released when the amnion ruptures. This is commonly known as the time when a woman's \\\"water breaks\\\". When this occurs during labour at term, it is known as \\\"spontaneous rupture of membranes\\\". If the rupture precedes labour at term, however, it is referred to as\",\n \"-30.47420810465701\"\n ],\n [\n \"do not make it to reproductive age, so cannot be a parent. Carriers (N/J) do not display symptoms and have normal skin.\\nMutations in the genes LAMB3, LAMC2, and COL17A1, are the cause of JEB. These genes are associated with the protein responsible for skin attachment to the underlying layers, laminin 332. When the genes undergo mutations, the protein is altered, making it dysfunctional. As a result, the skin is very fragile and may be damaged by even minor trauma.\\nAnother protein, called type XVII collagen, is affected by a mutation in COL17A1. Due to this mutation, the defective protein is not\",\n \"-30.467819959216285\"\n ],\n [\n \"the fetus to settle or \\\"drop\\\" into the pelvis. As the fetus settles into the pelvis, pain from the sciatic nerves, increased vaginal discharge, and increased urinary frequency can occur. While these symptoms are likelier to happen after labor has begun for women who have given birth before, they may happen ten to fourteen days before labor in women experiencing labor for the first time.\\nThe fetus begins to lose the support of the cervix when contractions begin. With cervical dilation reaching a diameter of more than 10 cm (4 in) to accommodate the head of the fetus, the head moves from the\",\n \"-30.461002064912464\"\n ],\n [\n \"since she does not store fat. The father has no part in helping raise the cub.\\nWhen the cub is first born, it is pink, blind, and toothless, weighing only 90 to 130 grams (3.2 to 4.6 ounces), or about th of the mother's weight, proportionally the smallest baby of any placental mammal. It nurses from its mother's breast six to 14 times a day for up to 30 minutes at a time. For three to four hours, the mother may leave the den to feed, which leaves the cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns grey where\",\n \"-30.4152663180721\"\n ],\n [\n \"to have very low birth weight is controversial, and a decision concerning the route and time of delivery probably needs to be made on a case by case basis. Neonatal care After delivery, plastic wraps or warm mattresses are useful to keep the infant warm on their way to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). In developed countries premature infants are usually cared for in an NICU. The physicians who specialize in the care of very sick or premature babies are known as neonatologists. In the NICU, premature babies are kept under radiant warmers or in incubators (also called isolettes),\",\n \"-30.406219852273352\"\n ],\n [\n \"process of\\nchildbirth is not finished until the baby has safely transferred from placental to mammary nutrition.\\\" They advise that the newborn be placed skin-to-skin with the mother, postponing any routine procedures for at least one to two hours. The WHO suggests that any initial observations of the infant can be done while the infant remains close to the mother, saying that even a brief separation before the baby has had its first feed can disturb the bonding process. They further advise frequent skin-to-skin contact as much as\\npossible during the first days after delivery, especially if it was interrupted\",\n \"-30.36186863866169\"\n ],\n [\n \"cause (perinatal) infection. Often, microorganisms that produce minor illness in the mother are very dangerous for the developing embryo or fetus. This can result in spontaneous abortion or major developmental disorders. For many infections, the baby is more at risk at particular stages of pregnancy. Problems related to perinatal infection are not always directly noticeable. During childbirth Babies can also become infected by their mothers during birth. Some infectious agents may be transmitted to the embryo or fetus in the uterus, while passing through the birth canal, or even shortly after birth. The distinction is important because when transmission is\",\n \"-30.330111530071008\"\n ],\n [\n \"no reproductive purpose, such as playful and same-sex mounting, and females will attempt to initiate copulation even after they have conceived. Gestation usually last 166–200 days or slightly more. Females tend to give birth at night or in the early morning. The mothers then eat the placenta and lick their infants clean. The young begin to eat solid foods at six weeks and are weaned at seven months old. The nose of a young male grows slowly until reaching adulthood. The mother will allow other members of her group to hold her infant. When a resident male in a one-male\",\n \"-30.319645373616368\"\n ],\n [\n \"an infant was born, the umbilical cord was cut and tied, and then the baby was washed, rubbed with salt and oil, and wrapped with strips of cloth. These strips kept the newborn child warm and also ensured that the child's limbs would grow straight. Ezekiel 16:4 describes Israel as unswaddled, a metaphor for abandonment.\\nDuring Tudor times, swaddling involved wrapping the new baby in linen bands from head to foot to ensure the baby would grow up without physical deformity. A stay band would be attached to the forehead and the shoulders to secure the head. Babies would be swaddled\",\n \"-30.309448616142618\"\n ],\n [\n \"with a distended abdomen, had a small hernia. He was dehydrated and like many babies in that region, underfed, for mothers are often unable to obtain the adequate protein diet so necessary for a good flow of breast milk. Besides, she was still suckling another child of about two-and-a-half years.\\n\\\"I reduced the size of the hernia, but it was obvious that if it was not operated on it would recur and eventually strangulate. In that case, unless the mother was able to walk the 10 miles or so to the river and then bring the baby by canoe to the\",\n \"-30.30799585999921\"\n ],\n [\n \"the body and also with age. Body contouring is the removal of this excess skin and fat from numerous areas of the body, restoring the appearance of skin elasticity of the remaining skin, enhancing the contouring an tone of the body. Abdominoplasty Also known as a tummy tuck, this form of surgery removes the excess skin and fat from the abdominal area. Commonly the surgery will also restore the muscles which have been weakened and/or separated by carrying excess weight for long periods of time. Sclerotherapy Common in women due to the hairless trend within society, numerous women seek medical\",\n \"-30.30664113431476\"\n ],\n [\n \"in sebum production, because the skin notices the scalp skin is lacking sufficient moisture. In cases of scalp disorders, however, this may not be the case. For babies and elderly, the sebaceous gland production is not at peak, thus daily washing is not typically needed. Split ends Split ends, known formally as trichoptilosis, happen when the protective cuticle has been stripped away from the ends of hair fibers.\\nThis condition involves a longitudinal splitting of the hair fiber. Any chemical or physical trauma, such as heat, that weathers the hair may eventually lead to split ends. Typically, the damaged hair fiber\",\n \"-30.298111996729858\"\n ],\n [\n \"just after they had given birth, demonstrated that low maternal age, high body mass index, weight gain over 15 kg (33 pounds) and higher neonatal birth weight were independently correlated with the occurrence of striae. Teenagers were found to be at the highest risk of developing severe striae.\\nThese off-color blemishes are symptoms of pregnancy caused by the tearing of the dermis, resulting in atrophy and loss of rete ridges. These scars often appear as reddish or bluish streaks on the abdomen, and can also appear on the breasts and thighs. Some of these striae disappear with time, while others remain as\",\n \"-30.297980895382352\"\n ],\n [\n \"of rugae after childbirth decreases. In women who have not given birth, the rugae are more prominent than in those who have given birth multiple times.\",\n \"-30.24951800145209\"\n ],\n [\n \"feed. Almost immediately, the mother's sexual cycle starts again. Another egg descends into the uterus and she becomes sexually receptive. Then, if she mates and a second egg is fertilised, its development is temporarily halted. Meanwhile, the neonate in the pouch grows rapidly. After approximately 190 days, the baby (called a joey) is sufficiently large and developed to make its full emergence out of the pouch, after sticking its head out for a few weeks until it eventually feels safe enough to fully emerge. From then on, it spends increasing time in the outside world and eventually, after around 235 days, it\",\n \"-30.236075836626696\"\n ],\n [\n \"be damaged, so if she has children, they could be infertile due to the exposure in their mother's womb.\",\n \"-30.234193462412804\"\n ],\n [\n \"effective for maintaining favorable moisture levels in baby skin (in comparison to not using baby lotion).\\nIn February 2013 Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing published a research by academics at The University of Manchester that showed that washing newborn babies with Johnson’s Baby Top-to-Toe wash is just as safe as using water alone. Research has been sponsored by Johnson & Johnson \\\"but carried out under strict, independent scientific protocols, including blind testing and peer review\\\".\",\n \"-30.218418510747142\"\n ],\n [\n \"primarily during or after birth, medical intervention can help prevent infections in the infant.\\nDuring birth, babies are exposed to maternal blood, body fluids, and to the maternal genital tract without the placental barrier intervening. Because of this, blood-borne microorganisms (hepatitis B, HIV), organisms associated with sexually transmitted disease (e.g., Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis), and normal fauna of the genitourinary tract (e.g., Candida albicans) are among those commonly seen in infection of newborns. Virulence versus symbiosis In the spectrum of optimal virulence, vertical transmission tends to evolve benign symbiosis. It is, therefore, a critical concept for evolutionary medicine. Because a\",\n \"-30.200517359015066\"\n ],\n [\n \"the vaginal wall and near the pudendal nerve. Because the pudendal nerve carries motor and sensory fibers that innervate the pelvic muscles, a pudendal nerve block relieves birth pain. The medicine does not harm the child, and is without significant complications. Infections, diseases, and safe sex Vaginal infections or diseases include yeast infection, vaginitis, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and cancer. Lactobacillus gasseri and other Lactobacillus species in the vaginal flora provide some protection from infections by their secretion of bacteriocins and hydrogen peroxide. The healthy vagina of a woman of child-bearing age is acidic, with a pH normally ranging between\",\n \"-30.198242764919996\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ichthyosis prematurity syndrome Signs and symptoms The symptoms associated with the disorder are often confused for other dermatological disorders. The symptoms below are ones specifically associated with IPS. Premature birth Pregnancies that have a foetus affected with this syndrome are complicated because of polyhydramnion. Complications arise because of opaque amnionic fluid resulting from the shedding of skin. As a result, ultrasounds are difficult to conduct. Triggered by the harsh environment in the uterus, delivery results around 30– 34 weeks of gestation (pregnancy) and the baby is born in prematurely. Thick caseous layer of skin A white layer of thick scaly\",\n \"-30.187653180677444\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gastroschisis Signs and symptoms There are no signs during pregnancy. About sixty percent of infants with gastroschisis are born prematurely. At birth, the baby will have a relatively small (<4 cm) hole in the abdominal wall, usually just to the right of the belly button. Some of the intestines are usually outside the body, passing through this opening. In rare circumstances, the liver and stomach may also come through the abdominal wall. After birth these organs are directly exposed to air. Causes The cause of gastroschisis is not known. There may be genetic causes in some cases, and\",\n \"-30.172259408747777\"\n ],\n [\n \"as an individual goes through the various stages of sexual and reproductive development. Neonatal In neonates, vaginal discharge sometimes occurs in the first few days after birth. This is due to exposure to estrogen while in utero. Neonatal vaginal discharge may be white or clear with a mucous texture, or it may be bloody from normal transient shedding of the endometrium. Pediatric The vagina of girls before puberty is thinner and has a different bacterial flora. Vaginal discharge in pre-pubertal girls is minimal with a neutral to alkaline pH ranging from 6 to 8. The composition of the bacterial population\",\n \"-30.163654839037918\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":78,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"8l98i8"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"If corporations are legal \"persons\", why are they taxed at a special corporate tax rate, instead of the (usually) higher income tax rate?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["You are I are plumbers. We each bill 300K worth of plumbing work each year. We each spend 50K on materials each year. We each have 100K of business expenses each year. You are incorporated, I am not. How much tax should each of us pay? The same. Since I am not incorporated I take the 150K I made in profit and pay tax on it like income at my personal rate. Lets say I end up paying 50K in tax. Since you are incorporated you pay corporate tax on the 150K, and then distribute the remainder to yourself as a shareholder. That's dividend income and as a person you are going to pay tax on it. The government plays with the personal dividend rate, and the corporate tax rate with the (rough) idea that it should add up to the same as the personal tax rate for regular income. That's why, primarily, corporate tax rates are different from personal tax rates - the government knows the money is going to be taxed again when passed on to shareholders.","Because law differentiates between natural persons and persons-as-legal-entities. Corporate \"personhood\" is important in some ways...like if I need to sue a business, the fact that it's a person just means it's an entity I can sue as a whole. The biggest problems people have with it surround the fact that a corporate person has better abilities to do some things than natural persons, like immortality. A business can be passed from one generation to the next. Corporate tax benefits are intended to help boost an economy, but the extent to which they are successful is hard to measure.","I'm surprised so many people took this as \"what is the legal explanation behind corporate personhood\" instead of your actual question. The answer is that this income is double taxed \\- it's taxed to the corporation at a lower rate, and then is ALSO taxed to the individual when the corporate income eventually reaches them in the form of dividends \\(remember that corporations are owned by individuals \\- shareholders\\). Here's an explanation: [ URL_1 ]( URL_0 )","Personhood doesn't mean that a corporation has exactly the same legal rights as a person...you can't marry a corporation or elect one to office, for example. It is just a convenient fiction we use to allow corporations to do some person-like things, like own assets or legal responsibilities. In most, if not all cases, different rules apply to corporate personhood than to natural persons.","Because ultimately, the money will be taxed AGAIN when it eventually exits the company - to people. And if it doesn't exit the company - then it will be used to produce more goods which shouldn't be taxed as income anyway.","Generally speaking, a lower corporate tax rate makes foreign direct investment more attractive. For example, the irish corporate tax rate is relatively low compared to the rest of the world, so Apple decides to declare its income there, and Ireland enjoys the revenue generated by that tax. If ireland had a higher income tax rate, then companies would 'shop' for lower taxes elsewhere, and the point of raising the tax rate (to increase tax revenue) would have been lost. Compare this to regular people, sure they can go emigrate due to high taxes (for example, French Actor Gerard Depardieu did this when France raised its income tax a while ago), but its harder for a person to do so, and most people just won't.","Policy reason: double taxation. A corporation's income ends up going somewhere (be it dividends, income for workers, etc.), which is all subject to taxation as well (capital gains, income tax, etc.). Unless it's reinvested. And reinvestment is arguably something you want to incentivize because it's the basis of growth. Also incentivize foreign investors (you'd rather do business in a region with lower corporate tax rates, all else equal).","A better question is, why can't I dissolve my personhood and start fresh as a new person?","Corporations are not legal persons, that is a complete and total misunderstanding of the law that was pushed by activists about a decade ago. *Corporate personhood* is a legal doctrine that allows certain legal entities to have some of the rights and obligations enjoyed by natural humans. Corporate personhood permits a company to be a party to a contract on its own, to engage in legal proceedings (sue, be sued), to be subject to regulatory oversight and criminal law, etc... Corporate personhood greatly simplifies our legal system, nothing more.","Just FYI, corporations don't inherently *have to* pay the \"special\" rate, they can be organized as so-called \"pass-through\" companies, in which the taxes are paid by the individuals who own the company at the \"normal\" rate. Obviously, people pick whatever model means they pay less in taxes, so you'll find people complaining that this is *also* a way in which corporations avoid paying.","Taxes are a weird sort of tool. Lets say you are the Mayor of city 'X'. You have a job problem, people that live in the city aint got one. Tax revenue is utter shit because unemployed people don't really pay taxes. Company 'Evil Empire' swings by and they say, 'We want to build a factory and employee 10,000 people. But let it be known, there is nothing special about city 'X', Cities 'Y' and 'Z' have the exact same problem as you - we are only going to build one factory. So you say, 'Okie Dokie. If you build we will let you run your factory tax free for 10 years'. The neat thing is that those 10,000 people - at least those within city limits - are now employed and as such are paying more in taxes then what they did before. So for the next 10 years tax revenue goes up, but year 11 it really goes up cause the agreement has aged out! Taxes are a tool. I think by seperating types of taxes it allows people to do things like this. -------------- Having said all those words, I am a supporter or destroying our current tax structure and redoing it from the ground up. I am simply describing how things work, not necessarily endorsing it.","The point of it is to help businesses grow, since businesses have a lot of expenditures that normal people don’t have to worry about (rent for the business, R & D, wages, etc.). In Canada, even though corporate tax is lower than the personal tax amount, people who own the corporation aren’t (supposed to be) able to spend it on personal things. So the corporation has to “pay” its owners, which is subject to regular tax rate. The weird gray area that happens is what constitutes as a “corporate expenditure”.","Part of why I think lower corporate rates are justifiable is because corporations are already under a double taxation regime. They’re taxed once when they make a profit, and then when profits are distributed to the beneficial shareholders (who are all the corporation is composed of), the shareholders are taxed again. This is at least how a C-Corp roughly works in the US, but it seems like you may be from elsewhere so I’m not sure.","One of the drawbacks of a corporation is double taxation. First he corporation is taxed, and then all the shareholders are also taxed, so the same income is taxed twice.","The ELI5 is that they get special tax treatment because the government thinks they'll make better use of their profit than you will with yours. Why does the government think that? Likely due to scientific studies, gut feel, and lots and lots of lobbying. Now, you touched on an important point, that there's no constitutional *mandate* that corporations get a better tax rate than natural persons. This is important because it leads to a solution to campaign finance reform. The government has long-standing and constitutionally-vetted laws where certain types of legal entities (charities and other non-profit organizations) are given favorable tax status in exchange for *not making political speech* along with other distinctions. That doesn't restrict their rights; they are welcome to make political speech, but then the government will treat them like everyone else and tax them. That could just as easily be applied to corporations and other trade groups. Tell companies that they can have a special reduced tax rate and trade speech (advertisements, research papers, data sheets) *or* the regular tax rate and full speech, and most every legal entity will choose the reduced tax rate as that aligns with their fiduciary duty to their shareholders."," > but I suppose my question is now what policy reasons justify taxing corporations 20% of 100k instead of 50% of a human's 100k. A common argument for corporations being taxed at a lower rate is that you are still double taxing: the company for earning the money, and then at either the investor level, when money is distributed to them, or at the employee level, on their income taxes. (side note: there are incorporation methods that don't tax investors that are steadily becoming more popular). Another argument is that money that's going to the government could instead be used to do things like invest in operations or hire new employees, which has a better effect on the economy. This is _sometimes_ true, for companies that still have room to grow.","The owners of the corporation get the money that passes through the corporation and then they are taxed on it as personal income. If you own a corporation your money is being taxed twice: once at the corporate level and then once again at the personal level. So if you have a corporate that makes $10,000,000, you would get taxed 21% of income at the corporate level, and then once again on the personal level at 35% or whatever that tax bracket is.","In my opinion a corporation is not a person - and shouldn’t be taxed. Individual people making money out of the corporation, employees, board members, investors, should be taxed based on the income they receive. Other than that, I agree with the fictionhood aspect of corporations, such as being able to sue them or charge them for violating law, but you can’t exactly throw a corporation in jail, so I don’t think we should call them people, but legal entities.","In order to create a succesful corporation you need to have earned money. That money was taxed. Ypu could have just spent the money, but ypu decided to create a company, which is risky, and only if that ends up being successful (aka creating value) is there profit to tax. Taximg that at the same rate would discourage further investment. That being said, corporate tax should be lower than it is...","People who invest in corporations are taxed twice. Corporate profits are taxed first at the company level, a rate of 21%, then when an investor wants to take funds out, in the form of dividends or capital gains, a second tax is levied at either 0, 15%, or 20% depending on your income level. So, for high income earners, the total tax on corporate profits is 41%.","Because you really really cannot tax a corporation. A corporate tax is a tax on people, period. The corporate taxes are carried by a) consumers in the form of higher prices b) employees in the form of lower salaries and/or c) owners in the form of lower dividends. Corporate tax is an easier sell politically than higher taxes for people.","Because the corporation is just a middle man. The tax will be passed on to consumers, workers, and *maybe* shareholders."],"string":"[\n \"You are I are plumbers. We each bill 300K worth of plumbing work each year. We each spend 50K on materials each year. We each have 100K of business expenses each year. You are incorporated, I am not. How much tax should each of us pay? The same. Since I am not incorporated I take the 150K I made in profit and pay tax on it like income at my personal rate. Lets say I end up paying 50K in tax. Since you are incorporated you pay corporate tax on the 150K, and then distribute the remainder to yourself as a shareholder. That's dividend income and as a person you are going to pay tax on it. The government plays with the personal dividend rate, and the corporate tax rate with the (rough) idea that it should add up to the same as the personal tax rate for regular income. That's why, primarily, corporate tax rates are different from personal tax rates - the government knows the money is going to be taxed again when passed on to shareholders.\",\n \"Because law differentiates between natural persons and persons-as-legal-entities. Corporate \\\"personhood\\\" is important in some ways...like if I need to sue a business, the fact that it's a person just means it's an entity I can sue as a whole. The biggest problems people have with it surround the fact that a corporate person has better abilities to do some things than natural persons, like immortality. A business can be passed from one generation to the next. Corporate tax benefits are intended to help boost an economy, but the extent to which they are successful is hard to measure.\",\n \"I'm surprised so many people took this as \\\"what is the legal explanation behind corporate personhood\\\" instead of your actual question. The answer is that this income is double taxed \\\\- it's taxed to the corporation at a lower rate, and then is ALSO taxed to the individual when the corporate income eventually reaches them in the form of dividends \\\\(remember that corporations are owned by individuals \\\\- shareholders\\\\). Here's an explanation: [ URL_1 ]( URL_0 )\",\n \"Personhood doesn't mean that a corporation has exactly the same legal rights as a person...you can't marry a corporation or elect one to office, for example. It is just a convenient fiction we use to allow corporations to do some person-like things, like own assets or legal responsibilities. In most, if not all cases, different rules apply to corporate personhood than to natural persons.\",\n \"Because ultimately, the money will be taxed AGAIN when it eventually exits the company - to people. And if it doesn't exit the company - then it will be used to produce more goods which shouldn't be taxed as income anyway.\",\n \"Generally speaking, a lower corporate tax rate makes foreign direct investment more attractive. For example, the irish corporate tax rate is relatively low compared to the rest of the world, so Apple decides to declare its income there, and Ireland enjoys the revenue generated by that tax. If ireland had a higher income tax rate, then companies would 'shop' for lower taxes elsewhere, and the point of raising the tax rate (to increase tax revenue) would have been lost. Compare this to regular people, sure they can go emigrate due to high taxes (for example, French Actor Gerard Depardieu did this when France raised its income tax a while ago), but its harder for a person to do so, and most people just won't.\",\n \"Policy reason: double taxation. A corporation's income ends up going somewhere (be it dividends, income for workers, etc.), which is all subject to taxation as well (capital gains, income tax, etc.). Unless it's reinvested. And reinvestment is arguably something you want to incentivize because it's the basis of growth. Also incentivize foreign investors (you'd rather do business in a region with lower corporate tax rates, all else equal).\",\n \"A better question is, why can't I dissolve my personhood and start fresh as a new person?\",\n \"Corporations are not legal persons, that is a complete and total misunderstanding of the law that was pushed by activists about a decade ago. *Corporate personhood* is a legal doctrine that allows certain legal entities to have some of the rights and obligations enjoyed by natural humans. Corporate personhood permits a company to be a party to a contract on its own, to engage in legal proceedings (sue, be sued), to be subject to regulatory oversight and criminal law, etc... Corporate personhood greatly simplifies our legal system, nothing more.\",\n \"Just FYI, corporations don't inherently *have to* pay the \\\"special\\\" rate, they can be organized as so-called \\\"pass-through\\\" companies, in which the taxes are paid by the individuals who own the company at the \\\"normal\\\" rate. Obviously, people pick whatever model means they pay less in taxes, so you'll find people complaining that this is *also* a way in which corporations avoid paying.\",\n \"Taxes are a weird sort of tool. Lets say you are the Mayor of city 'X'. You have a job problem, people that live in the city aint got one. Tax revenue is utter shit because unemployed people don't really pay taxes. Company 'Evil Empire' swings by and they say, 'We want to build a factory and employee 10,000 people. But let it be known, there is nothing special about city 'X', Cities 'Y' and 'Z' have the exact same problem as you - we are only going to build one factory. So you say, 'Okie Dokie. If you build we will let you run your factory tax free for 10 years'. The neat thing is that those 10,000 people - at least those within city limits - are now employed and as such are paying more in taxes then what they did before. So for the next 10 years tax revenue goes up, but year 11 it really goes up cause the agreement has aged out! Taxes are a tool. I think by seperating types of taxes it allows people to do things like this. -------------- Having said all those words, I am a supporter or destroying our current tax structure and redoing it from the ground up. I am simply describing how things work, not necessarily endorsing it.\",\n \"The point of it is to help businesses grow, since businesses have a lot of expenditures that normal people don’t have to worry about (rent for the business, R & D, wages, etc.). In Canada, even though corporate tax is lower than the personal tax amount, people who own the corporation aren’t (supposed to be) able to spend it on personal things. So the corporation has to “pay” its owners, which is subject to regular tax rate. The weird gray area that happens is what constitutes as a “corporate expenditure”.\",\n \"Part of why I think lower corporate rates are justifiable is because corporations are already under a double taxation regime. They’re taxed once when they make a profit, and then when profits are distributed to the beneficial shareholders (who are all the corporation is composed of), the shareholders are taxed again. This is at least how a C-Corp roughly works in the US, but it seems like you may be from elsewhere so I’m not sure.\",\n \"One of the drawbacks of a corporation is double taxation. First he corporation is taxed, and then all the shareholders are also taxed, so the same income is taxed twice.\",\n \"The ELI5 is that they get special tax treatment because the government thinks they'll make better use of their profit than you will with yours. Why does the government think that? Likely due to scientific studies, gut feel, and lots and lots of lobbying. Now, you touched on an important point, that there's no constitutional *mandate* that corporations get a better tax rate than natural persons. This is important because it leads to a solution to campaign finance reform. The government has long-standing and constitutionally-vetted laws where certain types of legal entities (charities and other non-profit organizations) are given favorable tax status in exchange for *not making political speech* along with other distinctions. That doesn't restrict their rights; they are welcome to make political speech, but then the government will treat them like everyone else and tax them. That could just as easily be applied to corporations and other trade groups. Tell companies that they can have a special reduced tax rate and trade speech (advertisements, research papers, data sheets) *or* the regular tax rate and full speech, and most every legal entity will choose the reduced tax rate as that aligns with their fiduciary duty to their shareholders.\",\n \" > but I suppose my question is now what policy reasons justify taxing corporations 20% of 100k instead of 50% of a human's 100k. A common argument for corporations being taxed at a lower rate is that you are still double taxing: the company for earning the money, and then at either the investor level, when money is distributed to them, or at the employee level, on their income taxes. (side note: there are incorporation methods that don't tax investors that are steadily becoming more popular). Another argument is that money that's going to the government could instead be used to do things like invest in operations or hire new employees, which has a better effect on the economy. This is _sometimes_ true, for companies that still have room to grow.\",\n \"The owners of the corporation get the money that passes through the corporation and then they are taxed on it as personal income. If you own a corporation your money is being taxed twice: once at the corporate level and then once again at the personal level. So if you have a corporate that makes $10,000,000, you would get taxed 21% of income at the corporate level, and then once again on the personal level at 35% or whatever that tax bracket is.\",\n \"In my opinion a corporation is not a person - and shouldn’t be taxed. Individual people making money out of the corporation, employees, board members, investors, should be taxed based on the income they receive. Other than that, I agree with the fictionhood aspect of corporations, such as being able to sue them or charge them for violating law, but you can’t exactly throw a corporation in jail, so I don’t think we should call them people, but legal entities.\",\n \"In order to create a succesful corporation you need to have earned money. That money was taxed. Ypu could have just spent the money, but ypu decided to create a company, which is risky, and only if that ends up being successful (aka creating value) is there profit to tax. Taximg that at the same rate would discourage further investment. That being said, corporate tax should be lower than it is...\",\n \"People who invest in corporations are taxed twice. Corporate profits are taxed first at the company level, a rate of 21%, then when an investor wants to take funds out, in the form of dividends or capital gains, a second tax is levied at either 0, 15%, or 20% depending on your income level. So, for high income earners, the total tax on corporate profits is 41%.\",\n \"Because you really really cannot tax a corporation. A corporate tax is a tax on people, period. The corporate taxes are carried by a) consumers in the form of higher prices b) employees in the form of lower salaries and/or c) owners in the form of lower dividends. Corporate tax is an easier sell politically than higher taxes for people.\",\n \"Because the corporation is just a middle man. The tax will be passed on to consumers, workers, and *maybe* shareholders.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["imposed in the U.S. at the federal, most state, and some local levels on the income of entities treated for tax purposes as corporations. Shareholders of a corporation wholly owned by U.S. citizens and resident individuals may elect for the corporation to be taxed similarly to partnerships, as an S Corporation. Corporate income tax is based on taxable income, which is defined similarly to individual taxable income.\nShareholders (including other corporations) of corporations (other than S Corporations) are taxed on dividend distributions from the corporation. They are also subject to tax on capital gains upon sale or exchange of their shares","-31.768102069821907"],["rate, but provide different rates of tax depending on income levels or size of the company.\nThe United States taxes corporations under the same framework of tax law as individuals, with differences related to the inherent natures of corporations and individuals or unincorporated entities. Individuals are not formed, amalgamated, or acquired; and corporations do not incur medical expenses except by way of compensating individuals.\nMost systems tax both domestic and foreign corporations. Often, domestic corporations are taxed on worldwide income while foreign corporations are taxed only on income from sources within the jurisdiction. Taxable income The United States defines taxable","-31.19392833695747"],["federal law principles in their tax laws to some extent. Federal taxable income equals gross income (gross receipts and other income less cost of goods sold) less tax deductions. Gross income of a corporation and business deductions are determined in much the same manner as for individuals. All income of a corporation is subject to the same federal tax rate. However, corporations may reduce other federal taxable income by a net capital loss and certain deductions are more limited. Certain deductions are available only to corporations. These include deductions for dividends received and amortization of organization expenses. Some states","-31.189764277194627"],["a corporate income tax of 20% over profits from companies (called First Category Tax), the system is ultimately designed to tax individuals. Therefore, corporate income taxes paid constitute a credit towards two personal income taxes: the Global Complementary Tax (in the case of residents) or the Additional Tax (in the case of non-residents). The Global Complementary Tax is payable by those that have different sources of income, while those receiving income solely from dependent work are subject to the Second Category Tax. Both taxes are equally progressive in statutory terms, with a top marginal rate of 40%. Income arising from","-31.018285656697117"],["value added tax is levied on sales of goods and services (including imports) at a rate of 19%, with a few exemptions. The income tax revenue comprises different taxes. While there is a corporate income tax of 20% over profits from companies (called First Category Tax), the system is ultimately designed to tax individuals. Therefore, corporate income taxes paid constitute a credit towards two personal income taxes: the Global Complementary Tax (in the case of residents) or the Additional Tax (in the case of non-residents). The Global Complementary Tax is payable by those that have different sources of income, while","-30.167056660051458"],["profit income and on capital. These make up a relatively small portion of total tax revenue. Tax is paid on corporate income at the corporate level before it is distributed to individual shareholders as dividends. A tax credit is provided to individuals who receive dividend to reflect the tax paid at the corporate level. This credit does not eliminate double taxation of this income completely, however, resulting in a higher level of tax on dividend income than other types of income. (Where income is earned in the form of a capital gain, only half of the gain is","-29.961544300982496"],["their investment earnings. Corporate taxes A company tax is paid by companies and corporations on their profits. Unlike personal income taxes which use a progressive scale, company tax is calculated at a flat rate of 30% (25% for small businesses, which are defined as companies with revenue of less than $2 million per year). Tax is paid on corporate income at the corporate level before it is distributed to shareholders as dividends.\nA tax credit (called a franking credit) is available to resident shareholders who receive the dividends to reflect the tax already paid at the corporate level (a process known","-29.836257161572576"],["in a unified manner on all types of income while individuals are taxed in differing manners depending on the nature or source of the income. Many jurisdictions impose tax at both an entity level and at the owner level on one or more types of enterprises. These jurisdictions often rely on the company law of that jurisdiction or other jurisdictions in determining whether an entity's owners are to be taxed directly on the entity income. However, there are notable exceptions, including U.S. rules characterizing entities independently of legal form.\nIn order to simplify administration or for other agendas, some governments have","-29.82598553877324"],["a one percent tax on the net income of all corporations, superseding a previous federal tax that had only applied to corporate net incomes above $5,000. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the income tax in the cases of Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co. and Stanton v. Baltic Mining Co. Impact and aftermath Working with progressive Republicans, Congressional Democrats won passage of the Revenue Act of 1916, which reinstated the federal estate tax, established a tax on the production of munitions, raised the top income tax rate to fifteen percent, and raised the corporate income tax from one","-29.784135573310778"],["such by default), paid a low rate tax in the foreign country, then repatriated its income to the US by paying qualified dividends to its owner, the total proportion of tax paid on income might actually be less, as qualified dividends are only taxed at 15%. However, this treatment is only available for dividends from corporations in certain countries, and is set to sunset in 2010 under the Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act of 2005.\nForeign owners of US corporations also benefit from the ability to have entities normally treated as flow-through instead be taxed as corporations by the IRS.","-29.560564514249563"],["because any profits distributed to shareholders will eventually be taxed twice. One solution, followed by as in the case of the Australian and UK tax systems, is for the recipient of the dividend to be entitled to a tax credit to address the fact that the profits represented by the dividend have already been taxed. The company profit being passed on is thus effectively taxed only at the rate of tax paid by the eventual recipient of the dividend.\nIn other systems, dividends are taxed at a lower rate than other income (for example, in the US), or shareholders are taxed","-29.549784094211645"],["the most advantages. Tax advantages The amount of tax a corporation pays is based on the amount of profits so they could merge with a corporation making a loss in order to reduce their tax burden. However this has been discouraged. Increase in size Corporate synergies due to mergers result in larger firm size which is perceived as more attractive to some investors as well as a larger firm gives competitive advantage in an industry as higher market share allows firms to be more dominant and able control the market more. Disadvantages with Corporate Synergy Managerial biases conflicts with the","-29.452858125087005"],["Corporate tax in the United States State and local income taxes Nearly all of the states and some localities impose a tax on corporation income. The rules for determining this tax vary widely from state to state. Many of the states compute taxable income with reference to federal taxable income, with specific modifications. The states do not allow a tax deduction for income taxes, whether federal or state. Further, most states deny tax exemption for interest income that is tax exempt at the federal level.\nMost states tax domestic and foreign corporations on taxable income derived from business activities apportioned to","-29.449140323209576"],["that only \"corporate profits\" could be taxable — are citing a case where the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the income of a non-corporate taxpayer is taxable. Neither the United States Supreme Court nor any other federal court has ever ruled that under the Internal Revenue Code the term \"income\" means only the income of a corporation for federal income tax purposes.\nSome tax protesters have cited the Supreme Court case of Flint v. Stone Tracy Co. for the argument that only corporate profits or income can be taxed, using the following quotation:\nExcises are taxes laid upon the manufacture, sale or","-29.353754633455537"],["on foreign income of resident corporations until it is remitted to the country. Individuals versus enterprises Many tax systems tax individuals in one manner and entities that are not considered fiscally transparent in another. The differences may be as simple as differences in tax rates, and are often motivated by concerns unique to either individuals or corporations. For example, many systems allow taxable income of an individual to be reduced by a fixed amount allowance for other persons supported by the individual (dependents). Such a concept is not relevant for enterprises.\nMany systems allow for fiscal transparency of certain forms of","-29.35354279988678"],["any taxpayer, including individuals and corporations, as well as entities that themselves do not pay tax, such as partnerships, in which case it may be called “net profit”.\nMost systems require that all income realized (or derived) be included in taxable income. Some systems provide tax exemption for some types of income. Many systems impose tax at different rates for differing types (e.g., capital gains or salaries) or levels of income (e.g., graduated rates). In the United States, gross income includes all income realized from whatever source, but excludes particular tax exempt items, such as municipal bond interest.","-29.294898961292347"],["of this distinction, capital is taxed much more lightly than labor.\nUnder the U.S. system, individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts are subject to income tax. Partnerships are not taxed; rather, their partners are subject to income tax on their shares of income and deductions, and take their shares of credits. Some types of business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships.\nTaxpayers are required to file tax returns and self assess tax. Tax may be withheld from payments of income (e.g., withholding of tax from wages). To the extent taxes are not covered by withholdings, taxpayers must make","-29.274351210464374"],[" This results in a dual level of tax. Most systems require that income tax be withheld on distribution of dividends to foreign shareholders, and some also require withholding of tax on distributions to domestic shareholders. The rate of such withholding tax may be reduced for a shareholder under a tax treaty.\nSome systems tax some or all dividend income at lower rates than other income. The United States has historically provided a dividends received deduction to corporations with respect to dividends from other corporations in which the recipient owns more than 10% of the shares. For","-29.23111544526182"],["income for a corporation as all gross income, i.e. sales plus other income minus cost of goods sold and tax exempt income less allowable tax deductions, without the allowance of the standard deduction applicable to individuals.\nThe United States' system requires that differences in principles for recognizing income and deductions differing from financial accounting principles like the timing of income or deduction, tax exemption for certain income, and disallowance or limitation of certain tax deductions be disclosed in considerable detail for non-small corporations on Schedule M-3 to Form 1120.\nThe United States taxes resident corporations, i.e. those organized within the country,","-29.131170197739266"],["will be taxed instead as earned income. If an individual gets more than 150,000 € in dividends from non-listed limited companies, the tax-exempt percentage will only be 15% for the amount that exceeds 150,000 €. The effective tax rate for a dividend that does not exceed 8% of the value of a stock will be 7.5% - 8.5%. Due to the effect of net assets, dividends of debted private companies will usually have their dividends taxed as earned income. Corporate taxes The corporate income tax rate is 20.0%. The corporate tax was fully paid as dividend tax before 2004, but","-28.99327234031807"],["tax business income of a corporation differently than nonbusiness income.\nPrinciples for recognizing income and deductions may differ from financial accounting principles. Key areas of difference include differences in the timing of income or deduction, tax exemption for certain income, and disallowance or limitation of certain tax deductions. IRS rules require that these differences be disclosed in considerable detail for non-small corporations on Schedule M-3 to Form 1120. Tax credits Corporations, like other businesses, may be eligible for various tax credits which reduce federal, state or local income tax. The largest of these by dollar volume is the federal","-28.96684445772553"],["enterprise. For example, most countries tax partners of a partnership, rather than the partnership itself, on income of the partnership. A common feature of income taxation is imposition of a levy on certain enterprises in certain forms followed by an additional levy on owners of the enterprise upon distribution of such income. For example, the U.S. imposes two levels of tax on foreign individuals or foreign corporations who own a U.S. corporation. First, the U.S. corporation is subject to the regular income tax on its profits, then subject to an additional 30% tax on the dividends paid to foreign","-28.927736154641025"],["January 1, 2014. Under current law, a corporation that meets certain requirements may elect to be taxed as an S corporation, which generally pays no corporate-level tax, unlike a C corporation. For corporations that convert from C corporations to S corporations, or S corporations that receive assets under certain conditions from C corporations, there is a corporate-level tax on certain built-in gains of certain assets, with a 10-year recognition period under current law. This legislation makes permanent the five-year recognition period for S corporation built-in gains that was generally in effect for taxable years from 2011 through 2013. The legislation","-28.907086777035147"],["is the amount they pay in taxes. That tax is eventually spent back on the people. Such corporations \nhave the capacity to grow at a very fast rate and this eventually leads them to employing more people(lowering the employment burden on the government). Their profit maximisation motive also means that they will work on their productivity and will contribute to the GDP of any country they are living in. A higher GDP often leads to a higher living standard. To the business As the corporation only works for its own interest it gets the opportunity to isolate itself from all","-28.877096159019857"],["1969 Act prepared by Congress's Staff of the Joint Committee on Internal Revenue Taxation described the reason for the AMT as follows:\nThe prior treatment imposed no limit on the amount of income which an individual or corporation could exclude from tax as the result of various tax preferences. As a result, there were large variations in the tax burdens placed on individuals or corporations with similar economic incomes, depending upon the size of their preference income. In general, those individual or corporate taxpayers who received the bulk of their income from personal services or manufacturing were taxed at relatively higher","-28.809866549563594"],["incomes, depending upon the size of their preference income. In general, those individual or corporate taxpayers who received the bulk of their income from personal services or manufacturing were taxed at relatively higher tax rates than others. On the other hand, individuals or corporations which received the bulk of their income from such sources as capital gains or were in a position to benefit from net lease arrangements, from accelerated depreciation on real estate, from percentage depletion, or from other tax-preferred activities tended to pay relatively low rates of tax. In fact, many individuals with high incomes who could benefit","-28.80173132616619"],["tax rates than others. On the other hand, individuals or corporations which received the bulk of their income from such sources as capital gains or were in a position to benefit from net lease arrangements, from accelerated depreciation on real estate, from percentage depletion, or from other tax-preferred activities tended to pay relatively low rates of tax. In fact, many individuals with high incomes who could benefit from these provisions paid lower effective rates of tax than many individuals with modest incomes. In extreme cases, individuals enjoyed large economic incomes without paying any tax at all. This was true for","-28.78706533811055"],["U.S. has a true \"income tax,\" which is a direct tax on [.] the income of a corporation... but not on the total income. [T]he corporation is permitted to deduct both the cost of any goods sold -- whether produced or purchased for resale -- and general and administrative expenses like wages, advertising, interest expense, depreciation, etc... Once you've settled onto that net income number, a 35% income tax is assessed.\n— Nitti January 26, 2017. Forbes\nTo encourage companies to export, the border adjustment tax system would \"adjust\" the company's tax to account for the exported sales by removing the amount of","-28.728844862489495"],["they are individual income tax and corporate income tax. Many rules and provisions are the same for individual income tax and corporations, especially in terms of income elements and the determination of net income. However individual income tax and corporate income tax are regulated by different laws. Banking and Insurance Transaction Tax The transactions and services performed by banks and insurance companies are subject to the tax. Taxpayers consist of banks, bankers and insurance companies. Regardless of the nature of the transaction, they are all subject to BITT. Taxes will be levied on the money they collect as interest, commission","-28.627409899054328"],["may reduce or eliminate this tax. This tax applies to a \"dividend equivalent amount,\" which is the corporation's effectively connected earnings and profits for the year, less investments the corporation makes in its U.S. assets (money and adjusted bases of property connected with the conduct of a U.S. trade or business). The tax is imposed even if there is no distribution. Consolidated returns Corporations 80% or more owned by a common parent corporation may file a consolidated return for federal and some state income taxes. These returns include all income, deductions, and credits of all members of the controlled","-28.594929437735118"],["dividends paid to shareholders. For example, the overall U.S. tax on corporate profits of 35% is less than or similar to that of European countries such as Germany, Ireland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, which have lower corporate tax rates but higher taxes on dividends paid to shareholders.\nMany large multinational companies retain untaxed profits in tax haven jurisdictions which offer no or very low corporate taxes, as well as other tax benefits.","-28.540053202596027"],["be based on assets, capital, wages, or some alternative measure of taxable income. Often the alternative tax functions as a minimum tax.\nUnited States federal income tax incorporates an alternative minimum tax. This tax is computed at a lower tax rate (20% for corporations), and imposed based on a modified version of taxable income. Modifications include longer depreciation lives assets under MACRS, adjustments related to costs of developing natural resources, and an addback of certain tax exempt interest. The U. S. state of Michigan previously taxed businesses on an alternative base that did not allow compensation of","-28.468516332563013"],["of personal income tax, the marginal tax rate to which the return on unincorporated capital is subject. There is no integration of the corporate and personal income taxes so any dividends are taxed twice.\nHarberger's conclusion, seen as surprising at the time, is that the corporate income tax lowers the after-tax marginal product of all owners of capital equally. Since labor and new capital were free change sectors without cost, each factor got paid exactly its \"value of marginal product\" and because constant returns to scale are assumed, the total payment to each factor exactly equals the total value the factor","-28.447856685299485"],["covered the tax due from the individual on the dividend paid. If, however, the individual was subject to tax at a higher rate (known as \"surtax\"), he (not the company) would be liable to pay the additional tax.\nIn addition to income tax, companies were also subject to a profits tax, which was deducted from company profits when determining the income tax liability. It was a differential tax, with a higher tax rate on dividends (profits distributed to shareholders) than on profits retained within the company. By penalising the distribution of profits, it was hoped companies would retain profits for investment,","-28.443246120703407"],["Indeed, the tax in this case was imposed retroactively; the statute was enacted in August 1909 but was made effective retroactively to January 1, 1909. Corporate profits One argument repeatedly made by tax protesters is that the income of individuals is not taxable because income should mean only \"corporate profits\" or \"corporate gain\". This is the Merchants' Loan argument, named after the case of Merchants' Loan & Trust Company, as Trustee of the Estate of Arthur Ryerson, Deceased, Plaintiff in Error v. Julius F. Smietanka, formerly United States Collector of Internal Revenue for the First District of the State of","-28.384901718585752"],["for money or property. However, certain exchanges, such as in reorganizations, are not taxable.\nMultiple corporations may file a consolidated return at the federal and some state levels with their common parent. Corporate tax rates Federal corporate income tax is imposed at 21% from 2018. Dividend exclusions and certain corporation-only deductions may significantly lower the effective rate. Deductions for corporations Most expenses of corporations are deductible, subject to limitations also applicable to other taxpayers. See relevant deductions for details. In addition, regular U.S. corporations are allowed a deduction of 100% of dividends received from 10% or more foreign subsidiaries,","-28.366828732985596"],["Instead of a corporation paying the U.S. tax rate (35%) for income earned in any country (less a credit for taxes paid to that country), each subsidiary pays the tax rate of the country in which it is legally established. In other words, under a territorial tax system, the corporation saves the difference between the generally higher U.S. tax rate and the lower rate of the country in which the subsidiary is legally established. Bloomberg journalist Matt Levine explained the concept, \"If we're incorporated in the U.S. [under the old global tax regime], we'll pay 35 percent taxes on our","-28.327984142815694"],["be classified for U.S. tax purposes as a corporation or a flow-through entity somewhat independently of its classification for foreign purposes. Under these \"check-the-box\" rules, shareholders may be able to elect to treat their shares income, deductions, and taxes of a foreign corporation as earned and paid by themselves. This permits U.S. individuals to obtain credits for foreign taxes paid by entities they own, which credits might otherwise not be available.\nArtificial arrangements to avoid CFC status may be ignored in some jurisdictions under legislative provisions or court-developed law, such as substance over form doctrines.\nEuropean civil law may provide opportunities for","-28.325977155356668"],["many localities impose a tax on the income of corporations. Tax rates vary by state and locality, and may be fixed or graduated. Most rates are the same for all types of income. State and local income taxes are imposed in addition to federal income tax. State income tax is allowed as a deduction in computing federal income, but is capped at $10,000 per household since the passage of the 2017 tax law. Prior to the change, the average deduction exceeded $10,000 in most of the Midwest, most of the Northeast, as well as California and Oregon.\nState and local taxable","-28.316158201836515"],["asset or capital measures. In addition, some states impose a tax on capital of corporations or on shares issued and outstanding. The U. S. state of Michigan previously taxed businesses on an alternative base that did not allow compensation of employees as a tax deduction and allowed full deduction of the cost of production assets upon acquisition. Tax returns Corporations subject to U.S. tax must file federal and state income tax returns. Different tax returns are required at the federal and some state levels for different types of corporations or corporations engaged in specialized businesses. The United","-28.30359801251325"],["to employees (such as company cars) and on tax liabilities met on behalf of employees via a \"PAYE Settlement Agreement\".\nThere are separate arrangements for self-employed persons, who are normally liable to Class 2 flat rate NIC and Class 4 earnings-related NIC, and for some voluntary sector workers. Capital gains tax Capital gains are subject to tax at 18 or 28 percent (for individuals) or at the applicable marginal rate of corporation tax (for companies).\nThe basic principle is the same for individuals and companies - the tax applies only on the disposal of a capital asset, and the amount of the","-28.30149922380224"],["burden of employees is represented by the personal income tax rate. It increases labor cost for corporations. The lower the income tax rate the more attractive the country thus is for a corporation. R&D incentives R&D investments represent a large expenditure and affect the future product offering. Thus, R&D incentives are crucial for many enterprises. Some countries offer tax incentives, for resident companies conducting R&D, which supports companies to reduce their after tax R&D cost. Taxation of capital gains A double taxation is caused by the taxation of capital gains, as capital gains contain past company profits and expected future","-28.23493986792164"],["also subject to tax on dividends received from corporations. By contrast, partnerships are not subject to income tax, but their partners calculate their taxes by including their shares of partnership items. Corporations owned entirely by U.S. citizens or residents (S corporations) may elect to be treated similarly to partnerships. A limited liability company and certain other business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships. States generally follow such characterization. Many states also allow corporations to elect S corporation status. Charitable organizations are subject to tax on business income.\nCertain transactions of business entities are not subject to","-28.171403091284446"],["tax Many jurisdictions tax the income of individuals and business entities, including corporations. Generally, the authorities impose tax on net profits from a business, on net gains, and on other income. Computation of income subject to tax may be determined under accounting principles used in the jurisdiction, which may be modified or replaced by tax-law principles in the jurisdiction. The incidence of taxation varies by system, and some systems may be viewed as progressive or regressive. Rates of tax may vary or be constant (flat) by income level. Many systems allow individuals certain personal allowances and other non-business reductions to","-28.118913925194647"],["distributed.\nThe United States does not generally require withholding tax on the payment of dividends to shareholders. However, withholding tax is required if the shareholder is not a U.S. citizen or resident or U.S. corporation, or in some other circumstances (see Tax withholding in the United States). Earnings and profits U.S. corporations are permitted to distribute amounts in excess of earnings under the laws of most states under which they may be organized. A distribution by a corporation to shareholders is treated as a dividend to the extent of earnings and profits (E&P), a tax concept similar to retained","-28.06500879061059"],["While tax rules vary widely, there are certain basic principles common to most income tax systems. Tax systems in Canada, China, Germany, Singapore, the United Kingdom, and the United States, among others, follow most of the principles outlined below. Some tax systems, such as India, may have significant differences from the principles outlined below. Most references below are examples; see specific articles by jurisdiction (e.g., Income tax in Australia). Taxpayers and rates Individuals are often taxed at different rates than corporations. Individuals include only human beings. Tax systems in countries other than the USA treat an entity as a corporation","-28.04904958151201"],["corporate taxpayers and registered individual entrepreneurs, is known as General taxation system. Three alternative tax systems replace the above taxes with a simplified procedure:\nImputed taxation applies to specific, typically small business, activities involving trading with general public in cash: small retail and food service outlets, hotels, repair shops, taxi companies, etc. Imputed tax, uses rates set by local authorities (per square meter of shop space, per vehicle etc.) All eligible businesses use imputed taxation. The law is also mandatory for eligible parts of larger corporations, even if they are individually insignificant. For example, a cafeteria of a large steel mill","-28.04751990560908"],["50% of amounts included in income under section 951A and 37.5% of foreign branch income. \nSome deductions of corporations are limited at federal or state levels. Limitations apply to items due to related parties, including interest and royalty expenses. Estates and trusts Estates and trusts may be subject to income tax at the estate or trust level, or the beneficiaries may be subject to income tax on their share of income. Where income must be distributed, the beneficiaries are taxed similarly to partners in a partnership. Where income may be retained, the estate or trust is taxed.","-28.038446406368166"],["paid by everyone and the amount a person is taxed remains constant regardless of income or owned assets. It does not create excess burden because these taxes do not alter economic decisions. Because the tax remains constant, an individual's incentives and a firm's incentives will not fluctuate, as opposed to a graduated income tax that taxes people more for earning more.\nLump-sum taxes can be either progressive or regressive, depending on what the lump sum is being applied to. A tax placed on car tags would be regressive because it would be the same for everyone regardless of the type of","-28.031648900960136"],["tax law requires individuals to reduce the foreign income tax by the ratio of the rate differential on dividends (39.6% less 20%) to the maximum individual tax rate (39.6%). Some countries have at times allowed shareholders a credit against the shareholder's tax for taxes paid by the corporations. Several countries allow corporations who own significant shares of other corporations to claim a foreign tax credit for a portion of the foreign income taxes paid by the owned corporation when the shareholding corporation receives a dividend. Effect of FTC on worldwide tax burden Assume that Carpet Ltd is a UK resident","-27.97578498959774"],["forms the fourth-largest source of government revenue (after income, NIC, and VAT). Prior to the tax's enactment on 1 April 1965, companies and individuals paid the same income tax, with an additional profits tax levied on companies. The Finance Act 1965 replaced this structure for companies and associations with a single corporate tax, which borrowed its basic structure and rules from the income tax system. Since 1997, the United Kingdom's Tax Law Rewrite Project has been modernising the United Kingdom's tax legislation, starting with income tax, while the legislation imposing corporation tax has itself been amended; the rules governing income","-27.921123193373205"],["domestic corporations. No international laws limit the ability of a country to tax its nationals and residents (individuals and entities). However, treaties and practicality impose limits on taxation of those outside its borders, even on income from sources within the country.\nMost jurisdictions tax foreign corporations on business income within the jurisdiction when earned through a branch or permanent establishment in the jurisdiction. This tax may be imposed at the same rate as the tax on business income of a resident corporation or at a different rate.\nUpon payment of dividends, corporations are generally subject to withholding tax only","-27.89637534751091"],["the original $100 of profit as income, in the shareholder's hands, like the company was merely a conduit.\nThus company profits going to eligible shareholders are taxed just once. Profits are either retained by the company and taxed there at the corporate rate, or paid out later as dividends and instead they're taxed at the shareholder's rate.\nDividends may still be paid by a company when it has no franking credits (perhaps because it has been making tax losses), this is called an unfranked dividend. Or it may pay a franked portion and an unfranked portion, known as partly franked. An unfranked","-27.87777589124744"],["the federal income tax. Amendments to various provisions affecting corporations have been in most or all revenue acts since. Corporate tax provisions are incorporated in Title 26 of the United States Code, known as the Internal Revenue Code. The present rate of tax on corporate income was adopted in the Tax Reform Act of 1986.\nIn 2010, corporate tax revenue constituted about 9% of all federal revenues or 1.3% of GDP. Taxable income Determinations of what is taxable and at what rate are made at the federal level based on U.S. tax law. Many but not all states incorporate","-27.844203758984804"],["company, profits are taxed at the standard corporate income tax rate of 25%. At the shareholder level, the profit distributions are usually subject to withholding tax of 25% for corporations and 27.5% for other recipients.\nThere also exists a minimum tax (Mindestkörperschaftssteuer) for both limited liability companies (LLC) and joint-stock companies that is equal to 5% of their registered capital. i.e. €1,750 and €3,500 annually. Banks and insurance companies are subject to a different amount - €5,452. For new firms, there is a decreased tax of €1,092 in the first year of their existence. Value added tax (VAT) An Austrian customer","-27.83970412571216"],["The Conservative Chancellor Lord Barber set a single VAT rate (10%) on most goods and services. Income tax UK income tax has changed over the years. Originally it taxed a person's income regardless of who was beneficially entitled (that is, regardless of whether they had a legal obligation to pass it on to another person) to that income, but now a person owes tax only on income to which he or she is beneficially entitled. Most companies were taken out of the income tax net in 1965 when corporation tax was introduced. These changes were consolidated by the Income and","-27.74956036772346"],["tax years 2004–2010, the United States also has imposed a reduced rate of taxation on dividends received by individuals.\nSome systems currently attempt or in the past have attempted to integrate taxation of the corporation with taxation of shareholders to mitigate the dual level of taxation. As a current example, Australia provides for a “franking credit” as a benefit to shareholders. When an Australian company pays a dividend to a domestic shareholder, it reports the dividend as well as a notional tax credit amount. The shareholder utilizes this notional credit to offset shareholder level income tax.\nA previous system","-27.679906982230023"],["reporting the member's distributive share of the LLC's income or loss that is then reported on the member's individual income tax return. On the other hand, income from corporations is taxed twice: once at the corporate entity level and again when distributed to shareholders. Thus, more tax savings often result if a business formed as an LLC rather than a corporation.\nAn LLC with either single or multiple members may elect to be taxed as a corporation through the filing of IRS Form 8832. After electing corporate tax status, an LLC may further elect to be treated as a regular","-27.655291066148493"],["Illinois. The argument is essentially that \"income\" for federal income tax purposes means only the income of a corporation — not the income of a non-corporate taxpayer — because the United States Supreme Court in that case, in discussing the meaning of income, mentioned a statute enacted in 1909 that taxed the income of corporations.\nThe Court in Merchants' Loan was specifically interpreting a 1916 statute imposing income taxes on individuals and estates (among other kinds of entities), and not the 1909 corporate tax statute. The taxpayer in Merchants' Loan was not a corporation but was the \"Estate of Arthur","-27.637903353373986"],["as having been directly imposed on the US owner, thus giving rise to the tax credit.\nFor US owners with foreign subsidiaries, choosing to have a subsidiary treated as a disregarded entity is not always the most beneficial tax-planning choice, however. For example, if a US taxpayer owns a disregarded foreign entity, its income will be taxed at the owner's ordinary US income tax rates, less the foreign tax already paid. This may result in every marginal dollar being taxed at the highest rate. However, if the foreign entity had elected to be taxed as a corporation (or been classified as","-27.614471694742406"],["tax, where company profits were taxed as profits, and dividend payments were then taxed as income, remained unchanged until 1973, when a partial imputation system was introduced for dividend payments. Unlike the previous imputation system, the tax credit to the shareholder was less than the corporation tax paid (corporation tax was higher than the standard rate of income tax, but the imputation, or set-off, was only of standard rate tax). When companies made distributions, they also paid the advance corporation tax (known as ACT), which could be set off against the main corporation tax charge, subject to certain limits (the","-27.61389824800426"],["shareholders (the branch profits tax). The foreign corporation will be subject to U.S. income tax on its effectively connected income, and will also be subject to the branch profits tax on any of its profits not reinvested in the U.S. Thus, many countries tax corporations under company tax rules and tax individual shareholders upon corporate distributions. Various countries have tried (and some still maintain) attempts at partial or full \"integration\" of the enterprise and owner taxation. Where a two level system is present but allows for fiscal transparency of some entities, definitional issues become very important. Source of income Determining","-27.590724416892044"],["a company pays in company tax can be claimed by the shareholder as franking credit, with no net revenue flowing to the government. (There are exceptions which include profits retained by the company that are never paid as dividends, and payments to international investors.)\nWhen gross company tax is reported by Treasury, it is unclear whether the number generally includes the effect of the corresponding franking credits.\nOne effect is that this has reduced the effectiveness of tax incentives for corporations. If a corporation was given a tax break then its incomes thus released from taxation would not generate franking credits","-27.57156835583737"],["payments between related Controlled Foreign Corporations (CFCs), or from American companies to related CFCs, may be \"treated as Subpart F income\" (subject to current taxation as if they were profits in the hands of the ultimate American owner of the corporate structure), in an effort to limit the ability of American citizens and corporations to defer US tax on the income of foreign corporations they control. However, payments between an American-owned foreign entity which is taxed as a corporation, and a foreign subsidiary of that entity which itself has elected to be treated as a disregarded entity, are not treated","-27.55277953541372"],["with 13.4% of pre-tax national income, paid 22.3% of federal taxes. In 2013 the Tax Policy Center projected total federal effective tax rates of 35.5% for the top 1%, 27.2% for the top quintile, 13.8% for the middle quintile, and −2.7% for the bottom quintile. The incidence of corporate income tax has been a matter of considerable ongoing controversy for decades. State and local taxes vary widely, but are generally less progressive than federal taxes as they rely heavily on broadly borne regressive sales and property taxes that yield less volatile revenue streams, though their consideration does not eliminate the","-27.48465738574305"],["who do not pay capital gains taxes directly may wind up paying them through changed prices as the actual payers pass through the cost of paying the tax. Another factor complicating the use of capital gains taxes to address income inequality is that capital gains are usually not recurring income. A taxpayer may be \"high-income\" in the single year in which he or she sells an asset or invention.\nDebate on tax rates is often partisan; the Republican Party tends to favor lower rates, whereas the Democratic Party tends to favor higher rates. Existence of the tax The existence","-27.474630496406462"],["that case, the taxpayer's argument—that the IRS had no ability to impose a tax on the taxpayer because he was a citizen \"of the several states,\" but not a \"federal U.S. citizen\"—was ruled to be frivolous.\nVariations of the argument that an individual is a \"sovereign\" have been rejected in tax cases such as United States v. Hart, Risner v. Commissioner, Maxwell v. Snow, Rowe v. Internal Revenue Serv., Cobin v. Commissioner, and Glavin v. United States.\nThe argument that an individual who received Form W-2 wages or other compensation is not subject to federal income tax because the individual has \"neither","-27.46213696396444"],["for all income-earnings bands has been 16%. According to the income-tax returns of 2008, 14,6% of taxpayers was charged for 64,5% of the total tax burdens. Before the new Corporate income tax regime, the Corporate tax was fixed at 16% of the positive rateable value, with an additional tax called solidarity tax of 4%, the measure of which is calculated based on the result before tax of the company (the solidarity tax has been in use since September, 2006). The actual rateable value might be different is the two cases. From January 2011, under the new Corporate income tax regime","-27.442264280747622"],["shareholders. Subsequently, these shareholders pay tax on the income received in the form of dividend. However, in the Loan-Out corporation format, the creator of the corporation is typically the sole shareholder. To avoid paying tax twice, at the corporate and personal income tax levels, the Loan-Out corporation will pay out it's profits to the sole shareholder as a salary and/or bonus. Since the payment is treated as a salary expense, it is tax deductible as it is a typical part of business operations, rather than the elective payment of a dividend, minimising company profit to or near zero. Unreasonable Compensation","-27.416072779917158"],["the entity does not pay taxes on its income. Instead, the owners of the entity pay tax on their \"distributive share\" of the entity's taxable income, even if no funds are distributed by the partnership to the owners. Federal tax law permits the owners of the entity to agree how the income of the entity will be allocated among them, but requires that this allocation reflect the economic reality of their business arrangement, as tested under complicated rules. United Kingdom In general, a partnership is treated under Section 111 Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988 and Section 848 Income Tax","-27.382419515255606"],["the basic rate allowance, no further tax would be paid. The number of new companies being formed in 2002–2003 reached 325,900, an increase of 45% on 2001–2002.\nThe fact that individuals operating in this manner could potentially pay no tax at all was felt by the government to be unfair tax avoidance, and the 2004 Budget introduced a Non-Corporate Distribution Rate. This ensured that where a company paid below the small companies' rate (19% in 2004), dividend payments made to non-corporates (for example, individuals, trusts and personal representatives of deceased persons) would be subject to additional corporation tax, bringing the corporation","-27.37793805889669"],["Two states with a tax only on interest and dividend income of individuals, are New Hampshire and Tennessee. \n State and local taxes are generally deductible in computing federal taxable income. Federal and many state individual income tax rate schedules differ based on the individual's filing status. Income Taxable income is gross income less adjustments and allowable tax deductions. Gross income for federal and most states is receipts and gains from all sources less cost of goods sold. Gross income includes \"all income from whatever source\", and is not limited to cash received. Income from illegal activities is taxable","-27.35379476635717"],["is imposed at the same rate as the tax on business income of a resident corporation.\nThe U.S. also imposes a branch profits tax on foreign corporations with a U.S. branch, to mimic the dividend withholding tax which would be payable if the business was conducted in a U.S. subsidiary corporation and profits were remitted to the foreign parent as dividends. The branch profits tax is imposed at the time profits are remitted or deemed remitted outside the U.S.\nIn addition, foreign corporations are subject to withholding tax at 30% on dividends, interest, royalties, and certain other income. Tax treaties","-27.3162462876644"],["on their worldwide income, and nonresident, foreign corporations only on their income from sources within the country. Hong Kong taxes resident and nonresident corporations only on income from sources within the country. Distribution of earnings Most systems that tax corporations also impose income tax on shareholders of corporations when earnings are distributed. Such distribution of earnings is generally referred to as a dividend. The tax may be at reduced rates. For example, the United States provides for reduced amounts of tax on dividends received by individuals and by corporations. \nThe company law of some","-27.314067487081047"],["Court before taking effect). The Revenue Act of 1913 imposed a one percent tax on incomes above $3,000, with a top tax rate of six percent on those earning more than $500,000 per year. Approximately three percent of the population was subject to the income tax. The bill also included a one percent tax on the net income of all corporations, superseding a previous federal tax that had only applied to corporate net incomes above $5,000. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the income tax in the cases of Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co. and Stanton v. Baltic","-27.29255192488381"],["individuals;\nThis federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation is allowed to own property and enter contracts. It can also sue and be sued and held liable under both civil and criminal law. As well, because the corporation is legally considered the \"person\", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's debts and damages beyond their investment in the corporation. Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions. Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences","-27.29047809279291"],["Companies of the United States with untaxed profits Companies of the United States with untaxed profits deals with those U.S. companies whose offshore subsidiaries earn profits which are retained in foreign countries to defer paying U.S. corporate tax. The profits of United States corporations are subject to a federal corporate tax rate of 21%. In principle, the tax is payable on all profits of corporations, whether earned domestically or abroad. However, overseas subsidiaries of U.S. corporations are entitled to a tax deferral of profits on active income until repatriated to the U.S., and are regarded as untaxed. When repatriated, the","-27.268011038569966"],["equal tax treatment of all companies. The change had relatively little impact on incorporation rates as the British Virgin Islands imposes virtually no form of direct taxation. Corporate personality In the British Virgin Islands a company has separate legal personality from its members (unlike, for example, a partnership registered under the Partnership Act, 1996). The liability of the members of a company is limited to their shares or the amount of their guarantee. Similarly, directors or officers of a company are not normally liable for the company's debts except insofar as they may otherwise be liable for","-27.22889830007108"],["Controlled foreign corporation Motivations The tax law of many countries, including the United States, does normally not tax a shareholder of a corporation on the corporation's income until the income is distributed as a dividend. Prior to the first U.S. CFC rules, it was common for publicly traded companies to form foreign subsidiaries in tax havens and shift \"portable\" income to those subsidiaries. Income shifted included investment income (interest and dividends) and passive income (rents and royalties), as well as sales and services income involving related parties (see transfer pricing). U.S. tax on this income was avoided until the tax","-27.178774337051436"],["tax their members.\nThe middle income worker's tax wedge is 46% and effective marginal tax rates are very high. Value-added tax is 24% for most items. Capital gains tax is 30-34% and corporate tax is 20%, about the EU median. Property taxes are low, but there is a transfer tax (1.6% for apartments or 4% for individual houses) for home buyers. There are high excise taxes on alcoholic beverages, tobacco, automobiles and motorcycles, motor fuels, lotteries, sweets and insurances. For instance, McKinsey estimates that a worker has to pay around 1600 euro for another's 400 euro service - restricting service supply","-27.178249407210387"],["this argument, have been officially identified as legally frivolous federal tax return positions for purposes of the $5,000 frivolous tax return penalty imposed under Internal Revenue Code section 6702(a). Cases indicating definition of income is irrelevant At least two federal courts have indicated that Congress may constitutionally tax an item as \"income,\" regardless of whether that item is \"income\" within the meaning of the Sixteenth Amendment. In Penn Mutual Indemnity Co. v. Commissioner, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit stated:\nIt did not take a constitutional amendment to entitle the United States to impose an income tax.","-27.17606255193823"],["rate there is no longer any incentive for a rational taxpayer to earn any income, thus the revenue raised will be 100% of nothing. If both a 0% rate and 100% rate of taxation generate no revenue, it follows from the extreme value theorem that there must exist at least one rate in between where tax revenue would be a maximum. The Laffer curve is typically represented as a graph which starts at 0% tax, zero revenue, rises to a maximum rate of revenue raised at an intermediate rate of taxation and then falls again to zero revenue at a","-27.173555584198766"],["starting rate to zero, with marginal relief applying in the same way. This caused a significant increase in the number of companies being incorporated, as businesses that had operated as self-employed, paying income tax on profits from just over £5,000, were attracted to the corporation tax rate of 0% on income up to £10,000. Previously self-employed individuals could now distribute profits as dividend payments rather than salaries. For companies with profits under £50,000 the corporation tax rate varied between 0% and 19%. Because dividend payments come with a basic rate tax credit, provided the recipient did not earn more than","-27.168903137542657"],["Dividends received deduction The dividends-received deduction (or \"DRD\"), under U.S. federal income tax law, is a tax deduction received by a corporation on the dividends it receives from other corporations in which it has an ownership stake. Impact This deduction is designed to reduce the consequences of alleged triple taxation. Otherwise, corporate profits would be taxed to the corporation that earned them, then to the corporate shareholder, and then to the individual shareholder. While Congress allowed for double taxation on corporations, it did not intend a triple - and potentially infinitely-tiered - tax to apply to corporate profits at every","-27.151104203308932"],["so that companies would invest them in the U.S.\nIn comparing corporate taxes, the Congressional Budget Office found in 2005 that the top statutory tax rate was the third highest among OECD countries behind Japan and Germany. However, the U.S. ranked 27th lowest of 30 OECD countries in its collection of corporate taxes relative to GDP, at 1.8% vs. the average 2.5%.\nU.S. corporate after-tax profits were at record levels during the third quarter of 2012, at an annualized $1.75 trillion. U.S. federal corporate income tax revenues have declined relative to profits, falling from approximately 27% in 2000 to 17% in 2012.","-27.130942882882664"],["Finance Act 1965 The Finance Act 1965 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which introduced two major new UK taxes. Corporation tax created a separate system for taxing the income of corporations, where previously they had paid income tax in the same way as private individuals. Capital gains tax is charged on the disposal of assets, and is based on any \"real gain\" made from the disposal. If the income comes within income tax, capital gains is not chargeable. Capital gains tax does not apply to corporations, but an identical provision, known as chargeable gains, is","-27.125574032310396"],["where lower income tax units pay a greater fraction of income in tax) has a negative Suits index. A theoretical tax where the richest person pays all the tax has a Suits index of 1, and a tax where the poorest person pays everything has a Suits index of −1. Tax preferences (credits and deductions) also have a Suits index. Income tax By definition, a flat income tax has a Suits index of zero. However, almost all income tax systems allow for some amount of income to be earned without tax (an exemption amount) to avoid collecting tax","-27.120928869291674"],["tax paid up to 19%. For example, a company making £10,000 profit, and making a £6,000 dividend distribution to an individual and £4,000 to another company would pay 19% corporation tax on the £6,000. Although this measure substantially reduced the number of small businesses incorporating, the Chancellor in the 2006 Budget said tax avoidance by small businesses through incorporation was still a major issue, and scrapped the starting rate entirely. Taxable profits and accounting profits The starting point for computing taxable profits is profits before tax (except for a life assurance company). The rules for calculating corporation tax generally ran","-27.117957698530518"],["to ordinary income) in 1972 and later years. The alternative tax rate on corporate long-term capital gains income is increased to 28 percent in 1970 and 30 percent in 1971 and later years.\"\nThe Act also included for the first time an Alternative Minimum Tax, set at 10%. The change was explained as follows: \nThe prior treatment imposed no limit on the amount of income which an individual or corporation could exclude from tax as the result of various tax preferences. As a result, there were large variations in the tax burdens placed on individuals or corporations with similar economic","-27.115013344970066"],["level in two or three generations as a share of G.D.P. or that corporate tax revenues as a share of G.D.P. are the lowest among all major countries. One hears only that the statutory corporate tax rate in the United States is high compared with other countries, which is true but not necessarily relevant. The economic importance of statutory tax rates is blown far out of proportion by Republicans looking for ways to make taxes look high when they are quite low.\" Budget deficits: \"spending problem\" or \"revenue problem\"? Prominent Republican Congressmen have suggested that the federal deficits should be","-27.114215725567192"],["imposed on corporations. Rates of tax and the taxable base for corporations may differ from those for individuals or for other taxable persons. Social-security contributions Many countries provide publicly funded retirement or health-care systems. In connection with these systems, the country typically requires employers and/or employees to make compulsory payments. These payments are often computed by reference to wages or earnings from self-employment. Tax rates are generally fixed, but a different rate may be imposed on employers than on employees. Some systems provide an upper limit on earnings subject to the tax. A few systems provide that the tax is","-27.105203474638984"],["the state on a formulary basis. Many states apply a \"throw back\" concept to tax domestic corporations on income not taxed by other states. Tax treaties do not apply to state taxes.\nUnder the U.S. Constitution, states are prohibited from taxing income of a resident of another state unless the connection with the taxing state reach a certain level (called “nexus”). Most states do not tax non-business income of out of state corporations. Since the tax must be fairly apportioned, the states and localities compute income of out of state corporations (including those in foreign countries) taxable in the","-27.10251499339938"],["2013 tax law the top 1% will be paying the highest average tax rates since 1979, while other income groups will remain at historic lows.\nU.S. taxation has historically been generally progressive, especially the federal income taxes, though by most measures it became noticeably less progressive after 1980. It has sometimes been described as among the most progressive in the developed world, but this characterization is controversial. The highest 10% of income earners pay a majority of federal taxes, and about half of all taxes. Payroll taxes for Social Security are a flat regressive tax, with no tax charged on income","-27.09238119330257"],["C corporation is treated as a dividend for U.S. income tax purposes. \"Earnings and profits\" is a tax law concept similar to the financial accounting concept of retained earnings. Exceptions apply to treat certain distributions as made in exchange for stock rather than as dividends. Such exceptions include distributions in complete termination of a shareholder's interest and distributions in liquidation of the corporation.","-27.05486408714205"],["is earned. Defining when income occurs Since a central tenet of the flat tax is to minimize the compartmentalization of incomes into myriad special or sheltered cases, a vexing problem is deciding when income occurs. This is demonstrated by the taxation of interest income and stock dividends. The shareholders own the company and so the company's profits belong to them. If a company is taxed on its profits, then the funds paid out as dividends have already been taxed. It's a debatable question if they should subsequently be treated as income to the shareholders and thus","-27.026255127770128"],["The basis for allowing corporations to assert such protections under the U.S. Constitution is that they are organizations of people, and the people should not be deprived of their constitutional rights when they act collectively. Thus, treating corporations as having legal rights allows corporations to sue and to be sued, provides a single entity for easier taxation and regulation, simplifies complex transactions that would otherwise involve, in the case of large corporations, thousands of people, and protects the individual rights of the shareholders as well as the right of association.\nGenerally, corporations are not able to claim constitutional protections that would","-27.003842453181278"],["tax (which only applies to inherited wealth greater than $11 million for a married couple) benefits only the heirs of the very rich (such as Trump's children), and there is a reduced tax rate for people who report business income on their individual returns (as Trump does). If Trump's tax plan had been in place in 2005 (the one recent year in which his tax returns were leaked), he would have saved $31 million in taxes from the alternative minimum tax cut alone. If the most recent estimate of the value of Trump's assets is correct, the repeal of the","-26.987523744959617"],["Individuals and corporations pay U.S. federal income tax on the net total of all their capital gains. The tax rate depends on both the investor's tax bracket and the amount of time the investment was held. Short-term capital gains are taxed at the investor's ordinary income tax rate and are defined as investments held for a year or less before being sold. Long-term capital gains, on dispositions of assets held for more than one year, are taxed at a lower rate. Payroll taxes In the United States, payroll taxes are assessed by the federal government, many states, the District of","-26.974659979576245"],["of up to 4 percent and 0.5 percent respectively. Motoring taxation Motoring taxes include: fuel duty (which itself also attracts VAT), and Vehicle Excise Duty. Other fees and charges include the London congestion charge, various statutory fees including that for the compulsory vehicle test and that for vehicle registration, and in some areas on-street parking (as well as associated charges for violations). Corporate Tax Corporation tax is a tax levied in the United Kingdom on the profits made by companies and on the profits of permanent establishments of non-UK resident companies and associations that trade in the EU.\nCorporation tax","-26.971668681013398"],["on the investment (the cost base of the shares) are taxed as \"ordinary income\" when distributed to personal shareholders. When added to the 28% company taxation, this gives a total maximum marginal tax rate on dividends of 48.16% (0.28+0.72*0.28). The 2014 corporate tax rate is 27% giving a marginal tax rate on dividends of 46.71%.\nThe part of the dividend that is not exceeding a risk-free return on the investment, is not taxed on the hand of the shareholder, and is thus subject to the 28% company taxation only. If the dividend for one year is less than the calculated risk-free","-26.965612367232097"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"imposed in the U.S. at the federal, most state, and some local levels on the income of entities treated for tax purposes as corporations. Shareholders of a corporation wholly owned by U.S. citizens and resident individuals may elect for the corporation to be taxed similarly to partnerships, as an S Corporation. Corporate income tax is based on taxable income, which is defined similarly to individual taxable income.\\nShareholders (including other corporations) of corporations (other than S Corporations) are taxed on dividend distributions from the corporation. They are also subject to tax on capital gains upon sale or exchange of their shares\",\n \"-31.768102069821907\"\n ],\n [\n \"rate, but provide different rates of tax depending on income levels or size of the company.\\nThe United States taxes corporations under the same framework of tax law as individuals, with differences related to the inherent natures of corporations and individuals or unincorporated entities. Individuals are not formed, amalgamated, or acquired; and corporations do not incur medical expenses except by way of compensating individuals.\\nMost systems tax both domestic and foreign corporations. Often, domestic corporations are taxed on worldwide income while foreign corporations are taxed only on income from sources within the jurisdiction. Taxable income The United States defines taxable\",\n \"-31.19392833695747\"\n ],\n [\n \"federal law principles in their tax laws to some extent. Federal taxable income equals gross income (gross receipts and other income less cost of goods sold) less tax deductions. Gross income of a corporation and business deductions are determined in much the same manner as for individuals. All income of a corporation is subject to the same federal tax rate. However, corporations may reduce other federal taxable income by a net capital loss and certain deductions are more limited. Certain deductions are available only to corporations. These include deductions for dividends received and amortization of organization expenses. Some states\",\n \"-31.189764277194627\"\n ],\n [\n \"a corporate income tax of 20% over profits from companies (called First Category Tax), the system is ultimately designed to tax individuals. Therefore, corporate income taxes paid constitute a credit towards two personal income taxes: the Global Complementary Tax (in the case of residents) or the Additional Tax (in the case of non-residents). The Global Complementary Tax is payable by those that have different sources of income, while those receiving income solely from dependent work are subject to the Second Category Tax. Both taxes are equally progressive in statutory terms, with a top marginal rate of 40%. Income arising from\",\n \"-31.018285656697117\"\n ],\n [\n \"value added tax is levied on sales of goods and services (including imports) at a rate of 19%, with a few exemptions. The income tax revenue comprises different taxes. While there is a corporate income tax of 20% over profits from companies (called First Category Tax), the system is ultimately designed to tax individuals. Therefore, corporate income taxes paid constitute a credit towards two personal income taxes: the Global Complementary Tax (in the case of residents) or the Additional Tax (in the case of non-residents). The Global Complementary Tax is payable by those that have different sources of income, while\",\n \"-30.167056660051458\"\n ],\n [\n \"profit income and on capital. These make up a relatively small portion of total tax revenue. Tax is paid on corporate income at the corporate level before it is distributed to individual shareholders as dividends. A tax credit is provided to individuals who receive dividend to reflect the tax paid at the corporate level. This credit does not eliminate double taxation of this income completely, however, resulting in a higher level of tax on dividend income than other types of income. (Where income is earned in the form of a capital gain, only half of the gain is\",\n \"-29.961544300982496\"\n ],\n [\n \"their investment earnings. Corporate taxes A company tax is paid by companies and corporations on their profits. Unlike personal income taxes which use a progressive scale, company tax is calculated at a flat rate of 30% (25% for small businesses, which are defined as companies with revenue of less than $2 million per year). Tax is paid on corporate income at the corporate level before it is distributed to shareholders as dividends.\\nA tax credit (called a franking credit) is available to resident shareholders who receive the dividends to reflect the tax already paid at the corporate level (a process known\",\n \"-29.836257161572576\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a unified manner on all types of income while individuals are taxed in differing manners depending on the nature or source of the income. Many jurisdictions impose tax at both an entity level and at the owner level on one or more types of enterprises. These jurisdictions often rely on the company law of that jurisdiction or other jurisdictions in determining whether an entity's owners are to be taxed directly on the entity income. However, there are notable exceptions, including U.S. rules characterizing entities independently of legal form.\\nIn order to simplify administration or for other agendas, some governments have\",\n \"-29.82598553877324\"\n ],\n [\n \"a one percent tax on the net income of all corporations, superseding a previous federal tax that had only applied to corporate net incomes above $5,000. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the income tax in the cases of Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co. and Stanton v. Baltic Mining Co. Impact and aftermath Working with progressive Republicans, Congressional Democrats won passage of the Revenue Act of 1916, which reinstated the federal estate tax, established a tax on the production of munitions, raised the top income tax rate to fifteen percent, and raised the corporate income tax from one\",\n \"-29.784135573310778\"\n ],\n [\n \"such by default), paid a low rate tax in the foreign country, then repatriated its income to the US by paying qualified dividends to its owner, the total proportion of tax paid on income might actually be less, as qualified dividends are only taxed at 15%. However, this treatment is only available for dividends from corporations in certain countries, and is set to sunset in 2010 under the Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act of 2005.\\nForeign owners of US corporations also benefit from the ability to have entities normally treated as flow-through instead be taxed as corporations by the IRS.\",\n \"-29.560564514249563\"\n ],\n [\n \"because any profits distributed to shareholders will eventually be taxed twice. One solution, followed by as in the case of the Australian and UK tax systems, is for the recipient of the dividend to be entitled to a tax credit to address the fact that the profits represented by the dividend have already been taxed. The company profit being passed on is thus effectively taxed only at the rate of tax paid by the eventual recipient of the dividend.\\nIn other systems, dividends are taxed at a lower rate than other income (for example, in the US), or shareholders are taxed\",\n \"-29.549784094211645\"\n ],\n [\n \"the most advantages. Tax advantages The amount of tax a corporation pays is based on the amount of profits so they could merge with a corporation making a loss in order to reduce their tax burden. However this has been discouraged. Increase in size Corporate synergies due to mergers result in larger firm size which is perceived as more attractive to some investors as well as a larger firm gives competitive advantage in an industry as higher market share allows firms to be more dominant and able control the market more. Disadvantages with Corporate Synergy Managerial biases conflicts with the\",\n \"-29.452858125087005\"\n ],\n [\n \"Corporate tax in the United States State and local income taxes Nearly all of the states and some localities impose a tax on corporation income. The rules for determining this tax vary widely from state to state. Many of the states compute taxable income with reference to federal taxable income, with specific modifications. The states do not allow a tax deduction for income taxes, whether federal or state. Further, most states deny tax exemption for interest income that is tax exempt at the federal level.\\nMost states tax domestic and foreign corporations on taxable income derived from business activities apportioned to\",\n \"-29.449140323209576\"\n ],\n [\n \"that only \\\"corporate profits\\\" could be taxable — are citing a case where the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the income of a non-corporate taxpayer is taxable. Neither the United States Supreme Court nor any other federal court has ever ruled that under the Internal Revenue Code the term \\\"income\\\" means only the income of a corporation for federal income tax purposes.\\nSome tax protesters have cited the Supreme Court case of Flint v. Stone Tracy Co. for the argument that only corporate profits or income can be taxed, using the following quotation:\\nExcises are taxes laid upon the manufacture, sale or\",\n \"-29.353754633455537\"\n ],\n [\n \"on foreign income of resident corporations until it is remitted to the country. Individuals versus enterprises Many tax systems tax individuals in one manner and entities that are not considered fiscally transparent in another. The differences may be as simple as differences in tax rates, and are often motivated by concerns unique to either individuals or corporations. For example, many systems allow taxable income of an individual to be reduced by a fixed amount allowance for other persons supported by the individual (dependents). Such a concept is not relevant for enterprises.\\nMany systems allow for fiscal transparency of certain forms of\",\n \"-29.35354279988678\"\n ],\n [\n \"any taxpayer, including individuals and corporations, as well as entities that themselves do not pay tax, such as partnerships, in which case it may be called “net profit”.\\nMost systems require that all income realized (or derived) be included in taxable income. Some systems provide tax exemption for some types of income. Many systems impose tax at different rates for differing types (e.g., capital gains or salaries) or levels of income (e.g., graduated rates). In the United States, gross income includes all income realized from whatever source, but excludes particular tax exempt items, such as municipal bond interest.\",\n \"-29.294898961292347\"\n ],\n [\n \"of this distinction, capital is taxed much more lightly than labor.\\nUnder the U.S. system, individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts are subject to income tax. Partnerships are not taxed; rather, their partners are subject to income tax on their shares of income and deductions, and take their shares of credits. Some types of business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships.\\nTaxpayers are required to file tax returns and self assess tax. Tax may be withheld from payments of income (e.g., withholding of tax from wages). To the extent taxes are not covered by withholdings, taxpayers must make\",\n \"-29.274351210464374\"\n ],\n [\n \" This results in a dual level of tax. Most systems require that income tax be withheld on distribution of dividends to foreign shareholders, and some also require withholding of tax on distributions to domestic shareholders. The rate of such withholding tax may be reduced for a shareholder under a tax treaty.\\nSome systems tax some or all dividend income at lower rates than other income. The United States has historically provided a dividends received deduction to corporations with respect to dividends from other corporations in which the recipient owns more than 10% of the shares. For\",\n \"-29.23111544526182\"\n ],\n [\n \"income for a corporation as all gross income, i.e. sales plus other income minus cost of goods sold and tax exempt income less allowable tax deductions, without the allowance of the standard deduction applicable to individuals.\\nThe United States' system requires that differences in principles for recognizing income and deductions differing from financial accounting principles like the timing of income or deduction, tax exemption for certain income, and disallowance or limitation of certain tax deductions be disclosed in considerable detail for non-small corporations on Schedule M-3 to Form 1120.\\nThe United States taxes resident corporations, i.e. those organized within the country,\",\n \"-29.131170197739266\"\n ],\n [\n \"will be taxed instead as earned income. If an individual gets more than 150,000 € in dividends from non-listed limited companies, the tax-exempt percentage will only be 15% for the amount that exceeds 150,000 €. The effective tax rate for a dividend that does not exceed 8% of the value of a stock will be 7.5% - 8.5%. Due to the effect of net assets, dividends of debted private companies will usually have their dividends taxed as earned income. Corporate taxes The corporate income tax rate is 20.0%. The corporate tax was fully paid as dividend tax before 2004, but\",\n \"-28.99327234031807\"\n ],\n [\n \"tax business income of a corporation differently than nonbusiness income.\\nPrinciples for recognizing income and deductions may differ from financial accounting principles. Key areas of difference include differences in the timing of income or deduction, tax exemption for certain income, and disallowance or limitation of certain tax deductions. IRS rules require that these differences be disclosed in considerable detail for non-small corporations on Schedule M-3 to Form 1120. Tax credits Corporations, like other businesses, may be eligible for various tax credits which reduce federal, state or local income tax. The largest of these by dollar volume is the federal\",\n \"-28.96684445772553\"\n ],\n [\n \"enterprise. For example, most countries tax partners of a partnership, rather than the partnership itself, on income of the partnership. A common feature of income taxation is imposition of a levy on certain enterprises in certain forms followed by an additional levy on owners of the enterprise upon distribution of such income. For example, the U.S. imposes two levels of tax on foreign individuals or foreign corporations who own a U.S. corporation. First, the U.S. corporation is subject to the regular income tax on its profits, then subject to an additional 30% tax on the dividends paid to foreign\",\n \"-28.927736154641025\"\n ],\n [\n \"January 1, 2014. Under current law, a corporation that meets certain requirements may elect to be taxed as an S corporation, which generally pays no corporate-level tax, unlike a C corporation. For corporations that convert from C corporations to S corporations, or S corporations that receive assets under certain conditions from C corporations, there is a corporate-level tax on certain built-in gains of certain assets, with a 10-year recognition period under current law. This legislation makes permanent the five-year recognition period for S corporation built-in gains that was generally in effect for taxable years from 2011 through 2013. The legislation\",\n \"-28.907086777035147\"\n ],\n [\n \"is the amount they pay in taxes. That tax is eventually spent back on the people. Such corporations \\nhave the capacity to grow at a very fast rate and this eventually leads them to employing more people(lowering the employment burden on the government). Their profit maximisation motive also means that they will work on their productivity and will contribute to the GDP of any country they are living in. A higher GDP often leads to a higher living standard. To the business As the corporation only works for its own interest it gets the opportunity to isolate itself from all\",\n \"-28.877096159019857\"\n ],\n [\n \"1969 Act prepared by Congress's Staff of the Joint Committee on Internal Revenue Taxation described the reason for the AMT as follows:\\nThe prior treatment imposed no limit on the amount of income which an individual or corporation could exclude from tax as the result of various tax preferences. As a result, there were large variations in the tax burdens placed on individuals or corporations with similar economic incomes, depending upon the size of their preference income. In general, those individual or corporate taxpayers who received the bulk of their income from personal services or manufacturing were taxed at relatively higher\",\n \"-28.809866549563594\"\n ],\n [\n \"incomes, depending upon the size of their preference income. In general, those individual or corporate taxpayers who received the bulk of their income from personal services or manufacturing were taxed at relatively higher tax rates than others. On the other hand, individuals or corporations which received the bulk of their income from such sources as capital gains or were in a position to benefit from net lease arrangements, from accelerated depreciation on real estate, from percentage depletion, or from other tax-preferred activities tended to pay relatively low rates of tax. In fact, many individuals with high incomes who could benefit\",\n \"-28.80173132616619\"\n ],\n [\n \"tax rates than others. On the other hand, individuals or corporations which received the bulk of their income from such sources as capital gains or were in a position to benefit from net lease arrangements, from accelerated depreciation on real estate, from percentage depletion, or from other tax-preferred activities tended to pay relatively low rates of tax. In fact, many individuals with high incomes who could benefit from these provisions paid lower effective rates of tax than many individuals with modest incomes. In extreme cases, individuals enjoyed large economic incomes without paying any tax at all. This was true for\",\n \"-28.78706533811055\"\n ],\n [\n \"U.S. has a true \\\"income tax,\\\" which is a direct tax on [.] the income of a corporation... but not on the total income. [T]he corporation is permitted to deduct both the cost of any goods sold -- whether produced or purchased for resale -- and general and administrative expenses like wages, advertising, interest expense, depreciation, etc... Once you've settled onto that net income number, a 35% income tax is assessed.\\n— Nitti January 26, 2017. Forbes\\nTo encourage companies to export, the border adjustment tax system would \\\"adjust\\\" the company's tax to account for the exported sales by removing the amount of\",\n \"-28.728844862489495\"\n ],\n [\n \"they are individual income tax and corporate income tax. Many rules and provisions are the same for individual income tax and corporations, especially in terms of income elements and the determination of net income. However individual income tax and corporate income tax are regulated by different laws. Banking and Insurance Transaction Tax The transactions and services performed by banks and insurance companies are subject to the tax. Taxpayers consist of banks, bankers and insurance companies. Regardless of the nature of the transaction, they are all subject to BITT. Taxes will be levied on the money they collect as interest, commission\",\n \"-28.627409899054328\"\n ],\n [\n \"may reduce or eliminate this tax. This tax applies to a \\\"dividend equivalent amount,\\\" which is the corporation's effectively connected earnings and profits for the year, less investments the corporation makes in its U.S. assets (money and adjusted bases of property connected with the conduct of a U.S. trade or business). The tax is imposed even if there is no distribution. Consolidated returns Corporations 80% or more owned by a common parent corporation may file a consolidated return for federal and some state income taxes. These returns include all income, deductions, and credits of all members of the controlled\",\n \"-28.594929437735118\"\n ],\n [\n \"dividends paid to shareholders. For example, the overall U.S. tax on corporate profits of 35% is less than or similar to that of European countries such as Germany, Ireland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, which have lower corporate tax rates but higher taxes on dividends paid to shareholders.\\nMany large multinational companies retain untaxed profits in tax haven jurisdictions which offer no or very low corporate taxes, as well as other tax benefits.\",\n \"-28.540053202596027\"\n ],\n [\n \"be based on assets, capital, wages, or some alternative measure of taxable income. Often the alternative tax functions as a minimum tax.\\nUnited States federal income tax incorporates an alternative minimum tax. This tax is computed at a lower tax rate (20% for corporations), and imposed based on a modified version of taxable income. Modifications include longer depreciation lives assets under MACRS, adjustments related to costs of developing natural resources, and an addback of certain tax exempt interest. The U. S. state of Michigan previously taxed businesses on an alternative base that did not allow compensation of\",\n \"-28.468516332563013\"\n ],\n [\n \"of personal income tax, the marginal tax rate to which the return on unincorporated capital is subject. There is no integration of the corporate and personal income taxes so any dividends are taxed twice.\\nHarberger's conclusion, seen as surprising at the time, is that the corporate income tax lowers the after-tax marginal product of all owners of capital equally. Since labor and new capital were free change sectors without cost, each factor got paid exactly its \\\"value of marginal product\\\" and because constant returns to scale are assumed, the total payment to each factor exactly equals the total value the factor\",\n \"-28.447856685299485\"\n ],\n [\n \"covered the tax due from the individual on the dividend paid. If, however, the individual was subject to tax at a higher rate (known as \\\"surtax\\\"), he (not the company) would be liable to pay the additional tax.\\nIn addition to income tax, companies were also subject to a profits tax, which was deducted from company profits when determining the income tax liability. It was a differential tax, with a higher tax rate on dividends (profits distributed to shareholders) than on profits retained within the company. By penalising the distribution of profits, it was hoped companies would retain profits for investment,\",\n \"-28.443246120703407\"\n ],\n [\n \"Indeed, the tax in this case was imposed retroactively; the statute was enacted in August 1909 but was made effective retroactively to January 1, 1909. Corporate profits One argument repeatedly made by tax protesters is that the income of individuals is not taxable because income should mean only \\\"corporate profits\\\" or \\\"corporate gain\\\". This is the Merchants' Loan argument, named after the case of Merchants' Loan & Trust Company, as Trustee of the Estate of Arthur Ryerson, Deceased, Plaintiff in Error v. Julius F. Smietanka, formerly United States Collector of Internal Revenue for the First District of the State of\",\n \"-28.384901718585752\"\n ],\n [\n \"for money or property. However, certain exchanges, such as in reorganizations, are not taxable.\\nMultiple corporations may file a consolidated return at the federal and some state levels with their common parent. Corporate tax rates Federal corporate income tax is imposed at 21% from 2018. Dividend exclusions and certain corporation-only deductions may significantly lower the effective rate. Deductions for corporations Most expenses of corporations are deductible, subject to limitations also applicable to other taxpayers. See relevant deductions for details. In addition, regular U.S. corporations are allowed a deduction of 100% of dividends received from 10% or more foreign subsidiaries,\",\n \"-28.366828732985596\"\n ],\n [\n \"Instead of a corporation paying the U.S. tax rate (35%) for income earned in any country (less a credit for taxes paid to that country), each subsidiary pays the tax rate of the country in which it is legally established. In other words, under a territorial tax system, the corporation saves the difference between the generally higher U.S. tax rate and the lower rate of the country in which the subsidiary is legally established. Bloomberg journalist Matt Levine explained the concept, \\\"If we're incorporated in the U.S. [under the old global tax regime], we'll pay 35 percent taxes on our\",\n \"-28.327984142815694\"\n ],\n [\n \"be classified for U.S. tax purposes as a corporation or a flow-through entity somewhat independently of its classification for foreign purposes. Under these \\\"check-the-box\\\" rules, shareholders may be able to elect to treat their shares income, deductions, and taxes of a foreign corporation as earned and paid by themselves. This permits U.S. individuals to obtain credits for foreign taxes paid by entities they own, which credits might otherwise not be available.\\nArtificial arrangements to avoid CFC status may be ignored in some jurisdictions under legislative provisions or court-developed law, such as substance over form doctrines.\\nEuropean civil law may provide opportunities for\",\n \"-28.325977155356668\"\n ],\n [\n \"many localities impose a tax on the income of corporations. Tax rates vary by state and locality, and may be fixed or graduated. Most rates are the same for all types of income. State and local income taxes are imposed in addition to federal income tax. State income tax is allowed as a deduction in computing federal income, but is capped at $10,000 per household since the passage of the 2017 tax law. Prior to the change, the average deduction exceeded $10,000 in most of the Midwest, most of the Northeast, as well as California and Oregon.\\nState and local taxable\",\n \"-28.316158201836515\"\n ],\n [\n \"asset or capital measures. In addition, some states impose a tax on capital of corporations or on shares issued and outstanding. The U. S. state of Michigan previously taxed businesses on an alternative base that did not allow compensation of employees as a tax deduction and allowed full deduction of the cost of production assets upon acquisition. Tax returns Corporations subject to U.S. tax must file federal and state income tax returns. Different tax returns are required at the federal and some state levels for different types of corporations or corporations engaged in specialized businesses. The United\",\n \"-28.30359801251325\"\n ],\n [\n \"to employees (such as company cars) and on tax liabilities met on behalf of employees via a \\\"PAYE Settlement Agreement\\\".\\nThere are separate arrangements for self-employed persons, who are normally liable to Class 2 flat rate NIC and Class 4 earnings-related NIC, and for some voluntary sector workers. Capital gains tax Capital gains are subject to tax at 18 or 28 percent (for individuals) or at the applicable marginal rate of corporation tax (for companies).\\nThe basic principle is the same for individuals and companies - the tax applies only on the disposal of a capital asset, and the amount of the\",\n \"-28.30149922380224\"\n ],\n [\n \"burden of employees is represented by the personal income tax rate. It increases labor cost for corporations. The lower the income tax rate the more attractive the country thus is for a corporation. R&D incentives R&D investments represent a large expenditure and affect the future product offering. Thus, R&D incentives are crucial for many enterprises. Some countries offer tax incentives, for resident companies conducting R&D, which supports companies to reduce their after tax R&D cost. Taxation of capital gains A double taxation is caused by the taxation of capital gains, as capital gains contain past company profits and expected future\",\n \"-28.23493986792164\"\n ],\n [\n \"also subject to tax on dividends received from corporations. By contrast, partnerships are not subject to income tax, but their partners calculate their taxes by including their shares of partnership items. Corporations owned entirely by U.S. citizens or residents (S corporations) may elect to be treated similarly to partnerships. A limited liability company and certain other business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships. States generally follow such characterization. Many states also allow corporations to elect S corporation status. Charitable organizations are subject to tax on business income.\\nCertain transactions of business entities are not subject to\",\n \"-28.171403091284446\"\n ],\n [\n \"tax Many jurisdictions tax the income of individuals and business entities, including corporations. Generally, the authorities impose tax on net profits from a business, on net gains, and on other income. Computation of income subject to tax may be determined under accounting principles used in the jurisdiction, which may be modified or replaced by tax-law principles in the jurisdiction. The incidence of taxation varies by system, and some systems may be viewed as progressive or regressive. Rates of tax may vary or be constant (flat) by income level. Many systems allow individuals certain personal allowances and other non-business reductions to\",\n \"-28.118913925194647\"\n ],\n [\n \"distributed.\\nThe United States does not generally require withholding tax on the payment of dividends to shareholders. However, withholding tax is required if the shareholder is not a U.S. citizen or resident or U.S. corporation, or in some other circumstances (see Tax withholding in the United States). Earnings and profits U.S. corporations are permitted to distribute amounts in excess of earnings under the laws of most states under which they may be organized. A distribution by a corporation to shareholders is treated as a dividend to the extent of earnings and profits (E&P), a tax concept similar to retained\",\n \"-28.06500879061059\"\n ],\n [\n \"While tax rules vary widely, there are certain basic principles common to most income tax systems. Tax systems in Canada, China, Germany, Singapore, the United Kingdom, and the United States, among others, follow most of the principles outlined below. Some tax systems, such as India, may have significant differences from the principles outlined below. Most references below are examples; see specific articles by jurisdiction (e.g., Income tax in Australia). Taxpayers and rates Individuals are often taxed at different rates than corporations. Individuals include only human beings. Tax systems in countries other than the USA treat an entity as a corporation\",\n \"-28.04904958151201\"\n ],\n [\n \"corporate taxpayers and registered individual entrepreneurs, is known as General taxation system. Three alternative tax systems replace the above taxes with a simplified procedure:\\nImputed taxation applies to specific, typically small business, activities involving trading with general public in cash: small retail and food service outlets, hotels, repair shops, taxi companies, etc. Imputed tax, uses rates set by local authorities (per square meter of shop space, per vehicle etc.) All eligible businesses use imputed taxation. The law is also mandatory for eligible parts of larger corporations, even if they are individually insignificant. For example, a cafeteria of a large steel mill\",\n \"-28.04751990560908\"\n ],\n [\n \"50% of amounts included in income under section 951A and 37.5% of foreign branch income. \\nSome deductions of corporations are limited at federal or state levels. Limitations apply to items due to related parties, including interest and royalty expenses. Estates and trusts Estates and trusts may be subject to income tax at the estate or trust level, or the beneficiaries may be subject to income tax on their share of income. Where income must be distributed, the beneficiaries are taxed similarly to partners in a partnership. Where income may be retained, the estate or trust is taxed.\",\n \"-28.038446406368166\"\n ],\n [\n \"paid by everyone and the amount a person is taxed remains constant regardless of income or owned assets. It does not create excess burden because these taxes do not alter economic decisions. Because the tax remains constant, an individual's incentives and a firm's incentives will not fluctuate, as opposed to a graduated income tax that taxes people more for earning more.\\nLump-sum taxes can be either progressive or regressive, depending on what the lump sum is being applied to. A tax placed on car tags would be regressive because it would be the same for everyone regardless of the type of\",\n \"-28.031648900960136\"\n ],\n [\n \"tax law requires individuals to reduce the foreign income tax by the ratio of the rate differential on dividends (39.6% less 20%) to the maximum individual tax rate (39.6%). Some countries have at times allowed shareholders a credit against the shareholder's tax for taxes paid by the corporations. Several countries allow corporations who own significant shares of other corporations to claim a foreign tax credit for a portion of the foreign income taxes paid by the owned corporation when the shareholding corporation receives a dividend. Effect of FTC on worldwide tax burden Assume that Carpet Ltd is a UK resident\",\n \"-27.97578498959774\"\n ],\n [\n \"forms the fourth-largest source of government revenue (after income, NIC, and VAT). Prior to the tax's enactment on 1 April 1965, companies and individuals paid the same income tax, with an additional profits tax levied on companies. The Finance Act 1965 replaced this structure for companies and associations with a single corporate tax, which borrowed its basic structure and rules from the income tax system. Since 1997, the United Kingdom's Tax Law Rewrite Project has been modernising the United Kingdom's tax legislation, starting with income tax, while the legislation imposing corporation tax has itself been amended; the rules governing income\",\n \"-27.921123193373205\"\n ],\n [\n \"domestic corporations. No international laws limit the ability of a country to tax its nationals and residents (individuals and entities). However, treaties and practicality impose limits on taxation of those outside its borders, even on income from sources within the country.\\nMost jurisdictions tax foreign corporations on business income within the jurisdiction when earned through a branch or permanent establishment in the jurisdiction. This tax may be imposed at the same rate as the tax on business income of a resident corporation or at a different rate.\\nUpon payment of dividends, corporations are generally subject to withholding tax only\",\n \"-27.89637534751091\"\n ],\n [\n \"the original $100 of profit as income, in the shareholder's hands, like the company was merely a conduit.\\nThus company profits going to eligible shareholders are taxed just once. Profits are either retained by the company and taxed there at the corporate rate, or paid out later as dividends and instead they're taxed at the shareholder's rate.\\nDividends may still be paid by a company when it has no franking credits (perhaps because it has been making tax losses), this is called an unfranked dividend. Or it may pay a franked portion and an unfranked portion, known as partly franked. An unfranked\",\n \"-27.87777589124744\"\n ],\n [\n \"the federal income tax. Amendments to various provisions affecting corporations have been in most or all revenue acts since. Corporate tax provisions are incorporated in Title 26 of the United States Code, known as the Internal Revenue Code. The present rate of tax on corporate income was adopted in the Tax Reform Act of 1986.\\nIn 2010, corporate tax revenue constituted about 9% of all federal revenues or 1.3% of GDP. Taxable income Determinations of what is taxable and at what rate are made at the federal level based on U.S. tax law. Many but not all states incorporate\",\n \"-27.844203758984804\"\n ],\n [\n \"company, profits are taxed at the standard corporate income tax rate of 25%. At the shareholder level, the profit distributions are usually subject to withholding tax of 25% for corporations and 27.5% for other recipients.\\nThere also exists a minimum tax (Mindestkörperschaftssteuer) for both limited liability companies (LLC) and joint-stock companies that is equal to 5% of their registered capital. i.e. €1,750 and €3,500 annually. Banks and insurance companies are subject to a different amount - €5,452. For new firms, there is a decreased tax of €1,092 in the first year of their existence. Value added tax (VAT) An Austrian customer\",\n \"-27.83970412571216\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Conservative Chancellor Lord Barber set a single VAT rate (10%) on most goods and services. Income tax UK income tax has changed over the years. Originally it taxed a person's income regardless of who was beneficially entitled (that is, regardless of whether they had a legal obligation to pass it on to another person) to that income, but now a person owes tax only on income to which he or she is beneficially entitled. Most companies were taken out of the income tax net in 1965 when corporation tax was introduced. These changes were consolidated by the Income and\",\n \"-27.74956036772346\"\n ],\n [\n \"tax years 2004–2010, the United States also has imposed a reduced rate of taxation on dividends received by individuals.\\nSome systems currently attempt or in the past have attempted to integrate taxation of the corporation with taxation of shareholders to mitigate the dual level of taxation. As a current example, Australia provides for a “franking credit” as a benefit to shareholders. When an Australian company pays a dividend to a domestic shareholder, it reports the dividend as well as a notional tax credit amount. The shareholder utilizes this notional credit to offset shareholder level income tax.\\nA previous system\",\n \"-27.679906982230023\"\n ],\n [\n \"reporting the member's distributive share of the LLC's income or loss that is then reported on the member's individual income tax return. On the other hand, income from corporations is taxed twice: once at the corporate entity level and again when distributed to shareholders. Thus, more tax savings often result if a business formed as an LLC rather than a corporation.\\nAn LLC with either single or multiple members may elect to be taxed as a corporation through the filing of IRS Form 8832. After electing corporate tax status, an LLC may further elect to be treated as a regular\",\n \"-27.655291066148493\"\n ],\n [\n \"Illinois. The argument is essentially that \\\"income\\\" for federal income tax purposes means only the income of a corporation — not the income of a non-corporate taxpayer — because the United States Supreme Court in that case, in discussing the meaning of income, mentioned a statute enacted in 1909 that taxed the income of corporations.\\nThe Court in Merchants' Loan was specifically interpreting a 1916 statute imposing income taxes on individuals and estates (among other kinds of entities), and not the 1909 corporate tax statute. The taxpayer in Merchants' Loan was not a corporation but was the \\\"Estate of Arthur\",\n \"-27.637903353373986\"\n ],\n [\n \"as having been directly imposed on the US owner, thus giving rise to the tax credit.\\nFor US owners with foreign subsidiaries, choosing to have a subsidiary treated as a disregarded entity is not always the most beneficial tax-planning choice, however. For example, if a US taxpayer owns a disregarded foreign entity, its income will be taxed at the owner's ordinary US income tax rates, less the foreign tax already paid. This may result in every marginal dollar being taxed at the highest rate. However, if the foreign entity had elected to be taxed as a corporation (or been classified as\",\n \"-27.614471694742406\"\n ],\n [\n \"tax, where company profits were taxed as profits, and dividend payments were then taxed as income, remained unchanged until 1973, when a partial imputation system was introduced for dividend payments. Unlike the previous imputation system, the tax credit to the shareholder was less than the corporation tax paid (corporation tax was higher than the standard rate of income tax, but the imputation, or set-off, was only of standard rate tax). When companies made distributions, they also paid the advance corporation tax (known as ACT), which could be set off against the main corporation tax charge, subject to certain limits (the\",\n \"-27.61389824800426\"\n ],\n [\n \"shareholders (the branch profits tax). The foreign corporation will be subject to U.S. income tax on its effectively connected income, and will also be subject to the branch profits tax on any of its profits not reinvested in the U.S. Thus, many countries tax corporations under company tax rules and tax individual shareholders upon corporate distributions. Various countries have tried (and some still maintain) attempts at partial or full \\\"integration\\\" of the enterprise and owner taxation. Where a two level system is present but allows for fiscal transparency of some entities, definitional issues become very important. Source of income Determining\",\n \"-27.590724416892044\"\n ],\n [\n \"a company pays in company tax can be claimed by the shareholder as franking credit, with no net revenue flowing to the government. (There are exceptions which include profits retained by the company that are never paid as dividends, and payments to international investors.)\\nWhen gross company tax is reported by Treasury, it is unclear whether the number generally includes the effect of the corresponding franking credits.\\nOne effect is that this has reduced the effectiveness of tax incentives for corporations. If a corporation was given a tax break then its incomes thus released from taxation would not generate franking credits\",\n \"-27.57156835583737\"\n ],\n [\n \"payments between related Controlled Foreign Corporations (CFCs), or from American companies to related CFCs, may be \\\"treated as Subpart F income\\\" (subject to current taxation as if they were profits in the hands of the ultimate American owner of the corporate structure), in an effort to limit the ability of American citizens and corporations to defer US tax on the income of foreign corporations they control. However, payments between an American-owned foreign entity which is taxed as a corporation, and a foreign subsidiary of that entity which itself has elected to be treated as a disregarded entity, are not treated\",\n \"-27.55277953541372\"\n ],\n [\n \"with 13.4% of pre-tax national income, paid 22.3% of federal taxes. In 2013 the Tax Policy Center projected total federal effective tax rates of 35.5% for the top 1%, 27.2% for the top quintile, 13.8% for the middle quintile, and −2.7% for the bottom quintile. The incidence of corporate income tax has been a matter of considerable ongoing controversy for decades. State and local taxes vary widely, but are generally less progressive than federal taxes as they rely heavily on broadly borne regressive sales and property taxes that yield less volatile revenue streams, though their consideration does not eliminate the\",\n \"-27.48465738574305\"\n ],\n [\n \"who do not pay capital gains taxes directly may wind up paying them through changed prices as the actual payers pass through the cost of paying the tax. Another factor complicating the use of capital gains taxes to address income inequality is that capital gains are usually not recurring income. A taxpayer may be \\\"high-income\\\" in the single year in which he or she sells an asset or invention.\\nDebate on tax rates is often partisan; the Republican Party tends to favor lower rates, whereas the Democratic Party tends to favor higher rates. Existence of the tax The existence\",\n \"-27.474630496406462\"\n ],\n [\n \"that case, the taxpayer's argument—that the IRS had no ability to impose a tax on the taxpayer because he was a citizen \\\"of the several states,\\\" but not a \\\"federal U.S. citizen\\\"—was ruled to be frivolous.\\nVariations of the argument that an individual is a \\\"sovereign\\\" have been rejected in tax cases such as United States v. Hart, Risner v. Commissioner, Maxwell v. Snow, Rowe v. Internal Revenue Serv., Cobin v. Commissioner, and Glavin v. United States.\\nThe argument that an individual who received Form W-2 wages or other compensation is not subject to federal income tax because the individual has \\\"neither\",\n \"-27.46213696396444\"\n ],\n [\n \"for all income-earnings bands has been 16%. According to the income-tax returns of 2008, 14,6% of taxpayers was charged for 64,5% of the total tax burdens. Before the new Corporate income tax regime, the Corporate tax was fixed at 16% of the positive rateable value, with an additional tax called solidarity tax of 4%, the measure of which is calculated based on the result before tax of the company (the solidarity tax has been in use since September, 2006). The actual rateable value might be different is the two cases. From January 2011, under the new Corporate income tax regime\",\n \"-27.442264280747622\"\n ],\n [\n \"shareholders. Subsequently, these shareholders pay tax on the income received in the form of dividend. However, in the Loan-Out corporation format, the creator of the corporation is typically the sole shareholder. To avoid paying tax twice, at the corporate and personal income tax levels, the Loan-Out corporation will pay out it's profits to the sole shareholder as a salary and/or bonus. Since the payment is treated as a salary expense, it is tax deductible as it is a typical part of business operations, rather than the elective payment of a dividend, minimising company profit to or near zero. Unreasonable Compensation\",\n \"-27.416072779917158\"\n ],\n [\n \"the entity does not pay taxes on its income. Instead, the owners of the entity pay tax on their \\\"distributive share\\\" of the entity's taxable income, even if no funds are distributed by the partnership to the owners. Federal tax law permits the owners of the entity to agree how the income of the entity will be allocated among them, but requires that this allocation reflect the economic reality of their business arrangement, as tested under complicated rules. United Kingdom In general, a partnership is treated under Section 111 Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988 and Section 848 Income Tax\",\n \"-27.382419515255606\"\n ],\n [\n \"the basic rate allowance, no further tax would be paid. The number of new companies being formed in 2002–2003 reached 325,900, an increase of 45% on 2001–2002.\\nThe fact that individuals operating in this manner could potentially pay no tax at all was felt by the government to be unfair tax avoidance, and the 2004 Budget introduced a Non-Corporate Distribution Rate. This ensured that where a company paid below the small companies' rate (19% in 2004), dividend payments made to non-corporates (for example, individuals, trusts and personal representatives of deceased persons) would be subject to additional corporation tax, bringing the corporation\",\n \"-27.37793805889669\"\n ],\n [\n \"Two states with a tax only on interest and dividend income of individuals, are New Hampshire and Tennessee. \\n State and local taxes are generally deductible in computing federal taxable income. Federal and many state individual income tax rate schedules differ based on the individual's filing status. Income Taxable income is gross income less adjustments and allowable tax deductions. Gross income for federal and most states is receipts and gains from all sources less cost of goods sold. Gross income includes \\\"all income from whatever source\\\", and is not limited to cash received. Income from illegal activities is taxable\",\n \"-27.35379476635717\"\n ],\n [\n \"is imposed at the same rate as the tax on business income of a resident corporation.\\nThe U.S. also imposes a branch profits tax on foreign corporations with a U.S. branch, to mimic the dividend withholding tax which would be payable if the business was conducted in a U.S. subsidiary corporation and profits were remitted to the foreign parent as dividends. The branch profits tax is imposed at the time profits are remitted or deemed remitted outside the U.S.\\nIn addition, foreign corporations are subject to withholding tax at 30% on dividends, interest, royalties, and certain other income. Tax treaties\",\n \"-27.3162462876644\"\n ],\n [\n \"on their worldwide income, and nonresident, foreign corporations only on their income from sources within the country. Hong Kong taxes resident and nonresident corporations only on income from sources within the country. Distribution of earnings Most systems that tax corporations also impose income tax on shareholders of corporations when earnings are distributed. Such distribution of earnings is generally referred to as a dividend. The tax may be at reduced rates. For example, the United States provides for reduced amounts of tax on dividends received by individuals and by corporations. \\nThe company law of some\",\n \"-27.314067487081047\"\n ],\n [\n \"Court before taking effect). The Revenue Act of 1913 imposed a one percent tax on incomes above $3,000, with a top tax rate of six percent on those earning more than $500,000 per year. Approximately three percent of the population was subject to the income tax. The bill also included a one percent tax on the net income of all corporations, superseding a previous federal tax that had only applied to corporate net incomes above $5,000. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the income tax in the cases of Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co. and Stanton v. Baltic\",\n \"-27.29255192488381\"\n ],\n [\n \"individuals;\\nThis federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation is allowed to own property and enter contracts. It can also sue and be sued and held liable under both civil and criminal law. As well, because the corporation is legally considered the \\\"person\\\", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's debts and damages beyond their investment in the corporation. Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions. Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences\",\n \"-27.29047809279291\"\n ],\n [\n \"Companies of the United States with untaxed profits Companies of the United States with untaxed profits deals with those U.S. companies whose offshore subsidiaries earn profits which are retained in foreign countries to defer paying U.S. corporate tax. The profits of United States corporations are subject to a federal corporate tax rate of 21%. In principle, the tax is payable on all profits of corporations, whether earned domestically or abroad. However, overseas subsidiaries of U.S. corporations are entitled to a tax deferral of profits on active income until repatriated to the U.S., and are regarded as untaxed. When repatriated, the\",\n \"-27.268011038569966\"\n ],\n [\n \"equal tax treatment of all companies. The change had relatively little impact on incorporation rates as the British Virgin Islands imposes virtually no form of direct taxation. Corporate personality In the British Virgin Islands a company has separate legal personality from its members (unlike, for example, a partnership registered under the Partnership Act, 1996). The liability of the members of a company is limited to their shares or the amount of their guarantee. Similarly, directors or officers of a company are not normally liable for the company's debts except insofar as they may otherwise be liable for\",\n \"-27.22889830007108\"\n ],\n [\n \"Controlled foreign corporation Motivations The tax law of many countries, including the United States, does normally not tax a shareholder of a corporation on the corporation's income until the income is distributed as a dividend. Prior to the first U.S. CFC rules, it was common for publicly traded companies to form foreign subsidiaries in tax havens and shift \\\"portable\\\" income to those subsidiaries. Income shifted included investment income (interest and dividends) and passive income (rents and royalties), as well as sales and services income involving related parties (see transfer pricing). U.S. tax on this income was avoided until the tax\",\n \"-27.178774337051436\"\n ],\n [\n \"tax their members.\\nThe middle income worker's tax wedge is 46% and effective marginal tax rates are very high. Value-added tax is 24% for most items. Capital gains tax is 30-34% and corporate tax is 20%, about the EU median. Property taxes are low, but there is a transfer tax (1.6% for apartments or 4% for individual houses) for home buyers. There are high excise taxes on alcoholic beverages, tobacco, automobiles and motorcycles, motor fuels, lotteries, sweets and insurances. For instance, McKinsey estimates that a worker has to pay around 1600 euro for another's 400 euro service - restricting service supply\",\n \"-27.178249407210387\"\n ],\n [\n \"this argument, have been officially identified as legally frivolous federal tax return positions for purposes of the $5,000 frivolous tax return penalty imposed under Internal Revenue Code section 6702(a). Cases indicating definition of income is irrelevant At least two federal courts have indicated that Congress may constitutionally tax an item as \\\"income,\\\" regardless of whether that item is \\\"income\\\" within the meaning of the Sixteenth Amendment. In Penn Mutual Indemnity Co. v. Commissioner, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit stated:\\nIt did not take a constitutional amendment to entitle the United States to impose an income tax.\",\n \"-27.17606255193823\"\n ],\n [\n \"rate there is no longer any incentive for a rational taxpayer to earn any income, thus the revenue raised will be 100% of nothing. If both a 0% rate and 100% rate of taxation generate no revenue, it follows from the extreme value theorem that there must exist at least one rate in between where tax revenue would be a maximum. The Laffer curve is typically represented as a graph which starts at 0% tax, zero revenue, rises to a maximum rate of revenue raised at an intermediate rate of taxation and then falls again to zero revenue at a\",\n \"-27.173555584198766\"\n ],\n [\n \"starting rate to zero, with marginal relief applying in the same way. This caused a significant increase in the number of companies being incorporated, as businesses that had operated as self-employed, paying income tax on profits from just over £5,000, were attracted to the corporation tax rate of 0% on income up to £10,000. Previously self-employed individuals could now distribute profits as dividend payments rather than salaries. For companies with profits under £50,000 the corporation tax rate varied between 0% and 19%. Because dividend payments come with a basic rate tax credit, provided the recipient did not earn more than\",\n \"-27.168903137542657\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dividends received deduction The dividends-received deduction (or \\\"DRD\\\"), under U.S. federal income tax law, is a tax deduction received by a corporation on the dividends it receives from other corporations in which it has an ownership stake. Impact This deduction is designed to reduce the consequences of alleged triple taxation. Otherwise, corporate profits would be taxed to the corporation that earned them, then to the corporate shareholder, and then to the individual shareholder. While Congress allowed for double taxation on corporations, it did not intend a triple - and potentially infinitely-tiered - tax to apply to corporate profits at every\",\n \"-27.151104203308932\"\n ],\n [\n \"so that companies would invest them in the U.S.\\nIn comparing corporate taxes, the Congressional Budget Office found in 2005 that the top statutory tax rate was the third highest among OECD countries behind Japan and Germany. However, the U.S. ranked 27th lowest of 30 OECD countries in its collection of corporate taxes relative to GDP, at 1.8% vs. the average 2.5%.\\nU.S. corporate after-tax profits were at record levels during the third quarter of 2012, at an annualized $1.75 trillion. U.S. federal corporate income tax revenues have declined relative to profits, falling from approximately 27% in 2000 to 17% in 2012.\",\n \"-27.130942882882664\"\n ],\n [\n \"Finance Act 1965 The Finance Act 1965 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which introduced two major new UK taxes. Corporation tax created a separate system for taxing the income of corporations, where previously they had paid income tax in the same way as private individuals. Capital gains tax is charged on the disposal of assets, and is based on any \\\"real gain\\\" made from the disposal. If the income comes within income tax, capital gains is not chargeable. Capital gains tax does not apply to corporations, but an identical provision, known as chargeable gains, is\",\n \"-27.125574032310396\"\n ],\n [\n \"where lower income tax units pay a greater fraction of income in tax) has a negative Suits index. A theoretical tax where the richest person pays all the tax has a Suits index of 1, and a tax where the poorest person pays everything has a Suits index of −1. Tax preferences (credits and deductions) also have a Suits index. Income tax By definition, a flat income tax has a Suits index of zero. However, almost all income tax systems allow for some amount of income to be earned without tax (an exemption amount) to avoid collecting tax\",\n \"-27.120928869291674\"\n ],\n [\n \"tax paid up to 19%. For example, a company making £10,000 profit, and making a £6,000 dividend distribution to an individual and £4,000 to another company would pay 19% corporation tax on the £6,000. Although this measure substantially reduced the number of small businesses incorporating, the Chancellor in the 2006 Budget said tax avoidance by small businesses through incorporation was still a major issue, and scrapped the starting rate entirely. Taxable profits and accounting profits The starting point for computing taxable profits is profits before tax (except for a life assurance company). The rules for calculating corporation tax generally ran\",\n \"-27.117957698530518\"\n ],\n [\n \"to ordinary income) in 1972 and later years. The alternative tax rate on corporate long-term capital gains income is increased to 28 percent in 1970 and 30 percent in 1971 and later years.\\\"\\nThe Act also included for the first time an Alternative Minimum Tax, set at 10%. The change was explained as follows: \\nThe prior treatment imposed no limit on the amount of income which an individual or corporation could exclude from tax as the result of various tax preferences. As a result, there were large variations in the tax burdens placed on individuals or corporations with similar economic\",\n \"-27.115013344970066\"\n ],\n [\n \"level in two or three generations as a share of G.D.P. or that corporate tax revenues as a share of G.D.P. are the lowest among all major countries. One hears only that the statutory corporate tax rate in the United States is high compared with other countries, which is true but not necessarily relevant. The economic importance of statutory tax rates is blown far out of proportion by Republicans looking for ways to make taxes look high when they are quite low.\\\" Budget deficits: \\\"spending problem\\\" or \\\"revenue problem\\\"? Prominent Republican Congressmen have suggested that the federal deficits should be\",\n \"-27.114215725567192\"\n ],\n [\n \"imposed on corporations. Rates of tax and the taxable base for corporations may differ from those for individuals or for other taxable persons. Social-security contributions Many countries provide publicly funded retirement or health-care systems. In connection with these systems, the country typically requires employers and/or employees to make compulsory payments. These payments are often computed by reference to wages or earnings from self-employment. Tax rates are generally fixed, but a different rate may be imposed on employers than on employees. Some systems provide an upper limit on earnings subject to the tax. A few systems provide that the tax is\",\n \"-27.105203474638984\"\n ],\n [\n \"the state on a formulary basis. Many states apply a \\\"throw back\\\" concept to tax domestic corporations on income not taxed by other states. Tax treaties do not apply to state taxes.\\nUnder the U.S. Constitution, states are prohibited from taxing income of a resident of another state unless the connection with the taxing state reach a certain level (called “nexus”). Most states do not tax non-business income of out of state corporations. Since the tax must be fairly apportioned, the states and localities compute income of out of state corporations (including those in foreign countries) taxable in the\",\n \"-27.10251499339938\"\n ],\n [\n \"2013 tax law the top 1% will be paying the highest average tax rates since 1979, while other income groups will remain at historic lows.\\nU.S. taxation has historically been generally progressive, especially the federal income taxes, though by most measures it became noticeably less progressive after 1980. It has sometimes been described as among the most progressive in the developed world, but this characterization is controversial. The highest 10% of income earners pay a majority of federal taxes, and about half of all taxes. Payroll taxes for Social Security are a flat regressive tax, with no tax charged on income\",\n \"-27.09238119330257\"\n ],\n [\n \"C corporation is treated as a dividend for U.S. income tax purposes. \\\"Earnings and profits\\\" is a tax law concept similar to the financial accounting concept of retained earnings. Exceptions apply to treat certain distributions as made in exchange for stock rather than as dividends. Such exceptions include distributions in complete termination of a shareholder's interest and distributions in liquidation of the corporation.\",\n \"-27.05486408714205\"\n ],\n [\n \"is earned. Defining when income occurs Since a central tenet of the flat tax is to minimize the compartmentalization of incomes into myriad special or sheltered cases, a vexing problem is deciding when income occurs. This is demonstrated by the taxation of interest income and stock dividends. The shareholders own the company and so the company's profits belong to them. If a company is taxed on its profits, then the funds paid out as dividends have already been taxed. It's a debatable question if they should subsequently be treated as income to the shareholders and thus\",\n \"-27.026255127770128\"\n ],\n [\n \"The basis for allowing corporations to assert such protections under the U.S. Constitution is that they are organizations of people, and the people should not be deprived of their constitutional rights when they act collectively. Thus, treating corporations as having legal rights allows corporations to sue and to be sued, provides a single entity for easier taxation and regulation, simplifies complex transactions that would otherwise involve, in the case of large corporations, thousands of people, and protects the individual rights of the shareholders as well as the right of association.\\nGenerally, corporations are not able to claim constitutional protections that would\",\n \"-27.003842453181278\"\n ],\n [\n \"tax (which only applies to inherited wealth greater than $11 million for a married couple) benefits only the heirs of the very rich (such as Trump's children), and there is a reduced tax rate for people who report business income on their individual returns (as Trump does). If Trump's tax plan had been in place in 2005 (the one recent year in which his tax returns were leaked), he would have saved $31 million in taxes from the alternative minimum tax cut alone. If the most recent estimate of the value of Trump's assets is correct, the repeal of the\",\n \"-26.987523744959617\"\n ],\n [\n \"Individuals and corporations pay U.S. federal income tax on the net total of all their capital gains. The tax rate depends on both the investor's tax bracket and the amount of time the investment was held. Short-term capital gains are taxed at the investor's ordinary income tax rate and are defined as investments held for a year or less before being sold. Long-term capital gains, on dispositions of assets held for more than one year, are taxed at a lower rate. Payroll taxes In the United States, payroll taxes are assessed by the federal government, many states, the District of\",\n \"-26.974659979576245\"\n ],\n [\n \"of up to 4 percent and 0.5 percent respectively. Motoring taxation Motoring taxes include: fuel duty (which itself also attracts VAT), and Vehicle Excise Duty. Other fees and charges include the London congestion charge, various statutory fees including that for the compulsory vehicle test and that for vehicle registration, and in some areas on-street parking (as well as associated charges for violations). Corporate Tax Corporation tax is a tax levied in the United Kingdom on the profits made by companies and on the profits of permanent establishments of non-UK resident companies and associations that trade in the EU.\\nCorporation tax\",\n \"-26.971668681013398\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the investment (the cost base of the shares) are taxed as \\\"ordinary income\\\" when distributed to personal shareholders. When added to the 28% company taxation, this gives a total maximum marginal tax rate on dividends of 48.16% (0.28+0.72*0.28). The 2014 corporate tax rate is 27% giving a marginal tax rate on dividends of 46.71%.\\nThe part of the dividend that is not exceeding a risk-free return on the investment, is not taxed on the hand of the shareholder, and is thus subject to the 28% company taxation only. If the dividend for one year is less than the calculated risk-free\",\n \"-26.965612367232097\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":79,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3akwjo"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do commentators/voice actors from old footage from the 40s 50s and 60s sound so different than reporters' voices today?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["I believe what you're referring to the \"transatlantic accent\" which was taught in boarding schools up through the early 60's (also many actors and the like learned the accent to be more marketable, as it was seen as an upper-class/well-educated way of speaking).","Old recording equipment had different sensitivity to frequencies we can hear. Just like standard phone conversations sound of lower quality when broadcast on the radio.","Here's a good article on the topic of the mid-Atlantic accent. Though the author prefers calling it \"that weirdo announcer-voice\" It's especially good on describing how it disappeared. URL_0 ","They practiced a lot of elocution. They thought of it as being proper and more sophisticated. No one really practiced this way of speech anymore."],"string":"[\n \"I believe what you're referring to the \\\"transatlantic accent\\\" which was taught in boarding schools up through the early 60's (also many actors and the like learned the accent to be more marketable, as it was seen as an upper-class/well-educated way of speaking).\",\n \"Old recording equipment had different sensitivity to frequencies we can hear. Just like standard phone conversations sound of lower quality when broadcast on the radio.\",\n \"Here's a good article on the topic of the mid-Atlantic accent. Though the author prefers calling it \\\"that weirdo announcer-voice\\\" It's especially good on describing how it disappeared. URL_0 \",\n \"They practiced a lot of elocution. They thought of it as being proper and more sophisticated. No one really practiced this way of speech anymore.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["long before that time. The American radio broadcaster Howard Stern has also used voice-overs in this way. Educational or descriptive device The voice-over has many applications in non-fiction as well. Television news is often presented as a series of video clips of newsworthy events, with voice-over by the reporters describing the significance of the scenes being presented; these are interspersed with straight video of the news anchors describing stories for which video is not shown.\nTelevision networks such as The History Channel and the Discovery Channel make extensive use of voice-overs. On NBC, the television show Starting Over used Sylvia Villagran","-32.941688789229374"],["with the voice-over technique. The golden age of first-person narration was during the 1940s. Film noir typically used male voice-over narration but there are a few rare female voice-overs.\nIn radio, voice-overs are an integral part of the creation of the radio program. The voice-over artist might be used to remind listeners of the station name or as characters to enhance or develop show content. During the 1980s, the British broadcasters Steve Wright and Kenny Everett used voice-over artists to create a virtual \"posse\" or studio crew who contributed to the programmes. It is believed that this principle was in play","-32.76315356515988"],["The Loudest Voice Premise The Loudest Voice tells the story of Roger Ailes, who molded Fox News into one of the most powerful, influential media networks in history. The series focuses primarily on the past decade in which Ailes became one of the most prominent figures in modern American conservatism, while flashing back to defining events in Ailes’ life, including the 9/11 attacks, the U.S. presidential election, 2008 and U.S. presidential election, 2016, and the sexual harassment accusations and settlements that ended his career. Development On October 19, 2016, it was announced that Blumhouse Television was developing a television miniseries","-32.458754032384604"],["case of interviews recorded outside the studio and some current affairs program, the interpreter interprets what he or she hears on a TV monitor. Background noise can be a serious problem. The interpreter working for the media has to sound as slick and confident as a television presenter.\nMedia interpreting has gained more visibility and presence especially after the Gulf War. Television channels have begun to hire staff simultaneous interpreters. The interpreter renders the press conferences, telephone beepers, interviews and similar live coverage for the viewers. It is more stressful than other types of interpreting as the interpreter has to deal","-32.31040155678056"],["front of the opening of a lift in a public car park. Old News News stories from the past week are made to look like a news story from the 1960s or earlier, with the story shown in black and white and the picture quality degraded. The sound is replaced with a voice over using the same tone used in 1960s TV news with the voice over often having nothing related to the news story. Guy Williams Television Segment The show's third presenter, Guy Williams, is usually sent out by Jono and Ben to report on a big event from","-32.01664415150299"],["courthouse and, on a whim, went to audition as a singer. Someone noticed his voice and asked him to speak through a microphone. He was given an audition and hired as a staff announcer on the spot. Sportscasting Radio broadcasting of sporting events was a new thing in the 1920s. The announcers were a rotating group of newspaper writers. At the time baseball was America's most popular sport, and the reporters were at the games to write stories about them for print newspapers. Their descriptions were matter-of-fact, boring at best, had a lot of dead air, and were given in","-31.916648138896562"],["NBC's short-lived \"behind-the-scenes\" series Behind The Mike (1940–41) occasionally featured reconstructions of announcers' gaffes and flubs as part of the \"Oddities in Radio\" segment, and movie studios had been producing so-called \"gag reels\" of outtakes (usually for employee-only viewing) since the 1930s. United Kingdom Jonathan Hewat (1938–2014), who had a vast personal collection of taped broadcasting gaffes, was the first person in the UK to broadcast radio bloopers, on a bank holiday show on BBC Radio Bristol at the end of the 1980s.\nHe subsequently produced and presented a half-hour show on that station called So You Want to Run","-31.88576333076344"],["same off-screen narrator,\nwhich made the Front Page Challenge footage less appealing to young people than the multiple sound bites featured by CBC Newsworld, which began 24-hour newscasts throughout Canada on July 31, 1989. CBC Newsworld offered sound bite interviews with people who had witnessed events or were knowledgeable about them. Young viewers using remote controls stuck with the multiple sound bites and ignored the Front Page Challenge narrator's summaries of the news stories, according to the book by Alex Barris published in 1999.\nWhen Front Page Challenge ceased production in 1995, it was the longest continually running non-news program in Canadian","-31.882327274943236"],["in their fifties. Only put on callers sounding in the 45–64 range. I don't want to hear really elderly voices. Only talk about things that are positive and appealing to people in this age range. Only do caller round ups about people in this age range.\" This was reprinted the following month in the Southern Daily Echo, following which a BBC spokesperson commented \"Out of context these notes sound harsh and we apologise if they offend anyone.\" BBC Sounds BBC Local Radio is available as a listen-again service on BBC Sounds.\nEngland Unwrapped was launched in","-31.62465297774179"],["violent, racist and lived on benefits.\nThe BBC’s commissioning editor, Richard Klein, stated that the commissioning of the series was in response to a report which showed that white working class voices rarely made it onto TV, and that when they were shown, they were portrayed as \"chavs\" and \"white trash\".","-31.46120561074349"],["voices spoke with an authoritative \"announcer's\" intonation, resembling public oration, often dropping about a musical fifth on the last word of a sentence. Garroway was one of the broadcasters who introduced conversational style and tone to television, beginning some broadcasts as though the viewer were sitting in the studio with him, as in this November 20, 1957, introduction for the Today show: \"And how are you about the world today? Let's see what kind of shape it's in; there is a glimmer of hope.\"\nPioneering NBC president Sylvester \"Pat\" Weaver chose Garroway as the host of his new morning news-and-entertainment experiment,","-31.306760510898243"],["dedicated entirely to slow motion shots, microphones are present on the sidelines and near the field to pick up both the sounds of the games as well as the talk on the sidelines, and narrators with deep, powerful, baritone voices are preferred. Narrators have generally been from the Philadelphia metropolitan area, with well-known announcers such as Jefferson Kaye, Harry Kalas, John Facenda, Andy Musser, Jack Whitaker, William Woodson, and current announcer Scott Graham all having narrated NFL Films presentations at various points in time. J.K. Simmons was tapped to narrate the company's one-hour recap of the 16-0 regular season","-31.265430847763128"],["We were public servants and it never occurred to any of us at the time to think of ourselves as personalities or, heaven forbid, stars.\"\nThose early television newsreaders sounded as if they had just come out of a BBC finishing school. Was that how you were asked to talk?\n\"Everything was live back then so nothing was recorded. So I am pretty thankful there were no recordings kept because we would have sounded rather too precious. We were told to speak rather nicely. I think probably we were a bit stiff.\"\nIn 2000, in a television special commemorating 40 years of television","-31.064903920865618"],["interview format with no studio audience present, similar to his old Tomorrow show of the 1970s, or to Charlie Rose show and Later, which had abandoned the format the previous year and had followed Late Night under Letterman on NBC. Though the show lacked a studio audience, Snyder still frequently gave extended conversational monologues, many of which contained jokes that prompted audible laughter from the off-camera production staff. Without the need for an audience, the show originated from the intimate Studio 58 at CBS Television City.\nThroughout most of the show's run, it was also simulcast over some CBS Radio stations,","-30.980070410412736"],["Dick Martin, who went on to host their own show, Laugh In.\nIn 1957, Gallop was asked about the difference in switching from radio to television announcing. He said that while the salaries in television announcing were even more lucrative than in radio, the amount of time and work involved for television shows was much greater than for radio ones. Gallop stressed that veteran radio announcers were still actively employed because of their announcing experience and that a handsome face on the television screen needed to have that experience coupled with it. Singer As a young man, Gallop took voice lessons.","-30.85467530801543"],["Janis. Voiceover talent Voiceover talent included Gregory Abbott (1900–1981), lead voice for the presentation of news and the only narrator to stay until the series ended in 1957. Bill Slater was a narrator for many years. Other narrators included Gabriel Heatter (who introduced the voiceover talent in a special issue release of Paramount News in the early 1930s, Gregory Abbott being among those introduced), Vincent Connoly, Maurice Joyce, Dennis James (later a TV game show and variety show host), Gilbert Martyn, and Frank Gallop among others.\nThe sports segments were narrated by Bill Slater in the early years and from 1948","-30.84845639806008"],["News presenter Overview The role of the news presenter developed over time. Classically, the presenter would read the news from news \"copy\" which he may or may not have helped write with a or news writer. This was often taken almost directly from wire services and then rewritten. Prior to the television era, radio-news broadcasts often mixed news with opinion and each presenter strove for a distinctive style. These presenters were referred to as commentators. The last major figure to present commentary in a news broadcast format in the United States was Paul Harvey.\n\nWith the development of the 24-hour","-30.835005168046337"],["York Times called it \"Whimper of the Jungle\"), the show closed on the 28th. Much and, eventually, most of her work came from radio, the prime home entertainment medium of the 1930s and 40s. The tens of thousands of broadcast hours, especially those featuring dramatic presentations, required a constant supply of voice professionals who were called upon to perform in multiple shows within the course of a single day, thus making the list of credits for a hard working performer such as Ethel Owen run into the thousands. One of her most-consistent regular assignments was on the long-running","-30.762058623717166"],["radio shows of the early 1930s\", adding that \"the radio dialogue was so witty and outrageous, [an] innocent form of original comedy – as well as serious drama\". Rob White of the British Film Institute said the show \"glitter[s] with a thousand-and-one sockeroos.\" Rediscovery of the show The episodes of Flywheel, Shyster, and Flywheel were recorded, but for many years it was thought the recordings had not been preserved. At the time of the broadcasts, pre-recorded shows were frowned upon by advertisers and audiences. However, in 1988, Michael Barson, who worked in the United States Copyright Office at the Library","-30.74861002455873"],["Top 40 radio era, because of their ability to introduce new music to the radio audience and promote or control which songs would be given airplay.\nAlthough radio personalities who specialized in news or talk programs such as Dorothy Kilgallen and Walter Winchell existed since the early days of radio, exclusive talk radio formats emerged and multiplied in the 1960s, as telephone call in shows, interviews, news, and public affairs became more popular. In New York, WINS (AM) switched to a talk format in 1965, and WCBS (AM) followed two years later. Early talk radio personalities included Bruce Williams and Sally","-30.747161738487193"],["sound mix was often very poor, with a curious quality that made it sound like everything had been 'phased'). The programme would start with a 45-minute magazine section consisting of interviews, fashion items and comedy appearances by a wide range of alternative artistes such as Frank Sidebottom, Vic Reeves (before his association with Bob Mortimer), Foffo Spearjig and even French & Saunders. During this section Yates would become known for conducting rather flirtatious interviews: in 1985, for example, she prompted Sting to remove his trousers.\nThe main presenters were supported, for the first two series, by five newcomers who were picked","-30.67134331420675"],["those from lower socioeconomic brackets.\nBell's analysis of the newsreaders' speech revealed that they spoke differently based on the intended radio audience. He identified relationships in the frequency of sociolinguistic variables, such as postvocalic [t], which corresponded to the speech of the radio audiences. Bell proposed that because the topic of speech (identical news topics), speaker, and speech activity were the same, the most plausible way of accounting for the variation was that the newscasters were attuning their speech to what they perceived to be the norms for the respective radio audiences. Referee design In addition to audience design, Bell introduces","-30.55575756696635"],["Peter Jennings Reporting: Who Is Ross Perot? and a subsequent 90-minute town forum with Perot and a studio audience in June. On September 9, 1992, ABC announced that it would be switching the format of its political coverage to give less recognition to staged sound bites. \"We're aware that a lot of you are turned off by the political process and that many of you put at least some of the blame on us,\" Jennings told viewers on World News Tonight. \"We'll only devote time to a candidate's daily routine if it is more than routine. There will be less","-30.458249392278958"],["Booth interviews with celebrities, politicians, advertisers, promoters, retired drivers, and other famous personalities in attendance were used to fill the downtime of the broadcast. On other occasions, telegrams might be received from celebrities listening at home, and Collins would read some of them on-air for the listeners. Starting in 1971, Collins made an effort to curtail booth interviews, in order to improve the flow of the race, and to assuage listeners' complaints. Collins also had a popular custom of signing-off the broadcast by reciting poetry or other literary vignettes.\nWhen Paul Page entered the booth in 1977, he swiftly changed the","-30.451985056177364"],["himself, including his dog, Maggie. During Fridays Tony would discuss movies with either Stephen Hunter or Joe Barber of WTOP. His love of the music in 1960s inspired a radio segment called Old Guy Radio. His other-stuff talk makes his talk show much more interesting when there is no big sports event. In essence, his non-sports talk becomes a talk show version of his Washington Post Style Section columns. A collection of memorable clips of witty, sarcastic, or funny sayings from famous movies, television shows, callers, interviewees, and cast members have been turned into sound","-30.421377031103475"],["to early BBC television was that she helped to bridge the gap between hearing and non-hearing viewers. She did this by addressing the television camera and using sign language as she spoke.\nKeysell was a mime teacher for the Royal National Institute for the Deaf (RNID) and in 1968 was awarded a Winston Churchill Fellowship to study with the National Theatre of the Deaf in the USA. On her return she set up a company also named the National Theatre of the Deaf. The American company threatened to sue and the name was promptly changed to British Theatre of the Deaf","-30.40795617751428"],["in recent years following the advent of satirical journalism and citizen journalism, both of which relocate the interpretation of truth outside traditional professional journalism, but the place anchormen and anchorwomen hold in American media remains consistent. \"Just about every single major news anchor since the dawn of the medium after World War II has been aligned with show business,\" says Frank Rich, writer-at-large for New York Magazine, in a polemic against commoditized news reporting, \"reading headlines to a camera in an appealing way is incentivized over actual reporting\". Brian Williams, an anchor for NBC Nightly News, evidences this lapse in","-30.388621866877656"],["journalist and Factory Records supremo Tony Wilson who became the show's first in-vision anchor in the early 80s. Guest presenters were used on rare occasions, among them Jonathan Dimbleby, Sandy Gall, Martyn Gregory, Sue Lawley and Lynn Faulds Wood. Perhaps its most celebrated guest presenter was the distinguished American anchorman Walter Cronkite, who came out of retirement to cover the 1983 UK general election for the series.\nA small group of narrators delivered the vast majority of WIA's voice-overs. The two original narrators were Derek Cooper, later to become well known as a broadcaster and writer about food, and Wilfrid Thomas.","-30.32737775365422"],["and gossip from \"celebrity insiders, onlookers, pals and lunchers\" from tabloid magazines.\nMartin and the others created various comedy sketches that included the edited recordings of politicians such as then politicians John Howard, Peter Costello and Kim Beazley musical parodies, advertisements and other sketches. Soundbites also featured regularly, with humorous comments, sounds, or sayings from politicians or the popular media included in various jokes, interviews, and songs.\nThe show contained frequent references to Karl Stefanovic being a robot. Talkback Mountain Talkback Mountain was a segment in the show where a number of listeners called in to briefly discuss a chosen topic with","-30.21334355574072"],["there were some newsreaders (unspecified; but not within Radio 4) who \"clearly have no understanding of what they are reading\" and that thereby the quality of the broadcast suffered. Donaldson had a distinctive form of Received Pronunciation \"BBC accent\" - one of the few left on British radio in the 21st century - and his delivery incorporated idiosyncratic pauses in the middle of sentences. In the 1980s his voice was used on the pre-recorded warning that a nuclear attack had been launched on the British Isles during the Cold War, which would have been transmitted on television and radio from","-30.16399624898986"],["Master's Voice by the Band of the Royal Air Force, conducted by Squadron Leader R.P. O'Donnell, M.V.O. In 1940 the opening and closing parts of this recording were chosen to introduce and close the BBC's daily news programme Radio Newsreel (initially, Radio News Reel), which was broadcast on both the Home Service in Britain and the Overseas Service (later the World Service). As such it became one of a group of tunes, including Lillibullero and Eric Coates' Calling All Workers, that became inextricably associated with the BBC's output during the war. Radio Newsreel, with its theme, continued until 1970 in","-30.11066733172629"],["employing dramatic elements mixed with natural-sound audio, news interviews and current music. Mavridis developed the style that mimicked talking to pre-recorded interviews and newsmakers.\nBillboard magazine's Radio and Records described Mavridis's original iCast format as transforming \"the traditional role of a reporter into more of an audio guide with an edge who leads the listener through a news story's chain of interrelated actualities.\"\nEach show opened with the big story of the day, usually in a mock-conversation format, inserting pre-taped interviews and field reports to create the illusion of a conversation. The second segment is usually another major story of the day","-30.083199302316643"],["made a six-part radio series in 1947, adapted and produced by Felix Felton. Paul Bultitude was played by Ronald Simpson, and his mischievous son Dick by John Clark. Dr. Grimstone was played by veteran radio actor Ralph Truman. An early example of creative sound effects before the days of tape meant that when the father succeeds in his wish to be just like his son going off to school, juvenile actor John Clark had to talk to himself. So he had to pre-record the father's dialogue on the 15 inch disks used at that time, and leave gaps for the son's","-30.071681312445435"],["of accuracy review in news stations: \"That Cipriano, a self-described “not-too-bright guy,” can beat professional call screeners so often suggests they don’t do it often enough in the race for color, drama and “breaking news.”\nIn a 1996 interview, Cipriano explained he had a 16-setting voice changer for use in tricking producers into letting him call onto their shows.","-30.070795424224343"],[" Unlike its most famous competitor 20/20 as well as traditional local and national news programs, the 60 Minutes journalists never share the screen with (or speak to) other 60 Minutes journalists on camera at any time. This creates a strong psychological sense of intimacy between the journalist and the television viewer. Reporting tone 60 Minutes blends the probing journalism of the seminal 1950s CBS series See It Now with Edward R. Murrow (a show for which Hewitt served as the director for its first few years) and the personality profiles of another Murrow program, Person to Person. In","-30.04379570708261"],["fame as the voice of NFL Films, was the station's main anchorman from shortly after it signed on until 1973. At the time he retired, he had been a main anchor longer than anyone in Philadelphia; he has since been passed by WPVI's Jim Gardner.\nSoon after joining the station, Facenda sold the Bulletin on the idea of a local 11 p.m. newscast—the first in the country. It aired for the first time on September 8. In 1950, WCAU became the first station with a four-man news team. The 6 p.m. newscast was anchored by Facenda, with Philadelphia radio legend Phil","-30.025650203911937"],["sent to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art for speech lessons. They were unsuccessful. My accent is part of who I am and I work for an international broadcaster—it's a good reflection of the newsroom, which is very international.\"","-29.971280378915253"],["he was pressured to keep the show from relying on long segments of dialogue, though he personally felt that the dialogue was an important factor to the show. Production Much of the voice recording was done with multiple actors in the recording booth at one time. This was a new method for Edwards, and he explained that he did it to \"allow for those messy, unrehearsed moments that can happen when the actors 'bump into each other' a little more.\"\nMark Keefer, who had previously collaborated with Edwards on Hoodwinked!, served as the sound designer and re-recording mixer on the series,","-29.924081400822615"],["on the microphone.\nSergeant Wilson's lines have been written to be spoken in a Cockney accent which doesn't suit him too well. The rest of the men play-up to their usual roles. The BBC sound effects team are unable to make it to the broadcast because their van has broken down, and so the platoon are forced to imitate the required coastal noises (namely wind, waves and seagulls, the latter being Private Pike's only contribution) themselves.\nLater, the platoon is ready and waiting to go on the air, but strangely nothing seems to be happening; not even the BBC engineer knows what","-29.922051048117282"],["the presidency of Ronald Reagan, who was famous for short, memorable phrases like, \"Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!\" in reference to the Berlin Wall.\nDuring the 1988 United States presidential election, candidate Michael Dukakis highlighted the prominent role of sound bites and spin doctors in political campaigns by running a commercial that mocked contender George H.W. Bush's handlers' frustration over the gaffes of his vice presidential running-mate Dan Quayle. Journalism In journalism, sound bites are used to summarize the position of the speaker, as well as to increase the interest of the reader or viewer in the piece. In both","-29.895065002404408"],["only one in which the sound of the human voice – angry, boring, repetitive, excitable, but occasionally passionate, revealing and unforgettable – overcame the patina of artifice with which television habitually polishes and tidies up its speakers. Only on After Dark could we have heard the rolling Russian timbre of Tatyana Tolstaya... or seen Clare Short squirm as Tony Howard wondered why, if she was so protective about her private life, she'd talked on radio to Anthony Clare.... Only After Dark had the leisurely pace that made possible the exchange between the Holocaust survivor Rabbi Hugo Gryn and Yasser Arafat's PR voice","-29.86893041411531"],["it is done correctly, the average listener (and even many professionals) cannot tell the difference. Time checks can even be added which can make the broadcast sound absolutely live. Controversy Voice-tracking is a hotly contested issue within radio circles. Claims have been made recently that claim that the sense of locality is lost, especially when a station employs a disc jockey who has never set foot in that station's town. There is also concern about voice-tracking taking away job opportunities and providing fewer opportunities for disc jockeys in the amounting radio homogenization.\nStill, supporters of voice-tracking contend that a professional presentation","-29.868079898762517"],["appearing as though they were created by Germany. Targeting American troops in the Pacific, the Japanese government broadcast the \"Zero Hour\" program, which included news from the U.S. to make the soldiers homesick. But by the end of the war, Britain had the largest radio network in the world, broadcasting internationally in 43 different languages. Its scope would eventually be surpassed (by 1955) by the worldwide Voice of America programs, produced by the United States Information Agency.\nIn Britain and the United States, television news watching rose dramatically in the 1950s and by the 1960s supplanted radio as the public's primary","-29.836128739174455"],["where not all the reporters in a press pool can access the interviewee. Rules A whole set of etiquette and mores has developed amongst journalists governing the use of mult boxes. Because it is often difficult to get a good sound recording from a digital recorder for later broadcast or transcription for newspaper reporting, journalists have developed informal rules for their use. For example, the media should treat the sound engineer well, because while reporters can be selfish and competitive with each other, and the equipment can go wrong in many ways, the engineer allows all of them","-29.804243455088"],["network's money troubles. He now owns a successful voice-over business, where he does network spots for CBS and is the announcer for the FOX sketch comedy show Mad TV. Original line-up in 1980: Tim Moore-mornings; Mike Daniels-middays; Bob Harper-afternoons; Carey Carlson-nights; John Borders-voice tracked 10p-6a; Bob White-morning news; Cindy Smith-afternoon news. Other personalities in the 80's: Rob Hazelton, Jim Owen, Chet Jessick, Mark Cage, Mike Sommers; Christopher Knight.\nThe departure of the Captain would be the start of many defections by high-profile personalities, including \"Storm\" Kennedy, Keith Michaels, Lisa Knight, and Ron Pritchard, who programmed the station for most of the","-29.79421536033624"],["Alan Kalter Career Kalter, nicknamed \"Big Red\" and \"TV's Uncle Jerry\", began his stint as the \"voice\" of the Late Show with David Letterman on September 5, 1995. He announced the guests at the top of each show and the one-liner during the Worldwide Pants title card after the credits and regularly acted in comedic sketches.\nKalter has done hundreds of voiceovers for national radio and television commercials and was also the lead continuity voice for the USA Network throughout much of the 1980s (his voice was still heard on USA into the mid-2010s for the network's paid programming disclaimer, until a","-29.74256944246008"],["agencies. Conclusion Broadcast journalism did not develop until the mid 1930s. Relationships between the older print media and the newer medium of radio were not friendly, and the journalists of the time needed considerable diplomatic skills in dealing with the wire services and their own employers. By the beginning of the next decade the effectiveness and reliability of broadcast journalism was confirmed by the coverage of World War II.","-29.740420220881788"],["Cleveland to Philadelphia in 1965 the station's then-news director, Al Primo, created the Eyewitness News format. In this format, which was meant to be faster in pace than the standard newscast format (in which an anchor simply read headlines), a reporter in the field would be the \"eyewitness\" to a news event to the anchor in the studio and the viewer at home. The anchors became personalities instead of presenters with the introduction of banter, or \"happy talk\" as it was named by Al Primo. Anchors would give their own personal comments in between stories to let viewers know their","-29.71029697553604"],["generally considered to be non-partisan and are not driven by the hosts' personalities, unlike the majority of contemporary North American talk radio programs. However, accusations of partisan activity by specific callers, such as political staffers calling in the guise of \"regular joes\", have been made from time to time.\nDuring the late 1990s, the VOCM network experimented with syndicated talk programming in the form of the Dr. Laura Schlessinger show, which aired on tape delay in the early evening. As with most Canadian stations airing the program, it was quietly dropped shortly after a Canadian Broadcast Standards Council ruling admonishing the","-29.686143202270614"],["getting ready to fly everyone on the set had to be quiet, so he could talk to people via the radio. Gemmell said \"It's quite something standing with 30 people spread out across a field in total silence for a good 10 minutes, then hearing in the distance the rumble of a plane engine getting louder and louder.\" She also praised the make-up department for getting her wig to stay on during filming. Gemmell added that the second series was tough to film especially for the team behind the scenes. Broadcasting The first series consisted of five episodes lasting 45","-29.664062082749297"],["had as much power as Cronkite did at his height.\" Enjoying the cult of personality surrounding Cronkite in those years, CBS allowed some good-natured fun-poking at its star anchorman in some episodes of the network's popular situation comedy All in the Family, during which the lead character Archie Bunker would sometimes complain about the newsman, calling him \"Pinko Cronkite.\"\nCronkite trained himself to speak at a rate of 124 words per minute in his newscasts, so that viewers could clearly understand him. In contrast, Americans average about 165 words per minute, and fast, difficult-to-understand talkers speak close to 200 words per","-29.64458671025932"],["signals. Audio journalism A common set-up for journalists is a battery operated cassette recorder with a dynamic microphone and optional telephone interface. With this set-up, the reporter can record interviews and natural sound and then transmit these over the phone line to the studio or for live broadcast.\nElectronic formats used by journalists have included DAT, MiniDisc, CD and DVD. Minidisc has digital indexing and is re-recordable, reusable medium; while DAT has SMPTE timecode and other synchronization features. In recent years, more and more journalists have used smartphones or iPod-like devices for recording short interviews. The other alternative is using small","-29.583440837450325"],["Interpretive journalism History In his book Interpretative Reporting (1938) Curtis D. MacDongall wrote that during the beginning of the First World War most Americans were taken by surprise and were unable to understand the reasons why it started. This led to changes in the style of reporting.\nDuring the 1920s events such as the Great Depression and the Nazi threat to global stability caused audiences to be no longer content with the five W's of journalism. In 1923, Time magazine launched as the first major publication to provide readers with a more analytical interpretation of the news. Many papers responded with","-29.574383582348673"],["a \"Communicator\" for the NBC Radio show Monitor on Sunday afternoons from 1955 – 1960. Perry Como Gallop was the announcer for Perry Como's 1950s – 1960s television shows. At The Perry Como Show's premiere on September 17, 1955, the first voice heard was that of Gallop, saying, \"We assume everyone can read, so we will not shout at you.\" While serving as the announcer for Milton Berle's radio show, Gallop had been the one delivering the comedy lines; on the Perry Como Show, it was just the opposite, with Como getting the \"last word\" on Gallop. At","-29.568611112204962"],["device The commercial use of voice-over in television advertising has been popular since the beginning of radio broadcasting.\nIn the early years, before effective sound recording and mixing, announcements were produced \"live\" and at-once in a studio with the entire cast, crew and, usually, orchestra. A corporate sponsor hired a producer, who hired writers and voice actors to perform comedy or drama.\nManufacturers will often use a distinctive voice to help them with brand messaging, often retaining talent to a long-term exclusive contract.\nThe industry expanded very rapidly with the advent of television in the 1950s, and the age of highly produced serial","-29.568291216768557"],["was voted as the favourite male voice. His voice was described, by the paper's radio critic Paul Donovan, as smoother than that of the favourite female Jane Garvey and as \"evoking an earlier, more formal BBC\". In September 2015, he played a vintage radio announcer in the BBC Radio 4 drama Dead Girls Tell No Tales.\nIn April 2016 Soanes played Derek Nimmo in the radio drama All Mouth and Trousers, by Mark Burgess, the story behind the making of the television comedy series All Gas and Gaiters. The reviews for the programme were generally positive with The Sunday Times' Paul","-29.511140300310217"],["Kathy O' Connor (Dayton's first female news reporter) and Retha Phillips among others. Nance and Phillips were also 2007 inductees into the Dayton Broadcasters Hall of Fame. In the early 1960s it was at first a top of the hour \"rip and read\" newscast from wire services with an echoed voice shouting the dateline location at the beginning of a story (replaced in 1965 by a tone chord simulating an electronic telegraph key sounder). The newscast was also upgraded by world news actualities from Metromedia Radio, a predecessor of UPI Audio Network who bought the news-feed service in 1971. By","-29.465789617286646"],["Alan Black (broadcaster) Alan Black (15 January 1943 – 5 March 2007) was known as one of the presenters of BBC's Sounds of the Seventies.\nAfter having worked as a disc jockey for a series of commercial radio stations in the mid-1960s, Black joined the BBC in July 1968, with a programme on BBC Radio 1: Midday Spin. He also presented In Concert, on BBC Radio 2, and the What's New programme with Anne Nightingale.","-29.4487383710657"],["listeners because of his relaxed, urbane style.\nBy this time the programme was benefiting from publicity gained after it became known that Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was a regular listener. Ministers thus became keen to go on the programme, but the tough, confrontational interviewing they encountered led to accusations that the BBC was biased. Criticism was particularly directed against Redhead, who was often seen as being on the left. Chancellor Nigel Lawson accused him of having been a Labour voter all his life during a live interview, in 1988. The style of the male interviewers was analysed and contrasted with the","-29.443386844417546"],["in broadcasts as \"John Brown declined to be interviewed on camera, but said\" or simply \"a spokesperson said\".\nSome interview subjects are uncomfortable being recorded. Some are afraid that they will be inarticulate and feel like fools if the interview is broadcast. Others might be uncooperative or distrust the motives or competence of the journalist, and wish to prevent them from being able to broadcast an unflattering sound bite or part of the interview out of context. Professional public relations officers know that having the reporter repeat their words, rather than being heard directly on the air, will blunt the effect","-29.441735048400005"],["NBC Talknet History Prior to the late 1970s, AM radio was still largely dominated by all-music formats. Many individual radio stations had introduced some talk programming to their lineups, but it was almost universally locally produced. The concept of national talk radio, broadcast over a radio network, had not been tried. In 1978, Larry King began broadcasting six hours of talk programming nightly on the Mutual Broadcasting System. His success in the field proved to radio programmers that there was an audience for both late-night talk programming and national talk radio programming. NBC and ABC were quick to enter the","-29.434522265044507"],["into the 2000s, with everyone from Broadway stars to NFL football players to politicians coming to Studio 6B to be interviewed.\nLive at Five was originally cancelled in September 1991 and replaced by a traditional newscast known as News 4 New York at 5, anchored by Simmons and Chuck Scarborough. This format did not stay long, however – Simmons was paired with Matt Lauer for a new iteration of Live at Five, originating from the Window on the World studios used for NBC's Today. Shortly afterwards, Live at Five was moved back to 30 Rockefeller Center and adopted a more traditional","-29.432235218535425"],["BBC News 1950s Television news, although physically separate from its radio counterpart, was still firmly under radio news' control – correspondents provided reports for both outlets–and that first bulletin, shown on 5 July 1954 on the then BBC television service and presented by Richard Baker, involved his providing narration off-screen while stills were shown. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a recorded commentary by John Snagge (and on other occasions by Andrew Timothy).\nIt was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story.","-29.38138173200423"],["taped, syndicated \"Entertainers\" MOR format, using live announcers in some dayparts. \nIn 1985, Roger Tees took over as news director and hired anchors, Jeff Scott, Greg Gaston, Carla Contento Kenny, and Vince Scanlon, along with sports director Jim Wise and sports anchor Greg Toland. When the all-news/talk anchors departed for other positions in larger markets, ratings plummeted. By 1988, the WFPG call letters, which had remained in use on a co-owned FM station, had returned to the AM facility. \nFor much of the 1990s, syndicated talk programs such as Bob Grant, Mike Gallagher, and Art Bell were mainstays of","-29.38000557183841"],["interviews or voice-overs, consisting solely of the actual TV footage on June 17, 1994. This was the date of the O.J. Simpson slow-moving police chase, and the other important sports stories of that day that were mostly ignored, due to the American public's fascination with Simpson. Personal life Morgen lives in Rockaway, Queens, New York with his wife, Debra Eisenstadt, and three children.","-29.332479869539384"],["long-time announcer on many radio shows, including Bob Hope's. The Blue Network gave him and partner Don Prindle a comedy series, Niles and Prindle, which is referenced in the special as being scheduled for a debut the following month. It was said to involve two friends \"who argued about everything\", and had a brief run in 1945. It was certainly unusual for the Blue Network to attempt to convert a long-time announcer into a featured comedy star, and in this sense, \"Niles and Prindle\", if not unique (given that Graham McNamee was the \"Perfect Foil\" to Ed Wynn), it","-29.31197188969236"],["to be a celebrity? Wide Wide World's cameras profile some of the era's stars, including Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward. Stars of the art world are also shown, and Garroway muses about what, exactly, makes a celebrity.\nMay 25, 1958 - \"The Sound of Laughter\" Features clips and commentary by Bob Hope, Steve Allen, Smith and Dale, Robert Benchley, Mort Sahl, Claude Rains, Al Capp and Peter Ustinov.","-29.289142123772763"],["in their character's name with different companies. Radio personality Radio talk shows are also called aniradio. Initially the vast majority was aired by local broadcast stations only, but after the communication boom of the 1990s the metropolitan radio stations began to also employ them. Some such programs aired for over ten years. This was the result of fans who regard radio talks as a way to get to know the voice actors as human beings rather than just voices for the characters they play.\nDue to lower costs and the increase in the number of listeners, more and more of these","-29.27268827871012"],["and closed captioning for personal TVs. With other options available for entertainment and communication, the need for deaf clubs grew smaller. It was no longer the only option for getting in touch with other members of the deaf community.\nHowever, others attribute the decline of deaf clubs to the end of World War II and a change in the job market. During WWII there was high demand for factory laborers and a promise of high pay. Many deaf Americans left their homes to move to bigger cities with the hope of obtaining a factory job. This huge influx of workers into new","-29.270535412826575"],["the recording machine. Many airchecks were made to record DXing reception, which often included fading, static and interference. Uses DJs use airchecks to critique themselves, sometimes with the Program Director listening along with them to provide suggestions for improvements. Announcers keep some of their airchecks as \"audio snapshots\" of their career. \nAirchecks are also recorded at radio stations to send to clients to show how their live commercials, remote breaks or contests sounded.\nSome airchecks of older radio programs are highly prized by collectors, due to their nostalgia value. For example, baby boomers often enjoy listening to airchecks recorded from Top","-29.26352840736945"],["in June of that year, would become the permanent anchor for the NBC Nightly News; Holt is the first African-American to be named as the sole weeknight anchor of a major network news broadcast. Today's television news Today, electronic news gathering has enabled reporters to capture video and audio at greater ease and edit the footage faster than when film was used. Journalists have also employed microwave and satellite.\nTelevision news programming in the U.S. can be separated into categories: local news, network news, and cable news. Local news Many local broadcast television stations have in-house news departments that produce their","-29.260252952444716"],["developed a comforting rapport with the American public. The Fireside Chats enabled the President to communicate directly to the public through one of the most popular media outlets of the time. Politicians would continue to use the radio in World War II, in which the radio was used primarily for news transmissions and the spread of propaganda. One example of radio propaganda came from Iva Toguri D'Aquino, Ruth Hayakawa, June Suyamawho, and Myrtle Lipton collectively known as Tokyo Rose. These women hosted anti-American programming intended to lower American soldiers' morale and illustrate the use of governments' use of the media","-29.25931721692905"],["as the voice-over narrator to tell a story.\nLive sports broadcasts are usually shown as extensive voice-overs by sports commentators over video of the sporting event.\nGame shows formerly made extensive use of voice-overs to introduce contestants and describe available or awarded prizes, but this technique has diminished as shows have moved toward predominantly cash prizes. The most prolific have included Don Pardo, Johnny Olson, John Harlan, Jay Stewart, Gene Wood and Johnny Gilbert.\nVoice-over commentary by a leading critic, historian, or by the production personnel themselves is often a prominent feature of the release of feature films or documentaries on DVDs. Commercial","-29.24709412708762"],["types. Virtually all stations also had programs of interest to women, and children's sessions. From the outset, A Class stations' peak-hour evening programs often consisted of live broadcasts from various theatres, including concerts dramas, operas, musicals, variety shows, and vaudeville. The first dramas especially written for radio were heard in the mid-1920s.\nThe standard accent used by actors and announcers was \"Southern English\", an upper-class British version that emulated the BBC. The actual Australian accent was acceptable only in low comedy, as in the long-running \"Dad and Dave from Snake Gully\" program.\nBy the 1930s, the ABC was transmitting a number of","-29.24542690484668"],["it pioneered \"702 eye-witness news\", broadcasting full news bulletins every hour and headlines on the half-hour. Some of the other popular presenters were Mike Mills on the afternoon show; former Ireland, Lions and Transvaal rugby player, John Robbie, who began as a late night talk show host, with Talk at Ten, then Talk at Nine (currently hosted by Aubrey Masango), eventually moving to the main morning talk show; former Manchester United goalkeeper, Gary Bailey, and many others who popularised the station. Also heard on Radio 702 in the early 1980s was American Top 40 with Casey Kasem.\nUp until the","-29.23451205829042"],["\"voice\", or narrator, of the show was John Facenda, known to Philadelphians for decades reporting the news on radio and television, as well as nationally known as the voice of NFL Films. NFL Films' Ed Sabol referred to Facenda as \"The Voice of God\" (Facenda is in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio). His wordsmithing and dramatic baritone delivery were highlights of the shows and did much to boost Facenda's stock and mystique. Various announcers narrated the show between 1995 and 2005. Beginning in 2006, under Macy's, Julie Andrews became the show's narrator. Also in 2006, the","-29.234430735512433"],["end of the 1960s. The station also had specialty shows playing jazz and big band music. \"The Voice of Sports\" While WHDH was never \"all sports\", it was easily Boston's top sports station during the 1950s through the end of the 1960s. It referred to itself \"The Voice of Sports\", a sub-branding of the station's overall imaging as the Voice of the City.\nFor 30 consecutive years (1946-75), WHDH was the flagship station of the Boston Red Sox, featuring play-by-play announcers such as Jim Britt, Ford C. Frick Award-winning Curt Gowdy, Ken Coleman and Ned Martin. From 1946 through 1949, it","-29.231878725986462"],["focused on this particular episode because of its quality treatment of racist issues. Hinds commented on this saying there was \"a moment in Hollywood where our [colored people's] voice is coming to prominence\".","-29.219635632056452"],["a television version of the radio commentary series created by Gary Burbank. Burbank – whose segments as the \"middle American\" archetype character began airing on the channel that same month – had long maintained a close relationship with certain executives working at that time for the Tribune Company, who approached him about bringing the segments to television. The commentary was aired in the form of a series of 90-second segments that aired on WGN America until November 2011, usually during simulcasts of WGN-TV newscasts.\nAs part of WGN America's restructuring, the channel began to develop original programming – some of which","-29.204485939408187"],["Robert Dougall Television news Dougall's radio work took a back seat when he returned to London in 1951 to work as a television newsreader. (He is thought to have been the only person from the BBC's early radio service who had an enduring career in television.) Between 1946 and 1955, the BBC news was merely voiced over a photograph of Big Ben, a measure sanctioned by Chief News Editor Tahu Hole to reinforce the absolute impartiality for which the Corporation was renowned. However, the coming of commercial television and ITN in 1955 prompted the BBC to have its newsreaders perform","-29.202363349468214"],["commentary, largely because during this period, it was not unusual for long stretches of the race to see little or no action. Turn reporters typically did not \"call\" the race live, in-part due to the limitations of the equipment. Rather, when incidents occurred on the track, the information would be relayed on cue cards to Collins, and the reporters would be called upon to summarize the details of what had happened. A unique individual, Collins was characterized by his contemporaries as a perfectionist and a proud person. The Collins era was also noted for its popular culture and social appeal.","-29.18854857844417"],["from Fordham University. Future Yankees television announcer Michael Kay and New York Giants radio voice Bob Papa were among the Fordham attendees who later announced for Sports Phone. Some Sports Phone announcers who provided updates to southern locations, including Papa, applied pseudonyms in an effort \"to sound less ethnic.\"","-29.176081055213217"],["time was negative, some listeners believed the BBC's commitment to accurate pronunciation was in decline.\nLater in the decade, she moved to daytime television co-presenting Open Air and continued with voiceover work when it ended. Susan Rae began working on the BBC World Service around 2000, returning to BBC Radio 4 in 2003.\nShe has done voice-overs for many Discovery Channel shows including some episodes of Forensic Detectives (Discovery Channel TV show), some episodes of The FBI Files; and Street Crime UK for Bravo. In 2007, she presented Eastern Skies for Anglia Television. Personal life Rae lives in London. She is a","-29.169321295696136"],["only had only one voice deliver messages in a given train car with both voices split among the system's fleet.\nThe original edition of Train Call, which ran from the airports opening in 1995 until 2007 and also recorded by Jim Green, featured the voices of local radio broadcaster Pete Smythe and former KCNC-TV anchor Reynelda Muse, who is notable for being the first woman and first African American to anchor a television news program in Colorado. A different set of sound effects accompanied the original voices which mostly came from bells and woodwind instruments and were based on western folk","-29.16376618852155"],["into a smaller amount of time, reducing advertising costs, and/or allowing more information to be included in a given radio or TV advertisement. It is usually most noticeable in the information-dense caveats and disclaimers presented (usually by legal requirement) at the end of commercials—the aural equivalent of the \"fine print\" in a printed contract. This practice, however, is not new: before electronic methods were developed, spokespeople who could talk extremely quickly and still be understood were widely used as voice talents for radio and TV advertisements, and especially for recording such disclaimers. Education Time-compressed speech has educational applications","-29.158708421415213"],["service middle of the road (MOR) radio stations in America, placing an emphasis on its colorful air personalities. During the 1970s and into the early 1980s there was: Gary Todd (mornings), brought in from KOL Seattle; Jerry Baker (9-11am) who was also the voice of Indiana (University) Hoosiers basketball and the Indiana Pacers; Paul Page, the voice of the Indianapolis 500 on radio then later on television, and who served as an award-winning newsman at WIBC in the early 1970s, reporting from the first Indy traffic helicopter (known as the \"Ten Seven-Oh Whirlybird\") until a serious crash nearly","-29.14119433891028"],["use actual WKBW disc jockeys and news reporters as actors. Other changes reflected the changing state of the industry: instead of the old-time radio programming fare of the 1930s, WKBW's War of the Worlds broadcast was interwoven into the station's top 40 programming. Production Initially, a script was written for the news reporters to act out; however, upon hearing the rehearsals, it was evident that the news reporters (except Irv Weinstein, a professional radio actor at the beginning of his career) were not adept at scripted radio acting. So instead, Kaye wrote an outline based on the events that were","-29.128229474968975"],["being Lynne Reid Banks), and helped to pioneer the use of so-called Vox pop reports in the United Kingdom – whereby one conducts interviews with ordinary members of the public in the street.\nAlthough Mandell was the UK's first regular female television news presenter, her tenure lasted only a few months. By January 1956 ITV was experiencing financial difficulties, and the budget for its news strand was reduced, meaning the Midday News was dropped. However, Mandell continued to be seen on screen throughout the 1950s, usually fronting weekend news bulletins, and she was a regular reporter. Then later in her career","-29.10892323639564"],["Leslie Mitchell (broadcaster) Leslie Scott Falconer Mitchell (4 October 1905 – 23 November 1985) was a British announcer who was heard on newsreel soundtracks, radio and television. He was the first voice heard on BBC Television at its inception on 2 November 1936, and also made the first announcement on Associated-Rediffusion, the first ITV company, on 22 September 1955. His voice was perhaps most recognised, however, from his long association with British Movietone News, for whose newsreels he commentated during the Second World War and for many years afterwards. Early life Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, Mitchell's parents separated while he","-29.091194617329165"],["media critic Richard Deitsch wrote “Along with the quality of their voices, what stands out here is the diligence and professionalism that each man delivers daily. Names are correctly pronounced, setups are done intelligently. It’s a pleasure to listen to radio professionals who care about quality.” \nWilson was also named “Comeback Talent of the Year” for 2010 by TalkingTVSports. Steve Sampsell wrote: “Simply put, Wilson is a sports-radio professional. He’s diligent, sounds good and works hard. He cares and he prepares.” In December, 2011, the ESPN Radio anchors were named as “Best National Voices for 2011”","-29.081469908793224"],["lame excuse as to why he has failed.\nFordie's Interviews Each week, Fordie pretends to interview a famous person, yet actually uses soundbites from old interviews and fills in his part himself. He has 'interviewed' Gordon Brown, David Cameron, David Attenborough, the England football team, and even Jon. Guest comedian Every week, Jon Richardson invited a guest comedian to join him in the studio.\nSome of guest comedians appeared on the show were:\nStephen K Amos,\nJarred Christmas,\nArnab Chanda (who announced his retirement from comedy while on the show),\nRufus Hound,\nJosie Long,\nMichael McIntyre,\nSarah Millican,\nLloyd Langford,\nDan Atkinson,\nAl Pitcher,\nRich Hall (AKA Otis Lee Crenshaw),\nPaul Sinha,\nAndrew Bird,\nJohn (Nobbler)","-29.07285334745393"],["broadcast 60 Minutes displays this purported superfluousness of anchors, insofar as it has no central figurehead in favor of many correspondents with similarly important roles. Up-and-coming news networks like Vice Magazine's documentary-style reporting also eschew traditional news broadcast formatting in this way, suggesting an emphasis on on-site reporting and deemphasizing the importance of the solitary anchor in the news medium. In her essay, \"News as Performance\", Margaret Morse posits this connection between anchor persona newsroom as an interconnected identity fusing many aspects of the newsroom dynamic:\nFor the anchor represents not merely the news per se, or a particular network or","-29.07084929724806"],["civilians to keep clear of military targets. The station changed name to \"Voice of Britain\". The station was turned over to the BBC at the end of March 1957 (see British East Mediterranean Relay Station).","-29.02336039947113"],["monologue (where the voice talent portrays a character, as opposed to an announcer), jingles, and combinations of these. Studies show that the quality of the commercials is as important to listeners, generally, as the number of ads they hear. Research and rates Radio stations today generally run their advertising in clusters or sets, scattered throughout the broadcasting hour. Studies show that the first or second commercial to air during a commercial break has higher recall than those airing later in the set.\nNielsen Audio is one of the primary providers of ratings data in the United States. Most radio stations","-29.020818965659828"],["a voiceover performer through the 1990s.\nHe was best known as the \"Why Not?\" man when he joined the cast of the NBC Sunday night variety show that Allen began hosting to compete against Ed Sullivan on CBS. The catch-phrase began as a stalling ad-lib to an interview question; then it caught on. Allen used it for television commercials and saw novelty toys, a book and a record spin off from the \"Why not?\" phenomenon. In its day, fans were shouting \"Why not?\" as often as Mad Magazine's famous \"What? Me Worry?\"\nHis brother, Bradley Bolke, was also a voice actor best","-28.99973273494288"],["voice overs can be recorded in home studios because of technology becoming so affordable, high paying jobs are no longer sourced exclusively through traditional voice talent agents. History Since the decline in viewership in theaters, from the 1950s to 1960s, a monumental shift occurred in how studios produced films and reduced the cost of exclusive and expensive actors. After the shift, actors and actresses were working for the studios but were not owned by one major studio entity, and so were able to work with other studios. This shift has meant that agents were now seen as a necessity instead","-28.97785620833747"],["Radio during the Golden Age began to fully develop programs with sound effects, music, dialogue, and narration. Some voice actors would play multiple characters in a story performed live on the air, and some radio shows were performed in front of a live audience. This allowed the show to gauge real audience reaction like applause and laughter for comedy shows. Programming during the Golden Age included comedies, dramas, westerns, horror and suspense shows, science fiction, soap operas, sports, and news. Big players In the heyday of radio, NBC and CBS built their empire using the mass media and emphasizing the","-28.977519066771492"],["the view that BBC presenters on the day had concentrated too much on interviews with celebrities and that they were insufficiently prepared to add depth to the TV commentary. The actor and writer Stephen Fry was of the opinion that the coverage was \"mind-numbingly tedious\", while Ben Dowell in The Guardian singled out the lack of television coverage given to the composers and performers who were commissioned to write music and perform on the Thames barges. Poet Laureate Carol Ann Duffy and composers Orlando Gough and Gavin Greenaway also expressed their frustration about the coverage. BBC creative director","-28.97707785415696"],["shot on film, often using hand-held cameras, in a documentary style. Four video cameras recorded the show-within-a-show which gives a brighter, less grainy picture and helps distinguish the talk show from the back-stage scenes. The talk show was staged with realistic music, lighting and set design. It was recorded in front of an actual live studio audience during the first season and then occasionally during later episodes.\nThe show had a few catchphrases used throughout its entire run. The most common was \"Hey now\", a phrase Hank repeats in the opening credits of the fictional talk show and whenever he greets","-28.973327180807246"],["event. Newsroom Voice of America's central newsroom has hundreds of journalists and dozens of full-time domestic and overseas correspondents, who are employees of the U.S. government or paid contractors. They are augmented by hundreds of contract correspondents and stringers throughout the world, who file in English or in one of VOA's other radio and television broadcast languages.\nIn late 2005, VOA shifted some of its central-news operation to Hong Kong where contracted writers worked from a \"virtual\" office with counterparts on the overnight shift in Washington, D.C., but this operation was shut down in early 2008. Shortwave frequencies By December 2014,","-28.97301399207572"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"long before that time. The American radio broadcaster Howard Stern has also used voice-overs in this way. Educational or descriptive device The voice-over has many applications in non-fiction as well. Television news is often presented as a series of video clips of newsworthy events, with voice-over by the reporters describing the significance of the scenes being presented; these are interspersed with straight video of the news anchors describing stories for which video is not shown.\\nTelevision networks such as The History Channel and the Discovery Channel make extensive use of voice-overs. On NBC, the television show Starting Over used Sylvia Villagran\",\n \"-32.941688789229374\"\n ],\n [\n \"with the voice-over technique. The golden age of first-person narration was during the 1940s. Film noir typically used male voice-over narration but there are a few rare female voice-overs.\\nIn radio, voice-overs are an integral part of the creation of the radio program. The voice-over artist might be used to remind listeners of the station name or as characters to enhance or develop show content. During the 1980s, the British broadcasters Steve Wright and Kenny Everett used voice-over artists to create a virtual \\\"posse\\\" or studio crew who contributed to the programmes. It is believed that this principle was in play\",\n \"-32.76315356515988\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Loudest Voice Premise The Loudest Voice tells the story of Roger Ailes, who molded Fox News into one of the most powerful, influential media networks in history. The series focuses primarily on the past decade in which Ailes became one of the most prominent figures in modern American conservatism, while flashing back to defining events in Ailes’ life, including the 9/11 attacks, the U.S. presidential election, 2008 and U.S. presidential election, 2016, and the sexual harassment accusations and settlements that ended his career. Development On October 19, 2016, it was announced that Blumhouse Television was developing a television miniseries\",\n \"-32.458754032384604\"\n ],\n [\n \"case of interviews recorded outside the studio and some current affairs program, the interpreter interprets what he or she hears on a TV monitor. Background noise can be a serious problem. The interpreter working for the media has to sound as slick and confident as a television presenter.\\nMedia interpreting has gained more visibility and presence especially after the Gulf War. Television channels have begun to hire staff simultaneous interpreters. The interpreter renders the press conferences, telephone beepers, interviews and similar live coverage for the viewers. It is more stressful than other types of interpreting as the interpreter has to deal\",\n \"-32.31040155678056\"\n ],\n [\n \"front of the opening of a lift in a public car park. Old News News stories from the past week are made to look like a news story from the 1960s or earlier, with the story shown in black and white and the picture quality degraded. The sound is replaced with a voice over using the same tone used in 1960s TV news with the voice over often having nothing related to the news story. Guy Williams Television Segment The show's third presenter, Guy Williams, is usually sent out by Jono and Ben to report on a big event from\",\n \"-32.01664415150299\"\n ],\n [\n \"courthouse and, on a whim, went to audition as a singer. Someone noticed his voice and asked him to speak through a microphone. He was given an audition and hired as a staff announcer on the spot. Sportscasting Radio broadcasting of sporting events was a new thing in the 1920s. The announcers were a rotating group of newspaper writers. At the time baseball was America's most popular sport, and the reporters were at the games to write stories about them for print newspapers. Their descriptions were matter-of-fact, boring at best, had a lot of dead air, and were given in\",\n \"-31.916648138896562\"\n ],\n [\n \"NBC's short-lived \\\"behind-the-scenes\\\" series Behind The Mike (1940–41) occasionally featured reconstructions of announcers' gaffes and flubs as part of the \\\"Oddities in Radio\\\" segment, and movie studios had been producing so-called \\\"gag reels\\\" of outtakes (usually for employee-only viewing) since the 1930s. United Kingdom Jonathan Hewat (1938–2014), who had a vast personal collection of taped broadcasting gaffes, was the first person in the UK to broadcast radio bloopers, on a bank holiday show on BBC Radio Bristol at the end of the 1980s.\\nHe subsequently produced and presented a half-hour show on that station called So You Want to Run\",\n \"-31.88576333076344\"\n ],\n [\n \"same off-screen narrator,\\nwhich made the Front Page Challenge footage less appealing to young people than the multiple sound bites featured by CBC Newsworld, which began 24-hour newscasts throughout Canada on July 31, 1989. CBC Newsworld offered sound bite interviews with people who had witnessed events or were knowledgeable about them. Young viewers using remote controls stuck with the multiple sound bites and ignored the Front Page Challenge narrator's summaries of the news stories, according to the book by Alex Barris published in 1999.\\nWhen Front Page Challenge ceased production in 1995, it was the longest continually running non-news program in Canadian\",\n \"-31.882327274943236\"\n ],\n [\n \"in their fifties. Only put on callers sounding in the 45–64 range. I don't want to hear really elderly voices. Only talk about things that are positive and appealing to people in this age range. Only do caller round ups about people in this age range.\\\" This was reprinted the following month in the Southern Daily Echo, following which a BBC spokesperson commented \\\"Out of context these notes sound harsh and we apologise if they offend anyone.\\\" BBC Sounds BBC Local Radio is available as a listen-again service on BBC Sounds.\\nEngland Unwrapped was launched in\",\n \"-31.62465297774179\"\n ],\n [\n \"violent, racist and lived on benefits.\\nThe BBC’s commissioning editor, Richard Klein, stated that the commissioning of the series was in response to a report which showed that white working class voices rarely made it onto TV, and that when they were shown, they were portrayed as \\\"chavs\\\" and \\\"white trash\\\".\",\n \"-31.46120561074349\"\n ],\n [\n \"voices spoke with an authoritative \\\"announcer's\\\" intonation, resembling public oration, often dropping about a musical fifth on the last word of a sentence. Garroway was one of the broadcasters who introduced conversational style and tone to television, beginning some broadcasts as though the viewer were sitting in the studio with him, as in this November 20, 1957, introduction for the Today show: \\\"And how are you about the world today? Let's see what kind of shape it's in; there is a glimmer of hope.\\\"\\nPioneering NBC president Sylvester \\\"Pat\\\" Weaver chose Garroway as the host of his new morning news-and-entertainment experiment,\",\n \"-31.306760510898243\"\n ],\n [\n \"dedicated entirely to slow motion shots, microphones are present on the sidelines and near the field to pick up both the sounds of the games as well as the talk on the sidelines, and narrators with deep, powerful, baritone voices are preferred. Narrators have generally been from the Philadelphia metropolitan area, with well-known announcers such as Jefferson Kaye, Harry Kalas, John Facenda, Andy Musser, Jack Whitaker, William Woodson, and current announcer Scott Graham all having narrated NFL Films presentations at various points in time. J.K. Simmons was tapped to narrate the company's one-hour recap of the 16-0 regular season\",\n \"-31.265430847763128\"\n ],\n [\n \"We were public servants and it never occurred to any of us at the time to think of ourselves as personalities or, heaven forbid, stars.\\\"\\nThose early television newsreaders sounded as if they had just come out of a BBC finishing school. Was that how you were asked to talk?\\n\\\"Everything was live back then so nothing was recorded. So I am pretty thankful there were no recordings kept because we would have sounded rather too precious. We were told to speak rather nicely. I think probably we were a bit stiff.\\\"\\nIn 2000, in a television special commemorating 40 years of television\",\n \"-31.064903920865618\"\n ],\n [\n \"interview format with no studio audience present, similar to his old Tomorrow show of the 1970s, or to Charlie Rose show and Later, which had abandoned the format the previous year and had followed Late Night under Letterman on NBC. Though the show lacked a studio audience, Snyder still frequently gave extended conversational monologues, many of which contained jokes that prompted audible laughter from the off-camera production staff. Without the need for an audience, the show originated from the intimate Studio 58 at CBS Television City.\\nThroughout most of the show's run, it was also simulcast over some CBS Radio stations,\",\n \"-30.980070410412736\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dick Martin, who went on to host their own show, Laugh In.\\nIn 1957, Gallop was asked about the difference in switching from radio to television announcing. He said that while the salaries in television announcing were even more lucrative than in radio, the amount of time and work involved for television shows was much greater than for radio ones. Gallop stressed that veteran radio announcers were still actively employed because of their announcing experience and that a handsome face on the television screen needed to have that experience coupled with it. Singer As a young man, Gallop took voice lessons.\",\n \"-30.85467530801543\"\n ],\n [\n \"Janis. Voiceover talent Voiceover talent included Gregory Abbott (1900–1981), lead voice for the presentation of news and the only narrator to stay until the series ended in 1957. Bill Slater was a narrator for many years. Other narrators included Gabriel Heatter (who introduced the voiceover talent in a special issue release of Paramount News in the early 1930s, Gregory Abbott being among those introduced), Vincent Connoly, Maurice Joyce, Dennis James (later a TV game show and variety show host), Gilbert Martyn, and Frank Gallop among others.\\nThe sports segments were narrated by Bill Slater in the early years and from 1948\",\n \"-30.84845639806008\"\n ],\n [\n \"News presenter Overview The role of the news presenter developed over time. Classically, the presenter would read the news from news \\\"copy\\\" which he may or may not have helped write with a or news writer. This was often taken almost directly from wire services and then rewritten. Prior to the television era, radio-news broadcasts often mixed news with opinion and each presenter strove for a distinctive style. These presenters were referred to as commentators. The last major figure to present commentary in a news broadcast format in the United States was Paul Harvey.\\n\\nWith the development of the 24-hour\",\n \"-30.835005168046337\"\n ],\n [\n \"York Times called it \\\"Whimper of the Jungle\\\"), the show closed on the 28th. Much and, eventually, most of her work came from radio, the prime home entertainment medium of the 1930s and 40s. The tens of thousands of broadcast hours, especially those featuring dramatic presentations, required a constant supply of voice professionals who were called upon to perform in multiple shows within the course of a single day, thus making the list of credits for a hard working performer such as Ethel Owen run into the thousands. One of her most-consistent regular assignments was on the long-running\",\n \"-30.762058623717166\"\n ],\n [\n \"radio shows of the early 1930s\\\", adding that \\\"the radio dialogue was so witty and outrageous, [an] innocent form of original comedy – as well as serious drama\\\". Rob White of the British Film Institute said the show \\\"glitter[s] with a thousand-and-one sockeroos.\\\" Rediscovery of the show The episodes of Flywheel, Shyster, and Flywheel were recorded, but for many years it was thought the recordings had not been preserved. At the time of the broadcasts, pre-recorded shows were frowned upon by advertisers and audiences. However, in 1988, Michael Barson, who worked in the United States Copyright Office at the Library\",\n \"-30.74861002455873\"\n ],\n [\n \"Top 40 radio era, because of their ability to introduce new music to the radio audience and promote or control which songs would be given airplay.\\nAlthough radio personalities who specialized in news or talk programs such as Dorothy Kilgallen and Walter Winchell existed since the early days of radio, exclusive talk radio formats emerged and multiplied in the 1960s, as telephone call in shows, interviews, news, and public affairs became more popular. In New York, WINS (AM) switched to a talk format in 1965, and WCBS (AM) followed two years later. Early talk radio personalities included Bruce Williams and Sally\",\n \"-30.747161738487193\"\n ],\n [\n \"sound mix was often very poor, with a curious quality that made it sound like everything had been 'phased'). The programme would start with a 45-minute magazine section consisting of interviews, fashion items and comedy appearances by a wide range of alternative artistes such as Frank Sidebottom, Vic Reeves (before his association with Bob Mortimer), Foffo Spearjig and even French & Saunders. During this section Yates would become known for conducting rather flirtatious interviews: in 1985, for example, she prompted Sting to remove his trousers.\\nThe main presenters were supported, for the first two series, by five newcomers who were picked\",\n \"-30.67134331420675\"\n ],\n [\n \"those from lower socioeconomic brackets.\\nBell's analysis of the newsreaders' speech revealed that they spoke differently based on the intended radio audience. He identified relationships in the frequency of sociolinguistic variables, such as postvocalic [t], which corresponded to the speech of the radio audiences. Bell proposed that because the topic of speech (identical news topics), speaker, and speech activity were the same, the most plausible way of accounting for the variation was that the newscasters were attuning their speech to what they perceived to be the norms for the respective radio audiences. Referee design In addition to audience design, Bell introduces\",\n \"-30.55575756696635\"\n ],\n [\n \"Peter Jennings Reporting: Who Is Ross Perot? and a subsequent 90-minute town forum with Perot and a studio audience in June. On September 9, 1992, ABC announced that it would be switching the format of its political coverage to give less recognition to staged sound bites. \\\"We're aware that a lot of you are turned off by the political process and that many of you put at least some of the blame on us,\\\" Jennings told viewers on World News Tonight. \\\"We'll only devote time to a candidate's daily routine if it is more than routine. There will be less\",\n \"-30.458249392278958\"\n ],\n [\n \"Booth interviews with celebrities, politicians, advertisers, promoters, retired drivers, and other famous personalities in attendance were used to fill the downtime of the broadcast. On other occasions, telegrams might be received from celebrities listening at home, and Collins would read some of them on-air for the listeners. Starting in 1971, Collins made an effort to curtail booth interviews, in order to improve the flow of the race, and to assuage listeners' complaints. Collins also had a popular custom of signing-off the broadcast by reciting poetry or other literary vignettes.\\nWhen Paul Page entered the booth in 1977, he swiftly changed the\",\n \"-30.451985056177364\"\n ],\n [\n \"himself, including his dog, Maggie. During Fridays Tony would discuss movies with either Stephen Hunter or Joe Barber of WTOP. His love of the music in 1960s inspired a radio segment called Old Guy Radio. His other-stuff talk makes his talk show much more interesting when there is no big sports event. In essence, his non-sports talk becomes a talk show version of his Washington Post Style Section columns. A collection of memorable clips of witty, sarcastic, or funny sayings from famous movies, television shows, callers, interviewees, and cast members have been turned into sound\",\n \"-30.421377031103475\"\n ],\n [\n \"to early BBC television was that she helped to bridge the gap between hearing and non-hearing viewers. She did this by addressing the television camera and using sign language as she spoke.\\nKeysell was a mime teacher for the Royal National Institute for the Deaf (RNID) and in 1968 was awarded a Winston Churchill Fellowship to study with the National Theatre of the Deaf in the USA. On her return she set up a company also named the National Theatre of the Deaf. The American company threatened to sue and the name was promptly changed to British Theatre of the Deaf\",\n \"-30.40795617751428\"\n ],\n [\n \"in recent years following the advent of satirical journalism and citizen journalism, both of which relocate the interpretation of truth outside traditional professional journalism, but the place anchormen and anchorwomen hold in American media remains consistent. \\\"Just about every single major news anchor since the dawn of the medium after World War II has been aligned with show business,\\\" says Frank Rich, writer-at-large for New York Magazine, in a polemic against commoditized news reporting, \\\"reading headlines to a camera in an appealing way is incentivized over actual reporting\\\". Brian Williams, an anchor for NBC Nightly News, evidences this lapse in\",\n \"-30.388621866877656\"\n ],\n [\n \"journalist and Factory Records supremo Tony Wilson who became the show's first in-vision anchor in the early 80s. Guest presenters were used on rare occasions, among them Jonathan Dimbleby, Sandy Gall, Martyn Gregory, Sue Lawley and Lynn Faulds Wood. Perhaps its most celebrated guest presenter was the distinguished American anchorman Walter Cronkite, who came out of retirement to cover the 1983 UK general election for the series.\\nA small group of narrators delivered the vast majority of WIA's voice-overs. The two original narrators were Derek Cooper, later to become well known as a broadcaster and writer about food, and Wilfrid Thomas.\",\n \"-30.32737775365422\"\n ],\n [\n \"and gossip from \\\"celebrity insiders, onlookers, pals and lunchers\\\" from tabloid magazines.\\nMartin and the others created various comedy sketches that included the edited recordings of politicians such as then politicians John Howard, Peter Costello and Kim Beazley musical parodies, advertisements and other sketches. Soundbites also featured regularly, with humorous comments, sounds, or sayings from politicians or the popular media included in various jokes, interviews, and songs.\\nThe show contained frequent references to Karl Stefanovic being a robot. Talkback Mountain Talkback Mountain was a segment in the show where a number of listeners called in to briefly discuss a chosen topic with\",\n \"-30.21334355574072\"\n ],\n [\n \"there were some newsreaders (unspecified; but not within Radio 4) who \\\"clearly have no understanding of what they are reading\\\" and that thereby the quality of the broadcast suffered. Donaldson had a distinctive form of Received Pronunciation \\\"BBC accent\\\" - one of the few left on British radio in the 21st century - and his delivery incorporated idiosyncratic pauses in the middle of sentences. In the 1980s his voice was used on the pre-recorded warning that a nuclear attack had been launched on the British Isles during the Cold War, which would have been transmitted on television and radio from\",\n \"-30.16399624898986\"\n ],\n [\n \"Master's Voice by the Band of the Royal Air Force, conducted by Squadron Leader R.P. O'Donnell, M.V.O. In 1940 the opening and closing parts of this recording were chosen to introduce and close the BBC's daily news programme Radio Newsreel (initially, Radio News Reel), which was broadcast on both the Home Service in Britain and the Overseas Service (later the World Service). As such it became one of a group of tunes, including Lillibullero and Eric Coates' Calling All Workers, that became inextricably associated with the BBC's output during the war. Radio Newsreel, with its theme, continued until 1970 in\",\n \"-30.11066733172629\"\n ],\n [\n \"employing dramatic elements mixed with natural-sound audio, news interviews and current music. Mavridis developed the style that mimicked talking to pre-recorded interviews and newsmakers.\\nBillboard magazine's Radio and Records described Mavridis's original iCast format as transforming \\\"the traditional role of a reporter into more of an audio guide with an edge who leads the listener through a news story's chain of interrelated actualities.\\\"\\nEach show opened with the big story of the day, usually in a mock-conversation format, inserting pre-taped interviews and field reports to create the illusion of a conversation. The second segment is usually another major story of the day\",\n \"-30.083199302316643\"\n ],\n [\n \"made a six-part radio series in 1947, adapted and produced by Felix Felton. Paul Bultitude was played by Ronald Simpson, and his mischievous son Dick by John Clark. Dr. Grimstone was played by veteran radio actor Ralph Truman. An early example of creative sound effects before the days of tape meant that when the father succeeds in his wish to be just like his son going off to school, juvenile actor John Clark had to talk to himself. So he had to pre-record the father's dialogue on the 15 inch disks used at that time, and leave gaps for the son's\",\n \"-30.071681312445435\"\n ],\n [\n \"of accuracy review in news stations: \\\"That Cipriano, a self-described “not-too-bright guy,” can beat professional call screeners so often suggests they don’t do it often enough in the race for color, drama and “breaking news.”\\nIn a 1996 interview, Cipriano explained he had a 16-setting voice changer for use in tricking producers into letting him call onto their shows.\",\n \"-30.070795424224343\"\n ],\n [\n \" Unlike its most famous competitor 20/20 as well as traditional local and national news programs, the 60 Minutes journalists never share the screen with (or speak to) other 60 Minutes journalists on camera at any time. This creates a strong psychological sense of intimacy between the journalist and the television viewer. Reporting tone 60 Minutes blends the probing journalism of the seminal 1950s CBS series See It Now with Edward R. Murrow (a show for which Hewitt served as the director for its first few years) and the personality profiles of another Murrow program, Person to Person. In\",\n \"-30.04379570708261\"\n ],\n [\n \"fame as the voice of NFL Films, was the station's main anchorman from shortly after it signed on until 1973. At the time he retired, he had been a main anchor longer than anyone in Philadelphia; he has since been passed by WPVI's Jim Gardner.\\nSoon after joining the station, Facenda sold the Bulletin on the idea of a local 11 p.m. newscast—the first in the country. It aired for the first time on September 8. In 1950, WCAU became the first station with a four-man news team. The 6 p.m. newscast was anchored by Facenda, with Philadelphia radio legend Phil\",\n \"-30.025650203911937\"\n ],\n [\n \"sent to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art for speech lessons. They were unsuccessful. My accent is part of who I am and I work for an international broadcaster—it's a good reflection of the newsroom, which is very international.\\\"\",\n \"-29.971280378915253\"\n ],\n [\n \"he was pressured to keep the show from relying on long segments of dialogue, though he personally felt that the dialogue was an important factor to the show. Production Much of the voice recording was done with multiple actors in the recording booth at one time. This was a new method for Edwards, and he explained that he did it to \\\"allow for those messy, unrehearsed moments that can happen when the actors 'bump into each other' a little more.\\\"\\nMark Keefer, who had previously collaborated with Edwards on Hoodwinked!, served as the sound designer and re-recording mixer on the series,\",\n \"-29.924081400822615\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the microphone.\\nSergeant Wilson's lines have been written to be spoken in a Cockney accent which doesn't suit him too well. The rest of the men play-up to their usual roles. The BBC sound effects team are unable to make it to the broadcast because their van has broken down, and so the platoon are forced to imitate the required coastal noises (namely wind, waves and seagulls, the latter being Private Pike's only contribution) themselves.\\nLater, the platoon is ready and waiting to go on the air, but strangely nothing seems to be happening; not even the BBC engineer knows what\",\n \"-29.922051048117282\"\n ],\n [\n \"the presidency of Ronald Reagan, who was famous for short, memorable phrases like, \\\"Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!\\\" in reference to the Berlin Wall.\\nDuring the 1988 United States presidential election, candidate Michael Dukakis highlighted the prominent role of sound bites and spin doctors in political campaigns by running a commercial that mocked contender George H.W. Bush's handlers' frustration over the gaffes of his vice presidential running-mate Dan Quayle. Journalism In journalism, sound bites are used to summarize the position of the speaker, as well as to increase the interest of the reader or viewer in the piece. In both\",\n \"-29.895065002404408\"\n ],\n [\n \"only one in which the sound of the human voice – angry, boring, repetitive, excitable, but occasionally passionate, revealing and unforgettable – overcame the patina of artifice with which television habitually polishes and tidies up its speakers. Only on After Dark could we have heard the rolling Russian timbre of Tatyana Tolstaya... or seen Clare Short squirm as Tony Howard wondered why, if she was so protective about her private life, she'd talked on radio to Anthony Clare.... Only After Dark had the leisurely pace that made possible the exchange between the Holocaust survivor Rabbi Hugo Gryn and Yasser Arafat's PR voice\",\n \"-29.86893041411531\"\n ],\n [\n \"it is done correctly, the average listener (and even many professionals) cannot tell the difference. Time checks can even be added which can make the broadcast sound absolutely live. Controversy Voice-tracking is a hotly contested issue within radio circles. Claims have been made recently that claim that the sense of locality is lost, especially when a station employs a disc jockey who has never set foot in that station's town. There is also concern about voice-tracking taking away job opportunities and providing fewer opportunities for disc jockeys in the amounting radio homogenization.\\nStill, supporters of voice-tracking contend that a professional presentation\",\n \"-29.868079898762517\"\n ],\n [\n \"appearing as though they were created by Germany. Targeting American troops in the Pacific, the Japanese government broadcast the \\\"Zero Hour\\\" program, which included news from the U.S. to make the soldiers homesick. But by the end of the war, Britain had the largest radio network in the world, broadcasting internationally in 43 different languages. Its scope would eventually be surpassed (by 1955) by the worldwide Voice of America programs, produced by the United States Information Agency.\\nIn Britain and the United States, television news watching rose dramatically in the 1950s and by the 1960s supplanted radio as the public's primary\",\n \"-29.836128739174455\"\n ],\n [\n \"where not all the reporters in a press pool can access the interviewee. Rules A whole set of etiquette and mores has developed amongst journalists governing the use of mult boxes. Because it is often difficult to get a good sound recording from a digital recorder for later broadcast or transcription for newspaper reporting, journalists have developed informal rules for their use. For example, the media should treat the sound engineer well, because while reporters can be selfish and competitive with each other, and the equipment can go wrong in many ways, the engineer allows all of them\",\n \"-29.804243455088\"\n ],\n [\n \"network's money troubles. He now owns a successful voice-over business, where he does network spots for CBS and is the announcer for the FOX sketch comedy show Mad TV. Original line-up in 1980: Tim Moore-mornings; Mike Daniels-middays; Bob Harper-afternoons; Carey Carlson-nights; John Borders-voice tracked 10p-6a; Bob White-morning news; Cindy Smith-afternoon news. Other personalities in the 80's: Rob Hazelton, Jim Owen, Chet Jessick, Mark Cage, Mike Sommers; Christopher Knight.\\nThe departure of the Captain would be the start of many defections by high-profile personalities, including \\\"Storm\\\" Kennedy, Keith Michaels, Lisa Knight, and Ron Pritchard, who programmed the station for most of the\",\n \"-29.79421536033624\"\n ],\n [\n \"Alan Kalter Career Kalter, nicknamed \\\"Big Red\\\" and \\\"TV's Uncle Jerry\\\", began his stint as the \\\"voice\\\" of the Late Show with David Letterman on September 5, 1995. He announced the guests at the top of each show and the one-liner during the Worldwide Pants title card after the credits and regularly acted in comedic sketches.\\nKalter has done hundreds of voiceovers for national radio and television commercials and was also the lead continuity voice for the USA Network throughout much of the 1980s (his voice was still heard on USA into the mid-2010s for the network's paid programming disclaimer, until a\",\n \"-29.74256944246008\"\n ],\n [\n \"agencies. Conclusion Broadcast journalism did not develop until the mid 1930s. Relationships between the older print media and the newer medium of radio were not friendly, and the journalists of the time needed considerable diplomatic skills in dealing with the wire services and their own employers. By the beginning of the next decade the effectiveness and reliability of broadcast journalism was confirmed by the coverage of World War II.\",\n \"-29.740420220881788\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cleveland to Philadelphia in 1965 the station's then-news director, Al Primo, created the Eyewitness News format. In this format, which was meant to be faster in pace than the standard newscast format (in which an anchor simply read headlines), a reporter in the field would be the \\\"eyewitness\\\" to a news event to the anchor in the studio and the viewer at home. The anchors became personalities instead of presenters with the introduction of banter, or \\\"happy talk\\\" as it was named by Al Primo. Anchors would give their own personal comments in between stories to let viewers know their\",\n \"-29.71029697553604\"\n ],\n [\n \"generally considered to be non-partisan and are not driven by the hosts' personalities, unlike the majority of contemporary North American talk radio programs. However, accusations of partisan activity by specific callers, such as political staffers calling in the guise of \\\"regular joes\\\", have been made from time to time.\\nDuring the late 1990s, the VOCM network experimented with syndicated talk programming in the form of the Dr. Laura Schlessinger show, which aired on tape delay in the early evening. As with most Canadian stations airing the program, it was quietly dropped shortly after a Canadian Broadcast Standards Council ruling admonishing the\",\n \"-29.686143202270614\"\n ],\n [\n \"getting ready to fly everyone on the set had to be quiet, so he could talk to people via the radio. Gemmell said \\\"It's quite something standing with 30 people spread out across a field in total silence for a good 10 minutes, then hearing in the distance the rumble of a plane engine getting louder and louder.\\\" She also praised the make-up department for getting her wig to stay on during filming. Gemmell added that the second series was tough to film especially for the team behind the scenes. Broadcasting The first series consisted of five episodes lasting 45\",\n \"-29.664062082749297\"\n ],\n [\n \"had as much power as Cronkite did at his height.\\\" Enjoying the cult of personality surrounding Cronkite in those years, CBS allowed some good-natured fun-poking at its star anchorman in some episodes of the network's popular situation comedy All in the Family, during which the lead character Archie Bunker would sometimes complain about the newsman, calling him \\\"Pinko Cronkite.\\\"\\nCronkite trained himself to speak at a rate of 124 words per minute in his newscasts, so that viewers could clearly understand him. In contrast, Americans average about 165 words per minute, and fast, difficult-to-understand talkers speak close to 200 words per\",\n \"-29.64458671025932\"\n ],\n [\n \"signals. Audio journalism A common set-up for journalists is a battery operated cassette recorder with a dynamic microphone and optional telephone interface. With this set-up, the reporter can record interviews and natural sound and then transmit these over the phone line to the studio or for live broadcast.\\nElectronic formats used by journalists have included DAT, MiniDisc, CD and DVD. Minidisc has digital indexing and is re-recordable, reusable medium; while DAT has SMPTE timecode and other synchronization features. In recent years, more and more journalists have used smartphones or iPod-like devices for recording short interviews. The other alternative is using small\",\n \"-29.583440837450325\"\n ],\n [\n \"Interpretive journalism History In his book Interpretative Reporting (1938) Curtis D. MacDongall wrote that during the beginning of the First World War most Americans were taken by surprise and were unable to understand the reasons why it started. This led to changes in the style of reporting.\\nDuring the 1920s events such as the Great Depression and the Nazi threat to global stability caused audiences to be no longer content with the five W's of journalism. In 1923, Time magazine launched as the first major publication to provide readers with a more analytical interpretation of the news. Many papers responded with\",\n \"-29.574383582348673\"\n ],\n [\n \"a \\\"Communicator\\\" for the NBC Radio show Monitor on Sunday afternoons from 1955 – 1960. Perry Como Gallop was the announcer for Perry Como's 1950s – 1960s television shows. At The Perry Como Show's premiere on September 17, 1955, the first voice heard was that of Gallop, saying, \\\"We assume everyone can read, so we will not shout at you.\\\" While serving as the announcer for Milton Berle's radio show, Gallop had been the one delivering the comedy lines; on the Perry Como Show, it was just the opposite, with Como getting the \\\"last word\\\" on Gallop. At\",\n \"-29.568611112204962\"\n ],\n [\n \"device The commercial use of voice-over in television advertising has been popular since the beginning of radio broadcasting.\\nIn the early years, before effective sound recording and mixing, announcements were produced \\\"live\\\" and at-once in a studio with the entire cast, crew and, usually, orchestra. A corporate sponsor hired a producer, who hired writers and voice actors to perform comedy or drama.\\nManufacturers will often use a distinctive voice to help them with brand messaging, often retaining talent to a long-term exclusive contract.\\nThe industry expanded very rapidly with the advent of television in the 1950s, and the age of highly produced serial\",\n \"-29.568291216768557\"\n ],\n [\n \"was voted as the favourite male voice. His voice was described, by the paper's radio critic Paul Donovan, as smoother than that of the favourite female Jane Garvey and as \\\"evoking an earlier, more formal BBC\\\". In September 2015, he played a vintage radio announcer in the BBC Radio 4 drama Dead Girls Tell No Tales.\\nIn April 2016 Soanes played Derek Nimmo in the radio drama All Mouth and Trousers, by Mark Burgess, the story behind the making of the television comedy series All Gas and Gaiters. The reviews for the programme were generally positive with The Sunday Times' Paul\",\n \"-29.511140300310217\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kathy O' Connor (Dayton's first female news reporter) and Retha Phillips among others. Nance and Phillips were also 2007 inductees into the Dayton Broadcasters Hall of Fame. In the early 1960s it was at first a top of the hour \\\"rip and read\\\" newscast from wire services with an echoed voice shouting the dateline location at the beginning of a story (replaced in 1965 by a tone chord simulating an electronic telegraph key sounder). The newscast was also upgraded by world news actualities from Metromedia Radio, a predecessor of UPI Audio Network who bought the news-feed service in 1971. By\",\n \"-29.465789617286646\"\n ],\n [\n \"Alan Black (broadcaster) Alan Black (15 January 1943 – 5 March 2007) was known as one of the presenters of BBC's Sounds of the Seventies.\\nAfter having worked as a disc jockey for a series of commercial radio stations in the mid-1960s, Black joined the BBC in July 1968, with a programme on BBC Radio 1: Midday Spin. He also presented In Concert, on BBC Radio 2, and the What's New programme with Anne Nightingale.\",\n \"-29.4487383710657\"\n ],\n [\n \"listeners because of his relaxed, urbane style.\\nBy this time the programme was benefiting from publicity gained after it became known that Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was a regular listener. Ministers thus became keen to go on the programme, but the tough, confrontational interviewing they encountered led to accusations that the BBC was biased. Criticism was particularly directed against Redhead, who was often seen as being on the left. Chancellor Nigel Lawson accused him of having been a Labour voter all his life during a live interview, in 1988. The style of the male interviewers was analysed and contrasted with the\",\n \"-29.443386844417546\"\n ],\n [\n \"in broadcasts as \\\"John Brown declined to be interviewed on camera, but said\\\" or simply \\\"a spokesperson said\\\".\\nSome interview subjects are uncomfortable being recorded. Some are afraid that they will be inarticulate and feel like fools if the interview is broadcast. Others might be uncooperative or distrust the motives or competence of the journalist, and wish to prevent them from being able to broadcast an unflattering sound bite or part of the interview out of context. Professional public relations officers know that having the reporter repeat their words, rather than being heard directly on the air, will blunt the effect\",\n \"-29.441735048400005\"\n ],\n [\n \"NBC Talknet History Prior to the late 1970s, AM radio was still largely dominated by all-music formats. Many individual radio stations had introduced some talk programming to their lineups, but it was almost universally locally produced. The concept of national talk radio, broadcast over a radio network, had not been tried. In 1978, Larry King began broadcasting six hours of talk programming nightly on the Mutual Broadcasting System. His success in the field proved to radio programmers that there was an audience for both late-night talk programming and national talk radio programming. NBC and ABC were quick to enter the\",\n \"-29.434522265044507\"\n ],\n [\n \"into the 2000s, with everyone from Broadway stars to NFL football players to politicians coming to Studio 6B to be interviewed.\\nLive at Five was originally cancelled in September 1991 and replaced by a traditional newscast known as News 4 New York at 5, anchored by Simmons and Chuck Scarborough. This format did not stay long, however – Simmons was paired with Matt Lauer for a new iteration of Live at Five, originating from the Window on the World studios used for NBC's Today. Shortly afterwards, Live at Five was moved back to 30 Rockefeller Center and adopted a more traditional\",\n \"-29.432235218535425\"\n ],\n [\n \"BBC News 1950s Television news, although physically separate from its radio counterpart, was still firmly under radio news' control – correspondents provided reports for both outlets–and that first bulletin, shown on 5 July 1954 on the then BBC television service and presented by Richard Baker, involved his providing narration off-screen while stills were shown. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a recorded commentary by John Snagge (and on other occasions by Andrew Timothy).\\nIt was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story.\",\n \"-29.38138173200423\"\n ],\n [\n \"taped, syndicated \\\"Entertainers\\\" MOR format, using live announcers in some dayparts. \\nIn 1985, Roger Tees took over as news director and hired anchors, Jeff Scott, Greg Gaston, Carla Contento Kenny, and Vince Scanlon, along with sports director Jim Wise and sports anchor Greg Toland. When the all-news/talk anchors departed for other positions in larger markets, ratings plummeted. By 1988, the WFPG call letters, which had remained in use on a co-owned FM station, had returned to the AM facility. \\nFor much of the 1990s, syndicated talk programs such as Bob Grant, Mike Gallagher, and Art Bell were mainstays of\",\n \"-29.38000557183841\"\n ],\n [\n \"interviews or voice-overs, consisting solely of the actual TV footage on June 17, 1994. This was the date of the O.J. Simpson slow-moving police chase, and the other important sports stories of that day that were mostly ignored, due to the American public's fascination with Simpson. Personal life Morgen lives in Rockaway, Queens, New York with his wife, Debra Eisenstadt, and three children.\",\n \"-29.332479869539384\"\n ],\n [\n \"long-time announcer on many radio shows, including Bob Hope's. The Blue Network gave him and partner Don Prindle a comedy series, Niles and Prindle, which is referenced in the special as being scheduled for a debut the following month. It was said to involve two friends \\\"who argued about everything\\\", and had a brief run in 1945. It was certainly unusual for the Blue Network to attempt to convert a long-time announcer into a featured comedy star, and in this sense, \\\"Niles and Prindle\\\", if not unique (given that Graham McNamee was the \\\"Perfect Foil\\\" to Ed Wynn), it\",\n \"-29.31197188969236\"\n ],\n [\n \"to be a celebrity? Wide Wide World's cameras profile some of the era's stars, including Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward. Stars of the art world are also shown, and Garroway muses about what, exactly, makes a celebrity.\\nMay 25, 1958 - \\\"The Sound of Laughter\\\" Features clips and commentary by Bob Hope, Steve Allen, Smith and Dale, Robert Benchley, Mort Sahl, Claude Rains, Al Capp and Peter Ustinov.\",\n \"-29.289142123772763\"\n ],\n [\n \"in their character's name with different companies. Radio personality Radio talk shows are also called aniradio. Initially the vast majority was aired by local broadcast stations only, but after the communication boom of the 1990s the metropolitan radio stations began to also employ them. Some such programs aired for over ten years. This was the result of fans who regard radio talks as a way to get to know the voice actors as human beings rather than just voices for the characters they play.\\nDue to lower costs and the increase in the number of listeners, more and more of these\",\n \"-29.27268827871012\"\n ],\n [\n \"and closed captioning for personal TVs. With other options available for entertainment and communication, the need for deaf clubs grew smaller. It was no longer the only option for getting in touch with other members of the deaf community.\\nHowever, others attribute the decline of deaf clubs to the end of World War II and a change in the job market. During WWII there was high demand for factory laborers and a promise of high pay. Many deaf Americans left their homes to move to bigger cities with the hope of obtaining a factory job. This huge influx of workers into new\",\n \"-29.270535412826575\"\n ],\n [\n \"the recording machine. Many airchecks were made to record DXing reception, which often included fading, static and interference. Uses DJs use airchecks to critique themselves, sometimes with the Program Director listening along with them to provide suggestions for improvements. Announcers keep some of their airchecks as \\\"audio snapshots\\\" of their career. \\nAirchecks are also recorded at radio stations to send to clients to show how their live commercials, remote breaks or contests sounded.\\nSome airchecks of older radio programs are highly prized by collectors, due to their nostalgia value. For example, baby boomers often enjoy listening to airchecks recorded from Top\",\n \"-29.26352840736945\"\n ],\n [\n \"in June of that year, would become the permanent anchor for the NBC Nightly News; Holt is the first African-American to be named as the sole weeknight anchor of a major network news broadcast. Today's television news Today, electronic news gathering has enabled reporters to capture video and audio at greater ease and edit the footage faster than when film was used. Journalists have also employed microwave and satellite.\\nTelevision news programming in the U.S. can be separated into categories: local news, network news, and cable news. Local news Many local broadcast television stations have in-house news departments that produce their\",\n \"-29.260252952444716\"\n ],\n [\n \"developed a comforting rapport with the American public. The Fireside Chats enabled the President to communicate directly to the public through one of the most popular media outlets of the time. Politicians would continue to use the radio in World War II, in which the radio was used primarily for news transmissions and the spread of propaganda. One example of radio propaganda came from Iva Toguri D'Aquino, Ruth Hayakawa, June Suyamawho, and Myrtle Lipton collectively known as Tokyo Rose. These women hosted anti-American programming intended to lower American soldiers' morale and illustrate the use of governments' use of the media\",\n \"-29.25931721692905\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the voice-over narrator to tell a story.\\nLive sports broadcasts are usually shown as extensive voice-overs by sports commentators over video of the sporting event.\\nGame shows formerly made extensive use of voice-overs to introduce contestants and describe available or awarded prizes, but this technique has diminished as shows have moved toward predominantly cash prizes. The most prolific have included Don Pardo, Johnny Olson, John Harlan, Jay Stewart, Gene Wood and Johnny Gilbert.\\nVoice-over commentary by a leading critic, historian, or by the production personnel themselves is often a prominent feature of the release of feature films or documentaries on DVDs. Commercial\",\n \"-29.24709412708762\"\n ],\n [\n \"types. Virtually all stations also had programs of interest to women, and children's sessions. From the outset, A Class stations' peak-hour evening programs often consisted of live broadcasts from various theatres, including concerts dramas, operas, musicals, variety shows, and vaudeville. The first dramas especially written for radio were heard in the mid-1920s.\\nThe standard accent used by actors and announcers was \\\"Southern English\\\", an upper-class British version that emulated the BBC. The actual Australian accent was acceptable only in low comedy, as in the long-running \\\"Dad and Dave from Snake Gully\\\" program.\\nBy the 1930s, the ABC was transmitting a number of\",\n \"-29.24542690484668\"\n ],\n [\n \"it pioneered \\\"702 eye-witness news\\\", broadcasting full news bulletins every hour and headlines on the half-hour. Some of the other popular presenters were Mike Mills on the afternoon show; former Ireland, Lions and Transvaal rugby player, John Robbie, who began as a late night talk show host, with Talk at Ten, then Talk at Nine (currently hosted by Aubrey Masango), eventually moving to the main morning talk show; former Manchester United goalkeeper, Gary Bailey, and many others who popularised the station. Also heard on Radio 702 in the early 1980s was American Top 40 with Casey Kasem.\\nUp until the\",\n \"-29.23451205829042\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"voice\\\", or narrator, of the show was John Facenda, known to Philadelphians for decades reporting the news on radio and television, as well as nationally known as the voice of NFL Films. NFL Films' Ed Sabol referred to Facenda as \\\"The Voice of God\\\" (Facenda is in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio). His wordsmithing and dramatic baritone delivery were highlights of the shows and did much to boost Facenda's stock and mystique. Various announcers narrated the show between 1995 and 2005. Beginning in 2006, under Macy's, Julie Andrews became the show's narrator. Also in 2006, the\",\n \"-29.234430735512433\"\n ],\n [\n \"end of the 1960s. The station also had specialty shows playing jazz and big band music. \\\"The Voice of Sports\\\" While WHDH was never \\\"all sports\\\", it was easily Boston's top sports station during the 1950s through the end of the 1960s. It referred to itself \\\"The Voice of Sports\\\", a sub-branding of the station's overall imaging as the Voice of the City.\\nFor 30 consecutive years (1946-75), WHDH was the flagship station of the Boston Red Sox, featuring play-by-play announcers such as Jim Britt, Ford C. Frick Award-winning Curt Gowdy, Ken Coleman and Ned Martin. From 1946 through 1949, it\",\n \"-29.231878725986462\"\n ],\n [\n \"focused on this particular episode because of its quality treatment of racist issues. Hinds commented on this saying there was \\\"a moment in Hollywood where our [colored people's] voice is coming to prominence\\\".\",\n \"-29.219635632056452\"\n ],\n [\n \"a television version of the radio commentary series created by Gary Burbank. Burbank – whose segments as the \\\"middle American\\\" archetype character began airing on the channel that same month – had long maintained a close relationship with certain executives working at that time for the Tribune Company, who approached him about bringing the segments to television. The commentary was aired in the form of a series of 90-second segments that aired on WGN America until November 2011, usually during simulcasts of WGN-TV newscasts.\\nAs part of WGN America's restructuring, the channel began to develop original programming – some of which\",\n \"-29.204485939408187\"\n ],\n [\n \"Robert Dougall Television news Dougall's radio work took a back seat when he returned to London in 1951 to work as a television newsreader. (He is thought to have been the only person from the BBC's early radio service who had an enduring career in television.) Between 1946 and 1955, the BBC news was merely voiced over a photograph of Big Ben, a measure sanctioned by Chief News Editor Tahu Hole to reinforce the absolute impartiality for which the Corporation was renowned. However, the coming of commercial television and ITN in 1955 prompted the BBC to have its newsreaders perform\",\n \"-29.202363349468214\"\n ],\n [\n \"commentary, largely because during this period, it was not unusual for long stretches of the race to see little or no action. Turn reporters typically did not \\\"call\\\" the race live, in-part due to the limitations of the equipment. Rather, when incidents occurred on the track, the information would be relayed on cue cards to Collins, and the reporters would be called upon to summarize the details of what had happened. A unique individual, Collins was characterized by his contemporaries as a perfectionist and a proud person. The Collins era was also noted for its popular culture and social appeal.\",\n \"-29.18854857844417\"\n ],\n [\n \"from Fordham University. Future Yankees television announcer Michael Kay and New York Giants radio voice Bob Papa were among the Fordham attendees who later announced for Sports Phone. Some Sports Phone announcers who provided updates to southern locations, including Papa, applied pseudonyms in an effort \\\"to sound less ethnic.\\\"\",\n \"-29.176081055213217\"\n ],\n [\n \"time was negative, some listeners believed the BBC's commitment to accurate pronunciation was in decline.\\nLater in the decade, she moved to daytime television co-presenting Open Air and continued with voiceover work when it ended. Susan Rae began working on the BBC World Service around 2000, returning to BBC Radio 4 in 2003.\\nShe has done voice-overs for many Discovery Channel shows including some episodes of Forensic Detectives (Discovery Channel TV show), some episodes of The FBI Files; and Street Crime UK for Bravo. In 2007, she presented Eastern Skies for Anglia Television. Personal life Rae lives in London. She is a\",\n \"-29.169321295696136\"\n ],\n [\n \"only had only one voice deliver messages in a given train car with both voices split among the system's fleet.\\nThe original edition of Train Call, which ran from the airports opening in 1995 until 2007 and also recorded by Jim Green, featured the voices of local radio broadcaster Pete Smythe and former KCNC-TV anchor Reynelda Muse, who is notable for being the first woman and first African American to anchor a television news program in Colorado. A different set of sound effects accompanied the original voices which mostly came from bells and woodwind instruments and were based on western folk\",\n \"-29.16376618852155\"\n ],\n [\n \"into a smaller amount of time, reducing advertising costs, and/or allowing more information to be included in a given radio or TV advertisement. It is usually most noticeable in the information-dense caveats and disclaimers presented (usually by legal requirement) at the end of commercials—the aural equivalent of the \\\"fine print\\\" in a printed contract. This practice, however, is not new: before electronic methods were developed, spokespeople who could talk extremely quickly and still be understood were widely used as voice talents for radio and TV advertisements, and especially for recording such disclaimers. Education Time-compressed speech has educational applications\",\n \"-29.158708421415213\"\n ],\n [\n \"service middle of the road (MOR) radio stations in America, placing an emphasis on its colorful air personalities. During the 1970s and into the early 1980s there was: Gary Todd (mornings), brought in from KOL Seattle; Jerry Baker (9-11am) who was also the voice of Indiana (University) Hoosiers basketball and the Indiana Pacers; Paul Page, the voice of the Indianapolis 500 on radio then later on television, and who served as an award-winning newsman at WIBC in the early 1970s, reporting from the first Indy traffic helicopter (known as the \\\"Ten Seven-Oh Whirlybird\\\") until a serious crash nearly\",\n \"-29.14119433891028\"\n ],\n [\n \"use actual WKBW disc jockeys and news reporters as actors. Other changes reflected the changing state of the industry: instead of the old-time radio programming fare of the 1930s, WKBW's War of the Worlds broadcast was interwoven into the station's top 40 programming. Production Initially, a script was written for the news reporters to act out; however, upon hearing the rehearsals, it was evident that the news reporters (except Irv Weinstein, a professional radio actor at the beginning of his career) were not adept at scripted radio acting. So instead, Kaye wrote an outline based on the events that were\",\n \"-29.128229474968975\"\n ],\n [\n \"being Lynne Reid Banks), and helped to pioneer the use of so-called Vox pop reports in the United Kingdom – whereby one conducts interviews with ordinary members of the public in the street.\\nAlthough Mandell was the UK's first regular female television news presenter, her tenure lasted only a few months. By January 1956 ITV was experiencing financial difficulties, and the budget for its news strand was reduced, meaning the Midday News was dropped. However, Mandell continued to be seen on screen throughout the 1950s, usually fronting weekend news bulletins, and she was a regular reporter. Then later in her career\",\n \"-29.10892323639564\"\n ],\n [\n \"Leslie Mitchell (broadcaster) Leslie Scott Falconer Mitchell (4 October 1905 – 23 November 1985) was a British announcer who was heard on newsreel soundtracks, radio and television. He was the first voice heard on BBC Television at its inception on 2 November 1936, and also made the first announcement on Associated-Rediffusion, the first ITV company, on 22 September 1955. His voice was perhaps most recognised, however, from his long association with British Movietone News, for whose newsreels he commentated during the Second World War and for many years afterwards. Early life Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, Mitchell's parents separated while he\",\n \"-29.091194617329165\"\n ],\n [\n \"media critic Richard Deitsch wrote “Along with the quality of their voices, what stands out here is the diligence and professionalism that each man delivers daily. Names are correctly pronounced, setups are done intelligently. It’s a pleasure to listen to radio professionals who care about quality.” \\nWilson was also named “Comeback Talent of the Year” for 2010 by TalkingTVSports. Steve Sampsell wrote: “Simply put, Wilson is a sports-radio professional. He’s diligent, sounds good and works hard. He cares and he prepares.” In December, 2011, the ESPN Radio anchors were named as “Best National Voices for 2011”\",\n \"-29.081469908793224\"\n ],\n [\n \"lame excuse as to why he has failed.\\nFordie's Interviews Each week, Fordie pretends to interview a famous person, yet actually uses soundbites from old interviews and fills in his part himself. He has 'interviewed' Gordon Brown, David Cameron, David Attenborough, the England football team, and even Jon. Guest comedian Every week, Jon Richardson invited a guest comedian to join him in the studio.\\nSome of guest comedians appeared on the show were:\\nStephen K Amos,\\nJarred Christmas,\\nArnab Chanda (who announced his retirement from comedy while on the show),\\nRufus Hound,\\nJosie Long,\\nMichael McIntyre,\\nSarah Millican,\\nLloyd Langford,\\nDan Atkinson,\\nAl Pitcher,\\nRich Hall (AKA Otis Lee Crenshaw),\\nPaul Sinha,\\nAndrew Bird,\\nJohn (Nobbler)\",\n \"-29.07285334745393\"\n ],\n [\n \"broadcast 60 Minutes displays this purported superfluousness of anchors, insofar as it has no central figurehead in favor of many correspondents with similarly important roles. Up-and-coming news networks like Vice Magazine's documentary-style reporting also eschew traditional news broadcast formatting in this way, suggesting an emphasis on on-site reporting and deemphasizing the importance of the solitary anchor in the news medium. In her essay, \\\"News as Performance\\\", Margaret Morse posits this connection between anchor persona newsroom as an interconnected identity fusing many aspects of the newsroom dynamic:\\nFor the anchor represents not merely the news per se, or a particular network or\",\n \"-29.07084929724806\"\n ],\n [\n \"civilians to keep clear of military targets. The station changed name to \\\"Voice of Britain\\\". The station was turned over to the BBC at the end of March 1957 (see British East Mediterranean Relay Station).\",\n \"-29.02336039947113\"\n ],\n [\n \"monologue (where the voice talent portrays a character, as opposed to an announcer), jingles, and combinations of these. Studies show that the quality of the commercials is as important to listeners, generally, as the number of ads they hear. Research and rates Radio stations today generally run their advertising in clusters or sets, scattered throughout the broadcasting hour. Studies show that the first or second commercial to air during a commercial break has higher recall than those airing later in the set.\\nNielsen Audio is one of the primary providers of ratings data in the United States. Most radio stations\",\n \"-29.020818965659828\"\n ],\n [\n \"a voiceover performer through the 1990s.\\nHe was best known as the \\\"Why Not?\\\" man when he joined the cast of the NBC Sunday night variety show that Allen began hosting to compete against Ed Sullivan on CBS. The catch-phrase began as a stalling ad-lib to an interview question; then it caught on. Allen used it for television commercials and saw novelty toys, a book and a record spin off from the \\\"Why not?\\\" phenomenon. In its day, fans were shouting \\\"Why not?\\\" as often as Mad Magazine's famous \\\"What? Me Worry?\\\"\\nHis brother, Bradley Bolke, was also a voice actor best\",\n \"-28.99973273494288\"\n ],\n [\n \"voice overs can be recorded in home studios because of technology becoming so affordable, high paying jobs are no longer sourced exclusively through traditional voice talent agents. History Since the decline in viewership in theaters, from the 1950s to 1960s, a monumental shift occurred in how studios produced films and reduced the cost of exclusive and expensive actors. After the shift, actors and actresses were working for the studios but were not owned by one major studio entity, and so were able to work with other studios. This shift has meant that agents were now seen as a necessity instead\",\n \"-28.97785620833747\"\n ],\n [\n \"Radio during the Golden Age began to fully develop programs with sound effects, music, dialogue, and narration. Some voice actors would play multiple characters in a story performed live on the air, and some radio shows were performed in front of a live audience. This allowed the show to gauge real audience reaction like applause and laughter for comedy shows. Programming during the Golden Age included comedies, dramas, westerns, horror and suspense shows, science fiction, soap operas, sports, and news. Big players In the heyday of radio, NBC and CBS built their empire using the mass media and emphasizing the\",\n \"-28.977519066771492\"\n ],\n [\n \"the view that BBC presenters on the day had concentrated too much on interviews with celebrities and that they were insufficiently prepared to add depth to the TV commentary. The actor and writer Stephen Fry was of the opinion that the coverage was \\\"mind-numbingly tedious\\\", while Ben Dowell in The Guardian singled out the lack of television coverage given to the composers and performers who were commissioned to write music and perform on the Thames barges. Poet Laureate Carol Ann Duffy and composers Orlando Gough and Gavin Greenaway also expressed their frustration about the coverage. BBC creative director\",\n \"-28.97707785415696\"\n ],\n [\n \"shot on film, often using hand-held cameras, in a documentary style. Four video cameras recorded the show-within-a-show which gives a brighter, less grainy picture and helps distinguish the talk show from the back-stage scenes. The talk show was staged with realistic music, lighting and set design. It was recorded in front of an actual live studio audience during the first season and then occasionally during later episodes.\\nThe show had a few catchphrases used throughout its entire run. The most common was \\\"Hey now\\\", a phrase Hank repeats in the opening credits of the fictional talk show and whenever he greets\",\n \"-28.973327180807246\"\n ],\n [\n \"event. Newsroom Voice of America's central newsroom has hundreds of journalists and dozens of full-time domestic and overseas correspondents, who are employees of the U.S. government or paid contractors. They are augmented by hundreds of contract correspondents and stringers throughout the world, who file in English or in one of VOA's other radio and television broadcast languages.\\nIn late 2005, VOA shifted some of its central-news operation to Hong Kong where contracted writers worked from a \\\"virtual\\\" office with counterparts on the overnight shift in Washington, D.C., but this operation was shut down in early 2008. Shortwave frequencies By December 2014,\",\n \"-28.97301399207572\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":80,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2uvs66"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How is it legal for Hershey's to block Cadbury's chocolate from entering the US?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["It's not Hershey's blocking Cadbury's. It's Cadbury's blocking Cadbury's because they've sold the rights to Hershey. Cadbury's signed a contract with Hershey's stating that Hershey's would manufacture chocolate in the US and sell it in the US under the Cadbury's name. Hersheys paid Cadbury's a sum of money for this privilege. In return Hershey's gets to use the Cadbury's name and advertizing. In addition Cadbury's agrees not to sell it's own chocolate within the United States. The problem here is that people are importing Cadbury's from the UK and selling it in the US. If Cadbury's does not take steps to prevent this then Hershey's could sue them for breaching the contract mentioned above. Since Cadbury's actually likes that contract (because of all the money Hershey's pays them) then don't like these chocolate importers. So they attempt to block it. It's not Hershey's doing the blocking. It's Cadbury honoring the commitment they made when they signed that contract.","Hershey and Cadbury signed a contract allowing Hershey the exclusive right to make and sell Cadbury chocolate in the US.","Dan opens a lemonade stand on his block. You open a lemonade stand on your block. Dan's lemonade is wildly successful, and people on your block want it. So you pay Dan so that you can make your lemonade and sell it as \"Dan's Lemonade\" on your block and make money for yourself. Then, Bill from your block starts driving to Dan's block and buying \"Dan's Lemonade\" from Dan, driving it back to your block, and selling it in a stand right next to yours. You paid Dan to able to make \"Dan's Lemonade\" so that you could be the person to sell it on your block, but Bill just bought it from Dan's block and came to sell it on your block.","Since there's no top level comment that explains this, I'll collate some of the correct answers from other comments: First of all, Hershey's is not trying to block *all* Cadbury's chocolate. They're going after a specific importer who imports the majority of UK chocolate. Secondly, the way they're allowed to do this isn't exactly through a contract they have with Cadbury's. Yes, they have exclusive rights to manufacture Cadbury's chocolate for distribution in the United States. That isn't the important part—the important part is that they have exclusive rights in the United States to Cadbury's *trademarks*. For all intents and purposes, this means that Hershey's owns the trademarks in the United States. Now for the explanastion: What's happening here is that there's a company importing Cadbury's chocolate from the UK to the United States and then marketing it as Cadbury's chocolate. Hershey's, since they own the rights to Cadbury's trademarks in the US, is suing them for trademark infringement to block the importation of the \"counterfeit goods\". TL;DR: Hershey's is the only company allowed to call themselves Cadbury's in the US, and they're suing the importer of the \"counterfeit\" chocolate bars.","Owner of a [Imported Candy distribution company]( URL_0 ) here, and so far, Hershey has only got one Importer, to stop importing Cadbury's + a few others that look like American candy bars (toffee crisp, for example). They can do this because they own the US distribution rights but, if you wanna be tricky, you can still get them from Canada.","Hershey's has an exclusive license to sell Cadbury's chocolate (or at least stuff they call Cadbury's chocolate) in the US. They paid a lot of money for those rights. Cadbury made this decision and went for it. Now, people are trying to import Cadbury's chocolate and sell it. That is actually against trademark law.","They changed the recipe in Creme Eggs ( URL_0 ) It is going to lose them a large amount of business. Lots of people are very unhappy with the new american style rubbish, follow #cremeegggate","As a Canadian I'm curious if we get real Cadbury or Hershey Cadbury?","Hershey owns the rights to distribute Cadbury in the US. After the rights to do so were sold to them, Cadbury can't come in and compete under the same label. Conceivably, Cadbury could buy the rights to distribute other candy in the US, but not Cadbury-brand; likewise, Cadbury could, hypothetically, buy the rights to distribute Hershey in the UK, in which case Hershey could not sell Hershey-brand candy there (buuut, it could buy the rights to sell *other* candy in the UK). **tl,dr:** brand ownership in multinational corporations is handled by-country, it's not an \"overall\" thing.","Cadbury's was bought out by Kraft Foods (an American company) several years ago now, and anybody from the UK and from my generation will tell you that most Cadbury products aren't what they used to be. The taste of the chocolate became weaker and the textures dissapeared from some of our favourites like Cadbury's Roses. The brand is still strong and kids will always buy it, but for those of us born in the 70's and 80's, it's a travesty. I haven't bought their products for a few years now. For me personally, it tastes like sugared milk. There's no richness to it anymore.","Well son, you see, we live in a world where the more money you have, the less the rules apply to you. Corporations do a lot of things that aren't fair, and seem like they should be obviously illegal. The sorry truth is that the world isn't fair, and laws only apply to you if you can't pay the price to ignore them. Think of life like Disneyland, most of us will wait in line to go on the rides, but the rich will pay to jump the line. This may be unfair, but the sorry truth is this, if you could afford it, you'd pay to jump the line to. Money is power, and power corrupts. Did that help at all?","IANAL- In order for this to a be a big concern, shouldn't Hershey have to show that these imports did in fact hurt their profit margin? Shouldn't Hershey have to prove that it was Cadbury doing the actual importing. Furthermore, how is clearing customs? If cargo is checked on the way into the country, shouldn't it be a big red flag that a million chocolate eggs are being brought IN? If the government is going to take tax money to perform this task, isn't this case a blatant show that they are failing at the most based task they are supposed to be doing?","From what I understand, Hershey's came to an agreement with the importer in question. That importer imported the vast majority of Cadbury UK's product that was sold in the US. Saying that Hershey's blocked Cadbury's chocolate is incorrect; Hershey convinced the importer to stop importing Cadbury's chocolate. Hershey's may or may not have the legal right to block imports of Cadbury's chocolate, but I'm sure their press release implied that Hershey's successfully banned Cadbury's chocolate, which is what the press picked up on.","They haven't blocked the import...sort of. They have the license to manufacture Cadbury products in the US, and can claim that UK versions coming in to the US violate that licensing agreement. The end result is much the same, but it's the threat of legal action preventing the importation more than some sort of direct control on the importation and selling of them.","LY5: Hershey's paid Cadbury not to sell their chocolate in America. Shops and importers want Cadbury chocolate so bring it in themselves but Hershey's doesn't like that so ask the courts to stop them.","Cadbury sold their rights to Hershey's. Wow that was easy.","Okay so now I'm curious. There's a tiny little store here in Orlando called The British Shoppe. They mostly sell three things: British convenience foods (things that come in cans, jars or bottles, nothing perishable), more tea flavors than have ever been discovered by mankind, and a giant wall o' grossly overpriced British candy (I'm not kidding, a small bag of Jelly Babies is like $9.00). The candy is a huge portion of their sales, and easily 50% of the selection is imported Cadbury's. Is this decision going to completely and utterly fuck them?","So I'm curious to know, last year I sent a package to a friend in the US, little gifts and what not. But I also sent her British Cadbury chocolate, you know since our chocolate is better and I did hear about the Hershey version tasting baaad. So I figured why not. Now I'm wondering could I do this again, or would that be against their agreement, even though what I am sending is private and a gift. not enough to go selling of course.","One of the biggest differences between products from the US and most of the rest of the world be it sweets, pop, ketchup etc. is most the world uses \"Sucrose, commonly named table sugar or sugar, is a cane and beet sugar\" In the US it is cheaper to use Fructose derived from from corn Syrup due to heavy farm subsidies. Living in a border area I notice the taste difference all the time.","I have a question. Is this on the news a lot in Briton? I doubt most Americans are even aware of this but something pops up on the front page at least once a week.","Canadian here. Anyone know if the Cadbury Dairy Milk bars I buy here are from the UK? or does a similar situation exist with Hershey's in Canada?","So when my mom goes back home every year and brings back a selections box she is smuggling them?????","They struck up an agreement with the importer, where the importer agreed to stop importing.","Prior agreement between the two companies? And yeah, Cadbury is way better than Hershey's"],"string":"[\n \"It's not Hershey's blocking Cadbury's. It's Cadbury's blocking Cadbury's because they've sold the rights to Hershey. Cadbury's signed a contract with Hershey's stating that Hershey's would manufacture chocolate in the US and sell it in the US under the Cadbury's name. Hersheys paid Cadbury's a sum of money for this privilege. In return Hershey's gets to use the Cadbury's name and advertizing. In addition Cadbury's agrees not to sell it's own chocolate within the United States. The problem here is that people are importing Cadbury's from the UK and selling it in the US. If Cadbury's does not take steps to prevent this then Hershey's could sue them for breaching the contract mentioned above. Since Cadbury's actually likes that contract (because of all the money Hershey's pays them) then don't like these chocolate importers. So they attempt to block it. It's not Hershey's doing the blocking. It's Cadbury honoring the commitment they made when they signed that contract.\",\n \"Hershey and Cadbury signed a contract allowing Hershey the exclusive right to make and sell Cadbury chocolate in the US.\",\n \"Dan opens a lemonade stand on his block. You open a lemonade stand on your block. Dan's lemonade is wildly successful, and people on your block want it. So you pay Dan so that you can make your lemonade and sell it as \\\"Dan's Lemonade\\\" on your block and make money for yourself. Then, Bill from your block starts driving to Dan's block and buying \\\"Dan's Lemonade\\\" from Dan, driving it back to your block, and selling it in a stand right next to yours. You paid Dan to able to make \\\"Dan's Lemonade\\\" so that you could be the person to sell it on your block, but Bill just bought it from Dan's block and came to sell it on your block.\",\n \"Since there's no top level comment that explains this, I'll collate some of the correct answers from other comments: First of all, Hershey's is not trying to block *all* Cadbury's chocolate. They're going after a specific importer who imports the majority of UK chocolate. Secondly, the way they're allowed to do this isn't exactly through a contract they have with Cadbury's. Yes, they have exclusive rights to manufacture Cadbury's chocolate for distribution in the United States. That isn't the important part—the important part is that they have exclusive rights in the United States to Cadbury's *trademarks*. For all intents and purposes, this means that Hershey's owns the trademarks in the United States. Now for the explanastion: What's happening here is that there's a company importing Cadbury's chocolate from the UK to the United States and then marketing it as Cadbury's chocolate. Hershey's, since they own the rights to Cadbury's trademarks in the US, is suing them for trademark infringement to block the importation of the \\\"counterfeit goods\\\". TL;DR: Hershey's is the only company allowed to call themselves Cadbury's in the US, and they're suing the importer of the \\\"counterfeit\\\" chocolate bars.\",\n \"Owner of a [Imported Candy distribution company]( URL_0 ) here, and so far, Hershey has only got one Importer, to stop importing Cadbury's + a few others that look like American candy bars (toffee crisp, for example). They can do this because they own the US distribution rights but, if you wanna be tricky, you can still get them from Canada.\",\n \"Hershey's has an exclusive license to sell Cadbury's chocolate (or at least stuff they call Cadbury's chocolate) in the US. They paid a lot of money for those rights. Cadbury made this decision and went for it. Now, people are trying to import Cadbury's chocolate and sell it. That is actually against trademark law.\",\n \"They changed the recipe in Creme Eggs ( URL_0 ) It is going to lose them a large amount of business. Lots of people are very unhappy with the new american style rubbish, follow #cremeegggate\",\n \"As a Canadian I'm curious if we get real Cadbury or Hershey Cadbury?\",\n \"Hershey owns the rights to distribute Cadbury in the US. After the rights to do so were sold to them, Cadbury can't come in and compete under the same label. Conceivably, Cadbury could buy the rights to distribute other candy in the US, but not Cadbury-brand; likewise, Cadbury could, hypothetically, buy the rights to distribute Hershey in the UK, in which case Hershey could not sell Hershey-brand candy there (buuut, it could buy the rights to sell *other* candy in the UK). **tl,dr:** brand ownership in multinational corporations is handled by-country, it's not an \\\"overall\\\" thing.\",\n \"Cadbury's was bought out by Kraft Foods (an American company) several years ago now, and anybody from the UK and from my generation will tell you that most Cadbury products aren't what they used to be. The taste of the chocolate became weaker and the textures dissapeared from some of our favourites like Cadbury's Roses. The brand is still strong and kids will always buy it, but for those of us born in the 70's and 80's, it's a travesty. I haven't bought their products for a few years now. For me personally, it tastes like sugared milk. There's no richness to it anymore.\",\n \"Well son, you see, we live in a world where the more money you have, the less the rules apply to you. Corporations do a lot of things that aren't fair, and seem like they should be obviously illegal. The sorry truth is that the world isn't fair, and laws only apply to you if you can't pay the price to ignore them. Think of life like Disneyland, most of us will wait in line to go on the rides, but the rich will pay to jump the line. This may be unfair, but the sorry truth is this, if you could afford it, you'd pay to jump the line to. Money is power, and power corrupts. Did that help at all?\",\n \"IANAL- In order for this to a be a big concern, shouldn't Hershey have to show that these imports did in fact hurt their profit margin? Shouldn't Hershey have to prove that it was Cadbury doing the actual importing. Furthermore, how is clearing customs? If cargo is checked on the way into the country, shouldn't it be a big red flag that a million chocolate eggs are being brought IN? If the government is going to take tax money to perform this task, isn't this case a blatant show that they are failing at the most based task they are supposed to be doing?\",\n \"From what I understand, Hershey's came to an agreement with the importer in question. That importer imported the vast majority of Cadbury UK's product that was sold in the US. Saying that Hershey's blocked Cadbury's chocolate is incorrect; Hershey convinced the importer to stop importing Cadbury's chocolate. Hershey's may or may not have the legal right to block imports of Cadbury's chocolate, but I'm sure their press release implied that Hershey's successfully banned Cadbury's chocolate, which is what the press picked up on.\",\n \"They haven't blocked the import...sort of. They have the license to manufacture Cadbury products in the US, and can claim that UK versions coming in to the US violate that licensing agreement. The end result is much the same, but it's the threat of legal action preventing the importation more than some sort of direct control on the importation and selling of them.\",\n \"LY5: Hershey's paid Cadbury not to sell their chocolate in America. Shops and importers want Cadbury chocolate so bring it in themselves but Hershey's doesn't like that so ask the courts to stop them.\",\n \"Cadbury sold their rights to Hershey's. Wow that was easy.\",\n \"Okay so now I'm curious. There's a tiny little store here in Orlando called The British Shoppe. They mostly sell three things: British convenience foods (things that come in cans, jars or bottles, nothing perishable), more tea flavors than have ever been discovered by mankind, and a giant wall o' grossly overpriced British candy (I'm not kidding, a small bag of Jelly Babies is like $9.00). The candy is a huge portion of their sales, and easily 50% of the selection is imported Cadbury's. Is this decision going to completely and utterly fuck them?\",\n \"So I'm curious to know, last year I sent a package to a friend in the US, little gifts and what not. But I also sent her British Cadbury chocolate, you know since our chocolate is better and I did hear about the Hershey version tasting baaad. So I figured why not. Now I'm wondering could I do this again, or would that be against their agreement, even though what I am sending is private and a gift. not enough to go selling of course.\",\n \"One of the biggest differences between products from the US and most of the rest of the world be it sweets, pop, ketchup etc. is most the world uses \\\"Sucrose, commonly named table sugar or sugar, is a cane and beet sugar\\\" In the US it is cheaper to use Fructose derived from from corn Syrup due to heavy farm subsidies. Living in a border area I notice the taste difference all the time.\",\n \"I have a question. Is this on the news a lot in Briton? I doubt most Americans are even aware of this but something pops up on the front page at least once a week.\",\n \"Canadian here. Anyone know if the Cadbury Dairy Milk bars I buy here are from the UK? or does a similar situation exist with Hershey's in Canada?\",\n \"So when my mom goes back home every year and brings back a selections box she is smuggling them?????\",\n \"They struck up an agreement with the importer, where the importer agreed to stop importing.\",\n \"Prior agreement between the two companies? And yeah, Cadbury is way better than Hershey's\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["the International Labor Rights Forum. The purpose of the Raise the Bar Campaign is to pressure Hershey to commit \"to take immediate action to eliminate forced and child labor … from Hershey's cocoa supply\"; \"to sourcing 100% Fair Trade Certified™ cocoa beans by 2012 for at least one of its top five selling chocolate bars … making at least one additional top five selling bar 100% Fair Trade Certified™ every two years thereafter\"; and that \"the majority of Hershey's cocoa across all products will be Fair Trade Certified™ by 2022.\" Pressure was particularly directed at Whole Foods Market to cease","-25.41611157149964"],["States with sales of $2.603 billion, and is the fourth-best-selling candy brand globally with sales of $2.679 billion—only $76 million (2.8%) of its sales are from outside the United States market. Cadbury's In 1988, Hershey's acquired the rights to manufacture and distribute many Cadbury-branded products in the United States (except gum and mints, which are part of Mondelēz International). In 2015, they sued a British importer to halt imports of British Cadbury chocolate, angering consumers. A merger between Mondelēz and Hershey's was considered but abandoned in 2016 after Hershey's turned down a $23 billion cash-and-stock bid. Krave Jerky In","-25.3606001846274"],["attorney general had the case dismissed for being outside their jurisdiction.\nWhen none of the companies he contacted showed any interest in producing chocolate bars made differently, he started manufacturing his own chocolate, and in November introduced a milk chocolate bar made entirely from 'slave-free' cocoa.\nOn February 6, 2007, a court ruling in Amsterdam officially acknowledged that Tony's Chocolonely chocolate was produced in a slave-free manner. A Dutch importer for Swiss-brand chocolates unsuccessfully sued the team behind Tony's Chocolonely for reputation damage, claiming that \"slave-free chocolate is impossible to produce\".\nWhen a hazelnut milk chocolate bar was added to the lineup in","-24.742892486632627"],["a deal with Forrest Mars to create a hard sugar-coated chocolate that would be called M&M's (for Mars and Murrie). Murrie had 20% interest in the confection, which used Hershey chocolate during the rationing era during World War II. In 1948, Mars bought out Murrie's interest and became one of Hershey's main competitors. 21st century In June 2006, Philadelphia city councilman Juan Ramos called for Hershey's to stop marketing \"Ice Breakers Pacs\", a kind of mint, due to the resemblance of its packaging to a kind that was used for illegal street drugs.\nIn September 2006, ABC News","-24.22117977628659"],["opened on May 22, 1965, in Oakdale, California. In February and April 2007, Hershey's announced that their Smiths Falls and Oakdale plants would close in 2008, being replaced in part by a new facility in Monterrey, Mexico. The Oakdale factory closed on February 1, 2008. Hershey chocolate factory in São Roque, Brazil, was opened in August 2002.\nHershey also has plants in Stuarts Draft, Virginia; Lancaster, Pennsylvania; Hazleton, Pennsylvania; Memphis, Tennessee; Robinson, Illinois, and Guadalajara, Mexico.\nVisitors to Hershey can experience Hershey's Chocolate World visitors center and its simulated tour ride. Public tours were once operated in the Pennsylvania and California factories,","-23.997822742152493"],["GAF's business because the dealer declined to sign an agreement to conform to the statute. As New York officials moved to prosecute the company for trading without a license, GAF brought suit against the state, in the person of Baldwin and other officials. In 1934, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York issued a split decision, holding that GAF had the right to resell the milk in \"original packaging\", but not that which had been repackaged in individual bottles. Both parties appealed to the Supreme Court. Opinion of the Court In a unanimous decision, the","-23.88149421691196"],["in the U.S. \"hushed up\" the allegations. According to an article in Bloomberg, Wal-Mart's \"probe of possible bribery in Mexico may prompt executive departures and steep U.S. government fines if it reveals senior managers knew about the payments and didn't take strong enough action, corporate governance experts said.\" Eduardo Bohorquez, the director of Transparencia Mexicana, a \"watchdog\" group in Mexico, urged the Mexican government to investigate the allegations. Wal-Mart and the US Chamber of Commerce had participated in a campaign to amend FCPA; according to proponents, the changes would clarify the law, while according to opponents, the changes would weaken","-23.851646408997112"],["a subsidiary. Hershey sold the company for $1 million in 1900 to the American Caramel Company, but kept the Hershey Chocolate Company because he felt that there was a large market for chocolate confections. P.C. Wiest Co. The American Caramel Company grew out of an industry established by Peter C. Wiest in 1867. He was a pioneer in the manufacture of caramels and soon developed a successful business. In 1878, Daniel F. Lafean became a partner and the firm of P. C. Wiest & Company was organized. The original proprietor retired from the business and in 1895 The P. C.","-23.509788807001314"],["Beton, joined the Pernod Ricard group in 1984.\nIn 2000, the Orangina brand was acquired by Cadbury Schweppes along with Pernod Ricard's other soda businesses, after an attempt to sell to Coca-Cola was blocked on anti competitive grounds. In 2006, Cadbury plc decided to concentrate on the chocolate business and sought buyers for its soda business. As the number three soda producer globally, neither of the bigger two (Coca-Cola or PepsiCo) could buy it, so eventually the company was split up to sell. North America In the United States, the brand is owned by Dr Pepper Snapple Group Inc (now Keurig","-23.364346822811058"],["of Prestige Brands. Hershey's kept Luden's 5th Avenue bar. In 1988, Hershey's acquired the rights to manufacture and distribute many Cadbury-branded products in the United States (except gum and mints, which are part of Mondelēz International). In 1996, Hershey purchased the American operations of the Leaf Candy Company from Huhtamäki.\nIn 1999, the Hershey Pasta Group was divested to several equity partners to form the New World Pasta company (now part of Ebro Foods).\nOn July 25, 2002, it became public knowledge that the Hershey Trust Company was seeking to sell its controlling interest in the Hershey Foods Corporation. The value","-23.19576105445958"],["Foods had reached a deal and that Kraft would purchase Cadbury for £8.40 per share, valuing Cadbury at £11.5bn (US$18.9bn). Kraft, which issued a statement stating that the deal will create a \"global confectionery leader\", had to borrow £7 billion (US$11.5bn) in order to finance the takeover.\nThe Hershey Company, based in Pennsylvania, manufactures and distributes Cadbury-branded chocolate (but not its other confectionery) in the United States and has been reported to share Cadbury's \"ethos\". Hershey had expressed an interest in buying Cadbury because it would broaden its access to faster-growing international markets. But on 22 January 2010, Hershey announced that it","-23.176096297487675"],["market for fountain-dispensed soft drinks in the United States.\nIn June 2005, Coca-Cola in Europe formally agreed to end deals with shops and bars to stock its drinks exclusively after a European Union investigation found its business methods stifled competition.\nIn November 2005, Coca-Cola's Mexican unit - Coca-Cola Export Corporation - and a number of its distributors and bottlers were fined $68 million for unfair commercial practices. Coca-Cola is appealing the case. \"Channel stuffing\" settlement On July 7, 2008, Coca-Cola Co compromised to pay $137.5 million to settle an October 2000 shareholder lawsuit. Coca-Cola was charged in a U.S. District Court for","-23.038940399012063"],["Dagoba products as a consequence of the giant chocolate maker's refusal to address child labor in its supply chain\". The same day, Hershey's announced it would \"source 100 percent certified cocoa for its global chocolate product lines by 2020 and accelerate its programs to help eliminate child labor in the cocoa regions of West Africa\".\nIn 2019, Hershey announced that they could not guarantee that their chocolate products were free from child slave labor, as they could trace only about 50% of their purchasing back to the farm level. The Washington Post noted that the commitment taken in 2001 to eradicate","-23.003587711165892"],["in 2006, M&M's became the official chocolate of NASCAR.\nIn 2007, M&M's introduced a limited-edition raspberry flavor called \"M&M's Razzberry Chocolate Candies\".\nAlso in 2007, M&M's produced a 50-foot, smiling Lady Liberty M&M statue to kick off a campaign encouraging Americans to create their own M&M characters at mms.com. The website allows for people to log in and create their own character from scratch. They can choose features such as the color, shape, hair, and accessories.\nIn 2008, two limited-edition varieties of the candy were introduced – \"Wildly Cherry\" M&M's, and, as a marketing tie-in with the film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom","-22.93952314296621"],["that a lawsuit for false advertising claims could be pursued against Coca-Cola, saying \"Competitors may bring Lanham Act claims like POM's challenging food and beverage labels regulated by the FDCA.\" Legal analysts anticipate several more years of litigation on issues not argued in the Supreme Court, such as cause and magnitude of financial or brand injury to POM Wonderful resulting from the Minute Maid product. The Greatest Movie Ever Sold The company, product, executives and owner Lynda Resnick were featured in a 2011 documentary about product placement, marketing and advertising in movies and TV shows. The film was entitled","-22.854947608633665"],["2017 Cadillac Fairview sued Starbucks over Teavana closures in Canada. \nHowever, on January 18, 2018, Simon and Starbucks reached an agreement that would close the remaining 77 Teavana stores in Simon malls, ending the tea shop's existence as independent storefronts after nearly 21 years in business. Competitors Apart from generic tea brands (such as Lipton, Red Rose Tea, and Tetley), Teavana's competitors include DavidsTea, Nuovo Tea, Stash Tea Company, T2, The Wellness Group (TWG), Harney & Sons, Tea at Sea, Argo Tea, Art of Tea, and Oolong Tea Collective. Between partners Teavana partnered with a few charities and organizations to","-22.839429285289953"],["Court case, Apple Inc. v. Pepper heard in the 2018-2019 which relates to whether consumers of third-party mobile applications through a marketplace can bring anti-trust actions against the owner of the marketplace. The Court determined that consumers that purchased apps through Apple's iOS app store were direct purchasers and had standing to sue Apple for antitrust actions, despite Apple's insistence that consumers were buying apps from developers.","-22.726517152867018"],["Miracle Network, Ronald McDonald House, and United Way (UW). In 2016, the company donated more than $486,200 to those organizations. Cocoa purchase Hershey has been criticized for not having programs to ensure sustainable and ethical cocoa purchase, lagging behind its competitors in fair trade measures.\nThe \"Raise the Bar, Hershey!\" campaign was launched in September 2010 by Global Exchange, Green America, the Oasis Trust, and the International Labor Rights Forum. The purpose of the Raise the Bar Campaign was to pressure Hershey to commit \"to take immediate action to eliminate forced and child labor [...] from Hershey's cocoa supply\"; \"to sourcing","-22.719865492443205"],["territory to Dublin Dr Pepper, sued the Dublin Dr Pepper Bottling Company. Dr Pepper Snapple Group, the third-largest U.S. soda company with 2010 revenue of $5.6 billion, accused the Dublin bottler of trademark dilution and stealing sales from other Dr Pepper bottlers by selling outside its approved territory. Among the suit's demands were that the bottler remove \"Dublin\" from its \"Dr Pepper\" labels and stop selling the soda beyond a 44-mile radius around Dublin. On 11 January 2012, the Dr Pepper Snapple Group acquired the rights to the Dublin Dr Pepper franchise. Discontinuation On 12 January 2012, it was announced","-22.631825995507825"],["traced to a piece of satire written by Australian weblogger Andrew Winkler. Starbucks stores in both London and Beirut have been attacked by pro-Palestinian protesters as a result. Tax avoidance In October 2012, Starbucks faced criticism after a Reuters investigation found that the company reportedly paid only £8.6 million in corporation tax in the UK over 14 years, despite generating over £3 billion in sales—this included no tax payments on £1.3 billion of sales in the three years prior to 2012. It is alleged that Starbucks was able to do this by charging high licensing fees to the UK branch","-22.547840505005297"],["Pillsbury and Nestlé merged their U.S. and Canadian ice cream operations into a joint venture called Ice Cream Partners. General Mills subsequently bought Pillsbury in 2001 and succeeded to its interest in the joint venture.[17][18] In 2001 Nestlé exercised its contractual right to buy General Mills' interest in Ice Cream Partners, which included the right to a 99-year license for the Häagen-Dazs brand.[19][20] Pursuant to that license, the Dreyer's subsidiary of Nestlé has produced and marketed Häagen-Dazs products in the United States and Canada.\nIn 1989, the British company Grand Metropolitan (later Diageo) purchased the food maker, and during this ownership","-22.39932996054995"],["States antitrust law.\nIn May 1994, the United States Department of Justice filed suit on the grounds that Pilkington had created a cartel by exercising control over the markets in which its licensees could sell float glass and construct float-glass manufacturing plants, and over the customers within each market to which each licensee could serve. It was claimed this was a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act, because Pilkington's patents had expired and any trade secrets which it might have had in the process used by the licensees had long since become publicly known. On the same day, the government and","-22.352441966999322"],["company from seeking new marketing authorizations in the U.S on August 28, 2009. The import ban was subsequently lifted on May 6, 2011. On February 29, 2012, Apotex filed a claim to the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes seeking arbitration with the U.S.A. In the filing, Apotex cited unfair treatment by FDA which constituted a violation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Apotex further claimed that the action of FDA 'decimated its business'. On August 26, 2014, NAFTA tribunal rejected Apotex's claim.\nFDA inspected the same plants again in 2013 and issued","-22.25291466658939"],["Frappuccino. In 1991, when it was first planning to expand into Los Angeles, Starbucks tried to purchase Coffee Bean, but Hyman turned them down. The opening of Starbucks stores in Los Angeles unexpectedly helped Coffee Bean's business, by driving curious customers to the area.\nIn 1996, the Hymans sold the Asian franchise rights to Singaporean brothers Victor Sassoon and Sunny Sassoon. The Sassoons quickly expanded the company in the US and internationally, opening the first outlet in Singapore in 1996, and in Malaysia the following year. Within two years, they had opened 29 stores in Singapore and Malaysia, almost as many","-22.179889812978217"],["which ended in Pennsylvania in 1973 as soon as Hershey's Chocolate World opened, and later in California following the September 11, 2001, attacks, due to security concerns.\nOn September 18, 2012, Hershey opened a new and expanded West Hershey plant. The plant was completed at a budget of $300 million.\nOn March 9, 2018 Hershey broke ground to expand its Kit Kat manufacturing facility in Hazle Township, Pennsylvania. The expansion project has a $60 million budget and is expected to create an additional 111 jobs at the facility. Other sales and acquisitions In 1969, Hershey received a license from Rowntree's to manufacture","-22.10801668386557"],["The American Bottling Company History By 1998 Dr Pepper/Seven Up, a subsidiary of Cadbury Schweppes, was hindered by its bottling and distribution systems; owning no private bottling plants, it was dependent on independent bottlers or those controlled by Coca-Cola or Pepsi to bottle its beverages, and those two giant competitors also had better distribution systems and more influence with retail and fast-food chains.\nIn February 1998 Cadbury Schweppes and U.S. private equity firm Carlyle Group formed a joint venture named the American Bottling Company, initially consisting of the merger of two leading independent bottling groups in the Midwest: Beverage American and","-22.08296511566732"],["however, tell the developers they were \"welcome to resubmit\" after changing the app, though there was \"not much hope that it could survive in anything like its current incarnation\".\nIn November 2014, Apple removed the marijuana social networking app MassRoots, with the reason given that it \"encourage[d] excessive consumption of alcohol or illegal substances.” In February 2015, MassRoots was reintroduced into the store after Apple changed its enforcement guidelines to allow cannabis social apps in the 23 states where it is legal.\nIn September 2015, it was discovered that \"hundreds\" of apps submitted and approved on App Store were using XcodeGhost, a","-22.05337583576329"],["American businesses in Israel. Based on information put out by Starbucks, no information pointed towards caving into anti-Israel pressure. Bill O’Shea, Starbucks VP of Business Development in Europe, Middle East and Africa, released a letter stating that Starbucks chose to close their Israel locations due to business reasons, not political. Reemergence attempt In September 2005 Starbucks hired MAN Properties Real Estate Consultants to explore their options to return to Israel. Starbucks was looking for a managing partner to team up with in Israel for themergence.","-22.05335110078886"],["lawsuits Several class action suits across Canada have been launched against the Purdue group of companies and affiliates. Claimants argue the pharmaceutical manufacturers did not meet a standard of care and were negligent in doing so. These lawsuits reference earlier judgments in the United States, which held that Purdue was liable for wrongful marketing practices and misbranding. Since 2007, the Purdue companies have paid over CAN$650 million in settling litigation or facing criminal fines. Germany The drug is in Appendix III of the Narcotics Act (Betäubungsmittelgesetz or BtMG). The law allows only physicians, dentists, and veterinarians to prescribe oxycodone and","-21.99426028275957"],["the other side stole trade secrets. On April 21, 2011, a federal jury returned a verdict supporting MGA. On August 5, 2011, Mattel was also ordered to pay MGA $310 million for attorney fees, stealing trade secrets, and false claims rather than the $88.5 million issued in April.\nIn July 2012, MGA Entertainment sued Lady Gaga for $10 million for causing, according to the BBC, \"'deliberate' delays to the release of a doll based on her image.\"\nThe Ninth Circuit vacated without prejudice the $170 million judgment from 2008 against Mattel on procedural grounds in January 2013. On January 13, 2014, MGA","-21.96758923784364"],["Peaberry's poor financial practices and alleged that the company had not shown a profit since 1998. They further claimed that most of the stores owned by the company failed to break even. The franchisees also stopped paying royalties in February 2008. A Denver district judge ruled against the franchisees later that year and also decided that they owed the unpaid royalties to Peaberry. The franchisees are appealing the ruling.\nIn September 2009, Peaberry Coffee, Inc. closed all of its corporate owned locations. Several stores which were previously franchises are now operated independently. These stores include: the Denver Tech Center location, the","-21.966676879317674"],["separate entities: one focusing on its main chocolate and confectionery market; the other on its US drinks business. The demerger took effect on 2 May 2008, with the drinks business becoming Dr Pepper Snapple Group. In December 2008 it was announced that Cadbury was to sell its Australian beverage unit to Asahi Breweries. 2007–2010 In October 2007, Cadbury announced the closure of the Somerdale Factory, Keynsham, formerly part of Fry's. Between 500 and 700 jobs were affected by this change. Production transferred to other plants in England and Poland.\nIn 2008 Monkhill Confectionery, the Own Label trading division of Cadbury Trebor","-21.92987394426018"],["the charges brought on by the United States were \"unfair\". U.S. business restrictions In August 2018, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 (NDAA 2019) was signed into law, containing a provision that banned Huawei and ZTE equipment from being used by the U.S. federal government, citing security concerns. Huawei filed a lawsuit over the act in March 2019, alleging it to be unconstitutional because it specifically targeted Huawei without granting it a chance to provide a rebuttal or due process.\nOn 15 May 2019, the Department of Commerce added Huawei and 70 foreign subsidiaries and \"affiliates\" to its","-21.89857035118621"],["response to Starbucks' reintroduction of its original logo (featuring a topless siren), Dice led his group and its 3,000 members in boycotting the coffee chain: \"The Starbucks logo has a naked woman on it with her legs spread like a prostitute […] It's extremely poor taste, and the company might as well call themselves Slutbucks.\" Starbucks had more than 6,000 locations in 2008.\nAs the founder of The Resistance, Dice told KFSN-TV of his group's intention to disrupt theater showings of 2009's Angels & Demons because the film \"is a fraud, aimed at covering up the existence of a secret","-21.87805571014178"],["subject to several lawsuits surrounding Trump Vodka. Bruni Glass sued over unpaid bills and, as a result, melted in a furnace 500,000 Trump Vodka mini-bottles ready for shipment. Donald Trump also sued Drinks Americas for unpaid royalties, but the case was dismissed for lack of subject matter jurisdiction. Israel Trump Vodka started being sold unofficially in Israel by H. Pixel International based on a signed deal with Drinks Americas, but Trump brought a lawsuit against the company for copyright infringement, as they did not have his agreement to use his image in advertising or the brand. However, Trump later dropped","-21.792547159482638"],["unsuccessfully that the ordinance “forced the tobacco company to pull its advertising out of drugstores, interfering with its constitutional right to communicate with its customers”. In addition to the lawsuit from Philip Morris, on September 8, 2008, Walgreens had more success when it sued the City and County of San Francisco in Superior Court of the State of California, claiming “unconstitutional discrimination” because the Walgreens location would not be allowed to sell cigarettes under the new ordinance whereas grocery and big box stores with pharmacies would be allowed to continue to sell. After a number of legal appeals, Walgreens","-21.76078757637879"],["has acquired secondary meaning or that it is otherwise a protectable trademark\" under U.S. law.\nIn June 2010, Wal-Mart and the Smiley Company founded by Loufrani settled their 10-year-old dispute in front of the Chicago federal court. The terms remain confidential. In 2016, Wal-Mart brought back the smiley face on its website, social media profiles, and in selected stores.","-21.723321324330755"],["Boston. Puckett signed a lease for the first location to be in the large Pillsbury Center office building. However, soon afterward the building's landlord decided not to sign the lease, because another of the building's retail tenants had exclusive rights to selling coffee in the building and had threatened to sue them. As a result, the financing for the store fell through because it was dependent on that specific site. Puckett opted to start looking for an available location in the suburbs, and the first Caribou Coffee shop was started in Edina, Minnesota, a suburb of Minneapolis, in December 1992.\nIn","-21.72188113327138"],["a year-long campaign by the human rights organization Global Exchange, Starbucks decided to carry fair-trade coffee in its stores. Since September 2009 all Starbucks Espresso beverages in UK and Ireland are made with Fairtrade and Shared Planet certified coffee.\nA 2005 study done in Belgium concluded that consumers' buying behavior is not consistent with their positive attitude toward ethical products. On average 46% of European consumers claimed to be willing to pay substantially more for ethical products, including fair-trade products such as coffee. The study found that the majority of respondents were unwilling to pay the actual price premium of 27%","-21.675466105134547"],["against Dunkin' Donuts Brands, Inc. in New York and New Jersey. The suits allege that the doughnut retailer has been unlawfully assessing a surcharge, noted on receipts as a \"sales tax,\" on products the company cannot lawfully charge tax on. Fighting Indefinite Detention in Hedges v. Obama Carl Mayer served as co-lead counsel to the plaintiffs in Hedges v. Obama, a lawsuit filed January 13, 2012 against the Obama administration and members of the U.S. Congress by a group including former New York Times reporter and columnist Christopher Hedges, challenging the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 (NDAA).","-21.67370004458644"],["of its locations in Israel, citing \"on-going operational challenges\" and a \"difficult business environment.\"\nThe Starbucks location in the former imperial palace in Beijing closed in July 2007. The coffee shop had been a source of ongoing controversy since its opening in 2000 with protesters objecting that the presence of the American chain in this location \"was trampling on Chinese culture.\"\nIn July 2008, the company announced it was closing 600 underperforming company-owned stores and cutting U.S. expansion plans amid growing economic uncertainty. On July 29, 2008, Starbucks also cut almost 1,000 non-retail jobs as part of its bid to re-energize the","-21.631703363840643"],["the company would change the recipe for its signature chocolate and the conditions at Cadbury's food factories.\nAdditionally, there are several American restaurant and café chains like McDonalds, Burger King, KFC, Domino's Pizza, Pizza Hut, Krispy Kreme, and Starbucks that have enterprises on the other side of the Atlantic. A small number of British chains like Pret a Manger, YO! Sushi and Itsu have operations in the U.S., principally around New York City. The British catering company Compass Group has several catering contracts in the States, including for the federal government and US military.\nSince the 2016 EU referendum, there","-21.610417280957336"],["holding companies\" under the GLBA and, therefore, never exercised any new powers available through Glass–Steagall \"repeal.\" They joined Jonathan R. Macey and Peter J. Wallison in noting many GLBA critics do not understand that Glass–Steagall's restrictions on banks (i.e., Sections 16 and 21) remained in effect and that the GLBA only repealed the affiliation provisions in Sections 20 and 32. The American Bankers Association, former President Bill Clinton, and others have argued that the GLBA permission for affiliations between securities and commercial banking firms \"helped to mitigate\" or \"softened\" the financial crisis by permitting bank holding companies to acquire troubled","-21.552822691322945"],["2020 and to have a revenue increase of 3 percent for stores open a year or longer.\nIn September 2019, the New York attorney general alleged in a lawsuit that Dunkin' mishandled a series of \"brute force\" cyberattacks that were directed at customers using the Dunkin' mobile app. These attacks took place in early 2015 and thousands of usernames and passwords stolen. The state lawsuit alleges that Dunkin’ employees knew about these attacks, but failed to take appropriate action. The New York Attorney General Letitia James alleges the Massachusetts-based company \"glazing over\" the cyberattacks. A Dunkin’ spokesperson said the restaurant chain","-21.533361190071446"],["Beverage LLC to market \"Grumppuccino\" iced coffee beverages.\nIn December 2015, Grumpy Cat Limited filed a lawsuit against Grenade Beverage LLC citing trademark infringement when the beverage company expanded its line of Grumpy Cat coffee offerings beyond what was originally agreed upon, producing and marketing a Grumpy Cat roasted ground coffee even after being specifically told in writing via email that they were not approved to do so.\nIn January 2018, the California Federal Court jury sided with Grumpy Cat Limited and ordered Grenade Beverage Company to pay $710,000 in damages for copyright and trademark infringement, as well as a $1 nominal","-21.519420618935328"],["of lawsuits that started in 2005. Merchants charged that the two main credit card processing companies, MasterCard and Visa, used their monopoly power to levy excessive fees in a class-action lawsuit involving the National Retail Federation and major retailers such as Wal-Mart. In December 2013, a federal judge approved a $5.7 billion settlement in the case that offered payouts to merchants who had paid credit card fees, the largest antitrust settlement in U.S. history. Some large retailers, such as Wal-Mart and Amazon, chose to not participate in this settlement, however, and have continued their legal fight against the credit card","-21.518677310552448"],["target U.S. consumers with ads to illegally import prescription drugs from Canadian pharmacies.\nOpponents stated that it violated the First Amendment, is Internet censorship, would cripple the Internet, and would threaten whistle-blowing and other free speech actions.\nIn October, 2011, co-sponsor Representative Bob Goodlatte (R-VA), chairman of the House Judiciary Committee's Intellectual Property sub-panel, told The Hill that SOPA is a rewrite of the Senate's bill that addresses some tech-industry concerns, noting that under the House version of the legislation copyright holders won't be able to directly sue intermediaries such as search engines to block infringing websites and would instead need a","-21.51565337611828"],["ice cream making, chocolate bar manufacturing, sugar refining, milling, and paper and tissue making. In 1989, the company sold its White Swan tissue division to Scott Paper Ltd. for $110 million. While Weston's had acquired the Canadian operations of Cadbury in 1987 and merged them with William Neilson Limited, after attempting to break into emerging markets, by selling chocolate bars in Mexico, it finally sold its chocolate operations to Cadbury Schweppes in 1996. In 1998, long time holding E. B. Eddy was sold to Domtar in a cash-and-stock deal worth (CAN) $800 million.\nMeanwhile, under Loblaw president Richard Currie,","-21.50730803819897"],["to the district court, it was impossible for anyone to obtain glassware-making machinery except by virtue of a license from Hartford. Owens consistently refused to sell or license its suction machinery. The result was that no new concern could engage in the manufacture of glass containers except with the consent of Hartford, and that kept newcomers out of the industry. Proceedings in district court The United States sued the leading manufacturers of glass containers for violating the antitrust laws by \"unlawfully conspiring, monopolizing, attempting to monopolize, and by unlawfully contracting, combining, and conspiring to restrain interstate and foreign trade and","-21.501437513188648"],["the expense of small local retailers. Tesco served him with writs for criminal defamation and civil libel. The case was subsequently dismissed.\nIn Thailand another controversy arose when the Royal Thai Police alleged that Thai soldiers operating as Tesco security intimidated a rural boy into poisoning chocolates as revenge for having their contracts revoked by the company. The Cayman Islands In February 2008, a six-month investigation by The Guardian revealed that Tesco has developed a complex taxation structure involving offshore bank accounts in the tax haven of the Cayman Islands.\nThe Guardian claimed that this arrangement would enable Tesco to avoid an","-21.485750697131152"],["the company had paid bribes via local fixers to officials throughout Mexico in exchange for construction permits, information, and other favors, which gave Walmart a substantial advantage over competitors. Walmart investigators found credible evidence that Mexican and American laws had been broken. Concerns were also raised that Walmart executives in the United States had \"hushed up\" the allegations. A follow-up investigation by The New York Times, published December 17, 2012, revealed evidence that regulatory permission for siting, construction, and operation of nineteen stores had been obtained through bribery. There was evidence that a bribe of US$52,000 was paid to change","-21.47617407017242"],["Canada Dry doubled its worldwide drinks market share, and it took a 30 percent stake in Dr Pepper. As a result of these acquisitions, Cadbury Schweppes became the third largest soft drinks manufacturer in the world. In August 1988, the company sold its U.S. confectionery operations to Hershey's for $284.5 million cash plus the assumption of $30 million in debt.\nSnapple, Mistic and Stewart's (formerly Cable Car Beverage) were sold by Triarc to Cadbury Schweppes in 2000 for $1.45 billion. In October of that same year, Cadbury Schweppes purchased Royal Crown from Triarc. In 2003, Cadbury Schweppes acquired Adams, the US chewing","-21.471838341618422"],["introduce legislation to change defamation laws. MacJoy (Philippines) In 2004, McDonald's sued Cebu-based fast food restaurant MacJoy for using a very similar trade name. In its defense, MacJoy insisted that it was the first user of the mark under the title \"MACJOY & DEVICE\" for its business in Cebu City which started in 1987, six years after McDonald's opened its first outlet in the same city. MacJoy stated that the requirement of “actual use” in commerce in the Philippines before one may register a trademark pertains to the territorial jurisdiction on a national scale and is not merely confined to","-21.45700890404987"],["the chain Xingbake in Shanghai, China for trademark infringement, because the chain used a green-and-white circular logo with a name that sounded phonetically similar to the Chinese for Starbucks. Starbucks did not open any stores after first registering its trademark in Russia in 1997, and in 2002 a Russian lawyer successfully filed a request to cancel the trademark. He then registered the name with a Moscow company and asked for $600,000 to sell the trademark to Starbucks, but was ruled against in November 2005.\nIn 2003, Starbucks sent a cease-and-desist letter to \"HaidaBucks Coffee House\" in Masset, British Columbia, Canada. The","-21.422268386450014"],["Hershey's began U.S. distribution of Kit Kat in 1970 and followed in 1971 with Rolo. \nIn 1971, Rowntree Mackintosh acquired Menier Chocolate of France. In the same year, the board attempted to diversify the business, and made a bid for Bovril, but lost out to James Goldsmith's Cavenham Foods. In 1972, Hoadley's Chocolates of Australia was acquired by Rowntree's. This company had invented such products as the Violet Crumble and Polly Waffle.\nThe Yorkie and Lion chocolate bars were introduced in 1976. In 1978, the Hershey contract was renegotiated, giving Hershey the rights to the Kit Kat and Rolo brands in","-21.35668025589257"],["government \"should consider a ban on the use of Huawei inverters in the United States and work with state and local regulators to raise awareness and mitigate potential threats\" and urged them \"to work with all federal, state and local regulators, as well as the hundreds of independent power producers and electricity distributors nation-wide to ensure our systems are protected.\"\nIn March 2019, Rubio and Bob Menendez introduced a bill granting Puerto Rican taxpayers equal access to the child tax credit (CTC) used by parents in other parts of the United States through an amendment to the federal tax code.\nIn May","-21.35291898943251"],["(Safeway, Tesco, Asda, Morrisons and Sainsburys) and a number of dairy companies to fix the price of milk, butter and cheese. In December 2007, Asda, Sainsburys and the former Safeway admitted that they acted covertly against the interests of consumers while publicly claiming that they were supporting 5,000 farmers recovering from the foot-and-mouth crisis. They were fined a total of £116 million. Corporate tax structure In May 2007, it was reported that Tesco had moved the head office of its online operations to Switzerland. This allows it to sell CDs, DVDs and electronic games through its web site without charging value-added","-21.347081265121233"],["as Visa, MasterCard, Discover, American Express, and PayPal were in process of terminating processing payments to mugshot websites and related removal sites. Ten days later CNN Money reported, that according to American Express, it had severed all ties; and that other companies were still in the process of cutting ties with the mugshot industry. Litigation On December 3, 2012, a case was filed in the Lucas County Court Of Common Pleas, in Ohio, against 14 mugshot publishers. On December 27, 2013, a settlement was reached and Judge Zouhary signed an order dismissing the litigation with prejudice after the mugshot websites","-21.321928006342205"],["Starbucks awarding regional licences to Maxims in Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore and Vietnam.\nOn 15 June 2018 protestors targeted Maxim's headquarters in a demonstration that also highlighted Maxim's being a regional licensee for Starbucks. Overpricing In October 2013, China Central Television accused Chinese Starbucks of over-pricing. The report compared the price of a tall (12 fl. oz., 354 mL) latte in Beijing, Chicago, London, and Mumbai. It was found that Beijing stores charged the most while Mumbai stores charged the least. It was also found that a tall latte cost 4 Chinese yuan (approx. USD $0.67) to make, but it sold","-21.289823120445362"],["the H.B. Reese Candy Company with the Hershey Chocolate Corporation in a tax-free stock-for-stock merger. In 2019 after 56 years of stock splits, the Reese brothers' original 666,316 shares of Hershey common stock represented 16 million Hershey shares valued at over $2.5 billion that paid annual cash dividends of $49.4 million. In 1969, only 6 years after the Reese/Hershey merger, Reese's Peanut Butter Cups became The Hershey Company's top seller.\nThe H.B. Reese Candy Company is maintained as a subsidiary of Hershey because the Reese plant workforce is not unionized, unlike the main Hershey plant. In 2012, Reese's was the best-selling","-21.25883772360976"],["the group filed a class action lawsuit against Levi Strauss & Co. in 1993, claiming that the closure of the plant was a form of discrimination against some employees who had filed workers' compensation claims. The lawsuit was dismissed; an appeal was also defeated. United States District Judge H.F. Garcia dismissed the case 'with prejudice,' meaning that it could not be refiled, and charged the attorney representing Fuerza Unida $5000 for \"filing a frivolous claim.\"\nAt one point a satellite office for the group was planned in San Francisco, near the Levi's company headquarters.\nFor several years running after the initial layoff,","-21.230777917415253"],["federal and state agencies as part of an attempt to ease regulatory burdens on trucking and the agri-community.\nIn July 2019, Rubio was a cosponsor of the Defending America’s 5G Future Act, a bill that would prevent Huawei from being removed from the \"entity list\" of the Commerce Department without an act of Congress and authorize Congress to block administration waivers for U.S. companies to do business with Huawei. The bill would also codify President Trump’s executive order from the previous May that empowered his administration to block foreign tech companies deemed a national security threat from conducting business in the","-21.228733646508772"],["watchdog Autorité de la concurrence stated that \"it appears that Nespresso may have abused its dominant position by tying the purchase of its capsules to that of its coffee machines, with no fair justification, de facto ousting rival capsule makers\". The company agreed to no longer limit the guarantee on its single-serving coffee machines by imposing the condition that customers only use its own Nespresso pods, and to remove warnings against the use of third-party pods.","-21.19239873815968"],["the acquisition of Cadbury.\nOn 19 January 2010, it was announced that Cadbury and Kraft Foods had reached a deal and that Kraft would purchase Cadbury for £8.40 per share, valuing Cadbury at £11.5bn (US$18.9bn). Kraft, which issued a statement stating that the deal will create a \"global confectionery leader\", had to borrow £7 billion (US$11.5bn) in order to finance the takeover.\nThe Hershey Company, based in Pennsylvania, manufactures and distributes Cadbury-branded chocolate (but not its other confectionery) in the United States and has been reported to share Cadbury's \"ethos\". Hershey had expressed an interest in buying Cadbury because it would broaden its","-21.191415712237358"],["antitrust action against big banks that has recovered more than $1 million from financial institutions including Wachovia and JPMorgan.\nIn 2015, Parker sued the giant chemical company Monsanto to hold it accountable for years of contamination of Oakland's storm water system and the San Francisco Bay. Parker's office also filed a federal lawsuit against Wells Fargo to recover damages caused by predatory and discriminatory mortgage lending practices by the bank against African American and Latino borrowers.\nParker co-sponsored a gun safety ordinance to reduce theft of firearms from vehicles. The law makes it a crime to leave firearms, magazines or ammunition unsecured","-21.158749117523257"],["June 3, 2014 opening of its Las Vegas location, Hershey then rebranded all other visitor centers worldwide under the Hershey's Chocolate World name.\nIn July 2016, it was announced that Hershey's Chocolate World would expand to a new location in Times Square and open in late 2017.","-21.13006843382027"],["£300,000 for misleading customers regarding the sale of strawberries. Trading Standards in Birmingham brought the case stating that £1.99 strawberries on sale in Sheldon, Birmingham, had not been for sale at £3.99 long enough. Tesco admitted misleading customers into believing that the strawberries on sale were genuinely \"half price\". Trading relations with suppliers Tesco is also censured by those who think that it infringes upon the interests of farmers and smaller suppliers. The company responds by claiming that it follows industry-best practice and sources locally where it can to meet customer demand. In March 2005 the Office of Fair","-21.12504733732203"],["bill that would prevent Huawei from being removed from the \"entity list\" of the Commerce Department without an act of Congress and authorize Congress to block administration waivers for U.S. companies to do business with Huawei. The bill would also codify President Trump's executive order from the previous May that empowered his administration to block foreign tech companies deemed a national security threat from conducting business in the United States. Iran In 2013, Cotton introduced legislative language to prohibit trade with relatives of individuals subject to U.S. sanctions against Iran. According to Cotton, this would include \"a spouse and any","-21.123444431475946"],["Criticism of Starbucks Starbucks, an American coffee company and coffeehouse chain, has been the subject of multiple controversies. European tax avoidance In October 2012, Starbucks faced criticism after a Reuters investigation found that the company reportedly paid only £8.6 million in corporation tax in the UK over 14 years, despite generating over £3 billion in sales—this included no tax payments on £1.3 billion of sales in the three years prior to 2012. It is alleged that Starbucks was able to do this by charging high licensing fees to the UK branch of the business, allowing them to declare a £33","-21.103347618394764"],["100% Fair Trade Certified cocoa beans by 2012 for at least one of its top five selling chocolate bars [...] making at least one additional top five selling bar 0% Fair Trade Certified every two years thereafter\"; and that \"the majority of Hershey's cocoa across all products will be Fair Trade Certified by 2022\". Pressure was particularly directed at Whole Foods Market, which announced on October 3, 2012, that it would cease carrying Hershey's Scharffen Berger line. The Campaign stated, \"Whole Foods' decision follows more than 40 natural food retailers and coops publicly expressing concern about carrying Scharffen Berger and","-21.074156194539682"],["entity list under the Export Administration Regulations, citing the company having been indicted for \"knowingly and willfully causing the export, re-export, sale and supply, directly and indirectly, of goods, technology and services (banking and other financial services) from the United States to Iran and the government of Iran without obtaining a license from the Department of Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC)\". This restricts U.S. companies from doing business with Huawei without a government license.\nVarious U.S.-based companies immediately froze their business with Huawei to comply with the regulation, including Google—which removes its ability to certify future devices and updates","-21.051962343568448"],["public protests from former Marshall Field's customers and Chicago Mayor Daley, Federated chairman Terry J. Lundgren announced in September 2005 that Macy's would look into moving production back to Chicago. In making the announcement, Lundgren noted that Macy's would look into \"our contractual obligations\" to determine if the chocolate production could be moved back to the Windy City; however, Lundgren stressed that he was not making any promises regarding moving all or part of the production back to Chicago.\nUnfortunately, the demand for Marshall Field's Frango mints was far greater than demand for Macy's Frangos. No longer a unique","-21.04528387141181"],["to consumers who overpaid or did not receive their goods.\nBill McCollum, Florida Attorney General said, \"We think that overall, this is a very deceptive trade practice.\"\nThe Tennessee Attorney General filed a civil lawsuit for alleged deceptive practices against BlueHippo companies, as well as proposing an injunction requiring greater disclosures in advertising and prior to obtaining further payments, as well as the freezing of $2.5 million in cash. West Virginia also sued BlueHippo.\nA class action lawsuit was filed against BlueHippo in the District Court of Ottawa County State of Oklahoma on January 23, 2007. This case was transferred to the United","-21.03049548479612"],["lawsuit was settled on December 17, 2012. Massachusetts Alcoholic Beverages Control Commission In March 2011, the Massachusetts Alcoholic Beverages Control Commission notified Groupon that it was in violation of state law that prohibits discounting of alcoholic beverages. Groupon notified Massachusetts subscribers of a temporary suspension in the use of its discount vouchers for alcohol at participating restaurants. UK Office of Fair Trading investigation During 2011 there were reported breaches of British advertising regulations to the Advertising Standards Authority. In December 2011 the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) launched an investigation into Groupon after the firm broke regulations 48 times in","-21.02877190860454"],["coffee that have been named in the complaint. Recent developments In the 1990s, a company called Kona Kai Farms, in Berkeley, California, was sued on behalf of Kona coffee growers. In October 1996, federal officials in San Francisco indicted Kona Kai Farms executive Michael Norton on wire fraud and money laundering charges. He was found to have put Central American coffee into bags with labels indicating it was Kona coffee since 1993.\nIn 2000 Michael Norton pleaded guilty to one count of wire fraud and one count of tax evasion. In 2007 his two sons were arrested in a multimillion-dollar medical","-21.007188896968728"],["all BlackBerry smartphones be banned from being imported into the United States for infringing upon five of Motorola's patents. Their patents for \"early-stage innovations\", including UI, power management and WiFi, are in question. RIM countersued later the same day, alleging anti-competitive behaviour and that Motorola had broken a 2003 licensing agreement by refusing to extend licensing terms beyond 2008. The companies settled out of court on June 11, 2010. Eatoni On December 5, 2011, Research In Motion obtained an order granting its motion to dismiss plaintiff Eatoni's claims that RIM violated Section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act","-20.9872946680116"],["the first year. Closing In 2002, within a year of Starbucks Israel opening, Delek was already shopping its stake.\nBefore its closing, Starbucks had six locations in Tel Aviv, with 120 employees. Additionally they had previously planned on opening a location in Jerusalem but withdrew the plans due to fear of terror attacks. On March 31, 2003, Starbucks announced that they would be closing their stores in Israel.\nStarbucks closing caused many controversies over rumors that the stores were closing due to political reasons. Many rumors began circulating on the internet that they were closing as part of an Arab boycott of","-20.981428157363553"],["then, The Coca-Cola Company has been using \"minimum inventories of raw material\" to make their signature drinks at two production plants in Venezuela. Information On July 6, 2006, a Coca-Cola employee and two other people were arrested and charged with trying to sell trade secret information to the soft drink maker's competitor PepsiCo for $1.5 million. The recipe for Coca-Cola, perhaps the company's most closely guarded secret, was never in jeopardy; instead, the information was related to a new beverage in development. Coca-Cola executives verified that the trade secret documents in question were genuine and proprietary to the company. At least","-20.97030789013661"],["taxpayer is unable to open a bank account. Federal regulation Washington's governor and United States Senators have attempted to preserve U.S. Department of the Treasury FinCEN rules in place since 2014 allowing banks to do regulated transactions with the industry, despite conflicting laws on legality at the Federal level. Alternatives to banks Some Washington cannabis business, particularly at point of sale, is conducted in cryptocurrency. Some use Square point-of-sale system, although it has also been reported that PayPal and Square will terminate accounts from cannabis-related businesses.","-20.969511602095736"],["(hired by NRDC to publicize their report on Alar) claiming that unfair business practices (product disparagement in particular) cost them $100 million. The suit was moved from state to federal court at the request of CBS. U.S. District Judge William Fremming Nielsen ruled in 1993 that the apple growers had not proved their case, and it was subsequently dismissed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.\nElizabeth Whelan and her organization, the American Council on Science and Health (ACSH), which had received $25,000 from Alar's manufacturer, stated that Alar and its breakdown product UDMH had not","-20.96787660079326"],["criticism made by the defendant was 'in good faith by way of fair comment on any person or thing subjected to public criticism'.\nIn November 2007, Tesco sued a Thai academic and a former minister for civil libel and criminal defamation, insisting that the two pay £1.6 million and £16.4 million plus two years' imprisonment respectively. They have been alleged to have misstated that Tesco's Thai market amounts to 37% of its global revenues, amongst criticism of Tesco's propensity to put small retailers out of business.\nIn August 2013, Tesco was fined £300,000 after admitting that it misled customers over the pricing of \"half","-20.954168270152877"],["CEH and the Environmental Health Coalition reached a legal settlement with the companies, including subsidiaries of Mars and Hershey, calling for the companies to reduce the lead levels in their products.\nLater in 2004, CEH again joined the Attorney General in a lawsuit against companies, including popular mall stores such as Claire's Boutique, Hot Topic and Zumiez, and department stores such as Target, Macy's and Nordstrom, that sold costume jewelry marketed to children, teens and adult containing high levels of lead. In 2006, seventy-one companies, including Target, Kmart, Macy's, Nordstrom, Sears, Disney Stores and others, agreed to a legal","-20.947435024412698"],["due to its undeveloped \"land bank\", and breaching planning laws. Litigation The Tesco supermarket chain is involved in litigation such as the Ward v Tesco Stores Ltd and Tesco Supermarkets Ltd v Nattrass cases. Tesco have been criticized for aggressively pursuing critics of the company in Thailand. Writer and former MP Jit Siratranont faced up to two years in jail and a £16.4 million libel damages claim for saying that Tesco was expanding aggressively at the expense of small local retailers. Tesco served him with writs for criminal defamation and civil libel. The Thai court dismissed the case, ruling that the","-20.936500347841502"],["on customers' shopping habits. Customer cases In 2013, Helen Dewdney (also known as The Complaining Cow) brought what is thought to be the first customer legal case against Tesco. She took Tesco to the Small Claims Court after being unable to redeem voucher codes for £80. Tesco told her to use her credit card and said that it would reimburse her but the company did not. She won the case. Local opposition to new stores and corporate expatiation Tesco's expansion has not been without criticism and, in some cases, active opposition.\nIn April 2011, longstanding opposition to a Tesco Express store","-20.92577389383223"],["chain on Twitter and (falsely) claimed that the stores did not accept cash.","-20.90885426026216"],["banks launching the convenient Swish smartphone-to-phone payment system in 2012, and the launch of iZettle for small merchants to accept credit cards in 2011. Legal status Under Massachusetts law stating back to 1978, no retailer may \"discriminate against a cash buyer by requiring the use of credit\". \nIt was the only state to have such a law until March 2019, when New Jersey passed similar legislation; car rentals, parking garages, and airport stores have carve-outs under the legislation. The bill came shortly after the city of Philadelphia passed a similar law. San Francisco has also banned cashless stores. Reduced business","-20.90398134064162"],["problem was counterfeits of reputable vendors' products, some even claiming the company's name such as with American Paper Optics which published information detailing the differences between its glasses and counterfeits.\nAndrew Lund, the owner of a company which produces eclipse glasses, noted that not all counterfeit glasses were necessarily unsafe. He stated to Quartz that the counterfeits he tested blocked the majority of harmful light spectrum, concluding that \"the IP is getting ripped off, but the good news is there are no long-term harmful effects.\" As one example, the Springdale Library in metropolitan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, accidentally passed out dozens of pairs","-20.881129509129096"],["Sainsbury and Safeway that stores increased the price of milk as a result of collusion. Dairy Crest and Wiseman allegedly acted as middle men, passing on sensitive information about prices to their supposed rivals. Britain's biggest store chain Tesco, and Morrisons, are accused of collusion too, but vigorously deny they took part. The allegations against Tesco involve cheese as well as milk and butter.\nIf the OFT proves its case, the retailers could theoretically face fines of up to 10 per cent of their worldwide turnover, which in Tesco's case would amount to £4.3bn. The Office of Fair Trading told Sainsbury's,","-20.871894159761723"],["Criticism of Microsoft Immigration and Customs Enforcement ties On September 14, 2019, Microsoft's flagship store was shut down by protestors as part of a direct action organized by Close the Camps NYC. The action was in response to Microsoft's $19.4 million contract with U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). Microsoft's relationship with the immigration enforcement agency was revealed by executive Tom Keane, through a company blog post that describes ICE's use of the company's high-security cloud storage product Azure Government. He went on to say the company is \"proud to support\" the work of ICE.\" Microsoft, contradicting this internal","-20.868195931765513"],["in 2006. Starbucks lost a trademark infringement case against a smaller coffee vendor in South Korea that operates coffee stations under the name Starpreya. The company, Elpreya, says Starpreya is named after the Norse goddess, Freja, with the letters of that name changed to ease pronunciation by Koreans. The court rejected Starbucks's claim that the logo of Starpreya is too similar to their own logo. A bar owner in Galveston, Texas, USA won the right to sell \"Star Bock Beer\" after a lawsuit by Starbucks in 2003 after he registered the name, but the 2005 federal court ruling also stated","-20.868004483229015"],["all its members asking for donations to establish a defense fund for the lawsuit.\nAs of 16 July 2012 the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board (TTAB) rendered its decision to Brown's opposition of the PGR, Inc's registration. They stated: \"The record further reflects that during Brown's tenure as Executive Director, despite his use of personal funds, he was acting in his official capacity when ordering the collateral merchandise to sell on the online store. Consumers who bought the goods prior to Brown's departure and the subsequent creation of \"Twister's Store\" were led to believe the goods originated from the PGR. Hence, Brown cannot","-20.866014413462835"],["systems. Confrontation with Walmart over high fees In June 2016, the Wall Street Journal reported that Walmart threatened to stop accepting Visa cards in Canada. Visa objected saying that consumers should not be dragged into a dispute between the companies. In January 2017, Walmart Canada and Visa reached a deal to allow the continued acceptance of Visa. Dispute with Kroger over high credit card fees In March 2019, U.S. retailer Kroger announced that its 250-strong Smith's chain would stop accepting Visa credit cards as of April 3, 2019 due to the cards’ high ‘swipe’ fees. Kroger’s California-based Foods Co stores","-20.855500650941394"],["claims that the repeal of the Glass–Steagall Act was a key factor in the 2008 financial crisis. Enacted just after the 1930s Great Depression, the Glass–Steagall Act separated commercial and investment banking. The law was repealed by Congress in 1999 during the Clinton presidency while Rubin was Treasury Secretary.\nWriter Nassim Nicholas Taleb noted that Rubin \"collected more than $120 million in compensation from Citibank in the decade preceding the banking crash of 2008. When the bank, literally insolvent, was rescued by the taxpayer, he didn't write any check—he invoked uncertainty as an excuse.\"\nAccording to Bloomberg Businessweek, Rubin pursued a romantic interest","-20.855336921551498"],["awareness of their product and a foothold in the market – a large sunk cost that will prevent some firms entering.\nMonsanto engaged in preemptive deterrence when it signed contracts with Coke and Pepsi. Because Monsanto locked in the consumers of Coke and Pepsi through its contracts, it made entry into the soda market less desirable because potential entrants would have less consumers and, in turn, less profit. Furthermore, if another firm decided to enter the market and obtain contracts with other soda brands, it would be less likely to attract as many customers as Monsanto because customers are loyal to","-20.82979723686003"],["Hershey's Chocolate World History Hershey's Chocolate World was built as a replacement of the Hershey chocolate plant tour, which had reached its capacity and no longer was able to handle the large numbers of visitors per year. The facility opened on June 30, 1973, and took inspiration from World's Fair pavilions. Through its first year of operations, Chocolate World had over 1.4 million visitors.\nOn June 1, 1986, the visitor's center welcomed its 20 millionth visitor.\nA $4.5 million update to the chocolate-making tour ride opened in 1988, featuring a curious robot for a host named CP-1. It was phased out within","-20.820755567547167"],["that country. The company had opened many stores in Mexico in the late 1990s and early 2000s, attempting to widely establish itself before competitors could. Sergio Cicero, a lawyer who had been responsible for obtaining those permits and was bitter about being passed over for the position of general counsel with Walmart México provided the company's corporate general counsel's office with evidence showing that the company had made large payments to gestores, workers who deal with bureaucracies on behalf of citizens and businesses, with coded indications that the money was being passed on to officials to expedite permits.\nCompany officials hired","-20.819068279088242"],["questions on the app and recording a report on their iPhone, Lemonade’s claims bot set a world record by reviewing, approving and paying the claim in three seconds. Behavioral economics Lemonade uses behavioral economics research to displace fraud and conflict while aligning interests to remove motivation for not paying claims and keeping the inclination to defraud an insurer in check. Integration of these principles are found in Lemonade’s policy purchase and claims processes, with users signing their name on a digital pledge of honesty at the start of the claims process - rather than the end - and speaking into","-20.81068674431299"],["lawsuit claiming that SoBe had copied its bottle design or stolen trade secrets. Then Judge Sonia Sotomayor ruled in SoBe's favor denying a preliminary injunction. Legal action proceeded and persisted on the federal and state level until 2007, long after the company had been sold to PepsiCo. In 2007, the court dismissed all AriZona claims on summary judgement\nIn 2001, Bello was named Ernst and Young's National Entrepreneur of the Year in the Consumer Products category for his accomplishments at SoBe. Other business activity Upon leaving Pepsi, Bello formed JoNa Ventures, a family investment vehicle that included among other endeavors investment","-20.770094314175367"],["General of Anti Profiteering (DGAP) found Tata Starbucks guilty of profiteering ₹45.1 million (US$650,000) by not reducing the goods and services tax (GST) charged on coffee. The GST Council had reduced the tax rate on restaurants from 18% to 5% from 17 November 2017. However, the DGAP found that Tata Starbucks had raised the base price of one coffee variant such that its retail price remained the same even after the tax rate was reduced. The case is pending before the National Anti-Profiteering Authority (NAA), which will issue the final verdict. International presence The Tata Group and Starbucks Corporation also","-20.75464422704181"],["with state intelligence when warranted. Huawei executives have consistently denied these allegations, having stated that the company has never received any requests by the Chinese government to introduce backdoors in its equipment, would refuse to do so, and that Chinese law did not compel them to do so.\nHuawei has also been accused of various instances of intellectual property theft against parties such as Nortel, Cisco Systems, and T-Mobile US (where a Huawei employee had photographed a robotic arm used to stress-test smartphones and taken a fingertip from the robot).","-20.753723815818375"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"the International Labor Rights Forum. The purpose of the Raise the Bar Campaign is to pressure Hershey to commit \\\"to take immediate action to eliminate forced and child labor … from Hershey's cocoa supply\\\"; \\\"to sourcing 100% Fair Trade Certified™ cocoa beans by 2012 for at least one of its top five selling chocolate bars … making at least one additional top five selling bar 100% Fair Trade Certified™ every two years thereafter\\\"; and that \\\"the majority of Hershey's cocoa across all products will be Fair Trade Certified™ by 2022.\\\" Pressure was particularly directed at Whole Foods Market to cease\",\n \"-25.41611157149964\"\n ],\n [\n \"States with sales of $2.603 billion, and is the fourth-best-selling candy brand globally with sales of $2.679 billion—only $76 million (2.8%) of its sales are from outside the United States market. Cadbury's In 1988, Hershey's acquired the rights to manufacture and distribute many Cadbury-branded products in the United States (except gum and mints, which are part of Mondelēz International). In 2015, they sued a British importer to halt imports of British Cadbury chocolate, angering consumers. A merger between Mondelēz and Hershey's was considered but abandoned in 2016 after Hershey's turned down a $23 billion cash-and-stock bid. Krave Jerky In\",\n \"-25.3606001846274\"\n ],\n [\n \"attorney general had the case dismissed for being outside their jurisdiction.\\nWhen none of the companies he contacted showed any interest in producing chocolate bars made differently, he started manufacturing his own chocolate, and in November introduced a milk chocolate bar made entirely from 'slave-free' cocoa.\\nOn February 6, 2007, a court ruling in Amsterdam officially acknowledged that Tony's Chocolonely chocolate was produced in a slave-free manner. A Dutch importer for Swiss-brand chocolates unsuccessfully sued the team behind Tony's Chocolonely for reputation damage, claiming that \\\"slave-free chocolate is impossible to produce\\\".\\nWhen a hazelnut milk chocolate bar was added to the lineup in\",\n \"-24.742892486632627\"\n ],\n [\n \"a deal with Forrest Mars to create a hard sugar-coated chocolate that would be called M&M's (for Mars and Murrie). Murrie had 20% interest in the confection, which used Hershey chocolate during the rationing era during World War II. In 1948, Mars bought out Murrie's interest and became one of Hershey's main competitors. 21st century In June 2006, Philadelphia city councilman Juan Ramos called for Hershey's to stop marketing \\\"Ice Breakers Pacs\\\", a kind of mint, due to the resemblance of its packaging to a kind that was used for illegal street drugs.\\nIn September 2006, ABC News\",\n \"-24.22117977628659\"\n ],\n [\n \"opened on May 22, 1965, in Oakdale, California. In February and April 2007, Hershey's announced that their Smiths Falls and Oakdale plants would close in 2008, being replaced in part by a new facility in Monterrey, Mexico. The Oakdale factory closed on February 1, 2008. Hershey chocolate factory in São Roque, Brazil, was opened in August 2002.\\nHershey also has plants in Stuarts Draft, Virginia; Lancaster, Pennsylvania; Hazleton, Pennsylvania; Memphis, Tennessee; Robinson, Illinois, and Guadalajara, Mexico.\\nVisitors to Hershey can experience Hershey's Chocolate World visitors center and its simulated tour ride. Public tours were once operated in the Pennsylvania and California factories,\",\n \"-23.997822742152493\"\n ],\n [\n \"GAF's business because the dealer declined to sign an agreement to conform to the statute. As New York officials moved to prosecute the company for trading without a license, GAF brought suit against the state, in the person of Baldwin and other officials. In 1934, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York issued a split decision, holding that GAF had the right to resell the milk in \\\"original packaging\\\", but not that which had been repackaged in individual bottles. Both parties appealed to the Supreme Court. Opinion of the Court In a unanimous decision, the\",\n \"-23.88149421691196\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the U.S. \\\"hushed up\\\" the allegations. According to an article in Bloomberg, Wal-Mart's \\\"probe of possible bribery in Mexico may prompt executive departures and steep U.S. government fines if it reveals senior managers knew about the payments and didn't take strong enough action, corporate governance experts said.\\\" Eduardo Bohorquez, the director of Transparencia Mexicana, a \\\"watchdog\\\" group in Mexico, urged the Mexican government to investigate the allegations. Wal-Mart and the US Chamber of Commerce had participated in a campaign to amend FCPA; according to proponents, the changes would clarify the law, while according to opponents, the changes would weaken\",\n \"-23.851646408997112\"\n ],\n [\n \"a subsidiary. Hershey sold the company for $1 million in 1900 to the American Caramel Company, but kept the Hershey Chocolate Company because he felt that there was a large market for chocolate confections. P.C. Wiest Co. The American Caramel Company grew out of an industry established by Peter C. Wiest in 1867. He was a pioneer in the manufacture of caramels and soon developed a successful business. In 1878, Daniel F. Lafean became a partner and the firm of P. C. Wiest & Company was organized. The original proprietor retired from the business and in 1895 The P. C.\",\n \"-23.509788807001314\"\n ],\n [\n \"Beton, joined the Pernod Ricard group in 1984.\\nIn 2000, the Orangina brand was acquired by Cadbury Schweppes along with Pernod Ricard's other soda businesses, after an attempt to sell to Coca-Cola was blocked on anti competitive grounds. In 2006, Cadbury plc decided to concentrate on the chocolate business and sought buyers for its soda business. As the number three soda producer globally, neither of the bigger two (Coca-Cola or PepsiCo) could buy it, so eventually the company was split up to sell. North America In the United States, the brand is owned by Dr Pepper Snapple Group Inc (now Keurig\",\n \"-23.364346822811058\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Prestige Brands. Hershey's kept Luden's 5th Avenue bar. In 1988, Hershey's acquired the rights to manufacture and distribute many Cadbury-branded products in the United States (except gum and mints, which are part of Mondelēz International). In 1996, Hershey purchased the American operations of the Leaf Candy Company from Huhtamäki.\\nIn 1999, the Hershey Pasta Group was divested to several equity partners to form the New World Pasta company (now part of Ebro Foods).\\nOn July 25, 2002, it became public knowledge that the Hershey Trust Company was seeking to sell its controlling interest in the Hershey Foods Corporation. The value\",\n \"-23.19576105445958\"\n ],\n [\n \"Foods had reached a deal and that Kraft would purchase Cadbury for £8.40 per share, valuing Cadbury at £11.5bn (US$18.9bn). Kraft, which issued a statement stating that the deal will create a \\\"global confectionery leader\\\", had to borrow £7 billion (US$11.5bn) in order to finance the takeover.\\nThe Hershey Company, based in Pennsylvania, manufactures and distributes Cadbury-branded chocolate (but not its other confectionery) in the United States and has been reported to share Cadbury's \\\"ethos\\\". Hershey had expressed an interest in buying Cadbury because it would broaden its access to faster-growing international markets. But on 22 January 2010, Hershey announced that it\",\n \"-23.176096297487675\"\n ],\n [\n \"market for fountain-dispensed soft drinks in the United States.\\nIn June 2005, Coca-Cola in Europe formally agreed to end deals with shops and bars to stock its drinks exclusively after a European Union investigation found its business methods stifled competition.\\nIn November 2005, Coca-Cola's Mexican unit - Coca-Cola Export Corporation - and a number of its distributors and bottlers were fined $68 million for unfair commercial practices. Coca-Cola is appealing the case. \\\"Channel stuffing\\\" settlement On July 7, 2008, Coca-Cola Co compromised to pay $137.5 million to settle an October 2000 shareholder lawsuit. Coca-Cola was charged in a U.S. District Court for\",\n \"-23.038940399012063\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dagoba products as a consequence of the giant chocolate maker's refusal to address child labor in its supply chain\\\". The same day, Hershey's announced it would \\\"source 100 percent certified cocoa for its global chocolate product lines by 2020 and accelerate its programs to help eliminate child labor in the cocoa regions of West Africa\\\".\\nIn 2019, Hershey announced that they could not guarantee that their chocolate products were free from child slave labor, as they could trace only about 50% of their purchasing back to the farm level. The Washington Post noted that the commitment taken in 2001 to eradicate\",\n \"-23.003587711165892\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 2006, M&M's became the official chocolate of NASCAR.\\nIn 2007, M&M's introduced a limited-edition raspberry flavor called \\\"M&M's Razzberry Chocolate Candies\\\".\\nAlso in 2007, M&M's produced a 50-foot, smiling Lady Liberty M&M statue to kick off a campaign encouraging Americans to create their own M&M characters at mms.com. The website allows for people to log in and create their own character from scratch. They can choose features such as the color, shape, hair, and accessories.\\nIn 2008, two limited-edition varieties of the candy were introduced – \\\"Wildly Cherry\\\" M&M's, and, as a marketing tie-in with the film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom\",\n \"-22.93952314296621\"\n ],\n [\n \"that a lawsuit for false advertising claims could be pursued against Coca-Cola, saying \\\"Competitors may bring Lanham Act claims like POM's challenging food and beverage labels regulated by the FDCA.\\\" Legal analysts anticipate several more years of litigation on issues not argued in the Supreme Court, such as cause and magnitude of financial or brand injury to POM Wonderful resulting from the Minute Maid product. The Greatest Movie Ever Sold The company, product, executives and owner Lynda Resnick were featured in a 2011 documentary about product placement, marketing and advertising in movies and TV shows. The film was entitled\",\n \"-22.854947608633665\"\n ],\n [\n \"2017 Cadillac Fairview sued Starbucks over Teavana closures in Canada. \\nHowever, on January 18, 2018, Simon and Starbucks reached an agreement that would close the remaining 77 Teavana stores in Simon malls, ending the tea shop's existence as independent storefronts after nearly 21 years in business. Competitors Apart from generic tea brands (such as Lipton, Red Rose Tea, and Tetley), Teavana's competitors include DavidsTea, Nuovo Tea, Stash Tea Company, T2, The Wellness Group (TWG), Harney & Sons, Tea at Sea, Argo Tea, Art of Tea, and Oolong Tea Collective. Between partners Teavana partnered with a few charities and organizations to\",\n \"-22.839429285289953\"\n ],\n [\n \"Court case, Apple Inc. v. Pepper heard in the 2018-2019 which relates to whether consumers of third-party mobile applications through a marketplace can bring anti-trust actions against the owner of the marketplace. The Court determined that consumers that purchased apps through Apple's iOS app store were direct purchasers and had standing to sue Apple for antitrust actions, despite Apple's insistence that consumers were buying apps from developers.\",\n \"-22.726517152867018\"\n ],\n [\n \"Miracle Network, Ronald McDonald House, and United Way (UW). In 2016, the company donated more than $486,200 to those organizations. Cocoa purchase Hershey has been criticized for not having programs to ensure sustainable and ethical cocoa purchase, lagging behind its competitors in fair trade measures.\\nThe \\\"Raise the Bar, Hershey!\\\" campaign was launched in September 2010 by Global Exchange, Green America, the Oasis Trust, and the International Labor Rights Forum. The purpose of the Raise the Bar Campaign was to pressure Hershey to commit \\\"to take immediate action to eliminate forced and child labor [...] from Hershey's cocoa supply\\\"; \\\"to sourcing\",\n \"-22.719865492443205\"\n ],\n [\n \"territory to Dublin Dr Pepper, sued the Dublin Dr Pepper Bottling Company. Dr Pepper Snapple Group, the third-largest U.S. soda company with 2010 revenue of $5.6 billion, accused the Dublin bottler of trademark dilution and stealing sales from other Dr Pepper bottlers by selling outside its approved territory. Among the suit's demands were that the bottler remove \\\"Dublin\\\" from its \\\"Dr Pepper\\\" labels and stop selling the soda beyond a 44-mile radius around Dublin. On 11 January 2012, the Dr Pepper Snapple Group acquired the rights to the Dublin Dr Pepper franchise. Discontinuation On 12 January 2012, it was announced\",\n \"-22.631825995507825\"\n ],\n [\n \"traced to a piece of satire written by Australian weblogger Andrew Winkler. Starbucks stores in both London and Beirut have been attacked by pro-Palestinian protesters as a result. Tax avoidance In October 2012, Starbucks faced criticism after a Reuters investigation found that the company reportedly paid only £8.6 million in corporation tax in the UK over 14 years, despite generating over £3 billion in sales—this included no tax payments on £1.3 billion of sales in the three years prior to 2012. It is alleged that Starbucks was able to do this by charging high licensing fees to the UK branch\",\n \"-22.547840505005297\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pillsbury and Nestlé merged their U.S. and Canadian ice cream operations into a joint venture called Ice Cream Partners. General Mills subsequently bought Pillsbury in 2001 and succeeded to its interest in the joint venture.[17][18] In 2001 Nestlé exercised its contractual right to buy General Mills' interest in Ice Cream Partners, which included the right to a 99-year license for the Häagen-Dazs brand.[19][20] Pursuant to that license, the Dreyer's subsidiary of Nestlé has produced and marketed Häagen-Dazs products in the United States and Canada.\\nIn 1989, the British company Grand Metropolitan (later Diageo) purchased the food maker, and during this ownership\",\n \"-22.39932996054995\"\n ],\n [\n \"States antitrust law.\\nIn May 1994, the United States Department of Justice filed suit on the grounds that Pilkington had created a cartel by exercising control over the markets in which its licensees could sell float glass and construct float-glass manufacturing plants, and over the customers within each market to which each licensee could serve. It was claimed this was a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act, because Pilkington's patents had expired and any trade secrets which it might have had in the process used by the licensees had long since become publicly known. On the same day, the government and\",\n \"-22.352441966999322\"\n ],\n [\n \"company from seeking new marketing authorizations in the U.S on August 28, 2009. The import ban was subsequently lifted on May 6, 2011. On February 29, 2012, Apotex filed a claim to the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes seeking arbitration with the U.S.A. In the filing, Apotex cited unfair treatment by FDA which constituted a violation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Apotex further claimed that the action of FDA 'decimated its business'. On August 26, 2014, NAFTA tribunal rejected Apotex's claim.\\nFDA inspected the same plants again in 2013 and issued\",\n \"-22.25291466658939\"\n ],\n [\n \"Frappuccino. In 1991, when it was first planning to expand into Los Angeles, Starbucks tried to purchase Coffee Bean, but Hyman turned them down. The opening of Starbucks stores in Los Angeles unexpectedly helped Coffee Bean's business, by driving curious customers to the area.\\nIn 1996, the Hymans sold the Asian franchise rights to Singaporean brothers Victor Sassoon and Sunny Sassoon. The Sassoons quickly expanded the company in the US and internationally, opening the first outlet in Singapore in 1996, and in Malaysia the following year. Within two years, they had opened 29 stores in Singapore and Malaysia, almost as many\",\n \"-22.179889812978217\"\n ],\n [\n \"which ended in Pennsylvania in 1973 as soon as Hershey's Chocolate World opened, and later in California following the September 11, 2001, attacks, due to security concerns.\\nOn September 18, 2012, Hershey opened a new and expanded West Hershey plant. The plant was completed at a budget of $300 million.\\nOn March 9, 2018 Hershey broke ground to expand its Kit Kat manufacturing facility in Hazle Township, Pennsylvania. The expansion project has a $60 million budget and is expected to create an additional 111 jobs at the facility. Other sales and acquisitions In 1969, Hershey received a license from Rowntree's to manufacture\",\n \"-22.10801668386557\"\n ],\n [\n \"The American Bottling Company History By 1998 Dr Pepper/Seven Up, a subsidiary of Cadbury Schweppes, was hindered by its bottling and distribution systems; owning no private bottling plants, it was dependent on independent bottlers or those controlled by Coca-Cola or Pepsi to bottle its beverages, and those two giant competitors also had better distribution systems and more influence with retail and fast-food chains.\\nIn February 1998 Cadbury Schweppes and U.S. private equity firm Carlyle Group formed a joint venture named the American Bottling Company, initially consisting of the merger of two leading independent bottling groups in the Midwest: Beverage American and\",\n \"-22.08296511566732\"\n ],\n [\n \"however, tell the developers they were \\\"welcome to resubmit\\\" after changing the app, though there was \\\"not much hope that it could survive in anything like its current incarnation\\\".\\nIn November 2014, Apple removed the marijuana social networking app MassRoots, with the reason given that it \\\"encourage[d] excessive consumption of alcohol or illegal substances.” In February 2015, MassRoots was reintroduced into the store after Apple changed its enforcement guidelines to allow cannabis social apps in the 23 states where it is legal.\\nIn September 2015, it was discovered that \\\"hundreds\\\" of apps submitted and approved on App Store were using XcodeGhost, a\",\n \"-22.05337583576329\"\n ],\n [\n \"American businesses in Israel. Based on information put out by Starbucks, no information pointed towards caving into anti-Israel pressure. Bill O’Shea, Starbucks VP of Business Development in Europe, Middle East and Africa, released a letter stating that Starbucks chose to close their Israel locations due to business reasons, not political. Reemergence attempt In September 2005 Starbucks hired MAN Properties Real Estate Consultants to explore their options to return to Israel. Starbucks was looking for a managing partner to team up with in Israel for themergence.\",\n \"-22.05335110078886\"\n ],\n [\n \"lawsuits Several class action suits across Canada have been launched against the Purdue group of companies and affiliates. Claimants argue the pharmaceutical manufacturers did not meet a standard of care and were negligent in doing so. These lawsuits reference earlier judgments in the United States, which held that Purdue was liable for wrongful marketing practices and misbranding. Since 2007, the Purdue companies have paid over CAN$650 million in settling litigation or facing criminal fines. Germany The drug is in Appendix III of the Narcotics Act (Betäubungsmittelgesetz or BtMG). The law allows only physicians, dentists, and veterinarians to prescribe oxycodone and\",\n \"-21.99426028275957\"\n ],\n [\n \"the other side stole trade secrets. On April 21, 2011, a federal jury returned a verdict supporting MGA. On August 5, 2011, Mattel was also ordered to pay MGA $310 million for attorney fees, stealing trade secrets, and false claims rather than the $88.5 million issued in April.\\nIn July 2012, MGA Entertainment sued Lady Gaga for $10 million for causing, according to the BBC, \\\"'deliberate' delays to the release of a doll based on her image.\\\"\\nThe Ninth Circuit vacated without prejudice the $170 million judgment from 2008 against Mattel on procedural grounds in January 2013. On January 13, 2014, MGA\",\n \"-21.96758923784364\"\n ],\n [\n \"Peaberry's poor financial practices and alleged that the company had not shown a profit since 1998. They further claimed that most of the stores owned by the company failed to break even. The franchisees also stopped paying royalties in February 2008. A Denver district judge ruled against the franchisees later that year and also decided that they owed the unpaid royalties to Peaberry. The franchisees are appealing the ruling.\\nIn September 2009, Peaberry Coffee, Inc. closed all of its corporate owned locations. Several stores which were previously franchises are now operated independently. These stores include: the Denver Tech Center location, the\",\n \"-21.966676879317674\"\n ],\n [\n \"separate entities: one focusing on its main chocolate and confectionery market; the other on its US drinks business. The demerger took effect on 2 May 2008, with the drinks business becoming Dr Pepper Snapple Group. In December 2008 it was announced that Cadbury was to sell its Australian beverage unit to Asahi Breweries. 2007–2010 In October 2007, Cadbury announced the closure of the Somerdale Factory, Keynsham, formerly part of Fry's. Between 500 and 700 jobs were affected by this change. Production transferred to other plants in England and Poland.\\nIn 2008 Monkhill Confectionery, the Own Label trading division of Cadbury Trebor\",\n \"-21.92987394426018\"\n ],\n [\n \"the charges brought on by the United States were \\\"unfair\\\". U.S. business restrictions In August 2018, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 (NDAA 2019) was signed into law, containing a provision that banned Huawei and ZTE equipment from being used by the U.S. federal government, citing security concerns. Huawei filed a lawsuit over the act in March 2019, alleging it to be unconstitutional because it specifically targeted Huawei without granting it a chance to provide a rebuttal or due process.\\nOn 15 May 2019, the Department of Commerce added Huawei and 70 foreign subsidiaries and \\\"affiliates\\\" to its\",\n \"-21.89857035118621\"\n ],\n [\n \"response to Starbucks' reintroduction of its original logo (featuring a topless siren), Dice led his group and its 3,000 members in boycotting the coffee chain: \\\"The Starbucks logo has a naked woman on it with her legs spread like a prostitute […] It's extremely poor taste, and the company might as well call themselves Slutbucks.\\\" Starbucks had more than 6,000 locations in 2008.\\nAs the founder of The Resistance, Dice told KFSN-TV of his group's intention to disrupt theater showings of 2009's Angels & Demons because the film \\\"is a fraud, aimed at covering up the existence of a secret\",\n \"-21.87805571014178\"\n ],\n [\n \"subject to several lawsuits surrounding Trump Vodka. Bruni Glass sued over unpaid bills and, as a result, melted in a furnace 500,000 Trump Vodka mini-bottles ready for shipment. Donald Trump also sued Drinks Americas for unpaid royalties, but the case was dismissed for lack of subject matter jurisdiction. Israel Trump Vodka started being sold unofficially in Israel by H. Pixel International based on a signed deal with Drinks Americas, but Trump brought a lawsuit against the company for copyright infringement, as they did not have his agreement to use his image in advertising or the brand. However, Trump later dropped\",\n \"-21.792547159482638\"\n ],\n [\n \"unsuccessfully that the ordinance “forced the tobacco company to pull its advertising out of drugstores, interfering with its constitutional right to communicate with its customers”. In addition to the lawsuit from Philip Morris, on September 8, 2008, Walgreens had more success when it sued the City and County of San Francisco in Superior Court of the State of California, claiming “unconstitutional discrimination” because the Walgreens location would not be allowed to sell cigarettes under the new ordinance whereas grocery and big box stores with pharmacies would be allowed to continue to sell. After a number of legal appeals, Walgreens\",\n \"-21.76078757637879\"\n ],\n [\n \"has acquired secondary meaning or that it is otherwise a protectable trademark\\\" under U.S. law.\\nIn June 2010, Wal-Mart and the Smiley Company founded by Loufrani settled their 10-year-old dispute in front of the Chicago federal court. The terms remain confidential. In 2016, Wal-Mart brought back the smiley face on its website, social media profiles, and in selected stores.\",\n \"-21.723321324330755\"\n ],\n [\n \"Boston. Puckett signed a lease for the first location to be in the large Pillsbury Center office building. However, soon afterward the building's landlord decided not to sign the lease, because another of the building's retail tenants had exclusive rights to selling coffee in the building and had threatened to sue them. As a result, the financing for the store fell through because it was dependent on that specific site. Puckett opted to start looking for an available location in the suburbs, and the first Caribou Coffee shop was started in Edina, Minnesota, a suburb of Minneapolis, in December 1992.\\nIn\",\n \"-21.72188113327138\"\n ],\n [\n \"a year-long campaign by the human rights organization Global Exchange, Starbucks decided to carry fair-trade coffee in its stores. Since September 2009 all Starbucks Espresso beverages in UK and Ireland are made with Fairtrade and Shared Planet certified coffee.\\nA 2005 study done in Belgium concluded that consumers' buying behavior is not consistent with their positive attitude toward ethical products. On average 46% of European consumers claimed to be willing to pay substantially more for ethical products, including fair-trade products such as coffee. The study found that the majority of respondents were unwilling to pay the actual price premium of 27%\",\n \"-21.675466105134547\"\n ],\n [\n \"against Dunkin' Donuts Brands, Inc. in New York and New Jersey. The suits allege that the doughnut retailer has been unlawfully assessing a surcharge, noted on receipts as a \\\"sales tax,\\\" on products the company cannot lawfully charge tax on. Fighting Indefinite Detention in Hedges v. Obama Carl Mayer served as co-lead counsel to the plaintiffs in Hedges v. Obama, a lawsuit filed January 13, 2012 against the Obama administration and members of the U.S. Congress by a group including former New York Times reporter and columnist Christopher Hedges, challenging the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 (NDAA).\",\n \"-21.67370004458644\"\n ],\n [\n \"of its locations in Israel, citing \\\"on-going operational challenges\\\" and a \\\"difficult business environment.\\\"\\nThe Starbucks location in the former imperial palace in Beijing closed in July 2007. The coffee shop had been a source of ongoing controversy since its opening in 2000 with protesters objecting that the presence of the American chain in this location \\\"was trampling on Chinese culture.\\\"\\nIn July 2008, the company announced it was closing 600 underperforming company-owned stores and cutting U.S. expansion plans amid growing economic uncertainty. On July 29, 2008, Starbucks also cut almost 1,000 non-retail jobs as part of its bid to re-energize the\",\n \"-21.631703363840643\"\n ],\n [\n \"the company would change the recipe for its signature chocolate and the conditions at Cadbury's food factories.\\nAdditionally, there are several American restaurant and café chains like McDonalds, Burger King, KFC, Domino's Pizza, Pizza Hut, Krispy Kreme, and Starbucks that have enterprises on the other side of the Atlantic. A small number of British chains like Pret a Manger, YO! Sushi and Itsu have operations in the U.S., principally around New York City. The British catering company Compass Group has several catering contracts in the States, including for the federal government and US military.\\nSince the 2016 EU referendum, there\",\n \"-21.610417280957336\"\n ],\n [\n \"holding companies\\\" under the GLBA and, therefore, never exercised any new powers available through Glass–Steagall \\\"repeal.\\\" They joined Jonathan R. Macey and Peter J. Wallison in noting many GLBA critics do not understand that Glass–Steagall's restrictions on banks (i.e., Sections 16 and 21) remained in effect and that the GLBA only repealed the affiliation provisions in Sections 20 and 32. The American Bankers Association, former President Bill Clinton, and others have argued that the GLBA permission for affiliations between securities and commercial banking firms \\\"helped to mitigate\\\" or \\\"softened\\\" the financial crisis by permitting bank holding companies to acquire troubled\",\n \"-21.552822691322945\"\n ],\n [\n \"2020 and to have a revenue increase of 3 percent for stores open a year or longer.\\nIn September 2019, the New York attorney general alleged in a lawsuit that Dunkin' mishandled a series of \\\"brute force\\\" cyberattacks that were directed at customers using the Dunkin' mobile app. These attacks took place in early 2015 and thousands of usernames and passwords stolen. The state lawsuit alleges that Dunkin’ employees knew about these attacks, but failed to take appropriate action. The New York Attorney General Letitia James alleges the Massachusetts-based company \\\"glazing over\\\" the cyberattacks. A Dunkin’ spokesperson said the restaurant chain\",\n \"-21.533361190071446\"\n ],\n [\n \"Beverage LLC to market \\\"Grumppuccino\\\" iced coffee beverages.\\nIn December 2015, Grumpy Cat Limited filed a lawsuit against Grenade Beverage LLC citing trademark infringement when the beverage company expanded its line of Grumpy Cat coffee offerings beyond what was originally agreed upon, producing and marketing a Grumpy Cat roasted ground coffee even after being specifically told in writing via email that they were not approved to do so.\\nIn January 2018, the California Federal Court jury sided with Grumpy Cat Limited and ordered Grenade Beverage Company to pay $710,000 in damages for copyright and trademark infringement, as well as a $1 nominal\",\n \"-21.519420618935328\"\n ],\n [\n \"of lawsuits that started in 2005. Merchants charged that the two main credit card processing companies, MasterCard and Visa, used their monopoly power to levy excessive fees in a class-action lawsuit involving the National Retail Federation and major retailers such as Wal-Mart. In December 2013, a federal judge approved a $5.7 billion settlement in the case that offered payouts to merchants who had paid credit card fees, the largest antitrust settlement in U.S. history. Some large retailers, such as Wal-Mart and Amazon, chose to not participate in this settlement, however, and have continued their legal fight against the credit card\",\n \"-21.518677310552448\"\n ],\n [\n \"target U.S. consumers with ads to illegally import prescription drugs from Canadian pharmacies.\\nOpponents stated that it violated the First Amendment, is Internet censorship, would cripple the Internet, and would threaten whistle-blowing and other free speech actions.\\nIn October, 2011, co-sponsor Representative Bob Goodlatte (R-VA), chairman of the House Judiciary Committee's Intellectual Property sub-panel, told The Hill that SOPA is a rewrite of the Senate's bill that addresses some tech-industry concerns, noting that under the House version of the legislation copyright holders won't be able to directly sue intermediaries such as search engines to block infringing websites and would instead need a\",\n \"-21.51565337611828\"\n ],\n [\n \"ice cream making, chocolate bar manufacturing, sugar refining, milling, and paper and tissue making. In 1989, the company sold its White Swan tissue division to Scott Paper Ltd. for $110 million. While Weston's had acquired the Canadian operations of Cadbury in 1987 and merged them with William Neilson Limited, after attempting to break into emerging markets, by selling chocolate bars in Mexico, it finally sold its chocolate operations to Cadbury Schweppes in 1996. In 1998, long time holding E. B. Eddy was sold to Domtar in a cash-and-stock deal worth (CAN) $800 million.\\nMeanwhile, under Loblaw president Richard Currie,\",\n \"-21.50730803819897\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the district court, it was impossible for anyone to obtain glassware-making machinery except by virtue of a license from Hartford. Owens consistently refused to sell or license its suction machinery. The result was that no new concern could engage in the manufacture of glass containers except with the consent of Hartford, and that kept newcomers out of the industry. Proceedings in district court The United States sued the leading manufacturers of glass containers for violating the antitrust laws by \\\"unlawfully conspiring, monopolizing, attempting to monopolize, and by unlawfully contracting, combining, and conspiring to restrain interstate and foreign trade and\",\n \"-21.501437513188648\"\n ],\n [\n \"the expense of small local retailers. Tesco served him with writs for criminal defamation and civil libel. The case was subsequently dismissed.\\nIn Thailand another controversy arose when the Royal Thai Police alleged that Thai soldiers operating as Tesco security intimidated a rural boy into poisoning chocolates as revenge for having their contracts revoked by the company. The Cayman Islands In February 2008, a six-month investigation by The Guardian revealed that Tesco has developed a complex taxation structure involving offshore bank accounts in the tax haven of the Cayman Islands.\\nThe Guardian claimed that this arrangement would enable Tesco to avoid an\",\n \"-21.485750697131152\"\n ],\n [\n \"the company had paid bribes via local fixers to officials throughout Mexico in exchange for construction permits, information, and other favors, which gave Walmart a substantial advantage over competitors. Walmart investigators found credible evidence that Mexican and American laws had been broken. Concerns were also raised that Walmart executives in the United States had \\\"hushed up\\\" the allegations. A follow-up investigation by The New York Times, published December 17, 2012, revealed evidence that regulatory permission for siting, construction, and operation of nineteen stores had been obtained through bribery. There was evidence that a bribe of US$52,000 was paid to change\",\n \"-21.47617407017242\"\n ],\n [\n \"Canada Dry doubled its worldwide drinks market share, and it took a 30 percent stake in Dr Pepper. As a result of these acquisitions, Cadbury Schweppes became the third largest soft drinks manufacturer in the world. In August 1988, the company sold its U.S. confectionery operations to Hershey's for $284.5 million cash plus the assumption of $30 million in debt.\\nSnapple, Mistic and Stewart's (formerly Cable Car Beverage) were sold by Triarc to Cadbury Schweppes in 2000 for $1.45 billion. In October of that same year, Cadbury Schweppes purchased Royal Crown from Triarc. In 2003, Cadbury Schweppes acquired Adams, the US chewing\",\n \"-21.471838341618422\"\n ],\n [\n \"introduce legislation to change defamation laws. MacJoy (Philippines) In 2004, McDonald's sued Cebu-based fast food restaurant MacJoy for using a very similar trade name. In its defense, MacJoy insisted that it was the first user of the mark under the title \\\"MACJOY & DEVICE\\\" for its business in Cebu City which started in 1987, six years after McDonald's opened its first outlet in the same city. MacJoy stated that the requirement of “actual use” in commerce in the Philippines before one may register a trademark pertains to the territorial jurisdiction on a national scale and is not merely confined to\",\n \"-21.45700890404987\"\n ],\n [\n \"the chain Xingbake in Shanghai, China for trademark infringement, because the chain used a green-and-white circular logo with a name that sounded phonetically similar to the Chinese for Starbucks. Starbucks did not open any stores after first registering its trademark in Russia in 1997, and in 2002 a Russian lawyer successfully filed a request to cancel the trademark. He then registered the name with a Moscow company and asked for $600,000 to sell the trademark to Starbucks, but was ruled against in November 2005.\\nIn 2003, Starbucks sent a cease-and-desist letter to \\\"HaidaBucks Coffee House\\\" in Masset, British Columbia, Canada. The\",\n \"-21.422268386450014\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hershey's began U.S. distribution of Kit Kat in 1970 and followed in 1971 with Rolo. \\nIn 1971, Rowntree Mackintosh acquired Menier Chocolate of France. In the same year, the board attempted to diversify the business, and made a bid for Bovril, but lost out to James Goldsmith's Cavenham Foods. In 1972, Hoadley's Chocolates of Australia was acquired by Rowntree's. This company had invented such products as the Violet Crumble and Polly Waffle.\\nThe Yorkie and Lion chocolate bars were introduced in 1976. In 1978, the Hershey contract was renegotiated, giving Hershey the rights to the Kit Kat and Rolo brands in\",\n \"-21.35668025589257\"\n ],\n [\n \"government \\\"should consider a ban on the use of Huawei inverters in the United States and work with state and local regulators to raise awareness and mitigate potential threats\\\" and urged them \\\"to work with all federal, state and local regulators, as well as the hundreds of independent power producers and electricity distributors nation-wide to ensure our systems are protected.\\\"\\nIn March 2019, Rubio and Bob Menendez introduced a bill granting Puerto Rican taxpayers equal access to the child tax credit (CTC) used by parents in other parts of the United States through an amendment to the federal tax code.\\nIn May\",\n \"-21.35291898943251\"\n ],\n [\n \"(Safeway, Tesco, Asda, Morrisons and Sainsburys) and a number of dairy companies to fix the price of milk, butter and cheese. In December 2007, Asda, Sainsburys and the former Safeway admitted that they acted covertly against the interests of consumers while publicly claiming that they were supporting 5,000 farmers recovering from the foot-and-mouth crisis. They were fined a total of £116 million. Corporate tax structure In May 2007, it was reported that Tesco had moved the head office of its online operations to Switzerland. This allows it to sell CDs, DVDs and electronic games through its web site without charging value-added\",\n \"-21.347081265121233\"\n ],\n [\n \"as Visa, MasterCard, Discover, American Express, and PayPal were in process of terminating processing payments to mugshot websites and related removal sites. Ten days later CNN Money reported, that according to American Express, it had severed all ties; and that other companies were still in the process of cutting ties with the mugshot industry. Litigation On December 3, 2012, a case was filed in the Lucas County Court Of Common Pleas, in Ohio, against 14 mugshot publishers. On December 27, 2013, a settlement was reached and Judge Zouhary signed an order dismissing the litigation with prejudice after the mugshot websites\",\n \"-21.321928006342205\"\n ],\n [\n \"Starbucks awarding regional licences to Maxims in Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore and Vietnam.\\nOn 15 June 2018 protestors targeted Maxim's headquarters in a demonstration that also highlighted Maxim's being a regional licensee for Starbucks. Overpricing In October 2013, China Central Television accused Chinese Starbucks of over-pricing. The report compared the price of a tall (12 fl. oz., 354 mL) latte in Beijing, Chicago, London, and Mumbai. It was found that Beijing stores charged the most while Mumbai stores charged the least. It was also found that a tall latte cost 4 Chinese yuan (approx. USD $0.67) to make, but it sold\",\n \"-21.289823120445362\"\n ],\n [\n \"the H.B. Reese Candy Company with the Hershey Chocolate Corporation in a tax-free stock-for-stock merger. In 2019 after 56 years of stock splits, the Reese brothers' original 666,316 shares of Hershey common stock represented 16 million Hershey shares valued at over $2.5 billion that paid annual cash dividends of $49.4 million. In 1969, only 6 years after the Reese/Hershey merger, Reese's Peanut Butter Cups became The Hershey Company's top seller.\\nThe H.B. Reese Candy Company is maintained as a subsidiary of Hershey because the Reese plant workforce is not unionized, unlike the main Hershey plant. In 2012, Reese's was the best-selling\",\n \"-21.25883772360976\"\n ],\n [\n \"the group filed a class action lawsuit against Levi Strauss & Co. in 1993, claiming that the closure of the plant was a form of discrimination against some employees who had filed workers' compensation claims. The lawsuit was dismissed; an appeal was also defeated. United States District Judge H.F. Garcia dismissed the case 'with prejudice,' meaning that it could not be refiled, and charged the attorney representing Fuerza Unida $5000 for \\\"filing a frivolous claim.\\\"\\nAt one point a satellite office for the group was planned in San Francisco, near the Levi's company headquarters.\\nFor several years running after the initial layoff,\",\n \"-21.230777917415253\"\n ],\n [\n \"federal and state agencies as part of an attempt to ease regulatory burdens on trucking and the agri-community.\\nIn July 2019, Rubio was a cosponsor of the Defending America’s 5G Future Act, a bill that would prevent Huawei from being removed from the \\\"entity list\\\" of the Commerce Department without an act of Congress and authorize Congress to block administration waivers for U.S. companies to do business with Huawei. The bill would also codify President Trump’s executive order from the previous May that empowered his administration to block foreign tech companies deemed a national security threat from conducting business in the\",\n \"-21.228733646508772\"\n ],\n [\n \"watchdog Autorité de la concurrence stated that \\\"it appears that Nespresso may have abused its dominant position by tying the purchase of its capsules to that of its coffee machines, with no fair justification, de facto ousting rival capsule makers\\\". The company agreed to no longer limit the guarantee on its single-serving coffee machines by imposing the condition that customers only use its own Nespresso pods, and to remove warnings against the use of third-party pods.\",\n \"-21.19239873815968\"\n ],\n [\n \"the acquisition of Cadbury.\\nOn 19 January 2010, it was announced that Cadbury and Kraft Foods had reached a deal and that Kraft would purchase Cadbury for £8.40 per share, valuing Cadbury at £11.5bn (US$18.9bn). Kraft, which issued a statement stating that the deal will create a \\\"global confectionery leader\\\", had to borrow £7 billion (US$11.5bn) in order to finance the takeover.\\nThe Hershey Company, based in Pennsylvania, manufactures and distributes Cadbury-branded chocolate (but not its other confectionery) in the United States and has been reported to share Cadbury's \\\"ethos\\\". Hershey had expressed an interest in buying Cadbury because it would broaden its\",\n \"-21.191415712237358\"\n ],\n [\n \"antitrust action against big banks that has recovered more than $1 million from financial institutions including Wachovia and JPMorgan.\\nIn 2015, Parker sued the giant chemical company Monsanto to hold it accountable for years of contamination of Oakland's storm water system and the San Francisco Bay. Parker's office also filed a federal lawsuit against Wells Fargo to recover damages caused by predatory and discriminatory mortgage lending practices by the bank against African American and Latino borrowers.\\nParker co-sponsored a gun safety ordinance to reduce theft of firearms from vehicles. The law makes it a crime to leave firearms, magazines or ammunition unsecured\",\n \"-21.158749117523257\"\n ],\n [\n \"June 3, 2014 opening of its Las Vegas location, Hershey then rebranded all other visitor centers worldwide under the Hershey's Chocolate World name.\\nIn July 2016, it was announced that Hershey's Chocolate World would expand to a new location in Times Square and open in late 2017.\",\n \"-21.13006843382027\"\n ],\n [\n \"£300,000 for misleading customers regarding the sale of strawberries. Trading Standards in Birmingham brought the case stating that £1.99 strawberries on sale in Sheldon, Birmingham, had not been for sale at £3.99 long enough. Tesco admitted misleading customers into believing that the strawberries on sale were genuinely \\\"half price\\\". Trading relations with suppliers Tesco is also censured by those who think that it infringes upon the interests of farmers and smaller suppliers. The company responds by claiming that it follows industry-best practice and sources locally where it can to meet customer demand. In March 2005 the Office of Fair\",\n \"-21.12504733732203\"\n ],\n [\n \"bill that would prevent Huawei from being removed from the \\\"entity list\\\" of the Commerce Department without an act of Congress and authorize Congress to block administration waivers for U.S. companies to do business with Huawei. The bill would also codify President Trump's executive order from the previous May that empowered his administration to block foreign tech companies deemed a national security threat from conducting business in the United States. Iran In 2013, Cotton introduced legislative language to prohibit trade with relatives of individuals subject to U.S. sanctions against Iran. According to Cotton, this would include \\\"a spouse and any\",\n \"-21.123444431475946\"\n ],\n [\n \"Criticism of Starbucks Starbucks, an American coffee company and coffeehouse chain, has been the subject of multiple controversies. European tax avoidance In October 2012, Starbucks faced criticism after a Reuters investigation found that the company reportedly paid only £8.6 million in corporation tax in the UK over 14 years, despite generating over £3 billion in sales—this included no tax payments on £1.3 billion of sales in the three years prior to 2012. It is alleged that Starbucks was able to do this by charging high licensing fees to the UK branch of the business, allowing them to declare a £33\",\n \"-21.103347618394764\"\n ],\n [\n \"100% Fair Trade Certified cocoa beans by 2012 for at least one of its top five selling chocolate bars [...] making at least one additional top five selling bar 0% Fair Trade Certified every two years thereafter\\\"; and that \\\"the majority of Hershey's cocoa across all products will be Fair Trade Certified by 2022\\\". Pressure was particularly directed at Whole Foods Market, which announced on October 3, 2012, that it would cease carrying Hershey's Scharffen Berger line. The Campaign stated, \\\"Whole Foods' decision follows more than 40 natural food retailers and coops publicly expressing concern about carrying Scharffen Berger and\",\n \"-21.074156194539682\"\n ],\n [\n \"entity list under the Export Administration Regulations, citing the company having been indicted for \\\"knowingly and willfully causing the export, re-export, sale and supply, directly and indirectly, of goods, technology and services (banking and other financial services) from the United States to Iran and the government of Iran without obtaining a license from the Department of Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC)\\\". This restricts U.S. companies from doing business with Huawei without a government license.\\nVarious U.S.-based companies immediately froze their business with Huawei to comply with the regulation, including Google—which removes its ability to certify future devices and updates\",\n \"-21.051962343568448\"\n ],\n [\n \"public protests from former Marshall Field's customers and Chicago Mayor Daley, Federated chairman Terry J. Lundgren announced in September 2005 that Macy's would look into moving production back to Chicago. In making the announcement, Lundgren noted that Macy's would look into \\\"our contractual obligations\\\" to determine if the chocolate production could be moved back to the Windy City; however, Lundgren stressed that he was not making any promises regarding moving all or part of the production back to Chicago.\\nUnfortunately, the demand for Marshall Field's Frango mints was far greater than demand for Macy's Frangos. No longer a unique\",\n \"-21.04528387141181\"\n ],\n [\n \"to consumers who overpaid or did not receive their goods.\\nBill McCollum, Florida Attorney General said, \\\"We think that overall, this is a very deceptive trade practice.\\\"\\nThe Tennessee Attorney General filed a civil lawsuit for alleged deceptive practices against BlueHippo companies, as well as proposing an injunction requiring greater disclosures in advertising and prior to obtaining further payments, as well as the freezing of $2.5 million in cash. West Virginia also sued BlueHippo.\\nA class action lawsuit was filed against BlueHippo in the District Court of Ottawa County State of Oklahoma on January 23, 2007. This case was transferred to the United\",\n \"-21.03049548479612\"\n ],\n [\n \"lawsuit was settled on December 17, 2012. Massachusetts Alcoholic Beverages Control Commission In March 2011, the Massachusetts Alcoholic Beverages Control Commission notified Groupon that it was in violation of state law that prohibits discounting of alcoholic beverages. Groupon notified Massachusetts subscribers of a temporary suspension in the use of its discount vouchers for alcohol at participating restaurants. UK Office of Fair Trading investigation During 2011 there were reported breaches of British advertising regulations to the Advertising Standards Authority. In December 2011 the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) launched an investigation into Groupon after the firm broke regulations 48 times in\",\n \"-21.02877190860454\"\n ],\n [\n \"coffee that have been named in the complaint. Recent developments In the 1990s, a company called Kona Kai Farms, in Berkeley, California, was sued on behalf of Kona coffee growers. In October 1996, federal officials in San Francisco indicted Kona Kai Farms executive Michael Norton on wire fraud and money laundering charges. He was found to have put Central American coffee into bags with labels indicating it was Kona coffee since 1993.\\nIn 2000 Michael Norton pleaded guilty to one count of wire fraud and one count of tax evasion. In 2007 his two sons were arrested in a multimillion-dollar medical\",\n \"-21.007188896968728\"\n ],\n [\n \"all BlackBerry smartphones be banned from being imported into the United States for infringing upon five of Motorola's patents. Their patents for \\\"early-stage innovations\\\", including UI, power management and WiFi, are in question. RIM countersued later the same day, alleging anti-competitive behaviour and that Motorola had broken a 2003 licensing agreement by refusing to extend licensing terms beyond 2008. The companies settled out of court on June 11, 2010. Eatoni On December 5, 2011, Research In Motion obtained an order granting its motion to dismiss plaintiff Eatoni's claims that RIM violated Section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act\",\n \"-20.9872946680116\"\n ],\n [\n \"the first year. Closing In 2002, within a year of Starbucks Israel opening, Delek was already shopping its stake.\\nBefore its closing, Starbucks had six locations in Tel Aviv, with 120 employees. Additionally they had previously planned on opening a location in Jerusalem but withdrew the plans due to fear of terror attacks. On March 31, 2003, Starbucks announced that they would be closing their stores in Israel.\\nStarbucks closing caused many controversies over rumors that the stores were closing due to political reasons. Many rumors began circulating on the internet that they were closing as part of an Arab boycott of\",\n \"-20.981428157363553\"\n ],\n [\n \"then, The Coca-Cola Company has been using \\\"minimum inventories of raw material\\\" to make their signature drinks at two production plants in Venezuela. Information On July 6, 2006, a Coca-Cola employee and two other people were arrested and charged with trying to sell trade secret information to the soft drink maker's competitor PepsiCo for $1.5 million. The recipe for Coca-Cola, perhaps the company's most closely guarded secret, was never in jeopardy; instead, the information was related to a new beverage in development. Coca-Cola executives verified that the trade secret documents in question were genuine and proprietary to the company. At least\",\n \"-20.97030789013661\"\n ],\n [\n \"taxpayer is unable to open a bank account. Federal regulation Washington's governor and United States Senators have attempted to preserve U.S. Department of the Treasury FinCEN rules in place since 2014 allowing banks to do regulated transactions with the industry, despite conflicting laws on legality at the Federal level. Alternatives to banks Some Washington cannabis business, particularly at point of sale, is conducted in cryptocurrency. Some use Square point-of-sale system, although it has also been reported that PayPal and Square will terminate accounts from cannabis-related businesses.\",\n \"-20.969511602095736\"\n ],\n [\n \"(hired by NRDC to publicize their report on Alar) claiming that unfair business practices (product disparagement in particular) cost them $100 million. The suit was moved from state to federal court at the request of CBS. U.S. District Judge William Fremming Nielsen ruled in 1993 that the apple growers had not proved their case, and it was subsequently dismissed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.\\nElizabeth Whelan and her organization, the American Council on Science and Health (ACSH), which had received $25,000 from Alar's manufacturer, stated that Alar and its breakdown product UDMH had not\",\n \"-20.96787660079326\"\n ],\n [\n \"criticism made by the defendant was 'in good faith by way of fair comment on any person or thing subjected to public criticism'.\\nIn November 2007, Tesco sued a Thai academic and a former minister for civil libel and criminal defamation, insisting that the two pay £1.6 million and £16.4 million plus two years' imprisonment respectively. They have been alleged to have misstated that Tesco's Thai market amounts to 37% of its global revenues, amongst criticism of Tesco's propensity to put small retailers out of business.\\nIn August 2013, Tesco was fined £300,000 after admitting that it misled customers over the pricing of \\\"half\",\n \"-20.954168270152877\"\n ],\n [\n \"CEH and the Environmental Health Coalition reached a legal settlement with the companies, including subsidiaries of Mars and Hershey, calling for the companies to reduce the lead levels in their products.\\nLater in 2004, CEH again joined the Attorney General in a lawsuit against companies, including popular mall stores such as Claire's Boutique, Hot Topic and Zumiez, and department stores such as Target, Macy's and Nordstrom, that sold costume jewelry marketed to children, teens and adult containing high levels of lead. In 2006, seventy-one companies, including Target, Kmart, Macy's, Nordstrom, Sears, Disney Stores and others, agreed to a legal\",\n \"-20.947435024412698\"\n ],\n [\n \"due to its undeveloped \\\"land bank\\\", and breaching planning laws. Litigation The Tesco supermarket chain is involved in litigation such as the Ward v Tesco Stores Ltd and Tesco Supermarkets Ltd v Nattrass cases. Tesco have been criticized for aggressively pursuing critics of the company in Thailand. Writer and former MP Jit Siratranont faced up to two years in jail and a £16.4 million libel damages claim for saying that Tesco was expanding aggressively at the expense of small local retailers. Tesco served him with writs for criminal defamation and civil libel. The Thai court dismissed the case, ruling that the\",\n \"-20.936500347841502\"\n ],\n [\n \"on customers' shopping habits. Customer cases In 2013, Helen Dewdney (also known as The Complaining Cow) brought what is thought to be the first customer legal case against Tesco. She took Tesco to the Small Claims Court after being unable to redeem voucher codes for £80. Tesco told her to use her credit card and said that it would reimburse her but the company did not. She won the case. Local opposition to new stores and corporate expatiation Tesco's expansion has not been without criticism and, in some cases, active opposition.\\nIn April 2011, longstanding opposition to a Tesco Express store\",\n \"-20.92577389383223\"\n ],\n [\n \"chain on Twitter and (falsely) claimed that the stores did not accept cash.\",\n \"-20.90885426026216\"\n ],\n [\n \"banks launching the convenient Swish smartphone-to-phone payment system in 2012, and the launch of iZettle for small merchants to accept credit cards in 2011. Legal status Under Massachusetts law stating back to 1978, no retailer may \\\"discriminate against a cash buyer by requiring the use of credit\\\". \\nIt was the only state to have such a law until March 2019, when New Jersey passed similar legislation; car rentals, parking garages, and airport stores have carve-outs under the legislation. The bill came shortly after the city of Philadelphia passed a similar law. San Francisco has also banned cashless stores. Reduced business\",\n \"-20.90398134064162\"\n ],\n [\n \"problem was counterfeits of reputable vendors' products, some even claiming the company's name such as with American Paper Optics which published information detailing the differences between its glasses and counterfeits.\\nAndrew Lund, the owner of a company which produces eclipse glasses, noted that not all counterfeit glasses were necessarily unsafe. He stated to Quartz that the counterfeits he tested blocked the majority of harmful light spectrum, concluding that \\\"the IP is getting ripped off, but the good news is there are no long-term harmful effects.\\\" As one example, the Springdale Library in metropolitan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, accidentally passed out dozens of pairs\",\n \"-20.881129509129096\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sainsbury and Safeway that stores increased the price of milk as a result of collusion. Dairy Crest and Wiseman allegedly acted as middle men, passing on sensitive information about prices to their supposed rivals. Britain's biggest store chain Tesco, and Morrisons, are accused of collusion too, but vigorously deny they took part. The allegations against Tesco involve cheese as well as milk and butter.\\nIf the OFT proves its case, the retailers could theoretically face fines of up to 10 per cent of their worldwide turnover, which in Tesco's case would amount to £4.3bn. The Office of Fair Trading told Sainsbury's,\",\n \"-20.871894159761723\"\n ],\n [\n \"Criticism of Microsoft Immigration and Customs Enforcement ties On September 14, 2019, Microsoft's flagship store was shut down by protestors as part of a direct action organized by Close the Camps NYC. The action was in response to Microsoft's $19.4 million contract with U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). Microsoft's relationship with the immigration enforcement agency was revealed by executive Tom Keane, through a company blog post that describes ICE's use of the company's high-security cloud storage product Azure Government. He went on to say the company is \\\"proud to support\\\" the work of ICE.\\\" Microsoft, contradicting this internal\",\n \"-20.868195931765513\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 2006. Starbucks lost a trademark infringement case against a smaller coffee vendor in South Korea that operates coffee stations under the name Starpreya. The company, Elpreya, says Starpreya is named after the Norse goddess, Freja, with the letters of that name changed to ease pronunciation by Koreans. The court rejected Starbucks's claim that the logo of Starpreya is too similar to their own logo. A bar owner in Galveston, Texas, USA won the right to sell \\\"Star Bock Beer\\\" after a lawsuit by Starbucks in 2003 after he registered the name, but the 2005 federal court ruling also stated\",\n \"-20.868004483229015\"\n ],\n [\n \"all its members asking for donations to establish a defense fund for the lawsuit.\\nAs of 16 July 2012 the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board (TTAB) rendered its decision to Brown's opposition of the PGR, Inc's registration. They stated: \\\"The record further reflects that during Brown's tenure as Executive Director, despite his use of personal funds, he was acting in his official capacity when ordering the collateral merchandise to sell on the online store. Consumers who bought the goods prior to Brown's departure and the subsequent creation of \\\"Twister's Store\\\" were led to believe the goods originated from the PGR. Hence, Brown cannot\",\n \"-20.866014413462835\"\n ],\n [\n \"systems. Confrontation with Walmart over high fees In June 2016, the Wall Street Journal reported that Walmart threatened to stop accepting Visa cards in Canada. Visa objected saying that consumers should not be dragged into a dispute between the companies. In January 2017, Walmart Canada and Visa reached a deal to allow the continued acceptance of Visa. Dispute with Kroger over high credit card fees In March 2019, U.S. retailer Kroger announced that its 250-strong Smith's chain would stop accepting Visa credit cards as of April 3, 2019 due to the cards’ high ‘swipe’ fees. Kroger’s California-based Foods Co stores\",\n \"-20.855500650941394\"\n ],\n [\n \"claims that the repeal of the Glass–Steagall Act was a key factor in the 2008 financial crisis. Enacted just after the 1930s Great Depression, the Glass–Steagall Act separated commercial and investment banking. The law was repealed by Congress in 1999 during the Clinton presidency while Rubin was Treasury Secretary.\\nWriter Nassim Nicholas Taleb noted that Rubin \\\"collected more than $120 million in compensation from Citibank in the decade preceding the banking crash of 2008. When the bank, literally insolvent, was rescued by the taxpayer, he didn't write any check—he invoked uncertainty as an excuse.\\\"\\nAccording to Bloomberg Businessweek, Rubin pursued a romantic interest\",\n \"-20.855336921551498\"\n ],\n [\n \"awareness of their product and a foothold in the market – a large sunk cost that will prevent some firms entering.\\nMonsanto engaged in preemptive deterrence when it signed contracts with Coke and Pepsi. Because Monsanto locked in the consumers of Coke and Pepsi through its contracts, it made entry into the soda market less desirable because potential entrants would have less consumers and, in turn, less profit. Furthermore, if another firm decided to enter the market and obtain contracts with other soda brands, it would be less likely to attract as many customers as Monsanto because customers are loyal to\",\n \"-20.82979723686003\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hershey's Chocolate World History Hershey's Chocolate World was built as a replacement of the Hershey chocolate plant tour, which had reached its capacity and no longer was able to handle the large numbers of visitors per year. The facility opened on June 30, 1973, and took inspiration from World's Fair pavilions. Through its first year of operations, Chocolate World had over 1.4 million visitors.\\nOn June 1, 1986, the visitor's center welcomed its 20 millionth visitor.\\nA $4.5 million update to the chocolate-making tour ride opened in 1988, featuring a curious robot for a host named CP-1. It was phased out within\",\n \"-20.820755567547167\"\n ],\n [\n \"that country. The company had opened many stores in Mexico in the late 1990s and early 2000s, attempting to widely establish itself before competitors could. Sergio Cicero, a lawyer who had been responsible for obtaining those permits and was bitter about being passed over for the position of general counsel with Walmart México provided the company's corporate general counsel's office with evidence showing that the company had made large payments to gestores, workers who deal with bureaucracies on behalf of citizens and businesses, with coded indications that the money was being passed on to officials to expedite permits.\\nCompany officials hired\",\n \"-20.819068279088242\"\n ],\n [\n \"questions on the app and recording a report on their iPhone, Lemonade’s claims bot set a world record by reviewing, approving and paying the claim in three seconds. Behavioral economics Lemonade uses behavioral economics research to displace fraud and conflict while aligning interests to remove motivation for not paying claims and keeping the inclination to defraud an insurer in check. Integration of these principles are found in Lemonade’s policy purchase and claims processes, with users signing their name on a digital pledge of honesty at the start of the claims process - rather than the end - and speaking into\",\n \"-20.81068674431299\"\n ],\n [\n \"lawsuit claiming that SoBe had copied its bottle design or stolen trade secrets. Then Judge Sonia Sotomayor ruled in SoBe's favor denying a preliminary injunction. Legal action proceeded and persisted on the federal and state level until 2007, long after the company had been sold to PepsiCo. In 2007, the court dismissed all AriZona claims on summary judgement\\nIn 2001, Bello was named Ernst and Young's National Entrepreneur of the Year in the Consumer Products category for his accomplishments at SoBe. Other business activity Upon leaving Pepsi, Bello formed JoNa Ventures, a family investment vehicle that included among other endeavors investment\",\n \"-20.770094314175367\"\n ],\n [\n \"General of Anti Profiteering (DGAP) found Tata Starbucks guilty of profiteering ₹45.1 million (US$650,000) by not reducing the goods and services tax (GST) charged on coffee. The GST Council had reduced the tax rate on restaurants from 18% to 5% from 17 November 2017. However, the DGAP found that Tata Starbucks had raised the base price of one coffee variant such that its retail price remained the same even after the tax rate was reduced. The case is pending before the National Anti-Profiteering Authority (NAA), which will issue the final verdict. International presence The Tata Group and Starbucks Corporation also\",\n \"-20.75464422704181\"\n ],\n [\n \"with state intelligence when warranted. Huawei executives have consistently denied these allegations, having stated that the company has never received any requests by the Chinese government to introduce backdoors in its equipment, would refuse to do so, and that Chinese law did not compel them to do so.\\nHuawei has also been accused of various instances of intellectual property theft against parties such as Nortel, Cisco Systems, and T-Mobile US (where a Huawei employee had photographed a robotic arm used to stress-test smartphones and taken a fingertip from the robot).\",\n \"-20.753723815818375\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":81,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"42tb8b"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why are eye colors only blue, green or brown and not other colors like purple, orange or yellow?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Eye color comes from the amount of a specific pigment/dye in your iris called *melanin*. Melanin is a brown pigment found in many places throughout your body, including your hair and skin. The more melanin in your skin, the darker it is. With a few exceptions (I'll get to them later), every eye color comes from a different level of melanin in the topmost layer of the iris. The more melanin, the darker and browner the eye. The less melanin, the lighter and bluer the eye. Green eyes are just blue with a slight tinge of brown. Hazel eyes are a moderate amount of brown. The reason that no melanin = blue is the same reason the sky is blue. It's an optical effect called [Rayleigh scattering]( URL_0 ). The light waves get mixed up and \"scattered\" by the tiny transparent molecules of the top layer of the iris. Blue light is scattered more than other colors, making the whole area appear blue. There isn't actually any blue pigment in the eye (or in the sky); it's all an optical illusion. There are eye colors that are outside this blue < - > brown spectrum, though. These are amber (gold-ish), gray, and violet. Amber eyes come from a different pigment called lipochrome. Gray eyes are \"cloudy\" blue eyes. The molecules in the iris have banded together into larger \"clumps\". The optical effect of this is the same as water molecules clumping together into water droplets and forming a cloud, creating a gray sky. Violet eyes occur only in albinos. There is so little pigment in the iris (not just the topmost layer is pigment-less, but the lower layers as well) that light can actually shine through from inside the eye. This gives you an eerie highlight of the blood vessels running through it, which can appear red or violet depending on the lighting conditions.","What determines your eye color is primarily influenced by the presence of melanin in the eye. To put it very simply, melanin effectively makes things darker. Although, the colors you mentioned do exist rarely. * Brown Eyes: These are the easiest, tons of melanin! The melanin darkens the eyes to a brown shade. * Green Eyes: Melanin is present but, in smaller amounts than you would see in brown eyes. One interesting thing is that melanin still creates brown pigment, there is no actual green pigment in green eyes. The reason that the eyes appear green is because of the way light scatters after being reflected by the eye. * Blue Eyes: Very little melanin (but, not necessarily none). There is still no blue pigment, appearance of blue eyes is caused by the same light scattering mentioned for green eyes. Now for the rarer colors, including the ones you mentioned! * Hazel Eyes: Hazel isn't an agreed upon color but, hazel eyes are usually between brown and green in terms of melanin production. The light scattering explains a lot about how people with hazel eyes tend to seemingly have blue or green eyes depending on lighting. * Grey Eyes: Very little melanin, like blue Eyes but, also thought to contain collagen deposits in the colored part of the eye that influences how the light is scattered. * Amber/Golden Eyes: This would be the orange/yellow eyes that you mentioned. Animals have this a lot more than we do but, it's not unknown in humans. It's caused by a pigment called 'Lipochrome', the eyes also have melanin but, not as much as someone with brown eyes would have. * Red Eyes: Severe albinism can cause you to have near zero melanin. This can result in eyes appearing to be red in the right light. This is caused by the underlying blood vessels showing through. * Violet Eyes: Violet or Purple eyes can also be caused by albinism/near zero melanin. There is a theory that a separate genetic trait called 'Alexandrias Genesis' can cause violet eyes. Elizabeth Taylor is thought to have potentially had this trait, but, others believe it may have just been a trick of the lighting. There are a tremendous amount of positive traits connected to 'Alexandrias Genesis' that make it seem like pseudoscience, it is most likely just a very mild case of albinism. **tl;dr**: Eye color is primarily determined by melanin which works on a scale of less brown - > more brown. Extra colors are caused by light scattering combined with the brown of the melanin but, some other factors exist to produce rarer eye colors.","I saw an African American female back in the early 70's at a department store that had gray eyes. I've never seen anything so beautiful","There's only one color that's ever present in people's eyes and that's brown- it's the same pigment that makes people's skin dark. Blue eyes are caused by the same effect that makes the sky look blue. Eyes look green (or hazel) because of the same light-scattering if they have a little, but not a lot, of pigment in them. People with brown eyes have a lot of pigment.","Eyes are blue, the move through different colors towards dark brown the more melanin is in them. They are blue for a similar reason the sky is blue. Melanin is also what makes skin darker.","Black eyes. I'm a black woman with eyes so dark people almost always think they're black. But they are in fact brown, just a lot darker than brown eyes seen on white people."],"string":"[\n \"Eye color comes from the amount of a specific pigment/dye in your iris called *melanin*. Melanin is a brown pigment found in many places throughout your body, including your hair and skin. The more melanin in your skin, the darker it is. With a few exceptions (I'll get to them later), every eye color comes from a different level of melanin in the topmost layer of the iris. The more melanin, the darker and browner the eye. The less melanin, the lighter and bluer the eye. Green eyes are just blue with a slight tinge of brown. Hazel eyes are a moderate amount of brown. The reason that no melanin = blue is the same reason the sky is blue. It's an optical effect called [Rayleigh scattering]( URL_0 ). The light waves get mixed up and \\\"scattered\\\" by the tiny transparent molecules of the top layer of the iris. Blue light is scattered more than other colors, making the whole area appear blue. There isn't actually any blue pigment in the eye (or in the sky); it's all an optical illusion. There are eye colors that are outside this blue < - > brown spectrum, though. These are amber (gold-ish), gray, and violet. Amber eyes come from a different pigment called lipochrome. Gray eyes are \\\"cloudy\\\" blue eyes. The molecules in the iris have banded together into larger \\\"clumps\\\". The optical effect of this is the same as water molecules clumping together into water droplets and forming a cloud, creating a gray sky. Violet eyes occur only in albinos. There is so little pigment in the iris (not just the topmost layer is pigment-less, but the lower layers as well) that light can actually shine through from inside the eye. This gives you an eerie highlight of the blood vessels running through it, which can appear red or violet depending on the lighting conditions.\",\n \"What determines your eye color is primarily influenced by the presence of melanin in the eye. To put it very simply, melanin effectively makes things darker. Although, the colors you mentioned do exist rarely. * Brown Eyes: These are the easiest, tons of melanin! The melanin darkens the eyes to a brown shade. * Green Eyes: Melanin is present but, in smaller amounts than you would see in brown eyes. One interesting thing is that melanin still creates brown pigment, there is no actual green pigment in green eyes. The reason that the eyes appear green is because of the way light scatters after being reflected by the eye. * Blue Eyes: Very little melanin (but, not necessarily none). There is still no blue pigment, appearance of blue eyes is caused by the same light scattering mentioned for green eyes. Now for the rarer colors, including the ones you mentioned! * Hazel Eyes: Hazel isn't an agreed upon color but, hazel eyes are usually between brown and green in terms of melanin production. The light scattering explains a lot about how people with hazel eyes tend to seemingly have blue or green eyes depending on lighting. * Grey Eyes: Very little melanin, like blue Eyes but, also thought to contain collagen deposits in the colored part of the eye that influences how the light is scattered. * Amber/Golden Eyes: This would be the orange/yellow eyes that you mentioned. Animals have this a lot more than we do but, it's not unknown in humans. It's caused by a pigment called 'Lipochrome', the eyes also have melanin but, not as much as someone with brown eyes would have. * Red Eyes: Severe albinism can cause you to have near zero melanin. This can result in eyes appearing to be red in the right light. This is caused by the underlying blood vessels showing through. * Violet Eyes: Violet or Purple eyes can also be caused by albinism/near zero melanin. There is a theory that a separate genetic trait called 'Alexandrias Genesis' can cause violet eyes. Elizabeth Taylor is thought to have potentially had this trait, but, others believe it may have just been a trick of the lighting. There are a tremendous amount of positive traits connected to 'Alexandrias Genesis' that make it seem like pseudoscience, it is most likely just a very mild case of albinism. **tl;dr**: Eye color is primarily determined by melanin which works on a scale of less brown - > more brown. Extra colors are caused by light scattering combined with the brown of the melanin but, some other factors exist to produce rarer eye colors.\",\n \"I saw an African American female back in the early 70's at a department store that had gray eyes. I've never seen anything so beautiful\",\n \"There's only one color that's ever present in people's eyes and that's brown- it's the same pigment that makes people's skin dark. Blue eyes are caused by the same effect that makes the sky look blue. Eyes look green (or hazel) because of the same light-scattering if they have a little, but not a lot, of pigment in them. People with brown eyes have a lot of pigment.\",\n \"Eyes are blue, the move through different colors towards dark brown the more melanin is in them. They are blue for a similar reason the sky is blue. Melanin is also what makes skin darker.\",\n \"Black eyes. I'm a black woman with eyes so dark people almost always think they're black. But they are in fact brown, just a lot darker than brown eyes seen on white people.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["have amber eyes as a common color, whereas in humans this color occurs less frequently. Blue There is no blue pigmentation either in the iris or in the ocular fluid. Dissection reveals that the iris pigment epithelium is brownish black due to the presence of melanin. Unlike brown eyes, blue eyes have low concentrations of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which lies in front of the dark epithelium. Longer wavelengths of light tend to be absorbed by the dark underlying epithelium, while shorter wavelengths are reflected and undergo Rayleigh scattering in the turbid medium of the stroma. This","-33.99871369716129"],["eye's iris and the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris. In humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black. The appearance of blue, green, and hazel eyes results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, an optical effect similar to what accounts for the blueness of the sky. The irises of the eyes of people with blue eyes contain less dark melanin than those of people with brown eyes, which means that they absorb less short-wavelength blue light, which is instead reflected out to the viewer.","-33.737003864429425"],["amounts of yellow and brown color in the iris. Green As with blue eyes, the color of green eyes does not result simply from the pigmentation of the iris. The green color is caused by the combination of: 1) an amber or light brown pigmentation in the stroma of the iris (which has a low or moderate concentration of melanin) with: 2) a blue shade created by the Rayleigh scattering of reflected light. Green eyes contain the yellowish pigment lipochrome.\nGreen eyes probably result from the interaction of multiple variants within the OCA2 and other genes. They were present in south","-32.74545191525249"],["presence of a brighter color contrast. Yellow, orange, red, or rose objects are still perceived as such if the general illumination level is low, despite reflecting the same amount of red or orange light as a brown object would in normal lighting conditions. Brown eyes In humans, brown eyes result from a relatively high concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is most common in East","-32.55707645295752"],["color is halfway between white and black. Red's complement is green which is also halfway between white and black. With red and green, the retina's qualitatively divided activity consists of two equal halves.\nRed and green are two completely equal qualitative halves of the retina's activity. Orange is 2/3 of this activity, and its complement, blue, is only 1/3. Yellow is ¾ of the full activity, and its complement, violet, is only ¼.\nThe range of all colors contains a continuous series of innumerable shades that blend into each other. Why are red, green, orange, blue, yellow, and violet given names and","-32.10086402186789"],["an eye that is light brown/amber near the pupil and charcoal or dark green on the outer part of the iris (or vice versa) when observed in sunlight.\nDefinitions of the eye color hazel vary: it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with light brown or gold, as in the color of a hazelnut shell.\nHazel eyes occur throughout Caucasoid populations, in particular in regions where blue, green and brown eyed peoples are intermixed. Red and violet The eyes of people with severe forms of albinism may appear red under certain lighting conditions owing to the extremely low quantities of melanin, allowing","-32.04872290948697"],["research purposes, Seddon et al. developed a graded system based on the predominant iris color and the amount of brown or yellow pigment present. There are three pigment colors that determine, depending on their proportion, the outward appearance of the iris, along with structural color. Green irises, for example, have blue and some yellow. Brown irises contain mostly brown. Some eyes have a dark ring around the iris, called a limbal ring.\n\nEye color in non-human animals is regulated differently. For example, instead of blue as in humans, autosomal recessive eye color in the skink species Corucia zebrata is black, and","-31.814164303952566"],["due to the deposition of the yellow pigment called lipochrome in the iris (which is also found in green eyes). Amber eyes should not be confused with hazel eyes; although hazel eyes may contain specks of amber or gold, they usually tend to comprise many other colors, including green, brown and orange. Also, hazel eyes may appear to shift in color and consist of flecks and ripples, while amber eyes are of a solid gold hue. Even though amber is considered to be like gold, some people have russet or copper colored amber eyes that many people mistake for hazel,","-31.77740194490616"],["pheomelanin (also known as lipochrome), is dominant within the iris. Pheomelanin is also found on individuals with green eyes in much smaller amounts. This is because green eyes have a strong presence of both melanin and pheomelanin. Often in poor lighting, one may mistake amber eyes for brown. This also happens when viewed from far away or in pictures with poor lighting as well. However, in natural or well lit areas, it is very easy to tell the difference between the two colors. Another common mistake people make is referring to amber eyes as hazel. Although similar, hazel eyes","-31.726450354763074"],["effect in the blue eye, but not in the other eye. This is due to the combined effect of the (normal) presence of a tapetum lucidum in both eyes and the absence of melanin in the blue eye. The tapetum lucidum produces eyeshine in both eyes, but in the non-blue eye a layer of melanin over the tapetum lucidum selectively removes some colors of light.","-31.399851372130797"],["concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed.\nDark brown eyes are dominant in humans and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is common in Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa and the Americas. The majority of people in the world overall have brown eyes to dark brown eyes.\nLight or medium-pigmented brown eyes can also be commonly found in South Europe, among the Americas, and parts of Central","-31.295214403027785"],["Asia (Middle East and South Asia). Gray Like blue eyes, gray eyes have a dark epithelium at the back of the iris and a relatively clear stroma at the front. One possible explanation for the difference in the appearance of gray and blue eyes is that gray eyes have larger deposits of collagen in the stroma, so that the light that is reflected from the epithelium undergoes Mie scattering (which is not strongly frequency-dependent) rather than Rayleigh scattering (in which shorter wavelengths of light are scattered more). This would be analogous to the change in the color of the sky,","-31.238541610640823"],["more light than normal to reflect off the retina and out of the eye. Because of this, the pupillary reflex is much more pronounced in albino individuals, and this can emphasize the red eye effect in photographs. Selection for rare iris colors A study compared the frequency of eye color in commercial advertising models in Brazil and the UK, these countries were chosen because they have inverted frequencies of eye-coloration, with Brazil having an excess of brown and the UK an excess of light-colored eyes. Models are chosen for their attractiveness, and it was found that, in Brazil, models with","-31.03459318424575"],["our perception of orange. Thus, the orange appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously but to different degrees.\nUse of the three primary colors is not sufficient to reproduce all colors; only colors within the color triangle defined by the chromaticities of the primaries can be reproduced by additive mixing of non-negative amounts of those colors of light. History of RGB color model theory and usage The RGB color model is based on the Young–Helmholtz theory of trichromatic color vision, developed by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz in","-30.817179625912104"],["absorbing at 600 nm. The amount of red light emerging from the pupil depends on the amount of melanin in the layers behind the retina. This amount varies strongly between individuals. Light-skinned people with blue eyes have relatively low melanin in the fundus and thus show a much stronger red-eye effect than dark-skinned people with brown eyes. The same holds for animals. The color of the iris itself is of virtually no importance for the red-eye effect. This is obvious because the red-eye effect is most apparent when photographing dark-adapted subjects, hence with fully dilated pupils. Photographs taken with infrared light","-30.757956475950778"],["the adnexa. Eye color Although usually dark brown, the iris may be a variety of colors, including blue, hazel, amber, and green. Blue eyes are not uncommon and are associated with white markings or patterns. The white spotting patterns most often linked to blue eyes are splashed white, frame overo, and sometimes sabino. In the case of horses with white markings, one or both eyes may be blue, or part-blue.\nHomozygous cream dilutes, sometimes called double-dilutes, always have light blue eyes to match their pale, cream-colored coats. Heterozygous or single-dilute creams, such as palominos and buckskins, often have light brown eyes.","-30.72788973740535"],["of age, though this can be later. Observing the iris of an infant from the side using only transmitted light with no reflection from the back of the iris, it is possible to detect the presence or absence of low levels of melanin. An iris that appears blue under this method of observation is more likely to remain blue as the infant ages. An iris that appears golden contains some melanin even at this early age and is likely to turn from blue to green or brown as the infant ages.\nChanges (lightening or darkening) of eye colors during early childhood,","-30.43037317181006"],["to ten different classes of visual pigment in their eyes. By comparison, humans have three with maximum sensitivities in the blue (442 nm), green (543 nm) and yellow (570 nm). It is the differential responses of these receptor cells that enable color vision.\nIt has been known for a long time that a light attracts fish, shrimp and insects at night. But what is the best color for a light attractor? Based on the biology of visual receptors discussed above, the light should be blue or green — the space colors of fish and members of their food chain. However, while blue or green","-30.425752825762174"],["Eye color Eye color is a polygenic phenotypic character determined by two distinct factors: the pigmentation of the eye's iris and the frequency-dependence of the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris.\nIn humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black, depending on the concentration of melanin in the iris pigment epithelium (located on the back of the iris), the melanin content within the iris stroma (located at the front of the iris), and the cellular density of the stroma. The appearance of blue and green, as well as hazel eyes,","-30.39691130653955"],["scattering and selective absorption from the posterior epithelium. If melanin is deposited substantially, there will be brown or black color, if not, they will remain blue or gray.\nAll the contributing factors towards eye color and its variation are not fully understood. Autosomal recessive/dominant traits in iris color are inherent in other species but coloration can follow a different pattern. Amber eyes Amber colored eyes are extremely rare in humans. They consist of a solid orange/gold color that may contain lighter shades of the same pigment within the iris. This is an unusual occurrence that happens when the yellow pigment called","-30.382788277813233"],["shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white. Darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue; while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. (For a more complete list see the List of colours). Types For more, see section Pigments and dyes., Blue pigments were originally made from minerals such as lapis lazuli, cobalt and azurite, and blue dyes were made from plants; usually woad in Europe, and Indigofera tinctoria, or true indigo, in Asia and Africa. Today most blue pigments and dyes","-30.368516567170445"],["a blue-green can be brightened but retain the same hue. The system is not perfect, as it does not distinguish yellow from a red-green mixture, but can powerfully detect subtle environmental changes.\nThe existence of cells sensitive to three different wavelength ranges (most sensitive to yellowish green, cyanish-green, and blue – not red, green and blue) was first shown in 1956 by Gunnar Svaetichin. In 1983 it was validated in human retinas in an experiment by Dartnall, Bowmaker, and Mollon, who obtained microspectrophotopic readings of single eye cone cells. Earlier evidence for the theory had been obtained by looking at light","-30.33529045112664"],["actual complement of orange is azure – a colour that is one quarter of the way between blue and green on the colour spectrum. The actual complementary colour of true blue is yellow. Orange pigments are largely in the ochre or cadmium families, and absorb mostly greenish-blue light.\n(See also shades of orange). Orange natural objects The orange colour of carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, oranges, and many other fruits and vegetables comes from carotenes, a type of photosynthetic pigment. These pigments convert the light energy that the plants absorb from the sun into chemical energy for the plants' growth. The carotenes","-30.332798618008383"],["common in Tabby cats as well as the Chinchilla Longhair and its shorthaired equivalents are notable for their black-rimmed sea-green eyes. Hazel Hazel eyes are due to a combination of Rayleigh scattering and a moderate amount of melanin in the iris' anterior border layer. Hazel eyes often appear to shift in color from a brown to a green. Although hazel mostly consists of brown and green, the dominant color in the eye can either be brown/gold or green. This is how many people mistake hazel eyes to be amber and vice versa. This can sometimes produce a multicolored iris, i.e.,","-30.202577652729815"],["Blue and Lutino). The natural, or 'normal' color is green. There are two types of blue, one blue winged and the second is bright blue wings and bright blue head.","-30.154331732788705"],["in that it is darker than white and brighter than black. The difference between grays and colors, though, is as follows. Light is activity of the retina. Darkness is retinal inactivity. Grays appear when the intensity or strength of the retina's activity is lessened. Colors appear when the whole activity of the retina is divided into partial complementary poles according to ratios. With the merely quantitative, intensive division of the retina's activity, there is only a gradual (by degrees) diminution of the intensity or strength of the retina's full activity. No fractional division of activity in ratios occurs. This lessening","-30.130933567998"],["results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, a phenomenon similar to that which accounts for the blueness of the sky called Rayleigh scattering. Neither blue nor green pigments are ever present in the human iris or ocular fluid. Eye color is thus an instance of structural color and varies depending on the lighting conditions, especially for lighter-colored eyes.\nThe brightly colored eyes of many bird species result from the presence of other pigments, such as pteridines, purines, and carotenoids. Humans and other animals have many phenotypic variations in eye color. The genetics of eye color are complicated, and","-29.928097797786904"],["entirely overlaid with broad dark cinnamon-brown striping. Both juveniles and adults have a barred tail, with 3 to 5 dark brown or black bars. Adults always have a white eye stripe or supercilia, which tends to be broader in northern Eurasian and North American birds. In North America, juveniles have pale-yellow eyes, and adults develop dark red eyes usually after their second year, although nutrition and genetics may affect eye color as well. In Europe and Asia, juveniles also have pale-yellow eyes while adults typically develop orange-colored eyes, though some may have only brighter yellow or occasionally ochre or brownish","-29.909082283105818"],["have a stronger presence of melanin with two very distinct colors within the iris (usually green/brown) and often contain many speckles or blotches of mixed hues. Different colors in the two eyes Heterochromia (also known as a heterochromia iridis or heterochromia iridum) is an ocular condition in which one iris is a different color from the other iris (complete heterochromia), or where the part of one iris is a different color from the remainder (partial heterochromia or sectoral heterochromia). Uncommon in humans, it is often an indicator of ocular disease, such as chronic iritis or diffuse iris melanoma, but may","-29.842934494721703"],["Green eyes There is no green pigment in green eyes; like the color of blue eyes, it is an optical illusion; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma, given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin, with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light. Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe. They can also be found in Southern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. In Iceland, 89% of women and 87% of men have either blue or green","-29.747759229154326"],["of red–green, blue–yellow, and light–dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue–yellow opponency, but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.\nVisual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via","-29.42768264404731"],["turquoise pattern along its sides, while the longear sunfish tends to have spotting on its sides, still in turquoise. Each fish also has \"war paint\" all the way from the mouth to the edge of the gill flap in the same color as the speckles or spots. Both also contain olive sides and bright orange bellies. These few differences between Lepomis peltastes and Lepomis megalotis leave these fish incredibly hard to distinguish from one another. In all other aspects, these fish look near identical.\nThe northern sunfish is usually regarded as a subspecies of the longear sunfish due to little and/or","-29.37850832476761"],["black brown, dark brown, dark lilac, and dark purple, although a yellow flowered form can be found. It is thought to be the darkest-coloured iris in Israel, and in Jordan is often called 'black iris'.\nLike other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals: 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls', and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'. The wide falls are recurved, and measure\n6–7.5 cm (2–3 in) long and 3–4.5 cm (1–2 in) wide. They have a broad, brownish-black or black signal patch in the middle. In the middle of the falls, extending from the claw (the narrow","-29.307152010165737"],["the eye is dark in the male, but sometimes pale reddish in females. The female has a more yellowish bill with black on the basal half and on the casque.\nThe juveniles lack the casque, and the bare skin around the eye is dull orange. Distribution The species is found mainly on the plains up to about 2000 feet. It is found from the foothills of the Himalayas southwards, bounded to the west by the Indus system and to the east by the Ganges Delta. It may make local movements in the drier western region. It is found even in cities","-29.164500257873442"],["colour is a light, buttery yellow to a pale orange. Their eyes are green and their pupils are black. Their belly colour is mother-of-pearl, the same as it is for normals.\nT-Albinos (Tyrosinase negative albinos) are very similar to the T+ in appearance. They are usually red in body colour with white body markings and a bright white belly. The eyes are green with red pupils.\nAnerythristic Characterized by a grey/blue overtone, some mild yellow colour is not uncommon on the sides, similar to Anery corn snakes. The markings on the body are similar to that of the normals, pale cream/white in","-29.119157829671167"],["of the whole of light. Schopenhauer's theory, however, claims that yellow is ¾ as bright as white. Orange is 2/3, red is ½, green is ½, blue is 1/3, and violet is ¼ as bright as white. The external cause of color is a diminished light that imparts just as much light to the color as it imparts darkness to the color's complement. Unlike Goethe, for Schopenhauer the primary phenomenon, or limit of explanation, is not an external cause, but the \"organic capacity of the retina to let its nervous activity appear in two qualitatively opposite halves, sometimes equal, sometimes","-29.041387381614186"],["pale blue spots and pale blue spots occur amongst the orange lines.","-29.026137259759707"],["professional. Aniridia Aniridia is a congenital condition characterized by an extremely underdeveloped iris, which appears absent on superficial examination. Ocular albinism and eye color Normally, there is a thick layer of melanin on the back of the iris. Even people with the lightest blue eyes, with no melanin on the front of the iris at all, have dark brown coloration on the back of it, to prevent light from scattering around inside the eye. In those with milder forms of albinism, the color of the iris is typically blue but can vary from blue to brown. In severe forms of","-29.024740093642322"],["in various shades. The most common, are white, or creamy white. Or white tinged with blue. Other forms found include pale blue, lilac, lavender or blue-purple, the purple forms may not hybrids. The white forms are very similar to Iris albicans.\nLike other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'. The falls are obovate, rounded or cuneate (wedge-shaped), 6.5–9.5 cm (3–4 in) long and 2.5–3.9 cm (1–2 in) wide. They often have blue markings, and yellow-green veining, especially on the hafts (section of petal near","-29.01842483197106"],["has a black half-collar edged with white on its nape from which it gets its name. The short legs are red and the bill is black. The iris is red, but from a distance the eyes appear to be black, as the pupil is relatively large and only a narrow rim of reddish-brown iris can be seen around the black pupil. The eye is surrounded by a small area of bare skin, which is either white or yellow. The two sexes are virtually indistinguishable; juveniles differ in having a poorly developed collar, and a brown iris. Taxonomy There are two","-29.00943612708943"],["well as the Ukrainian State defined that the upper half would be light-blue, while the lower would be yellow. During 1918 it was taken into consideration that light blue would lose its shade under sun, therefore it was decided to make the colour darker.\nAlready in the 1918 draft of Constitution of the Ukrainian People's Republic the order of colours was defined as blue and yellow. The same order could be found in legislative acts of the West Ukrainian People's Republic for November 1918 and the Republic of Carpathian Ukraine on March 15, 1939. The argument on the order of colours","-28.994622380452256"],["eyes have curved and long bristles around the eye but not behind it that resemble eyelashes (an adaptation to protect their eyes when creeping through grass and vegetation) and the iris is reddish brown. They have a short and pale whitish streak over and below the eye and a thin line of black feathers in line with the commisure of the bill that reaches under the eye. A dark bare patch of skin around the eye that tapers behind it exaggerates the size of the eye. The legs are grey.\nThey have zygodactyle feet and are forage on the ground, on","-28.98479813360609"],["blue all within the same eye, without any sign of eye disease.\nOne eye with a white or bluish-white iris is also known as a walleye. Iridology Iridology (also known as iridodiagnosis) is an alternative medicine technique whose proponents believe that patterns, colors and other characteristics of the iris can be examined to determine information about a patient's systemic health. Practitioners match their observations to iris charts which divide the iris into zones corresponding to specific parts of the human body. Iridologists see the eyes as \"windows\" into the body's state of health.\nIridology is not supported by quality research studies and","-28.947139944066294"],["with age. However, when an optician examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present.\"\nBecause individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.\nThe human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate \"red eye\", due to the red of the","-28.896155544905923"],["\"electric purple\" (a color also directly on the line of purples), shown below. Some common confusion exists concerning the color names \"purple\" and \"violet\". Purple is a mixture of red and blue light, whereas violet is a spectral color.\nOn the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, violet is on the curved edge in the lower left, while purples are on the straight line connecting the extreme colors red and violet; this line is known as the line of purples, or the purple line. Dyes The most famous purple dye in the ancient world was Tyrian purple, made from a type of sea","-28.811807747973944"],["Ranoidea chloris Description The red-eyed tree frog is a uniform bright green above, occasionally with yellow spots, and bright yellow on the underside. The front sides of the arms and legs are green, while the underside is yellow or white. The thighs may be blue/purple to blue/black in colour in adults. It has golden eyes at the centre, which change to red towards the edge of the eye. The intensity of the eye colour is variable between frogs. The tympanum is visible, and a mature frog reaches a size of 65 mm.\nThe tadpoles are generally grey or brown, and can have","-28.786898800055496"],["of color.\" Saint Thomas Aquinas had written that purple looked different next to white than it did next to black, and that gold looked more striking against blue than it did against white; the Italian Renaissance architect and writer Leon Battista Alberti observed that there was harmony (coniugatio in Latin, and amicizia in Italian) between certain colors, such as red–green and red–blue; and Leonardo da Vinci observed that the finest harmonies were those between colors exactly opposed (retto contrario), but no one had a convincing scientific explanation why that was so until the 18th century.\nIn 1704, in his treatise on","-28.763657574334502"],["and blue because the red stood for the element of fire whereas the blue would represent the element of water. Coincidentally, red and blue are also the colors recognized world-wide to signify emergency services; therefore, red and blue being the best choice of color to recognize an international holiday. The ribbon is traditionally worn on the lapel-otherwise known as the fold of fabric on a shirt- but is not limited to that certain spot. Some people may also put it on their cars visors, hats, hang them in windows or off of car mirrors, or even hang them from trees","-28.713224289444042"],["Iris (anatomy) Development The stroma and the anterior border layer of the iris are derived from the neural crest, and behind the stroma of the iris, the sphincter pupillae and dilator pupillae muscles as well as the iris epithelium develop from optic cup neuroectoderm. Eye color The iris is usually strongly pigmented, with the color typically ranging between brown, hazel, green, gray, or blue. Occasionally, the color of the iris is due to a lack of pigmentation, as in the pinkish-white of oculo-cutaneous albinism, or to obscuration of its pigment by blood vessels, as in the red of an","-28.713073281618563"],["from the red toward the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. For that reason bees cannot distinguish red from black (colorless), but they can distinguish the colors white, yellow, blue and violet. Color pigments which reflect UV radiation expand the spectrum of colors which can be differentiated. For example, several blossoms which may appear to humans to be of the same yellow color will appear to bees as having different colors (multicolored patterns) because of their different proportions of ultraviolet.\nFrisch's investigation of a bee's powers of orientation were significant. He discovered that bees can recognize the desired compass direction in three","-28.696819645952928"],["but the iris pigment epithelium is not, mammalian eyes appear blue. Melanin in the pigment epithelium is critical for visual acuity and contrast.\nLoss of melanogenesis function is linked to the gene that encodes tyrosinase. Certain alleles of this gene, TYR, at the Color locus, cause oculocutaneous albinism type 1 in humans and the familiar red-eyed albino conditions in mice and other mammals. In other vertebrates Other vertebrates, such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, produce a variety of non-melanin pigments. Disruption of melanin production does not affect the production of these pigments. Non-melanin pigments in other vertebrates are produced by","-28.661820293826167"],["or that of its complementary color. The other color appearance parameters are colorfulness, saturation (also known as intensity or chroma), lightness, and brightness.\nUsually, colors with the same hue are distinguished with adjectives referring to their lightness or colorfulness, such as with \"light blue\", \"pastel blue\", \"vivid blue\". Exceptions include brown, which is a dark orange.\nIn painting color theory, a hue is a pure pigment—one without tint or shade (added white or black pigment, respectively). Hues are first processed in the brain in areas in the extended V4 called globs. Specialized hues The hues exhibited by caramel colorings and beers","-28.597188281768467"],["single color that was a mixture of the primaries:\n[The] experiments of Professor J. D. Forbes, which I witnessed in 1849… [established] that blue and yellow do not make green, but a pinkish tint, when neither prevails in the combination…[and the] result of mixing yellow and blue was, I believe, not previously known.\n— James Clerk Maxwell, Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness (1855), Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh\nMaxwell took this a step further by using a circular scale around the rim with which to measure the ratios of the primaries, choosing vermilion (V), emerald","-28.58864277806424"],["spectrum. However, deuteranopes do not suffer from dimming issues. For example, purple colors are not seen as being opposite to other colours in the spectrum but instead appear to be similar.\nTritanopes are missing the short wavelength sensitive opsins and see short wavelength colours in a green hue and dim compared to other colours. They may also see some short wavelength colours as black. Other perception problems include distinguishing yellow from pink or purple colours being perceived as shades of red. Food Foraging Researchers have found that trichromacy has advantages over dichromacy or anomalous trichromacy at further distances. This is believed","-28.56994775145722"],["\"Orange\" has a separate etymology and is not related to that of the color.\nPrior to this word's being introduced to the English-speaking world, saffron already existed in the English language. Crog also referred to the saffron colour, so that orange was also referred to as ġeolurēad (yellow-red) for reddish orange, or ġeolucrog (yellow-saffron) for yellowish orange. Alternatively, orange things were sometimes described as red such as red deer, red hair, the Red Planet and robin redbreast. History and art In ancient Egypt, artists used an orange mineral pigment called realgar for tomb paintings, as well as other uses. It was","-28.526539493745076"],["from the blue given by the Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by small gas molecules when the sky is clear, to the gray caused by Mie scattering of large water droplets when the sky is cloudy. Alternatively, it has been suggested that gray and blue eyes might differ in the concentration of melanin at the front of the stroma.\nGray eyes are most common in Northern and Eastern Europe. Gray eyes can also be found among the Algerian Shawia people of the Aurès Mountains in Northwest Africa, in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. Under magnification, gray eyes exhibit small","-28.48262042790884"],["factors determining iris color Iris color is a highly complex phenomenon consisting of the combined effects of texture, pigmentation, fibrous tissue and blood vessels within the iris stroma, which together make up an individual's epigenetic constitution in this context. A person's \"eye color\" is actually the color of one's iris, the cornea being transparent and the white sclera entirely outside the area of interest.\nMelanin is yellowish-brown to dark brown in the stromal pigment cells, and black in the iris pigment epithelium, which lies in a thin but very opaque layer across the back of the iris. Most human irises also","-28.479628611596127"],["Orange bluet Identification This species of bluet stands out from other many bluets because of its orange color. On male orange bluets, the thorax is orange with a thick, black stipe along the back and black shoulder stripes. His abdomen is mostly black with some orange rings, orange below, and orange near the tip. His large eyes are orange on a black head; small orange postocular spots are connected across the back of the head by an orange bar. On female orange bluets, the thorax is similar looking to the male thorax only the color is dull yellow instead of","-28.422954840614693"],["tan, pale brown. There are occasionally blended or bi-toned flowers, such as white and purple forms. The blue forms, have a darker centre patch, or veined with purple. The yellow forms can be pale yellow with greenish-brown veining, they also have bracts that are not so intensely purple stained.\nThe yellow forms of Iris junonia, and yellow forms of Iris imbricata are similar in form to the yellow forms of Iris purpureobractea, also forms of Iris germanica in the Taurus mountains near Egirdir are very similar to the iris.\nLike other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer","-28.374075432948302"],["not just due to the white colour of the human sclera, which many other species share, but also to the fact that the human iris is relatively small and comprises a significantly smaller portion of the exposed eye surface compared to other animals. It is theorized that this adaptation evolved because of our social nature as the eye became a useful communication tool in addition to a sensory organ. It is believed that the conspicuous sclera of the human eye makes it easier for one individual to identify where another individual is looking, increasing the efficacy of this particular form","-28.37262692017248"],["composition are blue, green and red, the blue will appear to be more distant, and the red closer to the viewer. The cooler a colour is, the more distant it seems. Astronomy Blue giants are hot and luminous stars with surface temperatures exceeding 10,000 K. The largest blue supergiant stars are extremely massive and energetic, and are usually unstable. They are generally short-lived, either exploding in a supernova or periodically shedding their outer layers to become red giants. Blue eyes Blue eyes do not actually contain any blue pigment. Eye colour is determined by two factors: the pigmentation of the","-28.330331582343206"],["a recognizable breed, and they are featured in many jokes and cartoons, particularly The Far Side by Gary Larson. Eye color Light-colored dachshunds can sport amber, light brown, or green eyes; however, kennel club standards state that the darker the eye color, the better. Dapple and double dapple dachshunds can have multi coloured “wall” eyes with fully blue, partially blue or patched irises due to the effect of the dapple gene on eye pigmentation expression. “Wall” eye is permissible according to DCA standards but undesirable by AKC standards. Piebald-patterned dachshunds will never have blue in their eyes, unless the","-28.319935403356794"],["catalogs are not consistent with each other. Although there are a great many named colors, the selection used by philatelists is limited to several dozen, modified by adjectives such as \"dark\", \"light\", \"pale\", \"bright\" and \"deep\". In addition, two color names may be combined, as in \"gray green\" or \"brown orange\", where the first name indicates the direction of modification to the second color. Thus \"brown orange\" is a duller and darker orange, while \"orange brown\" has a tinge to it that is more orange than would be seen with a \"yellow brown\" or \"red brown\". This system becomes less","-28.295312690985156"],["of melanin within the iris tissues. Although the processes determining eye color are not fully understood, it is known that inherited eye color is determined by multiple genes. Environmental or acquired factors can alter these inherited traits.\nThe human iris can be seen in a number of various colors. There are three true colors in human eyes that determine the outward appearance: brown, yellow, and grey. The amount of each color an individual has determines the appearance of the eye color.\nCentral heterochromia appears to be prevalent in irises containing low amounts of melanin.\nA famous case of a person with central heterochromia","-28.27706654096255"],["comparative study of color terms in the world's languages, green is only found as a separate category in languages with the fully developed range of six colors (white, black, red, green, yellow, and blue), or more rarely in systems with five colors (white, red, yellow, green, and black/blue). (See distinction of green from blue) These languages have introduced supplementary vocabulary to denote \"green\", but these terms are recognizable as recent adoptions that are not in origin color terms (much like the English adjective orange being in origin not a color term but the name of a fruit). Thus, the Thai","-28.26793892153364"],["often called blue, green, and red, but more accurately known as short, medium, and long wavelength-sensitive cone subtypes. It is a lack of one or more of the cone subtypes that causes individuals to have deficiencies in colour vision or various kinds of colour blindness. These individuals are not blind to objects of a particular colour, but are unable to distinguish between colours that can be distinguished by people with normal vision. Humans have this trichromatic vision, while most other mammals lack cones with red sensitive pigment and therefore have poorer dichromatic colour vision. However, some animals have four spectral","-28.245480054476502"],["uniforms.\nThe National Basketball Association, the premier basketball league in the United States and Canada, also has blue as one of the colours on their logo, along with red and white also, as did its female equivalent, the WNBA, until March 28, 2011, when the latter adopted an orange and white logo. Former NBA player Theodore Edwards was nicknamed \"Blue\". Fifteen NBA teams feature the colour in their uniforms.\nThe National Football League, the premier American football league in the United States, also uses blue as one of three colours, along with white and red, on their official logo. Thirteen NFL teams","-28.242985616845544"],["the iris pigment epithelium. The iris pigment epithelium prevents damaging light scattering within the eye. Blue-eyed humans and mammals have little or no pigment in the stroma, but retain pigment in the iris pigment epithelium. If pigment is missing from both the stroma and the iris pigment epithelium, the only pigment in the eye is the hemoglobin in blood vessels. This accounts for the reddish appearance of eyes in some types of albinism.\nIn research mammals, such as mice, albinism is more strictly defined. Albino mice occur due to a recessive mutation of the C gene. No such mutation exists in","-28.236843251601385"],["occur in hues ranging from green-blue to gray-blue, with the primary hue necessarily being blue. Green and gray are the normal secondary hues that can be found in blue diamonds. Blue diamonds are considered most beautiful and valuable when there is no secondary color present but rather are a pure blue color. However, a pure blue diamond of light color may be considered less valuable than a green-blue or gray-blue diamond whose color is more vivid. The characteristic of color is very complex in blue diamonds for this reason. Most pure blue diamonds are Type IIb, meaning they contain either","-28.225020756508457"],["the upper image overlaps black, it is seen as violet. Where it overlaps white, it is seen as blue. As the lower image overlaps black, it is seen as orange. Where it overlaps white, it is seen as yellow. This shows how colors are produced when the image mixes with either lightness or darkness, in accordance with Goethe's assertions. § 11 In the operation of a healthy eye, three kinds of division of retinal activity often occur at once. (1) The quantitative intensive division unites with the qualitative division resulting in a loss of color energy and a deviation toward","-28.164916884561535"],["but cannot distinguish red. Research indicates that their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, in which certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear more green.\nDichromatic vision is the result of the animal having two types of cones in their eyes: a short-wavelength-sensitive cone (S) that is optimal at 428 nm (blue), and a middle-to-long wavelength sensitive cone (M/L) which sees optimally at 539 nm, more of a yellowish color. This structure may have arisen because horses are most active at dawn and dusk, a time when the rods of the eye are especially useful.\nThe horse's limited ability","-28.15269792750769"],["rather than the traditional blue or white milky seas effect seen by the rest of the world. It is not known whether this difference depends on the area, or simply a perception of a cyanic colour as being green. Etymology The phenomenon is known as mareel in Shetland. This term is derived from the Norn word *mareld, which is itself derived from the Old Norse word mǫrueldr, which is a compound of marr (mere, sea) and eldr (fire).","-28.126104976676288"],["is usually given equal status to red, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, pink, gray, white and black (all abstract colors) in membership among the basic color terms of English. Based solely on current usage of the word, it would be impossible to distinguish whether the fruit is called an orange because of its color, or the color is so called after the fruit. (This problem is also illustrated by violet and indigo.)\nIn Italian there is an adjective arancione different of and derived from the fruit name arancio. In Portuguese, it is usual to distinguish the fruit laranja from the color","-28.120802551682573"],["distinguish the full range of the colors of the spectrum visible to humans, but many kinds of mammals, such as dogs and cattle, have dichromacy, which means they can see blues and yellows, but cannot distinguish red and green (both are seen as gray). Bulls, for instance, cannot see the red color of the cape of a bullfighter, but they are agitated by its movement. (See color vision).\nOne theory for why primates developed sensitivity to red is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and inedible vegetation. This may have driven further adaptations by species taking","-28.11343180850963"],["as well as blue and yellow. Physiological evidence There has been considerable effort in neuroscience to establish physiological mechanisms correlating to the existence of unique hues. For some time it was thought that the opponent process was explained through two chromatic mechanisms inherent in the way signals from the three cone types (Long, Medium, and Short wavelengths) on the retina are processed. The first mechanism represents the red-green L-M process. The blue-yellow process was thought to be based on a similar (L+M)-S process. Recent research has shown that this (L+M)-S process does correspond to yellow as a unique hue. ","-28.10074718153919"],["However, the dominant coloration goes from white to black, passing through a whole range of related nuances such as cream, pink, yellow, red, and brown, usually with circular eye spots darker than the background color and/or with saddles and blotches. Some specimens can easily be confused with Antennarius maculatus.\nThese characteristics can help to separate the two close species: usually, A. maculatus has red or orange margins on all fins, and sometimes a spike of the saddle blotch starts posterior to the eye, numerous warts on the skin, andfew or no ocellis; A. pictus has also three eye spots on its","-28.098336540992022"],["complementary colour to orange. As many painters of the 19th century discovered, blue and orange reinforce each other. The painter Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo that in his paintings, he was trying to reveal \"the oppositions of blue with orange, of red with green, of yellow with violet ... trying to make the colours intense and not a harmony of grey\". In another letter he wrote simply, \"there is no orange without blue.\" Van Gogh, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and many other impressionist and post-impressionist painters frequently placed orange against azure or cobalt blue, to make both colours appear brighter.\nThe","-28.047598258090147"],["is sufficient to produce eyeshine that is highly visible to humans (despite our inferior night vision). Eyeshine occurs in a wide variety of colors including white, blue, green, yellow, pink and red. However, since eyeshine is a type of iridescence, the color varies with the angle at which it is seen and the minerals which make up the reflective tapetum-lucidum crystals.\nWhite eyeshine occurs in many fish, especially walleye; blue eyeshine occurs in many mammals such as horses; green eyeshine occurs in mammals such as cats, dogs, and raccoons; and red eyeshine occurs in coyote, rodents, opossums and birds.\nAlthough human eyes","-28.03970622649649"],["(the result of crossing a blue and golden, having a purple coloration).","-27.955008366450784"],["is the same frequency-dependence of scattering that accounts for the blue appearance of the sky. The result is a \"Tyndall blue\" structural color that varies with external lighting conditions.\nIn humans, the inheritance pattern followed by blue eyes is considered similar to that of a recessive trait (in general, eye color inheritance is considered a polygenic trait, meaning that it is controlled by the interactions of several genes, not just one). In 2008, new research tracked down a single genetic mutation that leads to blue eyes. \"Originally, we all had brown eyes,\" said Eiberg. Eiberg and colleagues suggested in a study","-27.948317127564223"],["disrupted by albinism. Abnormal eye development and appearance Melanin functions in the normal development of various parts of the eye, including the iris, retina, eye muscles, and optic nerve. The absence of melanin results in abnormal development of eyes and leads to problems with focusing, and depth perception. The eyes of albino animals appear red because the colour of the red blood cells in the retina can be seen through the iris, which has no pigment to obscure this. Some albino animals may have pale-blue eyes due to other colour generating processes. Albino vertebrates exposed to intense","-27.94211766609442"],["though hazel tends to be duller and contains green with red/gold flecks, as mentioned above. Amber eyes may also contain amounts of very light gold-ish gray.\nThe eyes of some pigeons contain yellow fluorescing pigments known as pteridines. The bright yellow eyes of the great horned owl are thought to be due to the presence of the pteridine pigment xanthopterin within certain chromatophores (called xanthophores) located in the iris stroma. In humans, yellowish specks or patches are thought to be due to the pigment lipofuscin, also known as lipochrome. Many animals such as canines, domestic cats, owls, eagles, pigeons and fish","-27.88325773520046"],["announced that the Leafs had changed their colour scheme to blue and white, which they have worn ever since. While the Leafs say that blue represents the Canadian skies and white represents snow, it is also true that top-level Toronto teams have worn blue since the Toronto Argonauts adopted blue as their primary colour in 1873. Another theory is that Smythe changed the colours as a nod to his high school alma mater, Upper Canada College, whose teams have worn blue and white since 1829 and the University of Toronto whose teams have also worn blue and were called the","-27.79702275509044"],["Orange clownfish Description Amphiprion percula can grow to be 11 cm (4.3 in) in length, but is on average 8 cm (3.1 in), and can be recognized by three white lines across their bright orange bodies, with no distinction in color between sexes. The anterior white bar is placed just behind the eye, the middle bar goes straight down the middle of the fish, and the posterior bar occurs near the caudal fin. An anterior projecting bulge also exists on the middle bar. In addition to the white coloring, black edging outlines each fin with varying thickness. This species can be mistaken for the","-27.773936248966493"],["and tuxedo cats) prevents melanin (pigment) granules from reaching one eye during development, resulting in a cat with one blue eye and one green, yellow, or brown eye. The condition only rarely occurs in cats that lack both the dominant white and the white spotting gene. Kittens As with some other newborn mammals, all cats are blue-eyed as kittens, and may change as the newborn ages. The differences in an odd-eyed kitten's eye color might not be noticeable, save upon close inspection. Odd-eyed kittens have a different shade of blue in each eye. The color of the odd eye changes","-27.766367433359846"],["color is determined by multiple genes. So far, as many as 15 genes have been associated with eye color inheritance. Some of the eye-color genes include OCA2 and HERC2. The earlier belief that blue eye color is a simple recessive trait has been shown to be incorrect. The genetics of eye color are so complex that almost any parent-child combination of eye colors can occur. However, OCA2 gene polymorphism, close to proximal 5′ regulatory region, explains most human eye-color variation. Ancient DNA and eye color in Europe People of European descent show the greatest variety in eye color of any","-27.72463570185937"],["amber itself can range from a whitish color through a pale lemon yellow, to brown and almost black. Other uncommon colors include red amber (sometimes known as \"cherry amber\"), green amber, and even blue amber, which is rare and highly sought after.\nYellow amber is a hard fossil resin from evergreen trees, and despite the name it can be translucent, yellow, orange, or brown colored. Known to the Iranians by the Pahlavi compound word kah-ruba (from kah \"straw\" plus rubay \"attract, snatch\", referring to its electrical properties), which entered Arabic as kahraba' or kahraba (which later became the Arabic word for","-27.69576578369015"],["albinism, there is no pigment on the back of the iris, and light from inside the eye can pass through the iris to the front. In these cases, the only color seen is the red from the hemoglobin of the blood in the capillaries of the iris. Such albinos have pink eyes, as do albino rabbits, mice, or any other animal with a total lack of melanin. Transillumination defects can almost always be observed during an eye examination due to lack of iridial pigmentation. The ocular albino also lacks normal amounts of melanin in the retina as well, which allows","-27.684133183036465"],["and the iris has a golden or coppery color. Males have a characteristic dark blotch or V marking on the back of the head that often connects to the dorsal zigzag pattern. The ground color for males varies and includes many different shades of gray, sometimes yellowish or pinkish gray, or yellowish brown. The dorsal zigzag is dark gray or black, the edge of which is sometimes darker. A row of indistinct, dark (occasionally yellowish) spots runs along each side, sometimes joined in a wavy band.\nFemales have a similar color pattern, except that it is less distinct and contrasting. They","-27.674794410617324"],["liver and in other tissues, including the iris of the eye. This results in the formation of Kayser–Fleischer rings, which are dark rings that encircle the periphery of the iris. Coloration of the sclera Eye color outside of the iris may also be symptomatic of disease. Yellowing of the sclera (the \"whites of the eyes\") is associated with jaundice, and may be symptomatic of liver diseases such as cirrhosis or hepatitis. A blue coloration of the sclera may also be symptomatic of disease. In general, any sudden changes in the color of the sclera should be addressed by a medical","-27.66572883198387"],["must be considered an acquired characteristic. Eye color It is fairly common for mammalian eyes to change color in the first years of life. This happens, with human infants and kittens being some well-known examples, because the eyes of the baby, just like the rest of its body, are still developing. This change can be as simple as blue to brown, or can involve multiple color changes in which neither the child's parents nor his/her doctors know when the changes will stop and what the final eye color will be.\nChanges in eye color signal changes in the arrangement and concentration","-27.66480128791227"],["of the day is mainly a result of scattering of light and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. The blue color of the sky is caused by Rayleigh scattering of the sunlight from the atmosphere, which tends to scatter blue light more than red light.\nFor colors based on black-body theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures, while red occurs at lower, cooler, temperatures. This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in which red represents hot, and blue cold. Fixtures Lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions","-27.64540451692301"],["the background “space” color and one or more visual pigments offset from this blue-green region, say, in the red or ultraviolet region of the spectrum. This imparts a clear survival advantage to these animals because they can detect not only changes in light intensity but also contrasts in color. Many fish, for example, have two color receptors, one in the blue region of the spectra (425-490 nm) and the other in the near UV (320-380 nm). Insects and shrimp, members of the fish food chain, have blue, green (530 nm) and near UV receptors. In fact, some aquatic animals have up","-27.598493814948597"],["blue, green, and yellow respectively.","-27.595454313937807"],["blue colour of Blue John remains uncertain. Microscopic analysis has failed to find any impurities such as potassium permanganate or hydrocarbons which could produce a purple-blue colour. It is now thought that the colour may be a physical phenomenon due to crystal lattice dislocation. If the regular arrangement of atoms in the fluorite molecules are disturbed or dislocated, then this may yield the blue colour in Blue John. The cause of these dislocations is unknown, but one possibility is that it is due to colloidal calcium, i.e. excess of calcium atoms needed to form fluorite. Blue John can be decolourised","-27.57074630324132"],["with at least six colour distinctions (the other two being black and white). These colours roughly correspond to the sensitivities of the retinal ganglion cells. (The retinal ganglia process colour by positioning it within a blue to yellow range, and separately positioning it within a red to green range.)","-27.526624379723216"],["orange, with dark-red rosettes extending from their flat carapace to the ambulatory legs. Often, they have red-tipped claws and legs, but may also show no red coloration.","-27.517979862517677"],["brown with dark patches along the middle of the back. The dark patches are interrupted by pale blotches that often blend together to form a continuous stripe from above the arm to the groin. A dark brown bar is present between the eye and the ear, but no dark stripe is present between the nostril and the eye as in many other dragons. The lips and lower jaw tend to be of a lighter coloration than the rest of the head. Jacky dragons are also characterized by a bright yellow lining in their mouths. .\nSpecimens have been seen with orange-red","-27.504625112604117"],["greens, and yellows. Blue does not appear to feature. Natural dyes produce variations in color, which are particularly obvious on older Bibibaffs.","-27.50450395385269"],["golden traces, olive-tan anteriorly. Two small golden glands are at each side of the eye. Iris is golden with small black flecks. Tympanum is cream-coloured. Ventral surfaces are uniformly gray. Skin of dorsum, limbs, flanks and venter smooth, but some specimens have scattered tubercles posterior to the sacral region and on flanks.\nTadpoles have a ventrally located oral disc. They have brown, golden glittered dorsum and pinkish tail with brown and golden spots in the dorsoanterior portion. Ventrally they are translucent, with two very conspicuous silver marks at anterior portion. There is also a golden mark on dorsal fin, just behind","-27.489865679410286"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"have amber eyes as a common color, whereas in humans this color occurs less frequently. Blue There is no blue pigmentation either in the iris or in the ocular fluid. Dissection reveals that the iris pigment epithelium is brownish black due to the presence of melanin. Unlike brown eyes, blue eyes have low concentrations of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which lies in front of the dark epithelium. Longer wavelengths of light tend to be absorbed by the dark underlying epithelium, while shorter wavelengths are reflected and undergo Rayleigh scattering in the turbid medium of the stroma. This\",\n \"-33.99871369716129\"\n ],\n [\n \"eye's iris and the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris. In humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black. The appearance of blue, green, and hazel eyes results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, an optical effect similar to what accounts for the blueness of the sky. The irises of the eyes of people with blue eyes contain less dark melanin than those of people with brown eyes, which means that they absorb less short-wavelength blue light, which is instead reflected out to the viewer.\",\n \"-33.737003864429425\"\n ],\n [\n \"amounts of yellow and brown color in the iris. Green As with blue eyes, the color of green eyes does not result simply from the pigmentation of the iris. The green color is caused by the combination of: 1) an amber or light brown pigmentation in the stroma of the iris (which has a low or moderate concentration of melanin) with: 2) a blue shade created by the Rayleigh scattering of reflected light. Green eyes contain the yellowish pigment lipochrome.\\nGreen eyes probably result from the interaction of multiple variants within the OCA2 and other genes. They were present in south\",\n \"-32.74545191525249\"\n ],\n [\n \"presence of a brighter color contrast. Yellow, orange, red, or rose objects are still perceived as such if the general illumination level is low, despite reflecting the same amount of red or orange light as a brown object would in normal lighting conditions. Brown eyes In humans, brown eyes result from a relatively high concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is most common in East\",\n \"-32.55707645295752\"\n ],\n [\n \"color is halfway between white and black. Red's complement is green which is also halfway between white and black. With red and green, the retina's qualitatively divided activity consists of two equal halves.\\nRed and green are two completely equal qualitative halves of the retina's activity. Orange is 2/3 of this activity, and its complement, blue, is only 1/3. Yellow is ¾ of the full activity, and its complement, violet, is only ¼.\\nThe range of all colors contains a continuous series of innumerable shades that blend into each other. Why are red, green, orange, blue, yellow, and violet given names and\",\n \"-32.10086402186789\"\n ],\n [\n \"an eye that is light brown/amber near the pupil and charcoal or dark green on the outer part of the iris (or vice versa) when observed in sunlight.\\nDefinitions of the eye color hazel vary: it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with light brown or gold, as in the color of a hazelnut shell.\\nHazel eyes occur throughout Caucasoid populations, in particular in regions where blue, green and brown eyed peoples are intermixed. Red and violet The eyes of people with severe forms of albinism may appear red under certain lighting conditions owing to the extremely low quantities of melanin, allowing\",\n \"-32.04872290948697\"\n ],\n [\n \"research purposes, Seddon et al. developed a graded system based on the predominant iris color and the amount of brown or yellow pigment present. There are three pigment colors that determine, depending on their proportion, the outward appearance of the iris, along with structural color. Green irises, for example, have blue and some yellow. Brown irises contain mostly brown. Some eyes have a dark ring around the iris, called a limbal ring.\\n\\nEye color in non-human animals is regulated differently. For example, instead of blue as in humans, autosomal recessive eye color in the skink species Corucia zebrata is black, and\",\n \"-31.814164303952566\"\n ],\n [\n \"due to the deposition of the yellow pigment called lipochrome in the iris (which is also found in green eyes). Amber eyes should not be confused with hazel eyes; although hazel eyes may contain specks of amber or gold, they usually tend to comprise many other colors, including green, brown and orange. Also, hazel eyes may appear to shift in color and consist of flecks and ripples, while amber eyes are of a solid gold hue. Even though amber is considered to be like gold, some people have russet or copper colored amber eyes that many people mistake for hazel,\",\n \"-31.77740194490616\"\n ],\n [\n \"pheomelanin (also known as lipochrome), is dominant within the iris. Pheomelanin is also found on individuals with green eyes in much smaller amounts. This is because green eyes have a strong presence of both melanin and pheomelanin. Often in poor lighting, one may mistake amber eyes for brown. This also happens when viewed from far away or in pictures with poor lighting as well. However, in natural or well lit areas, it is very easy to tell the difference between the two colors. Another common mistake people make is referring to amber eyes as hazel. Although similar, hazel eyes\",\n \"-31.726450354763074\"\n ],\n [\n \"effect in the blue eye, but not in the other eye. This is due to the combined effect of the (normal) presence of a tapetum lucidum in both eyes and the absence of melanin in the blue eye. The tapetum lucidum produces eyeshine in both eyes, but in the non-blue eye a layer of melanin over the tapetum lucidum selectively removes some colors of light.\",\n \"-31.399851372130797\"\n ],\n [\n \"concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed.\\nDark brown eyes are dominant in humans and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is common in Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa and the Americas. The majority of people in the world overall have brown eyes to dark brown eyes.\\nLight or medium-pigmented brown eyes can also be commonly found in South Europe, among the Americas, and parts of Central\",\n \"-31.295214403027785\"\n ],\n [\n \"Asia (Middle East and South Asia). Gray Like blue eyes, gray eyes have a dark epithelium at the back of the iris and a relatively clear stroma at the front. One possible explanation for the difference in the appearance of gray and blue eyes is that gray eyes have larger deposits of collagen in the stroma, so that the light that is reflected from the epithelium undergoes Mie scattering (which is not strongly frequency-dependent) rather than Rayleigh scattering (in which shorter wavelengths of light are scattered more). This would be analogous to the change in the color of the sky,\",\n \"-31.238541610640823\"\n ],\n [\n \"more light than normal to reflect off the retina and out of the eye. Because of this, the pupillary reflex is much more pronounced in albino individuals, and this can emphasize the red eye effect in photographs. Selection for rare iris colors A study compared the frequency of eye color in commercial advertising models in Brazil and the UK, these countries were chosen because they have inverted frequencies of eye-coloration, with Brazil having an excess of brown and the UK an excess of light-colored eyes. Models are chosen for their attractiveness, and it was found that, in Brazil, models with\",\n \"-31.03459318424575\"\n ],\n [\n \"our perception of orange. Thus, the orange appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously but to different degrees.\\nUse of the three primary colors is not sufficient to reproduce all colors; only colors within the color triangle defined by the chromaticities of the primaries can be reproduced by additive mixing of non-negative amounts of those colors of light. History of RGB color model theory and usage The RGB color model is based on the Young–Helmholtz theory of trichromatic color vision, developed by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz in\",\n \"-30.817179625912104\"\n ],\n [\n \"absorbing at 600 nm. The amount of red light emerging from the pupil depends on the amount of melanin in the layers behind the retina. This amount varies strongly between individuals. Light-skinned people with blue eyes have relatively low melanin in the fundus and thus show a much stronger red-eye effect than dark-skinned people with brown eyes. The same holds for animals. The color of the iris itself is of virtually no importance for the red-eye effect. This is obvious because the red-eye effect is most apparent when photographing dark-adapted subjects, hence with fully dilated pupils. Photographs taken with infrared light\",\n \"-30.757956475950778\"\n ],\n [\n \"the adnexa. Eye color Although usually dark brown, the iris may be a variety of colors, including blue, hazel, amber, and green. Blue eyes are not uncommon and are associated with white markings or patterns. The white spotting patterns most often linked to blue eyes are splashed white, frame overo, and sometimes sabino. In the case of horses with white markings, one or both eyes may be blue, or part-blue.\\nHomozygous cream dilutes, sometimes called double-dilutes, always have light blue eyes to match their pale, cream-colored coats. Heterozygous or single-dilute creams, such as palominos and buckskins, often have light brown eyes.\",\n \"-30.72788973740535\"\n ],\n [\n \"of age, though this can be later. Observing the iris of an infant from the side using only transmitted light with no reflection from the back of the iris, it is possible to detect the presence or absence of low levels of melanin. An iris that appears blue under this method of observation is more likely to remain blue as the infant ages. An iris that appears golden contains some melanin even at this early age and is likely to turn from blue to green or brown as the infant ages.\\nChanges (lightening or darkening) of eye colors during early childhood,\",\n \"-30.43037317181006\"\n ],\n [\n \"to ten different classes of visual pigment in their eyes. By comparison, humans have three with maximum sensitivities in the blue (442 nm), green (543 nm) and yellow (570 nm). It is the differential responses of these receptor cells that enable color vision.\\nIt has been known for a long time that a light attracts fish, shrimp and insects at night. But what is the best color for a light attractor? Based on the biology of visual receptors discussed above, the light should be blue or green — the space colors of fish and members of their food chain. However, while blue or green\",\n \"-30.425752825762174\"\n ],\n [\n \"Eye color Eye color is a polygenic phenotypic character determined by two distinct factors: the pigmentation of the eye's iris and the frequency-dependence of the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris.\\nIn humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black, depending on the concentration of melanin in the iris pigment epithelium (located on the back of the iris), the melanin content within the iris stroma (located at the front of the iris), and the cellular density of the stroma. The appearance of blue and green, as well as hazel eyes,\",\n \"-30.39691130653955\"\n ],\n [\n \"scattering and selective absorption from the posterior epithelium. If melanin is deposited substantially, there will be brown or black color, if not, they will remain blue or gray.\\nAll the contributing factors towards eye color and its variation are not fully understood. Autosomal recessive/dominant traits in iris color are inherent in other species but coloration can follow a different pattern. Amber eyes Amber colored eyes are extremely rare in humans. They consist of a solid orange/gold color that may contain lighter shades of the same pigment within the iris. This is an unusual occurrence that happens when the yellow pigment called\",\n \"-30.382788277813233\"\n ],\n [\n \"shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white. Darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue; while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. (For a more complete list see the List of colours). Types For more, see section Pigments and dyes., Blue pigments were originally made from minerals such as lapis lazuli, cobalt and azurite, and blue dyes were made from plants; usually woad in Europe, and Indigofera tinctoria, or true indigo, in Asia and Africa. Today most blue pigments and dyes\",\n \"-30.368516567170445\"\n ],\n [\n \"a blue-green can be brightened but retain the same hue. The system is not perfect, as it does not distinguish yellow from a red-green mixture, but can powerfully detect subtle environmental changes.\\nThe existence of cells sensitive to three different wavelength ranges (most sensitive to yellowish green, cyanish-green, and blue – not red, green and blue) was first shown in 1956 by Gunnar Svaetichin. In 1983 it was validated in human retinas in an experiment by Dartnall, Bowmaker, and Mollon, who obtained microspectrophotopic readings of single eye cone cells. Earlier evidence for the theory had been obtained by looking at light\",\n \"-30.33529045112664\"\n ],\n [\n \"actual complement of orange is azure – a colour that is one quarter of the way between blue and green on the colour spectrum. The actual complementary colour of true blue is yellow. Orange pigments are largely in the ochre or cadmium families, and absorb mostly greenish-blue light.\\n(See also shades of orange). Orange natural objects The orange colour of carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, oranges, and many other fruits and vegetables comes from carotenes, a type of photosynthetic pigment. These pigments convert the light energy that the plants absorb from the sun into chemical energy for the plants' growth. The carotenes\",\n \"-30.332798618008383\"\n ],\n [\n \"common in Tabby cats as well as the Chinchilla Longhair and its shorthaired equivalents are notable for their black-rimmed sea-green eyes. Hazel Hazel eyes are due to a combination of Rayleigh scattering and a moderate amount of melanin in the iris' anterior border layer. Hazel eyes often appear to shift in color from a brown to a green. Although hazel mostly consists of brown and green, the dominant color in the eye can either be brown/gold or green. This is how many people mistake hazel eyes to be amber and vice versa. This can sometimes produce a multicolored iris, i.e.,\",\n \"-30.202577652729815\"\n ],\n [\n \"Blue and Lutino). The natural, or 'normal' color is green. There are two types of blue, one blue winged and the second is bright blue wings and bright blue head.\",\n \"-30.154331732788705\"\n ],\n [\n \"in that it is darker than white and brighter than black. The difference between grays and colors, though, is as follows. Light is activity of the retina. Darkness is retinal inactivity. Grays appear when the intensity or strength of the retina's activity is lessened. Colors appear when the whole activity of the retina is divided into partial complementary poles according to ratios. With the merely quantitative, intensive division of the retina's activity, there is only a gradual (by degrees) diminution of the intensity or strength of the retina's full activity. No fractional division of activity in ratios occurs. This lessening\",\n \"-30.130933567998\"\n ],\n [\n \"results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, a phenomenon similar to that which accounts for the blueness of the sky called Rayleigh scattering. Neither blue nor green pigments are ever present in the human iris or ocular fluid. Eye color is thus an instance of structural color and varies depending on the lighting conditions, especially for lighter-colored eyes.\\nThe brightly colored eyes of many bird species result from the presence of other pigments, such as pteridines, purines, and carotenoids. Humans and other animals have many phenotypic variations in eye color. The genetics of eye color are complicated, and\",\n \"-29.928097797786904\"\n ],\n [\n \"entirely overlaid with broad dark cinnamon-brown striping. Both juveniles and adults have a barred tail, with 3 to 5 dark brown or black bars. Adults always have a white eye stripe or supercilia, which tends to be broader in northern Eurasian and North American birds. In North America, juveniles have pale-yellow eyes, and adults develop dark red eyes usually after their second year, although nutrition and genetics may affect eye color as well. In Europe and Asia, juveniles also have pale-yellow eyes while adults typically develop orange-colored eyes, though some may have only brighter yellow or occasionally ochre or brownish\",\n \"-29.909082283105818\"\n ],\n [\n \"have a stronger presence of melanin with two very distinct colors within the iris (usually green/brown) and often contain many speckles or blotches of mixed hues. Different colors in the two eyes Heterochromia (also known as a heterochromia iridis or heterochromia iridum) is an ocular condition in which one iris is a different color from the other iris (complete heterochromia), or where the part of one iris is a different color from the remainder (partial heterochromia or sectoral heterochromia). Uncommon in humans, it is often an indicator of ocular disease, such as chronic iritis or diffuse iris melanoma, but may\",\n \"-29.842934494721703\"\n ],\n [\n \"Green eyes There is no green pigment in green eyes; like the color of blue eyes, it is an optical illusion; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma, given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin, with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light. Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe. They can also be found in Southern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. In Iceland, 89% of women and 87% of men have either blue or green\",\n \"-29.747759229154326\"\n ],\n [\n \"of red–green, blue–yellow, and light–dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue–yellow opponency, but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.\\nVisual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via\",\n \"-29.42768264404731\"\n ],\n [\n \"turquoise pattern along its sides, while the longear sunfish tends to have spotting on its sides, still in turquoise. Each fish also has \\\"war paint\\\" all the way from the mouth to the edge of the gill flap in the same color as the speckles or spots. Both also contain olive sides and bright orange bellies. These few differences between Lepomis peltastes and Lepomis megalotis leave these fish incredibly hard to distinguish from one another. In all other aspects, these fish look near identical.\\nThe northern sunfish is usually regarded as a subspecies of the longear sunfish due to little and/or\",\n \"-29.37850832476761\"\n ],\n [\n \"black brown, dark brown, dark lilac, and dark purple, although a yellow flowered form can be found. It is thought to be the darkest-coloured iris in Israel, and in Jordan is often called 'black iris'.\\nLike other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals: 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls', and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'. The wide falls are recurved, and measure\\n6–7.5 cm (2–3 in) long and 3–4.5 cm (1–2 in) wide. They have a broad, brownish-black or black signal patch in the middle. In the middle of the falls, extending from the claw (the narrow\",\n \"-29.307152010165737\"\n ],\n [\n \"the eye is dark in the male, but sometimes pale reddish in females. The female has a more yellowish bill with black on the basal half and on the casque.\\nThe juveniles lack the casque, and the bare skin around the eye is dull orange. Distribution The species is found mainly on the plains up to about 2000 feet. It is found from the foothills of the Himalayas southwards, bounded to the west by the Indus system and to the east by the Ganges Delta. It may make local movements in the drier western region. It is found even in cities\",\n \"-29.164500257873442\"\n ],\n [\n \"colour is a light, buttery yellow to a pale orange. Their eyes are green and their pupils are black. Their belly colour is mother-of-pearl, the same as it is for normals.\\nT-Albinos (Tyrosinase negative albinos) are very similar to the T+ in appearance. They are usually red in body colour with white body markings and a bright white belly. The eyes are green with red pupils.\\nAnerythristic Characterized by a grey/blue overtone, some mild yellow colour is not uncommon on the sides, similar to Anery corn snakes. The markings on the body are similar to that of the normals, pale cream/white in\",\n \"-29.119157829671167\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the whole of light. Schopenhauer's theory, however, claims that yellow is ¾ as bright as white. Orange is 2/3, red is ½, green is ½, blue is 1/3, and violet is ¼ as bright as white. The external cause of color is a diminished light that imparts just as much light to the color as it imparts darkness to the color's complement. Unlike Goethe, for Schopenhauer the primary phenomenon, or limit of explanation, is not an external cause, but the \\\"organic capacity of the retina to let its nervous activity appear in two qualitatively opposite halves, sometimes equal, sometimes\",\n \"-29.041387381614186\"\n ],\n [\n \"pale blue spots and pale blue spots occur amongst the orange lines.\",\n \"-29.026137259759707\"\n ],\n [\n \"professional. Aniridia Aniridia is a congenital condition characterized by an extremely underdeveloped iris, which appears absent on superficial examination. Ocular albinism and eye color Normally, there is a thick layer of melanin on the back of the iris. Even people with the lightest blue eyes, with no melanin on the front of the iris at all, have dark brown coloration on the back of it, to prevent light from scattering around inside the eye. In those with milder forms of albinism, the color of the iris is typically blue but can vary from blue to brown. In severe forms of\",\n \"-29.024740093642322\"\n ],\n [\n \"in various shades. The most common, are white, or creamy white. Or white tinged with blue. Other forms found include pale blue, lilac, lavender or blue-purple, the purple forms may not hybrids. The white forms are very similar to Iris albicans.\\nLike other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'. The falls are obovate, rounded or cuneate (wedge-shaped), 6.5–9.5 cm (3–4 in) long and 2.5–3.9 cm (1–2 in) wide. They often have blue markings, and yellow-green veining, especially on the hafts (section of petal near\",\n \"-29.01842483197106\"\n ],\n [\n \"has a black half-collar edged with white on its nape from which it gets its name. The short legs are red and the bill is black. The iris is red, but from a distance the eyes appear to be black, as the pupil is relatively large and only a narrow rim of reddish-brown iris can be seen around the black pupil. The eye is surrounded by a small area of bare skin, which is either white or yellow. The two sexes are virtually indistinguishable; juveniles differ in having a poorly developed collar, and a brown iris. Taxonomy There are two\",\n \"-29.00943612708943\"\n ],\n [\n \"well as the Ukrainian State defined that the upper half would be light-blue, while the lower would be yellow. During 1918 it was taken into consideration that light blue would lose its shade under sun, therefore it was decided to make the colour darker.\\nAlready in the 1918 draft of Constitution of the Ukrainian People's Republic the order of colours was defined as blue and yellow. The same order could be found in legislative acts of the West Ukrainian People's Republic for November 1918 and the Republic of Carpathian Ukraine on March 15, 1939. The argument on the order of colours\",\n \"-28.994622380452256\"\n ],\n [\n \"eyes have curved and long bristles around the eye but not behind it that resemble eyelashes (an adaptation to protect their eyes when creeping through grass and vegetation) and the iris is reddish brown. They have a short and pale whitish streak over and below the eye and a thin line of black feathers in line with the commisure of the bill that reaches under the eye. A dark bare patch of skin around the eye that tapers behind it exaggerates the size of the eye. The legs are grey.\\nThey have zygodactyle feet and are forage on the ground, on\",\n \"-28.98479813360609\"\n ],\n [\n \"blue all within the same eye, without any sign of eye disease.\\nOne eye with a white or bluish-white iris is also known as a walleye. Iridology Iridology (also known as iridodiagnosis) is an alternative medicine technique whose proponents believe that patterns, colors and other characteristics of the iris can be examined to determine information about a patient's systemic health. Practitioners match their observations to iris charts which divide the iris into zones corresponding to specific parts of the human body. Iridologists see the eyes as \\\"windows\\\" into the body's state of health.\\nIridology is not supported by quality research studies and\",\n \"-28.947139944066294\"\n ],\n [\n \"with age. However, when an optician examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present.\\\"\\nBecause individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.\\nThe human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate \\\"red eye\\\", due to the red of the\",\n \"-28.896155544905923\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"electric purple\\\" (a color also directly on the line of purples), shown below. Some common confusion exists concerning the color names \\\"purple\\\" and \\\"violet\\\". Purple is a mixture of red and blue light, whereas violet is a spectral color.\\nOn the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, violet is on the curved edge in the lower left, while purples are on the straight line connecting the extreme colors red and violet; this line is known as the line of purples, or the purple line. Dyes The most famous purple dye in the ancient world was Tyrian purple, made from a type of sea\",\n \"-28.811807747973944\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ranoidea chloris Description The red-eyed tree frog is a uniform bright green above, occasionally with yellow spots, and bright yellow on the underside. The front sides of the arms and legs are green, while the underside is yellow or white. The thighs may be blue/purple to blue/black in colour in adults. It has golden eyes at the centre, which change to red towards the edge of the eye. The intensity of the eye colour is variable between frogs. The tympanum is visible, and a mature frog reaches a size of 65 mm.\\nThe tadpoles are generally grey or brown, and can have\",\n \"-28.786898800055496\"\n ],\n [\n \"of color.\\\" Saint Thomas Aquinas had written that purple looked different next to white than it did next to black, and that gold looked more striking against blue than it did against white; the Italian Renaissance architect and writer Leon Battista Alberti observed that there was harmony (coniugatio in Latin, and amicizia in Italian) between certain colors, such as red–green and red–blue; and Leonardo da Vinci observed that the finest harmonies were those between colors exactly opposed (retto contrario), but no one had a convincing scientific explanation why that was so until the 18th century.\\nIn 1704, in his treatise on\",\n \"-28.763657574334502\"\n ],\n [\n \"and blue because the red stood for the element of fire whereas the blue would represent the element of water. Coincidentally, red and blue are also the colors recognized world-wide to signify emergency services; therefore, red and blue being the best choice of color to recognize an international holiday. The ribbon is traditionally worn on the lapel-otherwise known as the fold of fabric on a shirt- but is not limited to that certain spot. Some people may also put it on their cars visors, hats, hang them in windows or off of car mirrors, or even hang them from trees\",\n \"-28.713224289444042\"\n ],\n [\n \"Iris (anatomy) Development The stroma and the anterior border layer of the iris are derived from the neural crest, and behind the stroma of the iris, the sphincter pupillae and dilator pupillae muscles as well as the iris epithelium develop from optic cup neuroectoderm. Eye color The iris is usually strongly pigmented, with the color typically ranging between brown, hazel, green, gray, or blue. Occasionally, the color of the iris is due to a lack of pigmentation, as in the pinkish-white of oculo-cutaneous albinism, or to obscuration of its pigment by blood vessels, as in the red of an\",\n \"-28.713073281618563\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the red toward the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. For that reason bees cannot distinguish red from black (colorless), but they can distinguish the colors white, yellow, blue and violet. Color pigments which reflect UV radiation expand the spectrum of colors which can be differentiated. For example, several blossoms which may appear to humans to be of the same yellow color will appear to bees as having different colors (multicolored patterns) because of their different proportions of ultraviolet.\\nFrisch's investigation of a bee's powers of orientation were significant. He discovered that bees can recognize the desired compass direction in three\",\n \"-28.696819645952928\"\n ],\n [\n \"but the iris pigment epithelium is not, mammalian eyes appear blue. Melanin in the pigment epithelium is critical for visual acuity and contrast.\\nLoss of melanogenesis function is linked to the gene that encodes tyrosinase. Certain alleles of this gene, TYR, at the Color locus, cause oculocutaneous albinism type 1 in humans and the familiar red-eyed albino conditions in mice and other mammals. In other vertebrates Other vertebrates, such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, produce a variety of non-melanin pigments. Disruption of melanin production does not affect the production of these pigments. Non-melanin pigments in other vertebrates are produced by\",\n \"-28.661820293826167\"\n ],\n [\n \"or that of its complementary color. The other color appearance parameters are colorfulness, saturation (also known as intensity or chroma), lightness, and brightness.\\nUsually, colors with the same hue are distinguished with adjectives referring to their lightness or colorfulness, such as with \\\"light blue\\\", \\\"pastel blue\\\", \\\"vivid blue\\\". Exceptions include brown, which is a dark orange.\\nIn painting color theory, a hue is a pure pigment—one without tint or shade (added white or black pigment, respectively). Hues are first processed in the brain in areas in the extended V4 called globs. Specialized hues The hues exhibited by caramel colorings and beers\",\n \"-28.597188281768467\"\n ],\n [\n \"single color that was a mixture of the primaries:\\n[The] experiments of Professor J. D. Forbes, which I witnessed in 1849… [established] that blue and yellow do not make green, but a pinkish tint, when neither prevails in the combination…[and the] result of mixing yellow and blue was, I believe, not previously known.\\n— James Clerk Maxwell, Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness (1855), Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh\\nMaxwell took this a step further by using a circular scale around the rim with which to measure the ratios of the primaries, choosing vermilion (V), emerald\",\n \"-28.58864277806424\"\n ],\n [\n \"spectrum. However, deuteranopes do not suffer from dimming issues. For example, purple colors are not seen as being opposite to other colours in the spectrum but instead appear to be similar.\\nTritanopes are missing the short wavelength sensitive opsins and see short wavelength colours in a green hue and dim compared to other colours. They may also see some short wavelength colours as black. Other perception problems include distinguishing yellow from pink or purple colours being perceived as shades of red. Food Foraging Researchers have found that trichromacy has advantages over dichromacy or anomalous trichromacy at further distances. This is believed\",\n \"-28.56994775145722\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Orange\\\" has a separate etymology and is not related to that of the color.\\nPrior to this word's being introduced to the English-speaking world, saffron already existed in the English language. Crog also referred to the saffron colour, so that orange was also referred to as ġeolurēad (yellow-red) for reddish orange, or ġeolucrog (yellow-saffron) for yellowish orange. Alternatively, orange things were sometimes described as red such as red deer, red hair, the Red Planet and robin redbreast. History and art In ancient Egypt, artists used an orange mineral pigment called realgar for tomb paintings, as well as other uses. It was\",\n \"-28.526539493745076\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the blue given by the Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by small gas molecules when the sky is clear, to the gray caused by Mie scattering of large water droplets when the sky is cloudy. Alternatively, it has been suggested that gray and blue eyes might differ in the concentration of melanin at the front of the stroma.\\nGray eyes are most common in Northern and Eastern Europe. Gray eyes can also be found among the Algerian Shawia people of the Aurès Mountains in Northwest Africa, in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. Under magnification, gray eyes exhibit small\",\n \"-28.48262042790884\"\n ],\n [\n \"factors determining iris color Iris color is a highly complex phenomenon consisting of the combined effects of texture, pigmentation, fibrous tissue and blood vessels within the iris stroma, which together make up an individual's epigenetic constitution in this context. A person's \\\"eye color\\\" is actually the color of one's iris, the cornea being transparent and the white sclera entirely outside the area of interest.\\nMelanin is yellowish-brown to dark brown in the stromal pigment cells, and black in the iris pigment epithelium, which lies in a thin but very opaque layer across the back of the iris. Most human irises also\",\n \"-28.479628611596127\"\n ],\n [\n \"Orange bluet Identification This species of bluet stands out from other many bluets because of its orange color. On male orange bluets, the thorax is orange with a thick, black stipe along the back and black shoulder stripes. His abdomen is mostly black with some orange rings, orange below, and orange near the tip. His large eyes are orange on a black head; small orange postocular spots are connected across the back of the head by an orange bar. On female orange bluets, the thorax is similar looking to the male thorax only the color is dull yellow instead of\",\n \"-28.422954840614693\"\n ],\n [\n \"tan, pale brown. There are occasionally blended or bi-toned flowers, such as white and purple forms. The blue forms, have a darker centre patch, or veined with purple. The yellow forms can be pale yellow with greenish-brown veining, they also have bracts that are not so intensely purple stained.\\nThe yellow forms of Iris junonia, and yellow forms of Iris imbricata are similar in form to the yellow forms of Iris purpureobractea, also forms of Iris germanica in the Taurus mountains near Egirdir are very similar to the iris.\\nLike other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer\",\n \"-28.374075432948302\"\n ],\n [\n \"not just due to the white colour of the human sclera, which many other species share, but also to the fact that the human iris is relatively small and comprises a significantly smaller portion of the exposed eye surface compared to other animals. It is theorized that this adaptation evolved because of our social nature as the eye became a useful communication tool in addition to a sensory organ. It is believed that the conspicuous sclera of the human eye makes it easier for one individual to identify where another individual is looking, increasing the efficacy of this particular form\",\n \"-28.37262692017248\"\n ],\n [\n \"composition are blue, green and red, the blue will appear to be more distant, and the red closer to the viewer. The cooler a colour is, the more distant it seems. Astronomy Blue giants are hot and luminous stars with surface temperatures exceeding 10,000 K. The largest blue supergiant stars are extremely massive and energetic, and are usually unstable. They are generally short-lived, either exploding in a supernova or periodically shedding their outer layers to become red giants. Blue eyes Blue eyes do not actually contain any blue pigment. Eye colour is determined by two factors: the pigmentation of the\",\n \"-28.330331582343206\"\n ],\n [\n \"a recognizable breed, and they are featured in many jokes and cartoons, particularly The Far Side by Gary Larson. Eye color Light-colored dachshunds can sport amber, light brown, or green eyes; however, kennel club standards state that the darker the eye color, the better. Dapple and double dapple dachshunds can have multi coloured “wall” eyes with fully blue, partially blue or patched irises due to the effect of the dapple gene on eye pigmentation expression. “Wall” eye is permissible according to DCA standards but undesirable by AKC standards. Piebald-patterned dachshunds will never have blue in their eyes, unless the\",\n \"-28.319935403356794\"\n ],\n [\n \"catalogs are not consistent with each other. Although there are a great many named colors, the selection used by philatelists is limited to several dozen, modified by adjectives such as \\\"dark\\\", \\\"light\\\", \\\"pale\\\", \\\"bright\\\" and \\\"deep\\\". In addition, two color names may be combined, as in \\\"gray green\\\" or \\\"brown orange\\\", where the first name indicates the direction of modification to the second color. Thus \\\"brown orange\\\" is a duller and darker orange, while \\\"orange brown\\\" has a tinge to it that is more orange than would be seen with a \\\"yellow brown\\\" or \\\"red brown\\\". This system becomes less\",\n \"-28.295312690985156\"\n ],\n [\n \"of melanin within the iris tissues. Although the processes determining eye color are not fully understood, it is known that inherited eye color is determined by multiple genes. Environmental or acquired factors can alter these inherited traits.\\nThe human iris can be seen in a number of various colors. There are three true colors in human eyes that determine the outward appearance: brown, yellow, and grey. The amount of each color an individual has determines the appearance of the eye color.\\nCentral heterochromia appears to be prevalent in irises containing low amounts of melanin.\\nA famous case of a person with central heterochromia\",\n \"-28.27706654096255\"\n ],\n [\n \"comparative study of color terms in the world's languages, green is only found as a separate category in languages with the fully developed range of six colors (white, black, red, green, yellow, and blue), or more rarely in systems with five colors (white, red, yellow, green, and black/blue). (See distinction of green from blue) These languages have introduced supplementary vocabulary to denote \\\"green\\\", but these terms are recognizable as recent adoptions that are not in origin color terms (much like the English adjective orange being in origin not a color term but the name of a fruit). Thus, the Thai\",\n \"-28.26793892153364\"\n ],\n [\n \"often called blue, green, and red, but more accurately known as short, medium, and long wavelength-sensitive cone subtypes. It is a lack of one or more of the cone subtypes that causes individuals to have deficiencies in colour vision or various kinds of colour blindness. These individuals are not blind to objects of a particular colour, but are unable to distinguish between colours that can be distinguished by people with normal vision. Humans have this trichromatic vision, while most other mammals lack cones with red sensitive pigment and therefore have poorer dichromatic colour vision. However, some animals have four spectral\",\n \"-28.245480054476502\"\n ],\n [\n \"uniforms.\\nThe National Basketball Association, the premier basketball league in the United States and Canada, also has blue as one of the colours on their logo, along with red and white also, as did its female equivalent, the WNBA, until March 28, 2011, when the latter adopted an orange and white logo. Former NBA player Theodore Edwards was nicknamed \\\"Blue\\\". Fifteen NBA teams feature the colour in their uniforms.\\nThe National Football League, the premier American football league in the United States, also uses blue as one of three colours, along with white and red, on their official logo. Thirteen NFL teams\",\n \"-28.242985616845544\"\n ],\n [\n \"the iris pigment epithelium. The iris pigment epithelium prevents damaging light scattering within the eye. Blue-eyed humans and mammals have little or no pigment in the stroma, but retain pigment in the iris pigment epithelium. If pigment is missing from both the stroma and the iris pigment epithelium, the only pigment in the eye is the hemoglobin in blood vessels. This accounts for the reddish appearance of eyes in some types of albinism.\\nIn research mammals, such as mice, albinism is more strictly defined. Albino mice occur due to a recessive mutation of the C gene. No such mutation exists in\",\n \"-28.236843251601385\"\n ],\n [\n \"occur in hues ranging from green-blue to gray-blue, with the primary hue necessarily being blue. Green and gray are the normal secondary hues that can be found in blue diamonds. Blue diamonds are considered most beautiful and valuable when there is no secondary color present but rather are a pure blue color. However, a pure blue diamond of light color may be considered less valuable than a green-blue or gray-blue diamond whose color is more vivid. The characteristic of color is very complex in blue diamonds for this reason. Most pure blue diamonds are Type IIb, meaning they contain either\",\n \"-28.225020756508457\"\n ],\n [\n \"the upper image overlaps black, it is seen as violet. Where it overlaps white, it is seen as blue. As the lower image overlaps black, it is seen as orange. Where it overlaps white, it is seen as yellow. This shows how colors are produced when the image mixes with either lightness or darkness, in accordance with Goethe's assertions. § 11 In the operation of a healthy eye, three kinds of division of retinal activity often occur at once. (1) The quantitative intensive division unites with the qualitative division resulting in a loss of color energy and a deviation toward\",\n \"-28.164916884561535\"\n ],\n [\n \"but cannot distinguish red. Research indicates that their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, in which certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear more green.\\nDichromatic vision is the result of the animal having two types of cones in their eyes: a short-wavelength-sensitive cone (S) that is optimal at 428 nm (blue), and a middle-to-long wavelength sensitive cone (M/L) which sees optimally at 539 nm, more of a yellowish color. This structure may have arisen because horses are most active at dawn and dusk, a time when the rods of the eye are especially useful.\\nThe horse's limited ability\",\n \"-28.15269792750769\"\n ],\n [\n \"rather than the traditional blue or white milky seas effect seen by the rest of the world. It is not known whether this difference depends on the area, or simply a perception of a cyanic colour as being green. Etymology The phenomenon is known as mareel in Shetland. This term is derived from the Norn word *mareld, which is itself derived from the Old Norse word mǫrueldr, which is a compound of marr (mere, sea) and eldr (fire).\",\n \"-28.126104976676288\"\n ],\n [\n \"is usually given equal status to red, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, pink, gray, white and black (all abstract colors) in membership among the basic color terms of English. Based solely on current usage of the word, it would be impossible to distinguish whether the fruit is called an orange because of its color, or the color is so called after the fruit. (This problem is also illustrated by violet and indigo.)\\nIn Italian there is an adjective arancione different of and derived from the fruit name arancio. In Portuguese, it is usual to distinguish the fruit laranja from the color\",\n \"-28.120802551682573\"\n ],\n [\n \"distinguish the full range of the colors of the spectrum visible to humans, but many kinds of mammals, such as dogs and cattle, have dichromacy, which means they can see blues and yellows, but cannot distinguish red and green (both are seen as gray). Bulls, for instance, cannot see the red color of the cape of a bullfighter, but they are agitated by its movement. (See color vision).\\nOne theory for why primates developed sensitivity to red is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and inedible vegetation. This may have driven further adaptations by species taking\",\n \"-28.11343180850963\"\n ],\n [\n \"as well as blue and yellow. Physiological evidence There has been considerable effort in neuroscience to establish physiological mechanisms correlating to the existence of unique hues. For some time it was thought that the opponent process was explained through two chromatic mechanisms inherent in the way signals from the three cone types (Long, Medium, and Short wavelengths) on the retina are processed. The first mechanism represents the red-green L-M process. The blue-yellow process was thought to be based on a similar (L+M)-S process. Recent research has shown that this (L+M)-S process does correspond to yellow as a unique hue. \",\n \"-28.10074718153919\"\n ],\n [\n \"However, the dominant coloration goes from white to black, passing through a whole range of related nuances such as cream, pink, yellow, red, and brown, usually with circular eye spots darker than the background color and/or with saddles and blotches. Some specimens can easily be confused with Antennarius maculatus.\\nThese characteristics can help to separate the two close species: usually, A. maculatus has red or orange margins on all fins, and sometimes a spike of the saddle blotch starts posterior to the eye, numerous warts on the skin, andfew or no ocellis; A. pictus has also three eye spots on its\",\n \"-28.098336540992022\"\n ],\n [\n \"complementary colour to orange. As many painters of the 19th century discovered, blue and orange reinforce each other. The painter Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo that in his paintings, he was trying to reveal \\\"the oppositions of blue with orange, of red with green, of yellow with violet ... trying to make the colours intense and not a harmony of grey\\\". In another letter he wrote simply, \\\"there is no orange without blue.\\\" Van Gogh, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and many other impressionist and post-impressionist painters frequently placed orange against azure or cobalt blue, to make both colours appear brighter.\\nThe\",\n \"-28.047598258090147\"\n ],\n [\n \"is sufficient to produce eyeshine that is highly visible to humans (despite our inferior night vision). Eyeshine occurs in a wide variety of colors including white, blue, green, yellow, pink and red. However, since eyeshine is a type of iridescence, the color varies with the angle at which it is seen and the minerals which make up the reflective tapetum-lucidum crystals.\\nWhite eyeshine occurs in many fish, especially walleye; blue eyeshine occurs in many mammals such as horses; green eyeshine occurs in mammals such as cats, dogs, and raccoons; and red eyeshine occurs in coyote, rodents, opossums and birds.\\nAlthough human eyes\",\n \"-28.03970622649649\"\n ],\n [\n \"(the result of crossing a blue and golden, having a purple coloration).\",\n \"-27.955008366450784\"\n ],\n [\n \"is the same frequency-dependence of scattering that accounts for the blue appearance of the sky. The result is a \\\"Tyndall blue\\\" structural color that varies with external lighting conditions.\\nIn humans, the inheritance pattern followed by blue eyes is considered similar to that of a recessive trait (in general, eye color inheritance is considered a polygenic trait, meaning that it is controlled by the interactions of several genes, not just one). In 2008, new research tracked down a single genetic mutation that leads to blue eyes. \\\"Originally, we all had brown eyes,\\\" said Eiberg. Eiberg and colleagues suggested in a study\",\n \"-27.948317127564223\"\n ],\n [\n \"disrupted by albinism. Abnormal eye development and appearance Melanin functions in the normal development of various parts of the eye, including the iris, retina, eye muscles, and optic nerve. The absence of melanin results in abnormal development of eyes and leads to problems with focusing, and depth perception. The eyes of albino animals appear red because the colour of the red blood cells in the retina can be seen through the iris, which has no pigment to obscure this. Some albino animals may have pale-blue eyes due to other colour generating processes. Albino vertebrates exposed to intense\",\n \"-27.94211766609442\"\n ],\n [\n \"though hazel tends to be duller and contains green with red/gold flecks, as mentioned above. Amber eyes may also contain amounts of very light gold-ish gray.\\nThe eyes of some pigeons contain yellow fluorescing pigments known as pteridines. The bright yellow eyes of the great horned owl are thought to be due to the presence of the pteridine pigment xanthopterin within certain chromatophores (called xanthophores) located in the iris stroma. In humans, yellowish specks or patches are thought to be due to the pigment lipofuscin, also known as lipochrome. Many animals such as canines, domestic cats, owls, eagles, pigeons and fish\",\n \"-27.88325773520046\"\n ],\n [\n \"announced that the Leafs had changed their colour scheme to blue and white, which they have worn ever since. While the Leafs say that blue represents the Canadian skies and white represents snow, it is also true that top-level Toronto teams have worn blue since the Toronto Argonauts adopted blue as their primary colour in 1873. Another theory is that Smythe changed the colours as a nod to his high school alma mater, Upper Canada College, whose teams have worn blue and white since 1829 and the University of Toronto whose teams have also worn blue and were called the\",\n \"-27.79702275509044\"\n ],\n [\n \"Orange clownfish Description Amphiprion percula can grow to be 11 cm (4.3 in) in length, but is on average 8 cm (3.1 in), and can be recognized by three white lines across their bright orange bodies, with no distinction in color between sexes. The anterior white bar is placed just behind the eye, the middle bar goes straight down the middle of the fish, and the posterior bar occurs near the caudal fin. An anterior projecting bulge also exists on the middle bar. In addition to the white coloring, black edging outlines each fin with varying thickness. This species can be mistaken for the\",\n \"-27.773936248966493\"\n ],\n [\n \"and tuxedo cats) prevents melanin (pigment) granules from reaching one eye during development, resulting in a cat with one blue eye and one green, yellow, or brown eye. The condition only rarely occurs in cats that lack both the dominant white and the white spotting gene. Kittens As with some other newborn mammals, all cats are blue-eyed as kittens, and may change as the newborn ages. The differences in an odd-eyed kitten's eye color might not be noticeable, save upon close inspection. Odd-eyed kittens have a different shade of blue in each eye. The color of the odd eye changes\",\n \"-27.766367433359846\"\n ],\n [\n \"color is determined by multiple genes. So far, as many as 15 genes have been associated with eye color inheritance. Some of the eye-color genes include OCA2 and HERC2. The earlier belief that blue eye color is a simple recessive trait has been shown to be incorrect. The genetics of eye color are so complex that almost any parent-child combination of eye colors can occur. However, OCA2 gene polymorphism, close to proximal 5′ regulatory region, explains most human eye-color variation. Ancient DNA and eye color in Europe People of European descent show the greatest variety in eye color of any\",\n \"-27.72463570185937\"\n ],\n [\n \"amber itself can range from a whitish color through a pale lemon yellow, to brown and almost black. Other uncommon colors include red amber (sometimes known as \\\"cherry amber\\\"), green amber, and even blue amber, which is rare and highly sought after.\\nYellow amber is a hard fossil resin from evergreen trees, and despite the name it can be translucent, yellow, orange, or brown colored. Known to the Iranians by the Pahlavi compound word kah-ruba (from kah \\\"straw\\\" plus rubay \\\"attract, snatch\\\", referring to its electrical properties), which entered Arabic as kahraba' or kahraba (which later became the Arabic word for\",\n \"-27.69576578369015\"\n ],\n [\n \"albinism, there is no pigment on the back of the iris, and light from inside the eye can pass through the iris to the front. In these cases, the only color seen is the red from the hemoglobin of the blood in the capillaries of the iris. Such albinos have pink eyes, as do albino rabbits, mice, or any other animal with a total lack of melanin. Transillumination defects can almost always be observed during an eye examination due to lack of iridial pigmentation. The ocular albino also lacks normal amounts of melanin in the retina as well, which allows\",\n \"-27.684133183036465\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the iris has a golden or coppery color. Males have a characteristic dark blotch or V marking on the back of the head that often connects to the dorsal zigzag pattern. The ground color for males varies and includes many different shades of gray, sometimes yellowish or pinkish gray, or yellowish brown. The dorsal zigzag is dark gray or black, the edge of which is sometimes darker. A row of indistinct, dark (occasionally yellowish) spots runs along each side, sometimes joined in a wavy band.\\nFemales have a similar color pattern, except that it is less distinct and contrasting. They\",\n \"-27.674794410617324\"\n ],\n [\n \"liver and in other tissues, including the iris of the eye. This results in the formation of Kayser–Fleischer rings, which are dark rings that encircle the periphery of the iris. Coloration of the sclera Eye color outside of the iris may also be symptomatic of disease. Yellowing of the sclera (the \\\"whites of the eyes\\\") is associated with jaundice, and may be symptomatic of liver diseases such as cirrhosis or hepatitis. A blue coloration of the sclera may also be symptomatic of disease. In general, any sudden changes in the color of the sclera should be addressed by a medical\",\n \"-27.66572883198387\"\n ],\n [\n \"must be considered an acquired characteristic. Eye color It is fairly common for mammalian eyes to change color in the first years of life. This happens, with human infants and kittens being some well-known examples, because the eyes of the baby, just like the rest of its body, are still developing. This change can be as simple as blue to brown, or can involve multiple color changes in which neither the child's parents nor his/her doctors know when the changes will stop and what the final eye color will be.\\nChanges in eye color signal changes in the arrangement and concentration\",\n \"-27.66480128791227\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the day is mainly a result of scattering of light and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. The blue color of the sky is caused by Rayleigh scattering of the sunlight from the atmosphere, which tends to scatter blue light more than red light.\\nFor colors based on black-body theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures, while red occurs at lower, cooler, temperatures. This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in which red represents hot, and blue cold. Fixtures Lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions\",\n \"-27.64540451692301\"\n ],\n [\n \"the background “space” color and one or more visual pigments offset from this blue-green region, say, in the red or ultraviolet region of the spectrum. This imparts a clear survival advantage to these animals because they can detect not only changes in light intensity but also contrasts in color. Many fish, for example, have two color receptors, one in the blue region of the spectra (425-490 nm) and the other in the near UV (320-380 nm). Insects and shrimp, members of the fish food chain, have blue, green (530 nm) and near UV receptors. In fact, some aquatic animals have up\",\n \"-27.598493814948597\"\n ],\n [\n \"blue, green, and yellow respectively.\",\n \"-27.595454313937807\"\n ],\n [\n \"blue colour of Blue John remains uncertain. Microscopic analysis has failed to find any impurities such as potassium permanganate or hydrocarbons which could produce a purple-blue colour. It is now thought that the colour may be a physical phenomenon due to crystal lattice dislocation. If the regular arrangement of atoms in the fluorite molecules are disturbed or dislocated, then this may yield the blue colour in Blue John. The cause of these dislocations is unknown, but one possibility is that it is due to colloidal calcium, i.e. excess of calcium atoms needed to form fluorite. Blue John can be decolourised\",\n \"-27.57074630324132\"\n ],\n [\n \"with at least six colour distinctions (the other two being black and white). These colours roughly correspond to the sensitivities of the retinal ganglion cells. (The retinal ganglia process colour by positioning it within a blue to yellow range, and separately positioning it within a red to green range.)\",\n \"-27.526624379723216\"\n ],\n [\n \"orange, with dark-red rosettes extending from their flat carapace to the ambulatory legs. Often, they have red-tipped claws and legs, but may also show no red coloration.\",\n \"-27.517979862517677\"\n ],\n [\n \"brown with dark patches along the middle of the back. The dark patches are interrupted by pale blotches that often blend together to form a continuous stripe from above the arm to the groin. A dark brown bar is present between the eye and the ear, but no dark stripe is present between the nostril and the eye as in many other dragons. The lips and lower jaw tend to be of a lighter coloration than the rest of the head. Jacky dragons are also characterized by a bright yellow lining in their mouths. .\\nSpecimens have been seen with orange-red\",\n \"-27.504625112604117\"\n ],\n [\n \"greens, and yellows. Blue does not appear to feature. Natural dyes produce variations in color, which are particularly obvious on older Bibibaffs.\",\n \"-27.50450395385269\"\n ],\n [\n \"golden traces, olive-tan anteriorly. Two small golden glands are at each side of the eye. Iris is golden with small black flecks. Tympanum is cream-coloured. Ventral surfaces are uniformly gray. Skin of dorsum, limbs, flanks and venter smooth, but some specimens have scattered tubercles posterior to the sacral region and on flanks.\\nTadpoles have a ventrally located oral disc. They have brown, golden glittered dorsum and pinkish tail with brown and golden spots in the dorsoanterior portion. Ventrally they are translucent, with two very conspicuous silver marks at anterior portion. There is also a golden mark on dorsal fin, just behind\",\n \"-27.489865679410286\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":82,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"4j298z"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why isn't getting checked for cancerous tumors, or tumors in general, a routine process?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["The problem is that there are very many downsides to routine checks. Too many downsides, in fact. First of all, we do not have the resources to preform routine checks on everybody. In many places, there are already long waiting lists when people need certain types of scans or care. If we tie up our limited amount of scanning equipment and personnel that can use these machines and interpret the results with millions of people who don't even need them, the waiting lists will only get longer and longer. Secondly, body scans are not magic. They can detect if there are irregularities in your body. They cannot immediately detect whether this irregularity is something to be concerned about or not. Most of us have irregularities in our bodies that are absolutely nothing to worry about, just a result of how we aren't perfect beings and don't grow perfectly. If everybody gets routinely scanned, all of these irregularities are going to pop up and doctors will pretty much be obligated to investigate them further. Even though 99% of them are absolutely not any danger to you. That means more tests (so again, more strain on our limited resources) and also means more stress Which brings me to point three: quality of life. Basically, routine scans do not improve quality of life. In rare rare rare rare exceedingly rare cases, they might detect something slightly earlier than it would otherwise have been detected. In most cases it is going to detect harmless irregularities, which will lead to people having to undergo more (and sometimes painful testing), which they will have to wait longer for due to the longer wait lists, which all accumulates in a huge increase in stress. All to tell you something they knew already, namely that there is nothing wrong with you. Basically, the very marginal benefits of a system like this do not outweigh the much more common adverse effects (all the extra stress and pain of tests that people will experience and the added wait time to everybody else who *does* need these tests and might be in a worst position due to the long wait), so we don't do it.","Several scenarios. One. You don't find any tumours. That's because you haven't got any. Doesn't mean you won't get one I'm the next month or year. But since a doctor has told you then you feel safe. But you shouldn't. You don't have a tumour TODAY. Two. You find a tumour. Great. Except not all positives will be right so you just gave a lot of people drugs, worry and surgery who did not need it! Three. You don't find any tumour, but you missed it. So that's a waste and false security for the patient. Four. You find a tumour and they have cancer. The rarest of all the outcomes. Also it's hard to find a tumour when there are no symptoms. How many people had to be screened and at what cost? And what about the increase in radiation exposure or the minor surgery to have a look? Both have risks and you cause more harm in doing the screening than the number of people caught *who wouldn't have been caught later when they had symptoms*. It's also very hard looking for rare events in a huge population. And quite counterintuitive. It's actually a fascinating area URL_1 URL_0 ","Finding them can be difficult and/or expensive. Why don't doctors run a full scan of every conceivable system and perform every test? It's too expensive, painful and time consuming. We don't have the technology to be proactive, so often we have to be reactive.","Diagnostic imaging physicist here. This is a lot more complex of an issue than it sounds. For starters, checking women that are middle age and older for breast cancer IS a routine process. Women over 50 are recommended to have mammograms (breast x-rays) every six months. Any kind of program like that is called \"screening\", and since it involves radiation, there are a LOT of legal guidelines. In the US it's regulated by the FDA, a purview enabled by the Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA). I do safety checks on mammography machines, and let me tell you, they are a real pain in the butt. Not because mammography is complicated - it isn't, compared to other types of diagnostic imaging - it's because the FDA takes any program where (usually) healthy people are exposed to radiation on purpose VERY seriously. And frankly, they should. There needs to be a definite trade-off between early breast cancer detection and any harm that might occur to patients, not just from radiation but from the stress of having to go through a biopsy when it turns out to be negative anyway. So let's say we were to start screening for something else. We would need to impose all the safety guidelines, regulations, and checks on that type of imaging as well. This is starting to happen for lung cancer, a few screening programs are already in place nationwide. Like for mammography, these have to be scrutinized to a ridiculous degree in order to be FDA (or state, in some cases) approved. This increases cost per scan, and also substantially increases throughput on CT machines. So to do it, you can't already be booked solid with emergency patients, inpatients and what have you. No problem, you say, let's not use radiation. Let's use MRI or ultrasound instead. Those don't emit (ionizing) radiation. MRI is most likely a straight-up no go. Depending on the equipment and the anatomy of interest, those exams might be 20-60 minutes each (mammograms and chest CTs take 5 or less). Most MRI scanners already have near-constant throughput, so adding hundreds more patients per week is not going to happen. As for ultrasound, since they can only penetrate into the body a few centimeters, it's difficult to examine large body parts with them. Plus, ultrasound is useless on air-filled structures like the lungs (air reflects ultrasound) and is problematic with water-filled structures like the bladder (which block ultrasound). So what would you screen with ultrasound, then? Pregnant mothers? Yep, we already do that. Those considerations aside, let's say we did screening anyway - a full body CT for everyone who wants one. That's a lot of radiation, for starters. Plus it'll take radiologists a long time to scrutinize hundreds of full body scans (radiologists are already accused of missing breast cancers because of the ridiculously high throughput needed when reviewing mammograms). And even if you find anything, there's a huge chance it'll just be benign. You end up worrying the patient, exposing them to a ton of radiation, and subjecting them to biopsies or even surgery for nothing. Independent CT clinics offering full body scans used to be commonplace, but aren't anymore, for precisely those reasons. The worst outcome of all would be a patient that actually had cancer, and then a scan missed it. They might develop symptoms later, and then ignore them, because the scan turned up negative, right? It's a false sense of security. Bottom line, it sounds like a good idea, but it's just not worth it. It's much better to restrict scans to people with risk factors and/or symptoms.","Because there's no easy/quick/cheap way to do it. The sorts of machines that we have that can do full-body scans that would be able to catch a wide range of tumors are expensive to build/buy/operate, and already in high demand. It would cost a fortune to regularly scan everyone, when statistically only a very tiny percentage of 'normal' healthy people are likely to have tumors.","There's no easy way to detect a tumor. MRI can do it, but you need to know where to look; just scanning your brain costs thousands of dollars, a full body MRI is prohibitively expensive except in the most extreme of cases. As well, with most forms of cancer, more obvious symptoms manifest themselves before the cancer becomes lethal. Skin cancer produces a distinctive rash, breast and testicular cancer create easily-felt lumps, bladder cancer leads causes blood in the urine, etc. The most common and deadly of cancers are among the most obvious, so simply paying attention to your own body and keeping an eye out for unusual changes is very nearly as good as a full body MRI.","Well because lots of tumors can only be detected through x-rays and mri's, etc. But if you scan your body every year the radiation would slowly make you sick and ironically will damage your dna and rna which will then create defective cells that become cancer. Thats how the discoverers of x-ray's died, of cancer after their bodies became riddled with tumors. So the best we can do is tell people to be aware of their symptoms and obviously check your body for any strange lumps, etc. Us women are actually supposed to do a thorough breast examination every month on our own at home to check for lumps."],"string":"[\n \"The problem is that there are very many downsides to routine checks. Too many downsides, in fact. First of all, we do not have the resources to preform routine checks on everybody. In many places, there are already long waiting lists when people need certain types of scans or care. If we tie up our limited amount of scanning equipment and personnel that can use these machines and interpret the results with millions of people who don't even need them, the waiting lists will only get longer and longer. Secondly, body scans are not magic. They can detect if there are irregularities in your body. They cannot immediately detect whether this irregularity is something to be concerned about or not. Most of us have irregularities in our bodies that are absolutely nothing to worry about, just a result of how we aren't perfect beings and don't grow perfectly. If everybody gets routinely scanned, all of these irregularities are going to pop up and doctors will pretty much be obligated to investigate them further. Even though 99% of them are absolutely not any danger to you. That means more tests (so again, more strain on our limited resources) and also means more stress Which brings me to point three: quality of life. Basically, routine scans do not improve quality of life. In rare rare rare rare exceedingly rare cases, they might detect something slightly earlier than it would otherwise have been detected. In most cases it is going to detect harmless irregularities, which will lead to people having to undergo more (and sometimes painful testing), which they will have to wait longer for due to the longer wait lists, which all accumulates in a huge increase in stress. All to tell you something they knew already, namely that there is nothing wrong with you. Basically, the very marginal benefits of a system like this do not outweigh the much more common adverse effects (all the extra stress and pain of tests that people will experience and the added wait time to everybody else who *does* need these tests and might be in a worst position due to the long wait), so we don't do it.\",\n \"Several scenarios. One. You don't find any tumours. That's because you haven't got any. Doesn't mean you won't get one I'm the next month or year. But since a doctor has told you then you feel safe. But you shouldn't. You don't have a tumour TODAY. Two. You find a tumour. Great. Except not all positives will be right so you just gave a lot of people drugs, worry and surgery who did not need it! Three. You don't find any tumour, but you missed it. So that's a waste and false security for the patient. Four. You find a tumour and they have cancer. The rarest of all the outcomes. Also it's hard to find a tumour when there are no symptoms. How many people had to be screened and at what cost? And what about the increase in radiation exposure or the minor surgery to have a look? Both have risks and you cause more harm in doing the screening than the number of people caught *who wouldn't have been caught later when they had symptoms*. It's also very hard looking for rare events in a huge population. And quite counterintuitive. It's actually a fascinating area URL_1 URL_0 \",\n \"Finding them can be difficult and/or expensive. Why don't doctors run a full scan of every conceivable system and perform every test? It's too expensive, painful and time consuming. We don't have the technology to be proactive, so often we have to be reactive.\",\n \"Diagnostic imaging physicist here. This is a lot more complex of an issue than it sounds. For starters, checking women that are middle age and older for breast cancer IS a routine process. Women over 50 are recommended to have mammograms (breast x-rays) every six months. Any kind of program like that is called \\\"screening\\\", and since it involves radiation, there are a LOT of legal guidelines. In the US it's regulated by the FDA, a purview enabled by the Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA). I do safety checks on mammography machines, and let me tell you, they are a real pain in the butt. Not because mammography is complicated - it isn't, compared to other types of diagnostic imaging - it's because the FDA takes any program where (usually) healthy people are exposed to radiation on purpose VERY seriously. And frankly, they should. There needs to be a definite trade-off between early breast cancer detection and any harm that might occur to patients, not just from radiation but from the stress of having to go through a biopsy when it turns out to be negative anyway. So let's say we were to start screening for something else. We would need to impose all the safety guidelines, regulations, and checks on that type of imaging as well. This is starting to happen for lung cancer, a few screening programs are already in place nationwide. Like for mammography, these have to be scrutinized to a ridiculous degree in order to be FDA (or state, in some cases) approved. This increases cost per scan, and also substantially increases throughput on CT machines. So to do it, you can't already be booked solid with emergency patients, inpatients and what have you. No problem, you say, let's not use radiation. Let's use MRI or ultrasound instead. Those don't emit (ionizing) radiation. MRI is most likely a straight-up no go. Depending on the equipment and the anatomy of interest, those exams might be 20-60 minutes each (mammograms and chest CTs take 5 or less). Most MRI scanners already have near-constant throughput, so adding hundreds more patients per week is not going to happen. As for ultrasound, since they can only penetrate into the body a few centimeters, it's difficult to examine large body parts with them. Plus, ultrasound is useless on air-filled structures like the lungs (air reflects ultrasound) and is problematic with water-filled structures like the bladder (which block ultrasound). So what would you screen with ultrasound, then? Pregnant mothers? Yep, we already do that. Those considerations aside, let's say we did screening anyway - a full body CT for everyone who wants one. That's a lot of radiation, for starters. Plus it'll take radiologists a long time to scrutinize hundreds of full body scans (radiologists are already accused of missing breast cancers because of the ridiculously high throughput needed when reviewing mammograms). And even if you find anything, there's a huge chance it'll just be benign. You end up worrying the patient, exposing them to a ton of radiation, and subjecting them to biopsies or even surgery for nothing. Independent CT clinics offering full body scans used to be commonplace, but aren't anymore, for precisely those reasons. The worst outcome of all would be a patient that actually had cancer, and then a scan missed it. They might develop symptoms later, and then ignore them, because the scan turned up negative, right? It's a false sense of security. Bottom line, it sounds like a good idea, but it's just not worth it. It's much better to restrict scans to people with risk factors and/or symptoms.\",\n \"Because there's no easy/quick/cheap way to do it. The sorts of machines that we have that can do full-body scans that would be able to catch a wide range of tumors are expensive to build/buy/operate, and already in high demand. It would cost a fortune to regularly scan everyone, when statistically only a very tiny percentage of 'normal' healthy people are likely to have tumors.\",\n \"There's no easy way to detect a tumor. MRI can do it, but you need to know where to look; just scanning your brain costs thousands of dollars, a full body MRI is prohibitively expensive except in the most extreme of cases. As well, with most forms of cancer, more obvious symptoms manifest themselves before the cancer becomes lethal. Skin cancer produces a distinctive rash, breast and testicular cancer create easily-felt lumps, bladder cancer leads causes blood in the urine, etc. The most common and deadly of cancers are among the most obvious, so simply paying attention to your own body and keeping an eye out for unusual changes is very nearly as good as a full body MRI.\",\n \"Well because lots of tumors can only be detected through x-rays and mri's, etc. But if you scan your body every year the radiation would slowly make you sick and ironically will damage your dna and rna which will then create defective cells that become cancer. Thats how the discoverers of x-ray's died, of cancer after their bodies became riddled with tumors. So the best we can do is tell people to be aware of their symptoms and obviously check your body for any strange lumps, etc. Us women are actually supposed to do a thorough breast examination every month on our own at home to check for lumps.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["tested on a live sample of the actual patient's tumor, rather than on the patient. This reduces the likelihood of treatment with ineffective drugs and their associated side effects, and it increases the likelihood of finding a treatment that will work against the patient's tumor. For patients whose tumors have also undergone molecular testing, such as next-generation sequencing, the selection of potential drugs is further guided by any and all applicable results. In the event the cancer progresses or recurs, Champions also banks, or stores, each successful TumorGraft for potential future patient use.","-31.67337748609316"],["tests involve the detection of cancers. Screening is more likely to detect slower-growing tumors (due to longer pre-clinical sojourn time) that are less likely to cause harm. Also, those aggressive cancers tend to produce symptoms in the gap between scheduled screening, being less likely to detected by screening. So, the cases screening often detects automatically have better prognosis than symptomatic cases. The consequence is those more slow progressive cases are now classified as cancers, which increases the incidence, and due to its better prognosis, the survival rates of screened people will be better than non-screening even if screening makes no","-31.244769624361652"],["be screened to find one cancer, and too many men would have treatment for cancer that would not progress. Low-risk prostate cancer does not always require immediate treatment, but may be amenable to active surveillance. A PSA test cannot 'prove' the existence of prostate cancer by itself; varying levels of the antigen can be due to other causes. Digital rectal examination During a digital rectal examination (DRE), a healthcare provider slides a gloved finger into the rectum and presses on the prostate, to check its size and to detect any lumps on the accessible side. If the examination suggests anomalies,","-31.1394666130509"],["difficult to treat in later stages. Accurate detection of cancer is also important because false positives can cause harm from unnecessary medical procedures. Some screening protocols are currently not accurate (such as prostate-specific antigen testing). Others such as a colonoscopy or mammogram are unpleasant and as a result some patients may opt out. Active research is underway to address all these problems. Research funding Cancer research is funded by government grants, charitable foundations, and pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies.\nIn the early 2000s, most funding for cancer research came from taxpayers and charities, rather than from corporations. In","-30.962292434060146"],["Cancer screening Medical uses The goal of cancer screening is to provide useful health information which can guide medical treatment. A good cancer screening is one which would detect when a person has cancer so that the person could seek treatment to protect their health. Good cancer screening would not be more likely to cause harm than to provide useful information. In general, cancer screening has risks and should not be done except with a medical indication.\nDifferent kinds of cancer screening procedures have different risks, but good tests share some characteristics. If a test detects cancer, then that test result","-30.332486174113"],["Cancer staging Considerations Correct staging is critical because treatment (particularly the need for pre-operative therapy and/or for adjuvant treatment, the extent of surgery) is generally based on this parameter. Thus, incorrect staging would lead to improper treatment.\nFor some common cancers the staging process is well-defined. For example, in the cases of breast cancer and prostate cancer, doctors routinely can identify that the cancer is early and that it has low risk of metastasis. In such cases, medical specialty professional organizations recommend against the use of PET scans, CT scans, or bone scans because research shows that the risk of getting","-30.124239851389575"],["cancers are indolent and would never progress to a clinically meaningful stage if left undiagnosed and untreated during a man's lifetime. On the other hand, a subset are potentially lethal, and screening can identify some of these within a window of opportunity for cure. Thus, the concept of PSA screening is advocated by some as a means of detecting high-risk, potentially lethal prostate cancer, with the understanding that lower-risk disease, if discovered, often does not need treatment and may be amenable to active surveillance.\nScreening for prostate cancer is controversial because of cost and uncertain long-term benefits to patients. Horan echos","-30.103842496775542"],["be useful for monitoring the progress of sex-cord tumors, along with mullerian inhibiting substance. AFP can also be used to monitor Sertoli-Leydig tumors. In dysgerminomas, lactate dehydrogenase and its two isozymes (LDH-1 and LDH-2) are used to test for recurrence.\nWomen with ovarian cancer may not need routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because it is unlikely to detect a recurrence, improve survival, and because it has its own costs and side effects. However, CT imaging can be used if desired, though this is not","-29.60944119017222"],["of the common, moderately radioresponsive tumors are routinely treated with curative doses of radiation therapy if they are at an early stage. For example: non-melanoma skin cancer, head and neck cancer, breast cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, cervical cancer, anal cancer, and prostate cancer. Metastatic cancers are generally incurable with radiation therapy because it is not possible to treat the whole body.\nBefore treatment, a CT scan is often performed to identify the tumor and surrounding normal structures. The patient receives small skin marks to guide the placement of treatment fields. Patient positioning is crucial at this stage as the patient","-29.603691621363396"],["follow-up screening is typically much more expensive than initial screening, more false positives (that must receive follow-up) means that fewer women may be screened for a given amount of money. Thus as sensitivity increases, a screening program will cost more or be confined to screening a smaller number of women. Overdiagnosis The central harm of mammographic breast cancer screening is overdiagnosis: the detection of abnormalities that meet the pathologic definition of cancer but will never progress to cause symptoms or death. Dr. H. Gilbert Welch, a researcher at Dartmouth College, states that \"screen-detected breast and prostate cancer survivors are more","-29.564110084145796"],["Exploratory surgery Exploratory surgery and cancer Sometimes, cancer is located in a place where standard tests cannot detect it. In this case, doctors must go into surgery and look for the cancerous mass manually. This procedure, which is what is commonly associated with exploratory surgery, is not used for treatment at all. Instead, it is used chiefly to identify the location of the tumor and the extent of its damage. If a tumor is found, a biopsy is performed and tests are run to see what type of cancer was found. Exploratory surgery in animals Because animals cannot voice their","-29.436924974186695"],["health conditions.\nEngagement with screening procedures is also of importance with regard to cancer prevention and in some cancers an underutilized resource. Fear and anxiety are barriers for some to getting screened for cancer. However, cancer screening presents the opportunity to catch tumors that are present in very early stages and avoid intensive, systemic treatments in favor or more acute and localized treatments with a higher cancer of cure (e.g., surgical resection).\nBehavioral modification is also relevant to improving the quality of life of those who are living with cancer. For example, a common and debilitating symptom of cancer is fatigue. However,","-29.372425792487775"],["and make tumors easier to identify.\nIf a tumor is found, a neurosurgeon must perform a biopsy on it. This simply involves the removal of a small amount of tumor tissue, which is then sent to a neuropathologist for examination and grading. The biopsy may take place before surgical removal of the tumor or the sample may be taken during surgery. Grading of the tumor sample is a method of classification that helps the doctor to determine the severity of the astrocytoma and to decide on the best treatment options. The neuropathologist grades the tumor by looking for atypical cells,","-29.330341681765276"],["antigen (PSA) level are usually the first investigations done to check for prostate cancer. PSA values are difficult to interpret, because a high value might be present in a person without cancer, and a low value can be present in someone with cancer. The next form of testing is often the taking of a biopsy to assess for tumour activity and invasiveness. Because of the significant risk of overdiagnosis with widespread screening in the general population, prostate cancer screening is controversial. If a tumour is confirmed, medical imaging such as an MRI or bone scan may be done to check","-29.3007219266874"],["tumor is secreting hormones or other circulating chemicals. A biopsy of the tumor may be required to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment Because ganglioneuromas are benign, treatment may not be necessary, as it would expose patients to more risk than leaving it alone. If there are symptoms or major physical deformity, treatment usually consists of surgery to remove the tumor. Prognosis Most ganglioneuromas are noncancerous, thus expected outcome is usually good. However, a ganglioneuroma may become cancerous and spread to other areas, or it may regrow after removal.\nIf the tumor has been present for a long time and has pressed on","-29.29425167023146"],["benefits. The purpose of screening is to diagnose ovarian cancer at an early stage, when it is more likely to be treated successfully.\nScreening with transvaginal ultrasound, pelvic examination, and CA-125 levels can be used instead of preventive surgery in women who have BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. This strategy has shown some success. Prevention People with strong genetic risk for ovarian cancer may consider the surgical removal of their ovaries as a preventive measure. This is often done after completion of childbearing years. This reduces the chances of developing both breast cancer (by around 50%) and ovarian cancer (by about 96%)","-29.238204127905192"],["should be in the hands of a multidisciplinary team including specialists in several aspects of oncology, and is, therefore, best conducted in larger centers. Surgery Surgery with the intention of a cure is only possible in around one-fifth (20%) of new cases. Although CT scans help, in practice it can be difficult to determine whether the tumor can be fully removed (its \"resectability\"), and it may only become apparent during surgery that it is not possible to successfully remove the tumor without damaging other vital tissues. Whether or not surgical resection can be offered depends on various factors, including","-29.224911385244923"],["a large population of patients and find the small number most likely to have a serious condition. These patients are then referred for further, usually more invasive, testing. Thus a screening exam is not intended to be definitive; rather it is intended to have sufficient sensitivity to detect a useful proportion of cancers. The cost of higher sensitivity is a larger number of results that would be regarded as suspicious in patients without disease. This is true of mammography. The patients without disease who are called back for further testing from a screening session (about 7%) are sometimes referred to","-29.183304624792072"],["in the breast, and potential seeding of the tumor (causing displacement of cancer cells due to the procedure that can start new tumors elsewhere). Another potential adverse effect occurs when taking a biopsy of an area of microcalcification. If the entire area of microcalcification is removed, it is then very difficult to find the suspicious area in the future for treatment. A marker is placed in the suspicious area to help localize the proper area for possible removal at a later date, if this is removed during biopsy, it can be difficult to make sure that the correct area was","-29.08534024632536"],["are not associated with a radiation risk, and MRI scans are being evaluated for their use in cancer screening. There is a significant risk of detection of what has been called incidentalomas - benign lesions that may be interpreted as a cancer and be subjected to potentially dangerous investigations.","-29.067461080281646"],["with a genetic predisposition may benefit from screening. This high risk group has benefited with earlier detection.\nOvarian cancer has low prevalence, even in the high-risk group of women from the ages of 50 to 60 (about one in 2000), and screening of women with average risk is more likely to give ambiguous results than detect a problem which requires treatment. Because ambiguous results are more likely than detection of a treatable problem, and because the usual response to ambiguous results is invasive interventions, in women of average risk, the potential harms of having screening without an indication outweigh the potential","-28.8978511151181"],["level the tumor is usually treated by excision that includes wide margins of healthy-looking tissue, followed by thorough biopsy and additional excision if necessary. The prognosis for a stage 1 tumor excision is usually fairly positive, but if the tumors progress to levels 2 and 3, prognosis is worse because tumor cells have likely spread to other locations. These locations can either be nearby tissues or system-wide locations that include the lungs, kidneys, and liver. In these cases prognosis is grim and chemotherapy and radiation are the only methods of controlling the cancer.\nSpindle cell sarcoma can develop for a variety","-28.88396147322419"],["functional, this is almost never done, as the affected testicle usually contains pre-cancerous cells spread throughout the entire testicle. Thus removing the tumor alone without additional treatment greatly increases the risk that another cancer will form in that testicle.\nSince only one testis is typically required to maintain fertility, hormone production, and other male functions, the afflicted testis is almost always removed completely in a procedure called inguinal orchiectomy. (The testicle is almost never removed through the scrotum; an incision is made beneath the belt line in the inguinal area.) In the UK, the procedure is known as a radical","-28.839986376086017"],["Epithelial dysplasia Screening Some tests which detect cancer could be called \"screening for epithelial dysplasia\". The principle behind these tests is that physicians expect dysplasia to occur at the same rate in a typical individual as it would in many other people. Because of this, researchers design screening recommendations which assume that if a physician can find no dysplasia at certain time, then doing testing before waiting until new dysplasia could potentially develop would be a waste of medical resources for the patient and the healthcare provider because the chances of detecting anything is extremely low.\nSome examples of this in","-28.741041104352917"],["In general, they conclude that based on recent research, \"it is uncertain whether the benefits associated with PSA testing for prostate cancer screening are worth the harms associated with screening and subsequent unnecessary treatment.\" Breast cancer screening Recommendations to attend to mammography screening vary across countries and organizations, with the most common difference being the age at which screening should begin, and how frequently or if it should be performed, among women at typical risk for developing breast cancer. Some other organizations recommend mammograms begin as early as age 40 in normal-risk women, and take place more frequently, up to","-28.733234554011688"],["the removal of only the tumor, or the entire organ. A single cancer cell is invisible to the naked eye but can regrow into a new tumor, a process called recurrence. For this reason, the pathologist will examine the surgical specimen to determine if a margin of healthy tissue is present, thus decreasing the chance that microscopic cancer cells are left in the patient.\nIn addition to removal of the primary tumor, surgery is often necessary for staging, e.g. determining the extent of the disease and whether it has metastasized to regional lymph nodes. Staging is a major determinant of prognosis","-28.693460356415017"],["who do not have any signs or symptoms. Screening is not recommended in women who are at average risk, as evidence does not support a reduction in death and the high rate of false positive tests may lead to unneeded surgery, which is accompanied by its own risks. The Pap test does not screen for ovarian cancer.\nOvarian cancer is usually only palpable in advanced stages. Screening is not recommended using CA-125 measurements, HE4 levels, ultrasound, or adnexal palpation in women who are at average risk. Risk of developing ovarian cancer in those with genetic factors can be reduced. Those","-28.633615921917226"],["such procedures outweighs the possible benefits. Some of the problems associated with overtesting include patients receiving invasive procedures, overutilizing medical services, getting unnecessary radiation exposure, and experiencing misdiagnosis. Pathologic Pathologic staging, where a pathologist examines sections of tissue, can be particularly problematic for two specific reasons: visual discretion and random sampling of tissue. \"Visual discretion\" means being able to identify single cancerous cells intermixed with healthy cells on a slide. Oversight of one cell can mean mistaging and lead to serious, unexpected spread of cancer. \"Random sampling\" refers to the fact that lymph nodes are cherry-picked from patients and","-28.586380734865088"],["detection test (e.g., PSA and/or prostate biopsy) had not been performed. Treatment of men who would otherwise not have known about their cancer in the absence of PSA testing and biopsy are over treated. Over treatment exacts a cost to the health care system and potential harm to a patient (decrease in quality of life), with no benefit. Over treatment is most likely to occur when a low grade prostate cancer is detected, especially in an older man. Data from various sources suggest that in the PSA range where many men are undergoing prostate biopsy today (PSA 2-4 ng/ml), 15-25% will","-28.568111466694972"],["more prone to risks in development. Examinations such as CSF analysis and spinal MRIs are used to investigate the effectiveness of treatment in preventing metastasis.\nA method for eliminating tumorous mass is surgery, where the best outcome would be total resection, meaning the complete removal of the tumor. Along with the surgery, several measures that contribute to a safe procedure can be taken: urine exams, transfusion, and the constant supervision of arterial pressure. Possible problems that arise from the surgery include hemorrhage, brain edema, and hemiparesis. MRIs are typically done after 1 or 2 days of postoperative in order to inspect","-28.422826434030867"],["with other indicators of disease (i.e. radiology and/or symptoms) to improve diagnostic accuracy. The challenge in such an approach is that the disparate prevalence of ovarian cancer means that even testing with very high sensitivity and specificity will still lead to a number of false positive results, which in turn may lead to issues such as performing surgical procedures in which cancer is not found intraoperatively. Genomics approaches have not yet been developed for ovarian cancer.\nCT scanning is preferred to assess the extent of the tumor in the abdominopelvic cavity, though magnetic resonance imaging can also be used. CT scanning","-28.40095630075848"],["signs of tumor progression, and they may need to begin treatment within three years. Men that choose active surveillance avoid the risks of surgery, radiation, and other treatments. The risk of disease progression and metastasis (spread of the cancer) may be increased, but this increase risk appears to be small if the program of surveillance is followed closely, generally including serial PSA assessments and repeat prostate biopsies every 1–2 years depending on the PSA trends.\nStudy results in 2011 suggest active surveillance is the best choice for older 'low-risk' patients. Surgery Surgical removal of the prostate, or prostatectomy, is a common","-28.355917502529337"],["However, disease-specific mortality might be biased in favor of screening. In the example of breast cancer screening, women overdiagnosed with breast cancer might receive radiotherapy, which increases mortality due to lung cancer and heart disease. The problem is those deaths are often classified as other causes and might even be larger than the number of breast cancer deaths avoided by screening. So the non-biased outcome is all-cause mortality. The problem is that much larger trials are needed to detect a significant reduction in all-cause mortality. In 2016, researcher Vinay Prasad and colleagues published an article in BMJ titled \"Why cancer","-28.286635288652178"],["tumor is surrounded completely by a margin of non-cancerous tissue, and that arteries and airways to portions of the lung that are not being removed are preserved intact. In addition, patients who have had pre-operative chemotherapy or radiation for lung cancer or previous chest surgeries may not be candidates for VATS due to scarring around the major blood vessels that makes dissection via VATS difficult. Cases in which a lung tumor invades the chest wall and an en bloc resection of ribs must be performed to achieve negative resection margins generally are felt to abrogate the value of","-28.271063808442705"],["them have a high rate of false positives and lead to invasive procedures that are unlikely to benefit the patient. Risk-based screening Risk-based screening uses risk assessment of a woman’s five-year and lifetime risk of developing breast cancer to issue personalized screening recommendations of when to start, stop, and how often to screen. In general, women with low risk are recommended to screen less frequently, while screening is intensified in those at high risk. The hypothesis is that focusing screening on women most likely to develop invasive breast cancer will reduce overdiagnosis and overtreatment. The first clinical trial testing the","-28.084695052772076"],["Dr. Samuel S. Epstein claims that in women ages 40 to 49, 1 in 4 of cancer is missed at each mammography. Researchers have found that breast tissue is denser among younger women, making it difficult to detect tumors. For this reason, false negatives are twice as likely to occur in pre-menopausal mammograms (Prate). This is why the screening program in the UK does not start calling women for screening mammograms until age 50.\nThe importance of these missed cancers is not clear, particularly if the woman is getting yearly mammograms. Research on a closely related situation has shown that small","-27.966717555005744"],["should also lead to options for treatment. Good tests come with a patient explanation of why that person has high enough risk of cancer to justify the test. Part of the testing experience is for the health care provider to explain how common false positive results are so that the patient can understand the context of their results. If multiple tests are available, then any test should be presented along with other options. Breast cancer Breast cancer screening is the medical screening of asymptomatic, apparently healthy women for breast cancer in an attempt to achieve an earlier diagnosis. The assumption","-27.96029932215788"],["while on surveillance. This misclassification of disease at diagnosis may be reduced in the future with improvements in imaging and biopsy tissue assessment that go beyond the Gleason score. The future of active surveillance Improvements in prostate imaging, biomarker discovery, and genetic profiling of prostate cancers will very likely change the approach to management of men diagnosed with localized prostate cancer. Currently, active surveillance is underutilized (in part) because of the dual concerns that a cancer has been misclassified on a prostate biopsy, and the inability to define biologically which cancers have an aggressive phenotype. Thus, there is both over","-27.934248623809253"],["Of those, about 2–10% have cancer, while 20–30% have adenomas. Screening methods for colon cancer depend on detecting either precancerous changes such as certain kinds of polyps or on finding early and thus more treatable cancer. The extent to which screening procedures reduce the risk of gastrointestinal cancer or deaths depends on the rate of precancerous and cancerous disease in that population. gFOBT (guaiac fecal occult blood test) and flexible sigmoidoscopy screening have each shown benefit. Other colon cancer screening tools such as iFOBT (immunochemical fecal occult blood test) or colonoscopy are also included in guidelines.\nIn 2009 the American College","-27.93275521920259"],["are several treatment options that may be considered, depending on the size and specific location of the tumor. For small tumors, caught early, observation can be initially used as long as good vision is maintained. However, it is important to note that in the study conducted by You et al. all of the patients whose tumors were initially observed needed further treatment and enucleation as their conditions declined. For tumors that are initially more aggressive, larger in size or suspected as cancerous, local resection and enucleation are also options. Radiation therapy, however, cannot be used in this instance as schwannomas","-27.88349871522223"],["years of screening, while 10 healthy women will undergo unnecessary breast cancer treatment. Additionally, 200 women will suffer from significant psychological stress due to false positive results. Newman points out that screening mammography does not reduce death overall, but causes significant harm by inflicting cancer scare and unnecessary surgical interventions. The Nordic Cochrane Collection notes that advances in diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer may make breast cancer screening no longer effective in decreasing death from breast cancer, and therefore no longer recommend routine screening for healthy women as the risks might outweigh the benefits.\nOften women are quite distressed to","-27.88174944173079"],["Testicular cancer Causes A major risk factor for the development of testis cancer is cryptorchidism (undescended testicles). It is generally believed that the presence of a tumor contributes to cryptorchidism; when cryptorchidism occurs in conjunction with a tumor then the tumor tends to be large. Other risk factors include inguinal hernias, Klinefelter syndrome, and mumps orchitis. Physical activity is associated with decreased risk and sedentary lifestyle is associated with increased risk. Early onset of male characteristics is associated with increased risk. These may reflect endogenous or environmental hormones.\nHigher rates of testicular cancer in Western nations","-27.805973922320845"],["Breast cancer screening Breast exam Breast examination (either clinical breast exams (CBE) by a health care provider or by self exams) were once widely recommended. They however are not supported by evidence and may, like mammography and other screening methods that produce false positive results, contribute to harm. The use of screening in women without symptoms and at low risk is thus controversial.\nA 2003 Cochrane review found screening by breast self-examination is not associated with lower death rates among women who report performing breast self-examination and does, like other breast cancer screening methods, increase harms, in terms","-27.80350513014764"],["cancer in a particular patient (BRCA positive, positive family history, palpable mass), mammography may still be important. Often, the radiologist will try to avoid mammography by using ultrasound or MRI imaging.\nThere is a body of evidence that clearly shows that there is over-diagnosis of cancer when women are screened. These cancers would never have affected these women in their lifetimes. An estimate of this over-diagnosis is 10 breast cancers diagnosed and unnecessarily treated per life saved when 2,000 women are screened for 10 years.\nWhile screening between ages 40 and 50 is still controversial, the preponderance of the evidence indicates that","-27.794992335824645"],["Overdiagnosis Overdiagnosis and the variability of cancer progression Cancer screening is the effort to detect cancer early, during its pre-clinical phase — the time period that begins with an abnormal cell and ends when the patient notices symptoms from the cancer. It has long been known that some people have cancers with short pre-clinical phases (fast-growing, aggressive cancers), while others have cancers with long pre-clinical phases (slow-growing cancers). And this heterogeneity has an unfortunate implication: namely, screening tends to disproportionately detect slow-growing cancers (because they are accessible to be detected for a long period of time) and disproportionately","-27.787069241669087"],["allow tumors to be treated in a more targeted way using bigger doses of radiation, yet having better treatments results with less side effects.","-27.749437688529724"],["cells are recognized by the immune system as damaged and are consequently targeted for elimination”. For a tumor to progress it requires conditions within the body and surrounding area to be growth-promoting. Almost all people have suitable immune cells to fight off tumors in the body. Studies have shown that the immune system even has the ability to prevent precancerous cells from growing and arbitrate the regression of established tumors. The dangerous thing about cancer cells is they have the ability to inhibit the function of the immune system. Although a tumor may be in its beginning stage and very","-27.72801167165744"],["also take samples of the suspected mass for histopathological analysis to confirm or rule out cancer. The most definitive method of cancer diagnosis is through open surgical biopsy. Most stomach tumors are malignant with evidence of spread to lymph nodes or liver, making treatment difficult. Except for lymphoma, surgery is the most frequent treatment option for stomach cancers but it is associated with significant risks.","-27.72254431086003"],["found that the examination is associated with increased participation in cancer screening.\nSome employers require mandatory health checkup before hiring a candidate even though it is now well known that some of the components of the prophylactic annual visit may actually cause harm. For example, lab tests and exams that are performed on healthy patients (as opposed to people with symptoms or known illnesses) are statistically more likely to be “false positives” — that is, when test results suggest a problem that doesn’t exist. Disadvantages cited include the time and money that could be saved by targeted screening (health economics argument),","-27.70711628967547"],["The American Dental Association recommends that providers remain alert for signs of cancer during routine examinations. Oral cancer screening is also recommended by some groups of dental hygienists. Other cancers There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against screening for skin cancer, and bladder cancer. Routine screening is not recommended for testicular cancer, and ovarian cancer. Whole body imaging Full body CT scans are available for cancer screening, but this type of medical imaging to search for cancer in people without clear symptoms can create problems such as increased exposure to ionizing radiation. However, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans","-27.680541515219375"],["or abnormal connections, may also present as a tumor. Examples are arteriovenous fistulae or aneurysms (with or without thrombosis), biliary fistulae or aneurysms, sclerosing cholangitis, cysticercosis or hydatid cysts, intestinal duplications, and pulmonary inclusions as seen with cystic fibrosis. It can be dangerous to biopsy a number of types of tumor in which the leakage of their contents would potentially be catastrophic. When such types of tumors are encountered, diagnostic modalities such as ultrasound, CT scans, MRI, angiograms, and nuclear medicine scans are employed prior to (or during) biopsy or surgical exploration/excision in an attempt to avoid such severe complications.\nThe","-27.656188132394163"],["be either benign, meaning not cancerous, or malignant, meaning cancerous; while the benign tumors typically need little treatment to no treatment, the malignant tumors can cause serious problems and can potentially be life-threatening. Different methods are used to determine if the tumor is malignant and whether it has spread to other organs. Methods used to determine malignancy include fine needle aspirate, biopsy, or complete removal. To determine if the tumor has metastasized, a rectal examination or an ultrasound can be performed; the most frequent location for metastasis include the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, the abdominal wall, the lungs, and blood","-27.654917665058747"],["standard of care. Availability of samples also plays a critical role in determining which tumor types to study and the order in which tumor projects are started. The more common the tumor is, the more likely that samples will be accrued quickly, resulting in common tumor types, such as colon, lung and breast cancer becoming the first tumor types entered into the project, before rare tumor types.\nTCGA Targeted Tumors: lung squamous cell carcinoma, kidney papillary carcinoma, clear cell kidney carcinoma, breast ductal carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma, cervical cancer (squamous), colon adenocarcinoma, stomach adenocarcinoma, rectal carcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, Head and neck","-27.645922557581798"],["the contrary, where the frozen section diagnosis was a borderline tumor, neither confirming not ruling out cancer, the diagnosis was less accurate. The review suggests that in such situations of uncertainty, surgeons may choose to perform additional surgery in this group of women at the time of their initial surgery in order to reduce the need for a second operation, as on an average one out of five of these women were subsequently found to have cancer.","-27.552263205085183"],["more likely to be diagnosed by screening tests, but improvements in diagnosing more cases of indolent cancer may not translate into better patient outcomes after the implementation of screening programs. A related concern is overdiagnosis, the tendency of screening tests to diagnose diseases that may not actually impact the patient's longevity. This problem especially applies to prostate cancer and PSA screening.\nSome cancer researchers have argued that negative cancer clinical trials lack sufficient statistical power to discover a benefit to treatment. This may be due to fewer patients enrolled in the study than originally planned. Organizations State and regional cancer registries","-27.54199484316632"],["not recommend a population screening program for prostate cancer (a program that offers testing to all men of a certain age group) as evidence does not support such a program. For men who decide to be tested it contains guidance on matters such as what age to start testing; how frequently to be tested; when to stop testing; the PSA level which should prompt further investigation; family history; and the role of the digital rectal examination. Support A central part of Prostate Cancer Foundation of Australia's activities is to support men and their families affected by prostate cancer through the","-27.53870287151949"],["the diagnosis of Wilms’ tumor is confirmed by a tissue sample. In most cases, a biopsy is not done first because there is a risk of cancer cells spreading during the procedure. Treatment in North America is nephrectomy or in Europe chemotherapy followed by nephrectomy. A definitive diagnosis is obtained by pathological examination of the nephrectomy specimen. Epidemiology Wilms tumor is the most common malignant renal tumor in children. There are a number of rare genetic syndromes that have been linked to an increased risk of developing Wilms Tumor. Screening guidelines vary between countries; however health care professionals are recommending","-27.53186916319828"],["to the particular tumor type. Although surgeons are able to remove parts of a single lymph node from the body to screen, it is impossible to remove every lymph node and other organs (lungs, liver, bones, etc.) to look for spread. Doctors must assume that the tumor cells have likely spread to other regions of the body if micrometastases are present in one of the lymph nodes. The presence or absence of micrometastases is crucial in choosing the right treatment option for cancer patients. \nThe detection of micrometastases in the sentinel lymph nodes (SLN) is the primary indicator","-27.488691266815295"],["others include radiation and active surveillance (i.e. \"watchful waiting\"). For intermediate and high risk prostate cancers, radical prostatectomy is often recommended in addition to other treatment options. Radical prostatectomy is not recommended in the setting of known metastases when the cancer has spread through the prostate, to the lymph nodes or other parts of the body. Prior to decision making about the best treatment option for higher risk cancers, imaging studies using CT, MRI or bone scans are done to make sure the cancer has not spread outside of the prostate. Contraindications These would be same as the contraindications for","-27.484938122172025"],["addition to efficiently finding most deadly cancers, screening programs also find most non-life-threatening, asymptomatic breast cancers and pre-cancers, and miss some fast growing, aggressive, dangerous cancers. According to H. Gilbert Welch of the Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice, \"I'm certainly not asking anyone to stop getting mammograms. I am asking my profession to tell women the truth about overdiagnosis\" (Beck 2012, Article). Welch said that research on screening mammography has taken the \"brain-dead approach that says the best test is the one that finds the most cancers\" rather than the one that finds dangerous cancers (Aschwanden 2009).\nClinicians","-27.47523055430065"],["Chemotherapy is not usually used as primary treatment but may be used in advanced cases with spread to the bones, liver or lungs. It may also be given at a lower dose together with radiation therapy.\nWomen with vulvar cancer should have routine follow-up and exams with their oncologist, often every 3 months for the first 2–3 years after treatment. They should not have routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because it is unlikely to detect a recurrence or improve survival and is associated with","-27.44285909710873"],["a standard of care, but has generated information on subgroup molecular characteristics that can be used in the future for stratified or personalized therapies. Screening As of 2010 there is insufficient evidence to determine if screening for bladder cancer in people without symptoms is effective or not.\nIn 2013 a preliminary, small study of 98 samples of urine, all from men—24 who had cancer, and 74 with bladder-related problems but no cancer yet used a gas chromatograph to successfully examine the vapor from heated urine samples to identify cancer. Prevention A 2008 study commissioned by the World Health Organisation concluded that","-27.442339936707867"],["new cancer medications block specific molecular processes. Such tests could allow easier targeting of therapy to tumor. Precancerous conditions For easily detected and accessed sites, any suspicious lesions may be assessed. Originally, this was skin or superficial masses. X-ray, then later CT, MRI, and ultrasound along with endoscopy extended the range. Analysis of biopsied material After the biopsy is performed, the sample of tissue that was removed from the patient is sent to the pathology laboratory. A pathologist specializes in diagnosing diseases (such as cancer) by examining tissue under a microscope. When the laboratory (see Histology) receives the biopsy sample,","-27.402309501056152"],["for the presence of tumour metastases in other parts of the body.\nProstate cancer that is only present in the prostate is often treated with either surgical removal of the prostate or with radiotherapy or by the insertion of small radioactive particles (brachytherapy) Cancer that has spread to other parts of the body is usually treated with hormone therapy, to deprive a tumour of sex hormones (androgens) that stimulate proliferation. This is often done through the use of GnRH analogues or agents that block the receptors that androgens act at, such as bicalutamide; occasionally, surgical removal of the testes may be","-27.39139566839731"],["The underlying idea is that initially advanced cancers, previously too extensive for surgery, may have responded to chemotherapy and radiation so much that they now may be operative candidates. Rather than immediately proceeding to thoracotomy based on CT or PET results, which could lead to an “open and close” thorax surgery, restaging, including invasive staging, may deselect non-responders, missed on imaging tests alone. If the initial mediastinal staging included a mediastinoscopy, most surgeons try to avoid a repeat mediastinoscopy after radiation treatment because of scarring. Although restaging by PET and CT scanning may help to provide targets for biopsies,","-27.388118194663548"],["performed by urologists; radiation therapy is administered by radiation oncologists; and chemotherapy is the work of medical oncologists. In most patients with testicular cancer, the disease is cured readily with minimal long-term morbidity. While treatment success depends on the stage, the average survival rate after five years is around 95%, and stage 1 cancer cases, if monitored properly, have essentially a 100% survival rate. Testicle removal The initial treatment for testicular cancer is surgery to remove the affected testicle (orchiectomy). While it may be possible, in some cases, to remove testicular cancer tumors from a testis while leaving the testis","-27.385696694153012"],["some cancer forms can harm the placenta and make the drug pass over it anyway. Some forms of skin cancer may even metastasize to the child's body.\nDiagnosis is also made more difficult, since computed tomography is infeasible because of its high radiation dose. Still, magnetic resonance imaging works normally. However, contrast media cannot be used, since they cross the placenta.\nAs a consequence of the difficulties to properly diagnose and treat cancer during pregnancy, the alternative methods are either to perform a Cesarean section when the child is viable in order to begin a more aggressive cancer treatment, or, if the","-27.380303005913447"],["be rotated allowing multiple samples to be collected through a single skin incision. This method has become more popular than FNA, CNB, and surgical biopsies due to the benefits of low invasiveness while still obtaining a larger tissue sample. Taking more tissue helps reduce sampling error since breast lesions are often heterogeneous (cancer cells are spread unevenly) and therefore cancer can be missed if not enough tissue is taken. VABB can be guided by stereotactic (most popular), ultrasound, and MRI, and can yield as much as 2g of tissue sample. The vacuum assisted biopsy category also includes automated rotational core","-27.370021404651652"],["10,000 invited to screening. False negatives Mammograms also have a rate of missed tumors, or \"false negatives.\" Accurate data regarding the number of false negatives are very difficult to obtain because mastectomies cannot be performed on every woman who has had a mammogram to determine the false negative rate. Estimates of the false negative rate depend on close follow-up of a large number of patients for many years. This is difficult in practice because many women do not return for regular mammography making it impossible to know if they ever developed a cancer. In his book The Politics of Cancer,","-27.362252524282667"],["biopsy) and hysterectomy remove the whole area containing the cells that could become pre-cancerous or develop into cervical cancer. Testing in resource-poor areas Many resource-poor areas cannot provide regular screening, and must rely on infrequent screening. A study of cervical cancer screening of 131,746 women in rural India found that a single DNA test reduced the number of advanced cervical cancers and deaths over 8 years, while a single acetic acid examination or a single Pap screening did not. However, the DNA test cost US $30–40, which was unaffordable in many regions, it is time-consuming, and requires a sophisticated laboratory","-27.355275189922395"],["will have to be set-up in the identical position during treatment. Many patient positioning devices have been developed for this purpose, including masks and cushions which can be molded to the patient.\nThe response of a tumor to radiation therapy is also related to its size. Due to complex radiobiology, very large tumors respond less well to radiation than smaller tumors or microscopic disease. Various strategies are used to overcome this effect. The most common technique is surgical resection prior to radiation therapy. This is most commonly seen in the treatment of breast cancer with wide local excision or mastectomy","-27.319932779864757"],["in 2015 were not conclusive, there was some evidence that screening may save lives in the long-term. As a result, the trial has been extended and will publish definitive results at the end of 2019. One major problem with screening is no clear progression of the disease from stage I (noninvasive) to stage III (invasive) is seen, and it may not be possible to find cancers before they reach stage III. Another problem is that screening methods tend to find too many suspicious lesions, most of which are not cancer, but malignancy can only be assessed with surgery. The ROCA","-27.297725720543895"],["nature of tumors. Considering the invasive nature, psychological stress, and the financial burden resulting from repeated tumor biopsies in patients, biomarkers that could be judged through minimally invasive procedures, such as blood draws, constitute an opportunity for progression in precision medicine.\nLiquid biopsy is an option that is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative to solid tumor biopsy. This is simply a blood draw that contains circulating tumor cells (CTCs) which are shed into the bloodstream from solid tumors. Patients with metastatic cancer are more likely to have detectable CTCs in the bloodstream but CTCs also exist in patients with localized","-27.269496056345815"],["cord-stromal tumors. Examination Diagnosis of ovarian cancer starts with a physical examination (including a pelvic examination), a blood test (for CA-125 and sometimes other markers), and transvaginal ultrasound. Sometimes a rectovaginal examination is used to help plan a surgery. The diagnosis must be confirmed with surgery to inspect the abdominal cavity, take biopsies (tissue samples for microscopic analysis), and look for cancer cells in the abdominal fluid. This helps to determine if an ovarian mass is benign or malignant.\nOvarian cancer's early stages (I/II) are difficult to diagnose because most symptoms are nonspecific and thus of little use in diagnosis; as","-27.26557598105137"],["doctors can now treat various kind of tumors as every tissue can be easily diagnosed and introspected to study the defects and cause. Thus, we see that the ultimate scanning and visualization done by 3D ultrasound has developed better ways of treating the patients with problems like cancer, tumors and transplants. Vascular imaging Blood vessels and arteries movements are not easy to track because of their distribution due to which capturing a real-time picture becomes difficult. Diagnosis is widely used in every kind of treatment and with the 3D US, it is now possible to track dynamic movement of blood","-27.264956461698603"],["to recent improvements in breast cancer treatment, and the risks of false positives from breast cancer screening leading to unnecessary treatment, \"it therefore no longer seems reasonable to attend for breast cancer screening\" at any age. Breast density Breasts are made up of breast tissue, connective tissue, and adipose (fat) tissue. The amount of each of the three types of tissue varies from woman to woman. Breast density is a measurement of relative amounts of these three tissues in a woman's breasts, as determined by their appearance on an X-ray image. Breast and connective tissues are radiographically","-27.220955301796494"],["sensitive test for detecting pituitary tumors and determining their size. MRI scans may be repeated periodically to assess tumor progression and the effects of therapy. Computed Tomography (CT scan) also gives an image of the pituitary, but it is less sensitive than the MRI.\nIn addition to assessing the size of the pituitary tumor, doctors also look for damage to surrounding tissues, and perform tests to assess whether production of other pituitary hormones is normal. Depending on the size of the tumor, the doctor may request an eye exam with measurement of visual fields. Treatments The goal of treatment is to","-27.17142752950531"],["cells) and deposited material (such as type I collagen and hyaluronic acid). This creates a tumor microenvironment that is short of blood vessels (hypovascular) and so of oxygen (tumor hypoxia). It is thought that this prevents many chemotherapy drugs from reaching the tumor, as one factor making the cancer especially hard to treat. Exocrine cancers Pancreatic cancer is usually staged following a CT scan. The most widely used cancer staging system for pancreatic cancer is the one formulated by the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) together with the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC). The AJCC-UICC","-27.138785269558866"],["don't present specific tumor markers. Treatment Typically none is required, but they can be treated surgically if symptomatic.","-27.08791616446979"],["of immune surveillance in cancer pathogenesis. For over 50 years, scientists have argued about the role of the immune system in preventing the initiation of cancer. The original immune surveillance hypothesis proposed that tumor cells arise naturally and are normally eradicated by the immune system. Tumors would, therefore, only arise if the tumor could develop a mechanism to evade the immune system, or if the immune system were compromised. This hypothesis was directly tested in a landmark paper published by Osias Stutman (1974). In this paper, Stutman tested whether athymic, nude mice which lack an","-27.082263595366385"],["any cancerous cells that may exist outside of the affected testicle. The type of adjuvant therapy depends largely on the histology of the tumor (i.e. the size and shape of its cells under the microscope) and the stage of progression at the time of surgery (i.e. how far cells have 'escaped' from the testicle, invaded the surrounding tissue, or spread to the rest of the body). If the cancer is not particularly advanced, patients may be offered careful surveillance by periodic CT scans and blood tests, in place of adjuvant treatment.\nBefore 1970, survival rates from testicular cancer were low. Since","-27.061359761006315"],["with risks to the patient. Therefore, multiple biopsies to monitor disease progression are rare and diagnostic biopsies are relied on for genetic information. This can be problematic because of tumor heterogeneity and tumor evolution. Firstly, biopsies only sample one portion of the tumor, and because tumors are heterogeneous, this will not cover the full genetic landscape of the tumor. Secondly, after treatment tumors evolve and there may be new mutations not represented in the diagnostic sample.\nBiopsy-free tumor genotyping, by way of CAPP-Seq and ctDNA, addresses many of these issues. A simple blood test is non-invasive and much safer and easier","-27.061137275035435"],["their factories to perform monthly breast self-exam, and the other half were not. The women taught self-exam detected more benign (normal or harmless lumps) or early-stage breast disease, but equal numbers of women died from breast cancer in each group.\nBecause breast self-exam is not proven to save lives, it is no longer routinely recommended by health authorities for general use. It may be appropriate in women who have a particularly high risk of developing breast cancer. Some charitable organizations, whose donations depend on promoting fear of breast cancer, still promote this technique as a one-size-fits-all, universal screening approach,","-27.052234827989224"],["Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommended against prostate-specific antigen (PSA) based screening for prostate cancer finding, \"there is a very small potential benefit and significant potential harms\" and concluding, \"while everyone wants to help prevent deaths from prostate cancer, current methods of PSA screening and treatment of screen-detected cancer are not the answer.\"\nMore recently, Fenton's 2018 review (conducted for the USPSTF) focused on the two highest quality randomized control studies of the costs and benefits of PSA screening, and the findings illustrate the complex issues associated with cancer screening. Fenton reports that the screening of 1,000 men every four years","-27.03494968040468"],["gross tumor volume while radiation among the neighboring normal tissues is decreased or avoided completely. This results in better tumor targeting, lessened side effects, and improved treatment outcomes than even 3DCRT.\n3DCRT is still used extensively for many body sites but the use of IMRT is growing in more complicated body sites such as CNS, head and neck, prostate, breast, and lung. Unfortunately, IMRT is limited by its need for additional time from experienced medical personnel. This is because physicians must manually delineate the tumors one CT image at a time through the entire disease site which can take much longer","-27.005964929325273"],["Lung cancer screening Risks of Screening Research has found that regular early screening with two other clinically available tests – sputum cytology and chest radiograph (CXR) — does not have an overall benefit. There is evidence suggesting that regular screening of high-risk smokers and former smokers may reduce the mortality in this particular group of people. More research is necessary to determine the relative risks and benefits for the general public and people who have a low risk of lung cancer.\nCT screening has been associated with a high rate of falsely positive tests which may result in unneeded treatment. For each","-26.985541268939414"],["be used to monitor response to treatment, particularly in serous cell cancer or advanced disease. Periodic MRIs or CT scans may be recommended in advanced disease and women with a history of endometrial cancer should receive more frequent pelvic examinations for the five years following treatment. Examinations conducted every three to four months are recommended for the first two years following treatment, and every six months for the next three years.\nWomen with endometrial cancer should not have routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because","-26.973142005688715"],["markers are used primarily to monitor the result of a treatment (e.g. chemotherapy). If levels of AFP go down after treatment, the tumor is not growing. In the case of babies, after treatment AFP should go down faster than it would normally. A temporary increase in AFP immediately following chemotherapy may indicate not that the tumor is growing but rather that it is shrinking (and releasing AFP as the tumor cells die). Nonseminomatous germ cell tumor In the context of evidence-based medicine, AFP is validated at the highest level as a tumor marker for use in patients","-26.969013816127756"],["it may be preferable to CT.\nFor more advanced stages of testicular cancer, and for those cases in which radiation therapy or chemotherapy was administered, the extent of monitoring (tests) after treatment will vary on the basis of the circumstances, but normally should be done for five years in uncomplicated cases and for longer in those with higher risks of relapse. Fertility A man with one remaining testis may maintain fertility. However, sperm banking may be appropriate for men who still plan to have children, since fertility may be adversely affected by chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy. A man who loses","-26.94532026673005"],["is that early detection will improve outcomes. A number of screening tests have been employed, including clinical and self breast exams, mammography, genetic screening, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. The use of mammography in universal screening for breast cancer is controversial as it may not reduce all-cause mortality and for causing harms through unnecessary treatments and medical procedures. Many national organizations recommend it for most older women. Cervical cancer Cervical screening by the Pap test or other methods is highly effective at detecting and preventing cervical cancer, although there is a serious risk of overtreatment in young women up","-26.93384432899984"],["the same list are often triaged; the author of this paragraph waited only a little over 3 months to see a dermatologist because of a skin problem that itched slightly once a week and was not at all urgent (in the early 2000s) in Halifax, Nova Scotia, while cumulative waiting times (including referral to medical test to appointment with a surgeon to radiation or cancer surgery) for cancer patients can be 2–3 months in areas with long waiting times. Waiting lists for cancer treatment are prioritized by level of urgency, but the triage process (while generally accurate) can occasionally assign a","-26.89924870505456"],["women (called screening mammography).\nMammography is not very useful in finding breast tumors in dense breast tissue characteristic of women under 40 years. In women over 50 without dense breasts, breast cancers detected by screening mammography are usually smaller and less aggressive than those detected by patients or doctors as a breast lump. This is because the most aggressive breast cancers are found in dense breast tissue, which mammograms perform poorly on.\nThe presumption was that by detecting cancer in an earlier stage, women will be more likely to be cured by treatment. This assertion, however, has been challenged by recent reviews","-26.897872412315337"],[" In their 2018 recommendations, the USPSTF estimates that 20%-50% of men diagnosed with prostate cancer following a positive PSA screening have cancer that, even if not treated, would never grow, spread, or harm them \nMost North American medical groups recommend individualized decisions about screening, taking into consideration the risks, benefits, and the patients' personal preferences. Lung cancer Screening studies for lung cancer have only been done in high risk populations, such as smokers and workers with occupational exposure to certain substances. In the 2010s recommendations by medical authorities are turning in favour of lung cancer screening, which is likely","-26.880265337313176"],["the U.S., state and local health departments respond to more than 1,000 inquiries about suspected cancer clusters each year. It is possible that a suspected cancer cluster may be due to chance alone; however, only clusters that have a disease rate that is statistically significantly greater than the disease rate of the general population are investigated. Given the number of inquiries it is likely that many of these are due to chance alone. It is a well-known problem in interpreting data that random cases of cancer can appear to form clumps that are misinterpreted as a cluster.\nA cluster is less","-26.849564766831463"],["that are likely to be effective against the cancer. With sarcomas, staging requires a determination of whether the tumor has grown into surrounding tissues (\"local invasion\"), as well as imaging to determine whether it has spread (a process known as \"metastasis\") to lymph nodes (forming \"nodal metastases\") or to other tissues or organs in the body (forming \"distant metastases\"). \nThe most common imaging tools used for staging bone sarcomas are MRI or CT to evaluate the primary tumor, contrast-enhanced CT of the chest to evaluate whether the cancer has spread (i.e., metastasized) to the lungs, and radioisotope bone scan to","-26.849305172516324"],["faecal occult blood testing between the ages of 60 and 74 years. Prostate cancer When screening for prostate cancer, the PSA test may detect small cancers that would never become life-threatening, but once detected will lead to treatment. This situation, called overdiagnosis, puts men at risk for complications from unnecessary treatment such as surgery or radiation. Follow up procedures used to diagnose prostate cancer (prostate biopsy) may cause side effects, including bleeding and infection. Prostate cancer treatment may cause incontinence (inability to control urine flow) and erectile dysfunction (erections inadequate for intercourse). As a result, in 2012, the U.S. Preventative","-26.8199934753211"],["their destruction by the complement system.\nClearly, some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers. Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface, thus avoiding detection by killer T cells. Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response; for example by secreting the cytokine TGF-β, which suppresses the activity of macrophages and lymphocytes. In addition, immunological tolerance may develop against tumor antigens, so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells.\nParadoxically, macrophages can promote tumor growth when tumor cells send out cytokines that attract macrophages,","-26.81406656344916"],["have responded that they are unwilling to consider the possibility of leaving potential deadly cancers alone because it is \"far-riskier\" than the alternative. Eric Winer, director of the breast cancer program at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, says, \"I don't know anyone who offers women the option of doing nothing\" (Beck 2012, Article). Further complicating the issue of early diagnosis is the fact that it is currently impossible to distinguish malicious cancers from benign ones. Otis Brawley, a top official for the American Cancer Society, says that \"even if we overdiagnose 1 in 5, we have numerous studies showing that","-26.791235790253268"],["blood of more than 80 percent of patients with metastatic cancers and about 47 percent of those with localized tumors. The test does not indicate the tumor site(s) or other information about the tumor. The test did not produce false positives.\nSuch tests may also be useful to assess whether malignant cells remain in patients whose tumors have been surgically removed. Up to 30 percent are expected to relapse because some tumor cells remain. Initial studies identified about half the patients who later relapsed, again without false positives.\nAnother potential use is to track the specific DNA mutations driving a tumor. Many","-26.787889360857662"],["are still not well understood but different biological pathways involved in cancer have been studied suggesting that physical activity reduces cancer risk by helping weight control, reducing hormones such as estrogen and insulin, reducing inflammation and strengthening the immune system. Medication The concept that medications can be used to prevent cancer is attractive, and evidence supports their use in a few defined circumstances. In the general population, NSAIDs reduce the risk of colorectal cancer however due to the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects they cause overall harm when used for prevention. Aspirin has been found to reduce the risk of","-26.742553942880477"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"tested on a live sample of the actual patient's tumor, rather than on the patient. This reduces the likelihood of treatment with ineffective drugs and their associated side effects, and it increases the likelihood of finding a treatment that will work against the patient's tumor. For patients whose tumors have also undergone molecular testing, such as next-generation sequencing, the selection of potential drugs is further guided by any and all applicable results. In the event the cancer progresses or recurs, Champions also banks, or stores, each successful TumorGraft for potential future patient use.\",\n \"-31.67337748609316\"\n ],\n [\n \"tests involve the detection of cancers. Screening is more likely to detect slower-growing tumors (due to longer pre-clinical sojourn time) that are less likely to cause harm. Also, those aggressive cancers tend to produce symptoms in the gap between scheduled screening, being less likely to detected by screening. So, the cases screening often detects automatically have better prognosis than symptomatic cases. The consequence is those more slow progressive cases are now classified as cancers, which increases the incidence, and due to its better prognosis, the survival rates of screened people will be better than non-screening even if screening makes no\",\n \"-31.244769624361652\"\n ],\n [\n \"be screened to find one cancer, and too many men would have treatment for cancer that would not progress. Low-risk prostate cancer does not always require immediate treatment, but may be amenable to active surveillance. A PSA test cannot 'prove' the existence of prostate cancer by itself; varying levels of the antigen can be due to other causes. Digital rectal examination During a digital rectal examination (DRE), a healthcare provider slides a gloved finger into the rectum and presses on the prostate, to check its size and to detect any lumps on the accessible side. If the examination suggests anomalies,\",\n \"-31.1394666130509\"\n ],\n [\n \"difficult to treat in later stages. Accurate detection of cancer is also important because false positives can cause harm from unnecessary medical procedures. Some screening protocols are currently not accurate (such as prostate-specific antigen testing). Others such as a colonoscopy or mammogram are unpleasant and as a result some patients may opt out. Active research is underway to address all these problems. Research funding Cancer research is funded by government grants, charitable foundations, and pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies.\\nIn the early 2000s, most funding for cancer research came from taxpayers and charities, rather than from corporations. In\",\n \"-30.962292434060146\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cancer screening Medical uses The goal of cancer screening is to provide useful health information which can guide medical treatment. A good cancer screening is one which would detect when a person has cancer so that the person could seek treatment to protect their health. Good cancer screening would not be more likely to cause harm than to provide useful information. In general, cancer screening has risks and should not be done except with a medical indication.\\nDifferent kinds of cancer screening procedures have different risks, but good tests share some characteristics. If a test detects cancer, then that test result\",\n \"-30.332486174113\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cancer staging Considerations Correct staging is critical because treatment (particularly the need for pre-operative therapy and/or for adjuvant treatment, the extent of surgery) is generally based on this parameter. Thus, incorrect staging would lead to improper treatment.\\nFor some common cancers the staging process is well-defined. For example, in the cases of breast cancer and prostate cancer, doctors routinely can identify that the cancer is early and that it has low risk of metastasis. In such cases, medical specialty professional organizations recommend against the use of PET scans, CT scans, or bone scans because research shows that the risk of getting\",\n \"-30.124239851389575\"\n ],\n [\n \"cancers are indolent and would never progress to a clinically meaningful stage if left undiagnosed and untreated during a man's lifetime. On the other hand, a subset are potentially lethal, and screening can identify some of these within a window of opportunity for cure. Thus, the concept of PSA screening is advocated by some as a means of detecting high-risk, potentially lethal prostate cancer, with the understanding that lower-risk disease, if discovered, often does not need treatment and may be amenable to active surveillance.\\nScreening for prostate cancer is controversial because of cost and uncertain long-term benefits to patients. Horan echos\",\n \"-30.103842496775542\"\n ],\n [\n \"be useful for monitoring the progress of sex-cord tumors, along with mullerian inhibiting substance. AFP can also be used to monitor Sertoli-Leydig tumors. In dysgerminomas, lactate dehydrogenase and its two isozymes (LDH-1 and LDH-2) are used to test for recurrence.\\nWomen with ovarian cancer may not need routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because it is unlikely to detect a recurrence, improve survival, and because it has its own costs and side effects. However, CT imaging can be used if desired, though this is not\",\n \"-29.60944119017222\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the common, moderately radioresponsive tumors are routinely treated with curative doses of radiation therapy if they are at an early stage. For example: non-melanoma skin cancer, head and neck cancer, breast cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, cervical cancer, anal cancer, and prostate cancer. Metastatic cancers are generally incurable with radiation therapy because it is not possible to treat the whole body.\\nBefore treatment, a CT scan is often performed to identify the tumor and surrounding normal structures. The patient receives small skin marks to guide the placement of treatment fields. Patient positioning is crucial at this stage as the patient\",\n \"-29.603691621363396\"\n ],\n [\n \"follow-up screening is typically much more expensive than initial screening, more false positives (that must receive follow-up) means that fewer women may be screened for a given amount of money. Thus as sensitivity increases, a screening program will cost more or be confined to screening a smaller number of women. Overdiagnosis The central harm of mammographic breast cancer screening is overdiagnosis: the detection of abnormalities that meet the pathologic definition of cancer but will never progress to cause symptoms or death. Dr. H. Gilbert Welch, a researcher at Dartmouth College, states that \\\"screen-detected breast and prostate cancer survivors are more\",\n \"-29.564110084145796\"\n ],\n [\n \"Exploratory surgery Exploratory surgery and cancer Sometimes, cancer is located in a place where standard tests cannot detect it. In this case, doctors must go into surgery and look for the cancerous mass manually. This procedure, which is what is commonly associated with exploratory surgery, is not used for treatment at all. Instead, it is used chiefly to identify the location of the tumor and the extent of its damage. If a tumor is found, a biopsy is performed and tests are run to see what type of cancer was found. Exploratory surgery in animals Because animals cannot voice their\",\n \"-29.436924974186695\"\n ],\n [\n \"health conditions.\\nEngagement with screening procedures is also of importance with regard to cancer prevention and in some cancers an underutilized resource. Fear and anxiety are barriers for some to getting screened for cancer. However, cancer screening presents the opportunity to catch tumors that are present in very early stages and avoid intensive, systemic treatments in favor or more acute and localized treatments with a higher cancer of cure (e.g., surgical resection).\\nBehavioral modification is also relevant to improving the quality of life of those who are living with cancer. For example, a common and debilitating symptom of cancer is fatigue. However,\",\n \"-29.372425792487775\"\n ],\n [\n \"and make tumors easier to identify.\\nIf a tumor is found, a neurosurgeon must perform a biopsy on it. This simply involves the removal of a small amount of tumor tissue, which is then sent to a neuropathologist for examination and grading. The biopsy may take place before surgical removal of the tumor or the sample may be taken during surgery. Grading of the tumor sample is a method of classification that helps the doctor to determine the severity of the astrocytoma and to decide on the best treatment options. The neuropathologist grades the tumor by looking for atypical cells,\",\n \"-29.330341681765276\"\n ],\n [\n \"antigen (PSA) level are usually the first investigations done to check for prostate cancer. PSA values are difficult to interpret, because a high value might be present in a person without cancer, and a low value can be present in someone with cancer. The next form of testing is often the taking of a biopsy to assess for tumour activity and invasiveness. Because of the significant risk of overdiagnosis with widespread screening in the general population, prostate cancer screening is controversial. If a tumour is confirmed, medical imaging such as an MRI or bone scan may be done to check\",\n \"-29.3007219266874\"\n ],\n [\n \"tumor is secreting hormones or other circulating chemicals. A biopsy of the tumor may be required to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment Because ganglioneuromas are benign, treatment may not be necessary, as it would expose patients to more risk than leaving it alone. If there are symptoms or major physical deformity, treatment usually consists of surgery to remove the tumor. Prognosis Most ganglioneuromas are noncancerous, thus expected outcome is usually good. However, a ganglioneuroma may become cancerous and spread to other areas, or it may regrow after removal.\\nIf the tumor has been present for a long time and has pressed on\",\n \"-29.29425167023146\"\n ],\n [\n \"benefits. The purpose of screening is to diagnose ovarian cancer at an early stage, when it is more likely to be treated successfully.\\nScreening with transvaginal ultrasound, pelvic examination, and CA-125 levels can be used instead of preventive surgery in women who have BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. This strategy has shown some success. Prevention People with strong genetic risk for ovarian cancer may consider the surgical removal of their ovaries as a preventive measure. This is often done after completion of childbearing years. This reduces the chances of developing both breast cancer (by around 50%) and ovarian cancer (by about 96%)\",\n \"-29.238204127905192\"\n ],\n [\n \"should be in the hands of a multidisciplinary team including specialists in several aspects of oncology, and is, therefore, best conducted in larger centers. Surgery Surgery with the intention of a cure is only possible in around one-fifth (20%) of new cases. Although CT scans help, in practice it can be difficult to determine whether the tumor can be fully removed (its \\\"resectability\\\"), and it may only become apparent during surgery that it is not possible to successfully remove the tumor without damaging other vital tissues. Whether or not surgical resection can be offered depends on various factors, including\",\n \"-29.224911385244923\"\n ],\n [\n \"a large population of patients and find the small number most likely to have a serious condition. These patients are then referred for further, usually more invasive, testing. Thus a screening exam is not intended to be definitive; rather it is intended to have sufficient sensitivity to detect a useful proportion of cancers. The cost of higher sensitivity is a larger number of results that would be regarded as suspicious in patients without disease. This is true of mammography. The patients without disease who are called back for further testing from a screening session (about 7%) are sometimes referred to\",\n \"-29.183304624792072\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the breast, and potential seeding of the tumor (causing displacement of cancer cells due to the procedure that can start new tumors elsewhere). Another potential adverse effect occurs when taking a biopsy of an area of microcalcification. If the entire area of microcalcification is removed, it is then very difficult to find the suspicious area in the future for treatment. A marker is placed in the suspicious area to help localize the proper area for possible removal at a later date, if this is removed during biopsy, it can be difficult to make sure that the correct area was\",\n \"-29.08534024632536\"\n ],\n [\n \"are not associated with a radiation risk, and MRI scans are being evaluated for their use in cancer screening. There is a significant risk of detection of what has been called incidentalomas - benign lesions that may be interpreted as a cancer and be subjected to potentially dangerous investigations.\",\n \"-29.067461080281646\"\n ],\n [\n \"with a genetic predisposition may benefit from screening. This high risk group has benefited with earlier detection.\\nOvarian cancer has low prevalence, even in the high-risk group of women from the ages of 50 to 60 (about one in 2000), and screening of women with average risk is more likely to give ambiguous results than detect a problem which requires treatment. Because ambiguous results are more likely than detection of a treatable problem, and because the usual response to ambiguous results is invasive interventions, in women of average risk, the potential harms of having screening without an indication outweigh the potential\",\n \"-28.8978511151181\"\n ],\n [\n \"level the tumor is usually treated by excision that includes wide margins of healthy-looking tissue, followed by thorough biopsy and additional excision if necessary. The prognosis for a stage 1 tumor excision is usually fairly positive, but if the tumors progress to levels 2 and 3, prognosis is worse because tumor cells have likely spread to other locations. These locations can either be nearby tissues or system-wide locations that include the lungs, kidneys, and liver. In these cases prognosis is grim and chemotherapy and radiation are the only methods of controlling the cancer.\\nSpindle cell sarcoma can develop for a variety\",\n \"-28.88396147322419\"\n ],\n [\n \"functional, this is almost never done, as the affected testicle usually contains pre-cancerous cells spread throughout the entire testicle. Thus removing the tumor alone without additional treatment greatly increases the risk that another cancer will form in that testicle.\\nSince only one testis is typically required to maintain fertility, hormone production, and other male functions, the afflicted testis is almost always removed completely in a procedure called inguinal orchiectomy. (The testicle is almost never removed through the scrotum; an incision is made beneath the belt line in the inguinal area.) In the UK, the procedure is known as a radical\",\n \"-28.839986376086017\"\n ],\n [\n \"Epithelial dysplasia Screening Some tests which detect cancer could be called \\\"screening for epithelial dysplasia\\\". The principle behind these tests is that physicians expect dysplasia to occur at the same rate in a typical individual as it would in many other people. Because of this, researchers design screening recommendations which assume that if a physician can find no dysplasia at certain time, then doing testing before waiting until new dysplasia could potentially develop would be a waste of medical resources for the patient and the healthcare provider because the chances of detecting anything is extremely low.\\nSome examples of this in\",\n \"-28.741041104352917\"\n ],\n [\n \"In general, they conclude that based on recent research, \\\"it is uncertain whether the benefits associated with PSA testing for prostate cancer screening are worth the harms associated with screening and subsequent unnecessary treatment.\\\" Breast cancer screening Recommendations to attend to mammography screening vary across countries and organizations, with the most common difference being the age at which screening should begin, and how frequently or if it should be performed, among women at typical risk for developing breast cancer. Some other organizations recommend mammograms begin as early as age 40 in normal-risk women, and take place more frequently, up to\",\n \"-28.733234554011688\"\n ],\n [\n \"the removal of only the tumor, or the entire organ. A single cancer cell is invisible to the naked eye but can regrow into a new tumor, a process called recurrence. For this reason, the pathologist will examine the surgical specimen to determine if a margin of healthy tissue is present, thus decreasing the chance that microscopic cancer cells are left in the patient.\\nIn addition to removal of the primary tumor, surgery is often necessary for staging, e.g. determining the extent of the disease and whether it has metastasized to regional lymph nodes. Staging is a major determinant of prognosis\",\n \"-28.693460356415017\"\n ],\n [\n \"who do not have any signs or symptoms. Screening is not recommended in women who are at average risk, as evidence does not support a reduction in death and the high rate of false positive tests may lead to unneeded surgery, which is accompanied by its own risks. The Pap test does not screen for ovarian cancer.\\nOvarian cancer is usually only palpable in advanced stages. Screening is not recommended using CA-125 measurements, HE4 levels, ultrasound, or adnexal palpation in women who are at average risk. Risk of developing ovarian cancer in those with genetic factors can be reduced. Those\",\n \"-28.633615921917226\"\n ],\n [\n \"such procedures outweighs the possible benefits. Some of the problems associated with overtesting include patients receiving invasive procedures, overutilizing medical services, getting unnecessary radiation exposure, and experiencing misdiagnosis. Pathologic Pathologic staging, where a pathologist examines sections of tissue, can be particularly problematic for two specific reasons: visual discretion and random sampling of tissue. \\\"Visual discretion\\\" means being able to identify single cancerous cells intermixed with healthy cells on a slide. Oversight of one cell can mean mistaging and lead to serious, unexpected spread of cancer. \\\"Random sampling\\\" refers to the fact that lymph nodes are cherry-picked from patients and\",\n \"-28.586380734865088\"\n ],\n [\n \"detection test (e.g., PSA and/or prostate biopsy) had not been performed. Treatment of men who would otherwise not have known about their cancer in the absence of PSA testing and biopsy are over treated. Over treatment exacts a cost to the health care system and potential harm to a patient (decrease in quality of life), with no benefit. Over treatment is most likely to occur when a low grade prostate cancer is detected, especially in an older man. Data from various sources suggest that in the PSA range where many men are undergoing prostate biopsy today (PSA 2-4 ng/ml), 15-25% will\",\n \"-28.568111466694972\"\n ],\n [\n \"more prone to risks in development. Examinations such as CSF analysis and spinal MRIs are used to investigate the effectiveness of treatment in preventing metastasis.\\nA method for eliminating tumorous mass is surgery, where the best outcome would be total resection, meaning the complete removal of the tumor. Along with the surgery, several measures that contribute to a safe procedure can be taken: urine exams, transfusion, and the constant supervision of arterial pressure. Possible problems that arise from the surgery include hemorrhage, brain edema, and hemiparesis. MRIs are typically done after 1 or 2 days of postoperative in order to inspect\",\n \"-28.422826434030867\"\n ],\n [\n \"with other indicators of disease (i.e. radiology and/or symptoms) to improve diagnostic accuracy. The challenge in such an approach is that the disparate prevalence of ovarian cancer means that even testing with very high sensitivity and specificity will still lead to a number of false positive results, which in turn may lead to issues such as performing surgical procedures in which cancer is not found intraoperatively. Genomics approaches have not yet been developed for ovarian cancer.\\nCT scanning is preferred to assess the extent of the tumor in the abdominopelvic cavity, though magnetic resonance imaging can also be used. CT scanning\",\n \"-28.40095630075848\"\n ],\n [\n \"signs of tumor progression, and they may need to begin treatment within three years. Men that choose active surveillance avoid the risks of surgery, radiation, and other treatments. The risk of disease progression and metastasis (spread of the cancer) may be increased, but this increase risk appears to be small if the program of surveillance is followed closely, generally including serial PSA assessments and repeat prostate biopsies every 1–2 years depending on the PSA trends.\\nStudy results in 2011 suggest active surveillance is the best choice for older 'low-risk' patients. Surgery Surgical removal of the prostate, or prostatectomy, is a common\",\n \"-28.355917502529337\"\n ],\n [\n \"However, disease-specific mortality might be biased in favor of screening. In the example of breast cancer screening, women overdiagnosed with breast cancer might receive radiotherapy, which increases mortality due to lung cancer and heart disease. The problem is those deaths are often classified as other causes and might even be larger than the number of breast cancer deaths avoided by screening. So the non-biased outcome is all-cause mortality. The problem is that much larger trials are needed to detect a significant reduction in all-cause mortality. In 2016, researcher Vinay Prasad and colleagues published an article in BMJ titled \\\"Why cancer\",\n \"-28.286635288652178\"\n ],\n [\n \"tumor is surrounded completely by a margin of non-cancerous tissue, and that arteries and airways to portions of the lung that are not being removed are preserved intact. In addition, patients who have had pre-operative chemotherapy or radiation for lung cancer or previous chest surgeries may not be candidates for VATS due to scarring around the major blood vessels that makes dissection via VATS difficult. Cases in which a lung tumor invades the chest wall and an en bloc resection of ribs must be performed to achieve negative resection margins generally are felt to abrogate the value of\",\n \"-28.271063808442705\"\n ],\n [\n \"them have a high rate of false positives and lead to invasive procedures that are unlikely to benefit the patient. Risk-based screening Risk-based screening uses risk assessment of a woman’s five-year and lifetime risk of developing breast cancer to issue personalized screening recommendations of when to start, stop, and how often to screen. In general, women with low risk are recommended to screen less frequently, while screening is intensified in those at high risk. The hypothesis is that focusing screening on women most likely to develop invasive breast cancer will reduce overdiagnosis and overtreatment. The first clinical trial testing the\",\n \"-28.084695052772076\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dr. Samuel S. Epstein claims that in women ages 40 to 49, 1 in 4 of cancer is missed at each mammography. Researchers have found that breast tissue is denser among younger women, making it difficult to detect tumors. For this reason, false negatives are twice as likely to occur in pre-menopausal mammograms (Prate). This is why the screening program in the UK does not start calling women for screening mammograms until age 50.\\nThe importance of these missed cancers is not clear, particularly if the woman is getting yearly mammograms. Research on a closely related situation has shown that small\",\n \"-27.966717555005744\"\n ],\n [\n \"should also lead to options for treatment. Good tests come with a patient explanation of why that person has high enough risk of cancer to justify the test. Part of the testing experience is for the health care provider to explain how common false positive results are so that the patient can understand the context of their results. If multiple tests are available, then any test should be presented along with other options. Breast cancer Breast cancer screening is the medical screening of asymptomatic, apparently healthy women for breast cancer in an attempt to achieve an earlier diagnosis. The assumption\",\n \"-27.96029932215788\"\n ],\n [\n \"while on surveillance. This misclassification of disease at diagnosis may be reduced in the future with improvements in imaging and biopsy tissue assessment that go beyond the Gleason score. The future of active surveillance Improvements in prostate imaging, biomarker discovery, and genetic profiling of prostate cancers will very likely change the approach to management of men diagnosed with localized prostate cancer. Currently, active surveillance is underutilized (in part) because of the dual concerns that a cancer has been misclassified on a prostate biopsy, and the inability to define biologically which cancers have an aggressive phenotype. Thus, there is both over\",\n \"-27.934248623809253\"\n ],\n [\n \"Of those, about 2–10% have cancer, while 20–30% have adenomas. Screening methods for colon cancer depend on detecting either precancerous changes such as certain kinds of polyps or on finding early and thus more treatable cancer. The extent to which screening procedures reduce the risk of gastrointestinal cancer or deaths depends on the rate of precancerous and cancerous disease in that population. gFOBT (guaiac fecal occult blood test) and flexible sigmoidoscopy screening have each shown benefit. Other colon cancer screening tools such as iFOBT (immunochemical fecal occult blood test) or colonoscopy are also included in guidelines.\\nIn 2009 the American College\",\n \"-27.93275521920259\"\n ],\n [\n \"are several treatment options that may be considered, depending on the size and specific location of the tumor. For small tumors, caught early, observation can be initially used as long as good vision is maintained. However, it is important to note that in the study conducted by You et al. all of the patients whose tumors were initially observed needed further treatment and enucleation as their conditions declined. For tumors that are initially more aggressive, larger in size or suspected as cancerous, local resection and enucleation are also options. Radiation therapy, however, cannot be used in this instance as schwannomas\",\n \"-27.88349871522223\"\n ],\n [\n \"years of screening, while 10 healthy women will undergo unnecessary breast cancer treatment. Additionally, 200 women will suffer from significant psychological stress due to false positive results. Newman points out that screening mammography does not reduce death overall, but causes significant harm by inflicting cancer scare and unnecessary surgical interventions. The Nordic Cochrane Collection notes that advances in diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer may make breast cancer screening no longer effective in decreasing death from breast cancer, and therefore no longer recommend routine screening for healthy women as the risks might outweigh the benefits.\\nOften women are quite distressed to\",\n \"-27.88174944173079\"\n ],\n [\n \"Testicular cancer Causes A major risk factor for the development of testis cancer is cryptorchidism (undescended testicles). It is generally believed that the presence of a tumor contributes to cryptorchidism; when cryptorchidism occurs in conjunction with a tumor then the tumor tends to be large. Other risk factors include inguinal hernias, Klinefelter syndrome, and mumps orchitis. Physical activity is associated with decreased risk and sedentary lifestyle is associated with increased risk. Early onset of male characteristics is associated with increased risk. These may reflect endogenous or environmental hormones.\\nHigher rates of testicular cancer in Western nations\",\n \"-27.805973922320845\"\n ],\n [\n \"Breast cancer screening Breast exam Breast examination (either clinical breast exams (CBE) by a health care provider or by self exams) were once widely recommended. They however are not supported by evidence and may, like mammography and other screening methods that produce false positive results, contribute to harm. The use of screening in women without symptoms and at low risk is thus controversial.\\nA 2003 Cochrane review found screening by breast self-examination is not associated with lower death rates among women who report performing breast self-examination and does, like other breast cancer screening methods, increase harms, in terms\",\n \"-27.80350513014764\"\n ],\n [\n \"cancer in a particular patient (BRCA positive, positive family history, palpable mass), mammography may still be important. Often, the radiologist will try to avoid mammography by using ultrasound or MRI imaging.\\nThere is a body of evidence that clearly shows that there is over-diagnosis of cancer when women are screened. These cancers would never have affected these women in their lifetimes. An estimate of this over-diagnosis is 10 breast cancers diagnosed and unnecessarily treated per life saved when 2,000 women are screened for 10 years.\\nWhile screening between ages 40 and 50 is still controversial, the preponderance of the evidence indicates that\",\n \"-27.794992335824645\"\n ],\n [\n \"Overdiagnosis Overdiagnosis and the variability of cancer progression Cancer screening is the effort to detect cancer early, during its pre-clinical phase — the time period that begins with an abnormal cell and ends when the patient notices symptoms from the cancer. It has long been known that some people have cancers with short pre-clinical phases (fast-growing, aggressive cancers), while others have cancers with long pre-clinical phases (slow-growing cancers). And this heterogeneity has an unfortunate implication: namely, screening tends to disproportionately detect slow-growing cancers (because they are accessible to be detected for a long period of time) and disproportionately\",\n \"-27.787069241669087\"\n ],\n [\n \"allow tumors to be treated in a more targeted way using bigger doses of radiation, yet having better treatments results with less side effects.\",\n \"-27.749437688529724\"\n ],\n [\n \"cells are recognized by the immune system as damaged and are consequently targeted for elimination”. For a tumor to progress it requires conditions within the body and surrounding area to be growth-promoting. Almost all people have suitable immune cells to fight off tumors in the body. Studies have shown that the immune system even has the ability to prevent precancerous cells from growing and arbitrate the regression of established tumors. The dangerous thing about cancer cells is they have the ability to inhibit the function of the immune system. Although a tumor may be in its beginning stage and very\",\n \"-27.72801167165744\"\n ],\n [\n \"also take samples of the suspected mass for histopathological analysis to confirm or rule out cancer. The most definitive method of cancer diagnosis is through open surgical biopsy. Most stomach tumors are malignant with evidence of spread to lymph nodes or liver, making treatment difficult. Except for lymphoma, surgery is the most frequent treatment option for stomach cancers but it is associated with significant risks.\",\n \"-27.72254431086003\"\n ],\n [\n \"found that the examination is associated with increased participation in cancer screening.\\nSome employers require mandatory health checkup before hiring a candidate even though it is now well known that some of the components of the prophylactic annual visit may actually cause harm. For example, lab tests and exams that are performed on healthy patients (as opposed to people with symptoms or known illnesses) are statistically more likely to be “false positives” — that is, when test results suggest a problem that doesn’t exist. Disadvantages cited include the time and money that could be saved by targeted screening (health economics argument),\",\n \"-27.70711628967547\"\n ],\n [\n \"The American Dental Association recommends that providers remain alert for signs of cancer during routine examinations. Oral cancer screening is also recommended by some groups of dental hygienists. Other cancers There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against screening for skin cancer, and bladder cancer. Routine screening is not recommended for testicular cancer, and ovarian cancer. Whole body imaging Full body CT scans are available for cancer screening, but this type of medical imaging to search for cancer in people without clear symptoms can create problems such as increased exposure to ionizing radiation. However, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans\",\n \"-27.680541515219375\"\n ],\n [\n \"or abnormal connections, may also present as a tumor. Examples are arteriovenous fistulae or aneurysms (with or without thrombosis), biliary fistulae or aneurysms, sclerosing cholangitis, cysticercosis or hydatid cysts, intestinal duplications, and pulmonary inclusions as seen with cystic fibrosis. It can be dangerous to biopsy a number of types of tumor in which the leakage of their contents would potentially be catastrophic. When such types of tumors are encountered, diagnostic modalities such as ultrasound, CT scans, MRI, angiograms, and nuclear medicine scans are employed prior to (or during) biopsy or surgical exploration/excision in an attempt to avoid such severe complications.\\nThe\",\n \"-27.656188132394163\"\n ],\n [\n \"be either benign, meaning not cancerous, or malignant, meaning cancerous; while the benign tumors typically need little treatment to no treatment, the malignant tumors can cause serious problems and can potentially be life-threatening. Different methods are used to determine if the tumor is malignant and whether it has spread to other organs. Methods used to determine malignancy include fine needle aspirate, biopsy, or complete removal. To determine if the tumor has metastasized, a rectal examination or an ultrasound can be performed; the most frequent location for metastasis include the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, the abdominal wall, the lungs, and blood\",\n \"-27.654917665058747\"\n ],\n [\n \"standard of care. Availability of samples also plays a critical role in determining which tumor types to study and the order in which tumor projects are started. The more common the tumor is, the more likely that samples will be accrued quickly, resulting in common tumor types, such as colon, lung and breast cancer becoming the first tumor types entered into the project, before rare tumor types.\\nTCGA Targeted Tumors: lung squamous cell carcinoma, kidney papillary carcinoma, clear cell kidney carcinoma, breast ductal carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma, cervical cancer (squamous), colon adenocarcinoma, stomach adenocarcinoma, rectal carcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, Head and neck\",\n \"-27.645922557581798\"\n ],\n [\n \"the contrary, where the frozen section diagnosis was a borderline tumor, neither confirming not ruling out cancer, the diagnosis was less accurate. The review suggests that in such situations of uncertainty, surgeons may choose to perform additional surgery in this group of women at the time of their initial surgery in order to reduce the need for a second operation, as on an average one out of five of these women were subsequently found to have cancer.\",\n \"-27.552263205085183\"\n ],\n [\n \"more likely to be diagnosed by screening tests, but improvements in diagnosing more cases of indolent cancer may not translate into better patient outcomes after the implementation of screening programs. A related concern is overdiagnosis, the tendency of screening tests to diagnose diseases that may not actually impact the patient's longevity. This problem especially applies to prostate cancer and PSA screening.\\nSome cancer researchers have argued that negative cancer clinical trials lack sufficient statistical power to discover a benefit to treatment. This may be due to fewer patients enrolled in the study than originally planned. Organizations State and regional cancer registries\",\n \"-27.54199484316632\"\n ],\n [\n \"not recommend a population screening program for prostate cancer (a program that offers testing to all men of a certain age group) as evidence does not support such a program. For men who decide to be tested it contains guidance on matters such as what age to start testing; how frequently to be tested; when to stop testing; the PSA level which should prompt further investigation; family history; and the role of the digital rectal examination. Support A central part of Prostate Cancer Foundation of Australia's activities is to support men and their families affected by prostate cancer through the\",\n \"-27.53870287151949\"\n ],\n [\n \"the diagnosis of Wilms’ tumor is confirmed by a tissue sample. In most cases, a biopsy is not done first because there is a risk of cancer cells spreading during the procedure. Treatment in North America is nephrectomy or in Europe chemotherapy followed by nephrectomy. A definitive diagnosis is obtained by pathological examination of the nephrectomy specimen. Epidemiology Wilms tumor is the most common malignant renal tumor in children. There are a number of rare genetic syndromes that have been linked to an increased risk of developing Wilms Tumor. Screening guidelines vary between countries; however health care professionals are recommending\",\n \"-27.53186916319828\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the particular tumor type. Although surgeons are able to remove parts of a single lymph node from the body to screen, it is impossible to remove every lymph node and other organs (lungs, liver, bones, etc.) to look for spread. Doctors must assume that the tumor cells have likely spread to other regions of the body if micrometastases are present in one of the lymph nodes. The presence or absence of micrometastases is crucial in choosing the right treatment option for cancer patients. \\nThe detection of micrometastases in the sentinel lymph nodes (SLN) is the primary indicator\",\n \"-27.488691266815295\"\n ],\n [\n \"others include radiation and active surveillance (i.e. \\\"watchful waiting\\\"). For intermediate and high risk prostate cancers, radical prostatectomy is often recommended in addition to other treatment options. Radical prostatectomy is not recommended in the setting of known metastases when the cancer has spread through the prostate, to the lymph nodes or other parts of the body. Prior to decision making about the best treatment option for higher risk cancers, imaging studies using CT, MRI or bone scans are done to make sure the cancer has not spread outside of the prostate. Contraindications These would be same as the contraindications for\",\n \"-27.484938122172025\"\n ],\n [\n \"addition to efficiently finding most deadly cancers, screening programs also find most non-life-threatening, asymptomatic breast cancers and pre-cancers, and miss some fast growing, aggressive, dangerous cancers. According to H. Gilbert Welch of the Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice, \\\"I'm certainly not asking anyone to stop getting mammograms. I am asking my profession to tell women the truth about overdiagnosis\\\" (Beck 2012, Article). Welch said that research on screening mammography has taken the \\\"brain-dead approach that says the best test is the one that finds the most cancers\\\" rather than the one that finds dangerous cancers (Aschwanden 2009).\\nClinicians\",\n \"-27.47523055430065\"\n ],\n [\n \"Chemotherapy is not usually used as primary treatment but may be used in advanced cases with spread to the bones, liver or lungs. It may also be given at a lower dose together with radiation therapy.\\nWomen with vulvar cancer should have routine follow-up and exams with their oncologist, often every 3 months for the first 2–3 years after treatment. They should not have routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because it is unlikely to detect a recurrence or improve survival and is associated with\",\n \"-27.44285909710873\"\n ],\n [\n \"a standard of care, but has generated information on subgroup molecular characteristics that can be used in the future for stratified or personalized therapies. Screening As of 2010 there is insufficient evidence to determine if screening for bladder cancer in people without symptoms is effective or not.\\nIn 2013 a preliminary, small study of 98 samples of urine, all from men—24 who had cancer, and 74 with bladder-related problems but no cancer yet used a gas chromatograph to successfully examine the vapor from heated urine samples to identify cancer. Prevention A 2008 study commissioned by the World Health Organisation concluded that\",\n \"-27.442339936707867\"\n ],\n [\n \"new cancer medications block specific molecular processes. Such tests could allow easier targeting of therapy to tumor. Precancerous conditions For easily detected and accessed sites, any suspicious lesions may be assessed. Originally, this was skin or superficial masses. X-ray, then later CT, MRI, and ultrasound along with endoscopy extended the range. Analysis of biopsied material After the biopsy is performed, the sample of tissue that was removed from the patient is sent to the pathology laboratory. A pathologist specializes in diagnosing diseases (such as cancer) by examining tissue under a microscope. When the laboratory (see Histology) receives the biopsy sample,\",\n \"-27.402309501056152\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the presence of tumour metastases in other parts of the body.\\nProstate cancer that is only present in the prostate is often treated with either surgical removal of the prostate or with radiotherapy or by the insertion of small radioactive particles (brachytherapy) Cancer that has spread to other parts of the body is usually treated with hormone therapy, to deprive a tumour of sex hormones (androgens) that stimulate proliferation. This is often done through the use of GnRH analogues or agents that block the receptors that androgens act at, such as bicalutamide; occasionally, surgical removal of the testes may be\",\n \"-27.39139566839731\"\n ],\n [\n \"The underlying idea is that initially advanced cancers, previously too extensive for surgery, may have responded to chemotherapy and radiation so much that they now may be operative candidates. Rather than immediately proceeding to thoracotomy based on CT or PET results, which could lead to an “open and close” thorax surgery, restaging, including invasive staging, may deselect non-responders, missed on imaging tests alone. If the initial mediastinal staging included a mediastinoscopy, most surgeons try to avoid a repeat mediastinoscopy after radiation treatment because of scarring. Although restaging by PET and CT scanning may help to provide targets for biopsies,\",\n \"-27.388118194663548\"\n ],\n [\n \"performed by urologists; radiation therapy is administered by radiation oncologists; and chemotherapy is the work of medical oncologists. In most patients with testicular cancer, the disease is cured readily with minimal long-term morbidity. While treatment success depends on the stage, the average survival rate after five years is around 95%, and stage 1 cancer cases, if monitored properly, have essentially a 100% survival rate. Testicle removal The initial treatment for testicular cancer is surgery to remove the affected testicle (orchiectomy). While it may be possible, in some cases, to remove testicular cancer tumors from a testis while leaving the testis\",\n \"-27.385696694153012\"\n ],\n [\n \"some cancer forms can harm the placenta and make the drug pass over it anyway. Some forms of skin cancer may even metastasize to the child's body.\\nDiagnosis is also made more difficult, since computed tomography is infeasible because of its high radiation dose. Still, magnetic resonance imaging works normally. However, contrast media cannot be used, since they cross the placenta.\\nAs a consequence of the difficulties to properly diagnose and treat cancer during pregnancy, the alternative methods are either to perform a Cesarean section when the child is viable in order to begin a more aggressive cancer treatment, or, if the\",\n \"-27.380303005913447\"\n ],\n [\n \"be rotated allowing multiple samples to be collected through a single skin incision. This method has become more popular than FNA, CNB, and surgical biopsies due to the benefits of low invasiveness while still obtaining a larger tissue sample. Taking more tissue helps reduce sampling error since breast lesions are often heterogeneous (cancer cells are spread unevenly) and therefore cancer can be missed if not enough tissue is taken. VABB can be guided by stereotactic (most popular), ultrasound, and MRI, and can yield as much as 2g of tissue sample. The vacuum assisted biopsy category also includes automated rotational core\",\n \"-27.370021404651652\"\n ],\n [\n \"10,000 invited to screening. False negatives Mammograms also have a rate of missed tumors, or \\\"false negatives.\\\" Accurate data regarding the number of false negatives are very difficult to obtain because mastectomies cannot be performed on every woman who has had a mammogram to determine the false negative rate. Estimates of the false negative rate depend on close follow-up of a large number of patients for many years. This is difficult in practice because many women do not return for regular mammography making it impossible to know if they ever developed a cancer. In his book The Politics of Cancer,\",\n \"-27.362252524282667\"\n ],\n [\n \"biopsy) and hysterectomy remove the whole area containing the cells that could become pre-cancerous or develop into cervical cancer. Testing in resource-poor areas Many resource-poor areas cannot provide regular screening, and must rely on infrequent screening. A study of cervical cancer screening of 131,746 women in rural India found that a single DNA test reduced the number of advanced cervical cancers and deaths over 8 years, while a single acetic acid examination or a single Pap screening did not. However, the DNA test cost US $30–40, which was unaffordable in many regions, it is time-consuming, and requires a sophisticated laboratory\",\n \"-27.355275189922395\"\n ],\n [\n \"will have to be set-up in the identical position during treatment. Many patient positioning devices have been developed for this purpose, including masks and cushions which can be molded to the patient.\\nThe response of a tumor to radiation therapy is also related to its size. Due to complex radiobiology, very large tumors respond less well to radiation than smaller tumors or microscopic disease. Various strategies are used to overcome this effect. The most common technique is surgical resection prior to radiation therapy. This is most commonly seen in the treatment of breast cancer with wide local excision or mastectomy\",\n \"-27.319932779864757\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 2015 were not conclusive, there was some evidence that screening may save lives in the long-term. As a result, the trial has been extended and will publish definitive results at the end of 2019. One major problem with screening is no clear progression of the disease from stage I (noninvasive) to stage III (invasive) is seen, and it may not be possible to find cancers before they reach stage III. Another problem is that screening methods tend to find too many suspicious lesions, most of which are not cancer, but malignancy can only be assessed with surgery. The ROCA\",\n \"-27.297725720543895\"\n ],\n [\n \"nature of tumors. Considering the invasive nature, psychological stress, and the financial burden resulting from repeated tumor biopsies in patients, biomarkers that could be judged through minimally invasive procedures, such as blood draws, constitute an opportunity for progression in precision medicine.\\nLiquid biopsy is an option that is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative to solid tumor biopsy. This is simply a blood draw that contains circulating tumor cells (CTCs) which are shed into the bloodstream from solid tumors. Patients with metastatic cancer are more likely to have detectable CTCs in the bloodstream but CTCs also exist in patients with localized\",\n \"-27.269496056345815\"\n ],\n [\n \"cord-stromal tumors. Examination Diagnosis of ovarian cancer starts with a physical examination (including a pelvic examination), a blood test (for CA-125 and sometimes other markers), and transvaginal ultrasound. Sometimes a rectovaginal examination is used to help plan a surgery. The diagnosis must be confirmed with surgery to inspect the abdominal cavity, take biopsies (tissue samples for microscopic analysis), and look for cancer cells in the abdominal fluid. This helps to determine if an ovarian mass is benign or malignant.\\nOvarian cancer's early stages (I/II) are difficult to diagnose because most symptoms are nonspecific and thus of little use in diagnosis; as\",\n \"-27.26557598105137\"\n ],\n [\n \"doctors can now treat various kind of tumors as every tissue can be easily diagnosed and introspected to study the defects and cause. Thus, we see that the ultimate scanning and visualization done by 3D ultrasound has developed better ways of treating the patients with problems like cancer, tumors and transplants. Vascular imaging Blood vessels and arteries movements are not easy to track because of their distribution due to which capturing a real-time picture becomes difficult. Diagnosis is widely used in every kind of treatment and with the 3D US, it is now possible to track dynamic movement of blood\",\n \"-27.264956461698603\"\n ],\n [\n \"to recent improvements in breast cancer treatment, and the risks of false positives from breast cancer screening leading to unnecessary treatment, \\\"it therefore no longer seems reasonable to attend for breast cancer screening\\\" at any age. Breast density Breasts are made up of breast tissue, connective tissue, and adipose (fat) tissue. The amount of each of the three types of tissue varies from woman to woman. Breast density is a measurement of relative amounts of these three tissues in a woman's breasts, as determined by their appearance on an X-ray image. Breast and connective tissues are radiographically\",\n \"-27.220955301796494\"\n ],\n [\n \"sensitive test for detecting pituitary tumors and determining their size. MRI scans may be repeated periodically to assess tumor progression and the effects of therapy. Computed Tomography (CT scan) also gives an image of the pituitary, but it is less sensitive than the MRI.\\nIn addition to assessing the size of the pituitary tumor, doctors also look for damage to surrounding tissues, and perform tests to assess whether production of other pituitary hormones is normal. Depending on the size of the tumor, the doctor may request an eye exam with measurement of visual fields. Treatments The goal of treatment is to\",\n \"-27.17142752950531\"\n ],\n [\n \"cells) and deposited material (such as type I collagen and hyaluronic acid). This creates a tumor microenvironment that is short of blood vessels (hypovascular) and so of oxygen (tumor hypoxia). It is thought that this prevents many chemotherapy drugs from reaching the tumor, as one factor making the cancer especially hard to treat. Exocrine cancers Pancreatic cancer is usually staged following a CT scan. The most widely used cancer staging system for pancreatic cancer is the one formulated by the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) together with the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC). The AJCC-UICC\",\n \"-27.138785269558866\"\n ],\n [\n \"don't present specific tumor markers. Treatment Typically none is required, but they can be treated surgically if symptomatic.\",\n \"-27.08791616446979\"\n ],\n [\n \"of immune surveillance in cancer pathogenesis. For over 50 years, scientists have argued about the role of the immune system in preventing the initiation of cancer. The original immune surveillance hypothesis proposed that tumor cells arise naturally and are normally eradicated by the immune system. Tumors would, therefore, only arise if the tumor could develop a mechanism to evade the immune system, or if the immune system were compromised. This hypothesis was directly tested in a landmark paper published by Osias Stutman (1974). In this paper, Stutman tested whether athymic, nude mice which lack an\",\n \"-27.082263595366385\"\n ],\n [\n \"any cancerous cells that may exist outside of the affected testicle. The type of adjuvant therapy depends largely on the histology of the tumor (i.e. the size and shape of its cells under the microscope) and the stage of progression at the time of surgery (i.e. how far cells have 'escaped' from the testicle, invaded the surrounding tissue, or spread to the rest of the body). If the cancer is not particularly advanced, patients may be offered careful surveillance by periodic CT scans and blood tests, in place of adjuvant treatment.\\nBefore 1970, survival rates from testicular cancer were low. Since\",\n \"-27.061359761006315\"\n ],\n [\n \"with risks to the patient. Therefore, multiple biopsies to monitor disease progression are rare and diagnostic biopsies are relied on for genetic information. This can be problematic because of tumor heterogeneity and tumor evolution. Firstly, biopsies only sample one portion of the tumor, and because tumors are heterogeneous, this will not cover the full genetic landscape of the tumor. Secondly, after treatment tumors evolve and there may be new mutations not represented in the diagnostic sample.\\nBiopsy-free tumor genotyping, by way of CAPP-Seq and ctDNA, addresses many of these issues. A simple blood test is non-invasive and much safer and easier\",\n \"-27.061137275035435\"\n ],\n [\n \"their factories to perform monthly breast self-exam, and the other half were not. The women taught self-exam detected more benign (normal or harmless lumps) or early-stage breast disease, but equal numbers of women died from breast cancer in each group.\\nBecause breast self-exam is not proven to save lives, it is no longer routinely recommended by health authorities for general use. It may be appropriate in women who have a particularly high risk of developing breast cancer. Some charitable organizations, whose donations depend on promoting fear of breast cancer, still promote this technique as a one-size-fits-all, universal screening approach,\",\n \"-27.052234827989224\"\n ],\n [\n \"Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommended against prostate-specific antigen (PSA) based screening for prostate cancer finding, \\\"there is a very small potential benefit and significant potential harms\\\" and concluding, \\\"while everyone wants to help prevent deaths from prostate cancer, current methods of PSA screening and treatment of screen-detected cancer are not the answer.\\\"\\nMore recently, Fenton's 2018 review (conducted for the USPSTF) focused on the two highest quality randomized control studies of the costs and benefits of PSA screening, and the findings illustrate the complex issues associated with cancer screening. Fenton reports that the screening of 1,000 men every four years\",\n \"-27.03494968040468\"\n ],\n [\n \"gross tumor volume while radiation among the neighboring normal tissues is decreased or avoided completely. This results in better tumor targeting, lessened side effects, and improved treatment outcomes than even 3DCRT.\\n3DCRT is still used extensively for many body sites but the use of IMRT is growing in more complicated body sites such as CNS, head and neck, prostate, breast, and lung. Unfortunately, IMRT is limited by its need for additional time from experienced medical personnel. This is because physicians must manually delineate the tumors one CT image at a time through the entire disease site which can take much longer\",\n \"-27.005964929325273\"\n ],\n [\n \"Lung cancer screening Risks of Screening Research has found that regular early screening with two other clinically available tests – sputum cytology and chest radiograph (CXR) — does not have an overall benefit. There is evidence suggesting that regular screening of high-risk smokers and former smokers may reduce the mortality in this particular group of people. More research is necessary to determine the relative risks and benefits for the general public and people who have a low risk of lung cancer.\\nCT screening has been associated with a high rate of falsely positive tests which may result in unneeded treatment. For each\",\n \"-26.985541268939414\"\n ],\n [\n \"be used to monitor response to treatment, particularly in serous cell cancer or advanced disease. Periodic MRIs or CT scans may be recommended in advanced disease and women with a history of endometrial cancer should receive more frequent pelvic examinations for the five years following treatment. Examinations conducted every three to four months are recommended for the first two years following treatment, and every six months for the next three years.\\nWomen with endometrial cancer should not have routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because\",\n \"-26.973142005688715\"\n ],\n [\n \"markers are used primarily to monitor the result of a treatment (e.g. chemotherapy). If levels of AFP go down after treatment, the tumor is not growing. In the case of babies, after treatment AFP should go down faster than it would normally. A temporary increase in AFP immediately following chemotherapy may indicate not that the tumor is growing but rather that it is shrinking (and releasing AFP as the tumor cells die). Nonseminomatous germ cell tumor In the context of evidence-based medicine, AFP is validated at the highest level as a tumor marker for use in patients\",\n \"-26.969013816127756\"\n ],\n [\n \"it may be preferable to CT.\\nFor more advanced stages of testicular cancer, and for those cases in which radiation therapy or chemotherapy was administered, the extent of monitoring (tests) after treatment will vary on the basis of the circumstances, but normally should be done for five years in uncomplicated cases and for longer in those with higher risks of relapse. Fertility A man with one remaining testis may maintain fertility. However, sperm banking may be appropriate for men who still plan to have children, since fertility may be adversely affected by chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy. A man who loses\",\n \"-26.94532026673005\"\n ],\n [\n \"is that early detection will improve outcomes. A number of screening tests have been employed, including clinical and self breast exams, mammography, genetic screening, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. The use of mammography in universal screening for breast cancer is controversial as it may not reduce all-cause mortality and for causing harms through unnecessary treatments and medical procedures. Many national organizations recommend it for most older women. Cervical cancer Cervical screening by the Pap test or other methods is highly effective at detecting and preventing cervical cancer, although there is a serious risk of overtreatment in young women up\",\n \"-26.93384432899984\"\n ],\n [\n \"the same list are often triaged; the author of this paragraph waited only a little over 3 months to see a dermatologist because of a skin problem that itched slightly once a week and was not at all urgent (in the early 2000s) in Halifax, Nova Scotia, while cumulative waiting times (including referral to medical test to appointment with a surgeon to radiation or cancer surgery) for cancer patients can be 2–3 months in areas with long waiting times. Waiting lists for cancer treatment are prioritized by level of urgency, but the triage process (while generally accurate) can occasionally assign a\",\n \"-26.89924870505456\"\n ],\n [\n \"women (called screening mammography).\\nMammography is not very useful in finding breast tumors in dense breast tissue characteristic of women under 40 years. In women over 50 without dense breasts, breast cancers detected by screening mammography are usually smaller and less aggressive than those detected by patients or doctors as a breast lump. This is because the most aggressive breast cancers are found in dense breast tissue, which mammograms perform poorly on.\\nThe presumption was that by detecting cancer in an earlier stage, women will be more likely to be cured by treatment. This assertion, however, has been challenged by recent reviews\",\n \"-26.897872412315337\"\n ],\n [\n \" In their 2018 recommendations, the USPSTF estimates that 20%-50% of men diagnosed with prostate cancer following a positive PSA screening have cancer that, even if not treated, would never grow, spread, or harm them \\nMost North American medical groups recommend individualized decisions about screening, taking into consideration the risks, benefits, and the patients' personal preferences. Lung cancer Screening studies for lung cancer have only been done in high risk populations, such as smokers and workers with occupational exposure to certain substances. In the 2010s recommendations by medical authorities are turning in favour of lung cancer screening, which is likely\",\n \"-26.880265337313176\"\n ],\n [\n \"the U.S., state and local health departments respond to more than 1,000 inquiries about suspected cancer clusters each year. It is possible that a suspected cancer cluster may be due to chance alone; however, only clusters that have a disease rate that is statistically significantly greater than the disease rate of the general population are investigated. Given the number of inquiries it is likely that many of these are due to chance alone. It is a well-known problem in interpreting data that random cases of cancer can appear to form clumps that are misinterpreted as a cluster.\\nA cluster is less\",\n \"-26.849564766831463\"\n ],\n [\n \"that are likely to be effective against the cancer. With sarcomas, staging requires a determination of whether the tumor has grown into surrounding tissues (\\\"local invasion\\\"), as well as imaging to determine whether it has spread (a process known as \\\"metastasis\\\") to lymph nodes (forming \\\"nodal metastases\\\") or to other tissues or organs in the body (forming \\\"distant metastases\\\"). \\nThe most common imaging tools used for staging bone sarcomas are MRI or CT to evaluate the primary tumor, contrast-enhanced CT of the chest to evaluate whether the cancer has spread (i.e., metastasized) to the lungs, and radioisotope bone scan to\",\n \"-26.849305172516324\"\n ],\n [\n \"faecal occult blood testing between the ages of 60 and 74 years. Prostate cancer When screening for prostate cancer, the PSA test may detect small cancers that would never become life-threatening, but once detected will lead to treatment. This situation, called overdiagnosis, puts men at risk for complications from unnecessary treatment such as surgery or radiation. Follow up procedures used to diagnose prostate cancer (prostate biopsy) may cause side effects, including bleeding and infection. Prostate cancer treatment may cause incontinence (inability to control urine flow) and erectile dysfunction (erections inadequate for intercourse). As a result, in 2012, the U.S. Preventative\",\n \"-26.8199934753211\"\n ],\n [\n \"their destruction by the complement system.\\nClearly, some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers. Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface, thus avoiding detection by killer T cells. Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response; for example by secreting the cytokine TGF-β, which suppresses the activity of macrophages and lymphocytes. In addition, immunological tolerance may develop against tumor antigens, so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells.\\nParadoxically, macrophages can promote tumor growth when tumor cells send out cytokines that attract macrophages,\",\n \"-26.81406656344916\"\n ],\n [\n \"have responded that they are unwilling to consider the possibility of leaving potential deadly cancers alone because it is \\\"far-riskier\\\" than the alternative. Eric Winer, director of the breast cancer program at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, says, \\\"I don't know anyone who offers women the option of doing nothing\\\" (Beck 2012, Article). Further complicating the issue of early diagnosis is the fact that it is currently impossible to distinguish malicious cancers from benign ones. Otis Brawley, a top official for the American Cancer Society, says that \\\"even if we overdiagnose 1 in 5, we have numerous studies showing that\",\n \"-26.791235790253268\"\n ],\n [\n \"blood of more than 80 percent of patients with metastatic cancers and about 47 percent of those with localized tumors. The test does not indicate the tumor site(s) or other information about the tumor. The test did not produce false positives.\\nSuch tests may also be useful to assess whether malignant cells remain in patients whose tumors have been surgically removed. Up to 30 percent are expected to relapse because some tumor cells remain. Initial studies identified about half the patients who later relapsed, again without false positives.\\nAnother potential use is to track the specific DNA mutations driving a tumor. Many\",\n \"-26.787889360857662\"\n ],\n [\n \"are still not well understood but different biological pathways involved in cancer have been studied suggesting that physical activity reduces cancer risk by helping weight control, reducing hormones such as estrogen and insulin, reducing inflammation and strengthening the immune system. Medication The concept that medications can be used to prevent cancer is attractive, and evidence supports their use in a few defined circumstances. In the general population, NSAIDs reduce the risk of colorectal cancer however due to the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects they cause overall harm when used for prevention. Aspirin has been found to reduce the risk of\",\n \"-26.742553942880477\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":83,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"7nhcgs"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How do icy-hot gels work?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["A lot of answers are saying \"menthol cools\", but that's wrong. Menthol produces the *sensation* of cooling without *actually* cooling, by activating the nerve receptors that would normally react to cold temperatures.","The active ingredients in Icy Hot formulations are menthol or a combination of menthol and methyl salicylate. The ingredients cause a cooling sensation followed by a warming sensation that distracts you from the pain by blocking pain signals sent to the brain. The cooling sensation dulls the pain while the warming sensation relaxes it away.","Just like how hot peppers and spicy food taste \"hot\" some chemicals can make your skin feel cold. There temperature isn't changing, but your skin feels like it is. These hot/cold sensations can interfere with pain receptors so they're an effective analgesic (substance that makes you hurt less) for muscle and joint pain. Deeper dive, [cold recpectors]( URL_0 )","There is a particular family of receptors that react to compounds like menthol and capcasin. They transmit temperature signals as well as pain signals. They submit the information of heating or cooling from external sources to your brain. You brain, therefore interprets the binding of menthol or capcasin as a cooling/heating event on your extremities or skin. The relationship to pain is not well understood, but these receptors can also transmit pain signals. It is thought that loading these receptors up with the temperature-related compounds keep them from transmitting a pain signal as they are now more actively transmitting the temperature specific signals to the brain.","Follow-up question: is it possible to burn yourself with an overapplication of menthol?","As people have said the chemicals stimulate the nerve ending in the area. The way this blocks pain is by bombarding those same nerve endings with signals that tell you its hot or cold, instead of pain. This is because the nerve can basically only send one type of signal at a time, and will send the strong signal first. If you're interested in understanding pain pathways look at ascending and descending pain pathways, for a deeper understanding.","The creams such as Deep-heat are called counter-irritants. They cause the skin to react to a chemical inside the gel/cream. This only affects the surface of the skin, and causes a heating effect on the area","It’s basically a chemical burn/reaction with your skin. Doesn’t actually do anything except makes you think it’s doing something."],"string":"[\n \"A lot of answers are saying \\\"menthol cools\\\", but that's wrong. Menthol produces the *sensation* of cooling without *actually* cooling, by activating the nerve receptors that would normally react to cold temperatures.\",\n \"The active ingredients in Icy Hot formulations are menthol or a combination of menthol and methyl salicylate. The ingredients cause a cooling sensation followed by a warming sensation that distracts you from the pain by blocking pain signals sent to the brain. The cooling sensation dulls the pain while the warming sensation relaxes it away.\",\n \"Just like how hot peppers and spicy food taste \\\"hot\\\" some chemicals can make your skin feel cold. There temperature isn't changing, but your skin feels like it is. These hot/cold sensations can interfere with pain receptors so they're an effective analgesic (substance that makes you hurt less) for muscle and joint pain. Deeper dive, [cold recpectors]( URL_0 )\",\n \"There is a particular family of receptors that react to compounds like menthol and capcasin. They transmit temperature signals as well as pain signals. They submit the information of heating or cooling from external sources to your brain. You brain, therefore interprets the binding of menthol or capcasin as a cooling/heating event on your extremities or skin. The relationship to pain is not well understood, but these receptors can also transmit pain signals. It is thought that loading these receptors up with the temperature-related compounds keep them from transmitting a pain signal as they are now more actively transmitting the temperature specific signals to the brain.\",\n \"Follow-up question: is it possible to burn yourself with an overapplication of menthol?\",\n \"As people have said the chemicals stimulate the nerve ending in the area. The way this blocks pain is by bombarding those same nerve endings with signals that tell you its hot or cold, instead of pain. This is because the nerve can basically only send one type of signal at a time, and will send the strong signal first. If you're interested in understanding pain pathways look at ascending and descending pain pathways, for a deeper understanding.\",\n \"The creams such as Deep-heat are called counter-irritants. They cause the skin to react to a chemical inside the gel/cream. This only affects the surface of the skin, and causes a heating effect on the area\",\n \"It’s basically a chemical burn/reaction with your skin. Doesn’t actually do anything except makes you think it’s doing something.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["gel that can be activated by twisting the package, thus triggering a chemical reaction. The pack can be put in a pot of boiling water to convert the chemical reaction back and allow it to be reused. While these products are commonly called \"hand warmers\", they can be placed in boots or, with special garments such as vests, in cloth pockets on the inside of the garment. The warmth produced by these tends to be lowest among the above heating methods. Related Product Base on the heating systems, heated jacket manufacturer developed some related products like: heated gloves, heated cusion,","-34.18395516113378"],["cooled or the external environment also heats the tubing, a single long tube may not be enough because the liquid becomes saturated with heat and cannot cool any further. Making the liquid much colder is not an option since it leads to uncomfortable coldness where the liquid enters the tubes. Instead, multiple parallel tubes are used to increase the volume of liquid available to absorb heat.\nSkin coverage and tubing density can vary depending on the application. The garment may simply be a short-sleeved shirt, or it may be a full-body suit covering the arms and legs. Where the heat removal","-32.76685910427477"],["gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum protein, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used. Low melting and gelling temperature agaroses The melting and gelling temperatures of agarose can be modified by chemical modifications, most commonly by hydroxyethylation, which reduces the number of intrastrand hydrogen bonds, resulting in lower melting and setting temperatures than standard agaroses. The exact temperature is determined by the degree of substitution, and many available low-melting-point (LMP) agaroses can remain fluid at 30–35 °C (86–95 °F) range. This property allows enzymatic manipulations to be","-32.38821537583135"],["on a support and evaporating the organic solvent or water carrier, usually in a hot air dryer. The dry adhesive may be further heated to initiate a cross-linking reaction and increase molecular weight. 100% solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase molecular weight and form the adhesive (radiation cured PSA); or they may be high-viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity enough to allow coating, and then cooled to their final form (hot melt PSA, HMPSA). Composition PSAs are usually based on an elastomer compounded with a suitable tackifier","-32.164572773326654"],["to one minute. Hot melt adhesives can also be applied by dipping or spraying, and are popular with hobbyists and crafters both for affixing and as an inexpensive alternative to resin casting.\nIn industrial use, hot melt adhesives provide several advantages over solvent-based adhesives. Volatile organic compounds are reduced or eliminated, and the drying or curing step is eliminated. Hot melt adhesives have long shelf life and usually can be disposed of without special precautions. Some of the disadvantages involve thermal load of the substrate, limiting use to substrates not sensitive to higher temperatures, and loss of bond strength at higher","-32.085542004249874"],["heating pads, hand warmers, and hot ice. Sodium acetate trihydrate crystals melt at 136.4 °F/58 °C (to 137.12 °F/58.4 °C), dissolving in their water of crystallization. When they are heated past the melting point and subsequently allowed to cool, the aqueous solution becomes supersaturated. This solution is capable of cooling to room temperature without forming crystals. By pressing on a metal disc within the heating pad, a nucleation center is formed, causing the solution to crystallize back into solid sodium acetate trihydrate. The bond-forming process of crystallization is exothermic. The latent heat of fusion is about 264–289 kJ/kg. Unlike some types of heat packs, such","-31.702896773262182"],["in place (unless incorrectly oversized or not properly shrunk) by its tight fit.\nSome types of heat-shrink contain a layer of thermoplastic adhesive on the inside to help provide a good seal and better adhesion, while others rely on friction between the closely conforming materials. Heating non-adhesive shrink tube to very near the melting point may allow it to fuse to the underlying material as well.\nHeatshrink tubing is sometimes sold in pre-cut lengths, with a solder blob at the center of the length, as this configuration is specified by Daimler-Benz for automotive electrical repairs.\nOne application that has used heatshrink in large","-31.57170255872188"],["out at much lower temperatures than the traditional melting methods. It involves the creation of a solution (sol), which is composed of metal-organic and metal salt precursors. A gel is then formed through hydrolysis and condensation reactions, and it undergoes thermal treatment for drying, oxide formation, and organic removal. Because of the lower fabrication temperatures used in this method, there is a greater level of control on the composition and homogeneity of the product. In addition, sol-gel bioglasses have much higher porosity, which leads to a greater surface area and degree of integration in the body.\nThe third method is microwave","-31.529721841099672"],["through which biomolecules can pass. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state. The melting temperature is different from the gelling temperature, depending on the sources, agarose gel has a gelling temperature of 35–42 °C and a melting temperature of 85–95 °C. Low-melting and low-gelling agaroses made through chemical modifications are also available.\nAgarose gel has large pore size and good gel strength, making it suitable as an anticonvection medium for the electrophoresis of DNA and large protein molecules. The pore size of a 1% gel has been estimated from","-31.479784480965463"],["which gels at around −12 °C (10 °F), is currently being investigated as a means of improving cold weather starting. However, oils with lower gelling points tend to be less saturated (leading to a higher iodine number) and polymerize more easily in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. Material compatibility Polymerization also has been consequentially linked to catastrophic component failures such as injection pump shaft seizure and breakage, injector tip failure leading to various and/or combustion chamber components damaged. Most metallurgical problems such as corrosion and electrolysis are related to water based contamination or poor choices of plumbing (such as copper or Zinc)","-31.45716466891463"],["long time, so there is less need for clamps. Hot Hot adhesives, also known as hot melt adhesives, are thermoplastics applied in molten form (in the 65–180 °C range) which solidify on cooling to form strong bonds between a wide range of materials. Ethylene-vinyl acetate-based hot-melts are particularly popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials they can join. A glue gun (shown at right) is one method of applying hot adhesives. The glue gun melts the solid adhesive, then allows the liquid to pass through its barrel onto the material, where it","-31.398615250713192"],["finding increased use in spinal fusion devices and reinforcing rods. It is extensively used in the aerospace, automotive, and chemical process industries. PEEK seals and manifolds are commonly used in fluid applications. PEEK also performs well in applications where continuous high temperatures (up to 500 °F/260 °C) are common. Because of this and its low thermal conductivity, it is also used in FFF printing to thermally separate the hot end from the cold end. Processing options PEEK melts at a relatively high temperature (343 °C / 649.4 °F) compared to most other thermoplastics. In the range of its melting temperature it can be processed","-31.12952418642817"],["requirement is low, the tubing may be spaced several centimeters apart across the garment surface. Where there is a very large amount of heat to remove, the tubing can be arranged in a dense grid with no gaps between the tubes. Heat exchanger For portable earthbound applications, the heat exchanger for cooling the liquid can be very low-tech, consisting simply of a container for holding ice, and an electric pump to circulate water from the container through the tubing. The return water is cooled by the melting ice and again pumped through the tubes. Regulation of flow is done by","-31.037362355564255"],["to an environment with a lower temperature.\nCoolants are fluids used to cool objects, prevent freezing and prevent erosion in machines.\nAir cooling is the process of cooling an object by exposing it to air. This will only work if the air is at a lower temperature than the object, and the process can be enhanced by increasing the surface area or decreasing the mass of the object.\nAnother common method of cooling is exposing an object to ice, dry ice, or liquid nitrogen. This works by convection; the heat is transferred from the relatively warm object to the relatively cold coolant.\nLaser cooling","-30.843151636740004"],["shapes, the warm film will be physically pushed down partially into the cavity by a \"plug-assist\" feature. Plug-assist results in a blister cavity with more uniform wall distribution and is typically used when the cavity size and shape is larger than a small tablets and cables. Cold forming In the case of cold forming, an aluminum-based laminate film is simply pressed into a mold by means of a stamp. The aluminum will be elongated and maintain the formed shape. In the industry these blisters are called cold form foil (CFF) blisters. The principal advantage of cold form foil blisters is","-30.637123318680096"],["is converted with ammonia to carboxylic acid amide. These pectins are more tolerant of varying calcium concentrations that occur in use.\nTo prepare a pectin-gel, the ingredients are heated, dissolving the pectin. Upon cooling below gelling temperature, a gel starts to form. If gel formation is too strong, syneresis or a granular texture are the result, while weak gelling leads to excessively soft gels.\nAmidated pectins behave like low-ester pectins but need less calcium and are more tolerant of excess calcium. Also, gels from amidated pectin are thermo-reversible; they can be heated and after cooling solidify again, whereas conventional pectin-gels will afterwards","-30.562068336366792"],["the inclusion of polymers which stabilize protein (e.g. PEG).\nOther products fabricated with this process include various ceramic membranes for microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, pervaporation, and reverse osmosis. If the liquid in a wet gel is removed under a supercritical condition, a highly porous and extremely low density material called aerogel is obtained. Drying the gel by means of low temperature treatments (25-100 °C), it is possible to obtain porous solid matrices called xerogels. In addition, a sol–gel process was developed in the 1950s for the production of radioactive powders of UO₂ and ThO₂ for nuclear fuels, without generation of large quantities of","-30.54066205280833"],["to a liquid state. Properties Agarose is available as a white powder which dissolves in near-boiling water, and forms a gel when it cools. Agarose exhibits the phenomenon of thermal hysteresis in its liquid-to-gel transition, i.e. it gels and melts at different temperatures. The gelling and melting temperatures vary depending on the type of agarose. Standard agaroses derived from Gelidium has a gelling temperature of 34–38 °C (93–100 °F) and a melting temperature of 90–95 °C (194–203 °F), while those derived from Gracilaria, due to its higher methoxy substituents, has a gelling temperature of 40–52 °C (104–126 °F) and melting temperature of 85–90 °C (185–194 °F).","-30.505289023858495"],["to the front. This allows the plastic beads to melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel and lowers the risk of overheating which may cause degradation in the polymer.\nExtra heat is contributed by the intense pressure and friction taking place inside the barrel. In fact, if an extrusion line is running certain materials fast enough, the heaters can be shut off and the melt temperature maintained by pressure and friction alone inside the barrel. In most extruders, cooling fans are present to keep the temperature below a set value if too much heat is generated. If forced air","-30.43594274937641"],["liquid electrolytes used in conventional wet cells and AGMs, which makes them suitable for use in extreme conditions.\nThe only downside to the gel design is that the gel prevents rapid motion of the ions in the electrolyte, which reduces carrier mobility and thus surge current capability. For this reason, gel cells are most commonly found in energy storage applications like off-grid systems. \"Maintenance free\", \"sealed\" and \"VRLA\" Both gel and AGM designs are sealed, do not require watering, can be used in any orientation, and use a valve for gas blowoff. For this reason, both designs can be called maintenance","-30.336537151772063"],["aluminium, to create a series of finned chambers. Separate hot and cold fluid streams flow through alternating layers of the heat exchanger and are enclosed at the edges by side bars.\n Heat is transferred from one stream through the fin interface to the separator plate and through the next set of fins into the adjacent fluid. The fins also serve to increase the structural integrity of the heat exchanger and allow it to withstand high pressures while providing an extended surface area for heat transfer.\nA high degree of flexibility is present in plate-fin heat exchanger design as they can operate","-30.331903597223572"],["Heat-shrink tubing Use The unshrunk tubing is fitted on the wire before making the connection, then slid down to cover the joint after it is made. If the fit is tight, silicone lubricant can be applied without compromising the heat-shrink material. The tubing is then shrunk to wrap tightly around the joint by heating in an oven or with a hot air gun or other source of hot gas flow. Convenient but less consistent methods for shrinking the tube include a soldering iron held close to but not touching the tube, or the heat from a lighter. Uncontrolled heat can","-30.252990742919792"],["gels have been used in Tissue Engineering. This involves mixing at room temperature the thermoresponsive polymer in solution with the cells and then inject the solution to the body. Due to the temperature increase (to body temperature) the polymer creates a physical gel. Within this physical gel the cells are encapsulated. Tailoring the temperature that the polymer solution gels can be challenging because this depend by many factors like the polymer composition, architecture as well as the molar mass. Cloud point Experimentally, the phase separation can be followed by turbidimetry. There is no universal approach for determining the cloud point","-30.24169100218569"],["metal cations, while the second is cross-linked with covalent bonds. This hydrogel is then paired with a pNIPAM network for toughening and thermal actuation. In lab testing, this gel showed a shape recovery of 41%-49% when the temperature increased 20–60 °C (68–140 °F), and then was restored to 20 °C. A fluid controlling smart valve printed from this material was designed to close when touching hot water and open when touching cold water. The valve successfully stayed open in cold water and reduced the flow rate of hot water by 99%. This new type of 4D-printed hydrogel is more mechanically robust than other","-30.173077371553518"],["contained water and recreates a supersaturated solution. Once the pad has returned to room temperature it can be triggered again. Triggering the pad before it has reached room temperature results in the pad reaching a lower peak temperature, as compared to waiting until it had completely cooled. High specific-heat capacity materials Heating packs can also be made by filling a container with a material that has a high specific heat capacity, which then gradually releases the heat over time. A hot water bottle is the most familiar example of this type of heating pad.\nA microwavable heating pad","-30.15277229534695"],["in cosmetics, food processing, and lubrication. Those gels are used in drug delivery, to trap active enzymes and bacteria inside them. Furthermore, the basis of certain technologies, producing valves, clutches, and dampers, rely on the multi-responsive nature of metallogels to electric and magnetic stimuli.\nA recent study on metal organic gels involving Cadmium and Zinc ion shows promising results to absorb dyes, which emulates the ability of natural systems to get rid of toxic material that are difficult to decompose.","-30.13771659741178"],["bond mechanically to the substrate to form a coating. The critical velocity needed to form bonding depends on the material's properties, powder size and temperature. Metals, polymers, ceramics, composite materials and nanocrystalline powders can be deposited using cold spraying.\nSoft metals such as Cu and Al are best suited for cold spraying, but coating of other materials (W, Ta, Ti, MCrAlY, WC–Co, etc.) by cold spraying has been reported.\nThe deposition efficiency is typically low for alloy powders, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used.","-30.095380553219"],["would not continue to diffuse into the center of the sphere, therefore would not create a gel center. Longer storage time could be obtained for this product accordingly.\nBoth the liquid for consumption and the alginate bath should be left to stand after preparing to eliminate air bubbles. Air bubbles inside the liquid could result in the inability of the flavourful liquid to sink when dropping into the alginate bath, creating uneven skin and weak spots in the skin. Important factors for Reverse Spherification There are two factors that need to be or can be adjusted for successful Reverse Spherification. The","-30.071972918405663"],["still warm may have the same effect and it is generally preferable for surfaces to cool below about 40°C before opening to traffic. The preferred method of compaction is to use heavy, non-vibrating, steel-wheeled rollers. If these are not available, vibrating rollers may be used but vibration\nshould be kept to a minimum to avoid fracture of coarse aggregate particles, or drawing of binder to the surface of the mix. The use of polymer modified binder may decrease mix workability and necessitate increased compactive effort to achieve high standards of compacted density. Achieving high standards of compacted density","-30.006298370833974"],["water. Swelling (and de-swelling) distinguishes NC gels from conventionally-made hydrogels (OR gels) as it is a property that OR gels lack. The swelling property of NC gels allows them to collect the surrounding aqueous solution instead of being dissolved by it, which helps make them good candidates for drug delivery carriers. Stimulus sensitivity Nanocomposite hydrogels are observed to be temperature sensitive and will change temperature when their surrounding is altered. Inorganic salts, when absorbed, will result in changing the hydrogels to a lower temperature whereas cat-ionic surfactant will shift the temperature the other way. The temperature of these hydrogels are","-29.98924700905627"],["Gelation is influenced by temperature, polymer concentration, and solvent properties. Temperature regulates the structure of the fiber network: low gelation temperature results in formation of nanoscale fiber networks while high gelation temperature leads to the formation of a platelet-like structure. Polymer concentration affects fiber properties: an increase in polymer concentration decreases porosity and increases mechanical properties such as tensile strength. Solvent properties influence morphology of the scaffolds. After gelation, gel is placed in distilled water for solvent exchange. Afterwards, the gel is removed from the water and goes through freezing and freeze-drying. It is then stored in a desiccator until","-29.983209257145063"],["Chemical Disposable chemical pads employ a one-time exothermic chemical reaction. One type, frequently used for hand warmers, is triggered by unwrapping an air-tight packet containing slightly moist iron powder and salt or catalysts which rusts over a period of hours after being exposed to oxygen in the air. Another type contains separate compartments within the pad; when the user squeezes the pad, a barrier ruptures and the compartments mix, producing heat such as the enthalpy change of solution of calcium chloride dissolving.\nThe most common reusable heat pads contain a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate in water. Crystallization is triggered","-29.967255343319266"],["and new-generation adhesives that are formulated to provide performance under more-demanding pipeline conditions. Polyolefin Backing Heat-shrinkable means just that, heat them up and they shrink, or more correctly, they recover in length. A heat-shrinkable sleeve starts out with a thick extruded poly olefin sheet (polyethylene or polypropylene) that is formulated to be cross-linkable. After extruding the thick sheet, it is taken to the \"beam\" where it is passed under a unit that subjects the sheet to electron irradiation. The irradiation process cross-links the polyolefin. This improves the molecular structure such that the polyolefin will work as","-29.93318825296592"],["as NASA does. The resulting aerogels are very effective thermal insulators because of their high porosity with very small pores (in the nanometre range). Conduction of heat through the gas phase is poor, and as the structure greatly inhibits movement of air molecules through the structure, heat transfer through the material is poor, as can be seen in the image at right where heat from a Bunsen burner transfers so poorly that crayons resting on the aerogel do not melt. Due to their low density, aerogels have also been used to capture interstellar dust particles with minimal heat changes in","-29.89706134557491"],["by any means. Application of further heating will not “melt” the coating and thus it is known as a “thermoset” coating. History Since their introduction as a protective coating in early 1960s, FBE coating formulations had gone through vast improvements and developments. Today, various types of FBE coatings, which are tailor made to meet various requirements are available. FBEs are available as stand-alone coatings as well as a part in multi-layers. FBE coatings with different properties are available to suit coating application on the main body of pipe, internal surfaces, girth welds as well as on fittings. Surface preparation—blast cleaning","-29.896890248404816"],["a package of silica gel desiccant. Another technique is to insert a hypodermic needle into the opening of a tube. After using the glue, residual glue soon clogs the needle, keeping moisture out. The clog is removed by heating the needle (e.g. with a lighter) before use. The polymerisation is also temperature-dependent: storage below freezing point of water, 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K), stops the reaction, so keeping it in the freezer is also effective. Behaviours Cyanoacrylates are mainly used as adhesives. They require some care and knowledge for effective use: they do not bond some materials; they do not fill spaces,","-29.885041682493465"],["temperatures, and wind conditions. Chemical Chemical reaction-based garments have cloth pouches or pockets, where single-use packages of chemical hand warmers can be inserted. The warmers are about the size of a package of cards, and they contain chemicals which produce heat. One traditional hand warmer is a small metal box containing charcoal which, when lit, burns very slowly and produces a mild heat. Disposable heat packs typically contain cellulose, iron, water, activated carbon, vermiculite, and salt. When these packs are exposed to air, an exothermic chemical reaction occurs, which provides several hours of heat. Another chemical heating pad uses a","-29.878017013630597"],["Heating pad A heating pad is a pad used for warming of parts of the body in order to manage pain. Localized application of heat causes the blood vessels in that area to dilate, enhancing perfusion to the targeted tissue. Types of heating pads include electrical, chemical and hot water bottles.\nSpecialized heating pads (mats) are also used in other settings. Heat mats in plant propagation stimulates seed germination and root development; they operate at cooler temperatures. Heat mats also are available in the pet trade, especially as warming spots for reptiles such as lizards and snakes. Electrical Electric pads","-29.87377978733275"],["not add mechanical strength to the bond between heat source and heat sink. It will have to be coupled with a mechanical fixation mechanism such as screws, applying pressure between the two, spreading the thermal grease onto the heat source. Composition Thermal grease consists of a polymerizable liquid matrix and large volume fractions of electrically insulating, but thermally conductive filler. Typical matrix materials are epoxies, silicones, urethanes, and acrylates; solvent-based systems, hot-melt adhesives, and pressure-sensitive adhesive tapes are also available. Aluminum oxide, boron nitride, zinc oxide, and increasingly aluminum nitride are used as fillers for these types of adhesives. The","-29.873044394254975"],["air handlers outside, or systems that must cool below the freezing temperature of water. In geothermal heating/cooling systems, ethylene glycol is the fluid that transports heat through the use of a geothermal heat pump. The ethylene glycol either gains energy from the source (lake, ocean, water well) or dissipates heat to the sink, depending on whether the system is being used for heating or cooling.\nPure ethylene glycol has a specific heat capacity about one half that of water. So, while providing freeze protection and an increased boiling point, ethylene glycol lowers the specific heat capacity of water mixtures","-29.835938551579602"],["subject discusses the use of hydrogels for nucleus pulposus replacement, cartilage replacement, and synthetic tissue models. Applications Many substances can form gels when a suitable thickener or gelling agent is added to their formula. This approach is common in manufacture of wide range of products, from foods to paints and adhesives.\nIn fiber optics communications, a soft gel resembling hair gel in viscosity is used to fill the plastic tubes containing the fibers. The main purpose of the gel is to prevent water intrusion if the buffer tube is breached, but the gel also buffers the fibers against mechanical damage when","-29.816834314056905"],["Liquid cooling and ventilation garment A liquid cooling garment (LCG) is a form-fitting garment that is used to remove body heat from the wearer in environments where evaporative cooling from sweating and open-air convection cooling does not work, or the wearer has a biological problem that hinders self-regulation of body temperature.\nA liquid cooling and ventilation garment (LCVG) has additional crush-resistant ventilation ducts, which draw moist air from the wearer's extremities, keeping the wearer dry. In a fully enclosing suit where exhaled breathing air can enter the suit, the exhaled air is moist and can lead to an uncomfortable feeling of","-29.807875819620676"],["which emits an oscillating electromagnetic field. As the container passes under the induction coil (sealing head) the conductive aluminum foil liner begins to heat due to eddy currents. The heat melts the wax, which is absorbed into the pulp backing and releases the foil from the cap. The polymer film also heats and flows onto the lip of the container. When cooled, the polymer creates a bond with the container resulting in a hermetically sealed product. Neither the container nor its contents are negatively affected, and the heat generated does not harm the contents.\nIt is possible to overheat the foil","-29.75459084950853"],["Concentric tube heat exchanger Concentric tube Heat Exchangers are used in a variety of industries for purposes such as material processing, food preparation, and air-conditioning. They create a temperature driving force by passing fluid streams of different temperatures parallel to each other, separated by a physical boundary in the form of a pipe. This induces forced convection, transferring heat to/from the product. Theory The thermodynamic behaviour of concentric tube heat exchangers can be described by both empirical and numerical analysis. The simplest of these involve the use of correlations to model heat transfer; however the accuracy of these predictions varies","-29.750033125150367"],["with axons in the trigeminal (V) nerve, accounts for its use in numerous toiletries including toothpaste, shaving lotions, facial creams and the like.\nAnother molecular component of cold transduction is the temperature dependence of so-called leak channels which pass an outward current carried by potassium ions. Some leak channels derive from the family of two-pore (2P) domain potassium channels. Amongst the various members of the 2P-domain channels, some close quite promptly at temperatures less than about 28°C (e.g. TRAAK, TREK). Temperature also modulates the activity of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. The Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase is a P-type pump that extrudes 3Na⁺ ions in","-29.748356556519866"],["the surface area available for heat exchange with the surroundings, a radiator will have multiple fins, in contact with the tube carrying liquid pumped through the radiator. Air (or other exterior fluid) in contact with the fins carries off heat. If air flow is obstructed by dirt or damage to the fins, that portion of the radiator is ineffective at heat transfer. Heating Radiators are commonly used to heat buildings. In a central heating system, hot water or sometimes steam is generated in a central boiler and circulated by pumps through radiators within the building, where this heat is","-29.73928591416916"],["such as deposition time and nucleation potential.\nSol-gel process is a commonly used solution-based process which can produce glass and ceramic materials of different shapes. In this process, the reactants (usually metal salts or metal organic compounds) go through a series of hydrolysis and condensation reactions and form colloidal or polymeric sols, followed by an aging process to convert the sols into gels. Then gels are then desiccated drying under supercritical conditions and converted into aerogel. This is a cheap technique avoiding the requirement of high temperature, enabling fine controls in chemical composition as well as lowest concentration of dopants. But","-29.70842935622204"],["heat transfer between the heat source and the cooling fluid by way of conducting the heat current in an optimal manner. The two most attractive advantages of this method are that no additional pumping power and no extra heat transfer surface area, that is quite different from fins (extended surfaces). Surface color The heat transfer from the heat sink occurs by convection of the surrounding air, conduction through the air, and radiation.\nHeat transfer by radiation is a function of both the heat sink temperature, and the temperature of the surroundings that the heat sink is optically coupled with. When both","-29.68236662587151"],["cause uneven shrinkage, physical damage and insulation failure, and these methods are not recommended by heatshrink suppliers. If overheated, heat-shrink tubing can melt, scorch or catch fire like any other plastic. Heating causes the tubing to contract to between half and one sixth of its original diameter, depending on the material used, providing a snug fit over irregularly shaped joints. There is also longitudinal shrinking, usually unwanted and to a lesser extent than narrowing, of typically around 6%. The tubing provides good electrical insulation, protection from dust, solvents and other foreign materials, and mechanical strain relief, and is mechanically held","-29.607956889783964"],["the coolant as a liquid. Use of NaK overcomes this. The Dounreay Fast Reactor is an example.\nThe Soviet RORSAT radar satellites were powered by a BES-5 reactor, which was cooled with NaK. In addition to the wide liquid temperature range, NaK has a very low vapor pressure, which is important in the vacuum of space.\nAn unintended consequence of the usage as a coolant on orbiting satellites has been the creation of additional space debris. NaK coolant has leaked from a number of satellites, including Kosmos 1818 and Kosmos 1867. The coolant self-forms into frozen droplets of solid sodium-potassium of","-29.603320702764904"],["has also been proposed in a form of nanosurgery to separate one tissue from another—for example a tumor from the tissue in which it has grown. Heat transfer An external magnetic field imposed on a ferrofluid with varying susceptibility (e.g., because of a temperature gradient) results in a nonuniform magnetic body force, which leads to a form of heat transfer called thermomagnetic convection. This form of heat transfer can be useful when conventional convection heat transfer is inadequate; e.g., in miniature microscale devices or under reduced gravity conditions.\nFerrofluids of suitable composition can exhibit extremely large enhancement in thermal conductivity","-29.581117203397298"],["thermal radiation may be minimized by silvering flask surfaces facing the gap but can become problematic if the flask's contents or surroundings are very hot; hence vacuum flasks usually hold contents below the boiling point of water. Most heat transfer occurs through the neck and opening of the flask, where there is no vacuum. Vacuum flasks are usually made of metal, borosilicate glass, foam or plastic and have their opening stoppered with cork or polyethylene plastic. Vacuum flasks are often used as insulated shipping containers.\nExtremely large or long vacuum flasks sometimes cannot fully support the inner flask from the neck","-29.575212575909973"],["heat generation and thus the gel temperature is much lower than with TBE/TAE buffers, therefore the voltage can be increased to speed up electrophoresis so that a gel run takes only a fraction of the usual time. Downstream applications, such as isolation of DNA from a gel slice or Southern blot analysis, work as expected with lithium boric acid gels. \nSB buffer containing sodium borate is similar to lithium borate and has nearly all of its advantages at a somewhat lower cost, but the lithium buffer permits use of even higher voltages due to the lower conductivity of lithium ions","-29.574581518456398"],[" The melting and gelling temperatures may be dependent on the concentration of the gel, particularly at low gel concentration of less than 1%. The gelling and melting temperatures are therefore given at a specified agarose concentration.\nNatural agarose contains uncharged methyl groups and the extent of methylation is directly proportional to the gelling temperature. Synthetic methylation however have the reverse effect, whereby increased methylation lowers the gelling temperature. A variety of chemically modified agaroses with different melting and gelling temperatures are available through chemical modifications.\nThe agarose in the gel forms a meshwork that contains pores, and the","-29.553886272013187"],["of getting the desired outcome are, for the removal of impurities from a mixture or, for the isolation of solids from a mixture.\nHot filtration method is mainly used to separate solids from a hot solution. This is done in order to prevent crystal formation in the filter funnel and other apparatuses that comes in contact with the solution. As a result, the apparatus and the solution used are heated in order to prevent the rapid decrease in temperature which in turn, would lead to the crystallization of the solids in the funnel and hinder the filtration process.\nOne of the most","-29.480810455454048"],["buffers. The hydrogels also can adhere to various plastics due to hydrophobic interactions. Both findings suggest the use of these hydrogels as a sealant for vessels containing corrosive acids. No commercial applications currently exist for implementation of this technology. Derivatives Drying of hydrogels under controlled circumstances may yield xerogels and aerogels. A xerogel is a solid that retains significant porosity (15-50%) with a very small pore size (1–10 nm). In an aerogel, the porosity is somewhat higher and the pores are more than an order of magnitude larger, resulting in an ultra-low-density material with a low thermal conductivity and an almost","-29.462357547308784"],["(above the crystalline melting point of the material) by the end user, the tubing shrinks back to its original extruded size.\nThe material is often cross-linked through the use of electron beams, peroxides, or moisture. This cross-linking creates the memory in the tubing so that it is able to shrink back to its original extruded dimensions upon heating, producing a material called heat-shrink tubing.\nFor outdoor use, heat-shrink tubing often has a UV stabiliser added. Types Heat-shrink tubing is available in a variety of colors for color-coding of wires and connections. In the early twenty-first century heat-shrink tubing started to be used","-29.439471562218387"],["Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger Introduction The most important technologies for indirect heat transfer use tubes (shell-and-tube exchangers) or flat surfaces (plate exchangers). Their goal is to exchange the maximum amount of heat per unit area by generating as much turbulence as possible below given pumping power limits. Typical approaches to achieve this consist of corrugating the tubes or plates or extending their surface with fins.\nHowever, these geometry conformation technologies, the calculation of optimum mass flows and other turbulence related factors become diminished when fouling appears, obliging designers to fit significantly larger heat transfer areas. There are","-29.43720498002949"],["usually operate from household current and must have protection against overheating.\nA moist heating pad is used dry on the user's skin. These pads register temperatures from 76 to 82 °C (169 to 180 °F) and are intended for deep tissue treatment and can be dangerous if left on unattended. Moist heating pads are used mainly by physical therapists but can be found for home use. A moist cloth can be added with a stupe cover to add more moisture to the treatment.\nAn electric heating pouch is similar in form to an electric heating pad, but is curved to wrap around a joint.","-29.430026329835528"],["Tub Products, Inc.\nSince its inception, the ThermoSpas has been known for development and use of technology such as a patented control therapy system that allows each person in a hot tub to have a personalized therapeutic experience in addition to various filtration systems that help purify water used in a hot tub. Products ThermoSpas sells pre-designed hot tubs as well as personally designed hot tubs for personal use. In addition to personal hot tubs, ThermoSpas is known for healing spas and swim spa trainers. It is also attributed as the first to develop a healing spa specifically for arthritis sufferers,","-29.429636097629555"],["Thermally conductive pad In computing and electronics, thermal pads (also called thermally conductive pad or thermal interface pad) are a pre-formed square or rectangle of solid material (often paraffin wax or silicone based) commonly found on the underside of heatsinks to aid the conduction of heat away from the component being cooled (such as a CPU or another chip) and into the heatsink (usually made from aluminium or copper). Thermal pads and thermal compound are used to fill air gaps caused by imperfectly flat or smooth surfaces which should be in thermal contact; they would not be needed between perfectly","-29.423651946628524"],["are typically assembled in this way. Alternatively, the enveloped part may be cooled before assembly such that it slides easily into its mating part. Upon warming, it expands and interferes. Cooling is often preferable as it is less likely than heating to change material properties, e.g., assembling a hardened gear onto a shaft, where the risk exists of heating the gear too much and drawing its temper.","-29.35851847473532"],["exchange fins in areas where cooling due to air expansion is a problem, such as around the second stage valve seat on some regulators.\nCold water kits can be used to reduce the risk of freezing inside the regulator. Some regulators come with this as standard, and some others can be retrofitted. Environmental sealing of the diaphragm main spring chamber using a soft secondary diaphragm and hydrostatic transmitter or a silicone, alcohol or glycol/water mixture antifreeze liquid in the sealed spring compartment can be used for a diaphragm regulator. Silicone grease in the spring chamber can be used on a piston","-29.342599953641184"],["platelets are plasma-sprayed onto an aluminium foil. This allows tight folding of the heat-shield through 180°, whilst still maintaining thermal protection.\nZircoflex is 0.25mm thick and lightweight at 460g/m². The heat-shield is useful at temperatures up to 500 °C. Composite Coatings Zircotec offers a plasma-sprayed ceramic coating specifically for composite materials. Commonly used on CFRP, this coating protects against heat, fire and abrasion.","-29.30229580940795"],["ceramic, and metallic nanomaterials can be incorporated within the hydrogel structure to obtain nanocomposites with tailored functionality. Nanocomposite hydrogels can be engineered to possess superior physical, chemical, electrical, and biological properties. Properties Many gels display thixotropy – they become fluid when agitated, but resolidify when resting.\nIn general, gels are apparently solid, jelly-like materials. It is a type of non-Newtonian fluid.\nBy replacing the liquid with gas it is possible to prepare aerogels, materials with exceptional properties including very low density, high specific surface areas, and excellent thermal insulation properties. Animal-produced gels Some species secrete gels that are effective in parasite control.","-29.30195848242147"],["with any combination of gas, liquid, and two-phase fluids. Heat transfer between multiple process streams is also accommodated, with a variety of fin heights and types as different entry and exit points available for each stream.\nThe main four type of fins are: plain, which refer to simple straight-finned triangular or rectangular designs; herringbone, where the fins are placed sideways to provide a zig-zag path; and serrated and perforated which refer to cuts and perforations in the fins to augment flow distribution and improve heat transfer.\nA disadvantage of plate-fin heat exchangers is that they are prone to fouling due to their","-29.203620575601235"],["area of the sphere is: \nSolving in a similar manner as for a cylindrical shell (see above) produces: Splat cooling Splat cooling is a method for quenching small droplets of molten materials by rapid contact with a cold surface. The particles undergo a characteristic cooling process, with the heat profile at for initial temperature as the maximum at and at and , and the heat profile at for as the boundary conditions. Splat cooling rapidly ends in a steady state temperature, and is similar in form to the Gaussian diffusion equation. The temperature profile,","-29.196570592961507"],["Heat transfer through fins Fins are extensions on exterior surfaces of objects that increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the object by increasing convection. This is achieved by increasing the surface area of the body, which in turn increases the heat transfer rate by a sufficient degree. This is an efficient way of increasing the rate, since the alternative way of doing so is by increasing either the heat transfer coefficient (which depends on the nature of materials being used and the conditions of use) or the temperature gradient (which depends on the conditions of use). Clearly,","-29.179679086548276"],["the aerogel to tune their wetting properties towards non-polar liquids/oils. The authors demonstrated that it is possible to switch the wettability behaviour of the cellulose surfaces between super-wetting and super-repellent, using different scales of roughness and porosity created by the freeze-drying technique and change of concentration of the nanocellulose dispersion. Structured porous cellulose foams can however also be obtained by utilizing the freeze-drying technique on cellulose generated by Gluconobacter strains of bacteria, which bio-synthesize open porous networks of cellulose fibers with relatively large amounts of nanofibrils dispersed inside. Olsson et al. demonstrated that these networks can be further impregnated with","-29.15432583367783"],["GELID Solutions History GELID Solutions was founded in 2008 by Gebhard Scherrer and VC Tran.\nIn 2009, GELID Solutions launched the GC-Extreme thermal compound which is fully compatible to extreme overclocking and subzero liquid nitrogen cooling. The GC-Extreme thermal compound is reportedly used by famous enthusiast overclockers, such as Matei Mihatoiu, Winner of MSI Master Overclocking Arena EMEA 2011, and Lau Kin Lam, Winner of G.Skill OC World Cup 2015.\nIn 2013, GELID Solutions manufactured the world's first cooling unit for routers, switches, media players and many other small form-factor devices, the IcyPad. In 2014, the company launched the first 6-channel fan","-29.14723099472758"],["often used in combination with underfloor heating installation.\nLiquid flow screed is self-levelling. No vibration is necessary to remove bubbles and densify the liquid mass.\nDue to the easy consolidation thickness can sometimes be reduced in comparison to conventional screeds. This minimises heat storage leading to a floor that reacts quickly to user requirement hence raising the efficacy of underfloor heating. Screed coats A development in the UK is the delivery, mixing, and pumping of screed from a single vehicle. Where previously screed jobs required a separate pump to administer the screed, these new machines can now administer the screed directly from","-29.139885954908095"],["Undertank heater This is a heating device created by the pet industry for husbandry of reptiles and amphibians. It is a flat piece of metal and plastic similar to a heating pad which adheres to the underside of a glass aquarium or terrarium, which then must be slightly elevated to avoid pinching the cord.\nPlugged in, undertank heaters provide even warmth under the pad. A substrate must be used, and the device should always be connected to a thermostat or rheostat to prevent it from overheating and burning the animals.\nAquaria can also be heated by the use of","-29.117864494444802"],["Each layer is a composite structure of two sublayers, one of a high thermal conductivity material and another of a low thermal conductivity material. When a hot fluid flows through the cell, heat from the fluid is transferred to the cell wells, and stored there. When the fluid flow reverses direction, heat is transferred from the cell walls back to the fluid.\nA third type of regenerator is called a \"Rothemuhle\" regenerator. This type has a fixed matrix in a disk shape, and streams of fluid are ducted through rotating hoods. The Rothemuhle regenerator is used as an air preheater in","-29.114084244909463"],["gel, and it contains approximately 91 to 98% weight of water, depending on the species, combined with a small amount of high molecular weight glycoproteins (Denny, 1984). In Helix aspersa these glycoproteins reach weights of 82, 97 and 175 kDa.\nMany mollusks, both marine and terrestrial species, when inactive, use the secretion to stick to various surfaces. However, it is unexpected that a gel so diluted that it can commonly act as a lubricant, can also have such strong adhesive properties. In Helix aspersa there are two types of secretion. One type is translucent and not adhesive, the kind that the","-29.102900043682894"],["several types of fouling, including particulate accumulation, precipitation (crystallization), sedimentation, generation of ice layers, etc.\nAnother factor posing difficulties to heat transfer is viscosity. Highly viscous fluids tend to generate deep laminar flow, a condition with very poor heat transfer rates and high pressure losses involving a considerable pumping power, often exceeding the exchanger design limits. This problem becomes worsened frequently when processing non-newtonian fluids.\nThe dynamic scraped surface heat exchangers (DSSHE) have been designed to face the above-mentioned problems. They increase heat transfer by: removing the fouling layers, increasing turbulence in case of high viscosity flow, and avoiding the","-29.10200303808233"],["heat transfer, and assess the feasibility of using metallic nanoparticles as a supplemental fuel. The Canadian Government (through NSERC funding) is also a partner in the DASS Engine project. Surface nano-coatings on heat exchangers Coating a solid body with nano-particles has been shown in the scientific literature to enhance the convective heat transfer rate from solid bodies. Several mechanisms have been proposed, including the increase in the overall surface area associated with nano-coating. Essentially, it is possible that the nanoparticles act as small scale fins, which are known to improve heat exchanger effectiveness. Since these nano-scale fins are small, the","-29.087523724127095"],["be some debris extracted. Another danger is the introduced heat: Some molecules like DNA, RNA, or protein don't allow to be heated too much or at all for the goal of being isolated as purely as possible.\nFor transport without contact. There are three different approaches. Transport by gravity using an upright microscope (called GAM, gravity-assisted microdissection) or transport by laser pressure catapult; the most recent generation utilizes a technology based on laser induced forward transfer (LIFT). With cut-and-capture, a cap coated with an adhesive is positioned directly on the thinly cut (5-8 μm) tissue section, the section itself resting on a","-29.046180845914932"],["Rocky Mountain states. Alternative Portable Cooler Dispensers In the coil cooler, a stainless steel coil is covered with water and ice, in which the liquid is made run through. At the contact with the cold coil, the beverage becomes cold. On the flip side, the cold plate works making the beverage run across an ice covered aluminum cold plate. When the plate makes contact with the ice, the plate become cold provoking the liquid that runs over it becomes cold too.\nA portable ice maker and water dispenser is a device that produces ice, and release chill water by a small","-28.993002104136394"],["more soluble metallic soap, i.e., zinc stearate. Retarders and inhibitors In order for good quality vulcanization to take place, the rubber, sulfur, accelerants, activators and other compounds must be fully mixed to give a homogeneous liquid. In practise this can involve melting the sulfur (melting point 115 °C) and at these temperatures vulcanization can begin prematurely. This is often undesirable, as the mixture may still need to be pumped and moulded into its final form before it sets solid. Premature vulcanization is often called \"scorch\" and can be prevented by the addition of retarders or inhibitors, which increase the induction period","-28.970607960014604"],["cooling but also help determine sheet thickness and surface texture (in case of structured rolls; i.e. smooth, levant, haircell, etc.). A common processing defect known as nerve may occur when contact time between the rollers and extrudate is too brief, resulting in insufficient cooling time.\nCoextrusion is common in sheet and film extrusion, allowing for speedy production of multi-layered parts. This is accomplished by joining multiple polymer melts in either the manifold or approach stage. Layers of different thicknesses may be formed by introducing melts at different flow rates or different manifold sizes. Blown film extrusion The","-28.966848193318583"],["Fluid warmer A fluid warmer is a medical device used in healthcare facilities for warming fluids, crystalloid, colloid, or blood product, prior to being administered (intravenously or by other parenteral routes) to body temperature levels in order to prevent hypothermia in physically traumatized or surgical patients. Infusion Fluid Warmers are FDA regulated medical devices, product code LGZ. They are unclassified devices with special considerations and require 510(k) clearance to be legally marketed in the United States. There are two primary categories of fluid warmers- those that warm fluids before use, typically warming cabinets, and those that actively warm fluids while","-28.947153306100518"],["the fins heats the air. Differences from other electric heaters Electric heating elements made of resistance wire also have a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity, but do not increase their resistance enough to be self-regulating; they are typically used with the wires red-hot. The ceramic, on the other hand, increases its resistance sharply at the Curie temperatures of the crystalline components, typically 120 degrees Celsius, and remains below 200 degrees Celsius, providing a significant safety advantage.","-28.942546540638432"],["hydrophobic character. DEAE is an anion exchange matrix that is produced from a positive side group of diethylaminoethyl bound to cellulose or Sephadex.\nAgarose gel based medium contain large pores as well but their substitution ability is lower in comparison to dextrans. The ability of the medium to swell in liquid is based on the cross-linking of these substances, the pH and the ion concentrations of the buffers used.\nIncorporation of high temperature and pressure allows a significant increase in the efficiency of ion chromatography, along with a decrease in time. Temperature has an influence of selectivity due to its effects on","-28.941841839288827"],["of the effect of the composition of the gel. A system that forms nicely for one set of components, might fail altogether and require a different set of conditions if the gel is switched, say, from agar to gelatin. The essential feature of the gel required is that thermal convection in the tube be prevented altogether.\nMost systems will form rings in the absence of the gelling system if the experiment is carried out in a capillary, where convection does not disturb their formation. In fact, the system does not have to even be liquid. A tube plugged","-28.929780989536084"],["that can fit into sulci or on the gyri of the section of interest of the cerebral cortex. A pump draws methanol from a reservoir, and the fluid flows through a dry ice bath to be cooled. The cooled methanol flows through Teflon tubing into the cryoloop’s metal tubing, which is secured by passing through a threaded post. A thermocouple connector receives the wires from a microthermocouple at the base of the loop (where the inflow and outflow tubes meet) that measures the tubing temperature. The post, the thermocouple connector, and heat-shrink Teflon tubing, which envelopes the microthermocouple wires and","-28.892599020677153"],["for that distribution system. Thermal shock Some packages, particularly glass, can be sensitive to sudden changes in temperature: Thermal shock. One method of testing involves rapid movement from cold to hot water baths, and back. Handles Package handles (and hand holes in packages) assist carrying and handling packages. Objective laboratory procedures are frequently used to help determine performance. Fixtured ‘’hands’’ of various designs are used to hold a handle (sometimes two handles for a box). Most common are “jerk testing’’ by modified drop test procedures or use of the constant pull rates of a","-28.88557208230486"],["heat-activated sealant on the inside of each end of the tubing, allowing the connection to also be made waterproof.\nHeat-shrink end caps, closed at one end, are used to insulate the exposed cut ends of insulated wires. Main Standards and certificates UL224-2010\nSAE AS23053\nASTM D 2671\nASTM D3150","-28.84735223662574"],["As the name implies, SQUIDs are made from superconducting material. As a result, they need to be cooled to cryogenic temperatures of less than 90 K (liquid nitrogen temperatures) for high temperature SQUIDs and less than 9 K (liquid helium temperatures) for low temperature SQUIDs. For magnetic current imaging systems, a small (about 30 µm wide) high temperature SQUID is used. This system has been designed to keep a high temperature SQUID, made from YBa₂Cu₃O₇, cooled below 80K and in vacuum while the device under test is at room temperature and in air. A SQUID consists of two Josephson tunnel junctions","-28.810350974203175"],["the surfactant tends to break down over time (a few years), and eventually the nano-particles will agglomerate, and they will separate out and no longer contribute to the fluid's magnetic response.\nThe term magnetorheological fluid (MRF) refers to liquids similar to ferrofluids (FF) that solidify in the presence of a magnetic field. Magnetorheological fluids have micrometre scale magnetic particles that are one to three orders of magnitude larger than those of ferrofluids.\nHowever, ferrofluids lose their magnetic properties at sufficiently high temperatures, known as the Curie temperature. Normal-field instability When a paramagnetic fluid is subjected to a strong vertical magnetic field,","-28.76975888403831"],["changing the shape of the bodies is more convenient. Fins are therefore a very popular solution to increase the heat transfer from surfaces and are widely used in a number of objects. The fin material should preferably have high thermal conductivity. In most applications the fin is surrounded by a fluid in motion, which heats or cools it quickly due to the large surface area, and subsequently the heat gets transferred to or from the body quickly due to the high thermal conductivity of the fin. For optimal Heat transfer performance with minimal cost, the dimensions and shape of the","-28.765207139549602"],["and a gelling agent. These nitroparaffins typically make up most of the water gel explosive. Different types of gelling agents are used to create the water gel explosive. One agent is insoluble in water, but able to gel with nitromethane. The gel used for nitromethane is cyanoethylether, a derivative of galactomannan gum. Other agents are water-soluble and are used for the aqueous salt solution. As referenced in the first paragraph, water-soluble gums and gel modifiers like guar can be used for the gelling of aqueous solutions. When the salt solution and nitroparaffin are gelled, the entire mixture","-28.756727261061314"],["Heat-shrinkable sleeve Heat-shrinkable sleeve (or commonly \"shrink sleeve\") is a corrosion protective coating for pipelines in the form of a wraparound or tubular sleeve that is field-applied. History The first heat-shrinkable sleeves were introduced as polyethylene pipeline coatings started to replace bituminous or tape coatings in the oil and gas industry. At the time, the processing for polyethylene to make the sleeve backing was new technology and the adhesives used in sleeves were much the same as those used on pipeline coating.\nThe technology used to make sleeves has advanced significantly since then, with new methods of cross-linking the polyolefin backings","-28.74600958422525"],["Valco Melton Business Profile Established in 1952 and renamed in 2008, Valco Melton is a leading supplier of fluid dispensing systems, and compatible spare parts for industrial sealing applications, including boxes, cartons, packaging, coatings tissue and textiles. Popular for producing standard adhesives found in packaging, Valco Melton’s hot melt and glue systems are also used for applications like lotions, perfumes, and dispensers for lubricants and food products. IMPACT the Community The Valco Melton team has a 'pact' to give back to the community worldwide. Being happy is most important and members of this corporation do that by helping out with","-28.73786382516846"],["is sealed at the ends and the resistance alloy is not nichrome. Convection heaters In a convection heater, the heating element heats the air in contact with it by thermal conduction. Hot air is less dense than cool air, so it rises due to buoyancy, allowing more cool air to flow in to take its place. This sets up a convection current of hot air that rises from the heater, heats up the surrounding space, cools and then repeats the cycle. These heaters are sometimes filled with oil. They are ideally suited for heating a closed space. They operate silently","-28.717882169876248"],["constructed as thin fins, such that the surface area of the metal columns is large relative to the amount of oil and element which provides the warmth. A large surface area allows more air to be in contact with the heater at any point in time, allowing for the heat to be transferred more effectively, which results in a surface temperature which is safe enough to touch. The relatively large specific heat capacity of the oil and metal parts means this type of heater takes a few minutes to heat up and cool down, providing a short-term thermal store. Efficiency","-28.71574933777447"],["a cocurrent flow exchange mechanism. \n\nTwo tubes have a liquid flowing in the same direction. One starts off hot at 60 °C, the second cold at 20 °C. A thermoconductive membrane or an open section allows heat transfer between the two flows.\nThe hot fluid heats the cold one, and the cold fluid cools down the warm one. The result is thermal equilibrium: Both fluids end up at around the same temperature: 40 °C, almost exactly between the two original temperatures (20 and 60 °C). At the input end, there is a large temperature difference of 40 °C and much heat transfer; at the output end,","-28.71553616313031"],["A mixture of acrylic acid, water, cross-linking agents and UV initiator chemicals are blended and placed either on a moving belt or in large tubs. The liquid mixture then goes into a \"reactor\" which is a long chamber with a series of strong UV lights. The UV radiation drives the polymerization and cross-linking reactions. The resulting \"logs\" are sticky gels containing 60-70% water. The logs are shredded or ground and placed in various sorts of driers. Additional cross-linking agent may be sprayed on the particles' surface; this \"surface cross-linking\" increases the product's ability to swell","-28.71372678654734"],["(stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, aluminium, hydroxyapatite for medical implants, etc.). Cold spraying Cold spraying (or gas dynamic cold spraying) was introduced to the market in the 1990s. The method was originally developed in the Soviet Union – while experimenting with the erosion of the target, which was exposed to a two-phase high-velocity flow of fine powder in a wind tunnel, scientists observed accidental rapid formation of coatings. \nIn cold spraying, particles are accelerated to very high speeds by the carrier gas forced through a converging–diverging de Laval type nozzle. Upon impact, solid particles with sufficient kinetic energy deform plastically and","-28.700873985965927"],["passed through it. It is based on the Peltier effect.\nA thermal diode or thermal rectifier is a device that causes heat to flow preferentially in one direction. Heat exchangers A heat exchanger is used for more efficient heat transfer or to dissipate heat. Heat exchangers are widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, power generation, and chemical processing. One common example of a heat exchanger is a car's radiator, in which the hot coolant fluid is cooled by the flow of air over the radiator's surface.\nCommon types of heat exchanger flows include parallel flow, counter flow, and cross flow.","-28.696937591739697"],["the gels are self-assembled and properly formed. However, this method has not shown favorable results with the additions of several transition metals, along with the use of lanthanides, in a acetonitrile nitrile solution of the ligand. In these studies, the ligand used is a 2,6-Bis(1′-alkylbenzimidazolyl)pyridine, due to its commercial abundance and the wide variety of synthetic pathways that allow the functionalization of this ligand, and therefore the chemical tuning of the metallogel. Therefore, under controlled heating and cooling conditions, the addition of a source of transition metals to the solution containing the ligand, along with lanthanide ions yielded stable gels,","-28.68509899446508"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"gel that can be activated by twisting the package, thus triggering a chemical reaction. The pack can be put in a pot of boiling water to convert the chemical reaction back and allow it to be reused. While these products are commonly called \\\"hand warmers\\\", they can be placed in boots or, with special garments such as vests, in cloth pockets on the inside of the garment. The warmth produced by these tends to be lowest among the above heating methods. Related Product Base on the heating systems, heated jacket manufacturer developed some related products like: heated gloves, heated cusion,\",\n \"-34.18395516113378\"\n ],\n [\n \"cooled or the external environment also heats the tubing, a single long tube may not be enough because the liquid becomes saturated with heat and cannot cool any further. Making the liquid much colder is not an option since it leads to uncomfortable coldness where the liquid enters the tubes. Instead, multiple parallel tubes are used to increase the volume of liquid available to absorb heat.\\nSkin coverage and tubing density can vary depending on the application. The garment may simply be a short-sleeved shirt, or it may be a full-body suit covering the arms and legs. Where the heat removal\",\n \"-32.76685910427477\"\n ],\n [\n \"gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum protein, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used. Low melting and gelling temperature agaroses The melting and gelling temperatures of agarose can be modified by chemical modifications, most commonly by hydroxyethylation, which reduces the number of intrastrand hydrogen bonds, resulting in lower melting and setting temperatures than standard agaroses. The exact temperature is determined by the degree of substitution, and many available low-melting-point (LMP) agaroses can remain fluid at 30–35 °C (86–95 °F) range. This property allows enzymatic manipulations to be\",\n \"-32.38821537583135\"\n ],\n [\n \"on a support and evaporating the organic solvent or water carrier, usually in a hot air dryer. The dry adhesive may be further heated to initiate a cross-linking reaction and increase molecular weight. 100% solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase molecular weight and form the adhesive (radiation cured PSA); or they may be high-viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity enough to allow coating, and then cooled to their final form (hot melt PSA, HMPSA). Composition PSAs are usually based on an elastomer compounded with a suitable tackifier\",\n \"-32.164572773326654\"\n ],\n [\n \"to one minute. Hot melt adhesives can also be applied by dipping or spraying, and are popular with hobbyists and crafters both for affixing and as an inexpensive alternative to resin casting.\\nIn industrial use, hot melt adhesives provide several advantages over solvent-based adhesives. Volatile organic compounds are reduced or eliminated, and the drying or curing step is eliminated. Hot melt adhesives have long shelf life and usually can be disposed of without special precautions. Some of the disadvantages involve thermal load of the substrate, limiting use to substrates not sensitive to higher temperatures, and loss of bond strength at higher\",\n \"-32.085542004249874\"\n ],\n [\n \"heating pads, hand warmers, and hot ice. Sodium acetate trihydrate crystals melt at 136.4 °F/58 °C (to 137.12 °F/58.4 °C), dissolving in their water of crystallization. When they are heated past the melting point and subsequently allowed to cool, the aqueous solution becomes supersaturated. This solution is capable of cooling to room temperature without forming crystals. By pressing on a metal disc within the heating pad, a nucleation center is formed, causing the solution to crystallize back into solid sodium acetate trihydrate. The bond-forming process of crystallization is exothermic. The latent heat of fusion is about 264–289 kJ/kg. Unlike some types of heat packs, such\",\n \"-31.702896773262182\"\n ],\n [\n \"in place (unless incorrectly oversized or not properly shrunk) by its tight fit.\\nSome types of heat-shrink contain a layer of thermoplastic adhesive on the inside to help provide a good seal and better adhesion, while others rely on friction between the closely conforming materials. Heating non-adhesive shrink tube to very near the melting point may allow it to fuse to the underlying material as well.\\nHeatshrink tubing is sometimes sold in pre-cut lengths, with a solder blob at the center of the length, as this configuration is specified by Daimler-Benz for automotive electrical repairs.\\nOne application that has used heatshrink in large\",\n \"-31.57170255872188\"\n ],\n [\n \"out at much lower temperatures than the traditional melting methods. It involves the creation of a solution (sol), which is composed of metal-organic and metal salt precursors. A gel is then formed through hydrolysis and condensation reactions, and it undergoes thermal treatment for drying, oxide formation, and organic removal. Because of the lower fabrication temperatures used in this method, there is a greater level of control on the composition and homogeneity of the product. In addition, sol-gel bioglasses have much higher porosity, which leads to a greater surface area and degree of integration in the body.\\nThe third method is microwave\",\n \"-31.529721841099672\"\n ],\n [\n \"through which biomolecules can pass. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state. The melting temperature is different from the gelling temperature, depending on the sources, agarose gel has a gelling temperature of 35–42 °C and a melting temperature of 85–95 °C. Low-melting and low-gelling agaroses made through chemical modifications are also available.\\nAgarose gel has large pore size and good gel strength, making it suitable as an anticonvection medium for the electrophoresis of DNA and large protein molecules. The pore size of a 1% gel has been estimated from\",\n \"-31.479784480965463\"\n ],\n [\n \"which gels at around −12 °C (10 °F), is currently being investigated as a means of improving cold weather starting. However, oils with lower gelling points tend to be less saturated (leading to a higher iodine number) and polymerize more easily in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. Material compatibility Polymerization also has been consequentially linked to catastrophic component failures such as injection pump shaft seizure and breakage, injector tip failure leading to various and/or combustion chamber components damaged. Most metallurgical problems such as corrosion and electrolysis are related to water based contamination or poor choices of plumbing (such as copper or Zinc)\",\n \"-31.45716466891463\"\n ],\n [\n \"long time, so there is less need for clamps. Hot Hot adhesives, also known as hot melt adhesives, are thermoplastics applied in molten form (in the 65–180 °C range) which solidify on cooling to form strong bonds between a wide range of materials. Ethylene-vinyl acetate-based hot-melts are particularly popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials they can join. A glue gun (shown at right) is one method of applying hot adhesives. The glue gun melts the solid adhesive, then allows the liquid to pass through its barrel onto the material, where it\",\n \"-31.398615250713192\"\n ],\n [\n \"finding increased use in spinal fusion devices and reinforcing rods. It is extensively used in the aerospace, automotive, and chemical process industries. PEEK seals and manifolds are commonly used in fluid applications. PEEK also performs well in applications where continuous high temperatures (up to 500 °F/260 °C) are common. Because of this and its low thermal conductivity, it is also used in FFF printing to thermally separate the hot end from the cold end. Processing options PEEK melts at a relatively high temperature (343 °C / 649.4 °F) compared to most other thermoplastics. In the range of its melting temperature it can be processed\",\n \"-31.12952418642817\"\n ],\n [\n \"requirement is low, the tubing may be spaced several centimeters apart across the garment surface. Where there is a very large amount of heat to remove, the tubing can be arranged in a dense grid with no gaps between the tubes. Heat exchanger For portable earthbound applications, the heat exchanger for cooling the liquid can be very low-tech, consisting simply of a container for holding ice, and an electric pump to circulate water from the container through the tubing. The return water is cooled by the melting ice and again pumped through the tubes. Regulation of flow is done by\",\n \"-31.037362355564255\"\n ],\n [\n \"to an environment with a lower temperature.\\nCoolants are fluids used to cool objects, prevent freezing and prevent erosion in machines.\\nAir cooling is the process of cooling an object by exposing it to air. This will only work if the air is at a lower temperature than the object, and the process can be enhanced by increasing the surface area or decreasing the mass of the object.\\nAnother common method of cooling is exposing an object to ice, dry ice, or liquid nitrogen. This works by convection; the heat is transferred from the relatively warm object to the relatively cold coolant.\\nLaser cooling\",\n \"-30.843151636740004\"\n ],\n [\n \"shapes, the warm film will be physically pushed down partially into the cavity by a \\\"plug-assist\\\" feature. Plug-assist results in a blister cavity with more uniform wall distribution and is typically used when the cavity size and shape is larger than a small tablets and cables. Cold forming In the case of cold forming, an aluminum-based laminate film is simply pressed into a mold by means of a stamp. The aluminum will be elongated and maintain the formed shape. In the industry these blisters are called cold form foil (CFF) blisters. The principal advantage of cold form foil blisters is\",\n \"-30.637123318680096\"\n ],\n [\n \"is converted with ammonia to carboxylic acid amide. These pectins are more tolerant of varying calcium concentrations that occur in use.\\nTo prepare a pectin-gel, the ingredients are heated, dissolving the pectin. Upon cooling below gelling temperature, a gel starts to form. If gel formation is too strong, syneresis or a granular texture are the result, while weak gelling leads to excessively soft gels.\\nAmidated pectins behave like low-ester pectins but need less calcium and are more tolerant of excess calcium. Also, gels from amidated pectin are thermo-reversible; they can be heated and after cooling solidify again, whereas conventional pectin-gels will afterwards\",\n \"-30.562068336366792\"\n ],\n [\n \"the inclusion of polymers which stabilize protein (e.g. PEG).\\nOther products fabricated with this process include various ceramic membranes for microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, pervaporation, and reverse osmosis. If the liquid in a wet gel is removed under a supercritical condition, a highly porous and extremely low density material called aerogel is obtained. Drying the gel by means of low temperature treatments (25-100 °C), it is possible to obtain porous solid matrices called xerogels. In addition, a sol–gel process was developed in the 1950s for the production of radioactive powders of UO₂ and ThO₂ for nuclear fuels, without generation of large quantities of\",\n \"-30.54066205280833\"\n ],\n [\n \"to a liquid state. Properties Agarose is available as a white powder which dissolves in near-boiling water, and forms a gel when it cools. Agarose exhibits the phenomenon of thermal hysteresis in its liquid-to-gel transition, i.e. it gels and melts at different temperatures. The gelling and melting temperatures vary depending on the type of agarose. Standard agaroses derived from Gelidium has a gelling temperature of 34–38 °C (93–100 °F) and a melting temperature of 90–95 °C (194–203 °F), while those derived from Gracilaria, due to its higher methoxy substituents, has a gelling temperature of 40–52 °C (104–126 °F) and melting temperature of 85–90 °C (185–194 °F).\",\n \"-30.505289023858495\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the front. This allows the plastic beads to melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel and lowers the risk of overheating which may cause degradation in the polymer.\\nExtra heat is contributed by the intense pressure and friction taking place inside the barrel. In fact, if an extrusion line is running certain materials fast enough, the heaters can be shut off and the melt temperature maintained by pressure and friction alone inside the barrel. In most extruders, cooling fans are present to keep the temperature below a set value if too much heat is generated. If forced air\",\n \"-30.43594274937641\"\n ],\n [\n \"liquid electrolytes used in conventional wet cells and AGMs, which makes them suitable for use in extreme conditions.\\nThe only downside to the gel design is that the gel prevents rapid motion of the ions in the electrolyte, which reduces carrier mobility and thus surge current capability. For this reason, gel cells are most commonly found in energy storage applications like off-grid systems. \\\"Maintenance free\\\", \\\"sealed\\\" and \\\"VRLA\\\" Both gel and AGM designs are sealed, do not require watering, can be used in any orientation, and use a valve for gas blowoff. For this reason, both designs can be called maintenance\",\n \"-30.336537151772063\"\n ],\n [\n \"aluminium, to create a series of finned chambers. Separate hot and cold fluid streams flow through alternating layers of the heat exchanger and are enclosed at the edges by side bars.\\n Heat is transferred from one stream through the fin interface to the separator plate and through the next set of fins into the adjacent fluid. The fins also serve to increase the structural integrity of the heat exchanger and allow it to withstand high pressures while providing an extended surface area for heat transfer.\\nA high degree of flexibility is present in plate-fin heat exchanger design as they can operate\",\n \"-30.331903597223572\"\n ],\n [\n \"Heat-shrink tubing Use The unshrunk tubing is fitted on the wire before making the connection, then slid down to cover the joint after it is made. If the fit is tight, silicone lubricant can be applied without compromising the heat-shrink material. The tubing is then shrunk to wrap tightly around the joint by heating in an oven or with a hot air gun or other source of hot gas flow. Convenient but less consistent methods for shrinking the tube include a soldering iron held close to but not touching the tube, or the heat from a lighter. Uncontrolled heat can\",\n \"-30.252990742919792\"\n ],\n [\n \"gels have been used in Tissue Engineering. This involves mixing at room temperature the thermoresponsive polymer in solution with the cells and then inject the solution to the body. Due to the temperature increase (to body temperature) the polymer creates a physical gel. Within this physical gel the cells are encapsulated. Tailoring the temperature that the polymer solution gels can be challenging because this depend by many factors like the polymer composition, architecture as well as the molar mass. Cloud point Experimentally, the phase separation can be followed by turbidimetry. There is no universal approach for determining the cloud point\",\n \"-30.24169100218569\"\n ],\n [\n \"metal cations, while the second is cross-linked with covalent bonds. This hydrogel is then paired with a pNIPAM network for toughening and thermal actuation. In lab testing, this gel showed a shape recovery of 41%-49% when the temperature increased 20–60 °C (68–140 °F), and then was restored to 20 °C. A fluid controlling smart valve printed from this material was designed to close when touching hot water and open when touching cold water. The valve successfully stayed open in cold water and reduced the flow rate of hot water by 99%. This new type of 4D-printed hydrogel is more mechanically robust than other\",\n \"-30.173077371553518\"\n ],\n [\n \"contained water and recreates a supersaturated solution. Once the pad has returned to room temperature it can be triggered again. Triggering the pad before it has reached room temperature results in the pad reaching a lower peak temperature, as compared to waiting until it had completely cooled. High specific-heat capacity materials Heating packs can also be made by filling a container with a material that has a high specific heat capacity, which then gradually releases the heat over time. A hot water bottle is the most familiar example of this type of heating pad.\\nA microwavable heating pad\",\n \"-30.15277229534695\"\n ],\n [\n \"in cosmetics, food processing, and lubrication. Those gels are used in drug delivery, to trap active enzymes and bacteria inside them. Furthermore, the basis of certain technologies, producing valves, clutches, and dampers, rely on the multi-responsive nature of metallogels to electric and magnetic stimuli.\\nA recent study on metal organic gels involving Cadmium and Zinc ion shows promising results to absorb dyes, which emulates the ability of natural systems to get rid of toxic material that are difficult to decompose.\",\n \"-30.13771659741178\"\n ],\n [\n \"bond mechanically to the substrate to form a coating. The critical velocity needed to form bonding depends on the material's properties, powder size and temperature. Metals, polymers, ceramics, composite materials and nanocrystalline powders can be deposited using cold spraying.\\nSoft metals such as Cu and Al are best suited for cold spraying, but coating of other materials (W, Ta, Ti, MCrAlY, WC–Co, etc.) by cold spraying has been reported.\\nThe deposition efficiency is typically low for alloy powders, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used.\",\n \"-30.095380553219\"\n ],\n [\n \"would not continue to diffuse into the center of the sphere, therefore would not create a gel center. Longer storage time could be obtained for this product accordingly.\\nBoth the liquid for consumption and the alginate bath should be left to stand after preparing to eliminate air bubbles. Air bubbles inside the liquid could result in the inability of the flavourful liquid to sink when dropping into the alginate bath, creating uneven skin and weak spots in the skin. Important factors for Reverse Spherification There are two factors that need to be or can be adjusted for successful Reverse Spherification. The\",\n \"-30.071972918405663\"\n ],\n [\n \"still warm may have the same effect and it is generally preferable for surfaces to cool below about 40°C before opening to traffic. The preferred method of compaction is to use heavy, non-vibrating, steel-wheeled rollers. If these are not available, vibrating rollers may be used but vibration\\nshould be kept to a minimum to avoid fracture of coarse aggregate particles, or drawing of binder to the surface of the mix. The use of polymer modified binder may decrease mix workability and necessitate increased compactive effort to achieve high standards of compacted density. Achieving high standards of compacted density\",\n \"-30.006298370833974\"\n ],\n [\n \"water. Swelling (and de-swelling) distinguishes NC gels from conventionally-made hydrogels (OR gels) as it is a property that OR gels lack. The swelling property of NC gels allows them to collect the surrounding aqueous solution instead of being dissolved by it, which helps make them good candidates for drug delivery carriers. Stimulus sensitivity Nanocomposite hydrogels are observed to be temperature sensitive and will change temperature when their surrounding is altered. Inorganic salts, when absorbed, will result in changing the hydrogels to a lower temperature whereas cat-ionic surfactant will shift the temperature the other way. The temperature of these hydrogels are\",\n \"-29.98924700905627\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gelation is influenced by temperature, polymer concentration, and solvent properties. Temperature regulates the structure of the fiber network: low gelation temperature results in formation of nanoscale fiber networks while high gelation temperature leads to the formation of a platelet-like structure. Polymer concentration affects fiber properties: an increase in polymer concentration decreases porosity and increases mechanical properties such as tensile strength. Solvent properties influence morphology of the scaffolds. After gelation, gel is placed in distilled water for solvent exchange. Afterwards, the gel is removed from the water and goes through freezing and freeze-drying. It is then stored in a desiccator until\",\n \"-29.983209257145063\"\n ],\n [\n \"Chemical Disposable chemical pads employ a one-time exothermic chemical reaction. One type, frequently used for hand warmers, is triggered by unwrapping an air-tight packet containing slightly moist iron powder and salt or catalysts which rusts over a period of hours after being exposed to oxygen in the air. Another type contains separate compartments within the pad; when the user squeezes the pad, a barrier ruptures and the compartments mix, producing heat such as the enthalpy change of solution of calcium chloride dissolving.\\nThe most common reusable heat pads contain a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate in water. Crystallization is triggered\",\n \"-29.967255343319266\"\n ],\n [\n \"and new-generation adhesives that are formulated to provide performance under more-demanding pipeline conditions. Polyolefin Backing Heat-shrinkable means just that, heat them up and they shrink, or more correctly, they recover in length. A heat-shrinkable sleeve starts out with a thick extruded poly olefin sheet (polyethylene or polypropylene) that is formulated to be cross-linkable. After extruding the thick sheet, it is taken to the \\\"beam\\\" where it is passed under a unit that subjects the sheet to electron irradiation. The irradiation process cross-links the polyolefin. This improves the molecular structure such that the polyolefin will work as\",\n \"-29.93318825296592\"\n ],\n [\n \"as NASA does. The resulting aerogels are very effective thermal insulators because of their high porosity with very small pores (in the nanometre range). Conduction of heat through the gas phase is poor, and as the structure greatly inhibits movement of air molecules through the structure, heat transfer through the material is poor, as can be seen in the image at right where heat from a Bunsen burner transfers so poorly that crayons resting on the aerogel do not melt. Due to their low density, aerogels have also been used to capture interstellar dust particles with minimal heat changes in\",\n \"-29.89706134557491\"\n ],\n [\n \"by any means. Application of further heating will not “melt” the coating and thus it is known as a “thermoset” coating. History Since their introduction as a protective coating in early 1960s, FBE coating formulations had gone through vast improvements and developments. Today, various types of FBE coatings, which are tailor made to meet various requirements are available. FBEs are available as stand-alone coatings as well as a part in multi-layers. FBE coatings with different properties are available to suit coating application on the main body of pipe, internal surfaces, girth welds as well as on fittings. Surface preparation—blast cleaning\",\n \"-29.896890248404816\"\n ],\n [\n \"a package of silica gel desiccant. Another technique is to insert a hypodermic needle into the opening of a tube. After using the glue, residual glue soon clogs the needle, keeping moisture out. The clog is removed by heating the needle (e.g. with a lighter) before use. The polymerisation is also temperature-dependent: storage below freezing point of water, 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K), stops the reaction, so keeping it in the freezer is also effective. Behaviours Cyanoacrylates are mainly used as adhesives. They require some care and knowledge for effective use: they do not bond some materials; they do not fill spaces,\",\n \"-29.885041682493465\"\n ],\n [\n \"temperatures, and wind conditions. Chemical Chemical reaction-based garments have cloth pouches or pockets, where single-use packages of chemical hand warmers can be inserted. The warmers are about the size of a package of cards, and they contain chemicals which produce heat. One traditional hand warmer is a small metal box containing charcoal which, when lit, burns very slowly and produces a mild heat. Disposable heat packs typically contain cellulose, iron, water, activated carbon, vermiculite, and salt. When these packs are exposed to air, an exothermic chemical reaction occurs, which provides several hours of heat. Another chemical heating pad uses a\",\n \"-29.878017013630597\"\n ],\n [\n \"Heating pad A heating pad is a pad used for warming of parts of the body in order to manage pain. Localized application of heat causes the blood vessels in that area to dilate, enhancing perfusion to the targeted tissue. Types of heating pads include electrical, chemical and hot water bottles.\\nSpecialized heating pads (mats) are also used in other settings. Heat mats in plant propagation stimulates seed germination and root development; they operate at cooler temperatures. Heat mats also are available in the pet trade, especially as warming spots for reptiles such as lizards and snakes. Electrical Electric pads\",\n \"-29.87377978733275\"\n ],\n [\n \"not add mechanical strength to the bond between heat source and heat sink. It will have to be coupled with a mechanical fixation mechanism such as screws, applying pressure between the two, spreading the thermal grease onto the heat source. Composition Thermal grease consists of a polymerizable liquid matrix and large volume fractions of electrically insulating, but thermally conductive filler. Typical matrix materials are epoxies, silicones, urethanes, and acrylates; solvent-based systems, hot-melt adhesives, and pressure-sensitive adhesive tapes are also available. Aluminum oxide, boron nitride, zinc oxide, and increasingly aluminum nitride are used as fillers for these types of adhesives. The\",\n \"-29.873044394254975\"\n ],\n [\n \"air handlers outside, or systems that must cool below the freezing temperature of water. In geothermal heating/cooling systems, ethylene glycol is the fluid that transports heat through the use of a geothermal heat pump. The ethylene glycol either gains energy from the source (lake, ocean, water well) or dissipates heat to the sink, depending on whether the system is being used for heating or cooling.\\nPure ethylene glycol has a specific heat capacity about one half that of water. So, while providing freeze protection and an increased boiling point, ethylene glycol lowers the specific heat capacity of water mixtures\",\n \"-29.835938551579602\"\n ],\n [\n \"subject discusses the use of hydrogels for nucleus pulposus replacement, cartilage replacement, and synthetic tissue models. Applications Many substances can form gels when a suitable thickener or gelling agent is added to their formula. This approach is common in manufacture of wide range of products, from foods to paints and adhesives.\\nIn fiber optics communications, a soft gel resembling hair gel in viscosity is used to fill the plastic tubes containing the fibers. The main purpose of the gel is to prevent water intrusion if the buffer tube is breached, but the gel also buffers the fibers against mechanical damage when\",\n \"-29.816834314056905\"\n ],\n [\n \"Liquid cooling and ventilation garment A liquid cooling garment (LCG) is a form-fitting garment that is used to remove body heat from the wearer in environments where evaporative cooling from sweating and open-air convection cooling does not work, or the wearer has a biological problem that hinders self-regulation of body temperature.\\nA liquid cooling and ventilation garment (LCVG) has additional crush-resistant ventilation ducts, which draw moist air from the wearer's extremities, keeping the wearer dry. In a fully enclosing suit where exhaled breathing air can enter the suit, the exhaled air is moist and can lead to an uncomfortable feeling of\",\n \"-29.807875819620676\"\n ],\n [\n \"which emits an oscillating electromagnetic field. As the container passes under the induction coil (sealing head) the conductive aluminum foil liner begins to heat due to eddy currents. The heat melts the wax, which is absorbed into the pulp backing and releases the foil from the cap. The polymer film also heats and flows onto the lip of the container. When cooled, the polymer creates a bond with the container resulting in a hermetically sealed product. Neither the container nor its contents are negatively affected, and the heat generated does not harm the contents.\\nIt is possible to overheat the foil\",\n \"-29.75459084950853\"\n ],\n [\n \"Concentric tube heat exchanger Concentric tube Heat Exchangers are used in a variety of industries for purposes such as material processing, food preparation, and air-conditioning. They create a temperature driving force by passing fluid streams of different temperatures parallel to each other, separated by a physical boundary in the form of a pipe. This induces forced convection, transferring heat to/from the product. Theory The thermodynamic behaviour of concentric tube heat exchangers can be described by both empirical and numerical analysis. The simplest of these involve the use of correlations to model heat transfer; however the accuracy of these predictions varies\",\n \"-29.750033125150367\"\n ],\n [\n \"with axons in the trigeminal (V) nerve, accounts for its use in numerous toiletries including toothpaste, shaving lotions, facial creams and the like.\\nAnother molecular component of cold transduction is the temperature dependence of so-called leak channels which pass an outward current carried by potassium ions. Some leak channels derive from the family of two-pore (2P) domain potassium channels. Amongst the various members of the 2P-domain channels, some close quite promptly at temperatures less than about 28°C (e.g. TRAAK, TREK). Temperature also modulates the activity of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. The Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase is a P-type pump that extrudes 3Na⁺ ions in\",\n \"-29.748356556519866\"\n ],\n [\n \"the surface area available for heat exchange with the surroundings, a radiator will have multiple fins, in contact with the tube carrying liquid pumped through the radiator. Air (or other exterior fluid) in contact with the fins carries off heat. If air flow is obstructed by dirt or damage to the fins, that portion of the radiator is ineffective at heat transfer. Heating Radiators are commonly used to heat buildings. In a central heating system, hot water or sometimes steam is generated in a central boiler and circulated by pumps through radiators within the building, where this heat is\",\n \"-29.73928591416916\"\n ],\n [\n \"such as deposition time and nucleation potential.\\nSol-gel process is a commonly used solution-based process which can produce glass and ceramic materials of different shapes. In this process, the reactants (usually metal salts or metal organic compounds) go through a series of hydrolysis and condensation reactions and form colloidal or polymeric sols, followed by an aging process to convert the sols into gels. Then gels are then desiccated drying under supercritical conditions and converted into aerogel. This is a cheap technique avoiding the requirement of high temperature, enabling fine controls in chemical composition as well as lowest concentration of dopants. But\",\n \"-29.70842935622204\"\n ],\n [\n \"heat transfer between the heat source and the cooling fluid by way of conducting the heat current in an optimal manner. The two most attractive advantages of this method are that no additional pumping power and no extra heat transfer surface area, that is quite different from fins (extended surfaces). Surface color The heat transfer from the heat sink occurs by convection of the surrounding air, conduction through the air, and radiation.\\nHeat transfer by radiation is a function of both the heat sink temperature, and the temperature of the surroundings that the heat sink is optically coupled with. When both\",\n \"-29.68236662587151\"\n ],\n [\n \"cause uneven shrinkage, physical damage and insulation failure, and these methods are not recommended by heatshrink suppliers. If overheated, heat-shrink tubing can melt, scorch or catch fire like any other plastic. Heating causes the tubing to contract to between half and one sixth of its original diameter, depending on the material used, providing a snug fit over irregularly shaped joints. There is also longitudinal shrinking, usually unwanted and to a lesser extent than narrowing, of typically around 6%. The tubing provides good electrical insulation, protection from dust, solvents and other foreign materials, and mechanical strain relief, and is mechanically held\",\n \"-29.607956889783964\"\n ],\n [\n \"the coolant as a liquid. Use of NaK overcomes this. The Dounreay Fast Reactor is an example.\\nThe Soviet RORSAT radar satellites were powered by a BES-5 reactor, which was cooled with NaK. In addition to the wide liquid temperature range, NaK has a very low vapor pressure, which is important in the vacuum of space.\\nAn unintended consequence of the usage as a coolant on orbiting satellites has been the creation of additional space debris. NaK coolant has leaked from a number of satellites, including Kosmos 1818 and Kosmos 1867. The coolant self-forms into frozen droplets of solid sodium-potassium of\",\n \"-29.603320702764904\"\n ],\n [\n \"has also been proposed in a form of nanosurgery to separate one tissue from another—for example a tumor from the tissue in which it has grown. Heat transfer An external magnetic field imposed on a ferrofluid with varying susceptibility (e.g., because of a temperature gradient) results in a nonuniform magnetic body force, which leads to a form of heat transfer called thermomagnetic convection. This form of heat transfer can be useful when conventional convection heat transfer is inadequate; e.g., in miniature microscale devices or under reduced gravity conditions.\\nFerrofluids of suitable composition can exhibit extremely large enhancement in thermal conductivity\",\n \"-29.581117203397298\"\n ],\n [\n \"thermal radiation may be minimized by silvering flask surfaces facing the gap but can become problematic if the flask's contents or surroundings are very hot; hence vacuum flasks usually hold contents below the boiling point of water. Most heat transfer occurs through the neck and opening of the flask, where there is no vacuum. Vacuum flasks are usually made of metal, borosilicate glass, foam or plastic and have their opening stoppered with cork or polyethylene plastic. Vacuum flasks are often used as insulated shipping containers.\\nExtremely large or long vacuum flasks sometimes cannot fully support the inner flask from the neck\",\n \"-29.575212575909973\"\n ],\n [\n \"heat generation and thus the gel temperature is much lower than with TBE/TAE buffers, therefore the voltage can be increased to speed up electrophoresis so that a gel run takes only a fraction of the usual time. Downstream applications, such as isolation of DNA from a gel slice or Southern blot analysis, work as expected with lithium boric acid gels. \\nSB buffer containing sodium borate is similar to lithium borate and has nearly all of its advantages at a somewhat lower cost, but the lithium buffer permits use of even higher voltages due to the lower conductivity of lithium ions\",\n \"-29.574581518456398\"\n ],\n [\n \" The melting and gelling temperatures may be dependent on the concentration of the gel, particularly at low gel concentration of less than 1%. The gelling and melting temperatures are therefore given at a specified agarose concentration.\\nNatural agarose contains uncharged methyl groups and the extent of methylation is directly proportional to the gelling temperature. Synthetic methylation however have the reverse effect, whereby increased methylation lowers the gelling temperature. A variety of chemically modified agaroses with different melting and gelling temperatures are available through chemical modifications.\\nThe agarose in the gel forms a meshwork that contains pores, and the\",\n \"-29.553886272013187\"\n ],\n [\n \"of getting the desired outcome are, for the removal of impurities from a mixture or, for the isolation of solids from a mixture.\\nHot filtration method is mainly used to separate solids from a hot solution. This is done in order to prevent crystal formation in the filter funnel and other apparatuses that comes in contact with the solution. As a result, the apparatus and the solution used are heated in order to prevent the rapid decrease in temperature which in turn, would lead to the crystallization of the solids in the funnel and hinder the filtration process.\\nOne of the most\",\n \"-29.480810455454048\"\n ],\n [\n \"buffers. The hydrogels also can adhere to various plastics due to hydrophobic interactions. Both findings suggest the use of these hydrogels as a sealant for vessels containing corrosive acids. No commercial applications currently exist for implementation of this technology. Derivatives Drying of hydrogels under controlled circumstances may yield xerogels and aerogels. A xerogel is a solid that retains significant porosity (15-50%) with a very small pore size (1–10 nm). In an aerogel, the porosity is somewhat higher and the pores are more than an order of magnitude larger, resulting in an ultra-low-density material with a low thermal conductivity and an almost\",\n \"-29.462357547308784\"\n ],\n [\n \"(above the crystalline melting point of the material) by the end user, the tubing shrinks back to its original extruded size.\\nThe material is often cross-linked through the use of electron beams, peroxides, or moisture. This cross-linking creates the memory in the tubing so that it is able to shrink back to its original extruded dimensions upon heating, producing a material called heat-shrink tubing.\\nFor outdoor use, heat-shrink tubing often has a UV stabiliser added. Types Heat-shrink tubing is available in a variety of colors for color-coding of wires and connections. In the early twenty-first century heat-shrink tubing started to be used\",\n \"-29.439471562218387\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger Introduction The most important technologies for indirect heat transfer use tubes (shell-and-tube exchangers) or flat surfaces (plate exchangers). Their goal is to exchange the maximum amount of heat per unit area by generating as much turbulence as possible below given pumping power limits. Typical approaches to achieve this consist of corrugating the tubes or plates or extending their surface with fins.\\nHowever, these geometry conformation technologies, the calculation of optimum mass flows and other turbulence related factors become diminished when fouling appears, obliging designers to fit significantly larger heat transfer areas. There are\",\n \"-29.43720498002949\"\n ],\n [\n \"usually operate from household current and must have protection against overheating.\\nA moist heating pad is used dry on the user's skin. These pads register temperatures from 76 to 82 °C (169 to 180 °F) and are intended for deep tissue treatment and can be dangerous if left on unattended. Moist heating pads are used mainly by physical therapists but can be found for home use. A moist cloth can be added with a stupe cover to add more moisture to the treatment.\\nAn electric heating pouch is similar in form to an electric heating pad, but is curved to wrap around a joint.\",\n \"-29.430026329835528\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tub Products, Inc.\\nSince its inception, the ThermoSpas has been known for development and use of technology such as a patented control therapy system that allows each person in a hot tub to have a personalized therapeutic experience in addition to various filtration systems that help purify water used in a hot tub. Products ThermoSpas sells pre-designed hot tubs as well as personally designed hot tubs for personal use. In addition to personal hot tubs, ThermoSpas is known for healing spas and swim spa trainers. It is also attributed as the first to develop a healing spa specifically for arthritis sufferers,\",\n \"-29.429636097629555\"\n ],\n [\n \"Thermally conductive pad In computing and electronics, thermal pads (also called thermally conductive pad or thermal interface pad) are a pre-formed square or rectangle of solid material (often paraffin wax or silicone based) commonly found on the underside of heatsinks to aid the conduction of heat away from the component being cooled (such as a CPU or another chip) and into the heatsink (usually made from aluminium or copper). Thermal pads and thermal compound are used to fill air gaps caused by imperfectly flat or smooth surfaces which should be in thermal contact; they would not be needed between perfectly\",\n \"-29.423651946628524\"\n ],\n [\n \"are typically assembled in this way. Alternatively, the enveloped part may be cooled before assembly such that it slides easily into its mating part. Upon warming, it expands and interferes. Cooling is often preferable as it is less likely than heating to change material properties, e.g., assembling a hardened gear onto a shaft, where the risk exists of heating the gear too much and drawing its temper.\",\n \"-29.35851847473532\"\n ],\n [\n \"exchange fins in areas where cooling due to air expansion is a problem, such as around the second stage valve seat on some regulators.\\nCold water kits can be used to reduce the risk of freezing inside the regulator. Some regulators come with this as standard, and some others can be retrofitted. Environmental sealing of the diaphragm main spring chamber using a soft secondary diaphragm and hydrostatic transmitter or a silicone, alcohol or glycol/water mixture antifreeze liquid in the sealed spring compartment can be used for a diaphragm regulator. Silicone grease in the spring chamber can be used on a piston\",\n \"-29.342599953641184\"\n ],\n [\n \"platelets are plasma-sprayed onto an aluminium foil. This allows tight folding of the heat-shield through 180°, whilst still maintaining thermal protection.\\nZircoflex is 0.25mm thick and lightweight at 460g/m². The heat-shield is useful at temperatures up to 500 °C. Composite Coatings Zircotec offers a plasma-sprayed ceramic coating specifically for composite materials. Commonly used on CFRP, this coating protects against heat, fire and abrasion.\",\n \"-29.30229580940795\"\n ],\n [\n \"ceramic, and metallic nanomaterials can be incorporated within the hydrogel structure to obtain nanocomposites with tailored functionality. Nanocomposite hydrogels can be engineered to possess superior physical, chemical, electrical, and biological properties. Properties Many gels display thixotropy – they become fluid when agitated, but resolidify when resting.\\nIn general, gels are apparently solid, jelly-like materials. It is a type of non-Newtonian fluid.\\nBy replacing the liquid with gas it is possible to prepare aerogels, materials with exceptional properties including very low density, high specific surface areas, and excellent thermal insulation properties. Animal-produced gels Some species secrete gels that are effective in parasite control.\",\n \"-29.30195848242147\"\n ],\n [\n \"with any combination of gas, liquid, and two-phase fluids. Heat transfer between multiple process streams is also accommodated, with a variety of fin heights and types as different entry and exit points available for each stream.\\nThe main four type of fins are: plain, which refer to simple straight-finned triangular or rectangular designs; herringbone, where the fins are placed sideways to provide a zig-zag path; and serrated and perforated which refer to cuts and perforations in the fins to augment flow distribution and improve heat transfer.\\nA disadvantage of plate-fin heat exchangers is that they are prone to fouling due to their\",\n \"-29.203620575601235\"\n ],\n [\n \"area of the sphere is: \\nSolving in a similar manner as for a cylindrical shell (see above) produces: Splat cooling Splat cooling is a method for quenching small droplets of molten materials by rapid contact with a cold surface. The particles undergo a characteristic cooling process, with the heat profile at for initial temperature as the maximum at and at and , and the heat profile at for as the boundary conditions. Splat cooling rapidly ends in a steady state temperature, and is similar in form to the Gaussian diffusion equation. The temperature profile,\",\n \"-29.196570592961507\"\n ],\n [\n \"Heat transfer through fins Fins are extensions on exterior surfaces of objects that increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the object by increasing convection. This is achieved by increasing the surface area of the body, which in turn increases the heat transfer rate by a sufficient degree. This is an efficient way of increasing the rate, since the alternative way of doing so is by increasing either the heat transfer coefficient (which depends on the nature of materials being used and the conditions of use) or the temperature gradient (which depends on the conditions of use). Clearly,\",\n \"-29.179679086548276\"\n ],\n [\n \"the aerogel to tune their wetting properties towards non-polar liquids/oils. The authors demonstrated that it is possible to switch the wettability behaviour of the cellulose surfaces between super-wetting and super-repellent, using different scales of roughness and porosity created by the freeze-drying technique and change of concentration of the nanocellulose dispersion. Structured porous cellulose foams can however also be obtained by utilizing the freeze-drying technique on cellulose generated by Gluconobacter strains of bacteria, which bio-synthesize open porous networks of cellulose fibers with relatively large amounts of nanofibrils dispersed inside. Olsson et al. demonstrated that these networks can be further impregnated with\",\n \"-29.15432583367783\"\n ],\n [\n \"GELID Solutions History GELID Solutions was founded in 2008 by Gebhard Scherrer and VC Tran.\\nIn 2009, GELID Solutions launched the GC-Extreme thermal compound which is fully compatible to extreme overclocking and subzero liquid nitrogen cooling. The GC-Extreme thermal compound is reportedly used by famous enthusiast overclockers, such as Matei Mihatoiu, Winner of MSI Master Overclocking Arena EMEA 2011, and Lau Kin Lam, Winner of G.Skill OC World Cup 2015.\\nIn 2013, GELID Solutions manufactured the world's first cooling unit for routers, switches, media players and many other small form-factor devices, the IcyPad. In 2014, the company launched the first 6-channel fan\",\n \"-29.14723099472758\"\n ],\n [\n \"often used in combination with underfloor heating installation.\\nLiquid flow screed is self-levelling. No vibration is necessary to remove bubbles and densify the liquid mass.\\nDue to the easy consolidation thickness can sometimes be reduced in comparison to conventional screeds. This minimises heat storage leading to a floor that reacts quickly to user requirement hence raising the efficacy of underfloor heating. Screed coats A development in the UK is the delivery, mixing, and pumping of screed from a single vehicle. Where previously screed jobs required a separate pump to administer the screed, these new machines can now administer the screed directly from\",\n \"-29.139885954908095\"\n ],\n [\n \"Undertank heater This is a heating device created by the pet industry for husbandry of reptiles and amphibians. It is a flat piece of metal and plastic similar to a heating pad which adheres to the underside of a glass aquarium or terrarium, which then must be slightly elevated to avoid pinching the cord.\\nPlugged in, undertank heaters provide even warmth under the pad. A substrate must be used, and the device should always be connected to a thermostat or rheostat to prevent it from overheating and burning the animals.\\nAquaria can also be heated by the use of\",\n \"-29.117864494444802\"\n ],\n [\n \"Each layer is a composite structure of two sublayers, one of a high thermal conductivity material and another of a low thermal conductivity material. When a hot fluid flows through the cell, heat from the fluid is transferred to the cell wells, and stored there. When the fluid flow reverses direction, heat is transferred from the cell walls back to the fluid.\\nA third type of regenerator is called a \\\"Rothemuhle\\\" regenerator. This type has a fixed matrix in a disk shape, and streams of fluid are ducted through rotating hoods. The Rothemuhle regenerator is used as an air preheater in\",\n \"-29.114084244909463\"\n ],\n [\n \"gel, and it contains approximately 91 to 98% weight of water, depending on the species, combined with a small amount of high molecular weight glycoproteins (Denny, 1984). In Helix aspersa these glycoproteins reach weights of 82, 97 and 175 kDa.\\nMany mollusks, both marine and terrestrial species, when inactive, use the secretion to stick to various surfaces. However, it is unexpected that a gel so diluted that it can commonly act as a lubricant, can also have such strong adhesive properties. In Helix aspersa there are two types of secretion. One type is translucent and not adhesive, the kind that the\",\n \"-29.102900043682894\"\n ],\n [\n \"several types of fouling, including particulate accumulation, precipitation (crystallization), sedimentation, generation of ice layers, etc.\\nAnother factor posing difficulties to heat transfer is viscosity. Highly viscous fluids tend to generate deep laminar flow, a condition with very poor heat transfer rates and high pressure losses involving a considerable pumping power, often exceeding the exchanger design limits. This problem becomes worsened frequently when processing non-newtonian fluids.\\nThe dynamic scraped surface heat exchangers (DSSHE) have been designed to face the above-mentioned problems. They increase heat transfer by: removing the fouling layers, increasing turbulence in case of high viscosity flow, and avoiding the\",\n \"-29.10200303808233\"\n ],\n [\n \"heat transfer, and assess the feasibility of using metallic nanoparticles as a supplemental fuel. The Canadian Government (through NSERC funding) is also a partner in the DASS Engine project. Surface nano-coatings on heat exchangers Coating a solid body with nano-particles has been shown in the scientific literature to enhance the convective heat transfer rate from solid bodies. Several mechanisms have been proposed, including the increase in the overall surface area associated with nano-coating. Essentially, it is possible that the nanoparticles act as small scale fins, which are known to improve heat exchanger effectiveness. Since these nano-scale fins are small, the\",\n \"-29.087523724127095\"\n ],\n [\n \"be some debris extracted. Another danger is the introduced heat: Some molecules like DNA, RNA, or protein don't allow to be heated too much or at all for the goal of being isolated as purely as possible.\\nFor transport without contact. There are three different approaches. Transport by gravity using an upright microscope (called GAM, gravity-assisted microdissection) or transport by laser pressure catapult; the most recent generation utilizes a technology based on laser induced forward transfer (LIFT). With cut-and-capture, a cap coated with an adhesive is positioned directly on the thinly cut (5-8 μm) tissue section, the section itself resting on a\",\n \"-29.046180845914932\"\n ],\n [\n \"Rocky Mountain states. Alternative Portable Cooler Dispensers In the coil cooler, a stainless steel coil is covered with water and ice, in which the liquid is made run through. At the contact with the cold coil, the beverage becomes cold. On the flip side, the cold plate works making the beverage run across an ice covered aluminum cold plate. When the plate makes contact with the ice, the plate become cold provoking the liquid that runs over it becomes cold too.\\nA portable ice maker and water dispenser is a device that produces ice, and release chill water by a small\",\n \"-28.993002104136394\"\n ],\n [\n \"more soluble metallic soap, i.e., zinc stearate. Retarders and inhibitors In order for good quality vulcanization to take place, the rubber, sulfur, accelerants, activators and other compounds must be fully mixed to give a homogeneous liquid. In practise this can involve melting the sulfur (melting point 115 °C) and at these temperatures vulcanization can begin prematurely. This is often undesirable, as the mixture may still need to be pumped and moulded into its final form before it sets solid. Premature vulcanization is often called \\\"scorch\\\" and can be prevented by the addition of retarders or inhibitors, which increase the induction period\",\n \"-28.970607960014604\"\n ],\n [\n \"cooling but also help determine sheet thickness and surface texture (in case of structured rolls; i.e. smooth, levant, haircell, etc.). A common processing defect known as nerve may occur when contact time between the rollers and extrudate is too brief, resulting in insufficient cooling time.\\nCoextrusion is common in sheet and film extrusion, allowing for speedy production of multi-layered parts. This is accomplished by joining multiple polymer melts in either the manifold or approach stage. Layers of different thicknesses may be formed by introducing melts at different flow rates or different manifold sizes. Blown film extrusion The\",\n \"-28.966848193318583\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fluid warmer A fluid warmer is a medical device used in healthcare facilities for warming fluids, crystalloid, colloid, or blood product, prior to being administered (intravenously or by other parenteral routes) to body temperature levels in order to prevent hypothermia in physically traumatized or surgical patients. Infusion Fluid Warmers are FDA regulated medical devices, product code LGZ. They are unclassified devices with special considerations and require 510(k) clearance to be legally marketed in the United States. There are two primary categories of fluid warmers- those that warm fluids before use, typically warming cabinets, and those that actively warm fluids while\",\n \"-28.947153306100518\"\n ],\n [\n \"the fins heats the air. Differences from other electric heaters Electric heating elements made of resistance wire also have a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity, but do not increase their resistance enough to be self-regulating; they are typically used with the wires red-hot. The ceramic, on the other hand, increases its resistance sharply at the Curie temperatures of the crystalline components, typically 120 degrees Celsius, and remains below 200 degrees Celsius, providing a significant safety advantage.\",\n \"-28.942546540638432\"\n ],\n [\n \"hydrophobic character. DEAE is an anion exchange matrix that is produced from a positive side group of diethylaminoethyl bound to cellulose or Sephadex.\\nAgarose gel based medium contain large pores as well but their substitution ability is lower in comparison to dextrans. The ability of the medium to swell in liquid is based on the cross-linking of these substances, the pH and the ion concentrations of the buffers used.\\nIncorporation of high temperature and pressure allows a significant increase in the efficiency of ion chromatography, along with a decrease in time. Temperature has an influence of selectivity due to its effects on\",\n \"-28.941841839288827\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the effect of the composition of the gel. A system that forms nicely for one set of components, might fail altogether and require a different set of conditions if the gel is switched, say, from agar to gelatin. The essential feature of the gel required is that thermal convection in the tube be prevented altogether.\\nMost systems will form rings in the absence of the gelling system if the experiment is carried out in a capillary, where convection does not disturb their formation. In fact, the system does not have to even be liquid. A tube plugged\",\n \"-28.929780989536084\"\n ],\n [\n \"that can fit into sulci or on the gyri of the section of interest of the cerebral cortex. A pump draws methanol from a reservoir, and the fluid flows through a dry ice bath to be cooled. The cooled methanol flows through Teflon tubing into the cryoloop’s metal tubing, which is secured by passing through a threaded post. A thermocouple connector receives the wires from a microthermocouple at the base of the loop (where the inflow and outflow tubes meet) that measures the tubing temperature. The post, the thermocouple connector, and heat-shrink Teflon tubing, which envelopes the microthermocouple wires and\",\n \"-28.892599020677153\"\n ],\n [\n \"for that distribution system. Thermal shock Some packages, particularly glass, can be sensitive to sudden changes in temperature: Thermal shock. One method of testing involves rapid movement from cold to hot water baths, and back. Handles Package handles (and hand holes in packages) assist carrying and handling packages. Objective laboratory procedures are frequently used to help determine performance. Fixtured ‘’hands’’ of various designs are used to hold a handle (sometimes two handles for a box). Most common are “jerk testing’’ by modified drop test procedures or use of the constant pull rates of a\",\n \"-28.88557208230486\"\n ],\n [\n \"heat-activated sealant on the inside of each end of the tubing, allowing the connection to also be made waterproof.\\nHeat-shrink end caps, closed at one end, are used to insulate the exposed cut ends of insulated wires. Main Standards and certificates UL224-2010\\nSAE AS23053\\nASTM D 2671\\nASTM D3150\",\n \"-28.84735223662574\"\n ],\n [\n \"As the name implies, SQUIDs are made from superconducting material. As a result, they need to be cooled to cryogenic temperatures of less than 90 K (liquid nitrogen temperatures) for high temperature SQUIDs and less than 9 K (liquid helium temperatures) for low temperature SQUIDs. For magnetic current imaging systems, a small (about 30 µm wide) high temperature SQUID is used. This system has been designed to keep a high temperature SQUID, made from YBa₂Cu₃O₇, cooled below 80K and in vacuum while the device under test is at room temperature and in air. A SQUID consists of two Josephson tunnel junctions\",\n \"-28.810350974203175\"\n ],\n [\n \"the surfactant tends to break down over time (a few years), and eventually the nano-particles will agglomerate, and they will separate out and no longer contribute to the fluid's magnetic response.\\nThe term magnetorheological fluid (MRF) refers to liquids similar to ferrofluids (FF) that solidify in the presence of a magnetic field. Magnetorheological fluids have micrometre scale magnetic particles that are one to three orders of magnitude larger than those of ferrofluids.\\nHowever, ferrofluids lose their magnetic properties at sufficiently high temperatures, known as the Curie temperature. Normal-field instability When a paramagnetic fluid is subjected to a strong vertical magnetic field,\",\n \"-28.76975888403831\"\n ],\n [\n \"changing the shape of the bodies is more convenient. Fins are therefore a very popular solution to increase the heat transfer from surfaces and are widely used in a number of objects. The fin material should preferably have high thermal conductivity. In most applications the fin is surrounded by a fluid in motion, which heats or cools it quickly due to the large surface area, and subsequently the heat gets transferred to or from the body quickly due to the high thermal conductivity of the fin. For optimal Heat transfer performance with minimal cost, the dimensions and shape of the\",\n \"-28.765207139549602\"\n ],\n [\n \"and a gelling agent. These nitroparaffins typically make up most of the water gel explosive. Different types of gelling agents are used to create the water gel explosive. One agent is insoluble in water, but able to gel with nitromethane. The gel used for nitromethane is cyanoethylether, a derivative of galactomannan gum. Other agents are water-soluble and are used for the aqueous salt solution. As referenced in the first paragraph, water-soluble gums and gel modifiers like guar can be used for the gelling of aqueous solutions. When the salt solution and nitroparaffin are gelled, the entire mixture\",\n \"-28.756727261061314\"\n ],\n [\n \"Heat-shrinkable sleeve Heat-shrinkable sleeve (or commonly \\\"shrink sleeve\\\") is a corrosion protective coating for pipelines in the form of a wraparound or tubular sleeve that is field-applied. History The first heat-shrinkable sleeves were introduced as polyethylene pipeline coatings started to replace bituminous or tape coatings in the oil and gas industry. At the time, the processing for polyethylene to make the sleeve backing was new technology and the adhesives used in sleeves were much the same as those used on pipeline coating.\\nThe technology used to make sleeves has advanced significantly since then, with new methods of cross-linking the polyolefin backings\",\n \"-28.74600958422525\"\n ],\n [\n \"Valco Melton Business Profile Established in 1952 and renamed in 2008, Valco Melton is a leading supplier of fluid dispensing systems, and compatible spare parts for industrial sealing applications, including boxes, cartons, packaging, coatings tissue and textiles. Popular for producing standard adhesives found in packaging, Valco Melton’s hot melt and glue systems are also used for applications like lotions, perfumes, and dispensers for lubricants and food products. IMPACT the Community The Valco Melton team has a 'pact' to give back to the community worldwide. Being happy is most important and members of this corporation do that by helping out with\",\n \"-28.73786382516846\"\n ],\n [\n \"is sealed at the ends and the resistance alloy is not nichrome. Convection heaters In a convection heater, the heating element heats the air in contact with it by thermal conduction. Hot air is less dense than cool air, so it rises due to buoyancy, allowing more cool air to flow in to take its place. This sets up a convection current of hot air that rises from the heater, heats up the surrounding space, cools and then repeats the cycle. These heaters are sometimes filled with oil. They are ideally suited for heating a closed space. They operate silently\",\n \"-28.717882169876248\"\n ],\n [\n \"constructed as thin fins, such that the surface area of the metal columns is large relative to the amount of oil and element which provides the warmth. A large surface area allows more air to be in contact with the heater at any point in time, allowing for the heat to be transferred more effectively, which results in a surface temperature which is safe enough to touch. The relatively large specific heat capacity of the oil and metal parts means this type of heater takes a few minutes to heat up and cool down, providing a short-term thermal store. Efficiency\",\n \"-28.71574933777447\"\n ],\n [\n \"a cocurrent flow exchange mechanism. \\n\\nTwo tubes have a liquid flowing in the same direction. One starts off hot at 60 °C, the second cold at 20 °C. A thermoconductive membrane or an open section allows heat transfer between the two flows.\\nThe hot fluid heats the cold one, and the cold fluid cools down the warm one. The result is thermal equilibrium: Both fluids end up at around the same temperature: 40 °C, almost exactly between the two original temperatures (20 and 60 °C). At the input end, there is a large temperature difference of 40 °C and much heat transfer; at the output end,\",\n \"-28.71553616313031\"\n ],\n [\n \"A mixture of acrylic acid, water, cross-linking agents and UV initiator chemicals are blended and placed either on a moving belt or in large tubs. The liquid mixture then goes into a \\\"reactor\\\" which is a long chamber with a series of strong UV lights. The UV radiation drives the polymerization and cross-linking reactions. The resulting \\\"logs\\\" are sticky gels containing 60-70% water. The logs are shredded or ground and placed in various sorts of driers. Additional cross-linking agent may be sprayed on the particles' surface; this \\\"surface cross-linking\\\" increases the product's ability to swell\",\n \"-28.71372678654734\"\n ],\n [\n \"(stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, aluminium, hydroxyapatite for medical implants, etc.). Cold spraying Cold spraying (or gas dynamic cold spraying) was introduced to the market in the 1990s. The method was originally developed in the Soviet Union – while experimenting with the erosion of the target, which was exposed to a two-phase high-velocity flow of fine powder in a wind tunnel, scientists observed accidental rapid formation of coatings. \\nIn cold spraying, particles are accelerated to very high speeds by the carrier gas forced through a converging–diverging de Laval type nozzle. Upon impact, solid particles with sufficient kinetic energy deform plastically and\",\n \"-28.700873985965927\"\n ],\n [\n \"passed through it. It is based on the Peltier effect.\\nA thermal diode or thermal rectifier is a device that causes heat to flow preferentially in one direction. Heat exchangers A heat exchanger is used for more efficient heat transfer or to dissipate heat. Heat exchangers are widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, power generation, and chemical processing. One common example of a heat exchanger is a car's radiator, in which the hot coolant fluid is cooled by the flow of air over the radiator's surface.\\nCommon types of heat exchanger flows include parallel flow, counter flow, and cross flow.\",\n \"-28.696937591739697\"\n ],\n [\n \"the gels are self-assembled and properly formed. However, this method has not shown favorable results with the additions of several transition metals, along with the use of lanthanides, in a acetonitrile nitrile solution of the ligand. In these studies, the ligand used is a 2,6-Bis(1′-alkylbenzimidazolyl)pyridine, due to its commercial abundance and the wide variety of synthetic pathways that allow the functionalization of this ligand, and therefore the chemical tuning of the metallogel. Therefore, under controlled heating and cooling conditions, the addition of a source of transition metals to the solution containing the ligand, along with lanthanide ions yielded stable gels,\",\n \"-28.68509899446508\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":84,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3mqbb8"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Ok. Now we know that there is water on mars, what does this mean for the future and how can we benefit from this discovery? Can humans live on mars?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["This does not really change things for humans. We already knew there was water on Mars, we just weren't sure of any liquid water. The surface is still generally too cold, and too low pressure, for a human to survive. You'd need an enclosed environment, and if you had one of those you could just melt water ice from the planet.","One of things it might change is making it more *difficult* to explore Mars or live on it. More widespread liquid water near or on the surface increases the risk of cross-contamination: either wiping out existing ecosystems on Mars before we even get a chance to discover them, or accidentally colonizing Mars with a new ecosystem from Earth, with microbes from our robot landers. Right now we're already using techniques to avoid that: sterilizing our probes before they launch, and only landing in areas where Earth life *probably* couldn't survive. But we've already discovered our sterilization techniques aren't good enough, and this means our idea of where Earth life could survive on Mars might not be good enough either.","Well, we have known there was water on Mars since about 1976. Just, it was only known to exist in vapor and solid form. Now we know it's also present in liquid form, kept so through large amounts of salt. Doesn't really change the picture for human habitation.","Mars manned exploration ideas are sort of a romantic throwback in an era of remote-controlled robots. Anything you might hope to find exploring mars by sending people there can be done far more cost-effectively (not to mention safely) by robots. And if your goal is just to set up a colony, there's no particular advantage to trying to live on Mars that you wouldn't get by trying to live on the moon. Although Mars has some interesting geology including water, it's 500X further away and that makes it much harder. (By comparison, the people who discovered the New World back in the day had experience travelling that far, just in other directions.) Just living in earth orbit for the time required to get to Mars introduces [undesirable physiological changes]( URL_0 ) in astronauts, including vision problems and loss of muscle mass and bone density.","Does anyone ever [search for their question]( URL_0 ) first..."],"string":"[\n \"This does not really change things for humans. We already knew there was water on Mars, we just weren't sure of any liquid water. The surface is still generally too cold, and too low pressure, for a human to survive. You'd need an enclosed environment, and if you had one of those you could just melt water ice from the planet.\",\n \"One of things it might change is making it more *difficult* to explore Mars or live on it. More widespread liquid water near or on the surface increases the risk of cross-contamination: either wiping out existing ecosystems on Mars before we even get a chance to discover them, or accidentally colonizing Mars with a new ecosystem from Earth, with microbes from our robot landers. Right now we're already using techniques to avoid that: sterilizing our probes before they launch, and only landing in areas where Earth life *probably* couldn't survive. But we've already discovered our sterilization techniques aren't good enough, and this means our idea of where Earth life could survive on Mars might not be good enough either.\",\n \"Well, we have known there was water on Mars since about 1976. Just, it was only known to exist in vapor and solid form. Now we know it's also present in liquid form, kept so through large amounts of salt. Doesn't really change the picture for human habitation.\",\n \"Mars manned exploration ideas are sort of a romantic throwback in an era of remote-controlled robots. Anything you might hope to find exploring mars by sending people there can be done far more cost-effectively (not to mention safely) by robots. And if your goal is just to set up a colony, there's no particular advantage to trying to live on Mars that you wouldn't get by trying to live on the moon. Although Mars has some interesting geology including water, it's 500X further away and that makes it much harder. (By comparison, the people who discovered the New World back in the day had experience travelling that far, just in other directions.) Just living in earth orbit for the time required to get to Mars introduces [undesirable physiological changes]( URL_0 ) in astronauts, including vision problems and loss of muscle mass and bone density.\",\n \"Does anyone ever [search for their question]( URL_0 ) first...\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["to the inner surfaces. There's been a lot of speculation about the occurrence of water on Mars. We don't know but it could be associated with this mineral.\"\nJanice Bishop, a Mars specialist from the Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence Institute also told the BBC that: \"All life forms as we know it require liquid water so if we can actually find periods of time or places on the planet where there was standing water then the chance of life having formed increase greatly.\"","-33.187571158654464"],["Liquid water Liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as humans know it, as habitability is a function of a multitude of environmental parameters. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars except at the lowest elevations for minutes or hours. Liquid water does not appear at the surface itself, but it could form in minuscule amounts around dust particles in snow heated by the Sun. Also, the ancient equatorial ice sheets beneath the ground may slowly sublimate or melt, accessible from the surface via caves.\nWater on Mars exists almost exclusively as water ice,","-32.5781569963583"],["sites, so its authors also support the hypotheses of either short-lived atmospheric water vapour deliquesence, or dry granular flows. They conclude that liquid water on today's Mars may be limited to traces of dissolved moisture from the atmosphere and thin films, which are challenging environments for life as we know it. Habitability assessments Since the Viking landers that searched for current microbial life in 1976, NASA has pursued a \"follow the water\" strategy on Mars. However, liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as we know it because habitability is a function of a multitude of","-32.54701434158778"],[" Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.","-31.72742476715939"],["a supply of water that was present for a substantial amount of time. Therefore, a prominent goal of the MEP is to look for places where water is, was, or could possibly be, such as dried up riverbeds, under the planetary surface, and in Mars' polar ice caps.\nAside from water, life also needs sources of energy to survive. The abundance of superoxides makes life on the surface of Mars very unlikely, which essentially rules out sunlight as a possible source of energy for life. Therefore, alternative sources of energy must be searched for, such as geothermal and chemical energy. These","-31.448711423043278"],["atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life.\nThe lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a challenge: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, poor insulation against bombardment of the solar wind and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimes to a gaseous state). Mars is nearly, or","-31.10516362843373"],["has been estimated that the primordial oceans on Mars would have covered between 36% and 75% of the planet. On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.\nAnalysis of Martian sandstones, using data obtained from orbital spectrometry, suggests that the waters that previously existed on the surface of Mars would have had too high a salinity to support most Earth-like life. Tosca et al. found that the Martian water","-31.064098604656465"],["of a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 km (0.93 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and extending sideways about 20 km (12 mi), the first known stable body of water on the planet.\nUnderstanding the extent and situation of water on Mars is vital to assess the planet’s potential for harboring life and for providing usable resources for future human exploration. For this reason, \"Follow the Water\" was the science theme of NASA's Mars Exploration Program (MEP) in the first decade of the 21st century. Discoveries by the 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Exploration Rovers (MERs), Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), and Mars Phoenix lander have","-30.944626979500754"],["REMS, scientists could in 2015 prove that there are conditions for presence of liquid water on Mars. According to the conclusions, salts in the ground surface on Mars can absorb water vapor from the environment.\nThe research was presented in Nature Geoscience with Javier Martín-Torres, Professor of Atmospheric Science at Luleå University of Technology as lead author.","-30.77636140060349"],["and minerals It is widely accepted that Mars had abundant water very early in its history, but all large areas of liquid water have since disappeared. A fraction of this water is retained on modern Mars as both ice and locked into the structure of abundant water-rich materials, including clay minerals (phyllosilicates) and sulfates. Studies of hydrogen isotopic ratios indicate that asteroids and comets from beyond 2.5 astronomical units (AU) provide the source of Mars' water, that currently totals 6% to 27% of the Earth's present ocean. Water in weathering products (aqueous minerals) The primary rock type on the surface","-30.693381159871933"],["institute, asserts that although an overwhelming majority of the planet's surface is composed of water, 97% of this water is constituted of saltwater; the fresh water used to sustain humans is only 3% of the total amount of water on Earth. Therefore, Smith believes that the competition for water in an overpopulated world would pose a major threat to human stability, even going so far as to postulate apocalyptic world wars being fought over the control of thinning ice sheets and nearly desiccated reservoirs. Nevertheless, 2 billion people have supposedly gained access to a safe water source since 1990 who","-30.4966796435765"],["rover studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\nMany lines of evidence indicate that water ice is abundant on Mars and it has played a significant role in the planet's geologic history. The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft imagery, remote sensing techniques (spectroscopic measurements, radar, etc.), and surface investigations from landers and rovers. Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous outflow channels carved by floods, ancient river valley networks, deltas, and lakebeds; and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface","-30.445824923377586"],["as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\nThis international team used ESO’s Very Large Telescope, along with instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different forms of water in Mars’s atmosphere over a","-30.398054521931044"],["water on Mars in the form of images, and with its neutron spectrometer, it proved that much of the ground is loaded with water ice. Mars has enough ice just beneath the surface to fill Lake Michigan twice. In both hemispheres, from 55° latitude to the poles, Mars has a high density of ice just under the surface; one kilogram of soil contains about 500 grams (18 oz) of water ice. But close to the equator, there is only 2% to 10% of water in the soil. Scientists think that much of this water is also locked up in the chemical","-30.240053483830707"],["The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have been influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that liquid water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiter's moon Europa.\nGroundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the","-30.178707077284344"],["by the Mars Exploration Rover mission indicate it had some long-term standing water in at least one location, but its extent is not known. The Opportunity Mars rover photographed bright veins of a mineral leading to conclusive confirmation of deposition by liquid water.\nOn 9 December 2013, NASA reported that the planet Mars had a large freshwater lake (which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life) based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus near Mount Sharp in Gale Crater. Liquid water on comets and asteroids Comets contain large proportions of water ice, but are generally thought","-30.171894344326574"],["ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.","-30.081699410860892"],["or an ancient streambed — that had neutral acidity and not too salty. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from Curiosity studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life. The confirmation that liquid water once flowed on Mars, the existence of nutrients, and the previous discovery of a past magnetic field that protected the planet from cosmic and solar radiation, together strongly suggest that Mars could have had the environmental factors to support life. The assessment of past habitability is not in itself","-30.04017207896686"],["and evidence for geyser-like water flows within the last decade have made Mars the most likely extraterrestrial environment for finding liquid water, and therefore alien life, in the Solar System. Moreover, some geologic evidence suggests that Mars could have been warm and wet on a global scale in its distant past. Intense geologic activity has reshaped the surface of the Earth, erasing evidence of our earliest history. Martian rocks can be even older than Earth rocks, though, so exploring Mars may help us decipher the story of our own geologic evolution including the origin of life on","-30.023077081306837"],["the Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS) on board the Mars Odyssey had discovered huge amounts of water over vast areas of Mars. Mars has enough ice just beneath the surface to fill Lake Michigan twice. In both hemispheres, from 55 degrees latitude to the poles, Mars has a high density of ice just under the surface; one kilogram of soil contains about 500 g of water ice. But, close to the equator, there is only 2 to 10% of water in the soil. Scientists believe that much of this water is locked up in the chemical structure of minerals,","-29.74226308974903"],["Water on terrestrial planets of the Solar System The origin and development of water on terrestrial planets, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the closely related Earth's Moon, varies with each planetary body, with the exact origins remaining unclear. Additionally, the terrestrial dwarf planet Ceres is known to have water ice on its surface. Mars A significant amount of surface hydrogen has been observed globally by the Mars Odyssey GRS. Stoichiometrically estimated water mass fractions indicate that—when free of carbon dioxide—the near surface at the poles consists almost entirely of water covered by a thin veneer of fine material. This is reinforced","-29.63113787828479"],["give the answer.\nIt was once thought that Mars might have dried up from something more Earth-like. The initial discovery of a cratered surface made this seem unlikely, but further evidence has changed this view. Liquid water may have existed on the surface of Mars in the distant past, and several basins on Mars have been proposed as dry sea beds. The largest is Vastitas Borealis; others include Hellas Planitia and Argyre Planitia.\nThere is currently much debate over whether Mars once had an ocean of water in its northern hemisphere, and over what happened to it if it did. Recent findings","-29.595002598594874"],["been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting, by the Curiosity rover at Gale, an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times, before the lakebed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost.\nOn October 8, 2015, NASA confirmed that lakes and streams existed","-29.38521466495149"],["Chronology of discoveries of water on Mars To date, interplanetary spacecraft have provided abundant evidence of water on Mars, dating back to the Mariner 9 mission, which arrived at Mars in 1971. This article provides a mission by mission breakdown of the discoveries they have made. For a more comprehensive description of evidence for water on Mars today, and the history of water on that planet, see Water on Mars. Mariner 9 Mariner 9 imaging revealed the first direct evidence of water in the form of river beds, canyons (including the Valles Marineris, a system of canyons over about 4,020","-29.03573061322095"],["lower layers of Mount Sharp.\nOn November 4, 2018, geologists presented evidence, based on studies in Gale Crater by the Curiosity rover, that there was plenty of water on early Mars. Mars Express The Mars Express Orbiter, launched by the European Space Agency, has been mapping the surface of Mars and using radar equipment to look for evidence of sub-surface water. Between 2012 and 2015, the Orbiter scanned the area beneath the ice caps on the Planum Australe. Scientists determined by 2018 that the readings indicated a sub-surface lake bearing water about 20 kilometres (12 mi) wide. The top of the lake","-28.98427875121706"],["that it may have implications for liquid water still being on Mars. Through their research, scientists came to the conclusion that if Lake Vostok existed before the perennial glaciation began, that it is likely that the lake did not freeze all the way to the bottom. Due to this hypothesis, scientists say that if water had existed before the polar ice caps on Mars, it is likely that there is still liquid water below the ice caps that may even contain evidence of life.\n\"Chaos terrain\", a common feature on Europa's surface, is interpreted by some as regions where the subsurface","-28.95949011007906"],["had observed features on Mars he called canali (Italian for \"channels\"). A misunderstanding that \"canals\" implied water, fueled belief that the planet was inhabited. The theory of an inhabited planet with flowing water was disproved by data provided by Russian and American probes such as the two Viking missions which found a dead, frozen world where water could not exist in a fluid state. World of Barsoom A million years before the narrative commences, Mars was a lush world with oceans. As the oceans receded, and the atmosphere grew thin, the planet has devolved into a landscape of partial","-28.79465095285559"],["Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water to deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to that ratio on Earth. The amount of Martian deuterium is eight times the amount that exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the former presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that these results have not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet","-28.62236203541397"],["of early Earth. On its surface, scientists have discovered the first liquid lakes outside Earth, but these lakes seem to be composed of ethane and/or methane, not water. Some scientists think it possible that these liquid hydrocarbons might take the place of water in living cells different from those on Earth. After Cassini data was studied, it was reported on March 2008 that Titan may also have an underground ocean composed of liquid water and ammonia.\nMeasuring the ratio of hydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, \"...low H₂/CH₄","-28.569241068005795"],["\"Esperance\", suggested that water in the past may have had a neutral pH. This was later confirmed in further studies, supporting the notion that ancient Mars was a \"water-rich world with conditions amenable for life\". As of June 20, 2013 (Sol 3344), Opportunity's total odometry was reported at 36.84 km (22.89 mi), while en route to 'Solander Point.' June 21, 2013 marked five Martian years on the 'red planet'. The project manager, noting the harsh conditions of the planet, has said each day is \"a gift\". 2014 Opportunity started off 2014 on the western ridge of Endeavour crater, providing elevated","-28.25784273428144"],["of Mars was once covered by water, though the water on Mars is no longer oceanic (much of it residing in the ice caps). The possibility continues to be studied along with reasons for their apparent disappearance. Astronomers now think that Venus may have had liquid water and perhaps oceans for over 2 billion years. Natural satellites A global layer of liquid water thick enough to decouple the crust from the mantle is thought to be present on the natural satellites Titan, Europa, Enceladus and, with less certainty, Callisto, Ganymede and Triton. A magma ocean is thought to be present","-28.229833324090578"],["Lakes on Mars In summer 1965, the first close-up images from Mars showed a cratered desert with no signs of water. However, over the decades, as more parts of the planet were imaged with better cameras on more sophisticated satellites, Mars showed evidence of past river valleys, lakes and present ice in glaciers and in the ground. It was discovered that the climate of Mars displays huge changes over geologic time because its axis is not stabilized by a large moon, as Earth's is. Also, some researchers maintain that surface liquid water could have existed for periods of time due","-28.22338889387902"],["evidence, however, supports the existence of liquids below the surface of several moons and dwarf planets elsewhere in the Solar System. Some are speculated to be large extraterrestrial \"oceans\". Liquid water is thought to be common in other planetary systems, despite the lack of conclusive evidence, and there is a growing list of extrasolar candidates for liquid water. Liquid water in the Solar System As of December 2015, the confirmed liquid water in the Solar System outside Earth is 25–50 times the volume of Earth's water (1.3 billion cubic kilometers). Mars Water on Mars exists today almost exclusively as ice,","-28.00763037017896"],["all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.","-27.974886389740277"],["Water on Mars Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere. What was thought to be low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil, also called recurrent slope lineae, may be grains of flowing sand and dust slipping downhill to make dark streaks. The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap. Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate conditions.","-27.92360568298318"],["identified include thiophenes, benzene, toluene, and small carbon chains, such as propane or butene.\nOn November 4, 2018, geologists presented evidence, based on studies in Gale by the Curiosity rover, that there was plenty of water on early Mars.","-27.89491979648301"],["an ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth and derived from telescopic observations. Eight times as much deuterium was inferred at the polar deposits of Mars than exists on Earth (VSMOW), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. The representative atmospheric value obtained from the maps (7 VSMOW) is not affected by climatological effects as those measured by localized rovers, although the telescopic measurements are within","-27.875916388093174"],["water activity at Gale crater on Mars, reported the existence of a daily cycle of water exchange between the atmospheric boundary layer and the ground, including a phase during which the water remains in a transient liquid state. This is possible thanks to the presence in the soil of perchlorates, a highly hygroscopic kind of chlorine salts which seem to be ubiquitous over the Martian surface. These salts have the capability of catching water vapour from the environment up to the point of becoming solved in it forming concentrated solutions or brines. It is an extreme case of hygroscopy","-27.82302479163627"],["in the locations they studied all had water activity, aw ≤ 0.78 to 0.86—a level fatal to most Terrestrial life. Haloarchaea, however, are able to live in hypersaline solutions, up to the saturation point.\nIn June 2000, possible evidence for current liquid water flowing at the surface of Mars was discovered in the form of flood-like gullies. Additional similar images were published in 2006, taken by the Mars Global Surveyor, that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars. The images showed changes in steep crater walls and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water coursed","-27.731386170256883"],["planet Mars. Such a finding, along with previous discoveries that water may have been present on ancient Mars, further supports the possible early habitability of Gale Crater on Mars.\nHydrogen is present as water (H₂O) ice and in hydrated minerals. Carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere and sometimes as dry ice at the poles. An unknown amount of carbon is also stored in carbonates. Molecular nitrogen (N₂) makes up 2.7 percent of the atmosphere. As far as we know, organic compounds are absent except for a trace of methane detected in the atmosphere. On 16 December 2014, NASA","-27.688223946413927"],["water recovery systems. Similar systems would be needed on Mars, but would need to be much more efficient, since regular robotic deliveries of water to Mars would be prohibitively expensive (the ISS is supplied with water four times per year). Some experts have argued for setting up open-air settlements by using special construction methods, like excavating deep into the Martian crust to depths where air pressures may be sufficient to allow humans to survive without pressurized suits. Potential access to in-situ water (frozen or otherwise) via drilling has been investigated by NASA. Effects on human health Mars presents a hostile","-27.672078301926376"],["Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity found a great deal of evidence for past water on Mars. The Spirit rover landed in what was thought to be a large lake bed. The lake bed had been covered over with lava flows, so evidence of past water was initially hard to detect. On March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed \"Humphrey\".\nAs Spirit traveled in reverse in December 2007, pulling a seized wheel behind, the wheel scraped off the upper layer of soil, uncovering a patch of white ground rich","-27.643846022901926"],["that could only have formed in liquid water. Numerous geomorphic features suggest the presence of ground ice (permafrost) and the movement of ice in glaciers, both in the recent past and present. Gullies and slope lineae along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars, although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past.\nAlthough the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago, the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing, probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms.","-27.605858375613025"],["where water can exist on the surface, is based on the properties of both the Earth and Sun. Under this model, Earth orbits roughly at the centre of this zone or in the \"Goldilocks\" position. Earth is the only planet in the universe confirmed to possess large bodies of surface water. Venus is on the hot side of the zone while Mars is on the cold side. Neither are known to have persistent surface water, though evidence exists that Mars did have in its ancient past, and it is speculated that the same was the case for Venus. Thus extrasolar","-27.566076454881113"],["200 kilometers and maybe more. I have already pointed out that, in the absence of rain on Mars, these channels are probably the main mechanism by which the water (and with it organic life) can spread on the dry surface of the planet.\" Relatives His niece, Elsa Schiaparelli, became a noted designer or maker of haute couture.","-27.343463292447268"],["of Mars water\", \"as well as the current north-south asymmetry of the seasonal ice cap albedos.\" The atmosphere of Mars is currently \"a nonlinear pump of water into the northern hemisphere of Mars.\"","-27.295438441946317"],["at even lower latitudes. Future colonists on Mars will be able to tap into these ice deposits, instead of having to travel to much higher latitudes. Another major advantage of LDAs over other sources of Martian water is that they can easily be detected and mapped from orbit. Lobate debris aprons are shown below from the Phlegra Montes which are at a latitude of 38.2 degrees north. The Phoenix lander set down at about 68 degrees north latitude, so the discovery of water ice in LDAs greatly expands the range of water easily available on Mars.","-27.1157742341602"],["that evidence exists for an ancient Martian ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean, or approximately 19% of the Martian surface. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth. Eight times as much deuterium was found at Mars than exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the presence","-27.108352252398618"],["comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes form in the presence of water. In 2004, Opportunity detected the mineral jarosite. This forms only in the presence of acidic water, which demonstrates that water once existed on Mars. More recent evidence for liquid water comes from the finding of the mineral gypsum on the surface by NASA's Mars rover Opportunity in December 2011. It is estimated that the amount of water in the upper mantle of Mars, represented by hydroxyl ions contained within the minerals of Mars's geology, is equal to or","-27.091213644089294"],["is widely thought to have existed on Mars in the past, and now can occasionally be found as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil. The origin of the potential biosignature of methane observed in Mars' atmosphere is unexplained, although hypotheses not involving life have also been proposed.\nThere is evidence that Mars had a warmer and wetter past: dried-up river beds, polar ice caps, volcanoes, and minerals that form in the presence of water have all been found. Nevertheless, present conditions on Mars' subsurface may support life. Evidence obtained by the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater in 2013","-26.966907730442472"],["throwing doubt on the burgeoning theory that the atmosphere of Mars is similar to that of the Earth. Previous detections of water in the atmosphere of Mars were explained by unfavorable conditions, and Campbell determined that the water signature came entirely from the Earth's atmosphere. Although he agreed that the ice caps did indicate there was water in the atmosphere, he did not believe the caps were sufficiently large to allow the water vapor to be detected. At the time, Campbell's results were considered controversial and were criticized by members of the astronomical community, but they were confirmed by American","-26.959081243207038"],["south pole). In March 2015, a team of scientists published results showing that this region was highly enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, by seven times as much as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\nThis international team used ESO's Very Large","-26.89188819733681"],["thought that liquid water may exist in the Martian subsurface. Research suggests that in the past there was liquid water flowing on the surface, creating large areas similar to Earth's oceans. However, the question remains as to where the water has gone. There are a number of direct and indirect proofs of water's presence either on or under the surface, e.g. stream beds, polar caps, spectroscopic measurement, eroded craters or minerals directly connected to the existence of liquid water (such as Goethite). In an article in the Journal of Geophysical Research, scientists studied Lake Vostok in Antarctica and discovered","-26.809083231375553"],["is found frozen in its polar ice caps, and newly carved gullies recently observed on Mars suggest that liquid water may exist, at least transiently, on the planet's surface. At the Martian low temperatures and low pressure, liquid water is likely to be highly saline. As for Europa and Enceladus, large global oceans of liquid water exist beneath these moons' icy outer crusts. This water may be warmed to a liquid state by volcanic vents on the ocean floor, but the primary source of heat is probably tidal heating. On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of \"clay-like minerals\"","-26.77714433489018"],["and help unravel the history of liquid water on Mars. The types of clay minerals and their abundances give clues about the nature of the water that was present, whether fresh or salty, acidic or neutral pH, whether it might have been icy or warm, and whether the water was present for a long period of time. These are key questions to understand how habitable the surface environment was in the distant past. Camera/telescope SuperCam's optical camera acquires high-resolution color images of samples under study, which also help determine the surface geology. This camera can also study how atmospheric","-26.75947414408438"],["suggest the presence of water in the present and in the past of Mars. All samples heated in the gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GSMS) gave off water. However, the way the samples were handled prohibited an exact measurement of the amount of water. But, it was around 1%. General chemical analysis suggested the surface had been exposed to water in the past. Some chemicals in the soil contained sulfur and chlorine that were like those remaining after sea water evaporates. Sulfur was more concentrated in the crust on top of the soil, than in the bulk soil beneath. So it","-26.704627895778685"],["of water at its melting point; under average Martian conditions, pure water on the Martian surface would freeze or, if heated to above the melting point, would sublime to vapor. Before about 3.8 billion years ago, Mars may have had a denser atmosphere and higher surface temperatures, allowing vast amounts of liquid water on the surface, possibly including a large ocean that may have covered one-third of the planet. Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars' history. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from the Curiosity","-26.6883694131393"],["mission team members announced on 2 March that data returned from the rover showed that these rocks were once \"drenched in water\", and on 23 March that it was concluded that they were laid down underwater in a salty sea. This represented the first strong direct evidence for liquid water on Mars at some time in the past.\nTowards the end of July 2005, it was reported by the Sunday Times that the rovers may have carried the bacteria Bacillus safensis to Mars. According to one NASA microbiologist, this bacteria could survive both the trip and conditions on Mars. A book","-26.65532262718625"],["of water on the surface of Earth is a product of its atmospheric pressure and a stable orbit in the Sun's circumstellar habitable zone, though the origin of Earth's water remains unknown.\nThe main methods currently used for confirmation are absorption spectroscopy and geochemistry. These techniques have proven effective for atmospheric water vapour and ice. However, using current methods of astronomical spectroscopy it is substantially more difficult to detect liquid water on terrestrial planets, especially in the case of subsurface water. Due to this, astronomers, astrobiologists and planetary scientists use habitable zone, gravitational and tidal theory, models of planetary differentiation and","-26.65453534736298"],["this remains a topic of active research. Because the gullies are so young, this would suggest that liquid water has been present on Mars in its very recent geological past, with consequences for the potential habitability of the modern surface.\nOn July 10, 2014, NASA reported that gullies on the surface of Mars were mostly formed by the seasonal freezing of carbon dioxide (CO₂), and not by that of liquid water as considered earlier. Formation After being discovered, many hypotheses were put forward to explain the gullies. However, as in the usual progression of science, some ideas came to be more","-26.574684624443762"],["the rocks, named \"Cumberland\", analyzed by the Curiosity rover. Human colonization of Mars Some of the main reasons for colonizing Mars include economic interests, long-term scientific research best carried out by humans as opposed to robotic probes, and sheer curiosity. Surface conditions and the presence of water on Mars make it arguably the most hospitable of the planets in the Solar System, other than Earth. Human colonization of Mars would require in situ resource utilization (ISRU); A NASA report states that \"applicable frontier technologies include robotics, machine intelligence, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, 3-D printing/additive manufacturing, and autonomy. These technologies combined with","-26.57188013380801"],["is believed that the water remains liquid, even at the temperature of -68 degrees Celsius because there is likely much dissolved salt that lowers the freezing point. The lake is about 20 kilometers across and at least 10 centimeters deep It could contain 10 billion liters of liquid water. There could very well be many small bodies of water under the ice cap; however, they are difficult to detect with MARSIS. Also, the raw date coverage needed for these detections is limited—only a few percent of the area has a full set of data. Spiders During","-26.486535833624657"],["polar cap ice is about eight times as enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, as water in Earth's oceans. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times as large as that stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time may have formed an ocean in the low-lying Vastitas Borealis and adjacent lowlands (Acidalia, Arcadia and Utopia planitiae). Had the water ever all been liquid and on the surface, it would have covered 20% of the planet and in places would have been almost a mile deep.\nThis international team used ESO’s Very Large Telescope, along with","-26.424836763791973"],["a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Spacecraft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Cultural significance A large part of the popular movie The Martian takes place in the Oxia Palus quadrangle.","-26.408450254966738"],["More than 21 million km³ of ice have been detected at or near the surface of Mars, enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of 35 meters (115 ft). Even more ice is likely to be locked away in the deep subsurface.\nSome liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today, but limited to traces of dissolved moisture from the atmosphere and thin films, which are challenging environments for known life. No large standing bodies of liquid water exist on the planet's surface, because the atmospheric pressure there averages just 600 pascals (0.087 psi), a figure slightly below the vapor pressure","-26.357764346030308"],["presence of a delta is exciting; it means water was there for a time, maybe for many years. Primitive organisms may have developed in such lakes; hence, some craters may be prime targets for the search for evidence of life on the Red Planet. Channels There is enormous evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars. Images of curved channels have been seen in images from Mars spacecraft dating back to the early seventies with the Mariner 9 orbiter. Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve","-26.324740637326613"],["presence of water over the past billion years. However, there is no reason to suppose that Venus was an exception to the processes that formed Earth and gave it its water during its early history, possibly from the original rocks that formed the planet or later on from comets. The common view among research scientists is that water would have existed for about 600 million years on the surface before evaporating, though some such as David Grinspoon believe that up to 2 billion years could also be plausible. This longer timescale for the persistence of oceans is also supported by GCM simulations","-26.2939562369138"],["presence of iddingsite on Mars would suggest that liquid water once existed there, and might enable scientists to determine when there was last liquid water on the planet. Norway Norway is the main source of olivine in Europe, particularly in an area stretching from Åheim to Tafjord, and from Hornindal to Flemsøy in the Sunnmøre district. There is also olivine in Eid municipality. About 50% of the world's olivine for industrial use is produced in Norway. At Svarthammaren in Norddal olivine was mined from around 1920 to 1979, with a daily output up to 600 metric tons. Olivine was also","-26.281395416124724"],["ancient water On September 27, 2012, NASA scientists announced that the Curiosity rover found evidence for an ancient streambed suggesting a \"vigorous flow\" of water on Mars. \nOn December 3, 2012, NASA reported that Curiosity performed its first extensive soil analysis, revealing the presence of water molecules, sulfur and chlorine in the Martian soil. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life. Evidence for ancient habitability In March 2013, NASA reported Curiosity found evidence","-26.218719893659"],["liquid water early in the planet's geologic history. This primordial ocean, dubbed paleo-ocean and Oceanus Borealis, would have filled the Vastitas Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere, a region which lies 4–5 km (2.5–3 miles) below the mean planetary elevation, about 3.8 billion years ago. Evidence for this ocean includes geographic features resembling ancient shorelines, and the chemical properties of the Martian soil and atmosphere. However, for such an ocean to have existed, early Mars would have required a magnetosphere, a denser atmosphere, and warmer climate to allow liquid water to remain at the surface. Observational evidence Features first shown by the","-26.1680806177028"],["of Mars The geology of Mars is differentiable from that of Earth by, among other things, its extremely large volcanoes and lack of crust movement. A goal of the MEP is to understand these differences from Earth along with the way that wind, water, volcanoes, tectonics, cratering and other processes have shaped the surface of Mars. Rocks can help scientists describe the sequence of events in Mars' history, tell whether there was an abundance of water on the planet through identifying minerals that are formed only in water, and tell if Mars once had a magnetic field (which would point","-26.099598292261362"],["Curiosity on the way to Glenelg, was a mugearite and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks.\nOn December 9, 2013, NASA reported that Mars once had a large freshwater lake inside Gale Crater, that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found","-26.049167869357916"],["Steele was able to prove that the hydrocarbons did not come from biological origins, but rather from volcanic activity on Mars. Steele is currently investigating a new Martian meteorite, which contains more water than any other Martian meteorite found before, as well as hydrocarbons. Similar to his 2012 discovery, Steele was able to determine that the hydrocarbons did not result from contamination, but from a non-biological process, helping to answer important questions about the origin of life. Collectively, his investigations have helped inform discussion about thee potential habitability of Mars. Awards In 2012, the Royal Society of London awarded Steele","-26.02674849977484"],["water is in jeopardy. Today approximately one billion people lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation. It will get worse. By 2025 more than half of the people of the world will face water vulnerability. The Water Bottle Project creates an art object that reminds us we need to take action.","-25.990141872840468"],["in Antarctica showed that this lake could have existed before the Antarctic glaciation, and that a similar scenario could potentially have occurred on Mars. In July 2018, scientists from the Italian Space Agency reported the detection of such a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and spanning 20 kilometres (10 mi) horizontally, the first evidence for a stable body of liquid water on the planet. The evidence for this Martian lake was deduced from a bright spot in the radar echo sounding data of the MARSIS radar on board the European Mars Express orbiter,","-25.96790312154917"],["evidence provided by martian meteorites. The water is likely too minimal to support life.","-25.95993379290303"],["lake environment in ancient times on Mars became the drier environment in more modern times.\nOn August 5, 2017, NASA celebrated the fifth anniversary of the Curiosity rover mission landing, and related exploratory accomplishments, on the planet Mars. (Videos: Curiosity's First Five Years (02:07); Curiosity's POV: Five Years Driving (05:49); Curiosity's Discoveries About Gale Crater (02:54))\nOn June 7, 2018, NASA's Curiosity made two significant discoveries in Gale. Organic molecules preserved in 3.5 billion-year-old bedrock and seasonal variations in the level of methane in the atmosphere further support the theory that past conditions may have been conducive to life. It is possible","-25.959504312486388"],["to the conclusion that climatic conditions in the distant past allowed for free-flowing water on Mars. The morphology of some crater impacts on Mars indicate that the ground was wet at the time of impact. Geomorphic observations of both landscape erosion rates and Martian valley networks also strongly imply warmer, wetter conditions on Noachian-era Mars (earlier than about four billion years ago). However, chemical analysis of Martian meteorite samples suggests that the ambient near-surface temperature of Mars has most likely been below 0 °C (32 °F) for the last four billion years.\nSome scientists maintain that the great mass of the Tharsis volcanoes","-25.954657996699098"],["found at even lower latitudes. Future colonists on Mars will be able to tap into these ice deposits, instead of having to travel to much higher latitudes. Another major advantage of LDAs over other sources of Martian water is that they can easily detected and mapped from orbit. Lobate debris aprons are shown below from the Phlegra Montes, which are at a latitude of 38.2 degrees north. The Phoenix lander set down at about 68 degrees north latitude, so the discovery of water ice in LDAs greatly expands the range of easily available on Mars. It is far easier","-25.899995861233037"],["detection of a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and spanning 20 kilometres (12 mi) horizontally, the first evidence for a stable body of liquid water on the planet. Because the temperature at the base of the polar cap is estimated at 205 K (−68 °C; −91 °F), scientists assume that the water may remain liquid by the antifreeze effect of magnesium and calcium perchlorates. The 1.5-kilometre (0.93 mi) ice layer covering the lake is composed of water ice with 10 to 20% admixed dust, and seasonally covered by a 1-metre (3 ft 3 in)-thick layer of CO\n2 ice. Europa","-25.879060553153977"],["Evidence of water on Mars found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Recurring slope lineae Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes (also called recurring slope lineae, recurrent slope lineae and RSL) are thought to be salty water flows occurring during the warmest months on Mars. Indeed, there is much photographic and spectroscopic evidence that water does today flow on parts of Mars.\nSome researchers have proposed that the flow is aided by the water boiling in thin Martian atmosphere. Boiling water would cause soil particles to bounce and help them to flow down slopes.\nIn a study published in Icarus in","-25.870051261561457"],["from Mars. Some of them contain evidence that they were exposed to water when on Mars. Some Martian meteorites called basaltic shergottites, appear (from the presence of hydrated carbonates and sulfates) to have been exposed to liquid water prior to ejection into space. It has been shown that another class of meteorites, the nakhlites, were suffused with liquid water around 620 million years ago and that they were ejected from Mars around 10.75 million years ago by an asteroid impact. They fell to Earth within the last 10,000 years. Martian meteorite NWA 7034 has one order of magnitude more water than most","-25.858624183543725"],["to have been lost during ancient times, before the lakebed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost.\nOn April 13, 2015, Nature published an analysis of humidity and ground temperature data collected by Curiosity, showing evidence that films of liquid brine water form in the upper 5 cm of Mars's subsurface at night. The water activity and temperature remain below the requirements for reproduction and metabolism of known terrestrial microorganisms.\nOn October 8, 2015, NASA confirmed that lakes and streams existed in Gale crater 3.3 – 3.8 billion years ago delivering sediments to build up the","-25.847344920883188"],["show large quantities of water ice at both poles (July 2005) and at middle latitudes (November 2008). The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31, 2008.\nLandforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water has existed on the planet's surface. Huge linear swathes of scoured ground, known as outflow channels, cut across the surface in about 25 places. These are thought to be a record of erosion caused by the catastrophic release of water from subsurface aquifers, though some of these structures have been hypothesized to result from the action of glaciers or lava.","-25.833368202511338"],["an estimate as to when there has been liquid water on Mars. Potassium-argon dating of the meteorite samples showed that Mars had water on its surface anywhere from 1300 Ma to 650 Ma ago. Composition Iddingsite is a mineral that lacks a definite chemical composition, so exact compositions cannot be calculated. An approximated composition for a hypothetical end product of iddingsite has been calculated as being SiO₂ = 16%, Al₂O₃ = 8%, Fe₂O₃ = 62% and H₂O = 14%. Throughout the alteration process of olivine, there is a decrease in SiO₂, FeO and MgO and an increase in Al₂O₃ and","-25.802057313529076"],["determined to be three times that found for terrestrial water. This makes it very unlikely that water found on Earth came from comets such as comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko according to the scientists.\nThe asteroid 24 Themis was the first found to have water, including liquid pressurised by non-atmospheric means, dissolved into mineral through ionising radiation. Water has also been found to flow on the large asteroid 4 Vesta heated through periodic impacts. Extrasolar habitable zone candidates for water Most known extrasolar planetary systems appear to have very different compositions to the Solar System, though there is probably sample bias arising from the","-25.718412096543034"],["is thought to have been a very warm and wet climate on Mars. Scientists have not reached a consensus on how exactly which geomorphological features can be attributed to shorelines and other markers of water flow and which may have been caused by other phenomena such as volcanic flow.\nGiven the orbital and solar conditions of early Mars, a greenhouse effect would have been necessary to boost surface temperatures at least 65 K in order for these surface features to have been carved by flowing water. A much denser, CO₂-dominated atmosphere has been proposed as a way to produce such a","-25.685005817285855"],["pure water ice, so they would be a great source of water for future colonists on Mars Fractures forming blocks In places large fractures break up surfaces. Sometimes straight edges are formed and large cubes are created by the fractures.","-25.676456419954775"],[" Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars. Pedestal craters A pedestal crater is a crater with its ejecta sitting above the surrounding terrain and thereby forming a raised platform (like a pedestal). They form when an impact crater ejects material which forms an erosion-resistant layer, thus causing the immediate area to erode more slowly than the rest of","-25.673896858934313"],["known as deliquescence.\nThe eutectic temperature of these brines allows its permanence in liquid state under the registered Martian environmental conditions in the study area of Curiosity, close to the equator, where they are the least favourable for this to happen. Therefore, it is expected that the phenomenon is more intense in terms of duration of the liquid phase in higher latitudes.\nThe presence of liquid water on present day Mars entails transcendent consequences in a number of aspects of the planet's exploration. Firstly, it casts a new light on the comprehension of Martian environment, and can be the key to understand","-25.642837803810835"],["the southern polar ice cap, and extending horizontally about 20 km (12 mi), the first known stable body of water on Mars.","-25.63426293694647"],["in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had a lot of water. Deltas often require deep water over a long period of time to form. Also, the water level needs to be stable to keep sediment from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below, are pictures of a few. Craters Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually","-25.602639963064576"],["have produced long-lasting lakes at many places on the planet. Rock layers indicate that a huge lake was filled and evaporated many times. The evidence was many deltas that were stacked upon each other.\nGale Crater is considered to be a closed-basin lake, as channels lead into it, but none lead out.\nMinerals called clays and sulfates are formed only in the presence of water. They also may preserve signs of past life. The history of water at Gale, as recorded in its rocks, is giving Curiosity lots of clues to study as it pieces together whether Mars ever could have been","-25.582038486201782"],["associations between exposure of people to blue space and mental health and physical activity.\nOne-fifth of the world’s population, 1.2 billion people, live in areas of water scarcity. Climate change and water-related disasters will place increasing demands on urban systems and will result in increased migration to urban areas. Cities require a very large input of freshwater and in turn have a huge impact on freshwater systems. Urban and industrial water use is projected to double by 2050.\nIn 2010 the United Nations declared that access to clean water and sanitation is a human right. New solutions for improving the sustainability of","-25.564434597210493"],["not interacted with liquid water of any form, perhaps for as long as 600 Myr. If it had, the highly soluble Ca(ClO\n4)\n2 in contact with liquid water would have formed only CaSO\n4. This suggests a severely arid environment, with minimal or no liquid water interaction.\nScientists have proposed that carbonate globules found in meteorite ALH84001, which is thought to have originated from Mars, could be fossilized microbes extant on Mars when the meteorite was blasted from the Martian surface by a meteor strike some 15 million years ago. This proposal has been met with skepticism, and an exclusively inorganic origin for","-25.555136595619842"],["from a time period during which Mars is suspected to have supported liquid water.\nIn October 2011 it was reported that isotopic analysis indicated that the carbonates in ALH84001 were precipitated at a temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) with water and carbon dioxide from the Martian atmosphere. The carbonate carbon and oxygen isotope ratios imply deposition of the carbonates from a gradually evaporating subsurface water body, probably a shallow aquifer meters or tens of meters below the surface.","-25.552161239116685"],["its history, and especially on ancient Mars. Many of these flows carved the surface, forming valley networks and producing sediment. This sediment has been redeposited in a wide variety of wet environments, including in alluvial fans, meandering channels, deltas, lakes, and perhaps even oceans. The processes of deposition and transportation are associated with gravity. Due to gravity, related differences in water fluxes and flow speeds, inferred from grain size distributions, Martian landscapes were created by different environmental conditions. Nevertheless, there are other ways of estimating the amount of water on ancient Mars (see: Water on Mars). Groundwater has been implicated","-25.544917779334355"],["of the Great Basin of the western USA during the Last Glacial Maximum.\nResearch from 2010 suggests that Mars also had lakes along parts of the equator. Although earlier research had showed that Mars had a warm and wet early history that has long since dried up, these lakes existed in the Hesperian Epoch, a much later period. Using detailed images from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, the researchers speculate that there may have been increased volcanic activity, meteorite impacts or shifts in Mars' orbit during this period to warm Mars' atmosphere enough to melt the abundant ice present in the ground.","-25.532465551805217"],["valley networks, even though the mid-late Noachian global conditions were probably icy. Local warming of the environment by volcanism and impacts would have been sporadic, but there should have been many events of water flowing at the surface of Mars. Both the mineralogical and the morphological evidence indicates a degradation of habitability from the mid Hesperian onward. The exact causes are not well understood but may be related to a combination of processes including loss of early atmosphere, or impact erosion, or both.\nThe loss of the Martian magnetic field strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this","-25.525402930536075"],["from Mars' frequent dust storms. The total ice volume determine by this study indicated that there was approximately 2.2×10⁵ cubic kilometres (5.3×10⁴ cu mi), or enough water, if melted, to fully cover the Mars surface with a 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) layer of water. The work was corroborated by a separate study that used recorded gravity data to estimate the density of the Planum Boreum, indicating that on average, it contained up to 55% by volume of water ice.\nMany features that look like the pingos on the Earth were found in Utopia Planitia (~35-50° N; ~80-115° E) by examining photos from HiRISE. \nPingos","-25.503917605703464"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"to the inner surfaces. There's been a lot of speculation about the occurrence of water on Mars. We don't know but it could be associated with this mineral.\\\"\\nJanice Bishop, a Mars specialist from the Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence Institute also told the BBC that: \\\"All life forms as we know it require liquid water so if we can actually find periods of time or places on the planet where there was standing water then the chance of life having formed increase greatly.\\\"\",\n \"-33.187571158654464\"\n ],\n [\n \"Liquid water Liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as humans know it, as habitability is a function of a multitude of environmental parameters. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars except at the lowest elevations for minutes or hours. Liquid water does not appear at the surface itself, but it could form in minuscule amounts around dust particles in snow heated by the Sun. Also, the ancient equatorial ice sheets beneath the ground may slowly sublimate or melt, accessible from the surface via caves.\\nWater on Mars exists almost exclusively as water ice,\",\n \"-32.5781569963583\"\n ],\n [\n \"sites, so its authors also support the hypotheses of either short-lived atmospheric water vapour deliquesence, or dry granular flows. They conclude that liquid water on today's Mars may be limited to traces of dissolved moisture from the atmosphere and thin films, which are challenging environments for life as we know it. Habitability assessments Since the Viking landers that searched for current microbial life in 1976, NASA has pursued a \\\"follow the water\\\" strategy on Mars. However, liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as we know it because habitability is a function of a multitude of\",\n \"-32.54701434158778\"\n ],\n [\n \" Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.\",\n \"-31.72742476715939\"\n ],\n [\n \"a supply of water that was present for a substantial amount of time. Therefore, a prominent goal of the MEP is to look for places where water is, was, or could possibly be, such as dried up riverbeds, under the planetary surface, and in Mars' polar ice caps.\\nAside from water, life also needs sources of energy to survive. The abundance of superoxides makes life on the surface of Mars very unlikely, which essentially rules out sunlight as a possible source of energy for life. Therefore, alternative sources of energy must be searched for, such as geothermal and chemical energy. These\",\n \"-31.448711423043278\"\n ],\n [\n \"atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life.\\nThe lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a challenge: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, poor insulation against bombardment of the solar wind and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimes to a gaseous state). Mars is nearly, or\",\n \"-31.10516362843373\"\n ],\n [\n \"has been estimated that the primordial oceans on Mars would have covered between 36% and 75% of the planet. On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.\\nAnalysis of Martian sandstones, using data obtained from orbital spectrometry, suggests that the waters that previously existed on the surface of Mars would have had too high a salinity to support most Earth-like life. Tosca et al. found that the Martian water\",\n \"-31.064098604656465\"\n ],\n [\n \"of a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 km (0.93 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and extending sideways about 20 km (12 mi), the first known stable body of water on the planet.\\nUnderstanding the extent and situation of water on Mars is vital to assess the planet’s potential for harboring life and for providing usable resources for future human exploration. For this reason, \\\"Follow the Water\\\" was the science theme of NASA's Mars Exploration Program (MEP) in the first decade of the 21st century. Discoveries by the 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Exploration Rovers (MERs), Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), and Mars Phoenix lander have\",\n \"-30.944626979500754\"\n ],\n [\n \"REMS, scientists could in 2015 prove that there are conditions for presence of liquid water on Mars. According to the conclusions, salts in the ground surface on Mars can absorb water vapor from the environment.\\nThe research was presented in Nature Geoscience with Javier Martín-Torres, Professor of Atmospheric Science at Luleå University of Technology as lead author.\",\n \"-30.77636140060349\"\n ],\n [\n \"and minerals It is widely accepted that Mars had abundant water very early in its history, but all large areas of liquid water have since disappeared. A fraction of this water is retained on modern Mars as both ice and locked into the structure of abundant water-rich materials, including clay minerals (phyllosilicates) and sulfates. Studies of hydrogen isotopic ratios indicate that asteroids and comets from beyond 2.5 astronomical units (AU) provide the source of Mars' water, that currently totals 6% to 27% of the Earth's present ocean. Water in weathering products (aqueous minerals) The primary rock type on the surface\",\n \"-30.693381159871933\"\n ],\n [\n \"institute, asserts that although an overwhelming majority of the planet's surface is composed of water, 97% of this water is constituted of saltwater; the fresh water used to sustain humans is only 3% of the total amount of water on Earth. Therefore, Smith believes that the competition for water in an overpopulated world would pose a major threat to human stability, even going so far as to postulate apocalyptic world wars being fought over the control of thinning ice sheets and nearly desiccated reservoirs. Nevertheless, 2 billion people have supposedly gained access to a safe water source since 1990 who\",\n \"-30.4966796435765\"\n ],\n [\n \"rover studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\\nMany lines of evidence indicate that water ice is abundant on Mars and it has played a significant role in the planet's geologic history. The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft imagery, remote sensing techniques (spectroscopic measurements, radar, etc.), and surface investigations from landers and rovers. Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous outflow channels carved by floods, ancient river valley networks, deltas, and lakebeds; and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface\",\n \"-30.445824923377586\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\\nThis international team used ESO’s Very Large Telescope, along with instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different forms of water in Mars’s atmosphere over a\",\n \"-30.398054521931044\"\n ],\n [\n \"water on Mars in the form of images, and with its neutron spectrometer, it proved that much of the ground is loaded with water ice. Mars has enough ice just beneath the surface to fill Lake Michigan twice. In both hemispheres, from 55° latitude to the poles, Mars has a high density of ice just under the surface; one kilogram of soil contains about 500 grams (18 oz) of water ice. But close to the equator, there is only 2% to 10% of water in the soil. Scientists think that much of this water is also locked up in the chemical\",\n \"-30.240053483830707\"\n ],\n [\n \"The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have been influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that liquid water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiter's moon Europa.\\nGroundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the\",\n \"-30.178707077284344\"\n ],\n [\n \"by the Mars Exploration Rover mission indicate it had some long-term standing water in at least one location, but its extent is not known. The Opportunity Mars rover photographed bright veins of a mineral leading to conclusive confirmation of deposition by liquid water.\\nOn 9 December 2013, NASA reported that the planet Mars had a large freshwater lake (which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life) based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus near Mount Sharp in Gale Crater. Liquid water on comets and asteroids Comets contain large proportions of water ice, but are generally thought\",\n \"-30.171894344326574\"\n ],\n [\n \"ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.\",\n \"-30.081699410860892\"\n ],\n [\n \"or an ancient streambed — that had neutral acidity and not too salty. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from Curiosity studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life. The confirmation that liquid water once flowed on Mars, the existence of nutrients, and the previous discovery of a past magnetic field that protected the planet from cosmic and solar radiation, together strongly suggest that Mars could have had the environmental factors to support life. The assessment of past habitability is not in itself\",\n \"-30.04017207896686\"\n ],\n [\n \"and evidence for geyser-like water flows within the last decade have made Mars the most likely extraterrestrial environment for finding liquid water, and therefore alien life, in the Solar System. Moreover, some geologic evidence suggests that Mars could have been warm and wet on a global scale in its distant past. Intense geologic activity has reshaped the surface of the Earth, erasing evidence of our earliest history. Martian rocks can be even older than Earth rocks, though, so exploring Mars may help us decipher the story of our own geologic evolution including the origin of life on\",\n \"-30.023077081306837\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS) on board the Mars Odyssey had discovered huge amounts of water over vast areas of Mars. Mars has enough ice just beneath the surface to fill Lake Michigan twice. In both hemispheres, from 55 degrees latitude to the poles, Mars has a high density of ice just under the surface; one kilogram of soil contains about 500 g of water ice. But, close to the equator, there is only 2 to 10% of water in the soil. Scientists believe that much of this water is locked up in the chemical structure of minerals,\",\n \"-29.74226308974903\"\n ],\n [\n \"Water on terrestrial planets of the Solar System The origin and development of water on terrestrial planets, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the closely related Earth's Moon, varies with each planetary body, with the exact origins remaining unclear. Additionally, the terrestrial dwarf planet Ceres is known to have water ice on its surface. Mars A significant amount of surface hydrogen has been observed globally by the Mars Odyssey GRS. Stoichiometrically estimated water mass fractions indicate that—when free of carbon dioxide—the near surface at the poles consists almost entirely of water covered by a thin veneer of fine material. This is reinforced\",\n \"-29.63113787828479\"\n ],\n [\n \"give the answer.\\nIt was once thought that Mars might have dried up from something more Earth-like. The initial discovery of a cratered surface made this seem unlikely, but further evidence has changed this view. Liquid water may have existed on the surface of Mars in the distant past, and several basins on Mars have been proposed as dry sea beds. The largest is Vastitas Borealis; others include Hellas Planitia and Argyre Planitia.\\nThere is currently much debate over whether Mars once had an ocean of water in its northern hemisphere, and over what happened to it if it did. Recent findings\",\n \"-29.595002598594874\"\n ],\n [\n \"been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting, by the Curiosity rover at Gale, an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times, before the lakebed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost.\\nOn October 8, 2015, NASA confirmed that lakes and streams existed\",\n \"-29.38521466495149\"\n ],\n [\n \"Chronology of discoveries of water on Mars To date, interplanetary spacecraft have provided abundant evidence of water on Mars, dating back to the Mariner 9 mission, which arrived at Mars in 1971. This article provides a mission by mission breakdown of the discoveries they have made. For a more comprehensive description of evidence for water on Mars today, and the history of water on that planet, see Water on Mars. Mariner 9 Mariner 9 imaging revealed the first direct evidence of water in the form of river beds, canyons (including the Valles Marineris, a system of canyons over about 4,020\",\n \"-29.03573061322095\"\n ],\n [\n \"lower layers of Mount Sharp.\\nOn November 4, 2018, geologists presented evidence, based on studies in Gale Crater by the Curiosity rover, that there was plenty of water on early Mars. Mars Express The Mars Express Orbiter, launched by the European Space Agency, has been mapping the surface of Mars and using radar equipment to look for evidence of sub-surface water. Between 2012 and 2015, the Orbiter scanned the area beneath the ice caps on the Planum Australe. Scientists determined by 2018 that the readings indicated a sub-surface lake bearing water about 20 kilometres (12 mi) wide. The top of the lake\",\n \"-28.98427875121706\"\n ],\n [\n \"that it may have implications for liquid water still being on Mars. Through their research, scientists came to the conclusion that if Lake Vostok existed before the perennial glaciation began, that it is likely that the lake did not freeze all the way to the bottom. Due to this hypothesis, scientists say that if water had existed before the polar ice caps on Mars, it is likely that there is still liquid water below the ice caps that may even contain evidence of life.\\n\\\"Chaos terrain\\\", a common feature on Europa's surface, is interpreted by some as regions where the subsurface\",\n \"-28.95949011007906\"\n ],\n [\n \"had observed features on Mars he called canali (Italian for \\\"channels\\\"). A misunderstanding that \\\"canals\\\" implied water, fueled belief that the planet was inhabited. The theory of an inhabited planet with flowing water was disproved by data provided by Russian and American probes such as the two Viking missions which found a dead, frozen world where water could not exist in a fluid state. World of Barsoom A million years before the narrative commences, Mars was a lush world with oceans. As the oceans receded, and the atmosphere grew thin, the planet has devolved into a landscape of partial\",\n \"-28.79465095285559\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water to deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to that ratio on Earth. The amount of Martian deuterium is eight times the amount that exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the former presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that these results have not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet\",\n \"-28.62236203541397\"\n ],\n [\n \"of early Earth. On its surface, scientists have discovered the first liquid lakes outside Earth, but these lakes seem to be composed of ethane and/or methane, not water. Some scientists think it possible that these liquid hydrocarbons might take the place of water in living cells different from those on Earth. After Cassini data was studied, it was reported on March 2008 that Titan may also have an underground ocean composed of liquid water and ammonia.\\nMeasuring the ratio of hydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, \\\"...low H₂/CH₄\",\n \"-28.569241068005795\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Esperance\\\", suggested that water in the past may have had a neutral pH. This was later confirmed in further studies, supporting the notion that ancient Mars was a \\\"water-rich world with conditions amenable for life\\\". As of June 20, 2013 (Sol 3344), Opportunity's total odometry was reported at 36.84 km (22.89 mi), while en route to 'Solander Point.' June 21, 2013 marked five Martian years on the 'red planet'. The project manager, noting the harsh conditions of the planet, has said each day is \\\"a gift\\\". 2014 Opportunity started off 2014 on the western ridge of Endeavour crater, providing elevated\",\n \"-28.25784273428144\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Mars was once covered by water, though the water on Mars is no longer oceanic (much of it residing in the ice caps). The possibility continues to be studied along with reasons for their apparent disappearance. Astronomers now think that Venus may have had liquid water and perhaps oceans for over 2 billion years. Natural satellites A global layer of liquid water thick enough to decouple the crust from the mantle is thought to be present on the natural satellites Titan, Europa, Enceladus and, with less certainty, Callisto, Ganymede and Triton. A magma ocean is thought to be present\",\n \"-28.229833324090578\"\n ],\n [\n \"Lakes on Mars In summer 1965, the first close-up images from Mars showed a cratered desert with no signs of water. However, over the decades, as more parts of the planet were imaged with better cameras on more sophisticated satellites, Mars showed evidence of past river valleys, lakes and present ice in glaciers and in the ground. It was discovered that the climate of Mars displays huge changes over geologic time because its axis is not stabilized by a large moon, as Earth's is. Also, some researchers maintain that surface liquid water could have existed for periods of time due\",\n \"-28.22338889387902\"\n ],\n [\n \"evidence, however, supports the existence of liquids below the surface of several moons and dwarf planets elsewhere in the Solar System. Some are speculated to be large extraterrestrial \\\"oceans\\\". Liquid water is thought to be common in other planetary systems, despite the lack of conclusive evidence, and there is a growing list of extrasolar candidates for liquid water. Liquid water in the Solar System As of December 2015, the confirmed liquid water in the Solar System outside Earth is 25–50 times the volume of Earth's water (1.3 billion cubic kilometers). Mars Water on Mars exists today almost exclusively as ice,\",\n \"-28.00763037017896\"\n ],\n [\n \"all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.\",\n \"-27.974886389740277\"\n ],\n [\n \"Water on Mars Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere. What was thought to be low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil, also called recurrent slope lineae, may be grains of flowing sand and dust slipping downhill to make dark streaks. The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap. Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate conditions.\",\n \"-27.92360568298318\"\n ],\n [\n \"identified include thiophenes, benzene, toluene, and small carbon chains, such as propane or butene.\\nOn November 4, 2018, geologists presented evidence, based on studies in Gale by the Curiosity rover, that there was plenty of water on early Mars.\",\n \"-27.89491979648301\"\n ],\n [\n \"an ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth and derived from telescopic observations. Eight times as much deuterium was inferred at the polar deposits of Mars than exists on Earth (VSMOW), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. The representative atmospheric value obtained from the maps (7 VSMOW) is not affected by climatological effects as those measured by localized rovers, although the telescopic measurements are within\",\n \"-27.875916388093174\"\n ],\n [\n \"water activity at Gale crater on Mars, reported the existence of a daily cycle of water exchange between the atmospheric boundary layer and the ground, including a phase during which the water remains in a transient liquid state. This is possible thanks to the presence in the soil of perchlorates, a highly hygroscopic kind of chlorine salts which seem to be ubiquitous over the Martian surface. These salts have the capability of catching water vapour from the environment up to the point of becoming solved in it forming concentrated solutions or brines. It is an extreme case of hygroscopy\",\n \"-27.82302479163627\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the locations they studied all had water activity, aw ≤ 0.78 to 0.86—a level fatal to most Terrestrial life. Haloarchaea, however, are able to live in hypersaline solutions, up to the saturation point.\\nIn June 2000, possible evidence for current liquid water flowing at the surface of Mars was discovered in the form of flood-like gullies. Additional similar images were published in 2006, taken by the Mars Global Surveyor, that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars. The images showed changes in steep crater walls and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water coursed\",\n \"-27.731386170256883\"\n ],\n [\n \"planet Mars. Such a finding, along with previous discoveries that water may have been present on ancient Mars, further supports the possible early habitability of Gale Crater on Mars.\\nHydrogen is present as water (H₂O) ice and in hydrated minerals. Carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere and sometimes as dry ice at the poles. An unknown amount of carbon is also stored in carbonates. Molecular nitrogen (N₂) makes up 2.7 percent of the atmosphere. As far as we know, organic compounds are absent except for a trace of methane detected in the atmosphere. On 16 December 2014, NASA\",\n \"-27.688223946413927\"\n ],\n [\n \"water recovery systems. Similar systems would be needed on Mars, but would need to be much more efficient, since regular robotic deliveries of water to Mars would be prohibitively expensive (the ISS is supplied with water four times per year). Some experts have argued for setting up open-air settlements by using special construction methods, like excavating deep into the Martian crust to depths where air pressures may be sufficient to allow humans to survive without pressurized suits. Potential access to in-situ water (frozen or otherwise) via drilling has been investigated by NASA. Effects on human health Mars presents a hostile\",\n \"-27.672078301926376\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity found a great deal of evidence for past water on Mars. The Spirit rover landed in what was thought to be a large lake bed. The lake bed had been covered over with lava flows, so evidence of past water was initially hard to detect. On March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed \\\"Humphrey\\\".\\nAs Spirit traveled in reverse in December 2007, pulling a seized wheel behind, the wheel scraped off the upper layer of soil, uncovering a patch of white ground rich\",\n \"-27.643846022901926\"\n ],\n [\n \"that could only have formed in liquid water. Numerous geomorphic features suggest the presence of ground ice (permafrost) and the movement of ice in glaciers, both in the recent past and present. Gullies and slope lineae along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars, although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past.\\nAlthough the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago, the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing, probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms.\",\n \"-27.605858375613025\"\n ],\n [\n \"where water can exist on the surface, is based on the properties of both the Earth and Sun. Under this model, Earth orbits roughly at the centre of this zone or in the \\\"Goldilocks\\\" position. Earth is the only planet in the universe confirmed to possess large bodies of surface water. Venus is on the hot side of the zone while Mars is on the cold side. Neither are known to have persistent surface water, though evidence exists that Mars did have in its ancient past, and it is speculated that the same was the case for Venus. Thus extrasolar\",\n \"-27.566076454881113\"\n ],\n [\n \"200 kilometers and maybe more. I have already pointed out that, in the absence of rain on Mars, these channels are probably the main mechanism by which the water (and with it organic life) can spread on the dry surface of the planet.\\\" Relatives His niece, Elsa Schiaparelli, became a noted designer or maker of haute couture.\",\n \"-27.343463292447268\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Mars water\\\", \\\"as well as the current north-south asymmetry of the seasonal ice cap albedos.\\\" The atmosphere of Mars is currently \\\"a nonlinear pump of water into the northern hemisphere of Mars.\\\"\",\n \"-27.295438441946317\"\n ],\n [\n \"at even lower latitudes. Future colonists on Mars will be able to tap into these ice deposits, instead of having to travel to much higher latitudes. Another major advantage of LDAs over other sources of Martian water is that they can easily be detected and mapped from orbit. Lobate debris aprons are shown below from the Phlegra Montes which are at a latitude of 38.2 degrees north. The Phoenix lander set down at about 68 degrees north latitude, so the discovery of water ice in LDAs greatly expands the range of water easily available on Mars.\",\n \"-27.1157742341602\"\n ],\n [\n \"that evidence exists for an ancient Martian ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean, or approximately 19% of the Martian surface. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth. Eight times as much deuterium was found at Mars than exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the presence\",\n \"-27.108352252398618\"\n ],\n [\n \"comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes form in the presence of water. In 2004, Opportunity detected the mineral jarosite. This forms only in the presence of acidic water, which demonstrates that water once existed on Mars. More recent evidence for liquid water comes from the finding of the mineral gypsum on the surface by NASA's Mars rover Opportunity in December 2011. It is estimated that the amount of water in the upper mantle of Mars, represented by hydroxyl ions contained within the minerals of Mars's geology, is equal to or\",\n \"-27.091213644089294\"\n ],\n [\n \"is widely thought to have existed on Mars in the past, and now can occasionally be found as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil. The origin of the potential biosignature of methane observed in Mars' atmosphere is unexplained, although hypotheses not involving life have also been proposed.\\nThere is evidence that Mars had a warmer and wetter past: dried-up river beds, polar ice caps, volcanoes, and minerals that form in the presence of water have all been found. Nevertheless, present conditions on Mars' subsurface may support life. Evidence obtained by the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater in 2013\",\n \"-26.966907730442472\"\n ],\n [\n \"throwing doubt on the burgeoning theory that the atmosphere of Mars is similar to that of the Earth. Previous detections of water in the atmosphere of Mars were explained by unfavorable conditions, and Campbell determined that the water signature came entirely from the Earth's atmosphere. Although he agreed that the ice caps did indicate there was water in the atmosphere, he did not believe the caps were sufficiently large to allow the water vapor to be detected. At the time, Campbell's results were considered controversial and were criticized by members of the astronomical community, but they were confirmed by American\",\n \"-26.959081243207038\"\n ],\n [\n \"south pole). In March 2015, a team of scientists published results showing that this region was highly enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, by seven times as much as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\\nThis international team used ESO's Very Large\",\n \"-26.89188819733681\"\n ],\n [\n \"thought that liquid water may exist in the Martian subsurface. Research suggests that in the past there was liquid water flowing on the surface, creating large areas similar to Earth's oceans. However, the question remains as to where the water has gone. There are a number of direct and indirect proofs of water's presence either on or under the surface, e.g. stream beds, polar caps, spectroscopic measurement, eroded craters or minerals directly connected to the existence of liquid water (such as Goethite). In an article in the Journal of Geophysical Research, scientists studied Lake Vostok in Antarctica and discovered\",\n \"-26.809083231375553\"\n ],\n [\n \"is found frozen in its polar ice caps, and newly carved gullies recently observed on Mars suggest that liquid water may exist, at least transiently, on the planet's surface. At the Martian low temperatures and low pressure, liquid water is likely to be highly saline. As for Europa and Enceladus, large global oceans of liquid water exist beneath these moons' icy outer crusts. This water may be warmed to a liquid state by volcanic vents on the ocean floor, but the primary source of heat is probably tidal heating. On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of \\\"clay-like minerals\\\"\",\n \"-26.77714433489018\"\n ],\n [\n \"and help unravel the history of liquid water on Mars. The types of clay minerals and their abundances give clues about the nature of the water that was present, whether fresh or salty, acidic or neutral pH, whether it might have been icy or warm, and whether the water was present for a long period of time. These are key questions to understand how habitable the surface environment was in the distant past. Camera/telescope SuperCam's optical camera acquires high-resolution color images of samples under study, which also help determine the surface geology. This camera can also study how atmospheric\",\n \"-26.75947414408438\"\n ],\n [\n \"suggest the presence of water in the present and in the past of Mars. All samples heated in the gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GSMS) gave off water. However, the way the samples were handled prohibited an exact measurement of the amount of water. But, it was around 1%. General chemical analysis suggested the surface had been exposed to water in the past. Some chemicals in the soil contained sulfur and chlorine that were like those remaining after sea water evaporates. Sulfur was more concentrated in the crust on top of the soil, than in the bulk soil beneath. So it\",\n \"-26.704627895778685\"\n ],\n [\n \"of water at its melting point; under average Martian conditions, pure water on the Martian surface would freeze or, if heated to above the melting point, would sublime to vapor. Before about 3.8 billion years ago, Mars may have had a denser atmosphere and higher surface temperatures, allowing vast amounts of liquid water on the surface, possibly including a large ocean that may have covered one-third of the planet. Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars' history. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from the Curiosity\",\n \"-26.6883694131393\"\n ],\n [\n \"mission team members announced on 2 March that data returned from the rover showed that these rocks were once \\\"drenched in water\\\", and on 23 March that it was concluded that they were laid down underwater in a salty sea. This represented the first strong direct evidence for liquid water on Mars at some time in the past.\\nTowards the end of July 2005, it was reported by the Sunday Times that the rovers may have carried the bacteria Bacillus safensis to Mars. According to one NASA microbiologist, this bacteria could survive both the trip and conditions on Mars. A book\",\n \"-26.65532262718625\"\n ],\n [\n \"of water on the surface of Earth is a product of its atmospheric pressure and a stable orbit in the Sun's circumstellar habitable zone, though the origin of Earth's water remains unknown.\\nThe main methods currently used for confirmation are absorption spectroscopy and geochemistry. These techniques have proven effective for atmospheric water vapour and ice. However, using current methods of astronomical spectroscopy it is substantially more difficult to detect liquid water on terrestrial planets, especially in the case of subsurface water. Due to this, astronomers, astrobiologists and planetary scientists use habitable zone, gravitational and tidal theory, models of planetary differentiation and\",\n \"-26.65453534736298\"\n ],\n [\n \"this remains a topic of active research. Because the gullies are so young, this would suggest that liquid water has been present on Mars in its very recent geological past, with consequences for the potential habitability of the modern surface.\\nOn July 10, 2014, NASA reported that gullies on the surface of Mars were mostly formed by the seasonal freezing of carbon dioxide (CO₂), and not by that of liquid water as considered earlier. Formation After being discovered, many hypotheses were put forward to explain the gullies. However, as in the usual progression of science, some ideas came to be more\",\n \"-26.574684624443762\"\n ],\n [\n \"the rocks, named \\\"Cumberland\\\", analyzed by the Curiosity rover. Human colonization of Mars Some of the main reasons for colonizing Mars include economic interests, long-term scientific research best carried out by humans as opposed to robotic probes, and sheer curiosity. Surface conditions and the presence of water on Mars make it arguably the most hospitable of the planets in the Solar System, other than Earth. Human colonization of Mars would require in situ resource utilization (ISRU); A NASA report states that \\\"applicable frontier technologies include robotics, machine intelligence, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, 3-D printing/additive manufacturing, and autonomy. These technologies combined with\",\n \"-26.57188013380801\"\n ],\n [\n \"is believed that the water remains liquid, even at the temperature of -68 degrees Celsius because there is likely much dissolved salt that lowers the freezing point. The lake is about 20 kilometers across and at least 10 centimeters deep It could contain 10 billion liters of liquid water. There could very well be many small bodies of water under the ice cap; however, they are difficult to detect with MARSIS. Also, the raw date coverage needed for these detections is limited—only a few percent of the area has a full set of data. Spiders During\",\n \"-26.486535833624657\"\n ],\n [\n \"polar cap ice is about eight times as enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, as water in Earth's oceans. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times as large as that stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time may have formed an ocean in the low-lying Vastitas Borealis and adjacent lowlands (Acidalia, Arcadia and Utopia planitiae). Had the water ever all been liquid and on the surface, it would have covered 20% of the planet and in places would have been almost a mile deep.\\nThis international team used ESO’s Very Large Telescope, along with\",\n \"-26.424836763791973\"\n ],\n [\n \"a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Spacecraft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Cultural significance A large part of the popular movie The Martian takes place in the Oxia Palus quadrangle.\",\n \"-26.408450254966738\"\n ],\n [\n \"More than 21 million km³ of ice have been detected at or near the surface of Mars, enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of 35 meters (115 ft). Even more ice is likely to be locked away in the deep subsurface.\\nSome liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today, but limited to traces of dissolved moisture from the atmosphere and thin films, which are challenging environments for known life. No large standing bodies of liquid water exist on the planet's surface, because the atmospheric pressure there averages just 600 pascals (0.087 psi), a figure slightly below the vapor pressure\",\n \"-26.357764346030308\"\n ],\n [\n \"presence of a delta is exciting; it means water was there for a time, maybe for many years. Primitive organisms may have developed in such lakes; hence, some craters may be prime targets for the search for evidence of life on the Red Planet. Channels There is enormous evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars. Images of curved channels have been seen in images from Mars spacecraft dating back to the early seventies with the Mariner 9 orbiter. Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve\",\n \"-26.324740637326613\"\n ],\n [\n \"presence of water over the past billion years. However, there is no reason to suppose that Venus was an exception to the processes that formed Earth and gave it its water during its early history, possibly from the original rocks that formed the planet or later on from comets. The common view among research scientists is that water would have existed for about 600 million years on the surface before evaporating, though some such as David Grinspoon believe that up to 2 billion years could also be plausible. This longer timescale for the persistence of oceans is also supported by GCM simulations\",\n \"-26.2939562369138\"\n ],\n [\n \"presence of iddingsite on Mars would suggest that liquid water once existed there, and might enable scientists to determine when there was last liquid water on the planet. Norway Norway is the main source of olivine in Europe, particularly in an area stretching from Åheim to Tafjord, and from Hornindal to Flemsøy in the Sunnmøre district. There is also olivine in Eid municipality. About 50% of the world's olivine for industrial use is produced in Norway. At Svarthammaren in Norddal olivine was mined from around 1920 to 1979, with a daily output up to 600 metric tons. Olivine was also\",\n \"-26.281395416124724\"\n ],\n [\n \"ancient water On September 27, 2012, NASA scientists announced that the Curiosity rover found evidence for an ancient streambed suggesting a \\\"vigorous flow\\\" of water on Mars. \\nOn December 3, 2012, NASA reported that Curiosity performed its first extensive soil analysis, revealing the presence of water molecules, sulfur and chlorine in the Martian soil. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life. Evidence for ancient habitability In March 2013, NASA reported Curiosity found evidence\",\n \"-26.218719893659\"\n ],\n [\n \"liquid water early in the planet's geologic history. This primordial ocean, dubbed paleo-ocean and Oceanus Borealis, would have filled the Vastitas Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere, a region which lies 4–5 km (2.5–3 miles) below the mean planetary elevation, about 3.8 billion years ago. Evidence for this ocean includes geographic features resembling ancient shorelines, and the chemical properties of the Martian soil and atmosphere. However, for such an ocean to have existed, early Mars would have required a magnetosphere, a denser atmosphere, and warmer climate to allow liquid water to remain at the surface. Observational evidence Features first shown by the\",\n \"-26.1680806177028\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Mars The geology of Mars is differentiable from that of Earth by, among other things, its extremely large volcanoes and lack of crust movement. A goal of the MEP is to understand these differences from Earth along with the way that wind, water, volcanoes, tectonics, cratering and other processes have shaped the surface of Mars. Rocks can help scientists describe the sequence of events in Mars' history, tell whether there was an abundance of water on the planet through identifying minerals that are formed only in water, and tell if Mars once had a magnetic field (which would point\",\n \"-26.099598292261362\"\n ],\n [\n \"Curiosity on the way to Glenelg, was a mugearite and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks.\\nOn December 9, 2013, NASA reported that Mars once had a large freshwater lake inside Gale Crater, that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found\",\n \"-26.049167869357916\"\n ],\n [\n \"Steele was able to prove that the hydrocarbons did not come from biological origins, but rather from volcanic activity on Mars. Steele is currently investigating a new Martian meteorite, which contains more water than any other Martian meteorite found before, as well as hydrocarbons. Similar to his 2012 discovery, Steele was able to determine that the hydrocarbons did not result from contamination, but from a non-biological process, helping to answer important questions about the origin of life. Collectively, his investigations have helped inform discussion about thee potential habitability of Mars. Awards In 2012, the Royal Society of London awarded Steele\",\n \"-26.02674849977484\"\n ],\n [\n \"water is in jeopardy. Today approximately one billion people lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation. It will get worse. By 2025 more than half of the people of the world will face water vulnerability. The Water Bottle Project creates an art object that reminds us we need to take action.\",\n \"-25.990141872840468\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Antarctica showed that this lake could have existed before the Antarctic glaciation, and that a similar scenario could potentially have occurred on Mars. In July 2018, scientists from the Italian Space Agency reported the detection of such a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and spanning 20 kilometres (10 mi) horizontally, the first evidence for a stable body of liquid water on the planet. The evidence for this Martian lake was deduced from a bright spot in the radar echo sounding data of the MARSIS radar on board the European Mars Express orbiter,\",\n \"-25.96790312154917\"\n ],\n [\n \"evidence provided by martian meteorites. The water is likely too minimal to support life.\",\n \"-25.95993379290303\"\n ],\n [\n \"lake environment in ancient times on Mars became the drier environment in more modern times.\\nOn August 5, 2017, NASA celebrated the fifth anniversary of the Curiosity rover mission landing, and related exploratory accomplishments, on the planet Mars. (Videos: Curiosity's First Five Years (02:07); Curiosity's POV: Five Years Driving (05:49); Curiosity's Discoveries About Gale Crater (02:54))\\nOn June 7, 2018, NASA's Curiosity made two significant discoveries in Gale. Organic molecules preserved in 3.5 billion-year-old bedrock and seasonal variations in the level of methane in the atmosphere further support the theory that past conditions may have been conducive to life. It is possible\",\n \"-25.959504312486388\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the conclusion that climatic conditions in the distant past allowed for free-flowing water on Mars. The morphology of some crater impacts on Mars indicate that the ground was wet at the time of impact. Geomorphic observations of both landscape erosion rates and Martian valley networks also strongly imply warmer, wetter conditions on Noachian-era Mars (earlier than about four billion years ago). However, chemical analysis of Martian meteorite samples suggests that the ambient near-surface temperature of Mars has most likely been below 0 °C (32 °F) for the last four billion years.\\nSome scientists maintain that the great mass of the Tharsis volcanoes\",\n \"-25.954657996699098\"\n ],\n [\n \"found at even lower latitudes. Future colonists on Mars will be able to tap into these ice deposits, instead of having to travel to much higher latitudes. Another major advantage of LDAs over other sources of Martian water is that they can easily detected and mapped from orbit. Lobate debris aprons are shown below from the Phlegra Montes, which are at a latitude of 38.2 degrees north. The Phoenix lander set down at about 68 degrees north latitude, so the discovery of water ice in LDAs greatly expands the range of easily available on Mars. It is far easier\",\n \"-25.899995861233037\"\n ],\n [\n \"detection of a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and spanning 20 kilometres (12 mi) horizontally, the first evidence for a stable body of liquid water on the planet. Because the temperature at the base of the polar cap is estimated at 205 K (−68 °C; −91 °F), scientists assume that the water may remain liquid by the antifreeze effect of magnesium and calcium perchlorates. The 1.5-kilometre (0.93 mi) ice layer covering the lake is composed of water ice with 10 to 20% admixed dust, and seasonally covered by a 1-metre (3 ft 3 in)-thick layer of CO\\n2 ice. Europa\",\n \"-25.879060553153977\"\n ],\n [\n \"Evidence of water on Mars found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Recurring slope lineae Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes (also called recurring slope lineae, recurrent slope lineae and RSL) are thought to be salty water flows occurring during the warmest months on Mars. Indeed, there is much photographic and spectroscopic evidence that water does today flow on parts of Mars.\\nSome researchers have proposed that the flow is aided by the water boiling in thin Martian atmosphere. Boiling water would cause soil particles to bounce and help them to flow down slopes.\\nIn a study published in Icarus in\",\n \"-25.870051261561457\"\n ],\n [\n \"from Mars. Some of them contain evidence that they were exposed to water when on Mars. Some Martian meteorites called basaltic shergottites, appear (from the presence of hydrated carbonates and sulfates) to have been exposed to liquid water prior to ejection into space. It has been shown that another class of meteorites, the nakhlites, were suffused with liquid water around 620 million years ago and that they were ejected from Mars around 10.75 million years ago by an asteroid impact. They fell to Earth within the last 10,000 years. Martian meteorite NWA 7034 has one order of magnitude more water than most\",\n \"-25.858624183543725\"\n ],\n [\n \"to have been lost during ancient times, before the lakebed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost.\\nOn April 13, 2015, Nature published an analysis of humidity and ground temperature data collected by Curiosity, showing evidence that films of liquid brine water form in the upper 5 cm of Mars's subsurface at night. The water activity and temperature remain below the requirements for reproduction and metabolism of known terrestrial microorganisms.\\nOn October 8, 2015, NASA confirmed that lakes and streams existed in Gale crater 3.3 – 3.8 billion years ago delivering sediments to build up the\",\n \"-25.847344920883188\"\n ],\n [\n \"show large quantities of water ice at both poles (July 2005) and at middle latitudes (November 2008). The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31, 2008.\\nLandforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water has existed on the planet's surface. Huge linear swathes of scoured ground, known as outflow channels, cut across the surface in about 25 places. These are thought to be a record of erosion caused by the catastrophic release of water from subsurface aquifers, though some of these structures have been hypothesized to result from the action of glaciers or lava.\",\n \"-25.833368202511338\"\n ],\n [\n \"an estimate as to when there has been liquid water on Mars. Potassium-argon dating of the meteorite samples showed that Mars had water on its surface anywhere from 1300 Ma to 650 Ma ago. Composition Iddingsite is a mineral that lacks a definite chemical composition, so exact compositions cannot be calculated. An approximated composition for a hypothetical end product of iddingsite has been calculated as being SiO₂ = 16%, Al₂O₃ = 8%, Fe₂O₃ = 62% and H₂O = 14%. Throughout the alteration process of olivine, there is a decrease in SiO₂, FeO and MgO and an increase in Al₂O₃ and\",\n \"-25.802057313529076\"\n ],\n [\n \"determined to be three times that found for terrestrial water. This makes it very unlikely that water found on Earth came from comets such as comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko according to the scientists.\\nThe asteroid 24 Themis was the first found to have water, including liquid pressurised by non-atmospheric means, dissolved into mineral through ionising radiation. Water has also been found to flow on the large asteroid 4 Vesta heated through periodic impacts. Extrasolar habitable zone candidates for water Most known extrasolar planetary systems appear to have very different compositions to the Solar System, though there is probably sample bias arising from the\",\n \"-25.718412096543034\"\n ],\n [\n \"is thought to have been a very warm and wet climate on Mars. Scientists have not reached a consensus on how exactly which geomorphological features can be attributed to shorelines and other markers of water flow and which may have been caused by other phenomena such as volcanic flow.\\nGiven the orbital and solar conditions of early Mars, a greenhouse effect would have been necessary to boost surface temperatures at least 65 K in order for these surface features to have been carved by flowing water. A much denser, CO₂-dominated atmosphere has been proposed as a way to produce such a\",\n \"-25.685005817285855\"\n ],\n [\n \"pure water ice, so they would be a great source of water for future colonists on Mars Fractures forming blocks In places large fractures break up surfaces. Sometimes straight edges are formed and large cubes are created by the fractures.\",\n \"-25.676456419954775\"\n ],\n [\n \" Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars. Pedestal craters A pedestal crater is a crater with its ejecta sitting above the surrounding terrain and thereby forming a raised platform (like a pedestal). They form when an impact crater ejects material which forms an erosion-resistant layer, thus causing the immediate area to erode more slowly than the rest of\",\n \"-25.673896858934313\"\n ],\n [\n \"known as deliquescence.\\nThe eutectic temperature of these brines allows its permanence in liquid state under the registered Martian environmental conditions in the study area of Curiosity, close to the equator, where they are the least favourable for this to happen. Therefore, it is expected that the phenomenon is more intense in terms of duration of the liquid phase in higher latitudes.\\nThe presence of liquid water on present day Mars entails transcendent consequences in a number of aspects of the planet's exploration. Firstly, it casts a new light on the comprehension of Martian environment, and can be the key to understand\",\n \"-25.642837803810835\"\n ],\n [\n \"the southern polar ice cap, and extending horizontally about 20 km (12 mi), the first known stable body of water on Mars.\",\n \"-25.63426293694647\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had a lot of water. Deltas often require deep water over a long period of time to form. Also, the water level needs to be stable to keep sediment from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below, are pictures of a few. Craters Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually\",\n \"-25.602639963064576\"\n ],\n [\n \"have produced long-lasting lakes at many places on the planet. Rock layers indicate that a huge lake was filled and evaporated many times. The evidence was many deltas that were stacked upon each other.\\nGale Crater is considered to be a closed-basin lake, as channels lead into it, but none lead out.\\nMinerals called clays and sulfates are formed only in the presence of water. They also may preserve signs of past life. The history of water at Gale, as recorded in its rocks, is giving Curiosity lots of clues to study as it pieces together whether Mars ever could have been\",\n \"-25.582038486201782\"\n ],\n [\n \"associations between exposure of people to blue space and mental health and physical activity.\\nOne-fifth of the world’s population, 1.2 billion people, live in areas of water scarcity. Climate change and water-related disasters will place increasing demands on urban systems and will result in increased migration to urban areas. Cities require a very large input of freshwater and in turn have a huge impact on freshwater systems. Urban and industrial water use is projected to double by 2050.\\nIn 2010 the United Nations declared that access to clean water and sanitation is a human right. New solutions for improving the sustainability of\",\n \"-25.564434597210493\"\n ],\n [\n \"not interacted with liquid water of any form, perhaps for as long as 600 Myr. If it had, the highly soluble Ca(ClO\\n4)\\n2 in contact with liquid water would have formed only CaSO\\n4. This suggests a severely arid environment, with minimal or no liquid water interaction.\\nScientists have proposed that carbonate globules found in meteorite ALH84001, which is thought to have originated from Mars, could be fossilized microbes extant on Mars when the meteorite was blasted from the Martian surface by a meteor strike some 15 million years ago. This proposal has been met with skepticism, and an exclusively inorganic origin for\",\n \"-25.555136595619842\"\n ],\n [\n \"from a time period during which Mars is suspected to have supported liquid water.\\nIn October 2011 it was reported that isotopic analysis indicated that the carbonates in ALH84001 were precipitated at a temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) with water and carbon dioxide from the Martian atmosphere. The carbonate carbon and oxygen isotope ratios imply deposition of the carbonates from a gradually evaporating subsurface water body, probably a shallow aquifer meters or tens of meters below the surface.\",\n \"-25.552161239116685\"\n ],\n [\n \"its history, and especially on ancient Mars. Many of these flows carved the surface, forming valley networks and producing sediment. This sediment has been redeposited in a wide variety of wet environments, including in alluvial fans, meandering channels, deltas, lakes, and perhaps even oceans. The processes of deposition and transportation are associated with gravity. Due to gravity, related differences in water fluxes and flow speeds, inferred from grain size distributions, Martian landscapes were created by different environmental conditions. Nevertheless, there are other ways of estimating the amount of water on ancient Mars (see: Water on Mars). Groundwater has been implicated\",\n \"-25.544917779334355\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the Great Basin of the western USA during the Last Glacial Maximum.\\nResearch from 2010 suggests that Mars also had lakes along parts of the equator. Although earlier research had showed that Mars had a warm and wet early history that has long since dried up, these lakes existed in the Hesperian Epoch, a much later period. Using detailed images from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, the researchers speculate that there may have been increased volcanic activity, meteorite impacts or shifts in Mars' orbit during this period to warm Mars' atmosphere enough to melt the abundant ice present in the ground.\",\n \"-25.532465551805217\"\n ],\n [\n \"valley networks, even though the mid-late Noachian global conditions were probably icy. Local warming of the environment by volcanism and impacts would have been sporadic, but there should have been many events of water flowing at the surface of Mars. Both the mineralogical and the morphological evidence indicates a degradation of habitability from the mid Hesperian onward. The exact causes are not well understood but may be related to a combination of processes including loss of early atmosphere, or impact erosion, or both.\\nThe loss of the Martian magnetic field strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this\",\n \"-25.525402930536075\"\n ],\n [\n \"from Mars' frequent dust storms. The total ice volume determine by this study indicated that there was approximately 2.2×10⁵ cubic kilometres (5.3×10⁴ cu mi), or enough water, if melted, to fully cover the Mars surface with a 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) layer of water. The work was corroborated by a separate study that used recorded gravity data to estimate the density of the Planum Boreum, indicating that on average, it contained up to 55% by volume of water ice.\\nMany features that look like the pingos on the Earth were found in Utopia Planitia (~35-50° N; ~80-115° E) by examining photos from HiRISE. \\nPingos\",\n \"-25.503917605703464\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":85,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"1xatn9"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do I feel a tingling feeling in my genitals when I feel I think about falling from a really high place? Like a sky scraper."},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["this always gets asked and no one has a concrete answer. I heard on a documentary that its actually your balls/ovaries tucking into your body to protect themselves presumably from physical trauma. But I cant find anything on the internet to validate. Its a quick physical movement that causes the feel. Similar to falling when the balls or ovaries are actually moving. If you are in free fall long enough like in a space shuttle your body stops because they cant go tucking in any further or your body realizes they no longer need protecting. TL;DR your balls protecting themselves by tucking into your body","The dartos muscle, which is in the skin of the scrotum, is controlled by the sympathetic (fight or flight) division of the nervous system. When your brain thinks you're about to fall off a cliff, the whole sympathetic nervous system flares up, including the dartos muscle which causes that weird feeling in your scrotum.","AIUI, it's actually imagining a common physical reaction to falling. The same way you can have a dream where you're falling - except you're awake and imagining this scenario. So the next question I suppose is why you get this feeling when you fall for real. Presumably it has to do with the temporary weightlessness your body experiences and your genital area is sensitive. A car going fast over a hump in the road can create the same effect sometimes. Fear of heights is instinctive afaiaa - pretty much everyone has it. It's the one thing in a game or movie that actually affects me - i.e I can sit and watch horror films etc with no reaction at all - I don't get scared watching them. But if I fall in a game I sometimes experience the sensation of falling for real and the mere thought of being somewhere precarious and high up can make me shudder.","Everyone has two parts of their nervous system that are constantly battling. Parasympathetic (energy uptake) and Sympathetic (energy expenditure). The sensations of *tingling genitals* or *heart dropping* or even *butterflies in my stomach* is the sudden burst of energy your body just sent through to the sympathetic system (energy expenditure, or fight/flight). Engaging the sympathetic nervous system pretty much stops the parasympathetic from working. Things the sympathetic controls are (but not limited to) lungs (for more oxygen); heart (for more blood to take the oxygen to muscles); guts (to close all sphincters and prevent digestion); adrenal glands (to pump epinephrine); bladder (to evacuate bowls); genitals (to induce labor, secrete gametes, or ejaculate) and even hair (to make it stand on end) The best thing to describe it is your body says \"stop using energy on digestion\" and \"**GO**\" to every other damn thing that'll get you away from that ledge.","I get the female version of this. I call it Minge Twinge.","I don't know, but my guess would be that it's your body reminding you of what pain is by sending a tingly feeling in your tender spots. Thus, reminding you not to do something stupid. So you lean over a balcony, your body's like \"screw that... hey... self... remember how sensitive your nuts are? Yeah, don't lean over too far - this could hurt...\"","You know what's fucked up? When I was a kid my cousin told me this only happens to you if you have a small dick. Whenever my friends went to an amusement park and they asked me if I felt that tingle, I was like \"fuck no, my dick is huge\" it was a hard knock life","Sometimes when I climb stairs really quickly I get this feeling. It's not really my balls but like a feeling in my lower back. It sort of feels orgasmic. Is this the same thing?","Intense fear or stress is a powerful diuretic (according to author Matt Stone, anyway). I wonder if it's a more urethral response to keep you from peeing yourself, rather than a genital response.","The external cremaster muscle contracts in fight/flight scenarios. You can also make it happen by stroking your inner thigh. reference for fight/flight (sorry for the graphic pic): URL_0 cremasteric reflex: URL_1 ","This stopped happening to me when I was around 10 or so, for some reason. And yes, I have been in intense drops/falls (on roller coasters) since then.","I'm not sure if it's related but the chemical response in your brain related to fear is distinctly similar to that which arouses you. Ergo; bdsm etc.","I always thought it was part of our flight response. Blood is being re-routed away from that part of our bodies to more vital escape-focused parts.","In Scotland we have a word for that feeling when you see something painful or that feeling of falling, we say it 'gies us the grue'","When I went skydiving, I was surprised NOT to get this sensation. Raised railroad crossing at moderate speed on the other hand? Ohhhh boy!","Is it a fizzing sensation just behind your penis? James May has that problem.","It's all of your potential future children screaming at you to be careful","anyone else's balls just tingled whilst thinking about it?"],"string":"[\n \"this always gets asked and no one has a concrete answer. I heard on a documentary that its actually your balls/ovaries tucking into your body to protect themselves presumably from physical trauma. But I cant find anything on the internet to validate. Its a quick physical movement that causes the feel. Similar to falling when the balls or ovaries are actually moving. If you are in free fall long enough like in a space shuttle your body stops because they cant go tucking in any further or your body realizes they no longer need protecting. TL;DR your balls protecting themselves by tucking into your body\",\n \"The dartos muscle, which is in the skin of the scrotum, is controlled by the sympathetic (fight or flight) division of the nervous system. When your brain thinks you're about to fall off a cliff, the whole sympathetic nervous system flares up, including the dartos muscle which causes that weird feeling in your scrotum.\",\n \"AIUI, it's actually imagining a common physical reaction to falling. The same way you can have a dream where you're falling - except you're awake and imagining this scenario. So the next question I suppose is why you get this feeling when you fall for real. Presumably it has to do with the temporary weightlessness your body experiences and your genital area is sensitive. A car going fast over a hump in the road can create the same effect sometimes. Fear of heights is instinctive afaiaa - pretty much everyone has it. It's the one thing in a game or movie that actually affects me - i.e I can sit and watch horror films etc with no reaction at all - I don't get scared watching them. But if I fall in a game I sometimes experience the sensation of falling for real and the mere thought of being somewhere precarious and high up can make me shudder.\",\n \"Everyone has two parts of their nervous system that are constantly battling. Parasympathetic (energy uptake) and Sympathetic (energy expenditure). The sensations of *tingling genitals* or *heart dropping* or even *butterflies in my stomach* is the sudden burst of energy your body just sent through to the sympathetic system (energy expenditure, or fight/flight). Engaging the sympathetic nervous system pretty much stops the parasympathetic from working. Things the sympathetic controls are (but not limited to) lungs (for more oxygen); heart (for more blood to take the oxygen to muscles); guts (to close all sphincters and prevent digestion); adrenal glands (to pump epinephrine); bladder (to evacuate bowls); genitals (to induce labor, secrete gametes, or ejaculate) and even hair (to make it stand on end) The best thing to describe it is your body says \\\"stop using energy on digestion\\\" and \\\"**GO**\\\" to every other damn thing that'll get you away from that ledge.\",\n \"I get the female version of this. I call it Minge Twinge.\",\n \"I don't know, but my guess would be that it's your body reminding you of what pain is by sending a tingly feeling in your tender spots. Thus, reminding you not to do something stupid. So you lean over a balcony, your body's like \\\"screw that... hey... self... remember how sensitive your nuts are? Yeah, don't lean over too far - this could hurt...\\\"\",\n \"You know what's fucked up? When I was a kid my cousin told me this only happens to you if you have a small dick. Whenever my friends went to an amusement park and they asked me if I felt that tingle, I was like \\\"fuck no, my dick is huge\\\" it was a hard knock life\",\n \"Sometimes when I climb stairs really quickly I get this feeling. It's not really my balls but like a feeling in my lower back. It sort of feels orgasmic. Is this the same thing?\",\n \"Intense fear or stress is a powerful diuretic (according to author Matt Stone, anyway). I wonder if it's a more urethral response to keep you from peeing yourself, rather than a genital response.\",\n \"The external cremaster muscle contracts in fight/flight scenarios. You can also make it happen by stroking your inner thigh. reference for fight/flight (sorry for the graphic pic): URL_0 cremasteric reflex: URL_1 \",\n \"This stopped happening to me when I was around 10 or so, for some reason. And yes, I have been in intense drops/falls (on roller coasters) since then.\",\n \"I'm not sure if it's related but the chemical response in your brain related to fear is distinctly similar to that which arouses you. Ergo; bdsm etc.\",\n \"I always thought it was part of our flight response. Blood is being re-routed away from that part of our bodies to more vital escape-focused parts.\",\n \"In Scotland we have a word for that feeling when you see something painful or that feeling of falling, we say it 'gies us the grue'\",\n \"When I went skydiving, I was surprised NOT to get this sensation. Raised railroad crossing at moderate speed on the other hand? Ohhhh boy!\",\n \"Is it a fizzing sensation just behind your penis? James May has that problem.\",\n \"It's all of your potential future children screaming at you to be careful\",\n \"anyone else's balls just tingled whilst thinking about it?\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["The Tingler Plot A pathologist, Dr. Warren Chapin (Price), discovers that the tingling of the spine in states of extreme fear is due to the growth of a creature that every human being seems to have, called a \"tingler\", a parasite attached to the human spine. It curls up, feeds and grows stronger when its host is afraid, effectively crushing the person's spine if curled up long enough. The host can weaken the creature and stop its curling by screaming.\nMovie theater owner Oliver Higgins (Coolidge), who shows exclusively silent films, is an acquaintance of Dr. Chapin. Higgins's wife Martha (Evelyn),","-34.0544086403097"],["as rotation and these momenta continue as the person falls, causing a sensation of dysphoria. The faller doesn't fall straight down but spins, flips, etc. due to these residual momenta and also due to the asymmetric forces of air resistance on their asymmetric body. While velocity continues to increase, the downward acceleration due to gravity remains constant. Increasing drag force may even cause a feeling of ascent.\nThe vestibular apparatus also detects spatial orientation with respect to visual input. A similar sensation of falling can be induced when the eyes detect rapid apparent motion with respect to the environment. This","-33.851229388907086"],["footnoted the possibility that this fear may be derived from a lack of ingenuity allowing one to ornamentally distance the copulatory organs from the excretory organs. Such a condition can affect both men and women. For others, symptoms include what characterizes a panic attack. It does not necessarily have to be induced by an uncovered penis, but may also result from seeing the manbulging outline or curvature of the penis, perhaps through clothes consisting of thin fabric. In more extreme cases it has been likened to the fight or flight response ingrained within the human body wherein an individual ceases","-33.46390904861619"],["that he suddenly felt his finger lift. This was obviously strange to him, because under normal circumstances he was, like all of us, the person who decides on how the body moves. In this case he was not. Not only that, but somebody else in his head was responding to an external request that he had not heard. As far as Hilgard was concerned, the person who responded was the hidden observer.\nOne of Hilgard's subjects made the following interesting statement about what she experienced, making particular reference to what she sensed was her higher self: The hidden observer is cognizant","-33.216311468102504"],["that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix, and that these reported orgasms are genital orgasms caused by nipple stimulation, and may be directly linked to the genital sensory cortex (\"the genital area of the brain\"). Fondling breasts and pat-downs Even in places where the public display of affection is considered acceptable, fondling or touching a woman's breasts in public is generally considered groping and an assault, and is commonly regarded as unacceptable. This is especially the case if the woman has not expressly consented. Touching a","-33.02571717101091"],["observe their own tingling feeling), whereas erythema is a sign (anyone can confirm that the skin is redder than usual). Symptoms and signs are often nonspecific, but often combinations of them are at least suggestive of certain diagnoses, helping to narrow down what may be wrong. In other cases they are specific even to the point of being pathognomonic.\nThe term is sometimes also applied to physiological states outside the context of disease, as for example when referring to \"symptoms of pregnancy\". Many people use the term sign and symptom interchangeably. Types Symptoms may be briefly acute or a more prolonged","-32.75632363969635"],["flush and the swelling of nipples in both men and women.\nUnpleasant side effects of sex-related vasocongestion accompanied by sexual inactivity may lead to the cramp-like pain of \"blue balls\" in males and an unpleasant pelvic \"heaviness\" in women, similar to the start of the menstruation cycle.","-32.66479745299148"],["catch semen. This, along with learned pressure, such as a specific hand speed may have subsequently altered sensory patterns in the genitalia. However, others have attributed it to normal masturbation that is excessive. For females experiencing death grip syndrome, besides overly strenuous masturbation, it has also been attributed to excessively using high power settings of a vibrator or a showerhead with too much water pressure. Although men with the indisposition may still experience an erection, it may embroil a relationship negatively due to a sense of being sexually incompatible with a partner due to lasting too long, and subsequent side-effects","-32.648049661074765"],["much research to be done on the brain-gut connection, research thus far has indeed shown that your stomach does indeed churn differently when you are emotionally aroused, and this could be the basis of the gut feeling that many people describe experiencing. Gender differences In recent years, some research has been done about gender differences in the perception and experience of disgust. One such study, upon presenting both male and female subjects with video clips designed to trigger disgust and found that although women reported feeling more disgust than men at these stimuli, the physiological responses did not show","-32.580137385462876"],["of nerves, commonly caused by leaning or resting on parts of the body such as the legs (often followed by a pins and needles tingling sensation). Other causes include conditions such as hyperventilation syndrome and panic attacks. A cold sore outside the mouth (not a canker sore inside the mouth) can be preceded by tingling because a cold sore is caused by herpes simplex virus. The varicella zoster virus (shingles) also notably may cause recurring pain and tingling in skin or tissue along the distribution path of that nerve (most commonly in the skin, along a dermatome pattern, but","-32.51080153754447"],["initial responding, where the main effects are lightheadedness or slight dizziness, in addition to possible tingling sensations in the extremities or other parts of the body. The \"high\" is characterized by feelings of euphoria and exhilaration characterized by mild psychedelia, as well as a sense of disinhibition. If the individual has taken a sufficiently large dose of cannabis, the level of intoxication progresses to the stage of being “stoned,” and the user may feel calm, relaxed, and possibly in a dreamlike state. Sensory reactions may include the feeling of floating, enhanced visual and auditory perception, visual illusions, or the perception","-32.508652715041535"],["The tingler causes the body of Martha to rise from the bed, staring at her husband. Higgins is so terrified that he is unable to scream. The screen fades, and Dr. Chapin's voice says, \"Ladies and gentlemen, just a word of warning. If any of you are not convinced that you have a tingler of your own, the next time you are frightened in the dark ... don't scream\". Production The financial success of House on Haunted Hill was reason enough for Columbia to produce The Tingler. Price was on board again, with Hickman playing his assistant and newcomer Lincoln","-32.24677932330815"],["Exploding head syndrome Signs and symptoms Individuals with exploding head syndrome hear or experience loud imagined noises as they are falling asleep or waking up, have a strong, often frightened emotional reaction to the sound, and do not report significant pain; around 10% of people also experience visual disturbances like perceiving visual static, lightning, or flashes of light. Some people may also experience heat, strange feelings in their torso, or a feeling of electrical tinglings that ascends to the head before the auditory hallucinations occur. With the heightened arousal, people experience distress, confusion, myoclonic jerks, tachycardia, sweating,","-31.928239584041876"],["North American edition alters passages describing Lyra's incipient sexuality. The text in the UK edition includes this passage in the chapter \"Marzipan\":\nAs Mary said that, Lyra felt something strange happen to her body. She found a stirring at the roots of her hair: she found herself breathing faster. She had never been on a roller-coaster, or anything like one, but if she had, she would have recognised the sensations in her breast: they were exciting and frightening at the same time, and she had not the slightest idea why. The sensation continued, and deepened, and changed, as more parts of","-31.73066548492443"],["felt tight and as if it was burning, although there was little visible inflimation [sic]. After approximately an hour, the pain had subsided to the point where I was more aware of a sensation of tingling like when you stick your tongue on a 9V battery. After an additional half hour, the pain and tingling had subsided to the point where my thumb felt like it had a sealed paper cut on it -- where moving my thumb felt odd but keeping it still was without much sensation. Several hours later, this too had subsided and I felt nothing. At","-31.615250493407075"],["lamenting that his arm (on which he wears the Owl Cave ring) feels \"tingly.\" Jade takes her payment and proceeds to shower; Dougie gets out of bed and falls down, as Mr. C continues to hold his mouth. He crawls through the house, attempting and failing to alert Jade; he proceeds to move towards an electric socket, which exercises a force on him. As red curtains faintly appear in front of him, Dougie vomits and is transported away with a loud noise, which upsets Jade. The red curtains fade away, Mr. C vomits garmonbozia and oil, and passes out. Inside","-31.594337749353144"],["Some women experience intense pleasure from stimulation of the urethral sponge and others find the sensation irritating. The urethral sponge surrounds the clitoral nerve, and since the two are so closely interconnected, stimulation of the clitoris may stimulate the nerve endings of the urethral sponge and vice versa. Some women enjoy the rear-entry position of sexual intercourse for this reason, because the penis is often angled slightly downward and can stimulate the front wall of the vagina, and in turn the urethral sponge. Relation with the G-spot The urethral sponge is an area in which the G-spot (Gräfenberg Spot) may","-31.57503760504187"],["up and wonders why she didn't feel anything until much later. Esther wonders too, but seems unconcerned about any cosmetic damage. He asks her jokingly, \"Are you sure it's your leg?\"\nThe next day, Esther, in the bath, is fascinated by the folds of skin around her thigh. Her Boyfriend Vincent (Laurent Lucas) finds out about her injury after walking in on her taking off her dressings. He is concerned as to why she didn't feel anything until later too and even decides to test if she can feel anything by lightly touching her arm when she is not looking. She","-31.543717812775867"],["with a pleasing aesthetic shape, with a texture similar to a natural breast, but which feels completely or mostly numb for the woman herself. This loss of sensation, called somatosensory loss or the inability to perceive touch, heat, cold, and pain, sometimes results in women burning themselves or injuring themselves without noticing, or not noticing that their clothing has shifted to expose their breasts. \"I can't even feel it when my kids hug me,\" said one mother, who had nipple-sparing breast reconstruction after a bilateral mastectomy. The loss of sensation has long-term medical consequences, because it makes","-31.45216197100308"],["the test he identified that the feeling of friction only appears when there is an insulating barrier between the conductive surface and the sliding finger. He concluded that the finger gets electrically polarized, and this induced charge creates a force between that finger and the surface. He named this phenomenon \"electrically induced vibrations\".","-31.18438179176883"],["penis, making it extremely sensitive to touch. The clitoral glans, which is a small, elongated erectile structure, has only one known function—sexual sensations. It is the main source of orgasm in women. Thick secretions called smegma collect in the clitoris.\nThe vaginal opening and the urethral opening are only visible when the labia minora are parted. These opening have many nerve endings that make them sensitive to touch. They are surrounded by a ring of sphincter muscles called the bulbocavernosus muscle. Underneath this muscle and on opposite sides of the vaginal opening are the vestibular bulbs, which help the vagina grip","-31.126690791425062"],["describe it as one form of a syndrome of \"semen-loss anxiety\" which also occurs in other Eastern cultures as jiryan and shen-k'uei, as well as in Western cultures.\nChlamydia infection might also be related to it because of similar symptoms in case of infection of the urethra (urethritis), which is usually symptomatic, causing a white discharge from the penis with or without pain on urinating (dysuria).","-31.098316132920445"],["effect is nearly immediate — Alex loses the pleasurable feeling every pilot-spec gets during the neural connection with the ship. Also, he understands that this feeling, like the usual pleasures of sex — are simply shadows of the true feeling which he has been denied. Still not understanding what it means to love, Alex begins to feel sorrow and the feeling of enormous loss.\nBefore landing on the planet Zodiac, the crew finds out that a crime has taken place on board the ship — Zei-so has been brutally murdered. The ship remains in orbit and receives two visitors: a detective-spec","-30.99570127230254"],["interview with Nintendo Dream, he stated that the character Purlo is his reference to Tingle in Twilight Princess. According to Aonuma, Purlo's appearance \"is the result of wondering what a realistic Tingle would look like\". Characteristics Tingle is a short, paunchy 35-year-old man who is obsessed with \"forest fairies\" and dresses up in a green costume, slightly resembling that of Link. He also wears tight red shorts and a necklace with a clock that is permanently stuck at four o'clock. Tingle is normally seen floating around on his red balloon drawing and selling maps for his father, who runs the","-30.958912672036604"],["and I was happy and I feel myself jumpin' in the bed. Then I found out later that it wasn't just my body jumpin', it was my spirit too. For some reason or other, somethin' was happenin' there that day. It tol' me where to look at. And then my paintings started selling. I sold a painting to a guy for little or nothing. He sold it to someone an' he tried to find me. An one day I was handin' out flyers and he saw one and he called me. It's strange how my name got to his door.","-30.94918520266583"],["libido — may experience enough sexual arousal for an erection to result from a passing thought, or just the sight of a passerby. Once erect, his penis may gain enough stimulation from contact with the inside of his clothing to maintain and encourage it for some time.\nAs sexual arousal and stimulation continues, it is likely that the glans or head of the erect penis will swell wider and, as the genitals become further engorged with blood, their color deepens and the testicles can grow up to 50% larger. As the testicles continue to rise, a feeling of warmth may develop around","-30.853424109722255"],["“When I met him, I was really wasted and I fell off a bin and had to go A&E because I sprained my wrist, so I put in the line, ‘Broke my bones playing games with you’. And then I got this rash, but it wasn’t like a sexual rash – honestly! – I had really bad eczema. That’s where the line, ‘I itch all night, I itch for you’ comes from.” There’s a faint hint of embarrassment hanging in the air. “I’m sweating a lot right now,” says Olly. \n\"Take Shelter\" was released as the album's second single on","-30.777815632522106"],["motors attached to the user's abdomen. HaptiShiver sends “shivers up and down your spine” through a row of vibration motors. HaptiTemper sends “chills up and down your spine” through both cold airflow from a fan and the cold side of a Peltier element. HaptiTemper is also intended for simulation of warmth on the human skin to evoke either pleasant feeling or aggression Explicit emotion elicitation HaptiTickler directly evokes joy by tickling the user's ribs. It includes four vibration motors reproducing stimuli similar to human finger movements Affective computing Affective computing can be used to measure and to recognize emotional information","-30.755368220445234"],["inflicted also on another boy. However, Jack becomes aware of the softness of Jenny's breasts, and sees her looking at him—which makes him start feeling that they are doing is \"a mean thing\". He resists the impulse to touch her breasts again and convinces Les to let her go.\nNow feeling shy, the boys go behind bushes to dress, though Jenny already saw them naked. For her part she quickly washes off the mud and gets dressed. Les immediately goes away, but Jack lingers, feeling apprehensive of the punishment awaiting him once Jenny tells of what he and Les had done","-30.743475165450945"],["people (usually the carotid baroreceptors in older males). This can lead to bradycardia, dizziness and fainting (syncope) from touching the neck (often whilst shaving). This is an important cause to exclude in men having pre-syncope or syncope symptoms.","-30.734047279605875"],["had tightness in the stomach, tingling in pretibial areas, and developed a purplish hue in the face indicating blood circulation problems. He vomited after 3 minutes.\nAnother subject given 4 mg complained of “chest oppression” and that “a load is pressing down from above and my body feels heavy.” The subject also reported “numbness of the entire body” and “a pleasant Martini feeling-my body is taking charge of my mind”. The subject reported he saw red spots passing before his eyes and red-purple spots on the floor, and the floor seemed very close to his face. Within 2 minutes these visual effects","-30.650025050264958"],["to be intimate with their male partner and is unable to visit mixed gender establishments where people are likely to wear more revealing clothing, such as a gym, beach, cinema or livingrooms with a switched on monitor. The fear can recur through any of the senses including accidental touch, sight, hearing the word penis or thinking about an erection. The phobia may have developed from a condition such as dyspareunia, a trauma (usually sexual) that occurred during childhood, but can also have a fortuitous origin. In literature covering human sexuality, it is used as an adjective only to negatively allude","-30.641440629493445"],["Palmomental reflex The palmomental reflex (PMR) is a primitive reflex consisting of a twitch of the chin muscle elicited by stroking a specific part of the palm. It is present in infancy and disappears as the brain matures during childhood but may reappear due to processes that disrupt the normal cortical inhibitory pathways. Therefore, it is an example of a frontal release sign. Eliciting and observing response The thenar eminence is stroked briskly with a thin stick, from proximal (edge of wrist) to distal (base of thumb) using moderate pressure. A positive response is considered if there is a single","-30.603239209071035"],["partner's head. The partner may also orally play with the penis by licking, sucking, kissing or otherwise playing with the tongue and lips. Fellatio may also include the oral stimulation of the scrotum, whether licking, sucking or taking the entire scrotum into the mouth. During the act, semen may be ejaculated into the partner's mouth and sometimes on their face. Intentional ejaculation onto the partner's face is known as a facial.\nIt is difficult for some people to perform fellatio, due to their sensitivities to the natural gag reflex. Different people have different sensitivities to the reflex, but some people","-30.532970495987684"],["touches the substrate and contract the posterior region. If stimulated, it moves nervously and quickly, hence the name irritata (Latin for irritated). Distribution The only known place of occurrence of S. irritata is the São Francisco de Paula National Forest in southern Brazil.","-30.50919902898022"],["my head, I rolled over and I couldn’t feel anything from my neck down. That’s what scared me the most. My body was just tingling.\" Clarke gave a \"thumbs-up\" sign as he was wheeled off the court en route to Miami Valley Hospital where it was confirmed he had a sprained neck, no fractures, and no spinal cord damage. Derenbecker was assessed a flagrant foul. After the game, Derenbecker described his interaction with Butler's Coach Stevens during the post-game handshake: \"I said 'Coach, please tell Rotnei it was not on purpose.' And he said, 'Matt, I know","-30.50432709993038"],["Frisson Frisson (French for 'shiver'), also known as aesthetic chills, musical chills, and colloquially as a skin orgasm, is a psychophysiological response to rewarding auditory and/or visual stimuli that induces a pleasurable or otherwise positively-valenced affective state and transient paresthesia (skin tingling or chills), sometimes along with piloerection (goose bumps) and mydriasis (pupil dilation). The sensation commonly occurs as a mildly to moderately pleasurable emotional response to music with skin tingling; piloerection and pupil dilation do not necessarily occur in all cases. The psychological component (i.e., the pleasurable feeling) and physiological components (i.e., parasthesia, piloerection, and pupil dilation) of the","-30.47284031493473"],["a dildo in the vagina. Hite and Chalker state that the tip of the clitoris and the inner lips, which are also very sensitive, are not receiving direct stimulation during penetrative intercourse. Because of this, some couples may engage in the woman on top position or the coital alignment technique to maximize clitoral stimulation. For some women, the clitoris is very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful.\nMasters and Johnson argued that all women are potentially multiply orgasmic, but that multiply orgasmic men are rare, and stated that \"the female is capable of rapid return to orgasm immediately following","-30.460366568819154"],["we find out, he can't feel physical sensation. The relationship ends after Minnion is attacked and nearly killed during one of Nathan's investigations (involving the Dark Man). Jess decides to return to Montreal, unable to cope with being drawn into the dangers inherent in Wuornos's line of work. After she leaves, Nathan discovers that he is able to feel the touch of Audrey Parker, and though he keeps the discovery to himself, he begins to find excuses to be in physical contact with her.\nNathan attends a surprise birthday party for Parker at a hotel on a nearby island called","-30.425235268980032"],["done to me before. In fact, he was doing even more, but I no longer felt the strong sensation of pleasure that radiated from an unknown and yet familiar part of my body. ... It was as if I could not longer recall the exact spot from which it used to arise, or as though a part of me, of my being, was gone and would never return.\"\nAfter the death of her mother and father, Firdaus is taken in by her uncle, who sends her to primary school. Firdaus loves school. She maintains a close relationship with her","-30.409714838373475"],["she can feel a warning buzz and a touch sparks her hand away from it. Rowan feels nothing, which the sailor tells her is a side effect of her being a Steerswoman. They dare the young lad to touch it, and he is sparked as well. When they've nearly arrived, they find the body of the boy next to the chest. He's tried to open it, and was killed by the protection spell.\nRowan makes it to the Academy and fills her fellow Steerswomen in. They agree that she needs to continue to investigate, but in","-30.376021255229716"],["as being recognized by its ridges and slightly rougher texture compared to the more cushion-like vaginal cavity walls around it. Fingering this spot, and in effect possibly stimulating the Skene's gland, is commonly cited as a method that may lead to female ejaculation.\nSome women have cited the \"come hither\" approach as a significant catalyst to orgasm. This technique involves the middle finger, sometimes additionally the index or ring finger, making a hand gesture like \"come here\" with the palm facing upwards towards her pubic bone. Medical professionals suggest washing the hands before contact with the vagina, to ensure proper hygiene,","-30.298137382131245"],["from reaching the brain, leading to unconsciousness. How this might lead to instantaneous unconsciousness is not explained. In this earliest of Star Trek reference books, the pinch is referred to as the \"Spock Pinch.\"\nIn the Star Trek: Voyager episode \"Cathexis\", the Doctor inspects a crewmember who was found unconscious and observes an extreme trauma to the trapezius neck bundle, \"as though her nerve fibers have been ruptured\"; and it is later revealed that the person was the victim of a nerve pinch. Use within the franchise Along with Spock, various other characters in the Star Trek franchise have used the","-30.27379606262548"],["her alone to be with her boyfriend, sitting helplessly in the exact spot the cart was set to impact. Eddie throws himself with all his might towards the girl, intending to pull her to safety. Eddie feels an exploding impact, sees a blinding flash, feels a little girl's hands in his own, and then nothingness.\nEddie then finds himself awake and uninjured and realizes that he feels young and much more energetic. He also felt calm when he landed. He meets a man known simply as \"the Blue Man\" who suffered from argyria caused by silver nitrate poisoning and worked at","-30.253404244431295"],["as smaller. The resulting image is that of a distorted human body, with disproportionately huge hands, lips, and face.\nIn the sensory homunculus, below the areas handling sensation for the teeth, gums, jaw, tongue, and pharynx lies an area for intra-abdominal sensation. At the very top end of the primary sensory cortex, beyond the area for the toes, it has traditionally been believed that the sensory neural networks for the genitals occur. However, more recent research has suggested that there may be two different cortical areas for the genitals, possibly differentiated by one dealing with erogenous stimulation and","-30.240694312378764"],["been made that it enhances sexual feeling that has been lost due to circumcision. The reason for this is the added pressure of the jewelry on the glans during intercourse, which may also lead to quicker ejaculations in some sexual positions. During vaginal intercourse, the piercing usually results in greater stimulation for the partner. A centrally placed dydoe works especially well in stimulating the g-spot, as the ball at the head is placed near to where the top ball of an apadravya would be placed. An apadravya is generally considered the most pleasurable piercing for partners during vaginal intercourse.","-30.239937239413848"],["induction of gustatory sensations by means of an anodal electrical direct current. Patients usually report sour or metallic sensations similar to those associated with touching both poles of a live battery to the tongue. Although electrogustometry is widely used, there seems to be a poor correlation between electrically and chemically induced sensations. Diagnostic tools Certain diagnostic tools can also be used to help determine the extent of dysgeusia. Electrophysiological tests and simple reflex tests may be applied to identify abnormalities in the nerve-to-brainstem pathways. For example, the blink reflex may be used to evaluate the integrity of the trigeminal nerve–pontine","-30.237626408284996"],["people can relax enough to accommodate an object as big as a fist being inserted into the anus.\nIn a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the inserted penis rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and","-30.20913146698149"],["to recognize how they felt shortly before their \"point of no return\", the moment ejaculation felt imminent and inevitable. Sensing it, they were to signal their partner, who squeezed the head of the penis between thumb and index finger, suppressing the ejaculatory reflex and allowing the man to last longer. \nThe squeeze technique worked, but many couples found it cumbersome. From the 1970s to the 1990s, sex therapists refined the Masters and Johnson approach, largely abandoning the squeeze technique and focused on a simpler and more effective technique called the \"stop-start\" technique. During intercourse, as the man senses he is","-30.187092155960272"],["as well as in blood pressure, feeling hot and flushed and perhaps experiencing tremors. A sex flush may extend over the chest and upper body.\nIf sexual stimulation continues, then sexual arousal may peak into orgasm. After orgasm, some women do not want any further stimulation and the sexual arousal quickly dissipates. Suggestions have been published for continuing the sexual excitement and moving from one orgasm into further stimulation and maintaining or regaining a state of sexual arousal that can lead to second and subsequent orgasms. Some women have experienced such multiple orgasms quite spontaneously.\nWhile young women may become sexually aroused","-30.158772124102143"],["I watch Jason Kidd play, initially it's like seeing a girl walk into a bar who's just drop-dead gorgeous, but then when he throws up one of those bricks, it's like the gorgeous girl taking off her jacket and you see she has tiny mosquito bites for tits.\" Ben Mathis-Lilley found Simmons' sexism \"intrusively abhorrent\", stating that \"I actually stopped bothering to copy down the most egregious comments and figured I'd just note when Simmons mentioned a woman for any reason other than evaluating her appeal as something to put a penis in. I'm open to correction on this, but","-30.095315006568853"],["Charu feels each other's feeling. Charu feels a hit that Chandru experiences during a robbery incident. Chandru feels a cut to his finger when Charu cuts her finger. They see each other's vision and hear each other's hearings.\nEventually Chandru and Charu are able to see each other through a mirror. Their relationship starts as a friendship and then love.\nChandru's friend Vinesh murders a girl which is known only to Chandru. Vinesh wants to kill Chandru. Charu's family friend Prasath abducts Charu out of lust. The climax is about how Chandru and Charu overcome their problems with Vinesh and Prasath through","-29.981512507234584"],["her to have an orgasm as a result of the tickling. He attempts to cover this up from his siblings. Shortly after this, the family celebrates Jack's 16th birthday in their mother's bedroom. He is reluctant to contribute to the small party by singing, but when Julie does a handstand, Jack stares at her underwear, then shares an intimate moment with her by singing Greensleeves. \nAlthough the rest of the family assume they are having fun, Julie recognizes what he is doing, and plays along. This, along with another incident when Julie, while sunbathing in the garden, persuades Jack to","-29.949985399656725"],["that, his thighs; and passing upwards in this way he showed us that he was growing cold and rigid. And then again he touched him and said that when it reached his heart, he would be gone. The chill had now reached the region about the groin, and uncovering his face, which had been covered, he said – and these were his last words – \"Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Pay it and do not neglect it.\" \"That,\" said Crito, \"shall be done; but see if you have anything else to say.\" To this question he made no","-29.934021092922194"],["on the outside of the nerve. Therefore, one could have mydriasis (a \"blown\" pupil) as a result of parasympathetic fiber compression before lid ptosis and the \"down and out\" position are seen.","-29.925684188892774"],["Sysoi, a lay brother, that his mother indeed had come to visit him, bringing with her Katya, an eight-year old niece. This brings him great joy, he spends the night in reveries... But he is unable to sleep also because his conditions worsens, and he seems to be in a fever.\nMeeting the mother and a child, Pyotr feels happy and elated, but strange feeling creeps in: it seems as if the old woman is too timid, too respectful in his presence, while feeling apparently totally relaxed and merry while chatting with the old Sysoi. During the next several days Pyotr","-29.91995479486104"],["above the waist, vibration sensation was lost in the sternum, and markedly reduced proprioception or sensation about the self's orientation. Many people suffering from the neurological effects of copper deficiency complain about very similar or identical symptoms as the patient. This numbness and tingling poses danger for the elderly because it increases their risk of falling and injuring themselves. Peripheral neuropathy can become very disabling leaving some patients dependent on wheel chairs or walking canes for mobility if there is lack of correct diagnosis. Rarely can copper deficiency cause major disabling symptoms. The deficiency will have to be present for","-29.901987596381332"],["bump to the head. Breath-holding attacks have been recognized for centuries. However, it is only relatively recently that their pathophysiology has begun to be understood, and in consequence, their separation from reflex anoxic seizures has been recognized. Indeed, the distinction between the two may not be complete.\nAlthough minor bumps to the head are reported as the most common precipitants to reflex anoxic seizures, many other stimuli may also be involved. Doctors emphasized the importance of minor injuries and sudden fright. They noted that occipital blows to the head appeared to be particularly provocative. Pain, especially from emotion (surprise, fear, annoyance,","-29.84451727353735"],["Carpal tunnel syndrome Signs and symptoms People with CTS experience numbness, tingling, or burning sensations in the thumb and fingers, in particular the index and middle fingers and radial half of the ring finger, because these receive their sensory and motor function (muscle control) from the median nerve. Ache and discomfort can possibly be felt more proximally in the forearm or even the upper arm. Less-specific symptoms may include pain in the wrists or hands, loss of grip strength, and loss of manual dexterity.\nSome suggest that median nerve symptoms can arise from compression at the level of the thoracic outlet","-29.81607978377724"],["Flushing (physiology) Sex flush Commonly referred to as the sex flush, vasocongestion (increased blood flow) of the skin can occur during all four phases of the human sexual response cycle. Studies show that the sex flush occurs in approximately 50–75% of females and 25% of males, yet not consistently. The sex flush tends to occur more often under warmer conditions and may not appear at all under lower temperatures.\nDuring the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also","-29.807242287613917"],["not have a 'sensed presence' experience, but instead felt at times 'slightly dizzy', 'quite strange' and had sensations in his limbs and changes in his breathing. He summarised his experience as follows: \"It pretty much felt as though I was in total darkness, with a helmet on my head and pleasantly relaxed\". Persinger explained Dawkins' limited results in terms of his low score on a psychological scale measuring temporal lobe sensitivity.\nIn contrast, the experimental psychologist, and former parapsychology researcher, Susan Blackmore said: \"When I went to Persinger's lab and underwent his procedures I had the most extraordinary experiences I've ever","-29.79225196389598"],["going. I know we have made a Tingle game in the past, but maybe at some point down the road.\" He later joked that \"it's like romance: You meet someone and you're like, 'Oh god, I can't stand that person.' And then three weeks later, you're madly in love – it's that turn, that quick whip, that motivates [me] a little bit.”","-29.791814105934463"],["a sensation of being pushed sharply to the floor from behind. The phenomenon is thought to be triggered by a sudden mechanical disturbance of the otolithic membrane that activates motoneurons in the vestibulospinal tract.\nOtolithic function can also be compromised after unilateral vestibular neurectomy. The illusion is that during centrifugal stimulation, a small luninous bar, fixed with respect to the observer, appears to be roll-tilited by the same amount that the observer feels to be roll-tilted. This illusion is felt symmetrically in normal patients, but after vestibular neuroectomy, patients perceive a reduce illusion when the force is directed toward their operated","-29.770892746048048"],["He and Ji-eun later talk to the woman, who remains unharmed, and she tells them that the experience was not painful, likening the sensation to an electric shock. The events prove to them that Hyun-joo is telling the truth.\nSome time later, Ji-eun visits Hyun-joo who is now living in England. Curious to know how it feels being bitten by a vampire, she asks Hyun-joo to suck her blood. Choosing the inside of her thigh, Hyun-joo begins to feed on her friend. Production Kim Jee-woon wrote and directed Coming Out as part of a project to distribute three digital short films","-29.74347157307784"],["on the female's dorsum, other males retreat. During what is called the precopulatory phase, the male rubs the female's mesothorax with his first two pairs of legs. The male then strokes her antennae with his own to persuade her to copulate. Simultaneously, he rubs her eyes with his front legs. Every stroking motion is recognizable to humans as a high-pitched humming sound, which soon turns into buzzing as the male attempts to copulate. In an attempt to copulate, the male moves backward (on the female) and tries to insert his genitalia into the female's genital chamber, during which he drums","-29.703205262921983"],["an awful feeling. I sometimes feel that I’m being haunted. Like there are people around me sometimes that I don’t see. There is a God, I can tell you that.\" In media The crash was featured on an episode of the American television program Why Planes Crash, broadcast on The Weather Channel.","-29.657306759327184"],["Cremasteric reflex The cremasteric reflex is a superficial (i.e., close to the skin's surface) reflex observed in human males.\nThis reflex is elicited by lightly stroking or poking the superior and medial (inner) part of the thigh—regardless of the direction of stroke. The normal response is an immediate contraction of the cremaster muscle that pulls up the testis ipsilaterally (on the same side of the body).\nThe reflex utilizes sensory and motor fibers from two different nerves. When the inner thigh is stroked, sensory fibers of the ilioinguinal nerve are stimulated. These activate the motor fibers of the genital branch of the","-29.65404842335556"],["After sometime, the two lovers are seen by Gillian kissing, making her scream in surprise and envy. This surprised Cat and David and the two fell down the stairs, breaking one of their arms. Wacky used this to let Cat know that he loves her. One night Wacky's shirt got wet because of the rain, so he put it inside the dryer and he tried to tell Cat what he felt but David interfered. At David's car, he told Cat that he wants Wacky out of her life because it makes him uncomfortable, so she confessed her feelings for","-29.635545368091698"],["several nerves supplying sensation to these areas. Branches also supply sensation to the anal canal. By providing sensation to the penis and the clitoris, the pudendal nerve is responsible for the afferent component of penile erection and clitoral erection. It is also responsible for ejaculation.\nBranches also innervate muscles of the perineum and the pelvic floor; namely, the bulbospongiosus and the ischiocavernosus muscles respectively, the levator ani muscle (including the Iliococcygeus, pubococcygeus, puborectalis and either pubovaginalis in females or puboprostaticus in males) the external anal sphincter (via the inferior anal branch), and male or female external urethral sphincter.\nAs it functions","-29.626828952896176"],["That Feeling, You Can Only Say What It Is in French Plot summary As the story progresses, a woman (Carol) begins to have déjà vu of the same car ride on their second honeymoon with the same bloody outcome every time. It never ends. It is implied, but never said, that they have crashed on the plane to their honeymoon location and they may be in Hell or Purgatory.","-29.612062614032766"],["governments and courts of law to measure sexual orientation. An unusual aversion to the erect penis is sometimes referred to as phallophobia. Spontaneous or random erections Spontaneous erection, also known as involuntary, random or unwanted erection, is commonplace and a normal part of male physiology. Socially, such erections can be embarrassing if they happen in public or when undesired. Erections can occur spontaneously at any time of day, and if clothed may cause a bulge which (if required) can be disguised or hidden by wearing close-fitting underwear, a long shirt, or baggier clothes. Erectile dysfunction Erectile dysfunction (also known","-29.58991904067807"],["feeling of numbness or a tingling, pain rarely occurs in the hand. Complaints of pain tend to be more common in the arm, up to and including the elbow area, which is probably the most common site of pain in an ulnar neuropathy. Pathophysiology In regards to the pathophysiology of ulnar neuropathy:the axon, and myelin can be affected. Within the axon, fascicles to individual muscles could be involved, with subsequent motor unit loss and amplitude decrease. Conduction block means impaired transmission via a part of the nerve. Conduction block can mean myelin damage to the involved area, slowing of conduction","-29.578592704652692"],["your bones; share it fairly with your lover, say pleasant, naughty things the while. And if Nature has withheld from you the sensation of pleasure, then teach your lips to lie and say you feel it all. Unhappy is the woman who feels no answering thrill. But, if you have to pretend, don't betray yourself by over-acting. Let your movements and your eyes combine to deceive us, and, gasping, panting, complete the illusion.\nPeople can also fake orgasms for reasons of display or presentation, such as during phone sex or in pornography.\nFeminists have asserted that women faking orgasms is a sign","-29.565532324013475"],["Jay Traver Her Condition Ekbom syndrome, aka delusory parasitosis, is the belief by an individual that their body is infested with invisible bugs, mites, or other insects even though they are not. The individuals perceive the insects as different sensations (i.e. stinging, burning, itching, crawling, etc.) and also visualize the insects crawling on top of or underneath of their skin. ES is a rare condition, with an estimation of only 25,000 sufferers in the United States. \"Although the sufferers of this disease may feel the sensations, it has been concluded that the hallucinations were caused by the brain trying to","-29.52927728535724"],["I'm like, \"I'm an actress! Why am I getting a feeling like I want to cry? This is weird! I did enough crying when I was there [on set]. I don't know why I'm still feeling this way\". I think it was because it was the first time I was ever physically touched by him. As a little girl, as Jamie, he never got me, ever. Now as an adult, I don't have my clothes on, doing scenes I've never done before as an actor, and I'm actually being attacked. Even though I should know the guy by now, it's","-29.509478148422204"],["experimenter looking at them, over a period of 100 possible staring periods. The subjects' answers were correct 50.2% of the time, a result that Coover called an \"astonishing approximation\" of pure chance. Coover concluded that although the feeling of being stared at was common, experimentation showed it to be \"groundless\". He suggested that the \"tingling\" sensation described by Titchener was an example of motor automatism.\nA 1983 experiment using closed-circuit television cameras to watch the subjects reported a 74% success rate, although later research suggested that the randomness of the sequences had not been controlled for. An attempt to recreate this","-29.498811392404605"],["that hangs behind the penis. It holds and protects the testicles. It also contains numerous nerves and blood vessels. During times of lower temperatures, the Cremaster muscle contracts and pulls the scrotum closer to the body, while the Dartos muscle gives it a wrinkled appearance; when the temperature increases, the Cremaster and Dartos muscles relax to bring down the scrotum away from the body and remove the wrinkles respectively.\nThe scrotum remains connected with the abdomen or pelvic cavity by the inguinal canal. (The spermatic cord, formed from spermatic artery, vein and nerve bound together with connective tissue passes into the","-29.475789598509436"],["as \"Tender Kisses\" in appearance and the general look of sadness. One scene focuses on a man, unconscious, who has a door on his chest indicating the door to his heart. A woman standing over him has a window on her chest and reaches into the window to retrieve and flower and places it into the doorway on the man's chest.","-29.46718832847546"],["feel repulsed whenever he touches, smells or tastes his lovely wife. Ady attempts to bluff her way out of the situation but is forced to admit the truth: she and Barbara are aliens whose ship crash-landed on Earth some time ago. To humans, they are repulsive creatures in their natural form (apparently, of aquatic origin), but since they are stranded on Earth with no way to leave, they decided to try to blend in and live out the rest of their lives as human women. Unfortunately, their ability to trick someone's senses wears off, as the victim grows a resistance,","-29.45577514328761"],["urination urge only\", while 4 people responded that they experienced \"both a defecation and a urination urge\".\nThe defecation urge that is experienced has been explained to have characteristics such as \"a kind of heaving sensation in the rectal passage\", \"a dull convulsive pain in the gut\", \"a filling-up sensation in the lower abdominal area\", and \"a focusing of all nervous energy on the anal area\", and the intensity of the sensation has been variously described with expressions such as \"enough to make one scared about going to a bookstore again\", \"hellish\", and \"Armageddon-class\". Even in cases where the subject","-29.441450550497393"],["away. Finally, she slaps him coyly. The \"lady\" then apologizes for her aggressiveness by fellating her partner.\nThe \"lady\" then lies face-down on the sofa with her buttocks in the air. It is revealed that she has no underwear on. The gentleman caller then copulates the \"lady\" anally (although no penetration is actually shown). After a minute or so, the gentleman withdraws and sits back on the sofa. The \"lady\" gyrates her buttocks in the air. This induces him to mount her anally again. Both individuals reach orgasm, and the gentleman caller walks off-camera.\nThe \"lady\" stands and raises her skirts to","-29.415755723923212"],["the temporomandibular joint. There is usually large joint effusion and swelling, but only mild or moderate pain. Without treatment, swelling and pain typically resolve over time but periodically return. Baker's cysts may form and rupture. In some cases, joint erosion occurs.\nChronic neurologic symptoms occur in up to 5% of untreated people. A peripheral neuropathy or polyneuropathy may develop, causing abnormal sensations such as numbness, tingling or burning starting at the feet or hands and over time possibly moving up the limbs. A test may show reduced sensation of vibrations in the feet. An affected person may feel as if wearing","-29.412301497053704"],["They have a polished surface and they look something like amber or like obsidian but they're yellowish and not as heavy. The wind blows them. They slide along.\n[6:16:37] If I turn, the whole thing seems enormously flat. I mean, if I get the feeling that if a man stood on those sands, I think he would sink into them [laughs]. Maybe that's where that liquid feeling comes from.\nSwann's transcript contained in \"Mind-Reach: Scientists Look at Psychic Ability\" by Russell Targ & Harold Putoff is slightly different from Swann's later version. There is no mention of sand and he also","-29.39132815785706"],["into the topic had concluded.\nCertain types of psychiatric disorders such as delusion can be transmitted between people who are intimately close such as mothers and daughters or romantic couples by way of a kind of \"false belief\". In his book \"Why Do People Feel the Need to Go When They're In a Bookstore?\" (2012, Arimine Shoten), the gastroenterological surgeon Masayoshi Ido touches on the Mariko Aoki phenomenon by stating that the \"past experience and future expectation of having experienced a defecation urge\", the \"supporting of this by knowledge that many others have had the same experience\", and a \"false","-29.383464216138236"],["of this is to produce a quiet rising or falling ping. This effect is used in Helmut Lachenmann's Toccatina.","-29.292215265833875"],["Seeing it dip from that peak even a little is inevitably going to feel a tad disappointing.\"","-29.27842960301132"],["and a whitish or whitish-gray cottage cheese-like discharge. Symptoms of infection of the male genitalia (balanitis thrush) include red skin around the head of the penis, swelling, irritation, itchiness and soreness of the head of the penis, thick, lumpy discharge under the foreskin, unpleasant odour, difficulty retracting the foreskin (phimosis), and pain when passing urine or during sex. Skin Signs and symptoms of candidiasis in the skin include itching, irritation, and chafing or broken skin. Invasive infection Common symptoms of gastrointestinal candidiasis in healthy individuals are anal itching, belching, bloating, indigestion, nausea, diarrhea, gas, intestinal cramps, vomiting, and gastric","-29.268915855966043"],["especially on the face, becomes hot to the touch. This is the origin of the alternative term \"hot flush\", since the sensation of heat is often accompanied by visible reddening of the face. Excessive flushing can lead to rosacea.\nThe hot-flash event may be repeated a few times each week or every few minutes throughout the day. Hot flashes may begin to appear several years before menopause starts and last for years afterwards. Some women undergoing menopause never have hot flashes. Others have mild or infrequent flashes. The worst sufferers experience dozens of hot flashes each day. In addition, hot flashes","-29.25819838491043"],["she feels the strength of her elements and the tingle of her new marks and is confident in Nyx and the power she has been given. Afterwards, she heads to her dorm and finds that Erik witnessed her exchange with Neferet. He wants to believe her, but is still hurt because of Zoey cheating on him. Tiredly, with Nala in tow, Zoey heads to bed, but not before hearing her goddess whisper, \"Believe in yourself, Daughter, and get ready for what is to come.\"","-29.253983220314694"],["leave the hotel and be lost to him.\nOne night, a dream filled with orgiastic Dionysian imagery reveals to him the sexual nature of his feelings for Tadzio. Afterwards, he begins staring at the boy so openly and following him so persistently that Aschenbach feels the boy's guardians have finally noticed, and they take to warning Tadzio whenever he approaches too near the strange, solitary man. But Aschenbach's feelings, though passionately intense, remain unvoiced; he never touches Tadzio, or even speaks to him; and while there is some indication that Tadzio is aware of his admiration, the two exchange nothing more","-29.22581101923788"],["cheek. She then goes insane from the shock. Variations In other versions, a young girl is asleep while a spider crawls across her face and rests on her cheek for a few moments. The next morning, she asks her mother about the red spot on her cheek and the mother responds, \"It looks like a spider bite. It will go away, just don't scratch it.\" As time passes, the spot grows into a small boil. She confronts her mother again and complains that it is getting larger and that it's sore. The mother replies, \"That happens sometimes, it's coming to","-29.212544779264135"],["and tell each other how they truly feel.\nLater that afternoon, Valerie confides to Simon how nervous she is about being looked at by the audiences at Nationals and on MTV 3. Simon suggests she find something that covers her, like a wet suit. Nationals The Acafellas strut on stage singing The Jackson Five's “I Want You Back”. They sound fantastic, but Philip stops the song and confesses publicly that he is actually the reason that the boys failed their drug test at Regionals; he used his stepmother's home botox kit to help him hit the high notes. He apologizes to","-29.179739862793213"],["the vibrating vagina has a personality of its own and commits \"suicide\" when Justin rejects it.\nA Real Sex-esque skit where a girl admits to having sex with two black men on camera. Two guys, Barry and Leon (Kevin Hart and Jermaine Williams), create a woman on their computer, only for her to run wild.\nJessica (Rheagan Wallace), in an attempt to become horny, puts her vibrating cell phone in her vagina, only for it to fall in. Len (Ben Feldman) wakes up to find a girl and another guy (Jamie Kennedy) in his bed, and his parents home as well; the","-29.146215034168563"],["feel numb. At Brown's direction, he pushes a needle through the skin on the back of his hand.\nPhil is next asked to jump off a cliff into water, despite his fear of both heights and open water. At Brown's encouragement, and use of the Turbine app noise, Phil is able to stand at the edge of the platform, but after two attempts is still unable to jump. Brown next brings Phil in for the results of a DNA test—Phil is surprised to find that little of it is from the UK or America. Brown then gets Phil to stare into","-29.14479363708233"],["pause comes, have you, perchance, then guessed\n\nThe fury of Desire's madding tongue.\n\nThat lashes this frail fresh still, yet unstrung\n\nFrom recent onslaughts of its parapets?\n\nHow heavily upon my nipples lain\n\nHas yearning for the fullness of your lips;\n\nAnd for the absence of your touch, bleak pain?\n\nIf with such things thought has not come to grips,\n\nI pray a shaft of light implode your brain\n\nBefore to some perversion this love slips.\nThe Naked Frame received a favorable review from J. Saunders Redding in the Afro-American (Baltimore). Around that same time, Oden was introduced to the work of Richard Wilbur and joined a small group studying","-29.130707808595616"],["bizarre behavior continues much to Edie's discomfort. During the night, Edie finds he is out of bed and goes down to the kitchen to find him talking to himself, but is unaware he is seeing Lila and Paige again. She touches his shoulder and he turns around quickly and smacks her arm accidentally. The next morning, she demands an explanation. He explains he has had his previous wife on his mind, but she was not aware he was previously married. She gives him the rest of the day to pack his bags, and she throws him out of the house.","-29.117994239059044"],["Mexico, and a lot of crew members said, 'I got a feeling about this'. It's like catching lightning, this kind of success -- it only happens once in your life, finding someone like Mr. T and having him and the show become the phenomenon they have\".\nFrank Lupo persuaded Ashley to play a cameo in the show's second two-hour special, as a backer for a bogus horror movie proposed by series regular Dirk Benedict, called The Beast of the Yellow Night. A few seconds from that episode, showing Benedict with his arm around Ashley,can be glimpsed in the series' opening credits","-29.08147142812959"],["as \"beyond the power of epileptic fits or natural disease to effect\" by John Hale, the minister of the nearby town of Beverly. The girls screamed, threw things about the room, uttered strange sounds, crawled under furniture, and contorted themselves into peculiar positions, according to the eyewitness account of Reverend Deodat Lawson, a former minister in Salem Village.\nThe girls complained of being pinched and pricked with pins. A doctor, historically assumed to be William Griggs, could find no physical evidence of any ailment. Other young women in the village began to exhibit similar behaviors. When Lawson preached as a guest","-29.036448090919293"],["stare\".\nThere are also known to be cases of not simply a defecation urge but also symptoms such as abdominal pain or diarrhea. There are also said to be cases where what presents is not an urge to defecate but an urge to urinate, or need to urinate frequently. Results from a survey of 30 people reported that, of 18 people who responded that they \"have an experience of [being in a bookstore and] going to the bathroom and using the toilet\", 7 people responded that they \"experienced a defecation urge only\" and another 7 that they \"experienced a","-29.014087464354816"],["Anal wink The anal wink, anal reflex, perineal reflex, or anocutaneous reflex is the reflexive contraction of the external anal sphincter upon stroking of the skin around the anus.\nA noxious or tactile stimulus will cause a wink contraction of the anal sphincter muscles and also flexion. The stimulus is detected by the nociceptors in the perineal skin to the pudendal nerve, where a response is integrated by the spinal cord sacral segments S2-S4.\nThe absence of this reflex indicates that there is an interruption of the reflex arc, or damage to the spinal cord,which may be in the sensory afferent limb","-29.009755584425875"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"The Tingler Plot A pathologist, Dr. Warren Chapin (Price), discovers that the tingling of the spine in states of extreme fear is due to the growth of a creature that every human being seems to have, called a \\\"tingler\\\", a parasite attached to the human spine. It curls up, feeds and grows stronger when its host is afraid, effectively crushing the person's spine if curled up long enough. The host can weaken the creature and stop its curling by screaming.\\nMovie theater owner Oliver Higgins (Coolidge), who shows exclusively silent films, is an acquaintance of Dr. Chapin. Higgins's wife Martha (Evelyn),\",\n \"-34.0544086403097\"\n ],\n [\n \"as rotation and these momenta continue as the person falls, causing a sensation of dysphoria. The faller doesn't fall straight down but spins, flips, etc. due to these residual momenta and also due to the asymmetric forces of air resistance on their asymmetric body. While velocity continues to increase, the downward acceleration due to gravity remains constant. Increasing drag force may even cause a feeling of ascent.\\nThe vestibular apparatus also detects spatial orientation with respect to visual input. A similar sensation of falling can be induced when the eyes detect rapid apparent motion with respect to the environment. This\",\n \"-33.851229388907086\"\n ],\n [\n \"footnoted the possibility that this fear may be derived from a lack of ingenuity allowing one to ornamentally distance the copulatory organs from the excretory organs. Such a condition can affect both men and women. For others, symptoms include what characterizes a panic attack. It does not necessarily have to be induced by an uncovered penis, but may also result from seeing the manbulging outline or curvature of the penis, perhaps through clothes consisting of thin fabric. In more extreme cases it has been likened to the fight or flight response ingrained within the human body wherein an individual ceases\",\n \"-33.46390904861619\"\n ],\n [\n \"that he suddenly felt his finger lift. This was obviously strange to him, because under normal circumstances he was, like all of us, the person who decides on how the body moves. In this case he was not. Not only that, but somebody else in his head was responding to an external request that he had not heard. As far as Hilgard was concerned, the person who responded was the hidden observer.\\nOne of Hilgard's subjects made the following interesting statement about what she experienced, making particular reference to what she sensed was her higher self: The hidden observer is cognizant\",\n \"-33.216311468102504\"\n ],\n [\n \"that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix, and that these reported orgasms are genital orgasms caused by nipple stimulation, and may be directly linked to the genital sensory cortex (\\\"the genital area of the brain\\\"). Fondling breasts and pat-downs Even in places where the public display of affection is considered acceptable, fondling or touching a woman's breasts in public is generally considered groping and an assault, and is commonly regarded as unacceptable. This is especially the case if the woman has not expressly consented. Touching a\",\n \"-33.02571717101091\"\n ],\n [\n \"observe their own tingling feeling), whereas erythema is a sign (anyone can confirm that the skin is redder than usual). Symptoms and signs are often nonspecific, but often combinations of them are at least suggestive of certain diagnoses, helping to narrow down what may be wrong. In other cases they are specific even to the point of being pathognomonic.\\nThe term is sometimes also applied to physiological states outside the context of disease, as for example when referring to \\\"symptoms of pregnancy\\\". Many people use the term sign and symptom interchangeably. Types Symptoms may be briefly acute or a more prolonged\",\n \"-32.75632363969635\"\n ],\n [\n \"flush and the swelling of nipples in both men and women.\\nUnpleasant side effects of sex-related vasocongestion accompanied by sexual inactivity may lead to the cramp-like pain of \\\"blue balls\\\" in males and an unpleasant pelvic \\\"heaviness\\\" in women, similar to the start of the menstruation cycle.\",\n \"-32.66479745299148\"\n ],\n [\n \"catch semen. This, along with learned pressure, such as a specific hand speed may have subsequently altered sensory patterns in the genitalia. However, others have attributed it to normal masturbation that is excessive. For females experiencing death grip syndrome, besides overly strenuous masturbation, it has also been attributed to excessively using high power settings of a vibrator or a showerhead with too much water pressure. Although men with the indisposition may still experience an erection, it may embroil a relationship negatively due to a sense of being sexually incompatible with a partner due to lasting too long, and subsequent side-effects\",\n \"-32.648049661074765\"\n ],\n [\n \"much research to be done on the brain-gut connection, research thus far has indeed shown that your stomach does indeed churn differently when you are emotionally aroused, and this could be the basis of the gut feeling that many people describe experiencing. Gender differences In recent years, some research has been done about gender differences in the perception and experience of disgust. One such study, upon presenting both male and female subjects with video clips designed to trigger disgust and found that although women reported feeling more disgust than men at these stimuli, the physiological responses did not show\",\n \"-32.580137385462876\"\n ],\n [\n \"of nerves, commonly caused by leaning or resting on parts of the body such as the legs (often followed by a pins and needles tingling sensation). Other causes include conditions such as hyperventilation syndrome and panic attacks. A cold sore outside the mouth (not a canker sore inside the mouth) can be preceded by tingling because a cold sore is caused by herpes simplex virus. The varicella zoster virus (shingles) also notably may cause recurring pain and tingling in skin or tissue along the distribution path of that nerve (most commonly in the skin, along a dermatome pattern, but\",\n \"-32.51080153754447\"\n ],\n [\n \"initial responding, where the main effects are lightheadedness or slight dizziness, in addition to possible tingling sensations in the extremities or other parts of the body. The \\\"high\\\" is characterized by feelings of euphoria and exhilaration characterized by mild psychedelia, as well as a sense of disinhibition. If the individual has taken a sufficiently large dose of cannabis, the level of intoxication progresses to the stage of being “stoned,” and the user may feel calm, relaxed, and possibly in a dreamlike state. Sensory reactions may include the feeling of floating, enhanced visual and auditory perception, visual illusions, or the perception\",\n \"-32.508652715041535\"\n ],\n [\n \"The tingler causes the body of Martha to rise from the bed, staring at her husband. Higgins is so terrified that he is unable to scream. The screen fades, and Dr. Chapin's voice says, \\\"Ladies and gentlemen, just a word of warning. If any of you are not convinced that you have a tingler of your own, the next time you are frightened in the dark ... don't scream\\\". Production The financial success of House on Haunted Hill was reason enough for Columbia to produce The Tingler. Price was on board again, with Hickman playing his assistant and newcomer Lincoln\",\n \"-32.24677932330815\"\n ],\n [\n \"Exploding head syndrome Signs and symptoms Individuals with exploding head syndrome hear or experience loud imagined noises as they are falling asleep or waking up, have a strong, often frightened emotional reaction to the sound, and do not report significant pain; around 10% of people also experience visual disturbances like perceiving visual static, lightning, or flashes of light. Some people may also experience heat, strange feelings in their torso, or a feeling of electrical tinglings that ascends to the head before the auditory hallucinations occur. With the heightened arousal, people experience distress, confusion, myoclonic jerks, tachycardia, sweating,\",\n \"-31.928239584041876\"\n ],\n [\n \"North American edition alters passages describing Lyra's incipient sexuality. The text in the UK edition includes this passage in the chapter \\\"Marzipan\\\":\\nAs Mary said that, Lyra felt something strange happen to her body. She found a stirring at the roots of her hair: she found herself breathing faster. She had never been on a roller-coaster, or anything like one, but if she had, she would have recognised the sensations in her breast: they were exciting and frightening at the same time, and she had not the slightest idea why. The sensation continued, and deepened, and changed, as more parts of\",\n \"-31.73066548492443\"\n ],\n [\n \"felt tight and as if it was burning, although there was little visible inflimation [sic]. After approximately an hour, the pain had subsided to the point where I was more aware of a sensation of tingling like when you stick your tongue on a 9V battery. After an additional half hour, the pain and tingling had subsided to the point where my thumb felt like it had a sealed paper cut on it -- where moving my thumb felt odd but keeping it still was without much sensation. Several hours later, this too had subsided and I felt nothing. At\",\n \"-31.615250493407075\"\n ],\n [\n \"lamenting that his arm (on which he wears the Owl Cave ring) feels \\\"tingly.\\\" Jade takes her payment and proceeds to shower; Dougie gets out of bed and falls down, as Mr. C continues to hold his mouth. He crawls through the house, attempting and failing to alert Jade; he proceeds to move towards an electric socket, which exercises a force on him. As red curtains faintly appear in front of him, Dougie vomits and is transported away with a loud noise, which upsets Jade. The red curtains fade away, Mr. C vomits garmonbozia and oil, and passes out. Inside\",\n \"-31.594337749353144\"\n ],\n [\n \"Some women experience intense pleasure from stimulation of the urethral sponge and others find the sensation irritating. The urethral sponge surrounds the clitoral nerve, and since the two are so closely interconnected, stimulation of the clitoris may stimulate the nerve endings of the urethral sponge and vice versa. Some women enjoy the rear-entry position of sexual intercourse for this reason, because the penis is often angled slightly downward and can stimulate the front wall of the vagina, and in turn the urethral sponge. Relation with the G-spot The urethral sponge is an area in which the G-spot (Gräfenberg Spot) may\",\n \"-31.57503760504187\"\n ],\n [\n \"up and wonders why she didn't feel anything until much later. Esther wonders too, but seems unconcerned about any cosmetic damage. He asks her jokingly, \\\"Are you sure it's your leg?\\\"\\nThe next day, Esther, in the bath, is fascinated by the folds of skin around her thigh. Her Boyfriend Vincent (Laurent Lucas) finds out about her injury after walking in on her taking off her dressings. He is concerned as to why she didn't feel anything until later too and even decides to test if she can feel anything by lightly touching her arm when she is not looking. She\",\n \"-31.543717812775867\"\n ],\n [\n \"with a pleasing aesthetic shape, with a texture similar to a natural breast, but which feels completely or mostly numb for the woman herself. This loss of sensation, called somatosensory loss or the inability to perceive touch, heat, cold, and pain, sometimes results in women burning themselves or injuring themselves without noticing, or not noticing that their clothing has shifted to expose their breasts. \\\"I can't even feel it when my kids hug me,\\\" said one mother, who had nipple-sparing breast reconstruction after a bilateral mastectomy. The loss of sensation has long-term medical consequences, because it makes\",\n \"-31.45216197100308\"\n ],\n [\n \"the test he identified that the feeling of friction only appears when there is an insulating barrier between the conductive surface and the sliding finger. He concluded that the finger gets electrically polarized, and this induced charge creates a force between that finger and the surface. He named this phenomenon \\\"electrically induced vibrations\\\".\",\n \"-31.18438179176883\"\n ],\n [\n \"penis, making it extremely sensitive to touch. The clitoral glans, which is a small, elongated erectile structure, has only one known function—sexual sensations. It is the main source of orgasm in women. Thick secretions called smegma collect in the clitoris.\\nThe vaginal opening and the urethral opening are only visible when the labia minora are parted. These opening have many nerve endings that make them sensitive to touch. They are surrounded by a ring of sphincter muscles called the bulbocavernosus muscle. Underneath this muscle and on opposite sides of the vaginal opening are the vestibular bulbs, which help the vagina grip\",\n \"-31.126690791425062\"\n ],\n [\n \"describe it as one form of a syndrome of \\\"semen-loss anxiety\\\" which also occurs in other Eastern cultures as jiryan and shen-k'uei, as well as in Western cultures.\\nChlamydia infection might also be related to it because of similar symptoms in case of infection of the urethra (urethritis), which is usually symptomatic, causing a white discharge from the penis with or without pain on urinating (dysuria).\",\n \"-31.098316132920445\"\n ],\n [\n \"effect is nearly immediate — Alex loses the pleasurable feeling every pilot-spec gets during the neural connection with the ship. Also, he understands that this feeling, like the usual pleasures of sex — are simply shadows of the true feeling which he has been denied. Still not understanding what it means to love, Alex begins to feel sorrow and the feeling of enormous loss.\\nBefore landing on the planet Zodiac, the crew finds out that a crime has taken place on board the ship — Zei-so has been brutally murdered. The ship remains in orbit and receives two visitors: a detective-spec\",\n \"-30.99570127230254\"\n ],\n [\n \"interview with Nintendo Dream, he stated that the character Purlo is his reference to Tingle in Twilight Princess. According to Aonuma, Purlo's appearance \\\"is the result of wondering what a realistic Tingle would look like\\\". Characteristics Tingle is a short, paunchy 35-year-old man who is obsessed with \\\"forest fairies\\\" and dresses up in a green costume, slightly resembling that of Link. He also wears tight red shorts and a necklace with a clock that is permanently stuck at four o'clock. Tingle is normally seen floating around on his red balloon drawing and selling maps for his father, who runs the\",\n \"-30.958912672036604\"\n ],\n [\n \"and I was happy and I feel myself jumpin' in the bed. Then I found out later that it wasn't just my body jumpin', it was my spirit too. For some reason or other, somethin' was happenin' there that day. It tol' me where to look at. And then my paintings started selling. I sold a painting to a guy for little or nothing. He sold it to someone an' he tried to find me. An one day I was handin' out flyers and he saw one and he called me. It's strange how my name got to his door.\",\n \"-30.94918520266583\"\n ],\n [\n \"libido — may experience enough sexual arousal for an erection to result from a passing thought, or just the sight of a passerby. Once erect, his penis may gain enough stimulation from contact with the inside of his clothing to maintain and encourage it for some time.\\nAs sexual arousal and stimulation continues, it is likely that the glans or head of the erect penis will swell wider and, as the genitals become further engorged with blood, their color deepens and the testicles can grow up to 50% larger. As the testicles continue to rise, a feeling of warmth may develop around\",\n \"-30.853424109722255\"\n ],\n [\n \"“When I met him, I was really wasted and I fell off a bin and had to go A&E because I sprained my wrist, so I put in the line, ‘Broke my bones playing games with you’. And then I got this rash, but it wasn’t like a sexual rash – honestly! – I had really bad eczema. That’s where the line, ‘I itch all night, I itch for you’ comes from.” There’s a faint hint of embarrassment hanging in the air. “I’m sweating a lot right now,” says Olly. \\n\\\"Take Shelter\\\" was released as the album's second single on\",\n \"-30.777815632522106\"\n ],\n [\n \"motors attached to the user's abdomen. HaptiShiver sends “shivers up and down your spine” through a row of vibration motors. HaptiTemper sends “chills up and down your spine” through both cold airflow from a fan and the cold side of a Peltier element. HaptiTemper is also intended for simulation of warmth on the human skin to evoke either pleasant feeling or aggression Explicit emotion elicitation HaptiTickler directly evokes joy by tickling the user's ribs. It includes four vibration motors reproducing stimuli similar to human finger movements Affective computing Affective computing can be used to measure and to recognize emotional information\",\n \"-30.755368220445234\"\n ],\n [\n \"inflicted also on another boy. However, Jack becomes aware of the softness of Jenny's breasts, and sees her looking at him—which makes him start feeling that they are doing is \\\"a mean thing\\\". He resists the impulse to touch her breasts again and convinces Les to let her go.\\nNow feeling shy, the boys go behind bushes to dress, though Jenny already saw them naked. For her part she quickly washes off the mud and gets dressed. Les immediately goes away, but Jack lingers, feeling apprehensive of the punishment awaiting him once Jenny tells of what he and Les had done\",\n \"-30.743475165450945\"\n ],\n [\n \"people (usually the carotid baroreceptors in older males). This can lead to bradycardia, dizziness and fainting (syncope) from touching the neck (often whilst shaving). This is an important cause to exclude in men having pre-syncope or syncope symptoms.\",\n \"-30.734047279605875\"\n ],\n [\n \"had tightness in the stomach, tingling in pretibial areas, and developed a purplish hue in the face indicating blood circulation problems. He vomited after 3 minutes.\\nAnother subject given 4 mg complained of “chest oppression” and that “a load is pressing down from above and my body feels heavy.” The subject also reported “numbness of the entire body” and “a pleasant Martini feeling-my body is taking charge of my mind”. The subject reported he saw red spots passing before his eyes and red-purple spots on the floor, and the floor seemed very close to his face. Within 2 minutes these visual effects\",\n \"-30.650025050264958\"\n ],\n [\n \"to be intimate with their male partner and is unable to visit mixed gender establishments where people are likely to wear more revealing clothing, such as a gym, beach, cinema or livingrooms with a switched on monitor. The fear can recur through any of the senses including accidental touch, sight, hearing the word penis or thinking about an erection. The phobia may have developed from a condition such as dyspareunia, a trauma (usually sexual) that occurred during childhood, but can also have a fortuitous origin. In literature covering human sexuality, it is used as an adjective only to negatively allude\",\n \"-30.641440629493445\"\n ],\n [\n \"Palmomental reflex The palmomental reflex (PMR) is a primitive reflex consisting of a twitch of the chin muscle elicited by stroking a specific part of the palm. It is present in infancy and disappears as the brain matures during childhood but may reappear due to processes that disrupt the normal cortical inhibitory pathways. Therefore, it is an example of a frontal release sign. Eliciting and observing response The thenar eminence is stroked briskly with a thin stick, from proximal (edge of wrist) to distal (base of thumb) using moderate pressure. A positive response is considered if there is a single\",\n \"-30.603239209071035\"\n ],\n [\n \"partner's head. The partner may also orally play with the penis by licking, sucking, kissing or otherwise playing with the tongue and lips. Fellatio may also include the oral stimulation of the scrotum, whether licking, sucking or taking the entire scrotum into the mouth. During the act, semen may be ejaculated into the partner's mouth and sometimes on their face. Intentional ejaculation onto the partner's face is known as a facial.\\nIt is difficult for some people to perform fellatio, due to their sensitivities to the natural gag reflex. Different people have different sensitivities to the reflex, but some people\",\n \"-30.532970495987684\"\n ],\n [\n \"touches the substrate and contract the posterior region. If stimulated, it moves nervously and quickly, hence the name irritata (Latin for irritated). Distribution The only known place of occurrence of S. irritata is the São Francisco de Paula National Forest in southern Brazil.\",\n \"-30.50919902898022\"\n ],\n [\n \"my head, I rolled over and I couldn’t feel anything from my neck down. That’s what scared me the most. My body was just tingling.\\\" Clarke gave a \\\"thumbs-up\\\" sign as he was wheeled off the court en route to Miami Valley Hospital where it was confirmed he had a sprained neck, no fractures, and no spinal cord damage. Derenbecker was assessed a flagrant foul. After the game, Derenbecker described his interaction with Butler's Coach Stevens during the post-game handshake: \\\"I said 'Coach, please tell Rotnei it was not on purpose.' And he said, 'Matt, I know\",\n \"-30.50432709993038\"\n ],\n [\n \"Frisson Frisson (French for 'shiver'), also known as aesthetic chills, musical chills, and colloquially as a skin orgasm, is a psychophysiological response to rewarding auditory and/or visual stimuli that induces a pleasurable or otherwise positively-valenced affective state and transient paresthesia (skin tingling or chills), sometimes along with piloerection (goose bumps) and mydriasis (pupil dilation). The sensation commonly occurs as a mildly to moderately pleasurable emotional response to music with skin tingling; piloerection and pupil dilation do not necessarily occur in all cases. The psychological component (i.e., the pleasurable feeling) and physiological components (i.e., parasthesia, piloerection, and pupil dilation) of the\",\n \"-30.47284031493473\"\n ],\n [\n \"a dildo in the vagina. Hite and Chalker state that the tip of the clitoris and the inner lips, which are also very sensitive, are not receiving direct stimulation during penetrative intercourse. Because of this, some couples may engage in the woman on top position or the coital alignment technique to maximize clitoral stimulation. For some women, the clitoris is very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful.\\nMasters and Johnson argued that all women are potentially multiply orgasmic, but that multiply orgasmic men are rare, and stated that \\\"the female is capable of rapid return to orgasm immediately following\",\n \"-30.460366568819154\"\n ],\n [\n \"we find out, he can't feel physical sensation. The relationship ends after Minnion is attacked and nearly killed during one of Nathan's investigations (involving the Dark Man). Jess decides to return to Montreal, unable to cope with being drawn into the dangers inherent in Wuornos's line of work. After she leaves, Nathan discovers that he is able to feel the touch of Audrey Parker, and though he keeps the discovery to himself, he begins to find excuses to be in physical contact with her.\\nNathan attends a surprise birthday party for Parker at a hotel on a nearby island called\",\n \"-30.425235268980032\"\n ],\n [\n \"done to me before. In fact, he was doing even more, but I no longer felt the strong sensation of pleasure that radiated from an unknown and yet familiar part of my body. ... It was as if I could not longer recall the exact spot from which it used to arise, or as though a part of me, of my being, was gone and would never return.\\\"\\nAfter the death of her mother and father, Firdaus is taken in by her uncle, who sends her to primary school. Firdaus loves school. She maintains a close relationship with her\",\n \"-30.409714838373475\"\n ],\n [\n \"she can feel a warning buzz and a touch sparks her hand away from it. Rowan feels nothing, which the sailor tells her is a side effect of her being a Steerswoman. They dare the young lad to touch it, and he is sparked as well. When they've nearly arrived, they find the body of the boy next to the chest. He's tried to open it, and was killed by the protection spell.\\nRowan makes it to the Academy and fills her fellow Steerswomen in. They agree that she needs to continue to investigate, but in\",\n \"-30.376021255229716\"\n ],\n [\n \"as being recognized by its ridges and slightly rougher texture compared to the more cushion-like vaginal cavity walls around it. Fingering this spot, and in effect possibly stimulating the Skene's gland, is commonly cited as a method that may lead to female ejaculation.\\nSome women have cited the \\\"come hither\\\" approach as a significant catalyst to orgasm. This technique involves the middle finger, sometimes additionally the index or ring finger, making a hand gesture like \\\"come here\\\" with the palm facing upwards towards her pubic bone. Medical professionals suggest washing the hands before contact with the vagina, to ensure proper hygiene,\",\n \"-30.298137382131245\"\n ],\n [\n \"from reaching the brain, leading to unconsciousness. How this might lead to instantaneous unconsciousness is not explained. In this earliest of Star Trek reference books, the pinch is referred to as the \\\"Spock Pinch.\\\"\\nIn the Star Trek: Voyager episode \\\"Cathexis\\\", the Doctor inspects a crewmember who was found unconscious and observes an extreme trauma to the trapezius neck bundle, \\\"as though her nerve fibers have been ruptured\\\"; and it is later revealed that the person was the victim of a nerve pinch. Use within the franchise Along with Spock, various other characters in the Star Trek franchise have used the\",\n \"-30.27379606262548\"\n ],\n [\n \"her alone to be with her boyfriend, sitting helplessly in the exact spot the cart was set to impact. Eddie throws himself with all his might towards the girl, intending to pull her to safety. Eddie feels an exploding impact, sees a blinding flash, feels a little girl's hands in his own, and then nothingness.\\nEddie then finds himself awake and uninjured and realizes that he feels young and much more energetic. He also felt calm when he landed. He meets a man known simply as \\\"the Blue Man\\\" who suffered from argyria caused by silver nitrate poisoning and worked at\",\n \"-30.253404244431295\"\n ],\n [\n \"as smaller. The resulting image is that of a distorted human body, with disproportionately huge hands, lips, and face.\\nIn the sensory homunculus, below the areas handling sensation for the teeth, gums, jaw, tongue, and pharynx lies an area for intra-abdominal sensation. At the very top end of the primary sensory cortex, beyond the area for the toes, it has traditionally been believed that the sensory neural networks for the genitals occur. However, more recent research has suggested that there may be two different cortical areas for the genitals, possibly differentiated by one dealing with erogenous stimulation and\",\n \"-30.240694312378764\"\n ],\n [\n \"been made that it enhances sexual feeling that has been lost due to circumcision. The reason for this is the added pressure of the jewelry on the glans during intercourse, which may also lead to quicker ejaculations in some sexual positions. During vaginal intercourse, the piercing usually results in greater stimulation for the partner. A centrally placed dydoe works especially well in stimulating the g-spot, as the ball at the head is placed near to where the top ball of an apadravya would be placed. An apadravya is generally considered the most pleasurable piercing for partners during vaginal intercourse.\",\n \"-30.239937239413848\"\n ],\n [\n \"induction of gustatory sensations by means of an anodal electrical direct current. Patients usually report sour or metallic sensations similar to those associated with touching both poles of a live battery to the tongue. Although electrogustometry is widely used, there seems to be a poor correlation between electrically and chemically induced sensations. Diagnostic tools Certain diagnostic tools can also be used to help determine the extent of dysgeusia. Electrophysiological tests and simple reflex tests may be applied to identify abnormalities in the nerve-to-brainstem pathways. For example, the blink reflex may be used to evaluate the integrity of the trigeminal nerve–pontine\",\n \"-30.237626408284996\"\n ],\n [\n \"people can relax enough to accommodate an object as big as a fist being inserted into the anus.\\nIn a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the inserted penis rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and\",\n \"-30.20913146698149\"\n ],\n [\n \"to recognize how they felt shortly before their \\\"point of no return\\\", the moment ejaculation felt imminent and inevitable. Sensing it, they were to signal their partner, who squeezed the head of the penis between thumb and index finger, suppressing the ejaculatory reflex and allowing the man to last longer. \\nThe squeeze technique worked, but many couples found it cumbersome. From the 1970s to the 1990s, sex therapists refined the Masters and Johnson approach, largely abandoning the squeeze technique and focused on a simpler and more effective technique called the \\\"stop-start\\\" technique. During intercourse, as the man senses he is\",\n \"-30.187092155960272\"\n ],\n [\n \"as well as in blood pressure, feeling hot and flushed and perhaps experiencing tremors. A sex flush may extend over the chest and upper body.\\nIf sexual stimulation continues, then sexual arousal may peak into orgasm. After orgasm, some women do not want any further stimulation and the sexual arousal quickly dissipates. Suggestions have been published for continuing the sexual excitement and moving from one orgasm into further stimulation and maintaining or regaining a state of sexual arousal that can lead to second and subsequent orgasms. Some women have experienced such multiple orgasms quite spontaneously.\\nWhile young women may become sexually aroused\",\n \"-30.158772124102143\"\n ],\n [\n \"I watch Jason Kidd play, initially it's like seeing a girl walk into a bar who's just drop-dead gorgeous, but then when he throws up one of those bricks, it's like the gorgeous girl taking off her jacket and you see she has tiny mosquito bites for tits.\\\" Ben Mathis-Lilley found Simmons' sexism \\\"intrusively abhorrent\\\", stating that \\\"I actually stopped bothering to copy down the most egregious comments and figured I'd just note when Simmons mentioned a woman for any reason other than evaluating her appeal as something to put a penis in. I'm open to correction on this, but\",\n \"-30.095315006568853\"\n ],\n [\n \"Charu feels each other's feeling. Charu feels a hit that Chandru experiences during a robbery incident. Chandru feels a cut to his finger when Charu cuts her finger. They see each other's vision and hear each other's hearings.\\nEventually Chandru and Charu are able to see each other through a mirror. Their relationship starts as a friendship and then love.\\nChandru's friend Vinesh murders a girl which is known only to Chandru. Vinesh wants to kill Chandru. Charu's family friend Prasath abducts Charu out of lust. The climax is about how Chandru and Charu overcome their problems with Vinesh and Prasath through\",\n \"-29.981512507234584\"\n ],\n [\n \"her to have an orgasm as a result of the tickling. He attempts to cover this up from his siblings. Shortly after this, the family celebrates Jack's 16th birthday in their mother's bedroom. He is reluctant to contribute to the small party by singing, but when Julie does a handstand, Jack stares at her underwear, then shares an intimate moment with her by singing Greensleeves. \\nAlthough the rest of the family assume they are having fun, Julie recognizes what he is doing, and plays along. This, along with another incident when Julie, while sunbathing in the garden, persuades Jack to\",\n \"-29.949985399656725\"\n ],\n [\n \"that, his thighs; and passing upwards in this way he showed us that he was growing cold and rigid. And then again he touched him and said that when it reached his heart, he would be gone. The chill had now reached the region about the groin, and uncovering his face, which had been covered, he said – and these were his last words – \\\"Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Pay it and do not neglect it.\\\" \\\"That,\\\" said Crito, \\\"shall be done; but see if you have anything else to say.\\\" To this question he made no\",\n \"-29.934021092922194\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the outside of the nerve. Therefore, one could have mydriasis (a \\\"blown\\\" pupil) as a result of parasympathetic fiber compression before lid ptosis and the \\\"down and out\\\" position are seen.\",\n \"-29.925684188892774\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sysoi, a lay brother, that his mother indeed had come to visit him, bringing with her Katya, an eight-year old niece. This brings him great joy, he spends the night in reveries... But he is unable to sleep also because his conditions worsens, and he seems to be in a fever.\\nMeeting the mother and a child, Pyotr feels happy and elated, but strange feeling creeps in: it seems as if the old woman is too timid, too respectful in his presence, while feeling apparently totally relaxed and merry while chatting with the old Sysoi. During the next several days Pyotr\",\n \"-29.91995479486104\"\n ],\n [\n \"above the waist, vibration sensation was lost in the sternum, and markedly reduced proprioception or sensation about the self's orientation. Many people suffering from the neurological effects of copper deficiency complain about very similar or identical symptoms as the patient. This numbness and tingling poses danger for the elderly because it increases their risk of falling and injuring themselves. Peripheral neuropathy can become very disabling leaving some patients dependent on wheel chairs or walking canes for mobility if there is lack of correct diagnosis. Rarely can copper deficiency cause major disabling symptoms. The deficiency will have to be present for\",\n \"-29.901987596381332\"\n ],\n [\n \"bump to the head. Breath-holding attacks have been recognized for centuries. However, it is only relatively recently that their pathophysiology has begun to be understood, and in consequence, their separation from reflex anoxic seizures has been recognized. Indeed, the distinction between the two may not be complete.\\nAlthough minor bumps to the head are reported as the most common precipitants to reflex anoxic seizures, many other stimuli may also be involved. Doctors emphasized the importance of minor injuries and sudden fright. They noted that occipital blows to the head appeared to be particularly provocative. Pain, especially from emotion (surprise, fear, annoyance,\",\n \"-29.84451727353735\"\n ],\n [\n \"Carpal tunnel syndrome Signs and symptoms People with CTS experience numbness, tingling, or burning sensations in the thumb and fingers, in particular the index and middle fingers and radial half of the ring finger, because these receive their sensory and motor function (muscle control) from the median nerve. Ache and discomfort can possibly be felt more proximally in the forearm or even the upper arm. Less-specific symptoms may include pain in the wrists or hands, loss of grip strength, and loss of manual dexterity.\\nSome suggest that median nerve symptoms can arise from compression at the level of the thoracic outlet\",\n \"-29.81607978377724\"\n ],\n [\n \"Flushing (physiology) Sex flush Commonly referred to as the sex flush, vasocongestion (increased blood flow) of the skin can occur during all four phases of the human sexual response cycle. Studies show that the sex flush occurs in approximately 50–75% of females and 25% of males, yet not consistently. The sex flush tends to occur more often under warmer conditions and may not appear at all under lower temperatures.\\nDuring the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also\",\n \"-29.807242287613917\"\n ],\n [\n \"not have a 'sensed presence' experience, but instead felt at times 'slightly dizzy', 'quite strange' and had sensations in his limbs and changes in his breathing. He summarised his experience as follows: \\\"It pretty much felt as though I was in total darkness, with a helmet on my head and pleasantly relaxed\\\". Persinger explained Dawkins' limited results in terms of his low score on a psychological scale measuring temporal lobe sensitivity.\\nIn contrast, the experimental psychologist, and former parapsychology researcher, Susan Blackmore said: \\\"When I went to Persinger's lab and underwent his procedures I had the most extraordinary experiences I've ever\",\n \"-29.79225196389598\"\n ],\n [\n \"going. I know we have made a Tingle game in the past, but maybe at some point down the road.\\\" He later joked that \\\"it's like romance: You meet someone and you're like, 'Oh god, I can't stand that person.' And then three weeks later, you're madly in love – it's that turn, that quick whip, that motivates [me] a little bit.”\",\n \"-29.791814105934463\"\n ],\n [\n \"a sensation of being pushed sharply to the floor from behind. The phenomenon is thought to be triggered by a sudden mechanical disturbance of the otolithic membrane that activates motoneurons in the vestibulospinal tract.\\nOtolithic function can also be compromised after unilateral vestibular neurectomy. The illusion is that during centrifugal stimulation, a small luninous bar, fixed with respect to the observer, appears to be roll-tilited by the same amount that the observer feels to be roll-tilted. This illusion is felt symmetrically in normal patients, but after vestibular neuroectomy, patients perceive a reduce illusion when the force is directed toward their operated\",\n \"-29.770892746048048\"\n ],\n [\n \"He and Ji-eun later talk to the woman, who remains unharmed, and she tells them that the experience was not painful, likening the sensation to an electric shock. The events prove to them that Hyun-joo is telling the truth.\\nSome time later, Ji-eun visits Hyun-joo who is now living in England. Curious to know how it feels being bitten by a vampire, she asks Hyun-joo to suck her blood. Choosing the inside of her thigh, Hyun-joo begins to feed on her friend. Production Kim Jee-woon wrote and directed Coming Out as part of a project to distribute three digital short films\",\n \"-29.74347157307784\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the female's dorsum, other males retreat. During what is called the precopulatory phase, the male rubs the female's mesothorax with his first two pairs of legs. The male then strokes her antennae with his own to persuade her to copulate. Simultaneously, he rubs her eyes with his front legs. Every stroking motion is recognizable to humans as a high-pitched humming sound, which soon turns into buzzing as the male attempts to copulate. In an attempt to copulate, the male moves backward (on the female) and tries to insert his genitalia into the female's genital chamber, during which he drums\",\n \"-29.703205262921983\"\n ],\n [\n \"an awful feeling. I sometimes feel that I’m being haunted. Like there are people around me sometimes that I don’t see. There is a God, I can tell you that.\\\" In media The crash was featured on an episode of the American television program Why Planes Crash, broadcast on The Weather Channel.\",\n \"-29.657306759327184\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cremasteric reflex The cremasteric reflex is a superficial (i.e., close to the skin's surface) reflex observed in human males.\\nThis reflex is elicited by lightly stroking or poking the superior and medial (inner) part of the thigh—regardless of the direction of stroke. The normal response is an immediate contraction of the cremaster muscle that pulls up the testis ipsilaterally (on the same side of the body).\\nThe reflex utilizes sensory and motor fibers from two different nerves. When the inner thigh is stroked, sensory fibers of the ilioinguinal nerve are stimulated. These activate the motor fibers of the genital branch of the\",\n \"-29.65404842335556\"\n ],\n [\n \"After sometime, the two lovers are seen by Gillian kissing, making her scream in surprise and envy. This surprised Cat and David and the two fell down the stairs, breaking one of their arms. Wacky used this to let Cat know that he loves her. One night Wacky's shirt got wet because of the rain, so he put it inside the dryer and he tried to tell Cat what he felt but David interfered. At David's car, he told Cat that he wants Wacky out of her life because it makes him uncomfortable, so she confessed her feelings for\",\n \"-29.635545368091698\"\n ],\n [\n \"several nerves supplying sensation to these areas. Branches also supply sensation to the anal canal. By providing sensation to the penis and the clitoris, the pudendal nerve is responsible for the afferent component of penile erection and clitoral erection. It is also responsible for ejaculation.\\nBranches also innervate muscles of the perineum and the pelvic floor; namely, the bulbospongiosus and the ischiocavernosus muscles respectively, the levator ani muscle (including the Iliococcygeus, pubococcygeus, puborectalis and either pubovaginalis in females or puboprostaticus in males) the external anal sphincter (via the inferior anal branch), and male or female external urethral sphincter.\\nAs it functions\",\n \"-29.626828952896176\"\n ],\n [\n \"That Feeling, You Can Only Say What It Is in French Plot summary As the story progresses, a woman (Carol) begins to have déjà vu of the same car ride on their second honeymoon with the same bloody outcome every time. It never ends. It is implied, but never said, that they have crashed on the plane to their honeymoon location and they may be in Hell or Purgatory.\",\n \"-29.612062614032766\"\n ],\n [\n \"governments and courts of law to measure sexual orientation. An unusual aversion to the erect penis is sometimes referred to as phallophobia. Spontaneous or random erections Spontaneous erection, also known as involuntary, random or unwanted erection, is commonplace and a normal part of male physiology. Socially, such erections can be embarrassing if they happen in public or when undesired. Erections can occur spontaneously at any time of day, and if clothed may cause a bulge which (if required) can be disguised or hidden by wearing close-fitting underwear, a long shirt, or baggier clothes. Erectile dysfunction Erectile dysfunction (also known\",\n \"-29.58991904067807\"\n ],\n [\n \"feeling of numbness or a tingling, pain rarely occurs in the hand. Complaints of pain tend to be more common in the arm, up to and including the elbow area, which is probably the most common site of pain in an ulnar neuropathy. Pathophysiology In regards to the pathophysiology of ulnar neuropathy:the axon, and myelin can be affected. Within the axon, fascicles to individual muscles could be involved, with subsequent motor unit loss and amplitude decrease. Conduction block means impaired transmission via a part of the nerve. Conduction block can mean myelin damage to the involved area, slowing of conduction\",\n \"-29.578592704652692\"\n ],\n [\n \"your bones; share it fairly with your lover, say pleasant, naughty things the while. And if Nature has withheld from you the sensation of pleasure, then teach your lips to lie and say you feel it all. Unhappy is the woman who feels no answering thrill. But, if you have to pretend, don't betray yourself by over-acting. Let your movements and your eyes combine to deceive us, and, gasping, panting, complete the illusion.\\nPeople can also fake orgasms for reasons of display or presentation, such as during phone sex or in pornography.\\nFeminists have asserted that women faking orgasms is a sign\",\n \"-29.565532324013475\"\n ],\n [\n \"Jay Traver Her Condition Ekbom syndrome, aka delusory parasitosis, is the belief by an individual that their body is infested with invisible bugs, mites, or other insects even though they are not. The individuals perceive the insects as different sensations (i.e. stinging, burning, itching, crawling, etc.) and also visualize the insects crawling on top of or underneath of their skin. ES is a rare condition, with an estimation of only 25,000 sufferers in the United States. \\\"Although the sufferers of this disease may feel the sensations, it has been concluded that the hallucinations were caused by the brain trying to\",\n \"-29.52927728535724\"\n ],\n [\n \"I'm like, \\\"I'm an actress! Why am I getting a feeling like I want to cry? This is weird! I did enough crying when I was there [on set]. I don't know why I'm still feeling this way\\\". I think it was because it was the first time I was ever physically touched by him. As a little girl, as Jamie, he never got me, ever. Now as an adult, I don't have my clothes on, doing scenes I've never done before as an actor, and I'm actually being attacked. Even though I should know the guy by now, it's\",\n \"-29.509478148422204\"\n ],\n [\n \"experimenter looking at them, over a period of 100 possible staring periods. The subjects' answers were correct 50.2% of the time, a result that Coover called an \\\"astonishing approximation\\\" of pure chance. Coover concluded that although the feeling of being stared at was common, experimentation showed it to be \\\"groundless\\\". He suggested that the \\\"tingling\\\" sensation described by Titchener was an example of motor automatism.\\nA 1983 experiment using closed-circuit television cameras to watch the subjects reported a 74% success rate, although later research suggested that the randomness of the sequences had not been controlled for. An attempt to recreate this\",\n \"-29.498811392404605\"\n ],\n [\n \"that hangs behind the penis. It holds and protects the testicles. It also contains numerous nerves and blood vessels. During times of lower temperatures, the Cremaster muscle contracts and pulls the scrotum closer to the body, while the Dartos muscle gives it a wrinkled appearance; when the temperature increases, the Cremaster and Dartos muscles relax to bring down the scrotum away from the body and remove the wrinkles respectively.\\nThe scrotum remains connected with the abdomen or pelvic cavity by the inguinal canal. (The spermatic cord, formed from spermatic artery, vein and nerve bound together with connective tissue passes into the\",\n \"-29.475789598509436\"\n ],\n [\n \"as \\\"Tender Kisses\\\" in appearance and the general look of sadness. One scene focuses on a man, unconscious, who has a door on his chest indicating the door to his heart. A woman standing over him has a window on her chest and reaches into the window to retrieve and flower and places it into the doorway on the man's chest.\",\n \"-29.46718832847546\"\n ],\n [\n \"feel repulsed whenever he touches, smells or tastes his lovely wife. Ady attempts to bluff her way out of the situation but is forced to admit the truth: she and Barbara are aliens whose ship crash-landed on Earth some time ago. To humans, they are repulsive creatures in their natural form (apparently, of aquatic origin), but since they are stranded on Earth with no way to leave, they decided to try to blend in and live out the rest of their lives as human women. Unfortunately, their ability to trick someone's senses wears off, as the victim grows a resistance,\",\n \"-29.45577514328761\"\n ],\n [\n \"urination urge only\\\", while 4 people responded that they experienced \\\"both a defecation and a urination urge\\\".\\nThe defecation urge that is experienced has been explained to have characteristics such as \\\"a kind of heaving sensation in the rectal passage\\\", \\\"a dull convulsive pain in the gut\\\", \\\"a filling-up sensation in the lower abdominal area\\\", and \\\"a focusing of all nervous energy on the anal area\\\", and the intensity of the sensation has been variously described with expressions such as \\\"enough to make one scared about going to a bookstore again\\\", \\\"hellish\\\", and \\\"Armageddon-class\\\". Even in cases where the subject\",\n \"-29.441450550497393\"\n ],\n [\n \"away. Finally, she slaps him coyly. The \\\"lady\\\" then apologizes for her aggressiveness by fellating her partner.\\nThe \\\"lady\\\" then lies face-down on the sofa with her buttocks in the air. It is revealed that she has no underwear on. The gentleman caller then copulates the \\\"lady\\\" anally (although no penetration is actually shown). After a minute or so, the gentleman withdraws and sits back on the sofa. The \\\"lady\\\" gyrates her buttocks in the air. This induces him to mount her anally again. Both individuals reach orgasm, and the gentleman caller walks off-camera.\\nThe \\\"lady\\\" stands and raises her skirts to\",\n \"-29.415755723923212\"\n ],\n [\n \"the temporomandibular joint. There is usually large joint effusion and swelling, but only mild or moderate pain. Without treatment, swelling and pain typically resolve over time but periodically return. Baker's cysts may form and rupture. In some cases, joint erosion occurs.\\nChronic neurologic symptoms occur in up to 5% of untreated people. A peripheral neuropathy or polyneuropathy may develop, causing abnormal sensations such as numbness, tingling or burning starting at the feet or hands and over time possibly moving up the limbs. A test may show reduced sensation of vibrations in the feet. An affected person may feel as if wearing\",\n \"-29.412301497053704\"\n ],\n [\n \"They have a polished surface and they look something like amber or like obsidian but they're yellowish and not as heavy. The wind blows them. They slide along.\\n[6:16:37] If I turn, the whole thing seems enormously flat. I mean, if I get the feeling that if a man stood on those sands, I think he would sink into them [laughs]. Maybe that's where that liquid feeling comes from.\\nSwann's transcript contained in \\\"Mind-Reach: Scientists Look at Psychic Ability\\\" by Russell Targ & Harold Putoff is slightly different from Swann's later version. There is no mention of sand and he also\",\n \"-29.39132815785706\"\n ],\n [\n \"into the topic had concluded.\\nCertain types of psychiatric disorders such as delusion can be transmitted between people who are intimately close such as mothers and daughters or romantic couples by way of a kind of \\\"false belief\\\". In his book \\\"Why Do People Feel the Need to Go When They're In a Bookstore?\\\" (2012, Arimine Shoten), the gastroenterological surgeon Masayoshi Ido touches on the Mariko Aoki phenomenon by stating that the \\\"past experience and future expectation of having experienced a defecation urge\\\", the \\\"supporting of this by knowledge that many others have had the same experience\\\", and a \\\"false\",\n \"-29.383464216138236\"\n ],\n [\n \"of this is to produce a quiet rising or falling ping. This effect is used in Helmut Lachenmann's Toccatina.\",\n \"-29.292215265833875\"\n ],\n [\n \"Seeing it dip from that peak even a little is inevitably going to feel a tad disappointing.\\\"\",\n \"-29.27842960301132\"\n ],\n [\n \"and a whitish or whitish-gray cottage cheese-like discharge. Symptoms of infection of the male genitalia (balanitis thrush) include red skin around the head of the penis, swelling, irritation, itchiness and soreness of the head of the penis, thick, lumpy discharge under the foreskin, unpleasant odour, difficulty retracting the foreskin (phimosis), and pain when passing urine or during sex. Skin Signs and symptoms of candidiasis in the skin include itching, irritation, and chafing or broken skin. Invasive infection Common symptoms of gastrointestinal candidiasis in healthy individuals are anal itching, belching, bloating, indigestion, nausea, diarrhea, gas, intestinal cramps, vomiting, and gastric\",\n \"-29.268915855966043\"\n ],\n [\n \"especially on the face, becomes hot to the touch. This is the origin of the alternative term \\\"hot flush\\\", since the sensation of heat is often accompanied by visible reddening of the face. Excessive flushing can lead to rosacea.\\nThe hot-flash event may be repeated a few times each week or every few minutes throughout the day. Hot flashes may begin to appear several years before menopause starts and last for years afterwards. Some women undergoing menopause never have hot flashes. Others have mild or infrequent flashes. The worst sufferers experience dozens of hot flashes each day. In addition, hot flashes\",\n \"-29.25819838491043\"\n ],\n [\n \"she feels the strength of her elements and the tingle of her new marks and is confident in Nyx and the power she has been given. Afterwards, she heads to her dorm and finds that Erik witnessed her exchange with Neferet. He wants to believe her, but is still hurt because of Zoey cheating on him. Tiredly, with Nala in tow, Zoey heads to bed, but not before hearing her goddess whisper, \\\"Believe in yourself, Daughter, and get ready for what is to come.\\\"\",\n \"-29.253983220314694\"\n ],\n [\n \"leave the hotel and be lost to him.\\nOne night, a dream filled with orgiastic Dionysian imagery reveals to him the sexual nature of his feelings for Tadzio. Afterwards, he begins staring at the boy so openly and following him so persistently that Aschenbach feels the boy's guardians have finally noticed, and they take to warning Tadzio whenever he approaches too near the strange, solitary man. But Aschenbach's feelings, though passionately intense, remain unvoiced; he never touches Tadzio, or even speaks to him; and while there is some indication that Tadzio is aware of his admiration, the two exchange nothing more\",\n \"-29.22581101923788\"\n ],\n [\n \"cheek. She then goes insane from the shock. Variations In other versions, a young girl is asleep while a spider crawls across her face and rests on her cheek for a few moments. The next morning, she asks her mother about the red spot on her cheek and the mother responds, \\\"It looks like a spider bite. It will go away, just don't scratch it.\\\" As time passes, the spot grows into a small boil. She confronts her mother again and complains that it is getting larger and that it's sore. The mother replies, \\\"That happens sometimes, it's coming to\",\n \"-29.212544779264135\"\n ],\n [\n \"and tell each other how they truly feel.\\nLater that afternoon, Valerie confides to Simon how nervous she is about being looked at by the audiences at Nationals and on MTV 3. Simon suggests she find something that covers her, like a wet suit. Nationals The Acafellas strut on stage singing The Jackson Five's “I Want You Back”. They sound fantastic, but Philip stops the song and confesses publicly that he is actually the reason that the boys failed their drug test at Regionals; he used his stepmother's home botox kit to help him hit the high notes. He apologizes to\",\n \"-29.179739862793213\"\n ],\n [\n \"the vibrating vagina has a personality of its own and commits \\\"suicide\\\" when Justin rejects it.\\nA Real Sex-esque skit where a girl admits to having sex with two black men on camera. Two guys, Barry and Leon (Kevin Hart and Jermaine Williams), create a woman on their computer, only for her to run wild.\\nJessica (Rheagan Wallace), in an attempt to become horny, puts her vibrating cell phone in her vagina, only for it to fall in. Len (Ben Feldman) wakes up to find a girl and another guy (Jamie Kennedy) in his bed, and his parents home as well; the\",\n \"-29.146215034168563\"\n ],\n [\n \"feel numb. At Brown's direction, he pushes a needle through the skin on the back of his hand.\\nPhil is next asked to jump off a cliff into water, despite his fear of both heights and open water. At Brown's encouragement, and use of the Turbine app noise, Phil is able to stand at the edge of the platform, but after two attempts is still unable to jump. Brown next brings Phil in for the results of a DNA test—Phil is surprised to find that little of it is from the UK or America. Brown then gets Phil to stare into\",\n \"-29.14479363708233\"\n ],\n [\n \"pause comes, have you, perchance, then guessed\\n\\nThe fury of Desire's madding tongue.\\n\\nThat lashes this frail fresh still, yet unstrung\\n\\nFrom recent onslaughts of its parapets?\\n\\nHow heavily upon my nipples lain\\n\\nHas yearning for the fullness of your lips;\\n\\nAnd for the absence of your touch, bleak pain?\\n\\nIf with such things thought has not come to grips,\\n\\nI pray a shaft of light implode your brain\\n\\nBefore to some perversion this love slips.\\nThe Naked Frame received a favorable review from J. Saunders Redding in the Afro-American (Baltimore). Around that same time, Oden was introduced to the work of Richard Wilbur and joined a small group studying\",\n \"-29.130707808595616\"\n ],\n [\n \"bizarre behavior continues much to Edie's discomfort. During the night, Edie finds he is out of bed and goes down to the kitchen to find him talking to himself, but is unaware he is seeing Lila and Paige again. She touches his shoulder and he turns around quickly and smacks her arm accidentally. The next morning, she demands an explanation. He explains he has had his previous wife on his mind, but she was not aware he was previously married. She gives him the rest of the day to pack his bags, and she throws him out of the house.\",\n \"-29.117994239059044\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mexico, and a lot of crew members said, 'I got a feeling about this'. It's like catching lightning, this kind of success -- it only happens once in your life, finding someone like Mr. T and having him and the show become the phenomenon they have\\\".\\nFrank Lupo persuaded Ashley to play a cameo in the show's second two-hour special, as a backer for a bogus horror movie proposed by series regular Dirk Benedict, called The Beast of the Yellow Night. A few seconds from that episode, showing Benedict with his arm around Ashley,can be glimpsed in the series' opening credits\",\n \"-29.08147142812959\"\n ],\n [\n \"as \\\"beyond the power of epileptic fits or natural disease to effect\\\" by John Hale, the minister of the nearby town of Beverly. The girls screamed, threw things about the room, uttered strange sounds, crawled under furniture, and contorted themselves into peculiar positions, according to the eyewitness account of Reverend Deodat Lawson, a former minister in Salem Village.\\nThe girls complained of being pinched and pricked with pins. A doctor, historically assumed to be William Griggs, could find no physical evidence of any ailment. Other young women in the village began to exhibit similar behaviors. When Lawson preached as a guest\",\n \"-29.036448090919293\"\n ],\n [\n \"stare\\\".\\nThere are also known to be cases of not simply a defecation urge but also symptoms such as abdominal pain or diarrhea. There are also said to be cases where what presents is not an urge to defecate but an urge to urinate, or need to urinate frequently. Results from a survey of 30 people reported that, of 18 people who responded that they \\\"have an experience of [being in a bookstore and] going to the bathroom and using the toilet\\\", 7 people responded that they \\\"experienced a defecation urge only\\\" and another 7 that they \\\"experienced a\",\n \"-29.014087464354816\"\n ],\n [\n \"Anal wink The anal wink, anal reflex, perineal reflex, or anocutaneous reflex is the reflexive contraction of the external anal sphincter upon stroking of the skin around the anus.\\nA noxious or tactile stimulus will cause a wink contraction of the anal sphincter muscles and also flexion. The stimulus is detected by the nociceptors in the perineal skin to the pudendal nerve, where a response is integrated by the spinal cord sacral segments S2-S4.\\nThe absence of this reflex indicates that there is an interruption of the reflex arc, or damage to the spinal cord,which may be in the sensory afferent limb\",\n \"-29.009755584425875\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":86,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2c4zmh"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do fight scenes in older movies look so fake compared to newer movies? Isn't it just choreography? Not CGI (mostly)."},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Because that was good enough for audiences of the day. Most people have little exposure to real fighting, and up until the 60's, the only martial art they were likely to have seen was boxing. Movies followed these expectations, and most fights were stand up punching. With the rise of the Hong Kong movie industry, and martial arts stars like Bruce Lee, audience expectations changed. Stand up punching seemed slow and ponderous, so it was necessary to mix in some more sophisticated fighting. Also, the way audiences viewed their movie heros changed. You used to have John Wayne cowboy type leads, who were better than everyone else by virtue of being special. He won his fight because he was always stronger, tougher, and luckier than mere supporting roles, that all the reason the audience needed. Today's heroes are usually a little more nuanced. If they are going to win a fight against a bigger, stronger opponent, the movie has to show how he outsmarts or outskills the big lug.","If you mean older western movies, it's because it's BAD choreography. Watch some old chinese movies and you'll see some frighteningly realistic stuff. Jackie Chan talked about it in some documentary how americans and europeans were completely incapable of staging a good fight scene for most of the 20th century.","Hi, I do professional fight choreography. The last century has seen a lot of innovation in staged violence. Prior to the advent of film as a medium staged combat was only really used for theater, and the main type of serious violence that plays had been using for centuries was fencing. (pummeling someone would have been more slapstick, and likely would have just used an actual slapstick for the fight) This meant that the fight choreographers of the early to mid 1900's were educated in how to put together a sword fight, with any hand to hand combat as a bit of an afterthought. (there would also be firearms used, but that was more of an armorer's department, rather than a fight choreographer). In the 1900's brawling became the primary way to have physical violence outside of gunplay, as swords were no longer a modern weapon. Unfortunately we did not have the stage combat \"technology\" to choreograph these fights well. The blocking techniques used in film also did not lend themselves to good fight scenes. (the scene of shatner punching the alien: look at how close their heads are to one another, there is no room for a realistic punch) In film people's faces are generally closer than people naturally get to each other, so that they can both be in the same frame. With the advances in stage violence over the last 60ish years we now have some good western brawler choreography styles to use for knock-down drag-out fights, which also works well for simulating domestic violence, and we have a new generation of fight choreographers who can do a brawl as well as they can do a sword duel.","In addition to kouhoutek's great answer, it's also related to technology. Specifically, old films have deteriorated, especially in terms of sound quality. Old films are often poorly rendered into video format for television, and as a result the \"sound design\" is much flatter and less effective than it would have been in a theatrical run of the original movie. Sound actually makes a huge impression on how you perceive action, and can even convince you to \"see\" things that aren't there (like, for example, a punch that would shatter a normal person's skull if it were real). Additionally, modern sound recording and production for films is light years more sophisticated, both in terms of equipment and in terms of technique, than it was in the 40's-70's. Plus, modern sound is recorded with video mastering in mind, so it's already designed to sound good both in the theater and on TV. [From Russia With Love]( URL_0 ) (1963) had some pretty good fight scenes. All in all this is a very \"realistic\" style of fight choreography of two people chaotically pulling every dirty trick they can to win a fight in the dark. But again, the hokiest thing about this scene is the sound design... not so much the dynamics of volume & depth which seem ok in this case, but simply the recorded sounds they used. That one punch to the chin uses a sound that could have come from a cartoon.","How can you even compare them with as many times as they change the camera angles these days? While kinda on topic, why so many dark scenes? In the old days I can understand. Maybe to help cover mistakes, and to make up for lack of resources at the time. But these days? Sure let's go see a movie that'll probably give us motion sickness, if they ever turn up the lights enough to see what's going on. Directors using those 2 tricks are pathetic.","Not sure if someone added this. But the new standard of quick cutting and camera shaking makes fight scenes appear more intense then they are a lot of the times","Have you seen James Caan as \"Sonny Corleone\" beating up his brother-in-law in \"the Godfather\"? THAT was some convincing butt-kicking!"],"string":"[\n \"Because that was good enough for audiences of the day. Most people have little exposure to real fighting, and up until the 60's, the only martial art they were likely to have seen was boxing. Movies followed these expectations, and most fights were stand up punching. With the rise of the Hong Kong movie industry, and martial arts stars like Bruce Lee, audience expectations changed. Stand up punching seemed slow and ponderous, so it was necessary to mix in some more sophisticated fighting. Also, the way audiences viewed their movie heros changed. You used to have John Wayne cowboy type leads, who were better than everyone else by virtue of being special. He won his fight because he was always stronger, tougher, and luckier than mere supporting roles, that all the reason the audience needed. Today's heroes are usually a little more nuanced. If they are going to win a fight against a bigger, stronger opponent, the movie has to show how he outsmarts or outskills the big lug.\",\n \"If you mean older western movies, it's because it's BAD choreography. Watch some old chinese movies and you'll see some frighteningly realistic stuff. Jackie Chan talked about it in some documentary how americans and europeans were completely incapable of staging a good fight scene for most of the 20th century.\",\n \"Hi, I do professional fight choreography. The last century has seen a lot of innovation in staged violence. Prior to the advent of film as a medium staged combat was only really used for theater, and the main type of serious violence that plays had been using for centuries was fencing. (pummeling someone would have been more slapstick, and likely would have just used an actual slapstick for the fight) This meant that the fight choreographers of the early to mid 1900's were educated in how to put together a sword fight, with any hand to hand combat as a bit of an afterthought. (there would also be firearms used, but that was more of an armorer's department, rather than a fight choreographer). In the 1900's brawling became the primary way to have physical violence outside of gunplay, as swords were no longer a modern weapon. Unfortunately we did not have the stage combat \\\"technology\\\" to choreograph these fights well. The blocking techniques used in film also did not lend themselves to good fight scenes. (the scene of shatner punching the alien: look at how close their heads are to one another, there is no room for a realistic punch) In film people's faces are generally closer than people naturally get to each other, so that they can both be in the same frame. With the advances in stage violence over the last 60ish years we now have some good western brawler choreography styles to use for knock-down drag-out fights, which also works well for simulating domestic violence, and we have a new generation of fight choreographers who can do a brawl as well as they can do a sword duel.\",\n \"In addition to kouhoutek's great answer, it's also related to technology. Specifically, old films have deteriorated, especially in terms of sound quality. Old films are often poorly rendered into video format for television, and as a result the \\\"sound design\\\" is much flatter and less effective than it would have been in a theatrical run of the original movie. Sound actually makes a huge impression on how you perceive action, and can even convince you to \\\"see\\\" things that aren't there (like, for example, a punch that would shatter a normal person's skull if it were real). Additionally, modern sound recording and production for films is light years more sophisticated, both in terms of equipment and in terms of technique, than it was in the 40's-70's. Plus, modern sound is recorded with video mastering in mind, so it's already designed to sound good both in the theater and on TV. [From Russia With Love]( URL_0 ) (1963) had some pretty good fight scenes. All in all this is a very \\\"realistic\\\" style of fight choreography of two people chaotically pulling every dirty trick they can to win a fight in the dark. But again, the hokiest thing about this scene is the sound design... not so much the dynamics of volume & depth which seem ok in this case, but simply the recorded sounds they used. That one punch to the chin uses a sound that could have come from a cartoon.\",\n \"How can you even compare them with as many times as they change the camera angles these days? While kinda on topic, why so many dark scenes? In the old days I can understand. Maybe to help cover mistakes, and to make up for lack of resources at the time. But these days? Sure let's go see a movie that'll probably give us motion sickness, if they ever turn up the lights enough to see what's going on. Directors using those 2 tricks are pathetic.\",\n \"Not sure if someone added this. But the new standard of quick cutting and camera shaking makes fight scenes appear more intense then they are a lot of the times\",\n \"Have you seen James Caan as \\\"Sonny Corleone\\\" beating up his brother-in-law in \\\"the Godfather\\\"? THAT was some convincing butt-kicking!\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["\"cinematic\" style, reminiscent of the way the fights in the other Rocky films were shot. However, unlike the other films in the series, the fight is less choreographed and more improvised than previous installments and is closer to an actual boxing match than a choreographed fight. This is a departure from the previous films, where every punch, feint, and step was carefully scripted and practiced.\nAccording to the behind-the-scenes documentary portions of the film's DVD, there were slight continuity problems during the filming of the fight. This was said to have been due to the fact that real punches were thrown","-36.1706942114979"],["taken into account. Despite these concerns, he opined that it was a \"great reason to go to the movies because it's an experience you just can't recreate on an iPhone or a laptop.\" In some sequences the image shows a fine mesh pattern and some blurring. That is not interference or a production fault, but indicates that that sequence is a flashback and to simulate an older form of video representation technology. Stunt work on the film was designed and coordinated by 87Eleven, who also designed and trained fight sequences for 300 and Watchmen. Olivia Wilde described it as an","-34.522929406768526"],["Some reenactment battles take the form of a competition, where the two \"armies\" try to defeat each other within the actions permitted by the combat rules.\nBattles in film are not inhibited by such restrictions, due to the possibilities of cutting and closeup. They are fully choreographed, and are not performed in a single go but divided into individual sequences. Combat as interactive martial art The Society for Creative Anachronism fighting is based on Medieval fighting on foot, in the spirit of tournament fighting with wooden swords. The armor is handmade and based on historical artifacts. Unlike most reenactment events, the","-34.41608870148775"],["of professional stunt crews in the past. However, reactions to action films containing significant amounts of CGI have been mixed, as films that use computer animations to create unrealistic, highly unbelievable events are often met with criticism. While action has long been a recurring component in films, the \"action film\" genre began to develop in the 1970s along with the increase of stunts and special effects. Common action scenes in films are generally, but not limited to, explosions, car chases, fistfights, and shootouts.\nThis genre is closely associated with the thriller and adventure genres, and they may also contain elements of","-33.301571141353634"],["set pieces as \"spectacular, almost non-stop sequence of grisly hand-to-hand combat scenes\" and \"No martial arts here, but skillfully realistic fighting with spears and machetes, guns and cannons, which spare no one.\" However Young also states that \"no matter how ingeniously it is varied, the non-stop fighting becomes oppressive in the long run\" and the film's best scenes are in its \"quieter moments\". Alan Harris gave the film three out of five stars and states \"This is an extremely bloodthirsty film, with more beheadings than any other movie I can name, and scenes of carnage for most of its two","-32.91581798729021"],["in Europe. But because of the movie's limited budget, the director moved the movie to Thailand, where it's cheaper to shoot. They used CGI to add the sand around Horus's city, which is supposed to be in a desert.\nThey had 400 extras for the battle scenes, but most of the fighting was done with the main cast plus just 12 stunt men, who played multiple roles in different costumes so they could be in all of the battles. The rest of the extras weren't trained to fight, so they stayed in the background, and careful observers can","-32.87722360575026"],["of the characters, including Bahamut itself, took the staff a long time to complete in order to give the scene a sense of flow. Nomura stated that the team decided not to worry about making the fight sequences realistic, as they felt this would restrict their ability to give the film a \"cool look\". Therefore, they worked by creating their \"own rules.\" Motion capture was used for many of the film's battle scenes; maneuvers that were not physically possible for live actors to perform were constructed digitally.\nWhile designing the characters, the staff discovered that it was impossible to directly translate","-32.581151016405784"],["moments, but that the \"comedic moments were not only funny but also true to the series, and the fight scenes were excellent one and all.\" He particularly praised the animation as the best of the series, due to technological advancements since the early 1990s, and declared that the highlight of the movie was how in the end the villain was undoubtedly the winner over Goku in a \"complete reversal of the standard DBZ formula\". Otaku USA's Matt Schley agreed that it is a comedy heavy film \"more reminiscent of the original Dragon Ball than Z\". He speculates that the viewer's","-32.30481983581558"],["and amount of character development and focus almost exclusively on the action, while other martial arts films have more creative and complex plots and characters along with action scenes. Films of the latter type are generally considered to be artistically superior films, but many films of the former type are commercially successful and well received by fans of the genre. One of the earliest Hollywood movies to employ the use of martial arts was the 1955 film Bad Day at Black Rock.\nMartial arts films contain many characters who are martial artists and these roles are often played by actors who","-32.04366241057869"],["many clips from the film, just stills taken from specific scenes. Why would they do this when all other movie-based games use real-time sequences, if not actual clips from the film? […] This could come as a disappointment to players expecting to re-live the movie's magic through a game. During the gameplay, you'll be entertained by amusing dialogue, but the still picture movie sequences are a bore.\" Bedigian concluded that young children would enjoy the game, except for \"the frustration\" of its driving levels due to its controls, which he wrote, \"aren't very accurate, causing a lot of unnecessary screw","-31.94440648291493"],["classic action movies, it was criticized for the lack of variety in gameplay and challenges and for quickly becoming repetitive.","-31.875516818021424"],["movies similar to Battles, but always turned them down wanting to move on to films he found interesting.\nAmerican director William Friedkin stated that Fukasaku's trait of never redeeming bad characters and not catering to have the good guys win in the end was a \"profound influence\" on himself. He went on to claim that this is something one cannot do today in American films.\nA restored version of the film, from a 4K 35mm print original negative to 2K digital by Toei Labo Tech, was screened at the Cannes Classics section of the 2015 Cannes Film Festival.","-31.841245589457685"],["from the use of CGI in the film as well as planning the scenes via storyboarding, insisting on shooting the scenes right away. In a separate interview, however, Miike said that some CGI were used, albeit minimal. Over half of the thirteen actors playing the assassins were reportedly inexperienced in sword fighting and horseback riding, and Miike wanted them to be just that, explaining, \"If the actors had been skilled from the beginning, and had been in several samurai movies before, the way they approached the action would've been different; they probably would've ended up being something they were doing","-31.827273663016967"],["medium-budget genre movie, it also fused with tent-pole pictures in other genres. For example, 2009's Star Trek had several science fiction tropes and concepts like time travel through a black hole. However, most of the film was structured around action sequences, many of them quite conventional (hand-to-hand, shooting). While the original Star Wars featured some of this kind of fighting, there was just as much emphasis on star-ship chases and dogfights in outer space. The newer films featured more lightsaber duels, sometimes more intense and acrobatic than the originals. Some fan films also have similar duel scenes like those the","-31.692095092570526"],["in the writing and much less reliance on CG and film speed trickery to make the fights seem flashier (and faker). There are just too many little things that feel off for the big, eye-catching things to really stay with you.\"\nThe Sci-Fi Movie Page awarded the film two stars out of five. Film critic Tim Janson stated: \"First time Director Aleksander Bach makes the mistake in thinking that more characters with special abilities makes for a better film. Unfortunately this is not the case. There’s little attempt at developing any of the characters as more than one-dimensional cutouts.\" Future In","-31.627385232988672"],["memory. A show which involves fight choreography will typically be trained and supervised by a professional fight choreographer and may also include a fight captain, who runs fight calls and ensures that actors are remaining safe throughout the duration of the show.\nThe fighting styles in movies set in the Medieval or Renaissance period may be unrealistic and historically inaccurate. Most fight choreographers use a mix between Asian martial arts and sports fencing to re-enact fight scenes. This generally due to the look of the fighting asked for by the director. If the director wants the story to flow a certain","-31.526369698425697"],["sequence to the previous one by saying, \"I don't think any one of these versions is going to be better or worse than the other. They're just going to be different. This particular one was in a smaller room, so it was a little bit more complicated.\" The sequence, which took \"three or four hours of sprints and sprints and sprints\" to get right, not only accommodated the actors and camera crew in the small, \"intimate\" room, but the producers and showrunners as well, as they wished to \"witness the action scene unfold.\"\nKevin Tancharoen noted that \"On shows like Daredevil","-31.50203629079624"],["worse. From the movements of the characters to the visual effects - like two arrows going at each other - it looks like a pirated and outdated version of MS Paint was used to create the film.\" and added, \"The movements of the characters are awkward and jerky, making it look like the mythical heroes learned how to walk from Godzilla. The battle scenes are not only badly drawn and animated, they're also boring.\" and concluded, \"This new Mahabharata isn't so much a kid-friendly version as one made for dummies, by dummies.\"\nTaran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated the film 3","-31.455530837578408"],["said that \"I had a limit on the running time of the picture. We shot many scenes that—for a regular feature—were too tangential to keep the main story progressing properly. We thought it might be good sometime to do a longer version with these other things in, because a lot of the characters that are missing in the finished movie had been filmed. They're part of the picture, they're just not necessary for the main story.\" According to Lynch, had the film included these scenes, it \"wouldn't have been quite so dark. To me it obeyed the laws of Twin","-31.428360277235697"],["attempts to make sure the actors are used as much as possible when performing fight scenes, unless the scenes are particularly dangerous. The fast shooting schedule forces Chartrand to rely on guest stars who can perform their own stunts, because of the limited time to find a \"good double\" for the actor.\nPhysical effects were not an issue for the series regulars. Allison Mack performed her own stunts for the scene in \"Hothead\" where her character's office is set on fire, and again in \"Kinetic\", when she was cabled off and dangled 50 ft (15 m) above the ground. For \"Nicodemus\", the stunt","-31.302914559229976"],["Universal and I refuse to let happen. It has always been my firm conviction that films should speak for themselves and that knowing too much about how they are made diminishes the magic of watching them.\" Visual effects Leterrier cited Andy Serkis' motion capture portrayals of Gollum and King Kong in The Lord of the Rings and King Kong, respectively, as the standard he was aiming for. Norton and Roth filmed 2500 takes of different movements the monsters would make (such as the Hulk's \"thunder claps\"). Phosphorescent face paint applied to the actors' faces and strobe lighting would help record","-31.28765688959902"],["stuntwork. Films such as The Matrix and Mission: Impossible 2 have shown how CGI and stunts can be integrated for maximum effect. But—if for no other reason than safety—it is doubtful that the records established by Hooper and Sharky's Machine will be broken anytime soon. A new subgenre of eastern martial arts films exists which emphasize the actors performing their own stunts, deliberately using wide angles and unbroken shots to show each stunt in its entirety. Examples of actors doing their own stunts include Jackie Chan and Tony Jaa.","-31.275716250383994"],["there is room to work at a safe distance. Realism in fight choreography Fight choreography can vary widely from true realism to outright fantasy depending upon the requirements of a particular production. One of the biggest reasons that theatrical fight directors often do not aim for strict realism is that the live audience could not easily follow the 'story' of the action if bodies and blades were moving in the ways trained fighters would move them. For example, a production of Cyrano de Bergerac, by Edmond Rostand, using 17th-Century rapiers, might show Cyrano making lots of circular cut attacks. But","-31.25900618538435"],["to push the lighting and the environments to create the look and feel of an alternate reality.\" The animators that worked on the fight sequences were inspired by Hong Kong action films. Animation director Kim Ooi explains said that because of CGI they were able to \"push and stylize beyond the limits of live action.\" Imagi used Maya with Pixar's RenderMan for the production pipeline's back-end. Casting Jim Cummings was the only past TMNT actor to appear in this film, where he had previously contributed voice-work in the 1987 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles series. The film also features three voice","-31.19206230646887"],["The fourth film goes too far the other way, lacking the energy of its predecessors, but regardless, the films are a lot of fun. With lashings of gore, high-quality martial arts sequences with wacky flourishes thrown in to the mix, they’ll be sure to please fans of Japanese genre movies.\"","-31.19065231679997"],["a few sets and characters into a generation-spanning look at a society where benevolence and malevolence are so finely interwoven that it’s hard to know what to fight against.\" Murray found that, in 90-minute film form, it \"doesn’t fully work\"; both the beginning and end of the film were \"strong\", but in between, the film seemed padded with \"cheesy-looking sex and fight scenes, and with a doubling-back narrative structure\" that was confusing, and looked like an \"attempt to save money by reusing footage.\"\nKevin Thomas wrote in the Los Angeles Times \"Many of Nikolic's concerns and motifs are familiar yet","-31.132331298980716"],["degrees Fahrenheit). Abbess described this as the hardest scene to shoot. Initially intending to make Gabriel without computer-generated effects, Abbess also tried to reproduce bullet time on a low budget by using giant props on strings, though he eventually decided CGI were more successful.\nThe style of fighting in Gabriel was intended to be a \"stylised version of pub brawling.\" Shane Abbess intended for each of Gabriel's successive fights with the Fallen to be \"a whole different experience,\" and strove to shoot each one differently. The lack of time meant there was little time for the performers to rehearse fight scenes:","-31.088324560561887"],["from Day of the Dead.\nThe film's fight sequences were influenced by Asian cinema. \"We watched a lot of Thai movies this time around because of the movies (Powell) has done,\" says Anderson. \"He did The Last Samurai as well. He has worked with a lot of Japanese stuntmen and he has worked with a lot of Hong Kong stuntmen. But we felt the area that hadn't been mined by western cinema much was that whole kind of high impact Thai style of fighting. So we just watched a lot of action sequences from a lot of Thai movies. There were","-31.02040084579494"],["Variety called the film \"a technical dazzler with a surprisingly humane streak\", stating \"if They Shall Not Grow Old is head-spinning for its jolting animation of creakily shot battle scenes—tricked out with ingeniously integrated sound editing and seamlessly re-timed from 13 frames a second to 24 — its greatest revelation isn’t one of sound and fury. Rather, it's the film's faces that stick longest in the mind. Through the exhaustive transformation completed by Jackson's team, visages that were all but indistinguishably blurred in the archives take on shape, character and creases of worry, terror and occasional hilarity. In conjunction with","-30.98420444279691"],["their lack of budget constraints allowing more artistic freedom to be taken with the action and effects than that seen in the feature film. Back story, inside jokes, and running gags are further flushed out in the animations than what could be used in the film.\nA number of notable videogame voice actors have guest starred in the series as well, including Mortal Kombat's John Turk (who took over the ninja roles portrayed by Pesina), and David Humphrey, the original voice of Shadow the Hedgehog.\nThe animations take place before the events of the movie, similar to two made-for-DVD animated prequels: Van","-30.954377839869267"],["was shown, the monster was smoother and slower than in the original shot. Kaiju films also used a form of puppetry interwoven between suitmation scenes which served for shots that were physically impossible for the suit actor to perform. From the 1998 release of Godzilla, American-produced kaiju films strayed from suitmation to computer-generated imagery (CGI). In Japan, CGI and stop-motion have been increasingly used for certain special sequences and monsters, but suitmation has been used for an overwhelming majority of kaiju films produced in Japan of all eras.","-30.94880315055343"],["criticism, they felt that the film's action was substandard, the fight choreography weak, and certain scenes were \"ruined by pretentious visual manipulation\". They offered that Disturbance \"is a good-looking movie\", but that its visual prowess could not hide the fact of the film's low budget. They conceded that use of color and shadow \"are utilized strikingly\" and \"make for good eye candy, even if they are not overly endowed with thespian qualities\", and offered that Paul Sloan has \"a magnetic presence onscreen\" and Hayley DuMond delivers \"an impressive emotional scene toward the end,\" and summarize that \"As far as low-budget","-30.918218340048043"],["much \"filler\". Theron Martin of Anime News Network (ANN) praised the movie for its humor, use of main and supporting cast, the introduction of Beerus and Whis and the overall light-hearted nature and plot. But also criticized the movie for its inconsistent animation, uninspiring fight scenes and use of CGI, stating, \"Ultimately Battle of Gods is entirely a movie for long-established fans, as it has too many in-jokes that those not familiar with wide swaths of the franchise would get. It is not a stellar addition to the franchise but is a worthwhile and at least moderately entertaining one, provided","-30.877822875365382"],["or aerial image animation cameras, which enabled more accurate positioning, and more realism into interaction of actors and fictional characters. Often, every frame of the live action film was traced by rotoscoping, so that the animator could add his drawing in the exact position. With the rise of computer animation, combining live action and animation became common. Criticism of techniques The Star Wars prequels and The Lord of the Rings trilogy, for example, include substantial amounts of animation, though this has not been critically recognized as such due to the realism of the animation. However, some critics like Roger Ebert","-30.8528529133946"],[" Mondo films like Faces of Death mix real and fake footage freely, and they gain their cult following through the outrage and debate over authenticity that results. Like \"so bad it's good\" cult films, old propaganda and government hygiene films may be enjoyed ironically by more modern audiences for the camp value of the outdated themes and outlandish claims made about perceived social threats, such as drug use. Academic Barry K. Grant states that Frank Capra's Why We Fight World War II propaganda films are explicitly not cult, because they are \"slickly made and have proven their","-30.838211179117934"],["War is hardly made into any historical war films intended for entertainment use in these countries. However, reference about the ongoing war as a background setting is heavily used as a setpiece to drive the storyline on. For example, Hong Kong martial arts films have used the \"cartoon villain\" portrayal of Japanese soldiers or generals being defeated by the Chinese lead character in an attempt to stop the Japanese from using biological weapons or stealing Chinese treasures (films like Fist of Fury, Millionaire's Express and Fist of Legend). Some films that depict Japanese war crimes were also made, such as","-30.774851558817318"],["may not be open to the public, are fought like real battles with each side devising strategies and tactics to defeat their opponent(s). They have no script, a basic set of agreed-upon rules (physical boundaries, time limit, victory conditions, etc.), and onsite judges or referees, and so could be considered a form of live action role-playing game. Tactical battles might also be considered a form of experimental archaeology. Reenactment and media Motion picture and television producers often turn to reenactment groups for support; films like Gettysburg, Glory and Gods and Generals benefited greatly from the input of reenactors, who arrived","-30.70023960627441"],["For example, both the dead bodies of Amanda True and Randolph are shown with eyes closed in the TV episode; in the movie, their eyes are open and Randolph's death is more brutal. In some fight scenes, the movie version contains more violent images compared to the episodes (e.g., a bloody face in the London bar, greater violence in the Japanese temple). Margo De Fanzini's initial nudity is seen in both versions, but is more pronounced in the movie.\nOther changes were made for apparently no reason other than artistic. For example: there is a scene that","-30.635310141416994"],["the good fight.\nShe later reflected:\nHow do I think the balance between genre constraints and creative freedom influenced my work? There was always a struggle in my mind between the two. I would have covered the same topics, but made the films very differently, if I had not had these constraints. I knew it then. But I tried not to be discouraged and... I tried to do the best I could... While I do not object to violence or nudity in principle, the reason audiences came to see these low-budget films without stars was because they delivered scenes that you could","-30.614704255596735"],["and Jurassic Park (1993). Since then techniques have developed to the stage that the difference between CGI and real life cinematography is seldom obvious. Filmmakers can blend both types of images seamlessly with virtual cinematography. The Matrix (1999) and it's two sequels are usually regarded as breakthrough films in this field.\nDue to the complexity of human body functions, emotions and interactions, movies with important roles for fully 3D-animated realistic-looking human characters have been rare. The more realistic a CG character becomes, the more difficult it is to create the nuances and details of a living person, and the greater the","-30.60453111682"],["out of four and wrote that it \"gets old fast unless you have an insatiable appetite for seeing actors beaned with salamis and butted with sabres.\" Gary Arnold of The Washington Post called it \"a lot of title for very little entertainment\" and a \"strenuous throwaway production.\" Linda Gross of the Los Angeles Times called it \"a silly, slapstick spaghetti spoof of swashbuckling adventure movies\" and \"a badly-dubbed hodge-podge\" which \"lacks a deft historical perspective so even the artful battle footage by photographer Giovanni Bergamini looks like it belongs in another kind of movie.\" Maurizio Cavagnaro of the Genoese newspaper","-30.56868357177882"],["artists to create. Although the film was shot on highly detailed sets, visual effects and CGI was incorporated in post-production to enhance the imagery for the scenes that were impossible to shoot in live action.\nThe effects included the creation of interior architecture, backgrounds, set extensions and war weapons; changes to lighting and time of day, weather effects and the multiplication of army soldiers. The opening night-time war scene, which had 300 visual effects shots, was filmed in bright daylight then converted into night. Arrows flying over the battlefield were created using CGI whereas the army, soldiers and horses were multiplied.","-30.567269785591634"],["prequel trilogy. It was action with a science fiction twist. The trend with films such as The Matrix and The Dark Knight series, is that hand-to-hand fighting and Asian martial-arts techniques are now widely used in science fiction and superhero movies.\nSylvester Stallone's The Expendables used nostalgia for a perceived golden age of action films by casting 1980s action stars alongside new actors in the genre such as Jason Statham.\nIn The Fast and the Furious series, the action film staple of the car chase is the central plot driver as it had been in Smokey and the Bandit films in the","-30.50622959903194"],["to film them in closeup is only one example of the total lack of talent or effort with which the picture is made...the movie is a kind of no-talent competition in which the acting, the script, the direction and the camera-work vie for last place.\" More recently, in more positive vein, BFI Screenonline said, \"Extravagant, colourful and thoroughly preposterous, At the Earth's Core is utterly without pretension but has the exuberant charm of the best of its decade.\" \nThe film was featured in the season finale of the revived Mystery Science Theater 3000, the show's eleventh season overall, released on","-30.49914972917759"],["present their accordant skills on the screen. Since silent movies were no proper medium for long dialogues, the classic stories about heroes who would defend their honour with sword in hand were simplified and sheer action would gain priority. This was the birth of a new kind of film hero: the swashbuckler.\nFour of the most famous instructors for swashbuckling swordplay are William Hobbs, Anthony De Longis, Bob Anderson and Peter Diamond.\nThe larger-than-life heroics portrayed in some film franchise adventures (most notably the Indiana Jones movies) set in the modern era have been described as swashbuckling. Film The genre has, apart","-30.492957835223933"],["reality TV that turns a high-school milieu dominated by cliques and childish relationships into a war zone.\" British critic Jonathan Ross stated that \"if you want to catch a wildly original and super-cool slice of entertainment before it gets remade and ruined by the Americans, then I suggest you try hard not to miss it\" and concluded that \"it's a wildly imaginative example of just what can be achieved in a teen movie.\" In 2009, filmmaker Quentin Tarantino praised Battle Royale as the best film he had seen in the past two decades, stating that, \"If there’s any movie that’s","-30.478113653342007"],["integrated into the costume itself, increasing their realism. The animatronics were usually puppeteered by an operator with a remote control. However, their use dropped due to the advent of CGI, which was often cheaper to implement. For example, the suit used in the television series Harry and the Hendersons cost USD $1 million.\nNevertheless, despite the fluidity of CGI animals and monsters, purely visual effects are often panned, or, at least, not preferred by discerning film viewers. It is extremely difficult to mimic realistic lighting, leading to most CGI creatures and characters looking obviously fake when placed alongside real environments, especially","-30.452699988047243"],["stunt-fighting. That's a whole other thing. I'm not really punching out the stunt guy, nor are they hitting me, so it's learning this dance, really, within the fight. It's how to pull back, how to take a hit and make it look real. \nAs with many Marvel projects, secrecy was a big issue. For instance, it was a challenge keeping Samuel L. Jackson's cameo in \"0-8-4\" a surprise due to \"this age of tweets and spoilers\". The showrunners had been exposed to this while working on The Avengers, but with their own series they were able to see \"all","-30.441489335729102"],["quality\", though fans will likely forgive its faults, as they did the first film. Leydon, though describing it as \"a patchwork quilt of outtakes from its four predecessors\", also cited the appeal to fans to revisit their favorite characters. Though recognizing the film's narrative weakness, Michele Galgana of Screen Anarchy wrote, \"Still, it's impossible to overlook the fun that you see all these guys having, and their hearts are all in the right place.\"\nSimon Abrams of Roger Ebert.com gave the film two and a half stars saying the \"CGI-intensive action scenes are distractingly ugly-looking. The camerawork is also","-30.434157461288123"],["feeling in battles. If they had gone with a more traditional battle system, then it would have quickly lost its cinematic quality due to the prevalence of close combat. Likewise, they wanted the cinematic feel to persist throughout the whole game rather than restricted to cutscenes. A major challenge was to strike a balance between accessibility and difficulty when developing for a player base that might be made of up of both action game and RPG players. This resulted in the addition of strategy elements. Another wish was to create something new and fresh in the RPG market. When creating","-30.335225766029907"],["same situation\", but wrote that Battle Royale gives \"even harder choices for its school-uniformed characters.\" He concluded that, \"Some will be uncomfortable or appalled, and the mix of humour and horror is uneasy, but this isn't a film you'll forget easily. And, seriously, what would you do?\"\nThe Guardian critic Peter Bradshaw gave the film four stars in September 2001, choosing it as the best film of the week. He praised Takeshi Kitano's performance as the teacher and some of the scenes as \"a stunningly proficient piece of action film-making, plunging us into a world of delirium and fear.\" He notes","-30.32975239092775"],["Martial arts film Martial arts films are a subgenre of action films, which feature numerous martial arts fights between characters. These fights are usually the films' primary appeal and entertainment value, and often are a method of storytelling and character expression and development. Martial arts are frequently featured in training scenes and other sequences in addition to fights. Martial arts films commonly include other types of action, such as hand-to-hand combat, stuntwork, chases, and gunfights. History As with other action films, martial arts films are dominated by action to varying degrees; many martial arts films have only a minimal plot","-30.307598700957897"],["noted \"there's an impressive degree of variation and anthropological detail in the weaponry and fighting techniques, from the numerous implied decapitations (the Seediq's chief m.o.) to the guerrilla assaults in the tropical terrain they know so well.\" Chang however criticized the film's use of special effects as \"generally substandard throughout\" and writes the \"occasional shots of CGI rainbows -- that title is unfortunately literal -- send the film momentarily spiraling into camp.\"\nDeborah Young of The Hollywood Reporter describes the film as \"stunning to look at, authentic to a fault and a little tedious to follow\", and praised the action","-30.29024855280295"],["the special effects. That’s what we've been doing for 50 years. And that’s why Hollywood doesn’t do it. So on the first meeting, I told everybody that we stick to the special effects, and the live action instead of CGI. So it’s a CGI-monster-Hollywood Godzilla versus our man-made live-action monsters.\"\nFilming included on-location shooting in New York City and Sydney, Australia. Music The film's soundtrack was composed by Keith Emerson, Nobuhiko Morino, and Daisuke Yano. It features the song We're All to Blame by Sum 41 during the battle between Godzilla and Zilla. The band was billed in the opening credits.","-30.27120660644141"],["gun play and a surprising array of stunts including deep water scuba shoots, sky diving, and some military fighter action,\" with \"an array of interesting characters,\" and concluded that it was \"a respectable independent action film with elements of sci-fi and horror thrown in.\"\nNic Baisley of Film Snobbery wrote \"The fairly wide variety of locations used in the movie also add that sense of realism to the story that is generally left out in some films. The use of multiple locations adds a lot of free production value to an otherwise obviously low-budget film. Other things in this film that","-30.22338949733239"],["depicted extensive battle scenes with hundreds of characters. By using the rotoscope, Bakshi could trace highly complex scenes from live-action footage and transform them into animation, thereby taking advantage of the complexity live-action film can capture without incurring the exorbitant costs of producing a live-action film.\"\nI was told that at Disney the actor was told to play it like a cartoon with all that exaggeration. In Lord of the Rings, I had the actors play it straight. The rotoscope in the past has been used in scenes and then exaggerated. The action becomes cartoony. The question then comes up that","-30.184578696731478"],["another reviewer of Anime News Network, said that the film's pace is \"anything but smooth\" and that the battles are \"cobbled together\". She commented that the film is \"syrupy good fun\" for those who are fans of the series, but noted that for non-fans it will hold only \"limited appeal\". Although Todd Douglass Jr. of DVD talk said that \"you really have to be affirmed in One Piece lore in order to full [sic] appreciate [it]\" and commented that it felt \"incomplete and unbalanced\", he still recommended the film, stating that it is \"short on story but ... a","-30.17354126223654"],["moves and just a general feel that we thought we could infuse the movie with. You know, that kind of bone crunch where you really feel the impact. We tried to bring that into the movie, which is also good for 3D because obviously 3D makes it harder to sell those kind of fake phony punches because you see the distance between the fist and the face. So that kind of Thai style of fighting where you actually make contact is a lot stronger.\" Casting Returning from the previous film are: Milla Jovovich as Alice, Sienna Guillory (Jill Valentine) and","-30.13698235987249"],["were the only two of the main actors who participated in the shoot. However, the main problem with filming in Moscow was of the 30 plus degree heat, and the actors had to wear winter coats because the episodes were set during the colder months. Stunts The producers allow the cast to perform many of their own stunts. In filming fight sequences, they were carefully choreographed beforehand so the actors could participate themselves. The guns featured on the series are real. In scenes where guns are included, an armourer is on hand throughout the entirety of the sequence to see","-30.125845067203045"],["development, fearing it would be difficult to achieve in a film. In earlier scripts, there were more scenes involving the pirates and mermaids that were similar to those with the dwarfs in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Ultimately, these scenes were cut for pacing reasons. The film concept was also a bit darker at one point than that of the finished product; for example, there were scenes involving Captain Hook being killed by the crocodile, the Darling family mourning over their lost children and Pan and the children discovering the pirates' treasure loaded with booby traps. Live-action reference As","-30.116933636811154"],["out of 5, writing, \"Duvall gives his best performance in ages\" in a \"tough, muscular, satisfying movie\".\nIn particular, the gun fighting scenes were intentionally filmed in giant wide shots and were praised for their intense realism by a number of critics and yet were the reason the film earned an R Rating. Kevin Carr of FilmThreat.com said on the gun action in Open Range: \"After The Matrix redefined action in the late 1990s, every crummy action sequence tries to repeat the power of 'bullet time' often with little success. The action in Open Range is filmed real time, grabbing the","-30.05742484048824"],["these kinds of films from that era, while viewers who aren’t into martial arts efforts or weren’t fans of the original should heed caution.\"","-30.042547955628834"],["British Columbia. The crew used two cameras simultaneously for each scene, which allowed for two different angles to be filmed of the same sequence. The series usually has a dark atmosphere, though production purposefully created a contrasting appearance for certain episodes. \"Hollywood Babylon\" details the filming of a fake horror movie, and the use of two filming styles helped make a distinction; scenes of the fake film used more saturated colors, while scenes for the actual episode were \"down to reality\". To depict the perfect world of \"What Is and What Should Never Be\", the usual shadows and \"moody lighting\"","-30.04214483582473"],["in that version of the script. So it becomes a kind of assembly line of changing actors. You shoot a master shot and then you shoot all three or five versions of however many characters there are. When you do the close-ups, the cast always have to be on call because even if they’ve been killed off, they have to survive in at least one version. It frankly can get a little wearying – you can get very easily confused as a director as to where you are in any given scene. When the writer, Richard C Matheson, wrote the","-30.023006587958662"],["Kinberg was considered as a replacement. Later that month, it was announced that Chris Weitz had signed to write the script for the film. In March 2015, the title was announced.\nEdwards stated that the style of the film would be similar to that of a war film, stating, \"It's the reality of war. Good guys are bad. Bad guys are good. It's complicated, layered; a very rich scenario in which to set a movie.\" Assuming that Disney would not allow a dark ending, Edwards had the main characters surviving in the original version of the script, but the producers opted","-30.02140762041381"],["Andy Whitfield says that some fight scenes were rehearsed for only \"three minutes before the cameras rolled.\" The hallway fight between Gabriel and Asmodeus was an example of this; the actors learned and executed a 98-move fight sequence in only an hour. Abbess states that stunt co-ordinator Kyle Rowling was \"instrumental\" to the quality of the action scenes. Post-production The first cut of Gabriel was \"self indulgent\" and three hours long. This version was screened for some executives in Hollywood who recommended that film be cut down to under two hours \"because we're an MTV audience these days.\" In mid-2006","-30.015651566704037"],["cascading unrelated scenarios, poor lighting and automatic dialogue replacement, cheap camera angles, and scratches; to make it look like an old film. But critics thought had Roden used 35mm instead of a digital camera, it could've been something else rather than making it look like a second rate copycat of Blairwitch, which failed to have extensive screenings and international distribution.\nHowever, Roden opined it was experimental. Showing a collection of scary scenes patterned from old school Filipino horror movies was the best of its intention. Audience focusing on the characters relation to the story in the movie itself was never recommended","-30.015526947856415"],["Twister, Pompeii, San Andreas, Into the Storm, The 5th Wave, and The Hurricane Heist. Martial arts A subgenre of the action film, martial arts films contain numerous hand-to-hand combats between characters. They are usually the films' primary appeal and entertainment value and are often the method of storytelling, character expression, and development. Martial arts films contain many characters who are martial artists. These roles are often played by actors who are real martial artists. If not, actors usually fervently train in preparation for their roles. Another method of going around this issue is that the action director may","-29.90719816616911"],["scene utilised music and other technical enhancements, Pothan wanted the climactic fight to look more natural: \"I felt it would be better to film it without its cinematic nature. To be able to relate to the scene, it had to look natural. Fahadh and Sujith had a tough time while shooting\". The scene was filmed in four days on muddy grounds near the Cheruthoni and Idukki Dams. The film's appooppan thadi (milkweeds) were artificial; about 1,000 were made from lightweight materials. In a scene where Crispin cuts them down, most blew upward like real milkweeds and the scene had to","-29.8940295385255"],["reality, but it would have kind of this heightened sense of craziness – even to which genres we were picking, which was a split hybrid between Elvis movies and the World War II movies.\nDavid Zucker said they had been working on the script since Airplane! \"but we just couldn't figure out how to do it. We made repeated attempts to combine a rock and roll movie with a World War II movie but it was very difficult to do... We already had ideas for scenes we wanted to do and we tried to fit in plot around those scenes\". A","-29.878300648124423"],["days. That kind of thing doesn’t happen, and we fully understood why. Most films don’t call for heavy effects makeup, 75% night shoots, remote locations, living animals, bitter cold, shooting in water, gunshots, driving stunts...and child actors. Add an extremely low budget and 12 days of shooting on top of all of that. It’s pure madness\".\nThough the events of the film are completely fictional, Sims loosely based the characters of \"D\" and \"Frank\" off of himself and his grandfather who took him hunting as a child, and while the film takes place in a distinct cultural part of Arkansas, five","-29.874299548813724"],["the well-designed action sequences are crisp, relevant and lack the fun element that was noticed in the previous Chhota Bheem editions. The dialogues too sound bland and unimpressive.\nVisually, the film is brilliantly mounted. Each frame is colourful and appealing and the voices of the ace cast are matched perfectly. The animation, along with the 3D effects, are spectacular with all characters faithfully created, appealing to look at and truly vivacious except for the wispy pink dragon which seems more out of place in this cinematic universe.\nOverall, for a theatre released film, fatigue seems to be setting into this series.","-29.85530935567749"],["a higher visual quality than the original release, is 25 minutes longer than the original cut of the film, and also contains roughly one thousand revised scenes. Themes expanded in Advent Children Complete include Cloud's development, Denzel's background, and a more in-depth view of the Turks and Rufus Shinra. The film's staff wanted to add links to the other titles in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII that had been released since the original film. There is more violence in this version, specifically more blood during the fights, as the staff wanted to bring a \"dirtier\" look to the film,","-29.849763266196533"],["the tension (horror movies almost always play as comedies). With Survive! though, the audience tends to be a little more sober, a little more thoughtful. Maybe that's because we realize that underlying this rather dumb, uninspired, even crude film is a true story of such compelling power that we're forced to think and respond.\"","-29.833651225926587"],["for the portrayal of characters.\nSome movie tie-in games, such as Electronic Arts' The Lord of the Rings and Star Wars games, have also extensively used film footage and other assets from the film production in their cutscenes. Another movie tie-in, Enter the Matrix, used film footage shot concurrently with The Matrix Reloaded that was also directed by the film's directors, the Wachowskis. Pre-rendered cutscenes Pre-rendered cutscenes are animated and rendered by the game's developers, and take advantage of the full array of techniques of CGI, cel animation or graphic novel-style panel art. Like live-action shoots, pre-rendered cutscenes are often presented","-29.810609714506427"],["of Culture.\nFilming took place between October 2009 and February 2010, as the weather conditions allowed, both in Bangkok and the northeast of Thailand, Isan. The movie was shot with 16 mm film instead of digital video both for budgetary reasons and to give the film a look similar to that of classic Thai cinema.\nI was old enough to catch the television shows that used to be shot on 16 mm film. They were done in studio with strong, direct lighting. The lines were whispered to the actors, who mechanically repeated them. The monsters were always in the dark to hide the","-29.803297960039345"],["animation to tape before being shipped back to the United States.\nDirector David Silverman said that unlike the TV series where \"you [have] to pick and choose\", the film gave them the opportunity to \"lavish that attention [on] every single scene\". The characters have shadows, unlike in the show. Silverman and the animators looked to films such as The Incredibles, The Triplets of Belleville, and Bad Day at Black Rock for inspiration, as they were \"a great education in staging because of how the characters are placed\". They also looked for ideas for a dream sequence, in Disney films such as","-29.798536884598434"],["The King of Fighters franchise, comparing it favourably in contrast to the live-action film that received negative reviews. IGN France reviewer was disappointed by the first three episodes, citing varying quality of graphics and his opinion inadequate sound, even as he enjoyed the mix of action and Chinese humor. The series was well received in China, winning the China Games Billboard 2018 award for most popular game-based animation.","-29.795927413520985"],["main battle sequence taking place in the same area, and thus sought to remedy this by lowering ticket prices. Critical reaction The film received mainly mixed reviews. Monster Zero called the film \"a curiously uninvolving effort\" that \"disappoints in nearly all aspects of the production\". American Kaiju criticized the \"wildly uneven pacing\", \"uneven special effects\", and \"exceedingly lumpy story\", but added that \"most of the special effects are pretty fair\" and \"the monster battles are mostly fun.\" DVD Cult said, \"It does have some great destruction scenes and monster battles; two things that make these films worthwhile to begin with.","-29.77571939813606"],["as a sequel because the films and themes they have picked are relatable. However, lack of freshness can reduce this franchise to a formula too.\"","-29.772930413135327"],["the Western genre, spy-movies, as well as urban-action films, were starting to parody themselves, and with the growing revolution in CGI (computer generated imagery), the \"real-world\" settings began to give way to increasingly fantastic environments. This new era of action films often had budgets unlike any in the history of motion pictures. The success of the many Dirty Harry and James Bond sequels had proven that a single successful action film could lead to a continuing action franchise. Thus, the 1980s and 1990s saw a rise in both budgets and the number of sequels a film could generally have. This","-29.767828550102422"],["Because of the expanded budget, Zemeckis told the screenwriters to rewrite their script, because \"there is nothing that you could write that would cost me more than a million dollars per minute to film. Go wild!\" In particular, the entire fight with the dragon was rewritten from a talky confrontation to a battle spanning the cliffs and the sea. Animation Sony Pictures Imageworks created the animation for the film with visual effects supervisor Jerome Chen overseeing creative and technical development for the project. Animation supervisor Kenn MacDonald explained that Zemeckis used motion capture because \"Even though it feels like live","-29.729710110623273"],["yet but we'll put the action in later. Because that's us animating the characters to the camera. So we would do that animation with the characters—grappling, punching or flying away—and we would take the real guys up until the point until they were supposed to do that and we'd cut. Then we'd put an environment camera there and take the environment. And then a camera for reference of the actors and get each moment. So then we had a set of high-res stills for the environment and the characters. Then, in post, we take the digi-doubles and animate them according","-29.72579803253757"],["entries in the series. Still, the filmmakers and actors are clearly dedicated to making a quality product, avoiding the complacency that often plagues action sequels.\" Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, saying: \"Moments after Dom has gone rogue and apparently wants to kill them, they're making jokes. As they're racing through the streets of New York City or skidding along the ice in Russia, killing bad guys and narrowly avoiding getting killed themselves, they're crackin' wise. Even within this ludicrous universe, it's jarring to hear these supposedly smart folks, who refer to","-29.696285424859525"],["wartime films had been largely forgotten, as \"losers do not get reruns\", yet they were so subtle and skilful that Frank Capra thought Chocolate and Soldiers unbeatable. Heroes were typically low-ranking officers, not samurai, calmly devoted to his men and his country. These films did not personalise the enemy and therefore lacked hatred, though Great Britain could figure as the \"cultural enemy\". For Japanese film-makers, war was not a cause but more like a natural disaster, and \"what mattered was not whom one fought but how well\". Asian enemies, especially the Chinese, were often portrayed as redeemable and even possible","-29.67556449829135"],["rehearsed everyday from 3 am to 7 am before they were filmed. A team of 250 stuntmen and 5,000 extras were used for all the battle scenes, which were filmed for 20–30 days at a stretch. Ashutosh wanted the climax to be perfect because of which the extras, who were people from nearby villages and were used for Akbar's and Hussain's armies, would often get tired standing in the same position for an entire day. Some of them would not be present the next day. As a result, Dewan placed the 250 stuntmen in the front rows of both armies","-29.661142499709968"],["than a realistic one. He also felt it should not look like the popular Pixar movies such as The Incredibles, because he wanted the film and characters to have its own unique style. Lucas also decided to create the animated film and series from a live-action perspective, which Winder said set it apart from other CGI films. Essentially, it \"meant using long camera shots, aggressive lighting techniques, and relying on editing instead of storyboards.\" Animators also reviewed designs from the original 2003 Clone Wars series when creating the animation style for the film and the new series. In charge was","-29.65704529589857"],["several times so that the fight in the projection box corresponds with the fight on the screen. Kent is knocked out, and the film is a huge success. Background Hercules Returns is a screen adaptation of the popular Australian live comedy show Double Take, conceived and performed by Des Mangan with Sally Patience. The Double Take show, which began in Sydney in 1986, is part of the \"dub parody\" genre, in which ostensibly serious films are deliberately re-voiced in a satirical or spoof manner. Well-known examples of this genre include the 1960s Jay Ward TV series Fractured Flickers and Woody","-29.652417870267527"],["is an age-old revenge tale that offers nothing new and so, the proceedings are predictable, most of the time.\" The Hindu wrote \"The screenplay is Arjun's. So is the direction. And the action hero thrills his fans with stunts aplenty. Yet fights alone, however well choreographed, cannot make a film watchable. You need a well-narrated story — something \"Ezhumalai\" lacks. Most of the time action waits for no reason and seems to need no logic.\" Sify wrote that \"the film caters strictly to the frontbenchers\".","-29.649987218632305"],["same amount of shooting time so \"the scope of it is much bigger. It's set in a period, there are more actors involved, the scale's bigger, there are three fight scenes—we've never had that in any of [the previous One-Shots].\" Atwell agreed to the project after watching Item 47, and due to her love for the character and potential \"to show off some of her skill sets\" that were not seen in the film. Atwell worked for three days with the stunt team to rehearse the pre-choreographed fight sequences for the short. D'Esposito elaborated on the decision to focus on","-29.649572524998803"],["stars and wrote, \"If you like the genre check this out; it's a refreshing take on an old storyline that's surprisingly entertaining and smart.\" Gordon Sullivan of DVD Verdict wrote, \"Though it has some good ideas—having actors play themselves, tying the film into the real world, making zombies slightly less threatening, and making a zombie film with \"real\" zombies—these additions to the formula aren't utilized effectively.\"","-29.648969165224116"],["audience and showing them that when this kind of stuff happens in real life, it happens faster than you think it would.\" A review on Moviola stated that the film has \"one of the most exciting final gunfights ever filmed\". IGN, USA Today, Total Film and Guns & Ammo all also say the shootout scene is one of the best of all time. Awards The film won the 2004 Western Heritage Award, and was nominated for a Golden Satellite Award, an MTV Movie Award (Diego Luna), a Motion Picture Sound Editors Award as well as a Taurus Award for stunt","-29.63782918083598"],["the 1970s. The film production retains many aspects from the stage version such as production design and music, but adds new scenes not featured in the original stage play. The film's plot, setting, and style echo those of the Hammer Horror films, which had their own instantly recognizable style (just as Universal Studios' horror films did). The originally proposed opening sequence was to contain clips of various films mentioned in the lyrics, as well as the first few sequences shot in black and white, but this was deemed too expensive and scrapped. Costumes, make-up, and props In the stage productions,","-29.61884576990269"],["control the camera. Filmmakers are often encouraged to follow traditional cinematic conventions, such as avoiding wide fields of view, the overuse of slow motion, and errors in visual continuity. Unlike live action, machinima involves less expensive, digital special effects and sets, possibly with a science-fiction or historical theme. Explosions and stunts can be tried and repeated without monetary cost and risk of injury, and the host environment may allow unrealistic physical constraints. University of Cambridge experiments in 2002 and 2003 attempted to use machinima to re-create a scene from the 1942 live-action film Casablanca. Machinima filming differed from traditional cinematography","-29.589435738576867"],["is a flawed but mildly entertaining regurgitation of Greek mythological elements, but it's also an example of how poorly executed 3D can hamstring a would-be spectacle.\nPeter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film 1 star out of four, stating \"The film is a sham, with good actors going for the paycheck and using beards and heavy makeup to hide their shame.\" In a review for the Chicago Tribune, Turan complained that the film is worse in 3D; he went on further to explain that the action scenes are \"more of a distraction than an enhancement\", with the battle scenes being","-29.586786741554533"],["way to portray characters battling through the use of their thoughts; Carroll also enjoyed the use of \"Di-Swords\" in action scenes, but thought that it occurred too rarely. Beveridge similarly liked the detailed visuals for the special abilities some characters use. Santos and Carroll both disliked the character designs, calling them bland and stereotypical; Beveridge, however, liked them, and appreciated their \"solid feel\". Santos, Carroll and Meek disliked the animation, with the former two citing off-model characters, frozen crowds, static conversation scenes and a lack of fluidity, and Meek calling it \"a black mark on Madhouse's usually stellar record\". Rose,","-29.58635965862777"],["from Shelob to the cave troll to have more realistic size, proportions, and shapes. For some scenes, such as the crossing of the Bridge of Khazad-dûm as it collapses, the entire cast was replaced for a few seconds by digital doubles; the laser scanning technology helped make these doubles look like the real characters/actors.\nAlso, a motion capture demonstration was created by the HITLabNZ, in which visitors wielding colored foam weapons could move against a green screen and watch an Orc, Elf, or Gondorian Soldier move the same way they did. In the making of the films, especially for the motion","-29.58505710686586"],["film's better moments \"don't merely balance out the weaker ones—they topple them.\" Colin Kennedy of Empire magazine said that despite problems with pacing and writing, \"there is still much pleasure to be had watching our full-blown Jedi guides in action.\" He praised the visuals and Liam Neeson's performance, and said that the duel between Darth Maul and the Jedi was \"the saga's very best lightsaber battle\".\nEmpire magazine ranked The Phantom Menace on its list of \"500 Greatest Movies of All Time\", while Entertainment Weekly and Comcast included the film on their lists of the worst movie sequels. James Berardinelli wrote,","-29.57568359276047"],["to skirt legal trouble and yet ride on the publicity of major blockbusters. Until the Hobbit case, mockbuster production houses have been able to achieve soundalike titling to such an extent that even actors in the movies have been confused about which movie they are starring in. Some actors starring in the original have gone on to become fans of the mockbuster model. Kel Mitchell was the star in the mockbuster Battle of Los Angeles, the mockbuster to the original Battle: Los Angeles. His friend was in the original and they began promoting both movies together. Kel has since then","-29.563930910968338"],["Movie Battles Gameplay Movie Battles II is a team based shooter game, in which the player joins the Imperial/Separatist forces or the Rebel/Republic forces. Both teams usually have objectives which can be completed to win the round. The player also gets a number of points which he can spend on upgrades for his character. Any players who are killed before the end of the round become spectators. They may follow certain players who are still alive or free-roam in the spectator cam, similar to other first-person shooters, such as Battlefield 2.\nThe lightsaber combat in Movie Battles is changed from the","-29.547989975166274"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"\\\"cinematic\\\" style, reminiscent of the way the fights in the other Rocky films were shot. However, unlike the other films in the series, the fight is less choreographed and more improvised than previous installments and is closer to an actual boxing match than a choreographed fight. This is a departure from the previous films, where every punch, feint, and step was carefully scripted and practiced.\\nAccording to the behind-the-scenes documentary portions of the film's DVD, there were slight continuity problems during the filming of the fight. This was said to have been due to the fact that real punches were thrown\",\n \"-36.1706942114979\"\n ],\n [\n \"taken into account. Despite these concerns, he opined that it was a \\\"great reason to go to the movies because it's an experience you just can't recreate on an iPhone or a laptop.\\\" In some sequences the image shows a fine mesh pattern and some blurring. That is not interference or a production fault, but indicates that that sequence is a flashback and to simulate an older form of video representation technology. Stunt work on the film was designed and coordinated by 87Eleven, who also designed and trained fight sequences for 300 and Watchmen. Olivia Wilde described it as an\",\n \"-34.522929406768526\"\n ],\n [\n \"Some reenactment battles take the form of a competition, where the two \\\"armies\\\" try to defeat each other within the actions permitted by the combat rules.\\nBattles in film are not inhibited by such restrictions, due to the possibilities of cutting and closeup. They are fully choreographed, and are not performed in a single go but divided into individual sequences. Combat as interactive martial art The Society for Creative Anachronism fighting is based on Medieval fighting on foot, in the spirit of tournament fighting with wooden swords. The armor is handmade and based on historical artifacts. Unlike most reenactment events, the\",\n \"-34.41608870148775\"\n ],\n [\n \"of professional stunt crews in the past. However, reactions to action films containing significant amounts of CGI have been mixed, as films that use computer animations to create unrealistic, highly unbelievable events are often met with criticism. While action has long been a recurring component in films, the \\\"action film\\\" genre began to develop in the 1970s along with the increase of stunts and special effects. Common action scenes in films are generally, but not limited to, explosions, car chases, fistfights, and shootouts.\\nThis genre is closely associated with the thriller and adventure genres, and they may also contain elements of\",\n \"-33.301571141353634\"\n ],\n [\n \"set pieces as \\\"spectacular, almost non-stop sequence of grisly hand-to-hand combat scenes\\\" and \\\"No martial arts here, but skillfully realistic fighting with spears and machetes, guns and cannons, which spare no one.\\\" However Young also states that \\\"no matter how ingeniously it is varied, the non-stop fighting becomes oppressive in the long run\\\" and the film's best scenes are in its \\\"quieter moments\\\". Alan Harris gave the film three out of five stars and states \\\"This is an extremely bloodthirsty film, with more beheadings than any other movie I can name, and scenes of carnage for most of its two\",\n \"-32.91581798729021\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Europe. But because of the movie's limited budget, the director moved the movie to Thailand, where it's cheaper to shoot. They used CGI to add the sand around Horus's city, which is supposed to be in a desert.\\nThey had 400 extras for the battle scenes, but most of the fighting was done with the main cast plus just 12 stunt men, who played multiple roles in different costumes so they could be in all of the battles. The rest of the extras weren't trained to fight, so they stayed in the background, and careful observers can\",\n \"-32.87722360575026\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the characters, including Bahamut itself, took the staff a long time to complete in order to give the scene a sense of flow. Nomura stated that the team decided not to worry about making the fight sequences realistic, as they felt this would restrict their ability to give the film a \\\"cool look\\\". Therefore, they worked by creating their \\\"own rules.\\\" Motion capture was used for many of the film's battle scenes; maneuvers that were not physically possible for live actors to perform were constructed digitally.\\nWhile designing the characters, the staff discovered that it was impossible to directly translate\",\n \"-32.581151016405784\"\n ],\n [\n \"moments, but that the \\\"comedic moments were not only funny but also true to the series, and the fight scenes were excellent one and all.\\\" He particularly praised the animation as the best of the series, due to technological advancements since the early 1990s, and declared that the highlight of the movie was how in the end the villain was undoubtedly the winner over Goku in a \\\"complete reversal of the standard DBZ formula\\\". Otaku USA's Matt Schley agreed that it is a comedy heavy film \\\"more reminiscent of the original Dragon Ball than Z\\\". He speculates that the viewer's\",\n \"-32.30481983581558\"\n ],\n [\n \"and amount of character development and focus almost exclusively on the action, while other martial arts films have more creative and complex plots and characters along with action scenes. Films of the latter type are generally considered to be artistically superior films, but many films of the former type are commercially successful and well received by fans of the genre. One of the earliest Hollywood movies to employ the use of martial arts was the 1955 film Bad Day at Black Rock.\\nMartial arts films contain many characters who are martial artists and these roles are often played by actors who\",\n \"-32.04366241057869\"\n ],\n [\n \"many clips from the film, just stills taken from specific scenes. Why would they do this when all other movie-based games use real-time sequences, if not actual clips from the film? […] This could come as a disappointment to players expecting to re-live the movie's magic through a game. During the gameplay, you'll be entertained by amusing dialogue, but the still picture movie sequences are a bore.\\\" Bedigian concluded that young children would enjoy the game, except for \\\"the frustration\\\" of its driving levels due to its controls, which he wrote, \\\"aren't very accurate, causing a lot of unnecessary screw\",\n \"-31.94440648291493\"\n ],\n [\n \"classic action movies, it was criticized for the lack of variety in gameplay and challenges and for quickly becoming repetitive.\",\n \"-31.875516818021424\"\n ],\n [\n \"movies similar to Battles, but always turned them down wanting to move on to films he found interesting.\\nAmerican director William Friedkin stated that Fukasaku's trait of never redeeming bad characters and not catering to have the good guys win in the end was a \\\"profound influence\\\" on himself. He went on to claim that this is something one cannot do today in American films.\\nA restored version of the film, from a 4K 35mm print original negative to 2K digital by Toei Labo Tech, was screened at the Cannes Classics section of the 2015 Cannes Film Festival.\",\n \"-31.841245589457685\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the use of CGI in the film as well as planning the scenes via storyboarding, insisting on shooting the scenes right away. In a separate interview, however, Miike said that some CGI were used, albeit minimal. Over half of the thirteen actors playing the assassins were reportedly inexperienced in sword fighting and horseback riding, and Miike wanted them to be just that, explaining, \\\"If the actors had been skilled from the beginning, and had been in several samurai movies before, the way they approached the action would've been different; they probably would've ended up being something they were doing\",\n \"-31.827273663016967\"\n ],\n [\n \"medium-budget genre movie, it also fused with tent-pole pictures in other genres. For example, 2009's Star Trek had several science fiction tropes and concepts like time travel through a black hole. However, most of the film was structured around action sequences, many of them quite conventional (hand-to-hand, shooting). While the original Star Wars featured some of this kind of fighting, there was just as much emphasis on star-ship chases and dogfights in outer space. The newer films featured more lightsaber duels, sometimes more intense and acrobatic than the originals. Some fan films also have similar duel scenes like those the\",\n \"-31.692095092570526\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the writing and much less reliance on CG and film speed trickery to make the fights seem flashier (and faker). There are just too many little things that feel off for the big, eye-catching things to really stay with you.\\\"\\nThe Sci-Fi Movie Page awarded the film two stars out of five. Film critic Tim Janson stated: \\\"First time Director Aleksander Bach makes the mistake in thinking that more characters with special abilities makes for a better film. Unfortunately this is not the case. There’s little attempt at developing any of the characters as more than one-dimensional cutouts.\\\" Future In\",\n \"-31.627385232988672\"\n ],\n [\n \"memory. A show which involves fight choreography will typically be trained and supervised by a professional fight choreographer and may also include a fight captain, who runs fight calls and ensures that actors are remaining safe throughout the duration of the show.\\nThe fighting styles in movies set in the Medieval or Renaissance period may be unrealistic and historically inaccurate. Most fight choreographers use a mix between Asian martial arts and sports fencing to re-enact fight scenes. This generally due to the look of the fighting asked for by the director. If the director wants the story to flow a certain\",\n \"-31.526369698425697\"\n ],\n [\n \"sequence to the previous one by saying, \\\"I don't think any one of these versions is going to be better or worse than the other. They're just going to be different. This particular one was in a smaller room, so it was a little bit more complicated.\\\" The sequence, which took \\\"three or four hours of sprints and sprints and sprints\\\" to get right, not only accommodated the actors and camera crew in the small, \\\"intimate\\\" room, but the producers and showrunners as well, as they wished to \\\"witness the action scene unfold.\\\"\\nKevin Tancharoen noted that \\\"On shows like Daredevil\",\n \"-31.50203629079624\"\n ],\n [\n \"worse. From the movements of the characters to the visual effects - like two arrows going at each other - it looks like a pirated and outdated version of MS Paint was used to create the film.\\\" and added, \\\"The movements of the characters are awkward and jerky, making it look like the mythical heroes learned how to walk from Godzilla. The battle scenes are not only badly drawn and animated, they're also boring.\\\" and concluded, \\\"This new Mahabharata isn't so much a kid-friendly version as one made for dummies, by dummies.\\\"\\nTaran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated the film 3\",\n \"-31.455530837578408\"\n ],\n [\n \"said that \\\"I had a limit on the running time of the picture. We shot many scenes that—for a regular feature—were too tangential to keep the main story progressing properly. We thought it might be good sometime to do a longer version with these other things in, because a lot of the characters that are missing in the finished movie had been filmed. They're part of the picture, they're just not necessary for the main story.\\\" According to Lynch, had the film included these scenes, it \\\"wouldn't have been quite so dark. To me it obeyed the laws of Twin\",\n \"-31.428360277235697\"\n ],\n [\n \"attempts to make sure the actors are used as much as possible when performing fight scenes, unless the scenes are particularly dangerous. The fast shooting schedule forces Chartrand to rely on guest stars who can perform their own stunts, because of the limited time to find a \\\"good double\\\" for the actor.\\nPhysical effects were not an issue for the series regulars. Allison Mack performed her own stunts for the scene in \\\"Hothead\\\" where her character's office is set on fire, and again in \\\"Kinetic\\\", when she was cabled off and dangled 50 ft (15 m) above the ground. For \\\"Nicodemus\\\", the stunt\",\n \"-31.302914559229976\"\n ],\n [\n \"Universal and I refuse to let happen. It has always been my firm conviction that films should speak for themselves and that knowing too much about how they are made diminishes the magic of watching them.\\\" Visual effects Leterrier cited Andy Serkis' motion capture portrayals of Gollum and King Kong in The Lord of the Rings and King Kong, respectively, as the standard he was aiming for. Norton and Roth filmed 2500 takes of different movements the monsters would make (such as the Hulk's \\\"thunder claps\\\"). Phosphorescent face paint applied to the actors' faces and strobe lighting would help record\",\n \"-31.28765688959902\"\n ],\n [\n \"stuntwork. Films such as The Matrix and Mission: Impossible 2 have shown how CGI and stunts can be integrated for maximum effect. But—if for no other reason than safety—it is doubtful that the records established by Hooper and Sharky's Machine will be broken anytime soon. A new subgenre of eastern martial arts films exists which emphasize the actors performing their own stunts, deliberately using wide angles and unbroken shots to show each stunt in its entirety. Examples of actors doing their own stunts include Jackie Chan and Tony Jaa.\",\n \"-31.275716250383994\"\n ],\n [\n \"there is room to work at a safe distance. Realism in fight choreography Fight choreography can vary widely from true realism to outright fantasy depending upon the requirements of a particular production. One of the biggest reasons that theatrical fight directors often do not aim for strict realism is that the live audience could not easily follow the 'story' of the action if bodies and blades were moving in the ways trained fighters would move them. For example, a production of Cyrano de Bergerac, by Edmond Rostand, using 17th-Century rapiers, might show Cyrano making lots of circular cut attacks. But\",\n \"-31.25900618538435\"\n ],\n [\n \"to push the lighting and the environments to create the look and feel of an alternate reality.\\\" The animators that worked on the fight sequences were inspired by Hong Kong action films. Animation director Kim Ooi explains said that because of CGI they were able to \\\"push and stylize beyond the limits of live action.\\\" Imagi used Maya with Pixar's RenderMan for the production pipeline's back-end. Casting Jim Cummings was the only past TMNT actor to appear in this film, where he had previously contributed voice-work in the 1987 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles series. The film also features three voice\",\n \"-31.19206230646887\"\n ],\n [\n \"The fourth film goes too far the other way, lacking the energy of its predecessors, but regardless, the films are a lot of fun. With lashings of gore, high-quality martial arts sequences with wacky flourishes thrown in to the mix, they’ll be sure to please fans of Japanese genre movies.\\\"\",\n \"-31.19065231679997\"\n ],\n [\n \"a few sets and characters into a generation-spanning look at a society where benevolence and malevolence are so finely interwoven that it’s hard to know what to fight against.\\\" Murray found that, in 90-minute film form, it \\\"doesn’t fully work\\\"; both the beginning and end of the film were \\\"strong\\\", but in between, the film seemed padded with \\\"cheesy-looking sex and fight scenes, and with a doubling-back narrative structure\\\" that was confusing, and looked like an \\\"attempt to save money by reusing footage.\\\"\\nKevin Thomas wrote in the Los Angeles Times \\\"Many of Nikolic's concerns and motifs are familiar yet\",\n \"-31.132331298980716\"\n ],\n [\n \"degrees Fahrenheit). Abbess described this as the hardest scene to shoot. Initially intending to make Gabriel without computer-generated effects, Abbess also tried to reproduce bullet time on a low budget by using giant props on strings, though he eventually decided CGI were more successful.\\nThe style of fighting in Gabriel was intended to be a \\\"stylised version of pub brawling.\\\" Shane Abbess intended for each of Gabriel's successive fights with the Fallen to be \\\"a whole different experience,\\\" and strove to shoot each one differently. The lack of time meant there was little time for the performers to rehearse fight scenes:\",\n \"-31.088324560561887\"\n ],\n [\n \"from Day of the Dead.\\nThe film's fight sequences were influenced by Asian cinema. \\\"We watched a lot of Thai movies this time around because of the movies (Powell) has done,\\\" says Anderson. \\\"He did The Last Samurai as well. He has worked with a lot of Japanese stuntmen and he has worked with a lot of Hong Kong stuntmen. But we felt the area that hadn't been mined by western cinema much was that whole kind of high impact Thai style of fighting. So we just watched a lot of action sequences from a lot of Thai movies. There were\",\n \"-31.02040084579494\"\n ],\n [\n \"Variety called the film \\\"a technical dazzler with a surprisingly humane streak\\\", stating \\\"if They Shall Not Grow Old is head-spinning for its jolting animation of creakily shot battle scenes—tricked out with ingeniously integrated sound editing and seamlessly re-timed from 13 frames a second to 24 — its greatest revelation isn’t one of sound and fury. Rather, it's the film's faces that stick longest in the mind. Through the exhaustive transformation completed by Jackson's team, visages that were all but indistinguishably blurred in the archives take on shape, character and creases of worry, terror and occasional hilarity. In conjunction with\",\n \"-30.98420444279691\"\n ],\n [\n \"their lack of budget constraints allowing more artistic freedom to be taken with the action and effects than that seen in the feature film. Back story, inside jokes, and running gags are further flushed out in the animations than what could be used in the film.\\nA number of notable videogame voice actors have guest starred in the series as well, including Mortal Kombat's John Turk (who took over the ninja roles portrayed by Pesina), and David Humphrey, the original voice of Shadow the Hedgehog.\\nThe animations take place before the events of the movie, similar to two made-for-DVD animated prequels: Van\",\n \"-30.954377839869267\"\n ],\n [\n \"was shown, the monster was smoother and slower than in the original shot. Kaiju films also used a form of puppetry interwoven between suitmation scenes which served for shots that were physically impossible for the suit actor to perform. From the 1998 release of Godzilla, American-produced kaiju films strayed from suitmation to computer-generated imagery (CGI). In Japan, CGI and stop-motion have been increasingly used for certain special sequences and monsters, but suitmation has been used for an overwhelming majority of kaiju films produced in Japan of all eras.\",\n \"-30.94880315055343\"\n ],\n [\n \"criticism, they felt that the film's action was substandard, the fight choreography weak, and certain scenes were \\\"ruined by pretentious visual manipulation\\\". They offered that Disturbance \\\"is a good-looking movie\\\", but that its visual prowess could not hide the fact of the film's low budget. They conceded that use of color and shadow \\\"are utilized strikingly\\\" and \\\"make for good eye candy, even if they are not overly endowed with thespian qualities\\\", and offered that Paul Sloan has \\\"a magnetic presence onscreen\\\" and Hayley DuMond delivers \\\"an impressive emotional scene toward the end,\\\" and summarize that \\\"As far as low-budget\",\n \"-30.918218340048043\"\n ],\n [\n \"much \\\"filler\\\". Theron Martin of Anime News Network (ANN) praised the movie for its humor, use of main and supporting cast, the introduction of Beerus and Whis and the overall light-hearted nature and plot. But also criticized the movie for its inconsistent animation, uninspiring fight scenes and use of CGI, stating, \\\"Ultimately Battle of Gods is entirely a movie for long-established fans, as it has too many in-jokes that those not familiar with wide swaths of the franchise would get. It is not a stellar addition to the franchise but is a worthwhile and at least moderately entertaining one, provided\",\n \"-30.877822875365382\"\n ],\n [\n \"or aerial image animation cameras, which enabled more accurate positioning, and more realism into interaction of actors and fictional characters. Often, every frame of the live action film was traced by rotoscoping, so that the animator could add his drawing in the exact position. With the rise of computer animation, combining live action and animation became common. Criticism of techniques The Star Wars prequels and The Lord of the Rings trilogy, for example, include substantial amounts of animation, though this has not been critically recognized as such due to the realism of the animation. However, some critics like Roger Ebert\",\n \"-30.8528529133946\"\n ],\n [\n \" Mondo films like Faces of Death mix real and fake footage freely, and they gain their cult following through the outrage and debate over authenticity that results. Like \\\"so bad it's good\\\" cult films, old propaganda and government hygiene films may be enjoyed ironically by more modern audiences for the camp value of the outdated themes and outlandish claims made about perceived social threats, such as drug use. Academic Barry K. Grant states that Frank Capra's Why We Fight World War II propaganda films are explicitly not cult, because they are \\\"slickly made and have proven their\",\n \"-30.838211179117934\"\n ],\n [\n \"War is hardly made into any historical war films intended for entertainment use in these countries. However, reference about the ongoing war as a background setting is heavily used as a setpiece to drive the storyline on. For example, Hong Kong martial arts films have used the \\\"cartoon villain\\\" portrayal of Japanese soldiers or generals being defeated by the Chinese lead character in an attempt to stop the Japanese from using biological weapons or stealing Chinese treasures (films like Fist of Fury, Millionaire's Express and Fist of Legend). Some films that depict Japanese war crimes were also made, such as\",\n \"-30.774851558817318\"\n ],\n [\n \"may not be open to the public, are fought like real battles with each side devising strategies and tactics to defeat their opponent(s). They have no script, a basic set of agreed-upon rules (physical boundaries, time limit, victory conditions, etc.), and onsite judges or referees, and so could be considered a form of live action role-playing game. Tactical battles might also be considered a form of experimental archaeology. Reenactment and media Motion picture and television producers often turn to reenactment groups for support; films like Gettysburg, Glory and Gods and Generals benefited greatly from the input of reenactors, who arrived\",\n \"-30.70023960627441\"\n ],\n [\n \"For example, both the dead bodies of Amanda True and Randolph are shown with eyes closed in the TV episode; in the movie, their eyes are open and Randolph's death is more brutal. In some fight scenes, the movie version contains more violent images compared to the episodes (e.g., a bloody face in the London bar, greater violence in the Japanese temple). Margo De Fanzini's initial nudity is seen in both versions, but is more pronounced in the movie.\\nOther changes were made for apparently no reason other than artistic. For example: there is a scene that\",\n \"-30.635310141416994\"\n ],\n [\n \"the good fight.\\nShe later reflected:\\nHow do I think the balance between genre constraints and creative freedom influenced my work? There was always a struggle in my mind between the two. I would have covered the same topics, but made the films very differently, if I had not had these constraints. I knew it then. But I tried not to be discouraged and... I tried to do the best I could... While I do not object to violence or nudity in principle, the reason audiences came to see these low-budget films without stars was because they delivered scenes that you could\",\n \"-30.614704255596735\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Jurassic Park (1993). Since then techniques have developed to the stage that the difference between CGI and real life cinematography is seldom obvious. Filmmakers can blend both types of images seamlessly with virtual cinematography. The Matrix (1999) and it's two sequels are usually regarded as breakthrough films in this field.\\nDue to the complexity of human body functions, emotions and interactions, movies with important roles for fully 3D-animated realistic-looking human characters have been rare. The more realistic a CG character becomes, the more difficult it is to create the nuances and details of a living person, and the greater the\",\n \"-30.60453111682\"\n ],\n [\n \"out of four and wrote that it \\\"gets old fast unless you have an insatiable appetite for seeing actors beaned with salamis and butted with sabres.\\\" Gary Arnold of The Washington Post called it \\\"a lot of title for very little entertainment\\\" and a \\\"strenuous throwaway production.\\\" Linda Gross of the Los Angeles Times called it \\\"a silly, slapstick spaghetti spoof of swashbuckling adventure movies\\\" and \\\"a badly-dubbed hodge-podge\\\" which \\\"lacks a deft historical perspective so even the artful battle footage by photographer Giovanni Bergamini looks like it belongs in another kind of movie.\\\" Maurizio Cavagnaro of the Genoese newspaper\",\n \"-30.56868357177882\"\n ],\n [\n \"artists to create. Although the film was shot on highly detailed sets, visual effects and CGI was incorporated in post-production to enhance the imagery for the scenes that were impossible to shoot in live action.\\nThe effects included the creation of interior architecture, backgrounds, set extensions and war weapons; changes to lighting and time of day, weather effects and the multiplication of army soldiers. The opening night-time war scene, which had 300 visual effects shots, was filmed in bright daylight then converted into night. Arrows flying over the battlefield were created using CGI whereas the army, soldiers and horses were multiplied.\",\n \"-30.567269785591634\"\n ],\n [\n \"prequel trilogy. It was action with a science fiction twist. The trend with films such as The Matrix and The Dark Knight series, is that hand-to-hand fighting and Asian martial-arts techniques are now widely used in science fiction and superhero movies.\\nSylvester Stallone's The Expendables used nostalgia for a perceived golden age of action films by casting 1980s action stars alongside new actors in the genre such as Jason Statham.\\nIn The Fast and the Furious series, the action film staple of the car chase is the central plot driver as it had been in Smokey and the Bandit films in the\",\n \"-30.50622959903194\"\n ],\n [\n \"to film them in closeup is only one example of the total lack of talent or effort with which the picture is made...the movie is a kind of no-talent competition in which the acting, the script, the direction and the camera-work vie for last place.\\\" More recently, in more positive vein, BFI Screenonline said, \\\"Extravagant, colourful and thoroughly preposterous, At the Earth's Core is utterly without pretension but has the exuberant charm of the best of its decade.\\\" \\nThe film was featured in the season finale of the revived Mystery Science Theater 3000, the show's eleventh season overall, released on\",\n \"-30.49914972917759\"\n ],\n [\n \"present their accordant skills on the screen. Since silent movies were no proper medium for long dialogues, the classic stories about heroes who would defend their honour with sword in hand were simplified and sheer action would gain priority. This was the birth of a new kind of film hero: the swashbuckler.\\nFour of the most famous instructors for swashbuckling swordplay are William Hobbs, Anthony De Longis, Bob Anderson and Peter Diamond.\\nThe larger-than-life heroics portrayed in some film franchise adventures (most notably the Indiana Jones movies) set in the modern era have been described as swashbuckling. Film The genre has, apart\",\n \"-30.492957835223933\"\n ],\n [\n \"reality TV that turns a high-school milieu dominated by cliques and childish relationships into a war zone.\\\" British critic Jonathan Ross stated that \\\"if you want to catch a wildly original and super-cool slice of entertainment before it gets remade and ruined by the Americans, then I suggest you try hard not to miss it\\\" and concluded that \\\"it's a wildly imaginative example of just what can be achieved in a teen movie.\\\" In 2009, filmmaker Quentin Tarantino praised Battle Royale as the best film he had seen in the past two decades, stating that, \\\"If there’s any movie that’s\",\n \"-30.478113653342007\"\n ],\n [\n \"integrated into the costume itself, increasing their realism. The animatronics were usually puppeteered by an operator with a remote control. However, their use dropped due to the advent of CGI, which was often cheaper to implement. For example, the suit used in the television series Harry and the Hendersons cost USD $1 million.\\nNevertheless, despite the fluidity of CGI animals and monsters, purely visual effects are often panned, or, at least, not preferred by discerning film viewers. It is extremely difficult to mimic realistic lighting, leading to most CGI creatures and characters looking obviously fake when placed alongside real environments, especially\",\n \"-30.452699988047243\"\n ],\n [\n \"stunt-fighting. That's a whole other thing. I'm not really punching out the stunt guy, nor are they hitting me, so it's learning this dance, really, within the fight. It's how to pull back, how to take a hit and make it look real. \\nAs with many Marvel projects, secrecy was a big issue. For instance, it was a challenge keeping Samuel L. Jackson's cameo in \\\"0-8-4\\\" a surprise due to \\\"this age of tweets and spoilers\\\". The showrunners had been exposed to this while working on The Avengers, but with their own series they were able to see \\\"all\",\n \"-30.441489335729102\"\n ],\n [\n \"quality\\\", though fans will likely forgive its faults, as they did the first film. Leydon, though describing it as \\\"a patchwork quilt of outtakes from its four predecessors\\\", also cited the appeal to fans to revisit their favorite characters. Though recognizing the film's narrative weakness, Michele Galgana of Screen Anarchy wrote, \\\"Still, it's impossible to overlook the fun that you see all these guys having, and their hearts are all in the right place.\\\"\\nSimon Abrams of Roger Ebert.com gave the film two and a half stars saying the \\\"CGI-intensive action scenes are distractingly ugly-looking. The camerawork is also\",\n \"-30.434157461288123\"\n ],\n [\n \"feeling in battles. If they had gone with a more traditional battle system, then it would have quickly lost its cinematic quality due to the prevalence of close combat. Likewise, they wanted the cinematic feel to persist throughout the whole game rather than restricted to cutscenes. A major challenge was to strike a balance between accessibility and difficulty when developing for a player base that might be made of up of both action game and RPG players. This resulted in the addition of strategy elements. Another wish was to create something new and fresh in the RPG market. When creating\",\n \"-30.335225766029907\"\n ],\n [\n \"same situation\\\", but wrote that Battle Royale gives \\\"even harder choices for its school-uniformed characters.\\\" He concluded that, \\\"Some will be uncomfortable or appalled, and the mix of humour and horror is uneasy, but this isn't a film you'll forget easily. And, seriously, what would you do?\\\"\\nThe Guardian critic Peter Bradshaw gave the film four stars in September 2001, choosing it as the best film of the week. He praised Takeshi Kitano's performance as the teacher and some of the scenes as \\\"a stunningly proficient piece of action film-making, plunging us into a world of delirium and fear.\\\" He notes\",\n \"-30.32975239092775\"\n ],\n [\n \"Martial arts film Martial arts films are a subgenre of action films, which feature numerous martial arts fights between characters. These fights are usually the films' primary appeal and entertainment value, and often are a method of storytelling and character expression and development. Martial arts are frequently featured in training scenes and other sequences in addition to fights. Martial arts films commonly include other types of action, such as hand-to-hand combat, stuntwork, chases, and gunfights. History As with other action films, martial arts films are dominated by action to varying degrees; many martial arts films have only a minimal plot\",\n \"-30.307598700957897\"\n ],\n [\n \"noted \\\"there's an impressive degree of variation and anthropological detail in the weaponry and fighting techniques, from the numerous implied decapitations (the Seediq's chief m.o.) to the guerrilla assaults in the tropical terrain they know so well.\\\" Chang however criticized the film's use of special effects as \\\"generally substandard throughout\\\" and writes the \\\"occasional shots of CGI rainbows -- that title is unfortunately literal -- send the film momentarily spiraling into camp.\\\"\\nDeborah Young of The Hollywood Reporter describes the film as \\\"stunning to look at, authentic to a fault and a little tedious to follow\\\", and praised the action\",\n \"-30.29024855280295\"\n ],\n [\n \"the special effects. That’s what we've been doing for 50 years. And that’s why Hollywood doesn’t do it. So on the first meeting, I told everybody that we stick to the special effects, and the live action instead of CGI. So it’s a CGI-monster-Hollywood Godzilla versus our man-made live-action monsters.\\\"\\nFilming included on-location shooting in New York City and Sydney, Australia. Music The film's soundtrack was composed by Keith Emerson, Nobuhiko Morino, and Daisuke Yano. It features the song We're All to Blame by Sum 41 during the battle between Godzilla and Zilla. The band was billed in the opening credits.\",\n \"-30.27120660644141\"\n ],\n [\n \"gun play and a surprising array of stunts including deep water scuba shoots, sky diving, and some military fighter action,\\\" with \\\"an array of interesting characters,\\\" and concluded that it was \\\"a respectable independent action film with elements of sci-fi and horror thrown in.\\\"\\nNic Baisley of Film Snobbery wrote \\\"The fairly wide variety of locations used in the movie also add that sense of realism to the story that is generally left out in some films. The use of multiple locations adds a lot of free production value to an otherwise obviously low-budget film. Other things in this film that\",\n \"-30.22338949733239\"\n ],\n [\n \"depicted extensive battle scenes with hundreds of characters. By using the rotoscope, Bakshi could trace highly complex scenes from live-action footage and transform them into animation, thereby taking advantage of the complexity live-action film can capture without incurring the exorbitant costs of producing a live-action film.\\\"\\nI was told that at Disney the actor was told to play it like a cartoon with all that exaggeration. In Lord of the Rings, I had the actors play it straight. The rotoscope in the past has been used in scenes and then exaggerated. The action becomes cartoony. The question then comes up that\",\n \"-30.184578696731478\"\n ],\n [\n \"another reviewer of Anime News Network, said that the film's pace is \\\"anything but smooth\\\" and that the battles are \\\"cobbled together\\\". She commented that the film is \\\"syrupy good fun\\\" for those who are fans of the series, but noted that for non-fans it will hold only \\\"limited appeal\\\". Although Todd Douglass Jr. of DVD talk said that \\\"you really have to be affirmed in One Piece lore in order to full [sic] appreciate [it]\\\" and commented that it felt \\\"incomplete and unbalanced\\\", he still recommended the film, stating that it is \\\"short on story but ... a\",\n \"-30.17354126223654\"\n ],\n [\n \"moves and just a general feel that we thought we could infuse the movie with. You know, that kind of bone crunch where you really feel the impact. We tried to bring that into the movie, which is also good for 3D because obviously 3D makes it harder to sell those kind of fake phony punches because you see the distance between the fist and the face. So that kind of Thai style of fighting where you actually make contact is a lot stronger.\\\" Casting Returning from the previous film are: Milla Jovovich as Alice, Sienna Guillory (Jill Valentine) and\",\n \"-30.13698235987249\"\n ],\n [\n \"were the only two of the main actors who participated in the shoot. However, the main problem with filming in Moscow was of the 30 plus degree heat, and the actors had to wear winter coats because the episodes were set during the colder months. Stunts The producers allow the cast to perform many of their own stunts. In filming fight sequences, they were carefully choreographed beforehand so the actors could participate themselves. The guns featured on the series are real. In scenes where guns are included, an armourer is on hand throughout the entirety of the sequence to see\",\n \"-30.125845067203045\"\n ],\n [\n \"development, fearing it would be difficult to achieve in a film. In earlier scripts, there were more scenes involving the pirates and mermaids that were similar to those with the dwarfs in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Ultimately, these scenes were cut for pacing reasons. The film concept was also a bit darker at one point than that of the finished product; for example, there were scenes involving Captain Hook being killed by the crocodile, the Darling family mourning over their lost children and Pan and the children discovering the pirates' treasure loaded with booby traps. Live-action reference As\",\n \"-30.116933636811154\"\n ],\n [\n \"out of 5, writing, \\\"Duvall gives his best performance in ages\\\" in a \\\"tough, muscular, satisfying movie\\\".\\nIn particular, the gun fighting scenes were intentionally filmed in giant wide shots and were praised for their intense realism by a number of critics and yet were the reason the film earned an R Rating. Kevin Carr of FilmThreat.com said on the gun action in Open Range: \\\"After The Matrix redefined action in the late 1990s, every crummy action sequence tries to repeat the power of 'bullet time' often with little success. The action in Open Range is filmed real time, grabbing the\",\n \"-30.05742484048824\"\n ],\n [\n \"these kinds of films from that era, while viewers who aren’t into martial arts efforts or weren’t fans of the original should heed caution.\\\"\",\n \"-30.042547955628834\"\n ],\n [\n \"British Columbia. The crew used two cameras simultaneously for each scene, which allowed for two different angles to be filmed of the same sequence. The series usually has a dark atmosphere, though production purposefully created a contrasting appearance for certain episodes. \\\"Hollywood Babylon\\\" details the filming of a fake horror movie, and the use of two filming styles helped make a distinction; scenes of the fake film used more saturated colors, while scenes for the actual episode were \\\"down to reality\\\". To depict the perfect world of \\\"What Is and What Should Never Be\\\", the usual shadows and \\\"moody lighting\\\"\",\n \"-30.04214483582473\"\n ],\n [\n \"in that version of the script. So it becomes a kind of assembly line of changing actors. You shoot a master shot and then you shoot all three or five versions of however many characters there are. When you do the close-ups, the cast always have to be on call because even if they’ve been killed off, they have to survive in at least one version. It frankly can get a little wearying – you can get very easily confused as a director as to where you are in any given scene. When the writer, Richard C Matheson, wrote the\",\n \"-30.023006587958662\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kinberg was considered as a replacement. Later that month, it was announced that Chris Weitz had signed to write the script for the film. In March 2015, the title was announced.\\nEdwards stated that the style of the film would be similar to that of a war film, stating, \\\"It's the reality of war. Good guys are bad. Bad guys are good. It's complicated, layered; a very rich scenario in which to set a movie.\\\" Assuming that Disney would not allow a dark ending, Edwards had the main characters surviving in the original version of the script, but the producers opted\",\n \"-30.02140762041381\"\n ],\n [\n \"Andy Whitfield says that some fight scenes were rehearsed for only \\\"three minutes before the cameras rolled.\\\" The hallway fight between Gabriel and Asmodeus was an example of this; the actors learned and executed a 98-move fight sequence in only an hour. Abbess states that stunt co-ordinator Kyle Rowling was \\\"instrumental\\\" to the quality of the action scenes. Post-production The first cut of Gabriel was \\\"self indulgent\\\" and three hours long. This version was screened for some executives in Hollywood who recommended that film be cut down to under two hours \\\"because we're an MTV audience these days.\\\" In mid-2006\",\n \"-30.015651566704037\"\n ],\n [\n \"cascading unrelated scenarios, poor lighting and automatic dialogue replacement, cheap camera angles, and scratches; to make it look like an old film. But critics thought had Roden used 35mm instead of a digital camera, it could've been something else rather than making it look like a second rate copycat of Blairwitch, which failed to have extensive screenings and international distribution.\\nHowever, Roden opined it was experimental. Showing a collection of scary scenes patterned from old school Filipino horror movies was the best of its intention. Audience focusing on the characters relation to the story in the movie itself was never recommended\",\n \"-30.015526947856415\"\n ],\n [\n \"Twister, Pompeii, San Andreas, Into the Storm, The 5th Wave, and The Hurricane Heist. Martial arts A subgenre of the action film, martial arts films contain numerous hand-to-hand combats between characters. They are usually the films' primary appeal and entertainment value and are often the method of storytelling, character expression, and development. Martial arts films contain many characters who are martial artists. These roles are often played by actors who are real martial artists. If not, actors usually fervently train in preparation for their roles. Another method of going around this issue is that the action director may\",\n \"-29.90719816616911\"\n ],\n [\n \"scene utilised music and other technical enhancements, Pothan wanted the climactic fight to look more natural: \\\"I felt it would be better to film it without its cinematic nature. To be able to relate to the scene, it had to look natural. Fahadh and Sujith had a tough time while shooting\\\". The scene was filmed in four days on muddy grounds near the Cheruthoni and Idukki Dams. The film's appooppan thadi (milkweeds) were artificial; about 1,000 were made from lightweight materials. In a scene where Crispin cuts them down, most blew upward like real milkweeds and the scene had to\",\n \"-29.8940295385255\"\n ],\n [\n \"reality, but it would have kind of this heightened sense of craziness – even to which genres we were picking, which was a split hybrid between Elvis movies and the World War II movies.\\nDavid Zucker said they had been working on the script since Airplane! \\\"but we just couldn't figure out how to do it. We made repeated attempts to combine a rock and roll movie with a World War II movie but it was very difficult to do... We already had ideas for scenes we wanted to do and we tried to fit in plot around those scenes\\\". A\",\n \"-29.878300648124423\"\n ],\n [\n \"days. That kind of thing doesn’t happen, and we fully understood why. Most films don’t call for heavy effects makeup, 75% night shoots, remote locations, living animals, bitter cold, shooting in water, gunshots, driving stunts...and child actors. Add an extremely low budget and 12 days of shooting on top of all of that. It’s pure madness\\\".\\nThough the events of the film are completely fictional, Sims loosely based the characters of \\\"D\\\" and \\\"Frank\\\" off of himself and his grandfather who took him hunting as a child, and while the film takes place in a distinct cultural part of Arkansas, five\",\n \"-29.874299548813724\"\n ],\n [\n \"the well-designed action sequences are crisp, relevant and lack the fun element that was noticed in the previous Chhota Bheem editions. The dialogues too sound bland and unimpressive.\\nVisually, the film is brilliantly mounted. Each frame is colourful and appealing and the voices of the ace cast are matched perfectly. The animation, along with the 3D effects, are spectacular with all characters faithfully created, appealing to look at and truly vivacious except for the wispy pink dragon which seems more out of place in this cinematic universe.\\nOverall, for a theatre released film, fatigue seems to be setting into this series.\",\n \"-29.85530935567749\"\n ],\n [\n \"a higher visual quality than the original release, is 25 minutes longer than the original cut of the film, and also contains roughly one thousand revised scenes. Themes expanded in Advent Children Complete include Cloud's development, Denzel's background, and a more in-depth view of the Turks and Rufus Shinra. The film's staff wanted to add links to the other titles in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII that had been released since the original film. There is more violence in this version, specifically more blood during the fights, as the staff wanted to bring a \\\"dirtier\\\" look to the film,\",\n \"-29.849763266196533\"\n ],\n [\n \"the tension (horror movies almost always play as comedies). With Survive! though, the audience tends to be a little more sober, a little more thoughtful. Maybe that's because we realize that underlying this rather dumb, uninspired, even crude film is a true story of such compelling power that we're forced to think and respond.\\\"\",\n \"-29.833651225926587\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the portrayal of characters.\\nSome movie tie-in games, such as Electronic Arts' The Lord of the Rings and Star Wars games, have also extensively used film footage and other assets from the film production in their cutscenes. Another movie tie-in, Enter the Matrix, used film footage shot concurrently with The Matrix Reloaded that was also directed by the film's directors, the Wachowskis. Pre-rendered cutscenes Pre-rendered cutscenes are animated and rendered by the game's developers, and take advantage of the full array of techniques of CGI, cel animation or graphic novel-style panel art. Like live-action shoots, pre-rendered cutscenes are often presented\",\n \"-29.810609714506427\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Culture.\\nFilming took place between October 2009 and February 2010, as the weather conditions allowed, both in Bangkok and the northeast of Thailand, Isan. The movie was shot with 16 mm film instead of digital video both for budgetary reasons and to give the film a look similar to that of classic Thai cinema.\\nI was old enough to catch the television shows that used to be shot on 16 mm film. They were done in studio with strong, direct lighting. The lines were whispered to the actors, who mechanically repeated them. The monsters were always in the dark to hide the\",\n \"-29.803297960039345\"\n ],\n [\n \"animation to tape before being shipped back to the United States.\\nDirector David Silverman said that unlike the TV series where \\\"you [have] to pick and choose\\\", the film gave them the opportunity to \\\"lavish that attention [on] every single scene\\\". The characters have shadows, unlike in the show. Silverman and the animators looked to films such as The Incredibles, The Triplets of Belleville, and Bad Day at Black Rock for inspiration, as they were \\\"a great education in staging because of how the characters are placed\\\". They also looked for ideas for a dream sequence, in Disney films such as\",\n \"-29.798536884598434\"\n ],\n [\n \"The King of Fighters franchise, comparing it favourably in contrast to the live-action film that received negative reviews. IGN France reviewer was disappointed by the first three episodes, citing varying quality of graphics and his opinion inadequate sound, even as he enjoyed the mix of action and Chinese humor. The series was well received in China, winning the China Games Billboard 2018 award for most popular game-based animation.\",\n \"-29.795927413520985\"\n ],\n [\n \"main battle sequence taking place in the same area, and thus sought to remedy this by lowering ticket prices. Critical reaction The film received mainly mixed reviews. Monster Zero called the film \\\"a curiously uninvolving effort\\\" that \\\"disappoints in nearly all aspects of the production\\\". American Kaiju criticized the \\\"wildly uneven pacing\\\", \\\"uneven special effects\\\", and \\\"exceedingly lumpy story\\\", but added that \\\"most of the special effects are pretty fair\\\" and \\\"the monster battles are mostly fun.\\\" DVD Cult said, \\\"It does have some great destruction scenes and monster battles; two things that make these films worthwhile to begin with.\",\n \"-29.77571939813606\"\n ],\n [\n \"as a sequel because the films and themes they have picked are relatable. However, lack of freshness can reduce this franchise to a formula too.\\\"\",\n \"-29.772930413135327\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Western genre, spy-movies, as well as urban-action films, were starting to parody themselves, and with the growing revolution in CGI (computer generated imagery), the \\\"real-world\\\" settings began to give way to increasingly fantastic environments. This new era of action films often had budgets unlike any in the history of motion pictures. The success of the many Dirty Harry and James Bond sequels had proven that a single successful action film could lead to a continuing action franchise. Thus, the 1980s and 1990s saw a rise in both budgets and the number of sequels a film could generally have. This\",\n \"-29.767828550102422\"\n ],\n [\n \"Because of the expanded budget, Zemeckis told the screenwriters to rewrite their script, because \\\"there is nothing that you could write that would cost me more than a million dollars per minute to film. Go wild!\\\" In particular, the entire fight with the dragon was rewritten from a talky confrontation to a battle spanning the cliffs and the sea. Animation Sony Pictures Imageworks created the animation for the film with visual effects supervisor Jerome Chen overseeing creative and technical development for the project. Animation supervisor Kenn MacDonald explained that Zemeckis used motion capture because \\\"Even though it feels like live\",\n \"-29.729710110623273\"\n ],\n [\n \"yet but we'll put the action in later. Because that's us animating the characters to the camera. So we would do that animation with the characters—grappling, punching or flying away—and we would take the real guys up until the point until they were supposed to do that and we'd cut. Then we'd put an environment camera there and take the environment. And then a camera for reference of the actors and get each moment. So then we had a set of high-res stills for the environment and the characters. Then, in post, we take the digi-doubles and animate them according\",\n \"-29.72579803253757\"\n ],\n [\n \"entries in the series. Still, the filmmakers and actors are clearly dedicated to making a quality product, avoiding the complacency that often plagues action sequels.\\\" Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, saying: \\\"Moments after Dom has gone rogue and apparently wants to kill them, they're making jokes. As they're racing through the streets of New York City or skidding along the ice in Russia, killing bad guys and narrowly avoiding getting killed themselves, they're crackin' wise. Even within this ludicrous universe, it's jarring to hear these supposedly smart folks, who refer to\",\n \"-29.696285424859525\"\n ],\n [\n \"wartime films had been largely forgotten, as \\\"losers do not get reruns\\\", yet they were so subtle and skilful that Frank Capra thought Chocolate and Soldiers unbeatable. Heroes were typically low-ranking officers, not samurai, calmly devoted to his men and his country. These films did not personalise the enemy and therefore lacked hatred, though Great Britain could figure as the \\\"cultural enemy\\\". For Japanese film-makers, war was not a cause but more like a natural disaster, and \\\"what mattered was not whom one fought but how well\\\". Asian enemies, especially the Chinese, were often portrayed as redeemable and even possible\",\n \"-29.67556449829135\"\n ],\n [\n \"rehearsed everyday from 3 am to 7 am before they were filmed. A team of 250 stuntmen and 5,000 extras were used for all the battle scenes, which were filmed for 20–30 days at a stretch. Ashutosh wanted the climax to be perfect because of which the extras, who were people from nearby villages and were used for Akbar's and Hussain's armies, would often get tired standing in the same position for an entire day. Some of them would not be present the next day. As a result, Dewan placed the 250 stuntmen in the front rows of both armies\",\n \"-29.661142499709968\"\n ],\n [\n \"than a realistic one. He also felt it should not look like the popular Pixar movies such as The Incredibles, because he wanted the film and characters to have its own unique style. Lucas also decided to create the animated film and series from a live-action perspective, which Winder said set it apart from other CGI films. Essentially, it \\\"meant using long camera shots, aggressive lighting techniques, and relying on editing instead of storyboards.\\\" Animators also reviewed designs from the original 2003 Clone Wars series when creating the animation style for the film and the new series. In charge was\",\n \"-29.65704529589857\"\n ],\n [\n \"several times so that the fight in the projection box corresponds with the fight on the screen. Kent is knocked out, and the film is a huge success. Background Hercules Returns is a screen adaptation of the popular Australian live comedy show Double Take, conceived and performed by Des Mangan with Sally Patience. The Double Take show, which began in Sydney in 1986, is part of the \\\"dub parody\\\" genre, in which ostensibly serious films are deliberately re-voiced in a satirical or spoof manner. Well-known examples of this genre include the 1960s Jay Ward TV series Fractured Flickers and Woody\",\n \"-29.652417870267527\"\n ],\n [\n \"is an age-old revenge tale that offers nothing new and so, the proceedings are predictable, most of the time.\\\" The Hindu wrote \\\"The screenplay is Arjun's. So is the direction. And the action hero thrills his fans with stunts aplenty. Yet fights alone, however well choreographed, cannot make a film watchable. You need a well-narrated story — something \\\"Ezhumalai\\\" lacks. Most of the time action waits for no reason and seems to need no logic.\\\" Sify wrote that \\\"the film caters strictly to the frontbenchers\\\".\",\n \"-29.649987218632305\"\n ],\n [\n \"same amount of shooting time so \\\"the scope of it is much bigger. It's set in a period, there are more actors involved, the scale's bigger, there are three fight scenes—we've never had that in any of [the previous One-Shots].\\\" Atwell agreed to the project after watching Item 47, and due to her love for the character and potential \\\"to show off some of her skill sets\\\" that were not seen in the film. Atwell worked for three days with the stunt team to rehearse the pre-choreographed fight sequences for the short. D'Esposito elaborated on the decision to focus on\",\n \"-29.649572524998803\"\n ],\n [\n \"stars and wrote, \\\"If you like the genre check this out; it's a refreshing take on an old storyline that's surprisingly entertaining and smart.\\\" Gordon Sullivan of DVD Verdict wrote, \\\"Though it has some good ideas—having actors play themselves, tying the film into the real world, making zombies slightly less threatening, and making a zombie film with \\\"real\\\" zombies—these additions to the formula aren't utilized effectively.\\\"\",\n \"-29.648969165224116\"\n ],\n [\n \"audience and showing them that when this kind of stuff happens in real life, it happens faster than you think it would.\\\" A review on Moviola stated that the film has \\\"one of the most exciting final gunfights ever filmed\\\". IGN, USA Today, Total Film and Guns & Ammo all also say the shootout scene is one of the best of all time. Awards The film won the 2004 Western Heritage Award, and was nominated for a Golden Satellite Award, an MTV Movie Award (Diego Luna), a Motion Picture Sound Editors Award as well as a Taurus Award for stunt\",\n \"-29.63782918083598\"\n ],\n [\n \"the 1970s. The film production retains many aspects from the stage version such as production design and music, but adds new scenes not featured in the original stage play. The film's plot, setting, and style echo those of the Hammer Horror films, which had their own instantly recognizable style (just as Universal Studios' horror films did). The originally proposed opening sequence was to contain clips of various films mentioned in the lyrics, as well as the first few sequences shot in black and white, but this was deemed too expensive and scrapped. Costumes, make-up, and props In the stage productions,\",\n \"-29.61884576990269\"\n ],\n [\n \"control the camera. Filmmakers are often encouraged to follow traditional cinematic conventions, such as avoiding wide fields of view, the overuse of slow motion, and errors in visual continuity. Unlike live action, machinima involves less expensive, digital special effects and sets, possibly with a science-fiction or historical theme. Explosions and stunts can be tried and repeated without monetary cost and risk of injury, and the host environment may allow unrealistic physical constraints. University of Cambridge experiments in 2002 and 2003 attempted to use machinima to re-create a scene from the 1942 live-action film Casablanca. Machinima filming differed from traditional cinematography\",\n \"-29.589435738576867\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a flawed but mildly entertaining regurgitation of Greek mythological elements, but it's also an example of how poorly executed 3D can hamstring a would-be spectacle.\\nPeter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film 1 star out of four, stating \\\"The film is a sham, with good actors going for the paycheck and using beards and heavy makeup to hide their shame.\\\" In a review for the Chicago Tribune, Turan complained that the film is worse in 3D; he went on further to explain that the action scenes are \\\"more of a distraction than an enhancement\\\", with the battle scenes being\",\n \"-29.586786741554533\"\n ],\n [\n \"way to portray characters battling through the use of their thoughts; Carroll also enjoyed the use of \\\"Di-Swords\\\" in action scenes, but thought that it occurred too rarely. Beveridge similarly liked the detailed visuals for the special abilities some characters use. Santos and Carroll both disliked the character designs, calling them bland and stereotypical; Beveridge, however, liked them, and appreciated their \\\"solid feel\\\". Santos, Carroll and Meek disliked the animation, with the former two citing off-model characters, frozen crowds, static conversation scenes and a lack of fluidity, and Meek calling it \\\"a black mark on Madhouse's usually stellar record\\\". Rose,\",\n \"-29.58635965862777\"\n ],\n [\n \"from Shelob to the cave troll to have more realistic size, proportions, and shapes. For some scenes, such as the crossing of the Bridge of Khazad-dûm as it collapses, the entire cast was replaced for a few seconds by digital doubles; the laser scanning technology helped make these doubles look like the real characters/actors.\\nAlso, a motion capture demonstration was created by the HITLabNZ, in which visitors wielding colored foam weapons could move against a green screen and watch an Orc, Elf, or Gondorian Soldier move the same way they did. In the making of the films, especially for the motion\",\n \"-29.58505710686586\"\n ],\n [\n \"film's better moments \\\"don't merely balance out the weaker ones—they topple them.\\\" Colin Kennedy of Empire magazine said that despite problems with pacing and writing, \\\"there is still much pleasure to be had watching our full-blown Jedi guides in action.\\\" He praised the visuals and Liam Neeson's performance, and said that the duel between Darth Maul and the Jedi was \\\"the saga's very best lightsaber battle\\\".\\nEmpire magazine ranked The Phantom Menace on its list of \\\"500 Greatest Movies of All Time\\\", while Entertainment Weekly and Comcast included the film on their lists of the worst movie sequels. James Berardinelli wrote,\",\n \"-29.57568359276047\"\n ],\n [\n \"to skirt legal trouble and yet ride on the publicity of major blockbusters. Until the Hobbit case, mockbuster production houses have been able to achieve soundalike titling to such an extent that even actors in the movies have been confused about which movie they are starring in. Some actors starring in the original have gone on to become fans of the mockbuster model. Kel Mitchell was the star in the mockbuster Battle of Los Angeles, the mockbuster to the original Battle: Los Angeles. His friend was in the original and they began promoting both movies together. Kel has since then\",\n \"-29.563930910968338\"\n ],\n [\n \"Movie Battles Gameplay Movie Battles II is a team based shooter game, in which the player joins the Imperial/Separatist forces or the Rebel/Republic forces. Both teams usually have objectives which can be completed to win the round. The player also gets a number of points which he can spend on upgrades for his character. Any players who are killed before the end of the round become spectators. They may follow certain players who are still alive or free-roam in the spectator cam, similar to other first-person shooters, such as Battlefield 2.\\nThe lightsaber combat in Movie Battles is changed from the\",\n \"-29.547989975166274\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":87,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2023uz"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why do I avoid going to bed at night, almost like I'm procrastinating sleep."},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Some of it is a subconscious desire to avoid morning responsibility. For me it is a desire to just do things that I would not otherwise have time for during the day. Like surfing the web, or playing games, or reading stuff on Reddit are all things I like to stay up late doing, even though I know my body is going to wake up early in the morning. The mental stimuli keeps me going, and because I am deriving enjoyment and excitement out of it and therefore I keep myself up later because of that and in-spite of the fact that I know I should go to bed earlier.","I feel the same way.. But for me I think it has more to do with not wanting to get up and go to work in the morning than not wanting to go to sleep at night. As much as I love sleeping, I know that the sooner I fall asleep, the sooner I will wake up and have to get out of bed. The funny part is that if I went to bed earlier it probably wouldn't be as hard to get out of bed in the morning.","I read an article on Cracked that said your brain sees your future self as a different person; to the point where the consequences for your present actions will only affect your future (different) self. It explains why we go to bed late knowing we'll be tired the next morning, why we drink knowing we'll feel terrible the next morning and why we fap to certain depravities knowing we'll feed bad about it just moments later.","The \"putting off tomorrow\" reason was the one I told myself forever until I started studying to become a sleep technician. The minute I found out about [Delayed sleep-phase disorder (DSPD)]( URL_0 ) I realized that's what I had. TL;DR Your brain is in its own time zone.","My five-year-old says \"But daddy ... going to sleep is *boooring*\" Which is probably not too far from the truth.","It's your body being tired but your brain is far from exhausted and wants to keep doing things. Try taking on tasks that require more mental tasking throughout the day. When your mind is tired like your body, it won't care about that next episode of your netflix binge.","This is going to sound really immature, but sometimes I think that I stay up because I feel at my age it is suitable to be staying up to a certain late hour. I feel like parents go to bed at 11:00 and grandparents at like 9:00, and as a 21 year old it is the acceptable for me to stay up to 3:00ish. I feel like it's what the little kid version of me would of wanted"," > ...there's just some magical force stopping me from going to bed. It might be the [blue light]( URL_1 ) from your screen. Get [f.lux]( URL_0 ) software. It really has made a difference for me.","I always feel like I could be getting something else done in the time that I'm \"doing nothing\" by sleeping. Weird?","More time sleeping = less time spent doing fun stuff.","I do this as well. I always just think about it as not being able to give up on the day yet. It isn't so much that there is anything in particular that I'm doing and enjoying so much that I don't want to go to sleep, I just don't want to call it yet.","I started tracking my sleep.... this has helped me realize how little sleep I'm getting. You can use an app like SleepBot for android do it."],"string":"[\n \"Some of it is a subconscious desire to avoid morning responsibility. For me it is a desire to just do things that I would not otherwise have time for during the day. Like surfing the web, or playing games, or reading stuff on Reddit are all things I like to stay up late doing, even though I know my body is going to wake up early in the morning. The mental stimuli keeps me going, and because I am deriving enjoyment and excitement out of it and therefore I keep myself up later because of that and in-spite of the fact that I know I should go to bed earlier.\",\n \"I feel the same way.. But for me I think it has more to do with not wanting to get up and go to work in the morning than not wanting to go to sleep at night. As much as I love sleeping, I know that the sooner I fall asleep, the sooner I will wake up and have to get out of bed. The funny part is that if I went to bed earlier it probably wouldn't be as hard to get out of bed in the morning.\",\n \"I read an article on Cracked that said your brain sees your future self as a different person; to the point where the consequences for your present actions will only affect your future (different) self. It explains why we go to bed late knowing we'll be tired the next morning, why we drink knowing we'll feel terrible the next morning and why we fap to certain depravities knowing we'll feed bad about it just moments later.\",\n \"The \\\"putting off tomorrow\\\" reason was the one I told myself forever until I started studying to become a sleep technician. The minute I found out about [Delayed sleep-phase disorder (DSPD)]( URL_0 ) I realized that's what I had. TL;DR Your brain is in its own time zone.\",\n \"My five-year-old says \\\"But daddy ... going to sleep is *boooring*\\\" Which is probably not too far from the truth.\",\n \"It's your body being tired but your brain is far from exhausted and wants to keep doing things. Try taking on tasks that require more mental tasking throughout the day. When your mind is tired like your body, it won't care about that next episode of your netflix binge.\",\n \"This is going to sound really immature, but sometimes I think that I stay up because I feel at my age it is suitable to be staying up to a certain late hour. I feel like parents go to bed at 11:00 and grandparents at like 9:00, and as a 21 year old it is the acceptable for me to stay up to 3:00ish. I feel like it's what the little kid version of me would of wanted\",\n \" > ...there's just some magical force stopping me from going to bed. It might be the [blue light]( URL_1 ) from your screen. Get [f.lux]( URL_0 ) software. It really has made a difference for me.\",\n \"I always feel like I could be getting something else done in the time that I'm \\\"doing nothing\\\" by sleeping. Weird?\",\n \"More time sleeping = less time spent doing fun stuff.\",\n \"I do this as well. I always just think about it as not being able to give up on the day yet. It isn't so much that there is anything in particular that I'm doing and enjoying so much that I don't want to go to sleep, I just don't want to call it yet.\",\n \"I started tracking my sleep.... this has helped me realize how little sleep I'm getting. You can use an app like SleepBot for android do it.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to","-34.33813241808093"],["attempting to sleep, it is a good idea to create a comfortable sleeping environment by eliminating daytime noise and light.","-32.63765170183615"],["quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time","-32.606916577096854"],["time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep. Genetics Heritability estimates of insomnia vary between 38% in males to 59% in females. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 3 genomic loci and 7 genes that influence the risk of","-31.145050015416928"],["healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking","-30.9209146863941"],["will frequently advise that these hours of sleep are obtained at night instead of through napping, because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation, under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep. Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing, with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive. There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule. Activities Exercise is an activity that can facilitate or inhibit sleep quality; people who exercise experience better","-30.6437045537823"],["noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\nThere is support","-30.56902897492546"],["down to sleep will continue to detect that they are lying down hours later when they awaken.","-30.559585286110632"],["go to sleep or stay awake as it likes but it is staying in the bed until morning (remember Proust at the opening of Swann’s Way?), we sit there with it, reading to it and singing to it and distracting it with swirling night lights until it decides it feels like going to sleep, all the while thinking to ourselves, Go the fuck to sleep, kid.\"\nAccording to Mark Rotella, an editor at Publishers Weekly (and father of two), this is one of the books \"that are less earnest about raising your child. They help parents step back and laugh at","-30.29098772504949"],["restlessness. Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime, requiring effort to metabolize it all, and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime. Lastly, limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions due to urinations. Sleep environment Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time","-30.12180513193016"],["This may or may not be permitted, depending on the employer's policies. Some employers may prohibit sleeping, even during unpaid break time, for various reasons, such as the unprofessional appearance of a sleeping employee, the need for an employee to be available during an emergency, or legal regulations. Employees who may endanger others by sleeping on the job may face more serious consequences, such as legal sanctions. For example, airline pilots risk loss of their licenses.\nIn some industries and work cultures sleeping at work is permitted and even encouraged. Such work cultures typically have flexible schedules, and variant work loads","-29.99481176341942"],["any other safety-critical activity), may not be because natural sleep rarely overcomes an ordinary person without warning.\nIn many countries, it is presumed that someone who is less than fully conscious cannot give consent to anything. This can be relevant in cases of sexual behavior, euthanasia or patients giving informed consent with regard to starting or stopping a treatment.","-29.899637231137604"],["is that by not voluntarily making oneself go to sleep, it relieves the performance anxiety that arises from the need or requirement to fall asleep, which is meant to be a passive act. This technique has been shown to reduce sleep effort and performance anxiety and also lower subjective assessment of sleep-onset latency and overestimation of the sleep deficit (a quality found in many insomniacs). Sleep hygiene Sleep hygiene is a common term for all of the behaviors which relate to the promotion of good sleep. These behaviors are used as the basis of sleep interventions and are the primary","-29.875006280373782"],["hours at which people of rank go to bed, renders it wholly unnecessary to force a sleep in public places.\" This followed with a joke in a later journal: a \"gentleman, lately arrived in town, has been for several days past afflicted with a lethargy, owing to the perusal of three chapters in Hawkins's Life of Johnson.\" A third stated: the branches of willow trees planted in Lichfield \"should be lopped off, and tied in bundles, ... and properly applied to the naked backs of his various biographers, taking care, that the largest bundle be appropriated unto the use and","-29.77045049665321"],["relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher","-29.509451439487748"],["about moving in with his sick mother-in-law. What kind of man are you? A small thing, I know. I'll watch the rest, because it's enthralling enough for me to want to know what happens, or rather what happened. But I won't be lying awake at night thinking about it.\"","-29.483126081875525"],["in sexual activity at night, so therefore night-time brings the highest danger of infidelity. Due to females investing more in the relationship, women receive more benefits from sleeping with their mate during the night. Keeping close proximity with a partner acts as a mate guarding technique as it minimises the likelihood of unfaithfulness by the male, and also assures their partner of her fidelity. As a result of the paternal confidence, the male is also more likely to stay and provide resources. In one study it was found that 73.7% of participants said that females are more likely to want","-29.48049042839557"],["such environmental modifications include using the bed for sleep or sex only, not for activities such as reading or watching television; waking up at the same time every morning, including on weekends; going to bed only when sleepy and when there is a high likelihood that sleep will occur; leaving the bed and beginning an activity in another location if sleep does not result in a reasonably brief period of time after getting into bed (commonly ~20 min); reducing the subjective effort and energy expended trying to fall asleep; avoiding exposure to bright light during nighttime hours, and eliminating daytime","-29.242569548499887"],["influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep","-29.237788122627535"],["1.5/5 stars and wrote that it \"is more likely to put you to sleep than keep you on the edge of your seat\".","-28.89140278983723"],["to go to bed early in the evening and wake earlier in the morning than younger adults. Furthermore, the elderly often wake several times throughout the night and have difficulty falling asleep. They are prone to taking numerous naps during the day. Furthermore, constant lighting in assisted living facilities has been demonstrated to impair sleep ability.\nIn persons with Alzheimer's Disease, sleep disturbances are much more frequent and tend to be more severe. These patients exhibit intermittent sleep throughout the 24-hour day, instead of consolidated sleep at night and wakefulness during the day.\nPoor sleep is one of the largest","-28.846434504133867"],["awakenings in at least a few nights per week due to their cell phones' ringers. Among those with the cell phone ringers on, being awakened by their cell phone was correlated to difficulty sustaining sleep.\nAccording to the article, \"Interrupted Sleep: College Students Sleeping with Technology\" by Elizabeth B. Dowdell and Brianne Q. Clayton, sleep-deprived college students performed significantly worse than peers who had adequate sleep on the cognitive task work and that the sleep-deprived students were not aware of the extent to which sleep deprivation negatively affects their ability to complete cognitive tasks. Insufficient sleep while in college may be","-28.75262469991503"],["naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions","-28.55848134489497"],["The elderly woman tells him that all five of them have been assigned to be in one bed by Social Security. She goes on to explain to him that, with the current situation, no one can afford a private beds anymore because they are now luxury items. She advises the bed owner not to kick at night because her ailing brother Albert, who wears a cloth cap and long underwear of which one pant-leg is empty and pinned up to the rear flap, is sleeping at the foot of the bed. She believes that the man is lucky because","-28.507641067670193"],["he have stayed in bed?\" \nJames Thurber, in his book Fables for our Time, ended the Fable of the Shrike: \"Early to rise and early to bed, makes a Shrike healthy, and wealthy, and dead\". Criticisms Such recommendations may cast individuals with different natural sleep patterns as lazy or unmotivated when it is a much different matter for a person with a longer or delayed sleep cycle to get up earlier in the morning than for a person with an advanced sleep cycle. In effect, the person accustomed to a later wake time is being","-28.45768531388603"],["It's us against the wealthy plain and simple. It's time to wake up. WAKE UP.","-28.356398909032578"],["to fall asleep while eating snacks, which attracts animals into his bedroom, though he seems incredulous or apathetic to this. His bathroom is described as disgusting, when asked if they would rather endure a dangerous and painful stunt (ex. stick a wasp up your nose) or shower in Bill's bathroom, his friends always choose the former. When assigned tasks to get his house ready for a family reunion after Nancy and Peggy are assigned the bathroom, both are horrified and desperately try to change assignments. He also has a foot fetish, finding Peggy's unnaturally over-sized feet very appealing, and even","-28.349778757692548"],["the morning. The reliance on technology, specifically in the bedroom, which should be associated with sleep, created the difficulty with separating waking and sleeping activities. When measuring the amount of sleep during the week compared to the weekend, students with four or more technological devices in their bedroom had significantly less sleep compared to those with three or fewer devices. Since many students do not utilize sleep mode or do not disturb or silence their phones at night, each notification and alert from their phones disrupts their sleep in terms of sleep quality and duration of sleep. Caffeine A study","-28.313919042091584"],["at the right type of day.\nNightlights are also helpful in reducing falls and injuries and, at the same time, help the elderly to maintain sleep. Falls are a major concern with the elderly; they threaten their independence and risk further health complications. Lighting systems can help seniors maintain balance and stability. Furthermore, sleep deprivation can contribute to decreased postural control. Nightlights that accent horizontal and vertical spaces, such as soft lighting above a doorway or at the foot of a bed, can reduce the risk of falls without disturbing sleep.","-28.262821025811718"],["do the exact opposite of what they have been doing in bed: They shall stay awake and avoid falling asleep. The goal of this method is to decrease performance anxiety which may inhibit sleep onset. Paradoxal Intention has been shown to be an effective treatment for sleep initiation insomnia but might not be effective for sleep maintenance or mixed insomnia. Indication CBT-I is indicated when the following criteria is met:\n1.The patient must complain about difficulties initiating or maintaining sleep. These difficulties must cause a significant distress and/or impact daily functioning. Complaints of non-restorative sleep without troubles of initiating or","-28.25445735804533"],["focuses on Japanese culture, writes that sleeping at work is considered a sign of dedication to the job, such that one has stayed up late doing work or worked to the point of complete exhaustion, and may therefore be excusable.","-28.19211258154246"],["their hotel for a nap instead. \"Sure enough I wake up from a nap and have a bunch of text messages. I turn on the TV ... it was just a twist of fate. It's definitely something that's hard to think about it. Thank goodness we didn't go\", said O'Brien.","-28.184120241407072"],["as the body attempts to reset its internal sleep clock. Bright light therapy, which is often used to help early morning wakers reset their natural sleep cycle, can also be used with sleep restriction therapy to reinforce a new wake schedule. Although applying this technique with consistency is difficult, it can have a positive effect on insomnia in motivated patients.\nParadoxical intention is a cognitive reframing technique where the insomniac, instead of attempting to fall asleep at night, makes every effort to stay awake (i.e. essentially stops trying to fall asleep). One theory that may explain the effectiveness of this method","-28.111862519872375"],["inability to fall asleep and experience marked decrease in sleep efficiency. There may also be some changes in circadian rhythms. Studies are ongoing about what causes these changes and how they may be reduced to ensure comfortable sleep of old adults. Brain activity during sleep Understanding the activity of different parts of the brain during sleep can give a clue to the functions of sleep. It has been observed that mental activity is present during all stages of sleep, though from different regions in the brain. So, contrary to popular understanding, the brain never completely shuts down during sleep. Also,","-28.079438070337346"],[" A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The","-28.072101298268535"],["night for a period of time following daytime continence. Older children may have problems with bladder control (primarily at night) and may wear diapers while sleeping to control bedwetting. Approximately 16% of children in the U.S. over the age of 5 wet the bed. If bedwetting becomes a concern, the current recommendation is to consider forgoing the use of a diaper at night as they may prevent the child from wanting to get out of bed, although this is not a primary cause of bedwetting. This is particularly the case for children over the age 8. Training pants Manufacturers have","-28.065657852253935"],["the demands of society. It is often due to a psychosocial stressor (an event in a person's environment that causes stress or discomfort), especially for adolescents. The delayed sleep-wake cycle leads to chronic sleep deprivation and habitually late sleeping hours. Individuals with this type often have difficulty changing their sleeping patterns to an earlier and more socially acceptable time. Their actual sleep, once it begins, is normal. It is the timing of their sleeping and waking that is persistently delayed.\nThe jet lag type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is characterized by disruptions arising from a mismatch between a person's circadian","-28.05261573730968"],["sleep, however, especially when purely behavioral criteria are used to define sleep. For example, zebrafish, tilapia, tench, brown bullhead, and swell shark become motionless and unresponsive at night (or by day, in the case of the swell shark); Spanish hogfish and blue-headed wrasse can even be lifted by hand all the way to the surface without evoking a response. On the other hand, sleep patterns are easily disrupted and may even disappear during periods of migration, spawning, and parental care. Behavioural sleep Instead of examining brain activity for sleep patterns, an alternate approach is to examine any rest/activity cycles that","-27.973659363167826"],["Effects of sleep deprivation on college students Sleep Hygiene Inadequate sleep hygiene is one primary cause as to why college students experience sleep deprivation. Sleep hygiene is defined as habits or practices that allow for healthy amounts of sleep on a daily basis. Good sleep hygiene habits include keeping a consistent sleep schedule, having a quiet sleep environment, and avoiding consuming caffeine and alcohol before sleeping. Many students have inadequate sleep hygiene that leads to sleep deprivation. Technology The blue light that is emitted from the screens of phones, computers and other devices stops the production of melatonin, the hormone","-27.969223265114124"],["up during a single night. Poor sleep quality disrupts the cycle of transition between the different stages of sleep. Subjective sleep quality in turn refers to a sense of being rested and regenerated after awaking from sleep. A study by A. Harvey et al. (2002) found that insomniacs were more demanding in their evaluations of sleep quality than individuals who had no sleep problems.\nHomeostatic sleep propensity (the need for sleep as a function of the amount of time elapsed since the last adequate sleep episode) must be balanced against the circadian element for satisfactory sleep. Along with corresponding messages","-27.868199837343127"],["than three times as likely to involve driver drowsiness as those that occurred during the day.\nThe reason that collisions involving drowsy driving are more or less likely to happen at different times of the day may have to do with circadian rhythms (the biological time clock). The biological master clock in the hypothalamus is the suprachiasmatic nucleus or SCN. It provides the main control of the circadian rhythms for sleep, body temperature and other functions. The reason night time driving is so risky is because sleep becomes an irresistible urge especially from about midnight until 6 a.m. A sleepy period","-27.86301000851745"],["with irritability: people who get angry shortly before sleeping tend to suffer from sleep drunkenness. \nAccording to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, hypersomniac patients often take long naps during the day that are mostly unrefreshing. Researchers found that naps are usually more frequent and longer in patients than in controls Furthermore, 75% of the patients report that short naps are not refreshing, compared to controls. Diagnosis \"The severity of daytime sleepiness needs to be quantified by subjective scales (at least the Epworth Sleepiness Scale) and objective tests such as the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT).\" ","-27.781033362291055"],["up several times throughout the night, punctuating their sleep with periods of wakefulness, perhaps lasting several hours.\nThe boundaries between sleeping and waking are blurred in these societies. Some observers believe that nighttime sleep in these societies is most often split into two main periods, the first characterized primarily by deep sleep and the second by REM sleep.\nSome societies display a fragmented sleep pattern in which people sleep at all times of the day and night for shorter periods. In many nomadic or hunter-gatherer societies, people will sleep on and off throughout the day or night depending on what is happening.","-27.77452381598414"],["mortality. There are no benefits to oversleeping and it can result in sleep inertia, which is the feeling of drowsiness for a period of time after waking. There are two phases of sleep: rapid eye movement (REM) and Non-REM sleep (NREM).\nREM sleep is the less restful stage in which you dream and experience muscle movements or twitches. Also during this stage in sleep, a person's heart rate and breathing are typically irregular. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. The body's blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are generally significantly decreased compared to","-27.7580414970289"],["sleep for creative problem solving by thinking of a problem right before we fall asleep, as well as possible tools needed to solve the issue (not the solution itself). This may improve the chance of dreaming about the problem without the normal restraints. When waking up, participants can take notes of the dreams to see if new solutions towards solving have arisen.\nThe third and last method to boost creativity in adults, is also related to randomness. Onarheim claims that as adults we tend to associate one word with other words and things. When faced with a problem we can make","-27.74919808350387"],["the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to","-27.730981496338245"],["while sleeping, he added.\nCo-sleeping also increases the risks of suffocation and strangulation. The soft quality of the mattresses, comforters, and pillows may suffocate the infants. Some experts, then, recommend that the bed should be firm, and should not be a waterbed or couch; and that heavy quilts, comforters, and pillows should not be used. Another common advice given to prevent suffocation is to keep a baby on its back, not its stomach. Parents who roll over during their sleep could inadvertently crush and/or suffocate their child, especially if they are heavy sleepers, over-tired or over-exhausted and/or obese. There is also","-27.702725095907226"],["to go home.\nThe bedroom where he is to stay, on the first floor, is a peaceful contrast to the atmosphere below, but he is aware of possible dangers. He locks the door of his room and lies on the bed, which is a four-poster bed, with his winnings under the pillow. He cannot sleep. He tries to distract his mind by studying the items in the room, which include a wash-stand, chairs and a picture on the wall; thus a convincing image of the room is given to the reader. The moonlight in the room brings to his mind a","-27.6971334740374"],["as of 2019. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies. Personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in the UK, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. Sleep Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in","-27.69189078509953"],["sleep probably serve different and unknown functions. Moreover, the preservation theory needs to explain why carnivores like lions, which are on top of the food chain and thus have little to fear, sleep the most. It has been suggested that they need to minimize energy expenditure when not hunting. Waste clearance from the brain During sleep, metabolic waste products, such as immunoglobulins, protein fragments or intact proteins like beta-amyloid, may be cleared from the interstitium via a glymphatic system of lymph-like channels coursing along perivascular spaces and the astrocyte network of the brain. According to this model, hollow tubes between","-27.689773631398566"],["rotating shift schedules, especially schedules that gradually change, exhibit sleep disturbance and wake period sleepiness. Insufficient sleep time, family and social expectations, and alcohol use worsen this problem.\nIndividuals with the unspecified type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder also exhibit daytime and evening sleepiness or insomnia, especially those people who have a non-24-hour sleep pattern. People with irregular sleep patterns have difficulty knowing when they will fall asleep and wake up. Causes The delayed sleep phase type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is marked by a delay of the sleep-wake cycle as it relates to","-27.687333899055375"],["when these activities are necessary. Also, daydreaming can make the time doing boring tasks go faster in people's perception. Psychological studies Freudian psychology interpreted daydreaming as expression of the repressed instincts similarly to those revealing themselves in nighttime dreams. Like nighttime dreams, daydreams, also, are an example of wish-fulfilment (based on infantile experiences), and are allowed to surface because of relaxed censorship. He pointed out that, in contrast to nighttime dreams, which are often confusing and incoherent, there seems to be a process of \"secondary revision\" in fantasies that makes them more lucid, like daydreaming. The state of daydreaming is","-27.677255406939366"],["which the child sleeps. Windows should be closed and potentially dangerous items should be removed from the bedroom, and additionally, alarms can be installed and the child placed in a downstairs bedroom.\nHypnosis could be efficient. Sleepers could become less sensitive to their sleep terrors.\nOne technique is to wake up just before the sleep terrors begin. When they appear regularly, this method can prevent their appearance.\nPsychotherapy or counseling can be helpful in many cases. There is some evidence to suggest that night terrors can result from lack of sleep or poor sleeping habits. In these cases, it can be helpful to","-27.667231087375512"],["and anxiety, which may make sleep more difficult and of inferior quality. This is the well-known first night effect. Complete adaptation to the sleep laboratory may take four days or longer, which is longer than the duration of most laboratory studies. Also, the content of dreams at the laboratory has been observed to be different from dreams at home. Similarly, the laboratory environment may alter the content of dreams recalled from spontaneous awakenings at the end of a night's sleep, as indicated by high frequency of laboratory references in morning spontaneous awakenings in REM and NREM dream reports).","-27.66240688556718"],["meaning that the heat would move from the surface of the body and that's why one might need a blanket during night. During the day the heat would move to the surface of the body and the body temperature raise.\nIn any cases that one is forced to get less sleep (having to study for an exam, being under mental pressure or having to finish a project) the brain and the body would get warmer and drier so in order to control the excessive warmness or dryness in the body one should cut back on warm and dry food stuff. Additionally","-27.61580681434134"],["could be that the higher threshold for sensory interruption during REM sleep allows the brain to travel further along unrealistic and peculiar trains of thought.\nSome dreaming can take place during non-REM sleep. “Light sleepers” can experience dreaming during stage 2 non-REM sleep, whereas “deep sleepers”, upon awakening in the same stage, are more likely to report “thinking” but not “dreaming”. Certain scientific efforts to assess the uniquely bizarre nature of dreams experienced while asleep were forced to conclude that waking thought could be just as bizarre, especially in conditions of sensory deprivation. Because of non-REM dreaming, some sleep researchers have","-27.582678968683467"],["from becoming either corrupt or incomplete. It also explains why it is important to forget dreams most of the time. Dreaming and depression It is well known that depressed people spend far more of their sleep time in REM sleep than non-depressed people, entering it earlier – and it has been shown, experimentally, that depressed people show improvement when deprived of REM sleep. This accords with Griffin’s theory, as depressed people spend much of their waking time arousing themselves physiologically through rumination and worry. All this arousal has to be discharged in dreams. Dreaming takes up a large amount of","-27.577593756548595"],["as the military or police. Hunting is another good example. Sleep Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's snoring may have sound-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.\nTo determine the comfort of earplugs used for sleeping, it is important to try them on while actually lying down. The pressure on the ear between the head and pillow may cause significant discomfort. Furthermore, just tilting the head back or to","-27.563568652280082"],["to sleep, reducing the ability to stay asleep and to achieve restful sleep. For individuals with allergies or asthma, additional considerations must be given to potential triggers in the bedroom environment. Medications that might improve ability to breathe while sleeping may also impair sleep in other ways, so there must be careful management of decongestants, asthma controllers, and antihistamines. Implementation Sleep hygiene strategies include advice about timing of sleep and food intake in relationship to exercise and sleeping environment. Recommendations depend on knowledge of the individual situation; counselling is presented as a form of patient education.\nAs attention to the role","-27.540145249164198"],["if the sufferer does not eat a proper diet, does not get the appropriate amount or quality of sleep (e.g., because of sleep apnea), or is enduring stressful events. Adults who have experienced sexual abuse are more likely to receive a diagnosis of sleep disorders, including night terrors. Overall, though, adult night terrors are much less common and often respond best to treatments that rectify causes of poor quality or quantity of sleep. Differential diagnosis We have to distinguish night terrors from nightmares. In fact, in nightmares there are almost never vocalization or agitation, and if there are any, they","-27.53632895150804"],["one at night. Frequently I'd have to do both. A few times I worked so hard that I actually threw up from the exertion. But I was young then. I didn't get tired easily. And I never complained about the working conditions. I thought that's just how it was supposed to be. Now I know that's wrong. But at the time I had no clue. Whatever they'd give me, I'd do. And as soon as I was done working I could just fall asleep. They'd say, 'Go to sleep', and I'd go right to sleep.\nThe hard work of the cast","-27.485895035413705"],["On Dreams Content Aristotle explains that during sleep there is an absence of external sensory stimulation. While sleeping with our eyes closed, the eyes are unable to see, and so in this respect we perceive nothing while asleep. He compares hallucinations to dreams, saying \"...the faculty by which, in waking hours, we are subject to illusion when affected by disease, is identical with that which produces illusory effects in sleep.\" When awake and perceiving, to see or hear something incorrectly only occurs when one actually sees or hears something, thinking it to be something else. But in sleep, if it","-27.472149900859222"],["in order to see the screen better. From this, neck and back pains and problems increase, commonly referred to as repetitive strain injuries. Using electronics before going to bed makes it difficult for people to fall asleep, which has a negative effect on human health. Sleeping less prevents people from performing to their full potential physically and mentally and can also “increase rates of obesity and diabetes,” which are “long-term health consequences”. Obesity and diabetes are more commonly seen in students and in youth because they tend to be the ones using electronics the most. “People who frequently use their","-27.465595713096263"],["but we'll stay woke up longer.\")\nLead Belly uses the phrase near the end of the recording of his 1938 song, \"Scottsboro Boys\", while explaining about the namesake incident, saying \"I advise everybody to be a little careful when they go along through there, stay woke, keep their eyes open\". Erykah Badu and modern activist usage The first modern use of the term woke appears in the song \"Master Teacher\" from the album New Amerykah Part One (4th World War) (2008) by soul singer Erykah Badu. Throughout the song, Badu sings the phrase: \"I stay woke.\" Although the phrase did not","-27.438418846002605"],["awake, too much time is spent sleeping, or a combination of both. Uninterruptible sleep An uninterruptible sleep state is a sleep state that won't handle a signal right away. It will wake only as a result of a waited-upon resource becoming available or after a time-out occurs during that wait (if specified when put to sleep). It is mostly used by device drivers waiting for disk or network IO (input/output).\nWhen the process is sleeping uninterruptibly, signals accumulated during the sleep will be noticed when the process returns from the system call or trap.\nIn Unix-like systems the command 'ps -l' uses","-27.379058061167598"],["Waking up early Waking up early is a productivity method - rising early and consistently so as to be able to accomplish more during the day. This method has been recommended since antiquity and is now recommended by a number of personal development gurus. The philosopher Aristotle said, \"It is well to be up before daybreak, for such habits contribute to health, wealth, and wisdom.\" Commentary Within the context of religious observances, spiritual writers have called this practice \"the heroic minute\", referring to the sacrifice which this entails.\nBenjamin Franklin is quoted to have said: \"Early to bed and early to","-27.281604917407094"],["110 young people can go to bed at night knowing they have an angel in Irena Medavoy\".","-27.276227590471535"],["in other sources the book would receive a translation into Jamaican patois, entitled Go de Rass to Sleep. Themes According to Mansbach, the frustrations he wrote about \"are not permissible to talk about. We're not completely honest because we don't want to be bad parents.\" Macy Halford said this frustration elicited a response peculiar to modern parents:\n\"Whatever the cause, it is definitely the case that, when faced with a kid who refuses to go to sleep, we get annoyed, like all parents before us, but, rather than just abandoning the child to the dark and telling it that it can","-27.25777695884608"],["to the cognitive and motor deficits that may be present. Napping When a person is sleep deprived, re-entering sleep may provide a viable route to reduce mental and physical fatigue but it can also induce sleep inertia. In order to limit sleep inertia, one should avoid waking from the deeper stages of slow-wave sleep. The onset of slow-wave sleep occurs approximately 30 minutes after falling asleep, therefore a nap should be limited to under 30 minutes to prevent waking during slow-wave sleep and enhancing sleep inertia. Furthermore, self-awakening from a short nap was shown to relieve disorientation of sleep inertia","-27.231939312125178"],["taking a short nap during the day (20 minutes) especially in warm climates and seasons is highly recommended to them.\nBesides, those with cold and wet Mizaj should not sleep much as long sleep would increase wetness in the body. People with phlegmatic temperament should cut down on food items cold and wet temperament to sleep shorter and get up easily and not having trouble waking up. They had better wake up once or twice during the night so that wetness would not build up in their bodies. Age range Although each person is born with a fixed and unique temperament,","-27.225747744800174"],["Wakefulness Wakefulness is a daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness in which an individual is conscious and engages in coherent cognitive and behavioral responses to the external world. Being awake is the opposite of the state of being asleep in which most external inputs to the brain are excluded from neural processing. Effects upon the brain The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\nAnother effect of wakefulness is the reduction of","-27.19751937869296"],["of total sleep deprivation). Mean body temperature falls continually during this period.\nIt has been suggested that acute REM sleep deprivation can improve certain types of depression when depression appears to be related to an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters. Although sleep deprivation in general annoys most of the population, it has repeatedly been shown to alleviate depression, albeit temporarily. More than half the individuals who experience this relief report it to be rendered ineffective after sleeping the following night. Thus, researchers have devised methods such as altering the sleep schedule for a span of days following a REM deprivation period and","-27.191851653718913"],["is referred to as Process S. The balance between sleeping and waking is regulated by a process called homeostasis. Induced or perceived lack of sleep is called sleep deprivation.\nProcess S is driven by the depletion of glycogen and accumulation of adenosine in the forebrain that disinhibits the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus, allowing for inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system.\nSleep deprivation tends to cause slower brain waves in the frontal cortex, shortened attention span, higher anxiety, impaired memory, and a grouchy mood. Conversely, a well-rested organism tends to have improved memory and mood. Neurophysiological and functional imaging studies have demonstrated that","-27.188338912586914"],["compared with that which is exhibited in daily life, is open to debate. However, the comparative literature strongly suggests that shorter, polyphasically-placed sleep is the rule, rather than the exception, across the entire animal kingdom (Campbell and Tobler, 1984; Tobler, 1989). There is little reason to believe that the human sleep/wake system would evolve in a fundamentally different manner. That people often do not exhibit such sleep organization in daily life merely suggests that humans have the capacity (often with the aid of stimulants such as caffeine or increased physical activity) to overcome the propensity for sleep when it is","-27.119191977850278"],["partner or parent who led patients to seek medical attention. Sleep Because of the abnormal writhing movements, often patients’ sleep patterns are disrupted. This may be due to RMD’s comorbidity with sleep apnea, which has been observed in some patients\n. Many find that their sleep is not refreshing and are tired or stressed the following day, despite getting a full nights rest. However, other patients report that their sleep patterns are infrequently interrupted due to RMD episodes and do not report being excessively sleepy during the next day as scored on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Thus, as can be seen,","-27.11568929288478"],["the participants are addicted to social media, the less satisfied they are with life. Some parents restrict their children's access to social media for these reasons. Sleep disturbances According to a study released in 2017 by researchers from the University of Pittsburgh, the link between sleep disturbance and the use of social media was clear. It concluded that blue light had a part to play—and how often they logged on, rather than time spent on social media sites, was a higher predictor of disturbed sleep, suggesting \"an obsessive 'checking'\". The strong relationship of social media use and sleep disturbance has","-27.078529864287702"],["age group, Seriously, Just Go To Sleep is a real children's book for a parent to read to his or her child, and the word \"fuck\" was replaced by the parent in the story expressing frustration with the stubborn child in a more G-rated way. For example, \"I know you're not thirsty, that's bullshit. Stop lying. Lie the fuck down, my darling, and sleep\" was changed to \"I know you're not thirsty. You just had a drink. Stop goofing around now, and sleep.\"\nThe book was translated into many other languages, and in February 2014, it was announced on Facebook and","-27.0743111067859"],["that she at least put on her pajamas, wash her face, brush her teeth. The little girl keeps repeating that she is not tired but climbs into bed and under the sheets since that is where she is the most comfortable. She then proceeds to ask her parents if everything thing goes to sleep. The parents then proceed to go through a list of animals and their habits of sleeping. They discuss the family dog, the cat, bats, snails, bears, and whales. The little girl proclaims that she knows an animal that sleeps a lot. We then finally come across","-27.067832329004887"],["partner. In almost all societies, sleeping partners are strongly regulated by social standards. For example, a person might only sleep with the immediate family, the extended family, a spouse or romantic partner, children, children of a certain age, children of specific gender, peers of a certain gender, friends, peers of equal social rank, or with no one at all. Sleep may be an actively social time, depending on the sleep groupings, with no constraints on noise or activity.\nPeople sleep in a variety of locations. Some sleep directly on the ground; others on a skin or blanket; others sleep on platforms","-27.065797367307823"],["that controls the sleep-wake cycle of the circadian rhythm. Reducing the amount of melatonin produced makes it harder to fall and stay asleep. In a 2011 poll conducted by the National Sleep Foundation, it reported that approximately 90% of Americans used technology in the hour before bed. The poll noted that young adults and teenagers were more likely to use cell phones, computers, and video game consoles. Additionally, the authors of the poll found that technology use was connected to sleep patterns. 22% of participants reported going to sleep with cell phone ringers on in their bedroom and 10% reported","-27.039625741672353"],["during the eviction. The activists claimed the laws, which prohibit the use of \"bedding, sleeping bags, or other sleeping matter,\" are immoral and that they're obligated to challenge them. The occupiers claim that sleep is human right and is essential for mental, physical and emotional health, citing that human beings need to spend nearly a third of their lives sleeping. Prohibiting sleep by making it illegal for people to protect themselves and their belongings from the elements causes sleep deprivation; it is inhumane, unconstitutional, and amounts to torture. The activists said the prayer vigil would continue until \"bedding matter\" was","-27.029596638436487"],["discrepancy between subjective and objective reports, clinicians may conclude that the perception of poor sleep is primarily illusionary.\nAlternatively, some people may report excessive daytime sleepiness or chronic disabling sleepiness, while no sleep disorder has been found to exist. Methods of diagnosing sleepiness objectively, such as the Multiple Sleep Latency Test do not confirm the symptom—\"true\" sleepiness is not observed despite the complaint. (It may be speculated that such reports of daytime sleepiness may be a result of the nocebo response —the reverse of the placebo effect—due to patient expectations of adverse effects from their subjective perception of poor sleep.)\nFinally, on","-27.00962596575846"],["their own bedroom. A pre-lucid dream may ensue. More commonly, dreamers will believe they have awakened, and then either wake up for real in their own bed or \"fall back asleep\" in the dream.\nA common false awakening is a \"late for work\" scenario. A person may \"wake up\" in a typical room, with most things looking normal, and realize he or she overslept and missed the start time at work or school. Clocks, if found in the dream, will show time indicating that fact. The resulting panic is often strong enough to jar the person awake for real (much like","-27.00944397458443"],["sleep time of fourteen hours.\nThough sleep is a primarily biological process, it can be treated as a behavior. This means that it can be altered and managed through practice and can be learned by the child. Healthy sleep habits can be established during the first four months to lay a foundation for healthy sleep. These habits typically include sleeping in a crib (instead of a car seat, stroller, or swing), being put down to sleep drowsy but awake, and avoiding negative sleep associations, such as nursing to sleep or using a pacifier to fall asleep, which may be hard to","-26.994985329918563"],["the cortex via the hypothalamus. During NREM sleep this system is inhibited by GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area and parafacial zone, as well as other sleep-promoting neurons in distinct brain regions. Sleep function The need and function of sleep are among the least clearly understood areas in sleep research. When asked, after 50 years of research, what he knew about the reason people sleep, William C. Dement, founder of Stanford University's Sleep Research Center, answered, \"As far as I know, the only reason we need to sleep that is really, really solid is because we get sleepy.\" It","-26.95260419713304"],["temperature: a very excited person often has an elevated temperature.\nWearing more clothing slows daily temperature change and raises body temperature. Similarly, sleeping with an electric blanket raises the body temperature at night.\nSleep disturbances also affect temperatures. Normally, body temperature drops significantly at a person's normal bedtime and throughout the night. Short-term sleep deprivation produces a higher temperature at night than normal, but long-term sleep deprivation appears to reduce temperatures. Insomnia and poor sleep quality are associated with smaller and later drops in body temperature. Similarly, waking up unusually early, sleeping in, jet lag and changes","-26.933675566120655"],["the morning has been proven to be effective. A prolongation of slow-wave sleep increases glymphatic clearance of metabolic waste products, which can lead to improvements of sleep disorders. Furthermore, studies showed ameliorated sleep pattern due to acupuncture of patients with TBI. Sleep apnea due to TBI can be treated through positive airway pressure, which helps with the development of a regular breathing pattern during sleep and prevents waking up. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia also have been shown to effectively improve sleep in TBI patients. It aims to improve sleep habits and behaviors by identifying and changing the thoughts and","-26.724746016669087"],["the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace. Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after","-26.705106009409064"],["his journal of September 24, 1891, and is the subject of a letter to The Lady magazine of October 29, 1891: \nAny one who has tried, as I have often done, the process of getting out of bed at 2 a.m. in a winter night, lighting a candle, and recording some happy thought which would probably be otherwise forgotten, will agree with me it entails much discomfort. All I have now to do, if I wake and think of something I wish to record, is to draw from under the pillow a small memorandum book containing my Nyctograph, write a","-26.694535783688025"],["rhythm sleep disorders. Naps The siesta habit has recently been associated with a 37% lower coronary mortality, possibly due to reduced cardiovascular stress mediated by daytime sleep. Short naps at mid-day and mild evening exercise were found to be effective for improved sleep, cognitive tasks, and mental health in elderly people.\nMany people experience a temporary drop in alertness in the early afternoon, commonly known as the \"post-lunch dip\". While a large meal can make a person feel sleepy, the post-lunch dip is mostly an effect of the circadian clock. People naturally feel most sleepy at two times of the day","-26.659952572896145"],["very difficult to diagnose because doctors can't exactly tell if a person has sleep apnea in a regular routine visit. Additionally the patient himself may not even realize he has sleep apnea because it occurs during sleep, so a partner or roommate is usually the first to notice symptoms. \nThere are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep","-26.636560221784748"],["between tasks and default brain states, and also distinguishes between background and foreground processing. Being awake allows the person to not only be aware of themselves and the world, but also to have conscious motor coordination and understand the difference between need and want that comes from secondary consciousness. Difference between sleep and dream There is a difference between being just asleep and in a state of mind called dreaming. Sleeping can be described as the lack of conscious awareness of the outside world, meaning large portions of the brain that receive and interpret signals are deactivated during this time,","-26.631525457924"],["hormonal balance, temperature regulation and maintaining heart rate. Preservation The \"Preservation and Protection\" theory holds that sleep serves an adaptive function. It protects the animal during that portion of the 24-hour day in which being awake, and hence roaming around, would place the individual at greatest risk. Organisms do not require 24 hours to feed themselves and meet other necessities. From this perspective of adaptation, organisms are safer by staying out of harm's way, where potentially they could be prey to other, stronger organisms. They sleep at times that maximize their safety, given their physical capacities and their habitats.\nThis theory","-26.597179904980294"],["the day, you will dream about it at night as well.","-26.560422586859204"],["morning can lengthen daytime sleep; however, some studies have shown that nighttime sleepiness may be unaffected. Zopiclone has been shown to be ineffective in increasing sleep in shift workers.","-26.541676958622702"],["a quarter of them have previously shown symptoms of DSPS.\nThe term free-running sleep has occasionally been used by non-scientists to indicate intentional facilitation of the natural sleep/wake cycle. In this context, free-running sleep means that a person chooses to sleep when sleepy and to awaken spontaneously (specifically without an alarm clock or reference to the time of day).","-26.537489394802833"],["hypersomnia or excessive sleepiness should only go to bed to sleep or for sexual activity. All other activities such as eating or watching television should be done elsewhere. For those patients, it is also important to go to bed only when they feel tired, than trying to fall asleep for hours. In that case, they probably should get out of bed and read or watch television until they get sleepy. Epidemiology Hypersomnia affects approximately 5% - 10% of the general population, \"with a higher prevalence for men due to the sleep apnea syndromes\".","-26.503606640384533"],["sleepiness rating. When scientists deprived subjects of sleep, they found sleep latency levels could drop below 1, i.e., subjects could fall asleep in less than a minute. The amount of sleep loss was directly linked to changes in sleep latency scores.\nThe studies eventually led Dement and Carskadon to conclude that \"the brain keeps an exact accounting of how much sleep it is owed\". Not getting enough sleep during any given period of time leads to a phenomenon called sleep debt, which lowers sleep latency scores and makes sleep-deprived individuals fall asleep more quickly. Home testing of sleep latency For home-testing","-26.46749155515863"],["Sleep Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body, characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, reduced muscle activity and inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and reduced interactions with surroundings. It is distinguished from wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, but more reactive than coma or disorders of consciousness, with sleep displaying very different and active brain patterns.\nSleep occurs in repeating periods, in which the body alternates between two distinct modes: REM sleep and non-REM sleep. Although REM stands for \"rapid eye movement\", this mode of sleep","-26.46561994194417"],["writers. Superimposed on this basic rhythm is a secondary one of light sleep in the early afternoon.\nThe brain exhibits high levels of the pituitary hormone prolactin during the period of nighttime wakefulness, which may contribute to the feeling of peace that many people associate with it.\nThe modern assumption that consolidated sleep with no awakenings is the normal and correct way for human adults to sleep, may lead people to consult their doctors fearing they have maintenance insomnia or other sleep disorders. If Ekirch's hypothesis is correct, their concerns might best be addressed by reassurance that their sleep conforms to historically","-26.4467836140102"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to\",\n \"-34.33813241808093\"\n ],\n [\n \"attempting to sleep, it is a good idea to create a comfortable sleeping environment by eliminating daytime noise and light.\",\n \"-32.63765170183615\"\n ],\n [\n \"quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time\",\n \"-32.606916577096854\"\n ],\n [\n \"time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep. Genetics Heritability estimates of insomnia vary between 38% in males to 59% in females. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 3 genomic loci and 7 genes that influence the risk of\",\n \"-31.145050015416928\"\n ],\n [\n \"healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking\",\n \"-30.9209146863941\"\n ],\n [\n \"will frequently advise that these hours of sleep are obtained at night instead of through napping, because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation, under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep. Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing, with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive. There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule. Activities Exercise is an activity that can facilitate or inhibit sleep quality; people who exercise experience better\",\n \"-30.6437045537823\"\n ],\n [\n \"noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\\nThere is support\",\n \"-30.56902897492546\"\n ],\n [\n \"down to sleep will continue to detect that they are lying down hours later when they awaken.\",\n \"-30.559585286110632\"\n ],\n [\n \"go to sleep or stay awake as it likes but it is staying in the bed until morning (remember Proust at the opening of Swann’s Way?), we sit there with it, reading to it and singing to it and distracting it with swirling night lights until it decides it feels like going to sleep, all the while thinking to ourselves, Go the fuck to sleep, kid.\\\"\\nAccording to Mark Rotella, an editor at Publishers Weekly (and father of two), this is one of the books \\\"that are less earnest about raising your child. They help parents step back and laugh at\",\n \"-30.29098772504949\"\n ],\n [\n \"restlessness. Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime, requiring effort to metabolize it all, and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime. Lastly, limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions due to urinations. Sleep environment Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time\",\n \"-30.12180513193016\"\n ],\n [\n \"This may or may not be permitted, depending on the employer's policies. Some employers may prohibit sleeping, even during unpaid break time, for various reasons, such as the unprofessional appearance of a sleeping employee, the need for an employee to be available during an emergency, or legal regulations. Employees who may endanger others by sleeping on the job may face more serious consequences, such as legal sanctions. For example, airline pilots risk loss of their licenses.\\nIn some industries and work cultures sleeping at work is permitted and even encouraged. Such work cultures typically have flexible schedules, and variant work loads\",\n \"-29.99481176341942\"\n ],\n [\n \"any other safety-critical activity), may not be because natural sleep rarely overcomes an ordinary person without warning.\\nIn many countries, it is presumed that someone who is less than fully conscious cannot give consent to anything. This can be relevant in cases of sexual behavior, euthanasia or patients giving informed consent with regard to starting or stopping a treatment.\",\n \"-29.899637231137604\"\n ],\n [\n \"is that by not voluntarily making oneself go to sleep, it relieves the performance anxiety that arises from the need or requirement to fall asleep, which is meant to be a passive act. This technique has been shown to reduce sleep effort and performance anxiety and also lower subjective assessment of sleep-onset latency and overestimation of the sleep deficit (a quality found in many insomniacs). Sleep hygiene Sleep hygiene is a common term for all of the behaviors which relate to the promotion of good sleep. These behaviors are used as the basis of sleep interventions and are the primary\",\n \"-29.875006280373782\"\n ],\n [\n \"hours at which people of rank go to bed, renders it wholly unnecessary to force a sleep in public places.\\\" This followed with a joke in a later journal: a \\\"gentleman, lately arrived in town, has been for several days past afflicted with a lethargy, owing to the perusal of three chapters in Hawkins's Life of Johnson.\\\" A third stated: the branches of willow trees planted in Lichfield \\\"should be lopped off, and tied in bundles, ... and properly applied to the naked backs of his various biographers, taking care, that the largest bundle be appropriated unto the use and\",\n \"-29.77045049665321\"\n ],\n [\n \"relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher\",\n \"-29.509451439487748\"\n ],\n [\n \"about moving in with his sick mother-in-law. What kind of man are you? A small thing, I know. I'll watch the rest, because it's enthralling enough for me to want to know what happens, or rather what happened. But I won't be lying awake at night thinking about it.\\\"\",\n \"-29.483126081875525\"\n ],\n [\n \"in sexual activity at night, so therefore night-time brings the highest danger of infidelity. Due to females investing more in the relationship, women receive more benefits from sleeping with their mate during the night. Keeping close proximity with a partner acts as a mate guarding technique as it minimises the likelihood of unfaithfulness by the male, and also assures their partner of her fidelity. As a result of the paternal confidence, the male is also more likely to stay and provide resources. In one study it was found that 73.7% of participants said that females are more likely to want\",\n \"-29.48049042839557\"\n ],\n [\n \"such environmental modifications include using the bed for sleep or sex only, not for activities such as reading or watching television; waking up at the same time every morning, including on weekends; going to bed only when sleepy and when there is a high likelihood that sleep will occur; leaving the bed and beginning an activity in another location if sleep does not result in a reasonably brief period of time after getting into bed (commonly ~20 min); reducing the subjective effort and energy expended trying to fall asleep; avoiding exposure to bright light during nighttime hours, and eliminating daytime\",\n \"-29.242569548499887\"\n ],\n [\n \"influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\\\"sleep debt\\\"). This driver of sleep\",\n \"-29.237788122627535\"\n ],\n [\n \"1.5/5 stars and wrote that it \\\"is more likely to put you to sleep than keep you on the edge of your seat\\\".\",\n \"-28.89140278983723\"\n ],\n [\n \"to go to bed early in the evening and wake earlier in the morning than younger adults. Furthermore, the elderly often wake several times throughout the night and have difficulty falling asleep. They are prone to taking numerous naps during the day. Furthermore, constant lighting in assisted living facilities has been demonstrated to impair sleep ability.\\nIn persons with Alzheimer's Disease, sleep disturbances are much more frequent and tend to be more severe. These patients exhibit intermittent sleep throughout the 24-hour day, instead of consolidated sleep at night and wakefulness during the day.\\nPoor sleep is one of the largest\",\n \"-28.846434504133867\"\n ],\n [\n \"awakenings in at least a few nights per week due to their cell phones' ringers. Among those with the cell phone ringers on, being awakened by their cell phone was correlated to difficulty sustaining sleep.\\nAccording to the article, \\\"Interrupted Sleep: College Students Sleeping with Technology\\\" by Elizabeth B. Dowdell and Brianne Q. Clayton, sleep-deprived college students performed significantly worse than peers who had adequate sleep on the cognitive task work and that the sleep-deprived students were not aware of the extent to which sleep deprivation negatively affects their ability to complete cognitive tasks. Insufficient sleep while in college may be\",\n \"-28.75262469991503\"\n ],\n [\n \"naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions\",\n \"-28.55848134489497\"\n ],\n [\n \"The elderly woman tells him that all five of them have been assigned to be in one bed by Social Security. She goes on to explain to him that, with the current situation, no one can afford a private beds anymore because they are now luxury items. She advises the bed owner not to kick at night because her ailing brother Albert, who wears a cloth cap and long underwear of which one pant-leg is empty and pinned up to the rear flap, is sleeping at the foot of the bed. She believes that the man is lucky because\",\n \"-28.507641067670193\"\n ],\n [\n \"he have stayed in bed?\\\" \\nJames Thurber, in his book Fables for our Time, ended the Fable of the Shrike: \\\"Early to rise and early to bed, makes a Shrike healthy, and wealthy, and dead\\\". Criticisms Such recommendations may cast individuals with different natural sleep patterns as lazy or unmotivated when it is a much different matter for a person with a longer or delayed sleep cycle to get up earlier in the morning than for a person with an advanced sleep cycle. In effect, the person accustomed to a later wake time is being\",\n \"-28.45768531388603\"\n ],\n [\n \"It's us against the wealthy plain and simple. It's time to wake up. WAKE UP.\",\n \"-28.356398909032578\"\n ],\n [\n \"to fall asleep while eating snacks, which attracts animals into his bedroom, though he seems incredulous or apathetic to this. His bathroom is described as disgusting, when asked if they would rather endure a dangerous and painful stunt (ex. stick a wasp up your nose) or shower in Bill's bathroom, his friends always choose the former. When assigned tasks to get his house ready for a family reunion after Nancy and Peggy are assigned the bathroom, both are horrified and desperately try to change assignments. He also has a foot fetish, finding Peggy's unnaturally over-sized feet very appealing, and even\",\n \"-28.349778757692548\"\n ],\n [\n \"the morning. The reliance on technology, specifically in the bedroom, which should be associated with sleep, created the difficulty with separating waking and sleeping activities. When measuring the amount of sleep during the week compared to the weekend, students with four or more technological devices in their bedroom had significantly less sleep compared to those with three or fewer devices. Since many students do not utilize sleep mode or do not disturb or silence their phones at night, each notification and alert from their phones disrupts their sleep in terms of sleep quality and duration of sleep. Caffeine A study\",\n \"-28.313919042091584\"\n ],\n [\n \"at the right type of day.\\nNightlights are also helpful in reducing falls and injuries and, at the same time, help the elderly to maintain sleep. Falls are a major concern with the elderly; they threaten their independence and risk further health complications. Lighting systems can help seniors maintain balance and stability. Furthermore, sleep deprivation can contribute to decreased postural control. Nightlights that accent horizontal and vertical spaces, such as soft lighting above a doorway or at the foot of a bed, can reduce the risk of falls without disturbing sleep.\",\n \"-28.262821025811718\"\n ],\n [\n \"do the exact opposite of what they have been doing in bed: They shall stay awake and avoid falling asleep. The goal of this method is to decrease performance anxiety which may inhibit sleep onset. Paradoxal Intention has been shown to be an effective treatment for sleep initiation insomnia but might not be effective for sleep maintenance or mixed insomnia. Indication CBT-I is indicated when the following criteria is met:\\n1.The patient must complain about difficulties initiating or maintaining sleep. These difficulties must cause a significant distress and/or impact daily functioning. Complaints of non-restorative sleep without troubles of initiating or\",\n \"-28.25445735804533\"\n ],\n [\n \"focuses on Japanese culture, writes that sleeping at work is considered a sign of dedication to the job, such that one has stayed up late doing work or worked to the point of complete exhaustion, and may therefore be excusable.\",\n \"-28.19211258154246\"\n ],\n [\n \"their hotel for a nap instead. \\\"Sure enough I wake up from a nap and have a bunch of text messages. I turn on the TV ... it was just a twist of fate. It's definitely something that's hard to think about it. Thank goodness we didn't go\\\", said O'Brien.\",\n \"-28.184120241407072\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the body attempts to reset its internal sleep clock. Bright light therapy, which is often used to help early morning wakers reset their natural sleep cycle, can also be used with sleep restriction therapy to reinforce a new wake schedule. Although applying this technique with consistency is difficult, it can have a positive effect on insomnia in motivated patients.\\nParadoxical intention is a cognitive reframing technique where the insomniac, instead of attempting to fall asleep at night, makes every effort to stay awake (i.e. essentially stops trying to fall asleep). One theory that may explain the effectiveness of this method\",\n \"-28.111862519872375\"\n ],\n [\n \"inability to fall asleep and experience marked decrease in sleep efficiency. There may also be some changes in circadian rhythms. Studies are ongoing about what causes these changes and how they may be reduced to ensure comfortable sleep of old adults. Brain activity during sleep Understanding the activity of different parts of the brain during sleep can give a clue to the functions of sleep. It has been observed that mental activity is present during all stages of sleep, though from different regions in the brain. So, contrary to popular understanding, the brain never completely shuts down during sleep. Also,\",\n \"-28.079438070337346\"\n ],\n [\n \" A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The\",\n \"-28.072101298268535\"\n ],\n [\n \"night for a period of time following daytime continence. Older children may have problems with bladder control (primarily at night) and may wear diapers while sleeping to control bedwetting. Approximately 16% of children in the U.S. over the age of 5 wet the bed. If bedwetting becomes a concern, the current recommendation is to consider forgoing the use of a diaper at night as they may prevent the child from wanting to get out of bed, although this is not a primary cause of bedwetting. This is particularly the case for children over the age 8. Training pants Manufacturers have\",\n \"-28.065657852253935\"\n ],\n [\n \"the demands of society. It is often due to a psychosocial stressor (an event in a person's environment that causes stress or discomfort), especially for adolescents. The delayed sleep-wake cycle leads to chronic sleep deprivation and habitually late sleeping hours. Individuals with this type often have difficulty changing their sleeping patterns to an earlier and more socially acceptable time. Their actual sleep, once it begins, is normal. It is the timing of their sleeping and waking that is persistently delayed.\\nThe jet lag type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is characterized by disruptions arising from a mismatch between a person's circadian\",\n \"-28.05261573730968\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleep, however, especially when purely behavioral criteria are used to define sleep. For example, zebrafish, tilapia, tench, brown bullhead, and swell shark become motionless and unresponsive at night (or by day, in the case of the swell shark); Spanish hogfish and blue-headed wrasse can even be lifted by hand all the way to the surface without evoking a response. On the other hand, sleep patterns are easily disrupted and may even disappear during periods of migration, spawning, and parental care. Behavioural sleep Instead of examining brain activity for sleep patterns, an alternate approach is to examine any rest/activity cycles that\",\n \"-27.973659363167826\"\n ],\n [\n \"Effects of sleep deprivation on college students Sleep Hygiene Inadequate sleep hygiene is one primary cause as to why college students experience sleep deprivation. Sleep hygiene is defined as habits or practices that allow for healthy amounts of sleep on a daily basis. Good sleep hygiene habits include keeping a consistent sleep schedule, having a quiet sleep environment, and avoiding consuming caffeine and alcohol before sleeping. Many students have inadequate sleep hygiene that leads to sleep deprivation. Technology The blue light that is emitted from the screens of phones, computers and other devices stops the production of melatonin, the hormone\",\n \"-27.969223265114124\"\n ],\n [\n \"up during a single night. Poor sleep quality disrupts the cycle of transition between the different stages of sleep. Subjective sleep quality in turn refers to a sense of being rested and regenerated after awaking from sleep. A study by A. Harvey et al. (2002) found that insomniacs were more demanding in their evaluations of sleep quality than individuals who had no sleep problems.\\nHomeostatic sleep propensity (the need for sleep as a function of the amount of time elapsed since the last adequate sleep episode) must be balanced against the circadian element for satisfactory sleep. Along with corresponding messages\",\n \"-27.868199837343127\"\n ],\n [\n \"than three times as likely to involve driver drowsiness as those that occurred during the day.\\nThe reason that collisions involving drowsy driving are more or less likely to happen at different times of the day may have to do with circadian rhythms (the biological time clock). The biological master clock in the hypothalamus is the suprachiasmatic nucleus or SCN. It provides the main control of the circadian rhythms for sleep, body temperature and other functions. The reason night time driving is so risky is because sleep becomes an irresistible urge especially from about midnight until 6 a.m. A sleepy period\",\n \"-27.86301000851745\"\n ],\n [\n \"with irritability: people who get angry shortly before sleeping tend to suffer from sleep drunkenness. \\nAccording to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, hypersomniac patients often take long naps during the day that are mostly unrefreshing. Researchers found that naps are usually more frequent and longer in patients than in controls Furthermore, 75% of the patients report that short naps are not refreshing, compared to controls. Diagnosis \\\"The severity of daytime sleepiness needs to be quantified by subjective scales (at least the Epworth Sleepiness Scale) and objective tests such as the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT).\\\" \",\n \"-27.781033362291055\"\n ],\n [\n \"up several times throughout the night, punctuating their sleep with periods of wakefulness, perhaps lasting several hours.\\nThe boundaries between sleeping and waking are blurred in these societies. Some observers believe that nighttime sleep in these societies is most often split into two main periods, the first characterized primarily by deep sleep and the second by REM sleep.\\nSome societies display a fragmented sleep pattern in which people sleep at all times of the day and night for shorter periods. In many nomadic or hunter-gatherer societies, people will sleep on and off throughout the day or night depending on what is happening.\",\n \"-27.77452381598414\"\n ],\n [\n \"mortality. There are no benefits to oversleeping and it can result in sleep inertia, which is the feeling of drowsiness for a period of time after waking. There are two phases of sleep: rapid eye movement (REM) and Non-REM sleep (NREM).\\nREM sleep is the less restful stage in which you dream and experience muscle movements or twitches. Also during this stage in sleep, a person's heart rate and breathing are typically irregular. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. The body's blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are generally significantly decreased compared to\",\n \"-27.7580414970289\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleep for creative problem solving by thinking of a problem right before we fall asleep, as well as possible tools needed to solve the issue (not the solution itself). This may improve the chance of dreaming about the problem without the normal restraints. When waking up, participants can take notes of the dreams to see if new solutions towards solving have arisen.\\nThe third and last method to boost creativity in adults, is also related to randomness. Onarheim claims that as adults we tend to associate one word with other words and things. When faced with a problem we can make\",\n \"-27.74919808350387\"\n ],\n [\n \"the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to\",\n \"-27.730981496338245\"\n ],\n [\n \"while sleeping, he added.\\nCo-sleeping also increases the risks of suffocation and strangulation. The soft quality of the mattresses, comforters, and pillows may suffocate the infants. Some experts, then, recommend that the bed should be firm, and should not be a waterbed or couch; and that heavy quilts, comforters, and pillows should not be used. Another common advice given to prevent suffocation is to keep a baby on its back, not its stomach. Parents who roll over during their sleep could inadvertently crush and/or suffocate their child, especially if they are heavy sleepers, over-tired or over-exhausted and/or obese. There is also\",\n \"-27.702725095907226\"\n ],\n [\n \"to go home.\\nThe bedroom where he is to stay, on the first floor, is a peaceful contrast to the atmosphere below, but he is aware of possible dangers. He locks the door of his room and lies on the bed, which is a four-poster bed, with his winnings under the pillow. He cannot sleep. He tries to distract his mind by studying the items in the room, which include a wash-stand, chairs and a picture on the wall; thus a convincing image of the room is given to the reader. The moonlight in the room brings to his mind a\",\n \"-27.6971334740374\"\n ],\n [\n \"as of 2019. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies. Personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in the UK, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. Sleep Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in\",\n \"-27.69189078509953\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleep probably serve different and unknown functions. Moreover, the preservation theory needs to explain why carnivores like lions, which are on top of the food chain and thus have little to fear, sleep the most. It has been suggested that they need to minimize energy expenditure when not hunting. Waste clearance from the brain During sleep, metabolic waste products, such as immunoglobulins, protein fragments or intact proteins like beta-amyloid, may be cleared from the interstitium via a glymphatic system of lymph-like channels coursing along perivascular spaces and the astrocyte network of the brain. According to this model, hollow tubes between\",\n \"-27.689773631398566\"\n ],\n [\n \"rotating shift schedules, especially schedules that gradually change, exhibit sleep disturbance and wake period sleepiness. Insufficient sleep time, family and social expectations, and alcohol use worsen this problem.\\nIndividuals with the unspecified type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder also exhibit daytime and evening sleepiness or insomnia, especially those people who have a non-24-hour sleep pattern. People with irregular sleep patterns have difficulty knowing when they will fall asleep and wake up. Causes The delayed sleep phase type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is marked by a delay of the sleep-wake cycle as it relates to\",\n \"-27.687333899055375\"\n ],\n [\n \"when these activities are necessary. Also, daydreaming can make the time doing boring tasks go faster in people's perception. Psychological studies Freudian psychology interpreted daydreaming as expression of the repressed instincts similarly to those revealing themselves in nighttime dreams. Like nighttime dreams, daydreams, also, are an example of wish-fulfilment (based on infantile experiences), and are allowed to surface because of relaxed censorship. He pointed out that, in contrast to nighttime dreams, which are often confusing and incoherent, there seems to be a process of \\\"secondary revision\\\" in fantasies that makes them more lucid, like daydreaming. The state of daydreaming is\",\n \"-27.677255406939366\"\n ],\n [\n \"which the child sleeps. Windows should be closed and potentially dangerous items should be removed from the bedroom, and additionally, alarms can be installed and the child placed in a downstairs bedroom.\\nHypnosis could be efficient. Sleepers could become less sensitive to their sleep terrors.\\nOne technique is to wake up just before the sleep terrors begin. When they appear regularly, this method can prevent their appearance.\\nPsychotherapy or counseling can be helpful in many cases. There is some evidence to suggest that night terrors can result from lack of sleep or poor sleeping habits. In these cases, it can be helpful to\",\n \"-27.667231087375512\"\n ],\n [\n \"and anxiety, which may make sleep more difficult and of inferior quality. This is the well-known first night effect. Complete adaptation to the sleep laboratory may take four days or longer, which is longer than the duration of most laboratory studies. Also, the content of dreams at the laboratory has been observed to be different from dreams at home. Similarly, the laboratory environment may alter the content of dreams recalled from spontaneous awakenings at the end of a night's sleep, as indicated by high frequency of laboratory references in morning spontaneous awakenings in REM and NREM dream reports).\",\n \"-27.66240688556718\"\n ],\n [\n \"meaning that the heat would move from the surface of the body and that's why one might need a blanket during night. During the day the heat would move to the surface of the body and the body temperature raise.\\nIn any cases that one is forced to get less sleep (having to study for an exam, being under mental pressure or having to finish a project) the brain and the body would get warmer and drier so in order to control the excessive warmness or dryness in the body one should cut back on warm and dry food stuff. Additionally\",\n \"-27.61580681434134\"\n ],\n [\n \"could be that the higher threshold for sensory interruption during REM sleep allows the brain to travel further along unrealistic and peculiar trains of thought.\\nSome dreaming can take place during non-REM sleep. “Light sleepers” can experience dreaming during stage 2 non-REM sleep, whereas “deep sleepers”, upon awakening in the same stage, are more likely to report “thinking” but not “dreaming”. Certain scientific efforts to assess the uniquely bizarre nature of dreams experienced while asleep were forced to conclude that waking thought could be just as bizarre, especially in conditions of sensory deprivation. Because of non-REM dreaming, some sleep researchers have\",\n \"-27.582678968683467\"\n ],\n [\n \"from becoming either corrupt or incomplete. It also explains why it is important to forget dreams most of the time. Dreaming and depression It is well known that depressed people spend far more of their sleep time in REM sleep than non-depressed people, entering it earlier – and it has been shown, experimentally, that depressed people show improvement when deprived of REM sleep. This accords with Griffin’s theory, as depressed people spend much of their waking time arousing themselves physiologically through rumination and worry. All this arousal has to be discharged in dreams. Dreaming takes up a large amount of\",\n \"-27.577593756548595\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the military or police. Hunting is another good example. Sleep Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's snoring may have sound-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.\\nTo determine the comfort of earplugs used for sleeping, it is important to try them on while actually lying down. The pressure on the ear between the head and pillow may cause significant discomfort. Furthermore, just tilting the head back or to\",\n \"-27.563568652280082\"\n ],\n [\n \"to sleep, reducing the ability to stay asleep and to achieve restful sleep. For individuals with allergies or asthma, additional considerations must be given to potential triggers in the bedroom environment. Medications that might improve ability to breathe while sleeping may also impair sleep in other ways, so there must be careful management of decongestants, asthma controllers, and antihistamines. Implementation Sleep hygiene strategies include advice about timing of sleep and food intake in relationship to exercise and sleeping environment. Recommendations depend on knowledge of the individual situation; counselling is presented as a form of patient education.\\nAs attention to the role\",\n \"-27.540145249164198\"\n ],\n [\n \"if the sufferer does not eat a proper diet, does not get the appropriate amount or quality of sleep (e.g., because of sleep apnea), or is enduring stressful events. Adults who have experienced sexual abuse are more likely to receive a diagnosis of sleep disorders, including night terrors. Overall, though, adult night terrors are much less common and often respond best to treatments that rectify causes of poor quality or quantity of sleep. Differential diagnosis We have to distinguish night terrors from nightmares. In fact, in nightmares there are almost never vocalization or agitation, and if there are any, they\",\n \"-27.53632895150804\"\n ],\n [\n \"one at night. Frequently I'd have to do both. A few times I worked so hard that I actually threw up from the exertion. But I was young then. I didn't get tired easily. And I never complained about the working conditions. I thought that's just how it was supposed to be. Now I know that's wrong. But at the time I had no clue. Whatever they'd give me, I'd do. And as soon as I was done working I could just fall asleep. They'd say, 'Go to sleep', and I'd go right to sleep.\\nThe hard work of the cast\",\n \"-27.485895035413705\"\n ],\n [\n \"On Dreams Content Aristotle explains that during sleep there is an absence of external sensory stimulation. While sleeping with our eyes closed, the eyes are unable to see, and so in this respect we perceive nothing while asleep. He compares hallucinations to dreams, saying \\\"...the faculty by which, in waking hours, we are subject to illusion when affected by disease, is identical with that which produces illusory effects in sleep.\\\" When awake and perceiving, to see or hear something incorrectly only occurs when one actually sees or hears something, thinking it to be something else. But in sleep, if it\",\n \"-27.472149900859222\"\n ],\n [\n \"in order to see the screen better. From this, neck and back pains and problems increase, commonly referred to as repetitive strain injuries. Using electronics before going to bed makes it difficult for people to fall asleep, which has a negative effect on human health. Sleeping less prevents people from performing to their full potential physically and mentally and can also “increase rates of obesity and diabetes,” which are “long-term health consequences”. Obesity and diabetes are more commonly seen in students and in youth because they tend to be the ones using electronics the most. “People who frequently use their\",\n \"-27.465595713096263\"\n ],\n [\n \"but we'll stay woke up longer.\\\")\\nLead Belly uses the phrase near the end of the recording of his 1938 song, \\\"Scottsboro Boys\\\", while explaining about the namesake incident, saying \\\"I advise everybody to be a little careful when they go along through there, stay woke, keep their eyes open\\\". Erykah Badu and modern activist usage The first modern use of the term woke appears in the song \\\"Master Teacher\\\" from the album New Amerykah Part One (4th World War) (2008) by soul singer Erykah Badu. Throughout the song, Badu sings the phrase: \\\"I stay woke.\\\" Although the phrase did not\",\n \"-27.438418846002605\"\n ],\n [\n \"awake, too much time is spent sleeping, or a combination of both. Uninterruptible sleep An uninterruptible sleep state is a sleep state that won't handle a signal right away. It will wake only as a result of a waited-upon resource becoming available or after a time-out occurs during that wait (if specified when put to sleep). It is mostly used by device drivers waiting for disk or network IO (input/output).\\nWhen the process is sleeping uninterruptibly, signals accumulated during the sleep will be noticed when the process returns from the system call or trap.\\nIn Unix-like systems the command 'ps -l' uses\",\n \"-27.379058061167598\"\n ],\n [\n \"Waking up early Waking up early is a productivity method - rising early and consistently so as to be able to accomplish more during the day. This method has been recommended since antiquity and is now recommended by a number of personal development gurus. The philosopher Aristotle said, \\\"It is well to be up before daybreak, for such habits contribute to health, wealth, and wisdom.\\\" Commentary Within the context of religious observances, spiritual writers have called this practice \\\"the heroic minute\\\", referring to the sacrifice which this entails.\\nBenjamin Franklin is quoted to have said: \\\"Early to bed and early to\",\n \"-27.281604917407094\"\n ],\n [\n \"110 young people can go to bed at night knowing they have an angel in Irena Medavoy\\\".\",\n \"-27.276227590471535\"\n ],\n [\n \"in other sources the book would receive a translation into Jamaican patois, entitled Go de Rass to Sleep. Themes According to Mansbach, the frustrations he wrote about \\\"are not permissible to talk about. We're not completely honest because we don't want to be bad parents.\\\" Macy Halford said this frustration elicited a response peculiar to modern parents:\\n\\\"Whatever the cause, it is definitely the case that, when faced with a kid who refuses to go to sleep, we get annoyed, like all parents before us, but, rather than just abandoning the child to the dark and telling it that it can\",\n \"-27.25777695884608\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the cognitive and motor deficits that may be present. Napping When a person is sleep deprived, re-entering sleep may provide a viable route to reduce mental and physical fatigue but it can also induce sleep inertia. In order to limit sleep inertia, one should avoid waking from the deeper stages of slow-wave sleep. The onset of slow-wave sleep occurs approximately 30 minutes after falling asleep, therefore a nap should be limited to under 30 minutes to prevent waking during slow-wave sleep and enhancing sleep inertia. Furthermore, self-awakening from a short nap was shown to relieve disorientation of sleep inertia\",\n \"-27.231939312125178\"\n ],\n [\n \"taking a short nap during the day (20 minutes) especially in warm climates and seasons is highly recommended to them.\\nBesides, those with cold and wet Mizaj should not sleep much as long sleep would increase wetness in the body. People with phlegmatic temperament should cut down on food items cold and wet temperament to sleep shorter and get up easily and not having trouble waking up. They had better wake up once or twice during the night so that wetness would not build up in their bodies. Age range Although each person is born with a fixed and unique temperament,\",\n \"-27.225747744800174\"\n ],\n [\n \"Wakefulness Wakefulness is a daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness in which an individual is conscious and engages in coherent cognitive and behavioral responses to the external world. Being awake is the opposite of the state of being asleep in which most external inputs to the brain are excluded from neural processing. Effects upon the brain The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\\nAnother effect of wakefulness is the reduction of\",\n \"-27.19751937869296\"\n ],\n [\n \"of total sleep deprivation). Mean body temperature falls continually during this period.\\nIt has been suggested that acute REM sleep deprivation can improve certain types of depression when depression appears to be related to an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters. Although sleep deprivation in general annoys most of the population, it has repeatedly been shown to alleviate depression, albeit temporarily. More than half the individuals who experience this relief report it to be rendered ineffective after sleeping the following night. Thus, researchers have devised methods such as altering the sleep schedule for a span of days following a REM deprivation period and\",\n \"-27.191851653718913\"\n ],\n [\n \"is referred to as Process S. The balance between sleeping and waking is regulated by a process called homeostasis. Induced or perceived lack of sleep is called sleep deprivation.\\nProcess S is driven by the depletion of glycogen and accumulation of adenosine in the forebrain that disinhibits the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus, allowing for inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system.\\nSleep deprivation tends to cause slower brain waves in the frontal cortex, shortened attention span, higher anxiety, impaired memory, and a grouchy mood. Conversely, a well-rested organism tends to have improved memory and mood. Neurophysiological and functional imaging studies have demonstrated that\",\n \"-27.188338912586914\"\n ],\n [\n \"compared with that which is exhibited in daily life, is open to debate. However, the comparative literature strongly suggests that shorter, polyphasically-placed sleep is the rule, rather than the exception, across the entire animal kingdom (Campbell and Tobler, 1984; Tobler, 1989). There is little reason to believe that the human sleep/wake system would evolve in a fundamentally different manner. That people often do not exhibit such sleep organization in daily life merely suggests that humans have the capacity (often with the aid of stimulants such as caffeine or increased physical activity) to overcome the propensity for sleep when it is\",\n \"-27.119191977850278\"\n ],\n [\n \"partner or parent who led patients to seek medical attention. Sleep Because of the abnormal writhing movements, often patients’ sleep patterns are disrupted. This may be due to RMD’s comorbidity with sleep apnea, which has been observed in some patients\\n. Many find that their sleep is not refreshing and are tired or stressed the following day, despite getting a full nights rest. However, other patients report that their sleep patterns are infrequently interrupted due to RMD episodes and do not report being excessively sleepy during the next day as scored on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Thus, as can be seen,\",\n \"-27.11568929288478\"\n ],\n [\n \"the participants are addicted to social media, the less satisfied they are with life. Some parents restrict their children's access to social media for these reasons. Sleep disturbances According to a study released in 2017 by researchers from the University of Pittsburgh, the link between sleep disturbance and the use of social media was clear. It concluded that blue light had a part to play—and how often they logged on, rather than time spent on social media sites, was a higher predictor of disturbed sleep, suggesting \\\"an obsessive 'checking'\\\". The strong relationship of social media use and sleep disturbance has\",\n \"-27.078529864287702\"\n ],\n [\n \"age group, Seriously, Just Go To Sleep is a real children's book for a parent to read to his or her child, and the word \\\"fuck\\\" was replaced by the parent in the story expressing frustration with the stubborn child in a more G-rated way. For example, \\\"I know you're not thirsty, that's bullshit. Stop lying. Lie the fuck down, my darling, and sleep\\\" was changed to \\\"I know you're not thirsty. You just had a drink. Stop goofing around now, and sleep.\\\"\\nThe book was translated into many other languages, and in February 2014, it was announced on Facebook and\",\n \"-27.0743111067859\"\n ],\n [\n \"that she at least put on her pajamas, wash her face, brush her teeth. The little girl keeps repeating that she is not tired but climbs into bed and under the sheets since that is where she is the most comfortable. She then proceeds to ask her parents if everything thing goes to sleep. The parents then proceed to go through a list of animals and their habits of sleeping. They discuss the family dog, the cat, bats, snails, bears, and whales. The little girl proclaims that she knows an animal that sleeps a lot. We then finally come across\",\n \"-27.067832329004887\"\n ],\n [\n \"partner. In almost all societies, sleeping partners are strongly regulated by social standards. For example, a person might only sleep with the immediate family, the extended family, a spouse or romantic partner, children, children of a certain age, children of specific gender, peers of a certain gender, friends, peers of equal social rank, or with no one at all. Sleep may be an actively social time, depending on the sleep groupings, with no constraints on noise or activity.\\nPeople sleep in a variety of locations. Some sleep directly on the ground; others on a skin or blanket; others sleep on platforms\",\n \"-27.065797367307823\"\n ],\n [\n \"that controls the sleep-wake cycle of the circadian rhythm. Reducing the amount of melatonin produced makes it harder to fall and stay asleep. In a 2011 poll conducted by the National Sleep Foundation, it reported that approximately 90% of Americans used technology in the hour before bed. The poll noted that young adults and teenagers were more likely to use cell phones, computers, and video game consoles. Additionally, the authors of the poll found that technology use was connected to sleep patterns. 22% of participants reported going to sleep with cell phone ringers on in their bedroom and 10% reported\",\n \"-27.039625741672353\"\n ],\n [\n \"during the eviction. The activists claimed the laws, which prohibit the use of \\\"bedding, sleeping bags, or other sleeping matter,\\\" are immoral and that they're obligated to challenge them. The occupiers claim that sleep is human right and is essential for mental, physical and emotional health, citing that human beings need to spend nearly a third of their lives sleeping. Prohibiting sleep by making it illegal for people to protect themselves and their belongings from the elements causes sleep deprivation; it is inhumane, unconstitutional, and amounts to torture. The activists said the prayer vigil would continue until \\\"bedding matter\\\" was\",\n \"-27.029596638436487\"\n ],\n [\n \"discrepancy between subjective and objective reports, clinicians may conclude that the perception of poor sleep is primarily illusionary.\\nAlternatively, some people may report excessive daytime sleepiness or chronic disabling sleepiness, while no sleep disorder has been found to exist. Methods of diagnosing sleepiness objectively, such as the Multiple Sleep Latency Test do not confirm the symptom—\\\"true\\\" sleepiness is not observed despite the complaint. (It may be speculated that such reports of daytime sleepiness may be a result of the nocebo response —the reverse of the placebo effect—due to patient expectations of adverse effects from their subjective perception of poor sleep.)\\nFinally, on\",\n \"-27.00962596575846\"\n ],\n [\n \"their own bedroom. A pre-lucid dream may ensue. More commonly, dreamers will believe they have awakened, and then either wake up for real in their own bed or \\\"fall back asleep\\\" in the dream.\\nA common false awakening is a \\\"late for work\\\" scenario. A person may \\\"wake up\\\" in a typical room, with most things looking normal, and realize he or she overslept and missed the start time at work or school. Clocks, if found in the dream, will show time indicating that fact. The resulting panic is often strong enough to jar the person awake for real (much like\",\n \"-27.00944397458443\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleep time of fourteen hours.\\nThough sleep is a primarily biological process, it can be treated as a behavior. This means that it can be altered and managed through practice and can be learned by the child. Healthy sleep habits can be established during the first four months to lay a foundation for healthy sleep. These habits typically include sleeping in a crib (instead of a car seat, stroller, or swing), being put down to sleep drowsy but awake, and avoiding negative sleep associations, such as nursing to sleep or using a pacifier to fall asleep, which may be hard to\",\n \"-26.994985329918563\"\n ],\n [\n \"the cortex via the hypothalamus. During NREM sleep this system is inhibited by GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area and parafacial zone, as well as other sleep-promoting neurons in distinct brain regions. Sleep function The need and function of sleep are among the least clearly understood areas in sleep research. When asked, after 50 years of research, what he knew about the reason people sleep, William C. Dement, founder of Stanford University's Sleep Research Center, answered, \\\"As far as I know, the only reason we need to sleep that is really, really solid is because we get sleepy.\\\" It\",\n \"-26.95260419713304\"\n ],\n [\n \"temperature: a very excited person often has an elevated temperature.\\nWearing more clothing slows daily temperature change and raises body temperature. Similarly, sleeping with an electric blanket raises the body temperature at night.\\nSleep disturbances also affect temperatures. Normally, body temperature drops significantly at a person's normal bedtime and throughout the night. Short-term sleep deprivation produces a higher temperature at night than normal, but long-term sleep deprivation appears to reduce temperatures. Insomnia and poor sleep quality are associated with smaller and later drops in body temperature. Similarly, waking up unusually early, sleeping in, jet lag and changes\",\n \"-26.933675566120655\"\n ],\n [\n \"the morning has been proven to be effective. A prolongation of slow-wave sleep increases glymphatic clearance of metabolic waste products, which can lead to improvements of sleep disorders. Furthermore, studies showed ameliorated sleep pattern due to acupuncture of patients with TBI. Sleep apnea due to TBI can be treated through positive airway pressure, which helps with the development of a regular breathing pattern during sleep and prevents waking up. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia also have been shown to effectively improve sleep in TBI patients. It aims to improve sleep habits and behaviors by identifying and changing the thoughts and\",\n \"-26.724746016669087\"\n ],\n [\n \"the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace. Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after\",\n \"-26.705106009409064\"\n ],\n [\n \"his journal of September 24, 1891, and is the subject of a letter to The Lady magazine of October 29, 1891: \\nAny one who has tried, as I have often done, the process of getting out of bed at 2 a.m. in a winter night, lighting a candle, and recording some happy thought which would probably be otherwise forgotten, will agree with me it entails much discomfort. All I have now to do, if I wake and think of something I wish to record, is to draw from under the pillow a small memorandum book containing my Nyctograph, write a\",\n \"-26.694535783688025\"\n ],\n [\n \"rhythm sleep disorders. Naps The siesta habit has recently been associated with a 37% lower coronary mortality, possibly due to reduced cardiovascular stress mediated by daytime sleep. Short naps at mid-day and mild evening exercise were found to be effective for improved sleep, cognitive tasks, and mental health in elderly people.\\nMany people experience a temporary drop in alertness in the early afternoon, commonly known as the \\\"post-lunch dip\\\". While a large meal can make a person feel sleepy, the post-lunch dip is mostly an effect of the circadian clock. People naturally feel most sleepy at two times of the day\",\n \"-26.659952572896145\"\n ],\n [\n \"very difficult to diagnose because doctors can't exactly tell if a person has sleep apnea in a regular routine visit. Additionally the patient himself may not even realize he has sleep apnea because it occurs during sleep, so a partner or roommate is usually the first to notice symptoms. \\nThere are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep\",\n \"-26.636560221784748\"\n ],\n [\n \"between tasks and default brain states, and also distinguishes between background and foreground processing. Being awake allows the person to not only be aware of themselves and the world, but also to have conscious motor coordination and understand the difference between need and want that comes from secondary consciousness. Difference between sleep and dream There is a difference between being just asleep and in a state of mind called dreaming. Sleeping can be described as the lack of conscious awareness of the outside world, meaning large portions of the brain that receive and interpret signals are deactivated during this time,\",\n \"-26.631525457924\"\n ],\n [\n \"hormonal balance, temperature regulation and maintaining heart rate. Preservation The \\\"Preservation and Protection\\\" theory holds that sleep serves an adaptive function. It protects the animal during that portion of the 24-hour day in which being awake, and hence roaming around, would place the individual at greatest risk. Organisms do not require 24 hours to feed themselves and meet other necessities. From this perspective of adaptation, organisms are safer by staying out of harm's way, where potentially they could be prey to other, stronger organisms. They sleep at times that maximize their safety, given their physical capacities and their habitats.\\nThis theory\",\n \"-26.597179904980294\"\n ],\n [\n \"the day, you will dream about it at night as well.\",\n \"-26.560422586859204\"\n ],\n [\n \"morning can lengthen daytime sleep; however, some studies have shown that nighttime sleepiness may be unaffected. Zopiclone has been shown to be ineffective in increasing sleep in shift workers.\",\n \"-26.541676958622702\"\n ],\n [\n \"a quarter of them have previously shown symptoms of DSPS.\\nThe term free-running sleep has occasionally been used by non-scientists to indicate intentional facilitation of the natural sleep/wake cycle. In this context, free-running sleep means that a person chooses to sleep when sleepy and to awaken spontaneously (specifically without an alarm clock or reference to the time of day).\",\n \"-26.537489394802833\"\n ],\n [\n \"hypersomnia or excessive sleepiness should only go to bed to sleep or for sexual activity. All other activities such as eating or watching television should be done elsewhere. For those patients, it is also important to go to bed only when they feel tired, than trying to fall asleep for hours. In that case, they probably should get out of bed and read or watch television until they get sleepy. Epidemiology Hypersomnia affects approximately 5% - 10% of the general population, \\\"with a higher prevalence for men due to the sleep apnea syndromes\\\".\",\n \"-26.503606640384533\"\n ],\n [\n \"sleepiness rating. When scientists deprived subjects of sleep, they found sleep latency levels could drop below 1, i.e., subjects could fall asleep in less than a minute. The amount of sleep loss was directly linked to changes in sleep latency scores.\\nThe studies eventually led Dement and Carskadon to conclude that \\\"the brain keeps an exact accounting of how much sleep it is owed\\\". Not getting enough sleep during any given period of time leads to a phenomenon called sleep debt, which lowers sleep latency scores and makes sleep-deprived individuals fall asleep more quickly. Home testing of sleep latency For home-testing\",\n \"-26.46749155515863\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sleep Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body, characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, reduced muscle activity and inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and reduced interactions with surroundings. It is distinguished from wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, but more reactive than coma or disorders of consciousness, with sleep displaying very different and active brain patterns.\\nSleep occurs in repeating periods, in which the body alternates between two distinct modes: REM sleep and non-REM sleep. Although REM stands for \\\"rapid eye movement\\\", this mode of sleep\",\n \"-26.46561994194417\"\n ],\n [\n \"writers. Superimposed on this basic rhythm is a secondary one of light sleep in the early afternoon.\\nThe brain exhibits high levels of the pituitary hormone prolactin during the period of nighttime wakefulness, which may contribute to the feeling of peace that many people associate with it.\\nThe modern assumption that consolidated sleep with no awakenings is the normal and correct way for human adults to sleep, may lead people to consult their doctors fearing they have maintenance insomnia or other sleep disorders. If Ekirch's hypothesis is correct, their concerns might best be addressed by reassurance that their sleep conforms to historically\",\n \"-26.4467836140102\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":88,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"q5hsx"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"- Why is it that can some countries can have nuclear weapons while others can't, and who gets to decide?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Pretty much everyone got together and agreed to A. Stop building nukes B. Get rid of the nukes they have (this has been progressing slowly) C. Share nuclear technology for energy purposes. The big countries benefit from number 1- no new nukes, so the balance of power swings more towards them. Less powerful countries like 3- they get free technology and don't have to rediscover nuclear power on their own if they want to have their own reactors. Not everyone signed the treaty- in particular, India, Pakistan, and Isreal. The first 2 have publicly shown that they have developed nukes, and everyone is pretty sure about Israel. Iran *did* sign, which is why the UN is allowed to care about their nuclear program.","A few countries developed them many years ago and now they have them. They don't want anyone else to have them because then they would have less power. That's pretty much it.","The ones who have nuclear weapons. It's that simple."],"string":"[\n \"Pretty much everyone got together and agreed to A. Stop building nukes B. Get rid of the nukes they have (this has been progressing slowly) C. Share nuclear technology for energy purposes. The big countries benefit from number 1- no new nukes, so the balance of power swings more towards them. Less powerful countries like 3- they get free technology and don't have to rediscover nuclear power on their own if they want to have their own reactors. Not everyone signed the treaty- in particular, India, Pakistan, and Isreal. The first 2 have publicly shown that they have developed nukes, and everyone is pretty sure about Israel. Iran *did* sign, which is why the UN is allowed to care about their nuclear program.\",\n \"A few countries developed them many years ago and now they have them. They don't want anyone else to have them because then they would have less power. That's pretty much it.\",\n \"The ones who have nuclear weapons. It's that simple.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["not allow nations to access nuclear energy. These countries allow themselves to use nuclear weapons and announce that they will not hesitate to use these arms against other nations. This can lead to a collective effort. The international community would like to set in motion a real move to enjoy nuclear technology for peaceful purposes and for national development. We are witnessing big threats by possessors of nuclear weapons. They are boldly threatening to use nukes. Any use of nuclear weapons to harm humanity is condemned.\" The Deputy Foreign Minister for Education and Research, Mohammad Bagher Khorramshad accusing the West","-32.82166329130996"],["non-nuclear weapon state the 'inalienable right' to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power. A \"number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons\". A 2009 United Nations report said that:\nThe revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons.\nAccording to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not","-32.73799792985665"],["a nuclear weapon in war is the United States, which dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. \nThere are eight countries that have declared they possess nuclear weapons and are known to have tested a nuclear weapon, only five of which are members of the NPT. The eight are China, France, India, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.\nIsrael is considered by most analysts to have nuclear weapons numbering in the low hundreds as well, but maintains an official policy of nuclear ambiguity, neither denying nor confirming","-32.65919268480502"],["impact of nuclear weapons rather than on the security dimension that a minority of states attributes to them. Since all states have to abide by international humanitarian law at all times, it is questionable whether nuclear weapons can ever be used lawfully, in view of their indiscriminate and disproportionate effects, and the need to refrain from attacks that do not fit these requirements, in line with the principle of precaution. In 1996, the International Court of Justice stated in its advisory opinion on nuclear weapons that \"it is difficult to envisage how any use of nuclear weapons could be compatible","-31.62132197531173"],["and the goal of a \"world without nuclear weapons\" was advocated by United States President Barack Obama in an April 2009 speech in Prague. A CNN poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.\nSome analysts have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia. Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common before their","-31.184659427497536"],["America and in our country there are nuclear weapons — terrible weapons that can kill millions of people in an instant. But we do not want them to be ever used. That's precisely why the Soviet Union solemnly declared throughout the entire world that never will it use nuclear weapons first against any country. In general we propose to discontinue further production of them and to proceed to the abolition of all the stockpiles on Earth.\nIt seems to me that this is a sufficient answer to your second question: 'Why do you want to wage war against the whole world","-30.67379660854931"],["nuclear weapons’ deployment above everything else. Although 8 states are exempted from ban on nuclear weapons, 5 nations retain a de jure status of a “nuclear weapon state.” These states are the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the People’s Republic of China, France and Russia—all of whom had already tested nuclear weapons before the NPT was signed. NWS’s right to possess a nuclear arsenal is countered by Article VI of the treaty, which says that they have a legal obligation to eventually disarm. They also criticized NWS countries for failing to meet their obligation to disarm, in addition","-29.879792638181243"],["on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 22,000 warheads among them and have shown a reluctance to disarm further.\nAs noted above, the International Court of Justice, in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that \"there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving","-29.630609235959128"],["with other countries without the consent of the others, an early attempt at nonproliferation. After the development of the first nuclear weapons during World War II, though, there was much debate within the political circles and public sphere of the United States about whether or not the country should attempt to maintain a monopoly on nuclear technology, or whether it should undertake a program of information sharing with other nations (especially its former ally and likely competitor, the Soviet Union), or submit control of its weapons to some sort of international organization (such as the United Nations) who would use","-29.628193464595824"],["international law at the time, whether in an extreme circumstance of self-defence in which the very survival of a State would be a stake, the threat or use of nuclear weapons would necessarily be unlawful in all possible cases. However, the court's opinion unanimously clarified that the world's states have a binding duty to negotiate in good faith, and to accomplish, nuclear disarmament.","-29.440756908152252"],["2016. It has been pointed out that as long as Japan enjoys the benefits of a \"nuclear-ready\" status held through surrounding countries, it will see no reason to actually produce nuclear arms, since by remaining below the threshold, although with the capability to cross it at short notice, Japan can expect the support of the US while posing as an equal to China and Russia.\nOn 29 March 2019, President Donald Trump suggested that Japan should develop their own nuclear weapons, because it's too expensive for the US to protect Japan and several other countries have it already in Asia such","-29.43850143373129"],["to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes.\nFive states are recognized by NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.\nThese five NWS agree not to transfer \"nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices\" and \"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce\" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the","-29.42006678855978"],["nuclear weapons:\nToday, some 26,000 nuclear weapons remain in the arsenals of the nine nuclear powers, with thousands on hair-trigger alert. Although U.S., Russian, and British nuclear arsenals are shrinking in size, those in the four Asian nuclear nations—China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea—are growing, in large part because of tensions among them. This Asian arms race also has possibilities of bringing Japan into the nuclear club.\nDuring Barack Obama's successful U.S. presidential election campaign, he advocated the abolition of nuclear weapons. Since his election he has reiterated this goal in several major policy addresses. In 2010, the Obama administration negotiated","-29.284884119173512"],["has the capacity to address or provide the short and long term humanitarian assistance and protection needed in case of a nuclear weapon explosion. Moreover, it would not be possible to establish such capacities, even if\nattempted. (...)\nWe need to take into account that, in the past, weapons have been eliminated after they have been outlawed. We believe this is the path to achieve a world without nuclear weapons. In our view, this is consistent with our obligations under international law, including those derived from the NPT as well as from Common Article 1 to the Geneva Conventions. (...) The broad-based","-29.23450053628767"],["fear of nuclear war grows, the United States and its allies must never allow themselves to get into the position where they must choose between (a) not responding to local aggression and (b) applying force in a way which our own people or our allies would consider entails undue risk of nuclear devastation. However, the United States cannot afford to preclude itself from using nuclear weapons even in a local situation, if such use ... will best advance U.S. security interests. In the last analysis, if confronted by the choice of (a) acquiescing in Communist aggression or (b) taking measures","-29.159212480124552"],["nuclear weapons would have to be used to defeat a Soviet invasion.\nAt the 16th NATO summit in April 1999, Germany proposed that NATO adopt a no-first-use policy, but the proposal was rejected. United Kingdom In March 2002, the secretary of state for defence Geoff Hoon stated that the UK was prepared to use nuclear weapons against \"rogue states\" such as Iraq if they ever used \"weapons of mass destruction\" against British troops in the field. This policy was restated in February 2003. In April 2017 Defence Secretary Michael Fallon confirmed that the UK would use nuclear weapons in a \"pre-emptive","-29.1477861898602"],["with nuclear weapons), de-stabilize international or regional relations, or infringe upon the national sovereignty of states.\nFour countries besides the five recognized Nuclear Weapons States have acquired, or are presumed to have acquired, nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel. None of these four is a party to the NPT, although North Korea acceded to the NPT in 1985, then withdrew in 2003 and conducted announced nuclear tests in 2006, 2009, 2013, 2016, and 2017. One critique of the NPT is that the treaty is discriminatory in the sense that only those countries that tested nuclear weapons before 1968 are","-29.097236157394946"],["have doubled their nuclear arsenal, while the other nuclear powers under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons have cut their forces in half. A Pentagon report raises the possibility of China moving towards a more vigorous nuclear doctrine that will allow first use of nuclear weapons in times of war. While it is not expected that China will give up the current \"no first use\" policy in the near future, the Pentagon report raises concerns that \"this issue has been and will continue to be debated in China. It remains to be seen, how the introduction of more","-28.85555458869203"],["states that they will \"uphold the principles of counterattack in self-defense and limited development of nuclear weapons\", but \"has never entered, and will never enter into a nuclear arms race with any country\". It goes on to describe that China will never undertake a first strike, or use nuclear weapons against a non-nuclear state or zone. US strategists, however, suggest that the Chinese position may be ambiguous, and nuclear weapons may be used both to deter conventional strikes/invasions on the Chinese mainland, or as an international political tool – limiting the extent to which other nations can coerce China politically,","-28.788745273079257"],["will successfully be able to acquire nuclear weapons. The article written by Dong-Jong Joo and Erik Gartzke discusses how the economy of a country determines whether they will successfully acquire nuclear weapons. Iran Former Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has been a frequent critic of the concept of \"nuclear apartheid\" as it has been put into practice by several countries, particularly the United States. In an interview with CNN's Christiane Amanpour, Ahmadinejad said that Iran was \"against 'nuclear apartheid,' which means some have the right to possess it, use the fuel, and then sell it to another country for 10 times","-28.684154818416573"],["hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route. (West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) Non-signatories Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon","-28.54137067424017"],["reversed their previous position and asserted that instead of making the world safer, nuclear weapons had become a source of extreme concern.\nSince the 1970s, some countries have built their own second-strike capability of massive deterrence in the event of a military attack with weapons of mass destruction. \nTwo examples of this second-strike capability are the Samson Option strategy of Israel, and the Dead Hand system of Russia.\nDuring the era of nuclear weapons testing many local communities were affected, and some are still affected by uranium mining, and radioactive waste disposal. Other technologies The international nuclear fusion project International Thermonuclear Experimental","-28.477678200062655"],["without force.\nOnly one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. The former Soviet republics of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the collapse of the USSR.\nProponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war, especially accidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present nuclear peace and deterrence and would lead to increased global instability. Various American elder statesmen, who were in office during the Cold War period, have been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. These officials include","-28.45791322446894"],["is significant that although we could have them, we don't\".\nEarlier, Shinzō Abe had said that Japan's constitution did not necessarily ban possession of nuclear weapons, so long as they were kept at a minimum and were tactical weapons, and Chief Cabinet Secretary Yasuo Fukuda had expressed a similar view. De facto nuclear state While there are currently no known plans in Japan to produce nuclear weapons, it has been argued Japan has the technology, raw materials, and the capital to produce nuclear weapons within one year if necessary, and many analysts consider it a de facto nuclear state for this","-28.369949751300737"],["the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty and other nuclear treaties. He specifically notes that in The Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty, the possession of nuclear weapons by the five major nuclear powers is lawful until disarmament and that inherent in possession of nuclear weapons is deterrence and deterrence, by its nature, implies threat of use.\nThe policy of deterrence differs from that of the threat to use nuclear weapons by its generality but if a threat of possible use did not inhere in deterrence, deterrence would not deter. If possession by the five nuclear Powers is lawful until achievement of nuclear disarmament; if","-28.264392941375263"],["1960, Israel has never officially acknowledged its construction or possession of nuclear weapons. In addition to this policy, on May 18, 1966, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol told the Knesset that \"Israel has no atomic weapons and will not be the first to introduce them into our region,\" a policy first articulated by Shimon Peres to U.S. President John F. Kennedy in April 1963. In November 1968, Israeli Ambassador to the U.S. Yitzhak Rabin informed the U.S. State Department that its understanding of \"introducing\" nuclear weapons meant testing, deploying or making them public, while merely possessing the weapons did not constitute","-28.09836693291436"],["In 1961 the Mexican government argued that use of nuclear weapons could not be justified under the right to self-defence in the UN charter. Six years later the country would sign the Treaty of Tlatelolco in which Mexico and several other Latin American countries agreed not to manufacture nuclear weapons and to limit its nuclear technology for peaceful purposes only.\nIn 2000, Mexico was one of 7 nations launching a declaration \"Towards a Nuclear Weapon Free World: The Need for a New Agenda\" calling for further action to implement the provisions of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.\nIn April","-28.06372194760479"],["its nuclear status.\nSouth Africa developed a small nuclear arsenal in the 1980s but disassembled them in the early 1990s, making it the only country to have fully given up an independently developed nuclear weapons arsenal. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine inherited stockpiles of nuclear arms following the break-up of the Soviet Union, but relinquished them to the Russian Federation.\nCountries where nuclear weapons are deployed through nuclear sharing agreements include Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey. Ethics and international legal status Some commentators classify some or all the uses of nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons during wartime as a war crime","-28.053376538911834"],["Going back through history we can see how this has taken place. When the United States demonstrated that it had nuclear power capabilities after the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Russians started to develop their program in preparation for the Cold War. With the Russian military buildup, France and the United Kingdom perceived this as a security threat and therefore they pursued nuclear weapons (Sagan, pg 71). Even though proliferation causes proliferation, this does not guarantee that other states will successfully develop nuclear weapons because the economic stability of a state plays an important role on whether the state","-27.935088858765084"],["but if it's a 1-in-4 or 1-in-5 chance, that's too high.\" Argument about nuclear armament of South Korea and Japan An argument emerged in both South Korea and Japan about the nuclear option, driven by worry that the United States might hesitate to defend the countries if doing so might provoke a missile launched from the North at major U.S. cities. In South Korea, polls show that 60 percent of the population favors building nuclear weapons, and that nearly 70 percent want the United States to reintroduce tactical nuclear weapons, which were withdrawn in 1991. In October, Hong Jun-pyo, one","-27.908070847130148"],["to an attack by conventional forces; for example, the doctrine of massive retaliation threatened to launch US nuclear weapons in response to Soviet attacks.\nA successful nuclear deterrent requires that a country preserve its ability to retaliate, either by responding before its own weapons are destroyed or by ensuring a second strike capability. A nuclear deterrent is sometimes composed of a nuclear triad, as in the case of the nuclear weapons owned by the United States, Russia, the People's Republic of China and India. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, have only sea- and air-based nuclear weapons. Proportionality","-27.9043225296773"],["UN proposal, 2011 IAEA forum), the Korean Peninsula, Central Europe, South Asia, South-east Asia, and the Arctic.\nAll countries without nuclear weapons, except South Sudan, are parties to the Non-Proliferation Treaty, as are the 5 NPT-sanctioned nuclear weapon states. Europe The UK, France, and the USA share a nuclear umbrella with the 25 other members of NATO, and the 6 European Union states not part of NATO (Austria, Cyprus, Ireland, Malta, Sweden, Finland) are part of the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy.\nThe other European countries west of the former Soviet Union\nare small Western European states and surrounded by and aligned","-27.873190946993418"],["Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, in which it found that 'the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict'.\nRidding the world of nuclear weapons has been a cause for pacifists for decades. But more recently mainstream politicians and retired military leaders have advocated nuclear disarmament. In January 2007 an article in The Wall Street Journal, authored by Henry Kissinger, Bill Perry, George Shultz and Sam Nunn. These men were veterans of the cold-war who believed in using nuclear weapons for deterrence. But they now","-27.746506049414165"],["and the United States are often referred to as great powers by academics due to \"their political and economic dominance of the global arena\". These five nations are the only states to have permanent seats with veto power on the UN Security Council. They are also the only state entities to have met the conditions to be considered \"Nuclear Weapons States\" under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, and maintain military expenditures which are among the largest in the world. However, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of these powers or what","-27.661728547886014"],["remove itself from active participation in international politics in order to maintain its national security. It holds that because there are no threats to the American homeland, the United States does not need to intervene abroad. Stressing a particular understanding of nuclear weapons, the authors describe how proponents believe the destructive power of nuclear weapons and retaliatory potential of the United States assure the political sovereignty and territorial integrity of the United States, while the proliferation of such weapons to countries like Britain, France, China and Russia prevents the emergence of any competing hegemon on the Eurasian landmass. The United","-27.587035092437873"],["a major step in the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons. Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon states were prohibited from, among other things, possessing, manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of total nuclear disarmament.\nThe Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans all nuclear explosions in any environments. Tools such as muon tomography can help to stop the spread of nuclear material before it is armed into a weapon.\nThe New START treaty signed by the US and Russia aims to reduce the nuclear arsenal by as much as a third.","-27.525560012087226"],["logic and civilization\" would not need nuclear weapons, and that countries that seek nuclear weapons are those that want to solve all problems by the use of force. In a 2008 interview Ahmadinejad elaborated that countries striving to obtain nuclear weapons are not politically progressive nations and those who possess them and continually make new generations of such bombs are \"even more backward\".\nIn April 2006, Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had successfully refined uranium to a stage suitable for the nuclear fuel cycle. In a speech to students and academics in Mashhad, he was quoted as saying that Iran's conditions had","-27.51407803047914"],["and were adopted as a parliamentary resolution in 1971, though they have never formally been entered into law. They continue to reflect the attitudes of both government and the general public, who remain staunchly opposed to the manufacture or use of nuclear weapons.\nThe Japan Self-Defense Forces have never made any attempt to manufacture or otherwise obtain nuclear arms, and no nuclear weapons are known to have been introduced into the Japanese Home Islands since the end of World War II. While the United States does not maintain nuclear bases within its military installations on the Home Islands, it is believed","-27.48836812132504"],["arsenal, an option that would be realized in the event that Iran obtains nuclear warheads. UN member states According to the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN), a coalition of non-governmental organizations, leading proponents of a nuclear-weapon-ban treaty include Ireland, Austria, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, South Africa and Thailand. All 54 nations of Africa (all but one of which have either signed or ratified the 1996 Treaty of Pelindaba establishing a nuclear-weapon-free-zone in the continent) and all 33 nations of Latin America and the Caribbean (already in a nuclear-weapon-free-zone under the 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco) had subscribed to common","-27.48820515559055"],["in the development of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but ultimately opted not to sign it.\nWe must develop this atomic energy quite apart from war – indeed I think we must develop it for the purpose of using it for peaceful purposes. ... Of course, if we are compelled as a nation to use it for other purposes, possibly no pious sentiments of any of us will stop the nation from using it that way.\n— Jawaharalal Nehru, First Prime Minister of India, \nIn 1954, Homi Jehangir Bhabha steered the nuclear programme in the direction of weapons design and production. Two important","-27.481119513249723"],["of nuclear weapons And long-range rockets. Nuclear weapons Since the realization of mutually assured destruction (MAD), the nuclear option of all-out war is no longer considered a survivable scenario. During the Cold War in the years following World War II, both the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a nuclear arms race. Each country and their allies continually attempted to out-develop each other in the field of nuclear armaments. Once the joint technological capabilities reached the point of being able to ensure the destruction of the Earth x100 fold, then a new tactic had to be","-27.465821962221526"],["when their atomic bomb project was politicised for [absolute] political gain. Without a comprehensive [nuclear and political] policy, things do not work, and no country can go developed its nuclear project without having some kind of framework in which to operate. We had to develop a political strategy to launch our project without arousing great deal of suspicion and opposition at the international level, because no body in the world wanted to see Pakistan to become nuclear power. But we had no choice [as mentioned by Bhutto in 1965]. I can tell you...... that it is not only the Western","-27.426779332308797"],["for elimination. Around two-thirds of the world's nations have pledged to work together \"to fill the legal gap\" in the existing international regime governing nuclear weapons, and view a nuclear-weapon-ban treaty as one option for achieving this objective.\nNuclear weapons – unlike chemical weapons, biological weapons, anti-personnel landmines and cluster munitions – are not prohibited in a comprehensive and universal manner. The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 contains only partial prohibitions, and nuclear-weapon-free zone treaties prohibit nuclear weapons only within certain geographical regions. Overview of provisions The preamble of the treaty explains the motivation by the \"catastrophic consequences\" of a use","-27.402241429653714"],["has nuclear readiness but does not have a bomb,\" Primakov said.\nIn February 2012, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin said that Russia opposes Iran developing nuclear-weapons capability. \"Russia is not interested in Iran becoming a nuclear power. It would lead to greater risks to international stability.\", Putin said. United Kingdom The United Kingdom is part of the EU3+3 (UK, France, Germany, US, China and Russia) group of countries that are engaged in ongoing discussions with Iran.\nThe UK is therefore one of the countries that has stated that Iran would be provided with enriched fuel and support to develop a modern nuclear","-27.35241684311768"],["ensure compliance with global nuclear disarmanent. Iran and many other nations without nuclear weapons have said that the present situation whereby Nuclear Weapon States monopolise the right to possess nuclear weapons is \"highly discriminatory\", and they have pushed for steps to accelerate the process of nuclear disarmament.\nIran has criticized the European Union because it believes it has taken no steps to reduce the danger of nuclear weapons in the Middle East. Iran has called on the state of Israel to sign the NPT, accept inspection of its nuclear facilities, and place its nuclear facilities under IAEA safeguards. Iran has proposed","-27.35039142961614"],["our tactical maritime and airborne nuclear capabilities. We have terminated our nuclear capable Lance missiles and artillery. We have the smallest nuclear capability of any recognised nuclear weapon state accounting for less than one per cent of the global inventory. And we are the only nuclear weapon state that relies on a single nuclear system.\nThe subsequent vote was won overwhelmingly, including unanimous support from the opposition Conservative Party. The Government's position remained that it was abiding by the NPT in renewing Trident, and Britain has the right to possess nuclear weapons, a position reiterated by Tony Blair on 21","-27.300327304255916"],["that signed the Nuclear Free World Policy:\n1. We, the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, Slovenia, South Africa and Sweden have considered the continued threat to humanity represented by the perspective of the indefinite possession of nuclear weapons by the nuclear-weapon states as well as by those three nuclear-weapons-capable states that have not acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and the attendant possibility of use or threat of use of nuclear weapons. The seriousness of this predicament has been further underscored by the recent nuclear tests conducted by India and Pakistan.\nThese countries are weary of","-27.282254390767775"],["mentally retarded. We think they are stupid because the era of nuclear bombs is over. [Why] for example, should Iran continue its efforts and tolerate all international treasures only to build a nuclear bomb, or a few nuclear bombs that are useless? They can never be used!\"\n\nOn 22 February 2012, in a meeting in Tehran with the director and officials of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI) and nuclear scientists, Leader of the Islamic Revolution Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenei said: \n \"The Iranian nation has never pursued and will never pursue nuclear weapons. There is no doubt that the","-27.22928730193962"],["\"culture, logic and civilization\" would not need nuclear weapons, and that countries that seek nuclear weapons are those which want to solve all problems by the use of force. In a 2008 interview Ahmadinejad elaborated that countries striving to obtain nuclear weapons are politically backward nations and those who possess them and continually make new generations of such bombs are \"even more backward\".\nIn April 2006, Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had successfully refined uranium to a stage suitable for the nuclear fuel cycle. In a speech to students and academics in Mashhad, he was quoted as saying that Iran's conditions had","-27.185727632720955"],["initial strike\" in \"the most extreme circumstances\". Fallon stated in a parliamentary answer that the UK has neither a 'first use' or 'no first use' in its nuclear weapon policy so that its adversaries would not know when the UK would launch nuclear strikes. United States The United States has refused to adopt a no first use policy and says that it \"reserves the right to use\" nuclear weapons first in the case of conflict. The US doctrine for the use of nuclear weapons was revised most recently in the Nuclear Posture Review, released April 6, 2010. The 2010","-27.183116427564528"],["plans to renew its nuclear arsenal as a \"serious setback\" to international disarmament efforts. Britain's parliament backed Prime Minister Tony Blair's plans to renew the country's Trident missile nuclear weapons system.\n\"Britain does not have the right to question others when they're not complying with their obligations\" referring to the obligation by the U.K., United States, Russia and France to disarm under the NPT accord and \"It is very unfortunate that the UK, which is always calling for non-proliferation not only has not given up the weapons but has taken a serious step toward further development of nuclear weapons,\" Iran's envoy","-27.112988084118115"],["realize the core truth of the post–Cold War era that, if the strategic reality, as described by the words of Ronald Reagan, is that \"Nuclear war cannot be won and must not be fought\", then large nuclear weapons stockpiles have no positive use, are expensive, and can lead to dangerous destabilization. The possibility of a peace with honor of strategic equals between Russia and the US may now be possible. Historical analysis Neither side sought nuclear conflict, even though it threatened to break out on multiple occasions. What both sides had, however, was a deep and continuing fear that the","-27.05368968716357"],["New START, as well as non-binding agreements such as SALT I and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives of 1991. Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia.\nNuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Treaty","-27.03182725061197"],["become a route leading to a nuclear weapon or a public annex to a \"secret\" weapons program. The concern over Iran's nuclear activities is a case in point.\nAs of April 2012 there were thirty one countries that have civil nuclear power plants, of which nine have nuclear weapons, with the vast majority of these nuclear weapons states having first produced weapons, before commercial fission electricity stations.\nMoreover, the re-purposing of civilian nuclear industries for military purposes would be a breach of the Non-proliferation treaty, to which 190 countries adhere.\nA fundamental goal for global security is to minimize the nuclear proliferation risks","-27.03088720049709"],["of conventional and nuclear weapons at all levels? The reason simply is that, through the defence policy pursued by Britain, the United States and NATO, we have shown our determination to defend ourselves from aggression and potential domination by the deployment of cruise missiles, by the introduction of Trident and by the maintenance of our defence commitment by increasing it by 3 per cent. every year during the past five years..\"\nHe underlined the fact that, \"We tell the Soviet Union that we shall negotiate disarmament, because that is what we want, but we shall negotiate only from strength. That is","-26.95195422368124"],["weapons and when they got them, and how many nuclear warheads they have in any given year. All nine nuclear-armed states are featured: the United States, Russia, China, India, Pakistan, France, Britain, Israel, and North Korea.\nIn the 21st Century, articles have covered threats to humanity from a variety of sources. The potential dangers of nuclear weapons and energy, military and political developments in the Post-Cold War world, political unrest in the Middle East (and its attendant potential for proliferation risks of nuclear and chemical weapons), myriad negative consequences of climate change, cyber warfare, and changes wrought by emerging technologies","-26.94150049140444"],["force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons.\nThe United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that since the end of the Cold War it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons. U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear","-26.904325845069252"],["can be 'educated'.\"\nThroughout Sato's administration Japan continued to discuss the nuclear option. It was suggested that tactical nuclear weapons, as opposed to larger strategic weapons, could be defined as defensive, and therefore be allowed by the Japanese Constitution. A White Paper commissioned by future Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone opined that it would be possible that possessing small-yield, purely defensive nuclear weapons would not violate the Constitution, but that in view of the danger of adverse foreign reaction and possible war, a policy would be followed of not acquiring nuclear weapons \"at present\". Extension of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty In 1995 the","-26.896756872185506"],["\"[t]here is in neither customary nor international law any comprehensive and universal prohibition of the threat or use of nuclear weapons.\" However, by a split vote, it also found that \"[t]he threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict.\" The Court stated that it could not definitively conclude whether the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in an extreme circumstance of self-defense, in which the very survival of the state would be at stake.","-26.833764559822157"],["constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\". Twelve other countries are known to operate uranium enrichment facilities. Iran states that \"the failure of certain Nuclear- Weapon States to fulfill their international obligations continue to be a source of threat for the international community\". Iran also states that \"the only country that has ever used nuclear weapons still maintains a sizable arsenal of thousands of nuclear warheads\" and calls for a stop to the transfer of technology to non-NPT states. Iran has called for the development of a follow-up committee to","-26.821552431443706"],["why governments, including in the US, supported nuclear weapons was that \"enormous economic and financial interests are vested in the continuation and elaboration of nuclear armaments. I believe, however, that the crucial explanation lies in another direction: the nuclear hypothesis provides governments with an excuse for not doing what they have no intention of doing anyhow, but for reasons which they find it inconvenient to specify\".\nOn 2 June, Powell spoke against the stationing of US cruise missiles in the UK and claimed the United States had an obsessive sense of mission and a hallucinatory view of international relations: \"The American","-26.800776706426404"],["each other in warfare, but fought proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Angola, the Middle East, Nicaragua and Afghanistan and spent substantial amounts of money and manpower on gaining relative influence over the third world.\nA study published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution in 2009 quantitatively evaluated the nuclear peace hypothesis, and found support for the existence of the stability–instability paradox. The study determined that while nuclear weapons promote strategic stability, and prevent large scale wars, they simultaneously allow for more lower intensity conflicts. When a nuclear monopoly exists between two states, and their opponent does not, there is a greater","-26.681385185889667"],["must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\".\nU.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuading the then West Germany not to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with the Warsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S.","-26.64885663574387"],["retaliation. Legality The United Kingdom is one of the five nuclear-weapon states legally recognised as such under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). As of 2018, nine countries have nuclear weapons. After the UK government announced its plans to refurbish its Trident missiles and build new submarines to carry them, it published a white paper on The Future of the United Kingdom's Nuclear Deterrent, in which it stated that the renewal is fully compatible with the United Kingdom's treaty commitments and international law. At the start of the House of Commons debate to authorise the replacement of","-26.61266190232709"],["be devastating to themselves, thus in theory restraining them from attacking the other.\nBoth Soviet and American experts hoped to use nuclear weapons for extracting concessions from the other, or from other powers such as China, but the risk connected with using these weapons was so grave that they refrained from what John Foster Dulles referred to as brinkmanship. While some, like General Douglas MacArthur, argued nuclear weapons should be used during the Korean War, both Truman and Eisenhower opposed the idea.\nBoth sides were unaware of the details of the capacity of the enemy's arsenal of nuclear weapons. The Americans suffered","-26.609629554208368"],["islands several times over. For us to use the weapon would therefore be equivalent to more than suicide: it would be genocide—the extinction of our race—in the literal and precise meaning of that much abused expression. Would anybody in their senses contemplate that this ought to be our choice or would be our choice?\"\nPowell further stated that the continental nations held the nuclear weapon in such esteem that they had conventional forces \"manifestly inadequate to impose more than brief delay upon an assault from the East. The theory of nuclear deterrence states that, should Warsaw Pact forces score substantial military","-26.58731460745912"],["party to declare whether it had nuclear weapons of their own or deployed on its territory, including the elimination or conversion of related facilities.\nArticle 3 requires parties that do not possess nuclear weapons to maintain their existing IAEA safeguards and, if they have not already done so, to accept safeguards based on the model for non-nuclear-weapon states under the NPT.\nArticle 4 sets out general procedures for negotiations with an individual nuclear armed state becoming party to the treaty, including time limits and responsibilities. If that state has eliminated its nuclear weapons before becoming a party to the treaty, an unspecified","-26.57855849841144"],["and will not surrender the right of its people to peaceful use of nuclear energy. Our motto is \"Nuclear energy for all, nuclear weapons for none\". We will insist on this motto and know that breaking the monopoly of few western countries in production of nuclear energy in the framework of NPT is good for all sovereign nations, including member states of the Non-Aligned Movement. 2007 The New York Times reported in 2007 that Iran's nuclear program had spurred interest in establishing nuclear power programs by a number of neighboring countries, including Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Egypt. According to the","-26.516001076437533"],["of the nuclear-armed countries are parties to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Article VI of the NPT requires that parties \"pursue negotiations in good faith\" aimed at \"complete disarmament.\" The lawsuits contend that the other four countries, while not bound to the NPT, are obligated by customary international law to pursue nuclear disarmament.\nPresenting evidence that all nine nuclear-armed countries continue to update and enhance their nuclear arsenals while failing to take disarmament negotiations seriously, the lawsuits allege that each nuclear-armed country is in breach of its international obligations. The case filed in the U.S. Federal District Court is particularly historic,","-26.464259382453747"],["the Eurasian land mass. In 1993, Russia dropped a pledge against first use of nuclear weapons made in 1982 by Leonid Brezhnev. In 2000, a Russian military doctrine stated that Russia reserves the right to use nuclear weapons \"in response to a large-scale conventional aggression\". China China became the first nation to propose and pledge NFU policy when it first gained nuclear capabilities in 1964, stating \"not to be the first to use nuclear weapons at any time or under any circumstances.\" During the Cold War, China decided to keep the size of its nuclear arsenal small, rather than","-26.428065345797222"],["policies that would allegedly make nuclear weapons more usable in the post–Cold War environment. To date the U.S. Congress has refused to fund many of these policies. However, some feel that even considering such programs harms the credibility of the United States as a proponent of nonproliferation. Recent developments Eliminating nuclear weapons has long been an aim of the pacifist left. But now many mainstream politicians, academic analysts, and retired military leaders also advocate nuclear disarmament. Sam Nunn, William Perry, Henry Kissinger, and George Shultz have called upon governments to embrace the vision of a world free of nuclear","-26.42778958484996"],["the organization. Role of elite countries There has been criticism that the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States), who are all nuclear powers, have created an exclusive nuclear club whose powers are unchecked. Unlike the General Assembly, the United Nations Security Council does not have true international representation. This has led to accusations that the UNSC only addresses the strategic interests and political motives of the permanent members, especially in humanitarian interventions: for example, protecting the oil-rich Kuwaitis in 1991 but poorly protecting resource-poor Rwandans in 1997.","-26.41620338114444"],["government funds to create such weapon, coupled with the fact that having such weapon would only escalate tensions between the two countries.\nIn 2019, Juan Ponce Enrile reiterates his earlier claims in 2016 that the Philippines should have developed nuclear weapons to assert its claims, particularly in reinforcing the Philippines v. China international arbitration ruling, regarding its territorial disputes with China. Defense secretary Delfin Lorenzana in response to Enrile's statement said that the Philippines is not planning to develop nuclear weapons due to the country's limited technological capabilities as well as legal obligations such as being a signatory to the Non-Proliferation","-26.393494900432415"],["the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals.\nOther observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament. No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which","-26.378648679092294"],["preferable to war.\nThe question is why two rational states cannot find an X that satisfies both sides, even though one must always exist and war is the worst feasible payoff for both sides. Information problems One obvious reason is that each state simply believes it is more powerful than it really is. For example, two states that each believe they are infinitely powerful would have a difficult time bargaining with each other. War, then, can erupt with incomplete information regarding the distribution of power.\nBut Fearon points out that this is not a completely rational explanation for war. Recall that war","-26.298780749668367"],["which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. A testing ban imposes a significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country. The Treaty requires the ratification by 44 specific states before it can go into force; as of 2012, the ratification of eight of these states is still required.\nAdditional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles, the United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States and Russia. These include treaties such as SALT II (never ratified), START I (expired), INF, START II (never ratified), SORT, and","-26.264933873841073"],["Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons First pillar: Non-proliferation Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon.\nUnder Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards","-26.261239242216107"],["world were educated in nuclear science and then dispatched home, where many later pursued secret weapons programs in their home country.\nEfforts to conclude an international agreement to limit the spread of nuclear weapons did not begin until the early 1960s, after four nations (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France) had acquired nuclear weapons (see List of states with nuclear weapons for more information). Although these efforts stalled in the early 1960s, they renewed once again in 1964, after China detonated a nuclear weapon. In 1968, governments represented at the Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee (ENDC) finished","-26.256364503875375"],["capable and survivable nuclear systems in greater numbers will shape the terms of this debate or affect Beijing's thinking about nuclear options in the future.\" India India's nuclear weapons policy is that of \"no first use\" and \"minimum credible deterrence,\" which means that the country will not use nuclear weapons unless they are attacked first, but the country does have the capability to induce the second strike. Before 2016, India already possessed land-based ballistic missiles and aircraft that are nuclear-capable. India's land-based arsenal includes the Prithvi-1 with a range of 150 to 600 kilometers, the Agni-1 with a range of","-26.241806516074575"],["same time, it issued a negative security assurance. China stated that despite its willingness to use nuclear weapons, it \"[should] not in any way be construed as endorsing the use of nuclear weapons.\" The dichotomy of such a position has led for calls to make more use of protocols attached to NWFZ (nuclear-weapon-free zone) treaties, instead of generalized security assurances.","-26.230239155469462"],["of two of the principal powers of the region, Brazil and Argentina, to the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty, due to its perceived discriminatory nature.\nWhile Colombia is the only state in the region to have fully accepted the United States vision of the war on terror, most states in the region already have anti-terrorism measures in place, usually in conjunction with policies designed to fight organised crime, which is the main local threat (for example, the 3+1 Group, the Inter-American Convention Against Terrorism, the Declaration of San Carlos).\nAll of the states in the region have already presented their compliance reports to the","-26.137869777623564"],["of a country's resources such as in World War II logistically impractical and strategically irrelevant. Such weapons are developed and maintained with relatively modest peacetime defense budgets.\nBy the end of the 1950s, the ideological stand-off of the Cold War between the Western World and the Soviet Union had resulted in thousands of nuclear weapons being aimed by each side at the other. Strategically, the equal balance of destructive power possessed by each side situation came to be known as Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), considering that a nuclear attack by one superpower would result in nuclear counter-strike by the other. This","-26.08000549089047"],["constitution, Japan, as the only nation to have experienced the devastation of nuclear attacks, expressed early its abhorrence of nuclear arms and its determination never to acquire them. The Atomic Energy Basic Law of 1956 limits research, development, and use of nuclear power to peaceful uses only. Beginning in 1956, national policy embodied \"three non-nuclear principles\"—forbidding the nation to possess or manufacture nuclear weapons or to allow them to be introduced into its territories. In 1976 Japan ratified the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (adopted by the United Nations Security Council in 1968) and reiterated its intention never","-26.06144050799776"],["February 2007. Only the United Kingdom has expressed its opposition to the establishment of a new legally binding treaty to prevent the threat or use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear states, through its vote in the United Nations General Assembly in 1998.\nThe United Kingdom decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations.","-26.042308567964938"],["court ruled that these laws would also apply to the use of nuclear weapons.(paragraph 86) The Court decided not to pronounce on the matter of whether the use of nuclear weapons might possibly be legal, if exercised as a last resort in extreme circumstances (such as if the very existence of the state was in jeopardy).(paragraph 97) Split decision The only significantly split decision was on the matter of whether \"the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict\", not including \"in an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in","-26.006008286727592"],["offensive military forces, and in 1967 it adopted the Three Non-Nuclear Principles, ruling out the production, possession, or introduction of nuclear weapons. Despite this, the idea that Japan might become a nuclear power has persisted. After China's first nuclear test in 1964, Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Satō said to President Lyndon Johnson when they met in January 1965, that if the Chinese Communists had nuclear weapons, the Japanese should also have them. This shocked Johnson's administration, especially when Sato added that \"Japanese public opinion will not permit this at present, but I believe that the public, especially the younger generation,","-25.904993498523254"],["once all other countries agreed not to develop or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons. Fearing that Congress would reject the proposal, Truman turned to the well-connected Bernard Baruch to represent the U.S. position to the United Nations. The Baruch Plan, largely based on the Acheson-Lilienthal Report, was not adopted due to opposition from Congress and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union would develop its own nuclear arsenal, testing a nuclear weapon for the first time in August 1949.\nThe United States Atomic Energy Commission, directed by David E. Lilienthal until 1950, was in charge of designing and building nuclear weapons under a","-25.892754376400262"],["be used and so cannot assess with any accuracy the results that can be achieved.\"\nThe Americans preferred that the British not develop atomic weapons at all, but as that was not possible, they decided that partnership was preferable to losing influence with the United Kingdom. The British sought an independent, domestic nuclear deterrent that by itself could persuade the USSR to not attack, in part because they feared that America might not be willing to defend Europe with its nuclear missiles once the USSR could attack the United States itself, or during wartime not prioritize targets that threatened the United","-25.87378506863024"],["as hard as we possibly can, and the Iranians, to cease and desist on the development of a nuclear weapon and we should not preclude any option that we may have to deal with it.\" He also said, \"I believe that we have the power to deter Iran, should it become nuclear.\"\n\"There are ways to live with a nuclear Iran,\" Abizaid said, \"Let's face it, we lived with a nuclear Soviet Union, we've lived with a nuclear China, and we're living with (other) nuclear powers as well.\"","-25.87345257063862"],["a terrorist group getting an atomic weapon, but real progress depends on countries keeping the promises they made\". Organizational reactions Sam Nunn, a former U.S. senator who tutored Mr. Obama on nuclear proliferation issues said he believed \"we are now closer to cooperation than catastrophe.\" Graham Allison, an expert on nuclear terrorism at Harvard University, made the case that if countries \"lock down all nuclear weapons and bomb-usable material as securely as gold in Fort Knox, they can reduce the likelihood of a nuclear 9/11 to nearly zero.\"\nPaul Stares, Director of the Center for Preventive Action at the Council on","-25.85637422418222"],["Advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons Request of the World Health Organization An advisory opinion on this issue was originally requested by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 3 September 1993:\nIn view of the health and environmental effects, would the use of nuclear weapons by a state in war or other armed conflict be a breach of its obligations under international law including the WHO Constitution?\nThe ICJ considered the WHO's request, in a case known as the Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict (General List No.","-25.847550753271207"],["weapons from great distances across the globe to their targets. Eventually, Britain, France, and China would also develop nuclear weapons. It is believed that Israel developed nuclear weapons as well.\nOne major event that nearly brought the world to the brink of war was the Cuban Missile Crisis. In the 1950s a revolution in Cuba had brought the only Communist regime in the Western Hemisphere to power. In 1962, the Soviets began constructing missile sites in Cuba and sending nuclear missiles. Because of its close proximity to the U.S., the U.S. demanded the Soviets withdraw missiles from Cuba. The U.S. and","-25.841595898702508"],["East need a country like China. Israel needs China's power.\"\nIn March 2012, Chinese Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi said that \"China is opposed to any country in the Middle East, including Iran, developing and possessing nuclear weapons.\", adding that Iran nonetheless has the right to pursue nuclear activities for peaceful purposes. France On 16 February 2006 French Foreign Minister Philippe Douste-Blazy said \"No civilian nuclear programme can explain the Iranian nuclear programme. It is a clandestine military nuclear programme.\"\nIn January 2007, former French President Jacques Chirac, speaking \"off the record\" to reporters from The New York Times, indicated that if Iran","-25.80371408816427"],["Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, and Portugal have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power. Belgium, Germany, Spain and Switzerland are phasing-out nuclear power.\nGlobally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased.\nItaly is the only country that has permanently closed all of its functioning nuclear plants. Lithuania and Kazakhstan have shut down their only nuclear plants, but plan to build new ones to replace them, while Armenia shut down its only nuclear plant but subsequently restarted it. Austria never","-25.796118788421154"],["pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.\nThe ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament.\nCritics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in the post–Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of","-25.72750282031484"],["the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of European countries' defence budget and 50 per cent of their military capacity. Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council. Most EU member states opposed the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty.\nFollowing the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that \"the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO\". To","-25.708646068931557"],["prominent figures who have called for the abolition of nuclear weapons are \"the philosopher Bertrand Russell, the entertainer Steve Allen, CNN’s Ted Turner, former Senator Claiborne Pell, Notre Dame president Theodore Hesburgh, South African Bishop Desmond Tutu and the Dalai Lama\".\nOthers have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia. Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have created a nuclear peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common prior to their invention at","-25.706252694886643"],["and there is a chance to reverse the country's nuclear policy in 2012 because South Korea is facing a presidential election. In 2014, a professor of atomic engineering at Seoul National University stated that \"The public has totally lost trust in nuclear power\".\nIn 2015, Teddy Cho, a prominent anti-nuclear activist, stated that \"nuclear power is only an excuse to develop more nuclear technology. Even if that's not the case, nuclear energy itself has also proven to be very dangerous to the environment.\" He went on to say that nuclear energy was a terrible thing in our community and must be","-25.6620416988153"],["anniversary of former Prime Minister AB Vajpayee on 16 August 2019, said that India's no first use policy might change depending upon the \"circumstances.\" Vajpayee's government conducted the Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998. Countries pledging to use nuclear weapons only defensively Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France say that they will use nuclear weapons against either nuclear or non-nuclear states only in the case of invasion or other attack against their territory or against one of their allies. Historically, NATO military strategy, taking into account the numerical superiority of Warsaw Pact conventional forces, assumed that tactical","-25.64666262199171"],["servicemen are advised not to travel abroad. After the 1962 war, nearly all the remaining countries of the globe have renounced possession of nuclear weapons. The United States alone retains an atomic arsenal.\nWestern Europe survived the war largely unscathed. NATO collapsed almost as soon as hostilities commenced, and France and a reunited Germany now preside over the continent. The United Kingdom remains an ally of the U.S., and actually assists in post-war reconstruction efforts in U.S. states hit hardest by the war. The British, in the period after 1962, has managed to regain much of its pre-1939 colonial confidence in","-25.62063805409707"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"not allow nations to access nuclear energy. These countries allow themselves to use nuclear weapons and announce that they will not hesitate to use these arms against other nations. This can lead to a collective effort. The international community would like to set in motion a real move to enjoy nuclear technology for peaceful purposes and for national development. We are witnessing big threats by possessors of nuclear weapons. They are boldly threatening to use nukes. Any use of nuclear weapons to harm humanity is condemned.\\\" The Deputy Foreign Minister for Education and Research, Mohammad Bagher Khorramshad accusing the West\",\n \"-32.82166329130996\"\n ],\n [\n \"non-nuclear weapon state the 'inalienable right' to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power. A \\\"number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons\\\". A 2009 United Nations report said that:\\nThe revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons.\\nAccording to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not\",\n \"-32.73799792985665\"\n ],\n [\n \"a nuclear weapon in war is the United States, which dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. \\nThere are eight countries that have declared they possess nuclear weapons and are known to have tested a nuclear weapon, only five of which are members of the NPT. The eight are China, France, India, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.\\nIsrael is considered by most analysts to have nuclear weapons numbering in the low hundreds as well, but maintains an official policy of nuclear ambiguity, neither denying nor confirming\",\n \"-32.65919268480502\"\n ],\n [\n \"impact of nuclear weapons rather than on the security dimension that a minority of states attributes to them. Since all states have to abide by international humanitarian law at all times, it is questionable whether nuclear weapons can ever be used lawfully, in view of their indiscriminate and disproportionate effects, and the need to refrain from attacks that do not fit these requirements, in line with the principle of precaution. In 1996, the International Court of Justice stated in its advisory opinion on nuclear weapons that \\\"it is difficult to envisage how any use of nuclear weapons could be compatible\",\n \"-31.62132197531173\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the goal of a \\\"world without nuclear weapons\\\" was advocated by United States President Barack Obama in an April 2009 speech in Prague. A CNN poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.\\nSome analysts have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia. Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common before their\",\n \"-31.184659427497536\"\n ],\n [\n \"America and in our country there are nuclear weapons — terrible weapons that can kill millions of people in an instant. But we do not want them to be ever used. That's precisely why the Soviet Union solemnly declared throughout the entire world that never will it use nuclear weapons first against any country. In general we propose to discontinue further production of them and to proceed to the abolition of all the stockpiles on Earth.\\nIt seems to me that this is a sufficient answer to your second question: 'Why do you want to wage war against the whole world\",\n \"-30.67379660854931\"\n ],\n [\n \"nuclear weapons’ deployment above everything else. Although 8 states are exempted from ban on nuclear weapons, 5 nations retain a de jure status of a “nuclear weapon state.” These states are the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the People’s Republic of China, France and Russia—all of whom had already tested nuclear weapons before the NPT was signed. NWS’s right to possess a nuclear arsenal is countered by Article VI of the treaty, which says that they have a legal obligation to eventually disarm. They also criticized NWS countries for failing to meet their obligation to disarm, in addition\",\n \"-29.879792638181243\"\n ],\n [\n \"on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 22,000 warheads among them and have shown a reluctance to disarm further.\\nAs noted above, the International Court of Justice, in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that \\\"there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving\",\n \"-29.630609235959128\"\n ],\n [\n \"with other countries without the consent of the others, an early attempt at nonproliferation. After the development of the first nuclear weapons during World War II, though, there was much debate within the political circles and public sphere of the United States about whether or not the country should attempt to maintain a monopoly on nuclear technology, or whether it should undertake a program of information sharing with other nations (especially its former ally and likely competitor, the Soviet Union), or submit control of its weapons to some sort of international organization (such as the United Nations) who would use\",\n \"-29.628193464595824\"\n ],\n [\n \"international law at the time, whether in an extreme circumstance of self-defence in which the very survival of a State would be a stake, the threat or use of nuclear weapons would necessarily be unlawful in all possible cases. However, the court's opinion unanimously clarified that the world's states have a binding duty to negotiate in good faith, and to accomplish, nuclear disarmament.\",\n \"-29.440756908152252\"\n ],\n [\n \"2016. It has been pointed out that as long as Japan enjoys the benefits of a \\\"nuclear-ready\\\" status held through surrounding countries, it will see no reason to actually produce nuclear arms, since by remaining below the threshold, although with the capability to cross it at short notice, Japan can expect the support of the US while posing as an equal to China and Russia.\\nOn 29 March 2019, President Donald Trump suggested that Japan should develop their own nuclear weapons, because it's too expensive for the US to protect Japan and several other countries have it already in Asia such\",\n \"-29.43850143373129\"\n ],\n [\n \"to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes.\\nFive states are recognized by NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.\\nThese five NWS agree not to transfer \\\"nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices\\\" and \\\"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce\\\" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the\",\n \"-29.42006678855978\"\n ],\n [\n \"nuclear weapons:\\nToday, some 26,000 nuclear weapons remain in the arsenals of the nine nuclear powers, with thousands on hair-trigger alert. Although U.S., Russian, and British nuclear arsenals are shrinking in size, those in the four Asian nuclear nations—China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea—are growing, in large part because of tensions among them. This Asian arms race also has possibilities of bringing Japan into the nuclear club.\\nDuring Barack Obama's successful U.S. presidential election campaign, he advocated the abolition of nuclear weapons. Since his election he has reiterated this goal in several major policy addresses. In 2010, the Obama administration negotiated\",\n \"-29.284884119173512\"\n ],\n [\n \"has the capacity to address or provide the short and long term humanitarian assistance and protection needed in case of a nuclear weapon explosion. Moreover, it would not be possible to establish such capacities, even if\\nattempted. (...)\\nWe need to take into account that, in the past, weapons have been eliminated after they have been outlawed. We believe this is the path to achieve a world without nuclear weapons. In our view, this is consistent with our obligations under international law, including those derived from the NPT as well as from Common Article 1 to the Geneva Conventions. (...) The broad-based\",\n \"-29.23450053628767\"\n ],\n [\n \"fear of nuclear war grows, the United States and its allies must never allow themselves to get into the position where they must choose between (a) not responding to local aggression and (b) applying force in a way which our own people or our allies would consider entails undue risk of nuclear devastation. However, the United States cannot afford to preclude itself from using nuclear weapons even in a local situation, if such use ... will best advance U.S. security interests. In the last analysis, if confronted by the choice of (a) acquiescing in Communist aggression or (b) taking measures\",\n \"-29.159212480124552\"\n ],\n [\n \"nuclear weapons would have to be used to defeat a Soviet invasion.\\nAt the 16th NATO summit in April 1999, Germany proposed that NATO adopt a no-first-use policy, but the proposal was rejected. United Kingdom In March 2002, the secretary of state for defence Geoff Hoon stated that the UK was prepared to use nuclear weapons against \\\"rogue states\\\" such as Iraq if they ever used \\\"weapons of mass destruction\\\" against British troops in the field. This policy was restated in February 2003. In April 2017 Defence Secretary Michael Fallon confirmed that the UK would use nuclear weapons in a \\\"pre-emptive\",\n \"-29.1477861898602\"\n ],\n [\n \"with nuclear weapons), de-stabilize international or regional relations, or infringe upon the national sovereignty of states.\\nFour countries besides the five recognized Nuclear Weapons States have acquired, or are presumed to have acquired, nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel. None of these four is a party to the NPT, although North Korea acceded to the NPT in 1985, then withdrew in 2003 and conducted announced nuclear tests in 2006, 2009, 2013, 2016, and 2017. One critique of the NPT is that the treaty is discriminatory in the sense that only those countries that tested nuclear weapons before 1968 are\",\n \"-29.097236157394946\"\n ],\n [\n \"have doubled their nuclear arsenal, while the other nuclear powers under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons have cut their forces in half. A Pentagon report raises the possibility of China moving towards a more vigorous nuclear doctrine that will allow first use of nuclear weapons in times of war. While it is not expected that China will give up the current \\\"no first use\\\" policy in the near future, the Pentagon report raises concerns that \\\"this issue has been and will continue to be debated in China. It remains to be seen, how the introduction of more\",\n \"-28.85555458869203\"\n ],\n [\n \"states that they will \\\"uphold the principles of counterattack in self-defense and limited development of nuclear weapons\\\", but \\\"has never entered, and will never enter into a nuclear arms race with any country\\\". It goes on to describe that China will never undertake a first strike, or use nuclear weapons against a non-nuclear state or zone. US strategists, however, suggest that the Chinese position may be ambiguous, and nuclear weapons may be used both to deter conventional strikes/invasions on the Chinese mainland, or as an international political tool – limiting the extent to which other nations can coerce China politically,\",\n \"-28.788745273079257\"\n ],\n [\n \"will successfully be able to acquire nuclear weapons. The article written by Dong-Jong Joo and Erik Gartzke discusses how the economy of a country determines whether they will successfully acquire nuclear weapons. Iran Former Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has been a frequent critic of the concept of \\\"nuclear apartheid\\\" as it has been put into practice by several countries, particularly the United States. In an interview with CNN's Christiane Amanpour, Ahmadinejad said that Iran was \\\"against 'nuclear apartheid,' which means some have the right to possess it, use the fuel, and then sell it to another country for 10 times\",\n \"-28.684154818416573\"\n ],\n [\n \"hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route. (West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) Non-signatories Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon\",\n \"-28.54137067424017\"\n ],\n [\n \"reversed their previous position and asserted that instead of making the world safer, nuclear weapons had become a source of extreme concern.\\nSince the 1970s, some countries have built their own second-strike capability of massive deterrence in the event of a military attack with weapons of mass destruction. \\nTwo examples of this second-strike capability are the Samson Option strategy of Israel, and the Dead Hand system of Russia.\\nDuring the era of nuclear weapons testing many local communities were affected, and some are still affected by uranium mining, and radioactive waste disposal. Other technologies The international nuclear fusion project International Thermonuclear Experimental\",\n \"-28.477678200062655\"\n ],\n [\n \"without force.\\nOnly one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. The former Soviet republics of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the collapse of the USSR.\\nProponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war, especially accidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present nuclear peace and deterrence and would lead to increased global instability. Various American elder statesmen, who were in office during the Cold War period, have been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. These officials include\",\n \"-28.45791322446894\"\n ],\n [\n \"is significant that although we could have them, we don't\\\".\\nEarlier, Shinzō Abe had said that Japan's constitution did not necessarily ban possession of nuclear weapons, so long as they were kept at a minimum and were tactical weapons, and Chief Cabinet Secretary Yasuo Fukuda had expressed a similar view. De facto nuclear state While there are currently no known plans in Japan to produce nuclear weapons, it has been argued Japan has the technology, raw materials, and the capital to produce nuclear weapons within one year if necessary, and many analysts consider it a de facto nuclear state for this\",\n \"-28.369949751300737\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty and other nuclear treaties. He specifically notes that in The Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty, the possession of nuclear weapons by the five major nuclear powers is lawful until disarmament and that inherent in possession of nuclear weapons is deterrence and deterrence, by its nature, implies threat of use.\\nThe policy of deterrence differs from that of the threat to use nuclear weapons by its generality but if a threat of possible use did not inhere in deterrence, deterrence would not deter. If possession by the five nuclear Powers is lawful until achievement of nuclear disarmament; if\",\n \"-28.264392941375263\"\n ],\n [\n \"1960, Israel has never officially acknowledged its construction or possession of nuclear weapons. In addition to this policy, on May 18, 1966, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol told the Knesset that \\\"Israel has no atomic weapons and will not be the first to introduce them into our region,\\\" a policy first articulated by Shimon Peres to U.S. President John F. Kennedy in April 1963. In November 1968, Israeli Ambassador to the U.S. Yitzhak Rabin informed the U.S. State Department that its understanding of \\\"introducing\\\" nuclear weapons meant testing, deploying or making them public, while merely possessing the weapons did not constitute\",\n \"-28.09836693291436\"\n ],\n [\n \"In 1961 the Mexican government argued that use of nuclear weapons could not be justified under the right to self-defence in the UN charter. Six years later the country would sign the Treaty of Tlatelolco in which Mexico and several other Latin American countries agreed not to manufacture nuclear weapons and to limit its nuclear technology for peaceful purposes only.\\nIn 2000, Mexico was one of 7 nations launching a declaration \\\"Towards a Nuclear Weapon Free World: The Need for a New Agenda\\\" calling for further action to implement the provisions of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.\\nIn April\",\n \"-28.06372194760479\"\n ],\n [\n \"its nuclear status.\\nSouth Africa developed a small nuclear arsenal in the 1980s but disassembled them in the early 1990s, making it the only country to have fully given up an independently developed nuclear weapons arsenal. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine inherited stockpiles of nuclear arms following the break-up of the Soviet Union, but relinquished them to the Russian Federation.\\nCountries where nuclear weapons are deployed through nuclear sharing agreements include Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey. Ethics and international legal status Some commentators classify some or all the uses of nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons during wartime as a war crime\",\n \"-28.053376538911834\"\n ],\n [\n \"Going back through history we can see how this has taken place. When the United States demonstrated that it had nuclear power capabilities after the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Russians started to develop their program in preparation for the Cold War. With the Russian military buildup, France and the United Kingdom perceived this as a security threat and therefore they pursued nuclear weapons (Sagan, pg 71). Even though proliferation causes proliferation, this does not guarantee that other states will successfully develop nuclear weapons because the economic stability of a state plays an important role on whether the state\",\n \"-27.935088858765084\"\n ],\n [\n \"but if it's a 1-in-4 or 1-in-5 chance, that's too high.\\\" Argument about nuclear armament of South Korea and Japan An argument emerged in both South Korea and Japan about the nuclear option, driven by worry that the United States might hesitate to defend the countries if doing so might provoke a missile launched from the North at major U.S. cities. In South Korea, polls show that 60 percent of the population favors building nuclear weapons, and that nearly 70 percent want the United States to reintroduce tactical nuclear weapons, which were withdrawn in 1991. In October, Hong Jun-pyo, one\",\n \"-27.908070847130148\"\n ],\n [\n \"to an attack by conventional forces; for example, the doctrine of massive retaliation threatened to launch US nuclear weapons in response to Soviet attacks.\\nA successful nuclear deterrent requires that a country preserve its ability to retaliate, either by responding before its own weapons are destroyed or by ensuring a second strike capability. A nuclear deterrent is sometimes composed of a nuclear triad, as in the case of the nuclear weapons owned by the United States, Russia, the People's Republic of China and India. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, have only sea- and air-based nuclear weapons. Proportionality\",\n \"-27.9043225296773\"\n ],\n [\n \"UN proposal, 2011 IAEA forum), the Korean Peninsula, Central Europe, South Asia, South-east Asia, and the Arctic.\\nAll countries without nuclear weapons, except South Sudan, are parties to the Non-Proliferation Treaty, as are the 5 NPT-sanctioned nuclear weapon states. Europe The UK, France, and the USA share a nuclear umbrella with the 25 other members of NATO, and the 6 European Union states not part of NATO (Austria, Cyprus, Ireland, Malta, Sweden, Finland) are part of the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy.\\nThe other European countries west of the former Soviet Union\\nare small Western European states and surrounded by and aligned\",\n \"-27.873190946993418\"\n ],\n [\n \"Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, in which it found that 'the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict'.\\nRidding the world of nuclear weapons has been a cause for pacifists for decades. But more recently mainstream politicians and retired military leaders have advocated nuclear disarmament. In January 2007 an article in The Wall Street Journal, authored by Henry Kissinger, Bill Perry, George Shultz and Sam Nunn. These men were veterans of the cold-war who believed in using nuclear weapons for deterrence. But they now\",\n \"-27.746506049414165\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the United States are often referred to as great powers by academics due to \\\"their political and economic dominance of the global arena\\\". These five nations are the only states to have permanent seats with veto power on the UN Security Council. They are also the only state entities to have met the conditions to be considered \\\"Nuclear Weapons States\\\" under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, and maintain military expenditures which are among the largest in the world. However, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of these powers or what\",\n \"-27.661728547886014\"\n ],\n [\n \"remove itself from active participation in international politics in order to maintain its national security. It holds that because there are no threats to the American homeland, the United States does not need to intervene abroad. Stressing a particular understanding of nuclear weapons, the authors describe how proponents believe the destructive power of nuclear weapons and retaliatory potential of the United States assure the political sovereignty and territorial integrity of the United States, while the proliferation of such weapons to countries like Britain, France, China and Russia prevents the emergence of any competing hegemon on the Eurasian landmass. The United\",\n \"-27.587035092437873\"\n ],\n [\n \"a major step in the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons. Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon states were prohibited from, among other things, possessing, manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of total nuclear disarmament.\\nThe Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans all nuclear explosions in any environments. Tools such as muon tomography can help to stop the spread of nuclear material before it is armed into a weapon.\\nThe New START treaty signed by the US and Russia aims to reduce the nuclear arsenal by as much as a third.\",\n \"-27.525560012087226\"\n ],\n [\n \"logic and civilization\\\" would not need nuclear weapons, and that countries that seek nuclear weapons are those that want to solve all problems by the use of force. In a 2008 interview Ahmadinejad elaborated that countries striving to obtain nuclear weapons are not politically progressive nations and those who possess them and continually make new generations of such bombs are \\\"even more backward\\\".\\nIn April 2006, Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had successfully refined uranium to a stage suitable for the nuclear fuel cycle. In a speech to students and academics in Mashhad, he was quoted as saying that Iran's conditions had\",\n \"-27.51407803047914\"\n ],\n [\n \"and were adopted as a parliamentary resolution in 1971, though they have never formally been entered into law. They continue to reflect the attitudes of both government and the general public, who remain staunchly opposed to the manufacture or use of nuclear weapons.\\nThe Japan Self-Defense Forces have never made any attempt to manufacture or otherwise obtain nuclear arms, and no nuclear weapons are known to have been introduced into the Japanese Home Islands since the end of World War II. While the United States does not maintain nuclear bases within its military installations on the Home Islands, it is believed\",\n \"-27.48836812132504\"\n ],\n [\n \"arsenal, an option that would be realized in the event that Iran obtains nuclear warheads. UN member states According to the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN), a coalition of non-governmental organizations, leading proponents of a nuclear-weapon-ban treaty include Ireland, Austria, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, South Africa and Thailand. All 54 nations of Africa (all but one of which have either signed or ratified the 1996 Treaty of Pelindaba establishing a nuclear-weapon-free-zone in the continent) and all 33 nations of Latin America and the Caribbean (already in a nuclear-weapon-free-zone under the 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco) had subscribed to common\",\n \"-27.48820515559055\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the development of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but ultimately opted not to sign it.\\nWe must develop this atomic energy quite apart from war – indeed I think we must develop it for the purpose of using it for peaceful purposes. ... Of course, if we are compelled as a nation to use it for other purposes, possibly no pious sentiments of any of us will stop the nation from using it that way.\\n— Jawaharalal Nehru, First Prime Minister of India, \\nIn 1954, Homi Jehangir Bhabha steered the nuclear programme in the direction of weapons design and production. Two important\",\n \"-27.481119513249723\"\n ],\n [\n \"of nuclear weapons And long-range rockets. Nuclear weapons Since the realization of mutually assured destruction (MAD), the nuclear option of all-out war is no longer considered a survivable scenario. During the Cold War in the years following World War II, both the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a nuclear arms race. Each country and their allies continually attempted to out-develop each other in the field of nuclear armaments. Once the joint technological capabilities reached the point of being able to ensure the destruction of the Earth x100 fold, then a new tactic had to be\",\n \"-27.465821962221526\"\n ],\n [\n \"when their atomic bomb project was politicised for [absolute] political gain. Without a comprehensive [nuclear and political] policy, things do not work, and no country can go developed its nuclear project without having some kind of framework in which to operate. We had to develop a political strategy to launch our project without arousing great deal of suspicion and opposition at the international level, because no body in the world wanted to see Pakistan to become nuclear power. But we had no choice [as mentioned by Bhutto in 1965]. I can tell you...... that it is not only the Western\",\n \"-27.426779332308797\"\n ],\n [\n \"for elimination. Around two-thirds of the world's nations have pledged to work together \\\"to fill the legal gap\\\" in the existing international regime governing nuclear weapons, and view a nuclear-weapon-ban treaty as one option for achieving this objective.\\nNuclear weapons – unlike chemical weapons, biological weapons, anti-personnel landmines and cluster munitions – are not prohibited in a comprehensive and universal manner. The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 contains only partial prohibitions, and nuclear-weapon-free zone treaties prohibit nuclear weapons only within certain geographical regions. Overview of provisions The preamble of the treaty explains the motivation by the \\\"catastrophic consequences\\\" of a use\",\n \"-27.402241429653714\"\n ],\n [\n \"has nuclear readiness but does not have a bomb,\\\" Primakov said.\\nIn February 2012, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin said that Russia opposes Iran developing nuclear-weapons capability. \\\"Russia is not interested in Iran becoming a nuclear power. It would lead to greater risks to international stability.\\\", Putin said. United Kingdom The United Kingdom is part of the EU3+3 (UK, France, Germany, US, China and Russia) group of countries that are engaged in ongoing discussions with Iran.\\nThe UK is therefore one of the countries that has stated that Iran would be provided with enriched fuel and support to develop a modern nuclear\",\n \"-27.35241684311768\"\n ],\n [\n \"ensure compliance with global nuclear disarmanent. Iran and many other nations without nuclear weapons have said that the present situation whereby Nuclear Weapon States monopolise the right to possess nuclear weapons is \\\"highly discriminatory\\\", and they have pushed for steps to accelerate the process of nuclear disarmament.\\nIran has criticized the European Union because it believes it has taken no steps to reduce the danger of nuclear weapons in the Middle East. Iran has called on the state of Israel to sign the NPT, accept inspection of its nuclear facilities, and place its nuclear facilities under IAEA safeguards. Iran has proposed\",\n \"-27.35039142961614\"\n ],\n [\n \"our tactical maritime and airborne nuclear capabilities. We have terminated our nuclear capable Lance missiles and artillery. We have the smallest nuclear capability of any recognised nuclear weapon state accounting for less than one per cent of the global inventory. And we are the only nuclear weapon state that relies on a single nuclear system.\\nThe subsequent vote was won overwhelmingly, including unanimous support from the opposition Conservative Party. The Government's position remained that it was abiding by the NPT in renewing Trident, and Britain has the right to possess nuclear weapons, a position reiterated by Tony Blair on 21\",\n \"-27.300327304255916\"\n ],\n [\n \"that signed the Nuclear Free World Policy:\\n1. We, the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, Slovenia, South Africa and Sweden have considered the continued threat to humanity represented by the perspective of the indefinite possession of nuclear weapons by the nuclear-weapon states as well as by those three nuclear-weapons-capable states that have not acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and the attendant possibility of use or threat of use of nuclear weapons. The seriousness of this predicament has been further underscored by the recent nuclear tests conducted by India and Pakistan.\\nThese countries are weary of\",\n \"-27.282254390767775\"\n ],\n [\n \"mentally retarded. We think they are stupid because the era of nuclear bombs is over. [Why] for example, should Iran continue its efforts and tolerate all international treasures only to build a nuclear bomb, or a few nuclear bombs that are useless? They can never be used!\\\"\\n\\nOn 22 February 2012, in a meeting in Tehran with the director and officials of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI) and nuclear scientists, Leader of the Islamic Revolution Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenei said: \\n \\\"The Iranian nation has never pursued and will never pursue nuclear weapons. There is no doubt that the\",\n \"-27.22928730193962\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"culture, logic and civilization\\\" would not need nuclear weapons, and that countries that seek nuclear weapons are those which want to solve all problems by the use of force. In a 2008 interview Ahmadinejad elaborated that countries striving to obtain nuclear weapons are politically backward nations and those who possess them and continually make new generations of such bombs are \\\"even more backward\\\".\\nIn April 2006, Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had successfully refined uranium to a stage suitable for the nuclear fuel cycle. In a speech to students and academics in Mashhad, he was quoted as saying that Iran's conditions had\",\n \"-27.185727632720955\"\n ],\n [\n \"initial strike\\\" in \\\"the most extreme circumstances\\\". Fallon stated in a parliamentary answer that the UK has neither a 'first use' or 'no first use' in its nuclear weapon policy so that its adversaries would not know when the UK would launch nuclear strikes. United States The United States has refused to adopt a no first use policy and says that it \\\"reserves the right to use\\\" nuclear weapons first in the case of conflict. The US doctrine for the use of nuclear weapons was revised most recently in the Nuclear Posture Review, released April 6, 2010. The 2010\",\n \"-27.183116427564528\"\n ],\n [\n \"plans to renew its nuclear arsenal as a \\\"serious setback\\\" to international disarmament efforts. Britain's parliament backed Prime Minister Tony Blair's plans to renew the country's Trident missile nuclear weapons system.\\n\\\"Britain does not have the right to question others when they're not complying with their obligations\\\" referring to the obligation by the U.K., United States, Russia and France to disarm under the NPT accord and \\\"It is very unfortunate that the UK, which is always calling for non-proliferation not only has not given up the weapons but has taken a serious step toward further development of nuclear weapons,\\\" Iran's envoy\",\n \"-27.112988084118115\"\n ],\n [\n \"realize the core truth of the post–Cold War era that, if the strategic reality, as described by the words of Ronald Reagan, is that \\\"Nuclear war cannot be won and must not be fought\\\", then large nuclear weapons stockpiles have no positive use, are expensive, and can lead to dangerous destabilization. The possibility of a peace with honor of strategic equals between Russia and the US may now be possible. Historical analysis Neither side sought nuclear conflict, even though it threatened to break out on multiple occasions. What both sides had, however, was a deep and continuing fear that the\",\n \"-27.05368968716357\"\n ],\n [\n \"New START, as well as non-binding agreements such as SALT I and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives of 1991. Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia.\\nNuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Treaty\",\n \"-27.03182725061197\"\n ],\n [\n \"become a route leading to a nuclear weapon or a public annex to a \\\"secret\\\" weapons program. The concern over Iran's nuclear activities is a case in point.\\nAs of April 2012 there were thirty one countries that have civil nuclear power plants, of which nine have nuclear weapons, with the vast majority of these nuclear weapons states having first produced weapons, before commercial fission electricity stations.\\nMoreover, the re-purposing of civilian nuclear industries for military purposes would be a breach of the Non-proliferation treaty, to which 190 countries adhere.\\nA fundamental goal for global security is to minimize the nuclear proliferation risks\",\n \"-27.03088720049709\"\n ],\n [\n \"of conventional and nuclear weapons at all levels? The reason simply is that, through the defence policy pursued by Britain, the United States and NATO, we have shown our determination to defend ourselves from aggression and potential domination by the deployment of cruise missiles, by the introduction of Trident and by the maintenance of our defence commitment by increasing it by 3 per cent. every year during the past five years..\\\"\\nHe underlined the fact that, \\\"We tell the Soviet Union that we shall negotiate disarmament, because that is what we want, but we shall negotiate only from strength. That is\",\n \"-26.95195422368124\"\n ],\n [\n \"weapons and when they got them, and how many nuclear warheads they have in any given year. All nine nuclear-armed states are featured: the United States, Russia, China, India, Pakistan, France, Britain, Israel, and North Korea.\\nIn the 21st Century, articles have covered threats to humanity from a variety of sources. The potential dangers of nuclear weapons and energy, military and political developments in the Post-Cold War world, political unrest in the Middle East (and its attendant potential for proliferation risks of nuclear and chemical weapons), myriad negative consequences of climate change, cyber warfare, and changes wrought by emerging technologies\",\n \"-26.94150049140444\"\n ],\n [\n \"force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons.\\nThe United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that since the end of the Cold War it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons. U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear\",\n \"-26.904325845069252\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be 'educated'.\\\"\\nThroughout Sato's administration Japan continued to discuss the nuclear option. It was suggested that tactical nuclear weapons, as opposed to larger strategic weapons, could be defined as defensive, and therefore be allowed by the Japanese Constitution. A White Paper commissioned by future Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone opined that it would be possible that possessing small-yield, purely defensive nuclear weapons would not violate the Constitution, but that in view of the danger of adverse foreign reaction and possible war, a policy would be followed of not acquiring nuclear weapons \\\"at present\\\". Extension of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty In 1995 the\",\n \"-26.896756872185506\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"[t]here is in neither customary nor international law any comprehensive and universal prohibition of the threat or use of nuclear weapons.\\\" However, by a split vote, it also found that \\\"[t]he threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict.\\\" The Court stated that it could not definitively conclude whether the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in an extreme circumstance of self-defense, in which the very survival of the state would be at stake.\",\n \"-26.833764559822157\"\n ],\n [\n \"constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\\\". Twelve other countries are known to operate uranium enrichment facilities. Iran states that \\\"the failure of certain Nuclear- Weapon States to fulfill their international obligations continue to be a source of threat for the international community\\\". Iran also states that \\\"the only country that has ever used nuclear weapons still maintains a sizable arsenal of thousands of nuclear warheads\\\" and calls for a stop to the transfer of technology to non-NPT states. Iran has called for the development of a follow-up committee to\",\n \"-26.821552431443706\"\n ],\n [\n \"why governments, including in the US, supported nuclear weapons was that \\\"enormous economic and financial interests are vested in the continuation and elaboration of nuclear armaments. I believe, however, that the crucial explanation lies in another direction: the nuclear hypothesis provides governments with an excuse for not doing what they have no intention of doing anyhow, but for reasons which they find it inconvenient to specify\\\".\\nOn 2 June, Powell spoke against the stationing of US cruise missiles in the UK and claimed the United States had an obsessive sense of mission and a hallucinatory view of international relations: \\\"The American\",\n \"-26.800776706426404\"\n ],\n [\n \"each other in warfare, but fought proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Angola, the Middle East, Nicaragua and Afghanistan and spent substantial amounts of money and manpower on gaining relative influence over the third world.\\nA study published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution in 2009 quantitatively evaluated the nuclear peace hypothesis, and found support for the existence of the stability–instability paradox. The study determined that while nuclear weapons promote strategic stability, and prevent large scale wars, they simultaneously allow for more lower intensity conflicts. When a nuclear monopoly exists between two states, and their opponent does not, there is a greater\",\n \"-26.681385185889667\"\n ],\n [\n \"must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \\\"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\\\".\\nU.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuading the then West Germany not to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with the Warsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S.\",\n \"-26.64885663574387\"\n ],\n [\n \"retaliation. Legality The United Kingdom is one of the five nuclear-weapon states legally recognised as such under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). As of 2018, nine countries have nuclear weapons. After the UK government announced its plans to refurbish its Trident missiles and build new submarines to carry them, it published a white paper on The Future of the United Kingdom's Nuclear Deterrent, in which it stated that the renewal is fully compatible with the United Kingdom's treaty commitments and international law. At the start of the House of Commons debate to authorise the replacement of\",\n \"-26.61266190232709\"\n ],\n [\n \"be devastating to themselves, thus in theory restraining them from attacking the other.\\nBoth Soviet and American experts hoped to use nuclear weapons for extracting concessions from the other, or from other powers such as China, but the risk connected with using these weapons was so grave that they refrained from what John Foster Dulles referred to as brinkmanship. While some, like General Douglas MacArthur, argued nuclear weapons should be used during the Korean War, both Truman and Eisenhower opposed the idea.\\nBoth sides were unaware of the details of the capacity of the enemy's arsenal of nuclear weapons. The Americans suffered\",\n \"-26.609629554208368\"\n ],\n [\n \"islands several times over. For us to use the weapon would therefore be equivalent to more than suicide: it would be genocide—the extinction of our race—in the literal and precise meaning of that much abused expression. Would anybody in their senses contemplate that this ought to be our choice or would be our choice?\\\"\\nPowell further stated that the continental nations held the nuclear weapon in such esteem that they had conventional forces \\\"manifestly inadequate to impose more than brief delay upon an assault from the East. The theory of nuclear deterrence states that, should Warsaw Pact forces score substantial military\",\n \"-26.58731460745912\"\n ],\n [\n \"party to declare whether it had nuclear weapons of their own or deployed on its territory, including the elimination or conversion of related facilities.\\nArticle 3 requires parties that do not possess nuclear weapons to maintain their existing IAEA safeguards and, if they have not already done so, to accept safeguards based on the model for non-nuclear-weapon states under the NPT.\\nArticle 4 sets out general procedures for negotiations with an individual nuclear armed state becoming party to the treaty, including time limits and responsibilities. If that state has eliminated its nuclear weapons before becoming a party to the treaty, an unspecified\",\n \"-26.57855849841144\"\n ],\n [\n \"and will not surrender the right of its people to peaceful use of nuclear energy. Our motto is \\\"Nuclear energy for all, nuclear weapons for none\\\". We will insist on this motto and know that breaking the monopoly of few western countries in production of nuclear energy in the framework of NPT is good for all sovereign nations, including member states of the Non-Aligned Movement. 2007 The New York Times reported in 2007 that Iran's nuclear program had spurred interest in establishing nuclear power programs by a number of neighboring countries, including Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Egypt. According to the\",\n \"-26.516001076437533\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the nuclear-armed countries are parties to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Article VI of the NPT requires that parties \\\"pursue negotiations in good faith\\\" aimed at \\\"complete disarmament.\\\" The lawsuits contend that the other four countries, while not bound to the NPT, are obligated by customary international law to pursue nuclear disarmament.\\nPresenting evidence that all nine nuclear-armed countries continue to update and enhance their nuclear arsenals while failing to take disarmament negotiations seriously, the lawsuits allege that each nuclear-armed country is in breach of its international obligations. The case filed in the U.S. Federal District Court is particularly historic,\",\n \"-26.464259382453747\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Eurasian land mass. In 1993, Russia dropped a pledge against first use of nuclear weapons made in 1982 by Leonid Brezhnev. In 2000, a Russian military doctrine stated that Russia reserves the right to use nuclear weapons \\\"in response to a large-scale conventional aggression\\\". China China became the first nation to propose and pledge NFU policy when it first gained nuclear capabilities in 1964, stating \\\"not to be the first to use nuclear weapons at any time or under any circumstances.\\\" During the Cold War, China decided to keep the size of its nuclear arsenal small, rather than\",\n \"-26.428065345797222\"\n ],\n [\n \"policies that would allegedly make nuclear weapons more usable in the post–Cold War environment. To date the U.S. Congress has refused to fund many of these policies. However, some feel that even considering such programs harms the credibility of the United States as a proponent of nonproliferation. Recent developments Eliminating nuclear weapons has long been an aim of the pacifist left. But now many mainstream politicians, academic analysts, and retired military leaders also advocate nuclear disarmament. Sam Nunn, William Perry, Henry Kissinger, and George Shultz have called upon governments to embrace the vision of a world free of nuclear\",\n \"-26.42778958484996\"\n ],\n [\n \"the organization. Role of elite countries There has been criticism that the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States), who are all nuclear powers, have created an exclusive nuclear club whose powers are unchecked. Unlike the General Assembly, the United Nations Security Council does not have true international representation. This has led to accusations that the UNSC only addresses the strategic interests and political motives of the permanent members, especially in humanitarian interventions: for example, protecting the oil-rich Kuwaitis in 1991 but poorly protecting resource-poor Rwandans in 1997.\",\n \"-26.41620338114444\"\n ],\n [\n \"government funds to create such weapon, coupled with the fact that having such weapon would only escalate tensions between the two countries.\\nIn 2019, Juan Ponce Enrile reiterates his earlier claims in 2016 that the Philippines should have developed nuclear weapons to assert its claims, particularly in reinforcing the Philippines v. China international arbitration ruling, regarding its territorial disputes with China. Defense secretary Delfin Lorenzana in response to Enrile's statement said that the Philippines is not planning to develop nuclear weapons due to the country's limited technological capabilities as well as legal obligations such as being a signatory to the Non-Proliferation\",\n \"-26.393494900432415\"\n ],\n [\n \"the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals.\\nOther observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament. No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which\",\n \"-26.378648679092294\"\n ],\n [\n \"preferable to war.\\nThe question is why two rational states cannot find an X that satisfies both sides, even though one must always exist and war is the worst feasible payoff for both sides. Information problems One obvious reason is that each state simply believes it is more powerful than it really is. For example, two states that each believe they are infinitely powerful would have a difficult time bargaining with each other. War, then, can erupt with incomplete information regarding the distribution of power.\\nBut Fearon points out that this is not a completely rational explanation for war. Recall that war\",\n \"-26.298780749668367\"\n ],\n [\n \"which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. A testing ban imposes a significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country. The Treaty requires the ratification by 44 specific states before it can go into force; as of 2012, the ratification of eight of these states is still required.\\nAdditional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles, the United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States and Russia. These include treaties such as SALT II (never ratified), START I (expired), INF, START II (never ratified), SORT, and\",\n \"-26.264933873841073\"\n ],\n [\n \"Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons First pillar: Non-proliferation Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon.\\nUnder Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards\",\n \"-26.261239242216107\"\n ],\n [\n \"world were educated in nuclear science and then dispatched home, where many later pursued secret weapons programs in their home country.\\nEfforts to conclude an international agreement to limit the spread of nuclear weapons did not begin until the early 1960s, after four nations (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France) had acquired nuclear weapons (see List of states with nuclear weapons for more information). Although these efforts stalled in the early 1960s, they renewed once again in 1964, after China detonated a nuclear weapon. In 1968, governments represented at the Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee (ENDC) finished\",\n \"-26.256364503875375\"\n ],\n [\n \"capable and survivable nuclear systems in greater numbers will shape the terms of this debate or affect Beijing's thinking about nuclear options in the future.\\\" India India's nuclear weapons policy is that of \\\"no first use\\\" and \\\"minimum credible deterrence,\\\" which means that the country will not use nuclear weapons unless they are attacked first, but the country does have the capability to induce the second strike. Before 2016, India already possessed land-based ballistic missiles and aircraft that are nuclear-capable. India's land-based arsenal includes the Prithvi-1 with a range of 150 to 600 kilometers, the Agni-1 with a range of\",\n \"-26.241806516074575\"\n ],\n [\n \"same time, it issued a negative security assurance. China stated that despite its willingness to use nuclear weapons, it \\\"[should] not in any way be construed as endorsing the use of nuclear weapons.\\\" The dichotomy of such a position has led for calls to make more use of protocols attached to NWFZ (nuclear-weapon-free zone) treaties, instead of generalized security assurances.\",\n \"-26.230239155469462\"\n ],\n [\n \"of two of the principal powers of the region, Brazil and Argentina, to the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty, due to its perceived discriminatory nature.\\nWhile Colombia is the only state in the region to have fully accepted the United States vision of the war on terror, most states in the region already have anti-terrorism measures in place, usually in conjunction with policies designed to fight organised crime, which is the main local threat (for example, the 3+1 Group, the Inter-American Convention Against Terrorism, the Declaration of San Carlos).\\nAll of the states in the region have already presented their compliance reports to the\",\n \"-26.137869777623564\"\n ],\n [\n \"of a country's resources such as in World War II logistically impractical and strategically irrelevant. Such weapons are developed and maintained with relatively modest peacetime defense budgets.\\nBy the end of the 1950s, the ideological stand-off of the Cold War between the Western World and the Soviet Union had resulted in thousands of nuclear weapons being aimed by each side at the other. Strategically, the equal balance of destructive power possessed by each side situation came to be known as Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), considering that a nuclear attack by one superpower would result in nuclear counter-strike by the other. This\",\n \"-26.08000549089047\"\n ],\n [\n \"constitution, Japan, as the only nation to have experienced the devastation of nuclear attacks, expressed early its abhorrence of nuclear arms and its determination never to acquire them. The Atomic Energy Basic Law of 1956 limits research, development, and use of nuclear power to peaceful uses only. Beginning in 1956, national policy embodied \\\"three non-nuclear principles\\\"—forbidding the nation to possess or manufacture nuclear weapons or to allow them to be introduced into its territories. In 1976 Japan ratified the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (adopted by the United Nations Security Council in 1968) and reiterated its intention never\",\n \"-26.06144050799776\"\n ],\n [\n \"February 2007. Only the United Kingdom has expressed its opposition to the establishment of a new legally binding treaty to prevent the threat or use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear states, through its vote in the United Nations General Assembly in 1998.\\nThe United Kingdom decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations.\",\n \"-26.042308567964938\"\n ],\n [\n \"court ruled that these laws would also apply to the use of nuclear weapons.(paragraph 86) The Court decided not to pronounce on the matter of whether the use of nuclear weapons might possibly be legal, if exercised as a last resort in extreme circumstances (such as if the very existence of the state was in jeopardy).(paragraph 97) Split decision The only significantly split decision was on the matter of whether \\\"the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict\\\", not including \\\"in an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in\",\n \"-26.006008286727592\"\n ],\n [\n \"offensive military forces, and in 1967 it adopted the Three Non-Nuclear Principles, ruling out the production, possession, or introduction of nuclear weapons. Despite this, the idea that Japan might become a nuclear power has persisted. After China's first nuclear test in 1964, Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Satō said to President Lyndon Johnson when they met in January 1965, that if the Chinese Communists had nuclear weapons, the Japanese should also have them. This shocked Johnson's administration, especially when Sato added that \\\"Japanese public opinion will not permit this at present, but I believe that the public, especially the younger generation,\",\n \"-25.904993498523254\"\n ],\n [\n \"once all other countries agreed not to develop or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons. Fearing that Congress would reject the proposal, Truman turned to the well-connected Bernard Baruch to represent the U.S. position to the United Nations. The Baruch Plan, largely based on the Acheson-Lilienthal Report, was not adopted due to opposition from Congress and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union would develop its own nuclear arsenal, testing a nuclear weapon for the first time in August 1949.\\nThe United States Atomic Energy Commission, directed by David E. Lilienthal until 1950, was in charge of designing and building nuclear weapons under a\",\n \"-25.892754376400262\"\n ],\n [\n \"be used and so cannot assess with any accuracy the results that can be achieved.\\\"\\nThe Americans preferred that the British not develop atomic weapons at all, but as that was not possible, they decided that partnership was preferable to losing influence with the United Kingdom. The British sought an independent, domestic nuclear deterrent that by itself could persuade the USSR to not attack, in part because they feared that America might not be willing to defend Europe with its nuclear missiles once the USSR could attack the United States itself, or during wartime not prioritize targets that threatened the United\",\n \"-25.87378506863024\"\n ],\n [\n \"as hard as we possibly can, and the Iranians, to cease and desist on the development of a nuclear weapon and we should not preclude any option that we may have to deal with it.\\\" He also said, \\\"I believe that we have the power to deter Iran, should it become nuclear.\\\"\\n\\\"There are ways to live with a nuclear Iran,\\\" Abizaid said, \\\"Let's face it, we lived with a nuclear Soviet Union, we've lived with a nuclear China, and we're living with (other) nuclear powers as well.\\\"\",\n \"-25.87345257063862\"\n ],\n [\n \"a terrorist group getting an atomic weapon, but real progress depends on countries keeping the promises they made\\\". Organizational reactions Sam Nunn, a former U.S. senator who tutored Mr. Obama on nuclear proliferation issues said he believed \\\"we are now closer to cooperation than catastrophe.\\\" Graham Allison, an expert on nuclear terrorism at Harvard University, made the case that if countries \\\"lock down all nuclear weapons and bomb-usable material as securely as gold in Fort Knox, they can reduce the likelihood of a nuclear 9/11 to nearly zero.\\\"\\nPaul Stares, Director of the Center for Preventive Action at the Council on\",\n \"-25.85637422418222\"\n ],\n [\n \"Advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons Request of the World Health Organization An advisory opinion on this issue was originally requested by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 3 September 1993:\\nIn view of the health and environmental effects, would the use of nuclear weapons by a state in war or other armed conflict be a breach of its obligations under international law including the WHO Constitution?\\nThe ICJ considered the WHO's request, in a case known as the Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict (General List No.\",\n \"-25.847550753271207\"\n ],\n [\n \"weapons from great distances across the globe to their targets. Eventually, Britain, France, and China would also develop nuclear weapons. It is believed that Israel developed nuclear weapons as well.\\nOne major event that nearly brought the world to the brink of war was the Cuban Missile Crisis. In the 1950s a revolution in Cuba had brought the only Communist regime in the Western Hemisphere to power. In 1962, the Soviets began constructing missile sites in Cuba and sending nuclear missiles. Because of its close proximity to the U.S., the U.S. demanded the Soviets withdraw missiles from Cuba. The U.S. and\",\n \"-25.841595898702508\"\n ],\n [\n \"East need a country like China. Israel needs China's power.\\\"\\nIn March 2012, Chinese Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi said that \\\"China is opposed to any country in the Middle East, including Iran, developing and possessing nuclear weapons.\\\", adding that Iran nonetheless has the right to pursue nuclear activities for peaceful purposes. France On 16 February 2006 French Foreign Minister Philippe Douste-Blazy said \\\"No civilian nuclear programme can explain the Iranian nuclear programme. It is a clandestine military nuclear programme.\\\"\\nIn January 2007, former French President Jacques Chirac, speaking \\\"off the record\\\" to reporters from The New York Times, indicated that if Iran\",\n \"-25.80371408816427\"\n ],\n [\n \"Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, and Portugal have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power. Belgium, Germany, Spain and Switzerland are phasing-out nuclear power.\\nGlobally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased.\\nItaly is the only country that has permanently closed all of its functioning nuclear plants. Lithuania and Kazakhstan have shut down their only nuclear plants, but plan to build new ones to replace them, while Armenia shut down its only nuclear plant but subsequently restarted it. Austria never\",\n \"-25.796118788421154\"\n ],\n [\n \"pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.\\nThe ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament.\\nCritics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in the post–Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of\",\n \"-25.72750282031484\"\n ],\n [\n \"the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of European countries' defence budget and 50 per cent of their military capacity. Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council. Most EU member states opposed the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty.\\nFollowing the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that \\\"the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO\\\". To\",\n \"-25.708646068931557\"\n ],\n [\n \"prominent figures who have called for the abolition of nuclear weapons are \\\"the philosopher Bertrand Russell, the entertainer Steve Allen, CNN’s Ted Turner, former Senator Claiborne Pell, Notre Dame president Theodore Hesburgh, South African Bishop Desmond Tutu and the Dalai Lama\\\".\\nOthers have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia. Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have created a nuclear peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common prior to their invention at\",\n \"-25.706252694886643\"\n ],\n [\n \"and there is a chance to reverse the country's nuclear policy in 2012 because South Korea is facing a presidential election. In 2014, a professor of atomic engineering at Seoul National University stated that \\\"The public has totally lost trust in nuclear power\\\".\\nIn 2015, Teddy Cho, a prominent anti-nuclear activist, stated that \\\"nuclear power is only an excuse to develop more nuclear technology. Even if that's not the case, nuclear energy itself has also proven to be very dangerous to the environment.\\\" He went on to say that nuclear energy was a terrible thing in our community and must be\",\n \"-25.6620416988153\"\n ],\n [\n \"anniversary of former Prime Minister AB Vajpayee on 16 August 2019, said that India's no first use policy might change depending upon the \\\"circumstances.\\\" Vajpayee's government conducted the Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998. Countries pledging to use nuclear weapons only defensively Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France say that they will use nuclear weapons against either nuclear or non-nuclear states only in the case of invasion or other attack against their territory or against one of their allies. Historically, NATO military strategy, taking into account the numerical superiority of Warsaw Pact conventional forces, assumed that tactical\",\n \"-25.64666262199171\"\n ],\n [\n \"servicemen are advised not to travel abroad. After the 1962 war, nearly all the remaining countries of the globe have renounced possession of nuclear weapons. The United States alone retains an atomic arsenal.\\nWestern Europe survived the war largely unscathed. NATO collapsed almost as soon as hostilities commenced, and France and a reunited Germany now preside over the continent. The United Kingdom remains an ally of the U.S., and actually assists in post-war reconstruction efforts in U.S. states hit hardest by the war. The British, in the period after 1962, has managed to regain much of its pre-1939 colonial confidence in\",\n \"-25.62063805409707\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":89,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3br75b"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why are passwords shorter than 8 characters easy to crack? (According to Snowden)"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["When you add a character to a password, the number of possible permutations goes up exponentially. Lets assume we have a simple password requirement - only upper case letters. Below are the number of possible passwords based on character count - 1 character - 26^1 - 26 combinations - 2 characters - 26^2 - 676 combinations - 3 characters - 26^3 - 17,576 combinations - 4 characters - 26^4 - 456,976 combinations - 5 characters - 26^5 - 11,881,376 combinations - 6 characters - 26^6 - 308,915,776 combinations - 7 characters - 26^7 - 8,031,810,176 combinations - 8 characters - 26^8 - 208,827,064,576 combinations So, even in our simple system, an 8 character password has over 200 billion possible combinations. ~~This is getting beyond a computer's ability to brute force (just keep trying combinations until it gets it right) ability.~~ While this is still within the average computer's ability to crack, you can see how even in our simple system, more characters becomes more difficult *Edit: Look, I am not suggesting that an eight-character, upper case letters only password is a good idea or even used by most systems. I was just creating an easy to understand, ELI5 example of entropy.","Short passwords have small degrees of entropy. Smaller degree of entropy means that they're easier to guess randomly. Adding numbers and symbols does increase entropy, but it's still way less effective than simply adding more characters. There's an xkcd that explains this pretty well, and I'm sure it will be posted 100 times in this thread because of that fact.","Most of these answers are correct but I'm going to try to put it in more ELI5 terms: If a password is long, then there's more possibilities for what that password might be. If it's short, there's less possibilities for what is could be. If it's TOO short, then a hacker can just write a program that tries every single possible password until it stumbles across the right one on accident. This is called a \"brute force attack\". Right now, passwords less than 8 characters are short enough that most regular computers can brute-force them relatively quickly. 8 or more characters and there's too many possible combinations; current-day computers would take a ridiculously long time to brute-force them.","Longer passwords result in exponentially larger sets of combinations brute force hacking programs would need to push through. 8 Characters > 645,753,531,245,761 (645 Trillion) Combinations 9 Characters > 45,848,500,718,449,031 (45 Quadrillion) Combinations 10 Characters > 3,255,243,551,009,881,201 (3 Quintillion) Combinations","think of it like a lock with the numbers you spin around, theres only 3 or 4 sets of 0-9, so you may simply try each and every possibility, sooo 000-999. it may take a few hours but you will find the answer eventually. but with computers they may test every combination of letters, numbers, and symbols (!@#$%^ & *), at a very fast pace. so if a password is short you may test every possible answer until you find the correct one in a short enough time that it is still in use, and you do not spend so much money/resources than the password will provide. (meaning if you spend $1000 in time/money/resources, when you get the password, you must be able to use the password to get more than $1000 back) otherwise its just not worth the effort. now just because a password is short or really long doesn't make it safer it requires a balance. a password like abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz may seem long complex and easy to remember but a dictionary attack would almost instantly crack this password ( dictionary attacks are common first step in password cracking ). and a password like A!B@C#D%, even though its so short it may be harder to crack than a longer password because it is not in a pre-built dictionary (i presume for argument sake), if it is not in the dictionary (most passwords aren't) then you must either try every possibility like (000,001,002,003,004,005) to eventually find the correct answer. or find another way of overcoming the password security.","Every answer I've seen is correct, but maybe a little more complicated than you're looking for. Let's keep it simple and pretend you can only use the digits from 0 to 9 for your password: * If you only use one digit, your password only has 10 possible values: 0, 1, 2, ..., 9. * If you use two digits, your password has 100 possible values: 00, 01, 02, ..., 99. * If you use three digits, you get 1000 possible values: 000, 001, 002, ..., 999. * and so on. So each character in your password can have ten values, and every time you add another digit the number of possible combinations gets 10 times bigger. That's not a coincidence! Let's try it again, but using *only* lowercase letters and nothing else: * One letter gives you 26 possible values: a, b, c, ..., z. * Two letters gives you 26*26=676 possible values: aa, ab, ac, ..., zx, zy, zz. * Three letters bumps that up to 26\\*26\\*26=17,576 values: aaa, aab, aac, ..., zzx, zzy, zzz. * and so on. Now, if you're only using lowercase letters, an 8 digit password can have 208,827,064,576 possible different combinations. Does that sound like a lot? I wrote a little program that can count that high in 37 seconds on my laptop. To a computer - especially a whole bunch of computers working together - that's not very many combinations at all. But remember, adding a single letter makes it take 26 times longer! That would take 972 seconds on the same laptop. Another letter would take it 7 hours. Making it 11 letters long would take 7.6 days. 12 letters? 198 days. 13 letters would take 14 years. Bumping your password up to 16 letters would take my laptop 248,000 years, and AppleCare wouldn't even cover that. Whoa! Using 26 letters makes the time it takes to try all combinations get big a lot faster than if we're using only numbers. What if... we used uppercase letters, lowercase letters, the numbers from 0-9, and all the punctuation you can get by pressing shift and then all the numbers from 0-9? That would give each character in your password 72 possible combinations. If you made a password by picking 1 of those 72 at random, and you did that 8 times, it'd take my laptop 15 days to guess it. That's a lot better than the 37 seconds it would take if you only used lowercase letters. But hold onto your seat: if your password was 16 characters long, it would take my little laptop 29,691,578,198,499 **years** to guess it! That's over 2,000 times longer than the whole universe is old! So yeah, the time it takes to guess your password grows exponentially with its length. That's totally true. But most people don't appreciate what exponential growth really means, and exactly how quickly it goes from \"I could crack that pretty easily\" to \"wow, we better invent a whole second universe filled with computers if we want to crack it in under a gazillion centuries\".","Here's an example I can think of. Let's say you have an apple, an orange, and a banana. You can sort these in any order you like to be your password, but if someone tries to sort them they only have to try a little bit to figure out what order you sorted them in. Now lets say you have 10 bananas, 10 oranges, and 10 apples. If you sort them it's going to take a lot longer to figure out what order you sorted them in.","Something I must post in every discussion about passwords: At the places where I am prompted for a password, can we please include the same text as the password creation requirements? Almost 100% of my \"lost\" passwords were remembered the second I logged in to set a new one and saw the criteria.","Lets say I have a lock on my bike. It has 10 numbers on the dial. If you want to steal my bike, you just have to try each number until you find the unlocking number (7). This doesn't take very long, maybe just a few seconds. I want to keep my bike, so I get a lock where you have to guess two correct numbers in the right order, and it won't give you any way to know you have one of the numbers right until you get them both right. So now you have to do a LOT more guessing, so my bike is safer. You try them until you get to 73, which unlocks it. That took you a few minutes. Now, my bike is really nice, so I'm going to get a lock with three numbers to guess! You have to guess and guess and guess until you finally get to 190. You did your guessing in numerical order (1, 2, 3, etc.) so it only took about 10 minutes, but if you would have guessed randomly it would probably have taken quite a bit longer. I like to leave my bike parked in unlit alleys downtown for days at a time, so I've invested in an eight-level lock. This time you have millions of numbers to guess, so instead you just get a bolt cutter and break my lock.","This is how password security works: I'm going to give you an empty box and some coloured cubes. Your job is to create a pattern inside the box (so I can't see) and my job is to guess the pattern you created. I'll start by giving you one red cube. Go on, place it inside the box in any order you want. Done? Great! I'm going to guess that your pattern is... red! Am I right? Yay! Well, that wasn't very fair, was it? Ok, I'll give you another cube. A blue one this time. Go on, place them inside your box. Ready? great! Now, let's see... is your pattern red - > blue? No? Well, is it now blue - > red? It is? Great! I'm GREAT at this game. What? Not fair still? Ok then, have a green cube. Ok, so I'm now guessing it could be: * Red - > Blue - > Green * Red - > Green - > Blue * Blue - > Red - > Green * Blue - > Green - > Red * Green - > Red - > Blue * Green - > Blue - > Red It is one of those? Ha! You can't beat me! What? You want ALL the cubes? But there's 9 of them! That's a lot of combinations... sit tight' this will take a while and I'm a stubborn fella. wait, what? You're only giving me 3 chances and after that I have to wait an hour before I can try again!? That's not very fair... What? you're increasing your number of cubes to 52? But that's impossible to guess in a few minutes! Are you... are you mixing stuff?! It was CUBES only! No spheres, pyramids or legos! I'm not playing this game anymore... --------- You see? I want to know your password, but you won't tell me what it is, so I have to guess. However, I have an advantage: I know, in advance, what are the elements of your password. In the above example, it's coloured cubes. I know you only have red, green and blue, so the amount of combinations is easily guessable. The more options you add, the hardest it gets to guess. This is because there are many possible combinations and orders you could use. Tech-heads call this \"high entropy\". It just means \"lots of possibilities\". In the real world, it's more complicated than that: * Passwords can have PLENTY of characters (at the very least, 52: all lowercase and uppercase letters), so from the start, you have a lot of possibilities to play with, even if your password is only 2 elements in length (still, easy to guess by a computer). * Passwords can be encrypted. This is just french for \"modified in a revertible way\". To decrypt (revert) your password, a spy would probably need to know how exactly it was encrypted in the first place, may require a key or know some secret you kept well hidden somewhere else. * Passwords don't have to be a single word or gibberish. You could use the chorus of your favourite song, a tongue twister, random words that sound funny together or some other easy thing to remember, but is really hard to guess. My main password is a 28 letter sentence to which I've added a few uppercases, some symbols and a few modifications (like writing \"bcz\" instead of \"because\"). It's pretty hard to guess. * Passwords are usually protected by a security guard. Unless stolen, this security guard will keep a strict protocol for anyone trying to guess your password: he won't let more than a few attempts, he'll stop anyone trying TOO fast, he'll let you know someone is failing too many times at guessing your password and ask you to change it, he'll become suspicious and ask the guesser some question to make sure it's a human and not a computer, etc. etc. So, by making your password long enough, you're making life so much harder to anyone trying to guess it it just becomes worthless to attempt to guess.","The comments I've seen so far are wrong. Yes, length helps but none of you touch on exactly why 8 is key. The reason why he mentions 8 characters specifically is due to how Windows hashes passwords. See the section on Weaknesses here: URL_0 tl;dr: due to how Windows stores password hashes, 8 is just above the threshold to require another hash.","Because there's only ~260 million common passwords shorter than 8 characters, and even if you asked this question from a smartphone it can count to 260million in a quarter second. It takes longer than a quarter second because testing a password is a littler harder than counting, but not much.","Allow me to paraphrase OP. \"Why do long things take longer to do than short things?\"","While the rest of the comments have explained the how and why of shorter passwords being cracked, they haven't touched on the logistical side of doing so. They're easy because they're shorter, simple enough concept to grasp, ansuz07 explains it well. I'm attempting to put the cost into real world dollars here, so instead of just numbers you can see the real costs associated with it. What they don't touch on is that for a couple dollars you can use amazon's servers to crack one of those passwords in under an hour (Something like 2 and a half minutes), and for about 1000 dollars(For anyone wondering I managed to get a pair of 7990's for 200 bucks on ebay) I built a machine that could do it in under 30 seconds (making a bunch of assumptions about how the password is stored here, but the scenario I've assumed (unsalted MD5) is unfortunately rather common). Even if you expand it to all 128 possible characters available, and have an 8 character password, using the numbers provided by oclHashcat (one of the applications that allows you to brute force passwords) with my setup it would only take about a month to crack your password. And I'm just a dude who stays at home and does this for fun. With 24 of my hash cracking machines, I could crack it in under a day. Plus, this doesn't touch on the fact people have publicly accessible tables full of all passwords less than 8 characters that take seconds to search to see if your password is in them.","Think of it this way, if you are trying to guess a password, it is about the maximum possible number of passwords that your password can be. A-Z = 26 upper case letters a-z = 26 lower case letters 0-9 = 10 possible digits symbols(~`!@#$%^ & *()_-+={}[]\\|:;\"',. < > ?/) = about 32. If your password is 1 character long, and could be any of 94 possible characters. 2 characters = 94 * 94 or 94^2 = 8836 3 = 94^3 = 830584 So as you can see, the number of possibilities grow exponentially. This is why passwords often require at least 1 upper case, 1 lower, 1 number and 1 symbol, to increase the guess space. But length also matters. The length is determined by how powerful computers currently are. In 10 years when computers are even more powerful, 8 characters might not be enough, because at that point passwords can be guessed even faster. That being said, newer complicated security measures like custom salts per each user will hopefully remove the need for individual users to increase their password exponentially. It is also important to mention that this assumes a purely random password. Humans often base passwords off of real words reduces the guessing space. And when they appear random, like \"yhnujm\" if you look at the keyboard pattern for this password, you'll see it is anything but random.","it takes far less time to test every possible character than it does to test an additional character. If there are 26 letters in the alphabet, and each can be either uppercase or lower case, then we have 2(26) possible characters for a one character password. If you can test one character a second, then it'll take 2(26)=54 seconds to test all. We'll call this 54 character-seconds. But if the password could be 2 characters, then it'll take 1.48 character-minutes to test all possibilities; 26 character, 2 states, 2 character password is 2(2(26))=2(54)=108=108/60 - 60/60=1 48/60=1.48 char-minutes. Therefore the number of possible characters takes seconds but each addition character in the password takes at least minutes","For each digit in a basic password, there are 26 possible letters, 2 cases and 10 possible numbers. So that's a total of 62 possible characters. For a 8 digit password, that's 2.18x10^14 possible combinations. Or 62^8. That would take an impossible amount of time for a person, a shorter, but still long time for a home PC. For a government supercomputer, it would still take a while, but you could still get in. For every character, you can multiply the number of possible combinations by 62, so a 9 digit password would take 62 times as long to crack.","Because of brute force attacks. Brute force attacks work by trying all possible combinations. A person trying all 208,827,064,576 combinations of 8 characters will take over six and a half years at one combo per second working non stop. But a $5000 computer with 3 GPUs can do it in a matter of days. This page from 2013 cites 8 million tries per second using 128 GPUs. That would be under 7.5 hours. URL_0 Consider hardware keeps getting faster and cheaper and the future doesn't look very private.","Simplest ELI5 answer I can think of. Imagine the dialing pad on your phone. Guess my phone number it's only 1 digit. How many guesses did it take you? Guess my girlfriends phone number, it's 2 digits. How many guesses did it take you? Guess my bank pin, it's 4 digits. How many guesses did it take you?","Also, NT LM Hashes on older versions of Windows broke up the password into 7 character chunks for hashing. Having a minimum of 8 characters ensured that you needed to break at least two hashes to guess the password. URL_0 ","Edward Snowden told Glen Greenwald to assume that the NSA could \"brute force\" the password at 1,000,000,000,000 guesses per second. At that rate it can crack an 8 character password in under a second.","It was explained to me by Ars Technica in a single image: URL_0 Even if your kid doesn't know what \"brute force\" and \"keyspace\" are, the graph is pretty self-explanatory. [Source]( URL_1 )","How long would it take to crack a completely random 20+ character password. I use [Qwertycard]( URL_0 ) for all my passwords","This is a stupid question. \"Why are longer passwords more difficult to crack than shorter passwords!?!?11\""],"string":"[\n \"When you add a character to a password, the number of possible permutations goes up exponentially. Lets assume we have a simple password requirement - only upper case letters. Below are the number of possible passwords based on character count - 1 character - 26^1 - 26 combinations - 2 characters - 26^2 - 676 combinations - 3 characters - 26^3 - 17,576 combinations - 4 characters - 26^4 - 456,976 combinations - 5 characters - 26^5 - 11,881,376 combinations - 6 characters - 26^6 - 308,915,776 combinations - 7 characters - 26^7 - 8,031,810,176 combinations - 8 characters - 26^8 - 208,827,064,576 combinations So, even in our simple system, an 8 character password has over 200 billion possible combinations. ~~This is getting beyond a computer's ability to brute force (just keep trying combinations until it gets it right) ability.~~ While this is still within the average computer's ability to crack, you can see how even in our simple system, more characters becomes more difficult *Edit: Look, I am not suggesting that an eight-character, upper case letters only password is a good idea or even used by most systems. I was just creating an easy to understand, ELI5 example of entropy.\",\n \"Short passwords have small degrees of entropy. Smaller degree of entropy means that they're easier to guess randomly. Adding numbers and symbols does increase entropy, but it's still way less effective than simply adding more characters. There's an xkcd that explains this pretty well, and I'm sure it will be posted 100 times in this thread because of that fact.\",\n \"Most of these answers are correct but I'm going to try to put it in more ELI5 terms: If a password is long, then there's more possibilities for what that password might be. If it's short, there's less possibilities for what is could be. If it's TOO short, then a hacker can just write a program that tries every single possible password until it stumbles across the right one on accident. This is called a \\\"brute force attack\\\". Right now, passwords less than 8 characters are short enough that most regular computers can brute-force them relatively quickly. 8 or more characters and there's too many possible combinations; current-day computers would take a ridiculously long time to brute-force them.\",\n \"Longer passwords result in exponentially larger sets of combinations brute force hacking programs would need to push through. 8 Characters > 645,753,531,245,761 (645 Trillion) Combinations 9 Characters > 45,848,500,718,449,031 (45 Quadrillion) Combinations 10 Characters > 3,255,243,551,009,881,201 (3 Quintillion) Combinations\",\n \"think of it like a lock with the numbers you spin around, theres only 3 or 4 sets of 0-9, so you may simply try each and every possibility, sooo 000-999. it may take a few hours but you will find the answer eventually. but with computers they may test every combination of letters, numbers, and symbols (!@#$%^ & *), at a very fast pace. so if a password is short you may test every possible answer until you find the correct one in a short enough time that it is still in use, and you do not spend so much money/resources than the password will provide. (meaning if you spend $1000 in time/money/resources, when you get the password, you must be able to use the password to get more than $1000 back) otherwise its just not worth the effort. now just because a password is short or really long doesn't make it safer it requires a balance. a password like abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz may seem long complex and easy to remember but a dictionary attack would almost instantly crack this password ( dictionary attacks are common first step in password cracking ). and a password like A!B@C#D%, even though its so short it may be harder to crack than a longer password because it is not in a pre-built dictionary (i presume for argument sake), if it is not in the dictionary (most passwords aren't) then you must either try every possibility like (000,001,002,003,004,005) to eventually find the correct answer. or find another way of overcoming the password security.\",\n \"Every answer I've seen is correct, but maybe a little more complicated than you're looking for. Let's keep it simple and pretend you can only use the digits from 0 to 9 for your password: * If you only use one digit, your password only has 10 possible values: 0, 1, 2, ..., 9. * If you use two digits, your password has 100 possible values: 00, 01, 02, ..., 99. * If you use three digits, you get 1000 possible values: 000, 001, 002, ..., 999. * and so on. So each character in your password can have ten values, and every time you add another digit the number of possible combinations gets 10 times bigger. That's not a coincidence! Let's try it again, but using *only* lowercase letters and nothing else: * One letter gives you 26 possible values: a, b, c, ..., z. * Two letters gives you 26*26=676 possible values: aa, ab, ac, ..., zx, zy, zz. * Three letters bumps that up to 26\\\\*26\\\\*26=17,576 values: aaa, aab, aac, ..., zzx, zzy, zzz. * and so on. Now, if you're only using lowercase letters, an 8 digit password can have 208,827,064,576 possible different combinations. Does that sound like a lot? I wrote a little program that can count that high in 37 seconds on my laptop. To a computer - especially a whole bunch of computers working together - that's not very many combinations at all. But remember, adding a single letter makes it take 26 times longer! That would take 972 seconds on the same laptop. Another letter would take it 7 hours. Making it 11 letters long would take 7.6 days. 12 letters? 198 days. 13 letters would take 14 years. Bumping your password up to 16 letters would take my laptop 248,000 years, and AppleCare wouldn't even cover that. Whoa! Using 26 letters makes the time it takes to try all combinations get big a lot faster than if we're using only numbers. What if... we used uppercase letters, lowercase letters, the numbers from 0-9, and all the punctuation you can get by pressing shift and then all the numbers from 0-9? That would give each character in your password 72 possible combinations. If you made a password by picking 1 of those 72 at random, and you did that 8 times, it'd take my laptop 15 days to guess it. That's a lot better than the 37 seconds it would take if you only used lowercase letters. But hold onto your seat: if your password was 16 characters long, it would take my little laptop 29,691,578,198,499 **years** to guess it! That's over 2,000 times longer than the whole universe is old! So yeah, the time it takes to guess your password grows exponentially with its length. That's totally true. But most people don't appreciate what exponential growth really means, and exactly how quickly it goes from \\\"I could crack that pretty easily\\\" to \\\"wow, we better invent a whole second universe filled with computers if we want to crack it in under a gazillion centuries\\\".\",\n \"Here's an example I can think of. Let's say you have an apple, an orange, and a banana. You can sort these in any order you like to be your password, but if someone tries to sort them they only have to try a little bit to figure out what order you sorted them in. Now lets say you have 10 bananas, 10 oranges, and 10 apples. If you sort them it's going to take a lot longer to figure out what order you sorted them in.\",\n \"Something I must post in every discussion about passwords: At the places where I am prompted for a password, can we please include the same text as the password creation requirements? Almost 100% of my \\\"lost\\\" passwords were remembered the second I logged in to set a new one and saw the criteria.\",\n \"Lets say I have a lock on my bike. It has 10 numbers on the dial. If you want to steal my bike, you just have to try each number until you find the unlocking number (7). This doesn't take very long, maybe just a few seconds. I want to keep my bike, so I get a lock where you have to guess two correct numbers in the right order, and it won't give you any way to know you have one of the numbers right until you get them both right. So now you have to do a LOT more guessing, so my bike is safer. You try them until you get to 73, which unlocks it. That took you a few minutes. Now, my bike is really nice, so I'm going to get a lock with three numbers to guess! You have to guess and guess and guess until you finally get to 190. You did your guessing in numerical order (1, 2, 3, etc.) so it only took about 10 minutes, but if you would have guessed randomly it would probably have taken quite a bit longer. I like to leave my bike parked in unlit alleys downtown for days at a time, so I've invested in an eight-level lock. This time you have millions of numbers to guess, so instead you just get a bolt cutter and break my lock.\",\n \"This is how password security works: I'm going to give you an empty box and some coloured cubes. Your job is to create a pattern inside the box (so I can't see) and my job is to guess the pattern you created. I'll start by giving you one red cube. Go on, place it inside the box in any order you want. Done? Great! I'm going to guess that your pattern is... red! Am I right? Yay! Well, that wasn't very fair, was it? Ok, I'll give you another cube. A blue one this time. Go on, place them inside your box. Ready? great! Now, let's see... is your pattern red - > blue? No? Well, is it now blue - > red? It is? Great! I'm GREAT at this game. What? Not fair still? Ok then, have a green cube. Ok, so I'm now guessing it could be: * Red - > Blue - > Green * Red - > Green - > Blue * Blue - > Red - > Green * Blue - > Green - > Red * Green - > Red - > Blue * Green - > Blue - > Red It is one of those? Ha! You can't beat me! What? You want ALL the cubes? But there's 9 of them! That's a lot of combinations... sit tight' this will take a while and I'm a stubborn fella. wait, what? You're only giving me 3 chances and after that I have to wait an hour before I can try again!? That's not very fair... What? you're increasing your number of cubes to 52? But that's impossible to guess in a few minutes! Are you... are you mixing stuff?! It was CUBES only! No spheres, pyramids or legos! I'm not playing this game anymore... --------- You see? I want to know your password, but you won't tell me what it is, so I have to guess. However, I have an advantage: I know, in advance, what are the elements of your password. In the above example, it's coloured cubes. I know you only have red, green and blue, so the amount of combinations is easily guessable. The more options you add, the hardest it gets to guess. This is because there are many possible combinations and orders you could use. Tech-heads call this \\\"high entropy\\\". It just means \\\"lots of possibilities\\\". In the real world, it's more complicated than that: * Passwords can have PLENTY of characters (at the very least, 52: all lowercase and uppercase letters), so from the start, you have a lot of possibilities to play with, even if your password is only 2 elements in length (still, easy to guess by a computer). * Passwords can be encrypted. This is just french for \\\"modified in a revertible way\\\". To decrypt (revert) your password, a spy would probably need to know how exactly it was encrypted in the first place, may require a key or know some secret you kept well hidden somewhere else. * Passwords don't have to be a single word or gibberish. You could use the chorus of your favourite song, a tongue twister, random words that sound funny together or some other easy thing to remember, but is really hard to guess. My main password is a 28 letter sentence to which I've added a few uppercases, some symbols and a few modifications (like writing \\\"bcz\\\" instead of \\\"because\\\"). It's pretty hard to guess. * Passwords are usually protected by a security guard. Unless stolen, this security guard will keep a strict protocol for anyone trying to guess your password: he won't let more than a few attempts, he'll stop anyone trying TOO fast, he'll let you know someone is failing too many times at guessing your password and ask you to change it, he'll become suspicious and ask the guesser some question to make sure it's a human and not a computer, etc. etc. So, by making your password long enough, you're making life so much harder to anyone trying to guess it it just becomes worthless to attempt to guess.\",\n \"The comments I've seen so far are wrong. Yes, length helps but none of you touch on exactly why 8 is key. The reason why he mentions 8 characters specifically is due to how Windows hashes passwords. See the section on Weaknesses here: URL_0 tl;dr: due to how Windows stores password hashes, 8 is just above the threshold to require another hash.\",\n \"Because there's only ~260 million common passwords shorter than 8 characters, and even if you asked this question from a smartphone it can count to 260million in a quarter second. It takes longer than a quarter second because testing a password is a littler harder than counting, but not much.\",\n \"Allow me to paraphrase OP. \\\"Why do long things take longer to do than short things?\\\"\",\n \"While the rest of the comments have explained the how and why of shorter passwords being cracked, they haven't touched on the logistical side of doing so. They're easy because they're shorter, simple enough concept to grasp, ansuz07 explains it well. I'm attempting to put the cost into real world dollars here, so instead of just numbers you can see the real costs associated with it. What they don't touch on is that for a couple dollars you can use amazon's servers to crack one of those passwords in under an hour (Something like 2 and a half minutes), and for about 1000 dollars(For anyone wondering I managed to get a pair of 7990's for 200 bucks on ebay) I built a machine that could do it in under 30 seconds (making a bunch of assumptions about how the password is stored here, but the scenario I've assumed (unsalted MD5) is unfortunately rather common). Even if you expand it to all 128 possible characters available, and have an 8 character password, using the numbers provided by oclHashcat (one of the applications that allows you to brute force passwords) with my setup it would only take about a month to crack your password. And I'm just a dude who stays at home and does this for fun. With 24 of my hash cracking machines, I could crack it in under a day. Plus, this doesn't touch on the fact people have publicly accessible tables full of all passwords less than 8 characters that take seconds to search to see if your password is in them.\",\n \"Think of it this way, if you are trying to guess a password, it is about the maximum possible number of passwords that your password can be. A-Z = 26 upper case letters a-z = 26 lower case letters 0-9 = 10 possible digits symbols(~`!@#$%^ & *()_-+={}[]\\\\|:;\\\"',. < > ?/) = about 32. If your password is 1 character long, and could be any of 94 possible characters. 2 characters = 94 * 94 or 94^2 = 8836 3 = 94^3 = 830584 So as you can see, the number of possibilities grow exponentially. This is why passwords often require at least 1 upper case, 1 lower, 1 number and 1 symbol, to increase the guess space. But length also matters. The length is determined by how powerful computers currently are. In 10 years when computers are even more powerful, 8 characters might not be enough, because at that point passwords can be guessed even faster. That being said, newer complicated security measures like custom salts per each user will hopefully remove the need for individual users to increase their password exponentially. It is also important to mention that this assumes a purely random password. Humans often base passwords off of real words reduces the guessing space. And when they appear random, like \\\"yhnujm\\\" if you look at the keyboard pattern for this password, you'll see it is anything but random.\",\n \"it takes far less time to test every possible character than it does to test an additional character. If there are 26 letters in the alphabet, and each can be either uppercase or lower case, then we have 2(26) possible characters for a one character password. If you can test one character a second, then it'll take 2(26)=54 seconds to test all. We'll call this 54 character-seconds. But if the password could be 2 characters, then it'll take 1.48 character-minutes to test all possibilities; 26 character, 2 states, 2 character password is 2(2(26))=2(54)=108=108/60 - 60/60=1 48/60=1.48 char-minutes. Therefore the number of possible characters takes seconds but each addition character in the password takes at least minutes\",\n \"For each digit in a basic password, there are 26 possible letters, 2 cases and 10 possible numbers. So that's a total of 62 possible characters. For a 8 digit password, that's 2.18x10^14 possible combinations. Or 62^8. That would take an impossible amount of time for a person, a shorter, but still long time for a home PC. For a government supercomputer, it would still take a while, but you could still get in. For every character, you can multiply the number of possible combinations by 62, so a 9 digit password would take 62 times as long to crack.\",\n \"Because of brute force attacks. Brute force attacks work by trying all possible combinations. A person trying all 208,827,064,576 combinations of 8 characters will take over six and a half years at one combo per second working non stop. But a $5000 computer with 3 GPUs can do it in a matter of days. This page from 2013 cites 8 million tries per second using 128 GPUs. That would be under 7.5 hours. URL_0 Consider hardware keeps getting faster and cheaper and the future doesn't look very private.\",\n \"Simplest ELI5 answer I can think of. Imagine the dialing pad on your phone. Guess my phone number it's only 1 digit. How many guesses did it take you? Guess my girlfriends phone number, it's 2 digits. How many guesses did it take you? Guess my bank pin, it's 4 digits. How many guesses did it take you?\",\n \"Also, NT LM Hashes on older versions of Windows broke up the password into 7 character chunks for hashing. Having a minimum of 8 characters ensured that you needed to break at least two hashes to guess the password. URL_0 \",\n \"Edward Snowden told Glen Greenwald to assume that the NSA could \\\"brute force\\\" the password at 1,000,000,000,000 guesses per second. At that rate it can crack an 8 character password in under a second.\",\n \"It was explained to me by Ars Technica in a single image: URL_0 Even if your kid doesn't know what \\\"brute force\\\" and \\\"keyspace\\\" are, the graph is pretty self-explanatory. [Source]( URL_1 )\",\n \"How long would it take to crack a completely random 20+ character password. I use [Qwertycard]( URL_0 ) for all my passwords\",\n \"This is a stupid question. \\\"Why are longer passwords more difficult to crack than shorter passwords!?!?11\\\"\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["90 billion keys per second. In 2010, the Georgia Tech Research Institute developed a method of using GPGPU to crack passwords, coming up with a minimum secure password length of 12 characters. Easy to remember, hard to guess Passwords that are difficult to remember will reduce the security of a system because (a) users might need to write down or electronically store the password using an insecure method, (b) users will need frequent password resets and (c) users are more likely to re-use the same password. Similarly, the more stringent requirements for password strength, e.g. \"have a mix of","-24.79568686982384"],["period of time and stretching isn't applicable. A 2010 Georgia Tech Research Institute study based on unstretched keys recommended a 12-character random password, but as a minimum length requirement.\nThe upper end is related to the stringent requirements of choosing keys used in encryption. In 1999, an Electronic Frontier Foundation project broke 56-bit DES encryption in less than a day using specially designed hardware. In 2002, distributed.net cracked a 64-bit key in 4 years, 9 months, and 23 days. As of October 12, 2011, distributed.net estimates that cracking a 72-bit key using current hardware will take about 45,579 days","-24.755443566275062"],["trick known to attackers.\nResearch detailed in an April 2015 paper by several professors at Carnegie Mellon University shows that people's choices of password structure often follow several known patterns. As a result, passwords may be much more easily cracked than their mathematical probabilities would otherwise indicate. Passwords containing one digit, for example, disproportionately include it at the end of the password. Incidents On July 16, 1998, CERT reported an incident where an attacker had found 186,126 encrypted passwords. By the time they were discovered, they had already cracked 47,642 passwords.\nIn December 2009, a major password breach of the Rockyou.com website","-24.245605620759306"],["cracking could prove successful if both the encryption key and encoded password are sniffed from a network. For this reason it is recommended that a password of at least 8 characters be used. On the other hand, there is also an 8-character limit on some versions of VNC; if a password is sent exceeding 8 characters, the excess characters are removed and the truncated string is compared to the password.\nUltraVNC supports the use of an open-source encryption plugin which encrypts the entire VNC session including password authentication and data transfer. It also allows authentication to be performed based on NTLM","-23.530254046432674"],["at least those based on prime factorization, must be much longer in order to be secure; see key size for more details.\nAs a general rule, modern symmetric encryption algorithms such as AES use key lengths of 128, 192 and 256 bits.","-22.973662397358567"],["keys exponentially more difficult to crack than shorter ones. Brute force attacks can be made less effective by obfuscating the data to be encoded, something that makes it more difficult for an attacker to recognise when he has cracked the code. One of the measures of the strength of an encryption system is how long it would theoretically take an attacker to mount a successful brute force attack against it.","-22.90419851182378"],["by the ADC team at Imperva, revealing that even some military personnel used passwords as weak as \"1234\".\nOn July 18, 2011, Microsoft Hotmail banned the password: \"123456\".\nIn July 2015, a group calling itself \"The Impact Team\" stole the user data of Ashley Madison. Many passwords were hashed using both the relatively strong bcrypt algorithm and the weaker MD5 hash. Attacking the latter algorithm allowed some 11 million plaintext passwords to be recovered. Prevention The best method of preventing a password from being cracked is to ensure that attackers cannot get access even to the hashed password. For example, on the","-22.592991330180666"],["to passwords and one-time passwords. They concluded that security keys are more usable and deployable than one-time passwords, and more secure than both passwords and one-time passwords.","-22.55652731168084"],["using standard DES hardware.) Passwords were limited to a maximum of eight ASCII characters. While it was a great advancement for its time, CRYPT(3) is now considered inadequate. The iteration count, designed for the PDP-11 era, is too low, 12 bits of salt is an inconvenience but does not stop precomputed dictionary attacks, and the 8 character limit prevents the use of stronger passphrases.\nModern password-based key derivation functions, such as PBKDF2, use a cryptographic hash, such as SHA-2, a longer salt (e.g. 64 bits) and a high iteration count (tens or hundreds of thousands).\nIn 2009, a memory-intensive key strengthening algorithm,","-22.425611739512533"],["passwords have been used since ancient times.\nIn 2012, Bonneau et al. evaluated two decades of proposals to replace passwords by systematically comparing web passwords to 35 competing authentication schemes in terms of their usability, deployability, and security. (The cited technical report is an extended version of the peer-reviewed paper by the same name.) They found that most schemes do better than passwords on security while every scheme does worse than passwords on deployability. In terms of usability, some schemes do better and some schemes do worse than passwords.\nGoogle used the evaluation framework of Bonneau et al. to compare security keys","-22.33516133541707"],["other precomputation attacks do not work against passwords that contain symbols outside the range presupposed, or that are longer than those precomputed by the attacker. However, tables can be generated that take into account common ways in which users attempt to choose more secure passwords, such as adding a number or special character. Because of the sizable investment in computing processing, rainbow tables beyond fourteen places in length are not yet common. So, choosing a password that is longer than fourteen characters may force an attacker to resort to brute-force methods.\nSpecific intensive efforts focused on LM hash, an older hash","-22.18319598416565"],["found. However, password-cracking programs can enter multiple random passwords with the same speed, so use of CSPs does not slow down password recovery at all. Weak passwords can still be recovered fast enough even if a custom CSP is on.\nIn Office 2007 (Word, Excel and PowerPoint), protection was significantly enhanced since a modern protection algorithm named Advanced Encryption Standard was used. At present there is no software that can break this encryption. With the help of the SHA-1 hash function, the password is stretched into a 128-bit key 50,000 times before opening the document; as a result, the time required","-21.84616083711444"],["single technology matches their combination of cost, immediacy and convenience\" and that \"passwords are themselves the best fit for many of the scenarios in which they are currently used.\"\nFollowing the work of Herley and van Oorschot, Bonneau et al. systematically compared web passwords to 35 competing authentication schemes in terms of their usability, deployability, and security. (The technical report is an extended version of the peer-reviewed paper by the same name.) Their analysis shows that most schemes do better than passwords on security, some schemes do better and some worse with respect to usability, while every scheme does worse than","-21.836426327819936"],["password must be repeatedly changed, mnemonics are useless because the user would not remember which mnemonic to use. Furthermore, the use of mnemonics (leading to passwords such as \"2BOrNot2B\") makes the password easier to guess.\nAdministration factors can also be an issue. Users sometimes have older devices that require a password that was used before the password duration expired. In order to manage these older devices, users may have to resort to writing down all old passwords in case they need to log into an older device.\nRequiring a very strong password and not requiring it be changed is often better. However,","-21.76642197696674"],["of the system, certainly from a security viewpoint. This is partly because users are more willing to tell another person (who may not be authorized) a shared password than one exclusively for their use. Single passwords are also much less convenient to change because many people need to be told at the same time, and they make removal of a particular user's access more difficult, as for instance on graduation or resignation. Separate logins are also often used for accountability, for example to know who changed a piece of data. Password reuse It is common practice amongst computer users","-21.700374838452262"],["to crack it is vastly increased.\nExcel and Word 2010 still employ AES and a 128-bit key, but the number of SHA-1 conversions has doubled to 100,000 further increasing the time required to crack the password.\nOffice 2013 (Access, Excel, OneNote, PowerPoint, Project, and Word) uses 128-bit AES, again with hash algorithm SHA-1 by default.\nOffice 2016 (Access, Excel, OneNote, PowerPoint, Project, and Word) uses 256-bit AES, the SHA-1 hash algorithm, and CBC (Cipher Block Chaining) by default. Excel Worksheet and Macro protection The protection for worksheets and macros is necessarily weaker than that for the entire workbook as the software itself must","-21.624838386836927"],["BLAKE2b is faster than SHA-3, SHA-2, SHA-1, and MD5. Although BLAKE nor BLAKE2 have not been standardized as SHA-3 it has been used in many protocols including the Argon2 password hash for the high efficiency that it offers on modern CPUs. As BLAKE was a candidate for SHA-3, BLAKE and BLAKE2 both offer the same output sizes as SHA-3 – including a configurable output size. Attacks on cryptographic hash algorithms There is a long list of cryptographic hash functions but many have been found to be vulnerable and should not be used. For instance, NIST selected 51 hash functions as","-21.61358091357397"],["use longer phrases as passwords (and advises websites to raise the maximum password length) instead of hard-to-remember passwords with \"illusory complexity\" such as \"pA55w+rd\". A user prevented from using the password \"password\" may simply choose \"Password1\" if required to include a number and uppercase letter. Combined with forced periodic password changes, this can lead to passwords that are difficult to remember but easy to crack.\nPaul Grassi, one of the 2017 NIST report's authors, further elaborated: \"Everyone knows that an exclamation point is a 1, or an I, or the last character of a password. $ is an S or a","-21.498816906823777"],["password until it succeeds. More common methods of password cracking, such as dictionary attacks, pattern checking, word list substitution, etc. attempt to reduce the number of trials required and will usually be attempted before brute force. Higher password bit strength exponentially increases the number of candidate passwords that must be checked, on average, to recover the password and reduces the likelihood that the password will be found in any cracking dictionary.\nThe ability to crack passwords using computer programs is also a function of the number of possible passwords per second which can be checked. If a hash of the target","-21.44439299334772"],["algorithm used. Cryptologists and computer scientists often refer to the strength or 'hardness' in terms of entropy.\nPasswords easily discovered are termed weak or vulnerable; passwords very difficult or impossible to discover are considered strong. There are several programs available for password attack (or even auditing and recovery by systems personnel) such as L0phtCrack, John the Ripper, and Cain; some of which use password design vulnerabilities (as found in the Microsoft LANManager system) to increase efficiency. These programs are sometimes used by system administrators to detect weak passwords proposed by users.\nStudies of production computer systems have consistently shown that a large","-21.441772733094695"],["that allows more passwords to be printed on a single page, with the same password entropy. In addition, an average human spy needs over 30 seconds to write a 12-character random string into short-term memory, which provides a good protection against brief looks that an attacker might have on a password list. Lists of short words on the other hand are much faster to memorize. OTPW can handle arbitrary password generation algorithms, as long as the length of the password is fixed. In the current version, the otpw-gen program can generate both base-64 encoded (option -p) and 4-letter-word encoded (option","-21.32957478699973"],["each half of the password to be attacked separately at exponentially lower cost than the whole, as only different 7-character password pieces are possible with the same character set. By mounting a brute-force attack on each half separately, modern desktop machines can crack alphanumeric LM hashes in a few hours. In addition, all lower case letters in the password are changed to upper case before the password is hashed, which further reduces the key space for each half to .\nThe LM hash also does not use cryptographic salt, a standard technique to prevent pre-computed dictionary attacks. ","-21.322510451223934"],["has improved over the years—for example, average length was up to eight characters from under seven in previous surveys, and less than 4% were dictionary words.) \"The Password is dead\" That \"the password is dead\" is a recurring idea in computer security. It often accompanies arguments that the replacement of passwords by a more secure means of authentication is both necessary and imminent. This claim has been made by numerous people at least since 2004. Notably, Bill Gates, speaking at the 2004 RSA Conference predicted the demise of passwords saying \"they just don't meet the challenge for anything","-21.272271238965914"],["Vista, the protocol is disabled by default, but continues to be used by some non-Microsoft SMB implementations. Security weaknesses Although it is based on DES, a well-studied and formerly secure block cipher, the LM hash is not a true one-way function as the password can be determined from the hash because of several weaknesses in its design: Firstly, passwords are limited to a maximum of only 14 characters, giving a theoretical maximum keyspace of with the 95 ASCII printable characters.\nSecondly, passwords longer than 7 characters are divided into two pieces and each piece is hashed separately; this weakness allows","-21.255966674129013"],["feeds the salt, password, and current intermediate hash value back into the underlying MD5 hash function. The user's password hash is the concatenation of the salt value (which is not secret) and the final hash. The extra time is not noticeable to users because they have to wait only a fraction of a second each time they log in. On the other hand, stretching reduces the effectiveness of brute-force attacks in proportion to the number of iterations because it reduces the number of attempts an attacker can perform in a given time frame. This principle is applied in MD5-Crypt and","-21.105923516966868"],["or 124.8 years. Due to currently understood limitations from fundamental physics, there is no expectation that any digital computer (or combination) will be capable of breaking 256-bit encryption via a brute-force attack. Whether or not quantum computers will be able to do so in practice is still unknown, though theoretical analysis suggests such possibilities. Password managers A reasonable compromise for using large numbers of passwords is to record them in a password manager program, which include stand-alone applications, web browser extensions, or a manager built into the operating system. A password manager allows the user to use hundreds of different","-21.00531995727215"],["A time–memory tradeoff cryptanalysis attack, such as a rainbow table, is therefore feasible. In addition, any password that is shorter than 8 characters will result in the hashing of 7 null bytes, yielding the constant value of 0xAAD3B435B51404EE, hence making it easy to identify short passwords on sight. In 2003, Ophcrack, an implementation of the rainbow table technique, was published. It specifically targets the weaknesses of LM encryption, and includes pre-computed data sufficient to crack virtually all alphanumeric LM hashes in a few seconds. Many cracking tools, e.g. RainbowCrack, L0phtCrack and Cain, now incorporate similar attacks and make cracking","-20.881982672155573"],["would provide good cryptographic strength for the password hash, but it is designed to be quite quick to calculate relative to the strength it provides. The crypt() scheme is designed to be expensive to calculate, to slow down dictionary attacks. The printable form of MD5 password hashes starts with $1$.\nThis scheme allows users to have any length password, and they can use any characters supported by their platform (not just 7-bit ASCII). (In practice many implementations limit the password length, but they generally support passwords far longer than any person would be willing to type.) The","-20.85675734654069"],["that correlate with personal information such as names or nicknames are more at risk than ones that are cryptic or anonymous, particularly on social and recreational sites. Password Strength A password is a mandatory security measure that accompanies usernames. The use of personal data to construct passwords i.e. family members’ names, pet’s names or birth dates increases the risk to confidential information and are easier to crack than long complicated passwords so password strength is a key strategy for protecting personal information. A password can be weak or strong:a weak password is cutekittens, a strong password is ?lACpAs56IKMs.\nAccording to Microsoft","-20.81529876613058"],["some systems make available a specially hashed version of the password, so that anyone can check its validity. When this is done, an attacker can try passwords very rapidly; so much stronger passwords are necessary for reasonable security. (See password cracking and password length equation.) Stricter requirements are also appropriate for accounts with higher privileges, such as root or system administrator accounts. Enforcing a policy The more complex a password policy, the harder it may be to enforce, due to user difficulty in remembering or choosing a suitable password.\nMost companies will require users to familiarize themselves with any password policy,","-20.684871488600038"],["be used to encrypt files larger than 4 GB due to its small block size.\nA reduced-round variant of Blowfish is known to be susceptible to known-plaintext attacks on reflectively weak keys. Blowfish implementations use 16 rounds of encryption, and are not susceptible to this attack. Nevertheless, Bruce Schneier has recommended migrating to his Blowfish successor, Twofish.","-20.607682840840425"],["markets. In 1999, US allowed 56-bit encryption to be exported without key escrow or any other key recovery requirements.\nThe advent of commerce on the Internet and faster computers raised concerns about the security of electronic transactions initially with 40-bit, and subsequently also with 56-bit encryption. In February 1997, RSA Data Security ran a brute force competition with a $10,000 prize to demonstrate the weakness of 56-bit encryption; the contest was won four months later. In July 1998, a successful brute-force attack was demonstrated against 56-bit encryption with Deep Crack in just 56 hours.\nIn 2000, all restrictions on key length were","-20.58515522419475"],["off in Windows 2000, Windows XP and NT. Users can also prevent a LM hash from being generated for their own password by using a password at least fifteen characters in length.\n--\nNTLM hashes have in turn become vulnerable in recent years to various attacks that effectively make them as weak today as LanMan hashes were back in 1998.","-20.49786722380668"],["change a password. Passwords may also be reflective of personality. Those who are more uptight or security-oriented may choose longer or more complicated passwords. Those who are lax or who feel more secure in their everyday lives may never change their password. The most common password is Password1, which may point to convenience over security as the main concern for internet users. History The use and memorization of both nonsense and meaningful alphanumeric material has had a long history in psychology beginning with Hermann Ebbinghaus. Since then, numerous studies have established that not only are both meaningful and nonsense “words”","-20.45153858678532"],["for easily crackable passwords. On a file-by-file basis, password cracking is utilized to gain access to digital evidence to which a judge has allowed access, when a particular file's permissions are restricted. Time needed for password searches The time to crack a password is related to bit strength (see password strength), which is a measure of the password's entropy, and the details of how the password is stored. Most methods of password cracking require the computer to produce many candidate passwords, each of which is checked. One example is brute-force cracking, in which a computer tries every possible key or","-20.440900521702133"],["because a required password is unknown, the player must jump to another plotline and learn the password there before returning to the original one. Characters and setting Virtue's Last Reward features nine main characters who are kidnapped by an unknown individual called Zero. The player character Sigma is joined by Phi, a girl with a \"no-nonsense attitude\"; Dio, a rude and insensitive man; Tenmyouji, an elderly man; Quark, an energetic young boy; Luna, a kind and quiet woman; Clover, an unpredictable girl who appeared in Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors; Alice, a commanding and focused woman; and K, a","-20.283883327094372"],["Passwords and PIN-based authentication Passwords and PINs are categorized as \"something you know\" method. A combination of numbers, symbols, and mixed cases are considered to be stronger than all-letter password. Also, the adoption of Transport Layer Security (TLS) or Secure Socket Layer (SSL) features during the information transmission process will as well create an encrypted channel for data exchange and to further protect information delivered. Currently, most security attacks target on password-based authentication systems. Public-key authentication This type of authentication has two parts. One is a public key, the other is a private key. A public key is issued by","-20.271202353877015"],["still used today, having been incorporated into many national and organizational standards. However, its 56-bit key-size has been shown to be insufficient to guard against brute force attacks (one such attack, undertaken by the cyber civil-rights group Electronic Frontier Foundation in 1997, succeeded in 56 hours.) As a result, use of straight DES encryption is now without doubt insecure for use in new cryptosystem designs, and messages protected by older cryptosystems using DES, and indeed all messages sent since 1976 using DES, are also at risk. Regardless of DES' inherent quality, the DES key size (56-bits) was thought to be","-20.25301910022972"],["risk.\nIn 2019, the United Kingdom's NCSC analysed public databases of breached accounts to see which words, phrases and strings people used. Top of the list was 123456, appearing in more than 23 million passwords. The second-most popular string, 123456789, was not much harder to crack, while others in the top five included \"qwerty\", \"password\" and 1111111. Password creation Passwords are created either automatically (using randomizing equipment) or by a human; the latter case is more common. While the strength of randomly chosen passwords against a brute-force attack can be calculated with precision, determining the strength of human-generated passwords is challenging.\nTypically,","-20.23879588925047"],["of accounts that have passwords based on the algorithm, after searching just 1.6 million passwords. This is due to the non-uniformity in the distribution of passwords generated, which can be addressed by using longer passwords or by modifying the algorithm. Bash Here is a code sample that uses /dev/urandom to generate a password with a simple Bash function.This function takes password length as a parameter, or uses 16 by default:\nfunction mkpw() { LC_ALL=C tr -dc '[:graph:]' < /dev/urandom | head -c ${1:-16}; echo; } Java Here is a code sample (adapted from the class PasswordGenerator) that uses SecureRandom to generate","-20.146576557075605"],["effective and who therefore still use normal Unix passwords everywhere. Passwords locking In contrast to the suggestion made in RFC 1938, OTPW does not lock more than one one-time password at a time. If it did this, an attacker could easily exhaust its list of unlocked passwords and force it to either not login at all or use the normal Unix login password. Therefore, OTPW locks only one single password and for all further logins a triple-challenge is issued. If more than 100 unused passwords remain available, then there are over a million different challenges and an attacker has very","-20.14320704585407"],["that achieved a brute force attack speed of 350 billion guesses per second, allowing them to check password combinations in 5.5 hours. Using ocl-Hashcat Plus on a Virtual OpenCL cluster platform, the Linux-based GPU cluster was used to \"crack 90 percent of the 6.5 million password hashes belonging to users of LinkedIn.\"\nDespite their capabilities, desktop CPUs are slower at cracking passwords than purpose-built password breaking machines. In 1998, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) built a dedicated password cracker using ASICs, as opposed to general purpose CPUs. Their machine, Deep Crack, broke a DES 56-bit key in 56 hours, testing over","-20.076229469821556"],["measurably long time: as much as two or three seconds in some cases. The login program in early versions of Unix executed the crypt function only when the login name was recognized by the system. This leaked information through timing about the validity of the login name, even when the password was incorrect. An attacker could exploit such leaks by first applying brute-force to produce a list of login names known to be valid, then attempt to gain access by combining only these names with a large set of passwords known to be frequently used. Without any information on","-20.071477147052065"],["such as the Columbine High School massacre, when new censorship laws were being introduced in the United States. The game has two hidden passwords that can be found by picking up a necklace in one level and reaching the highest rank in the multiplayer mode. Rare had originally intended these details to allow access to password-protected sections of promotional websites and use them for an alternate reality game, but the idea was never realised.\nRare added 16x9 widescreen support to the game and licensed Dolby surround sound. The game features full voice acting for all in-game and cutscene dialogue. Nintendo wanted","-20.054489481262863"],["Office XP. A standard encryption algorithm with a 40-bit key is used by default, but enabling a CSP enhances key length and thus makes decryption process more continuous. This only applies to passwords that are required to open document because this password type is the only one that encrypts a password-protected document.","-20.008900150074624"],["The Easy difficulty is easy for young players, as there is only one predetermined Gruzzle in the level. The Hard difficulty, however, often has as many or more Gruzzles as there are words to find and 20 books must be collected to reveal the mystery word. This makes the game challenging even for adults.","-19.95597441314021"],["data containing many large variables. The less the algorithm encrypts, the more easily players may notice patterns, such as an increment by one every level. They can then exploit these patterns to cheat or even beat the game. With a little luck, even a long password can be discovered by chance, as was the case for the infamous JUSTIN BAILEY code from Metroid.\nWhile any save information is convertible into password form, it is practical only for game progress consisting of fewer or smaller variables. Overlong passwords needed by games such as RPGs with many large variables eventually cancels out the","-19.93574663126492"],["from deterring shoulder surfing to more sophisticated physical threats such as video cameras and keyboard sniffers. Passwords should be chosen so that they are hard for an attacker to guess and hard for an attacker to discover using any of the available automatic attack schemes. See password strength and computer security for more information.\nNowadays, it is a common practice for computer systems to hide passwords as they are typed. The purpose of this measure is to prevent bystanders from reading the password; however, some argue that this practice may lead to mistakes and stress, encouraging users to choose","-19.92515859168634"],["algorithm used by Microsoft, are publicly available. LM hash is particularly vulnerable because passwords longer than 7 characters are broken into two sections, each of which is hashed separately. Choosing a password that is fifteen characters or longer guarantees that an LM hash will not be generated. Common uses Nearly all distributions and variations of Unix, Linux, and BSD use hashes with salts, though many applications use just a hash (typically MD5) with no salt. The Microsoft Windows NT/2000 family uses the LAN Manager and NT LAN Manager hashing method (based on MD4) and is also unsalted, which makes it","-19.915268508018926"],["variation patterns on a consistent theme to keep their passwords memorable. Because of these issues, there is some debate as to whether password aging is effective. Changing a password will not prevent abuse in most cases, since the abuse would often be immediately noticeable. However, if someone may have had access to the password through some means, such as sharing a computer or breaching a different site, changing the password limits the window for abuse. Number of users per password Allotting separate passwords to each user of a system is preferable to having a single password shared by legitimate users","-19.893036993336864"],["algorithms were never designed for password hashing and are thus not considered secure anymore. Modern, slower and thus more secure hashes such as PBKDF2, scrypt or other KDFs have not yet been implemented in Office.\nThere is specialized software designed to recover lost Microsoft Office passwords on pre-AES encryption.\nUltimately, the security of a password-protected document is dependent on the user choosing a password of sufficient complexity. If the password can be determined through guesswork or social engineering, the underlying cipher is not important.","-19.870836088375654"],["they're immune to critical hits, but they're vulnerable to the cleric's turn undead power.\" They also thank Ray Harryhausen for people knowing what fighting skeletons ought to look like.\nScreen Rant compiled a list of the game's \"10 Most Powerful (And 10 Weakest) Monsters, Ranked\" in 2018, calling the tiny skelton one of the weakest, saying \"[skeletons] go all the way down to Tiny-sized creatures, which means that it is possible for your party of adventurers to fight a group of skeletons that are the same size as action figures.\" Other publishers The skeleton is fully detailed under the \"walking dead\"","-19.84952307171625"],["Equivalent Privacy) used a short, 24-bit IV, leading to reused IVs with the same key, which led to it being easily cracked. Packet injection allowed for WEP to be cracked in times as short as several seconds. This ultimately led to the deprecation of WEP. SSL 2.0 IV In cipher-block chaining mode (CBC mode), the IV must, in addition to being unique, be unpredictable at encryption time.\nIn particular, the (previously) common practice of re-using the last ciphertext block of a message as the IV for the next message is insecure (for example, this method was used by SSL 2.0).\nIf","-19.828626860980876"],["an estimated 30-bit strength, according to NIST. 2³⁰ is only one billion permutations and would be cracked in seconds if the hashing function is naive. When ordinary desktop computers are combined in a cracking effort, as can be done with botnets, the capabilities of password cracking are considerably extended. In 2002, distributed.net successfully found a 64-bit RC5 key in four years, in an effort which included over 300,000 different computers at various times, and which generated an average of over 12 billion keys per second. \nGraphics processors can speed up password cracking by a factor of 50 to 100","-19.785547672276152"],["of cracking strategies, algorithm with brute force and dictionary attacks proving to be the most productive.\nThe increased availability of computing power and beginner friendly automated password cracking software for a number of protection schemes has allowed the activity to be taken up by script kiddies.","-19.775180716067553"],["accounts, deliberately choose easy-to-remember passwords that are too vulnerable to cracking, or rely on written records of their passwords.\nMany sites, in an attempt to prevent users from choosing easy-to-guess passwords, add restrictions on password length or composition which contribute to password fatigue. In many cases, the restrictions placed on passwords actually serve to decrease the security of the account (either by preventing good passwords or by making the password so complex the user ends up storing it insecurely, such as on a post-it note). Some sites also block non-ASCII or non-alphanumeric characters.\nPassword fatigue will typically affect users, but can also","-19.74752990982961"],["the minimum for strong security with symmetric encryption algorithms. 128-bit keys are commonly used and considered very strong. See the key size article for a more complete discussion.\nThe keys used in public key cryptography have some mathematical structure. For example, public keys used in the RSA system are the product of two prime numbers. Thus public key systems require longer key lengths than symmetric systems for an equivalent level of security. 3072 bits is the suggested key length for systems based on factoring and integer discrete logarithms which aim to have security equivalent to a 128 bit symmetric cipher. Elliptic","-19.745842579810414"],["software. However, executable compression has become less popular because of increased storage capacity on computers. It has its use in the demoscene where demos have to stay within a size limit like 64 kilobytes to enter some competitions. Only very sophisticated compression formats, which add to load time, keep an executable small enough to enter these competitions.","-19.74042577086948"],["proposed Data Encryption Standard, largely because its 56-bit key length was too short to prevent brute-force attack. An audio recording survives of their review of DES at Stanford in 1976 with Dennis Branstad of NBS and representatives of the National Security Agency. Their concern was well-founded: subsequent history has shown not only that NSA actively intervened with IBM and NBS to shorten the key size, but also that the short key size enabled exactly the kind of massively parallel key crackers that Hellman and Diffie sketched out. When these were ultimately built outside the classified world (EFF DES cracker),","-19.65744142147014"],["key stretching as part of their function; see crypt(3) for an example. PBKDF2 is for generating an encryption key from a password, and not necessarily for password authentication. PBKDF2 can be used for both if the number of output bits is less than or equal to the internal hashing algorithm used in PBKDF2, which is usually SHA-2 (up to 512 bits), or used as an encryption key to encrypt static data. Strength and time These examples assume that a personal computer can do about 65,000 SHA-1 hashes in one second. Thus a program that uses key stretching can use 65,000","-19.65097539499402"],["being (72,057,594,037,927,936). 56-bit encryption has its roots in DES, which was the official standard of the US National Bureau of Standards from 1976, and later also the RC5 algorithm. US government regulations required any users of stronger 56-bit symmetric keys to submit to key recovery through algorithms like CDMF or key escrow, effectively reducing the key strength to 40-bit, and thereby allowing organisations such as the NSA to brute-force this encryption. Furthermore, from 1996 software products exported from the United States were not permitted to use stronger than 56-bit encryption, requiring different software editions for the US and export","-19.64421607737313"],["Multi-factor authentication schemes combine passwords (as \"knowledge factors\") with one or more other means of authentication, to make authentication more secure and less vulnerable to compromised passwords. For example, a simple two-factor login might send a text message, e-mail, automated phone call, or similar alert whenever a login attempt is made, possibly supplying a code which must be entered in addition to a password. More sophisticated factors include such things as hardware tokens and biometric security. Password rules Most organizations specify a password policy that sets requirements for the composition and usage of passwords, typically dictating minimum length, required categories","-19.620412666779885"],["fraction of all user-chosen passwords are readily guessed automatically. For example, Columbia University found 22% of user passwords could be recovered with little effort. According to Bruce Schneier, examining data from a 2006 phishing attack, 55% of MySpace passwords would be crackable in 8 hours using a commercially available Password Recovery Toolkit capable of testing 200,000 passwords per second in 2006. He also reported that the single most common password was password1, confirming yet again the general lack of informed care in choosing passwords among users. (He nevertheless maintained, based on these data, that the general quality of passwords","-19.601227962761186"],["uppercase and lowercase letters and digits\" or \"change it monthly\", the greater the degree to which users will subvert the system.\nIn \"The Memorability and Security of Passwords\", Jeff Yan et al. examines the effect of advice given to users about a good choice of password. They found that passwords based on thinking of a phrase and taking the first letter of each word are just as memorable as naively selected passwords, and just as hard to crack as randomly generated passwords. Combining two unrelated words is another good method. Having a personally designed \"algorithm\" for generating obscure passwords is another","-19.59532712586224"],["two strings, “hello” and “8571935789325698” can be hashed to the same hash value, “89232323”. This would be effective for an attacker to know because when passwords are stored into a database with their appropriate hashes, the hacker could use the password “8571935789325698” which would allows the hacker to login successfully despite the actual password being “hello”. Although hackers would require time to brute force different passwords to find a hash collision, these hackers could alternatively wait until computational power increases enough to make cracking these hashing collisions faster. In the meantime, they can search around for servers","-19.572276616323506"],["you really want to secure.\" In 2011 IBM predicted that, within five years, \"You will never need a password again.\" Matt Honan, a journalist at Wired, who was the victim of a hacking incident, in 2012 wrote \"The age of the password has come to an end.\" Heather Adkins, manager of Information Security at Google, in 2013 said that \"passwords are done at Google.\" Eric Grosse, VP of security engineering at Google, states that \"passwords and simple bearer tokens, such as cookies, are no longer sufficient to keep users safe.\" Christopher Mims, writing in the Wall Street Journal said","-19.534098974370863"],["curve cryptography may allow smaller-size keys for equivalent security, but these algorithms have only been known for a relatively short time and current estimates of the difficulty of searching for their keys may not survive. As early as 2004, a message encrypted using a 109-bit key elliptic curve algorithm had been broken by brute force. The current rule of thumb is to use an ECC key twice as long as the symmetric key security level desired. Except for the random one-time pad, the security of these systems has not been proven mathematically as of 2018, so a theoretical breakthrough could","-19.523388368543237"],["in order to ensure that an attacker would be forced to crack each password independently as opposed to being able to target the entire password database simultaneously.\nIn detail, the user's password is truncated to eight characters, and those are coerced down to only 7-bits each; this forms the 56-bit DES key. That key is then used to encrypt an all-bits-zero block, and then the ciphertext is encrypted again with the same key, and so on for a total of 25 DES encryptions. A 12-bit salt is used to perturb the encryption algorithm, so standard DES implementations can't be","-19.49193323671352"],["early versions of Wired Equivalent Privacy. In 1992, IBM designed the CDMF algorithm to reduce the strength of 56-bit DES against brute force attack to 40 bits, in order to create exportable DES implementations. Obsolescence All 40-bit and 56-bit encryption algorithms are obsolete, because they are vulnerable to brute force attacks, and therefore cannot be regarded as secure. As a result, virtually all Web browsers now use 128-bit keys, which are considered strong. Most Web servers will not communicate with a client unless it has 128-bit encryption capability installed on it.\nPublic/private key pairs used in asymmetric encryption (public key cryptography),","-19.47998407459818"],["Crack (password software) Legal issues arising from using Crack Randal L. Schwartz, a notable Perl programming expert, in 1995 was prosecuted for using Crack on the password file of a system at Intel, a case the verdict of which was eventually expunged.\nCrack was also used by Kevin Mitnick when hacking into Sun Microsystems in 1993. Network distributed password cracking As password cracking is inherently embarrassingly parallel Crack v4.0a introduced the ability to use a network of heterogeneous workstations connected by a shared filesystem as parts of a distributed password cracking effort.\nAll that was required for this was to provide Crack","-19.461642568407115"],["a password NOT to contain any word in an online dictionary, or list of names, or any license plate pattern from any state (in the US) or country (as in the EU). If patterned choices are required, humans are likely to use them in predictable ways, such a capitalizing a letter, adding one or two numbers, and a special character. This predictability means that the increase in password strength is minor when compared to random passwords. Usability and implementation considerations Because national keyboard implementations vary, not all 94 ASCII printable characters can be used everywhere. This can present a problem","-19.453930650808616"],["simple password-based symmetric encryption system, which is documented in the ZIP specification, and known to be seriously flawed. In particular, it is vulnerable to known-plaintext attacks, which are in some cases made worse by poor implementations of random-number generators.\nNew features including new compression and encryption (e.g. AES) methods have been documented in the ZIP File Format Specification since version 5.2. A WinZip-developed AES-based standard is used also by 7-Zip and Xceed, but some vendors use other formats. PKWARE SecureZIP also supports RC2, RC4, DES, Triple DES encryption methods, Digital Certificate-based encryption and authentication (X.509), and archive header encryption.\nFile name encryption","-19.435664508549962"],["to eavesdrop more easily. The British proposed a key length of 48 bits, while the West Germans wanted stronger encryption to protect against East German spying, so the compromise became a key length of 56 bits. In general, a key of length 56 is times easier to break than a key of length 128. DES Challenges The widely used DES encryption algorithm was originally planned by IBM to have a key size of 128 bits; NSA lobbied for a key size of 48 bits. The end compromise were a key size of 64 bits, 8 of which were parity","-19.43039269154542"],["7z Encryption The 7z format supports encryption with the AES algorithm with a 256-bit key. The key is generated from a user-supplied passphrase using an algorithm based on the SHA-256 hash function. The SHA-256 is executed 2¹⁸ (262144) times, which causes a significant delay on slow PCs before compression or extraction starts. This technique is called key stretching and is used to make a brute-force search for the passphrase more difficult. Current GPU-based, and custom hardware attacks limit the effectiveness of this particular method of key stretching, so it is still important to choose a strong password.\nThe 7z","-19.425261129566934"],["Soft hyphen In computing and typesetting, a soft hyphen (ISO 8859: 0xAD, Unicode U+00AD SOFT HYPHEN, HTML: ­ ­) or syllable hyphen (EBCDIC: 0xCA), abbreviated SHY, is a code point reserved in some coded character sets for the purpose of breaking words across lines by inserting visible hyphens. Two alternative ways of using the soft hyphen character for this purpose have emerged, depending on whether the encoded text will be broken into lines by its recipient, or has already been preformatted by its originator. Text to be formatted by the recipient The use of SHY characters in text that","-19.412576334027108"],["test over a hundred million passwords per second using password cracking tools running on a general purpose CPU and billions of passwords per second using GPU-based password cracking tools (See: John the Ripper benchmarks). The rate of password guessing depends heavily on the cryptographic function used by the system to generate password hashes. A suitable password hashing function, such as bcrypt, is many orders of magnitude better than a naive function like simple MD5 or SHA. A user-selected eight-character password with numbers, mixed case, and symbols, with commonly selected passwords and other dictionary matches filtered out, reaches","-19.40725966519676"],["for accounts on different systems, those will be compromised as well.\nMore secure systems store each password in a cryptographically protected form, so access to the actual password will still be difficult for a snooper who gains internal access to the system, while validation of user access attempts remains possible. The most secure don't store passwords at all, but a one-way derivation, such as a polynomial, modulus, or an advanced hash function.Roger Needham invented the now common approach of storing only a \"hashed\" form of the plaintext password. When a user types in a password on such a system, the password","-19.382205742644146"],["with 4t-bit signatures. For example, a 128-bit security level would require 512-bit (64-byte) signatures. The security is limited by discrete logarithm attacks on the group, which have a complexity of the square-root of the group size.\nIn Schnorr's original 1991 paper, it was suggested that since collision resistance in the hash is not required, then therefore shorter hash functions may be just as secure, and indeed recent developments suggest that a t-bit security level can be achieved with 3t-bit signatures. Then, a 128-bit security level would require only 384-bit (48-byte) signatures, and this could be achieved by truncating the size of","-19.370621076988755"],["Microsoft Office password protection Microsoft Office password protection is a security feature to protect Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint) documents with a user-provided password. As of Office 2007, this uses modern encryption; earlier versions used weaker systems and are not considered secure.\nOffice 2007–2013 employed 128-bit key AES password protection which remains secure. Office 2016 employed 256-bit key AES password protection which also remains secure.\nThe Office 97–2003 password protection used 40-bit key RC4 which contains multiple vulnerabilities rendering it insecure. History of Microsoft Encryption password In Excel and Word 95 and prior editions a weak protection algorithm is used that","-19.367579744779505"],["answer by constantly shifting password. Those solutions abruptly reduce the timeframe for brute forcing (attacker needs to break and use the password within a single shift) and they reduce the value of the stolen passwords because of its short time validity.\nIn 2013 a long-term Password Hashing Competition was announced to choose a new, standard algorithm for password hashing. Software There are many password cracking software tools, but the most popular are Aircrack, Cain and Abel, John the Ripper, Hashcat, Hydra, DaveGrohl and ElcomSoft. Many litigation support software packages also include password cracking functionality. Most of these packages employ a mixture","-19.36432976461947"],["in 2004, had a minimum thickness of 0.38 inches (10 mm) and a maximum of 0.8 inches (20.3 mm).\nSince the release of the MacBook Air, other thinner laptops have been released, such as the Dell Adamo, launched in March 2009, which is a constant 0.65 inches (17 mm) thick. Apple subsequently removed the claim of being \"the world's thinnest notebook\" from their marketing materials. Second generation (Tapered and dual USB) On October 20, 2010, Apple released a redesigned 13.3-inch model with a tapered enclosure, higher screen resolution, improved battery, a second USB port, stereo speakers, and standard solid state storage. A 11.6-inch model","-19.361692747450434"],["crackable passwords. Because many users re-use passwords for multiple sites, the use of a salt is an important component of overall web application security. Some additional references for using a salt to secure password hashes in specific languages (PHP, .NET, etc.) can be found in the external links section below.","-19.358011120348237"],["an average filename length of 8 bytes and a per-filename header of 4 bytes, this would be less than 350.) Applications which made heavy use of multiple same-directory hard links, such as git, GNUS, GMame and BackupPC were later observed to fail after hitting this limit. The limit was eventually removed (and as of October 2012 has been merged pending release in Linux 3.7) by introducing spillover extended reference items to hold hard link filenames which could not otherwise fit. Checksum tree and scrubbing CRC-32C checksums are computed for both data and metadata and stored as checksum items","-19.34310816967627"],["is not needed, in versions of Windows NT (including Windows 2000, Windows XP and later), a passphrase can be used as a substitute for a Windows password. If the passphrase is longer than 14 characters, this will also avoid the generation of a very weak LM hash. Unix support In recent versions of Unix-like operating systems such as Linux, OpenBSD, NetBSD, Solaris and FreeBSD, up to 255-character passphrases can be used.","-19.32044025959476"],["56-bit encryption In computing, 56-bit encryption refers to a key size of fifty-six bits, or seven bytes, for symmetric encryption. While stronger than 40-bit encryption, this still represents a relatively low level of security in the context of a brute force attack. Description The US government traditionally regulated encryption for reasons of national security, law enforcement and foreign policy. Encryption was regulated from 1976 by the Arms Export Control Act until control was transferred to the Department of Commerce in 1996.\n56-bit refers to the size of a symmetric key used to encrypt data, with the number of unique possible permutations","-19.236580110853538"],["passwords. All items in such lists are considered weak, as are passwords that are simple modifications of them. For some decades, investigations of passwords on multi-user computer systems have shown that 40% or more are readily guessed using only computer programs, and more can be found when information about a particular user is taken into account during the attack. Password guess validation Systems that use passwords for authentication must have some way to check any password entered to gain access. If the valid passwords are simply stored in a system file or database, an attacker who gains sufficient access to","-19.23238107643556"],["5. If we use these well-known tricks, we aren’t fooling any adversary. We are simply fooling the database that stores passwords into thinking the user did something good.\" Password cracking Attempting to crack passwords by trying as many possibilities as time and money permit is a brute force attack. A related method, rather more efficient in most cases, is a dictionary attack. In a dictionary attack, all words in one or more dictionaries are tested. Lists of common passwords are also typically tested.\nPassword strength is the likelihood that a password cannot be guessed or discovered, and varies with the attack","-19.216665350773837"],["first crack at the next one.\nThe rules regarding cluegiving were the same as on all previous versions of Password, with the exception of two instances exclusive to Password Plus. Beginning with the April 23, 1979 edition of Password Plus and continuing until the series went off air in 1982, two rules were put into place. The first disallowed any password's direct opposite as a legal clue (such as \"loose\" for \"tight\"). The second expanded a penalty already present in the game. When the series began, if the cluegiver being given the option to play or pass did not decide in","-19.186580860274262"],["with individual passcodes to initiate the process, with countdown timers that can allow characters to escape. Passwords in 1970s and 1980s movies are noticeably unfit for purposes of such major impact, considering accounts with even low level security in modern times have far more complex password requirements, as the writers of the era did not anticipate the complexity level of computer generated brute-force attacks and security issues.","-19.17499117407715"],["In addition, whereas weak passwords may be broken via rainbow tables, TPM causes the much-simpler Windows PINs to be resilient to brute-force attacks. While this is not a security vulnerability and can be easily mitigated by using SecureBoot option in BIOS tools like Kon-Boot an be used in order to bypass Windows 10 authentication (including both local passwords, online (LIVE), PIN passwords). \nWhen Windows 10 was first introduced, multi-factor authentication was provided by two components: Windows Hello and Passport (not to be confused with the Passport platform of 1998). Later, Passport was merged into Windows Hello.\nThe enterprise version of Windows","-19.16624996162136"],["considerably slower than comparing the same single hash to every password.\nAnother (lesser) benefit of a salt is as follows: two users might choose the same string as their password, or the same user might choose to use the same password on two machines. Without a salt, this password would be stored as the same hash string in the password file. This would disclose the fact that the two accounts have the same password, allowing anyone who knows one of the account's passwords to access the other account. By salting the passwords with two random characters, even if two accounts use","-19.150618864339776"],["attackers from efficiently mounting offline attacks against multiple user accounts simultaneously. The algorithms are also much slower to execute which drastically increases the time required to mount a successful offline attack.\nMany hashes used for storing passwords, such as MD5 and the SHA family, are designed for fast computation and efficient implementation in hardware. As a result, they are ineffective in preventing password cracking, especially with methods like rainbow tables. Using key stretching Algorithms, such as PBKDF2, to form password hashes can significantly reduce the rate at which passwords can be tested.\nSolutions like a security token give a formal proof","-19.139822586497758"],["on HP-UX, Digital Unix, and OSF/1. The main difference between it and DES is that BigCrypt uses all the characters of a password, not just the first 8, and has a variable length hash.\nCrypt16 is the minor modification of DES, which allows passwords of up to 16 characters. Used on Ultrix and Tru64. GNU/Linux The GNU C Library used by almost all GNU/Linux distributions provides an implementation of the crypt function which supports the DES, MD5, and (since version 2.7) SHA-2 based hashing algorithms mentioned above.\nUlrich Drepper, the glibc maintainer, rejected bcrypt support since it isn't approved by NIST. macOS","-19.137987392721698"],["a password that allows the other game to be played as a sequel. They were developed by Flagship in conjunction with Nintendo, with supervision from Miyamoto. After the team experimented with porting the original The Legend of Zelda to the Game Boy Color, they decided to make an original trilogy to be called the \"Triforce Series\". When the password system linking the three games proved too troublesome, the concept was reduced to two games at Miyamoto's suggestion. These two games became Oracle of Ages, which is more puzzle-based, and Oracle of Seasons, which is more action-oriented.\nWhen Nintendo revealed the GameCube","-19.12882679811446"],["processor for that time. Such a device will crack a 6 letter single-case password in one day. Note that the work can be distributed over many computers for an additional speedup proportional to the number of available computers with comparable GPUs. Special key stretching hashes are available that take a relatively long time to compute, reducing the rate at which guessing can take place. Although it is considered best practice to use key stretching, many common systems do not.\nAnother situation where quick guessing is possible is when the password is used to form a cryptographic key. In such cases, an","-19.023101966187824"],["Because of this and other concerns, such password capabilities were considered a vulnerability in NLTSS. A design was done to protect against this vulnerability, the Control by Public Key Encryption mechanism. This mechanism wasn't put into production in NLTSS both because of its significant performance cost and because users weren't aware of the vulnerability from password capabilities. Modern advances in cryptography would make such protection for capabilities practical, especially for Internet/Web capabilities (e.g. see YURLs or WideWORD).\nA design issue with NLTSS that wasn't considered until years after it was removed from production was its open network architecture.","-19.022033844084945"],["and comparing the result of each guess to the actual password hashes. If the attacker finds a match, they know that their guess is the actual password for the associated user.\nPassword cracking tools can operate by brute force (i.e. trying every possible combination of characters) or by hashing every word from a list; large lists of possible passwords in many languages are widely available on the Internet. The existence of password cracking tools allows attackers to easily recover poorly chosen passwords. In particular, attackers can quickly recover passwords that are short, dictionary words, simple variations on dictionary words or that","-19.01722601032816"],["40-bit encryption 40-bit encryption refers to a key size of forty bits, or five bytes, for symmetric encryption; this represents a relatively low level of security. A forty bit length corresponds to a total of 2⁴⁰ possible keys. Although this is a large number in human terms (about a trillion), it is possible to break this degree of encryption using a moderate amount of computing power in a brute-force attack, i.e., trying out each possible key in turn. Description A typical home computer in 2004 could brute-force a 40-bit key in a little under two weeks, testing a million keys","-19.012495306742494"],["will present two different encrypted volumes given different passwords.\nHowever, it is possible that two filenames on two different secondary volumes will be encrypted to the same filename. In this case, any other file will be overwritten with a new file being created. Note that this refers only to the encrypted filenames, not the unencrypted filenames. This danger can be averted by creating one directory per secondary volume and storing files in the only visible directory after a secondary volume is mounted.\nAlso, if the password is changed, the volume key will be re-encoded with the new password. This will cause secondary","-19.00056554132607"],["on the live site were hashed using the bcrypt algorithm. A security analyst using the Hashcat password recovery tool with a dictionary based on the RockYou passwords found that among the 4,000 passwords that were the easiest to crack, \"123456\" and \"password\" were the most commonly used passwords on the live website. An analysis of old passwords used on an archived version showed that \"123456\" and \"password\" were the most common. Due to a design error where passwords were hashed with both bcrypt and MD5, 11 million passwords were eventually cracked.\nClaire Brownell suggested that the Turing test could be possibly","-18.97620719531551"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"90 billion keys per second. In 2010, the Georgia Tech Research Institute developed a method of using GPGPU to crack passwords, coming up with a minimum secure password length of 12 characters. Easy to remember, hard to guess Passwords that are difficult to remember will reduce the security of a system because (a) users might need to write down or electronically store the password using an insecure method, (b) users will need frequent password resets and (c) users are more likely to re-use the same password. Similarly, the more stringent requirements for password strength, e.g. \\\"have a mix of\",\n \"-24.79568686982384\"\n ],\n [\n \"period of time and stretching isn't applicable. A 2010 Georgia Tech Research Institute study based on unstretched keys recommended a 12-character random password, but as a minimum length requirement.\\nThe upper end is related to the stringent requirements of choosing keys used in encryption. In 1999, an Electronic Frontier Foundation project broke 56-bit DES encryption in less than a day using specially designed hardware. In 2002, distributed.net cracked a 64-bit key in 4 years, 9 months, and 23 days. As of October 12, 2011, distributed.net estimates that cracking a 72-bit key using current hardware will take about 45,579 days\",\n \"-24.755443566275062\"\n ],\n [\n \"trick known to attackers.\\nResearch detailed in an April 2015 paper by several professors at Carnegie Mellon University shows that people's choices of password structure often follow several known patterns. As a result, passwords may be much more easily cracked than their mathematical probabilities would otherwise indicate. Passwords containing one digit, for example, disproportionately include it at the end of the password. Incidents On July 16, 1998, CERT reported an incident where an attacker had found 186,126 encrypted passwords. By the time they were discovered, they had already cracked 47,642 passwords.\\nIn December 2009, a major password breach of the Rockyou.com website\",\n \"-24.245605620759306\"\n ],\n [\n \"cracking could prove successful if both the encryption key and encoded password are sniffed from a network. For this reason it is recommended that a password of at least 8 characters be used. On the other hand, there is also an 8-character limit on some versions of VNC; if a password is sent exceeding 8 characters, the excess characters are removed and the truncated string is compared to the password.\\nUltraVNC supports the use of an open-source encryption plugin which encrypts the entire VNC session including password authentication and data transfer. It also allows authentication to be performed based on NTLM\",\n \"-23.530254046432674\"\n ],\n [\n \"at least those based on prime factorization, must be much longer in order to be secure; see key size for more details.\\nAs a general rule, modern symmetric encryption algorithms such as AES use key lengths of 128, 192 and 256 bits.\",\n \"-22.973662397358567\"\n ],\n [\n \"keys exponentially more difficult to crack than shorter ones. Brute force attacks can be made less effective by obfuscating the data to be encoded, something that makes it more difficult for an attacker to recognise when he has cracked the code. One of the measures of the strength of an encryption system is how long it would theoretically take an attacker to mount a successful brute force attack against it.\",\n \"-22.90419851182378\"\n ],\n [\n \"by the ADC team at Imperva, revealing that even some military personnel used passwords as weak as \\\"1234\\\".\\nOn July 18, 2011, Microsoft Hotmail banned the password: \\\"123456\\\".\\nIn July 2015, a group calling itself \\\"The Impact Team\\\" stole the user data of Ashley Madison. Many passwords were hashed using both the relatively strong bcrypt algorithm and the weaker MD5 hash. Attacking the latter algorithm allowed some 11 million plaintext passwords to be recovered. Prevention The best method of preventing a password from being cracked is to ensure that attackers cannot get access even to the hashed password. For example, on the\",\n \"-22.592991330180666\"\n ],\n [\n \"to passwords and one-time passwords. They concluded that security keys are more usable and deployable than one-time passwords, and more secure than both passwords and one-time passwords.\",\n \"-22.55652731168084\"\n ],\n [\n \"using standard DES hardware.) Passwords were limited to a maximum of eight ASCII characters. While it was a great advancement for its time, CRYPT(3) is now considered inadequate. The iteration count, designed for the PDP-11 era, is too low, 12 bits of salt is an inconvenience but does not stop precomputed dictionary attacks, and the 8 character limit prevents the use of stronger passphrases.\\nModern password-based key derivation functions, such as PBKDF2, use a cryptographic hash, such as SHA-2, a longer salt (e.g. 64 bits) and a high iteration count (tens or hundreds of thousands).\\nIn 2009, a memory-intensive key strengthening algorithm,\",\n \"-22.425611739512533\"\n ],\n [\n \"passwords have been used since ancient times.\\nIn 2012, Bonneau et al. evaluated two decades of proposals to replace passwords by systematically comparing web passwords to 35 competing authentication schemes in terms of their usability, deployability, and security. (The cited technical report is an extended version of the peer-reviewed paper by the same name.) They found that most schemes do better than passwords on security while every scheme does worse than passwords on deployability. In terms of usability, some schemes do better and some schemes do worse than passwords.\\nGoogle used the evaluation framework of Bonneau et al. to compare security keys\",\n \"-22.33516133541707\"\n ],\n [\n \"other precomputation attacks do not work against passwords that contain symbols outside the range presupposed, or that are longer than those precomputed by the attacker. However, tables can be generated that take into account common ways in which users attempt to choose more secure passwords, such as adding a number or special character. Because of the sizable investment in computing processing, rainbow tables beyond fourteen places in length are not yet common. So, choosing a password that is longer than fourteen characters may force an attacker to resort to brute-force methods.\\nSpecific intensive efforts focused on LM hash, an older hash\",\n \"-22.18319598416565\"\n ],\n [\n \"found. However, password-cracking programs can enter multiple random passwords with the same speed, so use of CSPs does not slow down password recovery at all. Weak passwords can still be recovered fast enough even if a custom CSP is on.\\nIn Office 2007 (Word, Excel and PowerPoint), protection was significantly enhanced since a modern protection algorithm named Advanced Encryption Standard was used. At present there is no software that can break this encryption. With the help of the SHA-1 hash function, the password is stretched into a 128-bit key 50,000 times before opening the document; as a result, the time required\",\n \"-21.84616083711444\"\n ],\n [\n \"single technology matches their combination of cost, immediacy and convenience\\\" and that \\\"passwords are themselves the best fit for many of the scenarios in which they are currently used.\\\"\\nFollowing the work of Herley and van Oorschot, Bonneau et al. systematically compared web passwords to 35 competing authentication schemes in terms of their usability, deployability, and security. (The technical report is an extended version of the peer-reviewed paper by the same name.) Their analysis shows that most schemes do better than passwords on security, some schemes do better and some worse with respect to usability, while every scheme does worse than\",\n \"-21.836426327819936\"\n ],\n [\n \"password must be repeatedly changed, mnemonics are useless because the user would not remember which mnemonic to use. Furthermore, the use of mnemonics (leading to passwords such as \\\"2BOrNot2B\\\") makes the password easier to guess.\\nAdministration factors can also be an issue. Users sometimes have older devices that require a password that was used before the password duration expired. In order to manage these older devices, users may have to resort to writing down all old passwords in case they need to log into an older device.\\nRequiring a very strong password and not requiring it be changed is often better. However,\",\n \"-21.76642197696674\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the system, certainly from a security viewpoint. This is partly because users are more willing to tell another person (who may not be authorized) a shared password than one exclusively for their use. Single passwords are also much less convenient to change because many people need to be told at the same time, and they make removal of a particular user's access more difficult, as for instance on graduation or resignation. Separate logins are also often used for accountability, for example to know who changed a piece of data. Password reuse It is common practice amongst computer users\",\n \"-21.700374838452262\"\n ],\n [\n \"to crack it is vastly increased.\\nExcel and Word 2010 still employ AES and a 128-bit key, but the number of SHA-1 conversions has doubled to 100,000 further increasing the time required to crack the password.\\nOffice 2013 (Access, Excel, OneNote, PowerPoint, Project, and Word) uses 128-bit AES, again with hash algorithm SHA-1 by default.\\nOffice 2016 (Access, Excel, OneNote, PowerPoint, Project, and Word) uses 256-bit AES, the SHA-1 hash algorithm, and CBC (Cipher Block Chaining) by default. Excel Worksheet and Macro protection The protection for worksheets and macros is necessarily weaker than that for the entire workbook as the software itself must\",\n \"-21.624838386836927\"\n ],\n [\n \"BLAKE2b is faster than SHA-3, SHA-2, SHA-1, and MD5. Although BLAKE nor BLAKE2 have not been standardized as SHA-3 it has been used in many protocols including the Argon2 password hash for the high efficiency that it offers on modern CPUs. As BLAKE was a candidate for SHA-3, BLAKE and BLAKE2 both offer the same output sizes as SHA-3 – including a configurable output size. Attacks on cryptographic hash algorithms There is a long list of cryptographic hash functions but many have been found to be vulnerable and should not be used. For instance, NIST selected 51 hash functions as\",\n \"-21.61358091357397\"\n ],\n [\n \"use longer phrases as passwords (and advises websites to raise the maximum password length) instead of hard-to-remember passwords with \\\"illusory complexity\\\" such as \\\"pA55w+rd\\\". A user prevented from using the password \\\"password\\\" may simply choose \\\"Password1\\\" if required to include a number and uppercase letter. Combined with forced periodic password changes, this can lead to passwords that are difficult to remember but easy to crack.\\nPaul Grassi, one of the 2017 NIST report's authors, further elaborated: \\\"Everyone knows that an exclamation point is a 1, or an I, or the last character of a password. $ is an S or a\",\n \"-21.498816906823777\"\n ],\n [\n \"password until it succeeds. More common methods of password cracking, such as dictionary attacks, pattern checking, word list substitution, etc. attempt to reduce the number of trials required and will usually be attempted before brute force. Higher password bit strength exponentially increases the number of candidate passwords that must be checked, on average, to recover the password and reduces the likelihood that the password will be found in any cracking dictionary.\\nThe ability to crack passwords using computer programs is also a function of the number of possible passwords per second which can be checked. If a hash of the target\",\n \"-21.44439299334772\"\n ],\n [\n \"algorithm used. Cryptologists and computer scientists often refer to the strength or 'hardness' in terms of entropy.\\nPasswords easily discovered are termed weak or vulnerable; passwords very difficult or impossible to discover are considered strong. There are several programs available for password attack (or even auditing and recovery by systems personnel) such as L0phtCrack, John the Ripper, and Cain; some of which use password design vulnerabilities (as found in the Microsoft LANManager system) to increase efficiency. These programs are sometimes used by system administrators to detect weak passwords proposed by users.\\nStudies of production computer systems have consistently shown that a large\",\n \"-21.441772733094695\"\n ],\n [\n \"that allows more passwords to be printed on a single page, with the same password entropy. In addition, an average human spy needs over 30 seconds to write a 12-character random string into short-term memory, which provides a good protection against brief looks that an attacker might have on a password list. Lists of short words on the other hand are much faster to memorize. OTPW can handle arbitrary password generation algorithms, as long as the length of the password is fixed. In the current version, the otpw-gen program can generate both base-64 encoded (option -p) and 4-letter-word encoded (option\",\n \"-21.32957478699973\"\n ],\n [\n \"each half of the password to be attacked separately at exponentially lower cost than the whole, as only different 7-character password pieces are possible with the same character set. By mounting a brute-force attack on each half separately, modern desktop machines can crack alphanumeric LM hashes in a few hours. In addition, all lower case letters in the password are changed to upper case before the password is hashed, which further reduces the key space for each half to .\\nThe LM hash also does not use cryptographic salt, a standard technique to prevent pre-computed dictionary attacks. \",\n \"-21.322510451223934\"\n ],\n [\n \"has improved over the years—for example, average length was up to eight characters from under seven in previous surveys, and less than 4% were dictionary words.) \\\"The Password is dead\\\" That \\\"the password is dead\\\" is a recurring idea in computer security. It often accompanies arguments that the replacement of passwords by a more secure means of authentication is both necessary and imminent. This claim has been made by numerous people at least since 2004. Notably, Bill Gates, speaking at the 2004 RSA Conference predicted the demise of passwords saying \\\"they just don't meet the challenge for anything\",\n \"-21.272271238965914\"\n ],\n [\n \"Vista, the protocol is disabled by default, but continues to be used by some non-Microsoft SMB implementations. Security weaknesses Although it is based on DES, a well-studied and formerly secure block cipher, the LM hash is not a true one-way function as the password can be determined from the hash because of several weaknesses in its design: Firstly, passwords are limited to a maximum of only 14 characters, giving a theoretical maximum keyspace of with the 95 ASCII printable characters.\\nSecondly, passwords longer than 7 characters are divided into two pieces and each piece is hashed separately; this weakness allows\",\n \"-21.255966674129013\"\n ],\n [\n \"feeds the salt, password, and current intermediate hash value back into the underlying MD5 hash function. The user's password hash is the concatenation of the salt value (which is not secret) and the final hash. The extra time is not noticeable to users because they have to wait only a fraction of a second each time they log in. On the other hand, stretching reduces the effectiveness of brute-force attacks in proportion to the number of iterations because it reduces the number of attempts an attacker can perform in a given time frame. This principle is applied in MD5-Crypt and\",\n \"-21.105923516966868\"\n ],\n [\n \"or 124.8 years. Due to currently understood limitations from fundamental physics, there is no expectation that any digital computer (or combination) will be capable of breaking 256-bit encryption via a brute-force attack. Whether or not quantum computers will be able to do so in practice is still unknown, though theoretical analysis suggests such possibilities. Password managers A reasonable compromise for using large numbers of passwords is to record them in a password manager program, which include stand-alone applications, web browser extensions, or a manager built into the operating system. A password manager allows the user to use hundreds of different\",\n \"-21.00531995727215\"\n ],\n [\n \"A time–memory tradeoff cryptanalysis attack, such as a rainbow table, is therefore feasible. In addition, any password that is shorter than 8 characters will result in the hashing of 7 null bytes, yielding the constant value of 0xAAD3B435B51404EE, hence making it easy to identify short passwords on sight. In 2003, Ophcrack, an implementation of the rainbow table technique, was published. It specifically targets the weaknesses of LM encryption, and includes pre-computed data sufficient to crack virtually all alphanumeric LM hashes in a few seconds. Many cracking tools, e.g. RainbowCrack, L0phtCrack and Cain, now incorporate similar attacks and make cracking\",\n \"-20.881982672155573\"\n ],\n [\n \"would provide good cryptographic strength for the password hash, but it is designed to be quite quick to calculate relative to the strength it provides. The crypt() scheme is designed to be expensive to calculate, to slow down dictionary attacks. The printable form of MD5 password hashes starts with $1$.\\nThis scheme allows users to have any length password, and they can use any characters supported by their platform (not just 7-bit ASCII). (In practice many implementations limit the password length, but they generally support passwords far longer than any person would be willing to type.) The\",\n \"-20.85675734654069\"\n ],\n [\n \"that correlate with personal information such as names or nicknames are more at risk than ones that are cryptic or anonymous, particularly on social and recreational sites. Password Strength A password is a mandatory security measure that accompanies usernames. The use of personal data to construct passwords i.e. family members’ names, pet’s names or birth dates increases the risk to confidential information and are easier to crack than long complicated passwords so password strength is a key strategy for protecting personal information. A password can be weak or strong:a weak password is cutekittens, a strong password is ?lACpAs56IKMs.\\nAccording to Microsoft\",\n \"-20.81529876613058\"\n ],\n [\n \"some systems make available a specially hashed version of the password, so that anyone can check its validity. When this is done, an attacker can try passwords very rapidly; so much stronger passwords are necessary for reasonable security. (See password cracking and password length equation.) Stricter requirements are also appropriate for accounts with higher privileges, such as root or system administrator accounts. Enforcing a policy The more complex a password policy, the harder it may be to enforce, due to user difficulty in remembering or choosing a suitable password.\\nMost companies will require users to familiarize themselves with any password policy,\",\n \"-20.684871488600038\"\n ],\n [\n \"be used to encrypt files larger than 4 GB due to its small block size.\\nA reduced-round variant of Blowfish is known to be susceptible to known-plaintext attacks on reflectively weak keys. Blowfish implementations use 16 rounds of encryption, and are not susceptible to this attack. Nevertheless, Bruce Schneier has recommended migrating to his Blowfish successor, Twofish.\",\n \"-20.607682840840425\"\n ],\n [\n \"markets. In 1999, US allowed 56-bit encryption to be exported without key escrow or any other key recovery requirements.\\nThe advent of commerce on the Internet and faster computers raised concerns about the security of electronic transactions initially with 40-bit, and subsequently also with 56-bit encryption. In February 1997, RSA Data Security ran a brute force competition with a $10,000 prize to demonstrate the weakness of 56-bit encryption; the contest was won four months later. In July 1998, a successful brute-force attack was demonstrated against 56-bit encryption with Deep Crack in just 56 hours.\\nIn 2000, all restrictions on key length were\",\n \"-20.58515522419475\"\n ],\n [\n \"off in Windows 2000, Windows XP and NT. Users can also prevent a LM hash from being generated for their own password by using a password at least fifteen characters in length.\\n--\\nNTLM hashes have in turn become vulnerable in recent years to various attacks that effectively make them as weak today as LanMan hashes were back in 1998.\",\n \"-20.49786722380668\"\n ],\n [\n \"change a password. Passwords may also be reflective of personality. Those who are more uptight or security-oriented may choose longer or more complicated passwords. Those who are lax or who feel more secure in their everyday lives may never change their password. The most common password is Password1, which may point to convenience over security as the main concern for internet users. History The use and memorization of both nonsense and meaningful alphanumeric material has had a long history in psychology beginning with Hermann Ebbinghaus. Since then, numerous studies have established that not only are both meaningful and nonsense “words”\",\n \"-20.45153858678532\"\n ],\n [\n \"for easily crackable passwords. On a file-by-file basis, password cracking is utilized to gain access to digital evidence to which a judge has allowed access, when a particular file's permissions are restricted. Time needed for password searches The time to crack a password is related to bit strength (see password strength), which is a measure of the password's entropy, and the details of how the password is stored. Most methods of password cracking require the computer to produce many candidate passwords, each of which is checked. One example is brute-force cracking, in which a computer tries every possible key or\",\n \"-20.440900521702133\"\n ],\n [\n \"because a required password is unknown, the player must jump to another plotline and learn the password there before returning to the original one. Characters and setting Virtue's Last Reward features nine main characters who are kidnapped by an unknown individual called Zero. The player character Sigma is joined by Phi, a girl with a \\\"no-nonsense attitude\\\"; Dio, a rude and insensitive man; Tenmyouji, an elderly man; Quark, an energetic young boy; Luna, a kind and quiet woman; Clover, an unpredictable girl who appeared in Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors; Alice, a commanding and focused woman; and K, a\",\n \"-20.283883327094372\"\n ],\n [\n \"Passwords and PIN-based authentication Passwords and PINs are categorized as \\\"something you know\\\" method. A combination of numbers, symbols, and mixed cases are considered to be stronger than all-letter password. Also, the adoption of Transport Layer Security (TLS) or Secure Socket Layer (SSL) features during the information transmission process will as well create an encrypted channel for data exchange and to further protect information delivered. Currently, most security attacks target on password-based authentication systems. Public-key authentication This type of authentication has two parts. One is a public key, the other is a private key. A public key is issued by\",\n \"-20.271202353877015\"\n ],\n [\n \"still used today, having been incorporated into many national and organizational standards. However, its 56-bit key-size has been shown to be insufficient to guard against brute force attacks (one such attack, undertaken by the cyber civil-rights group Electronic Frontier Foundation in 1997, succeeded in 56 hours.) As a result, use of straight DES encryption is now without doubt insecure for use in new cryptosystem designs, and messages protected by older cryptosystems using DES, and indeed all messages sent since 1976 using DES, are also at risk. Regardless of DES' inherent quality, the DES key size (56-bits) was thought to be\",\n \"-20.25301910022972\"\n ],\n [\n \"risk.\\nIn 2019, the United Kingdom's NCSC analysed public databases of breached accounts to see which words, phrases and strings people used. Top of the list was 123456, appearing in more than 23 million passwords. The second-most popular string, 123456789, was not much harder to crack, while others in the top five included \\\"qwerty\\\", \\\"password\\\" and 1111111. Password creation Passwords are created either automatically (using randomizing equipment) or by a human; the latter case is more common. While the strength of randomly chosen passwords against a brute-force attack can be calculated with precision, determining the strength of human-generated passwords is challenging.\\nTypically,\",\n \"-20.23879588925047\"\n ],\n [\n \"of accounts that have passwords based on the algorithm, after searching just 1.6 million passwords. This is due to the non-uniformity in the distribution of passwords generated, which can be addressed by using longer passwords or by modifying the algorithm. Bash Here is a code sample that uses /dev/urandom to generate a password with a simple Bash function.This function takes password length as a parameter, or uses 16 by default:\\nfunction mkpw() { LC_ALL=C tr -dc '[:graph:]' < /dev/urandom | head -c ${1:-16}; echo; } Java Here is a code sample (adapted from the class PasswordGenerator) that uses SecureRandom to generate\",\n \"-20.146576557075605\"\n ],\n [\n \"effective and who therefore still use normal Unix passwords everywhere. Passwords locking In contrast to the suggestion made in RFC 1938, OTPW does not lock more than one one-time password at a time. If it did this, an attacker could easily exhaust its list of unlocked passwords and force it to either not login at all or use the normal Unix login password. Therefore, OTPW locks only one single password and for all further logins a triple-challenge is issued. If more than 100 unused passwords remain available, then there are over a million different challenges and an attacker has very\",\n \"-20.14320704585407\"\n ],\n [\n \"that achieved a brute force attack speed of 350 billion guesses per second, allowing them to check password combinations in 5.5 hours. Using ocl-Hashcat Plus on a Virtual OpenCL cluster platform, the Linux-based GPU cluster was used to \\\"crack 90 percent of the 6.5 million password hashes belonging to users of LinkedIn.\\\"\\nDespite their capabilities, desktop CPUs are slower at cracking passwords than purpose-built password breaking machines. In 1998, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) built a dedicated password cracker using ASICs, as opposed to general purpose CPUs. Their machine, Deep Crack, broke a DES 56-bit key in 56 hours, testing over\",\n \"-20.076229469821556\"\n ],\n [\n \"measurably long time: as much as two or three seconds in some cases. The login program in early versions of Unix executed the crypt function only when the login name was recognized by the system. This leaked information through timing about the validity of the login name, even when the password was incorrect. An attacker could exploit such leaks by first applying brute-force to produce a list of login names known to be valid, then attempt to gain access by combining only these names with a large set of passwords known to be frequently used. Without any information on\",\n \"-20.071477147052065\"\n ],\n [\n \"such as the Columbine High School massacre, when new censorship laws were being introduced in the United States. The game has two hidden passwords that can be found by picking up a necklace in one level and reaching the highest rank in the multiplayer mode. Rare had originally intended these details to allow access to password-protected sections of promotional websites and use them for an alternate reality game, but the idea was never realised.\\nRare added 16x9 widescreen support to the game and licensed Dolby surround sound. The game features full voice acting for all in-game and cutscene dialogue. Nintendo wanted\",\n \"-20.054489481262863\"\n ],\n [\n \"Office XP. A standard encryption algorithm with a 40-bit key is used by default, but enabling a CSP enhances key length and thus makes decryption process more continuous. This only applies to passwords that are required to open document because this password type is the only one that encrypts a password-protected document.\",\n \"-20.008900150074624\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Easy difficulty is easy for young players, as there is only one predetermined Gruzzle in the level. The Hard difficulty, however, often has as many or more Gruzzles as there are words to find and 20 books must be collected to reveal the mystery word. This makes the game challenging even for adults.\",\n \"-19.95597441314021\"\n ],\n [\n \"data containing many large variables. The less the algorithm encrypts, the more easily players may notice patterns, such as an increment by one every level. They can then exploit these patterns to cheat or even beat the game. With a little luck, even a long password can be discovered by chance, as was the case for the infamous JUSTIN BAILEY code from Metroid.\\nWhile any save information is convertible into password form, it is practical only for game progress consisting of fewer or smaller variables. Overlong passwords needed by games such as RPGs with many large variables eventually cancels out the\",\n \"-19.93574663126492\"\n ],\n [\n \"from deterring shoulder surfing to more sophisticated physical threats such as video cameras and keyboard sniffers. Passwords should be chosen so that they are hard for an attacker to guess and hard for an attacker to discover using any of the available automatic attack schemes. See password strength and computer security for more information.\\nNowadays, it is a common practice for computer systems to hide passwords as they are typed. The purpose of this measure is to prevent bystanders from reading the password; however, some argue that this practice may lead to mistakes and stress, encouraging users to choose\",\n \"-19.92515859168634\"\n ],\n [\n \"algorithm used by Microsoft, are publicly available. LM hash is particularly vulnerable because passwords longer than 7 characters are broken into two sections, each of which is hashed separately. Choosing a password that is fifteen characters or longer guarantees that an LM hash will not be generated. Common uses Nearly all distributions and variations of Unix, Linux, and BSD use hashes with salts, though many applications use just a hash (typically MD5) with no salt. The Microsoft Windows NT/2000 family uses the LAN Manager and NT LAN Manager hashing method (based on MD4) and is also unsalted, which makes it\",\n \"-19.915268508018926\"\n ],\n [\n \"variation patterns on a consistent theme to keep their passwords memorable. Because of these issues, there is some debate as to whether password aging is effective. Changing a password will not prevent abuse in most cases, since the abuse would often be immediately noticeable. However, if someone may have had access to the password through some means, such as sharing a computer or breaching a different site, changing the password limits the window for abuse. Number of users per password Allotting separate passwords to each user of a system is preferable to having a single password shared by legitimate users\",\n \"-19.893036993336864\"\n ],\n [\n \"algorithms were never designed for password hashing and are thus not considered secure anymore. Modern, slower and thus more secure hashes such as PBKDF2, scrypt or other KDFs have not yet been implemented in Office.\\nThere is specialized software designed to recover lost Microsoft Office passwords on pre-AES encryption.\\nUltimately, the security of a password-protected document is dependent on the user choosing a password of sufficient complexity. If the password can be determined through guesswork or social engineering, the underlying cipher is not important.\",\n \"-19.870836088375654\"\n ],\n [\n \"they're immune to critical hits, but they're vulnerable to the cleric's turn undead power.\\\" They also thank Ray Harryhausen for people knowing what fighting skeletons ought to look like.\\nScreen Rant compiled a list of the game's \\\"10 Most Powerful (And 10 Weakest) Monsters, Ranked\\\" in 2018, calling the tiny skelton one of the weakest, saying \\\"[skeletons] go all the way down to Tiny-sized creatures, which means that it is possible for your party of adventurers to fight a group of skeletons that are the same size as action figures.\\\" Other publishers The skeleton is fully detailed under the \\\"walking dead\\\"\",\n \"-19.84952307171625\"\n ],\n [\n \"Equivalent Privacy) used a short, 24-bit IV, leading to reused IVs with the same key, which led to it being easily cracked. Packet injection allowed for WEP to be cracked in times as short as several seconds. This ultimately led to the deprecation of WEP. SSL 2.0 IV In cipher-block chaining mode (CBC mode), the IV must, in addition to being unique, be unpredictable at encryption time.\\nIn particular, the (previously) common practice of re-using the last ciphertext block of a message as the IV for the next message is insecure (for example, this method was used by SSL 2.0).\\nIf\",\n \"-19.828626860980876\"\n ],\n [\n \"an estimated 30-bit strength, according to NIST. 2³⁰ is only one billion permutations and would be cracked in seconds if the hashing function is naive. When ordinary desktop computers are combined in a cracking effort, as can be done with botnets, the capabilities of password cracking are considerably extended. In 2002, distributed.net successfully found a 64-bit RC5 key in four years, in an effort which included over 300,000 different computers at various times, and which generated an average of over 12 billion keys per second. \\nGraphics processors can speed up password cracking by a factor of 50 to 100\",\n \"-19.785547672276152\"\n ],\n [\n \"of cracking strategies, algorithm with brute force and dictionary attacks proving to be the most productive.\\nThe increased availability of computing power and beginner friendly automated password cracking software for a number of protection schemes has allowed the activity to be taken up by script kiddies.\",\n \"-19.775180716067553\"\n ],\n [\n \"accounts, deliberately choose easy-to-remember passwords that are too vulnerable to cracking, or rely on written records of their passwords.\\nMany sites, in an attempt to prevent users from choosing easy-to-guess passwords, add restrictions on password length or composition which contribute to password fatigue. In many cases, the restrictions placed on passwords actually serve to decrease the security of the account (either by preventing good passwords or by making the password so complex the user ends up storing it insecurely, such as on a post-it note). Some sites also block non-ASCII or non-alphanumeric characters.\\nPassword fatigue will typically affect users, but can also\",\n \"-19.74752990982961\"\n ],\n [\n \"the minimum for strong security with symmetric encryption algorithms. 128-bit keys are commonly used and considered very strong. See the key size article for a more complete discussion.\\nThe keys used in public key cryptography have some mathematical structure. For example, public keys used in the RSA system are the product of two prime numbers. Thus public key systems require longer key lengths than symmetric systems for an equivalent level of security. 3072 bits is the suggested key length for systems based on factoring and integer discrete logarithms which aim to have security equivalent to a 128 bit symmetric cipher. Elliptic\",\n \"-19.745842579810414\"\n ],\n [\n \"software. However, executable compression has become less popular because of increased storage capacity on computers. It has its use in the demoscene where demos have to stay within a size limit like 64 kilobytes to enter some competitions. Only very sophisticated compression formats, which add to load time, keep an executable small enough to enter these competitions.\",\n \"-19.74042577086948\"\n ],\n [\n \"proposed Data Encryption Standard, largely because its 56-bit key length was too short to prevent brute-force attack. An audio recording survives of their review of DES at Stanford in 1976 with Dennis Branstad of NBS and representatives of the National Security Agency. Their concern was well-founded: subsequent history has shown not only that NSA actively intervened with IBM and NBS to shorten the key size, but also that the short key size enabled exactly the kind of massively parallel key crackers that Hellman and Diffie sketched out. When these were ultimately built outside the classified world (EFF DES cracker),\",\n \"-19.65744142147014\"\n ],\n [\n \"key stretching as part of their function; see crypt(3) for an example. PBKDF2 is for generating an encryption key from a password, and not necessarily for password authentication. PBKDF2 can be used for both if the number of output bits is less than or equal to the internal hashing algorithm used in PBKDF2, which is usually SHA-2 (up to 512 bits), or used as an encryption key to encrypt static data. Strength and time These examples assume that a personal computer can do about 65,000 SHA-1 hashes in one second. Thus a program that uses key stretching can use 65,000\",\n \"-19.65097539499402\"\n ],\n [\n \"being (72,057,594,037,927,936). 56-bit encryption has its roots in DES, which was the official standard of the US National Bureau of Standards from 1976, and later also the RC5 algorithm. US government regulations required any users of stronger 56-bit symmetric keys to submit to key recovery through algorithms like CDMF or key escrow, effectively reducing the key strength to 40-bit, and thereby allowing organisations such as the NSA to brute-force this encryption. Furthermore, from 1996 software products exported from the United States were not permitted to use stronger than 56-bit encryption, requiring different software editions for the US and export\",\n \"-19.64421607737313\"\n ],\n [\n \"Multi-factor authentication schemes combine passwords (as \\\"knowledge factors\\\") with one or more other means of authentication, to make authentication more secure and less vulnerable to compromised passwords. For example, a simple two-factor login might send a text message, e-mail, automated phone call, or similar alert whenever a login attempt is made, possibly supplying a code which must be entered in addition to a password. More sophisticated factors include such things as hardware tokens and biometric security. Password rules Most organizations specify a password policy that sets requirements for the composition and usage of passwords, typically dictating minimum length, required categories\",\n \"-19.620412666779885\"\n ],\n [\n \"fraction of all user-chosen passwords are readily guessed automatically. For example, Columbia University found 22% of user passwords could be recovered with little effort. According to Bruce Schneier, examining data from a 2006 phishing attack, 55% of MySpace passwords would be crackable in 8 hours using a commercially available Password Recovery Toolkit capable of testing 200,000 passwords per second in 2006. He also reported that the single most common password was password1, confirming yet again the general lack of informed care in choosing passwords among users. (He nevertheless maintained, based on these data, that the general quality of passwords\",\n \"-19.601227962761186\"\n ],\n [\n \"uppercase and lowercase letters and digits\\\" or \\\"change it monthly\\\", the greater the degree to which users will subvert the system.\\nIn \\\"The Memorability and Security of Passwords\\\", Jeff Yan et al. examines the effect of advice given to users about a good choice of password. They found that passwords based on thinking of a phrase and taking the first letter of each word are just as memorable as naively selected passwords, and just as hard to crack as randomly generated passwords. Combining two unrelated words is another good method. Having a personally designed \\\"algorithm\\\" for generating obscure passwords is another\",\n \"-19.59532712586224\"\n ],\n [\n \"two strings, “hello” and “8571935789325698” can be hashed to the same hash value, “89232323”. This would be effective for an attacker to know because when passwords are stored into a database with their appropriate hashes, the hacker could use the password “8571935789325698” which would allows the hacker to login successfully despite the actual password being “hello”. Although hackers would require time to brute force different passwords to find a hash collision, these hackers could alternatively wait until computational power increases enough to make cracking these hashing collisions faster. In the meantime, they can search around for servers\",\n \"-19.572276616323506\"\n ],\n [\n \"you really want to secure.\\\" In 2011 IBM predicted that, within five years, \\\"You will never need a password again.\\\" Matt Honan, a journalist at Wired, who was the victim of a hacking incident, in 2012 wrote \\\"The age of the password has come to an end.\\\" Heather Adkins, manager of Information Security at Google, in 2013 said that \\\"passwords are done at Google.\\\" Eric Grosse, VP of security engineering at Google, states that \\\"passwords and simple bearer tokens, such as cookies, are no longer sufficient to keep users safe.\\\" Christopher Mims, writing in the Wall Street Journal said\",\n \"-19.534098974370863\"\n ],\n [\n \"curve cryptography may allow smaller-size keys for equivalent security, but these algorithms have only been known for a relatively short time and current estimates of the difficulty of searching for their keys may not survive. As early as 2004, a message encrypted using a 109-bit key elliptic curve algorithm had been broken by brute force. The current rule of thumb is to use an ECC key twice as long as the symmetric key security level desired. Except for the random one-time pad, the security of these systems has not been proven mathematically as of 2018, so a theoretical breakthrough could\",\n \"-19.523388368543237\"\n ],\n [\n \"in order to ensure that an attacker would be forced to crack each password independently as opposed to being able to target the entire password database simultaneously.\\nIn detail, the user's password is truncated to eight characters, and those are coerced down to only 7-bits each; this forms the 56-bit DES key. That key is then used to encrypt an all-bits-zero block, and then the ciphertext is encrypted again with the same key, and so on for a total of 25 DES encryptions. A 12-bit salt is used to perturb the encryption algorithm, so standard DES implementations can't be\",\n \"-19.49193323671352\"\n ],\n [\n \"early versions of Wired Equivalent Privacy. In 1992, IBM designed the CDMF algorithm to reduce the strength of 56-bit DES against brute force attack to 40 bits, in order to create exportable DES implementations. Obsolescence All 40-bit and 56-bit encryption algorithms are obsolete, because they are vulnerable to brute force attacks, and therefore cannot be regarded as secure. As a result, virtually all Web browsers now use 128-bit keys, which are considered strong. Most Web servers will not communicate with a client unless it has 128-bit encryption capability installed on it.\\nPublic/private key pairs used in asymmetric encryption (public key cryptography),\",\n \"-19.47998407459818\"\n ],\n [\n \"Crack (password software) Legal issues arising from using Crack Randal L. Schwartz, a notable Perl programming expert, in 1995 was prosecuted for using Crack on the password file of a system at Intel, a case the verdict of which was eventually expunged.\\nCrack was also used by Kevin Mitnick when hacking into Sun Microsystems in 1993. Network distributed password cracking As password cracking is inherently embarrassingly parallel Crack v4.0a introduced the ability to use a network of heterogeneous workstations connected by a shared filesystem as parts of a distributed password cracking effort.\\nAll that was required for this was to provide Crack\",\n \"-19.461642568407115\"\n ],\n [\n \"a password NOT to contain any word in an online dictionary, or list of names, or any license plate pattern from any state (in the US) or country (as in the EU). If patterned choices are required, humans are likely to use them in predictable ways, such a capitalizing a letter, adding one or two numbers, and a special character. This predictability means that the increase in password strength is minor when compared to random passwords. Usability and implementation considerations Because national keyboard implementations vary, not all 94 ASCII printable characters can be used everywhere. This can present a problem\",\n \"-19.453930650808616\"\n ],\n [\n \"simple password-based symmetric encryption system, which is documented in the ZIP specification, and known to be seriously flawed. In particular, it is vulnerable to known-plaintext attacks, which are in some cases made worse by poor implementations of random-number generators.\\nNew features including new compression and encryption (e.g. AES) methods have been documented in the ZIP File Format Specification since version 5.2. A WinZip-developed AES-based standard is used also by 7-Zip and Xceed, but some vendors use other formats. PKWARE SecureZIP also supports RC2, RC4, DES, Triple DES encryption methods, Digital Certificate-based encryption and authentication (X.509), and archive header encryption.\\nFile name encryption\",\n \"-19.435664508549962\"\n ],\n [\n \"to eavesdrop more easily. The British proposed a key length of 48 bits, while the West Germans wanted stronger encryption to protect against East German spying, so the compromise became a key length of 56 bits. In general, a key of length 56 is times easier to break than a key of length 128. DES Challenges The widely used DES encryption algorithm was originally planned by IBM to have a key size of 128 bits; NSA lobbied for a key size of 48 bits. The end compromise were a key size of 64 bits, 8 of which were parity\",\n \"-19.43039269154542\"\n ],\n [\n \"7z Encryption The 7z format supports encryption with the AES algorithm with a 256-bit key. The key is generated from a user-supplied passphrase using an algorithm based on the SHA-256 hash function. The SHA-256 is executed 2¹⁸ (262144) times, which causes a significant delay on slow PCs before compression or extraction starts. This technique is called key stretching and is used to make a brute-force search for the passphrase more difficult. Current GPU-based, and custom hardware attacks limit the effectiveness of this particular method of key stretching, so it is still important to choose a strong password.\\nThe 7z\",\n \"-19.425261129566934\"\n ],\n [\n \"Soft hyphen In computing and typesetting, a soft hyphen (ISO 8859: 0xAD, Unicode U+00AD SOFT HYPHEN, HTML: ­ ­) or syllable hyphen (EBCDIC: 0xCA), abbreviated SHY, is a code point reserved in some coded character sets for the purpose of breaking words across lines by inserting visible hyphens. Two alternative ways of using the soft hyphen character for this purpose have emerged, depending on whether the encoded text will be broken into lines by its recipient, or has already been preformatted by its originator. Text to be formatted by the recipient The use of SHY characters in text that\",\n \"-19.412576334027108\"\n ],\n [\n \"test over a hundred million passwords per second using password cracking tools running on a general purpose CPU and billions of passwords per second using GPU-based password cracking tools (See: John the Ripper benchmarks). The rate of password guessing depends heavily on the cryptographic function used by the system to generate password hashes. A suitable password hashing function, such as bcrypt, is many orders of magnitude better than a naive function like simple MD5 or SHA. A user-selected eight-character password with numbers, mixed case, and symbols, with commonly selected passwords and other dictionary matches filtered out, reaches\",\n \"-19.40725966519676\"\n ],\n [\n \"for accounts on different systems, those will be compromised as well.\\nMore secure systems store each password in a cryptographically protected form, so access to the actual password will still be difficult for a snooper who gains internal access to the system, while validation of user access attempts remains possible. The most secure don't store passwords at all, but a one-way derivation, such as a polynomial, modulus, or an advanced hash function.Roger Needham invented the now common approach of storing only a \\\"hashed\\\" form of the plaintext password. When a user types in a password on such a system, the password\",\n \"-19.382205742644146\"\n ],\n [\n \"with 4t-bit signatures. For example, a 128-bit security level would require 512-bit (64-byte) signatures. The security is limited by discrete logarithm attacks on the group, which have a complexity of the square-root of the group size.\\nIn Schnorr's original 1991 paper, it was suggested that since collision resistance in the hash is not required, then therefore shorter hash functions may be just as secure, and indeed recent developments suggest that a t-bit security level can be achieved with 3t-bit signatures. Then, a 128-bit security level would require only 384-bit (48-byte) signatures, and this could be achieved by truncating the size of\",\n \"-19.370621076988755\"\n ],\n [\n \"Microsoft Office password protection Microsoft Office password protection is a security feature to protect Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint) documents with a user-provided password. As of Office 2007, this uses modern encryption; earlier versions used weaker systems and are not considered secure.\\nOffice 2007–2013 employed 128-bit key AES password protection which remains secure. Office 2016 employed 256-bit key AES password protection which also remains secure.\\nThe Office 97–2003 password protection used 40-bit key RC4 which contains multiple vulnerabilities rendering it insecure. History of Microsoft Encryption password In Excel and Word 95 and prior editions a weak protection algorithm is used that\",\n \"-19.367579744779505\"\n ],\n [\n \"answer by constantly shifting password. Those solutions abruptly reduce the timeframe for brute forcing (attacker needs to break and use the password within a single shift) and they reduce the value of the stolen passwords because of its short time validity.\\nIn 2013 a long-term Password Hashing Competition was announced to choose a new, standard algorithm for password hashing. Software There are many password cracking software tools, but the most popular are Aircrack, Cain and Abel, John the Ripper, Hashcat, Hydra, DaveGrohl and ElcomSoft. Many litigation support software packages also include password cracking functionality. Most of these packages employ a mixture\",\n \"-19.36432976461947\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 2004, had a minimum thickness of 0.38 inches (10 mm) and a maximum of 0.8 inches (20.3 mm).\\nSince the release of the MacBook Air, other thinner laptops have been released, such as the Dell Adamo, launched in March 2009, which is a constant 0.65 inches (17 mm) thick. Apple subsequently removed the claim of being \\\"the world's thinnest notebook\\\" from their marketing materials. Second generation (Tapered and dual USB) On October 20, 2010, Apple released a redesigned 13.3-inch model with a tapered enclosure, higher screen resolution, improved battery, a second USB port, stereo speakers, and standard solid state storage. A 11.6-inch model\",\n \"-19.361692747450434\"\n ],\n [\n \"crackable passwords. Because many users re-use passwords for multiple sites, the use of a salt is an important component of overall web application security. Some additional references for using a salt to secure password hashes in specific languages (PHP, .NET, etc.) can be found in the external links section below.\",\n \"-19.358011120348237\"\n ],\n [\n \"an average filename length of 8 bytes and a per-filename header of 4 bytes, this would be less than 350.) Applications which made heavy use of multiple same-directory hard links, such as git, GNUS, GMame and BackupPC were later observed to fail after hitting this limit. The limit was eventually removed (and as of October 2012 has been merged pending release in Linux 3.7) by introducing spillover extended reference items to hold hard link filenames which could not otherwise fit. Checksum tree and scrubbing CRC-32C checksums are computed for both data and metadata and stored as checksum items\",\n \"-19.34310816967627\"\n ],\n [\n \"is not needed, in versions of Windows NT (including Windows 2000, Windows XP and later), a passphrase can be used as a substitute for a Windows password. If the passphrase is longer than 14 characters, this will also avoid the generation of a very weak LM hash. Unix support In recent versions of Unix-like operating systems such as Linux, OpenBSD, NetBSD, Solaris and FreeBSD, up to 255-character passphrases can be used.\",\n \"-19.32044025959476\"\n ],\n [\n \"56-bit encryption In computing, 56-bit encryption refers to a key size of fifty-six bits, or seven bytes, for symmetric encryption. While stronger than 40-bit encryption, this still represents a relatively low level of security in the context of a brute force attack. Description The US government traditionally regulated encryption for reasons of national security, law enforcement and foreign policy. Encryption was regulated from 1976 by the Arms Export Control Act until control was transferred to the Department of Commerce in 1996.\\n56-bit refers to the size of a symmetric key used to encrypt data, with the number of unique possible permutations\",\n \"-19.236580110853538\"\n ],\n [\n \"passwords. All items in such lists are considered weak, as are passwords that are simple modifications of them. For some decades, investigations of passwords on multi-user computer systems have shown that 40% or more are readily guessed using only computer programs, and more can be found when information about a particular user is taken into account during the attack. Password guess validation Systems that use passwords for authentication must have some way to check any password entered to gain access. If the valid passwords are simply stored in a system file or database, an attacker who gains sufficient access to\",\n \"-19.23238107643556\"\n ],\n [\n \"5. If we use these well-known tricks, we aren’t fooling any adversary. We are simply fooling the database that stores passwords into thinking the user did something good.\\\" Password cracking Attempting to crack passwords by trying as many possibilities as time and money permit is a brute force attack. A related method, rather more efficient in most cases, is a dictionary attack. In a dictionary attack, all words in one or more dictionaries are tested. Lists of common passwords are also typically tested.\\nPassword strength is the likelihood that a password cannot be guessed or discovered, and varies with the attack\",\n \"-19.216665350773837\"\n ],\n [\n \"first crack at the next one.\\nThe rules regarding cluegiving were the same as on all previous versions of Password, with the exception of two instances exclusive to Password Plus. Beginning with the April 23, 1979 edition of Password Plus and continuing until the series went off air in 1982, two rules were put into place. The first disallowed any password's direct opposite as a legal clue (such as \\\"loose\\\" for \\\"tight\\\"). The second expanded a penalty already present in the game. When the series began, if the cluegiver being given the option to play or pass did not decide in\",\n \"-19.186580860274262\"\n ],\n [\n \"with individual passcodes to initiate the process, with countdown timers that can allow characters to escape. Passwords in 1970s and 1980s movies are noticeably unfit for purposes of such major impact, considering accounts with even low level security in modern times have far more complex password requirements, as the writers of the era did not anticipate the complexity level of computer generated brute-force attacks and security issues.\",\n \"-19.17499117407715\"\n ],\n [\n \"In addition, whereas weak passwords may be broken via rainbow tables, TPM causes the much-simpler Windows PINs to be resilient to brute-force attacks. While this is not a security vulnerability and can be easily mitigated by using SecureBoot option in BIOS tools like Kon-Boot an be used in order to bypass Windows 10 authentication (including both local passwords, online (LIVE), PIN passwords). \\nWhen Windows 10 was first introduced, multi-factor authentication was provided by two components: Windows Hello and Passport (not to be confused with the Passport platform of 1998). Later, Passport was merged into Windows Hello.\\nThe enterprise version of Windows\",\n \"-19.16624996162136\"\n ],\n [\n \"considerably slower than comparing the same single hash to every password.\\nAnother (lesser) benefit of a salt is as follows: two users might choose the same string as their password, or the same user might choose to use the same password on two machines. Without a salt, this password would be stored as the same hash string in the password file. This would disclose the fact that the two accounts have the same password, allowing anyone who knows one of the account's passwords to access the other account. By salting the passwords with two random characters, even if two accounts use\",\n \"-19.150618864339776\"\n ],\n [\n \"attackers from efficiently mounting offline attacks against multiple user accounts simultaneously. The algorithms are also much slower to execute which drastically increases the time required to mount a successful offline attack.\\nMany hashes used for storing passwords, such as MD5 and the SHA family, are designed for fast computation and efficient implementation in hardware. As a result, they are ineffective in preventing password cracking, especially with methods like rainbow tables. Using key stretching Algorithms, such as PBKDF2, to form password hashes can significantly reduce the rate at which passwords can be tested.\\nSolutions like a security token give a formal proof\",\n \"-19.139822586497758\"\n ],\n [\n \"on HP-UX, Digital Unix, and OSF/1. The main difference between it and DES is that BigCrypt uses all the characters of a password, not just the first 8, and has a variable length hash.\\nCrypt16 is the minor modification of DES, which allows passwords of up to 16 characters. Used on Ultrix and Tru64. GNU/Linux The GNU C Library used by almost all GNU/Linux distributions provides an implementation of the crypt function which supports the DES, MD5, and (since version 2.7) SHA-2 based hashing algorithms mentioned above.\\nUlrich Drepper, the glibc maintainer, rejected bcrypt support since it isn't approved by NIST. macOS\",\n \"-19.137987392721698\"\n ],\n [\n \"a password that allows the other game to be played as a sequel. They were developed by Flagship in conjunction with Nintendo, with supervision from Miyamoto. After the team experimented with porting the original The Legend of Zelda to the Game Boy Color, they decided to make an original trilogy to be called the \\\"Triforce Series\\\". When the password system linking the three games proved too troublesome, the concept was reduced to two games at Miyamoto's suggestion. These two games became Oracle of Ages, which is more puzzle-based, and Oracle of Seasons, which is more action-oriented.\\nWhen Nintendo revealed the GameCube\",\n \"-19.12882679811446\"\n ],\n [\n \"processor for that time. Such a device will crack a 6 letter single-case password in one day. Note that the work can be distributed over many computers for an additional speedup proportional to the number of available computers with comparable GPUs. Special key stretching hashes are available that take a relatively long time to compute, reducing the rate at which guessing can take place. Although it is considered best practice to use key stretching, many common systems do not.\\nAnother situation where quick guessing is possible is when the password is used to form a cryptographic key. In such cases, an\",\n \"-19.023101966187824\"\n ],\n [\n \"Because of this and other concerns, such password capabilities were considered a vulnerability in NLTSS. A design was done to protect against this vulnerability, the Control by Public Key Encryption mechanism. This mechanism wasn't put into production in NLTSS both because of its significant performance cost and because users weren't aware of the vulnerability from password capabilities. Modern advances in cryptography would make such protection for capabilities practical, especially for Internet/Web capabilities (e.g. see YURLs or WideWORD).\\nA design issue with NLTSS that wasn't considered until years after it was removed from production was its open network architecture.\",\n \"-19.022033844084945\"\n ],\n [\n \"and comparing the result of each guess to the actual password hashes. If the attacker finds a match, they know that their guess is the actual password for the associated user.\\nPassword cracking tools can operate by brute force (i.e. trying every possible combination of characters) or by hashing every word from a list; large lists of possible passwords in many languages are widely available on the Internet. The existence of password cracking tools allows attackers to easily recover poorly chosen passwords. In particular, attackers can quickly recover passwords that are short, dictionary words, simple variations on dictionary words or that\",\n \"-19.01722601032816\"\n ],\n [\n \"40-bit encryption 40-bit encryption refers to a key size of forty bits, or five bytes, for symmetric encryption; this represents a relatively low level of security. A forty bit length corresponds to a total of 2⁴⁰ possible keys. Although this is a large number in human terms (about a trillion), it is possible to break this degree of encryption using a moderate amount of computing power in a brute-force attack, i.e., trying out each possible key in turn. Description A typical home computer in 2004 could brute-force a 40-bit key in a little under two weeks, testing a million keys\",\n \"-19.012495306742494\"\n ],\n [\n \"will present two different encrypted volumes given different passwords.\\nHowever, it is possible that two filenames on two different secondary volumes will be encrypted to the same filename. In this case, any other file will be overwritten with a new file being created. Note that this refers only to the encrypted filenames, not the unencrypted filenames. This danger can be averted by creating one directory per secondary volume and storing files in the only visible directory after a secondary volume is mounted.\\nAlso, if the password is changed, the volume key will be re-encoded with the new password. This will cause secondary\",\n \"-19.00056554132607\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the live site were hashed using the bcrypt algorithm. A security analyst using the Hashcat password recovery tool with a dictionary based on the RockYou passwords found that among the 4,000 passwords that were the easiest to crack, \\\"123456\\\" and \\\"password\\\" were the most commonly used passwords on the live website. An analysis of old passwords used on an archived version showed that \\\"123456\\\" and \\\"password\\\" were the most common. Due to a design error where passwords were hashed with both bcrypt and MD5, 11 million passwords were eventually cracked.\\nClaire Brownell suggested that the Turing test could be possibly\",\n \"-18.97620719531551\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":90,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"6g1bnx"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why is it that the constant orbit of electrons around the nucleus of an atom is not classed as an example of perpetual motion?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["When people talk about \"perpetual motion machines\" they don't mean the literal \"moving forever\" they mean a system that runs forever but you can keep extracting energy from, or generates more energy than was put in without any other loss. a rock could orbit another rock and both could hurtle through a vacuum forever. No work is being done no energy is being taken from the system. So it's happy to just keep moving forever. but if you want to make those rocks do some work or touch them in any way they will stop moving or slow down. same with an Atom, while there might be \"movement\" of sorts inside that motion does not perpetually generate energy.","\"perpetual motion\" isn't disallowed, inertia means something moving will move forever unless a force changes that. People mean \"motion that self regenerates when slowed\" when they mean perpetual motion. But at the same time electrons don't actually orbit the way people draw them in cartoons, electrons aren't really little balls, it's just easier to think of them that way sometimes.","Like explained in another post already, electrons aren't \"orbiting the core\" like planets orbit the sun. As said, they would emit electromagnetic waves constantly and end up falling into the core once their energy was radiated away; if they kept moving though, they would indeed be an actual ''perpetual movement machine'' (meaning they would basically generate energy from nothing). This problem arises because in most schools, you are taught to think of electrons as an actual particle (a classical concept), when in actuality they are quantummechanical objects i.e. excitations of their respective fields (probability \"waves\"/fuctions with partly \"particle-like\" properties so to speak). We can't measure their \"velocity\" and locality at the same time (or rather, the more precise you measure one, the less precise the other measurement gets), thus we assign them probabillities. We can calculate these probabilities and we find that they have a 0% chance of being in the atom's core, everywhere else however, that probability is not 0, even though it is infinitly small, on Venus for example, it may still be there. To get around that we calculate the arrea that has a 90%-99% chance of being and call them orbitals (basically what you get taught as the different \"shells\" of an atom in school (it's somewhat more complex than that, but that's *basically* it)). These orbitals are basically the \"room\" you speak of when refering to an atom minus the room taken up by the core (less that 0.1%). As such, \"electrons\" aren't really moving, but are *dislocated* in a large cloud of their probable positions around the atom's core. You can collapse this *cloud* into a single position by measuring them, but as stated above, you are unable to attain their \"velocity\" then.","One reason is that electrons don't really orbit around the nucleus the way planets orbit around the sun. That's a convenient fiction that was once thought by physicists to be true, but hasn't been since around the beginning of the last century. I guess it is still taught in schools because the real theory is rather strange and hard to explain to an adolescent. It's hard to explain to an adult. One of the problems with the \"planetary model\" of atoms is that electrons are a charged particle. If they orbited around the nucleus like that, they would constantly be emitting electromagnetic radiation. They don't do that. So the model was clearly flawed. Along came the quantum mechanical model of the atom. It was realized that electrons in an atom don't occupy a particular position within the atom, they are more like a wave with a particular volume of space within the atom that they are *likely* to be found in. But that volume doesn't have a sharp boundary. An electron in your nose has a very very very very small chance of suddenly being on Mars. The electrons aren't static, so I guess you could call what they do \"perpetual motion\". They also aren't really in motion, though. They just might be here and might be there. It isn't really what people mean when they refer to a perpetual motion machine. **TL;DR** - Atoms are weird."],"string":"[\n \"When people talk about \\\"perpetual motion machines\\\" they don't mean the literal \\\"moving forever\\\" they mean a system that runs forever but you can keep extracting energy from, or generates more energy than was put in without any other loss. a rock could orbit another rock and both could hurtle through a vacuum forever. No work is being done no energy is being taken from the system. So it's happy to just keep moving forever. but if you want to make those rocks do some work or touch them in any way they will stop moving or slow down. same with an Atom, while there might be \\\"movement\\\" of sorts inside that motion does not perpetually generate energy.\",\n \"\\\"perpetual motion\\\" isn't disallowed, inertia means something moving will move forever unless a force changes that. People mean \\\"motion that self regenerates when slowed\\\" when they mean perpetual motion. But at the same time electrons don't actually orbit the way people draw them in cartoons, electrons aren't really little balls, it's just easier to think of them that way sometimes.\",\n \"Like explained in another post already, electrons aren't \\\"orbiting the core\\\" like planets orbit the sun. As said, they would emit electromagnetic waves constantly and end up falling into the core once their energy was radiated away; if they kept moving though, they would indeed be an actual ''perpetual movement machine'' (meaning they would basically generate energy from nothing). This problem arises because in most schools, you are taught to think of electrons as an actual particle (a classical concept), when in actuality they are quantummechanical objects i.e. excitations of their respective fields (probability \\\"waves\\\"/fuctions with partly \\\"particle-like\\\" properties so to speak). We can't measure their \\\"velocity\\\" and locality at the same time (or rather, the more precise you measure one, the less precise the other measurement gets), thus we assign them probabillities. We can calculate these probabilities and we find that they have a 0% chance of being in the atom's core, everywhere else however, that probability is not 0, even though it is infinitly small, on Venus for example, it may still be there. To get around that we calculate the arrea that has a 90%-99% chance of being and call them orbitals (basically what you get taught as the different \\\"shells\\\" of an atom in school (it's somewhat more complex than that, but that's *basically* it)). These orbitals are basically the \\\"room\\\" you speak of when refering to an atom minus the room taken up by the core (less that 0.1%). As such, \\\"electrons\\\" aren't really moving, but are *dislocated* in a large cloud of their probable positions around the atom's core. You can collapse this *cloud* into a single position by measuring them, but as stated above, you are unable to attain their \\\"velocity\\\" then.\",\n \"One reason is that electrons don't really orbit around the nucleus the way planets orbit around the sun. That's a convenient fiction that was once thought by physicists to be true, but hasn't been since around the beginning of the last century. I guess it is still taught in schools because the real theory is rather strange and hard to explain to an adolescent. It's hard to explain to an adult. One of the problems with the \\\"planetary model\\\" of atoms is that electrons are a charged particle. If they orbited around the nucleus like that, they would constantly be emitting electromagnetic radiation. They don't do that. So the model was clearly flawed. Along came the quantum mechanical model of the atom. It was realized that electrons in an atom don't occupy a particular position within the atom, they are more like a wave with a particular volume of space within the atom that they are *likely* to be found in. But that volume doesn't have a sharp boundary. An electron in your nose has a very very very very small chance of suddenly being on Mars. The electrons aren't static, so I guess you could call what they do \\\"perpetual motion\\\". They also aren't really in motion, though. They just might be here and might be there. It isn't really what people mean when they refer to a perpetual motion machine. **TL;DR** - Atoms are weird.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["the nucleus of an atom which cannot be explained by classical mechanics. Orbital Angular Momentum When quantum mechanics refers to the orbital angular momentum of an electron, it is generally referring to the spatial wave equation that represents the electron's motion around the nucleus of an atom. Electrons do not \"orbit\" the nucleus in the classical sense of angular momentum, however the mathematical representation of L = r × p still leads to the quantum mechanical version of angular momentum. Just as in classical mechanics, the law of conservation of angular momentum still holds. Spin An electron has no charge","-31.415467059923685"],["its nucleus, following an early conjecture of Niels Bohr (this is the source of the term \"orbital\"). However, electrons don't actually orbit nuclei in any meaningful sense, and quantum mechanics are necessary for any useful understanding of the electron's real behavior. Solving the classical two-body problem for an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is misleading and does not produce many useful insights.","-31.355218121781945"],["field theory. The higher-energy electron states (2s, 2p, 3s, etc.) are stationary states according to the approximate Hamiltonian, but not stationary according to the true Hamiltonian, because of vacuum fluctuations. On the other hand, the 1s state is truly a stationary state, according to both the approximate and the true Hamiltonian. Comparison to \"orbital\" in chemistry An orbital is a stationary state (or approximation thereof) of a one-electron atom or molecule; more specifically, an atomic orbital for an electron in an atom, or a molecular orbital for an electron in a molecule.\nFor a molecule that contains only a single electron","-30.926160332164727"],["since it is moving (on average) most rapidly at that point, giving it maximal momentum.\nA mental \"planetary orbit\" picture closest to the behavior of electrons in s orbitals, all of which have no angular momentum, might perhaps be that of a Keplerian orbit with the orbital eccentricity of 1 but a finite major axis, not physically possible (because particles were to collide), but can be imagined as a limit of orbits with equal major axes but increasing eccentricity.\nBelow, a number of drum membrane vibration modes and the respective wave functions of the hydrogen atom are shown. A correspondence can be considered","-29.812196472572396"],["using the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as \"orbiting\" the proton in analogy to the Earth's orbit of the Sun. However, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. Because of the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances from the proton, and therefore only certain allowed energies.\nA more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum mechanical treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation, Dirac","-29.786440279800445"],["between our solar system and an atom in which electrons orbit the nucleus. But now the analogy is deeper and mathematically and physically supported: it comes from the suggestion that chaotic planetary orbits on very long time scales have preferred sizes, the roots of which go to fractal space-time and generalized Newtonian equation of motion which assumes the form of the quantum Schrödinger equation.\nHowever, as Nottale acknowledges, this general approach is not totally new:\nThe suggestion to use the formalism of quantum mechanics for the treatment of macroscopic problems, in particular for understanding structures in the solar system, dates back to","-29.634892868984025"],["numbers, and their energies (see below), explain the electron configuration of the atoms and the periodic table.\nThe stationary states (quantum states) of the hydrogen-like atoms are its atomic orbitals. However, in general, an electron's behavior is not fully described by a single orbital. Electron states are best represented by time-depending \"mixtures\" (linear combinations) of multiple orbitals. See Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method.\nThe quantum number n first appeared in the Bohr model where it determines the radius of each circular electron orbit. In modern quantum mechanics however, n determines the mean distance of the electron from the nucleus;","-29.60976956144441"],["momentum was convincingly argued at least 19 years earlier by Niels Bohr, and the Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka published an orbit-based hypothesis for electronic behavior as early as 1904. Explaining the behavior of these electron \"orbits\" was one of the driving forces behind the development of quantum mechanics. Early models With J. J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, it became clear that atoms were not the smallest building blocks of nature, but were rather composite particles. The newly discovered structure within atoms tempted many to imagine how the atom's constituent parts might interact with each other. Thomson theorized","-29.590281699114712"],["between orbitals with the same principal quantum number n, this is not true for the outer electrons of other atoms.\nIn the old quantum theory prior to quantum mechanics, electrons were supposed to occupy classical elliptical orbits. The orbits with the highest angular momentum are 'circular orbits' outside the inner electrons, but orbits with low angular momentum (s- and p-orbitals) have high orbital eccentricity, so that they get closer to the nucleus and feel on average a less strongly screened nuclear charge. The n + ℓ energy ordering rule A periodic table in which each row corresponds to one value of","-29.287975833984092"],["most often shown independent of each other, the orbitals coexist around the nucleus at the same time. Also, in 1927, Albrecht Unsöld proved that if one sums the electron density of all orbitals of a particular azimuthal quantum number ℓ of the same shell n (e.g. all three 2p orbitals, or all five 3d orbitals) where each orbital is occupied by an electron or each is occupied by an electron pair, then all angular dependence disappears; that is, the resulting total density of all the atomic orbitals in that subshell (those with the same ℓ) is spherical. This","-29.084387995884754"],["model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon of screening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit.\nFor example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit at Z = 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge of Z = 3 minus","-29.011981301300693"],["Stationary state Spontaneous decay Spontaneous decay complicates the question of stationary states. For example, according to simple (nonrelativistic) quantum mechanics, the hydrogen atom has many stationary states: 1s, 2s, 2p, and so on, are all stationary states. But in reality, only the ground state 1s is truly \"stationary\": An electron in a higher energy level will spontaneously emit one or more photons to decay into the ground state. This seems to contradict the idea that stationary states should have unchanging properties.\nThe explanation is that the Hamiltonian used in nonrelativistic quantum mechanics is only an approximation to the Hamiltonian from quantum","-28.86605783016421"],["force in the relativistic setting. Atomic physics A classical electron orbiting a nucleus experiences acceleration and should radiate. Consequently, the electron loses energy and the electron should eventually spiral into the nucleus. Atoms, according to classical mechanics, are consequently unstable. This classical prediction is violated by the observation of stable electron orbits. The problem is resolved with a quantum mechanical description of atomic physics, initially provided by the Bohr model. Classical solutions to the stability of electron orbitals can be demonstrated using Non-radiation conditions and in accordance with known physical laws.","-28.723867217995576"],["This occurs in particular if the average nucleus has some symmetry.\nThe concept of shells allows one to understand why some nuclei are bound more tightly than others. This is because two nucleons of the same kind cannot be in the same state (Pauli exclusion principle). So the lowest-energy state of the nucleus is one where nucleons fill all energy levels from the bottom up to some level. A nucleus with full shells is exceptionally stable, as will be explained.\nAs with electrons in the electron shell model, protons in the outermost shell are relatively loosely bound to the nucleus if there","-28.700057163790916"],["necessary to keep the planet in orbit.\nThis model, although appealing, doesn't hold true in the real world. Synchrotron radiation would cause the orbiting electron to lose orbital energy and spiral inward since the vector quantity of acceleration of the particle multiplied by its mass (the value of the force required to keep the electron in circular motion) would be less than the electrical force the proton applied to the electron.\nOnce the electron spiralled into the nucleus the electron would combine with a proton to form a neutron, and the atom would cease to exist. This model is clearly wrong. Bohr","-28.69915609220334"],["orbiting around the same nucleus may have coupled angular momenta. Due to the conservation of angular momentum and the nature of the angular momentum operator, the total angular momentum is always the sum of the individual angular momenta of the electrons, or\nSpin-Orbit interaction (also known as spin-orbit coupling) is a special case of angular momentum coupling. Specifically, it is the interaction between the intrinsic spin of a particle, S, and its orbital angular momentum, L. As they are both forms of angular momentum, they must be conserved. Even if energy is transferred between the two, the total angular momentum, J,","-28.63714300801803"],["the time-dependent equivalent Heisenberg equation is convenient when studying an atom driven by an external electromagnetic wave.\nIn the processes of absorption or emission of photons by an atom, the conservation laws hold for the whole isolated system, such as an atom plus a photon. Therefore the motion of the electron in the process of photon absorption or emission is always accompanied by motion of the nucleus, and, because the mass of the nucleus is always finite, the energy spectra of hydrogen-like atoms must depend on the nuclear mass. And since hydrogen atoms have a nucleus of only one proton, the","-28.62247132725315"],["is often referred to as the old quantum theory. Shell model (heavier atoms) Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time.\nHeavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr's idea was that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. After that orbit is full, the next level would have to be used. This gives the atom a shell structure, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit.\nThis","-28.588763570718584"],["(e.g. atomic hydrogen or H₂⁺), an orbital is exactly the same as a total stationary state of the molecule. However, for a many-electron molecule, an orbital is completely different from a total stationary state, which is a many-particle state requiring a more complicated description (such as a Slater determinant). In particular, in a many-electron molecule, an orbital is not the total stationary state of the molecule, but rather the stationary state of a single electron within the molecule. This concept of an orbital is only meaningful under the approximation that if we ignore the electron-electron instantaneous repulsion terms in the","-28.49344594447757"],["of quantum mechanics to atomic structure by proposing what is now known as the Bohr model of the atom, where electrons exist only in strictly defined circular orbits around the nucleus similar to rungs on a ladder. The Bohr Model is a planetary model in which the negatively charged electrons orbit a small, positively charged nucleus similar to the planets orbiting the Sun (except that the orbits are not planar) - the gravitational force of the solar system is mathematically akin to the attractive Coulomb (electrical) force between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons.\nIn 1913, Henry Moseley,","-28.311325981448135"],["probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.\nEach atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through","-28.273151398985647"],["classical equations of motion. These simulations, though, assume that the forces on the electrons are derived solely by the ground adiabatic surface. Solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation numerically incorporates all these effects, but is computationally unfeasible when the system has many degrees of freedom. \nTo tackle this issue, one approach is the mean field or Ehrenfest method, where the molecular dynamics is run on the average potential energy surface given by a linear combination of the adiabatic states. This was applied successfully for some applications, but has some important limitations. When the difference between the adiabatic states is large, then","-28.234003371948347"],["classical charged object cannot sustain orbital motion because it is accelerating and therefore loses energy due to electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, the Saturnian model turned out to have more in common with modern theory than any of its contemporaries. Bohr atom In 1909, Ernest Rutherford discovered that the bulk of the atomic mass was tightly condensed into a nucleus, which was also found to be positively charged. It became clear from his analysis in 1911 that the plum pudding model could not explain atomic structure. In 1913 as Rutherford's post-doctoral student, Niels Bohr proposed a new model of the atom, wherein","-28.04679957634653"],["stability is a decrease in the screening of electron-nuclear attractions, so that the unpaired electrons can approach the nucleus more closely and the electron-nuclear attraction is increased.\nAs a result of Hund's rule, constraints are placed on the way atomic orbitals are filled in the ground state using the Aufbau principle. Before any two electrons occupy an orbital in a subshell, other orbitals in the same subshell must first each contain one electron. Also, the electrons filling a subshell will have parallel spin before the shell starts filling up with the opposite spin electrons (after the first orbital gains a second","-27.904765418265015"],["in 1926, Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom (Wave Mechanics) that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms rather than point particles.\nA consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time; this became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927. In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa.\nThis model was","-27.887569634171086"],["was derived from spectroscopic analysis of the atom in combination with the Rutherford atomic model. The lowest quantum level was found to have an angular momentum of zero. Orbits with zero angular momentum were considered as oscillating charges in one dimension and so described as \"pendulum\" orbits. In three-dimensions the orbits become spherical without any nodes crossing the nucleus, similar (in the lowest-energy state) to a skipping rope that oscillates in one large circle.","-27.82771554464125"],["Unitary transformation (quantum mechanics) In quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation describes how a system changes with time. It does this by relating changes in the state of system to the energy in the system (given by an operator called the Hamiltonian). Therefore, once the Hamiltonian is known, the time dynamics are in principle known. All that remains is to plug the Hamiltonian into the Schrödinger equation and solve for the system state as a function of time.\nOften, however, the Schrödinger equation is difficult to solve (even with a computer). Therefore, physicists have developed mathematical techniques to simplify these problems and","-27.797157922912447"],["arranged symmetrically at the eight corners of a cube (see: cubical atom). In 1919 chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that the periodic table could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells around the nucleus. In 1922, Niels Bohr updated his model of the atom by assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example 2, 8 and 18) corresponded to stable \"closed shells\".\nPauli looked for an explanation for these numbers, which were at first only empirical. At the same time he was","-27.763457787921652"],["function at all. This is the case when electron correlation is large.\nFundamentally, an atomic orbital is a one-electron wave function, even though most electrons do not exist in one-electron atoms, and so the one-electron view is an approximation. When thinking about orbitals, we are often given an orbital visualization heavily influenced by the Hartree–Fock approximation, which is one way to reduce the complexities of molecular orbital theory. History The term \"orbital\" was coined by Robert Mulliken in 1932 as an abbreviation for one-electron orbital wave function. However, the idea that electrons might revolve around a compact nucleus with definite angular","-27.759552376592183"],["of atomic orbitals, centered at each nucleus within the molecule (linear combination of atomic orbitals ansatz). The physically best motivated basis set are Slater-type orbitals (STOs),\nwhich are solutions to the Schrödinger equation of hydrogen-like atoms, and decay exponentially far away from the nucleus. It can be shown that the molecular orbitals of Hartree-Fock and density-functional theory also exhibit exponential decay. Furthermore, S-type STOs also satisfy Kato's cusp condition at the nucleus, meaning that they are able to accurately describe electron density near the nucleus. However, hydrogen-like atoms lack many-electron interactions, thus the orbitals do not accurately describe electron state correlations.\nUnfortunately,","-27.756561939255334"],["inner electrons shielding the nucleus potential).\nTaking into account the spin of the electron adds a last quantum number, the projection of the electron's spin angular momentum along the z-axis, which can take on two values. Therefore, any eigenstate of the electron in the hydrogen atom is described fully by four quantum numbers. According to the usual rules of quantum mechanics, the actual state of the electron may be any superposition of these states. This explains also why the choice of z-axis for the directional quantization of the angular momentum vector is immaterial: an orbital of given ℓ and m′ obtained","-27.66880439122906"],["obviously be different with a different order of orbital filling. Shortcomings of the Aufbau principle The Aufbau principle rests on a fundamental postulate that the order of orbital energies is fixed, both for a given element and between different elements; in both cases this is only approximately true. It considers atomic orbitals as \"boxes\" of fixed energy into which can be placed two electrons and no more. However, the energy of an electron \"in\" an atomic orbital depends on the energies of all the other electrons of the atom (or ion, or molecule, etc.). There are no \"one-electron solutions\" for","-27.657645364874043"],[" If electrons 'move' about the electron cloud in strict paths the same way planets orbit the sun, then electrons would be required to do so at speeds which far exceed the speed of light. However, there is no reason that one must confine one's self to this strict conceptualization, that electrons move in paths the same way macroscopic objects do. Rather one can conceptualize electrons to be 'particles' that capriciously exist within the bounds of the electron cloud. Inside the atomic nucleus, the protons and neutrons are also probably moving around due to the electrical repulsion of","-27.432235851534642"],["electron; mathematically, the two theories had an underlying common form. Yet the two men disagreed on the interpretation of their mutual theory. For instance, Heisenberg accepted the theoretical prediction of jumps of electrons between orbitals in an atom, but Schrödinger hoped that a theory based on continuous wave-like properties could avoid what he called (as paraphrased by Wilhelm Wien) \"this nonsense about quantum jumps\". Uncertainty principle Suppose it is desired to measure the position and speed of an object – for example a car going through a radar speed trap. It can be assumed that the car has a definite","-27.410196814438677"],["be zero (cf. Weyl quantization.) Thus typically, quantum commutators (equivalently, Moyal brackets) reduce to Poisson brackets, in a group contraction.\nIn quantum mechanics, due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, an electron can never be at rest; it must always have a non-zero kinetic energy, a result not found in classical mechanics. For example, if we consider something very large relative to an electron, like a baseball, the uncertainty principle predicts that it cannot really have zero kinetic energy, but the uncertainty in kinetic energy is so small that the baseball can effectively appear to be at rest, and hence it appears to","-27.3655737064837"],["Orbital stability In mathematical physics and the theory of partial differential equations, the solitary wave solution of the form is said to be orbitally stable if any solution with the initial data sufficiently close to forever remains in a given small neighborhood of the trajectory of .","-27.24274553064606"],["of both a wave and a particle. For example, it can be refracted like a wave, and has mass like a particle.\nA consequence of describing electrons as waveforms is that it is mathematically impossible to simultaneously derive the position and momentum of an electron. This became known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle after the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, who first described it and published it in 1927. This invalidated Bohr's model, with its neat, clearly defined circular orbits. The modern model of the atom describes the positions of electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron can potentially","-27.205660652580264"],["Orbital motion (quantum) Quantum orbital motion involves the quantum mechanical motion of rigid particles (such as electrons) about some other mass, or about themselves. Typically, orbital motion in classical motion is characterized by orbital angular momentum (the orbital motion of the center of mass) and spin, which is the motion about the center of mass. In quantum mechanics, there are analogous forms of spin and angular momentum, however they differ fundamentally from the models of classical bodies. For example, an electron (one of the main particles of concern in quantum mechanics) exhibits very quantum mechanical behavior in its motion around","-27.115436548832804"],["led to the discovery of stable isotopes. Bohr model In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon. This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable (given that normally, charges in acceleration, including circular motion, lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation, see synchrotron radiation) and why elements absorb and","-27.099961015043846"],["equation or even the Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton. The most complicated treatments allow for the small effects of special relativity and vacuum polarization. In the quantum mechanical treatment, the electron in a ground state hydrogen atom has no angular momentum at all—illustrating how the \"planetary orbit\" differs from electron motion. Elemental molecular forms There exist two different spin isomers of hydrogen diatomic molecules that differ by the relative spin of their nuclei. In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two protons are parallel and form a triplet state","-27.075507598288823"],["instance, electrons may be considered (to a certain probability) to be located somewhere within a given region of space, but with their exact positions unknown. Contours of constant probability density, often referred to as \"clouds\", may be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where the electron might be located with the most probability. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle quantifies the inability to precisely locate the particle given its conjugate momentum.\nAccording to one interpretation, as the result of a measurement, the wave function containing the probability information for a system collapses from a given initial state to a particular eigenstate.","-27.0496082828613"],["electron and proton is pushed and pulled (by Coulomb's law) by all the other electrons and protons in the solid (which may themselves be in motion). It is these strong interactions that make it very difficult to predict and understand the behavior of solids (see many-body problem). On the other hand, the motion of a non-interacting classical particle is relatively simple; it would move in a straight line at constant velocity. This is the motivation for the concept of quasiparticles: The complicated motion of the real particles in a solid can be mathematically transformed into the much simpler motion of","-27.033846791804535"],["into one of negative mass. Apparently, an electron could not be confined within a nucleus by any potential well. The meaning of this paradox was intensely debated at the time. \nBy about 1930 it was generally recognized that it was difficult to reconcile the proton–electron model for nuclei with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics. This relation, Δx⋅Δp ≥ ½ħ, implies that an electron confined to a region the size of an atomic nucleus typically has a relativistic kinetic energy not less than 40 MeV. This energy is much larger than the binding energy of","-26.957401968567865"],["its dependence of its position reaches the minimum (the most absolute value) inside the nucleus, and vanishes when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity, roughly in an inverse proportion to the distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-independent Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy state","-26.952334855167464"],["cannot exist an atom in such a quantum state that two electrons within [it] have the same set of quantum numbers.\"\nA year later, Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit identified Pauli's new degree of freedom with the property called spin whose effects were observed in the Stern–Gerlach experiment. Dirac wave equation In 1928, Paul Dirac extended the Pauli equation, which described spinning electrons, to account for special relativity. The result was a theory that dealt properly with events, such as the speed at which an electron orbits the nucleus, occurring at a substantial fraction of the speed of light. By using the simplest","-26.95092216494959"],["orbits with fixed angular momentum and energy, its distance from the nucleus (i.e., their radii) being proportional to its energy. Under this model an electron could not spiral into the nucleus because it could not lose energy in a continuous manner; instead, it could only make instantaneous \"quantum leaps\" between the fixed energy levels. When this occurred, light was emitted or absorbed at a frequency proportional to the change in energy (hence the absorption and emission of light in discrete spectra).\nBohr's model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen; it couldn't predict those of multielectron","-26.871752406688756"],["research into quantum mechanics led to new developments in atomic theory and small changes to the periodic table. The Bohr model was developed during this time, and championed the idea of electron configurations that determine chemical properties. Bohr proposed that elements in the same group behaved similarly because they have similar electron configurations, and that noble gases had filled valence shells; this forms the basis of the modern octet rule. This research then led Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli to investigate the length of periods in the periodic table in 1924. Mendeleev asserted that there was a fixed periodicity of eight,","-26.849160123980255"],["energy surface. In practical calculations the surface is usually fitted in terms of some analytic functions. In the second step of the Born–Oppenheimer approximation the part of the full Coulomb Hamiltonian that depends on the electrons is replaced by the potential energy surface. This converts the total molecular Hamiltonian into another Hamiltonian that acts only on the nuclear coordinates. In the case of a breakdown of the Born–Oppenheimer approximation—which occurs when energies of different electronic states are close—the neighboring potential energy surfaces are needed, see this article for more details on this.\nThe nuclear motion Schrödinger equation can be","-26.822564213385704"],["nucleus, then it will be seen that the many modes of the vibrating disk form patterns that trace the various shapes of atomic orbitals. The basic reason for this correspondence lies in the fact that the distribution of kinetic energy and momentum in a matter-wave is predictive of where the particle associated with the wave will be. That is, the probability of finding an electron at a given place is also a function of the electron's average momentum at that point, since high electron momentum at a given position tends to \"localize\" the electron in that position, via the properties","-26.793178539781366"],["electrons orbited the nucleus with classical periods, but were only permitted to have discrete values of angular momentum, quantized in units h/2π. This constraint automatically permitted only certain values of electron energies. The Bohr model of the atom fixed the problem of energy loss from radiation from a ground state (by declaring that there was no state below this), and more importantly explained the origin of spectral lines.\nAfter Bohr's use of Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect to relate energy levels in atoms with the wavelength of emitted light, the connection between the structure of electrons in atoms and the","-26.737291297642514"],["other astronomers, but Kepler—with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories—treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them.\nAmong many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He then tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) \"The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances.\" Although he gives the date of this epiphany (March 8, 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion. However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely","-26.66192472318653"],["Schrödinger equation Time-dependent equation The form of the Schrödinger equation depends on the physical situation (see below for special cases). The most general form is the time-dependent Schrödinger equation (TDSE), which gives a description of a system evolving with time:\nwhere is the imaginary unit, is the reduced Planck constant, (the Greek letter psi) is the state vector of the quantum system, is time, and is the Hamiltonian operator. The position-space wave function of the quantum system is nothing but the components in the expansion of the state vector in terms of the position eigenvector .","-26.66110849614779"],["model In 1913 Niels Bohr refined the Rutherford model by stating that the electrons existed in discrete quantized states called energy levels. This meant that the electrons could only occupy orbits at certain energies. The laws of quantum physics apply here, and they don't comply with the laws of classical newtonian mechanics.\nAn electron which is completely free from the atom has an energy of 0 joules (or 0 electronvolts). An electron which is described as being at the \"ground state\" has an energy which is equal to the ionization energy of the atom. The electron will reside in this energy","-26.659826966526452"],["in closed shells can be reduced to the simple rule of one electron per state if the electron states are defined using four quantum numbers. For this purpose he introduced a new two-valued quantum number, identified by Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck as electron spin. Advanced quantum theory According to the spin–statistics theorem, particles with integer spin occupy symmetric quantum states, and particles with half-integer spin occupy antisymmetric states; furthermore, only integer or half-integer values of spin are allowed by the principles of quantum mechanics.\nIn relativistic quantum field theory, the Pauli principle follows from applying a rotation operator in imaginary","-26.648459471121896"],["which implies that the atomic nucleus is built up in \"shells\" in a manner similar to the structure of the much larger electron shells in atoms. In both cases, shells are just groups of quantum energy levels that are relatively close to each other. Energy levels from quantum states in two different shells will be separated by a relatively large energy gap. So when the number of neutrons and protons completely fills the energy levels of a given shell in the nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon will reach a local maximum and thus that particular configuration will have a","-26.645843269885518"],["Kepler orbit In celestial mechanics, a Kepler orbit (or Keplerian orbit) is the motion of one body relative to another, as an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, which forms a two-dimensional orbital plane in three-dimensional space. A Kepler orbit can also form a straight line. It considers only the point-like gravitational attraction of two bodies, neglecting perturbations due to gravitational interactions with other objects, atmospheric drag, solar radiation pressure, a non-spherical central body, and so on. It is thus said to be a solution of a special case of the two-body problem, known as the Kepler problem. As a theory in","-26.614385419117752"],["Momentum operator Origin from De Broglie plane waves The momentum and energy operators can be constructed in the following way. Hermiticity The momentum operator is always a Hermitian operator (more technically, in math terminology a \"self-adjoint operator\") when it acts on physical (in particular, normalizable) quantum states.\n(In certain artificial situations, such as the quantum states on the semi-infinite interval [0,∞), there is no way to make the momentum operator Hermitian. This is closely related to the fact that a semi-infinite interval cannot have translational symmetry—more specifically, it does not have unitary translation operators. See below.)","-26.518530774890678"],["Kepler elements An osculating orbit and the object's position upon it can be fully described by the six standard Kepler orbital elements (osculating elements), which are easy to calculate as long as one knows the object's position and velocity relative to the central body. The osculating elements would remain constant in the absence of perturbations. Real astronomical orbits experience perturbations that cause the osculating elements to evolve, sometimes very quickly. In cases where general celestial mechanical analyses of the motion have been carried out (as they have been for the major planets, the Moon, and other planetary satellites), the orbit","-26.513817420287523"],["the action of a physical system under a continuous symmetry represents a fundamental conservation law. For example, invariance under translation leads to conservation of momentum, and invariance in time leads to conservation of energy.\nQuantities can be invariant under some common transformations but not under others. For example, the velocity of a particle is invariant when switching from rectangular coordinates to curvilinear coordinates, but is not invariant when transforming between frames of reference that are moving with respect to each other. Other quantities, like the speed of light, are always invariant. Importance Invariants are important in modern theoretical physics, and many","-26.480344929062994"],["and statement of a periodic law, i.e., \"all the properties of bodies are periodic functions of their atomic weights,\" citing the inversion of tellurium and iodine, which breaks the order of monotonically increasing atomic weights. He went so far as to say \"I think that it is time to show clearly that there is nothing [here] which merits the name of law or system.\" Rethinking periodicity in terms of atomic number eliminates the problem, and the criticism was beside the point, since the notion of a periodic law had already saturated the field of chemistry.\nAlthough he had never trained as","-26.400616534599976"],["same coordinates in which the atom is in motion, because doing so would violate uncertain principle, but to describe its position relative to the nucleus. As a result, more can be said about the general case from this: in general, it is permissible, even in quantum theory, to have a system with well-defined position in one reference frame and well-defined motion in some other reference frame. Superselection rules Superselection rules, in short, are postulated rules forbidding the preparation of quantum states that exhibit coherence between eigenstates of certain observables. It was originally introduced to impose additional restriction to quantum theory","-26.393045635079034"],["equation. The resulting partial differential equation is solved for the wave function, which contains information about the system. Time-independent equation The time-dependent Schrödinger equation described above predicts that wave functions can form standing waves, called stationary states. These states are particularly important as their individual study later simplifies the task of solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation for any state. Stationary states can also be described by a simpler form of the Schrödinger equation, the time-independent Schrödinger equation (TISE).\nwhere is a constant equal to the energy level of the system. This is only used when the Hamiltonian itself is not","-26.33719444759481"],["they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory. The atomic radii decrease across the Periodic Table because as the atomic number increases, the number of protons increases across the period, but the extra electrons are only added to the same quantum shell. Therefore, the effective nuclear charge towards the outermost electrons increases, drawing the outermost electrons closer. As a result, the electron cloud contracts and the atomic radius decreases. History In 1920, shortly after it had become possible to determine the sizes of atoms using X-ray crystallography, it was suggested that all atoms of the same","-26.314284020569175"],["motion of the planets and how this motion nearly perfectly matches musical harmonies. Finally, after a discussion on astrology in book five, Kepler ends Harmonices by describing his third law, which states that for any planet the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit is proportional to the square of its orbital period.\nIn the final book of Harmonices, Kepler explains how the ratio of the maximum and minimum angular speeds of each planet (its speeds at the perihelion and aphelion) is very nearly equivalent to a consonant musical interval. Furthermore, the ratios between these extreme speeds of the","-26.286781171147595"],["on whether real or complex versions of the atomic orbitals are employed. Shapes of orbitals Simple pictures showing orbital shapes are intended to describe the angular forms of regions in space where the electrons occupying the orbital are likely to be found. The diagrams cannot show the entire region where an electron can be found, since according to quantum mechanics there is a non-zero probability of finding the electron (almost) anywhere in space. Instead the diagrams are approximate representations of boundary or contour surfaces where the probability density | ψ(r, θ, φ) |² has a constant value, chosen so that there is a certain","-26.271629919638144"],["all electrons with the same value of n lie at the same average distance. For this reason, orbitals with the same value of n are said to comprise a \"shell\". Orbitals with the same value of n and also the same value of ℓ are even more closely related, and are said to comprise a \"subshell\". Quantum numbers Because of the quantum mechanical nature of the electrons around a nucleus, atomic orbitals can be uniquely defined by a set of integers known as quantum numbers. These quantum numbers only occur in certain combinations of values, and their physical interpretation changes depending","-26.26865129447833"],["coarse-scale steady state may not imply a steady state for the fine-scale system, since individual molecules or particles do not stop moving when the gas density or pressure become stationary. Equation-free modeling circumvents such problems by using short bursts of appropriately initialized fine-scale simulation. Restriction The restriction operator often follows directly from the specific choice of the macroscale variables. For example, when the microscale model evolves an ensemble of many particles, the restriction typically computes the first few moments of the particle distribution (the density, momentum, and energy). Lifting The lifting operator is usually much more involved. For example, consider","-26.230914160842076"],["to rest. In fact, however, kinetic energy is retained by particles even at the lowest possible temperature. The random motion corresponding to this zero-point energy never vanishes as a consequence of the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics.\nThe uncertainty principle states that no object can ever have precise values of position and velocity simultaneously. The total energy of a quantum mechanical object (potential and kinetic) is described by its Hamiltonian which also describes the system as a harmonic oscillator, or wave function, that fluctuates between various energy states (see wave-particle duality). All quantum mechanical systems undergo fluctuations even in their ground","-26.21673613920575"],["The fact that the physics of a system is unchanged if it is rotated by any angle about an axis implies that angular momentum is conserved. In quantum mechanics Angular momentum in quantum mechanics differs in many profound respects from angular momentum in classical mechanics. In relativistic quantum mechanics, it differs even more, in which the above relativistic definition becomes a tensorial operator. Uncertainty In the definition , six operators are involved: The position operators , , , and the momentum operators , , . However, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not possible for all six","-26.215022049102117"],["mechanics, but not the Schrödinger equation; after Pauli's publication, it became known mainly as the Runge–Lenz vector. Constants of motion and superintegrability The seven scalar quantities E, A and L (being vectors, the latter two contribute three conserved quantities each) are related by two equations, A ⋅ L = 0 and A² = m²k² + 2 mEL², giving five independent constants of motion. (Since the magnitude of A, hence the eccentricity e of the orbit, can be determined from the total angular momentum L and the energy E, only the direction of A is conserved independently; moreover, since A","-26.166621612588642"],["somewhat analogous to electrons forming electron shells within an atom. The noble gases are unreactive due to their having full electron shells; thus it was theorized that elements with full nuclear shells – having so-called \"magic\" numbers of protons or neutrons – would be stabilized against radioactive decay. A doubly magic isotope, having magic numbers of both protons and neutrons, would be especially stabilized. Heiner Meldner calculated in 1965 that the next doubly magic isotope after lead-208 would be flerovium-298 with 114 protons and 184 neutrons, which would form the centre of a so-called \"island of stability\". This island of","-26.148648071917705"],["of quantum mechanics. The Klein paradox, discovered by Oskar Klein in 1928, presented further quantum mechanical objections to the notion of an electron confined within a nucleus. Observed properties of atoms and molecules were inconsistent with the nuclear spin expected from the proton–electron hypothesis. Both protons and electrons carry an intrinsic spin of ½ ħ. Isotopes of the same species (i.e. having the same number of protons) can have both integer or fractional spin, i.e. the neutron spin must be also fractional (½ ħ). However, there is no way to arrange the spins of an electron and a proton (supposed to","-26.14568823261652"],["reflects that the other electrons remain in three lone pairs and that the bond order is 1.\nThe more electronegative atom is the more energetically excited because it more similar in energy to its atomic orbital. This also accounts for the majority of the electron negativity residing around the more electronegative molecule. Applying the LCAO-MO method allows us to move away from a more static Lewis structure type approach and actually account for periodic trends that influence electron movement. Non-bonding orbitals refer to lone pairs seen on certain atoms in a molecule. A further understanding for the energy level refinement can","-26.092603832400073"],["momentum operators to the states, rather than rotating the states. But this is fundamentally the same thing, because of the close mathematical relation between rotations and angular momentum operators.) In terms of representation theory To state these observations more precisely and to prove them, it helps to invoke the mathematics of representation theory. For example, the set of all possible 4d orbitals (i.e., the 5 states m = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 and their quantum superpositions) form a 5-dimensional abstract vector space. Rotating the system transforms these states into each other, so this is an example of a \"group representation\", in this case, the 5-dimensional","-26.077358732261928"],["Hamiltonian as a simplifying assumption, we can decompose the total eigenvector of a many-electron molecule into separate contributions from individual electron stationary states (orbitals), each of which are obtained under the one-electron approximation. (Luckily, chemists and physicists can often (but not always) use this \"single-electron approximation.\") In this sense, in a many-electron system, an orbital can be considered as the stationary state of an individual electron in the system.\nIn chemistry, calculation of molecular orbitals typically also assume the Born–Oppenheimer approximation.","-26.023985483625438"],["the mathematical theories of the planetary orbits that form the basis of ephemerides, quadratic and higher order secular terms do occur, but these are mostly Taylor expansions of very long time periodic terms. The reason that tidal effects are different is that unlike distant gravitational perturbations, friction is an essential part of tidal acceleration, and leads to permanent loss of energy from the dynamic system in the form of heat. In other words, we do not have a Hamiltonian system here. Angular momentum and energy The gravitational torque between the Moon and the tidal bulge of Earth causes the Moon","-26.017071857771953"],["has one electron. The magnitude of the angular momentum for a circular orbit is:\nThe total energy of the atom is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies, that is:\nVelocity can be eliminated from the kinetic energy term by setting the Coulomb attraction equal to the centripetal force, giving:\nSolving the angular momentum for v and substituting this into the expression for kinetic energy, we have:\nThis establishes the dependence of the radius on n. That is:\nNow the energy can be found in terms of Z, e, and r. Using the new value for the kinetic energy in the total","-25.963434517580026"],["angular momentum. For these modes, waves in the drum head tend to avoid the central point. Such features again emphasize that the shapes of atomic orbitals are a direct consequence of the wave nature of electrons. Relativistic effects For elements with high atomic number Z, the effects of relativity become more pronounced, and especially so for s electrons, which move at relativistic velocities as they penetrate the screening electrons near the core of high-Z atoms. This relativistic increase in momentum for high speed electrons causes a corresponding decrease in wavelength and contraction of 6s orbitals relative to 5d orbitals (by comparison","-25.935661220515613"],["is not simply the kinetic minus the potential energy of a particle. Also, it is not straightforward to handle multiparticle systems in a manifestly covariant way, it may be possible if a particular frame of reference is singled out. Quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, action and quantum-mechanical phase are related via Planck's constant, and the principle of stationary action can be understood in terms of constructive interference of wave functions.\nIn 1948, Feynman discovered the path integral formulation extending the principle of least action to quantum mechanics for electrons and photons. In this formulation, particles travel every possible path between the","-25.921682111773407"],["in modern physics. Indeed, this principle is one of the great generalizations in physical science. It is best understood within quantum mechanics, particularly in Richard Feynman's path integral formulation, where it arises out of destructive interference of quantum amplitudes.\nMaxwell's equations can also be derived as conditions of stationary action. Modern extensions The action principle can be generalized still further. For example, the action need not be an integral, because nonlocal actions are possible. The configuration space need not even be a functional space, given certain features such as noncommutative geometry. However, a physical basis for these mathematical","-25.912991962060914"],["dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such \"static\" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics, it is described by a static, spherically symmetric wave function surrounding the nucleus (Fig. 1) (however, only the lowest angular momentum states, labeled s, are spherically symmetric.)\nThe Schrödinger equation acts on the entire probability amplitude, not merely its absolute value. Whereas the absolute value of the probability amplitude encodes information about probabilities, its phase encodes information about the interference between quantum","-25.854227021176484"],["space with no periodic motion. Greek astronomy Since 600 BCE, Greek thinkers noticed the periodic fashion of the Solar System. Many theories were announced during this period. Parmenides claimed that the Solar System is spherical and moonlight is actually a reflection of sunlight. \n \nAnaxagoras suggested that the Moon is closer to the Earth than the Sun, comets are formed by collisions of planets and that the motion of planets is controlled by the nous (mind). Pythagoras's students thought the motion of planets is caused by a fire at the centre of the universe that powers them and Earth orbits","-25.848817808343483"],["section, the quantum dynamics of particles were inferred, leading to Schrödinger's equation, a departure from Newtonian mechanics. The solution of this equation for atoms led to the explanation of the Balmer series for atomic spectra and consequently formed a basis for all of atomic physics and chemistry.\nThis is not the only occasion in which Maxwell's equations have forced a restructuring of Newtonian mechanics. Maxwell's equations are relativistically consistent. Special relativity resulted from attempts to make classical mechanics consistent with Maxwell's equations (see, for example, Moving magnet and conductor problem).","-25.844319597817957"],["conservation were not relevant to Maupertuis, who was concerned only with light.) Euler used this principle to derive the equations of motion of a particle in uniform motion, in a uniform and non-uniform force field, and in a central force field. Euler's approach is entirely consistent with the modern understanding of Maupertuis's principle described above, except that he insisted that the action should always be a minimum, rather than a stationary point.\nTwo years later, Maupertuis cites Euler's 1744 work as a \"beautiful application of my principle to the motion of the planets\" and goes on to apply the","-25.83844915116788"],["momentum, and thus a Bohr orbiting electron was seen to orbit in a circle at a multiple of its half-wavelength (this physically incorrect Bohr model is still often taught to beginning students). The Bohr model for a short time could be seen as a classical model with an additional constraint provided by the 'wavelength' argument. However, this period was immediately superseded by the full three-dimensional wave mechanics of 1926. In our current understanding of physics, the Bohr model is called a semi-classical model because of its quantization of angular momentum, not primarily because of its relationship with electron wavelength, which","-25.80163289938355"],["Lindblad equation. Motivation In the canonical formulation of quantum mechanics, a system's time evolution is governed by unitary dynamics. This implies that there is no decay and phase coherence is maintained throughout the process, and is a consequence of the fact that all participating degrees of freedom are considered. However, any real physical system is not absolutely isolated, and will interact with its environment. This interaction with degrees of freedom external to the system results in dissipation of energy into the surroundings, causing decay and randomization of phase. These effects are the reasons quantum mechanics is difficult to observe on","-25.801299060578458"],["limit thereof. This picture also simplifies considerations\nof quantization, the deformation extension from classical to quantum mechanics.\nThe quantum harmonic oscillator is an exactly solvable system where the different representations are easily compared. There, apart from the Heisenberg, or Schrödinger (position or momentum), or phase-space representations, one also encounters the Fock (number) representation and the Segal–Bargmann (Fock-space or coherent state) representation (named after Irving Segal and Valentine Bargmann). All four are unitarily equivalent. Time as an operator The framework presented so far singles out time as the parameter that everything depends on. It is possible to formulate mechanics in such a way","-25.779211018303613"],["and in certain conditions, electrons are able to move from one configuration to another by the emission or absorption of a quantum of energy, in the form of a photon.\nKnowledge of the electron configuration of different atoms is useful in understanding the structure of the periodic table of elements. This is also useful for describing the chemical bonds that hold atoms together. In bulk materials, this same idea helps explain the peculiar properties of lasers and semiconductors. Notation Physicists and chemists use a standard notation to indicate the electron configurations of atoms and molecules. For atoms, the notation consists of","-25.702995609259233"],["Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas).\nIn the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing","-25.70094810804585"],["that most physical laws on a large scale are due to chaos on a small scale. He calls this principle \"order-from-disorder.\" As an example he mentions diffusion, which can be modeled as a highly ordered process, but which is caused by random movement of atoms or molecules. If the number of atoms is reduced, the behaviour of a system becomes more and more random. He states that life greatly depends on order and that a naïve physicist may assume that the master code of a living organism has to consist of a large number of atoms.\nIn chapter II and III,","-25.692732056195382"],["classical mechanics, it also does not take into account the effects of general relativity. Keplerian orbits can be parametrized into six orbital elements in various ways.\nIn most applications, there is a large central body, the center of mass of which is assumed to be the center of mass of the entire system. By decomposition, the orbits of two objects of similar mass can be described as Kepler orbits around their common center of mass, their barycenter. Introduction From ancient times until the 16th and 17th centuries, the motions of the planets were believed to follow perfectly circular geocentric paths as","-25.682035846912186"],["steadily lose energy and spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a small fraction of a second. The second problem was that the planetary model could not explain the highly peaked emission and absorption spectra of atoms that were observed.\n \nQuantum theory revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20th century, when Max Planck and Albert Einstein postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amounts known as quanta (singular, quantum). In 1913, Niels Bohr incorporated this idea into his Bohr model of the atom, in which an electron could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular","-25.674877572921105"],["impose the condition that electrons in the same shell have the same radial part, and to restrict the variational solution to be a spin eigenfunction. Even so, calculating a solution by hand using the Hartree–Fock equations for a medium-sized atom was laborious; small molecules required computational resources far beyond what was available before 1950. Hartree–Fock algorithm The Hartree–Fock method is typically used to solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation for a multi-electron atom or molecule as described in the Born–Oppenheimer approximation. Since there are no known analytic solutions for many-electron systems (there are solutions for one-electron systems such as hydrogenic atoms","-25.6693647413922"],["same amount, then this is always a symmetry: describes the complete laws of physics in our universe, which are independent of location. As a consequence, conservation of momentum is universally valid.\nOn the other hand, perhaps and refer to just one particle. Then the translation operators are exact symmetries only if the particle is alone in a vacuum. Correspondingly, the momentum of a single particle is not usually conserved (it changes when the particle bumps into other objects), but it is conserved if the particle is alone in a vacuum.\n\nSince the Hamiltonian commutes with the translation operator","-25.66846172331134"],["Island of stability Nuclide stability The composition of an atomic nucleus is determined by the number of protons Z and the number of neutrons N, which sum to mass number A. The atomic number Z determines the position of an element in the periodic table, while the approximately 3300 known nuclides are commonly represented in a chart with Z and N for its axes and the half-life for radioactive decay indicated for each unstable nuclide (see figure). As of 2019, 252 nuclides are observed to be stable (having never been observed to decay); generally, as the number of protons increases,","-25.663575163009227"],["systems of more than one electron, only a set of many-electron solutions that cannot be calculated exactly (although there are mathematical approximations available, such as the Hartree–Fock method).\nThe fact that the Aufbau principle is based on an approximation can be seen from the fact that there is an almost-fixed filling order at all, that, within a given shell, the s-orbital is always filled before the p-orbitals. In a hydrogen-like atom, which only has one electron, the s-orbital and the p-orbitals of the same shell have exactly the same energy, to a very good approximation in the absence of external electromagnetic","-25.64090925601704"],["particle's position is known, the less precisely its momentum is known, and vice versa.\nThe Schrödinger equation describes the (deterministic) evolution of the wave function of a particle. However, even if the wave function is known exactly, the result of a specific measurement on the wave function is uncertain. Nonrelativistic quantum mechanics The quantum mechanics of particles without accounting for the effects of special relativity, for example particles propagating at speeds much less than light, is known as nonrelativistic quantum mechanics. Following are several forms of Schrödinger's equation in this context for different situations: time independence and dependence, one and three","-25.634678074071417"],["physical situation there corresponds a conservation law (and conversely). This deep connection requires that the action principle be assumed. Quantum mechanics and quantum field theory In quantum mechanics, the system does not follow a single path whose action is stationary, but the behavior of the system depends on all permitted paths and the value of their action. The action corresponding to the various paths is used to calculate the path integral, that gives the probability amplitudes of the various outcomes.\nAlthough equivalent in classical mechanics with Newton's laws, the action principle is better suited for generalizations and plays an important role","-25.62738892865491"],["proton. The nucleus parity will be a product of theirs, while the nucleus spin will be one of the possible results of the sum of their angular momenta (with other possible results being excited states of the nucleus).\nThe ordering of angular momentum levels within each shell is according to the principles described above - due to spin-orbit interaction, with high angular momentum states having their energies shifted downwards due to the deformation of the potential (i.e. moving from a harmonic oscillator potential to a more realistic one). For nucleon pairs, however, it is often energetically favorable to be at","-25.607861972194087"],["electrons orbiting a nucleus, wrote \"... individual electrons describe corresponding parts of their orbits in times shorter for the [rest] system in the ratio :\". Emil Cohn (1904) specifically related this formula to the rate of clocks. In the context of special relativity it was shown by Albert Einstein (1905) that this effect concerns the nature of time itself, and he was also the first to point out its reciprocity or symmetry. Subsequently, Hermann Minkowski (1907) introduced the concept of proper time which further clarified the meaning of time dilation. Velocity time dilation Special relativity indicates that, for an observer in","-25.60338603379205"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"the nucleus of an atom which cannot be explained by classical mechanics. Orbital Angular Momentum When quantum mechanics refers to the orbital angular momentum of an electron, it is generally referring to the spatial wave equation that represents the electron's motion around the nucleus of an atom. Electrons do not \\\"orbit\\\" the nucleus in the classical sense of angular momentum, however the mathematical representation of L = r × p still leads to the quantum mechanical version of angular momentum. Just as in classical mechanics, the law of conservation of angular momentum still holds. Spin An electron has no charge\",\n \"-31.415467059923685\"\n ],\n [\n \"its nucleus, following an early conjecture of Niels Bohr (this is the source of the term \\\"orbital\\\"). However, electrons don't actually orbit nuclei in any meaningful sense, and quantum mechanics are necessary for any useful understanding of the electron's real behavior. Solving the classical two-body problem for an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is misleading and does not produce many useful insights.\",\n \"-31.355218121781945\"\n ],\n [\n \"field theory. The higher-energy electron states (2s, 2p, 3s, etc.) are stationary states according to the approximate Hamiltonian, but not stationary according to the true Hamiltonian, because of vacuum fluctuations. On the other hand, the 1s state is truly a stationary state, according to both the approximate and the true Hamiltonian. Comparison to \\\"orbital\\\" in chemistry An orbital is a stationary state (or approximation thereof) of a one-electron atom or molecule; more specifically, an atomic orbital for an electron in an atom, or a molecular orbital for an electron in a molecule.\\nFor a molecule that contains only a single electron\",\n \"-30.926160332164727\"\n ],\n [\n \"since it is moving (on average) most rapidly at that point, giving it maximal momentum.\\nA mental \\\"planetary orbit\\\" picture closest to the behavior of electrons in s orbitals, all of which have no angular momentum, might perhaps be that of a Keplerian orbit with the orbital eccentricity of 1 but a finite major axis, not physically possible (because particles were to collide), but can be imagined as a limit of orbits with equal major axes but increasing eccentricity.\\nBelow, a number of drum membrane vibration modes and the respective wave functions of the hydrogen atom are shown. A correspondence can be considered\",\n \"-29.812196472572396\"\n ],\n [\n \"using the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as \\\"orbiting\\\" the proton in analogy to the Earth's orbit of the Sun. However, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. Because of the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances from the proton, and therefore only certain allowed energies.\\nA more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum mechanical treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation, Dirac\",\n \"-29.786440279800445\"\n ],\n [\n \"between our solar system and an atom in which electrons orbit the nucleus. But now the analogy is deeper and mathematically and physically supported: it comes from the suggestion that chaotic planetary orbits on very long time scales have preferred sizes, the roots of which go to fractal space-time and generalized Newtonian equation of motion which assumes the form of the quantum Schrödinger equation.\\nHowever, as Nottale acknowledges, this general approach is not totally new:\\nThe suggestion to use the formalism of quantum mechanics for the treatment of macroscopic problems, in particular for understanding structures in the solar system, dates back to\",\n \"-29.634892868984025\"\n ],\n [\n \"numbers, and their energies (see below), explain the electron configuration of the atoms and the periodic table.\\nThe stationary states (quantum states) of the hydrogen-like atoms are its atomic orbitals. However, in general, an electron's behavior is not fully described by a single orbital. Electron states are best represented by time-depending \\\"mixtures\\\" (linear combinations) of multiple orbitals. See Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method.\\nThe quantum number n first appeared in the Bohr model where it determines the radius of each circular electron orbit. In modern quantum mechanics however, n determines the mean distance of the electron from the nucleus;\",\n \"-29.60976956144441\"\n ],\n [\n \"momentum was convincingly argued at least 19 years earlier by Niels Bohr, and the Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka published an orbit-based hypothesis for electronic behavior as early as 1904. Explaining the behavior of these electron \\\"orbits\\\" was one of the driving forces behind the development of quantum mechanics. Early models With J. J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, it became clear that atoms were not the smallest building blocks of nature, but were rather composite particles. The newly discovered structure within atoms tempted many to imagine how the atom's constituent parts might interact with each other. Thomson theorized\",\n \"-29.590281699114712\"\n ],\n [\n \"between orbitals with the same principal quantum number n, this is not true for the outer electrons of other atoms.\\nIn the old quantum theory prior to quantum mechanics, electrons were supposed to occupy classical elliptical orbits. The orbits with the highest angular momentum are 'circular orbits' outside the inner electrons, but orbits with low angular momentum (s- and p-orbitals) have high orbital eccentricity, so that they get closer to the nucleus and feel on average a less strongly screened nuclear charge. The n + ℓ energy ordering rule A periodic table in which each row corresponds to one value of\",\n \"-29.287975833984092\"\n ],\n [\n \"most often shown independent of each other, the orbitals coexist around the nucleus at the same time. Also, in 1927, Albrecht Unsöld proved that if one sums the electron density of all orbitals of a particular azimuthal quantum number ℓ of the same shell n (e.g. all three 2p orbitals, or all five 3d orbitals) where each orbital is occupied by an electron or each is occupied by an electron pair, then all angular dependence disappears; that is, the resulting total density of all the atomic orbitals in that subshell (those with the same ℓ) is spherical. This\",\n \"-29.084387995884754\"\n ],\n [\n \"model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon of screening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit.\\nFor example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit at Z = 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge of Z = 3 minus\",\n \"-29.011981301300693\"\n ],\n [\n \"Stationary state Spontaneous decay Spontaneous decay complicates the question of stationary states. For example, according to simple (nonrelativistic) quantum mechanics, the hydrogen atom has many stationary states: 1s, 2s, 2p, and so on, are all stationary states. But in reality, only the ground state 1s is truly \\\"stationary\\\": An electron in a higher energy level will spontaneously emit one or more photons to decay into the ground state. This seems to contradict the idea that stationary states should have unchanging properties.\\nThe explanation is that the Hamiltonian used in nonrelativistic quantum mechanics is only an approximation to the Hamiltonian from quantum\",\n \"-28.86605783016421\"\n ],\n [\n \"force in the relativistic setting. Atomic physics A classical electron orbiting a nucleus experiences acceleration and should radiate. Consequently, the electron loses energy and the electron should eventually spiral into the nucleus. Atoms, according to classical mechanics, are consequently unstable. This classical prediction is violated by the observation of stable electron orbits. The problem is resolved with a quantum mechanical description of atomic physics, initially provided by the Bohr model. Classical solutions to the stability of electron orbitals can be demonstrated using Non-radiation conditions and in accordance with known physical laws.\",\n \"-28.723867217995576\"\n ],\n [\n \"This occurs in particular if the average nucleus has some symmetry.\\nThe concept of shells allows one to understand why some nuclei are bound more tightly than others. This is because two nucleons of the same kind cannot be in the same state (Pauli exclusion principle). So the lowest-energy state of the nucleus is one where nucleons fill all energy levels from the bottom up to some level. A nucleus with full shells is exceptionally stable, as will be explained.\\nAs with electrons in the electron shell model, protons in the outermost shell are relatively loosely bound to the nucleus if there\",\n \"-28.700057163790916\"\n ],\n [\n \"necessary to keep the planet in orbit.\\nThis model, although appealing, doesn't hold true in the real world. Synchrotron radiation would cause the orbiting electron to lose orbital energy and spiral inward since the vector quantity of acceleration of the particle multiplied by its mass (the value of the force required to keep the electron in circular motion) would be less than the electrical force the proton applied to the electron.\\nOnce the electron spiralled into the nucleus the electron would combine with a proton to form a neutron, and the atom would cease to exist. This model is clearly wrong. Bohr\",\n \"-28.69915609220334\"\n ],\n [\n \"orbiting around the same nucleus may have coupled angular momenta. Due to the conservation of angular momentum and the nature of the angular momentum operator, the total angular momentum is always the sum of the individual angular momenta of the electrons, or\\nSpin-Orbit interaction (also known as spin-orbit coupling) is a special case of angular momentum coupling. Specifically, it is the interaction between the intrinsic spin of a particle, S, and its orbital angular momentum, L. As they are both forms of angular momentum, they must be conserved. Even if energy is transferred between the two, the total angular momentum, J,\",\n \"-28.63714300801803\"\n ],\n [\n \"the time-dependent equivalent Heisenberg equation is convenient when studying an atom driven by an external electromagnetic wave.\\nIn the processes of absorption or emission of photons by an atom, the conservation laws hold for the whole isolated system, such as an atom plus a photon. Therefore the motion of the electron in the process of photon absorption or emission is always accompanied by motion of the nucleus, and, because the mass of the nucleus is always finite, the energy spectra of hydrogen-like atoms must depend on the nuclear mass. And since hydrogen atoms have a nucleus of only one proton, the\",\n \"-28.62247132725315\"\n ],\n [\n \"is often referred to as the old quantum theory. Shell model (heavier atoms) Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time.\\nHeavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr's idea was that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. After that orbit is full, the next level would have to be used. This gives the atom a shell structure, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit.\\nThis\",\n \"-28.588763570718584\"\n ],\n [\n \"(e.g. atomic hydrogen or H₂⁺), an orbital is exactly the same as a total stationary state of the molecule. However, for a many-electron molecule, an orbital is completely different from a total stationary state, which is a many-particle state requiring a more complicated description (such as a Slater determinant). In particular, in a many-electron molecule, an orbital is not the total stationary state of the molecule, but rather the stationary state of a single electron within the molecule. This concept of an orbital is only meaningful under the approximation that if we ignore the electron-electron instantaneous repulsion terms in the\",\n \"-28.49344594447757\"\n ],\n [\n \"of quantum mechanics to atomic structure by proposing what is now known as the Bohr model of the atom, where electrons exist only in strictly defined circular orbits around the nucleus similar to rungs on a ladder. The Bohr Model is a planetary model in which the negatively charged electrons orbit a small, positively charged nucleus similar to the planets orbiting the Sun (except that the orbits are not planar) - the gravitational force of the solar system is mathematically akin to the attractive Coulomb (electrical) force between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons.\\nIn 1913, Henry Moseley,\",\n \"-28.311325981448135\"\n ],\n [\n \"probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.\\nEach atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through\",\n \"-28.273151398985647\"\n ],\n [\n \"classical equations of motion. These simulations, though, assume that the forces on the electrons are derived solely by the ground adiabatic surface. Solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation numerically incorporates all these effects, but is computationally unfeasible when the system has many degrees of freedom. \\nTo tackle this issue, one approach is the mean field or Ehrenfest method, where the molecular dynamics is run on the average potential energy surface given by a linear combination of the adiabatic states. This was applied successfully for some applications, but has some important limitations. When the difference between the adiabatic states is large, then\",\n \"-28.234003371948347\"\n ],\n [\n \"classical charged object cannot sustain orbital motion because it is accelerating and therefore loses energy due to electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, the Saturnian model turned out to have more in common with modern theory than any of its contemporaries. Bohr atom In 1909, Ernest Rutherford discovered that the bulk of the atomic mass was tightly condensed into a nucleus, which was also found to be positively charged. It became clear from his analysis in 1911 that the plum pudding model could not explain atomic structure. In 1913 as Rutherford's post-doctoral student, Niels Bohr proposed a new model of the atom, wherein\",\n \"-28.04679957634653\"\n ],\n [\n \"stability is a decrease in the screening of electron-nuclear attractions, so that the unpaired electrons can approach the nucleus more closely and the electron-nuclear attraction is increased.\\nAs a result of Hund's rule, constraints are placed on the way atomic orbitals are filled in the ground state using the Aufbau principle. Before any two electrons occupy an orbital in a subshell, other orbitals in the same subshell must first each contain one electron. Also, the electrons filling a subshell will have parallel spin before the shell starts filling up with the opposite spin electrons (after the first orbital gains a second\",\n \"-27.904765418265015\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 1926, Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom (Wave Mechanics) that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms rather than point particles.\\nA consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time; this became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927. In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa.\\nThis model was\",\n \"-27.887569634171086\"\n ],\n [\n \"was derived from spectroscopic analysis of the atom in combination with the Rutherford atomic model. The lowest quantum level was found to have an angular momentum of zero. Orbits with zero angular momentum were considered as oscillating charges in one dimension and so described as \\\"pendulum\\\" orbits. In three-dimensions the orbits become spherical without any nodes crossing the nucleus, similar (in the lowest-energy state) to a skipping rope that oscillates in one large circle.\",\n \"-27.82771554464125\"\n ],\n [\n \"Unitary transformation (quantum mechanics) In quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation describes how a system changes with time. It does this by relating changes in the state of system to the energy in the system (given by an operator called the Hamiltonian). Therefore, once the Hamiltonian is known, the time dynamics are in principle known. All that remains is to plug the Hamiltonian into the Schrödinger equation and solve for the system state as a function of time.\\nOften, however, the Schrödinger equation is difficult to solve (even with a computer). Therefore, physicists have developed mathematical techniques to simplify these problems and\",\n \"-27.797157922912447\"\n ],\n [\n \"arranged symmetrically at the eight corners of a cube (see: cubical atom). In 1919 chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that the periodic table could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells around the nucleus. In 1922, Niels Bohr updated his model of the atom by assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example 2, 8 and 18) corresponded to stable \\\"closed shells\\\".\\nPauli looked for an explanation for these numbers, which were at first only empirical. At the same time he was\",\n \"-27.763457787921652\"\n ],\n [\n \"function at all. This is the case when electron correlation is large.\\nFundamentally, an atomic orbital is a one-electron wave function, even though most electrons do not exist in one-electron atoms, and so the one-electron view is an approximation. When thinking about orbitals, we are often given an orbital visualization heavily influenced by the Hartree–Fock approximation, which is one way to reduce the complexities of molecular orbital theory. History The term \\\"orbital\\\" was coined by Robert Mulliken in 1932 as an abbreviation for one-electron orbital wave function. However, the idea that electrons might revolve around a compact nucleus with definite angular\",\n \"-27.759552376592183\"\n ],\n [\n \"of atomic orbitals, centered at each nucleus within the molecule (linear combination of atomic orbitals ansatz). The physically best motivated basis set are Slater-type orbitals (STOs),\\nwhich are solutions to the Schrödinger equation of hydrogen-like atoms, and decay exponentially far away from the nucleus. It can be shown that the molecular orbitals of Hartree-Fock and density-functional theory also exhibit exponential decay. Furthermore, S-type STOs also satisfy Kato's cusp condition at the nucleus, meaning that they are able to accurately describe electron density near the nucleus. However, hydrogen-like atoms lack many-electron interactions, thus the orbitals do not accurately describe electron state correlations.\\nUnfortunately,\",\n \"-27.756561939255334\"\n ],\n [\n \"inner electrons shielding the nucleus potential).\\nTaking into account the spin of the electron adds a last quantum number, the projection of the electron's spin angular momentum along the z-axis, which can take on two values. Therefore, any eigenstate of the electron in the hydrogen atom is described fully by four quantum numbers. According to the usual rules of quantum mechanics, the actual state of the electron may be any superposition of these states. This explains also why the choice of z-axis for the directional quantization of the angular momentum vector is immaterial: an orbital of given ℓ and m′ obtained\",\n \"-27.66880439122906\"\n ],\n [\n \"obviously be different with a different order of orbital filling. Shortcomings of the Aufbau principle The Aufbau principle rests on a fundamental postulate that the order of orbital energies is fixed, both for a given element and between different elements; in both cases this is only approximately true. It considers atomic orbitals as \\\"boxes\\\" of fixed energy into which can be placed two electrons and no more. However, the energy of an electron \\\"in\\\" an atomic orbital depends on the energies of all the other electrons of the atom (or ion, or molecule, etc.). There are no \\\"one-electron solutions\\\" for\",\n \"-27.657645364874043\"\n ],\n [\n \" If electrons 'move' about the electron cloud in strict paths the same way planets orbit the sun, then electrons would be required to do so at speeds which far exceed the speed of light. However, there is no reason that one must confine one's self to this strict conceptualization, that electrons move in paths the same way macroscopic objects do. Rather one can conceptualize electrons to be 'particles' that capriciously exist within the bounds of the electron cloud. Inside the atomic nucleus, the protons and neutrons are also probably moving around due to the electrical repulsion of\",\n \"-27.432235851534642\"\n ],\n [\n \"electron; mathematically, the two theories had an underlying common form. Yet the two men disagreed on the interpretation of their mutual theory. For instance, Heisenberg accepted the theoretical prediction of jumps of electrons between orbitals in an atom, but Schrödinger hoped that a theory based on continuous wave-like properties could avoid what he called (as paraphrased by Wilhelm Wien) \\\"this nonsense about quantum jumps\\\". Uncertainty principle Suppose it is desired to measure the position and speed of an object – for example a car going through a radar speed trap. It can be assumed that the car has a definite\",\n \"-27.410196814438677\"\n ],\n [\n \"be zero (cf. Weyl quantization.) Thus typically, quantum commutators (equivalently, Moyal brackets) reduce to Poisson brackets, in a group contraction.\\nIn quantum mechanics, due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, an electron can never be at rest; it must always have a non-zero kinetic energy, a result not found in classical mechanics. For example, if we consider something very large relative to an electron, like a baseball, the uncertainty principle predicts that it cannot really have zero kinetic energy, but the uncertainty in kinetic energy is so small that the baseball can effectively appear to be at rest, and hence it appears to\",\n \"-27.3655737064837\"\n ],\n [\n \"Orbital stability In mathematical physics and the theory of partial differential equations, the solitary wave solution of the form is said to be orbitally stable if any solution with the initial data sufficiently close to forever remains in a given small neighborhood of the trajectory of .\",\n \"-27.24274553064606\"\n ],\n [\n \"of both a wave and a particle. For example, it can be refracted like a wave, and has mass like a particle.\\nA consequence of describing electrons as waveforms is that it is mathematically impossible to simultaneously derive the position and momentum of an electron. This became known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle after the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, who first described it and published it in 1927. This invalidated Bohr's model, with its neat, clearly defined circular orbits. The modern model of the atom describes the positions of electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron can potentially\",\n \"-27.205660652580264\"\n ],\n [\n \"Orbital motion (quantum) Quantum orbital motion involves the quantum mechanical motion of rigid particles (such as electrons) about some other mass, or about themselves. Typically, orbital motion in classical motion is characterized by orbital angular momentum (the orbital motion of the center of mass) and spin, which is the motion about the center of mass. In quantum mechanics, there are analogous forms of spin and angular momentum, however they differ fundamentally from the models of classical bodies. For example, an electron (one of the main particles of concern in quantum mechanics) exhibits very quantum mechanical behavior in its motion around\",\n \"-27.115436548832804\"\n ],\n [\n \"led to the discovery of stable isotopes. Bohr model In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon. This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable (given that normally, charges in acceleration, including circular motion, lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation, see synchrotron radiation) and why elements absorb and\",\n \"-27.099961015043846\"\n ],\n [\n \"equation or even the Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton. The most complicated treatments allow for the small effects of special relativity and vacuum polarization. In the quantum mechanical treatment, the electron in a ground state hydrogen atom has no angular momentum at all—illustrating how the \\\"planetary orbit\\\" differs from electron motion. Elemental molecular forms There exist two different spin isomers of hydrogen diatomic molecules that differ by the relative spin of their nuclei. In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two protons are parallel and form a triplet state\",\n \"-27.075507598288823\"\n ],\n [\n \"instance, electrons may be considered (to a certain probability) to be located somewhere within a given region of space, but with their exact positions unknown. Contours of constant probability density, often referred to as \\\"clouds\\\", may be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where the electron might be located with the most probability. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle quantifies the inability to precisely locate the particle given its conjugate momentum.\\nAccording to one interpretation, as the result of a measurement, the wave function containing the probability information for a system collapses from a given initial state to a particular eigenstate.\",\n \"-27.0496082828613\"\n ],\n [\n \"electron and proton is pushed and pulled (by Coulomb's law) by all the other electrons and protons in the solid (which may themselves be in motion). It is these strong interactions that make it very difficult to predict and understand the behavior of solids (see many-body problem). On the other hand, the motion of a non-interacting classical particle is relatively simple; it would move in a straight line at constant velocity. This is the motivation for the concept of quasiparticles: The complicated motion of the real particles in a solid can be mathematically transformed into the much simpler motion of\",\n \"-27.033846791804535\"\n ],\n [\n \"into one of negative mass. Apparently, an electron could not be confined within a nucleus by any potential well. The meaning of this paradox was intensely debated at the time. \\nBy about 1930 it was generally recognized that it was difficult to reconcile the proton–electron model for nuclei with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics. This relation, Δx⋅Δp ≥ ½ħ, implies that an electron confined to a region the size of an atomic nucleus typically has a relativistic kinetic energy not less than 40 MeV. This energy is much larger than the binding energy of\",\n \"-26.957401968567865\"\n ],\n [\n \"its dependence of its position reaches the minimum (the most absolute value) inside the nucleus, and vanishes when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity, roughly in an inverse proportion to the distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-independent Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy state\",\n \"-26.952334855167464\"\n ],\n [\n \"cannot exist an atom in such a quantum state that two electrons within [it] have the same set of quantum numbers.\\\"\\nA year later, Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit identified Pauli's new degree of freedom with the property called spin whose effects were observed in the Stern–Gerlach experiment. Dirac wave equation In 1928, Paul Dirac extended the Pauli equation, which described spinning electrons, to account for special relativity. The result was a theory that dealt properly with events, such as the speed at which an electron orbits the nucleus, occurring at a substantial fraction of the speed of light. By using the simplest\",\n \"-26.95092216494959\"\n ],\n [\n \"orbits with fixed angular momentum and energy, its distance from the nucleus (i.e., their radii) being proportional to its energy. Under this model an electron could not spiral into the nucleus because it could not lose energy in a continuous manner; instead, it could only make instantaneous \\\"quantum leaps\\\" between the fixed energy levels. When this occurred, light was emitted or absorbed at a frequency proportional to the change in energy (hence the absorption and emission of light in discrete spectra).\\nBohr's model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen; it couldn't predict those of multielectron\",\n \"-26.871752406688756\"\n ],\n [\n \"research into quantum mechanics led to new developments in atomic theory and small changes to the periodic table. The Bohr model was developed during this time, and championed the idea of electron configurations that determine chemical properties. Bohr proposed that elements in the same group behaved similarly because they have similar electron configurations, and that noble gases had filled valence shells; this forms the basis of the modern octet rule. This research then led Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli to investigate the length of periods in the periodic table in 1924. Mendeleev asserted that there was a fixed periodicity of eight,\",\n \"-26.849160123980255\"\n ],\n [\n \"energy surface. In practical calculations the surface is usually fitted in terms of some analytic functions. In the second step of the Born–Oppenheimer approximation the part of the full Coulomb Hamiltonian that depends on the electrons is replaced by the potential energy surface. This converts the total molecular Hamiltonian into another Hamiltonian that acts only on the nuclear coordinates. In the case of a breakdown of the Born–Oppenheimer approximation—which occurs when energies of different electronic states are close—the neighboring potential energy surfaces are needed, see this article for more details on this.\\nThe nuclear motion Schrödinger equation can be\",\n \"-26.822564213385704\"\n ],\n [\n \"nucleus, then it will be seen that the many modes of the vibrating disk form patterns that trace the various shapes of atomic orbitals. The basic reason for this correspondence lies in the fact that the distribution of kinetic energy and momentum in a matter-wave is predictive of where the particle associated with the wave will be. That is, the probability of finding an electron at a given place is also a function of the electron's average momentum at that point, since high electron momentum at a given position tends to \\\"localize\\\" the electron in that position, via the properties\",\n \"-26.793178539781366\"\n ],\n [\n \"electrons orbited the nucleus with classical periods, but were only permitted to have discrete values of angular momentum, quantized in units h/2π. This constraint automatically permitted only certain values of electron energies. The Bohr model of the atom fixed the problem of energy loss from radiation from a ground state (by declaring that there was no state below this), and more importantly explained the origin of spectral lines.\\nAfter Bohr's use of Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect to relate energy levels in atoms with the wavelength of emitted light, the connection between the structure of electrons in atoms and the\",\n \"-26.737291297642514\"\n ],\n [\n \"other astronomers, but Kepler—with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories—treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them.\\nAmong many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He then tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) \\\"The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances.\\\" Although he gives the date of this epiphany (March 8, 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion. However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely\",\n \"-26.66192472318653\"\n ],\n [\n \"Schrödinger equation Time-dependent equation The form of the Schrödinger equation depends on the physical situation (see below for special cases). The most general form is the time-dependent Schrödinger equation (TDSE), which gives a description of a system evolving with time:\\nwhere is the imaginary unit, is the reduced Planck constant, (the Greek letter psi) is the state vector of the quantum system, is time, and is the Hamiltonian operator. The position-space wave function of the quantum system is nothing but the components in the expansion of the state vector in terms of the position eigenvector .\",\n \"-26.66110849614779\"\n ],\n [\n \"model In 1913 Niels Bohr refined the Rutherford model by stating that the electrons existed in discrete quantized states called energy levels. This meant that the electrons could only occupy orbits at certain energies. The laws of quantum physics apply here, and they don't comply with the laws of classical newtonian mechanics.\\nAn electron which is completely free from the atom has an energy of 0 joules (or 0 electronvolts). An electron which is described as being at the \\\"ground state\\\" has an energy which is equal to the ionization energy of the atom. The electron will reside in this energy\",\n \"-26.659826966526452\"\n ],\n [\n \"in closed shells can be reduced to the simple rule of one electron per state if the electron states are defined using four quantum numbers. For this purpose he introduced a new two-valued quantum number, identified by Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck as electron spin. Advanced quantum theory According to the spin–statistics theorem, particles with integer spin occupy symmetric quantum states, and particles with half-integer spin occupy antisymmetric states; furthermore, only integer or half-integer values of spin are allowed by the principles of quantum mechanics.\\nIn relativistic quantum field theory, the Pauli principle follows from applying a rotation operator in imaginary\",\n \"-26.648459471121896\"\n ],\n [\n \"which implies that the atomic nucleus is built up in \\\"shells\\\" in a manner similar to the structure of the much larger electron shells in atoms. In both cases, shells are just groups of quantum energy levels that are relatively close to each other. Energy levels from quantum states in two different shells will be separated by a relatively large energy gap. So when the number of neutrons and protons completely fills the energy levels of a given shell in the nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon will reach a local maximum and thus that particular configuration will have a\",\n \"-26.645843269885518\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kepler orbit In celestial mechanics, a Kepler orbit (or Keplerian orbit) is the motion of one body relative to another, as an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, which forms a two-dimensional orbital plane in three-dimensional space. A Kepler orbit can also form a straight line. It considers only the point-like gravitational attraction of two bodies, neglecting perturbations due to gravitational interactions with other objects, atmospheric drag, solar radiation pressure, a non-spherical central body, and so on. It is thus said to be a solution of a special case of the two-body problem, known as the Kepler problem. As a theory in\",\n \"-26.614385419117752\"\n ],\n [\n \"Momentum operator Origin from De Broglie plane waves The momentum and energy operators can be constructed in the following way. Hermiticity The momentum operator is always a Hermitian operator (more technically, in math terminology a \\\"self-adjoint operator\\\") when it acts on physical (in particular, normalizable) quantum states.\\n(In certain artificial situations, such as the quantum states on the semi-infinite interval [0,∞), there is no way to make the momentum operator Hermitian. This is closely related to the fact that a semi-infinite interval cannot have translational symmetry—more specifically, it does not have unitary translation operators. See below.)\",\n \"-26.518530774890678\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kepler elements An osculating orbit and the object's position upon it can be fully described by the six standard Kepler orbital elements (osculating elements), which are easy to calculate as long as one knows the object's position and velocity relative to the central body. The osculating elements would remain constant in the absence of perturbations. Real astronomical orbits experience perturbations that cause the osculating elements to evolve, sometimes very quickly. In cases where general celestial mechanical analyses of the motion have been carried out (as they have been for the major planets, the Moon, and other planetary satellites), the orbit\",\n \"-26.513817420287523\"\n ],\n [\n \"the action of a physical system under a continuous symmetry represents a fundamental conservation law. For example, invariance under translation leads to conservation of momentum, and invariance in time leads to conservation of energy.\\nQuantities can be invariant under some common transformations but not under others. For example, the velocity of a particle is invariant when switching from rectangular coordinates to curvilinear coordinates, but is not invariant when transforming between frames of reference that are moving with respect to each other. Other quantities, like the speed of light, are always invariant. Importance Invariants are important in modern theoretical physics, and many\",\n \"-26.480344929062994\"\n ],\n [\n \"and statement of a periodic law, i.e., \\\"all the properties of bodies are periodic functions of their atomic weights,\\\" citing the inversion of tellurium and iodine, which breaks the order of monotonically increasing atomic weights. He went so far as to say \\\"I think that it is time to show clearly that there is nothing [here] which merits the name of law or system.\\\" Rethinking periodicity in terms of atomic number eliminates the problem, and the criticism was beside the point, since the notion of a periodic law had already saturated the field of chemistry.\\nAlthough he had never trained as\",\n \"-26.400616534599976\"\n ],\n [\n \"same coordinates in which the atom is in motion, because doing so would violate uncertain principle, but to describe its position relative to the nucleus. As a result, more can be said about the general case from this: in general, it is permissible, even in quantum theory, to have a system with well-defined position in one reference frame and well-defined motion in some other reference frame. Superselection rules Superselection rules, in short, are postulated rules forbidding the preparation of quantum states that exhibit coherence between eigenstates of certain observables. It was originally introduced to impose additional restriction to quantum theory\",\n \"-26.393045635079034\"\n ],\n [\n \"equation. The resulting partial differential equation is solved for the wave function, which contains information about the system. Time-independent equation The time-dependent Schrödinger equation described above predicts that wave functions can form standing waves, called stationary states. These states are particularly important as their individual study later simplifies the task of solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation for any state. Stationary states can also be described by a simpler form of the Schrödinger equation, the time-independent Schrödinger equation (TISE).\\nwhere is a constant equal to the energy level of the system. This is only used when the Hamiltonian itself is not\",\n \"-26.33719444759481\"\n ],\n [\n \"they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory. The atomic radii decrease across the Periodic Table because as the atomic number increases, the number of protons increases across the period, but the extra electrons are only added to the same quantum shell. Therefore, the effective nuclear charge towards the outermost electrons increases, drawing the outermost electrons closer. As a result, the electron cloud contracts and the atomic radius decreases. History In 1920, shortly after it had become possible to determine the sizes of atoms using X-ray crystallography, it was suggested that all atoms of the same\",\n \"-26.314284020569175\"\n ],\n [\n \"motion of the planets and how this motion nearly perfectly matches musical harmonies. Finally, after a discussion on astrology in book five, Kepler ends Harmonices by describing his third law, which states that for any planet the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit is proportional to the square of its orbital period.\\nIn the final book of Harmonices, Kepler explains how the ratio of the maximum and minimum angular speeds of each planet (its speeds at the perihelion and aphelion) is very nearly equivalent to a consonant musical interval. Furthermore, the ratios between these extreme speeds of the\",\n \"-26.286781171147595\"\n ],\n [\n \"on whether real or complex versions of the atomic orbitals are employed. Shapes of orbitals Simple pictures showing orbital shapes are intended to describe the angular forms of regions in space where the electrons occupying the orbital are likely to be found. The diagrams cannot show the entire region where an electron can be found, since according to quantum mechanics there is a non-zero probability of finding the electron (almost) anywhere in space. Instead the diagrams are approximate representations of boundary or contour surfaces where the probability density | ψ(r, θ, φ) |² has a constant value, chosen so that there is a certain\",\n \"-26.271629919638144\"\n ],\n [\n \"all electrons with the same value of n lie at the same average distance. For this reason, orbitals with the same value of n are said to comprise a \\\"shell\\\". Orbitals with the same value of n and also the same value of ℓ are even more closely related, and are said to comprise a \\\"subshell\\\". Quantum numbers Because of the quantum mechanical nature of the electrons around a nucleus, atomic orbitals can be uniquely defined by a set of integers known as quantum numbers. These quantum numbers only occur in certain combinations of values, and their physical interpretation changes depending\",\n \"-26.26865129447833\"\n ],\n [\n \"coarse-scale steady state may not imply a steady state for the fine-scale system, since individual molecules or particles do not stop moving when the gas density or pressure become stationary. Equation-free modeling circumvents such problems by using short bursts of appropriately initialized fine-scale simulation. Restriction The restriction operator often follows directly from the specific choice of the macroscale variables. For example, when the microscale model evolves an ensemble of many particles, the restriction typically computes the first few moments of the particle distribution (the density, momentum, and energy). Lifting The lifting operator is usually much more involved. For example, consider\",\n \"-26.230914160842076\"\n ],\n [\n \"to rest. In fact, however, kinetic energy is retained by particles even at the lowest possible temperature. The random motion corresponding to this zero-point energy never vanishes as a consequence of the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics.\\nThe uncertainty principle states that no object can ever have precise values of position and velocity simultaneously. The total energy of a quantum mechanical object (potential and kinetic) is described by its Hamiltonian which also describes the system as a harmonic oscillator, or wave function, that fluctuates between various energy states (see wave-particle duality). All quantum mechanical systems undergo fluctuations even in their ground\",\n \"-26.21673613920575\"\n ],\n [\n \"The fact that the physics of a system is unchanged if it is rotated by any angle about an axis implies that angular momentum is conserved. In quantum mechanics Angular momentum in quantum mechanics differs in many profound respects from angular momentum in classical mechanics. In relativistic quantum mechanics, it differs even more, in which the above relativistic definition becomes a tensorial operator. Uncertainty In the definition , six operators are involved: The position operators , , , and the momentum operators , , . However, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not possible for all six\",\n \"-26.215022049102117\"\n ],\n [\n \"mechanics, but not the Schrödinger equation; after Pauli's publication, it became known mainly as the Runge–Lenz vector. Constants of motion and superintegrability The seven scalar quantities E, A and L (being vectors, the latter two contribute three conserved quantities each) are related by two equations, A ⋅ L = 0 and A² = m²k² + 2 mEL², giving five independent constants of motion. (Since the magnitude of A, hence the eccentricity e of the orbit, can be determined from the total angular momentum L and the energy E, only the direction of A is conserved independently; moreover, since A\",\n \"-26.166621612588642\"\n ],\n [\n \"somewhat analogous to electrons forming electron shells within an atom. The noble gases are unreactive due to their having full electron shells; thus it was theorized that elements with full nuclear shells – having so-called \\\"magic\\\" numbers of protons or neutrons – would be stabilized against radioactive decay. A doubly magic isotope, having magic numbers of both protons and neutrons, would be especially stabilized. Heiner Meldner calculated in 1965 that the next doubly magic isotope after lead-208 would be flerovium-298 with 114 protons and 184 neutrons, which would form the centre of a so-called \\\"island of stability\\\". This island of\",\n \"-26.148648071917705\"\n ],\n [\n \"of quantum mechanics. The Klein paradox, discovered by Oskar Klein in 1928, presented further quantum mechanical objections to the notion of an electron confined within a nucleus. Observed properties of atoms and molecules were inconsistent with the nuclear spin expected from the proton–electron hypothesis. Both protons and electrons carry an intrinsic spin of ½ ħ. Isotopes of the same species (i.e. having the same number of protons) can have both integer or fractional spin, i.e. the neutron spin must be also fractional (½ ħ). However, there is no way to arrange the spins of an electron and a proton (supposed to\",\n \"-26.14568823261652\"\n ],\n [\n \"reflects that the other electrons remain in three lone pairs and that the bond order is 1.\\nThe more electronegative atom is the more energetically excited because it more similar in energy to its atomic orbital. This also accounts for the majority of the electron negativity residing around the more electronegative molecule. Applying the LCAO-MO method allows us to move away from a more static Lewis structure type approach and actually account for periodic trends that influence electron movement. Non-bonding orbitals refer to lone pairs seen on certain atoms in a molecule. A further understanding for the energy level refinement can\",\n \"-26.092603832400073\"\n ],\n [\n \"momentum operators to the states, rather than rotating the states. But this is fundamentally the same thing, because of the close mathematical relation between rotations and angular momentum operators.) In terms of representation theory To state these observations more precisely and to prove them, it helps to invoke the mathematics of representation theory. For example, the set of all possible 4d orbitals (i.e., the 5 states m = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 and their quantum superpositions) form a 5-dimensional abstract vector space. Rotating the system transforms these states into each other, so this is an example of a \\\"group representation\\\", in this case, the 5-dimensional\",\n \"-26.077358732261928\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hamiltonian as a simplifying assumption, we can decompose the total eigenvector of a many-electron molecule into separate contributions from individual electron stationary states (orbitals), each of which are obtained under the one-electron approximation. (Luckily, chemists and physicists can often (but not always) use this \\\"single-electron approximation.\\\") In this sense, in a many-electron system, an orbital can be considered as the stationary state of an individual electron in the system.\\nIn chemistry, calculation of molecular orbitals typically also assume the Born–Oppenheimer approximation.\",\n \"-26.023985483625438\"\n ],\n [\n \"the mathematical theories of the planetary orbits that form the basis of ephemerides, quadratic and higher order secular terms do occur, but these are mostly Taylor expansions of very long time periodic terms. The reason that tidal effects are different is that unlike distant gravitational perturbations, friction is an essential part of tidal acceleration, and leads to permanent loss of energy from the dynamic system in the form of heat. In other words, we do not have a Hamiltonian system here. Angular momentum and energy The gravitational torque between the Moon and the tidal bulge of Earth causes the Moon\",\n \"-26.017071857771953\"\n ],\n [\n \"has one electron. The magnitude of the angular momentum for a circular orbit is:\\nThe total energy of the atom is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies, that is:\\nVelocity can be eliminated from the kinetic energy term by setting the Coulomb attraction equal to the centripetal force, giving:\\nSolving the angular momentum for v and substituting this into the expression for kinetic energy, we have:\\nThis establishes the dependence of the radius on n. That is:\\nNow the energy can be found in terms of Z, e, and r. Using the new value for the kinetic energy in the total\",\n \"-25.963434517580026\"\n ],\n [\n \"angular momentum. For these modes, waves in the drum head tend to avoid the central point. Such features again emphasize that the shapes of atomic orbitals are a direct consequence of the wave nature of electrons. Relativistic effects For elements with high atomic number Z, the effects of relativity become more pronounced, and especially so for s electrons, which move at relativistic velocities as they penetrate the screening electrons near the core of high-Z atoms. This relativistic increase in momentum for high speed electrons causes a corresponding decrease in wavelength and contraction of 6s orbitals relative to 5d orbitals (by comparison\",\n \"-25.935661220515613\"\n ],\n [\n \"is not simply the kinetic minus the potential energy of a particle. Also, it is not straightforward to handle multiparticle systems in a manifestly covariant way, it may be possible if a particular frame of reference is singled out. Quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, action and quantum-mechanical phase are related via Planck's constant, and the principle of stationary action can be understood in terms of constructive interference of wave functions.\\nIn 1948, Feynman discovered the path integral formulation extending the principle of least action to quantum mechanics for electrons and photons. In this formulation, particles travel every possible path between the\",\n \"-25.921682111773407\"\n ],\n [\n \"in modern physics. Indeed, this principle is one of the great generalizations in physical science. It is best understood within quantum mechanics, particularly in Richard Feynman's path integral formulation, where it arises out of destructive interference of quantum amplitudes.\\nMaxwell's equations can also be derived as conditions of stationary action. Modern extensions The action principle can be generalized still further. For example, the action need not be an integral, because nonlocal actions are possible. The configuration space need not even be a functional space, given certain features such as noncommutative geometry. However, a physical basis for these mathematical\",\n \"-25.912991962060914\"\n ],\n [\n \"dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such \\\"static\\\" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics, it is described by a static, spherically symmetric wave function surrounding the nucleus (Fig. 1) (however, only the lowest angular momentum states, labeled s, are spherically symmetric.)\\nThe Schrödinger equation acts on the entire probability amplitude, not merely its absolute value. Whereas the absolute value of the probability amplitude encodes information about probabilities, its phase encodes information about the interference between quantum\",\n \"-25.854227021176484\"\n ],\n [\n \"space with no periodic motion. Greek astronomy Since 600 BCE, Greek thinkers noticed the periodic fashion of the Solar System. Many theories were announced during this period. Parmenides claimed that the Solar System is spherical and moonlight is actually a reflection of sunlight. \\n \\nAnaxagoras suggested that the Moon is closer to the Earth than the Sun, comets are formed by collisions of planets and that the motion of planets is controlled by the nous (mind). Pythagoras's students thought the motion of planets is caused by a fire at the centre of the universe that powers them and Earth orbits\",\n \"-25.848817808343483\"\n ],\n [\n \"section, the quantum dynamics of particles were inferred, leading to Schrödinger's equation, a departure from Newtonian mechanics. The solution of this equation for atoms led to the explanation of the Balmer series for atomic spectra and consequently formed a basis for all of atomic physics and chemistry.\\nThis is not the only occasion in which Maxwell's equations have forced a restructuring of Newtonian mechanics. Maxwell's equations are relativistically consistent. Special relativity resulted from attempts to make classical mechanics consistent with Maxwell's equations (see, for example, Moving magnet and conductor problem).\",\n \"-25.844319597817957\"\n ],\n [\n \"conservation were not relevant to Maupertuis, who was concerned only with light.) Euler used this principle to derive the equations of motion of a particle in uniform motion, in a uniform and non-uniform force field, and in a central force field. Euler's approach is entirely consistent with the modern understanding of Maupertuis's principle described above, except that he insisted that the action should always be a minimum, rather than a stationary point.\\nTwo years later, Maupertuis cites Euler's 1744 work as a \\\"beautiful application of my principle to the motion of the planets\\\" and goes on to apply the\",\n \"-25.83844915116788\"\n ],\n [\n \"momentum, and thus a Bohr orbiting electron was seen to orbit in a circle at a multiple of its half-wavelength (this physically incorrect Bohr model is still often taught to beginning students). The Bohr model for a short time could be seen as a classical model with an additional constraint provided by the 'wavelength' argument. However, this period was immediately superseded by the full three-dimensional wave mechanics of 1926. In our current understanding of physics, the Bohr model is called a semi-classical model because of its quantization of angular momentum, not primarily because of its relationship with electron wavelength, which\",\n \"-25.80163289938355\"\n ],\n [\n \"Lindblad equation. Motivation In the canonical formulation of quantum mechanics, a system's time evolution is governed by unitary dynamics. This implies that there is no decay and phase coherence is maintained throughout the process, and is a consequence of the fact that all participating degrees of freedom are considered. However, any real physical system is not absolutely isolated, and will interact with its environment. This interaction with degrees of freedom external to the system results in dissipation of energy into the surroundings, causing decay and randomization of phase. These effects are the reasons quantum mechanics is difficult to observe on\",\n \"-25.801299060578458\"\n ],\n [\n \"limit thereof. This picture also simplifies considerations\\nof quantization, the deformation extension from classical to quantum mechanics.\\nThe quantum harmonic oscillator is an exactly solvable system where the different representations are easily compared. There, apart from the Heisenberg, or Schrödinger (position or momentum), or phase-space representations, one also encounters the Fock (number) representation and the Segal–Bargmann (Fock-space or coherent state) representation (named after Irving Segal and Valentine Bargmann). All four are unitarily equivalent. Time as an operator The framework presented so far singles out time as the parameter that everything depends on. It is possible to formulate mechanics in such a way\",\n \"-25.779211018303613\"\n ],\n [\n \"and in certain conditions, electrons are able to move from one configuration to another by the emission or absorption of a quantum of energy, in the form of a photon.\\nKnowledge of the electron configuration of different atoms is useful in understanding the structure of the periodic table of elements. This is also useful for describing the chemical bonds that hold atoms together. In bulk materials, this same idea helps explain the peculiar properties of lasers and semiconductors. Notation Physicists and chemists use a standard notation to indicate the electron configurations of atoms and molecules. For atoms, the notation consists of\",\n \"-25.702995609259233\"\n ],\n [\n \"Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas).\\nIn the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing\",\n \"-25.70094810804585\"\n ],\n [\n \"that most physical laws on a large scale are due to chaos on a small scale. He calls this principle \\\"order-from-disorder.\\\" As an example he mentions diffusion, which can be modeled as a highly ordered process, but which is caused by random movement of atoms or molecules. If the number of atoms is reduced, the behaviour of a system becomes more and more random. He states that life greatly depends on order and that a naïve physicist may assume that the master code of a living organism has to consist of a large number of atoms.\\nIn chapter II and III,\",\n \"-25.692732056195382\"\n ],\n [\n \"classical mechanics, it also does not take into account the effects of general relativity. Keplerian orbits can be parametrized into six orbital elements in various ways.\\nIn most applications, there is a large central body, the center of mass of which is assumed to be the center of mass of the entire system. By decomposition, the orbits of two objects of similar mass can be described as Kepler orbits around their common center of mass, their barycenter. Introduction From ancient times until the 16th and 17th centuries, the motions of the planets were believed to follow perfectly circular geocentric paths as\",\n \"-25.682035846912186\"\n ],\n [\n \"steadily lose energy and spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a small fraction of a second. The second problem was that the planetary model could not explain the highly peaked emission and absorption spectra of atoms that were observed.\\n \\nQuantum theory revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20th century, when Max Planck and Albert Einstein postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amounts known as quanta (singular, quantum). In 1913, Niels Bohr incorporated this idea into his Bohr model of the atom, in which an electron could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular\",\n \"-25.674877572921105\"\n ],\n [\n \"impose the condition that electrons in the same shell have the same radial part, and to restrict the variational solution to be a spin eigenfunction. Even so, calculating a solution by hand using the Hartree–Fock equations for a medium-sized atom was laborious; small molecules required computational resources far beyond what was available before 1950. Hartree–Fock algorithm The Hartree–Fock method is typically used to solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation for a multi-electron atom or molecule as described in the Born–Oppenheimer approximation. Since there are no known analytic solutions for many-electron systems (there are solutions for one-electron systems such as hydrogenic atoms\",\n \"-25.6693647413922\"\n ],\n [\n \"same amount, then this is always a symmetry: describes the complete laws of physics in our universe, which are independent of location. As a consequence, conservation of momentum is universally valid.\\nOn the other hand, perhaps and refer to just one particle. Then the translation operators are exact symmetries only if the particle is alone in a vacuum. Correspondingly, the momentum of a single particle is not usually conserved (it changes when the particle bumps into other objects), but it is conserved if the particle is alone in a vacuum.\\n\\nSince the Hamiltonian commutes with the translation operator\",\n \"-25.66846172331134\"\n ],\n [\n \"Island of stability Nuclide stability The composition of an atomic nucleus is determined by the number of protons Z and the number of neutrons N, which sum to mass number A. The atomic number Z determines the position of an element in the periodic table, while the approximately 3300 known nuclides are commonly represented in a chart with Z and N for its axes and the half-life for radioactive decay indicated for each unstable nuclide (see figure). As of 2019, 252 nuclides are observed to be stable (having never been observed to decay); generally, as the number of protons increases,\",\n \"-25.663575163009227\"\n ],\n [\n \"systems of more than one electron, only a set of many-electron solutions that cannot be calculated exactly (although there are mathematical approximations available, such as the Hartree–Fock method).\\nThe fact that the Aufbau principle is based on an approximation can be seen from the fact that there is an almost-fixed filling order at all, that, within a given shell, the s-orbital is always filled before the p-orbitals. In a hydrogen-like atom, which only has one electron, the s-orbital and the p-orbitals of the same shell have exactly the same energy, to a very good approximation in the absence of external electromagnetic\",\n \"-25.64090925601704\"\n ],\n [\n \"particle's position is known, the less precisely its momentum is known, and vice versa.\\nThe Schrödinger equation describes the (deterministic) evolution of the wave function of a particle. However, even if the wave function is known exactly, the result of a specific measurement on the wave function is uncertain. Nonrelativistic quantum mechanics The quantum mechanics of particles without accounting for the effects of special relativity, for example particles propagating at speeds much less than light, is known as nonrelativistic quantum mechanics. Following are several forms of Schrödinger's equation in this context for different situations: time independence and dependence, one and three\",\n \"-25.634678074071417\"\n ],\n [\n \"physical situation there corresponds a conservation law (and conversely). This deep connection requires that the action principle be assumed. Quantum mechanics and quantum field theory In quantum mechanics, the system does not follow a single path whose action is stationary, but the behavior of the system depends on all permitted paths and the value of their action. The action corresponding to the various paths is used to calculate the path integral, that gives the probability amplitudes of the various outcomes.\\nAlthough equivalent in classical mechanics with Newton's laws, the action principle is better suited for generalizations and plays an important role\",\n \"-25.62738892865491\"\n ],\n [\n \"proton. The nucleus parity will be a product of theirs, while the nucleus spin will be one of the possible results of the sum of their angular momenta (with other possible results being excited states of the nucleus).\\nThe ordering of angular momentum levels within each shell is according to the principles described above - due to spin-orbit interaction, with high angular momentum states having their energies shifted downwards due to the deformation of the potential (i.e. moving from a harmonic oscillator potential to a more realistic one). For nucleon pairs, however, it is often energetically favorable to be at\",\n \"-25.607861972194087\"\n ],\n [\n \"electrons orbiting a nucleus, wrote \\\"... individual electrons describe corresponding parts of their orbits in times shorter for the [rest] system in the ratio :\\\". Emil Cohn (1904) specifically related this formula to the rate of clocks. In the context of special relativity it was shown by Albert Einstein (1905) that this effect concerns the nature of time itself, and he was also the first to point out its reciprocity or symmetry. Subsequently, Hermann Minkowski (1907) introduced the concept of proper time which further clarified the meaning of time dilation. Velocity time dilation Special relativity indicates that, for an observer in\",\n \"-25.60338603379205\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":91,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"5dh34s"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"why is California shutting down its last nuclear power plant, I thought nuclear power was a good thing?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["The big reason is that it's near a fault line. No matter how safe you make it, it's hard to tell how much damage an earthquake could actually do. And despite how good it is, there's still a very negative perception of it just because of the word nuclear. Too many people seem to think that it's akin to a nuclear weapon when they're not really similar at all.","Currently operating nuclear power plants were build to an old design, based on the design for nuclear submarine propulsion. This design prioritized \"a lot of power in a small space\" over other things that would make it much safer in the event of a mistake or a natural disaster (earthquake, tsunami). So countries are gradually turning off some of these old plants out of fear of another Chernobyl, or another Fukushima.","Earthquakes. Our knowledge of seismic issues has significantly increased since these plants were built in the 60s, and they can't really stand up to a \"Bit One\" quake (or it's just too close to the margins). Plus, all power plants require upgrades to keep running; nuclear upgrades to the newer codes are very expensive, and power companies often see the cost of the upgrade is too high and just doesn't pencil out. If the Federal Government stepped in and offered a ton of money to build new generation nuclear plants at the proper seismic standards, CA would take it. But they aren't, because it is real expensive and Republicans don't want to send billions into California.","Quite honestly, to me it really sucks because all the practical generation will now be natural gas which will, of course add smog. \"renewable\" are only a tiny percentage of the energy mix and try turning a light on at night with solar or when the wind isn't blowing. The backbone will always be petroleum based, until we run out that is, then all bets are off (I'm going with Road Warrior).","Diablo Canyon (the plant in question) is close to the coast. The Fukushima disaster raised concerns about that kind of site. The cost to build a new nuclear plant in litigious California makes it not as cost effective as solar there (the weather is very nice in CA).","Another factor that has not been brought up here, but was mentioned on the NPR story about the closure, is that the plant was providing too high of a base level of energy into the local grid to make use of the energy being provided by renewables. They claimed that the energy from renewable sources was actually being wasted because the supply exceeded demand.","Economical reasons. Nuclear power isnt really profitable anymore. The plants are extremly expensive, the maintenance is high due to security concerns, the fuel is costly and needs a lot of processing and the waste has no real solution. Solar power is simply cheaper. Coal and gas are cheaper aswell","Politics and anti-nuclear environmental groups. Economics aren't helping either. Despite people saying earthquakes, the reality is Diablo Canyon is the most seismically protected plant in the country by far, and has a full time earthquake engineering staff evaluating fault lines and making plant improvements when necessary.","Environmentalists don't realize that Diablo Canyon is going to be replaced with natural gas. It would cost over $80 billion and I don't even know how many acres of land to build enough solar to replace the lost generation and thats ignoring solars lack of reliability.","I know in Illinois a lot of the nuclear plants are shutting down because they are economically uncompetitive now. With how cheap natural gas is, if no one wants to buy your more expensive electricity then there's no reason to stay open.","How are they going to make up for the lost power?","In the 40's-60's the world had a can-do attitude and as soon as they could do a thing, they did it. So, when they figured out how to make fission power plants, they made them; nevermind that they required active cooling to prevent meltdown. The time between man splitting the atom and utility scale power plants it not a long time at all. These plants maybe weren't the best designs and maybe not safe at all. Fast forward to Chernobyl and fissile energy got a big black eye and basically all development and education related to fissile energy production stopped. There was a pretty large knowledge loss as people educated and experienced in the design of nuclear power plants grew old while no new plants/people were brought in. After Chernobyl, they tried to make existing plants safer. The outcome was a lot like old airports post 9/11. A mess, but more or less secure. Unfortunately, this reputation built up by old designs for being unsafe is preventing the world from moving forward with perfectly safe newer designs. Somehow anti-nuclear has gotten momentum with environmentalists that don't seem to realize that it isn't renewables vs nuclear but coal vs nuclear. By being anti-nuclear, they are pro coal. There are currently new reactor designs that could safely burn the waste from old reactors for decades and decades and designs that could burn fresh fuel much more safely. The problem is, they can't build the new reactors because no one wants a new reactor built anywhere near them (despite coal plants releasing more radiation). Also, over the top safety regulations for older plant designs are stifling new design. Imagine if every car on the road needed a guy with a flag to walk in front of it, that was a real regulation for early cars and the same level of nonsense exists for nuclear energy.","I've read that plants using Thorium would be much safer and cheaper than those using Plutonium. Does anyone know if that's true?"],"string":"[\n \"The big reason is that it's near a fault line. No matter how safe you make it, it's hard to tell how much damage an earthquake could actually do. And despite how good it is, there's still a very negative perception of it just because of the word nuclear. Too many people seem to think that it's akin to a nuclear weapon when they're not really similar at all.\",\n \"Currently operating nuclear power plants were build to an old design, based on the design for nuclear submarine propulsion. This design prioritized \\\"a lot of power in a small space\\\" over other things that would make it much safer in the event of a mistake or a natural disaster (earthquake, tsunami). So countries are gradually turning off some of these old plants out of fear of another Chernobyl, or another Fukushima.\",\n \"Earthquakes. Our knowledge of seismic issues has significantly increased since these plants were built in the 60s, and they can't really stand up to a \\\"Bit One\\\" quake (or it's just too close to the margins). Plus, all power plants require upgrades to keep running; nuclear upgrades to the newer codes are very expensive, and power companies often see the cost of the upgrade is too high and just doesn't pencil out. If the Federal Government stepped in and offered a ton of money to build new generation nuclear plants at the proper seismic standards, CA would take it. But they aren't, because it is real expensive and Republicans don't want to send billions into California.\",\n \"Quite honestly, to me it really sucks because all the practical generation will now be natural gas which will, of course add smog. \\\"renewable\\\" are only a tiny percentage of the energy mix and try turning a light on at night with solar or when the wind isn't blowing. The backbone will always be petroleum based, until we run out that is, then all bets are off (I'm going with Road Warrior).\",\n \"Diablo Canyon (the plant in question) is close to the coast. The Fukushima disaster raised concerns about that kind of site. The cost to build a new nuclear plant in litigious California makes it not as cost effective as solar there (the weather is very nice in CA).\",\n \"Another factor that has not been brought up here, but was mentioned on the NPR story about the closure, is that the plant was providing too high of a base level of energy into the local grid to make use of the energy being provided by renewables. They claimed that the energy from renewable sources was actually being wasted because the supply exceeded demand.\",\n \"Economical reasons. Nuclear power isnt really profitable anymore. The plants are extremly expensive, the maintenance is high due to security concerns, the fuel is costly and needs a lot of processing and the waste has no real solution. Solar power is simply cheaper. Coal and gas are cheaper aswell\",\n \"Politics and anti-nuclear environmental groups. Economics aren't helping either. Despite people saying earthquakes, the reality is Diablo Canyon is the most seismically protected plant in the country by far, and has a full time earthquake engineering staff evaluating fault lines and making plant improvements when necessary.\",\n \"Environmentalists don't realize that Diablo Canyon is going to be replaced with natural gas. It would cost over $80 billion and I don't even know how many acres of land to build enough solar to replace the lost generation and thats ignoring solars lack of reliability.\",\n \"I know in Illinois a lot of the nuclear plants are shutting down because they are economically uncompetitive now. With how cheap natural gas is, if no one wants to buy your more expensive electricity then there's no reason to stay open.\",\n \"How are they going to make up for the lost power?\",\n \"In the 40's-60's the world had a can-do attitude and as soon as they could do a thing, they did it. So, when they figured out how to make fission power plants, they made them; nevermind that they required active cooling to prevent meltdown. The time between man splitting the atom and utility scale power plants it not a long time at all. These plants maybe weren't the best designs and maybe not safe at all. Fast forward to Chernobyl and fissile energy got a big black eye and basically all development and education related to fissile energy production stopped. There was a pretty large knowledge loss as people educated and experienced in the design of nuclear power plants grew old while no new plants/people were brought in. After Chernobyl, they tried to make existing plants safer. The outcome was a lot like old airports post 9/11. A mess, but more or less secure. Unfortunately, this reputation built up by old designs for being unsafe is preventing the world from moving forward with perfectly safe newer designs. Somehow anti-nuclear has gotten momentum with environmentalists that don't seem to realize that it isn't renewables vs nuclear but coal vs nuclear. By being anti-nuclear, they are pro coal. There are currently new reactor designs that could safely burn the waste from old reactors for decades and decades and designs that could burn fresh fuel much more safely. The problem is, they can't build the new reactors because no one wants a new reactor built anywhere near them (despite coal plants releasing more radiation). Also, over the top safety regulations for older plant designs are stifling new design. Imagine if every car on the road needed a guy with a flag to walk in front of it, that was a real regulation for early cars and the same level of nonsense exists for nuclear energy.\",\n \"I've read that plants using Thorium would be much safer and cheaper than those using Plutonium. Does anyone know if that's true?\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["the expansion of nuclear power.\" California has banned the approval of new nuclear reactors since the late 1970s because of concerns over waste disposal, and some other U.S. states have a moratorium on construction of nuclear power plants. Between 1975 and 1980, a total of 63 nuclear units were canceled in the United States. Anti-nuclear activities were among the reasons, but the primary motivations were the overestimation of future demand for electricity and steadily increasing capital costs, which made the economics of new plants unfavorable.\nThe proliferation of nuclear weapons became a presidential priority issue for the Carter Administration in the","-35.08195415737828"],["nuclear energy in their state. In 1976, California passed legislation which prevented new nuclear power plants from being built until an approved means of disposing of fuel-rod waste was approved. This legislation, which was also renewed in 2005, effectively put a moratorium on nuclear power plants in California, since no fuel-rod waste measure was ever approved. Soon afterwards, other states passed similar laws limiting nuclear energy influence in their state. This California legislation was reaffirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1983 when it ruled that, \"It did not conflict with federal authority because it addressed legitimate state issues of","-34.34497295552865"],["mounting concern over the shutdown, the top U.S. nuclear official, Gregory Jaczko, toured the facility with Senator Dianne Feinstein, a Democrat, and U.S. Representative Darrell Issa, a Republican. In June, 2013, the company announced it would permanently shut down operations at the plant, the beginning of a multi-year decommissioning process at the site. Energy production mix At least 21% of the fuel Southern California Edison uses to generate power comes from clean energy (half of that nuclear power, the other half renewable energy sources ranging from biomass to wind). The group is a major player in Southern California where","-33.68403662822675"],["said that this was not the time to build new nuclear plants, not because of political opposition or the threat of cost overruns, but because of the low price of natural gas. John Rowe, head of Exelon, said “Shale [gas] is good for the country, bad for new nuclear development\".\nIn 2013, four older reactors were permanently closed: San Onofre 2 and 3 in California, Crystal River 3 in Florida, and Kewaunee in Wisconsin. The state of Vermont tried to shut Vermont Yankee, in Vermont, but the plant was closed by the parent corporation for economic reasons in December 2014. New","-33.504177595041256"],["to determine - as a matter of economics - whether a nuclear plant vis-a-vis a fossil fuel plant should be built. The decision of California to exercise that authority does not, in itself, constitute a basis for pre-emption. 33 Therefore, while the argument [461 U.S. 190, 223] of petitioners and the United States has considerable force, the legal reality remains that Congress has left sufficient authority in the States to allow the development of nuclear power to be slowed or even stopped for economic reasons. Given this statutory scheme, it is for Congress to rethink the division of","-33.174899997829925"],["able to restart without extensive additional repairs\".\nIn August 2012, Southern California Edison announced plans to lay off one-third, or 730, of the plants employees; the company said that the downsizing had been planned more than two years before. Rochelle Becker of the Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility said the layoffs showed that the company was not honest about their plans for the power plant.\nIn September 2012, Allison Macfarlane, the NRC Chairwoman, said that the plant would be down for a prolonged period, and that Unit 3 would be defueled in September 2012 because the unit had been significantly damaged. Due to","-32.273514614702435"],["live near nuclear power plants also tend to be largely more in support of nuclear power than the general public.\nDecreasing public support is seen as one of the causes for the premature closure of many plants in the United States. Prospects of a nuclear renaissance As of 2017, the US Energy Information Administration projects that US nuclear generating capacity will decline 23 percent from its 2016 level of 99.1 GW, to 76.5 GW in 2050, and the nuclear share of electrical generation to go from 20% in 2016 down to 11% in 2050. Driving the decline will be retirements of","-32.24808443989605"],["aspects and radiological hazards of nuclear power plants.\nLater, more consequential Supreme Court cases related to the politics of nuclear power include Metropolitan Edison Co. v. People Against Nuclear Energy (1983), decided the same year, and Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee Corp. (1984). Critical response The majority opinion did not question California's assertion that the moratorium was justified because the lack of a permanent disposal method for high level waste made nuclear generation uneconomic. It has been noted that existing plants and plants constructed after the Supreme Court decision have continued to economically operate by expanding current waste storage facilities. In addition, by","-32.050503662991105"],["to engage in such inquiry here when it is clear that the States have been allowed to retain authority over the need for electrical generating facilities easily sufficient to permit a State so inclined to halt the construction of new nuclear plants by refusing on economic grounds to issue certificates of public convenience in individual proceedings. In these circumstances, it should be up to Congress to determine whether a State has misused the authority left in its hands.\nTherefore, we accept California's avowed economic purpose as the rationale for enacting 25524.2. Accordingly, the statute lies outside the occupied field of nuclear","-31.954747886164114"],["nuclear power plants were taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some of Japan's 50 nuclear reactors to service. Shinzo Abe’s government seeks to restart the nuclear power plants that meet strict new safety standards and is emphasizing nuclear energy's importance as a base-load electricity source. As of November 2014, two reactors at Sendai are likely to restart in early 2015. In August 2015, Japan successfully restarted one nuclear reactor at the Sendai Nuclear Power","-31.30660806549713"],["made little sense making costly and politically difficult repairs now that would not make a return on investment before 2022.\nCalifornia Senator Dianne Feinstein signaled approval of the decision to permanently close the plant, stating \"I firmly believe this is the right thing to do for the more than 7 million Californians who live within 50 miles of San Onofre.\" However, Representative Darrell Issa, whose voting district includes the nuclear station, was more downbeat, saying \"our communities now face the loss of employment for more than a thousand highly skilled workers and an essential local source of low-cost, clean energy.\" Issa","-31.303593581687892"],["all costs.'\" Instead, Congress had given the states authority to decide whether to build a nuclear plant or one using traditional fuel sources. \"California's decision to exercise that authority does not, in itself, constitute a basis for preemption.\"\nFinally, it is strongly contended that 25524.2 frustrates the Atomic Energy Act's purpose to develop the commercial use of nuclear power. It is well established that state law is pre-empted if it \"stands as an obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of the full purposes and objectives of Congress.\" [461 U.S. 190, 221] Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U.S. at 67;","-31.22718858369626"],["ordered), 21% were permanently and prematurely closed due to reliability or cost problems, while another 27% have completely failed for a year or more at least once. The surviving U.S. nuclear plants produce ~90% of their full-time full-load potential, but even they are not fully dependable. Even reliably operating nuclear plants must shut down, on average, for 39 days every 17 months for refueling and maintenance, and unexpected failures do occur too.\nA cover story in the February 11, 1985, issue of Forbes magazine commented on the overall management of the nuclear power program in the United States:\nThe failure of the","-31.08776910515735"],["both gas and coal power, but well behind wind, solar, geothermal and hydroelectricity.\nThe United States wants New Zealand to repeal its nuclear-free legislation, which would then allow U.S. warships carrying nuclear weapons to visit New Zealand ports. Pressure from the United States increased in 2006, with U.S. trade officials linking the repeal of the ban of American nuclear ships from New Zealand's ports to a potential free-trade agreement between the two countries. In 2004, then opposition leader Don Brash refused to confirm or deny that he told visiting US senators the nuclear ban would be repealed \"by lunchtime\" if he","-31.075735440652352"],["energy and eventual shut-down of Japan's nuclear plants. Japan's nuclear power plants were completely shut down by May 2012, leaving Japan without nuclear-generated electricity for the first time since 1970. Several of the plants were only brought back online after the DPJ was no longer in government. The LDP government led by Shinzo Abe gradually reopened the nuclear plants, starting with Sendai Nuclear Power Plant in Kyushu on August 2015. The restart has been slow due to legal challenges and heavy domestic opposition. Lists of ministers Democratic\n People's New\n Independent\n\nR = Member of the House of Representatives\nC = Member of the House","-31.049729748629034"],["the largest nuclear power facility in the world.\nThe next month, April 1978, a year before the Three Mile Island accident, Governor Brown stated he would never sign a bill allowing construction of a nuclear power plant in California. Soon afterwards the California Energy Commission voted to halt the construction of the two Sundesert units in the \"absence of federally demonstrated and approved technology for permanent disposal of radioactive wastes\". The Sundesert project was cancelled in May 1978. Aftermath Political response to the crucial California Energy Commission vote to deny the Sundesert plant a permit was considerable from both parties. The","-30.967763255583122"],["the United States was eroded sharply following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, with support for building nuclear power plants in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, according to a CBS News poll. Only 43 percent of those polled 10 days after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States.\nA Gallup poll in the US in March 2015 found support for nuclear power at 51%, with 43% opposed. This was the lowest level of support for nuclear since 2001, and significantly down","-30.96280876128003"],["of the nation's total electric energy consumption. For many years, no new nuclear plants have been built in the US. However, since 2005 there has been a renewed interest in nuclear power in the US. This has been facilitated in part by the federal government with the Nuclear Power 2010 Program of 2002. and the Energy Policy Act. As of March 9, 2009, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission had received applications for permission to construct 26 new nuclear power reactors However, as of 2013 most of the new applications had been abandoned due to the low cost of electricity generated","-30.923294918145984"],["to abandon atomic energy. As of October 2011, only 11 nuclear power plants are operating. There have been electricity shortages, but Japan survived the summer without the extensive blackouts that had been predicted. An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, says \"public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged\" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. Jordan Jordan has signed memorandums of understanding with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Japan, China, and South Korea. In December 2009, Jordan Atomic Energy Commission","-30.89605907126679"],["developed detailed plans for 2 nuclear power plants with 8 reactors, but in November 2016 decided to abandon nuclear power plans as they were \"not economically viable because of other cheaper sources of power.\" Japan Once a nuclear proponent, Prime Minister Naoto Kan became increasingly anti-nuclear following the Fukushima nuclear disaster. In May 2011, he closed the aging Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant over earthquake and tsunami fears, and said he would freeze plans to build new reactors. In July 2011, Kan said that \"Japan should reduce and eventually eliminate its dependence on nuclear energy ... saying that the Fukushima accident","-30.732885105535388"],["dormant for many years, although legislation continued until 1992. Although nuclear plants were still quite active and even improving production and safety practices, construction of new plants ended in the late 1980s. This was acceptable to many utility companies, because most of the plants were licensed to operate on 20–40 year contracts, despite an unfavorable political climate. Over time, numerous polls showed a steady increase in public support and decrease in opposition, except for a temporary drop in numbers after the September 11 attacks and the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. According to a Gallup poll in 2009, 59% of the","-30.703885891562095"],["with state laws.\nAs a result, both Pacific Gas and Electric Company and parent company PG&E Corporation filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy around January 29 following the California required 15-day bankruptcy waiting period. Public Safety Power Shutoff On October 8, 2019, on the midst of wildfire season, PG&E preemptively shut off power to almost all Bay Area counties except San Francisco due to risk of causing another wildfire leaving almost 800,000 customers without power for time projected to be up to 5 days. The company is planning to do the shutdown in phases starting 12 midnight. Community Pipeline Safety Initiative (CPSI)","-30.648692796070463"],["shale gas boom has lowered electricity generation costs placing severe pressure on the economics of operating older existing nuclear power plants. Analysis by Bloomberg shows that over half of U.S. nuclear plants are running at a loss. The Nuclear Energy Institute has estimated that 15 to 20 reactors are at risk of early closure for economic reasons. Nuclear operators in Illinois and New York have obtained financial support from regulators, and operators in Connecticut, New Jersey, Ohio and Pennsylvania are seeking similar support. Some non-nuclear power generating companies have filed unfair competition lawsuits against these subsidies, and have raised the","-30.63622173271142"],["been growing acceptance of nuclear power in the United States was eroded sharply following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, with public support for building nuclear power plants in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, according to a CBS News poll. Only 43 percent of those polled after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States.\nActivists who were involved in the U.S. anti-nuclear movement's emergence (such as Graham Nash and Paul Gunter), suggest that Japan's nuclear crisis may rekindle an interest in","-30.6302296963986"],["Commission a formal notice of its intention to shut down the plant on September 30, 2019, unless the Pennsylvania legislature rescues the nuclear industry, which is currently struggling to compete as newfound natural gas resources have driven down electricity prices. Exelon Generation's Senior Vice President Bryan Hanson noted that once Three Mile Island was closed, it could never be reopened for use again. Hanson explicitly stated the reason for the shutdown is because of the unprofitability of Unit 1. Unit 1 has lost the company over 300 million dollars over the last half-decade despite it being one of Exelon's best-performing","-30.59615214567748"],["of respondents feel that all nuclear power plants should be closed down. Stressing the climate change benefits of nuclear energy positively influences 10% of people to be more supportive of expanding the role of nuclear power in the world, but there is still a general reluctance to support the building of more nuclear power plants.\nThere is little support across the world for building new nuclear reactors, a 2011 poll for the BBC indicates. The global research agency GlobeScan, commissioned by BBC News, polled 23,231 people in 23 countries from July to September 2011, several months after the Fukushima nuclear disaster.","-30.579036720038857"],["reduced to 1990 levels by 2020. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed Executive Order S-3-05 in June 2005 that declared California is vulnerable to climate change impacts resulting in loss of Sierra snowpack for water supply and rising sea levels threatening coastal real estate and habitat. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger also signed Executive Order S-21-09 in September 2009 requiring 33% of electricity sold in the California come from renewable resources by 2020 to curb greenhouse gas emissions. This assembly of legislation and evidence of environmental impact led to California enacting requirements for lead agencies to consider greenhouse gas emissions in their CEQA reviews.\nCalifornia","-30.511230926960707"],["force. There is no indication that California utilities are contemplating such construction; the state legislature is not obligated to address purely hypothetical facets of a problem.\nThird, petitioners note that there already is a body, the California Public Utilities Commission, which is authorized to determine on economic grounds whether a nuclear powerplant should be constructed. 26 While California is certainly free to make these decisions on a case-by-case basis, a State is not foreclosed from reaching the same decision through a legislative judgment, applicable to all cases. The economic uncertainties engendered by the nuclear waste disposal problems are not factors","-30.449433932175452"],["Shellenberger, Mark Lynas) signed an open letter to California Governor Jerry Brown, Tony Earley, CEO of Pacific Gas & Electric, and California state officials, urging that the plant not be closed. They argued that Diablo is an asset for California in achieving global warming goals since it does not emit greenhouse gases like a natural gas power plant, which are a major contributor to global warming. Closure in 2024–2025 On June 21, 2016, PG&E announced a Joint Proposal with Friends of the Earth, the Natural Resources Defense Council, Environment California, the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Local 1245, Coalition of","-30.275556358901667"],["couldn’t economically meet the NRC's new tightened standards, shifted electricity generation to coal-fired power plants. In 1977, following the first oil shock, U.S. President Jimmy Carter made a speech calling the energy crisis the \"moral equivalent of war\" and prominently supporting nuclear power. However, nuclear power could not compete with cheap oil and gas, particularly after public opposition and regulatory hurdles made new nuclear prohibitively expensive.\nIn 2006 The Brookings Institution, a public policy organization, stated that new nuclear units had not been built in the United States because of soft demand for electricity, the potential cost overruns on nuclear","-30.270762827480212"],["power plants in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. Support had been at an all-time high of 69 percent in 1977, according to polling by the New York Times and CBS News. 43 percent of those polled after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States. This represents a decline from a high of 57 percent in July 2008.\nActivists who were involved in the U.S. anti-nuclear movement's emergence (such as Graham Nash and Paul Gunter) suggest that Japan's nuclear crisis may","-30.269140865549616"],["operating commercial nuclear power plants, but will mean the loss of 2256 MW of generation that produced over 18,000 GWh of electricity per year.\nThe company operated the Humboldt Bay Power Plant, Unit 3 in Eureka, California. It is the oldest commercial nuclear plant in California and its maximum output was 65 MWe. The plant operated for 13 years, until 1976 when it was shut down for seismic retrofitting. New regulations enacted after the Three Mile Island accident, however, rendered the plant unprofitable and it was never restarted. Unit 3 is currently in decommissioning phase. Based on PG&E's schedule of planned decommissioning","-30.258295175706735"],["the 48 California state parks proposed for closure in January 2008 by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger as part of a deficit reduction program. The closures were ultimately avoided by cutting hours and maintenance system-wide.","-30.22851218865253"],["1976 that mandated that a solution be found to the problem of safe disposal of nuclear waste before further nuclear plants could be constructed. Attempts to exempt the Sundesert plant from the law failed in what was then called the California Assembly's Resources, Land Use and Energy Committee.\nAdditionally, statewide public disapproval of nuclear power had increased significantly. In March 1978 in California’s Kern County, voters for the first time in United States history emphatically rejected a nuclear power plant, the proposed four-reactor San Joaquin Nuclear Project, by a 70% to 30% margin. If approved and constructed, it would have been","-30.095482311211526"],["scenic oceanside Corral Canyon, in 1970.\nHowever, by the early 1970s, the future of nuclear energy in California was projected to expand on a major scale, with numerous proposals on the drafting boards of the state’s utility companies.\nIn the mid- and late 1970s, plans envisioned as future United States energy policy by the Carter Administration called for hundreds of new nuclear plants to be built nationwide. But under Governor Jerry Brown who was elected in 1975, California was heading in the opposite direction. Proposal and rejection In 1976, after purchasing the necessary parcel of land the previous year, San Diego Gas","-29.95847628795309"],["California Utility Employees, and Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility to increase investment in energy efficiency, renewables and storage, while phasing out nuclear power. Critics objected to the proposal, pointing out PG&E had selected parties to the proposal without any public notice or input. Specifically, the operating licenses for Diablo Canyon Units 1 and 2 would not be renewed when they expire on November 2, 2024 and August 26, 2025, respectively. PG&E's application to close Diablo Canyon, including the Joint Proposal, was approved by the California Public Utilities Commission in January 2018. In February, PG&E withdrew its application to the Nuclear","-29.924846229609102"],["with an Edison executive in Poland, where the two had negotiated the terms of the San Onofre settlement leaving San Diego taxpayers with a $3.3 billion bill to pay for the closure of the plant. The investigation was closed amidst Harris' 2016 run for the US Senate position, which opened when Barbara Boxer retired. Environmental impact Total greenhouse gas emissions from power plants in California increased by 35% from 2011 to 2012, according to figures from the California Air Resources Board, which per the World Nuclear News is partly due to the early closure of San Onofre. Decommissioning, 2014–present Decommissioning","-29.898602162311363"],["announced that its Swedish nuclear power plants, including the newer reactors, were operating at a loss due to low electricity prices and Sweden's nuclear output tax. It warned that if it was forced to shut the plants down, there would be serious consequences to Sweden's electricity supply, and argued that the nuclear output tax should be scrapped.\nIn October 2016 Vattenfall began litigation against the German government for its 2011 decision to accelerate the phase-out of nuclear power. Hearings are taking place at the World Bank's International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in Washington, D.C. and Vattenfall is","-29.887560435570776"],["in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. Only 43 percent of those polled after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States. A Washington Post-ABC poll conducted in April 2011 found that 64 percent of Americans opposed the construction of new nuclear reactors. A survey sponsored by the Nuclear Energy Institute, conducted in September 2011, found that \"62 percent of respondents said they favor the use of nuclear energy as one of the ways to provide electricity in the United States,","-29.82399842829909"],["legislating California's energy commodity trading deregulation. Despite warnings from prominent consumer groups which stated that this law would give energy traders too much influence over energy commodity prices, the legislation was passed during December 2000.\nAs the periodical Public Citizen reported, \"Because of Enron's new, unregulated power auction, the company's 'Wholesale Services' revenues quadrupled—- from $12 billion in the first quarter of 2000 to $48.4 billion in the first quarter of 2001.\"\nAfter passage of the deregulation law, California had a total of 38 Stage 3 rolling blackouts declared, until federal regulators intervened during June 2001. These blackouts occurred as a result of a","-29.75029639049899"],["similar majority of 70 percent says the United States should 'definitely build more' nuclear energy facilities [in 2010].\" According to Ann Bisconti, PhD, \"This unprecedented support for nuclear energy is being driven largely by people's concerns for meeting future energy demand and environmental goals, but it coincides with statements by President Obama and other national leaders who have voiced strong support for more nuclear power plants.\" 2011 Fukushima accidents and public policy impact What had been growing acceptance of nuclear power in the United States was eroded sharply following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, with public support for building nuclear","-29.677729424409335"],["development, Griffin observed in 2010 that \"We had to keep all the operations very secretive because once someone else found out what you were up to it was trouble.\" Stopping a freeway and a nuclear power plant Griffin also helped stop a planned freeway from the Golden Gate Bridge through West Marin to Sonoma County, which would have enabled construction along its route. The freeway was touted by then California Governor Edmund G. Brown as part of a plan to locate 150,000 new residents on the Northern California coast, including substantial housing development in what was to eventually become Point","-29.670113136434793"],["Sundesert Nuclear Power Plant Background Opposition to nuclear power plants in California began in 1958 over the proposed Bodega Bay Nuclear Power Plant near the small fishing town of Bodega Bay, California. The six-year controversy pitted utility company Pacific Gas and Electric against local activists opposed to the location of the nuclear plant. According to nuclear power historian Thomas Wellock, this successful fight by the activists, the first in the history of nuclear power, led directly to the eventual growth of California’s anti-nuclear movement. A second battle by state environmentalists stopped a nuclear facility proposed for Malibu, California, in the","-29.649401889531873"],["went into \"safe mode\" to prevent damage in the case of an overload. This put much of the nuclear power offline until those plants could be slowly taken out of \"safe mode\". In the meantime, all available hydro-electric plants (as well as many coal- and oil-fired plants) were brought online, bringing some electrical power to the areas immediately surrounding the plants by the morning of August 15. Homes and businesses both in the affected area and in nearby areas were requested to limit power usage until the grid was back to full power. Water supply Some areas lost water pressure","-29.608935855154414"],["90% of their full-time full-load potential, but even they must shut down (on average) for about 1 out of each 18 months for scheduled refueling and maintenance. To cope with such intermittence by nuclear (and centralized fossil-fuelled) power plants, utilities install a \"reserve margin\" of roughly 15% extra capacity spinning ready for instant use.\nLovins also argues that nuclear plants have an additional disadvantage: for safety, they must instantly shut down in a power failure, but due to the inherent nuclear-physics of the systems, they can't be restarted quickly. For example, during the Northeast Blackout of 2003, nine operating U.S. nuclear","-29.582387333968654"],["nuclear power and convenience of installing a nuclear plant due to the country's energy crisis. New debates When the issue was reopened, opinions were heard from experts, politicians, media and the military. According to Diva Puig, a consultant in nuclear energy for Latin America of the IAEA, “the discussion about nuclear energy (...) must not exclude any sectors of society”. Justo Laiz, director of CIN, agreed with her, opining that “I do not agree that this issue be discussed only on a political point of view” because “energy issues should be part of scientific discussions and decisions”.\nAbout the possibility of","-29.546211712411605"],["nuclear power plants.\nIn 2019, the Department of National Defense expressed its support for the revival of the nuclear power plant. The Philippine Nuclear Research Institute also urged the government to revive the power plant.","-29.523271001467947"],["nuclear power phase-out, and \"Moratorium Plus\", for an extension of the earlier-decided moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down. The results were: Moratorium Plus: 41.6% Yes, 58.4% No; Electricity without Nuclear: 33.7% Yes, 66.3% No.\nThe program of the \"Electricity without Nuclear\" petition was to shut down all nuclear power stations by 2033, starting with Unit 1 and 2 of Beznau nuclear power stations, Mühleberg in 2005, Gösgen in 2009, and Leibstadt in 2014. \"Moratorium Plus\" was for an extension of the moratorium for another ten years, and additionally a condition to stop the present","-29.445600046077743"],["rekindle an interest in the movement in the United States. The aim, they say, is \"not just to block the Obama administration’s push for new nuclear construction, but to convince Americans that existing plants pose dangers\".\nPublic opinion appears to have been aroused with regard to the re-licensing application of the Diablo Canyon Power Plant. Nuclear Regulatory Commission officials had already planned to conduct a series of public meetings in January, February and March 2011 as public attention in San Luis Obispo County turned towards the question of whether the plant should be re-licensed subsequent to public disclosure of a third","-29.43106415985676"],["Ohi facility. On September 14, 2013, those reactors were shut down, leaving all 50 Japanese commercial nuclear reactors closed.\nAn energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, says \"public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged\" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. It also omits a section on nuclear power expansion that was in last year's policy review. Extra staff members for Kiev embassy On 30 October 2011 the Japanese government took up the plan to increase the 30 members of the staff at the","-29.42851905222051"],["Japan must reduce its dependence on nuclear energy, breaking with a decades-old Japanese government drive to build more nuclear power plants in the country. \"We must scrap the plan to have nuclear power contribute 53 percent (of electricity supply) by 2030 and reduce the degree of reliance on nuclear power,\" Kan told a government panel. Kan said Japan should abandon plans to build 14 new reactors by 2030. He wants to \"pass a bill to promote renewable energy and questioned whether private companies should be running atomic plants\". In 2012, Kan said the Fukushima disaster made it clear to him","-29.40346739400411"],["calling on the government to abandon plans to build a nuclear power plant in their area. Specific concerns included the dangers posed by nuclear waste and the location of the country on the Pacific Ring of Fire, with geological activity (such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions) hazardous to nuclear reactors.","-29.377986286999658"],["had demonstrated the dangers of the technology\". In August 2011, the Japanese government passed a bill to subsidize electricity from renewable energy sources. A 2011 Japanese Cabinet energy white paper says \"public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged\" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. As of August 2011, the crippled Fukushima nuclear plant is still leaking low levels of radioactivity and areas surrounding it could remain uninhabitable for decades.\nBy March 2012, one year after the disaster, all but two of Japan's nuclear reactors were shut down; some were","-29.36718392907642"],["Takahama-4 restarted. United States The United States is, as of 2013, undergoing a practical phase-out independent of stated goals and continued official support. This is not due to concerns about the source or anti-nuclear groups, but due to the rapidly falling prices of natural gas and the reluctance of investors to provide funding for long-term projects when short term profitability of turbine power is available.\nThrough the 2000s a number of factors led to greatly increased interest in new nuclear reactors, including rising demand, new lower-cost reactor designs, and concerns about global climate change. By 2009, about 30 new reactors were","-29.362776490161195"],["for $294 million to Pinnacle West Capital Corp (of Arizona Public Service). The move was the direct result of a new California law requiring utility companies to exit coal-fired power production (even the renewing of contracts is disallowed), and forces Edison to purchase more power from the market.\nSan Onofre Nuclear Generating Station\nUnit 2 shut in early January 2012 for refueling and replacement of the reactor vessel head.\nBoth reactors at San Onofre have been shut since January 2012 due to premature wear found on tubes in massive steam generators installed in 2010 and 2011.\nIn April 2012, in a sign of","-29.342190963216126"],["in U.S. nuclear power plants’ preparedness for unforeseen natural disasters. \"You can't control mother nature,\" he reasoned.\" \nThe article continued to quote the U.S. Nuclear Energy Foundation to the effect that too much stock is being put into the fear surrounding Fukushima power plant. On a policy level, United States officials were wary. U.S. Energy Secretary Steven Chu told Congress that the Obama administration intends to hold the course on underwriting new nuclear power plants. \"The people in the United States, U.S. territories, are in no danger”, Chu said during a Fox News Sunday broadcast. \"It's unlikely they will be","-29.3293517655693"],["other utilities, the Southern Company in Atlanta and JEA in Jacksonville, both sent letters of commitment to show that they were serious about purchasing a plant; however, no plants were ever built. Cancellation Although OPS did not have Federal approval to build the plants in the 1970s, the biggest reason why OPS was not successful was the 1973 oil crisis. Less oil available resulted in higher oil prices, which encouraged conservation and less demand for electricity. PSE&G did not need the additional capacity from the nuclear generators they had ordered, so PSE&G requested a two-year delay. After the embargo ended,","-29.316085833939724"],["completely without nuclear-produced electrical power for the first time since 1970. Despite protests, on 1 July 2012 unit 3 of the Ōi Nuclear Power Plant was restarted. As of September 2012, Ōi units 3 and 4 are Japan's only operating nuclear power plants, although the city and prefecture of Osaka have requested they be shut down.\nThe United States-Japan Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan is a bilateral agreement aimed at putting in place a framework for the joint research and development of nuclear energy technology, which was signed on April 18, 2007. It is believed that the agreement is the","-29.27443533242331"],["Arizona that caused widespread problems in western Arizona and eastern California. In time, SDG&E's system was drawing from the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station (SONGS) considerably more power than was being produced, pulling it from Los Angeles, and a \"safety net\" system cut it off from the nuclear plant. Once this happened, SDG&E's system rapidly collapsed due to mismatch of generation and load, unable to drop load faster than generation was lost. SDG&E implemented their system restoration plan and cautioned its customers to expect a prolonged outage. The outage appears to have been caused by the actions of an employee","-29.250613783384324"],["coal generation by 2007. However, for various operational and demand reasons this was not possible until 2014, when the last coal was burned in OPG's stations.\nThe company also endured significant criticism concerning the slow return to operation of some of its nuclear generating stations which had been shut down by the Northeast blackout of 2003. The problem was that all but one of the reactors were tripped and allowed to poison out, preventing an early reconnection to the electricity grid. Once shut down, all nuclear reactors take several days to return to service.\nAnother source of criticism was the","-29.24532870898838"],["to not pursue re-opening the plant. The same year, they successfully pressured MidAmerican Energy Company to abandon its plans to build new nuclear power reactors in Iowa; it instead announced a new $1.9 billion investment to expand to its wind generation fleet.\nAfter Friends of the Earth campaigned against the genetically engineered Arctic Apple, in 2013 McDonald's and Gerber pledged not to sell or use the product. The organization has also consistently protested the construction of the Keystone XL Pipeline. This campaign, along with the efforts of other protestors and environmental organizations, helped to pressure the Obama administration to order","-29.22130062553333"],["an extension of the earlier decided moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down. The results were: Moratorium Plus: 41.6% Yes, 58.4% No; Electricity without Nuclear: 33.7% Yes, 66.3% No. The program of the \"Electricity without Nuclear\" petition was to shut down all nuclear power stations by 2033, starting with Unit 1 and 2 of Beznau nuclear power stations, Mühleberg in 2005, Gösgen in 2009, and Leibstadt in 2014. \"Moratorium Plus\" was for an extension of the moratorium for another 10 years, and additionally a condition to stop the present reactors after 40 years of","-29.21000936382916"],["safety related.\" Reassessment of Nuclear Energy in California: A Policy Analysis of Proposition 15 and its Alternatives, p. 18 (1976) (Reassessment Report) (emphasis in original). The Committee explained that the lack of a federally approved method of waste disposal created a \"clog\" in the nuclear fuel cycle. Storage space was limited while more nuclear wastes were continuously produced. Without a permanent means of disposal, the nuclear waste problem could become critical, [461 U.S. 190, 214] leading to unpredictably high costs to contain the problem or, worse, shutdowns in reactors. \"Waste disposal safety,\" the Reassessment Report notes, \"is not directly","-29.174642266269075"],["safety regulation. 28 [461 U.S. 190, 217] \nResponse to first argument. From the time the federal act was passed in 1954 until the present, White explained, Congress had maintained a system of dual regulation over nuclear plants: the federal government held control over safety issues, whereas the states exercised \"their traditional authority over economic questions such as the need for additional generating capacity, the type of generating facilities to be licensed, land use, and ratemaking.\" The Court held that 25524.2 was directed toward economics, rather than safety, in its purpose and thus was fully within California's authority.\nResponse to second","-29.16604974132497"],["Nuclear Power 2010 Program The \"Nuclear Power 2010 Program\" was launched in 2002 by President George W. Bush in order to restart orders for nuclear power reactors in the U.S. by providing subsidies for a handful of Generation III+ demonstration plants. The expectation was that these plants would come online by 2010, but it was not met.\nIn March 2017, the leading nuclear-plant maker, Westinghouse Electric Company, filed for bankruptcy due to losing over $9 billion in construction losses from working on two nuclear plants. This loss was partly caused by safety concerns due to the Fukushima disaster, Germany's Energiewende, the","-29.165465008933097"],["because it is becoming too costly to operate. The nuclear industry's profits have been squeezed out by utilities who are buying cheaper energy from natural gas power plants. “Given the financial challenges our merchant power plants face from sustained wholesale power price declines and other unfavorable market conditions, we have been assessing each asset,” Chief Executive Officer Leo Denault said in the statement. “Market conditions require us to also close the FitzPatrick nuclear plant.”\nIn 2016, Cuomo directed the Public Service Commission to consider ratepayer-financed subsidies similar to those for renewable sources to keep nuclear power stations profitable in the competition","-29.139861744391965"],["of nuclear power. Platts has reported that \"the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world\".\nThe World Nuclear Association has reported that nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since 1999. Several previous international studies and assessments, suggested that as part of the portfolio of other low-carbon energy technologies, nuclear power will continue to play a role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Historically, nuclear power usage is estimated to have prevented the","-29.138905346155298"],["\"construction of new merchant nuclear power plants in competitive markets uneconomical now and for the foreseeable future\". In early 2013 UBS noted that some smaller reactors operating in deregulated markets may become uneconomic to operate and maintain, due to competition from generators using low priced natural gas, and may be retired early. The 556 MWe Kewaunee Power Station is being closed 20 years before license expiry for these economic reasons. In February 2014 the Financial Times identified Pilgrim, Indian Point, Clinton and Quad Cities power stations as potentially at risk of premature closure for economic reasons.\nAs of 2017, the U.S.","-29.08596889890032"],["the plant was permanently shut down in December 2012. It should remain dormant 40 more years before being dismantled.\nFollowing the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) ordered all reactor operators to revisit their safety plans and report on potential improvements by the end of April 2011. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) later conducted a review of the CNSC's response to the events at Japan's Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, and concluded that it was \"prompt, robust and comprehensive, and is a good practice that should be used by other regulatory bodies\". Planned massive refurbishment In","-29.072019702609396"],["evident desire of Congress to prevent safety from being [461 U.S. 190, 222] compromised by promotional concerns does not translate into an abandonment of the objective of promoting nuclear power. The legislation was carefully drafted, in fact, to avoid any antinuclear sentiment. 32 The continuing commitment to nuclear power is reflected in the extension of the Price-Anderson Act's coverage until 1987, Pub. L. 94-197, 2-14, 89 Stat. 1111-1115, as well as in Congress' express preclusion of reliance on natural gas and petroleum as primary energy sources in new powerplants, Powerplant and Industrial Fuel Use Act of 1978, 92","-29.04098753051585"],["and some shifted their weekends to weekdays to smooth power demand. Converting to a nuclear-free gas and oil energy economy would cost tens of billions of dollars in annual fees. One estimate is that even including the disaster, more years of life would have been lost in 2011 if Japan had used coal or gas plants instead of nuclear.\nMany political activists have called for a phase-out of nuclear power in Japan, including Amory Lovins, who claimed, \"Japan is poor in fuels, but is the richest of all major industrial countries in renewable energy that can meet the entire long-term","-28.989959748927504"],["hailed by Energy Secretary Steven Chu as \"the first new nuclear power plant to break ground in decades\". It is expected to create up to 3,500 jobs during the construction phase, and 800 once operational. However in March 2017 Westinghouse Electric Company, who are building the plant, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy because of $9 billion of losses from its two U.S. nuclear construction projects. The U.S. government had given $8.3 billion of loan guarantees on the financing of the four nuclear reactors being built in the U.S., and it is expected a way forward to completing the plant can","-28.97296897752676"],["150 MW, scheduled to begin production in 2014.\nAs of September 2012, the Los Angeles Times reported that \"Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda acknowledged that the vast majority of Japanese support the zero option on nuclear power\", and Prime Minister Noda and the Japanese government announced plans to make the country nuclear-free by the 2030s. They announced the end to construction of nuclear power plants and a 40-year limit on existing nuclear plants. Nuclear plant restarts must meet safety standards of the new independent regulatory authority.\nOn 16 December 2012, Japan held its general election. The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) had a clear","-28.93111783962013"],["did 25524.2 in any way conflict with national policy, even with a decision by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to allow continued licensing of reactors despite concerns regarding waste disposal. Again, the NRC's authority, as that of a federal nuclear regulatory agency, was in the realm of safety, leaving states to make economic determinations regarding nuclear power. White wrote, :And as there is no attempt on California's part to enter the field of developing and licensing nuclear waste disposal technology, a field occupied by the Federal Government, 25524.2 is not preempted any more by the NRC's obligations in the waste","-28.915038007689873"],["Nuclear renaissance in the United States Between 2007 and 2009, 13 companies applied to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for construction and operating licenses to build 31 new nuclear power reactors in the United States. However, the case for widespread nuclear plant construction has been hampered due to inexpensive natural gas, slow electricity demand growth in a weak US economy, lack of financing, and safety concerns following the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011.\nMost of the proposed 31 reactors have been canceled, and as of August 2017 only two reactors are under construction. In 2013, four reactors were permanently closed: San Onofre","-28.88497233844828"],["with California budget crisis, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger proposed the temporary closure (for at least 2 years) of 220 parks. The closures were ultimately avoided by cutting hours and maintenance system-wide.","-28.87100059504155"],["previous moratorium, although it removed the controversial article related to the nuclear criminal offense.\nEven though majority of people and politicians still support moratorium on usage of nuclear energy, past couple of years are marked with an increasing public campaign pointed towards repeal of the 1995 Law, or, at least, its limitation to 10 years, after which it would be possible to build nuclear reactors in Serbia. Spain In 1964, Spain began construction on its first of three nuclear reactors and completed construction in 1968.\nCurrently, Spain has eight nuclear reactors producing 20% of the country's electricity or 7,442 net MWe. Sweden","-28.857969459611923"],["new nuclear power plants nor extending the life spans of outdated ones. In May 2012, nuclear power plants which were sitting idle in the wake of the Fukushima disaster were restarted in order to help Japan's immediate demands for energy, despite protests including hundreds of people. Trans-Pacific Partnership After becoming Prime Minister, one of Noda's most important initiatives was pursuing the entry of Japan into the negotiations for the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership, which he announced on 11 November 2011. This proved controversial and was widely discussed in Japanese society. Senkaku Islands The Tokyo Metropolitan Government under Governor Shintaro Ishihara","-28.847255995075102"],["environmental and anti-nuclear activists gathered at Southern California Edison's Irvine headquarters calling for the San Onofre plant to be decommissioned. Initial shutdown Unit 2 was shut down in early January 2012 for routine refueling and replacement of the reactor vessel head. On January 31, 2012, Unit 3 suffered a radioactive leak largely inside the containment shell, with a release to the environment below allowable limits, and the reactor was shut down per standard procedure. On investigation, the replacement steam generators from 2011 in both units were found to show premature wear on over 3,000 tubes, in 15,000 places. Plant officials","-28.806853315065382"],["economists is clear: \"nuclear reactors are simply not competitive\".\nIn December 2010, The Economist reported that the demand for nuclear power was softening in America. In recent years, utilities have shown an interest in about 30 new reactors, but the number with any serious prospect of being built as of the end of 2010 was about a dozen, as some companies had withdrawn their applications for licenses to build. Exelon has withdrawn its application for a license for a twin-unit nuclear plant in Victoria County, Texas, citing lower electricity demand projections. The decision has left the country's largest nuclear operator without","-28.780563015607186"],["power plant to be decommissioned, on October 24, 2016. Another five aging reactors were permanently closed in 2013 and 2014 before their licenses expired because of high maintenance and repair costs at a time when natural gas prices have fallen: San Onofre 2 and 3 in California, Crystal River 3 in Florida, Vermont Yankee in Vermont, and Kewaunee in Wisconsin, and New York State is seeking to close Indian Point in Buchanan, 30 miles from New York City.\nMost reactors began construction by 1974; following the Three Mile Island accident in 1979 and changing economics, many planned projects were canceled. More","-28.756012879224727"],["policy. Again, the company made no effort to identify those responsible. 2008 shutdown In 2008, Tokyo Electric, forced to shut the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant after an earthquake, posted its first loss in 28 years as oil and gas costs soared. Nuclear accidents On 11 March 2011 several nuclear reactors in Japan were badly damaged by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.\nThe Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant lost external electric power, experienced the failure of one of its two cooling pumps, and two of its three emergency power generators. External electric power could only be restored two days after the","-28.738138558968785"],["all other options.\"\nFederal officials also ruled out nuclear devices due to environmental and political risks, as doing so would be a violation of Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty that the United States has signed. Admiral Thad Allen stated, \"since we don't know the condition of that well bore or the casings, I would be cautious about putting any kind of kinetic energy on that well head, because what you may do is create open communication between the reservoir and the sea floor.\" Allen also said that the result could be oil seeping through cracks and through the seafloor, \"and then be","-28.722286998905474"],["Trillo-1 and Vandellos-2. All of the other five units of this series were halted in the middle of construction after a moratorium stopping further construction passed in 1994. Capacity of the nuclear fleet has still increased since then due to power uprates.\nThere are no plans for either expansion or accelerated closure of nuclear plants. A leak of radioactive material from the Ascó I nuclear power plant in November 2007 sparked protests. The country's government has pledged to shut down its eight nuclear reactors once wind and solar energy become viable alternatives such as in neighbouring country Portugal. Fuel cycle ENUSA","-28.719145039664"],["for the six-unit nuclear power plant is the coastal district of Gujarat; however, the site may be moved to the southeastern state of Andhra Pradesh, due to opposition from the local community. Westinghouse's parent company Toshiba decided in 2017 to withdraw from the construction of nuclear power plants, following financial difficulties, leaving the proposed agreement in doubt. Operations In March 2019 Sanmen Unit 2 was shut down because of a reactor coolant pump defect. A replacement pump has been shipped from the U.S. by Curtiss-Wright. There have been previous problems with these pumps, with several pumps returned from China. The","-28.689091044885572"],["293 to 152, bolstering the Prime Minister's position.\nIn July 2011, Kan said that Japan must reduce its dependence on nuclear energy, breaking with a decades-old Japanese government drive to build more nuclear power plants in the country. \"We must scrap the plan to have nuclear power contribute 53 percent (of electricity supply) by 2030 and reduce the degree of reliance on nuclear power,\" Kan told a government panel. Kan said Japan should abandon plans to build 14 new reactors by 2030. He wants to \"pass a bill to promote renewable energy and questioned whether private companies should be running atomic","-28.658581877010874"],["York State is seeking to close Indian Point Nuclear Power Plant, in Buchanan, 30 miles from New York City, despite this reactor being the primary contributor to Vermont's green energy fund.\nThe additional cancellation of five large reactor upgrades (Prairie Island, 1 reactor, LaSalle, 2 reactors, and Limerick, 2 reactors), four by the largest nuclear company in the U.S., suggest that the nuclear industry faces \"a broad range of operational and economic problems\".\nIn July 2013, economist Mark Cooper named some nuclear power plants that face particularly intense challenges to their continued operation. Cooper said that the lesson for policy makers and","-28.65285977208987"],["Choice, Gore argues that nuclear power was once \"expected to provide virtually unlimited supplies of low-cost electricity\", but the reality is that it has been \"... an energy source in crisis for the last 30 years.\" Worldwide growth in nuclear power has slowed in recent years, with no new reactors and an \"actual decline in global capacity and output in 2008.\" In the United States, \"... no nuclear power plants ordered after 1972 have been built to completion.\"\nOf the 253 nuclear power reactors originally ordered in the United States from 1953 to 2008, 48 percent were canceled, 11 percent were prematurely shut","-28.641475521872053"],["not compel a utility to develop a nuclear plant, compliance with both it and 25524.2 is possible. Moreover, because the NRC's regulations are aimed at insuring that plants are safe, not necessarily that they are economical, 25524.2 does not interfere with the objective of the federal regulation.\nNor has California sought through 25524.2 to impose its own standards on nuclear waste disposal. The statute accepts that it is the federal responsibility to develop and license such technology. As there is no attempt on California's part to enter this field, one which is occupied by the Federal Government, we do not find","-28.63822167415492"],["environmental considerations have led Ontario to announce that it will maintain existing nuclear capacity by replacing older reactors with new ones. Canada has never had any serious accidents related to nuclear power, CANDU reactors are a particularly safe design. Canada is planning new reactors. Mexico Mexico has one nuclear power plant, which consists of two boiling water reactors. In February 2007, contracts with Iberdrola and Alstom were signed to update the reactors by 2010. A committee has been established to recommend on new nuclear plants and the most recent proposal is for one unit to come on line by 2015","-28.607950257250195"],["with seven more to follow it by 2025.\nAfter a time was thought to stop the use of nuclear energy then Mexico finally decided in 2007 by repowering the Laguna Verde Nuclear Power Station, which has two reactors of 683MW each, after the upgrading, reactors are increase their production to 817MW each, accounting 4.6% of the electricity production. On May 14, 2010 Energy Secretary Georgina Kessel announced that Mexico provides full development of nuclear energy in its energy mix as an alternative to discourage the use of fossil fuels and increase the generation of clean electricity.\nIn November 2011, Mexico abandoned plans","-28.594696727646806"],["the Onagawa nuclear power plant may demonstrate that it is possible for nuclear facilities to withstand the greatest natural disasters, and to retain public trust. The plant was shut down following the earthquake and tsunami, in accordance with standard legally mandated procedure after such an event, but despite the IAEA finding that the plant had survived the quake remarkably undamaged, the three units remain in cold shutdown. Whereas the mishaps at Fukushima I radically changed public opinion on safety and risks, Tohoku Electric seems to have preserved much of its pre-disaster goodwill in the area of Onagawa. While the tsunami","-28.592716113926144"],["revision. Yes California argues that this not a major revision, based on the California Supreme Court's test in Legislature v. Eu that a revision \"must necessarily or inevitably appear from the face of the challenged provision that the measure will substantially alter [California's] basic governmental framework\".\nThe Legislative Analyst's report also noted the tens of millions of dollars that would have to be spent by state and local governments to hold an additional statewide election in March 2019.\nWere California to actually become its own separate nation, the major economic and budgetary impacts for both the current state and local governments are","-28.59104646263586"],["until 1 July 2012, Japan had no operating nuclear power plants.\nOn 17 April 2013, a shipment of MOX nuclear fuel to Japan left the port of Cherbourg in northern France, for the first time since the Fukushima disaster, destined for Takahama nuclear plant. \nMOX fuel contains around 7% plutonium. Court decision forbids restart As of 16 April 2015, the Takahama reactors were ordered to remain offline by a Japanese court, which cited continued safety concerns. \nThe Fukui District Court rejected a \"stay\" on its original ruling that, despite approval to restart the plants from Japan's governmental Nuclear Regulation Authority (an","-28.587613923256868"],["proliferate in California, there is debate and concern over who takes on the POLR responsibility if a CCA fails. If incumbent utilities are no longer in the business of providing power, it may no longer be feasible for them to provide this backstop. Individual CCAs differ on whether they want to or are capable of taking on this responsibility.\nThe CPUC has released a study called the “Green Book,” which is reminiscent of the agency’s “Blue” and “Yellow” Books in 1993, which led to California’s deregulation and subsequent energy crisis in the early 2000s. The substance of the “Green Book”","-28.57922164024785"],["Marcus Ruiz Evans of Yes California wrote that, \"No one is going to pull money out of California if it secedes, no one is going to invade, no one is going to stop trading – there is too much money invested here, too many deals already going on. The world will not let the California economy be disrupted.\"\nAt a forum held by the campaign in Los Angeles on February 13, 2017, led by Evans and Marinelli, they argued that California annually loses about $70 billion by subsidizing other states and military overseas, which could instead be used elsewhere. Marinelli also stated","-28.568983652796305"],["have been reduced significantly if mass production began, due to economies of scale. There is also discussion about electric cars threatening dealer profits since they have so few service requirements—no tuneups, no oil changes, and less frequent brake jobs because of regenerative braking. U.S. government While not overtly political, the film documents that the federal government of the United States under the Presidency of George W. Bush joined the auto-industry suit against California in 2002. This pushed California to abandon its ZEV mandate regulation. The film notes that Bush's chief of staff Andrew Card had recently been head of the","-28.543834960029926"],["Pakistan, Russia, Slovakia, South Korea, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom and the United States of America. At least 100 older and smaller reactors will \"most probably be closed over the next 10-15 years\".\nCountries that wish to shut down nuclear power plants must find alternatives for electricity generation; otherwise, they are forced to become dependent on imports. Therefore, the discussion of a future for nuclear energy is intertwined with discussions about fossil fuels or an energy transition to renewable energy. Austria A nuclear power station was built during the 1970s at Zwentendorf, Austria, but its start-up was prevented by a","-28.515414519206388"],["list of Nuclear power by country with China leading at 23. Globally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased. China has stated its plans to double nuclear generation by 2030. India also plans to greatly increase its nuclear power.\nSeveral countries have enacted laws to cease construction on new nuclear power stations. Several European countries have debated nuclear phase-outs and others have completely shut down some reactors. Three nuclear accidents have influenced the slowdown of nuclear power: the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States, the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in","-28.485707286934485"],["Promise, economics professor, John Quiggin, comments that it presents the environmental rationale for nuclear power, but that reviving nuclear power debates is a distraction, and the main problem with the nuclear option is that it is not economically viable. Quiggin says that we need more efficient energy use and more renewable energy commercialization.","-28.485080061676854"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"the expansion of nuclear power.\\\" California has banned the approval of new nuclear reactors since the late 1970s because of concerns over waste disposal, and some other U.S. states have a moratorium on construction of nuclear power plants. Between 1975 and 1980, a total of 63 nuclear units were canceled in the United States. Anti-nuclear activities were among the reasons, but the primary motivations were the overestimation of future demand for electricity and steadily increasing capital costs, which made the economics of new plants unfavorable.\\nThe proliferation of nuclear weapons became a presidential priority issue for the Carter Administration in the\",\n \"-35.08195415737828\"\n ],\n [\n \"nuclear energy in their state. In 1976, California passed legislation which prevented new nuclear power plants from being built until an approved means of disposing of fuel-rod waste was approved. This legislation, which was also renewed in 2005, effectively put a moratorium on nuclear power plants in California, since no fuel-rod waste measure was ever approved. Soon afterwards, other states passed similar laws limiting nuclear energy influence in their state. This California legislation was reaffirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1983 when it ruled that, \\\"It did not conflict with federal authority because it addressed legitimate state issues of\",\n \"-34.34497295552865\"\n ],\n [\n \"mounting concern over the shutdown, the top U.S. nuclear official, Gregory Jaczko, toured the facility with Senator Dianne Feinstein, a Democrat, and U.S. Representative Darrell Issa, a Republican. In June, 2013, the company announced it would permanently shut down operations at the plant, the beginning of a multi-year decommissioning process at the site. Energy production mix At least 21% of the fuel Southern California Edison uses to generate power comes from clean energy (half of that nuclear power, the other half renewable energy sources ranging from biomass to wind). The group is a major player in Southern California where\",\n \"-33.68403662822675\"\n ],\n [\n \"said that this was not the time to build new nuclear plants, not because of political opposition or the threat of cost overruns, but because of the low price of natural gas. John Rowe, head of Exelon, said “Shale [gas] is good for the country, bad for new nuclear development\\\".\\nIn 2013, four older reactors were permanently closed: San Onofre 2 and 3 in California, Crystal River 3 in Florida, and Kewaunee in Wisconsin. The state of Vermont tried to shut Vermont Yankee, in Vermont, but the plant was closed by the parent corporation for economic reasons in December 2014. New\",\n \"-33.504177595041256\"\n ],\n [\n \"to determine - as a matter of economics - whether a nuclear plant vis-a-vis a fossil fuel plant should be built. The decision of California to exercise that authority does not, in itself, constitute a basis for pre-emption. 33 Therefore, while the argument [461 U.S. 190, 223] of petitioners and the United States has considerable force, the legal reality remains that Congress has left sufficient authority in the States to allow the development of nuclear power to be slowed or even stopped for economic reasons. Given this statutory scheme, it is for Congress to rethink the division of\",\n \"-33.174899997829925\"\n ],\n [\n \"able to restart without extensive additional repairs\\\".\\nIn August 2012, Southern California Edison announced plans to lay off one-third, or 730, of the plants employees; the company said that the downsizing had been planned more than two years before. Rochelle Becker of the Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility said the layoffs showed that the company was not honest about their plans for the power plant.\\nIn September 2012, Allison Macfarlane, the NRC Chairwoman, said that the plant would be down for a prolonged period, and that Unit 3 would be defueled in September 2012 because the unit had been significantly damaged. Due to\",\n \"-32.273514614702435\"\n ],\n [\n \"live near nuclear power plants also tend to be largely more in support of nuclear power than the general public.\\nDecreasing public support is seen as one of the causes for the premature closure of many plants in the United States. Prospects of a nuclear renaissance As of 2017, the US Energy Information Administration projects that US nuclear generating capacity will decline 23 percent from its 2016 level of 99.1 GW, to 76.5 GW in 2050, and the nuclear share of electrical generation to go from 20% in 2016 down to 11% in 2050. Driving the decline will be retirements of\",\n \"-32.24808443989605\"\n ],\n [\n \"aspects and radiological hazards of nuclear power plants.\\nLater, more consequential Supreme Court cases related to the politics of nuclear power include Metropolitan Edison Co. v. People Against Nuclear Energy (1983), decided the same year, and Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee Corp. (1984). Critical response The majority opinion did not question California's assertion that the moratorium was justified because the lack of a permanent disposal method for high level waste made nuclear generation uneconomic. It has been noted that existing plants and plants constructed after the Supreme Court decision have continued to economically operate by expanding current waste storage facilities. In addition, by\",\n \"-32.050503662991105\"\n ],\n [\n \"to engage in such inquiry here when it is clear that the States have been allowed to retain authority over the need for electrical generating facilities easily sufficient to permit a State so inclined to halt the construction of new nuclear plants by refusing on economic grounds to issue certificates of public convenience in individual proceedings. In these circumstances, it should be up to Congress to determine whether a State has misused the authority left in its hands.\\nTherefore, we accept California's avowed economic purpose as the rationale for enacting 25524.2. Accordingly, the statute lies outside the occupied field of nuclear\",\n \"-31.954747886164114\"\n ],\n [\n \"nuclear power plants were taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some of Japan's 50 nuclear reactors to service. Shinzo Abe’s government seeks to restart the nuclear power plants that meet strict new safety standards and is emphasizing nuclear energy's importance as a base-load electricity source. As of November 2014, two reactors at Sendai are likely to restart in early 2015. In August 2015, Japan successfully restarted one nuclear reactor at the Sendai Nuclear Power\",\n \"-31.30660806549713\"\n ],\n [\n \"made little sense making costly and politically difficult repairs now that would not make a return on investment before 2022.\\nCalifornia Senator Dianne Feinstein signaled approval of the decision to permanently close the plant, stating \\\"I firmly believe this is the right thing to do for the more than 7 million Californians who live within 50 miles of San Onofre.\\\" However, Representative Darrell Issa, whose voting district includes the nuclear station, was more downbeat, saying \\\"our communities now face the loss of employment for more than a thousand highly skilled workers and an essential local source of low-cost, clean energy.\\\" Issa\",\n \"-31.303593581687892\"\n ],\n [\n \"all costs.'\\\" Instead, Congress had given the states authority to decide whether to build a nuclear plant or one using traditional fuel sources. \\\"California's decision to exercise that authority does not, in itself, constitute a basis for preemption.\\\"\\nFinally, it is strongly contended that 25524.2 frustrates the Atomic Energy Act's purpose to develop the commercial use of nuclear power. It is well established that state law is pre-empted if it \\\"stands as an obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of the full purposes and objectives of Congress.\\\" [461 U.S. 190, 221] Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U.S. at 67;\",\n \"-31.22718858369626\"\n ],\n [\n \"ordered), 21% were permanently and prematurely closed due to reliability or cost problems, while another 27% have completely failed for a year or more at least once. The surviving U.S. nuclear plants produce ~90% of their full-time full-load potential, but even they are not fully dependable. Even reliably operating nuclear plants must shut down, on average, for 39 days every 17 months for refueling and maintenance, and unexpected failures do occur too.\\nA cover story in the February 11, 1985, issue of Forbes magazine commented on the overall management of the nuclear power program in the United States:\\nThe failure of the\",\n \"-31.08776910515735\"\n ],\n [\n \"both gas and coal power, but well behind wind, solar, geothermal and hydroelectricity.\\nThe United States wants New Zealand to repeal its nuclear-free legislation, which would then allow U.S. warships carrying nuclear weapons to visit New Zealand ports. Pressure from the United States increased in 2006, with U.S. trade officials linking the repeal of the ban of American nuclear ships from New Zealand's ports to a potential free-trade agreement between the two countries. In 2004, then opposition leader Don Brash refused to confirm or deny that he told visiting US senators the nuclear ban would be repealed \\\"by lunchtime\\\" if he\",\n \"-31.075735440652352\"\n ],\n [\n \"energy and eventual shut-down of Japan's nuclear plants. Japan's nuclear power plants were completely shut down by May 2012, leaving Japan without nuclear-generated electricity for the first time since 1970. Several of the plants were only brought back online after the DPJ was no longer in government. The LDP government led by Shinzo Abe gradually reopened the nuclear plants, starting with Sendai Nuclear Power Plant in Kyushu on August 2015. The restart has been slow due to legal challenges and heavy domestic opposition. Lists of ministers Democratic\\n People's New\\n Independent\\n\\nR = Member of the House of Representatives\\nC = Member of the House\",\n \"-31.049729748629034\"\n ],\n [\n \"the largest nuclear power facility in the world.\\nThe next month, April 1978, a year before the Three Mile Island accident, Governor Brown stated he would never sign a bill allowing construction of a nuclear power plant in California. Soon afterwards the California Energy Commission voted to halt the construction of the two Sundesert units in the \\\"absence of federally demonstrated and approved technology for permanent disposal of radioactive wastes\\\". The Sundesert project was cancelled in May 1978. Aftermath Political response to the crucial California Energy Commission vote to deny the Sundesert plant a permit was considerable from both parties. The\",\n \"-30.967763255583122\"\n ],\n [\n \"the United States was eroded sharply following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, with support for building nuclear power plants in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, according to a CBS News poll. Only 43 percent of those polled 10 days after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States.\\nA Gallup poll in the US in March 2015 found support for nuclear power at 51%, with 43% opposed. This was the lowest level of support for nuclear since 2001, and significantly down\",\n \"-30.96280876128003\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the nation's total electric energy consumption. For many years, no new nuclear plants have been built in the US. However, since 2005 there has been a renewed interest in nuclear power in the US. This has been facilitated in part by the federal government with the Nuclear Power 2010 Program of 2002. and the Energy Policy Act. As of March 9, 2009, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission had received applications for permission to construct 26 new nuclear power reactors However, as of 2013 most of the new applications had been abandoned due to the low cost of electricity generated\",\n \"-30.923294918145984\"\n ],\n [\n \"to abandon atomic energy. As of October 2011, only 11 nuclear power plants are operating. There have been electricity shortages, but Japan survived the summer without the extensive blackouts that had been predicted. An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, says \\\"public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged\\\" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. Jordan Jordan has signed memorandums of understanding with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Japan, China, and South Korea. In December 2009, Jordan Atomic Energy Commission\",\n \"-30.89605907126679\"\n ],\n [\n \"developed detailed plans for 2 nuclear power plants with 8 reactors, but in November 2016 decided to abandon nuclear power plans as they were \\\"not economically viable because of other cheaper sources of power.\\\" Japan Once a nuclear proponent, Prime Minister Naoto Kan became increasingly anti-nuclear following the Fukushima nuclear disaster. In May 2011, he closed the aging Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant over earthquake and tsunami fears, and said he would freeze plans to build new reactors. In July 2011, Kan said that \\\"Japan should reduce and eventually eliminate its dependence on nuclear energy ... saying that the Fukushima accident\",\n \"-30.732885105535388\"\n ],\n [\n \"dormant for many years, although legislation continued until 1992. Although nuclear plants were still quite active and even improving production and safety practices, construction of new plants ended in the late 1980s. This was acceptable to many utility companies, because most of the plants were licensed to operate on 20–40 year contracts, despite an unfavorable political climate. Over time, numerous polls showed a steady increase in public support and decrease in opposition, except for a temporary drop in numbers after the September 11 attacks and the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. According to a Gallup poll in 2009, 59% of the\",\n \"-30.703885891562095\"\n ],\n [\n \"with state laws.\\nAs a result, both Pacific Gas and Electric Company and parent company PG&E Corporation filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy around January 29 following the California required 15-day bankruptcy waiting period. Public Safety Power Shutoff On October 8, 2019, on the midst of wildfire season, PG&E preemptively shut off power to almost all Bay Area counties except San Francisco due to risk of causing another wildfire leaving almost 800,000 customers without power for time projected to be up to 5 days. The company is planning to do the shutdown in phases starting 12 midnight. Community Pipeline Safety Initiative (CPSI)\",\n \"-30.648692796070463\"\n ],\n [\n \"shale gas boom has lowered electricity generation costs placing severe pressure on the economics of operating older existing nuclear power plants. Analysis by Bloomberg shows that over half of U.S. nuclear plants are running at a loss. The Nuclear Energy Institute has estimated that 15 to 20 reactors are at risk of early closure for economic reasons. Nuclear operators in Illinois and New York have obtained financial support from regulators, and operators in Connecticut, New Jersey, Ohio and Pennsylvania are seeking similar support. Some non-nuclear power generating companies have filed unfair competition lawsuits against these subsidies, and have raised the\",\n \"-30.63622173271142\"\n ],\n [\n \"been growing acceptance of nuclear power in the United States was eroded sharply following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, with public support for building nuclear power plants in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, according to a CBS News poll. Only 43 percent of those polled after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States.\\nActivists who were involved in the U.S. anti-nuclear movement's emergence (such as Graham Nash and Paul Gunter), suggest that Japan's nuclear crisis may rekindle an interest in\",\n \"-30.6302296963986\"\n ],\n [\n \"Commission a formal notice of its intention to shut down the plant on September 30, 2019, unless the Pennsylvania legislature rescues the nuclear industry, which is currently struggling to compete as newfound natural gas resources have driven down electricity prices. Exelon Generation's Senior Vice President Bryan Hanson noted that once Three Mile Island was closed, it could never be reopened for use again. Hanson explicitly stated the reason for the shutdown is because of the unprofitability of Unit 1. Unit 1 has lost the company over 300 million dollars over the last half-decade despite it being one of Exelon's best-performing\",\n \"-30.59615214567748\"\n ],\n [\n \"of respondents feel that all nuclear power plants should be closed down. Stressing the climate change benefits of nuclear energy positively influences 10% of people to be more supportive of expanding the role of nuclear power in the world, but there is still a general reluctance to support the building of more nuclear power plants.\\nThere is little support across the world for building new nuclear reactors, a 2011 poll for the BBC indicates. The global research agency GlobeScan, commissioned by BBC News, polled 23,231 people in 23 countries from July to September 2011, several months after the Fukushima nuclear disaster.\",\n \"-30.579036720038857\"\n ],\n [\n \"reduced to 1990 levels by 2020. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed Executive Order S-3-05 in June 2005 that declared California is vulnerable to climate change impacts resulting in loss of Sierra snowpack for water supply and rising sea levels threatening coastal real estate and habitat. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger also signed Executive Order S-21-09 in September 2009 requiring 33% of electricity sold in the California come from renewable resources by 2020 to curb greenhouse gas emissions. This assembly of legislation and evidence of environmental impact led to California enacting requirements for lead agencies to consider greenhouse gas emissions in their CEQA reviews.\\nCalifornia\",\n \"-30.511230926960707\"\n ],\n [\n \"force. There is no indication that California utilities are contemplating such construction; the state legislature is not obligated to address purely hypothetical facets of a problem.\\nThird, petitioners note that there already is a body, the California Public Utilities Commission, which is authorized to determine on economic grounds whether a nuclear powerplant should be constructed. 26 While California is certainly free to make these decisions on a case-by-case basis, a State is not foreclosed from reaching the same decision through a legislative judgment, applicable to all cases. The economic uncertainties engendered by the nuclear waste disposal problems are not factors\",\n \"-30.449433932175452\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shellenberger, Mark Lynas) signed an open letter to California Governor Jerry Brown, Tony Earley, CEO of Pacific Gas & Electric, and California state officials, urging that the plant not be closed. They argued that Diablo is an asset for California in achieving global warming goals since it does not emit greenhouse gases like a natural gas power plant, which are a major contributor to global warming. Closure in 2024–2025 On June 21, 2016, PG&E announced a Joint Proposal with Friends of the Earth, the Natural Resources Defense Council, Environment California, the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Local 1245, Coalition of\",\n \"-30.275556358901667\"\n ],\n [\n \"couldn’t economically meet the NRC's new tightened standards, shifted electricity generation to coal-fired power plants. In 1977, following the first oil shock, U.S. President Jimmy Carter made a speech calling the energy crisis the \\\"moral equivalent of war\\\" and prominently supporting nuclear power. However, nuclear power could not compete with cheap oil and gas, particularly after public opposition and regulatory hurdles made new nuclear prohibitively expensive.\\nIn 2006 The Brookings Institution, a public policy organization, stated that new nuclear units had not been built in the United States because of soft demand for electricity, the potential cost overruns on nuclear\",\n \"-30.270762827480212\"\n ],\n [\n \"power plants in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. Support had been at an all-time high of 69 percent in 1977, according to polling by the New York Times and CBS News. 43 percent of those polled after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States. This represents a decline from a high of 57 percent in July 2008.\\nActivists who were involved in the U.S. anti-nuclear movement's emergence (such as Graham Nash and Paul Gunter) suggest that Japan's nuclear crisis may\",\n \"-30.269140865549616\"\n ],\n [\n \"operating commercial nuclear power plants, but will mean the loss of 2256 MW of generation that produced over 18,000 GWh of electricity per year.\\nThe company operated the Humboldt Bay Power Plant, Unit 3 in Eureka, California. It is the oldest commercial nuclear plant in California and its maximum output was 65 MWe. The plant operated for 13 years, until 1976 when it was shut down for seismic retrofitting. New regulations enacted after the Three Mile Island accident, however, rendered the plant unprofitable and it was never restarted. Unit 3 is currently in decommissioning phase. Based on PG&E's schedule of planned decommissioning\",\n \"-30.258295175706735\"\n ],\n [\n \"the 48 California state parks proposed for closure in January 2008 by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger as part of a deficit reduction program. The closures were ultimately avoided by cutting hours and maintenance system-wide.\",\n \"-30.22851218865253\"\n ],\n [\n \"1976 that mandated that a solution be found to the problem of safe disposal of nuclear waste before further nuclear plants could be constructed. Attempts to exempt the Sundesert plant from the law failed in what was then called the California Assembly's Resources, Land Use and Energy Committee.\\nAdditionally, statewide public disapproval of nuclear power had increased significantly. In March 1978 in California’s Kern County, voters for the first time in United States history emphatically rejected a nuclear power plant, the proposed four-reactor San Joaquin Nuclear Project, by a 70% to 30% margin. If approved and constructed, it would have been\",\n \"-30.095482311211526\"\n ],\n [\n \"scenic oceanside Corral Canyon, in 1970.\\nHowever, by the early 1970s, the future of nuclear energy in California was projected to expand on a major scale, with numerous proposals on the drafting boards of the state’s utility companies.\\nIn the mid- and late 1970s, plans envisioned as future United States energy policy by the Carter Administration called for hundreds of new nuclear plants to be built nationwide. But under Governor Jerry Brown who was elected in 1975, California was heading in the opposite direction. Proposal and rejection In 1976, after purchasing the necessary parcel of land the previous year, San Diego Gas\",\n \"-29.95847628795309\"\n ],\n [\n \"California Utility Employees, and Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility to increase investment in energy efficiency, renewables and storage, while phasing out nuclear power. Critics objected to the proposal, pointing out PG&E had selected parties to the proposal without any public notice or input. Specifically, the operating licenses for Diablo Canyon Units 1 and 2 would not be renewed when they expire on November 2, 2024 and August 26, 2025, respectively. PG&E's application to close Diablo Canyon, including the Joint Proposal, was approved by the California Public Utilities Commission in January 2018. In February, PG&E withdrew its application to the Nuclear\",\n \"-29.924846229609102\"\n ],\n [\n \"with an Edison executive in Poland, where the two had negotiated the terms of the San Onofre settlement leaving San Diego taxpayers with a $3.3 billion bill to pay for the closure of the plant. The investigation was closed amidst Harris' 2016 run for the US Senate position, which opened when Barbara Boxer retired. Environmental impact Total greenhouse gas emissions from power plants in California increased by 35% from 2011 to 2012, according to figures from the California Air Resources Board, which per the World Nuclear News is partly due to the early closure of San Onofre. Decommissioning, 2014–present Decommissioning\",\n \"-29.898602162311363\"\n ],\n [\n \"announced that its Swedish nuclear power plants, including the newer reactors, were operating at a loss due to low electricity prices and Sweden's nuclear output tax. It warned that if it was forced to shut the plants down, there would be serious consequences to Sweden's electricity supply, and argued that the nuclear output tax should be scrapped.\\nIn October 2016 Vattenfall began litigation against the German government for its 2011 decision to accelerate the phase-out of nuclear power. Hearings are taking place at the World Bank's International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in Washington, D.C. and Vattenfall is\",\n \"-29.887560435570776\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. Only 43 percent of those polled after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States. A Washington Post-ABC poll conducted in April 2011 found that 64 percent of Americans opposed the construction of new nuclear reactors. A survey sponsored by the Nuclear Energy Institute, conducted in September 2011, found that \\\"62 percent of respondents said they favor the use of nuclear energy as one of the ways to provide electricity in the United States,\",\n \"-29.82399842829909\"\n ],\n [\n \"legislating California's energy commodity trading deregulation. Despite warnings from prominent consumer groups which stated that this law would give energy traders too much influence over energy commodity prices, the legislation was passed during December 2000.\\nAs the periodical Public Citizen reported, \\\"Because of Enron's new, unregulated power auction, the company's 'Wholesale Services' revenues quadrupled—- from $12 billion in the first quarter of 2000 to $48.4 billion in the first quarter of 2001.\\\"\\nAfter passage of the deregulation law, California had a total of 38 Stage 3 rolling blackouts declared, until federal regulators intervened during June 2001. These blackouts occurred as a result of a\",\n \"-29.75029639049899\"\n ],\n [\n \"similar majority of 70 percent says the United States should 'definitely build more' nuclear energy facilities [in 2010].\\\" According to Ann Bisconti, PhD, \\\"This unprecedented support for nuclear energy is being driven largely by people's concerns for meeting future energy demand and environmental goals, but it coincides with statements by President Obama and other national leaders who have voiced strong support for more nuclear power plants.\\\" 2011 Fukushima accidents and public policy impact What had been growing acceptance of nuclear power in the United States was eroded sharply following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, with public support for building nuclear\",\n \"-29.677729424409335\"\n ],\n [\n \"development, Griffin observed in 2010 that \\\"We had to keep all the operations very secretive because once someone else found out what you were up to it was trouble.\\\" Stopping a freeway and a nuclear power plant Griffin also helped stop a planned freeway from the Golden Gate Bridge through West Marin to Sonoma County, which would have enabled construction along its route. The freeway was touted by then California Governor Edmund G. Brown as part of a plan to locate 150,000 new residents on the Northern California coast, including substantial housing development in what was to eventually become Point\",\n \"-29.670113136434793\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sundesert Nuclear Power Plant Background Opposition to nuclear power plants in California began in 1958 over the proposed Bodega Bay Nuclear Power Plant near the small fishing town of Bodega Bay, California. The six-year controversy pitted utility company Pacific Gas and Electric against local activists opposed to the location of the nuclear plant. According to nuclear power historian Thomas Wellock, this successful fight by the activists, the first in the history of nuclear power, led directly to the eventual growth of California’s anti-nuclear movement. A second battle by state environmentalists stopped a nuclear facility proposed for Malibu, California, in the\",\n \"-29.649401889531873\"\n ],\n [\n \"went into \\\"safe mode\\\" to prevent damage in the case of an overload. This put much of the nuclear power offline until those plants could be slowly taken out of \\\"safe mode\\\". In the meantime, all available hydro-electric plants (as well as many coal- and oil-fired plants) were brought online, bringing some electrical power to the areas immediately surrounding the plants by the morning of August 15. Homes and businesses both in the affected area and in nearby areas were requested to limit power usage until the grid was back to full power. Water supply Some areas lost water pressure\",\n \"-29.608935855154414\"\n ],\n [\n \"90% of their full-time full-load potential, but even they must shut down (on average) for about 1 out of each 18 months for scheduled refueling and maintenance. To cope with such intermittence by nuclear (and centralized fossil-fuelled) power plants, utilities install a \\\"reserve margin\\\" of roughly 15% extra capacity spinning ready for instant use.\\nLovins also argues that nuclear plants have an additional disadvantage: for safety, they must instantly shut down in a power failure, but due to the inherent nuclear-physics of the systems, they can't be restarted quickly. For example, during the Northeast Blackout of 2003, nine operating U.S. nuclear\",\n \"-29.582387333968654\"\n ],\n [\n \"nuclear power and convenience of installing a nuclear plant due to the country's energy crisis. New debates When the issue was reopened, opinions were heard from experts, politicians, media and the military. According to Diva Puig, a consultant in nuclear energy for Latin America of the IAEA, “the discussion about nuclear energy (...) must not exclude any sectors of society”. Justo Laiz, director of CIN, agreed with her, opining that “I do not agree that this issue be discussed only on a political point of view” because “energy issues should be part of scientific discussions and decisions”.\\nAbout the possibility of\",\n \"-29.546211712411605\"\n ],\n [\n \"nuclear power plants.\\nIn 2019, the Department of National Defense expressed its support for the revival of the nuclear power plant. The Philippine Nuclear Research Institute also urged the government to revive the power plant.\",\n \"-29.523271001467947\"\n ],\n [\n \"nuclear power phase-out, and \\\"Moratorium Plus\\\", for an extension of the earlier-decided moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down. The results were: Moratorium Plus: 41.6% Yes, 58.4% No; Electricity without Nuclear: 33.7% Yes, 66.3% No.\\nThe program of the \\\"Electricity without Nuclear\\\" petition was to shut down all nuclear power stations by 2033, starting with Unit 1 and 2 of Beznau nuclear power stations, Mühleberg in 2005, Gösgen in 2009, and Leibstadt in 2014. \\\"Moratorium Plus\\\" was for an extension of the moratorium for another ten years, and additionally a condition to stop the present\",\n \"-29.445600046077743\"\n ],\n [\n \"rekindle an interest in the movement in the United States. The aim, they say, is \\\"not just to block the Obama administration’s push for new nuclear construction, but to convince Americans that existing plants pose dangers\\\".\\nPublic opinion appears to have been aroused with regard to the re-licensing application of the Diablo Canyon Power Plant. Nuclear Regulatory Commission officials had already planned to conduct a series of public meetings in January, February and March 2011 as public attention in San Luis Obispo County turned towards the question of whether the plant should be re-licensed subsequent to public disclosure of a third\",\n \"-29.43106415985676\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ohi facility. On September 14, 2013, those reactors were shut down, leaving all 50 Japanese commercial nuclear reactors closed.\\nAn energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, says \\\"public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged\\\" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. It also omits a section on nuclear power expansion that was in last year's policy review. Extra staff members for Kiev embassy On 30 October 2011 the Japanese government took up the plan to increase the 30 members of the staff at the\",\n \"-29.42851905222051\"\n ],\n [\n \"Japan must reduce its dependence on nuclear energy, breaking with a decades-old Japanese government drive to build more nuclear power plants in the country. \\\"We must scrap the plan to have nuclear power contribute 53 percent (of electricity supply) by 2030 and reduce the degree of reliance on nuclear power,\\\" Kan told a government panel. Kan said Japan should abandon plans to build 14 new reactors by 2030. He wants to \\\"pass a bill to promote renewable energy and questioned whether private companies should be running atomic plants\\\". In 2012, Kan said the Fukushima disaster made it clear to him\",\n \"-29.40346739400411\"\n ],\n [\n \"calling on the government to abandon plans to build a nuclear power plant in their area. Specific concerns included the dangers posed by nuclear waste and the location of the country on the Pacific Ring of Fire, with geological activity (such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions) hazardous to nuclear reactors.\",\n \"-29.377986286999658\"\n ],\n [\n \"had demonstrated the dangers of the technology\\\". In August 2011, the Japanese government passed a bill to subsidize electricity from renewable energy sources. A 2011 Japanese Cabinet energy white paper says \\\"public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged\\\" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. As of August 2011, the crippled Fukushima nuclear plant is still leaking low levels of radioactivity and areas surrounding it could remain uninhabitable for decades.\\nBy March 2012, one year after the disaster, all but two of Japan's nuclear reactors were shut down; some were\",\n \"-29.36718392907642\"\n ],\n [\n \"Takahama-4 restarted. United States The United States is, as of 2013, undergoing a practical phase-out independent of stated goals and continued official support. This is not due to concerns about the source or anti-nuclear groups, but due to the rapidly falling prices of natural gas and the reluctance of investors to provide funding for long-term projects when short term profitability of turbine power is available.\\nThrough the 2000s a number of factors led to greatly increased interest in new nuclear reactors, including rising demand, new lower-cost reactor designs, and concerns about global climate change. By 2009, about 30 new reactors were\",\n \"-29.362776490161195\"\n ],\n [\n \"for $294 million to Pinnacle West Capital Corp (of Arizona Public Service). The move was the direct result of a new California law requiring utility companies to exit coal-fired power production (even the renewing of contracts is disallowed), and forces Edison to purchase more power from the market.\\nSan Onofre Nuclear Generating Station\\nUnit 2 shut in early January 2012 for refueling and replacement of the reactor vessel head.\\nBoth reactors at San Onofre have been shut since January 2012 due to premature wear found on tubes in massive steam generators installed in 2010 and 2011.\\nIn April 2012, in a sign of\",\n \"-29.342190963216126\"\n ],\n [\n \"in U.S. nuclear power plants’ preparedness for unforeseen natural disasters. \\\"You can't control mother nature,\\\" he reasoned.\\\" \\nThe article continued to quote the U.S. Nuclear Energy Foundation to the effect that too much stock is being put into the fear surrounding Fukushima power plant. On a policy level, United States officials were wary. U.S. Energy Secretary Steven Chu told Congress that the Obama administration intends to hold the course on underwriting new nuclear power plants. \\\"The people in the United States, U.S. territories, are in no danger”, Chu said during a Fox News Sunday broadcast. \\\"It's unlikely they will be\",\n \"-29.3293517655693\"\n ],\n [\n \"other utilities, the Southern Company in Atlanta and JEA in Jacksonville, both sent letters of commitment to show that they were serious about purchasing a plant; however, no plants were ever built. Cancellation Although OPS did not have Federal approval to build the plants in the 1970s, the biggest reason why OPS was not successful was the 1973 oil crisis. Less oil available resulted in higher oil prices, which encouraged conservation and less demand for electricity. PSE&G did not need the additional capacity from the nuclear generators they had ordered, so PSE&G requested a two-year delay. After the embargo ended,\",\n \"-29.316085833939724\"\n ],\n [\n \"completely without nuclear-produced electrical power for the first time since 1970. Despite protests, on 1 July 2012 unit 3 of the Ōi Nuclear Power Plant was restarted. As of September 2012, Ōi units 3 and 4 are Japan's only operating nuclear power plants, although the city and prefecture of Osaka have requested they be shut down.\\nThe United States-Japan Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan is a bilateral agreement aimed at putting in place a framework for the joint research and development of nuclear energy technology, which was signed on April 18, 2007. It is believed that the agreement is the\",\n \"-29.27443533242331\"\n ],\n [\n \"Arizona that caused widespread problems in western Arizona and eastern California. In time, SDG&E's system was drawing from the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station (SONGS) considerably more power than was being produced, pulling it from Los Angeles, and a \\\"safety net\\\" system cut it off from the nuclear plant. Once this happened, SDG&E's system rapidly collapsed due to mismatch of generation and load, unable to drop load faster than generation was lost. SDG&E implemented their system restoration plan and cautioned its customers to expect a prolonged outage. The outage appears to have been caused by the actions of an employee\",\n \"-29.250613783384324\"\n ],\n [\n \"coal generation by 2007. However, for various operational and demand reasons this was not possible until 2014, when the last coal was burned in OPG's stations.\\nThe company also endured significant criticism concerning the slow return to operation of some of its nuclear generating stations which had been shut down by the Northeast blackout of 2003. The problem was that all but one of the reactors were tripped and allowed to poison out, preventing an early reconnection to the electricity grid. Once shut down, all nuclear reactors take several days to return to service.\\nAnother source of criticism was the\",\n \"-29.24532870898838\"\n ],\n [\n \"to not pursue re-opening the plant. The same year, they successfully pressured MidAmerican Energy Company to abandon its plans to build new nuclear power reactors in Iowa; it instead announced a new $1.9 billion investment to expand to its wind generation fleet.\\nAfter Friends of the Earth campaigned against the genetically engineered Arctic Apple, in 2013 McDonald's and Gerber pledged not to sell or use the product. The organization has also consistently protested the construction of the Keystone XL Pipeline. This campaign, along with the efforts of other protestors and environmental organizations, helped to pressure the Obama administration to order\",\n \"-29.22130062553333\"\n ],\n [\n \"an extension of the earlier decided moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down. The results were: Moratorium Plus: 41.6% Yes, 58.4% No; Electricity without Nuclear: 33.7% Yes, 66.3% No. The program of the \\\"Electricity without Nuclear\\\" petition was to shut down all nuclear power stations by 2033, starting with Unit 1 and 2 of Beznau nuclear power stations, Mühleberg in 2005, Gösgen in 2009, and Leibstadt in 2014. \\\"Moratorium Plus\\\" was for an extension of the moratorium for another 10 years, and additionally a condition to stop the present reactors after 40 years of\",\n \"-29.21000936382916\"\n ],\n [\n \"safety related.\\\" Reassessment of Nuclear Energy in California: A Policy Analysis of Proposition 15 and its Alternatives, p. 18 (1976) (Reassessment Report) (emphasis in original). The Committee explained that the lack of a federally approved method of waste disposal created a \\\"clog\\\" in the nuclear fuel cycle. Storage space was limited while more nuclear wastes were continuously produced. Without a permanent means of disposal, the nuclear waste problem could become critical, [461 U.S. 190, 214] leading to unpredictably high costs to contain the problem or, worse, shutdowns in reactors. \\\"Waste disposal safety,\\\" the Reassessment Report notes, \\\"is not directly\",\n \"-29.174642266269075\"\n ],\n [\n \"safety regulation. 28 [461 U.S. 190, 217] \\nResponse to first argument. From the time the federal act was passed in 1954 until the present, White explained, Congress had maintained a system of dual regulation over nuclear plants: the federal government held control over safety issues, whereas the states exercised \\\"their traditional authority over economic questions such as the need for additional generating capacity, the type of generating facilities to be licensed, land use, and ratemaking.\\\" The Court held that 25524.2 was directed toward economics, rather than safety, in its purpose and thus was fully within California's authority.\\nResponse to second\",\n \"-29.16604974132497\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nuclear Power 2010 Program The \\\"Nuclear Power 2010 Program\\\" was launched in 2002 by President George W. Bush in order to restart orders for nuclear power reactors in the U.S. by providing subsidies for a handful of Generation III+ demonstration plants. The expectation was that these plants would come online by 2010, but it was not met.\\nIn March 2017, the leading nuclear-plant maker, Westinghouse Electric Company, filed for bankruptcy due to losing over $9 billion in construction losses from working on two nuclear plants. This loss was partly caused by safety concerns due to the Fukushima disaster, Germany's Energiewende, the\",\n \"-29.165465008933097\"\n ],\n [\n \"because it is becoming too costly to operate. The nuclear industry's profits have been squeezed out by utilities who are buying cheaper energy from natural gas power plants. “Given the financial challenges our merchant power plants face from sustained wholesale power price declines and other unfavorable market conditions, we have been assessing each asset,” Chief Executive Officer Leo Denault said in the statement. “Market conditions require us to also close the FitzPatrick nuclear plant.”\\nIn 2016, Cuomo directed the Public Service Commission to consider ratepayer-financed subsidies similar to those for renewable sources to keep nuclear power stations profitable in the competition\",\n \"-29.139861744391965\"\n ],\n [\n \"of nuclear power. Platts has reported that \\\"the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world\\\".\\nThe World Nuclear Association has reported that nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since 1999. Several previous international studies and assessments, suggested that as part of the portfolio of other low-carbon energy technologies, nuclear power will continue to play a role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Historically, nuclear power usage is estimated to have prevented the\",\n \"-29.138905346155298\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"construction of new merchant nuclear power plants in competitive markets uneconomical now and for the foreseeable future\\\". In early 2013 UBS noted that some smaller reactors operating in deregulated markets may become uneconomic to operate and maintain, due to competition from generators using low priced natural gas, and may be retired early. The 556 MWe Kewaunee Power Station is being closed 20 years before license expiry for these economic reasons. In February 2014 the Financial Times identified Pilgrim, Indian Point, Clinton and Quad Cities power stations as potentially at risk of premature closure for economic reasons.\\nAs of 2017, the U.S.\",\n \"-29.08596889890032\"\n ],\n [\n \"the plant was permanently shut down in December 2012. It should remain dormant 40 more years before being dismantled.\\nFollowing the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) ordered all reactor operators to revisit their safety plans and report on potential improvements by the end of April 2011. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) later conducted a review of the CNSC's response to the events at Japan's Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, and concluded that it was \\\"prompt, robust and comprehensive, and is a good practice that should be used by other regulatory bodies\\\". Planned massive refurbishment In\",\n \"-29.072019702609396\"\n ],\n [\n \"evident desire of Congress to prevent safety from being [461 U.S. 190, 222] compromised by promotional concerns does not translate into an abandonment of the objective of promoting nuclear power. The legislation was carefully drafted, in fact, to avoid any antinuclear sentiment. 32 The continuing commitment to nuclear power is reflected in the extension of the Price-Anderson Act's coverage until 1987, Pub. L. 94-197, 2-14, 89 Stat. 1111-1115, as well as in Congress' express preclusion of reliance on natural gas and petroleum as primary energy sources in new powerplants, Powerplant and Industrial Fuel Use Act of 1978, 92\",\n \"-29.04098753051585\"\n ],\n [\n \"and some shifted their weekends to weekdays to smooth power demand. Converting to a nuclear-free gas and oil energy economy would cost tens of billions of dollars in annual fees. One estimate is that even including the disaster, more years of life would have been lost in 2011 if Japan had used coal or gas plants instead of nuclear.\\nMany political activists have called for a phase-out of nuclear power in Japan, including Amory Lovins, who claimed, \\\"Japan is poor in fuels, but is the richest of all major industrial countries in renewable energy that can meet the entire long-term\",\n \"-28.989959748927504\"\n ],\n [\n \"hailed by Energy Secretary Steven Chu as \\\"the first new nuclear power plant to break ground in decades\\\". It is expected to create up to 3,500 jobs during the construction phase, and 800 once operational. However in March 2017 Westinghouse Electric Company, who are building the plant, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy because of $9 billion of losses from its two U.S. nuclear construction projects. The U.S. government had given $8.3 billion of loan guarantees on the financing of the four nuclear reactors being built in the U.S., and it is expected a way forward to completing the plant can\",\n \"-28.97296897752676\"\n ],\n [\n \"150 MW, scheduled to begin production in 2014.\\nAs of September 2012, the Los Angeles Times reported that \\\"Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda acknowledged that the vast majority of Japanese support the zero option on nuclear power\\\", and Prime Minister Noda and the Japanese government announced plans to make the country nuclear-free by the 2030s. They announced the end to construction of nuclear power plants and a 40-year limit on existing nuclear plants. Nuclear plant restarts must meet safety standards of the new independent regulatory authority.\\nOn 16 December 2012, Japan held its general election. The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) had a clear\",\n \"-28.93111783962013\"\n ],\n [\n \"did 25524.2 in any way conflict with national policy, even with a decision by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to allow continued licensing of reactors despite concerns regarding waste disposal. Again, the NRC's authority, as that of a federal nuclear regulatory agency, was in the realm of safety, leaving states to make economic determinations regarding nuclear power. White wrote, :And as there is no attempt on California's part to enter the field of developing and licensing nuclear waste disposal technology, a field occupied by the Federal Government, 25524.2 is not preempted any more by the NRC's obligations in the waste\",\n \"-28.915038007689873\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nuclear renaissance in the United States Between 2007 and 2009, 13 companies applied to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for construction and operating licenses to build 31 new nuclear power reactors in the United States. However, the case for widespread nuclear plant construction has been hampered due to inexpensive natural gas, slow electricity demand growth in a weak US economy, lack of financing, and safety concerns following the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011.\\nMost of the proposed 31 reactors have been canceled, and as of August 2017 only two reactors are under construction. In 2013, four reactors were permanently closed: San Onofre\",\n \"-28.88497233844828\"\n ],\n [\n \"with California budget crisis, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger proposed the temporary closure (for at least 2 years) of 220 parks. The closures were ultimately avoided by cutting hours and maintenance system-wide.\",\n \"-28.87100059504155\"\n ],\n [\n \"previous moratorium, although it removed the controversial article related to the nuclear criminal offense.\\nEven though majority of people and politicians still support moratorium on usage of nuclear energy, past couple of years are marked with an increasing public campaign pointed towards repeal of the 1995 Law, or, at least, its limitation to 10 years, after which it would be possible to build nuclear reactors in Serbia. Spain In 1964, Spain began construction on its first of three nuclear reactors and completed construction in 1968.\\nCurrently, Spain has eight nuclear reactors producing 20% of the country's electricity or 7,442 net MWe. Sweden\",\n \"-28.857969459611923\"\n ],\n [\n \"new nuclear power plants nor extending the life spans of outdated ones. In May 2012, nuclear power plants which were sitting idle in the wake of the Fukushima disaster were restarted in order to help Japan's immediate demands for energy, despite protests including hundreds of people. Trans-Pacific Partnership After becoming Prime Minister, one of Noda's most important initiatives was pursuing the entry of Japan into the negotiations for the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership, which he announced on 11 November 2011. This proved controversial and was widely discussed in Japanese society. Senkaku Islands The Tokyo Metropolitan Government under Governor Shintaro Ishihara\",\n \"-28.847255995075102\"\n ],\n [\n \"environmental and anti-nuclear activists gathered at Southern California Edison's Irvine headquarters calling for the San Onofre plant to be decommissioned. Initial shutdown Unit 2 was shut down in early January 2012 for routine refueling and replacement of the reactor vessel head. On January 31, 2012, Unit 3 suffered a radioactive leak largely inside the containment shell, with a release to the environment below allowable limits, and the reactor was shut down per standard procedure. On investigation, the replacement steam generators from 2011 in both units were found to show premature wear on over 3,000 tubes, in 15,000 places. Plant officials\",\n \"-28.806853315065382\"\n ],\n [\n \"economists is clear: \\\"nuclear reactors are simply not competitive\\\".\\nIn December 2010, The Economist reported that the demand for nuclear power was softening in America. In recent years, utilities have shown an interest in about 30 new reactors, but the number with any serious prospect of being built as of the end of 2010 was about a dozen, as some companies had withdrawn their applications for licenses to build. Exelon has withdrawn its application for a license for a twin-unit nuclear plant in Victoria County, Texas, citing lower electricity demand projections. The decision has left the country's largest nuclear operator without\",\n \"-28.780563015607186\"\n ],\n [\n \"power plant to be decommissioned, on October 24, 2016. Another five aging reactors were permanently closed in 2013 and 2014 before their licenses expired because of high maintenance and repair costs at a time when natural gas prices have fallen: San Onofre 2 and 3 in California, Crystal River 3 in Florida, Vermont Yankee in Vermont, and Kewaunee in Wisconsin, and New York State is seeking to close Indian Point in Buchanan, 30 miles from New York City.\\nMost reactors began construction by 1974; following the Three Mile Island accident in 1979 and changing economics, many planned projects were canceled. More\",\n \"-28.756012879224727\"\n ],\n [\n \"policy. Again, the company made no effort to identify those responsible. 2008 shutdown In 2008, Tokyo Electric, forced to shut the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant after an earthquake, posted its first loss in 28 years as oil and gas costs soared. Nuclear accidents On 11 March 2011 several nuclear reactors in Japan were badly damaged by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.\\nThe Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant lost external electric power, experienced the failure of one of its two cooling pumps, and two of its three emergency power generators. External electric power could only be restored two days after the\",\n \"-28.738138558968785\"\n ],\n [\n \"all other options.\\\"\\nFederal officials also ruled out nuclear devices due to environmental and political risks, as doing so would be a violation of Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty that the United States has signed. Admiral Thad Allen stated, \\\"since we don't know the condition of that well bore or the casings, I would be cautious about putting any kind of kinetic energy on that well head, because what you may do is create open communication between the reservoir and the sea floor.\\\" Allen also said that the result could be oil seeping through cracks and through the seafloor, \\\"and then be\",\n \"-28.722286998905474\"\n ],\n [\n \"Trillo-1 and Vandellos-2. All of the other five units of this series were halted in the middle of construction after a moratorium stopping further construction passed in 1994. Capacity of the nuclear fleet has still increased since then due to power uprates.\\nThere are no plans for either expansion or accelerated closure of nuclear plants. A leak of radioactive material from the Ascó I nuclear power plant in November 2007 sparked protests. The country's government has pledged to shut down its eight nuclear reactors once wind and solar energy become viable alternatives such as in neighbouring country Portugal. Fuel cycle ENUSA\",\n \"-28.719145039664\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the six-unit nuclear power plant is the coastal district of Gujarat; however, the site may be moved to the southeastern state of Andhra Pradesh, due to opposition from the local community. Westinghouse's parent company Toshiba decided in 2017 to withdraw from the construction of nuclear power plants, following financial difficulties, leaving the proposed agreement in doubt. Operations In March 2019 Sanmen Unit 2 was shut down because of a reactor coolant pump defect. A replacement pump has been shipped from the U.S. by Curtiss-Wright. There have been previous problems with these pumps, with several pumps returned from China. The\",\n \"-28.689091044885572\"\n ],\n [\n \"293 to 152, bolstering the Prime Minister's position.\\nIn July 2011, Kan said that Japan must reduce its dependence on nuclear energy, breaking with a decades-old Japanese government drive to build more nuclear power plants in the country. \\\"We must scrap the plan to have nuclear power contribute 53 percent (of electricity supply) by 2030 and reduce the degree of reliance on nuclear power,\\\" Kan told a government panel. Kan said Japan should abandon plans to build 14 new reactors by 2030. He wants to \\\"pass a bill to promote renewable energy and questioned whether private companies should be running atomic\",\n \"-28.658581877010874\"\n ],\n [\n \"York State is seeking to close Indian Point Nuclear Power Plant, in Buchanan, 30 miles from New York City, despite this reactor being the primary contributor to Vermont's green energy fund.\\nThe additional cancellation of five large reactor upgrades (Prairie Island, 1 reactor, LaSalle, 2 reactors, and Limerick, 2 reactors), four by the largest nuclear company in the U.S., suggest that the nuclear industry faces \\\"a broad range of operational and economic problems\\\".\\nIn July 2013, economist Mark Cooper named some nuclear power plants that face particularly intense challenges to their continued operation. Cooper said that the lesson for policy makers and\",\n \"-28.65285977208987\"\n ],\n [\n \"Choice, Gore argues that nuclear power was once \\\"expected to provide virtually unlimited supplies of low-cost electricity\\\", but the reality is that it has been \\\"... an energy source in crisis for the last 30 years.\\\" Worldwide growth in nuclear power has slowed in recent years, with no new reactors and an \\\"actual decline in global capacity and output in 2008.\\\" In the United States, \\\"... no nuclear power plants ordered after 1972 have been built to completion.\\\"\\nOf the 253 nuclear power reactors originally ordered in the United States from 1953 to 2008, 48 percent were canceled, 11 percent were prematurely shut\",\n \"-28.641475521872053\"\n ],\n [\n \"not compel a utility to develop a nuclear plant, compliance with both it and 25524.2 is possible. Moreover, because the NRC's regulations are aimed at insuring that plants are safe, not necessarily that they are economical, 25524.2 does not interfere with the objective of the federal regulation.\\nNor has California sought through 25524.2 to impose its own standards on nuclear waste disposal. The statute accepts that it is the federal responsibility to develop and license such technology. As there is no attempt on California's part to enter this field, one which is occupied by the Federal Government, we do not find\",\n \"-28.63822167415492\"\n ],\n [\n \"environmental considerations have led Ontario to announce that it will maintain existing nuclear capacity by replacing older reactors with new ones. Canada has never had any serious accidents related to nuclear power, CANDU reactors are a particularly safe design. Canada is planning new reactors. Mexico Mexico has one nuclear power plant, which consists of two boiling water reactors. In February 2007, contracts with Iberdrola and Alstom were signed to update the reactors by 2010. A committee has been established to recommend on new nuclear plants and the most recent proposal is for one unit to come on line by 2015\",\n \"-28.607950257250195\"\n ],\n [\n \"with seven more to follow it by 2025.\\nAfter a time was thought to stop the use of nuclear energy then Mexico finally decided in 2007 by repowering the Laguna Verde Nuclear Power Station, which has two reactors of 683MW each, after the upgrading, reactors are increase their production to 817MW each, accounting 4.6% of the electricity production. On May 14, 2010 Energy Secretary Georgina Kessel announced that Mexico provides full development of nuclear energy in its energy mix as an alternative to discourage the use of fossil fuels and increase the generation of clean electricity.\\nIn November 2011, Mexico abandoned plans\",\n \"-28.594696727646806\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Onagawa nuclear power plant may demonstrate that it is possible for nuclear facilities to withstand the greatest natural disasters, and to retain public trust. The plant was shut down following the earthquake and tsunami, in accordance with standard legally mandated procedure after such an event, but despite the IAEA finding that the plant had survived the quake remarkably undamaged, the three units remain in cold shutdown. Whereas the mishaps at Fukushima I radically changed public opinion on safety and risks, Tohoku Electric seems to have preserved much of its pre-disaster goodwill in the area of Onagawa. While the tsunami\",\n \"-28.592716113926144\"\n ],\n [\n \"revision. Yes California argues that this not a major revision, based on the California Supreme Court's test in Legislature v. Eu that a revision \\\"must necessarily or inevitably appear from the face of the challenged provision that the measure will substantially alter [California's] basic governmental framework\\\".\\nThe Legislative Analyst's report also noted the tens of millions of dollars that would have to be spent by state and local governments to hold an additional statewide election in March 2019.\\nWere California to actually become its own separate nation, the major economic and budgetary impacts for both the current state and local governments are\",\n \"-28.59104646263586\"\n ],\n [\n \"until 1 July 2012, Japan had no operating nuclear power plants.\\nOn 17 April 2013, a shipment of MOX nuclear fuel to Japan left the port of Cherbourg in northern France, for the first time since the Fukushima disaster, destined for Takahama nuclear plant. \\nMOX fuel contains around 7% plutonium. Court decision forbids restart As of 16 April 2015, the Takahama reactors were ordered to remain offline by a Japanese court, which cited continued safety concerns. \\nThe Fukui District Court rejected a \\\"stay\\\" on its original ruling that, despite approval to restart the plants from Japan's governmental Nuclear Regulation Authority (an\",\n \"-28.587613923256868\"\n ],\n [\n \"proliferate in California, there is debate and concern over who takes on the POLR responsibility if a CCA fails. If incumbent utilities are no longer in the business of providing power, it may no longer be feasible for them to provide this backstop. Individual CCAs differ on whether they want to or are capable of taking on this responsibility.\\nThe CPUC has released a study called the “Green Book,” which is reminiscent of the agency’s “Blue” and “Yellow” Books in 1993, which led to California’s deregulation and subsequent energy crisis in the early 2000s. The substance of the “Green Book”\",\n \"-28.57922164024785\"\n ],\n [\n \"Marcus Ruiz Evans of Yes California wrote that, \\\"No one is going to pull money out of California if it secedes, no one is going to invade, no one is going to stop trading – there is too much money invested here, too many deals already going on. The world will not let the California economy be disrupted.\\\"\\nAt a forum held by the campaign in Los Angeles on February 13, 2017, led by Evans and Marinelli, they argued that California annually loses about $70 billion by subsidizing other states and military overseas, which could instead be used elsewhere. Marinelli also stated\",\n \"-28.568983652796305\"\n ],\n [\n \"have been reduced significantly if mass production began, due to economies of scale. There is also discussion about electric cars threatening dealer profits since they have so few service requirements—no tuneups, no oil changes, and less frequent brake jobs because of regenerative braking. U.S. government While not overtly political, the film documents that the federal government of the United States under the Presidency of George W. Bush joined the auto-industry suit against California in 2002. This pushed California to abandon its ZEV mandate regulation. The film notes that Bush's chief of staff Andrew Card had recently been head of the\",\n \"-28.543834960029926\"\n ],\n [\n \"Pakistan, Russia, Slovakia, South Korea, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom and the United States of America. At least 100 older and smaller reactors will \\\"most probably be closed over the next 10-15 years\\\".\\nCountries that wish to shut down nuclear power plants must find alternatives for electricity generation; otherwise, they are forced to become dependent on imports. Therefore, the discussion of a future for nuclear energy is intertwined with discussions about fossil fuels or an energy transition to renewable energy. Austria A nuclear power station was built during the 1970s at Zwentendorf, Austria, but its start-up was prevented by a\",\n \"-28.515414519206388\"\n ],\n [\n \"list of Nuclear power by country with China leading at 23. Globally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased. China has stated its plans to double nuclear generation by 2030. India also plans to greatly increase its nuclear power.\\nSeveral countries have enacted laws to cease construction on new nuclear power stations. Several European countries have debated nuclear phase-outs and others have completely shut down some reactors. Three nuclear accidents have influenced the slowdown of nuclear power: the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States, the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in\",\n \"-28.485707286934485\"\n ],\n [\n \"Promise, economics professor, John Quiggin, comments that it presents the environmental rationale for nuclear power, but that reviving nuclear power debates is a distraction, and the main problem with the nuclear option is that it is not economically viable. Quiggin says that we need more efficient energy use and more renewable energy commercialization.\",\n \"-28.485080061676854\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":92,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2ohse7"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What would NASA(or equivalent) do if an astronaut refused to come back down from the space station?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["If they went rouge and killed everyone we'd just stop resupplying it","I'm sure there's haldol, ativan or some other strong sedative in the med kit. The other astronauts could jump his ass and sedate him.","I think it's called Space Dementia. The other astronaut had to tie up Steve Buscemi.","The space station can be controlled remotely by houston and the russian one. Plus they go thru a rigourous and tedious pych test. The crew cabin is the size of a tractor trailer rig and all the people are russians or ex military. They could take the crazy man down.","There are no weapons on board for obvious reasons, although IIRC some Russian astronauts have brought guns to space in the past in case they have to deal with a bear on their return to Earth. The official guidelines suggest that the other crew members should physically subdue the person and then tie them up with duct tape/bungee cords and use tranquilizers if necessary.","I guarantee there is a thick binder in Houston with specific instructions to deal with this exact thing....Yep, found it. [Mental Breakdown In Space]( URL_0 )","If you don't get down here right now you're grounded! Bitch please.","They probably have some type of plan already prepared for this just in case one of the astronauts started to go crazy. More than likely it would involve the other astronauts subduing the deranged one and sedating them until they could safely be sent back down to earth."],"string":"[\n \"If they went rouge and killed everyone we'd just stop resupplying it\",\n \"I'm sure there's haldol, ativan or some other strong sedative in the med kit. The other astronauts could jump his ass and sedate him.\",\n \"I think it's called Space Dementia. The other astronaut had to tie up Steve Buscemi.\",\n \"The space station can be controlled remotely by houston and the russian one. Plus they go thru a rigourous and tedious pych test. The crew cabin is the size of a tractor trailer rig and all the people are russians or ex military. They could take the crazy man down.\",\n \"There are no weapons on board for obvious reasons, although IIRC some Russian astronauts have brought guns to space in the past in case they have to deal with a bear on their return to Earth. The official guidelines suggest that the other crew members should physically subdue the person and then tie them up with duct tape/bungee cords and use tranquilizers if necessary.\",\n \"I guarantee there is a thick binder in Houston with specific instructions to deal with this exact thing....Yep, found it. [Mental Breakdown In Space]( URL_0 )\",\n \"If you don't get down here right now you're grounded! Bitch please.\",\n \"They probably have some type of plan already prepared for this just in case one of the astronauts started to go crazy. More than likely it would involve the other astronauts subduing the deranged one and sedating them until they could safely be sent back down to earth.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["holding her back and allowing a Caucasian Astronaut to take her place!\" Jeanette Epps stated that she could not comment on her brother's post or the reason why she was pulled off the mission, but did state that she has no medical condition or family problem preventing her from flying, and that her training had been successful. The Washington Post stated that \"Last-minute crew changes are not unusual at NASA.\"","-35.184802436153404"],["emergency extra-vehicular activity (EVA) would have been required. While there was no astronaut EVA training for maneuvering to the wing, astronauts are always prepared for a similarly difficult emergency EVA to close the external tank umbilical doors located on the orbiter underside, which is necessary for reentry in the event of failure. Similar methods could have reached the shuttle left wing for inspection or repair.\nFor the repair, the CAIB determined that the astronauts would have to use tools and small pieces of titanium, or other metal, scavenged from the crew cabin. These metals would help protect the wing structure and","-34.54381571849808"],["getting back to Earth alive.\nNo EVAs were planned on the next three Gemini flights. The next EVA was planned to be made by David Scott on Gemini VIII, but that mission had to be aborted due to a critical spacecraft malfunction before the EVA could be conducted. Astronauts on the next three Gemini flights (Eugene Cernan, Michael Collins, and Richard Gordon), performed several EVAs, but none was able to successfully work for long periods outside the spacecraft without tiring and overheating. Cernan attempted but failed to test an Air Force Astronaut Maneuvering Unit which included a self-contained oxygen system.\nOn November","-34.513390050826274"],["to perform well with the help of new Deputy Press Secretary Annabeth Schott. Military shuttle leak storyline In the episode \"Things Fall Apart,\" the International Space Station develops a critical oxygen leak. With no civilian shuttles available to perform a rescue mission in time, a three-person crew finds itself trapped aboard the ISS. While the president contemplates rescue options, C.J. becomes aware of the possibility that a secret military space shuttle could be prepared in time to rescue the crew. However, this would involve revealing the shuttle's existence, particularly as one of the ISS crew is a Russian military officer.","-34.14645507041132"],["crew then worked to undertake some further detailed inspection of the orbiter and unloaded the P5 truss segment from the payload bay, handing it off successfully from the shuttle robotic arm to the station arm. The astronauts scheduled for Day 4's EVA, Robert Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang, ended their day by entering the airlock for a \"campout\" sleep session to prepare for the EVA by purging their bodies of nitrogen in a lower-pressure environment. Such a practice is common in order for the astronauts to avoid getting decompression sickness. 12 December (Flight day 4 – EVA #1) Flight day 4","-33.778725382115226"],["their attempts fail, using up too much fuel and causing the ISS to enter a decaying orbit where it will burn up in Earth's atmosphere. Pilot Sho Murakami informs the crew that they need to use the station's remaining fuel to get back into a safe orbit, although this allows Calvin to re-enter the station. The crew plan to make Calvin dormant by sealing themselves into one module and venting the atmosphere from the rest of the station.\nAfter the crew finalize preparations to do so, Hugh enters cardiac arrest. The crew then discover that Calvin has been feeding off Hugh's","-33.62189405862591"],["the safety of the crew... I'm not concerned with our safety.\" The main reason for fixing it, he noted, would be to assist with processing once the orbiter was back at the Kennedy Space Center.\nDuring the Mission Management Team briefing, Kirk Shireman, Deputy International Space Station Program Manager, reported that the External Stowage Platform installation went well; the new CMG was working well, and handover of attitude control directly from the shuttle to the station was completed without problems. In addition, a new Russian computer was installed on the station, and testing of the system would be performed in late","-33.61131652905897"],["agents manage to get her out of her overturned car and, despite being injured, she manages to get back to the base.\nThe shuttle has moved into direct sunlight and Mission Control is unable to rotate it into a safe position, putting the astronauts' lives in danger. Generoo believes that the uplink is being sabotaged. Belt orders the uplink to be cut, allowing the astronauts to rotate the craft manually. Over the objections of Generoo and the agents, he orders the mission to proceed and lies to the press about its progress. Belt tells Mulder that the shuttle program may be","-33.546034841871005"],["was reluctant to terminate the EVA at the allotted time, and had to be ordered back into the spacecraft. While he was outside, a spare thermal glove floated away through the open hatch of the spacecraft, becoming an early piece of space debris in low Earth orbit, until it burned up upon re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. There was a mechanical problem with the hatch mechanism, which made it difficult to open and to relatch, which added to the time constraint of the spacewalk, and could have threatened the lives of both men if McDivitt had been unable to get","-33.424207190138986"],["future astronauts. The EVA concluded at 03:07 UTC on the morning of 13 December, and lasted for 6 hours and 36 minutes in total.\nDuring the spacewalk, after taking a close look at imagery gathered on the first three days of the flight, mission managers determined that the shuttle's heat shield would support a safe return to Earth. They also decided a more detailed inspection that had been scheduled for later in the mission would not be necessary.\nThree more spacewalks, one of which was unplanned, were required to reconfigure and redistribute power on the station, so that the solar arrays installed","-33.230084278213326"],["space until November 30, 2009.\nAfter working through the checklists to safely power down the orbiter for about an hour, the crew got out of Atlantis and into the Crew Transport Vehicle. Exiting the vehicle without Stott, they performed the traditional walk-around of the shuttle and met with employees from NASA. Speaking briefly to the press following the walk-around, Commander Hobaugh said \"We really had truly an amazing mission\". He went to add, \"We had no hitches. It was not us, it was not any single group, but it was just an incredible team from all around the nation\".\nPost-landing Crew Conference","-32.99031038052635"],["a deal with the astronauts that they would not hide information from her, and she would not betray their confidence, unless, she thought it may jeopardize them or the mission. She was the only nurse assigned to the Astronauts. O'Hara became close to the astronauts and their families. Before every launch she performed the pre-flight physicals including height, weight, temperatures, blood pressure measurements. The astronauts would not agree to let anyone else but O'Hara draw blood before launch.\nO'Hara also helped set up the portable hospital at the Grand Bahama Island to support post flight examination and, if needed, treat injured","-32.77021397498902"],["though it never exceeded the safety limits, the EVA was called off with both astronauts returning into the station. This left one old battery in a temporary flexible stowage position. The rest of the batteries will be installed in a future EVA with the rest of the EVAs being under replanning. 23 July (Flight Day 9) The Kibo robotic arm was inaugurated operationally with it being used to install experiments on to the Japanese exposed facility. The three experiments, transferred from the Japanese cargo pallet, consisted of Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image, Inter-orbit Communication System and Space Environment Data Acquisition","-32.73071233148221"],["to carry the crew to space, an insane USAF general driven by shallow militarism and hatred for space exploration tries to shoot down the shuttle during lift off. Despite damage sustained from an anti-satellite missile fired from a restored X-15, Endeavour successfully makes it into orbit, and the five crew members begin their six-year journey to Saturn by following the gravity-assisted Interplanetary Transport Network.\nEn route, one crew member dies after a solar storm. The use of a CELSS greenhouse for life support provides a continuous food supply, and the astronauts rely on vegetables, grain and fruit from the greenhouse as","-32.618133462267"],["in the event that the orbiter is not able to land until Saturday.\nAfter evaluating the imagery sent down from the late inspection, the ground team officially cleared the orbiter's thermal protection system for re-entry. Initially, NASA had planned on releasing Endeavour from its stand-by status following the late inspection, but managers on the ground decided to wait until Atlantis had performed the de-orbit burn before standing down the STS-400 rescue mission officially.\nBefore going to sleep, the crew took a phone call from President Barack Obama, who congratulated them on their successful mission, joked with them, asking if they could see","-32.609281231765635"],["NASA on December 30, 2008, made further recommendations to improve a crew's survival chances on future space vehicles, such as the then planned Orion spacecraft. These included improvements in crew restraints, finding ways to deal more effectively with catastrophic cabin depressurization, more \"graceful degradation\" of vehicles during a disaster so that crews will have a better chance at survival, and automated parachute systems. Fears of terrorism After the shuttle's breakup, there were some initial fears that terrorists might have been involved, but no evidence of that has ever surfaced. Security surrounding the launch and landing of the space shuttle had","-32.58486996399006"],["looking out at the window.\nSpaceflight history author David Hitt disputed that the crew purposefully ended contact with mission control in a book written along with former astronauts Owen K. Garriott and Joseph P. Kerwin. Effects At the time, only the crew of Skylab 3 had spent six weeks in space. It was unknown what had happened psychologically. NASA carefully worked with crew's requests, reducing their workload for the next six weeks. The incident took NASA into an unknown realm of concern in the selection of astronauts, still a question as humanity considers human missions to Mars or returning to the","-32.496189646888524"],["speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other. Gene Kranz wrote, \"The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong.\" The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson.","-32.486587874474935"],["to ensure astronaut safety: \"The beauty of Flight Rules is that they create certainty when we have to make tough calls.... In real time, the temptation to take a chance is always higher. However, the flight rules were unequivocal: the Shuttle had to return to Earth.\"\nUpon landing, mission managers decided that Columbia did not need to be processed per a typical end of mission maintenance flow. Instead, they called for an unprecedented reflight of the same mission, once the normal processing could be completed (refill the propellant tanks and other consumables like oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and water, change out the","-32.4216869478696"],["the craft's service propulsion system (SPS); after considerable troubleshooting, the astronauts did a test burn of the system that also served as a midcourse correction. This occurred about 028:40:00 into the mission. Fearing that the light meant the SPS might unexpectedly fire, the astronauts avoided using the control bank with the faulty light, bringing it online only for major burns, and controlling it manually. After the mission returned, the malfunction proved to be caused by a tiny bit of wire trapped within the switch.\nAfter purging and renewing the LM's atmosphere to eliminate any contamination, the astronauts entered the LM about","-32.41077782353386"],["ISS. The subsequent two and a half-year suspension of the U.S. Space Shuttle program, followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, were major obstacles.\nThe Space Shuttle program resumed flight on 26 July 2005, with the STS-114 mission of Discovery. This mission to the ISS was intended both to test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster and deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the external tank, leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.\nBetween the Columbia disaster and","-32.33836645470001"],["back out of the partnership. A large part of this \"cover-up\" was the seeming impression that the American astronauts were not in fact \"partners\" aboard the station, but were instead \"guests\". NASA staff did not find out for several hours about the fire and collision and found themselves kept out of decision-making processes. NASA became more involved when Russian mission controllers intended to place blame for the accident entirely on Vasily Tsibliyev. It was only after the application of significant pressure from NASA that this stance was changed.\nAt various times during the program, NASA managers and personnel found themselves limited","-32.204609188038376"],[" Jerry Bostick and other Flight Dynamics Officers (FIDOs) were anxious both to shorten the time, and to get Apollo 13 down in the Pacific Ocean, where the main recovery forces were located. There was a relatively quick option that would shave 36 hours off the return time, but it would involve jettisoning the SM, which would expose the CM's heat shield to space for the return journey, something it had not been designed to endure. The FIDOs also proposed other solutions. After a meeting involving a number of NASA officials and engineers, the senior individual present,","-32.16623393888585"],["landing, the astronauts decided to stay in the capsule, not wanting to open the hatch before the arrival of the recovery ship. The crew spent an uncomfortable half-hour in a spacecraft not designed to be a boat. Due to unexpected smoke from the thrusters, the astronauts decided to deviate from the post landing checklist and to keep their helmets on with the face plates closed for some time after splashdown. USS Intrepid recovered the craft and crew. The Gemini III mission was supported by the following United States Department of Defense resources: 10,185 personnel, 126 aircraft and 27 ships. Insignia","-32.12075677367102"],["on the morning of August 29 and began spilling out.\nThe NASA Johnson Space Center was closed to employees and visitors due to the flooding until September 5. Only the critical mission control staff remain and reside in the control rooms to monitor procedures of the International Space Station. Deep East Texas and Beaumont to Port Arthur area Anyone who chooses to not [evacuate] cannot expect to be rescued and should write their social security numbers in permanent marker on their arm so their bodies can be identified. The loss of life and property is certain. GET OUT OR DIE!\n— Jacques Blanchette, Tyler","-32.10201505233999"],["the crew's return to Earth, creating a one-star observation system that would allow astronauts to determine their location with accuracy. In a 2010 interview, Johnson recalled, \"Everybody was concerned about them getting there. We were concerned about them getting back.\" Later in her career, Johnson worked on the Space Shuttle program, the Earth Resources Satellite, and on plans for a mission to Mars. Personal life In 1939, Katherine (then Coleman) married James Francis Goble. They had three daughters: Constance, Joylette, and Katherine. In 1953, she and James moved their family to Newport News to pursue a new job opportunity. In","-31.969972308550496"],["EVA repairs of a spacecraft were made by Charles \"Pete\" Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and Paul J. Weitz on May 26, June 7, and June 19, 1973, on the Skylab 2 mission. They rescued the functionality of the launch-damaged Skylab space station by freeing a stuck solar panel, deploying a solar heating shield, and freeing a stuck circuit breaker relay. The Skylab 2 crew made three EVAs, and a total of ten EVAs were made by the three Skylab crews. They found that activities in weightlessness required about 2½ times longer than on Earth because many astronauts suffered spacesickness early in","-31.953990090061893"],["that particular mission. Once completed, the crew would then reenter the Orion, seal itself off from the ISS, and then undock from the station.\nOnce the Orion reached a safe distance from the ISS, the Command Module (after having jettisoned the disposable service module) would re-enter in the same manner as all NASA spacecraft prior to the Shuttle, using the ablative heat shield to both deflect heat from the spacecraft and to slow it down from a speed of 28,000 km/h (17,500 mph or Mach 23) to 480 km/h (300 mph or Mach 0.5). After reentry was completed, the forward assembly would be jettisoned, and","-31.95170114262146"],["a sticking solar array, enabling the retraction of another six sections of the P6 array. At the end of the EVA there were another 11 \"bays\", or 35% left to retract. Upon completion of the EVA, the astronauts returned to the ISS via the Quest airlock.\nAnother significant event during the EVA was the loss of 'Suni' Williams' digital camera. At the post-EVA press conference it was suggested that a tether got snagged and caused the camera release button to break off allowing the camera to fall out of its holder. Images were lost but it was determined there was no","-31.944764827843755"],["with astronaut corps After John Glenn's flight, Kraft had vowed that he would no longer allow his decisions as flight director to be overruled by anyone outside Mission Control. The mission rules, whose drafting had been overseen by Kraft, stated that \"the flight director may, after analysis of the flight, choose to take any necessary action required for the successful completion of the mission.\" For Kraft, the power that the flight director held over every aspect of the mission extended to his control over the actions of the astronauts. In his 1965 interview with Time, he stated:\n[T]he guy on the","-31.901632711174898"],["Avionics cables. The joint crew also completed more transfer, mostly transfer for return to Earth in the MPLM and Space Shuttle mid-deck. The ISS crew also replaced a bolt on the Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) so that the MPLM won't get stuck, and also to ensure correct capture of the HTV. 6 September (Flight Day 10 – Off duty) Flight day 10 saw the joint crews transfer samples from the space station to the shuttle freezer known as Glacier. The samples will be returned to Earth for examination by scientists who will develop ways to prevent bone and muscle loss","-31.880536109034438"],["the help of Lockheed, set up a backup fairing and demonstrated the problem to McDonnell personnel and to George Mueller, NASA's Office of Manned Space Flight administrator.\nThe crew then did some planned rendezvous practice that involved them moving away from the ATDA by firing their thrusters and then practicing approaching from below the target. They then got some much needed food and rest.\nDuring the flight, neither astronaut had much time to eat due to the busy schedule or to document their food consumption, it could not be determined how much of the difficulties Cernan experienced during the EVA were due","-31.87216600740794"],["lacked the capability to return the astronauts to Earth; this was the first time space travelers had flown in a vehicle that could not take them home. McDivitt and Schweickart entered the LM early, having obtained permission to do so without wearing their helmets and gloves, making it easier to set up the LM. When Scott in Gumdrop pushed the button to release the LM, it initially hung on the latches at the end of the docking probe, but he hit the button again and Spider was released. After spending about 45 minutes near Gumdrop, Spider went into a slightly","-31.78543299040757"],["with the piece of space debris.\nTransferring expedition crews\nBy 14 March, the expedition crews had completed the change over, but until the shuttle undocked, Shepherd officially remained commander of the station. The morning of the 14th the astronauts' wake-up call was the song \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\" by The Clash, at the request of Shepherd's wife. Shepherd, a former Navy SEAL, said during the change over ceremony: \"May the good will, spirit and sense of mission we had enjoyed on board endure. Sail her well.\" The commander of Discovery, Jim Wetherbee, said \"For Captain Shepherd and his crew,","-31.704593219794333"],["Space Agency's Mission Control announced that the ISS crew had loaded Progress M-04M with garbage and readied the spacecraft for undocking. The command for undocking was issued at 11:13 UTC, and three minutes later Progress M-04M separated from the Zvezda module. Cosmonauts Skvortsov and Kornienko monitored the undocking with photo and video cameras focusing on the Progress docking mechanism to confirm that there were no missing or damaged O-ring seals on the docking interface.\nThe spacecraft stayed in an autonomous flight for two months after undocking and take part in the Reflection geophysical experiment to study reflective characteristics of the freighter's","-31.683709880395327"],["Accordingly, the station's program was rescued. Additionally, he placed a materials exposure experiment on the exterior of the space station to be retrieved by a subsequent crew. The EVA lasted 1 hour and 28 minutes.\nIt was later revealed that a potentially dangerous incident occurred during the EVA. Once Grechko was back in the airlock, Romanenko asked to look outside, so Grechko moved aside and Romanenko pushed hard against the airlock. He did not have his safety tether attached and began to float away from the station and thrash about. Grechko grabbed his commander by his untethered safety line and pulled","-31.647931597864954"],["10, continuing transfer operations, and doing some troubleshooting on a communication system between the shuttle and station. The two crews took some time out to have a joint news conference with US and Canadian news agencies, and took the official combined crew portrait. When asked by reporters on the ground whether the crew agreed with NASA's decision to return without repairing the damage to Endeavour's underside, Commander Kelly replied, \"We agree absolutely 100 percent with the decision to not repair the damage.\"\nDuring the mission status briefing, Lead Flight Director Matt Abbott discussed the ongoing preparations and plans with regards to","-31.64624544722028"],["Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini's attitude control. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position.\nA few people in the Astronaut Office, including Walter Cunningham, felt that Armstrong and Scott \"had botched their first mission\". There was","-31.638023316394538"],["just one, the leaks posed a possible risk to other systems.\nNASA first considered bringing the crew home immediately. However, because the astronauts were safe on the station with ample supplies and because plans for a rescue flight existed, the mission continued while the Saturn IB rocket AS 208 with CSM 119 was assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building at Launch Complex 39 for possible use. It was at one point rolled out to LC-39B.\nNASA announced on August 4, 1973 that Skylab 3 and Skylab 4 backup crewmen Vance Brand and Don Lind would fly any rescue mission; they had immediately","-31.636943362886086"],["day of the EVA was also their last in space. On their 45th revolution of the Earth, the crewmen fired the retro-rockets that slowed them down so that they would reenter. This time the computer worked perfectly, meaning they landed only 700 meters from the planned landing site and were close enough to see the prime recovery ship, USS Wasp. The splashdown happened closer to the recovery ship than any other crewed spacecraft.\nPostflight medical examination found that Stafford had lost five pounds of weight and Cernan up to 13 pounds, 10.5 of them during the EVA. Stafford later stated that","-31.617881061858498"],["out NASA manager Linda Ham for exhibiting this attitude. In 2013, Hale recalled that Director of Mission Operations Jon C. Harpold shared with him before Columbia's destruction a mindset which Hale himself later agreed was widespread at the time, even among the astronauts themselves:\nYou know, there is nothing we can do about damage to the [thermal protection system]. If it has been damaged it's probably better not to know. I think the crew would rather not know. Don't you think it would be better for them to have a happy successful flight and die unexpectedly during entry than to stay","-31.543203358072788"],["(such as docking) which would be performed manually by shuttle pilots were all carried out automatically, and cosmonauts had their pay docked if they made any errors during their flights. Americans learned aboard Skylab and earlier space missions that this level of control was not productive and had since made mission plans more flexible. The Russians, however, would not budge, and many felt that significant work time was lost because of this.\nFollowing the two accidents in 1997, astronaut Jerry Linenger felt that the Russian authorities attempted a cover-up to downplay the significance of the incidents, fearing that the Americans would","-31.541048084851354"],["two astronauts still at the lander, who have meanwhile discovered that they are gradually losing air pressure and have realised that there must be an air leak somewhere. Sanchez urges them to join her, as there is enough oxygen and water in the valley for them to survive until the rescue ship arrives. Filming locations The scenes set on the surface of Mars were filmed on Lanzarote, and the interior scenes were filmed at Panavision Studios in Hollywood. To save costs, they used the Space Shuttle interior set previously used for Space Cowboys.","-31.512518032075604"],["for the astronauts during their return to Earth. Its descent stage engine was used to replace the crippled CSM Service Propulsion System engine, and its batteries supplied power for the trip home and recharged the Command Module's batteries critical for reentry. The astronauts splashed down safely on April 17, 1970. The LM's systems, designed to support two astronauts for 45 hours (including twice depressurization and repressurization causing loss of oxygen supply), actually stretched to support three astronauts for 90 hours (without depressurization and repressurization and loss of oxygen supply).\nHover times were maximized on the last four landing missions by using","-31.50693788321223"],["the crew members reported that their life in space was not as difficult as they expected prior to launch, despite a 20% increase in interpersonal problems during the second half of the missions. It was recommended that future crew members be allowed to control their individual schedules as much as possible. On-orbit and post-spaceflight psychiatric issues A number of psychiatric problems have been reported during on-orbit space missions. Most common are adjustment reactions to the novelty of being in space, with symptoms generally including transient anxiety or depression. Psychosomatic reactions also have occurred, where anxiety and other emotional states","-31.501277681571082"],["and made ready for deorbit burn to return to Earth. During descent, the spacecraft experienced a computer software problem combined with a sensor problem. This caused their landing to be delayed by a full day. The Descent Module, where they spent this 24-hour period, had no sanitary facilities. They would not have been able to redock with Mir because they had discarded the docking system along with the orbital module. Reentry occurred as normal on September 7. Following this incident, the Soviets decided that on future missions, they would retain the orbital module until after deorbit burn, as they had","-31.496629344997928"],["from the astronauts' blood and thus prevent decompression sickness. Members of both crews also conducted two in-flight interviews with media on the ground, including PBS NewsHour, National Public Radio, Associated Press, Reuters and Fox News. The crew also answered questions that were relayed up to them by Miles O'Brien for Google. 20 May (Flight Day 5 – EVA 1) The first spacewalk of the STS-134 mission was completed on flight day 5. Drew Feustel and Greg Chamitoff completed the installation of a new set of MISSE experiments, and also started installing a new wireless video system, but were stopped when","-31.493681756430306"],["that there was an emergency \"giving the astronauts a go/no go decision (to land or not to land)\". Jack Garman, a NASA computer engineer in mission control, recognized the meaning of the errors that were presented to the astronauts by the priority displays and shouted, \"Go, go!\" and they continued. Paul Curto, senior technologist who nominated Hamilton for a NASA Space Act Award, called Hamilton's work \"the foundation for ultra-reliable software design\".\nHamilton later wrote of the incident:\nThe computer (or rather the software in it) was smart enough to recognize that it was being asked to perform more tasks than it","-31.43807493440545"],["crew to alert them that the managers had decided to make a 24-hour delay to EVA-1, originally scheduled for Flight Day 4, and that Stanley Love would replace Hans Schlegel for EVA-1 on Monday. During the post-MMT briefing, Mission Management Chairman John Shannon explained there was a \"crew medical issue\", but it would not impact the mission objectives. For reasons of medical privacy, Shannon said NASA can not disclose which crewmember is affected, and no details would be given as to the nature of the issue, but Shannon said it was not something to be concerned about. Unconfirmed news reports","-31.43007313553244"],["as there was a lot of worry about the safety of the mission, as this was the first time humans would fly on an untested vehicle. These included worries about the SRB's and the Space Shuttles thermal protection system.\nAnother feature of the mission mentioned in Hail Columbia, is the escape system used by crew. As the Space Shuttle did not have a launch escape system, if anything were to go wrong on the pad, the crew would have to evacuate and use the slide wire, which was a zip line that took the crew from the Fixed Service Structure down","-31.35583563839009"],["of the crew were stowing items no longer needed during the flight. During the early part of the day Stephen Robinson and Terry Virts also stowed and deactivated the Space Shuttle robotic arm. The entire crew also took time out of their day to conduct an in-flight interview with CNN, CNN Español and Univision. 22 February (Flight Day 15: Landing) Space Shuttle Endeavour and her STS-130 crew awoke on flight day 15 to begin getting ready for landing. The landing preparations included closing the payload bay doors, activating the Auxiliary Power Units and getting into their launch and entry suits.","-31.303499812434893"],["Before return to Earth, the Commander Robert L. Gibson thought to himself \"We are going to die.\" due to the extensive damage to her wing. Due to the secretive nature of the Atlantis's payload, the crew was forced to use a more secure encrypted transmission, which had more than likely been received at a low quality. NASA engineers thought the damage was just light and shadows, and as a result the crew was infuriated. During reentry, Guy Garder the pilot for the mission, returned the Shuttle safely. Upon inspection the Shuttle's bottom right wing was seen to be severely damaged","-31.286666164407507"],["for the launch area threatens to cancel the mission. High winds cause a scrub of the launch in time to save all three Ironman astronauts. However, the eye of the storm passes over the Cape 90 minutes later during a subsequent launch window, permitting a launch with Dougherty aboard in time to reach the ship while at least some of the crew survives.\nInsufficient oxygen remains for all three astronauts to survive until Dougherty arrives. There is possibly enough for two. Pruett and his crew then debate what to do. Stone tries to reason that they can somehow survive by taking","-31.25461916839413"],["non-ISS mission) resulted in a two-and-a-half-year suspension of the US Space Shuttle program. Another one-year suspension following STS-114 (because of continued foam shedding on the external tank) led to some uncertainty about the future of the International Space Station. All crew exchanges between February 2003 and July 2006 were carried out using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft; a STS-114 visit in July 2005 was purely logistical. Starting with Expedition 7, caretaker crews of just two astronauts were launched, in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a space shuttle for over three","-31.23306913289707"],["transmitters for communications, to be turned on last, just before reentry, rather than first. The call was a calculated risk. Without the instrumentation system, the crew and controllers would not know for certain if the cold startup had been successful until the last possible moment before reentry. However without the change, the capsule would have exhausted its battery supply before splashdown. The procedure was a success, and the crew was recovered safely. Later career After the Apollo Lunar Surface program ended, Aaron remained at NASA in the Spacecraft Software DIvision rising through the ranks of technical assistant to the chief","-31.225444424315356"],["the orbiter's reentry and landing, it would likely have sent Columbia into the Pacific Ocean; NASA later developed the Remote Control Orbiter system to permit mission control to land a shuttle.\nNASA investigators determined that on-orbit repair by the shuttle astronauts was possible but overall considered \"high risk\", primarily due to the uncertain resiliency of the repair using available materials and the anticipated high risk of doing additional damage to the Orbiter. Columbia did not carry the Canadarm, or Remote Manipulator System, which would normally be used for camera inspection or transporting a spacewalking astronaut to the wing. Therefore, an unusual","-31.224024303257465"],["feared that it may have been damaged by the main engine, potentially leaving the crew stranded with five days of supplies while it would take ten days for the orbit to decay. One option to return the crew if the backup engine was inoperable would have been to use attitude control thrusters to slow the Soyuz below orbit velocity, but it was not known if there was enough propellant to do this, and the landing point would have been unpredictable even if it had worked. Another option was to move the station to the Soyuz. The station could have been","-31.213168735790532"],["shut down once a certain voltage threshold had been crossed, and with only two of three fuel cells working, that invoked another Flight Rule which required the mission be terminated early (loss of a second fuel cell would require severe and dangerous powerdowns, though the shuttle operates normally on two). Payload Specialist Dr. Linteris described the mission as \"an exercise in crisis management. The main buss alarm was going off continually.\"\nAstronaut Chris Hadfield served as CAPCOM for STS-83. He cited NASA's decision to terminate the mission as a positive example of applying the Flight Rules body of knowledge","-31.18097735340416"],["from the landing site.\nThe crew should have started their sleep period, but due to the delays now had to finish housekeeping chores. Mainly these centered around turning back on the SIM instruments which had been turned off during the rendezvous and docking and orientating the spacecraft for their proper use. Just before the sleep period, Deke Slayton, who was effectively the astronauts' boss, radioed the crew and told them to take a Seconal sedative. The crew decided against this.\nDoctors on the ground had become worried when they saw that Scott's and Irwin's EKG had developed a bigeminy rhythm. Caused by","-31.104346751817502"],["cancelled if the mission is not completed successfully.\nBelt returns home and has another flashback. As he lies in bed in agony, an astral presence leaves his body and flies out the window, heading into the sky. The astronauts then report hearing a thump outside the shuttle and begin to experience an oxygen leak. Belt fixes the situation, but orders the mission to proceed. The payload is successfully deployed, but a crew member reports seeing a ghostlike entity outside the ship. Meanwhile, the agents examine NASA records and find evidence that Belt played a role in other failed missions, including the","-31.079594585113227"],["\"considered this mission the most successful to date; everything had gone perfectly except for some overexpenditure of hydrogen peroxide fuel,\" However, then problems occurred and Kraft wrote in his 2001 memoir “He was completely ignoring our request to check his instruments... I swore an oath that Scott Carpenter would never again fly in space.\"\nUnnoticed by ground control or pilot, however, the overexpenditure of fuel was caused by an intermittently malfunctioning pitch horizon scanner (PHS) that later malfunctioned at reentry. Still, NASA later reported that Carpenter had:\nexercised his manual controls with ease in a number of [required] spacecraft maneuvers and had","-31.063515615300275"],["and themselves to Endeavour during the final EVA. They would have been standing by in case the RMS system should malfunction. The damaged orbiter would have been commanded by the ground to deorbit and go through landing procedures over the Pacific, with the impact area being north of Hawaii. On flight day five, Endeavour would have had a full heat shield inspection, and land on flight day eight.\nThis mission could have marked the end of the Space Shuttle program, as it is considered unlikely that the program would have been able to continue with just two remaining orbiters, Discovery and","-30.98083907441469"],["and themselves to Endeavour during the final EVA. They would have been standing by in case the RMS system should malfunction. The damaged orbiter would have been commanded by the ground to deorbit and go through landing procedures over the Pacific, with the impact area being north of Hawaii. On flight day five, Endeavour would have had a full heat shield inspection, and land on flight day eight.\nThis mission could have marked the end of the Space Shuttle program, as it is considered unlikely that the program would have been able to continue with just two remaining orbiters, Discovery and","-30.98083907441469"],["told them they were hired because the government forced NASA to, \"but we don't have a job for you, not any of you\". He offered to accept their resignations, and promised ground assignments if they did not quit, but warned them to not \"fool\" themselves that they would fly in space. Consequently, the men named themselves the \"XS-11\", or \"Excess Eleven\".\nAssignments for the group were further delayed by the requirement to complete a full year of Air Force Undergraduate Pilot Training to become qualified as jet pilots like the Group 4 scientists before them; however, unlike the previous scientist-astronaut group,","-30.973004007799318"],["canceled the mission in favour of flying a Shuttle mission to perform the repairs/upgrades. NASA cited excessive risks and new-found confidence in the Space Shuttle external tank as reasons for the cancellation.\nDextre was the subject of an April Fool's Day joke article on April 1, 2008 on NASA's APOD website.\nDextre was also featured in the new $5 Canadian Polymer bank note together with Canadarm2, which Commander Chris Hadfield helped reveal aboard the International Space Station.","-30.968401589547284"],["landing was canceled as a result of the oxygen tank explosion, his team played a key role in the safe return of the astronauts. Assistant Administrator for Legislative Affairs Gerry was responsible for coordinating and orchestrating all NASA liaison activities with Congress. He served as the principal advisor to the Administrator and other NASA officials on matters involving relations with the Congress as well as state and local governments. Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Flight (Operations) Gerry was responsible for early Space Transportation Systems (STS) operations planning, the development of user policies, and the establishment of pricing policies. These","-30.965648926212452"],["Expedition 24 Ammonia pump module On 31 July 2010, the Expedition 24 crew was awoken by an alarm on the station. The alarm was caused by a cooling pump that had failed and caused a Remote Power Controller to trip and cut power to some of the International Space Station (ISS). Astronauts Tracy Caldwell Dyson and Doug Wheelock performed some steps to assist ground controllers in re-powering some of the station components such as two main power buses and one Control Moment Gyroscope. After the steps had been completed Capcomm James Kelly told the crew they could go back","-30.95875220542075"],["causing the coolant in the system to fill her suit. She blindly makes her way back to the airlock; however, she and the crew realize that if she re-enters, Calvin will also be able to re-enter the ISS. Hence, she refuses to open the hatch and stops David from helping her do so; this keeps Calvin out of the station for the time being but also causes her to drown and die in her spacesuit.\nCalvin then attempts to re-enter the station through its maneuvering thrusters. The crew try to fire the thrusters to blast Calvin away from the spacecraft, but","-30.93267660809215"],["July 2005, NASA announced that STS-114 would be extended for one day, so that Discovery's crew could help the ISS crew maintain the station while the shuttle fleet was grounded. The extra day was also used to move more items from the shuttle to the ISS, as uncertainty mounted during the mission as to when a shuttle would next visit the station. The orbiter's arrival also gave the nearly 200-ton space station a free altitude boost of about 4,000 feet (1,220 m). The station loses about 100 feet (30 m) of altitude a day.\nThe shuttle hatch was closed the night","-30.931554651004262"],["module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. Cruise back to Earth and reentry The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would reenter Earth's atmosphere two-and-half days after TEI and splash down in the Pacific.\nOn Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth television broadcast. This time, they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they finished broadcasting, they found a small present from Slayton in the food locker:","-30.882939548369905"],["from our mistakes.\" Said Stefanyshyn-Piper of the incident, \"that definitely was not the high point of the EVA. It was very disheartening to watch it float away.\" Retirement from NASA In July 2009, Stefanyshyn-Piper retired from NASA's Astronaut Corps to return to her Navy duties.\nFellow astronaut Steven Lindsey, Chief of the Astronaut Office at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, stated on her retirement: \"Heide has been an outstanding astronaut, contributing significantly to the Space Shuttle and Space Station programs. In particular, her superb leadership as lead spacewalker during the STS-126 mission resulted in restoring full power generation capability","-30.860243852017447"],["safely power down the orbiter, the crew performed the traditional walk-around of the shuttle and met with employees from NASA. Speaking briefly to the press following the walk around, Altman joked, \"I didn't realize it was going to be so hard to get back to the Earth! We're all thrilled to have the mission complete.\"\nDuring the post-landing briefing, Associate Administrator for Space Sciences Ed Weiler declared the mission a total success, and after noting the rocky road that it took to get the mission completed, said he considered the mission to be Hubble's Great American Comeback story, chapter two.\nThis mission...was","-30.859591622443986"],["crews work days saw the two crews say goodbye in a farewell ceremony and close the hatches between the shuttle and ISS. Once the hatches were closed, the Pressurized Mating Adapter 2 was depressurized, in advance of undocking. The shuttle crew setup and checked out the rendezvous tools before going to bed. 8 September (Flight Day 12 – Undocking) On flight day 12, Space Shuttle Discovery successfully undocked from the International Space Station at 19:26 UTC. After undocking, the shuttle backed out and performed a fly around of the ISS. The Space Shuttle then performed two separation burns using its","-30.816844807734014"],["orbiter, and exit from it without help after a 16-day flight. Astronauts on 40 shuttle flights (STS-32 through STS-72) participated in 36 EDOMP investigations. The results of these investigations were used to make rules and recommendations for 16-day flights. Several types of exercise devices (i.e. a treadmill, a cycle ergometer, and a rower) were among the devices and procedures developed to prevent the de-conditioning of the body that occurs during space flight. The crew transport vehicles, in which astronauts are now transported after landing, were built to enhance medical capabilities at the landing site, as well as crew comfort and","-30.79402911895886"],["STS-134 Background The Space Shuttle had been scheduled to be retired from service after STS-133, but controversy over the cancellation of several International Space Station components, most notably the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, in order to meet deadlines for the retirement of the shuttle, caused the United States Government to consider ordering an additional mission. On 19 June 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed the NASA Authorization Act of 2008, giving NASA funding for one additional mission to \"deliver science experiments to the station\".\nThe same mandate was included in the U.S. Senate version of the NASA Authorization Act that","-30.756870959303342"],["the Russian segment while attempts were made to identify the fault. Meanwhile, the shuttle was cleared for reentry. 20 July (Flight Day 6, EVA 2) Astronauts Wolf and Marshburn began EVA 2 at 15:27 UTC out of the Quest airlock. The EVA was to transfer the spare components brought by the shuttle from the ICC-VLD to External Stowage Platform-3. The spares were handled by Wolf riding the station's robotic arm to the P3 truss stowage platform where he and Marshburn attached them for long term storage. The purpose of the spares was to provide redundancy to the station in the","-30.747066427284153"],["a critical objective of the servicing mission, as three had failed, one was offline due to electrical issues, and the other two had also been experiencing issues with performance. Ground controllers at Goddard Space Flight Center confirmed that all six gyroscopes and the new battery passed preliminary tests.\nThe problems with seating the second RSU set the spacewalkers back in the timeline by approximately two hours, but after Altman asked Massimino and Good how they felt, they replied they were doing well and felt fine to continue. Flight controllers on the ground evaluated the consumables for the two spacesuits, and decided","-30.69723159004934"],["the breaker was reset and pump reactivated. Joe Tanner and Heide Stefanyshyn-Piper began their spacewalk at 10:00 UTC after a 45-minute delay\nDuring the 6-hour and 42-minute spacewalk, the astronauts carried out numerous maintenance and repair tasks including removal of hardware used to secure the P3/P4 radiator during launch. Ground Flight Controllers subsequently unfurled the radiator, increasing the ability of the station to dissipate heat into space. Also, completed during this spacewalk was the retrieval of a materials exposure experiment from the outside of the ISS, maintenance on the P6 truss, installation of a wireless TV aerial and the replacement of","-30.688369710289408"],["controls an Orbital Construction Pod, a small ship with mechanical arms that an astronaut can use to move large equipment. Being careless here could have consequences as the pod or equipment may become damaged, and it may run out of fuel and become stranded until another pod can rescue it. Consequences were not limited to equipment damage: Stranded astronauts in pods could die when oxygen ran out. Other crew hazards included solar flares, which could kill astronauts on the station or shuttle if precautions (using an emergency module in station design) were not taken. Crew died in","-30.66544886410702"],["all the TCDT tasks, the crew returned to the Johnson Space Center on 15 October 2010.\nFlying aboard NASA T-38 training jets, the six astronauts returned to Kennedy Space Center on 28 October 2010 for final pre-launch preparations.\nOn 15 January 2011, Timothy Kopra, scheduled as the lead spacewalker for the mission at the time, was injured in a bicycle accident near his Houston-area home, reportedly breaking his hip. He was replaced by Stephen Bowen on 19 January 2011. The replacement did not affect the targeted launch date. This is to date the closest to a scheduled launch that a","-30.657231031917036"],["docked to the ISS on her final mission, STS-134. During this mission, the crew of Endeavour installed on the station's exterior the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and several spare parts to aid in station operations after the retirement of the Space Shuttle. STS-134 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station.\nEndeavour and her crew, consisting of Mark Kelly, Gregory Johnson, Michael Fincke, Roberto Vittori, Andrew Feustel, and Gregory Chamitoff, returned to Earth on 1 June 2011, at 6:34 UTC. STS-134 was the second-to-last mission of the Space Shuttle. Soyuz TMA-02M docking The remainder of the Expedition 28 crew","-30.608902101346757"],["tape to bypass a suspect valve in the Regenerative Carbon Dioxide Removal System that had threatened to cut short the mission.\nMission Management Team considered, but decided against, extending the mission one day because the science community indicated an extended flight was not necessary and weather conditions were expected to deteriorate after planned landing on Sunday, 3 May.\nSTS-90 Mission Specialist Kathryn Hire was Kennedy Space Center's first employee to be chosen as an astronaut candidate.\nSTS-90 was the first shuttle flight known to carry a bat on the solid booster. A bat suffered a similar fate during STS-119.","-30.59853349326295"],["the next mission to the ISS. Ross also freed another antenna on Zarya, similar to the one Newman freed on EVA-2. The spacewalkers also tested the redesigned SAFER jet packs, to be used in the event an astronaut became separated from the spacecraft during a spacewalk. After the EVA, Pilot Rick Sturckow depressurized the vestibule between Endeavour and PMA-2 to prepare for the undocking of the two spacecraft on Flight Day 11. 13 December (Flight Day 11, Undocking) On Flight Day 11, Space Shuttle Endeavour undocked from the International Space Station. At 3:25 pm EST, Pilot Rick Sturckow backed Endeavour 450","-30.59141428169096"],["that even NASA used them. The computer failure meant that the capsule would not be able to perform a closed-loop lifting reentry as planned.\nReentry came on the 62nd revolution. An open-loop rolling reentry (as used in Mercury) had to be used because of the computer failure. The astronauts began rolling the spacecraft at 65 nautical miles (120 km) altitude to increase its stability. They started slowing the roll rate at 89,000 feet (27 km) and stopped it by 39,000 feet (12 km). The drogue parachute deployed shortly after this, and the main deployed at 10,600 feet (3.2 km). A malfunctioning thruster caused the roll","-30.57295127538964"],["were to perform a spacewalk, the first of the Shuttle program, to test newly developed space suits. The space suits were developed as cheaper and less complicated alternatives to the Apollo versions. The test was delayed by one day due to Lenoir succumbing to motion sickness. Then an underperforming oxygen regulator in Lenoir's suit and a broken recirculation fan in Allen's caused them to cancel the extravehicular activity (EVA) entirely. It was the first time in the history of the space program that an EVA had been cancelled due to space suit issues.\nThe STS-5 crew successfully concluded the 5-day orbital","-30.562507232869393"],["conducted a fly-by of the ISS, so pictures could be taken. Saying goodbye to the ISS and its crew, commander Kelly said \"We wish them the best with their expedition and we hope we left them a better, more capable space station than when we arrived. Sayonara.\"\nAfterwards the crew of Discovery conducted the late inspection of the shuttle's Thermal Protection System that was unable to be performed as usual on Flight Day 2, due to the size of the Kibo Pressurized Module. 12 June (Flight day 13) Flight day 13 was a rare off-duty day. The only major projects were","-30.543784947542008"],["was given, meaning that the danger has passed and the crew can reboard the station. This kind of incident has happened several times, and the crew would perform a debris avoidance maneuver should the situation arise. 2011–2012 – Failure of Main Bus Switching Unit #1 and Replacement EVA The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. In late 2011 MBSU-1, while still routing power correctly, ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health, and was scheduled","-30.530397520400584"],["and retreat into their Soyuz spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. This partial station evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012 and 16 June 2015. End of mission According to the Outer Space Treaty, the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched. Natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean area were considered as","-30.47720105390181"],["arrived and the crew stored everything for reentry. The retro-rockets worked perfectly after 14 days in space. They landed within 6.4 nautical miles (11.9 km) of the targeted landing point.\nThe crewmen were somewhat weakened by their time in space, but both were in good health and were up and about after a good night's sleep on the recovery ship USS Wasp. They were also in good spirits: during recovery, they joked to Mission Control about getting married after having spent so long together in space.\nThe Gemini 7 and 6A missions were supported by the following U.S. Department of Defense resources: 10,125","-30.43064481613692"],["Astronaut Crew Quarters in that vehicle. The remaining six crew members briefly examined the orbiter, doing the traditional post-flight \"walkaround\", posed for photos, and then returned to the crew quarters in the Astrovan.\nDuring the post-landing briefing, NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin reported that the International Space Station was approximately 60% completed following STS-118. Griffin also stressed the importance of space exploration, and added that the damaged tile on the underside of the orbiter did very well during re-entry.\nAssociate Administrator for Spaceflight Operations William H. Gerstenmaier reported the damage was actually less than what the arc jet testing produced, a situation","-30.421875088883098"],["be declared, the orbiter powered down and teams would evacuate the area. A convoy of 25 specially designed vehicles and 150 trained engineers and technicians approached the orbiter. Purge and vent lines were attached to remove toxic gases from fuel lines and the cargo bay about 45–60 minutes after landing. A flight surgeon boarded the orbiter for initial medical checks of the crew before disembarking. Once the crew left the orbiter, responsibility for the vehicle was handed from the Johnson Space Center back to the Kennedy Space Center.\nIf the mission ended at Edwards Air Force Base in California, White Sands","-30.409184582313173"],["shuttle has already approached too close to the planet to escape, and she is forced to dock at an abandoned space station under heavy missile fire. The shuttle is sent on a suicide plunge into the atmosphere as a decoy, but this does not fool the Rangers, who dispatch several shuttles to destroy the station once and for all.\nThe expert system aboard decides to help Brun and Hazel. Brun has it send a message to the Fleet SAR that she is aboard the station and not dead, and squads of neuro-enhanced space marines arrive on the station just after the","-30.405753192404518"],["Shuttle Endeavour conducted a late inspection of the orbiter's Thermal Protection System. On most previous flights, this inspection was performed after the shuttle undocked from the ISS. However, in this case it was done early, because the Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS) was to be left on board the ISS after Endeavour's departure. The joint Expedition 28/STS-134 crew held a news conference with reporters on the ground at NASA centers around the country and ISS partner agencies. Commander Mark Kelly also spoke to reporters from four Tucson, Arizona television stations. Later in the crew day, the joint crew held an","-30.396886399248615"],["characterized the damage, and that we will have a very successful re-entry\". He stated that over 200 people were involved in the decision, representing over 30 organizations, including NASA Ames Research Center, NASA's Langley Research Center, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, KSC, JSC, and that all the groups combined came to the same decision.\nShannon reported that the glove issue encountered during EVA three had been discussed, and stated that analysis would be continued, in advance of EVA four on Saturday. The crew does have a spare set of gloves, if needed.\nShannon reported on a micro-meteoroid debris strike discovered on the commander's window","-30.37293906256673"],["and to prepare for an early departure from Aquarius. Fortunately, Lili degenerated to the point where it was no longer a threat, so the crew was able to remain the full five days.\nHill led the Columbia accident investigation team responsible for detecting and locating early debris during re-entry; obtaining and analyzing all data collected by government agency sensors during entry; and coordinating radar testing with the Air Force Research Laboratory. He also led the team that developed on-orbit inspection and repair techniques for the Space Shuttle and was the lead Flight Director for its return to flight on mission STS-114.","-30.36394632604788"],["A few minutes after liftoff, it exploded spectacularly, lighting up the night sky. The astronauts were stunned. Shepard turned to Glenn and said: \"Well, I'm glad they got that out of the way.\"\nGlenn remained an officer in the Marine Corps after his selection, and was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. The task force moved to Houston, Texas, in 1962, and became part of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center. A portion of the astronauts' training was in the classroom, where they learned space science. The group also received hands-on training, which included","-30.35902763507329"],["but deemed impractical due to \"limited utility, technical complexity and excessive cost in dollars, weight or schedule delays\".\nAfter the loss of Challenger, the question was re-opened, and NASA considered several different options, including ejector seats, tractor rockets, and emergency egress through the bottom of the orbiter. NASA once again concluded that all of the launch escape systems considered would be impractical due to the sweeping vehicle modifications that would have been necessary and the resultant limitations on crew size. A system was designed to give the crew the option to leave the shuttle during gliding flight, but this system would","-30.358421645388262"],["using Russian unmanned Progress ships, and crews were exchanged using Russian-manned Soyuz spacecraft, and forced to operate on a skeleton crew of two.\nLess than a year after the accident, President Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration, calling for the space shuttle fleet to complete the ISS, with retirement by 2010 following the completion of the ISS, to be replaced by a newly developed Crew Exploration Vehicle for travel to the Moon and Mars. NASA planned to return the space shuttle to service around September 2004; that date was pushed back to July 2005.\nOn July 26, 2005, at 10:39 EST,","-30.353323106799508"],["a huge honor to break a record like this, but it is an honor for me back to be representing all the folks at NASA'.\nOn May 12, 2017, Whitson performed her ninth career EVA with Jack Fischer. After a short delay due to leaking equipment, they replaced an avionics box on the starboard truss called an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier (ELC), a storage platform. The duration was 4 hours and 13 minutes, and it was the 200th EVA to be performed on the ISS.\nOn May 23, 2017, Whitson performed her tenth career EVA with Fischer. They replaced a backup multiplexer-demultiplexer (MDM)","-30.35169034721912"],["EVA procedure review for the fourth and final spacewalk of STS-134. Astronauts Mike Fincke and Greg Chamitoff spent the night in the Quest Airlock with the air pressure reduced to 10.2 Psi, so as to avoid decompression sickness during their spacewalk. The crew and flight controllers on the ground opted not to use the In-suit Light Exercise (ISLE) protocol that was tested during EVA 3 earlier in the mission, opting instead to go with the standard campout protocol, since it was discovered that ISLE used more carbon-dioxide scrubbing capability. They wanted to save this capability, since a CO₂ sensor in","-30.349261052219845"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"holding her back and allowing a Caucasian Astronaut to take her place!\\\" Jeanette Epps stated that she could not comment on her brother's post or the reason why she was pulled off the mission, but did state that she has no medical condition or family problem preventing her from flying, and that her training had been successful. The Washington Post stated that \\\"Last-minute crew changes are not unusual at NASA.\\\"\",\n \"-35.184802436153404\"\n ],\n [\n \"emergency extra-vehicular activity (EVA) would have been required. While there was no astronaut EVA training for maneuvering to the wing, astronauts are always prepared for a similarly difficult emergency EVA to close the external tank umbilical doors located on the orbiter underside, which is necessary for reentry in the event of failure. Similar methods could have reached the shuttle left wing for inspection or repair.\\nFor the repair, the CAIB determined that the astronauts would have to use tools and small pieces of titanium, or other metal, scavenged from the crew cabin. These metals would help protect the wing structure and\",\n \"-34.54381571849808\"\n ],\n [\n \"getting back to Earth alive.\\nNo EVAs were planned on the next three Gemini flights. The next EVA was planned to be made by David Scott on Gemini VIII, but that mission had to be aborted due to a critical spacecraft malfunction before the EVA could be conducted. Astronauts on the next three Gemini flights (Eugene Cernan, Michael Collins, and Richard Gordon), performed several EVAs, but none was able to successfully work for long periods outside the spacecraft without tiring and overheating. Cernan attempted but failed to test an Air Force Astronaut Maneuvering Unit which included a self-contained oxygen system.\\nOn November\",\n \"-34.513390050826274\"\n ],\n [\n \"to perform well with the help of new Deputy Press Secretary Annabeth Schott. Military shuttle leak storyline In the episode \\\"Things Fall Apart,\\\" the International Space Station develops a critical oxygen leak. With no civilian shuttles available to perform a rescue mission in time, a three-person crew finds itself trapped aboard the ISS. While the president contemplates rescue options, C.J. becomes aware of the possibility that a secret military space shuttle could be prepared in time to rescue the crew. However, this would involve revealing the shuttle's existence, particularly as one of the ISS crew is a Russian military officer.\",\n \"-34.14645507041132\"\n ],\n [\n \"crew then worked to undertake some further detailed inspection of the orbiter and unloaded the P5 truss segment from the payload bay, handing it off successfully from the shuttle robotic arm to the station arm. The astronauts scheduled for Day 4's EVA, Robert Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang, ended their day by entering the airlock for a \\\"campout\\\" sleep session to prepare for the EVA by purging their bodies of nitrogen in a lower-pressure environment. Such a practice is common in order for the astronauts to avoid getting decompression sickness. 12 December (Flight day 4 – EVA #1) Flight day 4\",\n \"-33.778725382115226\"\n ],\n [\n \"their attempts fail, using up too much fuel and causing the ISS to enter a decaying orbit where it will burn up in Earth's atmosphere. Pilot Sho Murakami informs the crew that they need to use the station's remaining fuel to get back into a safe orbit, although this allows Calvin to re-enter the station. The crew plan to make Calvin dormant by sealing themselves into one module and venting the atmosphere from the rest of the station.\\nAfter the crew finalize preparations to do so, Hugh enters cardiac arrest. The crew then discover that Calvin has been feeding off Hugh's\",\n \"-33.62189405862591\"\n ],\n [\n \"the safety of the crew... I'm not concerned with our safety.\\\" The main reason for fixing it, he noted, would be to assist with processing once the orbiter was back at the Kennedy Space Center.\\nDuring the Mission Management Team briefing, Kirk Shireman, Deputy International Space Station Program Manager, reported that the External Stowage Platform installation went well; the new CMG was working well, and handover of attitude control directly from the shuttle to the station was completed without problems. In addition, a new Russian computer was installed on the station, and testing of the system would be performed in late\",\n \"-33.61131652905897\"\n ],\n [\n \"agents manage to get her out of her overturned car and, despite being injured, she manages to get back to the base.\\nThe shuttle has moved into direct sunlight and Mission Control is unable to rotate it into a safe position, putting the astronauts' lives in danger. Generoo believes that the uplink is being sabotaged. Belt orders the uplink to be cut, allowing the astronauts to rotate the craft manually. Over the objections of Generoo and the agents, he orders the mission to proceed and lies to the press about its progress. Belt tells Mulder that the shuttle program may be\",\n \"-33.546034841871005\"\n ],\n [\n \"was reluctant to terminate the EVA at the allotted time, and had to be ordered back into the spacecraft. While he was outside, a spare thermal glove floated away through the open hatch of the spacecraft, becoming an early piece of space debris in low Earth orbit, until it burned up upon re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. There was a mechanical problem with the hatch mechanism, which made it difficult to open and to relatch, which added to the time constraint of the spacewalk, and could have threatened the lives of both men if McDivitt had been unable to get\",\n \"-33.424207190138986\"\n ],\n [\n \"future astronauts. The EVA concluded at 03:07 UTC on the morning of 13 December, and lasted for 6 hours and 36 minutes in total.\\nDuring the spacewalk, after taking a close look at imagery gathered on the first three days of the flight, mission managers determined that the shuttle's heat shield would support a safe return to Earth. They also decided a more detailed inspection that had been scheduled for later in the mission would not be necessary.\\nThree more spacewalks, one of which was unplanned, were required to reconfigure and redistribute power on the station, so that the solar arrays installed\",\n \"-33.230084278213326\"\n ],\n [\n \"space until November 30, 2009.\\nAfter working through the checklists to safely power down the orbiter for about an hour, the crew got out of Atlantis and into the Crew Transport Vehicle. Exiting the vehicle without Stott, they performed the traditional walk-around of the shuttle and met with employees from NASA. Speaking briefly to the press following the walk-around, Commander Hobaugh said \\\"We really had truly an amazing mission\\\". He went to add, \\\"We had no hitches. It was not us, it was not any single group, but it was just an incredible team from all around the nation\\\".\\nPost-landing Crew Conference\",\n \"-32.99031038052635\"\n ],\n [\n \"a deal with the astronauts that they would not hide information from her, and she would not betray their confidence, unless, she thought it may jeopardize them or the mission. She was the only nurse assigned to the Astronauts. O'Hara became close to the astronauts and their families. Before every launch she performed the pre-flight physicals including height, weight, temperatures, blood pressure measurements. The astronauts would not agree to let anyone else but O'Hara draw blood before launch.\\nO'Hara also helped set up the portable hospital at the Grand Bahama Island to support post flight examination and, if needed, treat injured\",\n \"-32.77021397498902\"\n ],\n [\n \"though it never exceeded the safety limits, the EVA was called off with both astronauts returning into the station. This left one old battery in a temporary flexible stowage position. The rest of the batteries will be installed in a future EVA with the rest of the EVAs being under replanning. 23 July (Flight Day 9) The Kibo robotic arm was inaugurated operationally with it being used to install experiments on to the Japanese exposed facility. The three experiments, transferred from the Japanese cargo pallet, consisted of Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image, Inter-orbit Communication System and Space Environment Data Acquisition\",\n \"-32.73071233148221\"\n ],\n [\n \"to carry the crew to space, an insane USAF general driven by shallow militarism and hatred for space exploration tries to shoot down the shuttle during lift off. Despite damage sustained from an anti-satellite missile fired from a restored X-15, Endeavour successfully makes it into orbit, and the five crew members begin their six-year journey to Saturn by following the gravity-assisted Interplanetary Transport Network.\\nEn route, one crew member dies after a solar storm. The use of a CELSS greenhouse for life support provides a continuous food supply, and the astronauts rely on vegetables, grain and fruit from the greenhouse as\",\n \"-32.618133462267\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the event that the orbiter is not able to land until Saturday.\\nAfter evaluating the imagery sent down from the late inspection, the ground team officially cleared the orbiter's thermal protection system for re-entry. Initially, NASA had planned on releasing Endeavour from its stand-by status following the late inspection, but managers on the ground decided to wait until Atlantis had performed the de-orbit burn before standing down the STS-400 rescue mission officially.\\nBefore going to sleep, the crew took a phone call from President Barack Obama, who congratulated them on their successful mission, joked with them, asking if they could see\",\n \"-32.609281231765635\"\n ],\n [\n \"NASA on December 30, 2008, made further recommendations to improve a crew's survival chances on future space vehicles, such as the then planned Orion spacecraft. These included improvements in crew restraints, finding ways to deal more effectively with catastrophic cabin depressurization, more \\\"graceful degradation\\\" of vehicles during a disaster so that crews will have a better chance at survival, and automated parachute systems. Fears of terrorism After the shuttle's breakup, there were some initial fears that terrorists might have been involved, but no evidence of that has ever surfaced. Security surrounding the launch and landing of the space shuttle had\",\n \"-32.58486996399006\"\n ],\n [\n \"looking out at the window.\\nSpaceflight history author David Hitt disputed that the crew purposefully ended contact with mission control in a book written along with former astronauts Owen K. Garriott and Joseph P. Kerwin. Effects At the time, only the crew of Skylab 3 had spent six weeks in space. It was unknown what had happened psychologically. NASA carefully worked with crew's requests, reducing their workload for the next six weeks. The incident took NASA into an unknown realm of concern in the selection of astronauts, still a question as humanity considers human missions to Mars or returning to the\",\n \"-32.496189646888524\"\n ],\n [\n \"speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other. Gene Kranz wrote, \\\"The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong.\\\" The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson.\",\n \"-32.486587874474935\"\n ],\n [\n \"to ensure astronaut safety: \\\"The beauty of Flight Rules is that they create certainty when we have to make tough calls.... In real time, the temptation to take a chance is always higher. However, the flight rules were unequivocal: the Shuttle had to return to Earth.\\\"\\nUpon landing, mission managers decided that Columbia did not need to be processed per a typical end of mission maintenance flow. Instead, they called for an unprecedented reflight of the same mission, once the normal processing could be completed (refill the propellant tanks and other consumables like oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and water, change out the\",\n \"-32.4216869478696\"\n ],\n [\n \"the craft's service propulsion system (SPS); after considerable troubleshooting, the astronauts did a test burn of the system that also served as a midcourse correction. This occurred about 028:40:00 into the mission. Fearing that the light meant the SPS might unexpectedly fire, the astronauts avoided using the control bank with the faulty light, bringing it online only for major burns, and controlling it manually. After the mission returned, the malfunction proved to be caused by a tiny bit of wire trapped within the switch.\\nAfter purging and renewing the LM's atmosphere to eliminate any contamination, the astronauts entered the LM about\",\n \"-32.41077782353386\"\n ],\n [\n \"ISS. The subsequent two and a half-year suspension of the U.S. Space Shuttle program, followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, were major obstacles.\\nThe Space Shuttle program resumed flight on 26 July 2005, with the STS-114 mission of Discovery. This mission to the ISS was intended both to test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster and deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the external tank, leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.\\nBetween the Columbia disaster and\",\n \"-32.33836645470001\"\n ],\n [\n \"back out of the partnership. A large part of this \\\"cover-up\\\" was the seeming impression that the American astronauts were not in fact \\\"partners\\\" aboard the station, but were instead \\\"guests\\\". NASA staff did not find out for several hours about the fire and collision and found themselves kept out of decision-making processes. NASA became more involved when Russian mission controllers intended to place blame for the accident entirely on Vasily Tsibliyev. It was only after the application of significant pressure from NASA that this stance was changed.\\nAt various times during the program, NASA managers and personnel found themselves limited\",\n \"-32.204609188038376\"\n ],\n [\n \" Jerry Bostick and other Flight Dynamics Officers (FIDOs) were anxious both to shorten the time, and to get Apollo 13 down in the Pacific Ocean, where the main recovery forces were located. There was a relatively quick option that would shave 36 hours off the return time, but it would involve jettisoning the SM, which would expose the CM's heat shield to space for the return journey, something it had not been designed to endure. The FIDOs also proposed other solutions. After a meeting involving a number of NASA officials and engineers, the senior individual present,\",\n \"-32.16623393888585\"\n ],\n [\n \"landing, the astronauts decided to stay in the capsule, not wanting to open the hatch before the arrival of the recovery ship. The crew spent an uncomfortable half-hour in a spacecraft not designed to be a boat. Due to unexpected smoke from the thrusters, the astronauts decided to deviate from the post landing checklist and to keep their helmets on with the face plates closed for some time after splashdown. USS Intrepid recovered the craft and crew. The Gemini III mission was supported by the following United States Department of Defense resources: 10,185 personnel, 126 aircraft and 27 ships. Insignia\",\n \"-32.12075677367102\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the morning of August 29 and began spilling out.\\nThe NASA Johnson Space Center was closed to employees and visitors due to the flooding until September 5. Only the critical mission control staff remain and reside in the control rooms to monitor procedures of the International Space Station. Deep East Texas and Beaumont to Port Arthur area Anyone who chooses to not [evacuate] cannot expect to be rescued and should write their social security numbers in permanent marker on their arm so their bodies can be identified. The loss of life and property is certain. GET OUT OR DIE!\\n— Jacques Blanchette, Tyler\",\n \"-32.10201505233999\"\n ],\n [\n \"the crew's return to Earth, creating a one-star observation system that would allow astronauts to determine their location with accuracy. In a 2010 interview, Johnson recalled, \\\"Everybody was concerned about them getting there. We were concerned about them getting back.\\\" Later in her career, Johnson worked on the Space Shuttle program, the Earth Resources Satellite, and on plans for a mission to Mars. Personal life In 1939, Katherine (then Coleman) married James Francis Goble. They had three daughters: Constance, Joylette, and Katherine. In 1953, she and James moved their family to Newport News to pursue a new job opportunity. In\",\n \"-31.969972308550496\"\n ],\n [\n \"EVA repairs of a spacecraft were made by Charles \\\"Pete\\\" Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and Paul J. Weitz on May 26, June 7, and June 19, 1973, on the Skylab 2 mission. They rescued the functionality of the launch-damaged Skylab space station by freeing a stuck solar panel, deploying a solar heating shield, and freeing a stuck circuit breaker relay. The Skylab 2 crew made three EVAs, and a total of ten EVAs were made by the three Skylab crews. They found that activities in weightlessness required about 2½ times longer than on Earth because many astronauts suffered spacesickness early in\",\n \"-31.953990090061893\"\n ],\n [\n \"that particular mission. Once completed, the crew would then reenter the Orion, seal itself off from the ISS, and then undock from the station.\\nOnce the Orion reached a safe distance from the ISS, the Command Module (after having jettisoned the disposable service module) would re-enter in the same manner as all NASA spacecraft prior to the Shuttle, using the ablative heat shield to both deflect heat from the spacecraft and to slow it down from a speed of 28,000 km/h (17,500 mph or Mach 23) to 480 km/h (300 mph or Mach 0.5). After reentry was completed, the forward assembly would be jettisoned, and\",\n \"-31.95170114262146\"\n ],\n [\n \"a sticking solar array, enabling the retraction of another six sections of the P6 array. At the end of the EVA there were another 11 \\\"bays\\\", or 35% left to retract. Upon completion of the EVA, the astronauts returned to the ISS via the Quest airlock.\\nAnother significant event during the EVA was the loss of 'Suni' Williams' digital camera. At the post-EVA press conference it was suggested that a tether got snagged and caused the camera release button to break off allowing the camera to fall out of its holder. Images were lost but it was determined there was no\",\n \"-31.944764827843755\"\n ],\n [\n \"with astronaut corps After John Glenn's flight, Kraft had vowed that he would no longer allow his decisions as flight director to be overruled by anyone outside Mission Control. The mission rules, whose drafting had been overseen by Kraft, stated that \\\"the flight director may, after analysis of the flight, choose to take any necessary action required for the successful completion of the mission.\\\" For Kraft, the power that the flight director held over every aspect of the mission extended to his control over the actions of the astronauts. In his 1965 interview with Time, he stated:\\n[T]he guy on the\",\n \"-31.901632711174898\"\n ],\n [\n \"Avionics cables. The joint crew also completed more transfer, mostly transfer for return to Earth in the MPLM and Space Shuttle mid-deck. The ISS crew also replaced a bolt on the Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) so that the MPLM won't get stuck, and also to ensure correct capture of the HTV. 6 September (Flight Day 10 – Off duty) Flight day 10 saw the joint crews transfer samples from the space station to the shuttle freezer known as Glacier. The samples will be returned to Earth for examination by scientists who will develop ways to prevent bone and muscle loss\",\n \"-31.880536109034438\"\n ],\n [\n \"the help of Lockheed, set up a backup fairing and demonstrated the problem to McDonnell personnel and to George Mueller, NASA's Office of Manned Space Flight administrator.\\nThe crew then did some planned rendezvous practice that involved them moving away from the ATDA by firing their thrusters and then practicing approaching from below the target. They then got some much needed food and rest.\\nDuring the flight, neither astronaut had much time to eat due to the busy schedule or to document their food consumption, it could not be determined how much of the difficulties Cernan experienced during the EVA were due\",\n \"-31.87216600740794\"\n ],\n [\n \"lacked the capability to return the astronauts to Earth; this was the first time space travelers had flown in a vehicle that could not take them home. McDivitt and Schweickart entered the LM early, having obtained permission to do so without wearing their helmets and gloves, making it easier to set up the LM. When Scott in Gumdrop pushed the button to release the LM, it initially hung on the latches at the end of the docking probe, but he hit the button again and Spider was released. After spending about 45 minutes near Gumdrop, Spider went into a slightly\",\n \"-31.78543299040757\"\n ],\n [\n \"with the piece of space debris.\\nTransferring expedition crews\\nBy 14 March, the expedition crews had completed the change over, but until the shuttle undocked, Shepherd officially remained commander of the station. The morning of the 14th the astronauts' wake-up call was the song \\\"Should I Stay or Should I Go\\\" by The Clash, at the request of Shepherd's wife. Shepherd, a former Navy SEAL, said during the change over ceremony: \\\"May the good will, spirit and sense of mission we had enjoyed on board endure. Sail her well.\\\" The commander of Discovery, Jim Wetherbee, said \\\"For Captain Shepherd and his crew,\",\n \"-31.704593219794333\"\n ],\n [\n \"Space Agency's Mission Control announced that the ISS crew had loaded Progress M-04M with garbage and readied the spacecraft for undocking. The command for undocking was issued at 11:13 UTC, and three minutes later Progress M-04M separated from the Zvezda module. Cosmonauts Skvortsov and Kornienko monitored the undocking with photo and video cameras focusing on the Progress docking mechanism to confirm that there were no missing or damaged O-ring seals on the docking interface.\\nThe spacecraft stayed in an autonomous flight for two months after undocking and take part in the Reflection geophysical experiment to study reflective characteristics of the freighter's\",\n \"-31.683709880395327\"\n ],\n [\n \"Accordingly, the station's program was rescued. Additionally, he placed a materials exposure experiment on the exterior of the space station to be retrieved by a subsequent crew. The EVA lasted 1 hour and 28 minutes.\\nIt was later revealed that a potentially dangerous incident occurred during the EVA. Once Grechko was back in the airlock, Romanenko asked to look outside, so Grechko moved aside and Romanenko pushed hard against the airlock. He did not have his safety tether attached and began to float away from the station and thrash about. Grechko grabbed his commander by his untethered safety line and pulled\",\n \"-31.647931597864954\"\n ],\n [\n \"10, continuing transfer operations, and doing some troubleshooting on a communication system between the shuttle and station. The two crews took some time out to have a joint news conference with US and Canadian news agencies, and took the official combined crew portrait. When asked by reporters on the ground whether the crew agreed with NASA's decision to return without repairing the damage to Endeavour's underside, Commander Kelly replied, \\\"We agree absolutely 100 percent with the decision to not repair the damage.\\\"\\nDuring the mission status briefing, Lead Flight Director Matt Abbott discussed the ongoing preparations and plans with regards to\",\n \"-31.64624544722028\"\n ],\n [\n \"Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini's attitude control. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position.\\nA few people in the Astronaut Office, including Walter Cunningham, felt that Armstrong and Scott \\\"had botched their first mission\\\". There was\",\n \"-31.638023316394538\"\n ],\n [\n \"just one, the leaks posed a possible risk to other systems.\\nNASA first considered bringing the crew home immediately. However, because the astronauts were safe on the station with ample supplies and because plans for a rescue flight existed, the mission continued while the Saturn IB rocket AS 208 with CSM 119 was assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building at Launch Complex 39 for possible use. It was at one point rolled out to LC-39B.\\nNASA announced on August 4, 1973 that Skylab 3 and Skylab 4 backup crewmen Vance Brand and Don Lind would fly any rescue mission; they had immediately\",\n \"-31.636943362886086\"\n ],\n [\n \"day of the EVA was also their last in space. On their 45th revolution of the Earth, the crewmen fired the retro-rockets that slowed them down so that they would reenter. This time the computer worked perfectly, meaning they landed only 700 meters from the planned landing site and were close enough to see the prime recovery ship, USS Wasp. The splashdown happened closer to the recovery ship than any other crewed spacecraft.\\nPostflight medical examination found that Stafford had lost five pounds of weight and Cernan up to 13 pounds, 10.5 of them during the EVA. Stafford later stated that\",\n \"-31.617881061858498\"\n ],\n [\n \"out NASA manager Linda Ham for exhibiting this attitude. In 2013, Hale recalled that Director of Mission Operations Jon C. Harpold shared with him before Columbia's destruction a mindset which Hale himself later agreed was widespread at the time, even among the astronauts themselves:\\nYou know, there is nothing we can do about damage to the [thermal protection system]. If it has been damaged it's probably better not to know. I think the crew would rather not know. Don't you think it would be better for them to have a happy successful flight and die unexpectedly during entry than to stay\",\n \"-31.543203358072788\"\n ],\n [\n \"(such as docking) which would be performed manually by shuttle pilots were all carried out automatically, and cosmonauts had their pay docked if they made any errors during their flights. Americans learned aboard Skylab and earlier space missions that this level of control was not productive and had since made mission plans more flexible. The Russians, however, would not budge, and many felt that significant work time was lost because of this.\\nFollowing the two accidents in 1997, astronaut Jerry Linenger felt that the Russian authorities attempted a cover-up to downplay the significance of the incidents, fearing that the Americans would\",\n \"-31.541048084851354\"\n ],\n [\n \"two astronauts still at the lander, who have meanwhile discovered that they are gradually losing air pressure and have realised that there must be an air leak somewhere. Sanchez urges them to join her, as there is enough oxygen and water in the valley for them to survive until the rescue ship arrives. Filming locations The scenes set on the surface of Mars were filmed on Lanzarote, and the interior scenes were filmed at Panavision Studios in Hollywood. To save costs, they used the Space Shuttle interior set previously used for Space Cowboys.\",\n \"-31.512518032075604\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the astronauts during their return to Earth. Its descent stage engine was used to replace the crippled CSM Service Propulsion System engine, and its batteries supplied power for the trip home and recharged the Command Module's batteries critical for reentry. The astronauts splashed down safely on April 17, 1970. The LM's systems, designed to support two astronauts for 45 hours (including twice depressurization and repressurization causing loss of oxygen supply), actually stretched to support three astronauts for 90 hours (without depressurization and repressurization and loss of oxygen supply).\\nHover times were maximized on the last four landing missions by using\",\n \"-31.50693788321223\"\n ],\n [\n \"the crew members reported that their life in space was not as difficult as they expected prior to launch, despite a 20% increase in interpersonal problems during the second half of the missions. It was recommended that future crew members be allowed to control their individual schedules as much as possible. On-orbit and post-spaceflight psychiatric issues A number of psychiatric problems have been reported during on-orbit space missions. Most common are adjustment reactions to the novelty of being in space, with symptoms generally including transient anxiety or depression. Psychosomatic reactions also have occurred, where anxiety and other emotional states\",\n \"-31.501277681571082\"\n ],\n [\n \"and made ready for deorbit burn to return to Earth. During descent, the spacecraft experienced a computer software problem combined with a sensor problem. This caused their landing to be delayed by a full day. The Descent Module, where they spent this 24-hour period, had no sanitary facilities. They would not have been able to redock with Mir because they had discarded the docking system along with the orbital module. Reentry occurred as normal on September 7. Following this incident, the Soviets decided that on future missions, they would retain the orbital module until after deorbit burn, as they had\",\n \"-31.496629344997928\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the astronauts' blood and thus prevent decompression sickness. Members of both crews also conducted two in-flight interviews with media on the ground, including PBS NewsHour, National Public Radio, Associated Press, Reuters and Fox News. The crew also answered questions that were relayed up to them by Miles O'Brien for Google. 20 May (Flight Day 5 – EVA 1) The first spacewalk of the STS-134 mission was completed on flight day 5. Drew Feustel and Greg Chamitoff completed the installation of a new set of MISSE experiments, and also started installing a new wireless video system, but were stopped when\",\n \"-31.493681756430306\"\n ],\n [\n \"that there was an emergency \\\"giving the astronauts a go/no go decision (to land or not to land)\\\". Jack Garman, a NASA computer engineer in mission control, recognized the meaning of the errors that were presented to the astronauts by the priority displays and shouted, \\\"Go, go!\\\" and they continued. Paul Curto, senior technologist who nominated Hamilton for a NASA Space Act Award, called Hamilton's work \\\"the foundation for ultra-reliable software design\\\".\\nHamilton later wrote of the incident:\\nThe computer (or rather the software in it) was smart enough to recognize that it was being asked to perform more tasks than it\",\n \"-31.43807493440545\"\n ],\n [\n \"crew to alert them that the managers had decided to make a 24-hour delay to EVA-1, originally scheduled for Flight Day 4, and that Stanley Love would replace Hans Schlegel for EVA-1 on Monday. During the post-MMT briefing, Mission Management Chairman John Shannon explained there was a \\\"crew medical issue\\\", but it would not impact the mission objectives. For reasons of medical privacy, Shannon said NASA can not disclose which crewmember is affected, and no details would be given as to the nature of the issue, but Shannon said it was not something to be concerned about. Unconfirmed news reports\",\n \"-31.43007313553244\"\n ],\n [\n \"as there was a lot of worry about the safety of the mission, as this was the first time humans would fly on an untested vehicle. These included worries about the SRB's and the Space Shuttles thermal protection system.\\nAnother feature of the mission mentioned in Hail Columbia, is the escape system used by crew. As the Space Shuttle did not have a launch escape system, if anything were to go wrong on the pad, the crew would have to evacuate and use the slide wire, which was a zip line that took the crew from the Fixed Service Structure down\",\n \"-31.35583563839009\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the crew were stowing items no longer needed during the flight. During the early part of the day Stephen Robinson and Terry Virts also stowed and deactivated the Space Shuttle robotic arm. The entire crew also took time out of their day to conduct an in-flight interview with CNN, CNN Español and Univision. 22 February (Flight Day 15: Landing) Space Shuttle Endeavour and her STS-130 crew awoke on flight day 15 to begin getting ready for landing. The landing preparations included closing the payload bay doors, activating the Auxiliary Power Units and getting into their launch and entry suits.\",\n \"-31.303499812434893\"\n ],\n [\n \"Before return to Earth, the Commander Robert L. Gibson thought to himself \\\"We are going to die.\\\" due to the extensive damage to her wing. Due to the secretive nature of the Atlantis's payload, the crew was forced to use a more secure encrypted transmission, which had more than likely been received at a low quality. NASA engineers thought the damage was just light and shadows, and as a result the crew was infuriated. During reentry, Guy Garder the pilot for the mission, returned the Shuttle safely. Upon inspection the Shuttle's bottom right wing was seen to be severely damaged\",\n \"-31.286666164407507\"\n ],\n [\n \"for the launch area threatens to cancel the mission. High winds cause a scrub of the launch in time to save all three Ironman astronauts. However, the eye of the storm passes over the Cape 90 minutes later during a subsequent launch window, permitting a launch with Dougherty aboard in time to reach the ship while at least some of the crew survives.\\nInsufficient oxygen remains for all three astronauts to survive until Dougherty arrives. There is possibly enough for two. Pruett and his crew then debate what to do. Stone tries to reason that they can somehow survive by taking\",\n \"-31.25461916839413\"\n ],\n [\n \"non-ISS mission) resulted in a two-and-a-half-year suspension of the US Space Shuttle program. Another one-year suspension following STS-114 (because of continued foam shedding on the external tank) led to some uncertainty about the future of the International Space Station. All crew exchanges between February 2003 and July 2006 were carried out using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft; a STS-114 visit in July 2005 was purely logistical. Starting with Expedition 7, caretaker crews of just two astronauts were launched, in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a space shuttle for over three\",\n \"-31.23306913289707\"\n ],\n [\n \"transmitters for communications, to be turned on last, just before reentry, rather than first. The call was a calculated risk. Without the instrumentation system, the crew and controllers would not know for certain if the cold startup had been successful until the last possible moment before reentry. However without the change, the capsule would have exhausted its battery supply before splashdown. The procedure was a success, and the crew was recovered safely. Later career After the Apollo Lunar Surface program ended, Aaron remained at NASA in the Spacecraft Software DIvision rising through the ranks of technical assistant to the chief\",\n \"-31.225444424315356\"\n ],\n [\n \"the orbiter's reentry and landing, it would likely have sent Columbia into the Pacific Ocean; NASA later developed the Remote Control Orbiter system to permit mission control to land a shuttle.\\nNASA investigators determined that on-orbit repair by the shuttle astronauts was possible but overall considered \\\"high risk\\\", primarily due to the uncertain resiliency of the repair using available materials and the anticipated high risk of doing additional damage to the Orbiter. Columbia did not carry the Canadarm, or Remote Manipulator System, which would normally be used for camera inspection or transporting a spacewalking astronaut to the wing. Therefore, an unusual\",\n \"-31.224024303257465\"\n ],\n [\n \"feared that it may have been damaged by the main engine, potentially leaving the crew stranded with five days of supplies while it would take ten days for the orbit to decay. One option to return the crew if the backup engine was inoperable would have been to use attitude control thrusters to slow the Soyuz below orbit velocity, but it was not known if there was enough propellant to do this, and the landing point would have been unpredictable even if it had worked. Another option was to move the station to the Soyuz. The station could have been\",\n \"-31.213168735790532\"\n ],\n [\n \"shut down once a certain voltage threshold had been crossed, and with only two of three fuel cells working, that invoked another Flight Rule which required the mission be terminated early (loss of a second fuel cell would require severe and dangerous powerdowns, though the shuttle operates normally on two). Payload Specialist Dr. Linteris described the mission as \\\"an exercise in crisis management. The main buss alarm was going off continually.\\\"\\nAstronaut Chris Hadfield served as CAPCOM for STS-83. He cited NASA's decision to terminate the mission as a positive example of applying the Flight Rules body of knowledge\",\n \"-31.18097735340416\"\n ],\n [\n \"from the landing site.\\nThe crew should have started their sleep period, but due to the delays now had to finish housekeeping chores. Mainly these centered around turning back on the SIM instruments which had been turned off during the rendezvous and docking and orientating the spacecraft for their proper use. Just before the sleep period, Deke Slayton, who was effectively the astronauts' boss, radioed the crew and told them to take a Seconal sedative. The crew decided against this.\\nDoctors on the ground had become worried when they saw that Scott's and Irwin's EKG had developed a bigeminy rhythm. Caused by\",\n \"-31.104346751817502\"\n ],\n [\n \"cancelled if the mission is not completed successfully.\\nBelt returns home and has another flashback. As he lies in bed in agony, an astral presence leaves his body and flies out the window, heading into the sky. The astronauts then report hearing a thump outside the shuttle and begin to experience an oxygen leak. Belt fixes the situation, but orders the mission to proceed. The payload is successfully deployed, but a crew member reports seeing a ghostlike entity outside the ship. Meanwhile, the agents examine NASA records and find evidence that Belt played a role in other failed missions, including the\",\n \"-31.079594585113227\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"considered this mission the most successful to date; everything had gone perfectly except for some overexpenditure of hydrogen peroxide fuel,\\\" However, then problems occurred and Kraft wrote in his 2001 memoir “He was completely ignoring our request to check his instruments... I swore an oath that Scott Carpenter would never again fly in space.\\\"\\nUnnoticed by ground control or pilot, however, the overexpenditure of fuel was caused by an intermittently malfunctioning pitch horizon scanner (PHS) that later malfunctioned at reentry. Still, NASA later reported that Carpenter had:\\nexercised his manual controls with ease in a number of [required] spacecraft maneuvers and had\",\n \"-31.063515615300275\"\n ],\n [\n \"and themselves to Endeavour during the final EVA. They would have been standing by in case the RMS system should malfunction. The damaged orbiter would have been commanded by the ground to deorbit and go through landing procedures over the Pacific, with the impact area being north of Hawaii. On flight day five, Endeavour would have had a full heat shield inspection, and land on flight day eight.\\nThis mission could have marked the end of the Space Shuttle program, as it is considered unlikely that the program would have been able to continue with just two remaining orbiters, Discovery and\",\n \"-30.98083907441469\"\n ],\n [\n \"and themselves to Endeavour during the final EVA. They would have been standing by in case the RMS system should malfunction. The damaged orbiter would have been commanded by the ground to deorbit and go through landing procedures over the Pacific, with the impact area being north of Hawaii. On flight day five, Endeavour would have had a full heat shield inspection, and land on flight day eight.\\nThis mission could have marked the end of the Space Shuttle program, as it is considered unlikely that the program would have been able to continue with just two remaining orbiters, Discovery and\",\n \"-30.98083907441469\"\n ],\n [\n \"told them they were hired because the government forced NASA to, \\\"but we don't have a job for you, not any of you\\\". He offered to accept their resignations, and promised ground assignments if they did not quit, but warned them to not \\\"fool\\\" themselves that they would fly in space. Consequently, the men named themselves the \\\"XS-11\\\", or \\\"Excess Eleven\\\".\\nAssignments for the group were further delayed by the requirement to complete a full year of Air Force Undergraduate Pilot Training to become qualified as jet pilots like the Group 4 scientists before them; however, unlike the previous scientist-astronaut group,\",\n \"-30.973004007799318\"\n ],\n [\n \"canceled the mission in favour of flying a Shuttle mission to perform the repairs/upgrades. NASA cited excessive risks and new-found confidence in the Space Shuttle external tank as reasons for the cancellation.\\nDextre was the subject of an April Fool's Day joke article on April 1, 2008 on NASA's APOD website.\\nDextre was also featured in the new $5 Canadian Polymer bank note together with Canadarm2, which Commander Chris Hadfield helped reveal aboard the International Space Station.\",\n \"-30.968401589547284\"\n ],\n [\n \"landing was canceled as a result of the oxygen tank explosion, his team played a key role in the safe return of the astronauts. Assistant Administrator for Legislative Affairs Gerry was responsible for coordinating and orchestrating all NASA liaison activities with Congress. He served as the principal advisor to the Administrator and other NASA officials on matters involving relations with the Congress as well as state and local governments. Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Flight (Operations) Gerry was responsible for early Space Transportation Systems (STS) operations planning, the development of user policies, and the establishment of pricing policies. These\",\n \"-30.965648926212452\"\n ],\n [\n \"Expedition 24 Ammonia pump module On 31 July 2010, the Expedition 24 crew was awoken by an alarm on the station. The alarm was caused by a cooling pump that had failed and caused a Remote Power Controller to trip and cut power to some of the International Space Station (ISS). Astronauts Tracy Caldwell Dyson and Doug Wheelock performed some steps to assist ground controllers in re-powering some of the station components such as two main power buses and one Control Moment Gyroscope. After the steps had been completed Capcomm James Kelly told the crew they could go back\",\n \"-30.95875220542075\"\n ],\n [\n \"causing the coolant in the system to fill her suit. She blindly makes her way back to the airlock; however, she and the crew realize that if she re-enters, Calvin will also be able to re-enter the ISS. Hence, she refuses to open the hatch and stops David from helping her do so; this keeps Calvin out of the station for the time being but also causes her to drown and die in her spacesuit.\\nCalvin then attempts to re-enter the station through its maneuvering thrusters. The crew try to fire the thrusters to blast Calvin away from the spacecraft, but\",\n \"-30.93267660809215\"\n ],\n [\n \"July 2005, NASA announced that STS-114 would be extended for one day, so that Discovery's crew could help the ISS crew maintain the station while the shuttle fleet was grounded. The extra day was also used to move more items from the shuttle to the ISS, as uncertainty mounted during the mission as to when a shuttle would next visit the station. The orbiter's arrival also gave the nearly 200-ton space station a free altitude boost of about 4,000 feet (1,220 m). The station loses about 100 feet (30 m) of altitude a day.\\nThe shuttle hatch was closed the night\",\n \"-30.931554651004262\"\n ],\n [\n \"module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. Cruise back to Earth and reentry The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would reenter Earth's atmosphere two-and-half days after TEI and splash down in the Pacific.\\nOn Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth television broadcast. This time, they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they finished broadcasting, they found a small present from Slayton in the food locker:\",\n \"-30.882939548369905\"\n ],\n [\n \"from our mistakes.\\\" Said Stefanyshyn-Piper of the incident, \\\"that definitely was not the high point of the EVA. It was very disheartening to watch it float away.\\\" Retirement from NASA In July 2009, Stefanyshyn-Piper retired from NASA's Astronaut Corps to return to her Navy duties.\\nFellow astronaut Steven Lindsey, Chief of the Astronaut Office at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, stated on her retirement: \\\"Heide has been an outstanding astronaut, contributing significantly to the Space Shuttle and Space Station programs. In particular, her superb leadership as lead spacewalker during the STS-126 mission resulted in restoring full power generation capability\",\n \"-30.860243852017447\"\n ],\n [\n \"safely power down the orbiter, the crew performed the traditional walk-around of the shuttle and met with employees from NASA. Speaking briefly to the press following the walk around, Altman joked, \\\"I didn't realize it was going to be so hard to get back to the Earth! We're all thrilled to have the mission complete.\\\"\\nDuring the post-landing briefing, Associate Administrator for Space Sciences Ed Weiler declared the mission a total success, and after noting the rocky road that it took to get the mission completed, said he considered the mission to be Hubble's Great American Comeback story, chapter two.\\nThis mission...was\",\n \"-30.859591622443986\"\n ],\n [\n \"crews work days saw the two crews say goodbye in a farewell ceremony and close the hatches between the shuttle and ISS. Once the hatches were closed, the Pressurized Mating Adapter 2 was depressurized, in advance of undocking. The shuttle crew setup and checked out the rendezvous tools before going to bed. 8 September (Flight Day 12 – Undocking) On flight day 12, Space Shuttle Discovery successfully undocked from the International Space Station at 19:26 UTC. After undocking, the shuttle backed out and performed a fly around of the ISS. The Space Shuttle then performed two separation burns using its\",\n \"-30.816844807734014\"\n ],\n [\n \"orbiter, and exit from it without help after a 16-day flight. Astronauts on 40 shuttle flights (STS-32 through STS-72) participated in 36 EDOMP investigations. The results of these investigations were used to make rules and recommendations for 16-day flights. Several types of exercise devices (i.e. a treadmill, a cycle ergometer, and a rower) were among the devices and procedures developed to prevent the de-conditioning of the body that occurs during space flight. The crew transport vehicles, in which astronauts are now transported after landing, were built to enhance medical capabilities at the landing site, as well as crew comfort and\",\n \"-30.79402911895886\"\n ],\n [\n \"STS-134 Background The Space Shuttle had been scheduled to be retired from service after STS-133, but controversy over the cancellation of several International Space Station components, most notably the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, in order to meet deadlines for the retirement of the shuttle, caused the United States Government to consider ordering an additional mission. On 19 June 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed the NASA Authorization Act of 2008, giving NASA funding for one additional mission to \\\"deliver science experiments to the station\\\".\\nThe same mandate was included in the U.S. Senate version of the NASA Authorization Act that\",\n \"-30.756870959303342\"\n ],\n [\n \"the Russian segment while attempts were made to identify the fault. Meanwhile, the shuttle was cleared for reentry. 20 July (Flight Day 6, EVA 2) Astronauts Wolf and Marshburn began EVA 2 at 15:27 UTC out of the Quest airlock. The EVA was to transfer the spare components brought by the shuttle from the ICC-VLD to External Stowage Platform-3. The spares were handled by Wolf riding the station's robotic arm to the P3 truss stowage platform where he and Marshburn attached them for long term storage. The purpose of the spares was to provide redundancy to the station in the\",\n \"-30.747066427284153\"\n ],\n [\n \"a critical objective of the servicing mission, as three had failed, one was offline due to electrical issues, and the other two had also been experiencing issues with performance. Ground controllers at Goddard Space Flight Center confirmed that all six gyroscopes and the new battery passed preliminary tests.\\nThe problems with seating the second RSU set the spacewalkers back in the timeline by approximately two hours, but after Altman asked Massimino and Good how they felt, they replied they were doing well and felt fine to continue. Flight controllers on the ground evaluated the consumables for the two spacesuits, and decided\",\n \"-30.69723159004934\"\n ],\n [\n \"the breaker was reset and pump reactivated. Joe Tanner and Heide Stefanyshyn-Piper began their spacewalk at 10:00 UTC after a 45-minute delay\\nDuring the 6-hour and 42-minute spacewalk, the astronauts carried out numerous maintenance and repair tasks including removal of hardware used to secure the P3/P4 radiator during launch. Ground Flight Controllers subsequently unfurled the radiator, increasing the ability of the station to dissipate heat into space. Also, completed during this spacewalk was the retrieval of a materials exposure experiment from the outside of the ISS, maintenance on the P6 truss, installation of a wireless TV aerial and the replacement of\",\n \"-30.688369710289408\"\n ],\n [\n \"controls an Orbital Construction Pod, a small ship with mechanical arms that an astronaut can use to move large equipment. Being careless here could have consequences as the pod or equipment may become damaged, and it may run out of fuel and become stranded until another pod can rescue it. Consequences were not limited to equipment damage: Stranded astronauts in pods could die when oxygen ran out. Other crew hazards included solar flares, which could kill astronauts on the station or shuttle if precautions (using an emergency module in station design) were not taken. Crew died in\",\n \"-30.66544886410702\"\n ],\n [\n \"all the TCDT tasks, the crew returned to the Johnson Space Center on 15 October 2010.\\nFlying aboard NASA T-38 training jets, the six astronauts returned to Kennedy Space Center on 28 October 2010 for final pre-launch preparations.\\nOn 15 January 2011, Timothy Kopra, scheduled as the lead spacewalker for the mission at the time, was injured in a bicycle accident near his Houston-area home, reportedly breaking his hip. He was replaced by Stephen Bowen on 19 January 2011. The replacement did not affect the targeted launch date. This is to date the closest to a scheduled launch that a\",\n \"-30.657231031917036\"\n ],\n [\n \"docked to the ISS on her final mission, STS-134. During this mission, the crew of Endeavour installed on the station's exterior the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and several spare parts to aid in station operations after the retirement of the Space Shuttle. STS-134 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station.\\nEndeavour and her crew, consisting of Mark Kelly, Gregory Johnson, Michael Fincke, Roberto Vittori, Andrew Feustel, and Gregory Chamitoff, returned to Earth on 1 June 2011, at 6:34 UTC. STS-134 was the second-to-last mission of the Space Shuttle. Soyuz TMA-02M docking The remainder of the Expedition 28 crew\",\n \"-30.608902101346757\"\n ],\n [\n \"tape to bypass a suspect valve in the Regenerative Carbon Dioxide Removal System that had threatened to cut short the mission.\\nMission Management Team considered, but decided against, extending the mission one day because the science community indicated an extended flight was not necessary and weather conditions were expected to deteriorate after planned landing on Sunday, 3 May.\\nSTS-90 Mission Specialist Kathryn Hire was Kennedy Space Center's first employee to be chosen as an astronaut candidate.\\nSTS-90 was the first shuttle flight known to carry a bat on the solid booster. A bat suffered a similar fate during STS-119.\",\n \"-30.59853349326295\"\n ],\n [\n \"the next mission to the ISS. Ross also freed another antenna on Zarya, similar to the one Newman freed on EVA-2. The spacewalkers also tested the redesigned SAFER jet packs, to be used in the event an astronaut became separated from the spacecraft during a spacewalk. After the EVA, Pilot Rick Sturckow depressurized the vestibule between Endeavour and PMA-2 to prepare for the undocking of the two spacecraft on Flight Day 11. 13 December (Flight Day 11, Undocking) On Flight Day 11, Space Shuttle Endeavour undocked from the International Space Station. At 3:25 pm EST, Pilot Rick Sturckow backed Endeavour 450\",\n \"-30.59141428169096\"\n ],\n [\n \"that even NASA used them. The computer failure meant that the capsule would not be able to perform a closed-loop lifting reentry as planned.\\nReentry came on the 62nd revolution. An open-loop rolling reentry (as used in Mercury) had to be used because of the computer failure. The astronauts began rolling the spacecraft at 65 nautical miles (120 km) altitude to increase its stability. They started slowing the roll rate at 89,000 feet (27 km) and stopped it by 39,000 feet (12 km). The drogue parachute deployed shortly after this, and the main deployed at 10,600 feet (3.2 km). A malfunctioning thruster caused the roll\",\n \"-30.57295127538964\"\n ],\n [\n \"were to perform a spacewalk, the first of the Shuttle program, to test newly developed space suits. The space suits were developed as cheaper and less complicated alternatives to the Apollo versions. The test was delayed by one day due to Lenoir succumbing to motion sickness. Then an underperforming oxygen regulator in Lenoir's suit and a broken recirculation fan in Allen's caused them to cancel the extravehicular activity (EVA) entirely. It was the first time in the history of the space program that an EVA had been cancelled due to space suit issues.\\nThe STS-5 crew successfully concluded the 5-day orbital\",\n \"-30.562507232869393\"\n ],\n [\n \"conducted a fly-by of the ISS, so pictures could be taken. Saying goodbye to the ISS and its crew, commander Kelly said \\\"We wish them the best with their expedition and we hope we left them a better, more capable space station than when we arrived. Sayonara.\\\"\\nAfterwards the crew of Discovery conducted the late inspection of the shuttle's Thermal Protection System that was unable to be performed as usual on Flight Day 2, due to the size of the Kibo Pressurized Module. 12 June (Flight day 13) Flight day 13 was a rare off-duty day. The only major projects were\",\n \"-30.543784947542008\"\n ],\n [\n \"was given, meaning that the danger has passed and the crew can reboard the station. This kind of incident has happened several times, and the crew would perform a debris avoidance maneuver should the situation arise. 2011–2012 – Failure of Main Bus Switching Unit #1 and Replacement EVA The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. In late 2011 MBSU-1, while still routing power correctly, ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health, and was scheduled\",\n \"-30.530397520400584\"\n ],\n [\n \"and retreat into their Soyuz spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. This partial station evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012 and 16 June 2015. End of mission According to the Outer Space Treaty, the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched. Natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean area were considered as\",\n \"-30.47720105390181\"\n ],\n [\n \"arrived and the crew stored everything for reentry. The retro-rockets worked perfectly after 14 days in space. They landed within 6.4 nautical miles (11.9 km) of the targeted landing point.\\nThe crewmen were somewhat weakened by their time in space, but both were in good health and were up and about after a good night's sleep on the recovery ship USS Wasp. They were also in good spirits: during recovery, they joked to Mission Control about getting married after having spent so long together in space.\\nThe Gemini 7 and 6A missions were supported by the following U.S. Department of Defense resources: 10,125\",\n \"-30.43064481613692\"\n ],\n [\n \"Astronaut Crew Quarters in that vehicle. The remaining six crew members briefly examined the orbiter, doing the traditional post-flight \\\"walkaround\\\", posed for photos, and then returned to the crew quarters in the Astrovan.\\nDuring the post-landing briefing, NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin reported that the International Space Station was approximately 60% completed following STS-118. Griffin also stressed the importance of space exploration, and added that the damaged tile on the underside of the orbiter did very well during re-entry.\\nAssociate Administrator for Spaceflight Operations William H. Gerstenmaier reported the damage was actually less than what the arc jet testing produced, a situation\",\n \"-30.421875088883098\"\n ],\n [\n \"be declared, the orbiter powered down and teams would evacuate the area. A convoy of 25 specially designed vehicles and 150 trained engineers and technicians approached the orbiter. Purge and vent lines were attached to remove toxic gases from fuel lines and the cargo bay about 45–60 minutes after landing. A flight surgeon boarded the orbiter for initial medical checks of the crew before disembarking. Once the crew left the orbiter, responsibility for the vehicle was handed from the Johnson Space Center back to the Kennedy Space Center.\\nIf the mission ended at Edwards Air Force Base in California, White Sands\",\n \"-30.409184582313173\"\n ],\n [\n \"shuttle has already approached too close to the planet to escape, and she is forced to dock at an abandoned space station under heavy missile fire. The shuttle is sent on a suicide plunge into the atmosphere as a decoy, but this does not fool the Rangers, who dispatch several shuttles to destroy the station once and for all.\\nThe expert system aboard decides to help Brun and Hazel. Brun has it send a message to the Fleet SAR that she is aboard the station and not dead, and squads of neuro-enhanced space marines arrive on the station just after the\",\n \"-30.405753192404518\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shuttle Endeavour conducted a late inspection of the orbiter's Thermal Protection System. On most previous flights, this inspection was performed after the shuttle undocked from the ISS. However, in this case it was done early, because the Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS) was to be left on board the ISS after Endeavour's departure. The joint Expedition 28/STS-134 crew held a news conference with reporters on the ground at NASA centers around the country and ISS partner agencies. Commander Mark Kelly also spoke to reporters from four Tucson, Arizona television stations. Later in the crew day, the joint crew held an\",\n \"-30.396886399248615\"\n ],\n [\n \"characterized the damage, and that we will have a very successful re-entry\\\". He stated that over 200 people were involved in the decision, representing over 30 organizations, including NASA Ames Research Center, NASA's Langley Research Center, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, KSC, JSC, and that all the groups combined came to the same decision.\\nShannon reported that the glove issue encountered during EVA three had been discussed, and stated that analysis would be continued, in advance of EVA four on Saturday. The crew does have a spare set of gloves, if needed.\\nShannon reported on a micro-meteoroid debris strike discovered on the commander's window\",\n \"-30.37293906256673\"\n ],\n [\n \"and to prepare for an early departure from Aquarius. Fortunately, Lili degenerated to the point where it was no longer a threat, so the crew was able to remain the full five days.\\nHill led the Columbia accident investigation team responsible for detecting and locating early debris during re-entry; obtaining and analyzing all data collected by government agency sensors during entry; and coordinating radar testing with the Air Force Research Laboratory. He also led the team that developed on-orbit inspection and repair techniques for the Space Shuttle and was the lead Flight Director for its return to flight on mission STS-114.\",\n \"-30.36394632604788\"\n ],\n [\n \"A few minutes after liftoff, it exploded spectacularly, lighting up the night sky. The astronauts were stunned. Shepard turned to Glenn and said: \\\"Well, I'm glad they got that out of the way.\\\"\\nGlenn remained an officer in the Marine Corps after his selection, and was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. The task force moved to Houston, Texas, in 1962, and became part of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center. A portion of the astronauts' training was in the classroom, where they learned space science. The group also received hands-on training, which included\",\n \"-30.35902763507329\"\n ],\n [\n \"but deemed impractical due to \\\"limited utility, technical complexity and excessive cost in dollars, weight or schedule delays\\\".\\nAfter the loss of Challenger, the question was re-opened, and NASA considered several different options, including ejector seats, tractor rockets, and emergency egress through the bottom of the orbiter. NASA once again concluded that all of the launch escape systems considered would be impractical due to the sweeping vehicle modifications that would have been necessary and the resultant limitations on crew size. A system was designed to give the crew the option to leave the shuttle during gliding flight, but this system would\",\n \"-30.358421645388262\"\n ],\n [\n \"using Russian unmanned Progress ships, and crews were exchanged using Russian-manned Soyuz spacecraft, and forced to operate on a skeleton crew of two.\\nLess than a year after the accident, President Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration, calling for the space shuttle fleet to complete the ISS, with retirement by 2010 following the completion of the ISS, to be replaced by a newly developed Crew Exploration Vehicle for travel to the Moon and Mars. NASA planned to return the space shuttle to service around September 2004; that date was pushed back to July 2005.\\nOn July 26, 2005, at 10:39 EST,\",\n \"-30.353323106799508\"\n ],\n [\n \"a huge honor to break a record like this, but it is an honor for me back to be representing all the folks at NASA'.\\nOn May 12, 2017, Whitson performed her ninth career EVA with Jack Fischer. After a short delay due to leaking equipment, they replaced an avionics box on the starboard truss called an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier (ELC), a storage platform. The duration was 4 hours and 13 minutes, and it was the 200th EVA to be performed on the ISS.\\nOn May 23, 2017, Whitson performed her tenth career EVA with Fischer. They replaced a backup multiplexer-demultiplexer (MDM)\",\n \"-30.35169034721912\"\n ],\n [\n \"EVA procedure review for the fourth and final spacewalk of STS-134. Astronauts Mike Fincke and Greg Chamitoff spent the night in the Quest Airlock with the air pressure reduced to 10.2 Psi, so as to avoid decompression sickness during their spacewalk. The crew and flight controllers on the ground opted not to use the In-suit Light Exercise (ISLE) protocol that was tested during EVA 3 earlier in the mission, opting instead to go with the standard campout protocol, since it was discovered that ISLE used more carbon-dioxide scrubbing capability. They wanted to save this capability, since a CO₂ sensor in\",\n \"-30.349261052219845\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":93,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"71ptiq"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"If there is water on Mars, why can’t one of the rovers be directed to the suspected source and simply confirm or deny speculations?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":[" > why can’t one of the rovers be directed to the suspected source and simply confirm or deny speculations? Rovers are extremely slow, you can't just drive them to wherever you want. [Opportunity travelled 45km in all its 12 years on Mars]( URL_0 ) We know (for a long time now) that there is indeed [water (ice) on Mars]( URL_1 ), no need to send a probe there just to confirm it.","It was a rover than let us know there's water on mars, and completely by accident! One rover, called Spirit, was sent to mars to look around, and one of it's back wheels broke. But that didn't stop the rover, it carried on driving, dragging a little trench in the dirt behind it. In that trench we noticed shiny white stuff, which could be snow. So the rover turned around to get a proper look at it, and Bingo it was snow! Spirit has a partner, called Opportunity, but it's aaaaaall the way on the other side of mars. Using both rovers to look around, we made sure we weren't seeing imaginary things. It seems that if you dig almost anywhere on mars for long enough, you'll find some snow and ice mixed into the dirt. And we thought mars was a dry ball of dust all these years. Turns out, it's a very soggy ball of dirt instead.","Because the water is not in a form of lake or a block of ice. It is more like permafrost. Wet martian soil that is permanently frozen deeper under the surface. It thaws a little during martian summer and wetness can be observed flowing down martian hills. Again not a river just water soaked into soil. Soil stays mostly put and the water flows down through the gaps between soil grains. Martian hills are hard to traverse for rovers and their equipment is designed to take relatively shallow surface samples. Also what needs to be addressed is public opinion on what qualifies as proof of liquid water on Mars. Scientists can show graphs, spectrometer findings and maps constructed by orbital probes and say that this is strong evidence but public will remain skeptical. What public wants is a picture of a lake but that is not what they will get."],"string":"[\n \" > why can’t one of the rovers be directed to the suspected source and simply confirm or deny speculations? Rovers are extremely slow, you can't just drive them to wherever you want. [Opportunity travelled 45km in all its 12 years on Mars]( URL_0 ) We know (for a long time now) that there is indeed [water (ice) on Mars]( URL_1 ), no need to send a probe there just to confirm it.\",\n \"It was a rover than let us know there's water on mars, and completely by accident! One rover, called Spirit, was sent to mars to look around, and one of it's back wheels broke. But that didn't stop the rover, it carried on driving, dragging a little trench in the dirt behind it. In that trench we noticed shiny white stuff, which could be snow. So the rover turned around to get a proper look at it, and Bingo it was snow! Spirit has a partner, called Opportunity, but it's aaaaaall the way on the other side of mars. Using both rovers to look around, we made sure we weren't seeing imaginary things. It seems that if you dig almost anywhere on mars for long enough, you'll find some snow and ice mixed into the dirt. And we thought mars was a dry ball of dust all these years. Turns out, it's a very soggy ball of dirt instead.\",\n \"Because the water is not in a form of lake or a block of ice. It is more like permafrost. Wet martian soil that is permanently frozen deeper under the surface. It thaws a little during martian summer and wetness can be observed flowing down martian hills. Again not a river just water soaked into soil. Soil stays mostly put and the water flows down through the gaps between soil grains. Martian hills are hard to traverse for rovers and their equipment is designed to take relatively shallow surface samples. Also what needs to be addressed is public opinion on what qualifies as proof of liquid water on Mars. Scientists can show graphs, spectrometer findings and maps constructed by orbital probes and say that this is strong evidence but public will remain skeptical. What public wants is a picture of a lake but that is not what they will get.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["were reported on Mount Sharp near the Curiosity rover. Overview Research indicates that in the past there was liquid water flowing on the surface of Mars, creating large areas similar to Earth's oceans. However, the question remains as to where the water has gone.\nThe Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft launched in 2005 designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The spacecraft is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The HiRISE camera onboard the MRO is at the forefront of the ongoing RSL studies as it helps chart the features with images of closely","-30.515422075637616"],["mission team members announced on 2 March that data returned from the rover showed that these rocks were once \"drenched in water\", and on 23 March that it was concluded that they were laid down underwater in a salty sea. This represented the first strong direct evidence for liquid water on Mars at some time in the past.\nTowards the end of July 2005, it was reported by the Sunday Times that the rovers may have carried the bacteria Bacillus safensis to Mars. According to one NASA microbiologist, this bacteria could survive both the trip and conditions on Mars. A book","-30.41106155552552"],["below the shallow surface. The ground truth for its measurements came on July 31, 2008, when NASA announced that the Phoenix lander confirmed the presence of water on Mars, as predicted in 2002 based on data from the Odyssey orbiter. The science team is trying to determine whether the water ice ever thaws enough to be available for microscopic life, and if carbon-containing chemicals and other raw materials for life are present.\nThe orbiter also discovered vast deposits of bulk water ice near the surface of equatorial regions. Evidence for equatorial hydration is both morphological and compositional and is","-28.503952241153456"],["the surface of Mars. Both have met and exceeded all their science objectives. Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites. Martian dust devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers' solar panels, and thus increased their lifespan. Spirit rover (MER-A) was active until 2010, when it stopped sending data because it got stuck in a sand dune and was unable to reorient itself to recharge its batteries.\nOn 10 March 2006, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) probe arrived in orbit to conduct a","-28.097242322051898"],["NASA on June 10 2018 and its mission was declared complete on February 13 2019.\nThe Spirit rover landed in what was thought to be a huge lake bed. However, the lake bed had been covered over with lava flows, so evidence of past water was initially hard to detect. As the mission progressed and the Rover continued to move along the surface more and more clues to past water were found.\nOn March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed \"Humphrey\". Raymond Arvidson, the McDonnell University Professor and chair of","-28.03699558696826"],["of the planet once harbored water.\nThe Opportunity rover was directed to a site that had displayed large amounts of hematite from orbit. Hematite often forms from water. The rover indeed found layered rocks and marble- or blueberry-like hematite concretions. Elsewhere on its traverse, Opportunity investigated aeolian dune stratigraphy in Burns Cliff in Endurance Crater. Its operators concluded that the preservation and cementation of these outcrops had been controlled by flow of shallow groundwater. In its years of continuous operation, Opportunity sent back evidence that this area on Mars was soaked in liquid water in the past.\nThe MER rovers found evidence","-27.97918299259618"],["nature, and compositional and microscopic-imagery analysis showed this to be primarily with composition of Jarosite, a ferrous sulfate mineral that is characteristically an evaporite that is the residue from the evaporation of a salty pond or sea.\nThe mission has provided substantial evidence of past water activity on Mars. In addition to investigating the \"water hypothesis\", Opportunity has also obtained astronomical observations and atmospheric data.\nThe extended mission took the rover across the plains to a series of larger craters in the south, with the arrival at the edge of a 25-km diameter crater, Endeavour Crater, eight years after landing. The orbital","-27.93880034436006"],["Water is close to its boiling point even at the deepest points in the Hellas basin, and so cannot remain liquid for long on the surface of Mars in its present state, except after a sudden release of underground water.\nSo far, NASA has pursued a \"follow the water\" strategy on Mars and has not searched for biosignatures for life there directly since the Viking missions. The consensus by astrobiologists is that it may be necessary to access the Martian subsurface to find currently habitable environments. Cosmic radiation In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe discovered that Mars had no global magnetic","-27.76016480906401"],["been instrumental in answering key questions about water's abundance and distribution on Mars. The ESA's Mars Express orbiter has also provided essential data in this quest. The Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, MRO, and Mars Science Lander Curiosity rover are still sending back data from Mars, and discoveries continue to be made. Historical background The notion of water on Mars preceded the space age by hundreds of years. Early telescopic observers correctly assumed that the white polar caps and clouds were indications of water's presence. These observations, coupled with the fact that Mars has a 24-hour day, led astronomer William Herschel","-27.589805440802593"],["9 orbiter. Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars. Other features in Eridania quadrangle File:ESP 055104 1385pyramid.jpg|Layered feature in a crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program","-27.388097031856887"],["is hypothesized to be the result of a flow of ground water, either before the deposition of the eroded sediments or else in relatively recent geologic history.\nAccording to NASA, an estimated 20,000 to 40,000 heat-resistant bacterial spores were on Curiosity at launch, and as much as 1,000 times that number may not have been counted. Rover's role in the landing system Previous NASA Mars rovers became active only after the successful entry, descent and landing on the Martian surface. Curiosity, on the other hand, was active when it touched down on the surface of Mars, employing the rover suspension system","-27.36861899041105"],["to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. In 2002, it was announced that the probe's gamma-ray spectrometer and neutron spectrometer had detected large amounts of hydrogen, indicating that there are vast deposits of water ice in the upper three meters of Mars' soil within 60° latitude of the south pole.\nOn June 2, 2003, the European Space Agency's Mars Express set off from Baikonur Cosmodrome to Mars. The Mars Express craft consists of the Mars Express Orbiter and the stationary lander Beagle 2. The lander carried a digging device and the smallest mass spectrometer","-26.704478799627395"],[" To bring the craft down safely, a 12-mile wide, smooth, flat circle was needed. Geologists hoped to examine places where water once ponded, and to examine its sediment layers. The site eventually settled on for the Mars Science Laboratory was Gale Crater in the Aeolis quadrangle, and a successful landing took place there in 2012. The rover is still operational as of early 2019. NASA scientists believe Gale Crater’s floor rocks are indeed sedimentary, formed in pooled water. Kasei Valles One of the most significant features of the Lunae Palus region, Kasei Valles, is one of","-26.620605552219786"],["Mars, when probes were first sent to Mars. The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Space craft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Some valles on Mars (Mangala Vallis, Athabasca Vallis, Granicus Vallis, and Tinjar Valles) clearly begin at graben. On the other hand, some of the large outflow channels begin in rubble-filled low areas called chaos or chaotic terrain. It has been suggested that massive","-26.447175287758"],["This represents a great deal of frozen water. It would be equal to 200 meters of water spread over the entire planet, if one assumes 20% pore space.\nThe Phoenix lander confirmed the existence of large amounts of water ice in the northern regions of Mars. This finding was predicted by theory and was measured from orbit by the Mars Odyssey instruments, so the idea that rampart crater size shows the depth to ice was confirmed by other space probes. The image below from the Phoenix lander shows ice that was exposed by the descent engines.\nThey are normally","-26.34527930830518"],["from Mars. Some of them contain evidence that they were exposed to water when on Mars. Some Martian meteorites called basaltic shergottites, appear (from the presence of hydrated carbonates and sulfates) to have been exposed to liquid water prior to ejection into space. It has been shown that another class of meteorites, the nakhlites, were suffused with liquid water around 620 million years ago and that they were ejected from Mars around 10.75 million years ago by an asteroid impact. They fell to Earth within the last 10,000 years. Martian meteorite NWA 7034 has one order of magnitude more water than most","-26.194130705902353"],["to Mars, but with the length of the journey, the crew decide that the only way to get home is to find water on Mars.\nThankfully, MR4 has landed within a hundred miles of the polar ice cap so the group set off, Brown too, believing there to be life on Mars. Encountering Lichens, crevasses and other perils, Brown is devastated when he discovers no intelligent life and feels cheated by the others. In doing so, he intends to leave the others behind on the planet. However, lichens manage to infiltrate MR4, stopping Brown and giving the Rocket crew a chance","-26.076035804115236"],["locations could occur kilometers below the surface in a hypothetical hydrosphere, or it could occur near the sub-surface in contact with permafrost.\nThe Curiosity rover is assessing Mars' past and present habitability potential. The European-Russian ExoMars programme is an astrobiology project dedicated to the search for and identification of biosignatures on Mars. It includes the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter that started mapping the atmospheric methane in April 2018, and the 2020 ExoMars rover that will drill and analyze subsurface samples 2 meters deep. NASA's Mars 2020 rover will cache dozens of drilled core samples for their potential transport to Earth laboratories","-25.970414801995503"],["its website. (On Monday [September 28, 2015], scientists announced that signs of liquid water could be seen in photographs taken on Mars by a camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, timing that suggests NASA certainly has the whole cross-promotion thing down.)\" Jim Erickson, NASA project manager, said the film would show moviegoers \"the risks and rewards\" of humans traveling to Mars.\nIn October 2015, NASA presented a new web tool to follow Watney's trek across Mars and details of NASA's next steps, as well as a health hazards report for a real-world human journey to Mars. Marketing 20th Century Fox launched","-25.941035564879712"],["and sampling rocks around it. Newspapers around the world carried images of the lander dispatching the rover to explore the surface of Mars in a way never achieved before.\nUntil the final data transmission on 27 September 1997, Mars Pathfinder returned 16,500 images from the lander and 550 images from the rover, as well as more than 15 chemical analyses of rocks and soil and extensive data on winds and other weather factors. Findings from the investigations carried out by scientific instruments on both the lander and the rover suggest that Mars was at one time in its past warm and","-25.904858383117244"],["that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. River valleys observed by Viking orbiters The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars. Huge river valleys were found in many areas. They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Mars Science Laboratory Hypanis Vallis, in the Lunae Palus quadrangle, was one of the sites proposed as a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory, popularly known as the Mars Curiosity","-25.84960554225836"],["in the locations they studied all had water activity, aw ≤ 0.78 to 0.86—a level fatal to most Terrestrial life. Haloarchaea, however, are able to live in hypersaline solutions, up to the saturation point.\nIn June 2000, possible evidence for current liquid water flowing at the surface of Mars was discovered in the form of flood-like gullies. Additional similar images were published in 2006, taken by the Mars Global Surveyor, that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars. The images showed changes in steep crater walls and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water coursed","-25.664471334050177"],["protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic rays. The probe was able to calculate the atmospheric pressure on the planet to be about 0.6 kPa (compared to Earth's 101.3 kPa), meaning that liquid water could not exist on the planet's surface. After Mariner 4, the search for life on Mars changed to a search for bacteria-like living organisms rather than for multicellular organisms, as the environment was clearly too harsh for these.]]. Viking orbiters Liquid water is necessary for known life and metabolism, so if water was present on Mars, the chances of it having supported life may have been","-25.622810366170597"],["all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.","-25.60288612858858"],["screen of TEGA. On June 17, it was announced that no water was found in this sample; however, since it had been exposed to the atmosphere for several days prior to entering the oven, any initial water ice it might have contained could have been lost via sublimation. Mars Descent Imager The Mars Descent Imager (MARDI) was intended to take pictures of the landing site during the last three minutes of descent. As originally planned, it would have begun taking pictures after the aeroshell departed, about 8 km above the Martian soil. Before launch, testing of the assembled spacecraft uncovered a","-25.481256361177657"],["of a sample, the mass spectrometer detected water vapor when the sample temperature reached 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K). Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure and temperature, except at the lowest elevations for short periods.\nPerchlorate (ClO₄), a strong oxidizer, was confirmed to be in the soil. The chemical, when mixed with water, can lower the water freezing point in a manner similar to how salt is applied to roads to melt ice.\nWhen Phoenix landed, the retrorockets splashed soil and melted ice onto the vehicle. Photographs showed the landing had left blobs of material","-25.418217888800427"],["goal was accomplished, and by 2016 it was decided to not only enter Endevaour crater but also explore, for the first time in history what is thought to be a water carved gully on Mars (update:2016).\nUpon arriving at Endeavour, Opportunity almost immediately began discovering Martian phenomena not previously observed. On sol 2692 (August 22, 2011) the rover began examining Tisdale 2, a large ejecta block. \"This is different from any rock ever seen on Mars,\" said Steve Squyres, principal investigator for Opportunity at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. \"It has a composition similar to some volcanic rocks, but there's","-25.384429830804947"],["of the locations are in the Cebrenia quadrangle. These locations are 55.57° N, 150.62° E; 43.28° N, 176.9° E; and 45° N, 164.5° E. Two others are in the Diacria quadrangle: 46.7° N, 176.8° E and 46.33° N, 176.9° E.\nThis discovery proves that future colonists on Mars will be able to obtain water from a wide variety of locations. The ice can be dug up, melted, then taken apart to provide fresh oxygen and hydrogen for rocket fuel. Hydrogen is the powerful fuel used by the space shuttle main engines. Curiosity In 2012, the NASA's rover Curiosity discovered solid evidence","-25.337120247946586"],["Aureum Chaos. Clay minerals need water to form, so the area may once have contained large amounts of water. Scientists are interested in determining what parts of Mars contained water because evidence of past or present life may be found there.\nOn April 1, 2010, NASA released the first images under the HiWish program, with the public suggesting places for HiRISE to photograph. One of the eight locations was Aureum Chaos. The first image below gives a wide view of the area. The next two images are from the HiRISE image. Layers Many places on Mars show","-25.306040140010737"],["as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\nThis international team used ESO’s Very Large Telescope, along with instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different forms of water in Mars’s atmosphere over a","-25.294223768636584"],["flow\" of water on Mars. In particular, analysis of the now dry streambed indicated that the water ran at 3.3 km/h (0.92 m/s), possibly at hip-depth. Proof of running water came in the form of rounded pebbles and gravel fragments that could have only been weathered by strong liquid currents. Their shape and orientation suggests long-distance transport from above the rim of the crater, where a channel named Peace Vallis feeds into the alluvial fan.\nEridania Lake is a theorized ancient lake with a surface area of roughly 1.1 million square kilometers. Its maximum depth is 2,400 meters and its volume is 562,000 km³. It","-25.277043281275837"],["which Mars Orbiter Camera images show contain gullies: Dao Vallis and Reull Vallis. These gullies are also low enough for liquid water to be transient around Martian noon, if the temperature were to rise above 0 Celsius.\nHellas Planitia is antipodal to Alba Patera. It and the somewhat smaller Isidis Planitia together are roughly antipodal to the Tharsis Bulge, with its enormous shield volcanoes, while Argyre Planitia is roughly antipodal to Elysium, the other major uplifted region of shield volcanoes on Mars. Whether the shield volcanoes were caused by antipodal impacts like that which produced Hellas, or if it is mere","-25.265605645399773"],["Exploration of Mars Current status On June 10, 2018, Opportunity rover fell silent, leaving Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory mission with six orbiters surveying the planet: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, MAVEN, and the Trace Gas Orbiter, which have contributed massive amounts of information about Mars. The stationary lander InSight is investigating the deep interior of Mars. No sample return missions have been attempted for Mars and an attempted return mission for Mars' moon Phobos (Fobos-Grunt) failed in 2011.\nFive more missions are in the late stages of development and fabrication, and will be launched","-25.2350283291089"],["Mars in the Ares 4 MAV. While working on the rover, Watney accidentally shorts out the electronics of Pathfinder, losing the ability to communicate with Earth (except for spelling out Morse code with rocks).\nAfter Watney leaves for Schiaparelli, NASA discovers that a dust storm is approaching his path, but has no way to warn him. The rover's solar cells will be less and less able to recharge, endangering both the rendezvous and his immediate survival (if there is not enough power to run his life-support equipment). While crossing Arabia Terra, Watney becomes aware of the darkening sky and improvises a","-25.19218559685396"],["just reduced shipments of water to Mars, putting the Scavengers out of work. When Hamish Sankov, the head of the Martian colony, learns of Hilder's plan to desist all water shipments to Mars, he authorizes Long's plan to travel to Saturn and tow a fragment of ice from the rings to Mars.\nA fleet of 25 Scavenger ships makes the trip. Reaching the rings, the Scavengers choose a fragment approximately one cubic mile in volume, carve it into a rough cylinder, embed their spaceships in it, and fly it back to Mars, using the fragment's ice as reaction mass, in five","-25.163959997182246"],["the possibility of flowing water during the warmest months on Mars.\nOn September 24, 2014, Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation, reached Mars orbit. ISRO launched MOM on November 5, 2013, with the aim of analyzing the Martian atmosphere and topography. The Mars Orbiter Mission used a Hohmann transfer orbit to escape Earth's gravitational influence and catapult into a nine-month-long voyage to Mars. The mission is the first successful Asian interplanetary mission.\nThe European Space Agency, in collaboration with Roscosmos, launched the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter and Schiaparelli lander on March 14, 2016. While the Trace Gas","-25.12305942212697"],["Phoenix (spacecraft) History While the proposal for Phoenix was being written, the Mars Odyssey Orbiter used its gamma-ray spectrometer and found the distinctive signature of hydrogen on some areas of the Martian surface, and the only plausible source of hydrogen on Mars would be water in the form of ice, frozen below the surface. The mission was therefore funded on the expectation that Phoenix would find water ice on the arctic plains of Mars. In August 2003 NASA selected the University of Arizona \"Phoenix\" mission for launch in 2007. It was hoped this would be the first in a new","-25.09565232641762"],["probability but cannot yet be ruled out.\nThere are no immediate plans for a Mars sample-return, but it remains a high priority for NASA and the ESA because of its great potential biological and geological interest. The European Space Foundation report cites many advantages of a Mars sample-return. In particular, it would permit extensive analyses on Earth, without the size and weight constraints for instruments sent to Mars on rovers. These analyses could also be carried out without the communication delays for experiments carried out by Martian rovers. It would also make it possible to repeat experiments in multiple laboratories with","-25.07774859596975"],["from large amounts of water, the two Viking orbiters and the two landers caused a revolution in our knowledge about water on Mars. Huge outflow channels were found in many areas. They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Large areas in the southern hemisphere contained branched valley networks, suggesting that rain once fell. Many craters look as if the impactor fell into mud. When they were formed, ice in the soil may have melted, turned the ground into mud, then the mud flowed across the surface.","-25.00848959220457"],[" Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars. Pedestal craters A pedestal crater is a crater with its ejecta sitting above the surrounding terrain and thereby forming a raised platform (like a pedestal). They form when an impact crater ejects material which forms an erosion-resistant layer, thus causing the immediate area to erode more slowly than the rest of","-24.99717046227306"],["southwest.\nA primary aim of the Mars 2020 mission is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12-mile (20 km) wide, smooth, flat circular area is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded. They would like to examine sediment layers.\nIn November 2018, Jezero crater was selected as the planned landing site for the Mars 2020 rover mission.","-24.96415685606189"],["search for a \"habitable zone\" in the Martian regolith where microbial life could exist, the other main goal being to study the geological history of water on Mars. The lander has a 2.5 meter robotic arm that was capable of digging shallow trenches in the regolith. There was an electrochemistry experiment which analysed the ions in the regolith and the amount and type of antioxidants on Mars. The Viking program data indicate that oxidants on Mars may vary with latitude, noting that Viking 2 saw fewer oxidants than Viking 1 in its more northerly position. Phoenix landed further north still.\nPhoenix's","-24.936927577480674"],["landed on Mars to explore the Martian surface and geology, and searched for clues to past water activity on Mars. They were each launched in 2003 and landed in 2004. Communication with Spirit stopped on sol 2210 (March 22, 2010). JPL continued to attempt to regain contact until May 24, 2011, when NASA announced that efforts to communicate with the unresponsive rover had ended. Opportunity arrived at Endeavour crater on 9 August 2011, at a landmark called Spirit Point named after its rover twin, after traversing 13 miles (21 km) from Victoria crater, over a three-year period. After a planet","-24.878222655032005"],["\"water flowed through underground fractures in the rock.\"\nOpportunity had driven more than 34 km (21 mi) by November 22, 2011 (sol 2783), as preparations were made for the coming Martian winter. It moved to terrain that positioned it about 15 degrees to the north, an angle more favorable for solar energy production during the Martian winter. Greeley Haven In January 2012 the rover returned data from Greeley Haven, named after the geologist Ronald Greeley, while enduring its fifth Martian winter. It studied the Martian wind, which has been described as \"the most active process on Mars today\", and conducted a radio science","-24.816939612239366"],["some morphological features of the surface, such as the so-called Recurrent Slope Lineae (RSLs). In addition, the discovery has posed the necessity for taking special precautions to avoid biological contamination of the planet with terrestrial organisms carried on board the spacecrafts to be sent in the next missions, since the availability of liquid water multiply the possibilities for them to survive and thrive in certain places. Finally, water can be a valuable in-situ resource at the disposal of a crew which is eventually sent to Mars someday.\nHowever, the brines themselves have not been monitored yet, and a quantification of the","-24.685435506515205"],["able to collect samples down to a depth of 2 metres (6.6 ft), away from the destructive radiation that bathes the surface. Mars 2020 Rover The Mars 2020 rover, planned to launch in 2020, is intended to investigate an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars, investigate its surface geological processes and history, including the assessment of its past habitability, the possibility of past life on Mars, and potential for preservation of biosignatures within accessible geological materials. In addition, it will cache the most interesting samples for possible future transport to Earth. Titan Dragonfly NASA's Dragonfly lander/aircraft concept is proposed to launch","-24.670611054927576"],["panoramas of the surrounding region. Research on data from Mars orbiters identified interesting minerals on the outcrop. Some communication and difficulties the previous month delayed investigating these rocks, but on the positive side, the wait, along with a cleaning event over January 1, allowed for more electrical power to be available. The rover is tilted towards the Sun to help it get more power, and it is expected that it can remain active during the Martian winter. Pinnacle Island On January 17, NASA reported that a rock, named \"Pinnacle Island\", that was not in a rover image taken on Sol","-24.65921690851792"],["This rock outcrop, along with several others further eastward, including \"Link\" and \"Hottah\", suggest the \"vigorous\" flow of water in an ancient streambed.\nAn area of top scientific interest for Curiosity lies at the edge of the landing ellipse and beyond a dark dune field. Here, orbiting instruments have detected signatures of both clay minerals and sulfate salts. Scientists studying Mars have several hypotheses about how these minerals reflect changes in the Martian environment, particularly changes in the amount of water on the surface of Mars. The rover will use its full instrument suite to study these minerals and how they","-24.6555934427779"],["Scalloped topography Detection of underground ice On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.\nThe calculations for the volume of water ice in the region were based on measurements from the ground-penetrating radar instrument on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, called SHARAD.\nFrom the data obtained from SHARAD, dielectric permittivity, or the dielectric constant was determined. That was found from the amount of penetration of the radar to a reflector at the bottom","-24.622332589002326"],["is for Opportunity to reach Solander Point before winter reaches the Martian southern hemisphere as the area has ground tilted to the north allowing the rover to stay active during the winter months. In addition Solander Point has a large geological stack for Opportunity to explore.\nIn April 2013, the rover passed through a three-week-long solar conjunction, when communication with Earth was blocked because of the Sun. The rover arm was positioned on a rock during that time so the APXS could collect data.\nOn May 16, 2013, NASA announced that Opportunity had driven further than any other NASA vehicle on a","-24.615450821467675"],["hundred meters from the rover, and is the location of the suspected fluid-carved, possibly water, gullies that have never been investigated from the surface before. One of the MER-B goals is to drive down to this gully and examine it. Imaging Schiaparelli's descent In October 2016 the ESA Schiaparelli lander attempted to land near Endeavour crater, and the two teams worked together for Opportunity to possibly image the lander during its descent. Opportunity did take pictures of the area of the sky the lander was coming down in although the lander was not identified at that time; the nature of","-24.608207671059063"],["neared the surface, huge amounts would break out of the ground and carve the valleys we see today. There is much evidence for an ocean on Mars. Places have been photographed that could be where the ground collapsed when water left an subterranean rivers to flow out of chaotic regions. One of the first theories for the source of the water was based on old Viking Orbiter pictures. It was thought that these outflows came from a global cryosphere-confined aquifer that collected water from south polar meltwater. The cryosphere would have formed during the Hesperian","-24.560813009971753"],["soil beneath the dusty surface.\nThe orbiter entered Mars orbit on 25 December 2003, and Beagle 2 should have entered Mars' atmosphere the same day. However, attempts to contact the lander failed. Communications attempts continued throughout January, but Beagle 2 was declared lost in mid-February, and a joint inquiry was launched by the UK and ESA that blamed principal investigator Colin Pillinger's poor project management. Nevertheless, Mars Express Orbiter confirmed the presence of water ice and carbon dioxide ice at the planet's south pole. NASA had previously confirmed their presence at the north pole of Mars.\nSigns of the Beagle 2 lander","-24.527286483484204"],["effort would require three additional vehicles: an orbiter, a fetch rover, and a Mars ascent vehicle (MAV). NASA proposals In September 2012, NASA announced its intention to further study several strategies of bringing a sample of Mars to Earth – including a multiple launch scenario, a single-launch scenario and a multiple-rover scenario – for a mission beginning as early as 2018.\nDozens of samples would be collected and cached by the Mars 2020 rover, and would be left on the surface of Mars for possible later retrieval. A \"fetch rover\" would retrieve the sample caches and deliver them to a Mars","-24.284169265360106"],["It is also one of several proposed landing sites for the Mars 2020 Rover.\nHolden and Eberswalde, craters in Margaritifer Terra, are thought to have formerly held lakes because they contain deltas and iron/magnesium smectite minerals which need water to form. The Uzboi-Landon-Morava (ULM) system of paths for water flow is found in Margaritifer Terra.\nMargaritifer Terra was named in 1979, after the Pearl Coast, south India. Part of it is found in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle and part in the Oxia Palus quadrangle. Layers Some of the images from this region display layers. Many places on Mars show","-24.282131499843672"],["January 2004. It examined rock and soil for evidence of the area's history of water. On 7 July 2003, a second rover, MER-B (Opportunity) was launched. It landed on 24 January 2004 in Meridiani Planum (where there are large deposits of hematite, indicating the presence of past water) to carry out similar geological work.\nDespite a temporary loss of communication with the Spirit Rover (caused by a file system anomaly ) delaying exploration for several days, both rovers eventually began exploring their landing sites. The rover Opportunity landed in a particularly interesting spot, a crater with bedrock outcroppings. In fast succession,","-24.269511322770995"],["(CRISM) on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). The ice was found in a total of 5 locations. One of the locations (Site 5) is in the Diacria quadrangle at about 46° N, 182° E (Arcadia Planitia).\nThis discovery is significant because it shows the presence of subsurface ice at latitudes further south than expected and proves that future colonists on Mars will be able to obtain water from a wide variety of locations. The ice can be dug up, melted, and then taken apart to provide fresh oxygen and hydrogen for rocket fuel. Hydrogen is the","-24.266869774408406"],["NASA announced that the LCROSS mission had discovered large quantities of water ice on the Moon around the LCROSS impact site at Cabeus. Robert Zubrin, president of the Mars Society, relativized the term 'large': \"The 30 m crater ejected by the probe contained 10 million kilograms of regolith. Within this ejecta, an estimated 100 kg of water was detected. That represents a proportion of ten parts per million, which is a lower water concentration than that found in the soil of the driest deserts of the Earth. In contrast, we have found continent sized regions on Mars, which are 600,000 parts per million,","-24.258128467481583"],["the entire mission. The Rover was similar in size to the two NASA rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) that successfully landed on Mars in January 2004, and had similar mobility functionality.\nThe Scouts were to act as remote extensions of the main Rover craft, and contained power systems, video cameras and limited local communication systems that could only communicate directly with the Rover. The Scouts were about six by twelve inches and were deployed from the Rover after the Rover performed a soft landing on the surface of the Moon. The Scouts could be used in a reconnaissance function","-24.184774024703074"],["identified 55 important future science investigations related to the exploration of Mars. In 2008, they concluded that about half\nof the investigations \"could be addressed to one degree or another by MSR\", making MSR \"the single mission that would make the most progress towards the entire list\" of investigations. Moreover, it was found that a significant fraction of the investigations cannot be meaningfully advanced without returned samples.\nOne source of Mars samples is what are thought to be Martian meteorites, which are rocks ejected from Mars that made their way to Earth. Of over 61,000 meteorites that have been found on Earth,","-24.16809953984921"],["Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) is a visible-infrared spectrometer aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter searching for mineralogic indications of past and present water on Mars. The CRISM instrument team comprises scientists from over ten universities and led by principal investigator Scott Murchie. CRISM was designed, built, and tested by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. Objectives CRISM is being used to identify locations on Mars that may have hosted water, a solvent considered important in the search for past or present life on Mars. In order to","-24.05945950144087"],["at the surface of Mars. In May 2009, the Spirit rover became stuck when it drove over a patch of soft ferric sulfate that had been hidden under a veneer of normal-looking soil.\nBecause iron sulfate has very little cohesion, the rover's wheels could not gain sufficient traction to pull the body of the rover out of the iron sulfate patch. Multiple techniques were attempted to extricate the rover, but the wheels eventually sank so deeply into the iron sulfate that the body of the rover came to rest on the martian surface, preventing the wheels from exerting any force on","-24.03484878386371"],["liquid water on the Martian surface. A delegation of scientists showed pictures and data revealing a stratified pattern and cross bedding in the rocks of the outcrop inside a crater in Meridiani Planum, landing site of MER-B, Opportunity. This suggested that water once flowed in the region. The irregular distribution of chlorine and bromine also suggests that the place was once the shoreline of a salty sea, now evaporated.\nOn April 8, 2004, NASA announced that it was extending the mission life of the rovers from three to eight months. It immediately provided additional funding of US$15 million through September, and $2.8 million","-23.99791254212505"],["Martian surface geology. The mission's scientific objective was to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission was part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program, which includes three previous successful landers: the two Viking program landers in 1976; and Mars Pathfinder probe in 1997. Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The US$720 million spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, launched August 12, 2005,","-23.98020985831681"],["the mystery of Mars' missing water. All of the instruments take measurements of the surface, atmosphere and interplanetary media, from the main spacecraft in polar orbit, which will allow it to gradually cover the whole planet.\nThe total initial Mars Express budget excluding the lander was €150 million. The prime contractor for the construction of Mars Express orbiter was EADS Astrium Satellites. Launch The spacecraft was launched on June 2, 2003 at 23:45 local time (17:45 UT, 1:45 p.m. EDT) from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, using a Soyuz-FG/Fregat rocket. The Mars Express and Fregat booster were initially put into a 200 km Earth","-23.974154701725638"],["the nightside ionosphere on Mars. Mars 7 probe separated prematurely from the carrying vehicle due to a problem in the operation of one of the onboard systems (attitude control or retro-rockets) and missed the planet by 1,300 kilometres (8.7×10⁻⁶ au). Mariner program In 1964, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory made two attempts at reaching Mars. Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were identical spacecraft designed to carry out the first flybys of Mars. Mariner 3 was launched on November 5, 1964, but the shroud encasing the spacecraft atop its rocket failed to open properly, dooming the mission. Three weeks later, on November 28,","-23.965000368101755"],["were found in 2013 by the HiRISE camera on NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the Beagle 2's presence confirmed in January 2015, several months after Pillinger's death. The lander appears to have successfully landed but not deployed all of its power and communications panels. Mars Exploration Rovers Shortly after the launch of Mars Express, NASA sent a pair of twin rovers toward the planet as part of the Mars Exploration Rover mission. On 10 June 2003, NASA's MER-A (Spirit) Mars Exploration Rover was launched. It successfully landed in Gusev Crater (believed once to have been a crater lake) on 3","-23.918939180090092"],["its drawbacks. Human Exploration of Mars Argox, or half-Argox/half-Nitrox is a possible Oxygen mixture for Human exploration of Mars due to the relative abundance of Argon in the Martian atmosphere. The Martian atmosphere is composed of approximately: 95% CO2, 1.9% Argon, 1.9% Nitrogen. While it is possible for humans to breathe pure oxygen, a pure oxygen atmosphere was implicated in the Apollo 1 fire. As such, Mars habitats may have a need for additional gases. One possibility is to take nitrogen and argon from the atmosphere of Mars; however, they are hard to separate from each other. As a","-23.848820886400063"],["power levels suitable for driving. That September, Opportunity reached the rim of Victoria crater, and Spaceflight Now reported that NASA had extended mission for the two rovers through September 2007. On February 6, 2007, Opportunity became the first spacecraft to traverse ten kilometers (6.2 miles) on the surface of Mars.\nOpportunity was poised to enter Victoria Crater from its perch on the rim of Duck Bay on June 28, 2007, but due to extensive dust storms, it was delayed until the dust had cleared and power returned to safe levels. Two months later, Spirit and Opportunity resumed driving after hunkering down","-23.844989983015694"],["Mars 3 were physically tethered probes; Sojourner was dependent on the Mars Pathfinder base station for communication with Earth; MER-A & B and Curiosity were on their own. As of August 2019, Curiosity is still active, while Spirit, Opportunity, and Sojourner completed their missions before losing contact.","-23.832807274528022"],["on Mars, but given the recent Curiosity rover findings, past Martian life seems possible. Objectives The Mars 2020 rover will explore a site likely to have been habitable. It will seek signs of past life, set aside a returnable cache with the most compelling rock core and soil samples, and demonstrate technology needed for the future human and robotic exploration of Mars.\nA key mission requirement is that it must help prepare NASA for its long-term Mars sample-return mission and crewed mission efforts. The rover will make measurements and technology demonstrations to help designers of a future human expedition understand any","-23.80413962615421"],["telescopes. Even world class telescopes such as the Hale telescope, equipped with adaptive optics, did not detect the plume. The plume may have still occurred but at a small scale not detectable from Earth.\nBoth impacts were also monitored by Earth-based observatories and by orbital assets, such as the Hubble Space Telescope.\nWhether or not LCROSS would find water had been stated to be influential in whether or not the United States government pursues creating a Moon base. On November 13, 2009, NASA confirmed that water was detected after the Centaur impacted the crater. Spacecraft The LCROSS mission took advantage of the","-23.78027149211266"],["send NASA's major Mars rover, the Mars Science Laboratory. Holden Crater made the cut to be among the top four, although Gale Crater was chosen as the final landing site. Holden Crater is believed to have once been a lake.\nThe aim of the Mars Science Laboratory is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12 mile wide, smooth, flat circle is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once","-23.774535213364288"],["and 45° N, 164.5° E. Two others are in the Diacria quadrangle: 46.7° N, 176.8° E and 46.33° N, 176.9° E.\nThis discovery proves that future colonists on Mars will be able to obtain water from a wide variety of locations. The ice can be dug up, melted, then taken apart to provide fresh oxygen and hydrogen for rocket fuel. Hydrogen is the powerful fuel used by the space shuttle main engines. Rootless cones So-called \"Rootless cones\" are caused by explosions of lava with ground ice under the flow. The ice melts and turns into a vapor that expands in an","-23.760889179015066"],["Mars. Spacecraft exploration Numerous channels eroded into the flanks of the crater's central mound could give access to the layers for study. Gale is the landing site of the Curiosity rover, delivered by the Mars Science Laboratory spacecraft, which was launched 26 November 2011 and landed on Mars inside the crater Gale on the plains of Aeolis Palus on 6 August 2012. Gale was previously a candidate landing site for the 2003 Mars Exploration Rover mission, and has been one of four prospective sites for ESA's ExoMars.\nIn December 2012, scientists working on the Mars Science Laboratory mission announced that an extensive soil","-23.727796003979165"],["lies in that to launch the amount of consumables (oxygen, food and water) even a small crew would go through during a multi-year Mars mission, it would take a very large rocket with the vast majority of its own mass being propellant. This is where multiple launches and assembly in Earth orbit come from. However even if such a ship stocked full of goods could be put together in orbit, it would need an additional (large) supply of propellant to send it to Mars. The delta-v, or change in velocity, required to insert a spacecraft from Earth","-23.667757759685628"],["Mars rover A Mars rover is a motor vehicle that travels across the surface of the planet Mars upon arrival. Rovers have several advantages over stationary landers: they examine more territory, they can be directed to interesting features, they can place themselves in sunny positions to weather winter months, and they can advance the knowledge of how to perform very remote robotic vehicle control.\nThere have been four successful robotically operated Mars rovers, all managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory: Sojourner, Opportunity, Spirit and Curiosity. On January 24, 2016, NASA reported that current studies on Mars by Curiosity and Opportunity (the","-23.665850494755432"],["which land via an airbag-protected capsule, slowed by parachutes and retrorockets, and dropped from a height that allows rocket exhaust to avoid the surface. Mars Pathfinder's Sojourner rover and the Mars Exploration Rovers each used this landing technique successfully. The Phoenix Scout lander descended to the surface with retro-rockets, however, their fuel was hydrazine, and the end products of the plume (water, nitrogen, and ammonia) were not found to have affected the soils at the landing site. Future missions The question of life on Mars will probably not be resolved entirely until future missions to Mars either conclusively","-23.652110199269373"],["Uzboi-Landon-Morava The Uzboi-Landon-Morava (ULM) outflow system is a long series of channels and depressions that may have carried water across a major part of Mars. It starts with channels that drain into the Argyre basin in the Argyre quadrangle. Water ponded in the Argyre basin, then the overflow is believed to have traveled northward through Uzboi Vallis, into Landon basin, through Morava Valles, to the floor of Margaritfier basin. Some of the water may have helped to carve Ares Vallis. Altogether, the total area drained for this watershed may have been about 11 X 10⁶ km² or","-23.648613183991984"],["decomposition within the RCM. This waste gas is also used for gas bearings (dry lubrication) of all moving parts as well as the circulation controlled \"blowing\" of the wings for stability control and navigation. Mars entomopter Flight in the atmosphere of Mars is difficult. Aerial Mars rovers using a conventional fixed wing would have to fly at over 250 mph just to stay aloft in the rarefied Mars atmosphere. This makes landing on the rocky surface almost impossible, thereby precluding sample inspection/gathering. Also, the high speed flight means that dwell time on any particular area will be difficult—a negative feature that","-23.648400229634717"],["weeks.\nOn Mars, Hilder's allies are pressing Sankov to terminate all water exports to the Martian colony. When he hears from the returning Scavengers, Sankov signs. Two days later, the Scavengers land their ice-spacecraft in full view of the press, and Sankov announces that the fragment they brought holds 200 times the amount of water that Earth had been sending to Mars annually, and that if Earth cannot afford to lose any more water, the Martians will sell some of theirs. Long takes this situation as confirmation that Martians, instead of Terrestrials, shall colonize the remaining Solar System. Influence","-23.610819040623028"],["is a Mars rover under development by NASA with a launch planned for 2020. It is intended to investigate an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars, investigate its surface geological processes and history, including the assessment of its past habitability and potential for preservation of biosignatures within accessible geological materials.","-23.605477193603292"],["Spirit Mars rover and lander arrived successfully on the surface of Mars on 04:35 Ground UTC on January 4, 2004. This was the start of its 90-sol mission, but solar cell cleaning events would mean it was the start of a much longer mission, lasting until 2010. Landing site: Columbia Memorial Station Spirit was targeted to a site that appears to have been affected by liquid water in the past, the crater Gusev, a possible former lake in a giant impact crater about 10 km (6.2 mi) from the center of the target ellipse at 14.5718°S 175.4785°E.\nAfter the airbag-protected landing craft settled","-23.587862826272612"],["Mars 2020 Mission overview The mission will seek signs of habitable conditions on Mars in the ancient past, and will also search for evidence—or biosignatures—of past microbial life. The rover is planned for launch in 2020 on an Atlas V-541, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory will manage the mission. The mission is part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program.\nThe Science Definition Team proposed that the rover collect and package as many as 31 samples of rock cores and surface soil for a later mission to bring back for definitive analysis on Earth. In 2015 they expanded the concept, planning to","-23.576075019911514"],["on the Moon in 1977. The mission was canceled due to lack of launcher availability and funding, although the rover was built. Marsokhod The Marsokhod was a heavy Soviet rover (hybrid, with both controls telecommand and automatic) aimed at Mars, part of the Mars 4NM and scheduled to commence after 1973 (according to the plans of 1970). It was to be launched by a N1 rocket, which never flew successfully. Sojourner The Mars Pathfinder mission included Sojourner, the first rover to successfully deploy on another planet. NASA, the space agency of the United States, launched Mars Pathfinder","-23.546959898492787"],["is some indication that deltas may be concentrated around the edges of the putative former northern ocean of Mars. Groundwater By 1979 it was thought that outflow channels formed in single, catastrophic ruptures of subsurface water reservoirs, possibly sealed by ice, discharging colossal quantities of water across an otherwise arid Mars surface. In addition, evidence in favor of heavy or even catastrophic flooding is found in the giant ripples in the Athabasca Vallis. Many outflow channels begin at Chaos or Chasma features, providing evidence for the rupture that could have breached a subsurface ice seal.\nThe branching valley networks of Mars","-23.5371528310352"],["2012 UTC. It is larger and more advanced than the Mars Exploration Rovers, with a movement rate up to 90 m (300 ft) per hour. Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the make-up of rocks at a distance of 7 m (23 ft). On February 10, 2013, the Curiosity rover obtained the first deep rock samples ever taken from another planetary body, using its on-board drill. The same year, it discovered that Mars's soil contains between 1.5% and 3% water by mass (albeit attached to other compounds and thus not freely accessible). Observations by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter had previously revealed","-23.53683150501456"],["Telescope, along with instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different forms of water in Mars's atmosphere over a six-year period. Ice cap From observations with the Shallow Radar instrument (SHARAD) onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, researchers determined that the total volume of water ice in the northern ice cap is 821000 cubic kilometers. That is equal to 30% of the Earth's Greenland ice sheet, or enough to cover the surface of Mars to a depth of 5.6 meters Dunes Sand dunes have been found in many","-23.49670301313745"],["Swedish warship Mars Wreck location On 19 August 2011, it was announced that the shipwreck of Mars was possibly found by a team of divers, at a depth of 75 meters and around 18.5 kilometers north of Öland, after several years of research. Although not examined by archaeologists yet, in a statement by technical diver Richard Lundgren, it was announced that \"Everything suggests that it is indeed the Mars that we have found\".\nOn 1 November 2011, it was announced that the shipwreck had been confirmed to be Mars. According to Richard Lundgren, one of the divers who discovered the wreck,","-23.489692640665453"],["Phobos, along with the joint Chinese Yinghuo-1 Mars orbiter in November 2011, which went into Earth orbit successfully, but failed to launch to Mars. Mars Science Laboratory The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) (and Curiosity rover), launched in November 2011, landed on Aeolis Palus, between Peace Vallis and Aeolis Mons (\"Mount Sharp\"), in Gale Crater on Mars on 6 August 2012, 05:17 UTC. The landing site was in Quad 51 (\"Yellowknife\") of Aeolis Palus near the base of Aeolis Mons. The landing site was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the center of the rover's planned target site after a 563,000,000 km (350,000,000 mi)","-23.463736766774673"],["short moves straightforward totaling 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in). Adirondack was chosen over another rock called \"Sashimi\", which was closer to the rover, as Adirondack's surface was smoother, making it more suitable for the Rock Abrasion Tool (aka \"RAT\").\nSpirit made a small depression in the rock, 45.5 millimetres (1.79 in) in diameter and 2.65 millimetres (0.104 in) deep. Examination of the freshly exposed interior with the rover's microscopic imager and other instruments confirmed that the rock is volcanic basalt. Humphrey rock On March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed \"Humphrey\". Raymond Arvidson,","-23.43371599330567"],["Glenelg, Mars Glenelg, Mars (or Glenelg Intrigue) is a location on Mars near the Mars Science Laboratory (Curiosity rover) landing site (\"Bradbury Landing\") in Gale Crater marked by a natural intersection of three kinds of terrain. Name The location was named Glenelg by NASA scientists for two reasons: all features in the immediate vicinity were given names associated with Yellowknife in northern Canada, and Glenelg is the name of a geological feature there. Furthermore, the name is a palindrome, and as the Curiosity rover is planned to visit the location twice (once coming, and once going) this was an appealing","-23.416265331441537"],["have taken too long to drive the rovers using remote control. The rover was planned to be placed on the surface after landing by a manipulator arm and to move in the field of view of the television cameras and stop to make measurements every 1.5 meters. The rover tracks in the Martian soil would also have been recorded to determine material properties. Because of the crash landing of Mars 2 and the communication failure (15 seconds post landing) of Mars 3, neither rover was deployed. Lunokhod 3 The Soviet rover was intended to be the third roving remote-controlled robot","-23.4154190816771"],["much more zinc and bromine than we've typically seen. We are getting confirmation that reaching Endeavour really has given us the equivalent of a second landing site for Opportunity.\" (See also Cape York (Mars))\nIn December the Homestake formation was analyzed, which was concluded to be formed of gypsum. Using three of the rover's instruments - the Microscopic Imager, the Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer and the Panoramic Camera's filters - researchers determined the deposit to be hydrated calcium sulfate, or gypsum, a mineral that does not occur except in the presence of water. This discovery was called \"slam dunk\" evidence that","-23.393817058517016"],["twin, after traversing 21 km (13 mi) from Victoria crater, over a three-year period. Endeavour is 23 km (14 mi) wide and offers scientists new terrain to explore, including older rocks than encountered heretofore, and clay minerals that may have formed in the presence of water. The rover's deputy principal investigator, Ray Arvidson, said it will probably not enter Endeavour crater as it appears to contain material observed previously. The rocks on the rim are older than any previously studied by Opportunity. \"I think there's much more interest in driving around the perimeter of the rim,\" said Arvidson. The rover survived so long this","-23.387464981147787"],["had vaporized over the course of four days, strongly implying that the bright clumps were composed of water ice which sublimated following exposure. Even though dry ice also sublimates under the conditions present, it would do so at a rate much faster than observed.\nOn July 31, 2008, NASA announced that Phoenix confirmed the presence of water ice on Mars. During the initial heating cycle of a new sample, the Thermal and Evolved-Gas Analyzer's (TEGA) mass spectrometer detected water vapor when the sample temperature reached 0 °C.\nLiquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure, except","-23.384098643320613"],["Trace Gas Orbiter, launched on March 2016, will implement this approach and will focus on detection, characterization of spatial and temporal variation, and localization of sources for a broad suite of atmospheric trace gases on Mars and help determine if their formation is of biological or geological origin. The Mars Orbiter Mission is also attempting —since late 2014— to detect and map methane on Mars' atmosphere. A press commentary argued that, if there was life at the Viking lander sites, it may have been killed by the exhaust from the landing rockets. That is not a problem for missions","-23.37591123956372"],["to a Mars ascent vehicle (MAV). In July 2018 NASA contracted Airbus to produce a \"fetch rover\" concept. The MAV would launch from Mars and enter a 500 km orbit and rendezvous with a new Mars orbiter. The sample container would be transferred to an Earth entry vehicle (EEV) which would bring it to Earth, enter the atmosphere under a parachute and hard-land for retrieval and analyses in specially designed safe laboratories. Mission timeline The mission has a current launch window of 17 July to 5 August 2020, where the positions of Earth and Mars are optimal for traveling to Mars.","-23.344414449005853"],["imperative to prevent the introduction to Mars of contaminants from Earth; according to Fobos-Grunt Chief Designer Maksim Martynov, the probability of the probe accidentally reaching the surface of Mars was much lower than the maximum specified for Category III missions, the type assigned to Fobos-Grunt and defined in COSPAR's planetary protection policy (in accordance with Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty). On Phobos The planned landing site at Phobos was a region from 5°S to 5°N, 230° to 235°E. Soil sample collection would begin immediately after the lander touched down on Phobos, with collection lasting 2–7 days. An emergency mode","-23.31104545641574"],["silica-rich deposits on Mars, but taken together it was clear that further study of the region was needed. Following conjunction, NASA directed the Curiosity rover back to the area where the readings had been taken and discovered that large amounts of tridymite were present. How they were formed remains a mystery.","-23.310618486604653"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"were reported on Mount Sharp near the Curiosity rover. Overview Research indicates that in the past there was liquid water flowing on the surface of Mars, creating large areas similar to Earth's oceans. However, the question remains as to where the water has gone.\\nThe Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft launched in 2005 designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The spacecraft is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The HiRISE camera onboard the MRO is at the forefront of the ongoing RSL studies as it helps chart the features with images of closely\",\n \"-30.515422075637616\"\n ],\n [\n \"mission team members announced on 2 March that data returned from the rover showed that these rocks were once \\\"drenched in water\\\", and on 23 March that it was concluded that they were laid down underwater in a salty sea. This represented the first strong direct evidence for liquid water on Mars at some time in the past.\\nTowards the end of July 2005, it was reported by the Sunday Times that the rovers may have carried the bacteria Bacillus safensis to Mars. According to one NASA microbiologist, this bacteria could survive both the trip and conditions on Mars. A book\",\n \"-30.41106155552552\"\n ],\n [\n \"below the shallow surface. The ground truth for its measurements came on July 31, 2008, when NASA announced that the Phoenix lander confirmed the presence of water on Mars, as predicted in 2002 based on data from the Odyssey orbiter. The science team is trying to determine whether the water ice ever thaws enough to be available for microscopic life, and if carbon-containing chemicals and other raw materials for life are present.\\nThe orbiter also discovered vast deposits of bulk water ice near the surface of equatorial regions. Evidence for equatorial hydration is both morphological and compositional and is\",\n \"-28.503952241153456\"\n ],\n [\n \"the surface of Mars. Both have met and exceeded all their science objectives. Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites. Martian dust devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers' solar panels, and thus increased their lifespan. Spirit rover (MER-A) was active until 2010, when it stopped sending data because it got stuck in a sand dune and was unable to reorient itself to recharge its batteries.\\nOn 10 March 2006, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) probe arrived in orbit to conduct a\",\n \"-28.097242322051898\"\n ],\n [\n \"NASA on June 10 2018 and its mission was declared complete on February 13 2019.\\nThe Spirit rover landed in what was thought to be a huge lake bed. However, the lake bed had been covered over with lava flows, so evidence of past water was initially hard to detect. As the mission progressed and the Rover continued to move along the surface more and more clues to past water were found.\\nOn March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed \\\"Humphrey\\\". Raymond Arvidson, the McDonnell University Professor and chair of\",\n \"-28.03699558696826\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the planet once harbored water.\\nThe Opportunity rover was directed to a site that had displayed large amounts of hematite from orbit. Hematite often forms from water. The rover indeed found layered rocks and marble- or blueberry-like hematite concretions. Elsewhere on its traverse, Opportunity investigated aeolian dune stratigraphy in Burns Cliff in Endurance Crater. Its operators concluded that the preservation and cementation of these outcrops had been controlled by flow of shallow groundwater. In its years of continuous operation, Opportunity sent back evidence that this area on Mars was soaked in liquid water in the past.\\nThe MER rovers found evidence\",\n \"-27.97918299259618\"\n ],\n [\n \"nature, and compositional and microscopic-imagery analysis showed this to be primarily with composition of Jarosite, a ferrous sulfate mineral that is characteristically an evaporite that is the residue from the evaporation of a salty pond or sea.\\nThe mission has provided substantial evidence of past water activity on Mars. In addition to investigating the \\\"water hypothesis\\\", Opportunity has also obtained astronomical observations and atmospheric data.\\nThe extended mission took the rover across the plains to a series of larger craters in the south, with the arrival at the edge of a 25-km diameter crater, Endeavour Crater, eight years after landing. The orbital\",\n \"-27.93880034436006\"\n ],\n [\n \"Water is close to its boiling point even at the deepest points in the Hellas basin, and so cannot remain liquid for long on the surface of Mars in its present state, except after a sudden release of underground water.\\nSo far, NASA has pursued a \\\"follow the water\\\" strategy on Mars and has not searched for biosignatures for life there directly since the Viking missions. The consensus by astrobiologists is that it may be necessary to access the Martian subsurface to find currently habitable environments. Cosmic radiation In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe discovered that Mars had no global magnetic\",\n \"-27.76016480906401\"\n ],\n [\n \"been instrumental in answering key questions about water's abundance and distribution on Mars. The ESA's Mars Express orbiter has also provided essential data in this quest. The Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, MRO, and Mars Science Lander Curiosity rover are still sending back data from Mars, and discoveries continue to be made. Historical background The notion of water on Mars preceded the space age by hundreds of years. Early telescopic observers correctly assumed that the white polar caps and clouds were indications of water's presence. These observations, coupled with the fact that Mars has a 24-hour day, led astronomer William Herschel\",\n \"-27.589805440802593\"\n ],\n [\n \"9 orbiter. Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars. Other features in Eridania quadrangle File:ESP 055104 1385pyramid.jpg|Layered feature in a crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program\",\n \"-27.388097031856887\"\n ],\n [\n \"is hypothesized to be the result of a flow of ground water, either before the deposition of the eroded sediments or else in relatively recent geologic history.\\nAccording to NASA, an estimated 20,000 to 40,000 heat-resistant bacterial spores were on Curiosity at launch, and as much as 1,000 times that number may not have been counted. Rover's role in the landing system Previous NASA Mars rovers became active only after the successful entry, descent and landing on the Martian surface. Curiosity, on the other hand, was active when it touched down on the surface of Mars, employing the rover suspension system\",\n \"-27.36861899041105\"\n ],\n [\n \"to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. In 2002, it was announced that the probe's gamma-ray spectrometer and neutron spectrometer had detected large amounts of hydrogen, indicating that there are vast deposits of water ice in the upper three meters of Mars' soil within 60° latitude of the south pole.\\nOn June 2, 2003, the European Space Agency's Mars Express set off from Baikonur Cosmodrome to Mars. The Mars Express craft consists of the Mars Express Orbiter and the stationary lander Beagle 2. The lander carried a digging device and the smallest mass spectrometer\",\n \"-26.704478799627395\"\n ],\n [\n \" To bring the craft down safely, a 12-mile wide, smooth, flat circle was needed. Geologists hoped to examine places where water once ponded, and to examine its sediment layers. The site eventually settled on for the Mars Science Laboratory was Gale Crater in the Aeolis quadrangle, and a successful landing took place there in 2012. The rover is still operational as of early 2019. NASA scientists believe Gale Crater’s floor rocks are indeed sedimentary, formed in pooled water. Kasei Valles One of the most significant features of the Lunae Palus region, Kasei Valles, is one of\",\n \"-26.620605552219786\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mars, when probes were first sent to Mars. The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Space craft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Some valles on Mars (Mangala Vallis, Athabasca Vallis, Granicus Vallis, and Tinjar Valles) clearly begin at graben. On the other hand, some of the large outflow channels begin in rubble-filled low areas called chaos or chaotic terrain. It has been suggested that massive\",\n \"-26.447175287758\"\n ],\n [\n \"This represents a great deal of frozen water. It would be equal to 200 meters of water spread over the entire planet, if one assumes 20% pore space.\\nThe Phoenix lander confirmed the existence of large amounts of water ice in the northern regions of Mars. This finding was predicted by theory and was measured from orbit by the Mars Odyssey instruments, so the idea that rampart crater size shows the depth to ice was confirmed by other space probes. The image below from the Phoenix lander shows ice that was exposed by the descent engines.\\nThey are normally\",\n \"-26.34527930830518\"\n ],\n [\n \"from Mars. Some of them contain evidence that they were exposed to water when on Mars. Some Martian meteorites called basaltic shergottites, appear (from the presence of hydrated carbonates and sulfates) to have been exposed to liquid water prior to ejection into space. It has been shown that another class of meteorites, the nakhlites, were suffused with liquid water around 620 million years ago and that they were ejected from Mars around 10.75 million years ago by an asteroid impact. They fell to Earth within the last 10,000 years. Martian meteorite NWA 7034 has one order of magnitude more water than most\",\n \"-26.194130705902353\"\n ],\n [\n \"to Mars, but with the length of the journey, the crew decide that the only way to get home is to find water on Mars.\\nThankfully, MR4 has landed within a hundred miles of the polar ice cap so the group set off, Brown too, believing there to be life on Mars. Encountering Lichens, crevasses and other perils, Brown is devastated when he discovers no intelligent life and feels cheated by the others. In doing so, he intends to leave the others behind on the planet. However, lichens manage to infiltrate MR4, stopping Brown and giving the Rocket crew a chance\",\n \"-26.076035804115236\"\n ],\n [\n \"locations could occur kilometers below the surface in a hypothetical hydrosphere, or it could occur near the sub-surface in contact with permafrost.\\nThe Curiosity rover is assessing Mars' past and present habitability potential. The European-Russian ExoMars programme is an astrobiology project dedicated to the search for and identification of biosignatures on Mars. It includes the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter that started mapping the atmospheric methane in April 2018, and the 2020 ExoMars rover that will drill and analyze subsurface samples 2 meters deep. NASA's Mars 2020 rover will cache dozens of drilled core samples for their potential transport to Earth laboratories\",\n \"-25.970414801995503\"\n ],\n [\n \"its website. (On Monday [September 28, 2015], scientists announced that signs of liquid water could be seen in photographs taken on Mars by a camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, timing that suggests NASA certainly has the whole cross-promotion thing down.)\\\" Jim Erickson, NASA project manager, said the film would show moviegoers \\\"the risks and rewards\\\" of humans traveling to Mars.\\nIn October 2015, NASA presented a new web tool to follow Watney's trek across Mars and details of NASA's next steps, as well as a health hazards report for a real-world human journey to Mars. Marketing 20th Century Fox launched\",\n \"-25.941035564879712\"\n ],\n [\n \"and sampling rocks around it. Newspapers around the world carried images of the lander dispatching the rover to explore the surface of Mars in a way never achieved before.\\nUntil the final data transmission on 27 September 1997, Mars Pathfinder returned 16,500 images from the lander and 550 images from the rover, as well as more than 15 chemical analyses of rocks and soil and extensive data on winds and other weather factors. Findings from the investigations carried out by scientific instruments on both the lander and the rover suggest that Mars was at one time in its past warm and\",\n \"-25.904858383117244\"\n ],\n [\n \"that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. River valleys observed by Viking orbiters The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars. Huge river valleys were found in many areas. They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Mars Science Laboratory Hypanis Vallis, in the Lunae Palus quadrangle, was one of the sites proposed as a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory, popularly known as the Mars Curiosity\",\n \"-25.84960554225836\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the locations they studied all had water activity, aw ≤ 0.78 to 0.86—a level fatal to most Terrestrial life. Haloarchaea, however, are able to live in hypersaline solutions, up to the saturation point.\\nIn June 2000, possible evidence for current liquid water flowing at the surface of Mars was discovered in the form of flood-like gullies. Additional similar images were published in 2006, taken by the Mars Global Surveyor, that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars. The images showed changes in steep crater walls and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water coursed\",\n \"-25.664471334050177\"\n ],\n [\n \"protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic rays. The probe was able to calculate the atmospheric pressure on the planet to be about 0.6 kPa (compared to Earth's 101.3 kPa), meaning that liquid water could not exist on the planet's surface. After Mariner 4, the search for life on Mars changed to a search for bacteria-like living organisms rather than for multicellular organisms, as the environment was clearly too harsh for these.]]. Viking orbiters Liquid water is necessary for known life and metabolism, so if water was present on Mars, the chances of it having supported life may have been\",\n \"-25.622810366170597\"\n ],\n [\n \"all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.\",\n \"-25.60288612858858\"\n ],\n [\n \"screen of TEGA. On June 17, it was announced that no water was found in this sample; however, since it had been exposed to the atmosphere for several days prior to entering the oven, any initial water ice it might have contained could have been lost via sublimation. Mars Descent Imager The Mars Descent Imager (MARDI) was intended to take pictures of the landing site during the last three minutes of descent. As originally planned, it would have begun taking pictures after the aeroshell departed, about 8 km above the Martian soil. Before launch, testing of the assembled spacecraft uncovered a\",\n \"-25.481256361177657\"\n ],\n [\n \"of a sample, the mass spectrometer detected water vapor when the sample temperature reached 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K). Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure and temperature, except at the lowest elevations for short periods.\\nPerchlorate (ClO₄), a strong oxidizer, was confirmed to be in the soil. The chemical, when mixed with water, can lower the water freezing point in a manner similar to how salt is applied to roads to melt ice.\\nWhen Phoenix landed, the retrorockets splashed soil and melted ice onto the vehicle. Photographs showed the landing had left blobs of material\",\n \"-25.418217888800427\"\n ],\n [\n \"goal was accomplished, and by 2016 it was decided to not only enter Endevaour crater but also explore, for the first time in history what is thought to be a water carved gully on Mars (update:2016).\\nUpon arriving at Endeavour, Opportunity almost immediately began discovering Martian phenomena not previously observed. On sol 2692 (August 22, 2011) the rover began examining Tisdale 2, a large ejecta block. \\\"This is different from any rock ever seen on Mars,\\\" said Steve Squyres, principal investigator for Opportunity at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. \\\"It has a composition similar to some volcanic rocks, but there's\",\n \"-25.384429830804947\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the locations are in the Cebrenia quadrangle. These locations are 55.57° N, 150.62° E; 43.28° N, 176.9° E; and 45° N, 164.5° E. Two others are in the Diacria quadrangle: 46.7° N, 176.8° E and 46.33° N, 176.9° E.\\nThis discovery proves that future colonists on Mars will be able to obtain water from a wide variety of locations. The ice can be dug up, melted, then taken apart to provide fresh oxygen and hydrogen for rocket fuel. Hydrogen is the powerful fuel used by the space shuttle main engines. Curiosity In 2012, the NASA's rover Curiosity discovered solid evidence\",\n \"-25.337120247946586\"\n ],\n [\n \"Aureum Chaos. Clay minerals need water to form, so the area may once have contained large amounts of water. Scientists are interested in determining what parts of Mars contained water because evidence of past or present life may be found there.\\nOn April 1, 2010, NASA released the first images under the HiWish program, with the public suggesting places for HiRISE to photograph. One of the eight locations was Aureum Chaos. The first image below gives a wide view of the area. The next two images are from the HiRISE image. Layers Many places on Mars show\",\n \"-25.306040140010737\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\\nThis international team used ESO’s Very Large Telescope, along with instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different forms of water in Mars’s atmosphere over a\",\n \"-25.294223768636584\"\n ],\n [\n \"flow\\\" of water on Mars. In particular, analysis of the now dry streambed indicated that the water ran at 3.3 km/h (0.92 m/s), possibly at hip-depth. Proof of running water came in the form of rounded pebbles and gravel fragments that could have only been weathered by strong liquid currents. Their shape and orientation suggests long-distance transport from above the rim of the crater, where a channel named Peace Vallis feeds into the alluvial fan.\\nEridania Lake is a theorized ancient lake with a surface area of roughly 1.1 million square kilometers. Its maximum depth is 2,400 meters and its volume is 562,000 km³. It\",\n \"-25.277043281275837\"\n ],\n [\n \"which Mars Orbiter Camera images show contain gullies: Dao Vallis and Reull Vallis. These gullies are also low enough for liquid water to be transient around Martian noon, if the temperature were to rise above 0 Celsius.\\nHellas Planitia is antipodal to Alba Patera. It and the somewhat smaller Isidis Planitia together are roughly antipodal to the Tharsis Bulge, with its enormous shield volcanoes, while Argyre Planitia is roughly antipodal to Elysium, the other major uplifted region of shield volcanoes on Mars. Whether the shield volcanoes were caused by antipodal impacts like that which produced Hellas, or if it is mere\",\n \"-25.265605645399773\"\n ],\n [\n \"Exploration of Mars Current status On June 10, 2018, Opportunity rover fell silent, leaving Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory mission with six orbiters surveying the planet: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, MAVEN, and the Trace Gas Orbiter, which have contributed massive amounts of information about Mars. The stationary lander InSight is investigating the deep interior of Mars. No sample return missions have been attempted for Mars and an attempted return mission for Mars' moon Phobos (Fobos-Grunt) failed in 2011.\\nFive more missions are in the late stages of development and fabrication, and will be launched\",\n \"-25.2350283291089\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mars in the Ares 4 MAV. While working on the rover, Watney accidentally shorts out the electronics of Pathfinder, losing the ability to communicate with Earth (except for spelling out Morse code with rocks).\\nAfter Watney leaves for Schiaparelli, NASA discovers that a dust storm is approaching his path, but has no way to warn him. The rover's solar cells will be less and less able to recharge, endangering both the rendezvous and his immediate survival (if there is not enough power to run his life-support equipment). While crossing Arabia Terra, Watney becomes aware of the darkening sky and improvises a\",\n \"-25.19218559685396\"\n ],\n [\n \"just reduced shipments of water to Mars, putting the Scavengers out of work. When Hamish Sankov, the head of the Martian colony, learns of Hilder's plan to desist all water shipments to Mars, he authorizes Long's plan to travel to Saturn and tow a fragment of ice from the rings to Mars.\\nA fleet of 25 Scavenger ships makes the trip. Reaching the rings, the Scavengers choose a fragment approximately one cubic mile in volume, carve it into a rough cylinder, embed their spaceships in it, and fly it back to Mars, using the fragment's ice as reaction mass, in five\",\n \"-25.163959997182246\"\n ],\n [\n \"the possibility of flowing water during the warmest months on Mars.\\nOn September 24, 2014, Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation, reached Mars orbit. ISRO launched MOM on November 5, 2013, with the aim of analyzing the Martian atmosphere and topography. The Mars Orbiter Mission used a Hohmann transfer orbit to escape Earth's gravitational influence and catapult into a nine-month-long voyage to Mars. The mission is the first successful Asian interplanetary mission.\\nThe European Space Agency, in collaboration with Roscosmos, launched the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter and Schiaparelli lander on March 14, 2016. While the Trace Gas\",\n \"-25.12305942212697\"\n ],\n [\n \"Phoenix (spacecraft) History While the proposal for Phoenix was being written, the Mars Odyssey Orbiter used its gamma-ray spectrometer and found the distinctive signature of hydrogen on some areas of the Martian surface, and the only plausible source of hydrogen on Mars would be water in the form of ice, frozen below the surface. The mission was therefore funded on the expectation that Phoenix would find water ice on the arctic plains of Mars. In August 2003 NASA selected the University of Arizona \\\"Phoenix\\\" mission for launch in 2007. It was hoped this would be the first in a new\",\n \"-25.09565232641762\"\n ],\n [\n \"probability but cannot yet be ruled out.\\nThere are no immediate plans for a Mars sample-return, but it remains a high priority for NASA and the ESA because of its great potential biological and geological interest. The European Space Foundation report cites many advantages of a Mars sample-return. In particular, it would permit extensive analyses on Earth, without the size and weight constraints for instruments sent to Mars on rovers. These analyses could also be carried out without the communication delays for experiments carried out by Martian rovers. It would also make it possible to repeat experiments in multiple laboratories with\",\n \"-25.07774859596975\"\n ],\n [\n \"from large amounts of water, the two Viking orbiters and the two landers caused a revolution in our knowledge about water on Mars. Huge outflow channels were found in many areas. They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Large areas in the southern hemisphere contained branched valley networks, suggesting that rain once fell. Many craters look as if the impactor fell into mud. When they were formed, ice in the soil may have melted, turned the ground into mud, then the mud flowed across the surface.\",\n \"-25.00848959220457\"\n ],\n [\n \" Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars. Pedestal craters A pedestal crater is a crater with its ejecta sitting above the surrounding terrain and thereby forming a raised platform (like a pedestal). They form when an impact crater ejects material which forms an erosion-resistant layer, thus causing the immediate area to erode more slowly than the rest of\",\n \"-24.99717046227306\"\n ],\n [\n \"southwest.\\nA primary aim of the Mars 2020 mission is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12-mile (20 km) wide, smooth, flat circular area is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded. They would like to examine sediment layers.\\nIn November 2018, Jezero crater was selected as the planned landing site for the Mars 2020 rover mission.\",\n \"-24.96415685606189\"\n ],\n [\n \"search for a \\\"habitable zone\\\" in the Martian regolith where microbial life could exist, the other main goal being to study the geological history of water on Mars. The lander has a 2.5 meter robotic arm that was capable of digging shallow trenches in the regolith. There was an electrochemistry experiment which analysed the ions in the regolith and the amount and type of antioxidants on Mars. The Viking program data indicate that oxidants on Mars may vary with latitude, noting that Viking 2 saw fewer oxidants than Viking 1 in its more northerly position. Phoenix landed further north still.\\nPhoenix's\",\n \"-24.936927577480674\"\n ],\n [\n \"landed on Mars to explore the Martian surface and geology, and searched for clues to past water activity on Mars. They were each launched in 2003 and landed in 2004. Communication with Spirit stopped on sol 2210 (March 22, 2010). JPL continued to attempt to regain contact until May 24, 2011, when NASA announced that efforts to communicate with the unresponsive rover had ended. Opportunity arrived at Endeavour crater on 9 August 2011, at a landmark called Spirit Point named after its rover twin, after traversing 13 miles (21 km) from Victoria crater, over a three-year period. After a planet\",\n \"-24.878222655032005\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"water flowed through underground fractures in the rock.\\\"\\nOpportunity had driven more than 34 km (21 mi) by November 22, 2011 (sol 2783), as preparations were made for the coming Martian winter. It moved to terrain that positioned it about 15 degrees to the north, an angle more favorable for solar energy production during the Martian winter. Greeley Haven In January 2012 the rover returned data from Greeley Haven, named after the geologist Ronald Greeley, while enduring its fifth Martian winter. It studied the Martian wind, which has been described as \\\"the most active process on Mars today\\\", and conducted a radio science\",\n \"-24.816939612239366\"\n ],\n [\n \"some morphological features of the surface, such as the so-called Recurrent Slope Lineae (RSLs). In addition, the discovery has posed the necessity for taking special precautions to avoid biological contamination of the planet with terrestrial organisms carried on board the spacecrafts to be sent in the next missions, since the availability of liquid water multiply the possibilities for them to survive and thrive in certain places. Finally, water can be a valuable in-situ resource at the disposal of a crew which is eventually sent to Mars someday.\\nHowever, the brines themselves have not been monitored yet, and a quantification of the\",\n \"-24.685435506515205\"\n ],\n [\n \"able to collect samples down to a depth of 2 metres (6.6 ft), away from the destructive radiation that bathes the surface. Mars 2020 Rover The Mars 2020 rover, planned to launch in 2020, is intended to investigate an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars, investigate its surface geological processes and history, including the assessment of its past habitability, the possibility of past life on Mars, and potential for preservation of biosignatures within accessible geological materials. In addition, it will cache the most interesting samples for possible future transport to Earth. Titan Dragonfly NASA's Dragonfly lander/aircraft concept is proposed to launch\",\n \"-24.670611054927576\"\n ],\n [\n \"panoramas of the surrounding region. Research on data from Mars orbiters identified interesting minerals on the outcrop. Some communication and difficulties the previous month delayed investigating these rocks, but on the positive side, the wait, along with a cleaning event over January 1, allowed for more electrical power to be available. The rover is tilted towards the Sun to help it get more power, and it is expected that it can remain active during the Martian winter. Pinnacle Island On January 17, NASA reported that a rock, named \\\"Pinnacle Island\\\", that was not in a rover image taken on Sol\",\n \"-24.65921690851792\"\n ],\n [\n \"This rock outcrop, along with several others further eastward, including \\\"Link\\\" and \\\"Hottah\\\", suggest the \\\"vigorous\\\" flow of water in an ancient streambed.\\nAn area of top scientific interest for Curiosity lies at the edge of the landing ellipse and beyond a dark dune field. Here, orbiting instruments have detected signatures of both clay minerals and sulfate salts. Scientists studying Mars have several hypotheses about how these minerals reflect changes in the Martian environment, particularly changes in the amount of water on the surface of Mars. The rover will use its full instrument suite to study these minerals and how they\",\n \"-24.6555934427779\"\n ],\n [\n \"Scalloped topography Detection of underground ice On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.\\nThe calculations for the volume of water ice in the region were based on measurements from the ground-penetrating radar instrument on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, called SHARAD.\\nFrom the data obtained from SHARAD, dielectric permittivity, or the dielectric constant was determined. That was found from the amount of penetration of the radar to a reflector at the bottom\",\n \"-24.622332589002326\"\n ],\n [\n \"is for Opportunity to reach Solander Point before winter reaches the Martian southern hemisphere as the area has ground tilted to the north allowing the rover to stay active during the winter months. In addition Solander Point has a large geological stack for Opportunity to explore.\\nIn April 2013, the rover passed through a three-week-long solar conjunction, when communication with Earth was blocked because of the Sun. The rover arm was positioned on a rock during that time so the APXS could collect data.\\nOn May 16, 2013, NASA announced that Opportunity had driven further than any other NASA vehicle on a\",\n \"-24.615450821467675\"\n ],\n [\n \"hundred meters from the rover, and is the location of the suspected fluid-carved, possibly water, gullies that have never been investigated from the surface before. One of the MER-B goals is to drive down to this gully and examine it. Imaging Schiaparelli's descent In October 2016 the ESA Schiaparelli lander attempted to land near Endeavour crater, and the two teams worked together for Opportunity to possibly image the lander during its descent. Opportunity did take pictures of the area of the sky the lander was coming down in although the lander was not identified at that time; the nature of\",\n \"-24.608207671059063\"\n ],\n [\n \"neared the surface, huge amounts would break out of the ground and carve the valleys we see today. There is much evidence for an ocean on Mars. Places have been photographed that could be where the ground collapsed when water left an subterranean rivers to flow out of chaotic regions. One of the first theories for the source of the water was based on old Viking Orbiter pictures. It was thought that these outflows came from a global cryosphere-confined aquifer that collected water from south polar meltwater. The cryosphere would have formed during the Hesperian\",\n \"-24.560813009971753\"\n ],\n [\n \"soil beneath the dusty surface.\\nThe orbiter entered Mars orbit on 25 December 2003, and Beagle 2 should have entered Mars' atmosphere the same day. However, attempts to contact the lander failed. Communications attempts continued throughout January, but Beagle 2 was declared lost in mid-February, and a joint inquiry was launched by the UK and ESA that blamed principal investigator Colin Pillinger's poor project management. Nevertheless, Mars Express Orbiter confirmed the presence of water ice and carbon dioxide ice at the planet's south pole. NASA had previously confirmed their presence at the north pole of Mars.\\nSigns of the Beagle 2 lander\",\n \"-24.527286483484204\"\n ],\n [\n \"effort would require three additional vehicles: an orbiter, a fetch rover, and a Mars ascent vehicle (MAV). NASA proposals In September 2012, NASA announced its intention to further study several strategies of bringing a sample of Mars to Earth – including a multiple launch scenario, a single-launch scenario and a multiple-rover scenario – for a mission beginning as early as 2018.\\nDozens of samples would be collected and cached by the Mars 2020 rover, and would be left on the surface of Mars for possible later retrieval. A \\\"fetch rover\\\" would retrieve the sample caches and deliver them to a Mars\",\n \"-24.284169265360106\"\n ],\n [\n \"It is also one of several proposed landing sites for the Mars 2020 Rover.\\nHolden and Eberswalde, craters in Margaritifer Terra, are thought to have formerly held lakes because they contain deltas and iron/magnesium smectite minerals which need water to form. The Uzboi-Landon-Morava (ULM) system of paths for water flow is found in Margaritifer Terra.\\nMargaritifer Terra was named in 1979, after the Pearl Coast, south India. Part of it is found in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle and part in the Oxia Palus quadrangle. Layers Some of the images from this region display layers. Many places on Mars show\",\n \"-24.282131499843672\"\n ],\n [\n \"January 2004. It examined rock and soil for evidence of the area's history of water. On 7 July 2003, a second rover, MER-B (Opportunity) was launched. It landed on 24 January 2004 in Meridiani Planum (where there are large deposits of hematite, indicating the presence of past water) to carry out similar geological work.\\nDespite a temporary loss of communication with the Spirit Rover (caused by a file system anomaly ) delaying exploration for several days, both rovers eventually began exploring their landing sites. The rover Opportunity landed in a particularly interesting spot, a crater with bedrock outcroppings. In fast succession,\",\n \"-24.269511322770995\"\n ],\n [\n \"(CRISM) on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). The ice was found in a total of 5 locations. One of the locations (Site 5) is in the Diacria quadrangle at about 46° N, 182° E (Arcadia Planitia).\\nThis discovery is significant because it shows the presence of subsurface ice at latitudes further south than expected and proves that future colonists on Mars will be able to obtain water from a wide variety of locations. The ice can be dug up, melted, and then taken apart to provide fresh oxygen and hydrogen for rocket fuel. Hydrogen is the\",\n \"-24.266869774408406\"\n ],\n [\n \"NASA announced that the LCROSS mission had discovered large quantities of water ice on the Moon around the LCROSS impact site at Cabeus. Robert Zubrin, president of the Mars Society, relativized the term 'large': \\\"The 30 m crater ejected by the probe contained 10 million kilograms of regolith. Within this ejecta, an estimated 100 kg of water was detected. That represents a proportion of ten parts per million, which is a lower water concentration than that found in the soil of the driest deserts of the Earth. In contrast, we have found continent sized regions on Mars, which are 600,000 parts per million,\",\n \"-24.258128467481583\"\n ],\n [\n \"the entire mission. The Rover was similar in size to the two NASA rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) that successfully landed on Mars in January 2004, and had similar mobility functionality.\\nThe Scouts were to act as remote extensions of the main Rover craft, and contained power systems, video cameras and limited local communication systems that could only communicate directly with the Rover. The Scouts were about six by twelve inches and were deployed from the Rover after the Rover performed a soft landing on the surface of the Moon. The Scouts could be used in a reconnaissance function\",\n \"-24.184774024703074\"\n ],\n [\n \"identified 55 important future science investigations related to the exploration of Mars. In 2008, they concluded that about half\\nof the investigations \\\"could be addressed to one degree or another by MSR\\\", making MSR \\\"the single mission that would make the most progress towards the entire list\\\" of investigations. Moreover, it was found that a significant fraction of the investigations cannot be meaningfully advanced without returned samples.\\nOne source of Mars samples is what are thought to be Martian meteorites, which are rocks ejected from Mars that made their way to Earth. Of over 61,000 meteorites that have been found on Earth,\",\n \"-24.16809953984921\"\n ],\n [\n \"Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) is a visible-infrared spectrometer aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter searching for mineralogic indications of past and present water on Mars. The CRISM instrument team comprises scientists from over ten universities and led by principal investigator Scott Murchie. CRISM was designed, built, and tested by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. Objectives CRISM is being used to identify locations on Mars that may have hosted water, a solvent considered important in the search for past or present life on Mars. In order to\",\n \"-24.05945950144087\"\n ],\n [\n \"at the surface of Mars. In May 2009, the Spirit rover became stuck when it drove over a patch of soft ferric sulfate that had been hidden under a veneer of normal-looking soil.\\nBecause iron sulfate has very little cohesion, the rover's wheels could not gain sufficient traction to pull the body of the rover out of the iron sulfate patch. Multiple techniques were attempted to extricate the rover, but the wheels eventually sank so deeply into the iron sulfate that the body of the rover came to rest on the martian surface, preventing the wheels from exerting any force on\",\n \"-24.03484878386371\"\n ],\n [\n \"liquid water on the Martian surface. A delegation of scientists showed pictures and data revealing a stratified pattern and cross bedding in the rocks of the outcrop inside a crater in Meridiani Planum, landing site of MER-B, Opportunity. This suggested that water once flowed in the region. The irregular distribution of chlorine and bromine also suggests that the place was once the shoreline of a salty sea, now evaporated.\\nOn April 8, 2004, NASA announced that it was extending the mission life of the rovers from three to eight months. It immediately provided additional funding of US$15 million through September, and $2.8 million\",\n \"-23.99791254212505\"\n ],\n [\n \"Martian surface geology. The mission's scientific objective was to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission was part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program, which includes three previous successful landers: the two Viking program landers in 1976; and Mars Pathfinder probe in 1997. Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The US$720 million spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, launched August 12, 2005,\",\n \"-23.98020985831681\"\n ],\n [\n \"the mystery of Mars' missing water. All of the instruments take measurements of the surface, atmosphere and interplanetary media, from the main spacecraft in polar orbit, which will allow it to gradually cover the whole planet.\\nThe total initial Mars Express budget excluding the lander was €150 million. The prime contractor for the construction of Mars Express orbiter was EADS Astrium Satellites. Launch The spacecraft was launched on June 2, 2003 at 23:45 local time (17:45 UT, 1:45 p.m. EDT) from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, using a Soyuz-FG/Fregat rocket. The Mars Express and Fregat booster were initially put into a 200 km Earth\",\n \"-23.974154701725638\"\n ],\n [\n \"the nightside ionosphere on Mars. Mars 7 probe separated prematurely from the carrying vehicle due to a problem in the operation of one of the onboard systems (attitude control or retro-rockets) and missed the planet by 1,300 kilometres (8.7×10⁻⁶ au). Mariner program In 1964, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory made two attempts at reaching Mars. Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were identical spacecraft designed to carry out the first flybys of Mars. Mariner 3 was launched on November 5, 1964, but the shroud encasing the spacecraft atop its rocket failed to open properly, dooming the mission. Three weeks later, on November 28,\",\n \"-23.965000368101755\"\n ],\n [\n \"were found in 2013 by the HiRISE camera on NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the Beagle 2's presence confirmed in January 2015, several months after Pillinger's death. The lander appears to have successfully landed but not deployed all of its power and communications panels. Mars Exploration Rovers Shortly after the launch of Mars Express, NASA sent a pair of twin rovers toward the planet as part of the Mars Exploration Rover mission. On 10 June 2003, NASA's MER-A (Spirit) Mars Exploration Rover was launched. It successfully landed in Gusev Crater (believed once to have been a crater lake) on 3\",\n \"-23.918939180090092\"\n ],\n [\n \"its drawbacks. Human Exploration of Mars Argox, or half-Argox/half-Nitrox is a possible Oxygen mixture for Human exploration of Mars due to the relative abundance of Argon in the Martian atmosphere. The Martian atmosphere is composed of approximately: 95% CO2, 1.9% Argon, 1.9% Nitrogen. While it is possible for humans to breathe pure oxygen, a pure oxygen atmosphere was implicated in the Apollo 1 fire. As such, Mars habitats may have a need for additional gases. One possibility is to take nitrogen and argon from the atmosphere of Mars; however, they are hard to separate from each other. As a\",\n \"-23.848820886400063\"\n ],\n [\n \"power levels suitable for driving. That September, Opportunity reached the rim of Victoria crater, and Spaceflight Now reported that NASA had extended mission for the two rovers through September 2007. On February 6, 2007, Opportunity became the first spacecraft to traverse ten kilometers (6.2 miles) on the surface of Mars.\\nOpportunity was poised to enter Victoria Crater from its perch on the rim of Duck Bay on June 28, 2007, but due to extensive dust storms, it was delayed until the dust had cleared and power returned to safe levels. Two months later, Spirit and Opportunity resumed driving after hunkering down\",\n \"-23.844989983015694\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mars 3 were physically tethered probes; Sojourner was dependent on the Mars Pathfinder base station for communication with Earth; MER-A & B and Curiosity were on their own. As of August 2019, Curiosity is still active, while Spirit, Opportunity, and Sojourner completed their missions before losing contact.\",\n \"-23.832807274528022\"\n ],\n [\n \"on Mars, but given the recent Curiosity rover findings, past Martian life seems possible. Objectives The Mars 2020 rover will explore a site likely to have been habitable. It will seek signs of past life, set aside a returnable cache with the most compelling rock core and soil samples, and demonstrate technology needed for the future human and robotic exploration of Mars.\\nA key mission requirement is that it must help prepare NASA for its long-term Mars sample-return mission and crewed mission efforts. The rover will make measurements and technology demonstrations to help designers of a future human expedition understand any\",\n \"-23.80413962615421\"\n ],\n [\n \"telescopes. Even world class telescopes such as the Hale telescope, equipped with adaptive optics, did not detect the plume. The plume may have still occurred but at a small scale not detectable from Earth.\\nBoth impacts were also monitored by Earth-based observatories and by orbital assets, such as the Hubble Space Telescope.\\nWhether or not LCROSS would find water had been stated to be influential in whether or not the United States government pursues creating a Moon base. On November 13, 2009, NASA confirmed that water was detected after the Centaur impacted the crater. Spacecraft The LCROSS mission took advantage of the\",\n \"-23.78027149211266\"\n ],\n [\n \"send NASA's major Mars rover, the Mars Science Laboratory. Holden Crater made the cut to be among the top four, although Gale Crater was chosen as the final landing site. Holden Crater is believed to have once been a lake.\\nThe aim of the Mars Science Laboratory is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12 mile wide, smooth, flat circle is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once\",\n \"-23.774535213364288\"\n ],\n [\n \"and 45° N, 164.5° E. Two others are in the Diacria quadrangle: 46.7° N, 176.8° E and 46.33° N, 176.9° E.\\nThis discovery proves that future colonists on Mars will be able to obtain water from a wide variety of locations. The ice can be dug up, melted, then taken apart to provide fresh oxygen and hydrogen for rocket fuel. Hydrogen is the powerful fuel used by the space shuttle main engines. Rootless cones So-called \\\"Rootless cones\\\" are caused by explosions of lava with ground ice under the flow. The ice melts and turns into a vapor that expands in an\",\n \"-23.760889179015066\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mars. Spacecraft exploration Numerous channels eroded into the flanks of the crater's central mound could give access to the layers for study. Gale is the landing site of the Curiosity rover, delivered by the Mars Science Laboratory spacecraft, which was launched 26 November 2011 and landed on Mars inside the crater Gale on the plains of Aeolis Palus on 6 August 2012. Gale was previously a candidate landing site for the 2003 Mars Exploration Rover mission, and has been one of four prospective sites for ESA's ExoMars.\\nIn December 2012, scientists working on the Mars Science Laboratory mission announced that an extensive soil\",\n \"-23.727796003979165\"\n ],\n [\n \"lies in that to launch the amount of consumables (oxygen, food and water) even a small crew would go through during a multi-year Mars mission, it would take a very large rocket with the vast majority of its own mass being propellant. This is where multiple launches and assembly in Earth orbit come from. However even if such a ship stocked full of goods could be put together in orbit, it would need an additional (large) supply of propellant to send it to Mars. The delta-v, or change in velocity, required to insert a spacecraft from Earth\",\n \"-23.667757759685628\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mars rover A Mars rover is a motor vehicle that travels across the surface of the planet Mars upon arrival. Rovers have several advantages over stationary landers: they examine more territory, they can be directed to interesting features, they can place themselves in sunny positions to weather winter months, and they can advance the knowledge of how to perform very remote robotic vehicle control.\\nThere have been four successful robotically operated Mars rovers, all managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory: Sojourner, Opportunity, Spirit and Curiosity. On January 24, 2016, NASA reported that current studies on Mars by Curiosity and Opportunity (the\",\n \"-23.665850494755432\"\n ],\n [\n \"which land via an airbag-protected capsule, slowed by parachutes and retrorockets, and dropped from a height that allows rocket exhaust to avoid the surface. Mars Pathfinder's Sojourner rover and the Mars Exploration Rovers each used this landing technique successfully. The Phoenix Scout lander descended to the surface with retro-rockets, however, their fuel was hydrazine, and the end products of the plume (water, nitrogen, and ammonia) were not found to have affected the soils at the landing site. Future missions The question of life on Mars will probably not be resolved entirely until future missions to Mars either conclusively\",\n \"-23.652110199269373\"\n ],\n [\n \"Uzboi-Landon-Morava The Uzboi-Landon-Morava (ULM) outflow system is a long series of channels and depressions that may have carried water across a major part of Mars. It starts with channels that drain into the Argyre basin in the Argyre quadrangle. Water ponded in the Argyre basin, then the overflow is believed to have traveled northward through Uzboi Vallis, into Landon basin, through Morava Valles, to the floor of Margaritfier basin. Some of the water may have helped to carve Ares Vallis. Altogether, the total area drained for this watershed may have been about 11 X 10⁶ km² or\",\n \"-23.648613183991984\"\n ],\n [\n \"decomposition within the RCM. This waste gas is also used for gas bearings (dry lubrication) of all moving parts as well as the circulation controlled \\\"blowing\\\" of the wings for stability control and navigation. Mars entomopter Flight in the atmosphere of Mars is difficult. Aerial Mars rovers using a conventional fixed wing would have to fly at over 250 mph just to stay aloft in the rarefied Mars atmosphere. This makes landing on the rocky surface almost impossible, thereby precluding sample inspection/gathering. Also, the high speed flight means that dwell time on any particular area will be difficult—a negative feature that\",\n \"-23.648400229634717\"\n ],\n [\n \"weeks.\\nOn Mars, Hilder's allies are pressing Sankov to terminate all water exports to the Martian colony. When he hears from the returning Scavengers, Sankov signs. Two days later, the Scavengers land their ice-spacecraft in full view of the press, and Sankov announces that the fragment they brought holds 200 times the amount of water that Earth had been sending to Mars annually, and that if Earth cannot afford to lose any more water, the Martians will sell some of theirs. Long takes this situation as confirmation that Martians, instead of Terrestrials, shall colonize the remaining Solar System. Influence\",\n \"-23.610819040623028\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a Mars rover under development by NASA with a launch planned for 2020. It is intended to investigate an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars, investigate its surface geological processes and history, including the assessment of its past habitability and potential for preservation of biosignatures within accessible geological materials.\",\n \"-23.605477193603292\"\n ],\n [\n \"Spirit Mars rover and lander arrived successfully on the surface of Mars on 04:35 Ground UTC on January 4, 2004. This was the start of its 90-sol mission, but solar cell cleaning events would mean it was the start of a much longer mission, lasting until 2010. Landing site: Columbia Memorial Station Spirit was targeted to a site that appears to have been affected by liquid water in the past, the crater Gusev, a possible former lake in a giant impact crater about 10 km (6.2 mi) from the center of the target ellipse at 14.5718°S 175.4785°E.\\nAfter the airbag-protected landing craft settled\",\n \"-23.587862826272612\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mars 2020 Mission overview The mission will seek signs of habitable conditions on Mars in the ancient past, and will also search for evidence—or biosignatures—of past microbial life. The rover is planned for launch in 2020 on an Atlas V-541, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory will manage the mission. The mission is part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program.\\nThe Science Definition Team proposed that the rover collect and package as many as 31 samples of rock cores and surface soil for a later mission to bring back for definitive analysis on Earth. In 2015 they expanded the concept, planning to\",\n \"-23.576075019911514\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the Moon in 1977. The mission was canceled due to lack of launcher availability and funding, although the rover was built. Marsokhod The Marsokhod was a heavy Soviet rover (hybrid, with both controls telecommand and automatic) aimed at Mars, part of the Mars 4NM and scheduled to commence after 1973 (according to the plans of 1970). It was to be launched by a N1 rocket, which never flew successfully. Sojourner The Mars Pathfinder mission included Sojourner, the first rover to successfully deploy on another planet. NASA, the space agency of the United States, launched Mars Pathfinder\",\n \"-23.546959898492787\"\n ],\n [\n \"is some indication that deltas may be concentrated around the edges of the putative former northern ocean of Mars. Groundwater By 1979 it was thought that outflow channels formed in single, catastrophic ruptures of subsurface water reservoirs, possibly sealed by ice, discharging colossal quantities of water across an otherwise arid Mars surface. In addition, evidence in favor of heavy or even catastrophic flooding is found in the giant ripples in the Athabasca Vallis. Many outflow channels begin at Chaos or Chasma features, providing evidence for the rupture that could have breached a subsurface ice seal.\\nThe branching valley networks of Mars\",\n \"-23.5371528310352\"\n ],\n [\n \"2012 UTC. It is larger and more advanced than the Mars Exploration Rovers, with a movement rate up to 90 m (300 ft) per hour. Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the make-up of rocks at a distance of 7 m (23 ft). On February 10, 2013, the Curiosity rover obtained the first deep rock samples ever taken from another planetary body, using its on-board drill. The same year, it discovered that Mars's soil contains between 1.5% and 3% water by mass (albeit attached to other compounds and thus not freely accessible). Observations by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter had previously revealed\",\n \"-23.53683150501456\"\n ],\n [\n \"Telescope, along with instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different forms of water in Mars's atmosphere over a six-year period. Ice cap From observations with the Shallow Radar instrument (SHARAD) onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, researchers determined that the total volume of water ice in the northern ice cap is 821000 cubic kilometers. That is equal to 30% of the Earth's Greenland ice sheet, or enough to cover the surface of Mars to a depth of 5.6 meters Dunes Sand dunes have been found in many\",\n \"-23.49670301313745\"\n ],\n [\n \"Swedish warship Mars Wreck location On 19 August 2011, it was announced that the shipwreck of Mars was possibly found by a team of divers, at a depth of 75 meters and around 18.5 kilometers north of Öland, after several years of research. Although not examined by archaeologists yet, in a statement by technical diver Richard Lundgren, it was announced that \\\"Everything suggests that it is indeed the Mars that we have found\\\".\\nOn 1 November 2011, it was announced that the shipwreck had been confirmed to be Mars. According to Richard Lundgren, one of the divers who discovered the wreck,\",\n \"-23.489692640665453\"\n ],\n [\n \"Phobos, along with the joint Chinese Yinghuo-1 Mars orbiter in November 2011, which went into Earth orbit successfully, but failed to launch to Mars. Mars Science Laboratory The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) (and Curiosity rover), launched in November 2011, landed on Aeolis Palus, between Peace Vallis and Aeolis Mons (\\\"Mount Sharp\\\"), in Gale Crater on Mars on 6 August 2012, 05:17 UTC. The landing site was in Quad 51 (\\\"Yellowknife\\\") of Aeolis Palus near the base of Aeolis Mons. The landing site was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the center of the rover's planned target site after a 563,000,000 km (350,000,000 mi)\",\n \"-23.463736766774673\"\n ],\n [\n \"short moves straightforward totaling 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in). Adirondack was chosen over another rock called \\\"Sashimi\\\", which was closer to the rover, as Adirondack's surface was smoother, making it more suitable for the Rock Abrasion Tool (aka \\\"RAT\\\").\\nSpirit made a small depression in the rock, 45.5 millimetres (1.79 in) in diameter and 2.65 millimetres (0.104 in) deep. Examination of the freshly exposed interior with the rover's microscopic imager and other instruments confirmed that the rock is volcanic basalt. Humphrey rock On March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed \\\"Humphrey\\\". Raymond Arvidson,\",\n \"-23.43371599330567\"\n ],\n [\n \"Glenelg, Mars Glenelg, Mars (or Glenelg Intrigue) is a location on Mars near the Mars Science Laboratory (Curiosity rover) landing site (\\\"Bradbury Landing\\\") in Gale Crater marked by a natural intersection of three kinds of terrain. Name The location was named Glenelg by NASA scientists for two reasons: all features in the immediate vicinity were given names associated with Yellowknife in northern Canada, and Glenelg is the name of a geological feature there. Furthermore, the name is a palindrome, and as the Curiosity rover is planned to visit the location twice (once coming, and once going) this was an appealing\",\n \"-23.416265331441537\"\n ],\n [\n \"have taken too long to drive the rovers using remote control. The rover was planned to be placed on the surface after landing by a manipulator arm and to move in the field of view of the television cameras and stop to make measurements every 1.5 meters. The rover tracks in the Martian soil would also have been recorded to determine material properties. Because of the crash landing of Mars 2 and the communication failure (15 seconds post landing) of Mars 3, neither rover was deployed. Lunokhod 3 The Soviet rover was intended to be the third roving remote-controlled robot\",\n \"-23.4154190816771\"\n ],\n [\n \"much more zinc and bromine than we've typically seen. We are getting confirmation that reaching Endeavour really has given us the equivalent of a second landing site for Opportunity.\\\" (See also Cape York (Mars))\\nIn December the Homestake formation was analyzed, which was concluded to be formed of gypsum. Using three of the rover's instruments - the Microscopic Imager, the Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer and the Panoramic Camera's filters - researchers determined the deposit to be hydrated calcium sulfate, or gypsum, a mineral that does not occur except in the presence of water. This discovery was called \\\"slam dunk\\\" evidence that\",\n \"-23.393817058517016\"\n ],\n [\n \"twin, after traversing 21 km (13 mi) from Victoria crater, over a three-year period. Endeavour is 23 km (14 mi) wide and offers scientists new terrain to explore, including older rocks than encountered heretofore, and clay minerals that may have formed in the presence of water. The rover's deputy principal investigator, Ray Arvidson, said it will probably not enter Endeavour crater as it appears to contain material observed previously. The rocks on the rim are older than any previously studied by Opportunity. \\\"I think there's much more interest in driving around the perimeter of the rim,\\\" said Arvidson. The rover survived so long this\",\n \"-23.387464981147787\"\n ],\n [\n \"had vaporized over the course of four days, strongly implying that the bright clumps were composed of water ice which sublimated following exposure. Even though dry ice also sublimates under the conditions present, it would do so at a rate much faster than observed.\\nOn July 31, 2008, NASA announced that Phoenix confirmed the presence of water ice on Mars. During the initial heating cycle of a new sample, the Thermal and Evolved-Gas Analyzer's (TEGA) mass spectrometer detected water vapor when the sample temperature reached 0 °C.\\nLiquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure, except\",\n \"-23.384098643320613\"\n ],\n [\n \"Trace Gas Orbiter, launched on March 2016, will implement this approach and will focus on detection, characterization of spatial and temporal variation, and localization of sources for a broad suite of atmospheric trace gases on Mars and help determine if their formation is of biological or geological origin. The Mars Orbiter Mission is also attempting —since late 2014— to detect and map methane on Mars' atmosphere. A press commentary argued that, if there was life at the Viking lander sites, it may have been killed by the exhaust from the landing rockets. That is not a problem for missions\",\n \"-23.37591123956372\"\n ],\n [\n \"to a Mars ascent vehicle (MAV). In July 2018 NASA contracted Airbus to produce a \\\"fetch rover\\\" concept. The MAV would launch from Mars and enter a 500 km orbit and rendezvous with a new Mars orbiter. The sample container would be transferred to an Earth entry vehicle (EEV) which would bring it to Earth, enter the atmosphere under a parachute and hard-land for retrieval and analyses in specially designed safe laboratories. Mission timeline The mission has a current launch window of 17 July to 5 August 2020, where the positions of Earth and Mars are optimal for traveling to Mars.\",\n \"-23.344414449005853\"\n ],\n [\n \"imperative to prevent the introduction to Mars of contaminants from Earth; according to Fobos-Grunt Chief Designer Maksim Martynov, the probability of the probe accidentally reaching the surface of Mars was much lower than the maximum specified for Category III missions, the type assigned to Fobos-Grunt and defined in COSPAR's planetary protection policy (in accordance with Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty). On Phobos The planned landing site at Phobos was a region from 5°S to 5°N, 230° to 235°E. Soil sample collection would begin immediately after the lander touched down on Phobos, with collection lasting 2–7 days. An emergency mode\",\n \"-23.31104545641574\"\n ],\n [\n \"silica-rich deposits on Mars, but taken together it was clear that further study of the region was needed. Following conjunction, NASA directed the Curiosity rover back to the area where the readings had been taken and discovered that large amounts of tridymite were present. How they were formed remains a mystery.\",\n \"-23.310618486604653\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":94,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3wyefk"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How do music royalties work? Does a composer get a check every week or month for life? And typically how much for a hit song?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["Here was my experience: Every time my songs were played on the radio or on TV somewhere, I got a little bit of money - cents to dollars - depending on the use. One song was played enough times that it put me in a higher royalty bracket so I was paid more (1.5x the normal rate, I believe) per use. If played enough times, that money can really add up even if you're paid at the normal rate. I had a (brief) Top 40 Rock song in the mid 90s. To date, I've probably made $10,000 in performance royalties from it. Checks would come quarterly. At its peak, these checks used to be in the high hundreds to low thousands. These days, they're about 75 cents, if there's a check to cut in the first place. :-) EDIT: Reddit, you amaze me. Thanks for the love. EDIT#2: [Removed questionable link] Sorry! EDIT #3: Dammit Reddit! Thanks for the gold, kind Redditor. :-) EDIT#4: Thanks so much for all of this. Seriously. But my wife will kill me if I keep responding so I have to step away. Maybe an AMA one of these days?","Just a funny little anecdote. In Disney's *The Emperor's New Groove* Patrick Warburton (David Puddy, Joe Swanson, and Brock Samson, depending on your age) plays a royal bodyguard named Kronk. There is a scene in which Kronk is sneaking around transporting the unconscious body of Emperor Kuzco in a sack, which he throws over a waterfall,[(See here.)]( URL_0 ) all while humming/scatting a little tune. Apparently, and I'm trying but I can't find my source on this, so forgive me (or back me up:) Patrick is infamously tone deaf, and was supposed to be humming something similar to the Mission Impossible theme. (Or Disney's knock-off soundalike version.) He botched the job so poorly that he was credited with an original composition ('Kronk's Sneaky Theme?' I have no idea) and Disney legal had him sign over royalties to them.","Composers and songwriters are paid by performing rights organizations or PROs for short. There are three in the US and one in every other country. They are ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC. I have included their websites at the end of this post if you want to go directly there to learn more. Basically, radio, tv, restaurants/bar, the web, etc. (Anywhere music is played AND money is made) must pay a fee to each of these companies. A songwriter can only be signed to one of these companies. They gather the money and distribute the royalties. Most songwriters are paid quarterly. They are generally paid three quarters behind so it can take some time to be paid for your songs. Also, songwriters need to register their songs in order to be paid. It is free to join SESAC if you meet with a rep. It is a very small fee ($50) or something close to that for ASCAP or BMI and can be done online. Also, it is hard to say for a #1 - depends on the genre But it will be substantial. Keep in mind, most songs are written by several people and those people often have publishers so it can be quite complicated and that number will be split and split again. You can learn more at URL_1 , URL_2 , and URL_0 . To answer the other question below. These companies either use their own in house monitoring service to see which and when songs are played. Or they may use Nielsen Soundscan which is pretty much the industry standard. There are also companies that monitor the internet and pay songwriters for plays they find online and then pay songwriters either on their own or through one of the performing right companies mentioned above. One is called TuneSat, but there are others too. Hope this helps!","and also how do the people in charge of royalties know how much a radio station plays the song? I get it when there's stuff on the system as it can just link straight up online but when stations play records or CDs is there a way of counting plays?","As someone whose rent is paid by this, here's my ELI5.. TL;DR: here are two types of strictly royalties as far as composers/writers go. Mechanicals and performance. If you're an artist or producer there's also artist royalties, producer royalties, and neighboring rights. Mechanicals: these are easy. The rate is set by the government and is paid on a per-sale basis at $0.091 per song sold, and that amount is divided up amongst the songwriters (so if there are two writers, each one of them gets $0.0455 for every song sold). They're collected and administered by either the record labels (who receive the gross money for the sale and pay everyone out) or in the case of cover songs, a company called the Harry Fox Agency. These payments are usually semiannual but sometimes quarterly. Performance: this is a much wider net. Is your song in a TV show? Every time it plays you'll receive SOME money - how much is up to a complex formula based system put in place by the \"Performance Rights Organizations\" (i.e. ASCAP, BMI, SESAC, GMR, etc). I've made anywhere from 3 cents to over a thousand on a single TV play (depending on how long they use it, what time of day, how many people watch the show, what network, etc). Radio plays are also paid to the writers per play, and can be up to $15 per station per play. So if your song is getting 2000 spins a week (i.e. a hit song), that's $30k per week to split amongst the writers. Not bad. The PRO's all have different pay schedules, but to make things easy let's say they're basically quarterly. Streaming comes through both lanes depending on if you're published and how the song is released. Spotify/Pandora will usually come through the PRO (sometimes the former through the route of the mechanical). The rub with these services is that the music labels will license the song to them extra cheap in exchange for stock on the company or large non-specific advances that they don't have to pass along to the artists/writers - no bueno. Which is why artists/writers are complaining about streaming while the corporate side is suspiciously silent.. And lastly if you are the artist you'll get an additional artist royalty from the label once you've made back the money they spent on you (or making your album). Producers are entitled to a similar royalty, albeit much smaller. And then there's this thing called \"neighboring rights\" in other countries where the people who performed on the song (musicians, producers, artists) and the label owners get an additional performance royalty for that - but that is for another day.","I worked for a radio station about a zillion years ago, when it was two turntables and a microphone, and we were required to keep track of what we played. With a pencil and a logbook. I assumed it was so the artist would get paid, but I don't know for sure. The DJ had a lot of discretion over what he played, so they couldn't rely upon a predetermined setlist. Or maybe they just wanted to make sure we weren't playing lousy music. But I think it was the royalty thing.","Ok, I can provide a brief overview here but I'm sure lawyers and others more directly involved in the music business will have more to add and provide greater accuracy. With every recorded song there are two copyrights, one for the composer and one for the recording artist. Sometimes those rights belong to the same person, sometimes not. Anyway, composers and recording artists both have groups that represent them and collect royalties on their behalf. The problem is that there are multiple types of rights that can be licensed to a song or composition. For example, if you want to publicly perform a composition, you'll have to get with a performing rights organization (PRO) (or rather, the venue you perform at will). Want to burn your cover to a CD? You'll need a mechanical license but that's a different organization. You can see a flow chart of the process here: URL_0 Bear in mind that the chart is based on the UK so some terms are slightly different though the principle, to my understanding, is largely the same. Theoretically, these various groups who hold all of these different rights pay the artists they represent, usually quarterly. How they determine the payment is usually by how much the songs they created are used. How that is determined varies from group to group. For example, record labels know pretty well exactly how many copies of a CD are sold or how many times a song is streamed on Spotify. But how many times a song is performed in a club? Well, that's a bit more difficult. To that end PROs rely on bars and restaurants to provide reporting forms on what they played. Few, in my experience, do, so it ends up being like Nielsen, where a small number of clubs are used to determine what clubs at large are playing. Like I said though, methods vary depending on the rights at issue. All of that being said, music licensing is a giant mess that leaves no one happy. This is one of the reasons it's a major topic for copyright reform in the U.S. over the next few years. I know it's not very ELI5, but hopefully it helps some. Edit: To answer the question about how long it goes on, it goes until the copyright in the work expires. So yes, the person will receive checks until their death and then their estate will continue to get such checks for quite a long period of time afterward.","Fun fact: Simon Cowell's X Factor/ idol artists (one direction etc) almost all include musical samples played by Cowell (eg a single tambourine hit) on their records, so that Cowell personally receives PRS as a performer. Source: am in industry and know a writer for Olly Murs/1D fun fact 2 while we're on the subject, there is a music production company that specialises in quite literally adding 'the one direction kick drum' to other people's work. They get paid a shocking amount for this.","There are two components of a song that are distinct and separate and understanding how they are different is essential. 1. The composition that a song writer composes and puts down in sheet music. This is the copyright and the royalty recipient is the songwriter. He is often represented by a Publisher. 2. A recording of such a composition. This is the master and the royalty recipient is the artist. He is often represented by a Label. The terminology is important. While \"artist\" seems like a fair way to describe someone who writes songs, it will cause confusion if you try to apply it that way in this kind of discussion. So songwriter-copyright-publisher and then artist-master-label is the way it is. Both the songwriter and the artist receive royalties but they are quite different in how they are calculated and handled. Sometimes the writer and the artist are the same person, probably more often they are not, but even if they are, they will get checks from two different entities. Think about \"singer songwriter\" as a genre, it's referring to someone who does both. Let's invent a writer and an artist for these examples - Joe Melody is a gifted songwriter and composer, and Bob Crooner is a singer with a killer voice. Joe Melody is represented by a Publisher, and Bob Crooner is represented by a Label. Each of those entities is responsible for tracking the usage of their intellectual property, gathering the income and distributing it to Joe and Bob. There are so many different revenue streams it's hard to break down who gets what from where but I'll try. I guess I will go by platform, and keep it simple. There is plenty of nuance and exception that will bog us down. CD, LP, Cassette or other physical format, and also digital permanent download: Crooner records an album of 10 of Melody's songs. His label gets him in a studio and manufactures a CD and gets it on Amazon and they also get the album on iTunes. On Crooner's behalf, his Label has requested from Melody's Publisher licenses to use the written songs. To keep it brief, these licenses are free and require only that Crooner notify Melody that it is happening. This license binds Crooner to pay Melody 9.1c for every sale he makes of him singing Melody's song. This rate is set by the government and the Label is responsible for paying it to the Publisher. The Label will administer this whole deal. So a track gets sold on iTunes. iTunes receives 0.99c and the Crooner's Label a month or two later gets their 0.70c. Crooner's label then owes Melody's Publisher 9.1c. So what happens to the other 0.60c and what does Crooner get? That depends. Because at first music could not be recorded and taken away to listen to again, we have a very well developed government mandated ruleset for compositions, but not for the master recordings. They were a relatively late development, and the free market has found its own level. Basically Crooner and the Label agree on a percentage of income that allows for both to earn something. Crooner agrees to a 15% royalty. Does that seem low? It's not really. Out of the 0.60c the Label is left with it needs to do a lot of things, including recoup the costs of the studio time, artwork, manufacturing, promotion etc. and also pay their rent and staff. The bargaining power of each party will ebb and flow over time and contracts will be renegotiated every couple of years. Three to five years is a normal range for a contract. If Crooner signs for 15% of net income on a three year contract and he really takes off as a singer, when the contract expires he can ask for more or shop around if he wants. Radio Play Crooner's song comes on the radio in your car. Crooner gets nothing. Melody's and his Publisher are members of a Performance Rights Organisation which arranges paid licenses with anybody who wishes to publicly play music and distributes fees to the songwriters based on how much airplay a song gets. This PRO will pay Melody his share direct and Melody's Publisher their share direct, this is not something the Publisher manages. How much it is depends on the PRO and what kind of deal they made with whoever is playing the music. Remember how I said Crooner gets nothing? That's just the way it is in the US right now. Luckily for Crooner, terrestrial radio is becoming a smaller piece of the pie. He will get performance royalties as an artist for digital radio and digital streaming services like Sirius, Pandora or Spotify. Melody is already set up to receive his songwriter royalty. For streaming it is set at 10% of net income, not 9.1c. A lot of streaming plays, especially if they are ad-supported might bring in a fraction of a cent. I'm going to stop here to see if I am getting at the info you want. I'm happy to expand and answer other questions. I've been in the business of operating label and publisher concerns for 15 years. ETA: the royalty cycle is either quarterly or half yearly and you can expect to get paid 45-90 days after the end of a period for any income processed during said period. e.g. Jan-Jun might be a pay period, and everyone would received checks mid August or end September.","I actually do this for a living, in a few different projects: my band Canopy Climbers ( URL_0 ), my licensing projects Tiny Houses ( URL_1 ) and Monobox ( URL_2 ). Most all royalties are handled through my PRO (performing rights organization), and in my case that is SESAC. Most pay out quarterly via check or direct deposit, although I think SESAC can do monthly as well, at least for publishing royalties. Those royalties will keep coming as long as it continues being licensed, played on radio, etc. So essentially, you get paid for the entirety of the songs life. I can't speak to a hit song on radio, but I can speak to having songs placed on tv. These can range any where from $500-$25,000+, including both up front payment and backend royalties. Until we got management, we were licensing songs based on back-end royalties only, meaning no upfront payment, only the royalties received after the show airs. Now we get smaller front end payments as well as backend royalties (thanks management!). We've been placed several times on MTV, E! Network, Style Network, and then online in a buncha different places. How much the royalty is depends on several factors. Is is just an instrumental transition piece? Is it vocal-up, meaning a lead vocal singing in the placement? How long is it? The longer the placement, the more the royalty rate, as well as vocal up vs. no vocal. Also, the more the show airs, the more you are paid as it is paid per show. Would be glad to answer any other questions. Still kinda new at this but I'll do my best.","I actually know this one! My stepfather was a recording artist. His royalty checks came monthly, they were small as he did not sell a lot of records in his later years. He passed away 6 years ago, now my mom gets them","All the answers on here talking mostly about Performance Rights Organizations like ASCAP, BMI and SESAC, which take care of songs being played on the radio and live. However, if you're signed to a record label or a publishing company, and your songs are selling or people are covering your songs, you will be paid by the respective company. For example, if you sign to Big Cool Records, they'll give you an up front advance, some money to record the album, and they'll spend a bunch on marketing, etc. and manufacturing the album. Every time al album sells, based on how much royalty you negotiated with them (between 10-20%), money will be added to your account within the label. Once they recoup all the money they've spent on you (essentially making that advance you got a loan), you will be paid based on your royalty. Those checks come in once a quarter (4 times a year). If it's a hit song, you will recoup your account quicker and get paid sooner but that depends on how deep in debt you are with the label and how big the song is and how much it is selling (real sales - like on iTunes and in stores) Feel free to PM me if you have any more questions! Source: I'm a music lawyer","I was in an indie band that toured a lot but never had a hit song (mostly college radio and specialty market radio), but which had music licensed for several TV shows and films, the highest profile of which was probably the TV show How I Met Your Mother. This was probably six years ago and I still receive quarterly checks on this. The checks have remained consistent mostly because the show continues to play on different channels internationally. The amounts have declined over time somewhat, but annually I would say royalties total about $3,000. However, I should note that I control both the writing \"side\" and the publishing \"side\" of our music. When you are paid royalties on music, the royalties are split between the writer(s) who are credited with composing the song and the publishers, who control use of the recording. It is common for bands to sell their publishing rights in exchange for up front money, or for record labels to control and/or own the publishing for bands they release. It would not be unusual for a song to have three to five \"writers\" and have the publishing controlled by a label or publishing company. In this case any individual band member would see a greatly reduced cut. Speaking from a musician standpoint, licensing is the best because you don't have to \"do anything\" and the money just comes in. Of course, they are few and far between, especially for a no-to-almost-no name band like mine was!","Music royalties are fun - and slightly crazy. :) Quick credentials, I'm a director at a music licensing company that represents over 600 amazing artists. Here's a basic rundown. There are multiple \"royalties\" beyond just performance royalties, here's a description of each one: 1. Like mentioned below, there are organizations called PROs which are \"Performance Royalty Organizations\" - in the US that would be BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC. When a music artist creates a new song they register it with their PRO and that PRO collects royalties from radio stations, streaming sites/apps, and television plays from commercials or programming. That is \"performance royalties\" and usually are cents or partial cents per play - very low revenue. Which is why articles come out about artists being upset about Spotify and other streaming sites because they make so little compared to album sales. 2. Sync licensing is another portion of music royalties. When a commercial, YouTube video, Netflix show, or other content is created the filmmaker or production company must license the music that is going in the video content. This is a huge deal and allows musicians and bands to make significant revenue on the front end of content creation. Then when those films or videos go out they have time periods associated with the license that they can renew after 6 months or a year so for example the artist continues to make money as a tv commercial keeps running. 3. There is also mechanical licensing which is required if a music artist wants to cover and record a song that they did not write. So if I wanted to cover a Coldplay song and record it, then I would need to purchase a mechanical license. That way the original author gets revenue from that. One other note - it's important to understand the difference between the different types of ownership: 1. Master owner - a person who own part of the recording (think MP3, CD, the actual noise on a recording) 2. Publishing Owner - a person who owns part of the publishing 3. Writership Owner - a person who wrote the song Each of those owners get paid based on how much they own. Some people own 100% of their songs, while others might only own 50% of the publishing while their record label owns 100% of the master and 50% of the publishing. TL;DR: Yes, a song writer gets a payment each month from their representation like a PRO or their licensing representation which might be their label or a music licensing company. Feel free to ask questions. I tried to write this on my phone quickly, haha.","**Can we extend this question to television?** My particular interest is in **how long** do royalties continue? Is [Robert Clary]( URL_0 ) still collecting from reruns of Hogan's Heroes? Is Carol Burnett still picking up a check from MeTV airing old episodes of her show? Going back to the early B & W 1960s, is Ron Howard still getting beer money from The Andy Griffith Show? If so, **how much** would you guess such 30-, 40- and even 50-year old shows earn for their stars?","You mean a hit song now? Or a hit song when there was actually some money in the music business? Back then people actually paid for music, and even if you only had one or two good songs, a single hit could sell an entire album which would sell for about $12-15. There were big cuts being taken from that from the record company, reproduction costs etc, but the performance percentage earned artists something, and writers could still make money too. All of that is gone now. People don't buy CD's and most people get music for free on youtube. There are some legit services like spotify but the % is so low that you have to be a household name to make any decent money. Places like iTunes are a bit better but similar, and if you do get lucky enough to have a lot of people download your stuff, it is most likely just one or two songs - not a whole album. The reason most people don't care is because they still see people like Bieber in his Ferrari and assume pop stars are as rich as ever. But it's not true. The likes of Gaga and Bieber are not musicians or bands, but rather products that are sold with a huge company behind them. A company like that will put a million dollars down to promote a pop star like that, because they will get 50 million back. The problem is that all the smaller (real) artists and bands who used to maybe have a top 40 single in the past, do not make any way near enough money to survive anymore. In the past there was enough money in the business for bands like that to survive. Nowadays they make nothing from their music at all, and are in fact expected to just give it away for free because they need people to hear it and hear about the band. If you are lucky you will get people to buy tickets to your show and then you might make some money, although even then, many venues don't pay the performer at all unless they reach a certain threshold. tl-dr, big corporate machines like Rhianna and whatnot, are still making huge amounts of money. But everyone else makes nothing from music now. And for that reason, nobody is being signed, and in fact A & R departments don't even exist anymore. Nobody is out there visiting all the clubs and looking for the next big thing. Someone might pay some attention if you somehow go viral on youtube, but that is extremely rare.","I am a songwriter. Here is your basic breakdown of how you would make money. Say I write a song that gets cut (recorded) by an Artist that is decently well known. The first I would need to do is register with BMI, ASCAP, SESAC, or one of the smaller ones. We will use BMI for an example. What they do is take a very small fee with the promise of going out and collecting the money you are owed from record labels, radio stations, etc. Yes, money does come in the mail and you get it roughly every quarter. If you are doing well you might get more. That's what we like to call \"mailbox money\". The amount of money you make on a \"hit\" song has a lot of variables. For instance if you are self published or have an admin deal then you are making 90-100% of your money on a song. If you have a co publishing deal you make 50% of your money and the publisher makes 50%. There's also writing splits. In places like LA where people are assholes their lawyers negotiate really rough splits. You can see 5 names on a song but what you may not know is one of those guys is only getting 2 1/2 %. This stuff happens literally everyday. Nashville is a more respectable place where generally who ever is in the song. Gets an equal share. EDIT: If anyone has any questions about anything or I missed anything let me know and I would be happy to answer.","Back when the Dr. Demento Show was syndicated to about 50 radio stations one of my songs was played 3 times in a quarter. I eagerly awaited my ASCAP statement for that quarter and was confused when I got one that said that none of my songs had been played. Armed with a complete list of radio stations that carried the show and the playlist for the 3 shows in question I called them and asked what was going on. They said apparently none of the stations that carried the show had gotten sampled at that time and there was nothing they could do. So despite the fact that I could provide them with a list of radio stations, dates, and times to the minute when my songs were played I got no money. Remember that next time you hear about ASCAP suing a bar for playing music without an ASCAP license because they \"want to make sure their artists get paid.\" No, they don't. If they did they'd actually count the plays. We have computers, people. It's really not that hard. tl;dr: Me: \"150 spins on the radio!\" ASCAP: \"LOL NOPE!\"","The composer gets paid by performance collection agencies like BMI and ASCAP, and by Harry Fox Agency, which collects mechanical royalties (sales of CDs LPs Tapes, etc.) For many years I received no check or $0.98. After I was performed more it began to average $100 a quarter. One time one of my tunes was used as a theme song for a network TV talk show for a week. I think I got about $2000 for that. I had one major hit. A famous rapper sampled one bar of a funk track that I had composed back in the '70s. in one 18 month period, I received about $150,000. It was one tune on a CD of 7 or 8 tunes. I as composer, got half of the royalties for that song, about 4 or 5 famous rappers, split the other half. Now 15 or 20 years later, I still get 15 or 20 cents a quarter for that song. But now my quarterly checks average from $50 to $1000. Edit: spell","I am a registered artist with one of the big 3 PROs, but I have no idea how any of this works because my band never became popular :(.","In my experience the singer takes all the royalties and doesn't pay the musicians for anything because it's a privilege to work with him.","You mention composer, but there are actually two types of music royalties. The composer receives what is referred to as the publishing royalty. This royalty is collected for the underlying written work or composition of a song. The second type of royalty is the artist royalty, which is collected for the exploitation of the master recording. These 'masters' are usually owned by record labels who share a percentage of their sales with their recording artists. To make the most money as a musician you need to both write and record your own music. Since you mention composer specifically, I'll address that issue. As a composer/songwriter, you'll collect on a quarterly basis from your publisher (i.e. Sony/ATV, Warner/Chappell, or UMPG). These publishers collect on your behalf for all exploitation of your works, whether that be CD sales/downloads, radio play, streaming, or sync licensing for use in TV/Film. Your publisher is all associated to PRO, who licenses and collects fees for the performance of your works from radio, concert halls, bars/restaurants, and pretty much any other public place where music may be played. The PRO will pay your publisher, who will then pass that money on to you. Publishers pay their composers on a quarterly basis and keep an administration fee. The more popular you works are, the more money you'll get paid. As for how much money a hit song can make, the sky is the limit. As a composer, you will collect more based on the share of the song that you wrote. Most songs are not written by a single person. With that said, the best way to make money is to get as many sync licenses as you can. TV and film producers are usually willing to pay a pretty penny for the right song in their movie, show or commercial. On the flip side, royalty rates for streaming are so low, you'll need to millions upon millions of views to start to make some decent coin. Mechanical royalties, which are publishing royalties for the sale of a CD or permanent download, have also declined substantially as music sales in the traditional sense are much lower than they used to be. I'm happy to answer any other questions you may have as I've been in this business for over 10 years.","Well depends on what kind of royalty. Two types 1. Royalty from the publisher(songwriter's version of a label, most of the time paired up with labels or extensions of labels) These are paid bi-annually. You get 9.1 for every song you have on a album for each sale, unless you have a controlled composition clause, which means the performer of the song also had some writing of the song, which most of the time is less. 2. Performance rights organization. These are paid out every financial quarter, so end of March, June, September and December. There are two bigger public ones, BMI and ASCAP, and two private ones, which are invitation only which are SESAC and these brand new one I can't think of the name...These are the big money ones which know whenever your song is played on the radio you get paid. Depending on how popular it is on the radio it can be at a high tier than other, therefor a bigger payout. I have plenty of songwriter friends, and one, back in 1981 got his first check from BMI for 80k, and that's in 1980s dollars, and still gets enough payouts each month from them to pay a mortgage on a house he says, don't know how much that means to him, but probably at least a few thousand. Another friend, he's only like 24, but be wrote a song by a certain country duo, and in the first quarter it was a 210k payout, but was split with two other songwriters. His songwriting pay outs let him be able to jump start his own career which is pretty common. Brantley Gilbert who i don't really know, but we run in the same circles did the same thing, he wrote like a bunch of Jason Alden songs, which financed his own career before it really started, he also. This is also sometimes called \"passing down\" which a more popular country artist will have a single which a less popular artist wrote, to help them financially, and it's all part of the good ol boys club.","When you write a song that you want to earn royalties from, you register the song with whatever Performing Rights Organization you are signed up with (ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC are the big ones in America but there are hundreds worldwide). When you register the song, you attribute 200% of the ownership. 100% for the \"writer's share\" and 100% for the \"publishing share.\" So, if you have an ideal set agreement with whoever is exploiting your music you own 100% of the writers share as well as 100% of the publishing share (however, many libraries take the publishing share and sometimes part of the writer's as well). If a piece of music is placed in a television show or movie, for example, it is listed on a cue sheet (a document that is submitted with every episode of every show and film detailing what song is used, who wrote it, who published it, and what kind of use it is - Background Instrumental, Background Vocal, etc.). This is sent to your PRO who keeps track of how many times an episode/film/commercial aired and other royalty-generating means, looks at the cue sheet and sees for how long your music played, and pays it accordingly. You get a check every quarter (3 months) directly from your PRO. This is a pretty rough break down of it but hopefully it is helpful for those unfamiliar. I mostly work with TV/Film music, but I think radio play works in a similar way. Source: I work for a music publisher","A decade ago, I was part of a comedy troupe ( URL_0 ) and we at one point recorded some radio sketches, in hopes of making a \"record\" (like old skool Python). Anyways, last year I was informed about Sound Exchange. A company that started up to collect royalties for artists. Turned out SIRIUS XM had been playing our sketches for 10 years (legally and all that) but no one was collecting the royalties...so once we signed up with Sound Exchange, we got a cheque for $15k (!). Now I get like. $100 every 6 months. So that's cool.","For ad supported models like pandora, royalties for all record labels are collected by a holding company known as SoundExchange. The rate paid by pandora is based on # of sings streamed. The per song rate is currently $.14 per 100 songs streamed. Pandora pays about $400mn per year in these fees. The rate is set every five years. AND you won't believe this - but this rate decision actually happens. TOMORROW!!!!!!!!! Source: This shit is my job - and this decision is wildly fucking important for pandoras stock price. Google CRB pandora.","more complicated question: why is it so expensive now to produce sample heavy hip hop beats? in the 80's and 90's all this extremly famous funk, jazz and soul was used for hip hop, now those records are expensive to re-release and those kind of samples are more rare. does it have to do with the original artists wanting more money? As an artist, am I taking a lot less money using beat samples? Are there legal obstacles that make it inefficient?","So this thread reminded me that I'm a member of ASCAP, and I logged into my account for the first time in years. I have 12 \"works\" registered from an album that was released on a label in 2008, but nothing for all the singles, remixes, etc. that've been released on different labels since. My question is- do I need to be submitting my own releases to ASCAP or is it a label's responsibility?","You probably won't see this but Courtney Love wrote a letter about 15 years ago about what piracy is. It explains how recording contracts work. URL_0 ","a bit late to the tale but here goes. there are or at least were a few different types of royalties back in the pre internet days. Radio stations would pay differing levels of royalties depending on the size of their audience. If you had a hit record on radio 1 (the uk national broadcaster broadcasting to millions) the payment, i believe, could be up to £45 per play. The collecting agency would take the payments from the radio station and take their cut which wasn't too much but lets say it was £5. The rest was passed to your publishing company who you signed your deal with (who should not only collect your money and pass on your cut but should actively try and place your music on to say tv, film, compilation albums etc). A typical publishing deal would be a 70/30 split in your favou, so they'd take £12 and pass on £28 to you. If there were four writers you'd get £7 each. It can get tricky though because there are royalties for the music and royalties for the lyrics. if you were to license your song to say an advert as my friend once did (a vodka advert for smirnoff, check out dylan rhymes - naked and ashamed) then there's two separate fees involved. The advert has to buy not only the music rights to use it (which are owned by the record company) but also the publishing rights. so they could pay the record co £10k of which you'd get a cut depending on your deal and the publishing co would get paid £10k and you'd get £7k as per the split. EVERY time that advert is played you would get a publishing royalty for it, depending on the audience size. there are also royalties for other things. If sheet music is produced of it then again you would get a royalty from that. Here's the interesting royalty which not many new about, mechanical royalties. these are paid to the producer (s) who may not necessarily be a part of the band. this royalty was paid for EACH AND EVERY physical copy that was made of a record or cd. I can't recall the amount, maybe 10%?, but it was worked out on the distributor price (which back in the day would have been circa £2.20 per 12\" record). It would have been collected in the UK by the MCPS, the mechanical copyright protection society. So there would have been 22p per copy in mechanical royalties. I believe the MCPS took 10% so lets say 2p. that leaves 20p and again, 70/30 split, the producer would come out with 14p. Now imagine that that album sold 10 million copies. you can see how that adds up very quickly to £1.4m. Just from one album. The producer probably didn't come up with any of the music creativity but would have crafted it all in to a song (ie, radio edits of 3m30s can be quite tricky to create from a full 5m30s song). Basically, the amount of money from royalties can be huge which is why Michael Jackson sold his Beatles publishing catalogue for $400m. Also, there was one occasion i recall that annie lennox had one of her songs played over 3000 times in one week on UK radio (details were published in Music Week). Publishing is HUGE. The guy who was Pink Floyds publisher owns/owned the Royal Berkshire Polo Club!! Hope this helps! EDIT: In the UK there is also a collecting agency called the PRS, the performance rights society. In theory, every time a song is played in a nightclub, the club should be making a playlist of what was played and pay out a royalty for each song. When people in the UK will see PRS stickers in shops etc, it's because music isn't free. If you want to have music in your shop to entertain your customers as they shop, you have to pay for it. again, you'd end up with a cut of that. I think nowadays shops get around it somehow by having their own instore radio stations. you'd also get a royalty if your song is used as telephone \"hold\" music. and as ring tones, and in birthday cards, fucking everywhere actually.","Streaming and piracy have destroyed royalties though. My best friend wrote some #1 hits on Atlantic Records in the late 90s and very early 2000s. His royalties were roughly $500,000 usd a year. Around 2010 to now, between piracy and streaming his royalties have dropped to about $50,000 usd a year. Granted his songs aren't #1 anymore but he's been in this business for over 40 years and knows the trends very well and even years after a song is no longer a hit, your royalties don't drop 90 percent even a decade later. He's semi-retired because there's no more money in music so it's pointless to even do the work. People are just gonna steal it anyway. He did tell me though that what little work or writing he does is gear towards rock. He told me that among major labels that rock music is seen as a better choice than EDM or dance music because even though EDM is ridiculously popular at the moment, almost every EDM listener steals music. Stealing is much less common among rock music. So for example, if you write a EDM hit, you might have 1,000,000 listeners but almost every one of them will steal it instead of buying. It just seems to be the general behavior of EDM listeners. But if you write a rock hit, while rock is much less popular at the moment, you might only have 100,000 listeners but odds are very high that a huge portion of them will buy it. So you'll sell more songs to 100,000 rock fans than you will to 1,000,000 EDM fans. Hell, Steve Aoki and AVCII have been caught in their youtube vids using pirated software. I mean, they're filthy rich and can't even be assed to pay for the stuff they use...why would their listeners pay?","I'm a media composer and write for a lot of trailers, commercials and tv shows. We usually get paid royalties every quarter (3 months). The amount is dependent on many variables, for example, the viewership, whether it's network or cable, time of day and what territory it's based in. However, some clients license your music through a \"buy-out,\" which allows them to just pay you a single (usually heftier) fee so they don't have to keep fulfilling royalty payments. I haven't written any \"hit songs\" but I've written music for quite large clients. I did an Ikea commercial about 5 years ago that still pay me every quarter. But for an example, I recently wrote music for a big kids animated movie trailer which screened on UK television for 2 weeks. I got approximately $8,000 for those two weeks of broadcasts so it **can** be a very lucrative business. (That's not including the fee I got to write the music.) I've written music for BBC shows and even shows like Kitchen Nightmares. BBC paid almost double in royalties beause it's network. The money is collected by your respective Rights Society, either PRS, ASCAP, BMI, etc. It's hard to wrangle in this business because fees, viewership figures and plays are all behind a curtain. You just have to trust your royalty society and their admin. Buyouts can be risky, too. I have a friend who had a client offer him 25K for a track for a beer commercial. My friend accepted without a second thought and a week later saw the commercial during the superbowl...he lost out on an insane amount of money because he accepted the buyout and didn't ask questions! That was a hard lesson that day...","Finally, an excuse for my first post! I work for a European PRO (performing rights society) and from my experience, each pro collects license revenue from music users and distributes this revenue to the composers and publishers in the form of royalties. A PRO will license music usage in their own territory from radio stations, television broadcasters, live venues/festivals, restaurants, shops, businesses, record labels and also online platforms like YouTube, Spotify, iTunes and Amazon. Once a PRO receives the music reporting from these users, royalties are distributed to the composers and publishers based on a distribution schedule. The amount a composer/publisher gets is based on where the music is used and how large that license revenue is. For example, you will get paid more from a larger radio station per minute then from a smaller station which pays a smaller license fee. Once we have received the reporting for your music usage, a matching system will usually link this information to the song registrations we have on a database which are then linked to a composer or publishers account. Music usage in that PRO can usually take between 4-6 months to distribute but if your music gets broadcast overseas, it can take aslong as 2 years to receive this income from other performing right societies. I've probably missed out a load of useful info so let me know if you have a further questions!","For actors, in the UK and Ireland at least, you used to get royalties after doing any TV or film. Now, you get a bit more money to buy you out of the royalties. My dad still gets royalties every year from a movie he did in the 70s. It was a small part. He'll usually get €0.50 if it's shown in South Africa or somewhere. He gets around €90.00 every year for a Christmas special he did in the 90s. It's not much, but it buys a present every year and it's better than a kick up the arse.","Label owner here - We get a monthly payment from our distributor, which we then pass onto artists, less our fee. (60/40% Artist / Label split). It's always collected a few months behind but includes everything from itunes sales to youtube / spotify streams. If we've landed any synchronizations (music used in tv, video, movies and advertising etc) then we'll have separate terms for that. By no means are we a large label, but we do pull in about £500 a month from sales and streams.","If anyone is interested in seeing how much a published artist makes in a year, Zoe Keating [made all of her 2013 financials public]( URL_1 ). She also put out [6 months of income in 2011-2012]( URL_0 ). If it's TL;DR for you - she makes the lion's share of her money from Album sales, via iTunes and Bandcamp. I'm sure performance income helps out a lot, and she doesn't state if this is gross or net... still interesting, though.","It kinda sucks because streaming services should be better for artists. I've probably bought less than 20 CDs in my life, most of them at discounted prices. I used to just listen to the radio or get music from friends(perhaps not legally). Now I spend over NZ$100 a year on music in the form of music streaming services. By the time I die I'll have spent thousands. If I was still buying CDs it'd only be hundreds.","Random related factabout James Brown's drummer. The dude tears it up in \"Funky Drummer\" and the world forgets about it until the 80's when someone rhymes over it. Hip hop is born. This drum track goes on to be the most sampled portion of a song in music history and the drummer, an old man today, has never seen a dime for it. Look up \"rhythm of the funky drummer\" for the full story.","I have a friend who's grandpa is a violinist for movies and TV shows. He played for Family Guy, Futurama, Pirates of the Caribbean, etc. He basically told me what /u/dirtyfacedkid said, but he also gets paid by the hour during the actual recording sessions. He told me he gets around $200 an hour and afterwards he receives royalties after the movie/tv show is released.","My friend is the co-founder of Timex Social Club and song writer who put out [Rumors]( URL_0 ) in 1986. They opened for the RUN-DMC 'Raising Hell' tour that same year. Despite being a #1 R & B hit in 1986, the amount he gets from royalties isn't enough to buy a loaf of bread most months.","A guy I work with was on SNL in the 80s. He did a few movies around that time too, and he gets a check for about $0.12 - $0.25 a month. So to answer your question, (even though this is movie biz vs music biz) yes. [Gary Kroeger IMDB]( URL_0 )","Kinda relevant. The same goes for PPV fights (WWE, UFC, Boxing, Etc.) I once saw a job on craigslist that wanted you to go to bars and be \"undercover\" and see if a place is broadcasting the PPV, and charging an additional cover.","What I have learned from this thread: 1. Turn a song you write and perform into a meme 2. ??? 3. Profit Rick Astley lucked out for sure.","Could an artist (or friend of the artist) just put their song/album on repeat on spotify and rake in money?"],"string":"[\n \"Here was my experience: Every time my songs were played on the radio or on TV somewhere, I got a little bit of money - cents to dollars - depending on the use. One song was played enough times that it put me in a higher royalty bracket so I was paid more (1.5x the normal rate, I believe) per use. If played enough times, that money can really add up even if you're paid at the normal rate. I had a (brief) Top 40 Rock song in the mid 90s. To date, I've probably made $10,000 in performance royalties from it. Checks would come quarterly. At its peak, these checks used to be in the high hundreds to low thousands. These days, they're about 75 cents, if there's a check to cut in the first place. :-) EDIT: Reddit, you amaze me. Thanks for the love. EDIT#2: [Removed questionable link] Sorry! EDIT #3: Dammit Reddit! Thanks for the gold, kind Redditor. :-) EDIT#4: Thanks so much for all of this. Seriously. But my wife will kill me if I keep responding so I have to step away. Maybe an AMA one of these days?\",\n \"Just a funny little anecdote. In Disney's *The Emperor's New Groove* Patrick Warburton (David Puddy, Joe Swanson, and Brock Samson, depending on your age) plays a royal bodyguard named Kronk. There is a scene in which Kronk is sneaking around transporting the unconscious body of Emperor Kuzco in a sack, which he throws over a waterfall,[(See here.)]( URL_0 ) all while humming/scatting a little tune. Apparently, and I'm trying but I can't find my source on this, so forgive me (or back me up:) Patrick is infamously tone deaf, and was supposed to be humming something similar to the Mission Impossible theme. (Or Disney's knock-off soundalike version.) He botched the job so poorly that he was credited with an original composition ('Kronk's Sneaky Theme?' I have no idea) and Disney legal had him sign over royalties to them.\",\n \"Composers and songwriters are paid by performing rights organizations or PROs for short. There are three in the US and one in every other country. They are ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC. I have included their websites at the end of this post if you want to go directly there to learn more. Basically, radio, tv, restaurants/bar, the web, etc. (Anywhere music is played AND money is made) must pay a fee to each of these companies. A songwriter can only be signed to one of these companies. They gather the money and distribute the royalties. Most songwriters are paid quarterly. They are generally paid three quarters behind so it can take some time to be paid for your songs. Also, songwriters need to register their songs in order to be paid. It is free to join SESAC if you meet with a rep. It is a very small fee ($50) or something close to that for ASCAP or BMI and can be done online. Also, it is hard to say for a #1 - depends on the genre But it will be substantial. Keep in mind, most songs are written by several people and those people often have publishers so it can be quite complicated and that number will be split and split again. You can learn more at URL_1 , URL_2 , and URL_0 . To answer the other question below. These companies either use their own in house monitoring service to see which and when songs are played. Or they may use Nielsen Soundscan which is pretty much the industry standard. There are also companies that monitor the internet and pay songwriters for plays they find online and then pay songwriters either on their own or through one of the performing right companies mentioned above. One is called TuneSat, but there are others too. Hope this helps!\",\n \"and also how do the people in charge of royalties know how much a radio station plays the song? I get it when there's stuff on the system as it can just link straight up online but when stations play records or CDs is there a way of counting plays?\",\n \"As someone whose rent is paid by this, here's my ELI5.. TL;DR: here are two types of strictly royalties as far as composers/writers go. Mechanicals and performance. If you're an artist or producer there's also artist royalties, producer royalties, and neighboring rights. Mechanicals: these are easy. The rate is set by the government and is paid on a per-sale basis at $0.091 per song sold, and that amount is divided up amongst the songwriters (so if there are two writers, each one of them gets $0.0455 for every song sold). They're collected and administered by either the record labels (who receive the gross money for the sale and pay everyone out) or in the case of cover songs, a company called the Harry Fox Agency. These payments are usually semiannual but sometimes quarterly. Performance: this is a much wider net. Is your song in a TV show? Every time it plays you'll receive SOME money - how much is up to a complex formula based system put in place by the \\\"Performance Rights Organizations\\\" (i.e. ASCAP, BMI, SESAC, GMR, etc). I've made anywhere from 3 cents to over a thousand on a single TV play (depending on how long they use it, what time of day, how many people watch the show, what network, etc). Radio plays are also paid to the writers per play, and can be up to $15 per station per play. So if your song is getting 2000 spins a week (i.e. a hit song), that's $30k per week to split amongst the writers. Not bad. The PRO's all have different pay schedules, but to make things easy let's say they're basically quarterly. Streaming comes through both lanes depending on if you're published and how the song is released. Spotify/Pandora will usually come through the PRO (sometimes the former through the route of the mechanical). The rub with these services is that the music labels will license the song to them extra cheap in exchange for stock on the company or large non-specific advances that they don't have to pass along to the artists/writers - no bueno. Which is why artists/writers are complaining about streaming while the corporate side is suspiciously silent.. And lastly if you are the artist you'll get an additional artist royalty from the label once you've made back the money they spent on you (or making your album). Producers are entitled to a similar royalty, albeit much smaller. And then there's this thing called \\\"neighboring rights\\\" in other countries where the people who performed on the song (musicians, producers, artists) and the label owners get an additional performance royalty for that - but that is for another day.\",\n \"I worked for a radio station about a zillion years ago, when it was two turntables and a microphone, and we were required to keep track of what we played. With a pencil and a logbook. I assumed it was so the artist would get paid, but I don't know for sure. The DJ had a lot of discretion over what he played, so they couldn't rely upon a predetermined setlist. Or maybe they just wanted to make sure we weren't playing lousy music. But I think it was the royalty thing.\",\n \"Ok, I can provide a brief overview here but I'm sure lawyers and others more directly involved in the music business will have more to add and provide greater accuracy. With every recorded song there are two copyrights, one for the composer and one for the recording artist. Sometimes those rights belong to the same person, sometimes not. Anyway, composers and recording artists both have groups that represent them and collect royalties on their behalf. The problem is that there are multiple types of rights that can be licensed to a song or composition. For example, if you want to publicly perform a composition, you'll have to get with a performing rights organization (PRO) (or rather, the venue you perform at will). Want to burn your cover to a CD? You'll need a mechanical license but that's a different organization. You can see a flow chart of the process here: URL_0 Bear in mind that the chart is based on the UK so some terms are slightly different though the principle, to my understanding, is largely the same. Theoretically, these various groups who hold all of these different rights pay the artists they represent, usually quarterly. How they determine the payment is usually by how much the songs they created are used. How that is determined varies from group to group. For example, record labels know pretty well exactly how many copies of a CD are sold or how many times a song is streamed on Spotify. But how many times a song is performed in a club? Well, that's a bit more difficult. To that end PROs rely on bars and restaurants to provide reporting forms on what they played. Few, in my experience, do, so it ends up being like Nielsen, where a small number of clubs are used to determine what clubs at large are playing. Like I said though, methods vary depending on the rights at issue. All of that being said, music licensing is a giant mess that leaves no one happy. This is one of the reasons it's a major topic for copyright reform in the U.S. over the next few years. I know it's not very ELI5, but hopefully it helps some. Edit: To answer the question about how long it goes on, it goes until the copyright in the work expires. So yes, the person will receive checks until their death and then their estate will continue to get such checks for quite a long period of time afterward.\",\n \"Fun fact: Simon Cowell's X Factor/ idol artists (one direction etc) almost all include musical samples played by Cowell (eg a single tambourine hit) on their records, so that Cowell personally receives PRS as a performer. Source: am in industry and know a writer for Olly Murs/1D fun fact 2 while we're on the subject, there is a music production company that specialises in quite literally adding 'the one direction kick drum' to other people's work. They get paid a shocking amount for this.\",\n \"There are two components of a song that are distinct and separate and understanding how they are different is essential. 1. The composition that a song writer composes and puts down in sheet music. This is the copyright and the royalty recipient is the songwriter. He is often represented by a Publisher. 2. A recording of such a composition. This is the master and the royalty recipient is the artist. He is often represented by a Label. The terminology is important. While \\\"artist\\\" seems like a fair way to describe someone who writes songs, it will cause confusion if you try to apply it that way in this kind of discussion. So songwriter-copyright-publisher and then artist-master-label is the way it is. Both the songwriter and the artist receive royalties but they are quite different in how they are calculated and handled. Sometimes the writer and the artist are the same person, probably more often they are not, but even if they are, they will get checks from two different entities. Think about \\\"singer songwriter\\\" as a genre, it's referring to someone who does both. Let's invent a writer and an artist for these examples - Joe Melody is a gifted songwriter and composer, and Bob Crooner is a singer with a killer voice. Joe Melody is represented by a Publisher, and Bob Crooner is represented by a Label. Each of those entities is responsible for tracking the usage of their intellectual property, gathering the income and distributing it to Joe and Bob. There are so many different revenue streams it's hard to break down who gets what from where but I'll try. I guess I will go by platform, and keep it simple. There is plenty of nuance and exception that will bog us down. CD, LP, Cassette or other physical format, and also digital permanent download: Crooner records an album of 10 of Melody's songs. His label gets him in a studio and manufactures a CD and gets it on Amazon and they also get the album on iTunes. On Crooner's behalf, his Label has requested from Melody's Publisher licenses to use the written songs. To keep it brief, these licenses are free and require only that Crooner notify Melody that it is happening. This license binds Crooner to pay Melody 9.1c for every sale he makes of him singing Melody's song. This rate is set by the government and the Label is responsible for paying it to the Publisher. The Label will administer this whole deal. So a track gets sold on iTunes. iTunes receives 0.99c and the Crooner's Label a month or two later gets their 0.70c. Crooner's label then owes Melody's Publisher 9.1c. So what happens to the other 0.60c and what does Crooner get? That depends. Because at first music could not be recorded and taken away to listen to again, we have a very well developed government mandated ruleset for compositions, but not for the master recordings. They were a relatively late development, and the free market has found its own level. Basically Crooner and the Label agree on a percentage of income that allows for both to earn something. Crooner agrees to a 15% royalty. Does that seem low? It's not really. Out of the 0.60c the Label is left with it needs to do a lot of things, including recoup the costs of the studio time, artwork, manufacturing, promotion etc. and also pay their rent and staff. The bargaining power of each party will ebb and flow over time and contracts will be renegotiated every couple of years. Three to five years is a normal range for a contract. If Crooner signs for 15% of net income on a three year contract and he really takes off as a singer, when the contract expires he can ask for more or shop around if he wants. Radio Play Crooner's song comes on the radio in your car. Crooner gets nothing. Melody's and his Publisher are members of a Performance Rights Organisation which arranges paid licenses with anybody who wishes to publicly play music and distributes fees to the songwriters based on how much airplay a song gets. This PRO will pay Melody his share direct and Melody's Publisher their share direct, this is not something the Publisher manages. How much it is depends on the PRO and what kind of deal they made with whoever is playing the music. Remember how I said Crooner gets nothing? That's just the way it is in the US right now. Luckily for Crooner, terrestrial radio is becoming a smaller piece of the pie. He will get performance royalties as an artist for digital radio and digital streaming services like Sirius, Pandora or Spotify. Melody is already set up to receive his songwriter royalty. For streaming it is set at 10% of net income, not 9.1c. A lot of streaming plays, especially if they are ad-supported might bring in a fraction of a cent. I'm going to stop here to see if I am getting at the info you want. I'm happy to expand and answer other questions. I've been in the business of operating label and publisher concerns for 15 years. ETA: the royalty cycle is either quarterly or half yearly and you can expect to get paid 45-90 days after the end of a period for any income processed during said period. e.g. Jan-Jun might be a pay period, and everyone would received checks mid August or end September.\",\n \"I actually do this for a living, in a few different projects: my band Canopy Climbers ( URL_0 ), my licensing projects Tiny Houses ( URL_1 ) and Monobox ( URL_2 ). Most all royalties are handled through my PRO (performing rights organization), and in my case that is SESAC. Most pay out quarterly via check or direct deposit, although I think SESAC can do monthly as well, at least for publishing royalties. Those royalties will keep coming as long as it continues being licensed, played on radio, etc. So essentially, you get paid for the entirety of the songs life. I can't speak to a hit song on radio, but I can speak to having songs placed on tv. These can range any where from $500-$25,000+, including both up front payment and backend royalties. Until we got management, we were licensing songs based on back-end royalties only, meaning no upfront payment, only the royalties received after the show airs. Now we get smaller front end payments as well as backend royalties (thanks management!). We've been placed several times on MTV, E! Network, Style Network, and then online in a buncha different places. How much the royalty is depends on several factors. Is is just an instrumental transition piece? Is it vocal-up, meaning a lead vocal singing in the placement? How long is it? The longer the placement, the more the royalty rate, as well as vocal up vs. no vocal. Also, the more the show airs, the more you are paid as it is paid per show. Would be glad to answer any other questions. Still kinda new at this but I'll do my best.\",\n \"I actually know this one! My stepfather was a recording artist. His royalty checks came monthly, they were small as he did not sell a lot of records in his later years. He passed away 6 years ago, now my mom gets them\",\n \"All the answers on here talking mostly about Performance Rights Organizations like ASCAP, BMI and SESAC, which take care of songs being played on the radio and live. However, if you're signed to a record label or a publishing company, and your songs are selling or people are covering your songs, you will be paid by the respective company. For example, if you sign to Big Cool Records, they'll give you an up front advance, some money to record the album, and they'll spend a bunch on marketing, etc. and manufacturing the album. Every time al album sells, based on how much royalty you negotiated with them (between 10-20%), money will be added to your account within the label. Once they recoup all the money they've spent on you (essentially making that advance you got a loan), you will be paid based on your royalty. Those checks come in once a quarter (4 times a year). If it's a hit song, you will recoup your account quicker and get paid sooner but that depends on how deep in debt you are with the label and how big the song is and how much it is selling (real sales - like on iTunes and in stores) Feel free to PM me if you have any more questions! Source: I'm a music lawyer\",\n \"I was in an indie band that toured a lot but never had a hit song (mostly college radio and specialty market radio), but which had music licensed for several TV shows and films, the highest profile of which was probably the TV show How I Met Your Mother. This was probably six years ago and I still receive quarterly checks on this. The checks have remained consistent mostly because the show continues to play on different channels internationally. The amounts have declined over time somewhat, but annually I would say royalties total about $3,000. However, I should note that I control both the writing \\\"side\\\" and the publishing \\\"side\\\" of our music. When you are paid royalties on music, the royalties are split between the writer(s) who are credited with composing the song and the publishers, who control use of the recording. It is common for bands to sell their publishing rights in exchange for up front money, or for record labels to control and/or own the publishing for bands they release. It would not be unusual for a song to have three to five \\\"writers\\\" and have the publishing controlled by a label or publishing company. In this case any individual band member would see a greatly reduced cut. Speaking from a musician standpoint, licensing is the best because you don't have to \\\"do anything\\\" and the money just comes in. Of course, they are few and far between, especially for a no-to-almost-no name band like mine was!\",\n \"Music royalties are fun - and slightly crazy. :) Quick credentials, I'm a director at a music licensing company that represents over 600 amazing artists. Here's a basic rundown. There are multiple \\\"royalties\\\" beyond just performance royalties, here's a description of each one: 1. Like mentioned below, there are organizations called PROs which are \\\"Performance Royalty Organizations\\\" - in the US that would be BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC. When a music artist creates a new song they register it with their PRO and that PRO collects royalties from radio stations, streaming sites/apps, and television plays from commercials or programming. That is \\\"performance royalties\\\" and usually are cents or partial cents per play - very low revenue. Which is why articles come out about artists being upset about Spotify and other streaming sites because they make so little compared to album sales. 2. Sync licensing is another portion of music royalties. When a commercial, YouTube video, Netflix show, or other content is created the filmmaker or production company must license the music that is going in the video content. This is a huge deal and allows musicians and bands to make significant revenue on the front end of content creation. Then when those films or videos go out they have time periods associated with the license that they can renew after 6 months or a year so for example the artist continues to make money as a tv commercial keeps running. 3. There is also mechanical licensing which is required if a music artist wants to cover and record a song that they did not write. So if I wanted to cover a Coldplay song and record it, then I would need to purchase a mechanical license. That way the original author gets revenue from that. One other note - it's important to understand the difference between the different types of ownership: 1. Master owner - a person who own part of the recording (think MP3, CD, the actual noise on a recording) 2. Publishing Owner - a person who owns part of the publishing 3. Writership Owner - a person who wrote the song Each of those owners get paid based on how much they own. Some people own 100% of their songs, while others might only own 50% of the publishing while their record label owns 100% of the master and 50% of the publishing. TL;DR: Yes, a song writer gets a payment each month from their representation like a PRO or their licensing representation which might be their label or a music licensing company. Feel free to ask questions. I tried to write this on my phone quickly, haha.\",\n \"**Can we extend this question to television?** My particular interest is in **how long** do royalties continue? Is [Robert Clary]( URL_0 ) still collecting from reruns of Hogan's Heroes? Is Carol Burnett still picking up a check from MeTV airing old episodes of her show? Going back to the early B & W 1960s, is Ron Howard still getting beer money from The Andy Griffith Show? If so, **how much** would you guess such 30-, 40- and even 50-year old shows earn for their stars?\",\n \"You mean a hit song now? Or a hit song when there was actually some money in the music business? Back then people actually paid for music, and even if you only had one or two good songs, a single hit could sell an entire album which would sell for about $12-15. There were big cuts being taken from that from the record company, reproduction costs etc, but the performance percentage earned artists something, and writers could still make money too. All of that is gone now. People don't buy CD's and most people get music for free on youtube. There are some legit services like spotify but the % is so low that you have to be a household name to make any decent money. Places like iTunes are a bit better but similar, and if you do get lucky enough to have a lot of people download your stuff, it is most likely just one or two songs - not a whole album. The reason most people don't care is because they still see people like Bieber in his Ferrari and assume pop stars are as rich as ever. But it's not true. The likes of Gaga and Bieber are not musicians or bands, but rather products that are sold with a huge company behind them. A company like that will put a million dollars down to promote a pop star like that, because they will get 50 million back. The problem is that all the smaller (real) artists and bands who used to maybe have a top 40 single in the past, do not make any way near enough money to survive anymore. In the past there was enough money in the business for bands like that to survive. Nowadays they make nothing from their music at all, and are in fact expected to just give it away for free because they need people to hear it and hear about the band. If you are lucky you will get people to buy tickets to your show and then you might make some money, although even then, many venues don't pay the performer at all unless they reach a certain threshold. tl-dr, big corporate machines like Rhianna and whatnot, are still making huge amounts of money. But everyone else makes nothing from music now. And for that reason, nobody is being signed, and in fact A & R departments don't even exist anymore. Nobody is out there visiting all the clubs and looking for the next big thing. Someone might pay some attention if you somehow go viral on youtube, but that is extremely rare.\",\n \"I am a songwriter. Here is your basic breakdown of how you would make money. Say I write a song that gets cut (recorded) by an Artist that is decently well known. The first I would need to do is register with BMI, ASCAP, SESAC, or one of the smaller ones. We will use BMI for an example. What they do is take a very small fee with the promise of going out and collecting the money you are owed from record labels, radio stations, etc. Yes, money does come in the mail and you get it roughly every quarter. If you are doing well you might get more. That's what we like to call \\\"mailbox money\\\". The amount of money you make on a \\\"hit\\\" song has a lot of variables. For instance if you are self published or have an admin deal then you are making 90-100% of your money on a song. If you have a co publishing deal you make 50% of your money and the publisher makes 50%. There's also writing splits. In places like LA where people are assholes their lawyers negotiate really rough splits. You can see 5 names on a song but what you may not know is one of those guys is only getting 2 1/2 %. This stuff happens literally everyday. Nashville is a more respectable place where generally who ever is in the song. Gets an equal share. EDIT: If anyone has any questions about anything or I missed anything let me know and I would be happy to answer.\",\n \"Back when the Dr. Demento Show was syndicated to about 50 radio stations one of my songs was played 3 times in a quarter. I eagerly awaited my ASCAP statement for that quarter and was confused when I got one that said that none of my songs had been played. Armed with a complete list of radio stations that carried the show and the playlist for the 3 shows in question I called them and asked what was going on. They said apparently none of the stations that carried the show had gotten sampled at that time and there was nothing they could do. So despite the fact that I could provide them with a list of radio stations, dates, and times to the minute when my songs were played I got no money. Remember that next time you hear about ASCAP suing a bar for playing music without an ASCAP license because they \\\"want to make sure their artists get paid.\\\" No, they don't. If they did they'd actually count the plays. We have computers, people. It's really not that hard. tl;dr: Me: \\\"150 spins on the radio!\\\" ASCAP: \\\"LOL NOPE!\\\"\",\n \"The composer gets paid by performance collection agencies like BMI and ASCAP, and by Harry Fox Agency, which collects mechanical royalties (sales of CDs LPs Tapes, etc.) For many years I received no check or $0.98. After I was performed more it began to average $100 a quarter. One time one of my tunes was used as a theme song for a network TV talk show for a week. I think I got about $2000 for that. I had one major hit. A famous rapper sampled one bar of a funk track that I had composed back in the '70s. in one 18 month period, I received about $150,000. It was one tune on a CD of 7 or 8 tunes. I as composer, got half of the royalties for that song, about 4 or 5 famous rappers, split the other half. Now 15 or 20 years later, I still get 15 or 20 cents a quarter for that song. But now my quarterly checks average from $50 to $1000. Edit: spell\",\n \"I am a registered artist with one of the big 3 PROs, but I have no idea how any of this works because my band never became popular :(.\",\n \"In my experience the singer takes all the royalties and doesn't pay the musicians for anything because it's a privilege to work with him.\",\n \"You mention composer, but there are actually two types of music royalties. The composer receives what is referred to as the publishing royalty. This royalty is collected for the underlying written work or composition of a song. The second type of royalty is the artist royalty, which is collected for the exploitation of the master recording. These 'masters' are usually owned by record labels who share a percentage of their sales with their recording artists. To make the most money as a musician you need to both write and record your own music. Since you mention composer specifically, I'll address that issue. As a composer/songwriter, you'll collect on a quarterly basis from your publisher (i.e. Sony/ATV, Warner/Chappell, or UMPG). These publishers collect on your behalf for all exploitation of your works, whether that be CD sales/downloads, radio play, streaming, or sync licensing for use in TV/Film. Your publisher is all associated to PRO, who licenses and collects fees for the performance of your works from radio, concert halls, bars/restaurants, and pretty much any other public place where music may be played. The PRO will pay your publisher, who will then pass that money on to you. Publishers pay their composers on a quarterly basis and keep an administration fee. The more popular you works are, the more money you'll get paid. As for how much money a hit song can make, the sky is the limit. As a composer, you will collect more based on the share of the song that you wrote. Most songs are not written by a single person. With that said, the best way to make money is to get as many sync licenses as you can. TV and film producers are usually willing to pay a pretty penny for the right song in their movie, show or commercial. On the flip side, royalty rates for streaming are so low, you'll need to millions upon millions of views to start to make some decent coin. Mechanical royalties, which are publishing royalties for the sale of a CD or permanent download, have also declined substantially as music sales in the traditional sense are much lower than they used to be. I'm happy to answer any other questions you may have as I've been in this business for over 10 years.\",\n \"Well depends on what kind of royalty. Two types 1. Royalty from the publisher(songwriter's version of a label, most of the time paired up with labels or extensions of labels) These are paid bi-annually. You get 9.1 for every song you have on a album for each sale, unless you have a controlled composition clause, which means the performer of the song also had some writing of the song, which most of the time is less. 2. Performance rights organization. These are paid out every financial quarter, so end of March, June, September and December. There are two bigger public ones, BMI and ASCAP, and two private ones, which are invitation only which are SESAC and these brand new one I can't think of the name...These are the big money ones which know whenever your song is played on the radio you get paid. Depending on how popular it is on the radio it can be at a high tier than other, therefor a bigger payout. I have plenty of songwriter friends, and one, back in 1981 got his first check from BMI for 80k, and that's in 1980s dollars, and still gets enough payouts each month from them to pay a mortgage on a house he says, don't know how much that means to him, but probably at least a few thousand. Another friend, he's only like 24, but be wrote a song by a certain country duo, and in the first quarter it was a 210k payout, but was split with two other songwriters. His songwriting pay outs let him be able to jump start his own career which is pretty common. Brantley Gilbert who i don't really know, but we run in the same circles did the same thing, he wrote like a bunch of Jason Alden songs, which financed his own career before it really started, he also. This is also sometimes called \\\"passing down\\\" which a more popular country artist will have a single which a less popular artist wrote, to help them financially, and it's all part of the good ol boys club.\",\n \"When you write a song that you want to earn royalties from, you register the song with whatever Performing Rights Organization you are signed up with (ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC are the big ones in America but there are hundreds worldwide). When you register the song, you attribute 200% of the ownership. 100% for the \\\"writer's share\\\" and 100% for the \\\"publishing share.\\\" So, if you have an ideal set agreement with whoever is exploiting your music you own 100% of the writers share as well as 100% of the publishing share (however, many libraries take the publishing share and sometimes part of the writer's as well). If a piece of music is placed in a television show or movie, for example, it is listed on a cue sheet (a document that is submitted with every episode of every show and film detailing what song is used, who wrote it, who published it, and what kind of use it is - Background Instrumental, Background Vocal, etc.). This is sent to your PRO who keeps track of how many times an episode/film/commercial aired and other royalty-generating means, looks at the cue sheet and sees for how long your music played, and pays it accordingly. You get a check every quarter (3 months) directly from your PRO. This is a pretty rough break down of it but hopefully it is helpful for those unfamiliar. I mostly work with TV/Film music, but I think radio play works in a similar way. Source: I work for a music publisher\",\n \"A decade ago, I was part of a comedy troupe ( URL_0 ) and we at one point recorded some radio sketches, in hopes of making a \\\"record\\\" (like old skool Python). Anyways, last year I was informed about Sound Exchange. A company that started up to collect royalties for artists. Turned out SIRIUS XM had been playing our sketches for 10 years (legally and all that) but no one was collecting the royalties...so once we signed up with Sound Exchange, we got a cheque for $15k (!). Now I get like. $100 every 6 months. So that's cool.\",\n \"For ad supported models like pandora, royalties for all record labels are collected by a holding company known as SoundExchange. The rate paid by pandora is based on # of sings streamed. The per song rate is currently $.14 per 100 songs streamed. Pandora pays about $400mn per year in these fees. The rate is set every five years. AND you won't believe this - but this rate decision actually happens. TOMORROW!!!!!!!!! Source: This shit is my job - and this decision is wildly fucking important for pandoras stock price. Google CRB pandora.\",\n \"more complicated question: why is it so expensive now to produce sample heavy hip hop beats? in the 80's and 90's all this extremly famous funk, jazz and soul was used for hip hop, now those records are expensive to re-release and those kind of samples are more rare. does it have to do with the original artists wanting more money? As an artist, am I taking a lot less money using beat samples? Are there legal obstacles that make it inefficient?\",\n \"So this thread reminded me that I'm a member of ASCAP, and I logged into my account for the first time in years. I have 12 \\\"works\\\" registered from an album that was released on a label in 2008, but nothing for all the singles, remixes, etc. that've been released on different labels since. My question is- do I need to be submitting my own releases to ASCAP or is it a label's responsibility?\",\n \"You probably won't see this but Courtney Love wrote a letter about 15 years ago about what piracy is. It explains how recording contracts work. URL_0 \",\n \"a bit late to the tale but here goes. there are or at least were a few different types of royalties back in the pre internet days. Radio stations would pay differing levels of royalties depending on the size of their audience. If you had a hit record on radio 1 (the uk national broadcaster broadcasting to millions) the payment, i believe, could be up to £45 per play. The collecting agency would take the payments from the radio station and take their cut which wasn't too much but lets say it was £5. The rest was passed to your publishing company who you signed your deal with (who should not only collect your money and pass on your cut but should actively try and place your music on to say tv, film, compilation albums etc). A typical publishing deal would be a 70/30 split in your favou, so they'd take £12 and pass on £28 to you. If there were four writers you'd get £7 each. It can get tricky though because there are royalties for the music and royalties for the lyrics. if you were to license your song to say an advert as my friend once did (a vodka advert for smirnoff, check out dylan rhymes - naked and ashamed) then there's two separate fees involved. The advert has to buy not only the music rights to use it (which are owned by the record company) but also the publishing rights. so they could pay the record co £10k of which you'd get a cut depending on your deal and the publishing co would get paid £10k and you'd get £7k as per the split. EVERY time that advert is played you would get a publishing royalty for it, depending on the audience size. there are also royalties for other things. If sheet music is produced of it then again you would get a royalty from that. Here's the interesting royalty which not many new about, mechanical royalties. these are paid to the producer (s) who may not necessarily be a part of the band. this royalty was paid for EACH AND EVERY physical copy that was made of a record or cd. I can't recall the amount, maybe 10%?, but it was worked out on the distributor price (which back in the day would have been circa £2.20 per 12\\\" record). It would have been collected in the UK by the MCPS, the mechanical copyright protection society. So there would have been 22p per copy in mechanical royalties. I believe the MCPS took 10% so lets say 2p. that leaves 20p and again, 70/30 split, the producer would come out with 14p. Now imagine that that album sold 10 million copies. you can see how that adds up very quickly to £1.4m. Just from one album. The producer probably didn't come up with any of the music creativity but would have crafted it all in to a song (ie, radio edits of 3m30s can be quite tricky to create from a full 5m30s song). Basically, the amount of money from royalties can be huge which is why Michael Jackson sold his Beatles publishing catalogue for $400m. Also, there was one occasion i recall that annie lennox had one of her songs played over 3000 times in one week on UK radio (details were published in Music Week). Publishing is HUGE. The guy who was Pink Floyds publisher owns/owned the Royal Berkshire Polo Club!! Hope this helps! EDIT: In the UK there is also a collecting agency called the PRS, the performance rights society. In theory, every time a song is played in a nightclub, the club should be making a playlist of what was played and pay out a royalty for each song. When people in the UK will see PRS stickers in shops etc, it's because music isn't free. If you want to have music in your shop to entertain your customers as they shop, you have to pay for it. again, you'd end up with a cut of that. I think nowadays shops get around it somehow by having their own instore radio stations. you'd also get a royalty if your song is used as telephone \\\"hold\\\" music. and as ring tones, and in birthday cards, fucking everywhere actually.\",\n \"Streaming and piracy have destroyed royalties though. My best friend wrote some #1 hits on Atlantic Records in the late 90s and very early 2000s. His royalties were roughly $500,000 usd a year. Around 2010 to now, between piracy and streaming his royalties have dropped to about $50,000 usd a year. Granted his songs aren't #1 anymore but he's been in this business for over 40 years and knows the trends very well and even years after a song is no longer a hit, your royalties don't drop 90 percent even a decade later. He's semi-retired because there's no more money in music so it's pointless to even do the work. People are just gonna steal it anyway. He did tell me though that what little work or writing he does is gear towards rock. He told me that among major labels that rock music is seen as a better choice than EDM or dance music because even though EDM is ridiculously popular at the moment, almost every EDM listener steals music. Stealing is much less common among rock music. So for example, if you write a EDM hit, you might have 1,000,000 listeners but almost every one of them will steal it instead of buying. It just seems to be the general behavior of EDM listeners. But if you write a rock hit, while rock is much less popular at the moment, you might only have 100,000 listeners but odds are very high that a huge portion of them will buy it. So you'll sell more songs to 100,000 rock fans than you will to 1,000,000 EDM fans. Hell, Steve Aoki and AVCII have been caught in their youtube vids using pirated software. I mean, they're filthy rich and can't even be assed to pay for the stuff they use...why would their listeners pay?\",\n \"I'm a media composer and write for a lot of trailers, commercials and tv shows. We usually get paid royalties every quarter (3 months). The amount is dependent on many variables, for example, the viewership, whether it's network or cable, time of day and what territory it's based in. However, some clients license your music through a \\\"buy-out,\\\" which allows them to just pay you a single (usually heftier) fee so they don't have to keep fulfilling royalty payments. I haven't written any \\\"hit songs\\\" but I've written music for quite large clients. I did an Ikea commercial about 5 years ago that still pay me every quarter. But for an example, I recently wrote music for a big kids animated movie trailer which screened on UK television for 2 weeks. I got approximately $8,000 for those two weeks of broadcasts so it **can** be a very lucrative business. (That's not including the fee I got to write the music.) I've written music for BBC shows and even shows like Kitchen Nightmares. BBC paid almost double in royalties beause it's network. The money is collected by your respective Rights Society, either PRS, ASCAP, BMI, etc. It's hard to wrangle in this business because fees, viewership figures and plays are all behind a curtain. You just have to trust your royalty society and their admin. Buyouts can be risky, too. I have a friend who had a client offer him 25K for a track for a beer commercial. My friend accepted without a second thought and a week later saw the commercial during the superbowl...he lost out on an insane amount of money because he accepted the buyout and didn't ask questions! That was a hard lesson that day...\",\n \"Finally, an excuse for my first post! I work for a European PRO (performing rights society) and from my experience, each pro collects license revenue from music users and distributes this revenue to the composers and publishers in the form of royalties. A PRO will license music usage in their own territory from radio stations, television broadcasters, live venues/festivals, restaurants, shops, businesses, record labels and also online platforms like YouTube, Spotify, iTunes and Amazon. Once a PRO receives the music reporting from these users, royalties are distributed to the composers and publishers based on a distribution schedule. The amount a composer/publisher gets is based on where the music is used and how large that license revenue is. For example, you will get paid more from a larger radio station per minute then from a smaller station which pays a smaller license fee. Once we have received the reporting for your music usage, a matching system will usually link this information to the song registrations we have on a database which are then linked to a composer or publishers account. Music usage in that PRO can usually take between 4-6 months to distribute but if your music gets broadcast overseas, it can take aslong as 2 years to receive this income from other performing right societies. I've probably missed out a load of useful info so let me know if you have a further questions!\",\n \"For actors, in the UK and Ireland at least, you used to get royalties after doing any TV or film. Now, you get a bit more money to buy you out of the royalties. My dad still gets royalties every year from a movie he did in the 70s. It was a small part. He'll usually get €0.50 if it's shown in South Africa or somewhere. He gets around €90.00 every year for a Christmas special he did in the 90s. It's not much, but it buys a present every year and it's better than a kick up the arse.\",\n \"Label owner here - We get a monthly payment from our distributor, which we then pass onto artists, less our fee. (60/40% Artist / Label split). It's always collected a few months behind but includes everything from itunes sales to youtube / spotify streams. If we've landed any synchronizations (music used in tv, video, movies and advertising etc) then we'll have separate terms for that. By no means are we a large label, but we do pull in about £500 a month from sales and streams.\",\n \"If anyone is interested in seeing how much a published artist makes in a year, Zoe Keating [made all of her 2013 financials public]( URL_1 ). She also put out [6 months of income in 2011-2012]( URL_0 ). If it's TL;DR for you - she makes the lion's share of her money from Album sales, via iTunes and Bandcamp. I'm sure performance income helps out a lot, and she doesn't state if this is gross or net... still interesting, though.\",\n \"It kinda sucks because streaming services should be better for artists. I've probably bought less than 20 CDs in my life, most of them at discounted prices. I used to just listen to the radio or get music from friends(perhaps not legally). Now I spend over NZ$100 a year on music in the form of music streaming services. By the time I die I'll have spent thousands. If I was still buying CDs it'd only be hundreds.\",\n \"Random related factabout James Brown's drummer. The dude tears it up in \\\"Funky Drummer\\\" and the world forgets about it until the 80's when someone rhymes over it. Hip hop is born. This drum track goes on to be the most sampled portion of a song in music history and the drummer, an old man today, has never seen a dime for it. Look up \\\"rhythm of the funky drummer\\\" for the full story.\",\n \"I have a friend who's grandpa is a violinist for movies and TV shows. He played for Family Guy, Futurama, Pirates of the Caribbean, etc. He basically told me what /u/dirtyfacedkid said, but he also gets paid by the hour during the actual recording sessions. He told me he gets around $200 an hour and afterwards he receives royalties after the movie/tv show is released.\",\n \"My friend is the co-founder of Timex Social Club and song writer who put out [Rumors]( URL_0 ) in 1986. They opened for the RUN-DMC 'Raising Hell' tour that same year. Despite being a #1 R & B hit in 1986, the amount he gets from royalties isn't enough to buy a loaf of bread most months.\",\n \"A guy I work with was on SNL in the 80s. He did a few movies around that time too, and he gets a check for about $0.12 - $0.25 a month. So to answer your question, (even though this is movie biz vs music biz) yes. [Gary Kroeger IMDB]( URL_0 )\",\n \"Kinda relevant. The same goes for PPV fights (WWE, UFC, Boxing, Etc.) I once saw a job on craigslist that wanted you to go to bars and be \\\"undercover\\\" and see if a place is broadcasting the PPV, and charging an additional cover.\",\n \"What I have learned from this thread: 1. Turn a song you write and perform into a meme 2. ??? 3. Profit Rick Astley lucked out for sure.\",\n \"Could an artist (or friend of the artist) just put their song/album on repeat on spotify and rake in money?\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["the time they receive their payments. They are \"getting reporting quarterly, or six-monthly, on sales that happened six months ago.\" Caldas explained that \"royalty statements could be a year old\".\nIn February 2015, Music Business Worldwide reported on a French study between music trade body SNEP and EY that concluded that major labels kept 73% of Spotify Premium payouts, while writers/publishers received 16%, and artists received 11%. Mike Masnick of Techdirt wrote: \"Sure, in the past, it may have been reasonable for the labels to take on large fees for distribution, but that's when it meant manufacturing tons of plastic and","-26.710750660975464"],["Recording artist royalties Recording artist royalties are a vital part of an artist's income and are gained through the digital and retail sale of their music along with the use of their music in streaming services, broadcasting, and in other forms of media such as TV shows and films.","-25.735519089445006"],["has given him a steady income over the past 20 years. Being a lyricist is just a part-time for Lau because this career is not steady and for each song, a lyricist can only receive from HKD$1500–5000. This is only for those who have taken the advance payment, meaning that taking $5000 before receiving the rest of royalties. He tried not to receive “advance” for two years but realized cannot sustain his life by writing a song for a few hundred dollars. Unlike famous singers, lyricists cannot count on the royalties of several classics while they have to produce a","-25.046307379045174"],["to nothing).\" In 2009, Swedish musician Magnus Uggla pulled his music from the service, stating that after six months he had earned \"what a mediocre busker could earn in a day\".\nNorwegian newspaper Dagbladet reported in 2009 that the record label Racing Junior earned only NOK 19 ($3.00 USD) after their artists had been streamed over 55,100 times. According to an infographic by David McCandless, an artist on Spotify would need over four million streams per month to earn the U.S. minimum monthly wage of $1,160. In October 2011, U.S. independent label Projekt Records stated: \"In the world I want to","-24.803677785064792"],["I have done six songs in ten days, but that is rather beyond my average rate. I probably write from twelve to fifteen songs a year, but I do not work constantly. Sometimes for a month I will not touch pen to paper, and then I will make up for lost time by working almost continuously for the next month. It is hard to say just how I write. I will read a little poem, perhaps, and then the melody comes, and, do you know, that particular melody is always thereafter connected with that poem. I might put the poem","-24.80103220991441"],["usually for a one-time fee. This can initiate negotiations, whose points of interest usually include things like how the work is being used, the length of the segment, the prominence of the cue (whether used as background music, or as the title track during the credits), and the overall popularity and importance of the song or recording. Sync licensing fees can range anywhere from free, to a few hundred dollars, to millions of dollars for popular recordings of songs: in the last case, the producer must pay for both the use of the master and the composition.","-24.437012745591346"],["Spotify removed all time limits for Free users on all platforms, including on computers, which previously had a 10-hour monthly listening limit after a 6-month grace period.\nIn April 2018, Spotify began to allow Free users to listen on-demand to whatever songs they want for an unlimited number of times, as long as the song is on one of the user's 15 personalized discovery playlists.\nAs of April 2019, all service users are limited to 10,000 songs in their library, after which they will receive an \"Epic collection, friend\" notification, and will not be able to save more music to their library.","-24.06049297831487"],["is based on several factors, for instance, media exposure, personal fame and the type of music. Nobody can guarantee a musician can get the amount of money that he expects.","-23.935119010609924"],["saying they have been paid to play the songs. \"For as little as $30, a band can buy 1,000 plays on the music-streaming service, slotted in between established artists. The artists themselves choose what other music they'd like to be played next to.\"","-23.7273301811656"],["You Write the Songs Format Each week three amateur songwriters had their original song performed by the shows regular singers, all of whom were alumni of Star Search, the songs were then judged by a rotating celebrity panel with the winners advancing toward a $100,000 grand prize.\nAmong the celebrities who appeared as judges were Smokey Robinson, Whitney Houston, Melissa Manchester, and Neil Sedaka. Host Ben Vereen","-23.699317989929114"],["site at least once every 60 days and renew their license by signing in or downloading a song, and the songs would work for sixty days after the last license renewal. In the event that the license should expire, it could always be renewed at a later date to restore function to the tracks. For songs that were on portable devices, the device had to be synced with a computer once every 60 days to keep the songs active. In addition to music, Spiralfrog had 5000+ music videos also available for free at 300kbit/s streaming or 1000kbit/s if","-23.477281124680303"],["the time, compared to iTunes, the average listener spends $60 annually on music, whereas Spotify Premium users spend twice that amount. According to Wallach in 2012: \"The growth of the platform is proportional to the royalty pay out, and since inception, we’ve already doubled the effective per play rate.\" Thom Yorke In July 2013, Radiohead singer Thom Yorke and producer Nigel Godrich removed their band Atoms for Peace and Yorke's solo music from Spotify. In a tweet, Yorke stated: \"Make no mistake—new artists you discover on #Spotify will not get paid. Meanwhile, shareholders will shortly be rolling in it. Simples.\"","-23.288451672939118"],["royalty payments for the songs he had written. He testified that he had not been paid any royalties between 1989 and 2009. A jury in Los Angeles awarded him $5 million in damages in January 2015, but in December the award was overturned because, the appellate court ruled, the trial judge had not told the jury to take into account the fact Stone had assigned his royalties to a production company in exchange for a 50% ownership stake. In May 2016, Stone's attorneys appealed that decision. Personal life Stone married model-actress Kathy Silva on June 5, 1974 during a sold-out","-23.248805886498303"],["job revolves around music clearance alone.\nWhen it comes to royalty collections, a music supervisor will sometimes be in charge of arranging this source of the selected artist's revenue. Royalties for music placements are paid out by Performance Rights Organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC in the United States). In order to detect the placements an artist has made with visual media, these companies need to be aware of their placement. Depending on the type of project (ad placement, television show, etc.). the music supervisor will have to either make sure the artist is credited properly, send video clips of","-23.223977986563114"],["offer songwriting diplomas and degrees with music business modules. Since songwriting and publishing royalties can be substantial sources of income, particularly if a song becomes a hit record; legally, in the US, songs written after 1934 may be copied only by the authors. The legal power to grant these permissions may be bought, sold or transferred. This is governed by international copyright law.\nSongwriters can be employed to write either the lyrics or the music directly for or alongside a performing artist, or they present songs to A&R, publishers, agents and managers for consideration. Song pitching can be done on a","-23.190837379719596"],["ten mediocre songs. And with our schedules and Roger’s studio, going in to bust out five songs at a time keeps the frequency of music into the fan’s hands at a peak.\"","-23.1604191455408"],["$200,000, averaging $18,000 for each of the eleven songs which were included on Loud; the camp consisted of forty writers and producers. Daniels confirmed that Rock City received $15,000 and Sham $20,000 for their part in the production of \"Man Down\". He said that \"to get that twelve minutes of inspiration from a top songwriting team is expensive — even before you take into account the fee for the songwriters\". A cost of $53,000 for \"Man Down\" was already incurred prior to Rihanna entering the studio with a vocal producer. Although Makeba Riddick did not serve as the song's vocal","-23.029175011635743"],["each day would start at twelve PM, and last until six. Some songs were played ten times, while some others had two or three versions made, but usually the first take was chosen to be featured on the final product. The only tracks that were done in one take were \"Backwell\" and \"Battery Point\". Barrow said about the lyric writing, \"I never wrote anything down. And what you hear is what happened in the [recording] room. Non-traditional vocals, really. I’m not a very lyrical person, and I’m definitely not a singer. I felt a little weird about it.\" The album","-23.023110161389923"],["to have their work performed by adventurous musicians specifically looking to champion new music. While a constraint, the one-minute miniature format allows for the composer to write a short composition with greater ease than a longer work. Fifteen Minutes of Fame encourages experimentation and opportunities to write for instrumentation that are not commonly available. With the significantly larger number of works selected being 15 and the frequency Fifteen Minutes of Fame is produced, it becomes a huge resource for composers to have their work played and receive greater exposure.\nThe one-minute miniatures for Fifteen-Minutes-of-Fame are written by composers from all over","-22.99069750623312"],["license agreeing to pay us royalties and I thought the problem was solved. Over the years we have had legal action concerning the song, but today, that is over, and the song is now acknowledged to be Preston Foster's.\n Again according to Rabinowitz, royalties from the song amounted to between $20,000 and $30,000 a year in the 2000s. He said \"Every six months I send Preston a check... He's basically still making a living from this song.\" Foster later set up GetIt Records in Jamaica, New York, and released singles under his own name and","-22.957693658981952"],["staff writer effectively means that, during the term of the songwriter's contract with the publisher, all their songs are automatically published by that company and cannot be published elsewhere.\nIn the Nashville country music scene, there is a strong staff writer culture where contracted writers work normal \"9-to-5\" hours at the publishing office and are paid a regular salary. This salary is in effect the writer's \"draw\", an advance on future earnings, which is paid on a monthly basis and enables them to live within a fixed budget. The publisher owns the copyright of songs written during the term of the","-22.946829644584795"],["of new material that had never been published before. The authors and composers of these songs were paid as much as $7.00 for each song, which would be the only monetary compensation that they would get.","-22.92353035241831"],["award is given to song with the largest increase in detections. A song with six or more spins in its first week is awarded an \"airplay add\". If a song is tied for the most spins in the same week, the one with the biggest increase that previous week will rank higher, but if both songs show the same amount of spins regardless of detection the song that is being played at more stations is ranked higher. Songs that fall below the top 20 and have been on the chart after 26 weeks are removed and go to recurrent status.","-22.803428055893164"],["three months of the year and is in high rotation, it would often peak higher than a song that had been in medium rotation for a number of months. However, if a popular song is only in low to medium rotation during the later part of the year, it would often chart very low or not at all on the year end countdown, only to appear very high on the countdown of the following year. Public Controversy On August 28, 1987, Epic Records sued WHTZ for playing Michael Jackson's song \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\" the day before","-22.686182783843833"],["new music on Fridays since Global Release Day on July 10, 2015. The final weekly charts are published on the Monday following the previous tracking week. (For example, for a tracking week beginning on Friday, January 1 and ending on Thursday, January 7, the final weekly charts would be published on Monday, January 11.)\nA song must be sold for at least $0.49 for that sale to be logged for a given tracking week; units sold for less than the minimum price requirement in the first three months of release will not be considered for weekly charts. A \"song unit\" is","-22.641894724569283"],["in a year and a half or two years upward of a half-million dollars\". Some of the former attendees who have gone on to writes successful songs include: Jon Vezner (Where've You Been – Kathy Mattea); Tia Sillers (I Hope You Dance – LeAnn Womack); Barry Dean (Pontoon – Little Big Town); and Lance Carpenter (Love Me Like You Mean It – Kelsea Ballerini). Festival sponsors Sponsors of the event have included American Songwriter Magazine, Folk Alliance International, corporate donors and performing-rights organizations such as BMI, SESAC and ASCAP. NSAI Senior Director of Operations Jennifer Turnbow said, \"We offer artistic","-22.616127976492862"],["track from that tour to receive an official release.\nIn December 2006, Record Collector magazine ranked Songs by George Harrison 122nd in its list of \"The 250 Most Valuable Records of Our Time\", with an estimated value of £800 for the book and disc set. Dale Allison describes it as \"obscure, hard-to-get, and very expensive\".","-22.547354486305267"],["Lyricist Royalties A lyricist's income derives from royalties received from original songs. Royalties may range from 50% of the song if it was written primarily with the composer, or less if they wrote the song in collaboration. Songs are automatically copyrighted as soon as they are in tangible forms, such as a recording or sheet music. However, before a song is published or made public, its author or publisher should register it with the Copyright Office at the U.S. Library of Congress to better protect against copyright infringement. Collaboration Collaboration takes different forms. Some composers and lyricists work closely together","-22.43597663450055"],["untrue, full stop [...] We pay royalties -- sound and publishing -- for all tracks on Spotify, and for everything we playlist. We do not own rights, we’re not a label, all our music is licensed from rightsholders and we pay them -- we don’t pay ourselves\". However, in another report, the Music Business Worldwide publication discussed the situation, including the artists' lack of social media profiles, lack of managers, lawyers and industry relationships, the listing of owning all their own rights, the lack of appearance on other streaming services, Spotify's denial to comment regarding questions of the artists' frequent","-22.391846580430865"],["million performances list and received an award for selling a million copies of sheet music. The song was also covered by Curtis Mayfield among many others.\n\"Times of Your Life\", written with Lane and performed by Paul Anka, had reached number one on the Adult Contemporary chart (3–10 January 1976).\nAnother Nichols-Williams song, \"Out in the Country\" by Three Dog Night (later covered by R.E.M.), reached the Top Ten. Six months later, \"Rainy Days and Mondays\" was another gold record by The Carpenters and Nichols' third gold record in a single year.\nOther hits were The Carpenters' \"I Won't Last a Day Without","-22.336656001250958"],["statutes which would have classified all \"sound recordings\" as \"works for hire\", effectively assigning artists' copyrights to record labels.\nBook authors may sell their copyright to the publisher. Alternatively, they might receive as a royalty a certain amount per book sold. It is common in the UK for example, for authors to receive a 10% royalty on book sales.\nSome photographers and musicians may choose to publish their works for a one-time payment. This is known as a royalty-free license. Based on net receipts Methods of calculating royalties changed during the 1980s, due to the rise of retail chain booksellers, which demanded","-22.321202274237294"],["adopted a simple formula of a 2.5% royalty rate multiplied by the amount of revenue generated by the performance of musical works from ASCAP's repertory. For Yahoo!, the district court took into account the fact that musical performances did not account for all of the revenue generated by its website. It thus estimated a \"music-use-adjustment factor\" (MUAF), consisting of the amount of time users spent streaming music divided by the amount of time all of Yahoo!'s online services were used. The court then multiplied the MUAF by Yahoo!'s total revenue in order to estimate the total revenue generated from musical","-22.3070520341862"],["Thomas), was present during the sessions, and stated that a writing camp typically involves the label hiring ten recording studios for two weeks at the cost of $25,000 per day. Daniels revealed that it is where songwriters have lyrics but no music, and where producers have music but no lyrics.\nSinger-songwriters and producers Taio Cruz, Alex da Kid, Sean Garrett, Ne-Yo, Rico Love, Timbaland, Shontelle, David Guetta, and Drake contributed to the album. \"DJ Got Us Fallin' in Love\" was written for Rihanna, but the song was rejected and was subsequently sent to Usher. With regard to \"What's My Name?\", Rihanna","-22.27279966488277"],["its second week, and spent five further weeks in the top 100 singles. In total, the single spent a total of ten weeks in the top 200 singles. Seven month after its release, the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for more than 100,000 paid downloads (excluding cellphone downloads).","-22.25883192392962"],["carefully disclaimed by the record companies so as to not violate payola laws and the playing of the song, as it is paid for, cannot be applied to song popularity charts, as has happened in the early 2000s with some forms of this concept. Brokered time through agencies Oftentimes broadcasters will seek the help of an ad agency to secure a brokered radio show. Agencies such as I Buy Time in Dallas, Texas or Bayliss Media Group in Los Angeles, California have the knowledge on how to negotiate a lower per-hour rate than what may be quoted by the radio","-22.25785082837683"],["Music for help generating the resources necessary to produce the record, ultimately raising $5k USD from fans (15% of the money received after the $5k goal was reached went to the charity Food From the Heart) and further funding the project with $20k SGD of her own money.\nIn an interview with Music Weekly, Bevlyn explained the album's concept: “I realised that the majority of my songs are usually inspired by the people I know in my life, as opposed to ‘fiction-writing’. The songs were inspired by my friends who practically grew up together with me (“Touch Of An Angel”), songwriting","-22.241026202915236"],["the BBC reported that \"Yesterday\" remained the fourth most successful song of all-time in terms of royalties paid, having amassed a total of £19.5 million in payments.","-22.236991147277877"],["final recording, at the time of The Key: \nIt takes me very little time to write the song. Ten, fifteen minutes at the most. But to arrange the song, I need to take all day. The song is written with whatever rhythm I've come up with, and I put the arrangement on top of that. I can keep it a little more to what I think it should be than if I allowed somebody else to do it. I sit at home with my little Portastudio, and I work up the bass part, record it; work up the guitar part,","-22.208916603238322"],["and can be a maximum of up to two hours in length.\nIn September 2016, Spotify introduced Daily Mix, a series of (up to six) playlists that have \"near endless playback\" and mixes the user's favourite tracks with new, recommended songs. New users can access Daily Mix after approximately two weeks of listening to music through Spotify. Daily Mixes were only available on the Android and iOS mobile apps at launch, but the feature was later expanded to Spotify's computer app in December 2016.\nIn July 2018, Spotify introduced a new beta feature that gives artists, labels and teams an easy way","-22.18008345113776"],["song receives 20% of the votes, thus it will receive 20% of the available points. The public vote will count for 50% of the final result, while the other 50% will come from the professional juries.","-22.177840411197394"],["and the Nokia Music Store, all of which charged users a monthly fee. The data that these services supplied was compiled into a record chart of the 500 most-played tracks—each week also featured top-line market statistics.\nWhen first launched, the Official Subscription Plays Chart tracked between 3 million and 3.5 million digital plays per week (with a weekly average of more than 3.2 million), across a library of approximately 340,000 unique tracks. The first song to top the chart was \"I Kissed a Girl\" by Katy Perry. As well as songs that were charting high in the companion UK Singles Chart,","-22.172297005425207"],["the most streams received by a song in a single day by a female artist on Spotify, with 8.19 million streams globally, and continued to break this record daily until November 9, when it received 9.6 million streams. The record was broken by Mariah Carey's \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" the following month. \"Thank U, Next\" surpassed 100 million streams in Spotify eleven days after its release on November 14, 2018, becoming the fastest song to do so, until Grande's next single, ”7 Rings” broke the record again reaching 100 million streams on Spotify nine days after the","-22.141704188485164"],["later made the album available to stream on competing services. In July 2017, West terminated his contract with Tidal, claiming that the service owed him $3 million. Finances and royalties One artist has stated that artist royalties per track from Aspiro/Tidal are currently over three times than those paid by Spotify, but that royalties may decrease to provide a sufficient return on investment. Jay-Z commented in an interview to Billboard that artists would be paid more by being streamed on Tidal than with Spotify, stating \"Will artists make more money? Even if it means less profit for our bottom line?","-22.050693980650976"],["Radio (Robbie Williams song) Chart performance \"Radio\" became Williams' sixth number one single in the UK Singles Chart, selling 41,734 in its first week. To date the song has sold 100,000 copies in the UK. The song also topped the charts in Portugal and Denmark and reached the top ten across Europe and Latin America. In Australia, the single charted at number twelve and after seven weeks on the charts, the single was certified Gold.\nThe song was Williams's last UK number-one for eight years until \"Candy\" took the top spot in November 2012.","-22.047901025194733"],["work out the song before all nine notes are revealed - then the prize for that round is lost and the players go on to the next round.\nThe cash values for correctly identifying the song in the first three rounds are $300 in round 1, $600 in round 2, and $1,200 in round 3, with a maximum possible total of $2,100. The team with the most money at the end of the game wins the game and goes on to play for double their main game cash winnings. Bonus round The winning team attempts to win double their cash winnings","-22.045098374481313"],["Songs chart in the same week and spent a total of three weeks on the chart.","-22.010187005194894"],["commented that it was just because \"we're cheaper\". Although exact figures are not known, Les Watkins, a music lawyer from Los Angeles, estimated that \"a song by an emerging artist could fetch up to $20,000 or $30,000\" and this is jointly split between record label and the songwriter/publisher. He stated that \"once lawyers, managers, and the rest of the entourage get their piece, the artist may only see a fraction of the payout.\" The Bait Shop The Bait Shop is introduced in the second season as a new night club and concert venue on the pier. It was an undeniable","-21.974675175377342"],["the way of music, jingles and advertising.\" But she says it took nearly a decade, when her son's friends from school came to her door to meet her, for the song's popularity to fully sink in.\nIn the 1970s, CBC began using the tune as the standard introduction for the show and Claman was entitled to music-use licence payments of between $2,000 and $10,000 each year. After she was advised by her agent in 1993 to license the song, she earned approximately $500 per broadcast. Legal action In November 2004, Dolores Claman and her publisher initiated legal action against CBC for","-21.93356077745557"],["stating in a 2009 interview with the PhillyBurbs online newspaper: \"I cannot write songs on a nine-to-five basis. At the risk of sounding pretentious, my songs come from somewhere else and I have to wait for them, so it's not up to me when I receive them. When the songs start to come, they all come at the same time. I may get 20 songs in three to four days and then it all stops again.\" 2000–2003: Return to music (Man, Hometown 2001, Aquarian Nation & the It Bites reunion) In 2000, inspired by watching a televised Shakti concert (featuring","-21.891269417799776"],["from an on-screen list.\nA music ringtone feature was introduced in the United States on September 5, 2007. Users can create custom ringtones from songs purchased from the iTunes Store for a small additional fee. The ringtones can be three to 30 seconds long from any part of a song, can fade in and out, pause from half a second to five seconds when looped, or loop continuously. All customizing can be done in iTunes, or with Apple's GarageBand software 4.1.1 or later (available only on Mac OS X) or third-party tools.\nWith the release of iOS 6, which was released on","-21.88022613004432"],["carefully to make Spotify the most artist-friendly company that has ever existed. ... We’re very interested in a high level of letting artists directly connect to their fans and manage that relationship and deliver value to their fans, and vice versa. We want to do that really elegantly, at a scale that's never existed before.\nIn a June interview with Hypebot, Wallach reported that $180 million of royalties was paid out in 2011 and 70% of Spotify's revenue consisted of royalty payments. Spotify's growth meant that the per-stream royalty rate doubled between the service's inception and mid-2012. He said that, at","-21.85951701333397"],["such as Cherry Garcia (Jerry Garcia), One Sweet Whirled (Dave Matthews Band) and Phish Food (Phish). All royalties from the sale of \"If I Had 1,000,000 Flavours\" are donated to the ABC Canada Literacy Foundation, a Toronto-based organization that promotes reading to children at home. Live performances Several live changes have been common in performances. The post-chorus banters mentioned earlier are ad libbed at every performance and far more lengthy than the album versions. Due to these banters, the song is typically the longest song in a concert (it typically falls at the end of the main set or as","-21.839569517644122"],["Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2017 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2017, the list was published on December 11, calculated with data from December 3, 2016 to November 25,","-21.767014762503095"],["from revenue of $244 million, while it was expected to generate a net loss of $40 million from revenue of $500 million in 2012.\nAnother source of income was music purchases from within the app. This service was removed in January 2013.\nIn May 2016, Spotify announced \"Sponsored Playlists\", a monetisation opportunity in which brands are able to specify the audiences they have in mind, with Spotify matching the marketer with suitable music in a playlist.\nThat September, Spotify announced that it had paid a total of over $5 billion to the music industry. In June 2017, as part of renegotiated licenses with","-21.762382216984406"],["Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2016 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2016, the list was published on December 8, calculated with data from December 5, 2015 to November 26,","-21.75649757883002"],["UK Singles Chart. All royalty proceeds from the first month of the single's release were donated to the BRIT Trust charity.\nSheet music for the Florence and the Machine version of You Got The Love was published by Wise Publications in the Florence and the Machine 'Lungs' songbook on 3 November 2009. Further productions \"Rock the House\", which sampled the vocals of Miami house artist Nicole, entered the Top 75 of the UK Singles Chart in 1991. Other notable The Source productions include 'Sanctuary of Love', released on Hooj Choons in 1993, and 'Clouds', a cover of the Chaka Khan track,","-21.751999783169595"],["and replenishes over time, when stamina drink items are used, or when paid items called Star Jewels are used.\nAt the end of each song, a result screen is displayed to player, and his or her performance is rated with a letter grade, a numerical score, and a percentage that represents his or her accuracy. The player is awarded an amount of in-game money for his or her performance, while each idol also receive a number of fans and affection points. Affection points are specific to each specific idol, and by reaching the maximum possible value, the individual idol's statistics points","-21.74118739090045"],["1988. At $1,000 a day, it was the most the band had paid to record an album up to that point, but it was close to where members Moore, Kim Gordon and Lee Ranaldo lived.\nDue to the amount of preparation the band put into composing its music, the recording process was largely efficient. The session became rushed near the end, as Paul Smith, head of the band's British label Blast First, had set a mastering date of August 18. As a result of the time pressure, Gordon was not happy with some of her resulting vocal takes. The band spent","-21.7356384160812"],["as good an illustration as any of the profound simplicity of Williams' love songs. An embryonic version of the song exists as a lyric sheet in the Alabama Department of Archives and History with words quite dissimilar to the finished recording, suggesting that songwriting wasn't quite the spontaneous act that Williams later made it out to be in interviews; in 1952 he declared to Pathfinder, \"People don't write music. It's given to you; you sit there and wait and it comes to you. If a song takes longer than thirty minutes or an hour, I usually throw it","-21.709305299795233"],["of Russia, and Time magazine of the U.S. Rolling Stone noted that Spotify still streams the Cage composition 4′33″—a performance piece in which musicians refrain from playing their instruments.\nA similar concept emerged in June 2015 via a website known as Eternify, by the band Ohm & Sport, which allowed users to play the first 30 seconds of any Spotify song on a loop, thus accumulating royalty payments for the artist. Royalties and Sleepify Tour On July 22, 2014, Billboard reported that Vulfpeck received royalty payments totaling $19,655 with an additional $1,100 forthcoming. The payment calculation was based on a rate","-21.696489059948362"],["years for musical compositions with or without lyrics. \nThis article was codified as article L. 123-4 of the Intellectual property code in 1992. \nIn 1997, the exploitation right term of posthumous works was reduced to 25 years, if the work was first made available to the public after the 70 years following the year of the author's death, as a consequence of the implementation of the EU Directive 93/98/EEC. However, Article 10 of that directive states that : where a term of protection, which is longer than the corresponding term provided for by this Directive, is already running in a Member","-21.675630039622774"],["Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2018 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2018, the list was published on December 4, calculated with data from December 2, 2017 to November 17,","-21.668908847495914"],["Billboard Music Award Awards process Unlike other awards, such as the Grammy Award, which determine nominations as a result of the highest votes received by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, the Billboard Music Awards finalists are based on album and digital songs sales, streaming, radio airplay, touring, and social engagement. These measurements are tracked year-round by Billboard and its data partners, including \nNielsen Music and Next Big Sound. The 2018 awards are based on the reporting period of April 8, 2017 through March 31, 2018. Awards are given for the top album, artist and single in a","-21.66299376278039"],["20 singles. Hipgnosis Songs Fund Mercuriadis is the founder of Hipgnosis Songs Fund Limited, a music IP investment company. In a 2019 interview with the journal Thought Economics, he said: \"I have always believed that hit songs and music, art in general, has real value to it. What people don’t really recognise is that when a song becomes a proven song, the earnings pattern to it becomes very predictable and reliable, and is therefore investable. And these songs are as valuable as gold, or oil.\" The company raised more than US $300 million to fund the acquisition of","-21.651554024399957"],["Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2015 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2015, the list was published on December 9, calculated with data from December 6, 2014 to November 28,","-21.64488104992779"],["on an impulse; I write it as I feel it. If I was just writing bullshit songs trying to make a hit, yeah, I could give you a song six months in advance. Nigga, I'm doing my album in a month's time. I'm writing it...recording it, going to write another one, really feeling the music for some months and then go in the studio for like a month and a half and do it. Everybody don't work like that.\"\nIn July 2013, Tech elaborated further on how the quick schedule for his albums kept him from securing features he wanted on","-21.623050600923307"],["2011, users have to register for free to listen to a song, otherwise just a 30-second preview is provided. Registration is also required for advanced features such as making playlists, and purchasing music. Due to technical problems, however, a small minority of visitors are getting full tracks for nothing.\nThe site also has an editorial section titled the 'Magazine', which has featured interviews with artists and occasionally runs competitions, such as the recent Metro Station competition. Financial performance On 6 October 2010, We7 posted losses of £3.6 million. The company claimed that market conditions, the collapse of the banking sector and","-21.601665939146187"],["by three copyright royalty judges. Though the compulsory license allows one to make and distribute physical copies of a song for a set royalty, the owner of the copyright in the underlying musical composition can still control public performance of the work or transmission over the radio. If the underlying musical work is well known, the work can be licensed for public performance through a performance rights organization such as ASCAP, BMI, or SESAC.\nAccording to Register of Copyrights, Marybeth Peters, use of the section 115 license prior to the 1995 enactment of the Digital Performance Right in Sound Recordings Act","-21.59334784693783"],["of royalties within the firm), or all rights to the song were purchased outright for a flat fee (including rights to put someone else's name on the sheet music as the composer). An extraordinary number of Jewish East European immigrants became the music publishers and song writers on Tin Pan Alley – the most famous being Irving Berlin. Songwriters who became established producers of successful songs were hired to be on the staff of the music houses.\n\"Song pluggers\" were pianists and singers who represented the music publishers, making their living demonstrating songs to promote sales of sheet music. Most music","-21.554513872571988"],["to this CD. I'm not about to give you only three songs worth listening to. $15 is lunch money for a lot of kids. With Witness Tha Realest, I'm a holla at you. I'm going to give you something that you can knock for a while man … value for your dollar is long overdue in today's music market.\nWitness Tha Realest Mixtape, was released in November 2006 which consisted of some leftovers from the original Witness Tha Realest studio album scheduled for release on July 15, 2004. This, however, changed due to the absence of a distribution company.\nTha Realest worked","-21.541984107272583"],["long, long, long ago.\" Background and release \"The Last Song I'll Write for You\" was written by Cook, Andy Skib, and Daniel James, and was produced by John Fields. It was released to digital retailers on May 4, 2012 before Cook premiered the song on the May 10, 2012 episode of the eleventh season of American Idol. Commercial performance The single sold 15,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting and peaking at number 45 on the Billboard Pop Digital Songs chart. Critical reception Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly says \"the slow-burn hook on this self-released breakup ballad is","-21.53299179134774"],["form. ... Any sound or visual recording shall be considered as a reproduction for the purposes of this Convention. This means a composer has performing rights and control over how derivative works should be used, and the rights are retained at least 50 years after death, or even longer. Even if a song is a traditional arrangement in the public domain, performing rights can still be violated. Where they exist, performers rights may have a shorter duration than full copyright; for example, the Rome Convention sets a minimum term of twenty years after the performance. This created a market for bootleg","-21.510783154517412"],["songs without approval. Firrantello was seeking punitive damages of at least US$1 million and asked that no further copies of the songs be made, sold or performed.","-21.44559435217525"],["modulations.\"\nThe single scores an average of 4.50 out of 5 on Rate Your Music.","-21.44112095591845"],["Plow to the End of the Row Overview After attending Belmont University in Nashville, Young worked for two years in various jobs on Music Row. \"No one was interested in my music\", she says. \"I was working in the music business offices, and everyone around me was doing what they wanted to do. It was driving me crazy because I knew I could do it, but you can't save up the money to do a record when you're making seven or eight bucks an hour\". Young was also determined to retain ownership of the rights to","-21.436135403317166"],["song was released every week. Unlike other records, they were sold at newsstands. Previous issues could be obtained by mail order. Retailing for 15 cents each, later raised to 20 cents, Hit of the Week records were by far the lowest-priced records in the US at that time.\nThe first regular issue was released in February 1930. By the summer of 1930, up to half a million copies of each week's issue were produced. But as the Depression worsened, sales slumped. In March 1931 the company went into receivership and in May it was purchased by the Erwin, Wasey & Company","-21.428548002964817"],["producer, Daniels cited her as an example of how the process works and how much she would charge. It is the responsibility of the vocal producer to tell a singer how to sing the song correctly to achieve the desired sound. Daniels said that Riddick's fee varies from $10,000 to $15,000, and that the final part of the process is for the song to be mixed and mastered, which incurs a similar fee. He estimated the final cost of writing, producing, vocal producing, mixing and mastering \"Man Down\" to be $78,000. When combined with the marketing and promotional costs, the","-21.42612082848791"],["album art to all users. Limit on music library Spotify limits users' music libraries to 10,000 songs. This has caused negative publicity on several occasions and \"years of user complaints\". Derek Mead of Motherboard wrote in March 2016 that the limit was \"insane\", and suggested that Spotify, after raising \"another billion dollars\" in funding, should \"fix the service's most asinine limitation\". Chris Welch of The Verge wrote in May 2017 that \"It’s time for Spotify to stop capping how much music you can save\", further questioning \"Why is there such an arbitrary cap?\" Welch's article also highlighted the \"thousands of","-21.421051317622187"],["raise $7,000 to enter upon earning a Masters of Music in composition and work with David Lang for a year. The project dates ran from August 2011 to May 2012.","-21.407502555055544"],["breakthrough, Wilson had taken over from his father Murry, and he was the sole producer of all their recordings between 1963 and 1967.\nA beatmaker is a songwriter who creates and composes music or beats for a song, often laying the groundwork or 'musical bed'. Then a composer who specializes in melody will create the top-line for the track. Tools typically used are keyboards, drum machines, softsynths and digital audio workstations. Beat makers or composers aren't necessarily record producers by definition or acting role since they generally do not work directly with an artist in a recording studio that oversees the","-21.39756073403987"],["Write You a Song Chart performance The album debuted at No. 14 on the Billboard 200 chart, and No. 3 on the Top Country Albums chart, with 17,000 copies sold in its debut week. As of February 2016, the album has sold 85,000 copies in the U.S.","-21.37242601532489"],["been working on another song, which was held back from inclusion on the record as he felt that it was not sufficiently complete. The song \"Good Vibrations\" set a new standard for musicians and for what could be achieved in the recording studio. Recorded in multiple sessions and in numerous studios, the song eventually cost $50,000 (equivalent to $386,103 in 2018) to record within a six-month period. In October 1966, it was released as a single, giving the Beach Boys their third US number-one hit after \"I Get Around\" and \"Help Me, Rhonda\". It sold over a million copies.\nSometime after","-21.354673554189503"],["who pays them via annual fees to the performing rights societies, not the producer who uses the music in their production.\nSome companies offer truly royalty-free music which is not registered with any performance rights organisation (also known as \"royalty collection agencies\"). These companies license music to their customers on a non-exclusive basis where it can be used in perpetuity without any usage reporting. The music is licensed by the customers according to an accepted license agreement, and they cannot sell it or license it to others. Because of advancing technology, it is becoming easier for independent musicians to set up","-21.34606776406872"],["music stores, Andy announced that he would donate all of the royalties he earned off of the track to cancer research in Olivia's name.","-21.32576178779709"],["Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2005 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2005, the list was published on December 20, calculated with data from December 4, 2004 to November 26,","-21.317024293355644"],["Cross Sylvester Cross, president of American Music, Inc. published thousands of songs during the 1940s, in most cases for a fee of about $60. Although the company was charging songwriters to record and publish their music, they did have hundreds of hit songs. Sylvester Cross a real estate developer by trade ran American Music as his secondary business. After his death his wife quickly sold his publishing company to Hill and Range Songs. Artists Among the artists who recorded for the label were Jewel Akens, Eddie Cochran, Carol Kaye, Bobby Edwards, Jimmy Bowen, Tom Tall, Donna Loren, Bob Denton, Terry","-21.297248591843527"],["his liking. He began cutting classes and taking the train up to Tin Pan Alley, where he tried to get some of his songs heard by local music publishers. In his senior year, when he was just 10 units short of graduation, Sunbeam Music Publishing offered him a 16-week job writing songs for $50 a week (equivalent to about US$414 per week, in 2018 dollars), and he dropped out of college to accept it. The 1960s After his 16 weeks at Sunbeam Music were up, he was not rehired, and began writing and singing his own songs for demo purposes.","-21.287770752125653"],["the official World Music Awards website, the award is rare; it is \"not presented every year\" and an artist can be presented with the award only for selling \"over 100 million albums during their career\". 2003–2007: A New Day... In early 2002, Dion announced a three-year, 600-show contract to appear five nights a week in an entertainment extravaganza, A New Day..., at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas. This move was generally seen as risky, but journalist Miriam Nunzio wrote that it was \"one of the smartest business decisions in years by any major recording artist\". Dion conceived the","-21.27795222252462"],["Hits, \"he told the idea to his music publisher, Freddy Bienstock, who was visiting him in Germany... Mr. Bienstock, who many times found songwriters for Presley, returned to his New York office, where he found songwriters, Mr. [Aaron] Schroeder and Wally Gold, the only people in that day. The two wrote lyrics in half an hour. Selling more than 20 million records, the song became number one in countries all around and was Presley's best selling single ever... a song [they] finished in 20 minutes to a half hour was the biggest song of [their] career.\"\nBarry White credited this song","-21.27387554832967"],["song are the life of Jesus, thankfulness, and worship. Composition \"Here I Am to Worship\" is a slow worship ballad with a length of five minutes and fifteen seconds. The song is set in common time and has a tempo of 75 beats per minute. It is written in the key E Major. The verses follow the chord progression E - B - F♯m - A - E - B - A, the chorus follows the progression E - B - C♯m - A, and the bridge follows the progression B - E - A.\nThis song has been re-written in","-21.2540864974726"],["Billboard Music Award for Top Selling Song The Billboard Music Award for Top Selling Song winners and nominees. As of 2018, no artist has won the award multiple times.","-21.2443408499621"],["does not alter the sound of the note. There are also no freestyle drum fills in the songs for activating Beatlemania; instead the player continues to perform the correct note sequence before being presented with a note to activate Beatlemania.\nThroughout the song, players receive points for every note hit, and this is totalled up and displayed at the end of the song, along with a percentage of how many notes they hit, and a rating: 1 to 5 stars. If the score is close to perfect, normally requiring at least 98% of the notes, the rating is five 'gold' stars,","-21.24368589176447"],["Billboard Music Award for Top Radio Songs Artist The Billboard Music Award for Top Radio Songs Artist winners and nominees. Rihanna has won the award the most times.","-21.22419039079614"],["songs were previewed on both Wogan and on BBC Radio 2. 182 songs were submitted and at no time during the judging phase were the names of either the composers, authors or publishers divulged.\nOn the first listening phase, 7 sessions at 26 songs per session were heard. Every song entered was played for 150 seconds each and voted upon. Eight judges comprising music publishers' professional staff and members of the record buying public represented by staff of PRS and MCPS. When adding the votes, the MPA office checked whether any member of the panel had any interest in the songs","-21.215661102382"],["a proposal to do so in exchange for a fee. The early 20th century versions of this business involved setting the words to music and printing up sheet music from inexpensively engraved plates.\nIn producing the recordings, musicians often recorded dozens of songs per recording session using minimal resources, often in one take. Some of the companies recorded new vocals over pre-recorded music backing tracks, using the same music tracks hundreds of times. The recordings were then duplicated on 45 RPM vinyl singles or on individual cassette tapes, or they were released on compilation LPs with dozens of other songs by","-21.206933833367657"],["6 months, last year or overall. Main problems and uprising solutions Since the generated music charts depend on what the users register and on the tags from their music files, Last.fm made up a system based on the listens of the users which corrects a song's tag if it differs from what most people registered. On the other hand, the system has errors, like not noticing the difference between two artists with the same name or not taking track length into consideration. Artists with many short tracks will have many more listens than artists with a few but very long","-21.183632582309656"],["(music users), and only to registered members of the society. Royalties are paid twice per year for the preceding year. After music users submit logs and playlists to JACAP, these are used to ascertain the rights owners in the works who are then compensated for the use of their creation through the fees collected. JACAP pays over royalties after administration expenses are deducted. To date, JACAP has paid out over $180 million to members International reciprocal agreements JACAP has reciprocal agreements with its overseas affiliates and through these agreements represents over 2 million creators of music. JACAP members","-21.158241905039176"],["is missed. After successfully completing a song, the performance of each player and the band as a whole is rated on a 5-star scale. The best performance by a player for each song in the player's library is tracked separately based on instrument, Basic or Pro mode, and difficulty, then is used to provide and compare leaderboard statistics at the end of the song.\nThe overall goal of the band is to successfully complete a song and earn as many points as possible by using their selected controllers to play the notes shown on the screen at the proper time; or,","-21.11420221424487"],["label make their music available to download for free, and invite listeners to make a small donation if they want to. Between donations and ticket sales for live shows, Quote Unquote Records has been successfully recording music and expanding the number of bands on their label for the past twelve years. Where does the money come from Proposals have included targeted levies on internet connections, blank CDs, digital media players, etc. (many of these goods are levied various countries' existing private copying schemes); income taxation; or optional payments by users.\nIn terms of economic theory, consumer \"opt in\" regimes are very","-21.101737408549525"],["sometimes passed to other artists, who may wait months or years to record it, or just a hook from it, and all for the singer's own glory. The show tries to elevate the traditional role of the songwriter in the process of creating music from \"unpleasant secret\" to being the celebrated \"magic ingredient\".","-21.099688217422226"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"the time they receive their payments. They are \\\"getting reporting quarterly, or six-monthly, on sales that happened six months ago.\\\" Caldas explained that \\\"royalty statements could be a year old\\\".\\nIn February 2015, Music Business Worldwide reported on a French study between music trade body SNEP and EY that concluded that major labels kept 73% of Spotify Premium payouts, while writers/publishers received 16%, and artists received 11%. Mike Masnick of Techdirt wrote: \\\"Sure, in the past, it may have been reasonable for the labels to take on large fees for distribution, but that's when it meant manufacturing tons of plastic and\",\n \"-26.710750660975464\"\n ],\n [\n \"Recording artist royalties Recording artist royalties are a vital part of an artist's income and are gained through the digital and retail sale of their music along with the use of their music in streaming services, broadcasting, and in other forms of media such as TV shows and films.\",\n \"-25.735519089445006\"\n ],\n [\n \"has given him a steady income over the past 20 years. Being a lyricist is just a part-time for Lau because this career is not steady and for each song, a lyricist can only receive from HKD$1500–5000. This is only for those who have taken the advance payment, meaning that taking $5000 before receiving the rest of royalties. He tried not to receive “advance” for two years but realized cannot sustain his life by writing a song for a few hundred dollars. Unlike famous singers, lyricists cannot count on the royalties of several classics while they have to produce a\",\n \"-25.046307379045174\"\n ],\n [\n \"to nothing).\\\" In 2009, Swedish musician Magnus Uggla pulled his music from the service, stating that after six months he had earned \\\"what a mediocre busker could earn in a day\\\".\\nNorwegian newspaper Dagbladet reported in 2009 that the record label Racing Junior earned only NOK 19 ($3.00 USD) after their artists had been streamed over 55,100 times. According to an infographic by David McCandless, an artist on Spotify would need over four million streams per month to earn the U.S. minimum monthly wage of $1,160. In October 2011, U.S. independent label Projekt Records stated: \\\"In the world I want to\",\n \"-24.803677785064792\"\n ],\n [\n \"I have done six songs in ten days, but that is rather beyond my average rate. I probably write from twelve to fifteen songs a year, but I do not work constantly. Sometimes for a month I will not touch pen to paper, and then I will make up for lost time by working almost continuously for the next month. It is hard to say just how I write. I will read a little poem, perhaps, and then the melody comes, and, do you know, that particular melody is always thereafter connected with that poem. I might put the poem\",\n \"-24.80103220991441\"\n ],\n [\n \"usually for a one-time fee. This can initiate negotiations, whose points of interest usually include things like how the work is being used, the length of the segment, the prominence of the cue (whether used as background music, or as the title track during the credits), and the overall popularity and importance of the song or recording. Sync licensing fees can range anywhere from free, to a few hundred dollars, to millions of dollars for popular recordings of songs: in the last case, the producer must pay for both the use of the master and the composition.\",\n \"-24.437012745591346\"\n ],\n [\n \"Spotify removed all time limits for Free users on all platforms, including on computers, which previously had a 10-hour monthly listening limit after a 6-month grace period.\\nIn April 2018, Spotify began to allow Free users to listen on-demand to whatever songs they want for an unlimited number of times, as long as the song is on one of the user's 15 personalized discovery playlists.\\nAs of April 2019, all service users are limited to 10,000 songs in their library, after which they will receive an \\\"Epic collection, friend\\\" notification, and will not be able to save more music to their library.\",\n \"-24.06049297831487\"\n ],\n [\n \"is based on several factors, for instance, media exposure, personal fame and the type of music. Nobody can guarantee a musician can get the amount of money that he expects.\",\n \"-23.935119010609924\"\n ],\n [\n \"saying they have been paid to play the songs. \\\"For as little as $30, a band can buy 1,000 plays on the music-streaming service, slotted in between established artists. The artists themselves choose what other music they'd like to be played next to.\\\"\",\n \"-23.7273301811656\"\n ],\n [\n \"You Write the Songs Format Each week three amateur songwriters had their original song performed by the shows regular singers, all of whom were alumni of Star Search, the songs were then judged by a rotating celebrity panel with the winners advancing toward a $100,000 grand prize.\\nAmong the celebrities who appeared as judges were Smokey Robinson, Whitney Houston, Melissa Manchester, and Neil Sedaka. Host Ben Vereen\",\n \"-23.699317989929114\"\n ],\n [\n \"site at least once every 60 days and renew their license by signing in or downloading a song, and the songs would work for sixty days after the last license renewal. In the event that the license should expire, it could always be renewed at a later date to restore function to the tracks. For songs that were on portable devices, the device had to be synced with a computer once every 60 days to keep the songs active. In addition to music, Spiralfrog had 5000+ music videos also available for free at 300kbit/s streaming or 1000kbit/s if\",\n \"-23.477281124680303\"\n ],\n [\n \"the time, compared to iTunes, the average listener spends $60 annually on music, whereas Spotify Premium users spend twice that amount. According to Wallach in 2012: \\\"The growth of the platform is proportional to the royalty pay out, and since inception, we’ve already doubled the effective per play rate.\\\" Thom Yorke In July 2013, Radiohead singer Thom Yorke and producer Nigel Godrich removed their band Atoms for Peace and Yorke's solo music from Spotify. In a tweet, Yorke stated: \\\"Make no mistake—new artists you discover on #Spotify will not get paid. Meanwhile, shareholders will shortly be rolling in it. Simples.\\\"\",\n \"-23.288451672939118\"\n ],\n [\n \"royalty payments for the songs he had written. He testified that he had not been paid any royalties between 1989 and 2009. A jury in Los Angeles awarded him $5 million in damages in January 2015, but in December the award was overturned because, the appellate court ruled, the trial judge had not told the jury to take into account the fact Stone had assigned his royalties to a production company in exchange for a 50% ownership stake. In May 2016, Stone's attorneys appealed that decision. Personal life Stone married model-actress Kathy Silva on June 5, 1974 during a sold-out\",\n \"-23.248805886498303\"\n ],\n [\n \"job revolves around music clearance alone.\\nWhen it comes to royalty collections, a music supervisor will sometimes be in charge of arranging this source of the selected artist's revenue. Royalties for music placements are paid out by Performance Rights Organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC in the United States). In order to detect the placements an artist has made with visual media, these companies need to be aware of their placement. Depending on the type of project (ad placement, television show, etc.). the music supervisor will have to either make sure the artist is credited properly, send video clips of\",\n \"-23.223977986563114\"\n ],\n [\n \"offer songwriting diplomas and degrees with music business modules. Since songwriting and publishing royalties can be substantial sources of income, particularly if a song becomes a hit record; legally, in the US, songs written after 1934 may be copied only by the authors. The legal power to grant these permissions may be bought, sold or transferred. This is governed by international copyright law.\\nSongwriters can be employed to write either the lyrics or the music directly for or alongside a performing artist, or they present songs to A&R, publishers, agents and managers for consideration. Song pitching can be done on a\",\n \"-23.190837379719596\"\n ],\n [\n \"ten mediocre songs. And with our schedules and Roger’s studio, going in to bust out five songs at a time keeps the frequency of music into the fan’s hands at a peak.\\\"\",\n \"-23.1604191455408\"\n ],\n [\n \"$200,000, averaging $18,000 for each of the eleven songs which were included on Loud; the camp consisted of forty writers and producers. Daniels confirmed that Rock City received $15,000 and Sham $20,000 for their part in the production of \\\"Man Down\\\". He said that \\\"to get that twelve minutes of inspiration from a top songwriting team is expensive — even before you take into account the fee for the songwriters\\\". A cost of $53,000 for \\\"Man Down\\\" was already incurred prior to Rihanna entering the studio with a vocal producer. Although Makeba Riddick did not serve as the song's vocal\",\n \"-23.029175011635743\"\n ],\n [\n \"each day would start at twelve PM, and last until six. Some songs were played ten times, while some others had two or three versions made, but usually the first take was chosen to be featured on the final product. The only tracks that were done in one take were \\\"Backwell\\\" and \\\"Battery Point\\\". Barrow said about the lyric writing, \\\"I never wrote anything down. And what you hear is what happened in the [recording] room. Non-traditional vocals, really. I’m not a very lyrical person, and I’m definitely not a singer. I felt a little weird about it.\\\" The album\",\n \"-23.023110161389923\"\n ],\n [\n \"to have their work performed by adventurous musicians specifically looking to champion new music. While a constraint, the one-minute miniature format allows for the composer to write a short composition with greater ease than a longer work. Fifteen Minutes of Fame encourages experimentation and opportunities to write for instrumentation that are not commonly available. With the significantly larger number of works selected being 15 and the frequency Fifteen Minutes of Fame is produced, it becomes a huge resource for composers to have their work played and receive greater exposure.\\nThe one-minute miniatures for Fifteen-Minutes-of-Fame are written by composers from all over\",\n \"-22.99069750623312\"\n ],\n [\n \"license agreeing to pay us royalties and I thought the problem was solved. Over the years we have had legal action concerning the song, but today, that is over, and the song is now acknowledged to be Preston Foster's.\\n Again according to Rabinowitz, royalties from the song amounted to between $20,000 and $30,000 a year in the 2000s. He said \\\"Every six months I send Preston a check... He's basically still making a living from this song.\\\" Foster later set up GetIt Records in Jamaica, New York, and released singles under his own name and\",\n \"-22.957693658981952\"\n ],\n [\n \"staff writer effectively means that, during the term of the songwriter's contract with the publisher, all their songs are automatically published by that company and cannot be published elsewhere.\\nIn the Nashville country music scene, there is a strong staff writer culture where contracted writers work normal \\\"9-to-5\\\" hours at the publishing office and are paid a regular salary. This salary is in effect the writer's \\\"draw\\\", an advance on future earnings, which is paid on a monthly basis and enables them to live within a fixed budget. The publisher owns the copyright of songs written during the term of the\",\n \"-22.946829644584795\"\n ],\n [\n \"of new material that had never been published before. The authors and composers of these songs were paid as much as $7.00 for each song, which would be the only monetary compensation that they would get.\",\n \"-22.92353035241831\"\n ],\n [\n \"award is given to song with the largest increase in detections. A song with six or more spins in its first week is awarded an \\\"airplay add\\\". If a song is tied for the most spins in the same week, the one with the biggest increase that previous week will rank higher, but if both songs show the same amount of spins regardless of detection the song that is being played at more stations is ranked higher. Songs that fall below the top 20 and have been on the chart after 26 weeks are removed and go to recurrent status.\",\n \"-22.803428055893164\"\n ],\n [\n \"three months of the year and is in high rotation, it would often peak higher than a song that had been in medium rotation for a number of months. However, if a popular song is only in low to medium rotation during the later part of the year, it would often chart very low or not at all on the year end countdown, only to appear very high on the countdown of the following year. Public Controversy On August 28, 1987, Epic Records sued WHTZ for playing Michael Jackson's song \\\"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\\\" the day before\",\n \"-22.686182783843833\"\n ],\n [\n \"new music on Fridays since Global Release Day on July 10, 2015. The final weekly charts are published on the Monday following the previous tracking week. (For example, for a tracking week beginning on Friday, January 1 and ending on Thursday, January 7, the final weekly charts would be published on Monday, January 11.)\\nA song must be sold for at least $0.49 for that sale to be logged for a given tracking week; units sold for less than the minimum price requirement in the first three months of release will not be considered for weekly charts. A \\\"song unit\\\" is\",\n \"-22.641894724569283\"\n ],\n [\n \"in a year and a half or two years upward of a half-million dollars\\\". Some of the former attendees who have gone on to writes successful songs include: Jon Vezner (Where've You Been – Kathy Mattea); Tia Sillers (I Hope You Dance – LeAnn Womack); Barry Dean (Pontoon – Little Big Town); and Lance Carpenter (Love Me Like You Mean It – Kelsea Ballerini). Festival sponsors Sponsors of the event have included American Songwriter Magazine, Folk Alliance International, corporate donors and performing-rights organizations such as BMI, SESAC and ASCAP. NSAI Senior Director of Operations Jennifer Turnbow said, \\\"We offer artistic\",\n \"-22.616127976492862\"\n ],\n [\n \"track from that tour to receive an official release.\\nIn December 2006, Record Collector magazine ranked Songs by George Harrison 122nd in its list of \\\"The 250 Most Valuable Records of Our Time\\\", with an estimated value of £800 for the book and disc set. Dale Allison describes it as \\\"obscure, hard-to-get, and very expensive\\\".\",\n \"-22.547354486305267\"\n ],\n [\n \"Lyricist Royalties A lyricist's income derives from royalties received from original songs. Royalties may range from 50% of the song if it was written primarily with the composer, or less if they wrote the song in collaboration. Songs are automatically copyrighted as soon as they are in tangible forms, such as a recording or sheet music. However, before a song is published or made public, its author or publisher should register it with the Copyright Office at the U.S. Library of Congress to better protect against copyright infringement. Collaboration Collaboration takes different forms. Some composers and lyricists work closely together\",\n \"-22.43597663450055\"\n ],\n [\n \"untrue, full stop [...] We pay royalties -- sound and publishing -- for all tracks on Spotify, and for everything we playlist. We do not own rights, we’re not a label, all our music is licensed from rightsholders and we pay them -- we don’t pay ourselves\\\". However, in another report, the Music Business Worldwide publication discussed the situation, including the artists' lack of social media profiles, lack of managers, lawyers and industry relationships, the listing of owning all their own rights, the lack of appearance on other streaming services, Spotify's denial to comment regarding questions of the artists' frequent\",\n \"-22.391846580430865\"\n ],\n [\n \"million performances list and received an award for selling a million copies of sheet music. The song was also covered by Curtis Mayfield among many others.\\n\\\"Times of Your Life\\\", written with Lane and performed by Paul Anka, had reached number one on the Adult Contemporary chart (3–10 January 1976).\\nAnother Nichols-Williams song, \\\"Out in the Country\\\" by Three Dog Night (later covered by R.E.M.), reached the Top Ten. Six months later, \\\"Rainy Days and Mondays\\\" was another gold record by The Carpenters and Nichols' third gold record in a single year.\\nOther hits were The Carpenters' \\\"I Won't Last a Day Without\",\n \"-22.336656001250958\"\n ],\n [\n \"statutes which would have classified all \\\"sound recordings\\\" as \\\"works for hire\\\", effectively assigning artists' copyrights to record labels.\\nBook authors may sell their copyright to the publisher. Alternatively, they might receive as a royalty a certain amount per book sold. It is common in the UK for example, for authors to receive a 10% royalty on book sales.\\nSome photographers and musicians may choose to publish their works for a one-time payment. This is known as a royalty-free license. Based on net receipts Methods of calculating royalties changed during the 1980s, due to the rise of retail chain booksellers, which demanded\",\n \"-22.321202274237294\"\n ],\n [\n \"adopted a simple formula of a 2.5% royalty rate multiplied by the amount of revenue generated by the performance of musical works from ASCAP's repertory. For Yahoo!, the district court took into account the fact that musical performances did not account for all of the revenue generated by its website. It thus estimated a \\\"music-use-adjustment factor\\\" (MUAF), consisting of the amount of time users spent streaming music divided by the amount of time all of Yahoo!'s online services were used. The court then multiplied the MUAF by Yahoo!'s total revenue in order to estimate the total revenue generated from musical\",\n \"-22.3070520341862\"\n ],\n [\n \"Thomas), was present during the sessions, and stated that a writing camp typically involves the label hiring ten recording studios for two weeks at the cost of $25,000 per day. Daniels revealed that it is where songwriters have lyrics but no music, and where producers have music but no lyrics.\\nSinger-songwriters and producers Taio Cruz, Alex da Kid, Sean Garrett, Ne-Yo, Rico Love, Timbaland, Shontelle, David Guetta, and Drake contributed to the album. \\\"DJ Got Us Fallin' in Love\\\" was written for Rihanna, but the song was rejected and was subsequently sent to Usher. With regard to \\\"What's My Name?\\\", Rihanna\",\n \"-22.27279966488277\"\n ],\n [\n \"its second week, and spent five further weeks in the top 100 singles. In total, the single spent a total of ten weeks in the top 200 singles. Seven month after its release, the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for more than 100,000 paid downloads (excluding cellphone downloads).\",\n \"-22.25883192392962\"\n ],\n [\n \"carefully disclaimed by the record companies so as to not violate payola laws and the playing of the song, as it is paid for, cannot be applied to song popularity charts, as has happened in the early 2000s with some forms of this concept. Brokered time through agencies Oftentimes broadcasters will seek the help of an ad agency to secure a brokered radio show. Agencies such as I Buy Time in Dallas, Texas or Bayliss Media Group in Los Angeles, California have the knowledge on how to negotiate a lower per-hour rate than what may be quoted by the radio\",\n \"-22.25785082837683\"\n ],\n [\n \"Music for help generating the resources necessary to produce the record, ultimately raising $5k USD from fans (15% of the money received after the $5k goal was reached went to the charity Food From the Heart) and further funding the project with $20k SGD of her own money.\\nIn an interview with Music Weekly, Bevlyn explained the album's concept: “I realised that the majority of my songs are usually inspired by the people I know in my life, as opposed to ‘fiction-writing’. The songs were inspired by my friends who practically grew up together with me (“Touch Of An Angel”), songwriting\",\n \"-22.241026202915236\"\n ],\n [\n \"the BBC reported that \\\"Yesterday\\\" remained the fourth most successful song of all-time in terms of royalties paid, having amassed a total of £19.5 million in payments.\",\n \"-22.236991147277877\"\n ],\n [\n \"final recording, at the time of The Key: \\nIt takes me very little time to write the song. Ten, fifteen minutes at the most. But to arrange the song, I need to take all day. The song is written with whatever rhythm I've come up with, and I put the arrangement on top of that. I can keep it a little more to what I think it should be than if I allowed somebody else to do it. I sit at home with my little Portastudio, and I work up the bass part, record it; work up the guitar part,\",\n \"-22.208916603238322\"\n ],\n [\n \"and can be a maximum of up to two hours in length.\\nIn September 2016, Spotify introduced Daily Mix, a series of (up to six) playlists that have \\\"near endless playback\\\" and mixes the user's favourite tracks with new, recommended songs. New users can access Daily Mix after approximately two weeks of listening to music through Spotify. Daily Mixes were only available on the Android and iOS mobile apps at launch, but the feature was later expanded to Spotify's computer app in December 2016.\\nIn July 2018, Spotify introduced a new beta feature that gives artists, labels and teams an easy way\",\n \"-22.18008345113776\"\n ],\n [\n \"song receives 20% of the votes, thus it will receive 20% of the available points. The public vote will count for 50% of the final result, while the other 50% will come from the professional juries.\",\n \"-22.177840411197394\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the Nokia Music Store, all of which charged users a monthly fee. The data that these services supplied was compiled into a record chart of the 500 most-played tracks—each week also featured top-line market statistics.\\nWhen first launched, the Official Subscription Plays Chart tracked between 3 million and 3.5 million digital plays per week (with a weekly average of more than 3.2 million), across a library of approximately 340,000 unique tracks. The first song to top the chart was \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" by Katy Perry. As well as songs that were charting high in the companion UK Singles Chart,\",\n \"-22.172297005425207\"\n ],\n [\n \"the most streams received by a song in a single day by a female artist on Spotify, with 8.19 million streams globally, and continued to break this record daily until November 9, when it received 9.6 million streams. The record was broken by Mariah Carey's \\\"All I Want for Christmas Is You\\\" the following month. \\\"Thank U, Next\\\" surpassed 100 million streams in Spotify eleven days after its release on November 14, 2018, becoming the fastest song to do so, until Grande's next single, ”7 Rings” broke the record again reaching 100 million streams on Spotify nine days after the\",\n \"-22.141704188485164\"\n ],\n [\n \"later made the album available to stream on competing services. In July 2017, West terminated his contract with Tidal, claiming that the service owed him $3 million. Finances and royalties One artist has stated that artist royalties per track from Aspiro/Tidal are currently over three times than those paid by Spotify, but that royalties may decrease to provide a sufficient return on investment. Jay-Z commented in an interview to Billboard that artists would be paid more by being streamed on Tidal than with Spotify, stating \\\"Will artists make more money? Even if it means less profit for our bottom line?\",\n \"-22.050693980650976\"\n ],\n [\n \"Radio (Robbie Williams song) Chart performance \\\"Radio\\\" became Williams' sixth number one single in the UK Singles Chart, selling 41,734 in its first week. To date the song has sold 100,000 copies in the UK. The song also topped the charts in Portugal and Denmark and reached the top ten across Europe and Latin America. In Australia, the single charted at number twelve and after seven weeks on the charts, the single was certified Gold.\\nThe song was Williams's last UK number-one for eight years until \\\"Candy\\\" took the top spot in November 2012.\",\n \"-22.047901025194733\"\n ],\n [\n \"work out the song before all nine notes are revealed - then the prize for that round is lost and the players go on to the next round.\\nThe cash values for correctly identifying the song in the first three rounds are $300 in round 1, $600 in round 2, and $1,200 in round 3, with a maximum possible total of $2,100. The team with the most money at the end of the game wins the game and goes on to play for double their main game cash winnings. Bonus round The winning team attempts to win double their cash winnings\",\n \"-22.045098374481313\"\n ],\n [\n \"Songs chart in the same week and spent a total of three weeks on the chart.\",\n \"-22.010187005194894\"\n ],\n [\n \"commented that it was just because \\\"we're cheaper\\\". Although exact figures are not known, Les Watkins, a music lawyer from Los Angeles, estimated that \\\"a song by an emerging artist could fetch up to $20,000 or $30,000\\\" and this is jointly split between record label and the songwriter/publisher. He stated that \\\"once lawyers, managers, and the rest of the entourage get their piece, the artist may only see a fraction of the payout.\\\" The Bait Shop The Bait Shop is introduced in the second season as a new night club and concert venue on the pier. It was an undeniable\",\n \"-21.974675175377342\"\n ],\n [\n \"the way of music, jingles and advertising.\\\" But she says it took nearly a decade, when her son's friends from school came to her door to meet her, for the song's popularity to fully sink in.\\nIn the 1970s, CBC began using the tune as the standard introduction for the show and Claman was entitled to music-use licence payments of between $2,000 and $10,000 each year. After she was advised by her agent in 1993 to license the song, she earned approximately $500 per broadcast. Legal action In November 2004, Dolores Claman and her publisher initiated legal action against CBC for\",\n \"-21.93356077745557\"\n ],\n [\n \"stating in a 2009 interview with the PhillyBurbs online newspaper: \\\"I cannot write songs on a nine-to-five basis. At the risk of sounding pretentious, my songs come from somewhere else and I have to wait for them, so it's not up to me when I receive them. When the songs start to come, they all come at the same time. I may get 20 songs in three to four days and then it all stops again.\\\" 2000–2003: Return to music (Man, Hometown 2001, Aquarian Nation & the It Bites reunion) In 2000, inspired by watching a televised Shakti concert (featuring\",\n \"-21.891269417799776\"\n ],\n [\n \"from an on-screen list.\\nA music ringtone feature was introduced in the United States on September 5, 2007. Users can create custom ringtones from songs purchased from the iTunes Store for a small additional fee. The ringtones can be three to 30 seconds long from any part of a song, can fade in and out, pause from half a second to five seconds when looped, or loop continuously. All customizing can be done in iTunes, or with Apple's GarageBand software 4.1.1 or later (available only on Mac OS X) or third-party tools.\\nWith the release of iOS 6, which was released on\",\n \"-21.88022613004432\"\n ],\n [\n \"carefully to make Spotify the most artist-friendly company that has ever existed. ... We’re very interested in a high level of letting artists directly connect to their fans and manage that relationship and deliver value to their fans, and vice versa. We want to do that really elegantly, at a scale that's never existed before.\\nIn a June interview with Hypebot, Wallach reported that $180 million of royalties was paid out in 2011 and 70% of Spotify's revenue consisted of royalty payments. Spotify's growth meant that the per-stream royalty rate doubled between the service's inception and mid-2012. He said that, at\",\n \"-21.85951701333397\"\n ],\n [\n \"such as Cherry Garcia (Jerry Garcia), One Sweet Whirled (Dave Matthews Band) and Phish Food (Phish). All royalties from the sale of \\\"If I Had 1,000,000 Flavours\\\" are donated to the ABC Canada Literacy Foundation, a Toronto-based organization that promotes reading to children at home. Live performances Several live changes have been common in performances. The post-chorus banters mentioned earlier are ad libbed at every performance and far more lengthy than the album versions. Due to these banters, the song is typically the longest song in a concert (it typically falls at the end of the main set or as\",\n \"-21.839569517644122\"\n ],\n [\n \"Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2017 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2017, the list was published on December 11, calculated with data from December 3, 2016 to November 25,\",\n \"-21.767014762503095\"\n ],\n [\n \"from revenue of $244 million, while it was expected to generate a net loss of $40 million from revenue of $500 million in 2012.\\nAnother source of income was music purchases from within the app. This service was removed in January 2013.\\nIn May 2016, Spotify announced \\\"Sponsored Playlists\\\", a monetisation opportunity in which brands are able to specify the audiences they have in mind, with Spotify matching the marketer with suitable music in a playlist.\\nThat September, Spotify announced that it had paid a total of over $5 billion to the music industry. In June 2017, as part of renegotiated licenses with\",\n \"-21.762382216984406\"\n ],\n [\n \"Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2016 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2016, the list was published on December 8, calculated with data from December 5, 2015 to November 26,\",\n \"-21.75649757883002\"\n ],\n [\n \"UK Singles Chart. All royalty proceeds from the first month of the single's release were donated to the BRIT Trust charity.\\nSheet music for the Florence and the Machine version of You Got The Love was published by Wise Publications in the Florence and the Machine 'Lungs' songbook on 3 November 2009. Further productions \\\"Rock the House\\\", which sampled the vocals of Miami house artist Nicole, entered the Top 75 of the UK Singles Chart in 1991. Other notable The Source productions include 'Sanctuary of Love', released on Hooj Choons in 1993, and 'Clouds', a cover of the Chaka Khan track,\",\n \"-21.751999783169595\"\n ],\n [\n \"and replenishes over time, when stamina drink items are used, or when paid items called Star Jewels are used.\\nAt the end of each song, a result screen is displayed to player, and his or her performance is rated with a letter grade, a numerical score, and a percentage that represents his or her accuracy. The player is awarded an amount of in-game money for his or her performance, while each idol also receive a number of fans and affection points. Affection points are specific to each specific idol, and by reaching the maximum possible value, the individual idol's statistics points\",\n \"-21.74118739090045\"\n ],\n [\n \"1988. At $1,000 a day, it was the most the band had paid to record an album up to that point, but it was close to where members Moore, Kim Gordon and Lee Ranaldo lived.\\nDue to the amount of preparation the band put into composing its music, the recording process was largely efficient. The session became rushed near the end, as Paul Smith, head of the band's British label Blast First, had set a mastering date of August 18. As a result of the time pressure, Gordon was not happy with some of her resulting vocal takes. The band spent\",\n \"-21.7356384160812\"\n ],\n [\n \"as good an illustration as any of the profound simplicity of Williams' love songs. An embryonic version of the song exists as a lyric sheet in the Alabama Department of Archives and History with words quite dissimilar to the finished recording, suggesting that songwriting wasn't quite the spontaneous act that Williams later made it out to be in interviews; in 1952 he declared to Pathfinder, \\\"People don't write music. It's given to you; you sit there and wait and it comes to you. If a song takes longer than thirty minutes or an hour, I usually throw it\",\n \"-21.709305299795233\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Russia, and Time magazine of the U.S. Rolling Stone noted that Spotify still streams the Cage composition 4′33″—a performance piece in which musicians refrain from playing their instruments.\\nA similar concept emerged in June 2015 via a website known as Eternify, by the band Ohm & Sport, which allowed users to play the first 30 seconds of any Spotify song on a loop, thus accumulating royalty payments for the artist. Royalties and Sleepify Tour On July 22, 2014, Billboard reported that Vulfpeck received royalty payments totaling $19,655 with an additional $1,100 forthcoming. The payment calculation was based on a rate\",\n \"-21.696489059948362\"\n ],\n [\n \"years for musical compositions with or without lyrics. \\nThis article was codified as article L. 123-4 of the Intellectual property code in 1992. \\nIn 1997, the exploitation right term of posthumous works was reduced to 25 years, if the work was first made available to the public after the 70 years following the year of the author's death, as a consequence of the implementation of the EU Directive 93/98/EEC. However, Article 10 of that directive states that : where a term of protection, which is longer than the corresponding term provided for by this Directive, is already running in a Member\",\n \"-21.675630039622774\"\n ],\n [\n \"Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2018 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2018, the list was published on December 4, calculated with data from December 2, 2017 to November 17,\",\n \"-21.668908847495914\"\n ],\n [\n \"Billboard Music Award Awards process Unlike other awards, such as the Grammy Award, which determine nominations as a result of the highest votes received by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, the Billboard Music Awards finalists are based on album and digital songs sales, streaming, radio airplay, touring, and social engagement. These measurements are tracked year-round by Billboard and its data partners, including \\nNielsen Music and Next Big Sound. The 2018 awards are based on the reporting period of April 8, 2017 through March 31, 2018. Awards are given for the top album, artist and single in a\",\n \"-21.66299376278039\"\n ],\n [\n \"20 singles. Hipgnosis Songs Fund Mercuriadis is the founder of Hipgnosis Songs Fund Limited, a music IP investment company. In a 2019 interview with the journal Thought Economics, he said: \\\"I have always believed that hit songs and music, art in general, has real value to it. What people don’t really recognise is that when a song becomes a proven song, the earnings pattern to it becomes very predictable and reliable, and is therefore investable. And these songs are as valuable as gold, or oil.\\\" The company raised more than US $300 million to fund the acquisition of\",\n \"-21.651554024399957\"\n ],\n [\n \"Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2015 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2015, the list was published on December 9, calculated with data from December 6, 2014 to November 28,\",\n \"-21.64488104992779\"\n ],\n [\n \"on an impulse; I write it as I feel it. If I was just writing bullshit songs trying to make a hit, yeah, I could give you a song six months in advance. Nigga, I'm doing my album in a month's time. I'm writing it...recording it, going to write another one, really feeling the music for some months and then go in the studio for like a month and a half and do it. Everybody don't work like that.\\\"\\nIn July 2013, Tech elaborated further on how the quick schedule for his albums kept him from securing features he wanted on\",\n \"-21.623050600923307\"\n ],\n [\n \"2011, users have to register for free to listen to a song, otherwise just a 30-second preview is provided. Registration is also required for advanced features such as making playlists, and purchasing music. Due to technical problems, however, a small minority of visitors are getting full tracks for nothing.\\nThe site also has an editorial section titled the 'Magazine', which has featured interviews with artists and occasionally runs competitions, such as the recent Metro Station competition. Financial performance On 6 October 2010, We7 posted losses of £3.6 million. The company claimed that market conditions, the collapse of the banking sector and\",\n \"-21.601665939146187\"\n ],\n [\n \"by three copyright royalty judges. Though the compulsory license allows one to make and distribute physical copies of a song for a set royalty, the owner of the copyright in the underlying musical composition can still control public performance of the work or transmission over the radio. If the underlying musical work is well known, the work can be licensed for public performance through a performance rights organization such as ASCAP, BMI, or SESAC.\\nAccording to Register of Copyrights, Marybeth Peters, use of the section 115 license prior to the 1995 enactment of the Digital Performance Right in Sound Recordings Act\",\n \"-21.59334784693783\"\n ],\n [\n \"of royalties within the firm), or all rights to the song were purchased outright for a flat fee (including rights to put someone else's name on the sheet music as the composer). An extraordinary number of Jewish East European immigrants became the music publishers and song writers on Tin Pan Alley – the most famous being Irving Berlin. Songwriters who became established producers of successful songs were hired to be on the staff of the music houses.\\n\\\"Song pluggers\\\" were pianists and singers who represented the music publishers, making their living demonstrating songs to promote sales of sheet music. Most music\",\n \"-21.554513872571988\"\n ],\n [\n \"to this CD. I'm not about to give you only three songs worth listening to. $15 is lunch money for a lot of kids. With Witness Tha Realest, I'm a holla at you. I'm going to give you something that you can knock for a while man … value for your dollar is long overdue in today's music market.\\nWitness Tha Realest Mixtape, was released in November 2006 which consisted of some leftovers from the original Witness Tha Realest studio album scheduled for release on July 15, 2004. This, however, changed due to the absence of a distribution company.\\nTha Realest worked\",\n \"-21.541984107272583\"\n ],\n [\n \"long, long, long ago.\\\" Background and release \\\"The Last Song I'll Write for You\\\" was written by Cook, Andy Skib, and Daniel James, and was produced by John Fields. It was released to digital retailers on May 4, 2012 before Cook premiered the song on the May 10, 2012 episode of the eleventh season of American Idol. Commercial performance The single sold 15,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting and peaking at number 45 on the Billboard Pop Digital Songs chart. Critical reception Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly says \\\"the slow-burn hook on this self-released breakup ballad is\",\n \"-21.53299179134774\"\n ],\n [\n \"form. ... Any sound or visual recording shall be considered as a reproduction for the purposes of this Convention. This means a composer has performing rights and control over how derivative works should be used, and the rights are retained at least 50 years after death, or even longer. Even if a song is a traditional arrangement in the public domain, performing rights can still be violated. Where they exist, performers rights may have a shorter duration than full copyright; for example, the Rome Convention sets a minimum term of twenty years after the performance. This created a market for bootleg\",\n \"-21.510783154517412\"\n ],\n [\n \"songs without approval. Firrantello was seeking punitive damages of at least US$1 million and asked that no further copies of the songs be made, sold or performed.\",\n \"-21.44559435217525\"\n ],\n [\n \"modulations.\\\"\\nThe single scores an average of 4.50 out of 5 on Rate Your Music.\",\n \"-21.44112095591845\"\n ],\n [\n \"Plow to the End of the Row Overview After attending Belmont University in Nashville, Young worked for two years in various jobs on Music Row. \\\"No one was interested in my music\\\", she says. \\\"I was working in the music business offices, and everyone around me was doing what they wanted to do. It was driving me crazy because I knew I could do it, but you can't save up the money to do a record when you're making seven or eight bucks an hour\\\". Young was also determined to retain ownership of the rights to\",\n \"-21.436135403317166\"\n ],\n [\n \"song was released every week. Unlike other records, they were sold at newsstands. Previous issues could be obtained by mail order. Retailing for 15 cents each, later raised to 20 cents, Hit of the Week records were by far the lowest-priced records in the US at that time.\\nThe first regular issue was released in February 1930. By the summer of 1930, up to half a million copies of each week's issue were produced. But as the Depression worsened, sales slumped. In March 1931 the company went into receivership and in May it was purchased by the Erwin, Wasey & Company\",\n \"-21.428548002964817\"\n ],\n [\n \"producer, Daniels cited her as an example of how the process works and how much she would charge. It is the responsibility of the vocal producer to tell a singer how to sing the song correctly to achieve the desired sound. Daniels said that Riddick's fee varies from $10,000 to $15,000, and that the final part of the process is for the song to be mixed and mastered, which incurs a similar fee. He estimated the final cost of writing, producing, vocal producing, mixing and mastering \\\"Man Down\\\" to be $78,000. When combined with the marketing and promotional costs, the\",\n \"-21.42612082848791\"\n ],\n [\n \"album art to all users. Limit on music library Spotify limits users' music libraries to 10,000 songs. This has caused negative publicity on several occasions and \\\"years of user complaints\\\". Derek Mead of Motherboard wrote in March 2016 that the limit was \\\"insane\\\", and suggested that Spotify, after raising \\\"another billion dollars\\\" in funding, should \\\"fix the service's most asinine limitation\\\". Chris Welch of The Verge wrote in May 2017 that \\\"It’s time for Spotify to stop capping how much music you can save\\\", further questioning \\\"Why is there such an arbitrary cap?\\\" Welch's article also highlighted the \\\"thousands of\",\n \"-21.421051317622187\"\n ],\n [\n \"raise $7,000 to enter upon earning a Masters of Music in composition and work with David Lang for a year. The project dates ran from August 2011 to May 2012.\",\n \"-21.407502555055544\"\n ],\n [\n \"breakthrough, Wilson had taken over from his father Murry, and he was the sole producer of all their recordings between 1963 and 1967.\\nA beatmaker is a songwriter who creates and composes music or beats for a song, often laying the groundwork or 'musical bed'. Then a composer who specializes in melody will create the top-line for the track. Tools typically used are keyboards, drum machines, softsynths and digital audio workstations. Beat makers or composers aren't necessarily record producers by definition or acting role since they generally do not work directly with an artist in a recording studio that oversees the\",\n \"-21.39756073403987\"\n ],\n [\n \"Write You a Song Chart performance The album debuted at No. 14 on the Billboard 200 chart, and No. 3 on the Top Country Albums chart, with 17,000 copies sold in its debut week. As of February 2016, the album has sold 85,000 copies in the U.S.\",\n \"-21.37242601532489\"\n ],\n [\n \"been working on another song, which was held back from inclusion on the record as he felt that it was not sufficiently complete. The song \\\"Good Vibrations\\\" set a new standard for musicians and for what could be achieved in the recording studio. Recorded in multiple sessions and in numerous studios, the song eventually cost $50,000 (equivalent to $386,103 in 2018) to record within a six-month period. In October 1966, it was released as a single, giving the Beach Boys their third US number-one hit after \\\"I Get Around\\\" and \\\"Help Me, Rhonda\\\". It sold over a million copies.\\nSometime after\",\n \"-21.354673554189503\"\n ],\n [\n \"who pays them via annual fees to the performing rights societies, not the producer who uses the music in their production.\\nSome companies offer truly royalty-free music which is not registered with any performance rights organisation (also known as \\\"royalty collection agencies\\\"). These companies license music to their customers on a non-exclusive basis where it can be used in perpetuity without any usage reporting. The music is licensed by the customers according to an accepted license agreement, and they cannot sell it or license it to others. Because of advancing technology, it is becoming easier for independent musicians to set up\",\n \"-21.34606776406872\"\n ],\n [\n \"music stores, Andy announced that he would donate all of the royalties he earned off of the track to cancer research in Olivia's name.\",\n \"-21.32576178779709\"\n ],\n [\n \"Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2005 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2005, the list was published on December 20, calculated with data from December 4, 2004 to November 26,\",\n \"-21.317024293355644\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cross Sylvester Cross, president of American Music, Inc. published thousands of songs during the 1940s, in most cases for a fee of about $60. Although the company was charging songwriters to record and publish their music, they did have hundreds of hit songs. Sylvester Cross a real estate developer by trade ran American Music as his secondary business. After his death his wife quickly sold his publishing company to Hill and Range Songs. Artists Among the artists who recorded for the label were Jewel Akens, Eddie Cochran, Carol Kaye, Bobby Edwards, Jimmy Bowen, Tom Tall, Donna Loren, Bob Denton, Terry\",\n \"-21.297248591843527\"\n ],\n [\n \"his liking. He began cutting classes and taking the train up to Tin Pan Alley, where he tried to get some of his songs heard by local music publishers. In his senior year, when he was just 10 units short of graduation, Sunbeam Music Publishing offered him a 16-week job writing songs for $50 a week (equivalent to about US$414 per week, in 2018 dollars), and he dropped out of college to accept it. The 1960s After his 16 weeks at Sunbeam Music were up, he was not rehired, and began writing and singing his own songs for demo purposes.\",\n \"-21.287770752125653\"\n ],\n [\n \"the official World Music Awards website, the award is rare; it is \\\"not presented every year\\\" and an artist can be presented with the award only for selling \\\"over 100 million albums during their career\\\". 2003–2007: A New Day... In early 2002, Dion announced a three-year, 600-show contract to appear five nights a week in an entertainment extravaganza, A New Day..., at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas. This move was generally seen as risky, but journalist Miriam Nunzio wrote that it was \\\"one of the smartest business decisions in years by any major recording artist\\\". Dion conceived the\",\n \"-21.27795222252462\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hits, \\\"he told the idea to his music publisher, Freddy Bienstock, who was visiting him in Germany... Mr. Bienstock, who many times found songwriters for Presley, returned to his New York office, where he found songwriters, Mr. [Aaron] Schroeder and Wally Gold, the only people in that day. The two wrote lyrics in half an hour. Selling more than 20 million records, the song became number one in countries all around and was Presley's best selling single ever... a song [they] finished in 20 minutes to a half hour was the biggest song of [their] career.\\\"\\nBarry White credited this song\",\n \"-21.27387554832967\"\n ],\n [\n \"song are the life of Jesus, thankfulness, and worship. Composition \\\"Here I Am to Worship\\\" is a slow worship ballad with a length of five minutes and fifteen seconds. The song is set in common time and has a tempo of 75 beats per minute. It is written in the key E Major. The verses follow the chord progression E - B - F♯m - A - E - B - A, the chorus follows the progression E - B - C♯m - A, and the bridge follows the progression B - E - A.\\nThis song has been re-written in\",\n \"-21.2540864974726\"\n ],\n [\n \"Billboard Music Award for Top Selling Song The Billboard Music Award for Top Selling Song winners and nominees. As of 2018, no artist has won the award multiple times.\",\n \"-21.2443408499621\"\n ],\n [\n \"does not alter the sound of the note. There are also no freestyle drum fills in the songs for activating Beatlemania; instead the player continues to perform the correct note sequence before being presented with a note to activate Beatlemania.\\nThroughout the song, players receive points for every note hit, and this is totalled up and displayed at the end of the song, along with a percentage of how many notes they hit, and a rating: 1 to 5 stars. If the score is close to perfect, normally requiring at least 98% of the notes, the rating is five 'gold' stars,\",\n \"-21.24368589176447\"\n ],\n [\n \"Billboard Music Award for Top Radio Songs Artist The Billboard Music Award for Top Radio Songs Artist winners and nominees. Rihanna has won the award the most times.\",\n \"-21.22419039079614\"\n ],\n [\n \"songs were previewed on both Wogan and on BBC Radio 2. 182 songs were submitted and at no time during the judging phase were the names of either the composers, authors or publishers divulged.\\nOn the first listening phase, 7 sessions at 26 songs per session were heard. Every song entered was played for 150 seconds each and voted upon. Eight judges comprising music publishers' professional staff and members of the record buying public represented by staff of PRS and MCPS. When adding the votes, the MPA office checked whether any member of the panel had any interest in the songs\",\n \"-21.215661102382\"\n ],\n [\n \"a proposal to do so in exchange for a fee. The early 20th century versions of this business involved setting the words to music and printing up sheet music from inexpensively engraved plates.\\nIn producing the recordings, musicians often recorded dozens of songs per recording session using minimal resources, often in one take. Some of the companies recorded new vocals over pre-recorded music backing tracks, using the same music tracks hundreds of times. The recordings were then duplicated on 45 RPM vinyl singles or on individual cassette tapes, or they were released on compilation LPs with dozens of other songs by\",\n \"-21.206933833367657\"\n ],\n [\n \"6 months, last year or overall. Main problems and uprising solutions Since the generated music charts depend on what the users register and on the tags from their music files, Last.fm made up a system based on the listens of the users which corrects a song's tag if it differs from what most people registered. On the other hand, the system has errors, like not noticing the difference between two artists with the same name or not taking track length into consideration. Artists with many short tracks will have many more listens than artists with a few but very long\",\n \"-21.183632582309656\"\n ],\n [\n \"(music users), and only to registered members of the society. Royalties are paid twice per year for the preceding year. After music users submit logs and playlists to JACAP, these are used to ascertain the rights owners in the works who are then compensated for the use of their creation through the fees collected. JACAP pays over royalties after administration expenses are deducted. To date, JACAP has paid out over $180 million to members International reciprocal agreements JACAP has reciprocal agreements with its overseas affiliates and through these agreements represents over 2 million creators of music. JACAP members\",\n \"-21.158241905039176\"\n ],\n [\n \"is missed. After successfully completing a song, the performance of each player and the band as a whole is rated on a 5-star scale. The best performance by a player for each song in the player's library is tracked separately based on instrument, Basic or Pro mode, and difficulty, then is used to provide and compare leaderboard statistics at the end of the song.\\nThe overall goal of the band is to successfully complete a song and earn as many points as possible by using their selected controllers to play the notes shown on the screen at the proper time; or,\",\n \"-21.11420221424487\"\n ],\n [\n \"label make their music available to download for free, and invite listeners to make a small donation if they want to. Between donations and ticket sales for live shows, Quote Unquote Records has been successfully recording music and expanding the number of bands on their label for the past twelve years. Where does the money come from Proposals have included targeted levies on internet connections, blank CDs, digital media players, etc. (many of these goods are levied various countries' existing private copying schemes); income taxation; or optional payments by users.\\nIn terms of economic theory, consumer \\\"opt in\\\" regimes are very\",\n \"-21.101737408549525\"\n ],\n [\n \"sometimes passed to other artists, who may wait months or years to record it, or just a hook from it, and all for the singer's own glory. The show tries to elevate the traditional role of the songwriter in the process of creating music from \\\"unpleasant secret\\\" to being the celebrated \\\"magic ingredient\\\".\",\n \"-21.099688217422226\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":95,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"1alz8v"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Why the name Richard is shortened into Dick?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["It was once popular to create rhyming nicknames. So Richard becomes Rick, which then becomes Dick. This is the same reason that William becomes Bill.","This question could have been answered by Google. There are lots of explanations. ELI5 is for asking questions where you've done the research but still don't understand the concept.","Have you ever met a Richard you've liked?","Richard here: I can verify that we're all dicks","My middle name is Dirk which is interchangable as Dick in the netherlands. And my first name is Ritch. So my name is actually Dick Dick?","Little off topic but why did people call John F. Kennedy; Jack Kennedy? How is Jack a nickname for John?","I know a guy whos legal name is Dick, He goes by Rich.","My name is Richard, but most people call me Rick. Only people who still find humor in the word \"dick\" call me Dick as a joke.","But how does Francisco get to Paco? I guess should know, but I don't.","I go by Ted but my real name is Edward, from some reason this puzzles people. I dont know why, you put a T in front of Ed and it's Ted","Theodore all the way to Ted seems like a weird one too. (Edward- > Ed- > Ted explains the OTHER Teds in the same vein as this post)","Another reason all these nicknames happened: At one point in England there were very few first names in use. Still, in England, they use phrases like \"our Arthur\" to distinguish the Arthur in your department from the three other Arthurs in the company. Anyway. If your wife is Elizabeth, your mother is Elizabeth, your sister is Elizabeth and your mother-in-law is Elizabeth (something like this happened) you need a quick way of keeping them straight. Liz, Eliza, Beth, Bess, and then the ones down the lane are Betsy, Lizzie, and so forth. Margaret, Maggie, Marge, Margie ... I imagine at some point you call a Margaret \"Peg\" because you're out of ideas. This theory also explains Mary- > Molly, John- > Jack and other such things. (source: somewhere in the book Longitude. It was something like a guy named John Smith with a wife, sister and mother named Elizabeth and a brother-in-law and father-in-law named John. )","[*\"And if someone asks to see it, I show 'em a little dick, Not my penis, the short guy named Richard, we call him Rick, (What up, Rick?) He's actually kind of a dick.\"*]( URL_0 )","Better question. If your name happens to be Richard, why choose to go with Dick? Like [this guy]( URL_0 )","My Mongolian friend, Batjargal, tells me the shorthand of his name (Bachka) is similar to the Richard/Dick shorthand","Here's a question, was the word 'dick' (meaning penis) around before the word 'dick' (meaning Richard)?","My name is WALOOON and I go by DICK."],"string":"[\n \"It was once popular to create rhyming nicknames. So Richard becomes Rick, which then becomes Dick. This is the same reason that William becomes Bill.\",\n \"This question could have been answered by Google. There are lots of explanations. ELI5 is for asking questions where you've done the research but still don't understand the concept.\",\n \"Have you ever met a Richard you've liked?\",\n \"Richard here: I can verify that we're all dicks\",\n \"My middle name is Dirk which is interchangable as Dick in the netherlands. And my first name is Ritch. So my name is actually Dick Dick?\",\n \"Little off topic but why did people call John F. Kennedy; Jack Kennedy? How is Jack a nickname for John?\",\n \"I know a guy whos legal name is Dick, He goes by Rich.\",\n \"My name is Richard, but most people call me Rick. Only people who still find humor in the word \\\"dick\\\" call me Dick as a joke.\",\n \"But how does Francisco get to Paco? I guess should know, but I don't.\",\n \"I go by Ted but my real name is Edward, from some reason this puzzles people. I dont know why, you put a T in front of Ed and it's Ted\",\n \"Theodore all the way to Ted seems like a weird one too. (Edward- > Ed- > Ted explains the OTHER Teds in the same vein as this post)\",\n \"Another reason all these nicknames happened: At one point in England there were very few first names in use. Still, in England, they use phrases like \\\"our Arthur\\\" to distinguish the Arthur in your department from the three other Arthurs in the company. Anyway. If your wife is Elizabeth, your mother is Elizabeth, your sister is Elizabeth and your mother-in-law is Elizabeth (something like this happened) you need a quick way of keeping them straight. Liz, Eliza, Beth, Bess, and then the ones down the lane are Betsy, Lizzie, and so forth. Margaret, Maggie, Marge, Margie ... I imagine at some point you call a Margaret \\\"Peg\\\" because you're out of ideas. This theory also explains Mary- > Molly, John- > Jack and other such things. (source: somewhere in the book Longitude. It was something like a guy named John Smith with a wife, sister and mother named Elizabeth and a brother-in-law and father-in-law named John. )\",\n \"[*\\\"And if someone asks to see it, I show 'em a little dick, Not my penis, the short guy named Richard, we call him Rick, (What up, Rick?) He's actually kind of a dick.\\\"*]( URL_0 )\",\n \"Better question. If your name happens to be Richard, why choose to go with Dick? Like [this guy]( URL_0 )\",\n \"My Mongolian friend, Batjargal, tells me the shorthand of his name (Bachka) is similar to the Richard/Dick shorthand\",\n \"Here's a question, was the word 'dick' (meaning penis) around before the word 'dick' (meaning Richard)?\",\n \"My name is WALOOON and I go by DICK.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["the original name in 2002 and Flintshire County Council reversed their renaming after a few weeks. Derivative meaning The word dick is used in the sense of \"nothing\", a figurative use of the sense \"penis\" (similar to the use of fuck and shit in a similar sense), as in \"Nowadays you don't mean dick to me\" (Amy Winehouse, 2008, cited by Green, 2008). Other slang Dick is used as a slang term for detective, as in \"Hiring a private dick to help locate her natural mother\" (The Guardian, 1999, cited by Green, 2008). This meaning may derive from the Gipsy","-29.60488618279851"],["what the German word \"dick\" meant in English. Heinz Ganss replied: \"large\". \"Oh\", replied the Welshman and paraphrased: \"king size\". Ganss stuck to that and thus his stage name remained \"King Size Dick\" ('big and fat'), with no intended phallic connotation. In the Colognian dialect, the German adjective dick [dɪk] translates to deck [dek²] as opposed to Dick which in Colognian, like in English, is also regarded a variation of the Christian name \"Richard\". Back home, his nickname and stage name remained \"Dick\", even in the Colognian dialect.","-28.298649764459697"],["people are at times given the nickname Dick, from the German adjective which means 'fat'. Another example of the use of the German adjective as a nickname is for the comedy duo of Laurel and Hardy, which Germans often refer to as \"Dick und Doof\", meaning 'fat and stupid'. Thus the adjective dick became a nickname for Ganss. During one of the social gatherings in Wales, someone asked Heinz Ganss his name. He replied \"Dick\", referring to the German adjective for 'fat', or 'large', or 'bigger'. The person who asked him presumed that this was a German word and asked","-25.345418414910682"],["Mr. Dick Mr. Dick, whose full name is Richard Babley, is a character in the Charles Dickens novel, David Copperfield. He has childish traits and an obsession with work on his memorial from which he is constantly distracted by thoughts of King Charles' head. He may represent Dickens' difficult role as the author of this work, which alluded to Dickens' own traumatic childhood.","-23.976231129030566"],["Dick is a rough character, a killer as evil as his name implies, like the other henchmen, and this is his rough solution to his perceived societal problem. There is some disagreement with the interpretation that one of Shakespeare's sympathetic characters would make a joke suggesting that killing lawyers would make the world better. Henry VI, Part 2, Act IV, Scene 2 JACK CADE. Valiant I am.\nSMITH [aside]. A must needs; for beggary is valiant.\nJACK CADE. I am able to endure much.\nDICK [aside]. No question of that; for I have seen him whipp'd three market-days together.\nJACK CADE. I fear","-23.808536262871712"],["word \"dick\" or variations thereof. In context and as used in the complained of broadcasts, these were epithets intended to denigrate or criticize their subjects. Their use in this context was not sufficiently explicit or graphic and/or sustained to be patently offensive.\nThe name of the traditional British dessert spotted dick has occasionally been perceived as potentially embarrassing, prompting hospital managers at Gloucestershire NHS Trust (in 2001) and the catering staff at Flintshire County Council (in 2009) to rename the pudding Spotted Richard on menus, as many customers made \"immature comments\" about the pudding. Gloucestershire NHS Trust restored","-23.760231604932414"],["Becoming Dick Plot Richard Breggs (Harland Williams) is a struggling actor living in an apartment with his girlfriend. After a conversation with a friend, Richard decides that he is too much of a \"nice guy\" and that the key to success is to act like a jerk. After his new obnoxious personality lands him a part in a play, Richard thinks he is on his way to being a success. He goes to sleep in his apartment and wakes up in a mansion. It is four years later, but Richard doesn't remember anything that has happened in the elapsed time,","-23.454232433388825"],["his own parents' murder. After Dick discovered that Wayne was Batman, the two worked together to capture Zucco. Dick chose the codename \"Robin\" because that is what his mother had called him.\nAs depicted in a possible future during the episode \"Artifacts\", Dick Grayson gives up the \"Robin\" name and costume to become Nightwing. Barbara and Batman still persist in calling him by his original codename. Batman did this more out of habit, and Barbara did it as a flirting sort of way to annoy Dick. The police department who discover the Batcave in the beginning of the episode call Robin","-22.241216400910616"],["and asks Don who Dick is. Don responds: \"That's me\", and brushes the question off by claiming it's his nickname. Over the course of the weekend, Don decides that he is in love with Megan and proposes to her the morning after their return. \nPeggy and Ken, meanwhile, save the company by signing new work with Topaz Pantyhose. Betty and Henry move out of the Drapers' Ossining home after Betty fires their nanny/housekeeper over her refusal to help Betty break up the budding friendship between Sally and Glen, a neighborhood boy who warns Sally of the dangers of parents who","-22.10575917621145"],["Fugging History of name Fugging was first referred to as Fucking in 1195 in a local monastery's parish records. Its name was later changed from Fucking to Fugging for an unknown reason by 1836. While it is not known why the village changed its name, it has been speculated by its current mayor that because Fugging is closer to Vienna than the other village of Fucking is, it would have likely had more English-speaking visitors who might have raised questions regarding its name, which is also an English vulgar slang word for sexual intercourse. The village's placename signs are firmly","-22.03604506346204"],["Dick-a-Dick had fallen in love with a local white woman, who was reported to have agreed to marry him, but Hayman opposed the marriage and forced Dick-a-Dick to continue the tour. Referred to as \"amiable and curious\", Dick-a-Dick had a friendly disposition and was well-liked, with Charles Lawrence years later remembering him with real affection. Post-England tour After returning from the cricket tour of England, his health deteriorated and he travelled back to his traditional country and the Ebenezer Mission. He was thought to have worked as a drover and fencer along the Murray River.\nWhite locals recognised Dick-a-Dick as a","-21.77670181618305"],["names Puck may also be called \"Robin Goodfellow\" or \"Hobgoblin\", in which \"Hob\" may substitute for \"Rob\" or may simply refer to the \"goblin of the hearth\" or hob. The name Robin is Middle English in origin, deriving from Old French Robin, the pet form for the name Robert. The earliest reference to \"Robin Goodfellow\" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1531. \nAnthony Munday mentions Robin Goodfellow in his play The Two Italian Gentlemen, 1584, and he appears in Skialtheia, or a Shadowe of Truth in 1598. William Shakespeare may have had access to the manuscript of Lewes","-21.764440930374576"],["the initials 'RD', a reference to his nickname \"Dickie\" (as in \"dickie bird\").","-21.72648089368522"],["Short Dick Man Background This single, which involves a woman mocking the size of a man's penis, was also released in a toned down version replacing the word \"dick\" with \"short\" (the song was also released under the censored title \"Short Short Man\"). Co-writer Manfred Mohr told the Los Angeles Times that the point of the song was to attract attention. \"We figured there were all these songs by men bashing women and treating women like sex objects. So we decided a song that turned the tables on men might attract some attention.\" According to the vocalist Sandra Gillette, the","-21.691456591073802"],["the word \"dick\" in a sexual context. These included, for example, the State University of New York's WSUC-FM, in Cortland, New York, which in 1993 was fined for broadcasting a rap titled \"I'm Not Your Puppet\", which referenced \"shoving my dick up this bitch's behind\" in one lyric, and stated in another, \"I pulled out my dick, popped it in her mouth, and she sucked it.\" In the same report, however, the FCC noted that in 1990, it had ruled that WFBQ (FM)/WNDE (AM) in Indianapolis had not engaged in indecency when it broadcast the line \"So you talk to","-21.578689643334656"],["Richard's Things Richard's Things is a 1980 British drama film directed by Anthony Harvey and starring Liv Ullmann, Amanda Redman and Peter Burton. It is written by Frederic Raphael and based on his novel of the same name. It entered the 37th Venice International Film Festival. Plot On the death of the title character Richard, his widow discovers he had a secret long-term mistress. Despite the initial awkwardness between the two women, they soon begin to bond - and have a lesbian relationship.","-21.516602337687345"],["due to an accidental bump on the head that gave him amnesia. It turns out that he is now a famous TV star, known for being obnoxious, selfish, and difficult to work with. Richard (now known as Dick) realizes that while his new personality gave him success, it also caused him to lose his girlfriend and best friend. He sets about trying to right the wrongs of the past 4 years. Production The film was shot in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.","-21.460468429302637"],["have both our names on the cover. Mary's family always called me Richard due to having another Dick in the family. I am Richard, Mary was Mary, and Dick Francis was the two of us together.\nFrancis's manager (and co-author of his later books) was his son Felix, who left his post as teacher of A-Level Physics at Bloxham School in Oxfordshire in order to work for his father. Felix was the inspiration behind a leading character, a marksman and physics teacher, in the novel Twice Shy. The older son, Merrick, was a racehorse trainer and later ran his own horse","-20.99985894864585"],["meanings listed: acdc, barney, blag, butch, camp, khazi, cottaging, hoofer, mince, ogle, scarper, slap, strides, tod, [rough] trade.\nThe Polari word naff, meaning inferior or tacky, has an uncertain etymology. Michael Quinion states that it is probably from the sixteenth-century Italian word gnaffa, meaning \"a despicable person\". There are a number of false etymologies, many based on acronyms—Not Available For Fucking, Normal As Fuck—though these are backronyms. More likely etymologies include northern UK dialect naffhead, naffin, or naffy, a simpleton or blockhead; niffy-naffy, inconsequential, stupid, or Scots nyaff, a term of contempt for any unpleasant or objectionable person. An alternative etymology","-20.95120937907359"],["Trelawny struggled with spelling as a young man. He often spelled phonetically. This caused him significant difficulties when he tried to correspond with his friends. His spelling indicated a strong Westcountry accent. His parents were concerned about this, particularly his habit of occasionally misspelling his own name. His problem with spelling might have been due to dyslexia, evidence for which has been provided by one of Trelawny's biographers. After he left the Navy he read voraciously. He often read Shakespeare's plays and attended the theatres in Covent Garden. He began incorporating references to Shakespeare in his personal letters. He also","-20.899352568836548"],["the old woman, called Mrs. Taggart, bluntly announces they must leave because her son would not accept either of them. However, once Dick manages to communicate Mrs. Taggart agrees to let Anne stay in a remote loft whilst Dick makes do with sleeping in the barn.\nDuring the night, Dick is awakened by a voice in the night who calls his name repeatedly. He knows the voice cannot be from one of the Five and cannot understand how he would know his name. Dick is given a message - “Two Trees”. “Gloomy Water”. “Saucy Jane” “And Maggie knows” - together with","-20.759497435918092"],["while Dick drags them on another bicycle adventure, which he had meticulously planned for fourteen years. In a reversal, George had married a series of wealthy men whom she cuckolded, with, among others, one of her stepsons (her continuing penchant for bestiality with the latest Timmy is also implied); whereas Anne has become a strongly opinionated vegan spinster and is suspected by Dick of being a \"dyke\" – an accusation made against George by Toby in the original Five Go Mad in Dorset. George and Julian have been committed to an alcoholics' sanatorium, the latter owes a large debt to African","-20.726347112633448"],["\"Dick\"—his mother's maiden name and a well-known Scottish surname. The Royal Dick School of Veterinary Studies, the United Kingdom's leading veterinary school, was founded by William Dick, one of Howard's collateral ancestors.\nHoward is married to Mary Howard, an architectural historian and a winner of the Charles E. Peterson Prize of the Historia American Buildings Survey. He has one daughter, Jennifer, a writer and editor. He is fond of his several cats, opera, classical music, skiing, travel, and his two grandchildren, Lela and Finn.","-20.643472065359674"],["her song \"Ran Tan Waltz\", her second non-album B-side. This song is performed as a tragicomedy, where Bush portrays a man bemoaning his bad luck in life being married to a wayward mother. This song uses the word \"dick\" in the first verse as cacophemism for a penis. Bush has stated that she doesn't typically use such harsh language or write such sexually explicit material, but that she considered the song \"good naughty fun.\"","-20.51781426105481"],["are used for drinking mate by sucking into them), etc. Among young people, almost every word can be turned into mean \"dick\": -\"¿Me pasás el encendedor?\" -\"¡Acá tengo un encendedor para vos!\" (-\"Can you give me the lighter?\" -\"I have a lighter for you right here!\"). Concha / Chucha / Chocha Concha (lit.: \"mollusk shell\" or \"inner ear\") is an offensive word for a woman's vulva or vagina (i.e. something akin to English cunt) in Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Mexico. In the rest of Latin America and Spain however, the word is only used with its literal","-20.489717778857084"],["the unknown.\" Packaging The title is a tongue-in-cheek pun on male masturbation (\"take off your pants and jack it\"). Previous titles had included If You See Kay (a pun on the spelling of \"fuck\") and Genital Ben, accompanied by a bear on the cover of the album (a reference to Gentle Ben). Stressed at being at a loss for a name, DeLonge asked guitar tech Larry Palm for suggestions. The album's title was coined by Palm, who was snowboarding on a rainy day. Inside the lodge, Palm was congregating with friends when a young kid walked in completely drenched, to","-20.440643607470747"],["following year, Hall had his name legally changed to \"Dick Wickenburg Hall\". As to why the new name was selected, Hall had never liked his given name and had gone by \"Dick\" as a child. The addition of \"Wickenburg\" was done to satisfy Hall's desire to have a middle name and in honor of Henry Wickenburg. The new name was shortened in common use to \"Dick Wick Hall\".\nWhile the Hall's newspaper was turning into a failure, they purchased an interest in a gold mine in the Harcuvar Mountains. The mine, the Glory Hole Mine, was successful","-20.421024251105337"],["The writers came up with Dick's name through referring to the character as \"a dick\".\nThe episode featured several guest stars, including socialite Paris Hilton as Logan's girlfriend, Caitlin. Hilton was already a celebrity when the episode aired. Fans often treat her guest appearance as out of character for the show. Ratings \"Credit Where Credit's Due\" was watched by 2.21 million viewers in its initial broadcast, ranking 113 of 116 in the weekly rankings. Reviews The episode received mixed to positive reviews. Television Without Pity gave the episode a \"B+\".\nRowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club commented negatively on Paris Hilton's guest","-20.409075614072208"],["of law is limited. Dick is very arrogant and often disregards others in order to make his life more convenient. Most of his time is spent in his office drinking glasses of sherry, watching golf on the television and not doing any work. He sees his position in the firm as bringing the work in which is completed by Stella, Bob or Colin. Dick's last appearance in the series was in \"Indecision.\" In \"A Question Of Pants\" it was revealed that Dick had taken early retirement and therefore Stella became the sole senior partner of the firm. Stella Phelps Stella","-20.383712359425658"],["Dick later stated he had written an apology letter to Stern.\nIn October 2017, Dick was fired from a role in the independent film Raising Buchanan due to allegations of inappropriate behavior which, according to The Hollywood Reporter, \"included groping people's genitals, unwanted kissing/licking and sexual propositions of at least four members of the production\". While he denied most of the allegations, he said \"I might have kissed somebody on the cheek to say goodbye and then licked them. That's my thing – I licked Carrie Fisher at a roast. It's me being funny.\" It would later be revealed that in","-20.315861745518987"],["Dickey (garment) A dickey (alternatively written as dickie or dicky; sometimes known in American English as a tuxedo front or tux front) is a type of false shirt-front - originally known as a detachable bosom - designed to be worn with a tuxedo or men's white tie, usually attached to the collar and then tucked into the waistcoat or cummerbund. Better dickeys have a trouser tab at the end to secure them down, preventing the dickey from popping out. The rigid plastic dickey came into fashion in the latter years of the 19th century, and was one of the first","-20.250928000346903"],["public, Dick believes it is simply for a positive public image. Due to Bruce's actions as Batman, Alfred became Dick's only confidant. Eventually Dick would run off and attempt to avenge his parents himself, once again saved by Batman who later reveals himself to be Wayne. Bruce decides to train Grayson himself, eventually becoming Robin, the boy wonder. During Dick's training the two develop a father-son bond and eventually stop Two-Face, The Hangman and Tony Zucco, their collaborator.\nDick enjoys his first year as Robin, regarding the job as an adventure until a confrontation with Two-Face serves as a rude awakening","-20.204560680646637"],["Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star Plot Dickie Roberts is a former child star who shot to fame on a TV sitcom called The Glimmer Gang with his spoonerism catchphrase \"This is Nuckin' Futs!\". His career subsequently halted after his 6th birthday. Since his heyday, he has been reduced to parking cars at a Morton's restaurant and appearing on Celebrity Boxing, where he is matched with Emmanuel Lewis. In the public eye and to his girlfriend Cyndi (who apparently leaves him during a roadside incident), Dickie is washed up.\nAfter talking to an old friend, Leif Garrett, Dickie is absolutely convinced that","-20.198883879591904"],["of the gothic novel, through the combination with the historical romance genre.\nThe historical romance classification is also eluded, because despite Honor's early reference to the reader expectation of the marriage and children of the protagonist, Honor never mothers Richard's children, but rather acts as a substitute mother for Dick, while he is rejected by his father. Homosexuality Some critics, including Horner and Zlosnik, suggest that Dick may be homosexual and that this is an aspect of his father's rejection of him throughout the novel. Characters in the novel portrayed as dominantly masculine, including Richard, suggest connections between being foreign and","-20.17837490635702"],["Dirty Dick Nathaniel Bentley (c. 1735–1809), commonly known as Dirty Dick, was an 18th-century merchant who owned a hardware shop and warehouse in London, and is one person who is considered as a possible inspiration for Miss Havisham in Charles Dickens' Great Expectations after he refused to wash following the death of his fiancée on their wedding day.\nHe was a previous owner of a pub on Bishopsgate, in the City of London, which is named after him. History Bentley had been quite a dandy in his youth, but following the death of his fiancée on their wedding day he refused to","-20.17728508935852"],["making a costume and a Superhero identity for himself. Getting inspiration from his mother's favorite bird and his favorite folktale hero, Robin Hood, Dick chose the name \"Robin\", and he officially became Batman's sidekick, thus creating the Dynamic Duo.\nThe series also redefined the original Robin, Dick Grayson. While much of Dick's past remains the same, his Robin costume is modernized with short sleeves and long tights, exactly like Tim Drake's original Robin outfit but with a non-italicized \"R\" symbol. In addition, Dick is given a more serious and mature personality to match the tone of the series. The episode \"Batgirl","-20.163720520102345"],["inextricably associated with the name King Size Dick.\nAt the end of the 1970s, he joined the \"Formation Dick & Alex\", together with guitarist and songwriter Alex Parche. They played German rock music songs such as Schweine in weißen Westen (which translates to 'pigs in white vests'). Awards King Size Dick is the bearer of the 2002 Willi Ostermann medal, the highest official award of the Cologne Carnival. Origin of stage name While Ganss was stationed in Wales with the German armed forces, he was asked to perform locally at social events, such as birthdays, which were potluck. In Cologne, overweight","-20.012040533166328"],["Hævi Mætal og Hass Name \"Hævi Mætal og Hass\" is not correct Danish spelling, but it is pronounced like that if you speak with Copenhagen accent. When you say \"Heavy\" in Danish the \"ea\" sounds like an \"æ\". In correct Danish the title would be \"Heavy Metal og Hash\". Aldi Aldi is a German supermarket. The song is in German. Ticeman Control \"Ticeman\" is a word made up by the band members. It is a faux-Anglicization of the word \"tissemand\", a colloquial term for penis. Den Dystra Staden This song is not in Danish, but in Swedish.","-20.00324691373089"],["He's a Whore Lyrics The genesis of the song came from Nielsen coming up with the title and liking the idea and building the song around it. He liked the fact that the phrase \"he's a whore\" is not as obvious as if the title was \"She's a Whore,\" and that a song about a gigolo involves a sense of role reversal. The lyrics imply that the central character is an unattractive but wealthy woman. However, according to Nielsen, the song is not just about sex. Nielsen has stated that \"Whoring means so many different things,","-19.973772264649597"],["\"nowt\" (IPA://naʊt/, rhymes with out, \"nothing\") are used elsewhere in Northern England. Many words, however, appear to be used exclusively in Newcastle and the surrounding area, such as \"canny\" (a versatile word meaning \"good\", \"nice\" or \"very\"), \"hacky\" (\"dirty\"), \"netty\" (\"toilet\"), \"hoy\" (\"throw\", from the Dutch gooien, via West Frisian), \"hockle\" (\"spit\"). Nightlife Newcastle was in the top ten of the country's top night spots, and The Rough Guide to Britain placed Newcastle upon Tyne's nightlife as Great Britain's no. 1 tourist attraction. In the Tripadvisor Travellers' Choice Destination Awards for European Nightlife destinations, four of the UK's nightspots finished","-19.949678579765077"],["Dick Tracy Creation and early years Basing the character on U.S. federal agent Eliot Ness, Gould drafted an idea for a detective named \"Plainclothes Tracy\" and sent it to Joseph Medill Patterson of the Chicago Tribune New York News Syndicate. Patterson suggested changing the hero's name to Dick Tracy, and also put forward an opening storyline in which Tracy joined the police after his girlfriend's father was murdered by robbers. Gould agreed to these ideas, and Dick Tracy was first published on October 4, 1931. The strip was instantly popular, and was soon appearing in newspapers across the United States.","-19.880010502751247"],["why Robin is all wet and he says it is because he has been thrown into the brook by the stranger on the bridge. The men want to punish the stranger, but Robin holds them back, saying he can join his band and learn how to shoot a bow and arrow. The stranger agrees and reveals himself as John Little. William Stutely decides to be Little John's \"Godfather\", and the men celebrate their new comrade by shooting a lot of fat doe for their meat, changing John Little's name by switching his Christian name and surname in a \"Baptismal\" ceremony,","-19.820851354726983"],["Uli M Schueppel Uli M Schueppel (born 7 May 1958 in Erbach, Germany as Ulf Schüppel) is a German director and documentary filmmaker. The \"M\" in the middle of the name is not an abbreviation of a name, but a reference to the Elvis Presley's song \"Trouble\": My middle name is misery. It is written without dot. Early childhood and youth Schueppel is the son of the visual artist and author Hem Schueppel and the educationalist Christine Schueppel, (born as Christine Irmer) and has a younger sister, Heike. The father was an oppositional political activivist in East","-19.779068291565636"],["face\", which suggested \"Rock\". It was \"Move It\" writer Ian Samwell who suggested the surname \"Richard\" as a tribute to Webb's musical hero Little Richard.\nBefore their first large-scale appearance, at the Regal Ballroom in Ripley, Derbyshire in 1958, they adopted the name \"Cliff Richard and the Drifters\". The four members were Harry Webb (by then going under the stage name \"Cliff Richard\"), Ian Samwell on guitar, Terry Smart on drums and Norman Mitham on guitar. None of the other three played with the later and better known Shadows, although Samwell wrote songs for Richard's later career.\nFor his debut session, Norrie","-19.705154728208072"],["character actor known for many roles in Western films. It was revealed in August 2009 by Toy Story 3 director Lee Unkrich that Woody's official last name is \"Pride\". Unkrich stated in his Twitter feed that \"Woody's actual full name is 'Woody Pride', and has been since the earliest days of developing the original Toy Story.\" Pullstring quotes Some of Woody's known pullstring quotes include \"Reach for the sky!\", \"This town ain't big enough for the two of us!\", \"You're my favorite Deputy!\", \"Somebody's poisoned the waterhole!\", and \"There's a snake in my boot!\". This last phrase is an old","-19.667699906898633"],["the character's name included \"Bill Barton\" and \"Rex Drake\". However, the production team finally settled on the more dynamic Dick Barton. After the series had been on the air for some time, the BBC (conscious that the biggest audience for the programme was schoolboys) wrote a strict code of what Dick and his chums could and couldn't do, one clause famously stating \"Sex plays no part in his adventures.\" Cancellation In 1951 The Archers was first broadcast at 11.45 am on the Light Programme. BBC management, led by drama head Val Gielgud, had never felt comfortable with the sensationalism","-19.648314418822338"],["It was in this series' episode Yogi's Heroes that Dick's full name was revealed; as the leader of an island named Dicaragua, he introduced himself as Richard Milhous Dastardly (an obvious play on former U.S. President Richard Milhous Nixon). One episode shows that Dastardly and Muttley are the greediest creatures in the world. Fender Bender 500 Dick Dastardly and Muttley were in the \"Fender Bender 500\" shorts on the early 1990s short-lived series Wake, Rattle, and Roll. In those segments, the duo once again appeared in a suped-up version of the Mean Machine as a monster truck called the Dirty","-19.47063837189853"],["success came in December 2006, when they collaborated with singer Justin Timberlake for the Digital Short \"Dick in a Box\", which stars Samberg and Timberlake as R&B-crooning balladeers who package their genitals as Christmas gifts. Taccone came up with the \"dick in a box\" premise after Michaels asked Samberg to write a sketch showcasing Timberlake's voice. Timberlake recalled that the musicians were \"laughing hysterically\" during its production, and that the \"delirium of no sleep\" contributed to the humor of the song. The online version of the short — which, like its predecessors, attracted millions of views on YouTube — was","-19.43226308035628"],["in 1867, Dick-a-Dick was introduced to Christianity by Lawrence and appeared strongly affected by the life of Jesus. He was not worried about the trip to England as he knew the captain had prayed for a safe arrival. Just before his death, he confessed his faith in Christianity and was baptised on 30 July 1870. Minutes before his death, Dick-a-Dick claimed to have seen the face of Jesus. Questions about Dick-a-Dick's life There are conflicting reports of the age of Dick-a-Dick and his date and place of death. While some sources give his date of death as 3 September 1870,","-19.331285660609865"],["leader and elder, with one settler family recalling that he was the traditional owner of the MacKenzie Springs and Bill's Gully hunting grounds of the Wimmera, and Dick-a-Dick was presented with an inscribed King plate by local European authorities.\nDick-a-Dick was known by a number of names throughout his life. In addition to his birth name, Djungadjinganook, and its spelling variants Jumgumjenanuke and Jungunjinuke, he was also known as King Billy, King Dick and Kennedy (in honour of an Edenhope policeman he admired). His descendants adopted Kennedy as their surname.\nHe died at the mission on 3 September 1870. While in Warrnambool","-19.308104835923587"],["Tom, Dick or Harry (song) Tom, Dick or Harry is a show tune from the Cole Porter musical, Kiss Me, Kate, introduced on Broadway on December 30, 1948 by Lisa Kirk (as Bianca); Harold Lang (as Lucentio); Edwin Clay (as Gremio); and Charles Wood (as Hortensio). In the 1953 Hollywood film version, \"Tom, Dick or Harry\" was performed by Ann Miller (as Bianca), Tommy Rall (as Lucentio), Bobby Van (as Gremio) and Bob Fosse (as Hortensio). Performance and release information In this song, during a musical performance of Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew (the subplot of Kate), three suitors (Gremio,","-19.302031318202353"],["I Love Dick (TV series) Plot Chris (Kathryn Hahn) is an unsuccessful New York City-based artist and filmmaker who accompanies her husband Sylvère (Griffin Dunne) to Marfa, Texas where Sylvère is taking up a research fellowship. Upon arrival in Marfa, Chris quickly becomes infatuated with Sylvère's fellowship sponsor Dick (Kevin Bacon). Her infatuation with Dick becomes articulated in un-delivered letters to him which are filled with unbounded sexually explicit desires. Her contentious and frustrating interactions with Dick as well as the writing of her confessional letters to him begin to affect her attitudes towards her marriage, work","-19.246024239746475"],["in Barney's middle name, which changed each time it was referenced. For example, both Barney and Andy are given different middle names in different episodes. In the episode \"Class Reunion\", Barney's middle name is Milton, though at other times he is called \"Bernard P. Fife\". In another episode, where he believes he is the descendant of Nathan Tibbs, a Mayberry Revolutionary hero, he says his name is \"Barney Tibbs Fife\". Andy jokingly says, \"I thought your middle name was Oliver.\" Another inconsistency is Barney's military service in WWII, which is not easily reconciled with his having graduated high school in","-19.239614319140856"],["After the song's release, so many people had misinterpreted the word as \"Bruce\" that Lynne actually began to sing the word as \"Bruce\" for fun at live shows.\nELO engineer Reinhold Mack remembers the genesis of the term differently, stating that Lynne was actually singing \"Bruce\" as a joke in advance of an Australian tour \"referring to how many Australian guys are called Bruce.\" Music video A music video for the song was produced, which showed video of the band performing the song interspersed with various animations relating to the song's subject matter, including big-bottomed majorettes and a pulsating neon frankfurter.","-19.15053016495949"],["of his own parents, Dick asks to become his aide. After extensive training, Dick becomes Robin. They start by disrupting Zucco's gambling and extortion rackets. They then successfully bait the riled Zucco into visiting a construction site, where they capture him.\nRobin's origin has a thematic connection to Batman's in that both see their parents killed by criminals, creating an urge to battle the criminal element. Bruce sees a chance to direct the anger and rage that Dick feels in a way that he himself cannot, thus creating a father/son bond and understanding between the two. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s,","-19.106393704599213"],["and Martha Wayne. When he gives the name \"Blake, John\" to a clerk holding a package that Bruce had left him, he is told there is nothing there for him. He hands over an ID and suggests they try his legal name, which is revealed to be Robin. The clerk gives him GPS coordinates and spelunking gear, before she tells him that he should use the name \"Robin\" more often. At the end of the film, Blake follows the coordinates, and finds the Batcave.\nGordon-Levitt has stated that the ending of The Dark Knight Rises is not","-19.099524509618277"],["Jack snipe Etymology The common name has been said to come from the Welsh word for a snipe, giach (pronounced with a hard g), but modern dictionaries say it comes from the masculine name Jack. Alfred Newton hypothesized that, \"It may be, as in Jackass, an indication of sex, for it is a popular belief that the Jack-Snipe is the male of the common species; or, again, it may refer to the comparatively small size of the bird, as the 'jack' in the game of bowls is the smallest of the balls used, and as fishermen call the smaller Pikes","-19.098196805234693"],["someone in authority rather mistakenly felt that \"batang berjuntai\" had phallic connotations (batang is Malay slang for \"penis\", and berjuntai translate directly as \"dangle\"). In fact the name referred to a literal \"dangling branch\" that was seen there when the town was first established; it was named by the resident British administrator.\nMany locals continue to use the old name, and outsiders unaware of the name change are often confused by the new signage.","-19.05360716094947"],["Dick Merrill Early years Born February 1, 1894 at Iuka, Mississippi, \"Dick\" Merrill was born into a family that prided itself as being descended from the famous frontier pioneer, Daniel Boone. Although his full name was Henry Tyndall, the name \"Dick\" was a childhood moniker that stuck with him for life. Brought up as a devout Catholic, he was a teetotaler in an age when the \"hard-drinking\" \"fun-loving\" aerial adventurer was seen as the norm. Considered very easy-going yet serious, his one foible, however, was that he was an inveterate gambler throughout his life.\nMerrill had from an early age been","-18.94778259409759"],["the \"Sexless Innkeeper.\" He elaborates with a poem set in a Dickensian version of Queens, where he was caught in a blizzard, walked a few blocks to an ugly woman's apartment, and feigned sleep to avoid sex. Ted is annoyed at the new nickname and constantly tells them that they're wrong.\nAs Barney and Robin leave for brunch with Lily and Marshall, Ted recites a poem of his own for Barney, telling the tale of a busty young blonde woman who was turned on by his professor persona. Barney is skeptical, but is left speechless when the young woman appears at","-18.937438278274385"],["Dyke (slang) The term dyke (or dike) is a slang noun meaning lesbian; it is also a slang adjective describing things associated with lesbianism. It originated as a homophobic and misogynistic slur for a masculine, butch, tomboyish, or androgynous female. While pejorative use of the word still exists, the term dyke has been reappropriated by out and proud lesbians as a word implying assertiveness and toughness, or simply as a neutral synonym for lesbian. Origins The origin of the term is obscure and many theories have been proposed. The Oxford English Dictionary notes the first attestation as Berrey and","-18.932217263360144"],["Dick, whom the town's sheriff deems to be a good role model. Dick allows Sebastian to break probation and asks him to join the Dandies, but only if he does everything on their terms. One day, Sebastian gives them a suspicious box full of guns, and soon breaks a club rule by firing another member's gun. Dick complains that Sebastian is \"ruining it for everyone.\" The group's sole female member, Susan, takes a shine to Sebastian and this threatens Dick. Freddie suggesting she's attracted to men with large penises.\nSebastian tells Dick that he and his friends carry guns because they're","-18.866187184039404"],[" Long-time Simpsons writer and Futurama executive producer David X. Cohen changed his middle initial from S to X because there was already a David S. Cohen registered with the Writer's Guild of America. Julianne Moore was born Julie Anne Smith but found that all variations of that name were already used by other actors.\n(The rumor that Michael Keaton changed his surname because of an attraction to actress Diane Keaton is incorrect; he chose Keaton because of an affinity for the physical comedy of Buster Keaton.)\nA middle name may be adopted in preference to changing a name. In some cases,","-18.814434809616614"],["even terms. Dick, holding the stone, is ordered by his father to return him to his own body, but Dick refuses, and decides instead to become a man identical to how his father looked before the change. Mr Bultitude has to begin the new term at his son's boarding school, while Dick gets a chance to run his father's business in the City. In the end, both are restored to their own bodies, with a better understanding of each other. Play In 1883, playwright Edward Rose adapted the story as a stage play, also titled Vice Versa. Radio The BBC","-18.81371566294547"],["they seem to be. Dick's story is typically more personal because it is not about the invasion of a community, but of a family.\nThe Father-Thing is the US Underwood-Miller (1987) and UK title of the third collected volume of Dick's short stories, retitled Second Variety after \"Second Variety\" was moved from Volume 2 by Citadel.\nThe story was adapted for the 2017 TV series, Philip K. Dick's Electric Dreams, by writer-director Michael Dinner and starred Greg Kinnear as the Father.","-18.792755210158248"],["its bounds and infringing on people's privacy. Barely audible at the end of the song, Glenn Frey can be heard whispering \"Say Goodnight, Dick,\" a line made famous by Dan Rowan of Rowan and Martin but in this case referring to Richard Nixon's resignation. Nixon would indeed resign five months after the release of the album. Henley however judged the song they wrote a \"clumsy, incoherent attempt\" as they were still learning how to write. According to Henley, the song was supposed to be \"an R&B-type song\" but missed the mark.\nIn the liner notes, T.N.T.S. was credited for the","-18.776315913935832"],["\"junior\" among other names. Researcher Michael Tan notes that the euphemisms for the vagina are considered more vulgar than those for the penis, and as such are fewer; but noted among them are mani (peanut), bibingka and bulaklak (flower), \"pechay\", \"hiyas\", \"kipay\" and \"tilapia\". He posits patriarchal norms as the reason for this discrepancy. \nSuso is the term most often applied to the breasts, but it is not considered profane and has connotations of breastfeeding; boob, imported from English slang, is the most widely used term for breasts that might be considered impolite. Tagalog has no analog of the vulgar","-18.699171946609567"],["career for his ungovernable temper and violent cursing. This eventually earned him the nickname of ‘Mad Dick’ among his men, but he remained a popular and sought-after commander. Captain Graham Moore, the brother of Sir John Moore, described him on the eve of the Walcheren expedition as \none of those in our service whom I estimate the highest. I do not believe he has his fellow among the Admirals, unless it be Pellew, for ability, and it is not possible to have more zeal and gallantry.\n\nDespite the failure of the venture, he was later to declare that\nIt is my","-18.697711811785666"],["December 2010. Hampton Wick in popular culture In Cockney rhyming slang, \"Hampton Wick\" (often shortened to \"Hampton\") means \"dick\" or \"prick\", both of which are British vulgar slang names for the penis. Hence a character called Hugh Jampton in the 1950s BBC radio programme The Goon Show amongst many other similar examples. In the 2000s BBC TV series The Office, Tim Canterbury bemoans the quality of Slough's nightlife, with an Elizabethan-themed club memorably displaying a punning notice stating \"Don't get your Hampton Court\" in the men's toilets. \nHampton Wick was the setting for the 1970s Thames Television situation comedy George","-18.6969813459159"],["again. Dick and Mary are summarily rounded up by the Crutches and bundled off to the orphanage, where they manage to get the goods on the underhanded operation. Spanky has some funny scenes, including one wherein he refuses to take a dose of castor oil and instead pushes it into Mr. Crutch's mouth. During a sleepless night, Spanky helps Dick escape out the window. Dick runs to Mary's house, where he finds the lamp and wishes he was an adult again. He then returns to being an adult and leads Mr. Wade back to the orphanage, exposing the Crutches and","-18.604427538060918"],["Dick Nixon, man you get him on the phone and Dick suggests maybe getting like a mega-Dick to help out, but you know, you remember the time the King ate mega-Dick under the table at a 095 picnic\", and a parody commercial referencing a fictional monster truck called \"Big Peter! Formerly the Big Dick's Dog Wiener Mobile\". In January 2005, the FCC released a ruling that it would not fine broadcasters whose programs used \"dick\" on the air to refer to a person behaving contemptibly. Specifically, the FCC stated in its ruling:\nA number of complaints cite isolated uses of the","-18.59922193296461"],["referred to by many ridiculous names, including, but not limited to, \"Slab Bulkhead\", \"Bolt Vanderhuge\", \"Hack Blowfist\", \"Fridge Largemeat\", \"Big McLarge Huge\", \"Buff Drinklots\", \"Stomp Beefknob\", and \"Punt Speedchunk\". Ryder is also compared to Swedish actor Dolph Lundgren. Ryder's love interest, Lea Jansen, who in the movie appears to be much older than him despite being six years younger, is referred to as Lea's father (Commander Jansen)'s \"grandmadaughter\"; Commander Jansen is compared to Santa Claus and to God, due to his white hair and beard, while Captain Devers is compared to Sting and Kalgan is noted for his","-18.518479697526573"],["constituted copyright infringement. Origin of name Contrary to popular belief, the moniker \"Boys Don't Cry\" did not actually come from The Cure's song/album of the same name. Rather, the name has its origins in some whispered lyrics from fellow British band 10cc's hit song \"I'm Not in Love\" (specifically, \"be quiet... big boys don't cry\"). However, the band were evidently completely aware of (and perhaps amused by) the confusion surrounding their name, and they even included an instrumental bonus track titled \"The Cure\" on their second album as a joke. Recent times In 2009, Nick Richards and Brian Chatton teamed","-18.514677296738228"],["Dick says that it is beyond her ability and challenges her that he can do it better. Maisie soon departs for Paris to work under Kami for some months and Dick sees her off at the harbour. He finally convinces her to give him a kiss, making the red-haired girl furious. When he returns to his room, he discovers that Torpenhow has brought in a pretty young prostitute named Bessie whom he found collapsed in the hall. Taken by her face, Dick convinces the girl to return to his studio so that he can paint her in return for payment.","-18.51094724113318"],["he 'went \"stag\"', meaning he was without friends, or took the nickname from a well-known riverboat captain called \"Stack Lee\". John and Alan Lomax claimed that the nickname came from a riverboat owned by the Lee family of Memphis called the Stack Lee, which was known for its on-board prostitution. Lee Shelton's nickname was later corrupted into various other forms in the folk tradition.\nOn Christmas night in 1895, Shelton shot William \"Billy\" Lyons in a St. Louis saloon following a dispute. A story appearing in the St. Louis Globe-Democrat in 1895 read: \nWilliam Lyons, 25, a levee hand, was shot","-18.507327941413678"],["an acronym \"Gentlemen Only, Ladies Forbidden\". This is a false etymology, as acronyms being used as words is a fairly modern phenomenon, making the expression a backronym.\nJ. R. R. Tolkien, a professional philologist, nodded to the derivation from the Dutch word for club in his 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit. There he mentions (tongue-in-cheek) that the game of golf was invented when a club-wielding hobbit knocked the head off a goblin named Golfimbul, and the head sailed through the air and landed in a rabbit hole. Museums The history of golf is preserved and represented at several golf museums around","-18.50039176885366"],["Malakas Malakas (Greek: μαλάκας [maˈlakas]) is a commonly used profane Greek slang word, with a variety of different meanings, but literally meaning \"man who masturbates\". While it is typically used as an insult, with its literal equivalent in English being \"wanker\", the meaning varies depending on the tone and context used. It can be an exclamation of pleasure, an expression of dark horror, a cry of anger, a declaration of affection, and other different things. Common alternative meanings include \"asshole\", \"motherfucker\" \"jerk\" or \"idiot\", and the contrasting \"dude\", or \"mate\", depending on the context. It has been described as \"the","-18.48009308382882"],["saying that the phrase was originally made by Shakespeare. \"He did? Shucks!\" answers a disappointed Froggy.","-18.461588468960144"],["Andy Dick Early life and education Dick was born on December 21, 1965, in Charleston, South Carolina, as Andrew Thomlinson. He was adopted at birth by Allen and Sue Dick, and named Andrew Roane Dick. He was brought up Presbyterian. His father was in the Navy.\nAs a child, he spent time living with his family in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, and Yugoslavia before moving to Chicago in 1979. He attended Lassiter High School, which was being temporarily housed at George Walton Comprehensive High School in Cobb County, Georgia. Dick appeared in numerous theater productions during his high school year. He","-18.459020124069866"],["his relatives at some point, most notably Lorraine mistakenly thinking his name is Calvin Klein, due to it being Marty's brand of underwear. In the first film, Marty uses the alias of \"Darth Vader, an extraterrestrial from the Planet Vulcan\" while wearing a radiation suit in an attempt to coerce George into asking Lorraine out to the dance. In Part III, Marty claims to be \"Clint Eastwood\" when asked for a name first by Maggie McFly and later by Buford Tannen. In Back to the Future: The Game, he uses one of the three aliases; Sonny Crockett, Harry Callahan, and","-18.450869567606787"],["quickly. In The Jeffersons season 2 (1976) episode \"The Breakup: Part 2\", Mr. Bentley explains Cockney rhyming slang to George Jefferson, in that \"whistle and flute\" means \"suit\", \"apples and pears\" means \"stairs\", \"plates of meat\" means \"feet\".\nThe use of rhyming slang was also prominent in Mind Your Language (1977–79), Citizen Smith (1977–80), Minder (1979–94), Only Fools and Horses (1981–91), and EastEnders (1985-). Minder could be quite uncompromising in its use of obscure forms without any clarification. Thus the non-Cockney viewer was obliged to deduce that, say, \"iron\" was \"male homosexual\" ('iron'='iron hoof'='poof'). One episode in Series 5 of Steptoe","-18.444162391562713"],["\"Please tell me that is not your penis!\" Due to the hilarity of the dialogue, the filming of the scene took 3 takes. Fleming explained the decision to include the 'dick pic', \"It is a comedy story, but like all good comedy there's a truth at the core of it, and it is social commentary, that story. Many teens are doing stuff like this, and many parents are worried about it.\" The cliffhanger went viral and Fleming expressed apologies to Galvin for the dialogue, \"I think Michael now is going to have that line shouted at him across the street.","-18.418430579702544"],["Dickie makes the mistake of remembering his affair with Joyce as an amusing lark, and ends up on the floor of his office with Stephanie's hands around his throat, before her friends Connie and Lula pry her away. In a fit of indignation, Stephanie snatches a desk clock off Dickie's desk, declaring that it was a wedding present from her aunt.\nLater that evening, Stephanie's on-again/off-again boyfriend, detective Joe Morelli, is told that Dickie has disappeared, and there are signs that he has been abducted or murdered from his house. Because of her earlier altercation with Dickie, Morelli tells","-18.379389150781208"],["a television version in 1979. Dick Barton has also been adapted into a tongue-in-cheek stage play and a spoof radio comedy. Each version has featured the original's memorable signature tune, \"Devil's Galop\" by Charles Williams. Style The series was devised by producer Norman Collins. The scripts were written by Edward J. Mason and Geoffrey Webb. The programme gave rise to a popular catchphrase of the late 1940s \"With one bound Dick was free!\" which made light of the fact that no matter how dangerous the cliffhanging situation Dick found himself in every evening, he would always escape easily.\nEarly ideas for","-18.353484263787323"],["British slang and some strong language was removed. For example, Freak asks where the 'johns' are but you can clearly see his mouth says 'loo', which is a British slang term for toilet. Freak tells Eddie to distract McNiece, \"even if it means having sex with the bastard\" which is changed to \"slimeball\" on the US VHS. Most of Leon's dialogue appears to have been re-voiced and he appears considerably softer spoken in the US version.\nThe original BBC TV version has never seen a commercial release in the UK, and has almost zero presence online, suggesting that the world has","-18.32891878112605"],["will never call him a hero again. It’s a question of context\".\nIn July 2000, Kamiński used the word \"pedał\" (a derogatory Polish word for homosexual, usually translated into English as \"fag\" or \"queer\") in a TV interview to refer to gay rights campaigners. When asked by the reporter if such a term is offensive, his reply translates as: \"That's how people speak, what should I say? They are fags.\" In a 2009 interview with Iain Dale he admitted the word was offensive and that he would never use it again. He confirmed he has homosexual friends and stated that he","-18.326102380712655"],["changed the spelling to Fuess due to its difficult pronunciation for Americans. According to Fuess, he and his family pronounce their name Fease. Often times he would go by one his nicknames. Those he knew in high school and at Amherst College called him \"Dutch.\" At Phillips Academy he was known as either \"Jack\" or \"Claudie\" or once Headmaster \"B.D.\" (Bald Doctor). Someone even wrote the following poem titled \"Fuess Please\" in 1930 to illustrate the difficulty of his name:\nHe'll exclaim, \"Oh what's the use!\"\n\nWhen he hears you utter \"Fuess.\"\n\nAnd he'll like it even less\n\nIf","-18.251467655882152"],["ways, but Dick convinces Jason that they should meet the girls at Daytona Beach, Florida, because Dick wants to have sex with Lenore. The two go to a golf course, where Dick flirts with two women.\nAt Daytona Beach, they meet up with the girls and the girls' friends, Cody and Brah, with whom they compete in beer chugging. That night, a drunk Jason, wearing nothing but a Hornet fanny pack, parties and smokes crack cocaine that he gets from a drug dealer named Pam. He steals a motorcycle and wakes up the next day on the beach. During an awkward","-18.22080317554355"],["moaning, such as in their singles and \"Position #9\", similar to fellow Europop groups as E-Rotic, which often led to the songs becoming controversial. The first single \"Short Dick Man\", which involves a woman mocking the size of a man's penis, was later released in a clean version replacing the word \"dick\" with \"short\", with also a retitled censored title \"Short Short Man\". \"Lick It\" also had both edited and unedited versions released as well – the reason why 20 Fingers releases often had a Parental Advisory warning label. Their lyrics are sung in English, Spanish and Tagalog (\"Putang Ina","-18.211013383144746"],["in which has hip and finger stripes.\nSome versions of Dick's story as Nightwing do not make clear whether the public at large knows that the first Robin is now Nightwing, or whether he is simply an entirely new hero. A metafictional foreword (said to have been made by a future historian) to a trade paperback for \"A Death In The Family\" made the claim that the public at large always thought there was just one Robin. In versions that do address it, Dick and Bruce seem to want to spread the belief that Nightwing started his career as an adult,","-18.202563169983478"],["\"Jack and Jill\" was in use in England as early as the 16th century to indicate a boy and a girl. A comedy with the title Jack and Jill was performed at the Elizabethan court in 1567-68, and the phrase was used twice by Shakespeare: in A Midsummer Night's Dream, which contains the line, \"Jack shall have Jill; Nought shall go ill\" (III:ii:460-2), and in Love's Labour's Lost, which has the lines, \"Our wooing doth not end like an old play; Jack hath not Jill\" (V:ii:874–5). These lines suggest that it was a phrase which indicated a romantically attached couple,","-18.1670876941389"],["\"Tricky Dicky\" both in the show and the British press and become a prominent soap womanizer and villain for the two years he appeared; he had flings with various female characters, most notably Kathy Beale (Gillian Taylforth) and Bianca Jackson (Patsy Palmer).\nTricky Dicky has beed described as a \"lothario\", as well as \"corrupt, shifty and slimy as they come\". Author Kate Lock suggests that Tricky Dicky was aptly named, stating \"he was sly, underhand and ruthless, both in his business dealings [...] and with women.\" She adds that he was \"good-looking in an oily sort of way, but dropped his","-18.16615032160962"],["double-tracked with a low-pitched spoken voice — in a similar manner to his singing on the choruses of the song \"The Hero's Return\".\n\"Not Now John\" is notable for being one of the few Pink Floyd tracks to feature strong profanity, as the word \"fuck\" occurs in the album version of the song seven times: six times as part of the phrase \"fuck all that\", and near the end of the song in a \"Where's-the-bar?\" lyric, which is sung in Italian, Greek, French and finally English (with the English iteration being \"Oi — Where's the fucking bar, John?\"). The four iterations","-18.155621647585576"],["Good Dick Plot A video store clerk stalks, spies on and manipulates a reclusive woman, who often comes to the video store where he works to rent soft-core porn. Eventually, despite his strong optimism, her dislike of sex and resulting defensiveness drives them apart. It is revealed toward the end of the film that her dislike of both sex and relationships was fueled by sexual abuse at the hands of her father. The film ends with a confrontation with her father, and ultimately Ritter's character reuniting with her. Festivals and competitions The film competed in the Dramatic Competition at the","-18.140750268705233"],["Batman is entirely amicable. Dick passes the mantle of Robin over to Jason Todd voluntarily, in a memorable scene wherein he states that \"Robin will always be the second part of Batman and...\" Bruce gives every impression of being pleased with his ward's coming of age, and maintains this attitude until the post-Crisis retcon that rewrites the origin of Jason Todd and the circumstances of Dick's departure from the role.) Nightwing In pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity, the maturing Dick Grayson grows weary of his role as Batman's young sidekick. He renames himself Nightwing, recalling his adventure in the Kryptonian","-18.13311606217485"],["always follow a traditional verse-chorus structure such as in \"Short Dick Man\" or \"Putang Ina Mo\" (Tagalog for lit. \"You're Mother Is a Whore\") with minimalistic vocals and often use simple repeatings such as \"Bum, ba da da da da\" (\"Lick It\"), \"Barara bum bum bum\" (\"Sex Machine\"), \"Eeny, weeny, teeny, weeny\" or \"Don't, Don't, Don't, Do Do, Don't, Don't, Don't\" (\"Short Dick Man\"), \"Ay nako, putang ina mo!\"/\"Ina mo, ina mo, ina mo, ina mo\" (\"Putang Ina Mo\") which led the songs to high recognition. The lyrics were distinguished by their humorous or risque lyrics, often sexually explicit including","-18.108110453204517"],["Sloppy seconds Sloppy seconds (or slops in Australian slang) is a slang phrase for when a man has sexual intercourse with a female or male partner who already has received another man's penis in the relevant orifice and is therefore wet or \"sloppy\". The phrase buttered bun is sometimes used to refer to said orifice. The practice is also referred to as a \"wet deck\".\nThe term is used, by extension, to refer to any act of entering into a sexual relationship with a person who had previously been in a sexual relationship with someone else in one's peer group.","-18.097245197760458"],["of a ship, and when the last sailor climbed on board he would say, \"I'm alright Jack, pull up the ladder\". The use of the name \"Jack\" derives from Jack Tar, an archaic term for a British sailor. Another variant of the story depicts the origin of the phrase among sailors returning home from duty who, instead of being treated as brave heroes, were forced to fend for themselves in a dog-eat-dog society.\nIt was used in the title of the film I'm All Right Jack (1959) and appears in lyrics of popular song Which Side Are You On? (But it","-18.0838489926291"],["mile. If he was to have a relationship, he would give it everything. So because his commitments have been his career, his faith, and more latterly, tennis, he has given himself wholeheartedly to those three activities.\"\nRichard often declines discussion about close relationships and when asked about suggestions that he may be homosexual has stated categorically that he is not. When the suggestions were first put to him in the late 1970s, Richard responded by saying: \"It's untrue. People are very unfair with their criticism and their judgements. I've had girlfriends. But people seem to think that if a bloke doesn't","-18.073608442349723"],["man (Kerry Shale) in a red polo neck jumper who claims to be \"his very best friend\". In the fifth episode it transpires that the man, who identifies himself as Dick, is the personification of Mark's penis.\nThe final episode begins after Becky and Michael had slept together while house sitting for Tracy and Robert, and Michael hides in the bathroom when the latter couple return. Tracy phones a morning television phone-in show (hosted by Michael Thomas and Helen Atkinson-Wood, with appearances by Rachael Fielding and Jonathan Barlow), and when she realises that the show's divorce expert is hiding in her","-18.059907582528467"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"the original name in 2002 and Flintshire County Council reversed their renaming after a few weeks. Derivative meaning The word dick is used in the sense of \\\"nothing\\\", a figurative use of the sense \\\"penis\\\" (similar to the use of fuck and shit in a similar sense), as in \\\"Nowadays you don't mean dick to me\\\" (Amy Winehouse, 2008, cited by Green, 2008). Other slang Dick is used as a slang term for detective, as in \\\"Hiring a private dick to help locate her natural mother\\\" (The Guardian, 1999, cited by Green, 2008). This meaning may derive from the Gipsy\",\n \"-29.60488618279851\"\n ],\n [\n \"what the German word \\\"dick\\\" meant in English. Heinz Ganss replied: \\\"large\\\". \\\"Oh\\\", replied the Welshman and paraphrased: \\\"king size\\\". Ganss stuck to that and thus his stage name remained \\\"King Size Dick\\\" ('big and fat'), with no intended phallic connotation. In the Colognian dialect, the German adjective dick [dɪk] translates to deck [dek²] as opposed to Dick which in Colognian, like in English, is also regarded a variation of the Christian name \\\"Richard\\\". Back home, his nickname and stage name remained \\\"Dick\\\", even in the Colognian dialect.\",\n \"-28.298649764459697\"\n ],\n [\n \"people are at times given the nickname Dick, from the German adjective which means 'fat'. Another example of the use of the German adjective as a nickname is for the comedy duo of Laurel and Hardy, which Germans often refer to as \\\"Dick und Doof\\\", meaning 'fat and stupid'. Thus the adjective dick became a nickname for Ganss. During one of the social gatherings in Wales, someone asked Heinz Ganss his name. He replied \\\"Dick\\\", referring to the German adjective for 'fat', or 'large', or 'bigger'. The person who asked him presumed that this was a German word and asked\",\n \"-25.345418414910682\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mr. Dick Mr. Dick, whose full name is Richard Babley, is a character in the Charles Dickens novel, David Copperfield. He has childish traits and an obsession with work on his memorial from which he is constantly distracted by thoughts of King Charles' head. He may represent Dickens' difficult role as the author of this work, which alluded to Dickens' own traumatic childhood.\",\n \"-23.976231129030566\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dick is a rough character, a killer as evil as his name implies, like the other henchmen, and this is his rough solution to his perceived societal problem. There is some disagreement with the interpretation that one of Shakespeare's sympathetic characters would make a joke suggesting that killing lawyers would make the world better. Henry VI, Part 2, Act IV, Scene 2 JACK CADE. Valiant I am.\\nSMITH [aside]. A must needs; for beggary is valiant.\\nJACK CADE. I am able to endure much.\\nDICK [aside]. No question of that; for I have seen him whipp'd three market-days together.\\nJACK CADE. I fear\",\n \"-23.808536262871712\"\n ],\n [\n \"word \\\"dick\\\" or variations thereof. In context and as used in the complained of broadcasts, these were epithets intended to denigrate or criticize their subjects. Their use in this context was not sufficiently explicit or graphic and/or sustained to be patently offensive.\\nThe name of the traditional British dessert spotted dick has occasionally been perceived as potentially embarrassing, prompting hospital managers at Gloucestershire NHS Trust (in 2001) and the catering staff at Flintshire County Council (in 2009) to rename the pudding Spotted Richard on menus, as many customers made \\\"immature comments\\\" about the pudding. Gloucestershire NHS Trust restored\",\n \"-23.760231604932414\"\n ],\n [\n \"Becoming Dick Plot Richard Breggs (Harland Williams) is a struggling actor living in an apartment with his girlfriend. After a conversation with a friend, Richard decides that he is too much of a \\\"nice guy\\\" and that the key to success is to act like a jerk. After his new obnoxious personality lands him a part in a play, Richard thinks he is on his way to being a success. He goes to sleep in his apartment and wakes up in a mansion. It is four years later, but Richard doesn't remember anything that has happened in the elapsed time,\",\n \"-23.454232433388825\"\n ],\n [\n \"his own parents' murder. After Dick discovered that Wayne was Batman, the two worked together to capture Zucco. Dick chose the codename \\\"Robin\\\" because that is what his mother had called him.\\nAs depicted in a possible future during the episode \\\"Artifacts\\\", Dick Grayson gives up the \\\"Robin\\\" name and costume to become Nightwing. Barbara and Batman still persist in calling him by his original codename. Batman did this more out of habit, and Barbara did it as a flirting sort of way to annoy Dick. The police department who discover the Batcave in the beginning of the episode call Robin\",\n \"-22.241216400910616\"\n ],\n [\n \"and asks Don who Dick is. Don responds: \\\"That's me\\\", and brushes the question off by claiming it's his nickname. Over the course of the weekend, Don decides that he is in love with Megan and proposes to her the morning after their return. \\nPeggy and Ken, meanwhile, save the company by signing new work with Topaz Pantyhose. Betty and Henry move out of the Drapers' Ossining home after Betty fires their nanny/housekeeper over her refusal to help Betty break up the budding friendship between Sally and Glen, a neighborhood boy who warns Sally of the dangers of parents who\",\n \"-22.10575917621145\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fugging History of name Fugging was first referred to as Fucking in 1195 in a local monastery's parish records. Its name was later changed from Fucking to Fugging for an unknown reason by 1836. While it is not known why the village changed its name, it has been speculated by its current mayor that because Fugging is closer to Vienna than the other village of Fucking is, it would have likely had more English-speaking visitors who might have raised questions regarding its name, which is also an English vulgar slang word for sexual intercourse. The village's placename signs are firmly\",\n \"-22.03604506346204\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dick-a-Dick had fallen in love with a local white woman, who was reported to have agreed to marry him, but Hayman opposed the marriage and forced Dick-a-Dick to continue the tour. Referred to as \\\"amiable and curious\\\", Dick-a-Dick had a friendly disposition and was well-liked, with Charles Lawrence years later remembering him with real affection. Post-England tour After returning from the cricket tour of England, his health deteriorated and he travelled back to his traditional country and the Ebenezer Mission. He was thought to have worked as a drover and fencer along the Murray River.\\nWhite locals recognised Dick-a-Dick as a\",\n \"-21.77670181618305\"\n ],\n [\n \"names Puck may also be called \\\"Robin Goodfellow\\\" or \\\"Hobgoblin\\\", in which \\\"Hob\\\" may substitute for \\\"Rob\\\" or may simply refer to the \\\"goblin of the hearth\\\" or hob. The name Robin is Middle English in origin, deriving from Old French Robin, the pet form for the name Robert. The earliest reference to \\\"Robin Goodfellow\\\" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1531. \\nAnthony Munday mentions Robin Goodfellow in his play The Two Italian Gentlemen, 1584, and he appears in Skialtheia, or a Shadowe of Truth in 1598. William Shakespeare may have had access to the manuscript of Lewes\",\n \"-21.764440930374576\"\n ],\n [\n \"the initials 'RD', a reference to his nickname \\\"Dickie\\\" (as in \\\"dickie bird\\\").\",\n \"-21.72648089368522\"\n ],\n [\n \"Short Dick Man Background This single, which involves a woman mocking the size of a man's penis, was also released in a toned down version replacing the word \\\"dick\\\" with \\\"short\\\" (the song was also released under the censored title \\\"Short Short Man\\\"). Co-writer Manfred Mohr told the Los Angeles Times that the point of the song was to attract attention. \\\"We figured there were all these songs by men bashing women and treating women like sex objects. So we decided a song that turned the tables on men might attract some attention.\\\" According to the vocalist Sandra Gillette, the\",\n \"-21.691456591073802\"\n ],\n [\n \"the word \\\"dick\\\" in a sexual context. These included, for example, the State University of New York's WSUC-FM, in Cortland, New York, which in 1993 was fined for broadcasting a rap titled \\\"I'm Not Your Puppet\\\", which referenced \\\"shoving my dick up this bitch's behind\\\" in one lyric, and stated in another, \\\"I pulled out my dick, popped it in her mouth, and she sucked it.\\\" In the same report, however, the FCC noted that in 1990, it had ruled that WFBQ (FM)/WNDE (AM) in Indianapolis had not engaged in indecency when it broadcast the line \\\"So you talk to\",\n \"-21.578689643334656\"\n ],\n [\n \"Richard's Things Richard's Things is a 1980 British drama film directed by Anthony Harvey and starring Liv Ullmann, Amanda Redman and Peter Burton. It is written by Frederic Raphael and based on his novel of the same name. It entered the 37th Venice International Film Festival. Plot On the death of the title character Richard, his widow discovers he had a secret long-term mistress. Despite the initial awkwardness between the two women, they soon begin to bond - and have a lesbian relationship.\",\n \"-21.516602337687345\"\n ],\n [\n \"due to an accidental bump on the head that gave him amnesia. It turns out that he is now a famous TV star, known for being obnoxious, selfish, and difficult to work with. Richard (now known as Dick) realizes that while his new personality gave him success, it also caused him to lose his girlfriend and best friend. He sets about trying to right the wrongs of the past 4 years. Production The film was shot in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.\",\n \"-21.460468429302637\"\n ],\n [\n \"have both our names on the cover. Mary's family always called me Richard due to having another Dick in the family. I am Richard, Mary was Mary, and Dick Francis was the two of us together.\\nFrancis's manager (and co-author of his later books) was his son Felix, who left his post as teacher of A-Level Physics at Bloxham School in Oxfordshire in order to work for his father. Felix was the inspiration behind a leading character, a marksman and physics teacher, in the novel Twice Shy. The older son, Merrick, was a racehorse trainer and later ran his own horse\",\n \"-20.99985894864585\"\n ],\n [\n \"meanings listed: acdc, barney, blag, butch, camp, khazi, cottaging, hoofer, mince, ogle, scarper, slap, strides, tod, [rough] trade.\\nThe Polari word naff, meaning inferior or tacky, has an uncertain etymology. Michael Quinion states that it is probably from the sixteenth-century Italian word gnaffa, meaning \\\"a despicable person\\\". There are a number of false etymologies, many based on acronyms—Not Available For Fucking, Normal As Fuck—though these are backronyms. More likely etymologies include northern UK dialect naffhead, naffin, or naffy, a simpleton or blockhead; niffy-naffy, inconsequential, stupid, or Scots nyaff, a term of contempt for any unpleasant or objectionable person. An alternative etymology\",\n \"-20.95120937907359\"\n ],\n [\n \"Trelawny struggled with spelling as a young man. He often spelled phonetically. This caused him significant difficulties when he tried to correspond with his friends. His spelling indicated a strong Westcountry accent. His parents were concerned about this, particularly his habit of occasionally misspelling his own name. His problem with spelling might have been due to dyslexia, evidence for which has been provided by one of Trelawny's biographers. After he left the Navy he read voraciously. He often read Shakespeare's plays and attended the theatres in Covent Garden. He began incorporating references to Shakespeare in his personal letters. He also\",\n \"-20.899352568836548\"\n ],\n [\n \"the old woman, called Mrs. Taggart, bluntly announces they must leave because her son would not accept either of them. However, once Dick manages to communicate Mrs. Taggart agrees to let Anne stay in a remote loft whilst Dick makes do with sleeping in the barn.\\nDuring the night, Dick is awakened by a voice in the night who calls his name repeatedly. He knows the voice cannot be from one of the Five and cannot understand how he would know his name. Dick is given a message - “Two Trees”. “Gloomy Water”. “Saucy Jane” “And Maggie knows” - together with\",\n \"-20.759497435918092\"\n ],\n [\n \"while Dick drags them on another bicycle adventure, which he had meticulously planned for fourteen years. In a reversal, George had married a series of wealthy men whom she cuckolded, with, among others, one of her stepsons (her continuing penchant for bestiality with the latest Timmy is also implied); whereas Anne has become a strongly opinionated vegan spinster and is suspected by Dick of being a \\\"dyke\\\" – an accusation made against George by Toby in the original Five Go Mad in Dorset. George and Julian have been committed to an alcoholics' sanatorium, the latter owes a large debt to African\",\n \"-20.726347112633448\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Dick\\\"—his mother's maiden name and a well-known Scottish surname. The Royal Dick School of Veterinary Studies, the United Kingdom's leading veterinary school, was founded by William Dick, one of Howard's collateral ancestors.\\nHoward is married to Mary Howard, an architectural historian and a winner of the Charles E. Peterson Prize of the Historia American Buildings Survey. He has one daughter, Jennifer, a writer and editor. He is fond of his several cats, opera, classical music, skiing, travel, and his two grandchildren, Lela and Finn.\",\n \"-20.643472065359674\"\n ],\n [\n \"her song \\\"Ran Tan Waltz\\\", her second non-album B-side. This song is performed as a tragicomedy, where Bush portrays a man bemoaning his bad luck in life being married to a wayward mother. This song uses the word \\\"dick\\\" in the first verse as cacophemism for a penis. Bush has stated that she doesn't typically use such harsh language or write such sexually explicit material, but that she considered the song \\\"good naughty fun.\\\"\",\n \"-20.51781426105481\"\n ],\n [\n \"are used for drinking mate by sucking into them), etc. Among young people, almost every word can be turned into mean \\\"dick\\\": -\\\"¿Me pasás el encendedor?\\\" -\\\"¡Acá tengo un encendedor para vos!\\\" (-\\\"Can you give me the lighter?\\\" -\\\"I have a lighter for you right here!\\\"). Concha / Chucha / Chocha Concha (lit.: \\\"mollusk shell\\\" or \\\"inner ear\\\") is an offensive word for a woman's vulva or vagina (i.e. something akin to English cunt) in Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Mexico. In the rest of Latin America and Spain however, the word is only used with its literal\",\n \"-20.489717778857084\"\n ],\n [\n \"the unknown.\\\" Packaging The title is a tongue-in-cheek pun on male masturbation (\\\"take off your pants and jack it\\\"). Previous titles had included If You See Kay (a pun on the spelling of \\\"fuck\\\") and Genital Ben, accompanied by a bear on the cover of the album (a reference to Gentle Ben). Stressed at being at a loss for a name, DeLonge asked guitar tech Larry Palm for suggestions. The album's title was coined by Palm, who was snowboarding on a rainy day. Inside the lodge, Palm was congregating with friends when a young kid walked in completely drenched, to\",\n \"-20.440643607470747\"\n ],\n [\n \"following year, Hall had his name legally changed to \\\"Dick Wickenburg Hall\\\". As to why the new name was selected, Hall had never liked his given name and had gone by \\\"Dick\\\" as a child. The addition of \\\"Wickenburg\\\" was done to satisfy Hall's desire to have a middle name and in honor of Henry Wickenburg. The new name was shortened in common use to \\\"Dick Wick Hall\\\".\\nWhile the Hall's newspaper was turning into a failure, they purchased an interest in a gold mine in the Harcuvar Mountains. The mine, the Glory Hole Mine, was successful\",\n \"-20.421024251105337\"\n ],\n [\n \"The writers came up with Dick's name through referring to the character as \\\"a dick\\\".\\nThe episode featured several guest stars, including socialite Paris Hilton as Logan's girlfriend, Caitlin. Hilton was already a celebrity when the episode aired. Fans often treat her guest appearance as out of character for the show. Ratings \\\"Credit Where Credit's Due\\\" was watched by 2.21 million viewers in its initial broadcast, ranking 113 of 116 in the weekly rankings. Reviews The episode received mixed to positive reviews. Television Without Pity gave the episode a \\\"B+\\\".\\nRowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club commented negatively on Paris Hilton's guest\",\n \"-20.409075614072208\"\n ],\n [\n \"of law is limited. Dick is very arrogant and often disregards others in order to make his life more convenient. Most of his time is spent in his office drinking glasses of sherry, watching golf on the television and not doing any work. He sees his position in the firm as bringing the work in which is completed by Stella, Bob or Colin. Dick's last appearance in the series was in \\\"Indecision.\\\" In \\\"A Question Of Pants\\\" it was revealed that Dick had taken early retirement and therefore Stella became the sole senior partner of the firm. Stella Phelps Stella\",\n \"-20.383712359425658\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dick later stated he had written an apology letter to Stern.\\nIn October 2017, Dick was fired from a role in the independent film Raising Buchanan due to allegations of inappropriate behavior which, according to The Hollywood Reporter, \\\"included groping people's genitals, unwanted kissing/licking and sexual propositions of at least four members of the production\\\". While he denied most of the allegations, he said \\\"I might have kissed somebody on the cheek to say goodbye and then licked them. That's my thing – I licked Carrie Fisher at a roast. It's me being funny.\\\" It would later be revealed that in\",\n \"-20.315861745518987\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dickey (garment) A dickey (alternatively written as dickie or dicky; sometimes known in American English as a tuxedo front or tux front) is a type of false shirt-front - originally known as a detachable bosom - designed to be worn with a tuxedo or men's white tie, usually attached to the collar and then tucked into the waistcoat or cummerbund. Better dickeys have a trouser tab at the end to secure them down, preventing the dickey from popping out. The rigid plastic dickey came into fashion in the latter years of the 19th century, and was one of the first\",\n \"-20.250928000346903\"\n ],\n [\n \"public, Dick believes it is simply for a positive public image. Due to Bruce's actions as Batman, Alfred became Dick's only confidant. Eventually Dick would run off and attempt to avenge his parents himself, once again saved by Batman who later reveals himself to be Wayne. Bruce decides to train Grayson himself, eventually becoming Robin, the boy wonder. During Dick's training the two develop a father-son bond and eventually stop Two-Face, The Hangman and Tony Zucco, their collaborator.\\nDick enjoys his first year as Robin, regarding the job as an adventure until a confrontation with Two-Face serves as a rude awakening\",\n \"-20.204560680646637\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star Plot Dickie Roberts is a former child star who shot to fame on a TV sitcom called The Glimmer Gang with his spoonerism catchphrase \\\"This is Nuckin' Futs!\\\". His career subsequently halted after his 6th birthday. Since his heyday, he has been reduced to parking cars at a Morton's restaurant and appearing on Celebrity Boxing, where he is matched with Emmanuel Lewis. In the public eye and to his girlfriend Cyndi (who apparently leaves him during a roadside incident), Dickie is washed up.\\nAfter talking to an old friend, Leif Garrett, Dickie is absolutely convinced that\",\n \"-20.198883879591904\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the gothic novel, through the combination with the historical romance genre.\\nThe historical romance classification is also eluded, because despite Honor's early reference to the reader expectation of the marriage and children of the protagonist, Honor never mothers Richard's children, but rather acts as a substitute mother for Dick, while he is rejected by his father. Homosexuality Some critics, including Horner and Zlosnik, suggest that Dick may be homosexual and that this is an aspect of his father's rejection of him throughout the novel. Characters in the novel portrayed as dominantly masculine, including Richard, suggest connections between being foreign and\",\n \"-20.17837490635702\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dirty Dick Nathaniel Bentley (c. 1735–1809), commonly known as Dirty Dick, was an 18th-century merchant who owned a hardware shop and warehouse in London, and is one person who is considered as a possible inspiration for Miss Havisham in Charles Dickens' Great Expectations after he refused to wash following the death of his fiancée on their wedding day.\\nHe was a previous owner of a pub on Bishopsgate, in the City of London, which is named after him. History Bentley had been quite a dandy in his youth, but following the death of his fiancée on their wedding day he refused to\",\n \"-20.17728508935852\"\n ],\n [\n \"making a costume and a Superhero identity for himself. Getting inspiration from his mother's favorite bird and his favorite folktale hero, Robin Hood, Dick chose the name \\\"Robin\\\", and he officially became Batman's sidekick, thus creating the Dynamic Duo.\\nThe series also redefined the original Robin, Dick Grayson. While much of Dick's past remains the same, his Robin costume is modernized with short sleeves and long tights, exactly like Tim Drake's original Robin outfit but with a non-italicized \\\"R\\\" symbol. In addition, Dick is given a more serious and mature personality to match the tone of the series. The episode \\\"Batgirl\",\n \"-20.163720520102345\"\n ],\n [\n \"inextricably associated with the name King Size Dick.\\nAt the end of the 1970s, he joined the \\\"Formation Dick & Alex\\\", together with guitarist and songwriter Alex Parche. They played German rock music songs such as Schweine in weißen Westen (which translates to 'pigs in white vests'). Awards King Size Dick is the bearer of the 2002 Willi Ostermann medal, the highest official award of the Cologne Carnival. Origin of stage name While Ganss was stationed in Wales with the German armed forces, he was asked to perform locally at social events, such as birthdays, which were potluck. In Cologne, overweight\",\n \"-20.012040533166328\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hævi Mætal og Hass Name \\\"Hævi Mætal og Hass\\\" is not correct Danish spelling, but it is pronounced like that if you speak with Copenhagen accent. When you say \\\"Heavy\\\" in Danish the \\\"ea\\\" sounds like an \\\"æ\\\". In correct Danish the title would be \\\"Heavy Metal og Hash\\\". Aldi Aldi is a German supermarket. The song is in German. Ticeman Control \\\"Ticeman\\\" is a word made up by the band members. It is a faux-Anglicization of the word \\\"tissemand\\\", a colloquial term for penis. Den Dystra Staden This song is not in Danish, but in Swedish.\",\n \"-20.00324691373089\"\n ],\n [\n \"He's a Whore Lyrics The genesis of the song came from Nielsen coming up with the title and liking the idea and building the song around it. He liked the fact that the phrase \\\"he's a whore\\\" is not as obvious as if the title was \\\"She's a Whore,\\\" and that a song about a gigolo involves a sense of role reversal. The lyrics imply that the central character is an unattractive but wealthy woman. However, according to Nielsen, the song is not just about sex. Nielsen has stated that \\\"Whoring means so many different things,\",\n \"-19.973772264649597\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"nowt\\\" (IPA://naʊt/, rhymes with out, \\\"nothing\\\") are used elsewhere in Northern England. Many words, however, appear to be used exclusively in Newcastle and the surrounding area, such as \\\"canny\\\" (a versatile word meaning \\\"good\\\", \\\"nice\\\" or \\\"very\\\"), \\\"hacky\\\" (\\\"dirty\\\"), \\\"netty\\\" (\\\"toilet\\\"), \\\"hoy\\\" (\\\"throw\\\", from the Dutch gooien, via West Frisian), \\\"hockle\\\" (\\\"spit\\\"). Nightlife Newcastle was in the top ten of the country's top night spots, and The Rough Guide to Britain placed Newcastle upon Tyne's nightlife as Great Britain's no. 1 tourist attraction. In the Tripadvisor Travellers' Choice Destination Awards for European Nightlife destinations, four of the UK's nightspots finished\",\n \"-19.949678579765077\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dick Tracy Creation and early years Basing the character on U.S. federal agent Eliot Ness, Gould drafted an idea for a detective named \\\"Plainclothes Tracy\\\" and sent it to Joseph Medill Patterson of the Chicago Tribune New York News Syndicate. Patterson suggested changing the hero's name to Dick Tracy, and also put forward an opening storyline in which Tracy joined the police after his girlfriend's father was murdered by robbers. Gould agreed to these ideas, and Dick Tracy was first published on October 4, 1931. The strip was instantly popular, and was soon appearing in newspapers across the United States.\",\n \"-19.880010502751247\"\n ],\n [\n \"why Robin is all wet and he says it is because he has been thrown into the brook by the stranger on the bridge. The men want to punish the stranger, but Robin holds them back, saying he can join his band and learn how to shoot a bow and arrow. The stranger agrees and reveals himself as John Little. William Stutely decides to be Little John's \\\"Godfather\\\", and the men celebrate their new comrade by shooting a lot of fat doe for their meat, changing John Little's name by switching his Christian name and surname in a \\\"Baptismal\\\" ceremony,\",\n \"-19.820851354726983\"\n ],\n [\n \"Uli M Schueppel Uli M Schueppel (born 7 May 1958 in Erbach, Germany as Ulf Schüppel) is a German director and documentary filmmaker. The \\\"M\\\" in the middle of the name is not an abbreviation of a name, but a reference to the Elvis Presley's song \\\"Trouble\\\": My middle name is misery. It is written without dot. Early childhood and youth Schueppel is the son of the visual artist and author Hem Schueppel and the educationalist Christine Schueppel, (born as Christine Irmer) and has a younger sister, Heike. The father was an oppositional political activivist in East\",\n \"-19.779068291565636\"\n ],\n [\n \"face\\\", which suggested \\\"Rock\\\". It was \\\"Move It\\\" writer Ian Samwell who suggested the surname \\\"Richard\\\" as a tribute to Webb's musical hero Little Richard.\\nBefore their first large-scale appearance, at the Regal Ballroom in Ripley, Derbyshire in 1958, they adopted the name \\\"Cliff Richard and the Drifters\\\". The four members were Harry Webb (by then going under the stage name \\\"Cliff Richard\\\"), Ian Samwell on guitar, Terry Smart on drums and Norman Mitham on guitar. None of the other three played with the later and better known Shadows, although Samwell wrote songs for Richard's later career.\\nFor his debut session, Norrie\",\n \"-19.705154728208072\"\n ],\n [\n \"character actor known for many roles in Western films. It was revealed in August 2009 by Toy Story 3 director Lee Unkrich that Woody's official last name is \\\"Pride\\\". Unkrich stated in his Twitter feed that \\\"Woody's actual full name is 'Woody Pride', and has been since the earliest days of developing the original Toy Story.\\\" Pullstring quotes Some of Woody's known pullstring quotes include \\\"Reach for the sky!\\\", \\\"This town ain't big enough for the two of us!\\\", \\\"You're my favorite Deputy!\\\", \\\"Somebody's poisoned the waterhole!\\\", and \\\"There's a snake in my boot!\\\". This last phrase is an old\",\n \"-19.667699906898633\"\n ],\n [\n \"the character's name included \\\"Bill Barton\\\" and \\\"Rex Drake\\\". However, the production team finally settled on the more dynamic Dick Barton. After the series had been on the air for some time, the BBC (conscious that the biggest audience for the programme was schoolboys) wrote a strict code of what Dick and his chums could and couldn't do, one clause famously stating \\\"Sex plays no part in his adventures.\\\" Cancellation In 1951 The Archers was first broadcast at 11.45 am on the Light Programme. BBC management, led by drama head Val Gielgud, had never felt comfortable with the sensationalism\",\n \"-19.648314418822338\"\n ],\n [\n \"It was in this series' episode Yogi's Heroes that Dick's full name was revealed; as the leader of an island named Dicaragua, he introduced himself as Richard Milhous Dastardly (an obvious play on former U.S. President Richard Milhous Nixon). One episode shows that Dastardly and Muttley are the greediest creatures in the world. Fender Bender 500 Dick Dastardly and Muttley were in the \\\"Fender Bender 500\\\" shorts on the early 1990s short-lived series Wake, Rattle, and Roll. In those segments, the duo once again appeared in a suped-up version of the Mean Machine as a monster truck called the Dirty\",\n \"-19.47063837189853\"\n ],\n [\n \"success came in December 2006, when they collaborated with singer Justin Timberlake for the Digital Short \\\"Dick in a Box\\\", which stars Samberg and Timberlake as R&B-crooning balladeers who package their genitals as Christmas gifts. Taccone came up with the \\\"dick in a box\\\" premise after Michaels asked Samberg to write a sketch showcasing Timberlake's voice. Timberlake recalled that the musicians were \\\"laughing hysterically\\\" during its production, and that the \\\"delirium of no sleep\\\" contributed to the humor of the song. The online version of the short — which, like its predecessors, attracted millions of views on YouTube — was\",\n \"-19.43226308035628\"\n ],\n [\n \"in 1867, Dick-a-Dick was introduced to Christianity by Lawrence and appeared strongly affected by the life of Jesus. He was not worried about the trip to England as he knew the captain had prayed for a safe arrival. Just before his death, he confessed his faith in Christianity and was baptised on 30 July 1870. Minutes before his death, Dick-a-Dick claimed to have seen the face of Jesus. Questions about Dick-a-Dick's life There are conflicting reports of the age of Dick-a-Dick and his date and place of death. While some sources give his date of death as 3 September 1870,\",\n \"-19.331285660609865\"\n ],\n [\n \"leader and elder, with one settler family recalling that he was the traditional owner of the MacKenzie Springs and Bill's Gully hunting grounds of the Wimmera, and Dick-a-Dick was presented with an inscribed King plate by local European authorities.\\nDick-a-Dick was known by a number of names throughout his life. In addition to his birth name, Djungadjinganook, and its spelling variants Jumgumjenanuke and Jungunjinuke, he was also known as King Billy, King Dick and Kennedy (in honour of an Edenhope policeman he admired). His descendants adopted Kennedy as their surname.\\nHe died at the mission on 3 September 1870. While in Warrnambool\",\n \"-19.308104835923587\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tom, Dick or Harry (song) Tom, Dick or Harry is a show tune from the Cole Porter musical, Kiss Me, Kate, introduced on Broadway on December 30, 1948 by Lisa Kirk (as Bianca); Harold Lang (as Lucentio); Edwin Clay (as Gremio); and Charles Wood (as Hortensio). In the 1953 Hollywood film version, \\\"Tom, Dick or Harry\\\" was performed by Ann Miller (as Bianca), Tommy Rall (as Lucentio), Bobby Van (as Gremio) and Bob Fosse (as Hortensio). Performance and release information In this song, during a musical performance of Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew (the subplot of Kate), three suitors (Gremio,\",\n \"-19.302031318202353\"\n ],\n [\n \"I Love Dick (TV series) Plot Chris (Kathryn Hahn) is an unsuccessful New York City-based artist and filmmaker who accompanies her husband Sylvère (Griffin Dunne) to Marfa, Texas where Sylvère is taking up a research fellowship. Upon arrival in Marfa, Chris quickly becomes infatuated with Sylvère's fellowship sponsor Dick (Kevin Bacon). Her infatuation with Dick becomes articulated in un-delivered letters to him which are filled with unbounded sexually explicit desires. Her contentious and frustrating interactions with Dick as well as the writing of her confessional letters to him begin to affect her attitudes towards her marriage, work\",\n \"-19.246024239746475\"\n ],\n [\n \"in Barney's middle name, which changed each time it was referenced. For example, both Barney and Andy are given different middle names in different episodes. In the episode \\\"Class Reunion\\\", Barney's middle name is Milton, though at other times he is called \\\"Bernard P. Fife\\\". In another episode, where he believes he is the descendant of Nathan Tibbs, a Mayberry Revolutionary hero, he says his name is \\\"Barney Tibbs Fife\\\". Andy jokingly says, \\\"I thought your middle name was Oliver.\\\" Another inconsistency is Barney's military service in WWII, which is not easily reconciled with his having graduated high school in\",\n \"-19.239614319140856\"\n ],\n [\n \"After the song's release, so many people had misinterpreted the word as \\\"Bruce\\\" that Lynne actually began to sing the word as \\\"Bruce\\\" for fun at live shows.\\nELO engineer Reinhold Mack remembers the genesis of the term differently, stating that Lynne was actually singing \\\"Bruce\\\" as a joke in advance of an Australian tour \\\"referring to how many Australian guys are called Bruce.\\\" Music video A music video for the song was produced, which showed video of the band performing the song interspersed with various animations relating to the song's subject matter, including big-bottomed majorettes and a pulsating neon frankfurter.\",\n \"-19.15053016495949\"\n ],\n [\n \"of his own parents, Dick asks to become his aide. After extensive training, Dick becomes Robin. They start by disrupting Zucco's gambling and extortion rackets. They then successfully bait the riled Zucco into visiting a construction site, where they capture him.\\nRobin's origin has a thematic connection to Batman's in that both see their parents killed by criminals, creating an urge to battle the criminal element. Bruce sees a chance to direct the anger and rage that Dick feels in a way that he himself cannot, thus creating a father/son bond and understanding between the two. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s,\",\n \"-19.106393704599213\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Martha Wayne. When he gives the name \\\"Blake, John\\\" to a clerk holding a package that Bruce had left him, he is told there is nothing there for him. He hands over an ID and suggests they try his legal name, which is revealed to be Robin. The clerk gives him GPS coordinates and spelunking gear, before she tells him that he should use the name \\\"Robin\\\" more often. At the end of the film, Blake follows the coordinates, and finds the Batcave.\\nGordon-Levitt has stated that the ending of The Dark Knight Rises is not\",\n \"-19.099524509618277\"\n ],\n [\n \"Jack snipe Etymology The common name has been said to come from the Welsh word for a snipe, giach (pronounced with a hard g), but modern dictionaries say it comes from the masculine name Jack. Alfred Newton hypothesized that, \\\"It may be, as in Jackass, an indication of sex, for it is a popular belief that the Jack-Snipe is the male of the common species; or, again, it may refer to the comparatively small size of the bird, as the 'jack' in the game of bowls is the smallest of the balls used, and as fishermen call the smaller Pikes\",\n \"-19.098196805234693\"\n ],\n [\n \"someone in authority rather mistakenly felt that \\\"batang berjuntai\\\" had phallic connotations (batang is Malay slang for \\\"penis\\\", and berjuntai translate directly as \\\"dangle\\\"). In fact the name referred to a literal \\\"dangling branch\\\" that was seen there when the town was first established; it was named by the resident British administrator.\\nMany locals continue to use the old name, and outsiders unaware of the name change are often confused by the new signage.\",\n \"-19.05360716094947\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dick Merrill Early years Born February 1, 1894 at Iuka, Mississippi, \\\"Dick\\\" Merrill was born into a family that prided itself as being descended from the famous frontier pioneer, Daniel Boone. Although his full name was Henry Tyndall, the name \\\"Dick\\\" was a childhood moniker that stuck with him for life. Brought up as a devout Catholic, he was a teetotaler in an age when the \\\"hard-drinking\\\" \\\"fun-loving\\\" aerial adventurer was seen as the norm. Considered very easy-going yet serious, his one foible, however, was that he was an inveterate gambler throughout his life.\\nMerrill had from an early age been\",\n \"-18.94778259409759\"\n ],\n [\n \"the \\\"Sexless Innkeeper.\\\" He elaborates with a poem set in a Dickensian version of Queens, where he was caught in a blizzard, walked a few blocks to an ugly woman's apartment, and feigned sleep to avoid sex. Ted is annoyed at the new nickname and constantly tells them that they're wrong.\\nAs Barney and Robin leave for brunch with Lily and Marshall, Ted recites a poem of his own for Barney, telling the tale of a busty young blonde woman who was turned on by his professor persona. Barney is skeptical, but is left speechless when the young woman appears at\",\n \"-18.937438278274385\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dyke (slang) The term dyke (or dike) is a slang noun meaning lesbian; it is also a slang adjective describing things associated with lesbianism. It originated as a homophobic and misogynistic slur for a masculine, butch, tomboyish, or androgynous female. While pejorative use of the word still exists, the term dyke has been reappropriated by out and proud lesbians as a word implying assertiveness and toughness, or simply as a neutral synonym for lesbian. Origins The origin of the term is obscure and many theories have been proposed. The Oxford English Dictionary notes the first attestation as Berrey and\",\n \"-18.932217263360144\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dick, whom the town's sheriff deems to be a good role model. Dick allows Sebastian to break probation and asks him to join the Dandies, but only if he does everything on their terms. One day, Sebastian gives them a suspicious box full of guns, and soon breaks a club rule by firing another member's gun. Dick complains that Sebastian is \\\"ruining it for everyone.\\\" The group's sole female member, Susan, takes a shine to Sebastian and this threatens Dick. Freddie suggesting she's attracted to men with large penises.\\nSebastian tells Dick that he and his friends carry guns because they're\",\n \"-18.866187184039404\"\n ],\n [\n \" Long-time Simpsons writer and Futurama executive producer David X. Cohen changed his middle initial from S to X because there was already a David S. Cohen registered with the Writer's Guild of America. Julianne Moore was born Julie Anne Smith but found that all variations of that name were already used by other actors.\\n(The rumor that Michael Keaton changed his surname because of an attraction to actress Diane Keaton is incorrect; he chose Keaton because of an affinity for the physical comedy of Buster Keaton.)\\nA middle name may be adopted in preference to changing a name. In some cases,\",\n \"-18.814434809616614\"\n ],\n [\n \"even terms. Dick, holding the stone, is ordered by his father to return him to his own body, but Dick refuses, and decides instead to become a man identical to how his father looked before the change. Mr Bultitude has to begin the new term at his son's boarding school, while Dick gets a chance to run his father's business in the City. In the end, both are restored to their own bodies, with a better understanding of each other. Play In 1883, playwright Edward Rose adapted the story as a stage play, also titled Vice Versa. Radio The BBC\",\n \"-18.81371566294547\"\n ],\n [\n \"they seem to be. Dick's story is typically more personal because it is not about the invasion of a community, but of a family.\\nThe Father-Thing is the US Underwood-Miller (1987) and UK title of the third collected volume of Dick's short stories, retitled Second Variety after \\\"Second Variety\\\" was moved from Volume 2 by Citadel.\\nThe story was adapted for the 2017 TV series, Philip K. Dick's Electric Dreams, by writer-director Michael Dinner and starred Greg Kinnear as the Father.\",\n \"-18.792755210158248\"\n ],\n [\n \"its bounds and infringing on people's privacy. Barely audible at the end of the song, Glenn Frey can be heard whispering \\\"Say Goodnight, Dick,\\\" a line made famous by Dan Rowan of Rowan and Martin but in this case referring to Richard Nixon's resignation. Nixon would indeed resign five months after the release of the album. Henley however judged the song they wrote a \\\"clumsy, incoherent attempt\\\" as they were still learning how to write. According to Henley, the song was supposed to be \\\"an R&B-type song\\\" but missed the mark.\\nIn the liner notes, T.N.T.S. was credited for the\",\n \"-18.776315913935832\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"junior\\\" among other names. Researcher Michael Tan notes that the euphemisms for the vagina are considered more vulgar than those for the penis, and as such are fewer; but noted among them are mani (peanut), bibingka and bulaklak (flower), \\\"pechay\\\", \\\"hiyas\\\", \\\"kipay\\\" and \\\"tilapia\\\". He posits patriarchal norms as the reason for this discrepancy. \\nSuso is the term most often applied to the breasts, but it is not considered profane and has connotations of breastfeeding; boob, imported from English slang, is the most widely used term for breasts that might be considered impolite. Tagalog has no analog of the vulgar\",\n \"-18.699171946609567\"\n ],\n [\n \"career for his ungovernable temper and violent cursing. This eventually earned him the nickname of ‘Mad Dick’ among his men, but he remained a popular and sought-after commander. Captain Graham Moore, the brother of Sir John Moore, described him on the eve of the Walcheren expedition as \\none of those in our service whom I estimate the highest. I do not believe he has his fellow among the Admirals, unless it be Pellew, for ability, and it is not possible to have more zeal and gallantry.\\n\\nDespite the failure of the venture, he was later to declare that\\nIt is my\",\n \"-18.697711811785666\"\n ],\n [\n \"December 2010. Hampton Wick in popular culture In Cockney rhyming slang, \\\"Hampton Wick\\\" (often shortened to \\\"Hampton\\\") means \\\"dick\\\" or \\\"prick\\\", both of which are British vulgar slang names for the penis. Hence a character called Hugh Jampton in the 1950s BBC radio programme The Goon Show amongst many other similar examples. In the 2000s BBC TV series The Office, Tim Canterbury bemoans the quality of Slough's nightlife, with an Elizabethan-themed club memorably displaying a punning notice stating \\\"Don't get your Hampton Court\\\" in the men's toilets. \\nHampton Wick was the setting for the 1970s Thames Television situation comedy George\",\n \"-18.6969813459159\"\n ],\n [\n \"again. Dick and Mary are summarily rounded up by the Crutches and bundled off to the orphanage, where they manage to get the goods on the underhanded operation. Spanky has some funny scenes, including one wherein he refuses to take a dose of castor oil and instead pushes it into Mr. Crutch's mouth. During a sleepless night, Spanky helps Dick escape out the window. Dick runs to Mary's house, where he finds the lamp and wishes he was an adult again. He then returns to being an adult and leads Mr. Wade back to the orphanage, exposing the Crutches and\",\n \"-18.604427538060918\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dick Nixon, man you get him on the phone and Dick suggests maybe getting like a mega-Dick to help out, but you know, you remember the time the King ate mega-Dick under the table at a 095 picnic\\\", and a parody commercial referencing a fictional monster truck called \\\"Big Peter! Formerly the Big Dick's Dog Wiener Mobile\\\". In January 2005, the FCC released a ruling that it would not fine broadcasters whose programs used \\\"dick\\\" on the air to refer to a person behaving contemptibly. Specifically, the FCC stated in its ruling:\\nA number of complaints cite isolated uses of the\",\n \"-18.59922193296461\"\n ],\n [\n \"referred to by many ridiculous names, including, but not limited to, \\\"Slab Bulkhead\\\", \\\"Bolt Vanderhuge\\\", \\\"Hack Blowfist\\\", \\\"Fridge Largemeat\\\", \\\"Big McLarge Huge\\\", \\\"Buff Drinklots\\\", \\\"Stomp Beefknob\\\", and \\\"Punt Speedchunk\\\". Ryder is also compared to Swedish actor Dolph Lundgren. Ryder's love interest, Lea Jansen, who in the movie appears to be much older than him despite being six years younger, is referred to as Lea's father (Commander Jansen)'s \\\"grandmadaughter\\\"; Commander Jansen is compared to Santa Claus and to God, due to his white hair and beard, while Captain Devers is compared to Sting and Kalgan is noted for his\",\n \"-18.518479697526573\"\n ],\n [\n \"constituted copyright infringement. Origin of name Contrary to popular belief, the moniker \\\"Boys Don't Cry\\\" did not actually come from The Cure's song/album of the same name. Rather, the name has its origins in some whispered lyrics from fellow British band 10cc's hit song \\\"I'm Not in Love\\\" (specifically, \\\"be quiet... big boys don't cry\\\"). However, the band were evidently completely aware of (and perhaps amused by) the confusion surrounding their name, and they even included an instrumental bonus track titled \\\"The Cure\\\" on their second album as a joke. Recent times In 2009, Nick Richards and Brian Chatton teamed\",\n \"-18.514677296738228\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dick says that it is beyond her ability and challenges her that he can do it better. Maisie soon departs for Paris to work under Kami for some months and Dick sees her off at the harbour. He finally convinces her to give him a kiss, making the red-haired girl furious. When he returns to his room, he discovers that Torpenhow has brought in a pretty young prostitute named Bessie whom he found collapsed in the hall. Taken by her face, Dick convinces the girl to return to his studio so that he can paint her in return for payment.\",\n \"-18.51094724113318\"\n ],\n [\n \"he 'went \\\"stag\\\"', meaning he was without friends, or took the nickname from a well-known riverboat captain called \\\"Stack Lee\\\". John and Alan Lomax claimed that the nickname came from a riverboat owned by the Lee family of Memphis called the Stack Lee, which was known for its on-board prostitution. Lee Shelton's nickname was later corrupted into various other forms in the folk tradition.\\nOn Christmas night in 1895, Shelton shot William \\\"Billy\\\" Lyons in a St. Louis saloon following a dispute. A story appearing in the St. Louis Globe-Democrat in 1895 read: \\nWilliam Lyons, 25, a levee hand, was shot\",\n \"-18.507327941413678\"\n ],\n [\n \"an acronym \\\"Gentlemen Only, Ladies Forbidden\\\". This is a false etymology, as acronyms being used as words is a fairly modern phenomenon, making the expression a backronym.\\nJ. R. R. Tolkien, a professional philologist, nodded to the derivation from the Dutch word for club in his 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit. There he mentions (tongue-in-cheek) that the game of golf was invented when a club-wielding hobbit knocked the head off a goblin named Golfimbul, and the head sailed through the air and landed in a rabbit hole. Museums The history of golf is preserved and represented at several golf museums around\",\n \"-18.50039176885366\"\n ],\n [\n \"Malakas Malakas (Greek: μαλάκας [maˈlakas]) is a commonly used profane Greek slang word, with a variety of different meanings, but literally meaning \\\"man who masturbates\\\". While it is typically used as an insult, with its literal equivalent in English being \\\"wanker\\\", the meaning varies depending on the tone and context used. It can be an exclamation of pleasure, an expression of dark horror, a cry of anger, a declaration of affection, and other different things. Common alternative meanings include \\\"asshole\\\", \\\"motherfucker\\\" \\\"jerk\\\" or \\\"idiot\\\", and the contrasting \\\"dude\\\", or \\\"mate\\\", depending on the context. It has been described as \\\"the\",\n \"-18.48009308382882\"\n ],\n [\n \"saying that the phrase was originally made by Shakespeare. \\\"He did? Shucks!\\\" answers a disappointed Froggy.\",\n \"-18.461588468960144\"\n ],\n [\n \"Andy Dick Early life and education Dick was born on December 21, 1965, in Charleston, South Carolina, as Andrew Thomlinson. He was adopted at birth by Allen and Sue Dick, and named Andrew Roane Dick. He was brought up Presbyterian. His father was in the Navy.\\nAs a child, he spent time living with his family in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, and Yugoslavia before moving to Chicago in 1979. He attended Lassiter High School, which was being temporarily housed at George Walton Comprehensive High School in Cobb County, Georgia. Dick appeared in numerous theater productions during his high school year. He\",\n \"-18.459020124069866\"\n ],\n [\n \"his relatives at some point, most notably Lorraine mistakenly thinking his name is Calvin Klein, due to it being Marty's brand of underwear. In the first film, Marty uses the alias of \\\"Darth Vader, an extraterrestrial from the Planet Vulcan\\\" while wearing a radiation suit in an attempt to coerce George into asking Lorraine out to the dance. In Part III, Marty claims to be \\\"Clint Eastwood\\\" when asked for a name first by Maggie McFly and later by Buford Tannen. In Back to the Future: The Game, he uses one of the three aliases; Sonny Crockett, Harry Callahan, and\",\n \"-18.450869567606787\"\n ],\n [\n \"quickly. In The Jeffersons season 2 (1976) episode \\\"The Breakup: Part 2\\\", Mr. Bentley explains Cockney rhyming slang to George Jefferson, in that \\\"whistle and flute\\\" means \\\"suit\\\", \\\"apples and pears\\\" means \\\"stairs\\\", \\\"plates of meat\\\" means \\\"feet\\\".\\nThe use of rhyming slang was also prominent in Mind Your Language (1977–79), Citizen Smith (1977–80), Minder (1979–94), Only Fools and Horses (1981–91), and EastEnders (1985-). Minder could be quite uncompromising in its use of obscure forms without any clarification. Thus the non-Cockney viewer was obliged to deduce that, say, \\\"iron\\\" was \\\"male homosexual\\\" ('iron'='iron hoof'='poof'). One episode in Series 5 of Steptoe\",\n \"-18.444162391562713\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Please tell me that is not your penis!\\\" Due to the hilarity of the dialogue, the filming of the scene took 3 takes. Fleming explained the decision to include the 'dick pic', \\\"It is a comedy story, but like all good comedy there's a truth at the core of it, and it is social commentary, that story. Many teens are doing stuff like this, and many parents are worried about it.\\\" The cliffhanger went viral and Fleming expressed apologies to Galvin for the dialogue, \\\"I think Michael now is going to have that line shouted at him across the street.\",\n \"-18.418430579702544\"\n ],\n [\n \"Dickie makes the mistake of remembering his affair with Joyce as an amusing lark, and ends up on the floor of his office with Stephanie's hands around his throat, before her friends Connie and Lula pry her away. In a fit of indignation, Stephanie snatches a desk clock off Dickie's desk, declaring that it was a wedding present from her aunt.\\nLater that evening, Stephanie's on-again/off-again boyfriend, detective Joe Morelli, is told that Dickie has disappeared, and there are signs that he has been abducted or murdered from his house. Because of her earlier altercation with Dickie, Morelli tells\",\n \"-18.379389150781208\"\n ],\n [\n \"a television version in 1979. Dick Barton has also been adapted into a tongue-in-cheek stage play and a spoof radio comedy. Each version has featured the original's memorable signature tune, \\\"Devil's Galop\\\" by Charles Williams. Style The series was devised by producer Norman Collins. The scripts were written by Edward J. Mason and Geoffrey Webb. The programme gave rise to a popular catchphrase of the late 1940s \\\"With one bound Dick was free!\\\" which made light of the fact that no matter how dangerous the cliffhanging situation Dick found himself in every evening, he would always escape easily.\\nEarly ideas for\",\n \"-18.353484263787323\"\n ],\n [\n \"British slang and some strong language was removed. For example, Freak asks where the 'johns' are but you can clearly see his mouth says 'loo', which is a British slang term for toilet. Freak tells Eddie to distract McNiece, \\\"even if it means having sex with the bastard\\\" which is changed to \\\"slimeball\\\" on the US VHS. Most of Leon's dialogue appears to have been re-voiced and he appears considerably softer spoken in the US version.\\nThe original BBC TV version has never seen a commercial release in the UK, and has almost zero presence online, suggesting that the world has\",\n \"-18.32891878112605\"\n ],\n [\n \"will never call him a hero again. It’s a question of context\\\".\\nIn July 2000, Kamiński used the word \\\"pedał\\\" (a derogatory Polish word for homosexual, usually translated into English as \\\"fag\\\" or \\\"queer\\\") in a TV interview to refer to gay rights campaigners. When asked by the reporter if such a term is offensive, his reply translates as: \\\"That's how people speak, what should I say? They are fags.\\\" In a 2009 interview with Iain Dale he admitted the word was offensive and that he would never use it again. He confirmed he has homosexual friends and stated that he\",\n \"-18.326102380712655\"\n ],\n [\n \"changed the spelling to Fuess due to its difficult pronunciation for Americans. According to Fuess, he and his family pronounce their name Fease. Often times he would go by one his nicknames. Those he knew in high school and at Amherst College called him \\\"Dutch.\\\" At Phillips Academy he was known as either \\\"Jack\\\" or \\\"Claudie\\\" or once Headmaster \\\"B.D.\\\" (Bald Doctor). Someone even wrote the following poem titled \\\"Fuess Please\\\" in 1930 to illustrate the difficulty of his name:\\nHe'll exclaim, \\\"Oh what's the use!\\\"\\n\\nWhen he hears you utter \\\"Fuess.\\\"\\n\\nAnd he'll like it even less\\n\\nIf\",\n \"-18.251467655882152\"\n ],\n [\n \"ways, but Dick convinces Jason that they should meet the girls at Daytona Beach, Florida, because Dick wants to have sex with Lenore. The two go to a golf course, where Dick flirts with two women.\\nAt Daytona Beach, they meet up with the girls and the girls' friends, Cody and Brah, with whom they compete in beer chugging. That night, a drunk Jason, wearing nothing but a Hornet fanny pack, parties and smokes crack cocaine that he gets from a drug dealer named Pam. He steals a motorcycle and wakes up the next day on the beach. During an awkward\",\n \"-18.22080317554355\"\n ],\n [\n \"moaning, such as in their singles and \\\"Position #9\\\", similar to fellow Europop groups as E-Rotic, which often led to the songs becoming controversial. The first single \\\"Short Dick Man\\\", which involves a woman mocking the size of a man's penis, was later released in a clean version replacing the word \\\"dick\\\" with \\\"short\\\", with also a retitled censored title \\\"Short Short Man\\\". \\\"Lick It\\\" also had both edited and unedited versions released as well – the reason why 20 Fingers releases often had a Parental Advisory warning label. Their lyrics are sung in English, Spanish and Tagalog (\\\"Putang Ina\",\n \"-18.211013383144746\"\n ],\n [\n \"in which has hip and finger stripes.\\nSome versions of Dick's story as Nightwing do not make clear whether the public at large knows that the first Robin is now Nightwing, or whether he is simply an entirely new hero. A metafictional foreword (said to have been made by a future historian) to a trade paperback for \\\"A Death In The Family\\\" made the claim that the public at large always thought there was just one Robin. In versions that do address it, Dick and Bruce seem to want to spread the belief that Nightwing started his career as an adult,\",\n \"-18.202563169983478\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Jack and Jill\\\" was in use in England as early as the 16th century to indicate a boy and a girl. A comedy with the title Jack and Jill was performed at the Elizabethan court in 1567-68, and the phrase was used twice by Shakespeare: in A Midsummer Night's Dream, which contains the line, \\\"Jack shall have Jill; Nought shall go ill\\\" (III:ii:460-2), and in Love's Labour's Lost, which has the lines, \\\"Our wooing doth not end like an old play; Jack hath not Jill\\\" (V:ii:874–5). These lines suggest that it was a phrase which indicated a romantically attached couple,\",\n \"-18.1670876941389\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Tricky Dicky\\\" both in the show and the British press and become a prominent soap womanizer and villain for the two years he appeared; he had flings with various female characters, most notably Kathy Beale (Gillian Taylforth) and Bianca Jackson (Patsy Palmer).\\nTricky Dicky has beed described as a \\\"lothario\\\", as well as \\\"corrupt, shifty and slimy as they come\\\". Author Kate Lock suggests that Tricky Dicky was aptly named, stating \\\"he was sly, underhand and ruthless, both in his business dealings [...] and with women.\\\" She adds that he was \\\"good-looking in an oily sort of way, but dropped his\",\n \"-18.16615032160962\"\n ],\n [\n \"double-tracked with a low-pitched spoken voice — in a similar manner to his singing on the choruses of the song \\\"The Hero's Return\\\".\\n\\\"Not Now John\\\" is notable for being one of the few Pink Floyd tracks to feature strong profanity, as the word \\\"fuck\\\" occurs in the album version of the song seven times: six times as part of the phrase \\\"fuck all that\\\", and near the end of the song in a \\\"Where's-the-bar?\\\" lyric, which is sung in Italian, Greek, French and finally English (with the English iteration being \\\"Oi — Where's the fucking bar, John?\\\"). The four iterations\",\n \"-18.155621647585576\"\n ],\n [\n \"Good Dick Plot A video store clerk stalks, spies on and manipulates a reclusive woman, who often comes to the video store where he works to rent soft-core porn. Eventually, despite his strong optimism, her dislike of sex and resulting defensiveness drives them apart. It is revealed toward the end of the film that her dislike of both sex and relationships was fueled by sexual abuse at the hands of her father. The film ends with a confrontation with her father, and ultimately Ritter's character reuniting with her. Festivals and competitions The film competed in the Dramatic Competition at the\",\n \"-18.140750268705233\"\n ],\n [\n \"Batman is entirely amicable. Dick passes the mantle of Robin over to Jason Todd voluntarily, in a memorable scene wherein he states that \\\"Robin will always be the second part of Batman and...\\\" Bruce gives every impression of being pleased with his ward's coming of age, and maintains this attitude until the post-Crisis retcon that rewrites the origin of Jason Todd and the circumstances of Dick's departure from the role.) Nightwing In pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity, the maturing Dick Grayson grows weary of his role as Batman's young sidekick. He renames himself Nightwing, recalling his adventure in the Kryptonian\",\n \"-18.13311606217485\"\n ],\n [\n \"always follow a traditional verse-chorus structure such as in \\\"Short Dick Man\\\" or \\\"Putang Ina Mo\\\" (Tagalog for lit. \\\"You're Mother Is a Whore\\\") with minimalistic vocals and often use simple repeatings such as \\\"Bum, ba da da da da\\\" (\\\"Lick It\\\"), \\\"Barara bum bum bum\\\" (\\\"Sex Machine\\\"), \\\"Eeny, weeny, teeny, weeny\\\" or \\\"Don't, Don't, Don't, Do Do, Don't, Don't, Don't\\\" (\\\"Short Dick Man\\\"), \\\"Ay nako, putang ina mo!\\\"/\\\"Ina mo, ina mo, ina mo, ina mo\\\" (\\\"Putang Ina Mo\\\") which led the songs to high recognition. The lyrics were distinguished by their humorous or risque lyrics, often sexually explicit including\",\n \"-18.108110453204517\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sloppy seconds Sloppy seconds (or slops in Australian slang) is a slang phrase for when a man has sexual intercourse with a female or male partner who already has received another man's penis in the relevant orifice and is therefore wet or \\\"sloppy\\\". The phrase buttered bun is sometimes used to refer to said orifice. The practice is also referred to as a \\\"wet deck\\\".\\nThe term is used, by extension, to refer to any act of entering into a sexual relationship with a person who had previously been in a sexual relationship with someone else in one's peer group.\",\n \"-18.097245197760458\"\n ],\n [\n \"of a ship, and when the last sailor climbed on board he would say, \\\"I'm alright Jack, pull up the ladder\\\". The use of the name \\\"Jack\\\" derives from Jack Tar, an archaic term for a British sailor. Another variant of the story depicts the origin of the phrase among sailors returning home from duty who, instead of being treated as brave heroes, were forced to fend for themselves in a dog-eat-dog society.\\nIt was used in the title of the film I'm All Right Jack (1959) and appears in lyrics of popular song Which Side Are You On? (But it\",\n \"-18.0838489926291\"\n ],\n [\n \"mile. If he was to have a relationship, he would give it everything. So because his commitments have been his career, his faith, and more latterly, tennis, he has given himself wholeheartedly to those three activities.\\\"\\nRichard often declines discussion about close relationships and when asked about suggestions that he may be homosexual has stated categorically that he is not. When the suggestions were first put to him in the late 1970s, Richard responded by saying: \\\"It's untrue. People are very unfair with their criticism and their judgements. I've had girlfriends. But people seem to think that if a bloke doesn't\",\n \"-18.073608442349723\"\n ],\n [\n \"man (Kerry Shale) in a red polo neck jumper who claims to be \\\"his very best friend\\\". In the fifth episode it transpires that the man, who identifies himself as Dick, is the personification of Mark's penis.\\nThe final episode begins after Becky and Michael had slept together while house sitting for Tracy and Robert, and Michael hides in the bathroom when the latter couple return. Tracy phones a morning television phone-in show (hosted by Michael Thomas and Helen Atkinson-Wood, with appearances by Rachael Fielding and Jonathan Barlow), and when she realises that the show's divorce expert is hiding in her\",\n \"-18.059907582528467\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":96,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"3xjyiy"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How did a 32 year old Martin Shkreli get to have so much power at such a young age?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["The short answer is that he had a knack for biotech stocks. He self-taught himself biology and chemistry and was able to comprehend complicated papers and study results that most people in finance cannot understand without the help of expensive industry consultants. This can be very helpful in taking short position against stocks of drug companies that have failing products, which so many in biotech do. Very few drugs in development ultimately get FDA's approval. It can also help you assess what company is undervalued based on its drug portfolio. His knowledge, apparently, also allowed him to convince a lot of people to invest in his firms. Because they believed he really knew what he was talking about. It turns out that a lot of his investments, especially those made at his hedge funds, were simply too risky. He may have been cocky about his expertise and underestimated how much the biotech sector was influenced by other factors outside his control.","Powerful people have the ability to sell themselves as experts. They have big egos that project a presence people trust no matter how much they boast or lie. Which is why they tend to be the ones to get away with making money going bankrupt or with ponzi schemes or the superior natural leaders, culminating in a national chief who alone is capable of incarnating the group's destiny because of his perceived instincts over abstract and universal reason.","Well business overall is a people game. Those who are better at interacting with people who have money tend to do better. In terms of Martin Shkreli if you have been reading the news he ran a partial ponzi scheme. I feel he couldn't produce enough investors at a point to which he turned to price gouging for sufficient funding. Overall I feel anyone can be a CEO you just have to know people and recruit. Most people only seem to focus on the fact that they need to produce the funds to build a business when all you really need to do is prove to a rich person why they should invest with you and boom you can make any company you want. I'm not saying you could sell miracle aids curing chicken to someone but skillful people could make someone wealthy believe that your chicken can cure or significantly reduce your chances of getting aids, it would be a very worthy investment. It's a bad example but it still shows a point. Make people believe.","Serious question: how much trouble is this guy in? I mean, I know Reddit got excited when he got arrested but is he looking at a slap on the wrist or something more like Madoff got?","Step 1: layout your plan to the board of directors Step 2: Buy a ton of stocks in the company, close to 2 million shares. Step 3: Now that you have a big stake in the company the board will appoint you as CEO so you can execute your strategy. Step 4: Acquire the rights to a needed drug and raise its price. Step 5: Profit from the 2 million shares bought prior. & nbsp; Shkreli made close to 60 million in less than a month with this strategy on KBIO.","Anyone notice that he worked at Jim Cramer's firm; Cramer, Berkowitz and Company? You know.. that guy that Jon Stewart outed for his company training videos that showed him explaining to his employees how to pump and dump stock through the press and media to make a profit? URL_0 I wish the media would comment on Cramer's legacy of unethical behavior.","To be fair to him, he wasn't born into it. He's a complete bastard no doubt, but he did manage to get billions of dollars all by himself, which is pretty smart."],"string":"[\n \"The short answer is that he had a knack for biotech stocks. He self-taught himself biology and chemistry and was able to comprehend complicated papers and study results that most people in finance cannot understand without the help of expensive industry consultants. This can be very helpful in taking short position against stocks of drug companies that have failing products, which so many in biotech do. Very few drugs in development ultimately get FDA's approval. It can also help you assess what company is undervalued based on its drug portfolio. His knowledge, apparently, also allowed him to convince a lot of people to invest in his firms. Because they believed he really knew what he was talking about. It turns out that a lot of his investments, especially those made at his hedge funds, were simply too risky. He may have been cocky about his expertise and underestimated how much the biotech sector was influenced by other factors outside his control.\",\n \"Powerful people have the ability to sell themselves as experts. They have big egos that project a presence people trust no matter how much they boast or lie. Which is why they tend to be the ones to get away with making money going bankrupt or with ponzi schemes or the superior natural leaders, culminating in a national chief who alone is capable of incarnating the group's destiny because of his perceived instincts over abstract and universal reason.\",\n \"Well business overall is a people game. Those who are better at interacting with people who have money tend to do better. In terms of Martin Shkreli if you have been reading the news he ran a partial ponzi scheme. I feel he couldn't produce enough investors at a point to which he turned to price gouging for sufficient funding. Overall I feel anyone can be a CEO you just have to know people and recruit. Most people only seem to focus on the fact that they need to produce the funds to build a business when all you really need to do is prove to a rich person why they should invest with you and boom you can make any company you want. I'm not saying you could sell miracle aids curing chicken to someone but skillful people could make someone wealthy believe that your chicken can cure or significantly reduce your chances of getting aids, it would be a very worthy investment. It's a bad example but it still shows a point. Make people believe.\",\n \"Serious question: how much trouble is this guy in? I mean, I know Reddit got excited when he got arrested but is he looking at a slap on the wrist or something more like Madoff got?\",\n \"Step 1: layout your plan to the board of directors Step 2: Buy a ton of stocks in the company, close to 2 million shares. Step 3: Now that you have a big stake in the company the board will appoint you as CEO so you can execute your strategy. Step 4: Acquire the rights to a needed drug and raise its price. Step 5: Profit from the 2 million shares bought prior. & nbsp; Shkreli made close to 60 million in less than a month with this strategy on KBIO.\",\n \"Anyone notice that he worked at Jim Cramer's firm; Cramer, Berkowitz and Company? You know.. that guy that Jon Stewart outed for his company training videos that showed him explaining to his employees how to pump and dump stock through the press and media to make a profit? URL_0 I wish the media would comment on Cramer's legacy of unethical behavior.\",\n \"To be fair to him, he wasn't born into it. He's a complete bastard no doubt, but he did manage to get billions of dollars all by himself, which is pretty smart.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["on October 26, 2005, at the age of 50, almost two years after his father.","-23.340960580506362"],["1997. Aspects of Young's work are being developed by the Young Foundation, created from the merger of his Institute of Community Studies and his Mutual Aid Centre, under the direction of Geoff Mulgan.\nThroughout his life, and particularly in later life, Young was concerned for older people. In 1982 he co-founded the University of the Third Age with Peter Laslett and Eric Midwinter, and Linkage, bringing together older people without grandchildren and young people without grandparents. In 2001 he co-founded the charity Grandparents Plus to champion the role of the wider family in children's lives.\nAccording to his friend Eric Midwinter, \"All","-23.25069574607187"],["parents, including the mom of a 10-year-old who still spoon-fed him, the mom of an 8-year-old who bought him a skateboard but only let him \"ride\" it on the grass, and the mom of a 13-year-old who still took him into the ladies room. With humor, kindness, and some firmness, Skenazy separated the parents from their children and had the children do some tasks on their own, such as running an errand, or learning, at age 10, how to ride a bike. In the end, 12 of the 13 couples relaxed so much, that they became \"Free-Range Parents\" themselves. Now","-23.231483317853417"],["youngest person in the history of TDP to hold this position is Ram Mohan Naidu Kinjarapu, followed by Nara Lokesh, E. Peddireddy and M. A. Sharif.","-23.079302573547466"],["extremely shy young man, at age 17, he began studies at a Methodist college in Albion, Michigan, on the 50 dollars his parents could give him after selling a calf. He continued to work on the family farm in the summer, never stopping his studies which he carried on during the night. \nAlthough he was always a religious boy he had a defining experience of conversion at age 19, through the fiancée he was corresponding with, Lucy J. Glenn. Martin was converted at 19 through Lucy’s prayers and his mother’s example. Soon he received his call to preach. When he","-22.98288189608502"],["Alexander Hugh Macmillan Early life Macmillan was born in Canada. From an early age he had a deep interest in serving God. At age 16, he decided to be a preacher, attending a school away from home, but ceased his studies when he suffered a nervous breakdown. With financial aid from his father, he relocated to Boston, Massachusetts. There, he came in contact with the Bible Student movement. In about 1897, he obtained a copy of the book, The Plan of the Ages, the first of the six-volume series Millennial Dawn (later called Studies in the Scriptures), written by Charles","-22.981536417042662"],["of the church to take effective action, for ruining his life.\nIn 2019, The Observer reported that Tolkien had said, in a tape-recorded conversation with Carrie, that he was sexually abused by at least one of his father's friends as a child.","-22.955075344099896"],["prime minister successful at the subsequent election of party leader. Ages The youngest person to become prime minister was Chris Watson – 37, who was also 37 when he ceased being prime minister. The oldest person to become prime minister was John McEwen – 67 as an interim prime minister, otherwise William McMahon – 63. Robert Menzies was the oldest person to ever be prime minister, leaving office at 71 years old.","-22.95382991299266"],["Donald Gary Young Early life and education Young was born on July 11, 1949 and attended high school in Challis, Idaho. In his late teens, Young moved to Canada with the intention of homesteading in British Columbia. By Young's account, at the age of 24, he suffered a near-fatal logging accident, and had to use a wheelchair for a time, and he further claimed that while rehabilitating, he began to experiment with essential oils. \nIn 1980, Young enrolled in a therapeutic massage program at the “American Institute of Physiogenerology”; however, according to the Institute’s founder, Young left after attending only","-22.84415367746965"],["to gain access to young people within the Movement. Some notable cases are listed below.\nIn 2006, Alan Grant, a 42-year-old man who had held Scouting leadership positions in Scotland for more than 20 years, admitted to abusing two 15-year-old boys in his home in 2006. To entice the boys to visit his home, Grant had set up a “fake camp,” complete with fake parent authorization forms, and obtained the parents’ permission for the boys to attend. Instead, the boys were taken to his home and given alcohol before the abuse took place. He was sentenced to nine months","-22.791475438978523"],["position. The Moderate Youth League played a great part in this, lobbying for him inside the party and campaigning for him in the election. In 2002, Tove Lifvendahl became the first Youth League chairman to be elected to the national board of the party directly after resigning from the Moderate Youth League. Many former leaders left politics but gained prominence in other spheres of society, most of all in business.\nThe Moderate Youth League has around 9,500 members (2004/2005).","-22.772874083719216"],["Tabinshwehti Childhood and education The young prince was cared for by seven royal servants (two women and five men) throughout his childhood and youth. He grew up playing with children of his servants, including one Ye Htut, the eldest son of Mingyi Swe and his wet nurse Myo Myat. Ye Htut, who was three months older, would become Tabinshwehti's right-hand man.\nThe young crown prince grew up having to live up to a prophecy at his birth, which claimed that he would grow up to be a great warrior just like Minye Kyawswa. (According to the prophecy, Tabinshwehti was the reincarnation","-22.716438861592906"],["Lee Elder Background and family One of ten children, Elder was born in Dallas, Texas, to Charles and Almeta Elder. He was nine years old when his father was killed in Germany during World War II, and his mother died three months later. At the age of 12, Elder found himself moving from one ghetto to another before being sent to Los Angeles, California to live with his aunt. Elder frequently cut classes to work as a caddie, and after two years at Manual Arts High School he dropped out.\nElder met his future wife, Rose Harper, at a golf tournament","-22.646306730790457"],["destitute, earnestly devoted herself to rearing her children without assistance. This meant, however, that said children had to become as self-supporting as possible at a very early age.\nAt five years old, Samuel was placed on a small farm with an uncle who employed himself as a wood-chopper and made himself useful as best he could. Two years later, an aunt died, leaving him $150 to be inherited when he came of age and he went to live with his guardian, John Charles, a farmer near Millersville. It was in the seven years he lived there that he learned how to","-22.49859755198122"],["at the age of 56. He left behind his wife, Margaret, two daughters and two sons.","-22.453056357771857"],["is his father, who died at the age of 90, when Benkirane was 16. He is married to a party activist and has six children. His youngest daughter is tetraplegic.","-22.421678906179295"],["until age eleven, with some brief stays in rehabilitation centers invariably terminated by her family's poor financial situation. As she approached her teens, it became increasingly difficult for her mother and family to care for her. Her parents decided to send her to the Belchertown State School, an institution for the mentally and physically disabled. There, like many of the institution's patients, she was severely mistreated. She spent most of the next eight years lying in bed in a ward of schizophrenics, ministered to by overworked attendants who often force-fed her and assumed that as an imbecile she had no","-22.405548718379578"],["by her brothers as a toddler, but too young for them to play with. She always played with her make-believe friends and was a happy child. \nWhen she was six in June 29, 1949 her baby sister Emerald arrived, and Maria became the middle child over night. She was always a mature child but now she had to grow up really fast. Five children, three of them teenagers practically were too much for her mother. She became her mother’s helper assuming responsibilities being the oldest girl, house chores; cleaning, ironing, sweeping and dusting. She was doing the grocery shopping by","-22.29180008028925"],["He was sixty-eight years old in 1998.","-22.229683296092844"],["the same. When he was eleven, some of Haakon's friends provoked the king by asking him to give Haakon a region to govern. When Haakon was approached by the men and was urged to take up arms against Inge, he rejected it in part because of his young age and its bad prospects, as well as because he believed it would be morally wrong to fight Inge and thus split the birkebeiner. He instead said that he prayed that God would give him his share of his father's inheritance when the time was right. Succession struggle After King Inge's death","-22.21150522075095"],["but in middle school she was transferred to Ronson, a regional integration project, where she felt out of place. When it was time for high school, it was decided to send her to Ort Negev, a trade high school, where she was intended to learn to be a child caregiver. Even at her young age, she realized that all the Mizrahi youngsters were being sent to trade schools to learn to be hairdressers or electricians, while the Ashkenazi teens were sent to college preparatory schools. She decided not to cooperate, and dropped out of school at age 16. She eventually","-22.20179144392023"],["Neil Young Early years (1945–1966) Neil Young was born on November 12, 1945, in Toronto, Ontario. His father, Scott Alexander Young (1918–2005), was a journalist and sportswriter who also wrote fiction. His mother, Edna Blow Ragland \"Rassy\" Young (1918–1990) was a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution. Although Canadian, his mother had American and French ancestry. Young's parents married in 1940 in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and their first son, Robert \"Bob\" Young, was born in 1942. Shortly after Young's birth in 1945, his family moved to rural Omemee, Ontario, which Young later described fondly as a \"sleepy little place\".","-22.190080163942184"],["Lotor would likely have grown into a much better person.\nPrince Lotor's life is multiplied by Quintessence, allowing him to live for 10,000 years, due to being already conceived by the time his mother, Honerva, entered the rift on Daibazaal. Reception The character has praised for being a nuanced character.","-22.186106691427995"],["the age of 39, leaving behind his eldest child of 14 years, the 10-year-old Moishe, and the youngest only two. In 1940, Moishe entered the Toras Emes yeshiva in Stamford Hill, of which Moshe Schneider was the rosh yeshiva, where he would remain for ten years. He studied there with Bezalel Rakow, who was later to become the Gateshead Rov, Yitzchok Tuvia Weiss, his future colleague in the Edah HaChareidis, and future Olympia and York businessman Paul Reichmann.\nSternbuch's family fled London during World War II due to The Blitz. They moved to a small nearby village where he shared","-22.168426602729596"],["the first son. This affected him: thieves and other threats brought home to him the futility of the household life, and at the age of eighteen, he desired to be ordained as a monk. He had to take care of his family first though, and saved up money for them to be able to leave behind after he would become a monk. The biography of Wat Phra Dhammakaya says that he had to calculate the rate of inflation for this, and work harder than before, but finally managed to gather enough funds after four years.\nWhen Sodh was twenty-two years old,","-22.090996006969362"],["against the University Act of 1920. He dreamed of becoming a journalist and surprised the family by writing an article for the Union of Burma Boy Scouts magazine. When Thant was fourteen, his father died and a series of inheritance disputes forced Thant's mother, Nan Thaung, and her four children into difficult financial times.\nAfter the death of his father, Thant believed he would not be able to complete a four-year degree and instead worked for a two-year teaching certificate at Rangoon University in 1926. As the oldest son, he had to fulfill his filial duties and responsibilities of the family.","-22.080559765803628"],["including Prince Yi Seok, the younger half-brother of Prince Gap, and Princess Yi Hae-won, the eldest surviving member of the house. Also, according to present Korean law, the traditional adoption after death of a foster parent to continue the line has been outlawed by legislation as of 2004.\nAnother problem arises over whether Prince Won or his father Prince Gap is the senior member of the house. While the line of Prince Gang is the senior line following the death of Prince Gu, there are descendants of the elder sons of Prince Gang.","-22.02746581126121"],["to the village. One of the children stated that they had never been to school. None of the six adult children were in official records of births and citizens.\nThe 67-year old man has four more children, a total of ten children as of 2019. His eldest son was never a part of the same cult and the three eldest children of the nine he had with his second wife, fled the family home in 2011. Only the 6 youngest children remained in seclusion until 2019. The 67-year old man has extensive Facebook pages and his own website, but does not","-22.003792048519244"],["years later while Susan supported the family financially by working at a health insurance company. At first, Ulner was controlling but not particularly violent or abusive. According to Susan, he had a will to dominate and the power to brainwash. Her husband eventually isolated Susan from her family. However, due to her husband's proficiency at manipulation and control, and its gradual increase, Susan was slow to realize the high level of danger in which her husband's domineering behaviors placed her. After giving birth to their oldest children, a boy and a girl, Susan had to quit work and stay home","-21.970757934381254"],["Christopher Wylie Early life Wylie was born to parents Kevin Wylie and Joan Carruthers, a physician and a psychiatrist. He was raised in Victoria, British Columbia. As a child he was diagnosed with dyslexia and ADHD. After being abused at the age of 6 by \"a mentally unstable person\", he successfully sued the British Columbia Ministry of Education after a six-year legal battle, winning a settlement of $290,000 at the age of 14. He left school in 2005 at the age of 16 without a qualification, and when asked about his \"probable destiny\" on his school leaver's yearbook page, he","-21.93307556718355"],["25 February 1980 at the age of 73, leaving behind his wife and three sons.","-21.930231600563275"],["until he was in the place where he most wanted to be.\nWhen he was nearing his father's house, he opened the bundle. A great castle sprang up, and an irate giant demanded to know why he had put it there. It offered to put it back if the prince gave him his first son, when he reached seven years of age. Then the prince went out, and opened the bundle near his father's lands. He went into the castle, and found a pretty maid who was willing to be his wife. They had a son,","-21.897663264913717"],["Thor Nis Christiansen Early life Thor Nis Christiansen was born in Denmark, and immigrated to the United States with his parents when he was five years old. The family initially settled in Inglewood, California, and then moved to Solvang, where his father, Nis, ran a restaurant. Christiansen was a good student until his junior year of high school, when he began neglecting his schoolwork. He moved out of his parents' house, dropped out of school, and began working as a gas station attendant. During this time, Christiansen gained a great deal of weight, at one point weighing 275 pounds (125","-21.831557776604313"],["\"very, very slow\" learner; \"If I have to, I can write things down. But I don't like to\". By the time he was 12, Oldfield played the electric guitar and performed in local folk and youth clubs and dances, earning as much as £4 per gig. During a six-month break from music that Oldfield had around this time, he took up painting. In May 1968, when Oldfield turned fifteen, his school headmaster requested that he cut his long hair. Oldfield refused and left abruptly. He then decided to pursue music on a full time, professional basis. 1968–1972: Early career After","-21.810042480909033"],["however, at the age of 64. His eldest son, Sakai Tadayuki, died around the same time, and so the next oldest son, Sakai Tadakiyo succeeded his father.","-21.801868791153538"],["the age of 15 but the deal was unable to work out due to him been under age.","-21.775474044974544"],["age of three by her maternal grandmother. She would assist with getting the family's meal of rice and beans ready, and then spend the morning at a table with a primer. As a little girl, she often pretended to be a teacher to her dolls and stuffed animals, using a small blackboard and desk. She points to this early play-time as the root of her desire to be an educator.\nWhen she turned five years old, Cruzado began helping her grandfather on his coffee farm, spreading beans out to dry. She also began assisting her stepfather in the coffee mill where","-21.760968970746035"],["youngest uncle became a 49er after losing both his wife and infant son. His younger brother, Henry A. Strong, was a wildly successful businessman and philanthropist who served as Eastman Kodak's first president.\nHe graduated from Yale College in 1857, having had a religious conversion during his time in college. He began his theological studies at Rochester Theological Seminary and was awarded his D.D. in Germany. In August 1861 he was ordained pastor of First Baptist Church of Haverhill, Massachusetts. After his short pastorate in Haverhill, he went on in 1865 to become the pastor of First","-21.752411127119558"],["Jesse Fuller Early life Fuller was born in Jonesboro, Georgia, near Atlanta. He was sent by his mother to live with foster parents when he was a young child, in a rural setting where he was badly mistreated. Growing up, he worked at numerous jobs: grazing cows for ten cents a day; working in a barrel factory, a broom factory, and a rock quarry; working on a railroad and for a streetcar company; shining shoes; and even peddling hand-carved wooden snakes. By the age of 10, he was playing the guitar in two techniques, which he described as \"frailing\" and","-21.750697721377946"],["Kardinal Offishall Early life and career beginnings Harrow was born in Scarborough, Ontario, in Toronto's east end, and raised by Jamaican immigrant parents. From the ages of 2 to 13, he lived in the city's Flemingdon Park neighbourhood. He moved back to Scarborough for two years, before finally settling in Oakwood–Vaughan, in the city's west end. While in high school, he would throw parties at the Alexandra Park Community Centre. He also is a former York University student but did not complete his degree.\nHe started rapping at the age of eight and was winning competitions by the time he was","-21.73316884750966"],["the youngest child in his family by 12 years. He was baptized at age seven at a local Baptist church, after having a conviction of sin. He continued to feel distant from God, however, as he did not have the real experience with God that he had expected post-baptism. He remained hungry for spiritual encounters in his young age, even traveling to Charleston, Virginia, for a Presbyterian Church meeting. As a teen, he struggled with his relationship with churches and God, and began using tobacco.\nWhile in Kentucky for business, Garr met a preacher from the Holiness movement. Garr believed the","-21.730767678585835"],["Bruce Golding Biography He is the son of Tacius Golding and Enid Golding (née Bent), both teachers. Bruce was the third of four children: the second—the only girl—died shortly after birth. In 1949, when he was only two years old, his family moved to St. Faiths district near Browns Hall, St. Catherine, where he spent the next five years. In 1955, his mother accepted a teaching post at Alpha Academy in Kingston. This necessitated that the family relocate to Kingston.\nAs a child, Golding grew up in a political environment. He was only two years old in 1949 when his father","-21.720783520373516"],["credited his father as having taught him the game of football. His father became partially disabled later in his life and died following a brain tumour when Wesley was nine years of age.\nWesley has two children from different relationships, Yan and Maria Eduarda, both of whom he fathered as a teenager. He had his first child at the age of 14 and his second at the age of 16. As a sixteen year-old he worked in a factory sorting screws to support his family between football trials before his move to AS Trencin.","-21.71914286116953"],["give up any children. Despite being aged between 59 and 62 at the time of the Times interview, she was open to the prospect of more children, though she recognised that it would be a struggle: \"If God sends them to me, yes. But I'd like God to also consider me, now that I'm approaching old age.\" \nShe had tried birth control with an intrauterine device but it was not a success: \"I got pregnant anyway and nearly died ... I think it was a punishment from God for doing something I shouldn't.\"\nWhen Leontina's story became public she became something of","-21.69221008382374"],["Gavin Esler Early life Esler was born in Glasgow on 27 February 1953, the first son born to a manager of a building company. During his first weeks, he suffered from a condition that made him unable to digest milk and his parents feared for his life. He had an operation at just three weeks old. His family lived in Clydebank before they moved to Edinburgh, where he began his education at Duddingston Primary School before gaining a scholarship to George Heriot's School at the age of seven. \nHis Scottish childhood had a profound and long-lasting effect on him. His","-21.691678135248367"],["that she would not live to reach the age of two years; however, it was her younger sister, Sally, who died from the same disease before that age. As a child she was prone to getting severe chest infections, which occurred two or three times per year, sometimes requiring hospitalisation. Education Campbell went to a segregated school for disabled children where academic achievement was not the top priority. Her best friend, who had a hole in the heart, died at the age of 13 years. She left school at the age of 16 years with no qualifications, and hardly able","-21.680709758787998"],["to join what he described as \"The Council of Dads\" that would live on well after he was gone\".\nSteve Myall writing in The Daily Mirror said, \"Dying young and leaving your children to grow up without your love and guidance is a nightmare most parents dare not even contemplate. But that was the chilling prospect facing devoted 45-year-old father of two Bruce Feiler when he was told a seven-inch cancerous tumor was growing in his thigh. At the time his twin daughters Eden and Tybee were just three years old and the terror of facing his own death was overshadowed","-21.678839690983295"],["Jacoby Ellsbury Early life Ellsbury was born on September 11, 1983, to Jim and Margie Ellsbury, and is the eldest of four children. His mother is a Navajo, a descendant of 19th-century tribal leader Ganado Mucho. Her father Franklin McCabe was a silversmith and her mother a traditional rug weaver. His father, Jim Ellsbury, is of English and German descent. The Ellsburys lived on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation until they moved to Madras, Oregon, when he was in kindergarten. He was raised in the Mormon religion.\nIn Little League, Ellsbury often played with teammates up to three years older than","-21.67717837204691"],["child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the \"4-2-1 Problem\", this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If not for personal savings, pensions, or state welfare, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance. If for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue,","-21.670960299670696"],["H. R. Janardhana Iyengar Childhood and education Janardhana Iyengar was the eldest child of Haradanahalli Ramaswamy Iyengar and Janakamma. He had three younger sisters and two younger brothers. At age 18, he married 12-year-old Indiramma Srinivasa Iyengar of Kollegal. In 1927, when Iyengar was an engineering student, his father died from complications of carbuncle surgery. At this young age, he became the head of the family, and at the same time pursued the higher education that would lead to his accomplished career. In 1930, he obtained a degree in Engineering from the University of Mysore with","-21.63005182525376"],["initial education in order to relieve his parents of their economic burden. \nIn his late childhood and into his adolescence he endeavored to earn funds that would support his parents and siblings. From the age of 14 he dedicated himself to caring for livestock and other similar tasks. He frequented Marian shrines and had an ardent devotion to the Eucharist . By the age of twenty, he had saved eighty silver ducats and travelled back home to Murcia to help provide for his sister's impending marriage. En route home a group of thieves attacked him and stripped him of all","-21.562319844815647"],["age of 92, in 1996 and his wife died in 1994, at the age of 90.","-21.55444342715782"],["Rogers Neighborhood fame, Rohr was intensely aware of the importance of early childhood development. In 2004, he worked with the PNC Foundation to create Grow Up Great, a 10 year, $100 million early childhood learning initiative intended to help prepare underserved children from birth to age 5 for school and life. Compensation While CEO of PNC Financial Services Group in 2008, James E. Rohr earned a total compensation of $8,549,098, which included a base salary of $1,000,000, no cash bonus, stocks granted of $3,185,000, and options granted of $4,132,000. Criticism The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review newspaper began running \"The Jim Rohr","-21.547385629673954"],["would move on to someone else. Her wish was fulfilled when Philpott met Heather Kehoe, then aged 14, in Rainworth, Nottinghamshire; Philpott was 37. On her 16th birthday, Kehoe ran away from her parents to live with Philpott. She gave birth to two children, both boys, in quick succession, but Philpott beat Kehoe because he wanted a daughter. Kehoe described Philpott teaching his older sons to be violent towards her. Philpott wanted Kehoe to produce more children, but she did not conceive again. In 1991, he was given a two-year conditional discharge from the British Army for assault occasioning actual","-21.540902351916884"],["brother reached adolescence, Marybeth would tell him, \"You were the one they wanted, not me.\"\nHer father, Alton Lewis Roe, on completion of his active duty, worked as a press operator in a nearby General Electric facility. At the time, the facility was the area's largest employer. As an adult, Marybeth once claimed that when she was a child, her father abused her. During a police interview in 1986, she told one investigator that her father had beaten her and locked her in a closet. During court testimony, she denied that her father had bad intentions. \"My father hit me with","-21.539598959730938"],["from age 15 to age 20 as a result of her father's death.","-21.53193431822001"],["the time King's father died in 1930, when she was 14, the family had lost most of its money. Her older sisters supported her to stay at school until she finished, in 1932, which enabled her to get a good education. She would have liked to have gone on to university, possibly to study medicine, but, financially, that was out of the question.\nKing was 17 when Hitler came to power on 30 January 1933. Two of her older sisters, now married, decided to emigrate: one to Palestine, another to the US. By 1934, when she was 18, King was effectively","-21.523871760328802"],["young age of 33 and was succeeded by his eldest son Inoue Masamoto.","-21.522492889988825"],["and youngest child by 12 years, and particularly doted on by his older siblings and mother. From a young age, Alfred expressed a \"spiritual hunger\" and at age 7 he repented of his sin and began searching for God in his life, followed by baptism in the local Baptist church.\nAlfred Goodrich Garr met Lillian Anderson when they were in school at Ashbury College. They married and entered the ministry through the Methodist Church, and moved to California so Alfred could pastor an independent church, the Burning Bush Mission. It was at this time that the Azusa Street Revival broke out","-21.518625015523867"],["Shadow Children Inspiration and Development Margaret Peterson Haddix began writing Among the Hidden after discussions with her husband regarding if they wanted to have more than two children, which developed into conversations concerning overpopulation, the earth's limited resources, and China's One Child Policy. The conversations gradually led Haddix into creating Luke Garner, a twelve-year-old boy forced to live with strict controls and limited choices that result in him spending his life in hiding due to a government that said that he would not have the right to exist. Though Haddix had not intended to continue Among the Hidden,","-21.48904655041406"],["whom he had been \"spiritually married\" when the girl was 15 years old. The same jury sentenced Raymond Jessop to 10 years in prison and assessed a fine of $8,000.\nOn December 18, 2009, a Schleicher County, Texas jury found Allan Keate guilty of sexual assault of a child. Allan Keate fathered a child with a 15-year-old girl. According to documents admitted at trial, Keate had also given three of his own daughters away in “spiritual” or “celestial” marriage, two of them at 15 and one at 14, to older men. The youngest of the three went to Warren Jeffs. He","-21.48288480472911"],["some), sought the protection of his stepfather until her son, Du'gnechom, would be old enough to succeed his father. King Foudoup used this opportunity to reconcile posthumously with his son by fully supporting his wife and introducing her little son to the art of building royal power.\nDu'gnechom in turn, once he was a young adult, became leader of the camp set up by his father at Famleng and quickly developed the qualities of a great hunter and leader. He then married a young woman his mother had prepared for him who quickly gave him a son who he named Notouom.","-21.456348569980037"],["Linda Blair Early life The youngest of three children, Blair was born January 22, 1959 in St. Louis, Missouri, to James Frederick and Elinore (née Leitch) Blair. She has an older sister, Debbie, and an older brother, Jim. When Blair was two years old, her father, a Navy test pilot-turned-executive recruiter, took a job in New York City, and the family relocated to Westport, Connecticut. Her mother worked as a real estate agent in Westport.\nShe formally began her career as a child model at age five, appearing in Sears, J.C. Penney, and Macy's catalogues, and in over 70 commercials for","-21.45205984028871"],["was approaching age 56 when he predeceased his mother. Other survivors include siblings, his wife, and four sons.","-21.44520974403713"],["Sam Childers Early life Sam Childers was born in Grand Forks, North Dakota, the son of Paul Childers, an ironworker and former Marine. Childers had two older brothers, Paul Jr. and George. He also had a sister, Donna, who died of a heart problem before she was a year old. While he was growing up, his parents moved the family from place to place, following construction projects.\nIn the spring of 1974, shortly before Childers turned 12, his family moved to Grand Rapids, Minnesota. Going into seventh grade he discovered cigarettes, marijuana, alcohol and heroin, which led to many years of","-21.444289393373765"],["Personal life Young married his first wife, Margaret, when he was 19. The couple had a son and two daughters, and divorced in 1982. He also had a daughter with his second wife, Susan. Young married his third wife, Carmen, in 2003, having lived with her since 1989.\nAfter retiring from football Young had many different jobs, including removals, managing a sports shop, delivering milk, working in a supermarket, and selling insurance. In his spare time he maintained his fitness by playing badminton, and after winning local tournaments, played the sport for Cheshire. During much of this period he struggled financially,","-21.443746604956686"],["young, but another, Hama, inherited his father's talents and became prominent in his generation. One of his daughters was the wife of a scholar, Samuel b. Nadav by name. Another daughter died during Hanina's lifetime, but he shed no tears at her death, and when his wife expressed astonishment at his composure he told her that he feared the effects of tears on his sight.\nHe lived to be very old, and retained his youthful vigor to the last. He attributed his extraordinary vitality to the hot baths and the oil with which his mother had treated him in his youth.","-21.437464284244925"],["and Young failed to maintain his estate. Before his death, he became involved in a legal battle with former manager Martin Siskind. Young sued Siskind for mismanagement of funds. In response, Siskind successfully petitioned for Young to be declared mentally incompetent, and Young's affairs were placed in control of legal guardians. According to friends, Young was not incompetent and was left destitute by the procedures. Siskind stated that he and Young had settled the suit amicably and that Young retained ownership of 1,000 paintings and was financially stable.\nYoung suffered from diabetes, and toward the latter years of his life, he","-21.43672814360616"],["Stefan Löfven Early life and education Löfven was born 21 July 1957 in Aspudden, Stockholm. He was placed in an orphanage 10 months after his birth. Löfven was subsequently looked after by a foster family from Sunnersta, Sollefteå, where he grew up. According to the agreement with this family, his birth mother would regain custody of him when she was able to; however, this did not happen.\nHis foster father Ture Melander (1926–2003) was a lumberjack and later a factory worker, while his foster mother, Iris Melander (née Söderlund, born 1929), worked as an in-home caregiver. He studied at Sollefteå High","-21.433626234647818"],["age of 82 on June 30, 2007 at his home in Gates Mills, Ohio, a Cleveland suburb, after suffering from a variety of ailments. He is survived by his second wife, Kathryn; his first wife Patricia and their 13 children, Robert, Daniel, William, Martin, John, James, Thomas, Mary Brigid, Alice Marie, Edward, Patrica, Eileen and Catherine; 37 grandchildren, and 15 great-grand children; and two stepchildren from his second marriage.","-21.430276276245422"],["first Heir Male of I. S. when he shall Arrive to the Age of 21 Years\" so long as that first male heir of I. S. paid the sum of 40 pounds to each of I. S.'s daughters, designated \"A\" and \"B\". When the deviser died, I. S. only had the two daughters. Some time later, I. S. had a son, who reached the age of 21 years and paid his two sisters their 40 pounds each.\nThe issue before the court was whether the son of I. S. could take under the deviser's will. Dallas reported","-21.41304616170237"],["one of his stepmothers, Wilma, who beat all three boys (especially him). He said that his stepmother also punished him by forcing him to wear a dress in public. When he was 14 years old, he fought with her, knocking her down and choking her to keep her from killing him in retaliation. She left the family and never returned. His brother Jack later commented, \"She was a damn no-good woman\". Garner's last stepmother was Grace, whom he said he loved and called \"Mama Grace\", and felt that she was more of a mother to him than anyone else had","-21.41018502175575"],["grew older, he felt that he might have a religious calling. Despite their own faith, his parents initially opposed that step. As a result, at the age of 15 he was enrolled in a minor seminary in Nola, while at the same time, he began the study of law at the University of Naples Federico II. During this period, he came under the spiritual guidance of Alphonsus de Ligouri, the founder of the Redemptorists. By the time he had completed the seminary in 1762, his parents had relented in their opposition to his following a career in the Church. Barnabite","-21.39363303023856"],["his family were greatly reduced. Pittsinger early exhibited a disposition impulsive, daring, precocious; she cherished an unusual desire for knowledge of all kinds, and availed herself of all educational opportunities.\nAt the age of 14, she took charge of the house for her father, two brothers, and a sister, and walked 1 mile (1.6 km) to teach a school; and at the same time instructed at home a younger brother and sister. At 16, she was teacher of a school in western New York, composed mostly of boys much older than herself. During the three following years, her time was spent in","-21.39138540042859"],["he was 74 years old, one year after the death of his wife.","-21.371670656080823"],["Brigham Young Jr. Early life Young was born in Kirtland, Ohio, the son of Brigham Young and Mary Ann Angell. Young's twin sister, Mary, died at age seven from the effects of injuries received at age two in a wagon accident. At age twelve, Young drove an ox cart along the Mormon Trail, reaching Salt Lake City in 1848. Young served as a guard and scout in the following years, operating in Salt Lake Valley and the surrounding canyons.\nOn November 15, 1855, Young married Catherine Curtis Spencer, a daughter of Orson Spencer, with exactly the same name as her mother.\nIn","-21.371452292078175"],["Anita Mui 1963–1978: Early years Mui experienced much hardship in her childhood. She was the youngest daughter in a family of four children. Her elder sister, Ann Mui, was also a singer. The children were raised in a single-parent family. In some of her interviews, Mui mentioned that she had never met her father. This meant that she had to help provide for her siblings at an early age, dropping out of school at the age of 13 or 14. More hardship followed the family when the bar that her mother ran was destroyed by a fire. To earn a","-21.36927458952414"],["Children of All Ages, which featured in a special series on EWTN. The Scallons and their new label were sued in 2007 by Heart Beat Records for copyright violations on several of the albums they'd recently released.\nGill & Macmillan published her second autobiography in 2007. Her political career took centre stage in All Kinds of Everything. To coincide with the book launch, her first secular album since Forever Christmas a decade earlier, was released. A Thing Called Love was produced by her and her youngest brother Gerry, who also played guitar and keyboards, while her youngest son Robert played drums.\nIn","-21.36601378355408"],["Donald Neilson Early life Neilson, born Donald Nappey, was aged ten in January 1947 when his 33-year-old mother died from breast cancer. He was said to have had an unhappy childhood and was caught shopbreaking in 1948 but due to his age and circumstances was given a police caution or stern warning. He married 20-year-old Irene Tate in April 1955 at the age of 18. His wife persuaded him to leave the army where he was serving as a national serviceman in the King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry. \nTheir daughter, Kathryn, was born in 1960. Four years after his daughter's","-21.354002875144943"],["university student with his heart still in Narnia, though he had not been there since Prince Caspian, when he was 14 years old. In The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe A loyal and devoted big brother figure, Peter is the eldest of the four siblings. He tries his best to protect his siblings and to act like a responsible young adult. In the book, it is implied that he is more mature than his siblings because after their father was called out to fight in the war, Peter's mother told him to support his three siblings through the ordeal","-21.352156227330852"],["oldest of their daughters, Sophia, was sixteen years older, and the only surviving girl besides Caroline. She married when Caroline was five, meaning that the younger girl was tasked with much of the household drudgery. Caroline and the other children received a cursory education, learning to read and write and little more. Her father attempted to educate her at home, but his efforts were mostly successful with the boys.\nAt the age of ten, Caroline was struck with typhus, which stunted her growth, such that she never grew taller than 4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m). She suffered vision loss in her left eye","-21.347760990960523"],["he was seven months old.","-21.323200645230827"],["Robert Bruce King Early life and education King was born in 1940 in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. His father passed away when King was only ten, leaving his mother, Gladys, a widow at thirty-one. Gladys raised King and his two siblings while working in a kitchen at The Greenbrier resort, all the while instilling in them the importance of hard work and education. King and his sister would later endow a scholarship at West Virginia University in honor of their mother’s dedication to her children and their education.\nAfter receiving his Bachelor of Arts degree from West Virginia University in","-21.320771111553768"],["Grandma Prisbrey's Bottle Village Tressa \"Grandma\" Prisbrey Tressa Luella Schaefer was born in Easton, Minnesota in 1896. She attended school until the age of twelve and studied mostly politics in North Dakota. At the age of 15, Tressa married the ex-husband of her sister, Theodore Grinolds who was 37 years her senior (52 years old). The marriage with Theordore only lasted 14 years and within those years she bore seven children. After Theodore's passing at age 72, Tressa and her seven children moved up to Seattle where she married an unnamed and unemployed man. Their marriage was very short lived.","-21.30073364294367"],["where he stood until his death at age twenty-one in 1992. His offspring included Noalcoholic and Katies.","-21.293831348935782"],["Unlikely Brothers Summary John Prendergast, at twenty years old, decided to become a Big Brother to Michael Mattocks, a seven-year-old living in a crime-ridden neighborhood in Washington, DC. The book, co-authored by both, describes their different perspectives on their continuing relationship, shared over a period of more than 27 years.","-21.2912314448331"],["age 90 in 2007, and had four children: Heidi (born 1953), Rhett (1955–2005), Scott (born 1958), and Nicole (born 1959). The younger two children were born prematurely. Munsel and Schuler co-wrote a 2005 memoir of Schuler's life entitled The Diva & I. Munsel died on August 4, 2016, at her home in Schroon Lake, New York, aged 91.","-21.281143502215855"],["parents: his father in 1991 from brain and lung cancer, and his mother in January 1992 from stomach cancer.\nThese events were chronicled in his first book, the fictionalized A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius. At the time, Eggers was 21, and his younger brother, Christopher (\"Toph\"), was 8 years old. The two eldest siblings, Bill and Beth, were unable to commit to care for Toph; his older brother had a full-time job and his sister was enrolled in law school. As a result, Dave Eggers took the responsibility. He left the University of Illinois and moved to Berkeley, California, with","-21.268657947250176"],["by his wife and two young children, aged 12 and 18.","-21.26173462116276"],["his father sent him and older sister Eileen to an aunt's farm for a week. On the car ride back, he unceremoniously presented them with an article rehashing the gruesome details of that night and conveying the news of their mother's death.\"\nAged 16, Martin lied about his age and joined the Navy. \"I was a big kid for my age ... [then] they found out how old I really was and kicked me out\". He had been dating his future wife already and they were married July 21, 1956, when Martin was 19 years old. The union produced two daughters.\nHe","-21.25756884837756"],["Nazmiye Muslu Muratlı Early years Nazmiye Muslu was born in Konya in 1979. A paraplegic and dependent on wheelchair, she completed her primary education in her hometown.\nShe began powerlifting by chance through a friend, who insisted she come with her to the workouts. She abandoned the trainings in the beginnings since it was very hard for her. However, her mother and later her father convinced Nazmiye to resume the training activities. Career history Only three months after her beginning again with powerlifting, she was admitted to the national team, and was taken to the European championship held in Portugal without","-21.252413166395854"],["Clark Olofsson Early years Olofsson was born into a home where both parents were alcoholics. When he was eight years old, his mother became a single mother, taking care of Olofsson and his two younger sisters. Her problems led to the three children being placed in foster care. When his mother regained control of her life, and started working in a shop, the children were returned to her care and they moved to an apartment in Hisingen, Gothenburg. 1960s–80s For several petty crimes, sixteen-year-old Olofsson was placed in a behavioural institution for young offenders in 1963. Olofsson and two other","-21.24970632394252"],["He had to fend for himself as he was young for his age in every class. This according to him, developed his sense of independence. He lost his father at 22 and his grand-uncle moved his family to his home in Trichur (now Thrissur). A keen military cadet and a boxer at college, when he wanted to join the army as an engineer, his mother persuaded him to join the Tata Steel Technical Institute, Jamshedpur on a recommendation to the management by his uncle, who was a director with the Tatas, and from where he graduated in 1946, but soon","-21.237320410073153"],["Uwe Timm Life and work Uwe Timm was the youngest son in his family. His brother, 16 years his senior, was a soldier in the Waffen SS and died in Ukraine in 1943. Decades later, Uwe Timm approached his relationship with his father and brother in the critically acclaimed novel In my brother's shadow.\nAfter working as a furrier, Timm studied Philosophy and German in Munich and Paris, achieving a PhD in German literature in 1971 with his thesis: The Problem of Absurdity in the Works of Albert Camus. During his studies, Timm was engaged in leftist activities of the 1960s.","-21.227203459100565"],["father died; she was sent to live with her grandmother until she was fifteen. When she returned to her mother and siblings she was constantly required to give way to her elder sister Lai Ho. Under the perception that her mother favoured her sister, Hoe became disgruntled, showing her temper easily. In 1979 her mother brought Lai to Lim for treatment, and became convinced of Lim's powers by his \"needles and egg\" trick. Believing that Hoe's volatile temper could also be cured by Lim, the old woman brought her younger daughter to the medium. After","-21.219976073956786"],["December 25, 2005, at the age of 51. In addition to his wife and son, Steven was survived by two daughters, as well as his brother and mother.","-21.20647155019651"],["was adopted at age two by Gregory and Dawn King. His biological father had abandoned his wife, and his mother was a drug addict who failed to care for her son properly.\nKing was prescribed medication for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and, according to Gregory King, had been diagnosed with reactive attachment disorder, a condition in which a child fails to develop relationships with his or her caregivers. He was also forced to repeat the first grade. By the third grade, King began to be bullied by his fellow students due to his effeminacy and openness about being gay, having come","-21.198474775796058"],["He was 76 years old.","-21.197626241541002"],["Shimer was 10, and thereafter she was raised by her older sister.\nShimer was remembered as an extremely acute student: \"the mere consciousness of something unknown was sufficient incentive to arouse ambition to acquire.\" She began school near her parents' house at the age of two and half, quickly learning to read. At the age of six, she spent all of her saved allowance to buy a copy of Isaac Watts' The Improvement of the Mind from an itinerant bookseller. At the age of seven, she was briefly sent to a boarding school, but suffered from homesickness.\nShe was","-21.19682141841622"],["lived with her parents again. The next nine years were spent in and out of foster care and children's homes. During that time, she attended West Bridgford Comprehensive School and joined the Central Junior Television Workshop when she was 13, soon being offered small-screen roles in Soldier Soldier and Boon. Under the effects of drugs, she threatened an older girl who had been bullying her. She was convicted of making threats to kill and served 18 weeks in an attendance centre. Beginnings (1991–1998) After joining Central Junior Television Workshop at the age of 13, she was soon being offered small-screen","-21.189580848033074"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"on October 26, 2005, at the age of 50, almost two years after his father.\",\n \"-23.340960580506362\"\n ],\n [\n \"1997. Aspects of Young's work are being developed by the Young Foundation, created from the merger of his Institute of Community Studies and his Mutual Aid Centre, under the direction of Geoff Mulgan.\\nThroughout his life, and particularly in later life, Young was concerned for older people. In 1982 he co-founded the University of the Third Age with Peter Laslett and Eric Midwinter, and Linkage, bringing together older people without grandchildren and young people without grandparents. In 2001 he co-founded the charity Grandparents Plus to champion the role of the wider family in children's lives.\\nAccording to his friend Eric Midwinter, \\\"All\",\n \"-23.25069574607187\"\n ],\n [\n \"parents, including the mom of a 10-year-old who still spoon-fed him, the mom of an 8-year-old who bought him a skateboard but only let him \\\"ride\\\" it on the grass, and the mom of a 13-year-old who still took him into the ladies room. With humor, kindness, and some firmness, Skenazy separated the parents from their children and had the children do some tasks on their own, such as running an errand, or learning, at age 10, how to ride a bike. In the end, 12 of the 13 couples relaxed so much, that they became \\\"Free-Range Parents\\\" themselves. Now\",\n \"-23.231483317853417\"\n ],\n [\n \"youngest person in the history of TDP to hold this position is Ram Mohan Naidu Kinjarapu, followed by Nara Lokesh, E. Peddireddy and M. A. Sharif.\",\n \"-23.079302573547466\"\n ],\n [\n \"extremely shy young man, at age 17, he began studies at a Methodist college in Albion, Michigan, on the 50 dollars his parents could give him after selling a calf. He continued to work on the family farm in the summer, never stopping his studies which he carried on during the night. \\nAlthough he was always a religious boy he had a defining experience of conversion at age 19, through the fiancée he was corresponding with, Lucy J. Glenn. Martin was converted at 19 through Lucy’s prayers and his mother’s example. Soon he received his call to preach. When he\",\n \"-22.98288189608502\"\n ],\n [\n \"Alexander Hugh Macmillan Early life Macmillan was born in Canada. From an early age he had a deep interest in serving God. At age 16, he decided to be a preacher, attending a school away from home, but ceased his studies when he suffered a nervous breakdown. With financial aid from his father, he relocated to Boston, Massachusetts. There, he came in contact with the Bible Student movement. In about 1897, he obtained a copy of the book, The Plan of the Ages, the first of the six-volume series Millennial Dawn (later called Studies in the Scriptures), written by Charles\",\n \"-22.981536417042662\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the church to take effective action, for ruining his life.\\nIn 2019, The Observer reported that Tolkien had said, in a tape-recorded conversation with Carrie, that he was sexually abused by at least one of his father's friends as a child.\",\n \"-22.955075344099896\"\n ],\n [\n \"prime minister successful at the subsequent election of party leader. Ages The youngest person to become prime minister was Chris Watson – 37, who was also 37 when he ceased being prime minister. The oldest person to become prime minister was John McEwen – 67 as an interim prime minister, otherwise William McMahon – 63. Robert Menzies was the oldest person to ever be prime minister, leaving office at 71 years old.\",\n \"-22.95382991299266\"\n ],\n [\n \"Donald Gary Young Early life and education Young was born on July 11, 1949 and attended high school in Challis, Idaho. In his late teens, Young moved to Canada with the intention of homesteading in British Columbia. By Young's account, at the age of 24, he suffered a near-fatal logging accident, and had to use a wheelchair for a time, and he further claimed that while rehabilitating, he began to experiment with essential oils. \\nIn 1980, Young enrolled in a therapeutic massage program at the “American Institute of Physiogenerology”; however, according to the Institute’s founder, Young left after attending only\",\n \"-22.84415367746965\"\n ],\n [\n \"to gain access to young people within the Movement. Some notable cases are listed below.\\nIn 2006, Alan Grant, a 42-year-old man who had held Scouting leadership positions in Scotland for more than 20 years, admitted to abusing two 15-year-old boys in his home in 2006. To entice the boys to visit his home, Grant had set up a “fake camp,” complete with fake parent authorization forms, and obtained the parents’ permission for the boys to attend. Instead, the boys were taken to his home and given alcohol before the abuse took place. He was sentenced to nine months\",\n \"-22.791475438978523\"\n ],\n [\n \"position. The Moderate Youth League played a great part in this, lobbying for him inside the party and campaigning for him in the election. In 2002, Tove Lifvendahl became the first Youth League chairman to be elected to the national board of the party directly after resigning from the Moderate Youth League. Many former leaders left politics but gained prominence in other spheres of society, most of all in business.\\nThe Moderate Youth League has around 9,500 members (2004/2005).\",\n \"-22.772874083719216\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tabinshwehti Childhood and education The young prince was cared for by seven royal servants (two women and five men) throughout his childhood and youth. He grew up playing with children of his servants, including one Ye Htut, the eldest son of Mingyi Swe and his wet nurse Myo Myat. Ye Htut, who was three months older, would become Tabinshwehti's right-hand man.\\nThe young crown prince grew up having to live up to a prophecy at his birth, which claimed that he would grow up to be a great warrior just like Minye Kyawswa. (According to the prophecy, Tabinshwehti was the reincarnation\",\n \"-22.716438861592906\"\n ],\n [\n \"Lee Elder Background and family One of ten children, Elder was born in Dallas, Texas, to Charles and Almeta Elder. He was nine years old when his father was killed in Germany during World War II, and his mother died three months later. At the age of 12, Elder found himself moving from one ghetto to another before being sent to Los Angeles, California to live with his aunt. Elder frequently cut classes to work as a caddie, and after two years at Manual Arts High School he dropped out.\\nElder met his future wife, Rose Harper, at a golf tournament\",\n \"-22.646306730790457\"\n ],\n [\n \"destitute, earnestly devoted herself to rearing her children without assistance. This meant, however, that said children had to become as self-supporting as possible at a very early age.\\nAt five years old, Samuel was placed on a small farm with an uncle who employed himself as a wood-chopper and made himself useful as best he could. Two years later, an aunt died, leaving him $150 to be inherited when he came of age and he went to live with his guardian, John Charles, a farmer near Millersville. It was in the seven years he lived there that he learned how to\",\n \"-22.49859755198122\"\n ],\n [\n \"at the age of 56. He left behind his wife, Margaret, two daughters and two sons.\",\n \"-22.453056357771857\"\n ],\n [\n \"is his father, who died at the age of 90, when Benkirane was 16. He is married to a party activist and has six children. His youngest daughter is tetraplegic.\",\n \"-22.421678906179295\"\n ],\n [\n \"until age eleven, with some brief stays in rehabilitation centers invariably terminated by her family's poor financial situation. As she approached her teens, it became increasingly difficult for her mother and family to care for her. Her parents decided to send her to the Belchertown State School, an institution for the mentally and physically disabled. There, like many of the institution's patients, she was severely mistreated. She spent most of the next eight years lying in bed in a ward of schizophrenics, ministered to by overworked attendants who often force-fed her and assumed that as an imbecile she had no\",\n \"-22.405548718379578\"\n ],\n [\n \"by her brothers as a toddler, but too young for them to play with. She always played with her make-believe friends and was a happy child. \\nWhen she was six in June 29, 1949 her baby sister Emerald arrived, and Maria became the middle child over night. She was always a mature child but now she had to grow up really fast. Five children, three of them teenagers practically were too much for her mother. She became her mother’s helper assuming responsibilities being the oldest girl, house chores; cleaning, ironing, sweeping and dusting. She was doing the grocery shopping by\",\n \"-22.29180008028925\"\n ],\n [\n \"He was sixty-eight years old in 1998.\",\n \"-22.229683296092844\"\n ],\n [\n \"the same. When he was eleven, some of Haakon's friends provoked the king by asking him to give Haakon a region to govern. When Haakon was approached by the men and was urged to take up arms against Inge, he rejected it in part because of his young age and its bad prospects, as well as because he believed it would be morally wrong to fight Inge and thus split the birkebeiner. He instead said that he prayed that God would give him his share of his father's inheritance when the time was right. Succession struggle After King Inge's death\",\n \"-22.21150522075095\"\n ],\n [\n \"but in middle school she was transferred to Ronson, a regional integration project, where she felt out of place. When it was time for high school, it was decided to send her to Ort Negev, a trade high school, where she was intended to learn to be a child caregiver. Even at her young age, she realized that all the Mizrahi youngsters were being sent to trade schools to learn to be hairdressers or electricians, while the Ashkenazi teens were sent to college preparatory schools. She decided not to cooperate, and dropped out of school at age 16. She eventually\",\n \"-22.20179144392023\"\n ],\n [\n \"Neil Young Early years (1945–1966) Neil Young was born on November 12, 1945, in Toronto, Ontario. His father, Scott Alexander Young (1918–2005), was a journalist and sportswriter who also wrote fiction. His mother, Edna Blow Ragland \\\"Rassy\\\" Young (1918–1990) was a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution. Although Canadian, his mother had American and French ancestry. Young's parents married in 1940 in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and their first son, Robert \\\"Bob\\\" Young, was born in 1942. Shortly after Young's birth in 1945, his family moved to rural Omemee, Ontario, which Young later described fondly as a \\\"sleepy little place\\\".\",\n \"-22.190080163942184\"\n ],\n [\n \"Lotor would likely have grown into a much better person.\\nPrince Lotor's life is multiplied by Quintessence, allowing him to live for 10,000 years, due to being already conceived by the time his mother, Honerva, entered the rift on Daibazaal. Reception The character has praised for being a nuanced character.\",\n \"-22.186106691427995\"\n ],\n [\n \"the age of 39, leaving behind his eldest child of 14 years, the 10-year-old Moishe, and the youngest only two. In 1940, Moishe entered the Toras Emes yeshiva in Stamford Hill, of which Moshe Schneider was the rosh yeshiva, where he would remain for ten years. He studied there with Bezalel Rakow, who was later to become the Gateshead Rov, Yitzchok Tuvia Weiss, his future colleague in the Edah HaChareidis, and future Olympia and York businessman Paul Reichmann.\\nSternbuch's family fled London during World War II due to The Blitz. They moved to a small nearby village where he shared\",\n \"-22.168426602729596\"\n ],\n [\n \"the first son. This affected him: thieves and other threats brought home to him the futility of the household life, and at the age of eighteen, he desired to be ordained as a monk. He had to take care of his family first though, and saved up money for them to be able to leave behind after he would become a monk. The biography of Wat Phra Dhammakaya says that he had to calculate the rate of inflation for this, and work harder than before, but finally managed to gather enough funds after four years.\\nWhen Sodh was twenty-two years old,\",\n \"-22.090996006969362\"\n ],\n [\n \"against the University Act of 1920. He dreamed of becoming a journalist and surprised the family by writing an article for the Union of Burma Boy Scouts magazine. When Thant was fourteen, his father died and a series of inheritance disputes forced Thant's mother, Nan Thaung, and her four children into difficult financial times.\\nAfter the death of his father, Thant believed he would not be able to complete a four-year degree and instead worked for a two-year teaching certificate at Rangoon University in 1926. As the oldest son, he had to fulfill his filial duties and responsibilities of the family.\",\n \"-22.080559765803628\"\n ],\n [\n \"including Prince Yi Seok, the younger half-brother of Prince Gap, and Princess Yi Hae-won, the eldest surviving member of the house. Also, according to present Korean law, the traditional adoption after death of a foster parent to continue the line has been outlawed by legislation as of 2004.\\nAnother problem arises over whether Prince Won or his father Prince Gap is the senior member of the house. While the line of Prince Gang is the senior line following the death of Prince Gu, there are descendants of the elder sons of Prince Gang.\",\n \"-22.02746581126121\"\n ],\n [\n \"to the village. One of the children stated that they had never been to school. None of the six adult children were in official records of births and citizens.\\nThe 67-year old man has four more children, a total of ten children as of 2019. His eldest son was never a part of the same cult and the three eldest children of the nine he had with his second wife, fled the family home in 2011. Only the 6 youngest children remained in seclusion until 2019. The 67-year old man has extensive Facebook pages and his own website, but does not\",\n \"-22.003792048519244\"\n ],\n [\n \"years later while Susan supported the family financially by working at a health insurance company. At first, Ulner was controlling but not particularly violent or abusive. According to Susan, he had a will to dominate and the power to brainwash. Her husband eventually isolated Susan from her family. However, due to her husband's proficiency at manipulation and control, and its gradual increase, Susan was slow to realize the high level of danger in which her husband's domineering behaviors placed her. After giving birth to their oldest children, a boy and a girl, Susan had to quit work and stay home\",\n \"-21.970757934381254\"\n ],\n [\n \"Christopher Wylie Early life Wylie was born to parents Kevin Wylie and Joan Carruthers, a physician and a psychiatrist. He was raised in Victoria, British Columbia. As a child he was diagnosed with dyslexia and ADHD. After being abused at the age of 6 by \\\"a mentally unstable person\\\", he successfully sued the British Columbia Ministry of Education after a six-year legal battle, winning a settlement of $290,000 at the age of 14. He left school in 2005 at the age of 16 without a qualification, and when asked about his \\\"probable destiny\\\" on his school leaver's yearbook page, he\",\n \"-21.93307556718355\"\n ],\n [\n \"25 February 1980 at the age of 73, leaving behind his wife and three sons.\",\n \"-21.930231600563275\"\n ],\n [\n \"until he was in the place where he most wanted to be.\\nWhen he was nearing his father's house, he opened the bundle. A great castle sprang up, and an irate giant demanded to know why he had put it there. It offered to put it back if the prince gave him his first son, when he reached seven years of age. Then the prince went out, and opened the bundle near his father's lands. He went into the castle, and found a pretty maid who was willing to be his wife. They had a son,\",\n \"-21.897663264913717\"\n ],\n [\n \"Thor Nis Christiansen Early life Thor Nis Christiansen was born in Denmark, and immigrated to the United States with his parents when he was five years old. The family initially settled in Inglewood, California, and then moved to Solvang, where his father, Nis, ran a restaurant. Christiansen was a good student until his junior year of high school, when he began neglecting his schoolwork. He moved out of his parents' house, dropped out of school, and began working as a gas station attendant. During this time, Christiansen gained a great deal of weight, at one point weighing 275 pounds (125\",\n \"-21.831557776604313\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"very, very slow\\\" learner; \\\"If I have to, I can write things down. But I don't like to\\\". By the time he was 12, Oldfield played the electric guitar and performed in local folk and youth clubs and dances, earning as much as £4 per gig. During a six-month break from music that Oldfield had around this time, he took up painting. In May 1968, when Oldfield turned fifteen, his school headmaster requested that he cut his long hair. Oldfield refused and left abruptly. He then decided to pursue music on a full time, professional basis. 1968–1972: Early career After\",\n \"-21.810042480909033\"\n ],\n [\n \"however, at the age of 64. His eldest son, Sakai Tadayuki, died around the same time, and so the next oldest son, Sakai Tadakiyo succeeded his father.\",\n \"-21.801868791153538\"\n ],\n [\n \"the age of 15 but the deal was unable to work out due to him been under age.\",\n \"-21.775474044974544\"\n ],\n [\n \"age of three by her maternal grandmother. She would assist with getting the family's meal of rice and beans ready, and then spend the morning at a table with a primer. As a little girl, she often pretended to be a teacher to her dolls and stuffed animals, using a small blackboard and desk. She points to this early play-time as the root of her desire to be an educator.\\nWhen she turned five years old, Cruzado began helping her grandfather on his coffee farm, spreading beans out to dry. She also began assisting her stepfather in the coffee mill where\",\n \"-21.760968970746035\"\n ],\n [\n \"youngest uncle became a 49er after losing both his wife and infant son. His younger brother, Henry A. Strong, was a wildly successful businessman and philanthropist who served as Eastman Kodak's first president.\\nHe graduated from Yale College in 1857, having had a religious conversion during his time in college. He began his theological studies at Rochester Theological Seminary and was awarded his D.D. in Germany. In August 1861 he was ordained pastor of First Baptist Church of Haverhill, Massachusetts. After his short pastorate in Haverhill, he went on in 1865 to become the pastor of First\",\n \"-21.752411127119558\"\n ],\n [\n \"Jesse Fuller Early life Fuller was born in Jonesboro, Georgia, near Atlanta. He was sent by his mother to live with foster parents when he was a young child, in a rural setting where he was badly mistreated. Growing up, he worked at numerous jobs: grazing cows for ten cents a day; working in a barrel factory, a broom factory, and a rock quarry; working on a railroad and for a streetcar company; shining shoes; and even peddling hand-carved wooden snakes. By the age of 10, he was playing the guitar in two techniques, which he described as \\\"frailing\\\" and\",\n \"-21.750697721377946\"\n ],\n [\n \"Kardinal Offishall Early life and career beginnings Harrow was born in Scarborough, Ontario, in Toronto's east end, and raised by Jamaican immigrant parents. From the ages of 2 to 13, he lived in the city's Flemingdon Park neighbourhood. He moved back to Scarborough for two years, before finally settling in Oakwood–Vaughan, in the city's west end. While in high school, he would throw parties at the Alexandra Park Community Centre. He also is a former York University student but did not complete his degree.\\nHe started rapping at the age of eight and was winning competitions by the time he was\",\n \"-21.73316884750966\"\n ],\n [\n \"the youngest child in his family by 12 years. He was baptized at age seven at a local Baptist church, after having a conviction of sin. He continued to feel distant from God, however, as he did not have the real experience with God that he had expected post-baptism. He remained hungry for spiritual encounters in his young age, even traveling to Charleston, Virginia, for a Presbyterian Church meeting. As a teen, he struggled with his relationship with churches and God, and began using tobacco.\\nWhile in Kentucky for business, Garr met a preacher from the Holiness movement. Garr believed the\",\n \"-21.730767678585835\"\n ],\n [\n \"Bruce Golding Biography He is the son of Tacius Golding and Enid Golding (née Bent), both teachers. Bruce was the third of four children: the second—the only girl—died shortly after birth. In 1949, when he was only two years old, his family moved to St. Faiths district near Browns Hall, St. Catherine, where he spent the next five years. In 1955, his mother accepted a teaching post at Alpha Academy in Kingston. This necessitated that the family relocate to Kingston.\\nAs a child, Golding grew up in a political environment. He was only two years old in 1949 when his father\",\n \"-21.720783520373516\"\n ],\n [\n \"credited his father as having taught him the game of football. His father became partially disabled later in his life and died following a brain tumour when Wesley was nine years of age.\\nWesley has two children from different relationships, Yan and Maria Eduarda, both of whom he fathered as a teenager. He had his first child at the age of 14 and his second at the age of 16. As a sixteen year-old he worked in a factory sorting screws to support his family between football trials before his move to AS Trencin.\",\n \"-21.71914286116953\"\n ],\n [\n \"give up any children. Despite being aged between 59 and 62 at the time of the Times interview, she was open to the prospect of more children, though she recognised that it would be a struggle: \\\"If God sends them to me, yes. But I'd like God to also consider me, now that I'm approaching old age.\\\" \\nShe had tried birth control with an intrauterine device but it was not a success: \\\"I got pregnant anyway and nearly died ... I think it was a punishment from God for doing something I shouldn't.\\\"\\nWhen Leontina's story became public she became something of\",\n \"-21.69221008382374\"\n ],\n [\n \"Gavin Esler Early life Esler was born in Glasgow on 27 February 1953, the first son born to a manager of a building company. During his first weeks, he suffered from a condition that made him unable to digest milk and his parents feared for his life. He had an operation at just three weeks old. His family lived in Clydebank before they moved to Edinburgh, where he began his education at Duddingston Primary School before gaining a scholarship to George Heriot's School at the age of seven. \\nHis Scottish childhood had a profound and long-lasting effect on him. His\",\n \"-21.691678135248367\"\n ],\n [\n \"that she would not live to reach the age of two years; however, it was her younger sister, Sally, who died from the same disease before that age. As a child she was prone to getting severe chest infections, which occurred two or three times per year, sometimes requiring hospitalisation. Education Campbell went to a segregated school for disabled children where academic achievement was not the top priority. Her best friend, who had a hole in the heart, died at the age of 13 years. She left school at the age of 16 years with no qualifications, and hardly able\",\n \"-21.680709758787998\"\n ],\n [\n \"to join what he described as \\\"The Council of Dads\\\" that would live on well after he was gone\\\".\\nSteve Myall writing in The Daily Mirror said, \\\"Dying young and leaving your children to grow up without your love and guidance is a nightmare most parents dare not even contemplate. But that was the chilling prospect facing devoted 45-year-old father of two Bruce Feiler when he was told a seven-inch cancerous tumor was growing in his thigh. At the time his twin daughters Eden and Tybee were just three years old and the terror of facing his own death was overshadowed\",\n \"-21.678839690983295\"\n ],\n [\n \"Jacoby Ellsbury Early life Ellsbury was born on September 11, 1983, to Jim and Margie Ellsbury, and is the eldest of four children. His mother is a Navajo, a descendant of 19th-century tribal leader Ganado Mucho. Her father Franklin McCabe was a silversmith and her mother a traditional rug weaver. His father, Jim Ellsbury, is of English and German descent. The Ellsburys lived on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation until they moved to Madras, Oregon, when he was in kindergarten. He was raised in the Mormon religion.\\nIn Little League, Ellsbury often played with teammates up to three years older than\",\n \"-21.67717837204691\"\n ],\n [\n \"child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the \\\"4-2-1 Problem\\\", this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If not for personal savings, pensions, or state welfare, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance. If for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue,\",\n \"-21.670960299670696\"\n ],\n [\n \"H. R. Janardhana Iyengar Childhood and education Janardhana Iyengar was the eldest child of Haradanahalli Ramaswamy Iyengar and Janakamma. He had three younger sisters and two younger brothers. At age 18, he married 12-year-old Indiramma Srinivasa Iyengar of Kollegal. In 1927, when Iyengar was an engineering student, his father died from complications of carbuncle surgery. At this young age, he became the head of the family, and at the same time pursued the higher education that would lead to his accomplished career. In 1930, he obtained a degree in Engineering from the University of Mysore with\",\n \"-21.63005182525376\"\n ],\n [\n \"initial education in order to relieve his parents of their economic burden. \\nIn his late childhood and into his adolescence he endeavored to earn funds that would support his parents and siblings. From the age of 14 he dedicated himself to caring for livestock and other similar tasks. He frequented Marian shrines and had an ardent devotion to the Eucharist . By the age of twenty, he had saved eighty silver ducats and travelled back home to Murcia to help provide for his sister's impending marriage. En route home a group of thieves attacked him and stripped him of all\",\n \"-21.562319844815647\"\n ],\n [\n \"age of 92, in 1996 and his wife died in 1994, at the age of 90.\",\n \"-21.55444342715782\"\n ],\n [\n \"Rogers Neighborhood fame, Rohr was intensely aware of the importance of early childhood development. In 2004, he worked with the PNC Foundation to create Grow Up Great, a 10 year, $100 million early childhood learning initiative intended to help prepare underserved children from birth to age 5 for school and life. Compensation While CEO of PNC Financial Services Group in 2008, James E. Rohr earned a total compensation of $8,549,098, which included a base salary of $1,000,000, no cash bonus, stocks granted of $3,185,000, and options granted of $4,132,000. Criticism The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review newspaper began running \\\"The Jim Rohr\",\n \"-21.547385629673954\"\n ],\n [\n \"would move on to someone else. Her wish was fulfilled when Philpott met Heather Kehoe, then aged 14, in Rainworth, Nottinghamshire; Philpott was 37. On her 16th birthday, Kehoe ran away from her parents to live with Philpott. She gave birth to two children, both boys, in quick succession, but Philpott beat Kehoe because he wanted a daughter. Kehoe described Philpott teaching his older sons to be violent towards her. Philpott wanted Kehoe to produce more children, but she did not conceive again. In 1991, he was given a two-year conditional discharge from the British Army for assault occasioning actual\",\n \"-21.540902351916884\"\n ],\n [\n \"brother reached adolescence, Marybeth would tell him, \\\"You were the one they wanted, not me.\\\"\\nHer father, Alton Lewis Roe, on completion of his active duty, worked as a press operator in a nearby General Electric facility. At the time, the facility was the area's largest employer. As an adult, Marybeth once claimed that when she was a child, her father abused her. During a police interview in 1986, she told one investigator that her father had beaten her and locked her in a closet. During court testimony, she denied that her father had bad intentions. \\\"My father hit me with\",\n \"-21.539598959730938\"\n ],\n [\n \"from age 15 to age 20 as a result of her father's death.\",\n \"-21.53193431822001\"\n ],\n [\n \"the time King's father died in 1930, when she was 14, the family had lost most of its money. Her older sisters supported her to stay at school until she finished, in 1932, which enabled her to get a good education. She would have liked to have gone on to university, possibly to study medicine, but, financially, that was out of the question.\\nKing was 17 when Hitler came to power on 30 January 1933. Two of her older sisters, now married, decided to emigrate: one to Palestine, another to the US. By 1934, when she was 18, King was effectively\",\n \"-21.523871760328802\"\n ],\n [\n \"young age of 33 and was succeeded by his eldest son Inoue Masamoto.\",\n \"-21.522492889988825\"\n ],\n [\n \"and youngest child by 12 years, and particularly doted on by his older siblings and mother. From a young age, Alfred expressed a \\\"spiritual hunger\\\" and at age 7 he repented of his sin and began searching for God in his life, followed by baptism in the local Baptist church.\\nAlfred Goodrich Garr met Lillian Anderson when they were in school at Ashbury College. They married and entered the ministry through the Methodist Church, and moved to California so Alfred could pastor an independent church, the Burning Bush Mission. It was at this time that the Azusa Street Revival broke out\",\n \"-21.518625015523867\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shadow Children Inspiration and Development Margaret Peterson Haddix began writing Among the Hidden after discussions with her husband regarding if they wanted to have more than two children, which developed into conversations concerning overpopulation, the earth's limited resources, and China's One Child Policy. The conversations gradually led Haddix into creating Luke Garner, a twelve-year-old boy forced to live with strict controls and limited choices that result in him spending his life in hiding due to a government that said that he would not have the right to exist. Though Haddix had not intended to continue Among the Hidden,\",\n \"-21.48904655041406\"\n ],\n [\n \"whom he had been \\\"spiritually married\\\" when the girl was 15 years old. The same jury sentenced Raymond Jessop to 10 years in prison and assessed a fine of $8,000.\\nOn December 18, 2009, a Schleicher County, Texas jury found Allan Keate guilty of sexual assault of a child. Allan Keate fathered a child with a 15-year-old girl. According to documents admitted at trial, Keate had also given three of his own daughters away in “spiritual” or “celestial” marriage, two of them at 15 and one at 14, to older men. The youngest of the three went to Warren Jeffs. He\",\n \"-21.48288480472911\"\n ],\n [\n \"some), sought the protection of his stepfather until her son, Du'gnechom, would be old enough to succeed his father. King Foudoup used this opportunity to reconcile posthumously with his son by fully supporting his wife and introducing her little son to the art of building royal power.\\nDu'gnechom in turn, once he was a young adult, became leader of the camp set up by his father at Famleng and quickly developed the qualities of a great hunter and leader. He then married a young woman his mother had prepared for him who quickly gave him a son who he named Notouom.\",\n \"-21.456348569980037\"\n ],\n [\n \"Linda Blair Early life The youngest of three children, Blair was born January 22, 1959 in St. Louis, Missouri, to James Frederick and Elinore (née Leitch) Blair. She has an older sister, Debbie, and an older brother, Jim. When Blair was two years old, her father, a Navy test pilot-turned-executive recruiter, took a job in New York City, and the family relocated to Westport, Connecticut. Her mother worked as a real estate agent in Westport.\\nShe formally began her career as a child model at age five, appearing in Sears, J.C. Penney, and Macy's catalogues, and in over 70 commercials for\",\n \"-21.45205984028871\"\n ],\n [\n \"was approaching age 56 when he predeceased his mother. Other survivors include siblings, his wife, and four sons.\",\n \"-21.44520974403713\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sam Childers Early life Sam Childers was born in Grand Forks, North Dakota, the son of Paul Childers, an ironworker and former Marine. Childers had two older brothers, Paul Jr. and George. He also had a sister, Donna, who died of a heart problem before she was a year old. While he was growing up, his parents moved the family from place to place, following construction projects.\\nIn the spring of 1974, shortly before Childers turned 12, his family moved to Grand Rapids, Minnesota. Going into seventh grade he discovered cigarettes, marijuana, alcohol and heroin, which led to many years of\",\n \"-21.444289393373765\"\n ],\n [\n \"Personal life Young married his first wife, Margaret, when he was 19. The couple had a son and two daughters, and divorced in 1982. He also had a daughter with his second wife, Susan. Young married his third wife, Carmen, in 2003, having lived with her since 1989.\\nAfter retiring from football Young had many different jobs, including removals, managing a sports shop, delivering milk, working in a supermarket, and selling insurance. In his spare time he maintained his fitness by playing badminton, and after winning local tournaments, played the sport for Cheshire. During much of this period he struggled financially,\",\n \"-21.443746604956686\"\n ],\n [\n \"young, but another, Hama, inherited his father's talents and became prominent in his generation. One of his daughters was the wife of a scholar, Samuel b. Nadav by name. Another daughter died during Hanina's lifetime, but he shed no tears at her death, and when his wife expressed astonishment at his composure he told her that he feared the effects of tears on his sight.\\nHe lived to be very old, and retained his youthful vigor to the last. He attributed his extraordinary vitality to the hot baths and the oil with which his mother had treated him in his youth.\",\n \"-21.437464284244925\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Young failed to maintain his estate. Before his death, he became involved in a legal battle with former manager Martin Siskind. Young sued Siskind for mismanagement of funds. In response, Siskind successfully petitioned for Young to be declared mentally incompetent, and Young's affairs were placed in control of legal guardians. According to friends, Young was not incompetent and was left destitute by the procedures. Siskind stated that he and Young had settled the suit amicably and that Young retained ownership of 1,000 paintings and was financially stable.\\nYoung suffered from diabetes, and toward the latter years of his life, he\",\n \"-21.43672814360616\"\n ],\n [\n \"Stefan Löfven Early life and education Löfven was born 21 July 1957 in Aspudden, Stockholm. He was placed in an orphanage 10 months after his birth. Löfven was subsequently looked after by a foster family from Sunnersta, Sollefteå, where he grew up. According to the agreement with this family, his birth mother would regain custody of him when she was able to; however, this did not happen.\\nHis foster father Ture Melander (1926–2003) was a lumberjack and later a factory worker, while his foster mother, Iris Melander (née Söderlund, born 1929), worked as an in-home caregiver. He studied at Sollefteå High\",\n \"-21.433626234647818\"\n ],\n [\n \"age of 82 on June 30, 2007 at his home in Gates Mills, Ohio, a Cleveland suburb, after suffering from a variety of ailments. He is survived by his second wife, Kathryn; his first wife Patricia and their 13 children, Robert, Daniel, William, Martin, John, James, Thomas, Mary Brigid, Alice Marie, Edward, Patrica, Eileen and Catherine; 37 grandchildren, and 15 great-grand children; and two stepchildren from his second marriage.\",\n \"-21.430276276245422\"\n ],\n [\n \"first Heir Male of I. S. when he shall Arrive to the Age of 21 Years\\\" so long as that first male heir of I. S. paid the sum of 40 pounds to each of I. S.'s daughters, designated \\\"A\\\" and \\\"B\\\". When the deviser died, I. S. only had the two daughters. Some time later, I. S. had a son, who reached the age of 21 years and paid his two sisters their 40 pounds each.\\nThe issue before the court was whether the son of I. S. could take under the deviser's will. Dallas reported\",\n \"-21.41304616170237\"\n ],\n [\n \"one of his stepmothers, Wilma, who beat all three boys (especially him). He said that his stepmother also punished him by forcing him to wear a dress in public. When he was 14 years old, he fought with her, knocking her down and choking her to keep her from killing him in retaliation. She left the family and never returned. His brother Jack later commented, \\\"She was a damn no-good woman\\\". Garner's last stepmother was Grace, whom he said he loved and called \\\"Mama Grace\\\", and felt that she was more of a mother to him than anyone else had\",\n \"-21.41018502175575\"\n ],\n [\n \"grew older, he felt that he might have a religious calling. Despite their own faith, his parents initially opposed that step. As a result, at the age of 15 he was enrolled in a minor seminary in Nola, while at the same time, he began the study of law at the University of Naples Federico II. During this period, he came under the spiritual guidance of Alphonsus de Ligouri, the founder of the Redemptorists. By the time he had completed the seminary in 1762, his parents had relented in their opposition to his following a career in the Church. Barnabite\",\n \"-21.39363303023856\"\n ],\n [\n \"his family were greatly reduced. Pittsinger early exhibited a disposition impulsive, daring, precocious; she cherished an unusual desire for knowledge of all kinds, and availed herself of all educational opportunities.\\nAt the age of 14, she took charge of the house for her father, two brothers, and a sister, and walked 1 mile (1.6 km) to teach a school; and at the same time instructed at home a younger brother and sister. At 16, she was teacher of a school in western New York, composed mostly of boys much older than herself. During the three following years, her time was spent in\",\n \"-21.39138540042859\"\n ],\n [\n \"he was 74 years old, one year after the death of his wife.\",\n \"-21.371670656080823\"\n ],\n [\n \"Brigham Young Jr. Early life Young was born in Kirtland, Ohio, the son of Brigham Young and Mary Ann Angell. Young's twin sister, Mary, died at age seven from the effects of injuries received at age two in a wagon accident. At age twelve, Young drove an ox cart along the Mormon Trail, reaching Salt Lake City in 1848. Young served as a guard and scout in the following years, operating in Salt Lake Valley and the surrounding canyons.\\nOn November 15, 1855, Young married Catherine Curtis Spencer, a daughter of Orson Spencer, with exactly the same name as her mother.\\nIn\",\n \"-21.371452292078175\"\n ],\n [\n \"Anita Mui 1963–1978: Early years Mui experienced much hardship in her childhood. She was the youngest daughter in a family of four children. Her elder sister, Ann Mui, was also a singer. The children were raised in a single-parent family. In some of her interviews, Mui mentioned that she had never met her father. This meant that she had to help provide for her siblings at an early age, dropping out of school at the age of 13 or 14. More hardship followed the family when the bar that her mother ran was destroyed by a fire. To earn a\",\n \"-21.36927458952414\"\n ],\n [\n \"Children of All Ages, which featured in a special series on EWTN. The Scallons and their new label were sued in 2007 by Heart Beat Records for copyright violations on several of the albums they'd recently released.\\nGill & Macmillan published her second autobiography in 2007. Her political career took centre stage in All Kinds of Everything. To coincide with the book launch, her first secular album since Forever Christmas a decade earlier, was released. A Thing Called Love was produced by her and her youngest brother Gerry, who also played guitar and keyboards, while her youngest son Robert played drums.\\nIn\",\n \"-21.36601378355408\"\n ],\n [\n \"Donald Neilson Early life Neilson, born Donald Nappey, was aged ten in January 1947 when his 33-year-old mother died from breast cancer. He was said to have had an unhappy childhood and was caught shopbreaking in 1948 but due to his age and circumstances was given a police caution or stern warning. He married 20-year-old Irene Tate in April 1955 at the age of 18. His wife persuaded him to leave the army where he was serving as a national serviceman in the King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry. \\nTheir daughter, Kathryn, was born in 1960. Four years after his daughter's\",\n \"-21.354002875144943\"\n ],\n [\n \"university student with his heart still in Narnia, though he had not been there since Prince Caspian, when he was 14 years old. In The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe A loyal and devoted big brother figure, Peter is the eldest of the four siblings. He tries his best to protect his siblings and to act like a responsible young adult. In the book, it is implied that he is more mature than his siblings because after their father was called out to fight in the war, Peter's mother told him to support his three siblings through the ordeal\",\n \"-21.352156227330852\"\n ],\n [\n \"oldest of their daughters, Sophia, was sixteen years older, and the only surviving girl besides Caroline. She married when Caroline was five, meaning that the younger girl was tasked with much of the household drudgery. Caroline and the other children received a cursory education, learning to read and write and little more. Her father attempted to educate her at home, but his efforts were mostly successful with the boys.\\nAt the age of ten, Caroline was struck with typhus, which stunted her growth, such that she never grew taller than 4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m). She suffered vision loss in her left eye\",\n \"-21.347760990960523\"\n ],\n [\n \"he was seven months old.\",\n \"-21.323200645230827\"\n ],\n [\n \"Robert Bruce King Early life and education King was born in 1940 in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. His father passed away when King was only ten, leaving his mother, Gladys, a widow at thirty-one. Gladys raised King and his two siblings while working in a kitchen at The Greenbrier resort, all the while instilling in them the importance of hard work and education. King and his sister would later endow a scholarship at West Virginia University in honor of their mother’s dedication to her children and their education.\\nAfter receiving his Bachelor of Arts degree from West Virginia University in\",\n \"-21.320771111553768\"\n ],\n [\n \"Grandma Prisbrey's Bottle Village Tressa \\\"Grandma\\\" Prisbrey Tressa Luella Schaefer was born in Easton, Minnesota in 1896. She attended school until the age of twelve and studied mostly politics in North Dakota. At the age of 15, Tressa married the ex-husband of her sister, Theodore Grinolds who was 37 years her senior (52 years old). The marriage with Theordore only lasted 14 years and within those years she bore seven children. After Theodore's passing at age 72, Tressa and her seven children moved up to Seattle where she married an unnamed and unemployed man. Their marriage was very short lived.\",\n \"-21.30073364294367\"\n ],\n [\n \"where he stood until his death at age twenty-one in 1992. His offspring included Noalcoholic and Katies.\",\n \"-21.293831348935782\"\n ],\n [\n \"Unlikely Brothers Summary John Prendergast, at twenty years old, decided to become a Big Brother to Michael Mattocks, a seven-year-old living in a crime-ridden neighborhood in Washington, DC. The book, co-authored by both, describes their different perspectives on their continuing relationship, shared over a period of more than 27 years.\",\n \"-21.2912314448331\"\n ],\n [\n \"age 90 in 2007, and had four children: Heidi (born 1953), Rhett (1955–2005), Scott (born 1958), and Nicole (born 1959). The younger two children were born prematurely. Munsel and Schuler co-wrote a 2005 memoir of Schuler's life entitled The Diva & I. Munsel died on August 4, 2016, at her home in Schroon Lake, New York, aged 91.\",\n \"-21.281143502215855\"\n ],\n [\n \"parents: his father in 1991 from brain and lung cancer, and his mother in January 1992 from stomach cancer.\\nThese events were chronicled in his first book, the fictionalized A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius. At the time, Eggers was 21, and his younger brother, Christopher (\\\"Toph\\\"), was 8 years old. The two eldest siblings, Bill and Beth, were unable to commit to care for Toph; his older brother had a full-time job and his sister was enrolled in law school. As a result, Dave Eggers took the responsibility. He left the University of Illinois and moved to Berkeley, California, with\",\n \"-21.268657947250176\"\n ],\n [\n \"by his wife and two young children, aged 12 and 18.\",\n \"-21.26173462116276\"\n ],\n [\n \"his father sent him and older sister Eileen to an aunt's farm for a week. On the car ride back, he unceremoniously presented them with an article rehashing the gruesome details of that night and conveying the news of their mother's death.\\\"\\nAged 16, Martin lied about his age and joined the Navy. \\\"I was a big kid for my age ... [then] they found out how old I really was and kicked me out\\\". He had been dating his future wife already and they were married July 21, 1956, when Martin was 19 years old. The union produced two daughters.\\nHe\",\n \"-21.25756884837756\"\n ],\n [\n \"Nazmiye Muslu Muratlı Early years Nazmiye Muslu was born in Konya in 1979. A paraplegic and dependent on wheelchair, she completed her primary education in her hometown.\\nShe began powerlifting by chance through a friend, who insisted she come with her to the workouts. She abandoned the trainings in the beginnings since it was very hard for her. However, her mother and later her father convinced Nazmiye to resume the training activities. Career history Only three months after her beginning again with powerlifting, she was admitted to the national team, and was taken to the European championship held in Portugal without\",\n \"-21.252413166395854\"\n ],\n [\n \"Clark Olofsson Early years Olofsson was born into a home where both parents were alcoholics. When he was eight years old, his mother became a single mother, taking care of Olofsson and his two younger sisters. Her problems led to the three children being placed in foster care. When his mother regained control of her life, and started working in a shop, the children were returned to her care and they moved to an apartment in Hisingen, Gothenburg. 1960s–80s For several petty crimes, sixteen-year-old Olofsson was placed in a behavioural institution for young offenders in 1963. Olofsson and two other\",\n \"-21.24970632394252\"\n ],\n [\n \"He had to fend for himself as he was young for his age in every class. This according to him, developed his sense of independence. He lost his father at 22 and his grand-uncle moved his family to his home in Trichur (now Thrissur). A keen military cadet and a boxer at college, when he wanted to join the army as an engineer, his mother persuaded him to join the Tata Steel Technical Institute, Jamshedpur on a recommendation to the management by his uncle, who was a director with the Tatas, and from where he graduated in 1946, but soon\",\n \"-21.237320410073153\"\n ],\n [\n \"Uwe Timm Life and work Uwe Timm was the youngest son in his family. His brother, 16 years his senior, was a soldier in the Waffen SS and died in Ukraine in 1943. Decades later, Uwe Timm approached his relationship with his father and brother in the critically acclaimed novel In my brother's shadow.\\nAfter working as a furrier, Timm studied Philosophy and German in Munich and Paris, achieving a PhD in German literature in 1971 with his thesis: The Problem of Absurdity in the Works of Albert Camus. During his studies, Timm was engaged in leftist activities of the 1960s.\",\n \"-21.227203459100565\"\n ],\n [\n \"father died; she was sent to live with her grandmother until she was fifteen. When she returned to her mother and siblings she was constantly required to give way to her elder sister Lai Ho. Under the perception that her mother favoured her sister, Hoe became disgruntled, showing her temper easily. In 1979 her mother brought Lai to Lim for treatment, and became convinced of Lim's powers by his \\\"needles and egg\\\" trick. Believing that Hoe's volatile temper could also be cured by Lim, the old woman brought her younger daughter to the medium. After\",\n \"-21.219976073956786\"\n ],\n [\n \"December 25, 2005, at the age of 51. In addition to his wife and son, Steven was survived by two daughters, as well as his brother and mother.\",\n \"-21.20647155019651\"\n ],\n [\n \"was adopted at age two by Gregory and Dawn King. His biological father had abandoned his wife, and his mother was a drug addict who failed to care for her son properly.\\nKing was prescribed medication for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and, according to Gregory King, had been diagnosed with reactive attachment disorder, a condition in which a child fails to develop relationships with his or her caregivers. He was also forced to repeat the first grade. By the third grade, King began to be bullied by his fellow students due to his effeminacy and openness about being gay, having come\",\n \"-21.198474775796058\"\n ],\n [\n \"He was 76 years old.\",\n \"-21.197626241541002\"\n ],\n [\n \"Shimer was 10, and thereafter she was raised by her older sister.\\nShimer was remembered as an extremely acute student: \\\"the mere consciousness of something unknown was sufficient incentive to arouse ambition to acquire.\\\" She began school near her parents' house at the age of two and half, quickly learning to read. At the age of six, she spent all of her saved allowance to buy a copy of Isaac Watts' The Improvement of the Mind from an itinerant bookseller. At the age of seven, she was briefly sent to a boarding school, but suffered from homesickness.\\nShe was\",\n \"-21.19682141841622\"\n ],\n [\n \"lived with her parents again. The next nine years were spent in and out of foster care and children's homes. During that time, she attended West Bridgford Comprehensive School and joined the Central Junior Television Workshop when she was 13, soon being offered small-screen roles in Soldier Soldier and Boon. Under the effects of drugs, she threatened an older girl who had been bullying her. She was convicted of making threats to kill and served 18 weeks in an attendance centre. Beginnings (1991–1998) After joining Central Junior Television Workshop at the age of 13, she was soon being offered small-screen\",\n \"-21.189580848033074\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":97,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"7wde4o"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How is a vending machine able to know the differences of how much a bill is? (like 1's, 5's, etc)?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["I actually know quite a bit about this. My best friend writes the code for the optics that go into machines lime this and a ATM's. Basically what happens is the US bills have water marks and other identifying features on them for safety. When you use a specific light they light up brightly. A photosensor is able to identify the image and thus the bill it is. A 1 has no mark. A 5 I think has Lincoln on it, a 10 is Hamilton and so on. So the computer matches it up with a portrait like a game of guess who and then identifies the bill that way. This is only one way. Some higher tech machines have more sophisticated means. Some include identifying the specific ink that's on the bill, identifying micro print and so on. It'll depend on the level of security required by the customer as to which programs get put where. For instance vending machines the risk of loss is relatively small. So a less advanced identifying algorithm is used. An ATM involves a high level of risk so an advanced algorithm would be used. So on and so forth. Edited ATM","Same way as you do, it looks at them. It looks at size and at the print. It has images of how they should look, and if it looks enough like one of those images, it accepts it.","So it seems newer machines work based off of image recognition, but how did older machines work, like from 30+ years ago?","To add to this, why does it seem like the readers haven't improved in decades? Seems like any wrinkle will get rejected. It hasn't learned how to accept a bill put it with Washington facing down?","The programming depends on the manufacturer, but most validators use a combination of optical scanning and magnetic signature. An LED shines light on the bill and a light sensor reads the reflection. Mars VN series validators were the first ones (that I'm aware of) that used a purely optical scan. (And a frequency coupled power supply, which was cool.) I spent 8 years repairing bill validators and coin changers for a living.","This has evolved over time. If anyone remembers the Jolly Roger cookbook from the 80s/90s you used to be able to tear off s little square part of bills on the bottom right (about an inch from the side). This would allow the machine to recognize the bill but kick it back at the last second due to the tear. You would get the item plus your bill back.","Old is weight, new ones lasers the material and size, very old sizes get split down as the holes make the small fall in a slot and the bigger to the latter slot etc, then a sensor sees one small, 3 big etc.","Current bill validator technology has come a long way from what it used to be. The BVs we use at work (I'm a slot technician at a casino) actually take a digital image of the bill and check it over thousands of points to ensure legitimacy. They store a digital image of the last bill in, bill history, acceptance rates, and other info. This results in a very very very high rate of bills being accepted even if they are in poor condition, while rejecting almost every counterfeit bill. The BV then sends the info of the amount to the CPU.","Tiny little bumps and markings are read by a laser in the ATM. Specifically the raised ink on the 5, and 10. The ATM \"reads\" it and recognizes it to be that of the correct denomination.","Follow up...before there were fancy LEDs and lasers and all the different kinds of bills...US money was basically all similar. How did those machines work?","The cheapest and most finicky method that I know of: The ink in US currency is metallic. When passed by a magnetic reading head, like the kind in a cassette player, the bill will create an electronic signal. Imagine this signal is a single song. In reality, if you played it, it would be like a “bzzzrrp” noise. Every denomination plays the same song. So all dollar bills play the “Washington” song and all fives play the “Lincoln”. So on and so forth. The vending machine has a chip in it that has a library of all these songs. Some only have one song saved (almost always for a dollar bill). So the machine will play the song, and then try to match the song it just heard to all the songs in the library. When it finds a close enough match, it’ll add the value linked to the song to the tally of money entered. Sometimes machines can only recognize the song from side a of the bill, and it’ll show you that you have to insert the bill face up. Some machines know both sides. Also, because bills get handled and bent up and disfigured, sometimes the song doesn’t play right and the vending machine can’t find a match. In these cases, the machine will spit the bill back out. This is my favorite method because it’s old, it’s cheap, it’s everywhere, and it’s REALLY cool. Newer methods are laser readers, photo readers, combinations of all the above...","There are a lot of ways, by width, length and weight are the more usual. New readers check the image of the bill and compare it with its database but also with all the measures mentioned before. Atms do the same when delivering money to keep count of everything.","I’d love to know how the ones from the 80s worked. Today I’m sure it’s digital image recognition, but what about back then?","you know the bad guys always ask how something works before they can figure a way out to scam the system."],"string":"[\n \"I actually know quite a bit about this. My best friend writes the code for the optics that go into machines lime this and a ATM's. Basically what happens is the US bills have water marks and other identifying features on them for safety. When you use a specific light they light up brightly. A photosensor is able to identify the image and thus the bill it is. A 1 has no mark. A 5 I think has Lincoln on it, a 10 is Hamilton and so on. So the computer matches it up with a portrait like a game of guess who and then identifies the bill that way. This is only one way. Some higher tech machines have more sophisticated means. Some include identifying the specific ink that's on the bill, identifying micro print and so on. It'll depend on the level of security required by the customer as to which programs get put where. For instance vending machines the risk of loss is relatively small. So a less advanced identifying algorithm is used. An ATM involves a high level of risk so an advanced algorithm would be used. So on and so forth. Edited ATM\",\n \"Same way as you do, it looks at them. It looks at size and at the print. It has images of how they should look, and if it looks enough like one of those images, it accepts it.\",\n \"So it seems newer machines work based off of image recognition, but how did older machines work, like from 30+ years ago?\",\n \"To add to this, why does it seem like the readers haven't improved in decades? Seems like any wrinkle will get rejected. It hasn't learned how to accept a bill put it with Washington facing down?\",\n \"The programming depends on the manufacturer, but most validators use a combination of optical scanning and magnetic signature. An LED shines light on the bill and a light sensor reads the reflection. Mars VN series validators were the first ones (that I'm aware of) that used a purely optical scan. (And a frequency coupled power supply, which was cool.) I spent 8 years repairing bill validators and coin changers for a living.\",\n \"This has evolved over time. If anyone remembers the Jolly Roger cookbook from the 80s/90s you used to be able to tear off s little square part of bills on the bottom right (about an inch from the side). This would allow the machine to recognize the bill but kick it back at the last second due to the tear. You would get the item plus your bill back.\",\n \"Old is weight, new ones lasers the material and size, very old sizes get split down as the holes make the small fall in a slot and the bigger to the latter slot etc, then a sensor sees one small, 3 big etc.\",\n \"Current bill validator technology has come a long way from what it used to be. The BVs we use at work (I'm a slot technician at a casino) actually take a digital image of the bill and check it over thousands of points to ensure legitimacy. They store a digital image of the last bill in, bill history, acceptance rates, and other info. This results in a very very very high rate of bills being accepted even if they are in poor condition, while rejecting almost every counterfeit bill. The BV then sends the info of the amount to the CPU.\",\n \"Tiny little bumps and markings are read by a laser in the ATM. Specifically the raised ink on the 5, and 10. The ATM \\\"reads\\\" it and recognizes it to be that of the correct denomination.\",\n \"Follow up...before there were fancy LEDs and lasers and all the different kinds of bills...US money was basically all similar. How did those machines work?\",\n \"The cheapest and most finicky method that I know of: The ink in US currency is metallic. When passed by a magnetic reading head, like the kind in a cassette player, the bill will create an electronic signal. Imagine this signal is a single song. In reality, if you played it, it would be like a “bzzzrrp” noise. Every denomination plays the same song. So all dollar bills play the “Washington” song and all fives play the “Lincoln”. So on and so forth. The vending machine has a chip in it that has a library of all these songs. Some only have one song saved (almost always for a dollar bill). So the machine will play the song, and then try to match the song it just heard to all the songs in the library. When it finds a close enough match, it’ll add the value linked to the song to the tally of money entered. Sometimes machines can only recognize the song from side a of the bill, and it’ll show you that you have to insert the bill face up. Some machines know both sides. Also, because bills get handled and bent up and disfigured, sometimes the song doesn’t play right and the vending machine can’t find a match. In these cases, the machine will spit the bill back out. This is my favorite method because it’s old, it’s cheap, it’s everywhere, and it’s REALLY cool. Newer methods are laser readers, photo readers, combinations of all the above...\",\n \"There are a lot of ways, by width, length and weight are the more usual. New readers check the image of the bill and compare it with its database but also with all the measures mentioned before. Atms do the same when delivering money to keep count of everything.\",\n \"I’d love to know how the ones from the 80s worked. Today I’m sure it’s digital image recognition, but what about back then?\",\n \"you know the bad guys always ask how something works before they can figure a way out to scam the system.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["hand can count to twelve, and two hands can count to 144. Twelve dozen (12² = 144) are known as a gross; and twelve gross (12³ = 1,728, the duodecimal 1,000) are called a great gross, a term most often used when shipping or buying items in bulk. A great hundred, also known as a small gross, is 120 or ten dozen. \nA baker's dozen, also known as a big or long dozen, is 13. Varying by country, some products are packaged or sold by the dozen, often foodstuff (a dozen eggs). Dozen may also be used to express a","-25.998400560580194"],["cylindrical billets having 8% moisture weighing between 4.9 to 6 pounds (2.2 to 2.7 kg). The billets are sorted by weight after being weighed \"to the thousandth ounce\", and the slope of the grain is visually graded; billets with the straightest grain are reserved for MLB players.\nEach bat model can be manufactured using billets in a small range of weights (for example, the bat manufactured for Miguel Cabrera is made from billets between 5.380 to 5.420 pounds (2.440 to 2.458 kg), usually 5.400 pounds (2.449 kg)). After a final visual inspection, it is mounted into a wood tracer lathe, which in up to","-25.887690525327343"],["each of which is a 1 dollar coin or a package consisting of two or more smaller coins whose denominations total 1 dollar. They are also sorted in order of numismatic value. The coin collector then selects the least value N of them.\nNote that the time of the algorithm is linear in the number of coins. Reduction of length-limited Huffman coding to the coin collector's problem Let L be the maximum length any code word is permitted to have.\nLet p₁, …, pₙ be the frequencies of the\nsymbols of the alphabet to be encoded. We first sort the symbols so","-25.849753106129356"],["value of π. Taking a cubit to be about 18 inches and a handbreadth to be about 4 inches, the ratio of the described dimensions of the bowl differs from π by less than 1%.","-25.33917834039312"],["precise value equates to 36.5 0.1; 36.4 or 36.6 mL. Therefore, there are 3 significant figures can be read from the given graduated cylinder picture. Another example, if the reading is done and the value calculated is set to be 40.0 mL. The precise value would be 40.0 0.1; 40.1 or 39.9 mL.","-25.20279561841744"],["Where's Willy? Willy Index The \"Willy Index\" is a method of rating users based on how many bills they've entered and also by how many total hits they've had. The formula is as follows:\nBecause of the nature of square roots and natural logarithms, the higher a user's bills entered and hits are, the more of each are necessary to increase the score.","-25.038838291391585"],["the bits in the column by a third of the number of rows of summands. At worst, the reduction will be 2/3 the number of rows per round of reduction.\nThe following shows how the first round of reduction is performed. Note that all \"empty\" positions of the summands are considered to be zero (a . is used here as indicator of the \"assumed zero values\"). In each row, the top three bits are the three inputs to the full adder (two terms and carry-in). The sum is placed in the top bit of the column. ","-24.98052891372936"],["of different value. A sorter usually makes no attempt at counting, providing only collections of uncounted coins to be separately passed through a counter. Coin counter The phrase coin counter may refer to a device which both sorts and counts coins at the same time, or only counts presorted coins that are all the same size..\nA typical counter of presorted coins uses a bowl with flat spinning disc at the bottom to distribute coins around the bowl perimeter. An opening in the edge of the bowl is only wide enough to accept one coin at a time. Coins either pass","-24.977106382983038"],["Sorter came out in 1928. It had 12 pockets that could hold 80 cards. It could sort 150 cards per minute.\nThe Type 75, Model 1, 19??, 400 cards per minute\nThe Type 75, Model 2, 19??, 250 cards per minute","-24.91809459810611"],["the similarity between the shape of a sawbuck device and the Roman numeral X (10), which formerly appeared on $10 bills. A \"double sawbuck\" is a twenty dollar bill.","-24.88017138009309"],["$100. He also tells them that if both write down the same number, he will treat that number as the true dollar value of both suitcases and reimburse both travelers that amount. However, if one writes down a smaller number than the other, this smaller number will be taken as the true dollar value, and both travelers will receive that amount along with a bonus/malus: $2 extra will be paid to the traveler who wrote down the lower value and a $2 deduction will be taken from the person who wrote down the higher amount. The challenge is: what strategy","-24.781941643566824"],["be no smaller than .\nNext, we consider probability distributions and on . Distribution is the probability distribution of choosing the first bits in with probability given by , and the remaining bits uniformly at random. We have thus :\nWe thus have (a simple calculus trick shows this), thus distributions and can be distinguished by . Without loss of generality, we can assume that , with a polynomial.\nThis gives us a possible construction of a Turing machine solving the next-bit test : upon receiving the first bits of a sequence, pads","-24.68714902336069"],["as the basic word length because it gave the system a reasonable number range and precision for processing audio (sound), the 56000's main concern. 24 bits correspond to a large 144 dB dynamic range, sufficient in the 1980s when analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and digital-to-analog converters (DACs) rarely exceeded 20 bits. One example is ADSL applications, where filters typically require 20 bits of accuracy. The leftmost four bits are considered ample headroom for calculations.\nThe processor is capable of carrying out 16.5 Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS) at the maximum specified clock speed of 33 MHz., and has hardware support for block-floating","-24.523329889867455"],["packets whose sizes are the number of tails and the number of heads flipped, and use the same coin flip sequence to determine from which packet to pull each card of the shuffled deck.\nAnother alternative description is more abstract, but lends itself better to mathematical analysis. Generate a set of n values from the uniform continuous distribution on the unit interval, and place them in sorted order. Then the doubling map from the theory of dynamical systems maps this system of points to a permutation of the points in which the permuted ordering obeys the Gilbert–Shannon–Reeds model, and the","-24.445523398462683"],["3¼ inches, and a single 1/4 inch increment to 3½ inches. One aspect of this method of sizing is that the size increment between drill bits becomes larger as bit sizes get smaller: 100% for the step from 1/64th to 1/32nd, but a much smaller percentage between 1 47/64th and 1 3/4.\nDrill bit sizes are written as irreducible fractions. So, instead of 78/64 inch, or 1 14/64 inch, the size is noted as 1 7/32 inch.\nBelow is a chart providing the decimal-fraction equivalents that are most relevant to fractional-inch drill bit sizes (that is, 0 to 1 by 64ths). (Decimal places for .25, .5, and","-24.431523351930082"],["table contains a large variety of makes and models to choose from. If the point value of the vehicle is less than 500, additional points may be spent on performance parts, as long as the total point calculation of vehicle plus performance parts does not exceed 500. This point calculation excludes required safety equipment, as well as maintenance and replacement of wear items with OEM or OEM-equivalent parts. No credit is given toward the point calculation of the vehicle for selling removed parts. Vehicles with a point calculation in excess of 500 are allowed to compete","-24.37003498233389"],["is commonly calculated as the difference between wholesale price and retail price, as a percentage of wholesale. Other methods are also used.","-24.3413274717459"],["without a prefix or with SI unit prefixes other than deci; it is preferred, for example, to use hundredths of a decibel rather than millibels. Thus, five one-thousandths of a bel would normally be written '0.05 dB', and not '5 mB'.\nThe method of expressing a ratio as a level in decibels depends on whether the measured property is a power quantity or a root-power quantity; see Field, power, and root-power quantities for details. Properties The decibel is useful for representing large ratios and for simplifying representation of multiplied effects such as attenuation from multiple sources along a signal chain. Its","-24.30429102841299"],["percentage\n total(0.0){ }\nThe drawback to this is that it takes two steps to change the value of the created Bill object. The following shows creation and changing the values within the main program:\nBill cafe;cafe.tip = 0.10;cafe.total = 4.00;\nBy overloading the constructor, one could pass the tip and total as parameters at creation. This shows the overloaded constructor with two parameters. This overloaded constructor is placed in the class as well as the original constructor we used before. Which one gets used depends on the number of parameters provided when the new Bill object is created","-24.21495523909107"],["to shop online where most large cup sizes are readily available on certain sites. Others recommend rounding to the nearest whole number. Band measurement methods There are several possible methods for measuring the bust. Underbust +0 A measuring tape is pulled around the torso at the inframammary fold. The tape is then pulled tight while remaining horizontal and parallel to the floor. The measurement in inches is then rounded to the nearest even number for the band size. As of March 2018, Kohl's uses this method for its online fitting guide. Underbust +4 This method begins the same way as the","-24.093744461686583"],["writing paper, capacitors, and many other products are usually sold in only a few standard sizes.\nMany design procedures describe how to calculate an approximate value, and then \"round\" to some standard size using phrases such as \"round down to nearest standard value\", \"round up to nearest standard value\", or \"round to nearest standard value\".\nWhen a set of preferred values is equally spaced on a logarithmic scale, choosing the closest preferred value to any given value can be seen as a form of scaled rounding. Such rounded values can be directly calculated. Dithering and error diffusion When digitizing continuous signals, such","-24.073909151600674"],["chosen as 32, 40, 48, or 56 bits, with 56 bits being the standard value. Whatever the setting, long floating-point numbers still occupy 64 bits in memory (the first eight bits are the sign and the exponent); the setting only leads, when it was less than 56 bits, to long floating-point operations ignoring some of the least significant bits of these numbers. This provides an improvement in speed when greater precision is not needed.\nAn optional feature provides six external interrupt lines.\nThe direct word feature allows the transfer of a full 32-bit word of information between an external device and main storage.","-24.046474545612"],["the standard sizes, can take much longer delivery time, and are not desirable as inventory for the supply house or the machine shop (because the chance of selling or using any particular custom size is slim).\nSometimes it is necessary that the bar not be very much larger than the intended part, because the metallurgical properties of some metal alloys in some finishing processes may vary by how far inside the bar the metal lies. Thus an engineering drawing will specify a certain size (or a maximum size) that the bar may start out as. These specs face the aforementioned limitation","-23.98163695378753"],["prices are collected so as to reflect the shares of sales to consumers of the different outlet types covered, self-weighted elementary aggregate indices may be computed. Similarly, if the market shares of the different types of product represented by product types are known, even only approximately, the number of observed products to be priced for each of them can be made proportional to those shares. Reweighing Ideally, in computing an index, the weights would represent current annual expenditure patterns. In practice they necessarily reflect past using the most recent data available or, if they are not of high quality, some","-23.976895694388077"],["arose from non-contractual measurements, taken off drawings to assist tenderers in quoting lump sum prices.\nThere are different styles of bills of quantities, mainly the elemental BOQ and trade bills. Contingency sum A contingency sum is an item found within a bill of quantities (BoQ).\nThe item refers to unforeseeable cost likely to be incurred during the contract.\nThere are two types of contingency sum. The first refers to a specific item, e.g., \"additional alterations to services when installing said shower unit\", where an item for alterations to existing services is not contained within the BoQ but some work is envisaged.\nThe second type","-23.888137323549017"],["our prior beliefs that the smaller amount is any number x = 1,2, ... ; the summation over all values of x being equal to 1. It follows that given the amount a in Envelope A, the amount in Envelope B is certainly 2a if a is an odd number. However, if a is even, then the amount in Envelope B is 2a with probability , and a/2 with probability . If one would like to switch envelopes if the expectation value of what is in the other is larger than what we have in ours, then a simple calculation shows","-23.863452406483702"],["is the nominal size (the hole or slot size in standard manufacturing practice through which the shank of the screw can easily be pushed) and Y is the threads per inch (TPI). For sizes ¹⁄₄ inch and larger the size is given as a fraction; for sizes less than this an integer is used, ranging from 0 to 16. The integer sizes can be converted to the actual diameter by using the formula 0.060 + (0.013 × number). For example, a #4 screw is 0.060 + (0.013 × 4) = 0.060 + 0.052 = 0.112 inches in diameter. ","-23.841422282916028"],["with the 360/40, these were the two largest revenue producing System/360 models, accounting for over half the System/360 units sold. Models Four models of the 360/30 were initially offered. They vary by the amount of core memory with which the system was offered. The C30, D30, E30 and F30 were respectively configured with 8K, 16K, 32K and 64K of core memory.\nIt was little publicized that there were two versions of the Model 30, known (on the rare occasions when they were distinguished at all) as the 30-1 and the 30-2. The original 30-1 had a 2.0 microsecond storage cycle. Later,","-23.823345817858353"],["input and output. As in the Baby from which it was developed, and in contrast to the established mathematical convention, the machine's storage was arranged with the least significant digits to the left; thus a one was represented in five bits as \"10000\", rather than the more conventional \"00001\". Negative numbers were represented using two's complement, as most computers still do today. In that representation, the value of the most significant bit denotes the sign of a number; positive numbers have a zero in that position and negative numbers a one. Thus the range of numbers that could be held","-23.755399801884778"],["distribution of the sum is the convolution of the distributions of the individual random variables).","-23.719820739264833"],["sorted by numismatic value. He then packages the smallest denomination coins in pairs, starting from the pair of smallest total numismatic value. If there is one coin left over, it will be the coin of highest numismatic value of that denomination, and it is set aside and ignored henceforth. These packages are then merged into the list of coins of the next smallest denomination, again in order of numismatic value. The items in that list are then packaged in pairs, and merged into the next smallest list, and so forth.\nFinally, there is a list of items,","-23.66781333781546"],["the underlying hardware design, the unit octet was defined to explicitly denote a sequence of eight bits.\nComputers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally named \"words\". Like the byte, the number of bits in a word also varies with the hardware design, and is typically between 8 and 80 bits, or even more in some specialized computers. In the 21st century, retail personal or server computers have a word size of 32 or 64 bits.\nThe International System of Units defines a series of decimal prefixes for multiples of standardized units which are commonly also used with the bit and the","-23.665838859480573"],["of the data, we should expect that the following two properties hold, as much as made possible by the own nature of the data. First, the bins would have roughly the same size, because the entropies and are maximized by equal-sized binning. And second, each bin of X will roughly correspond to a bin in Y.\nBecause the variables X and Y are reals, it is almost always possible to create exactly one bin for each (x,y) datapoint, and that would yield a very high value of the MI. To avoid forming this kind of trivial partitioning, the authors","-23.64175458822865"],["of a large, heavy set of different size bits, as well as providing uncommon bit sizes. A ruler or vernier scale is usually provided to allow precise adjustment of the bit size.\nThese bits are available both in a version similar to an auger bit or brace bit, designed for low speed, high torque use with a brace or other hand drill (pictured to the right), or as a high speed, low torque bit meant for a power drill. While the shape of the cutting edges is different, and one uses screw threads and the other a twist bit for the","-23.593012767494656"],["in other words, pick a number so that there is no need to examine the remainders. Any number in one range of quotas will accomplish this, with the highest number in the range always being the same as the lowest number used by the D'Hondt method to award a seat (if it is used rather than the Jefferson method), and the lowest number in the range being the smallest number larger than the next number which would award a seat in the D'Hondt calculations.\nApplied to the above example of party lists, this range extends as integers from 20,001 to 25,000.","-23.44712456461275"],["needs to use some of his coin collection to buy something of cost N. He wishes to select a subset of coins from his collection of minimum numismatic value whose denominations total N.\nThe binary version of this problem is that all denominations are powers of 2, that is, 1, 1/2, 1/4, etc. dollars. Description of the package-merge algorithm Assume that the largest denomination is 1 dollar, and that N is an integer. (The algorithm works even if these assumptions do not hold, by trivial modifications.) The coin collector first separates his coins into lists, one for each denomination,","-23.446413493948057"],["of the multiplicand and, under it, the ones-digit of the multiplier. Find the product of these two digits: write this product under the line and in the ones-column. If the product has two digits, then write down only the ones-digit of the product. Write the \"carry digit\" as a superscript of the yet-unwritten digit in the next column and under the line: in this case the next column is the tens-column, so write the carry digit as the superscript of the yet-unwritten tens-digit of the product (under the line).\nIf both first and second number each have only one digit, then","-23.41031861701049"],[".\nThe difference between the results for discrete and continuous variables may surprise many readers. Speaking intuitively, this is explained as follows. Let h be a small quantity and imagine that the amount of money we see when we look in Envelope A is rounded off in such a way that differences smaller than h are not noticeable, even though actually it varies continuously. The probability that the smaller amount of money is in an interval around a of length h, and Envelope A contains the smaller amount is approximately . The probability that the larger amount of money is in","-23.397724044974893"],["value of a good or service is included in the total output. This avoids an issue often called 'double counting', wherein the total value of a good is included several times in national output, by counting it repeatedly in several stages of production. In the example of meat production, the value of the good from the farm may be $10, then $30 from the butchers, and then $60 from the supermarket. The value that should be included in final national output should be $60, not the sum of all those numbers, $100. The values added at each stage","-23.395184438006254"],["worksheet also indicates the reel strip settings, number of coins that may be played, the payout schedule, the number of reels and other information descriptive of the particular type of slot machine.\nWeight count is an American term, referring to the dollar amount of coins or tokens removed from a slot machine's drop bucket or drop box and counted by the casino's hard count team through the use of a weigh scale.\nWild Symbol Wild symbols act like joker cards in a slot game. Basically, they substitute for all other symbols in the game, usually except for other special symbols, such as","-23.352258532773703"],["bits, such as a byte or word, is referred to, it is usually specified by a number from 0 upwards corresponding to its position within the byte or word. However, 0 can refer to either the most or least significant bit depending on the context. Other information units Similar to angular momentum and energy in physics; information-theoretic information and data storage size have the same dimensionality of units of measurement, but there is in general no meaning to adding, subtracting or otherwise combining the units mathematically.\nOther units of information, sometimes used in information theory, include the natural digit also called","-23.344052806234686"],["of 60,000 (00000–59999). Word size versus address size word size is a characteristic given to computer architecture. It denotes the number of bits that a CPU can process at one time. Modern processors, including embedded systems, usually have a word size of 8, 16, 24, 32 or 64 bits; most current general purpose computers use 32 or 64 bits. Many different sizes have been used historically, including 8, 9, 10, 12, 18, 24, 36, 39, 40, 48 and 60 bits.\nVery often, when referring to the word size of a modern computer, one is also describing the size of address space","-23.287873021006817"],["0 0\n 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0|0\n ------------------------------\n 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0\n ^ ^\nSo the carry-less product of a and b would be c = 101100011101100₂. For every bit set in the number a, the number b is shifted to the left as many bits as indicated by the position of the bit in a. All","-23.225721264316235"],["Units of paper quantity Various measures of paper quantity have been and are in use. Although there are no S.I. units such as quires and bales, there are ISO and DIN standards for the ream. Expressions used here include U.S. Customary units. Quire A quire of paper is a measure of paper quantity. The usual meaning is 25 sheets of the same size and quality: ¹⁄₂₀ of a ream of 500 sheets. Quires of 25 sheets are often used for machine-made paper, while quires of 24 sheets are often used for handmade or specialised paper of 480-sheet reams. (As","-23.19490449919249"],["be removed from this site\". George Score The \"George Score\" is a method of rating users based on how many bills they have entered, and by how many total hits they have had. The formula is as follows:\nThis logarithmic formula means the more bills a user enters and the more hits the user receives, the less the user's score increases for each entered bill or new hit. Thus, a user's score does not increase as quickly when the user has entered many bills. User ranking can decrease based on inactivity (failure to refresh the \"Your Bills\" report). Wattsburg Gary,","-23.19004185240192"],["is a very minor variation of the 1:24 scale, where many automobile plastic model kits are scaled at 1:25.\n1:24 is the largest of the traditional slot car sizes - and the earliest. Lionel's (USA) 1:24 electric autos of 1912-1916 became the first known commercial slot cars. In 1955, the Model Automobile Racing Association of Kalamazoo, Michigan, built the first track for electric rail-racing (the short-lived immediate predecessor to slot racing) in the US. Unlike the seminal Southport (UK) track that inspired it, the MARA table was designed for 1:24 as well as 1:32 competition. With that beginning, the US adopted","-23.094404488103464"],["devised a new format for storing real numbers in computers use a variable number of bits depending on the number of digits required, called unum number format. Normal formats store numbers as a fixed number of bits, for example 64 bits is usual for double-precision floating-point format numbers. This can allow them to be smaller than doubles for fast processing and also more precise or larger than the limits for double when desirable.","-23.088076370069757"],["× 35. Since the second \"digit\" is not less than the threshold value of 2, there is more to come. The weight for the third \"digit\" is the previous weight times 36 minus the new threshold value; 35 × 34. The third \"digit\" in this example is 0, which is less than 2, meaning that it is the last (most significant) part of the number. Therefore, \"kva\" represents the number (10 × 1) + (21 × 35) + (0 × 35 × 34) = 745.\nThe threshold itself is determined by an algorithm keeping it between 1 and 26","-23.069177938974462"],[" Moreover, since the largest order is at most O(log n), these bits can be encoded in O(1) machine words, assuming a transdichotomous machine model.\nNote that O(1) machine words is not the same thing as one machine word. A 32-bit vector would only suffice for sizes less than L(32) = 7049155. A 64-bit vector will do for sizes less than L(64) = 34335360355129 ≈ 2⁴⁵. In general, it takes 1/log₂(φ) ≈ 1.44 bits of vector per bit of size.","-23.068915926967748"],["feet per minute (15 m/min) through 22 stations.\nThe time for one product to take shape can be represented by a simple function: t = (L + n⋅d) / V, where L is the length of the piece being formed, n is the number of forming stands, d is the distance between stands, and V is the velocity of the strip through the rolls.\nIn general, roll forming lines can run from 5 to 500 feet per minute (1.5 to 152.4 m/min) or higher, depending on the application. In some cases the limiting factor is the punching or cutoff applications.","-23.033966957824305"],["will have very different actual scales, but for the passenger automobiles in many die cast lines, 1:64 is a reasonable approximation. Brands of die-cast toys in and around this scale include Hot Wheels and Matchbox, Ertl, GreenLight, Auto World, Code 3, Johnny Lightning, and Jada Toys.\nOutside the USA brands like Maisto, Siku, Norev Mini Jet, Corgi, Tomica, Autoart, Edocar, Kyosho, Majorette, Schuco, Welly, and many others, are available in this scale. Slot Cars Small-scale slot cars are often sized to fit a standard motorized chassis, and therefore vary somewhat in scale.\nThe mechanisms have increased in size over the years to","-23.022688276309054"],["the number of bins the inserting candidate intersects. In practice delete is much slower than insert.\nLike a hash table, bin's efficiency depends a lot on the distribution of both location and size of candidates and queries. In general, the smaller the query rectangle, the more efficient the query. The bin's size should be such that it contains as few candidates as possible but large enough so that candidates do not span too many bins. If a candidate span many bins, a query has to skip this candidate over and over again after it is reported at the first bin of","-23.021685418556444"],["or 136-tonne capacity one).\nAlso, in a number of cases, multiple single-well cars (usually 3 or 5) are connected by drawbars and share a single reporting mark.\nOn both types of multiple-unit cars, the units are typically distinguished by letters, with the unit on one end being the \"A\" unit, and the unit on the other end being the \"B\" unit. Middle units are labeled starting with \"C\", and going up to \"E\" for five-unit cars starting from the \"A\" unit and increasing towards the \"B\" unit. Carrying capacity Double-stack cars come in a number of sizes, related to the standard","-22.99743712018244"],["as random numbers. Memory and variables The 35s provides 30k bytes of user memory, which is shared among data, stored equations, and programs.\nSince complex numbers and vectors of up to three elements can be stored as a single value, each data variable occupies 37 bytes, enough for a type indicator and three floating-point numbers.\nThe 26 alpha-labelled variables and the six statistics registers are permanently allocated; the rest of the memory space can be occupied by up to 801 more variables which can only be accessed indirectly. Indirect access to any variable is achieved by storing its sequence number (0 upwards)","-22.983838096493855"],[".75 are shown to thousandths [.250, .500, .750], which is how machinists usually think about them [\"two-fifty\", \"five hundred\", \"seven-fifty\"]. Machinists generally truncate the decimals after thousandths; for example, a 27/64\" drill bit may be referred to in shop-floor speech as a \"four-twenty-one drill\".)\nCharts like this, printed at poster size, are widely posted on machine shop walls for handy reference by machinists as they work. For some tasks it is faster and less annoying to glance down a column of numbers on a poster than it is to punch calculator buttons or do penciled arithmetic. It is also true that","-22.97268217417877"],["not standardized and the actual sizes varied depending on the country of manufacture and date.\nThe size and proportions of a book will thus depend on the size of the original sheet of paper used in producing the book. For example, if a sheet 19 inches (480 mm) by 25 inches (640 mm) is used to print a quarto, the resulting book will be approximately 12 ¹⁄₂ inches (320 mm) tall and 9 ¹⁄₂ inches (240 mm) wide, before trimming. Because the size of paper used has differed over the years and localities, the sizes of books of the same format will also differ. A typical octavo","-22.96584620559588"],["can be combined into an existing table, or placed into a new table. Tables can be collected by the user onto single or multiple canvases. Whereas a typical Excel sheet has data strewn across it, a Numbers canvas could build the same output through smaller individual tables encompassing the same data. Formulas and functions Consider a simple spreadsheet being used to calculate the average value of all car sales in a month for a given year. The sheet might contain the month number or name in column A, the number of cars sold in column B, and the total income","-22.933050973311765"],["the same amount of information as one hexadecimal digit. Crumb A pair of two bits or a quarter byte was called a crumb, often used in early 8-bit computing (see Atari 2600, ZX Spectrum). It is now largely defunct. Word, block, and page Computers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally called words. The number of bits in a word is usually defined by the size of the registers in the computer's CPU, or by the number of data bits that are fetched from its main memory in a single operation. In the IA-32 architecture more","-22.93274025444407"],["the example above, then it would have to sell only 1000/(2.3 - 0.6)= 589 units to break even, rather than 715.\nTo make the results clearer, they can be graphed. To do this, draw the total cost curve (TC in the diagram), which shows the total cost associated with each possible level of output, the fixed cost curve (FC) which shows the costs that do not vary with output level, and finally the various total revenue lines (R1, R2, and R3), which show the total amount of revenue received at each output level, given the price you will be charging.\nThe break-even","-22.923196624207776"],["The carry-out is placed in the second row of the column to the left. The bottom bit is a single feed into an adder. The sum of this adder is placed in the third row of the column. Carry-out is ignored as it will always be zero, but by design it would be placed in the fourth row of the column to the left. For design, it is important to note that rows 1, 3, 5, ... (counting from the top) are filled with sums from the column itself. Rows 2, 4, 6, ... are","-22.922905609128065"],["letter through a slot, picks up pebble-like objects at secure grasp points, and scales her grip correctly to pick up Efron blocks (which match in surface area, texture, mass, and color, and differ only in length and width).\nAnd yet, Patient DF cannot judge the width of an object, such as a guitar pick, by using her thumb and forefinger to show how big it is. However, when asked to pick it up, her hand moves to the correct width. Her estimates (she is asked to put her thumb and forefinger the correct distance apart without moving to grasp the object)","-22.92088537942618"],["full adder that accepts two 1-bit terms and a carry-in bit. It produces a sum and a carry-out. The full adders are arranged such that the sum remains in the same column of summands, but the carry-out is shifted left. In each round of reduction, three bits in a single column are used as the two terms and carry-in for the full adder, producing a single sum bit for the column. This reduces the bits in the column by a factor of 3. However, the column to the right will shift over carry-out bits, increasing","-22.90668206239934"],["as the following illustrates:\nfunction max(int[] items) -> (int r)// Requires at least one element to compute maxrequires |items| > 0// (1) Result is not smaller than any elementensures all { i in 0..|items| | items[i] <= r }// (2) Result matches at least one elementensures some { i in 0..|items| | items[i] == r }:\n //\n nat i = 1\n int m = items[0]\n //\n while i < |items|\n // (1) No item seen so far is larger than m\n ","-22.901620390606695"],["than 1/2000 the magnitude of the stored value f(x), and the computed correction is more than ±1/1000 of a bit away from exactly half a bit (the difficult rounding case), then it is known whether the exact function value should be rounded up or down.\nThe technique provides an efficient way to compute the function value to within ±1/1000 least-significant bit, i.e. 10 extra bits of precision. If this approximation is more than ±1/1000 of a bit away from exactly midway between two representable values (which happens all but 2/1000 of the time, i.e. 99.8% of the time), then the","-22.868508110404946"],["the data at the top or the bottom end, typically an equal amount at each end and then taking the arithmetic mean of the remaining data. The number of values removed is indicated as a percentage of the total number of values. Mean of angles and cyclical quantities Angles, times of day, and other cyclical quantities require modular arithmetic to add and otherwise combine numbers. In all these situations, there will not be a unique mean. For example, the times an hour before and after midnight are equidistant to both midnight and noon. It is also possible that no mean","-22.866257174871862"],["data in the sheet was given a name, and could then be grouped into categories. Formulas were typed into a separate section, and referred to data through their range, not their physical position in the sheets. Views of the data, some of which looked like spreadsheets, others like charts, could be created dynamically and were not limited in number.\nTo illustrate the difference between Improv and other systems, consider the simple task of calculating the total sales for a product, given unit sales per month and unit prices. In a conventional spreadsheet the unit price would be typed into one set","-22.821367274504155"],["1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1\nThe top row shows the carry bits used. Instead of the standard carry from one column to the next, the lowest-ordered \"1\" with a \"1\" in the corresponding place value beneath it may be added and a \"1\" may be carried to one digit past the end of the series. The \"used\" numbers must be crossed off, since they are already added. Other long strings may likewise be","-22.807224763731938"],["than . Example For instance, suppose a value is measured experimentally in several trials as 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, and 50. The mean is 16.7 and the standard deviation 16.34. 50 differs from 16.7 by 33.3, slightly more than two standard deviations. The probability of taking data more than two standard deviations from the mean is roughly 0.05. Six measurements were taken, so the statistic value (data size multiplied by the probability) is 0.05×6 = 0.3. Because 0.3 < 0.5, according to Chauvenet's criterion, the measured value of 50 should be discarded (leaving a new mean of 10,","-22.769014854333363"],["at all. Most of the time, estimation cannot be executed due to the lack of supporting information either in the story description itself or directly from the Product Owner. Small Try to keep your PBI sizes to typically a few person-days and at most a few person-weeks (a good rule of thumb is that any single Product Backlog Item does not take more than 50% of an iteration; for example a single item won't take more than 5 days for a 2-week / 10 day sprint). Anything beyond that range should be considered too large to be estimated with a","-22.750841748551466"],["..., n−1}), where a 1-bit indicates the presence and a 0-bit the absence of a number in the set. This set data structure uses about n/w words of space, where w is the number of bits in each machine word. Whether the least significant bit (of the word) or the most significant bit indicates the smallest-index number is largely irrelevant, but the former tends to be preferred (on little-endian machines). More complex operations As with character strings it is straightforward to define length, substring, lexicographical compare, concatenation, reverse operations. The implementation of some of these operations is sensitive to endianness.","-22.74678130063694"],["Lot number A lot number is an identification number assigned to a particular quantity or lot of material from a single manufacturer. Lot numbers can typically be found on the outside of packaging. For cars, a lot number is combined with a serial number to form the Vehicle Identification Number.\nThe lot number enables tracing of the constituent parts or ingredients as well as labor and equipment records involved in the manufacturing of a product. This enables manufacturers and other entities to perform quality control checks, calculate expiration dates, and issue corrections or recall information to subsets of their production output.","-22.7427278906398"],["Where one number being multiplied is sufficiently small to be multiplied with ease by any single digit, the product can be calculated easily digit by digit from right to left. This is particularly easy for multiplication by 2 since the carry digit cannot be more than 1.\nFor example, to calculate 2 × 167:\n2×7=14, so the final digit is 4, with a 1 carried and added to the 2×6 = 12 to give 13, so the next digit is 3 with a 1 carried and added to the 2×1=2 to give 3. Thus, the product is 334. Multiplying by 5 To multiply","-22.717681204725523"],["Least count In metrology, the least count of a measuring instrument is the smallest change in the measured quantity that can be resolved on the instrument's scale. The least count is related to the precision of an instrument; an instrument that can measure smaller changes in a value relative to another instrument, has a smaller \"least count\" value and so is more precise. Any measurement made by the instrument can be considered repeatable to no less than the resolution of the least count. The least count of an instrument is inversely proportional to the precision of the instrument.\nFor example, a","-22.705348821618827"],["Peel P50 Statistics At 54 in (1,372 mm) long and 39 in (991 mm) wide and with an unladen weight of 59 kilograms (130 lb), the P50 holds the record as the smallest car ever to go into production. The Peel P50's diminutive size and width means that it can quite easily fit through doorways and enter buildings, as demonstrated by Jeremy Clarkson during a sequence on a 2008 episode of Top Gear, where a blue P50 was driven through the BBC's Television Centre. 1962–1966 The P50 used a 49 cc (3.0 cu in) DKW engine, which gave it a top speed of approximately 37 mph (60 km/h), and was","-22.701333300909027"],["in the larger scales, and currently 1:43 is largely used for toy or starter sets. Collectibles This scale is still popular, with many models now being made in China, but as time has passed, many new scales for diecast cars, both smaller (1:87, 1:64, and somewhere around 1:55), and larger (1:24, 1:18, and 1:12) have also competed, often more successfully in the toy and diecast market.\nOriginally meant as toys and accessories for rail layouts, more specialized and expensive limited edition handbuilt collectibles made in white metal or resin produced in more limited numbers have become available. This has occurred as","-22.69676891817653"],["other concerns when using the same methods of figuring costs, he can only conclude that his goods or his marketing, or both of them, are costing him too much. His next step, naturally, is to analyse closely the methods and conditions under which he is manufacturing and marketing his product, until he finds and corrects the inefficiencies which are handicapping him so seriously...\nIn their 1919 \"Cost Accounting\" Nicholson and Rohrbach expressed the idea, that \"if the accuracy of the cost estimate has been tested and the sales price of the product has been properly determined on the basis of the","-22.681487870635465"],["him correctly to keep Envelope A if its contents are larger than those of B, but to switch to Envelope B if A has smaller contents than B. Altogether, this means that he ends up with the envelope with the larger number with probability strictly larger than 1/2. To be precise, the probability that he ends with the \"winning envelope\" is 1/2 + P(Z falls between the two numbers)/2.\nIn practice, the number Z we have described could be determined to the necessary degree of accuracy as follows. Toss a fair coin many times, and convert the sequence of heads","-22.65684718871489"],["the number of units can vary from day to day, the average number of units must be calculated or estimated for a given month to obtain the most accurate possible ARPU figure for that month.\nAlso related is the ARPPU (Average Revenue Per Paying User), which is calculated by dividing up the revenue amongst the users who paid anything at all. That yields a figure that is significantly larger than ARPU. For example, in the case of a subscription game that has a free to play version, the ARPPU, measured by accounts, is the subscription price, diluted slightly by free trials.\nA","-22.654932670586277"],["a bin covers the range from 0.1 to 0.2, then when the user asks for all values less than 0.15, all rows that fall in the bin are possible hits and have to be checked to verify whether they are actually less than 0.15. The process of checking the base data is known as the candidate check. In most cases, the time used by the candidate check is significantly longer than the time needed to work with the bitmap index. Therefore, binned indexes exhibit irregular performance. They can be very fast for some queries, but much slower if the query","-22.647078409674577"],["an interval around a of length h corresponds to the smaller amount being in an interval of length h/2 around a/2. Hence the probability that the larger amount of money is in a small interval around a of length h and Envelope A contains the larger amount is approximately . Thus, given Envelope A contains an amount about equal to a, the probability it is the smaller of the two is roughly .\nIf the player only wants to end up with the larger amount of money, and does not care about expected amounts, then in the discrete case he should","-22.641191367292777"],["a yard (4.5 inches) was sometimes called a finger, but was more commonly referred to simply as an eighth of a yard, while the half-yard (18 inches) was called \"half a yard\".\nOther units related to the yard, but not specific to cloth measurement: two yards are a fathom, a quarter of a yard (when not referring to cloth) is a span.","-22.63921148236841"],["inch to the right, one has 10, one inch to the right of 10 one has 10×10 = 100, then 10×100 = 1000 = 10³, then 10×1000 = 10,000 = 10⁴, etc. Similarly, one inch to the left of 1, one has 1/10 = 10–1, then 1/100 = 10–2, etc.\nThis approach is useful, when one wants to represent, on the same figure, values with very different order of magnitude. For example, one requires a logarithmic scale for representing simultaneously the size of the different bodies that exist in the Universe, typically, a photon, an electron, an atom, a molecule, a","-22.631075439090637"],["1:64 scale Die-cast vehicles Many die cast automobiles and commercial vehicle models for collectors have been made to a strict scale of 1:64. However, for much of the die-cast toy market, 1:64 is only a nominal scale. Though collectors and manufacturers loosely describe popular lines of die-casts as 1:64, toy vehicles are usually made to \"box scale.\" This means that the size of the model is determined by the size of the standard packaging (formerly a cardstock box, now usually a clear blister-card). Models of a 1959 Cadillac and an Austin Mini-Cooper designed to fill up the same packaging space","-22.61407616327051"],["between the cup sizes is always one inch, or 2.54 cm. The difference between 2 band sizes is 2 inches or 5.08 cm.\nLeading brands and manufacturers including Panache, Bestform, Gossard, Freya, Curvy Kate, Bravissimo and Fantasie, which use the British standard band sizes 28-30-32-34-36-38-40-42-44, and so on. Cup sizes are designated by AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-FF-G-GG-H-HH-J-JJ-K-KK-L.\nHowever, some clothing retailers and mail order companies have their own house brands and use a custom sizing system. Marks and Spencers uses AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-GG-H-J, leaving out FF and HH. As a result, their J-Cup is equal to a British standard H-cup. Evans and ASDA sell bras (ASDA as part of their","-22.58549757822766"],["guess that 50 would be near the middle of the set after it is sorted. This approximate location is called a class. If numbered 1 to , the class of an item is the quantile, computed as:\n \nwhere is the input set. The range covered by every class is equal, except the last class which includes only the maximum(s). The classification ensures that every element in a class is greater than any element in a lower class. This partially orders the data and reduces the number of inversions. Insertion sort is then applied to the classified set. As long","-22.566439415124478"],["Consumer price index Calculating the CPI for multiple items Many but not all price indices are weighted averages using weights that sum to 1 or 100.\nExample: The prices of 85,000 items from 22,000 stores, and 35,000 rental units are added together and averaged. They are weighted this way: Housing: 41.4%, Food and Beverage: 17.4%, Transport: 17.0%, Medical Care: 6.9%, Other: 6.9%, Apparel: 6.0%, Entertainment: 4.4%. Taxes (43%) are not included in CPI computation.\nwhere the terms do not necessarily sum to 1 or 100. Weights and sub-indices By convention weights are fractions or ratios summing to one, as percentages summing","-22.541795903001912"],["five-percent or home-market-viability test. This test is applied globally by comparing the quantity sold of a like product on the domestic market with the quantity sold to the importing market.\nNormal value cannot be based on the price in the exporter's domestic market when there are no domestic sales. For example, if the products are only sold on the foreign market, the normal value will have to be determined on another basis. Additionally, some products may be sold on both markets but the quantity sold on the domestic market may be small compared to quantity sold on foreign market.","-22.528195112608955"],["to most common machines having 6 figure accuracy and a dynamic range of 10⁻³⁸ to 10⁺³⁸. This was achieved by using base 256 for the floating point format, rather than the more common base 2, and using six bytes for storing numbers, rather than the more common four. Five bytes stored the basic number, with the last byte storing the sign in the first bit, and the remaining seven bits storing the exponent. For example, π was stored as 3.14159265358.\nBenchmarks show that even though the NewBrain performed double accuracy calculations, it was one of the fastest 8-bit computers available for","-22.52558321649849"],["multiple of 5 is more \"convenient\" to measure or verify than one which is not. In addition, where operations involve the subdivision of quantities into two or more equal parts, any number that is highly divisible has an explicit advantage.\"","-22.525572264072252"],[" As 5+9+4+2=20, the total mixture contains 5/20 of A (5 parts out of 20), 9/20 of B, 4/20 of C, and 2/20 of D. If we divide all numbers by the total and multiply by 100, we have converted to percentages: 25% A, 45% B, 20% C, and 10% D (equivalent to writing the ratio as 25∶45∶20∶10).\nIf the two or more ratio quantities encompass all of the quantities in a particular situation, it is said that \"the whole\" contains the sum of the parts: for example, a fruit basket containing two apples and three oranges and no other","-22.51965045928955"],["are available for each of the third, fourth, and fifth rows. Thus, the number of unique \"B\" (and \"I\", \"G\", and \"O\", respectively) columns is (15*14*13*12*11) = 360,360. The combinations of the \"N\" column differ due to the use of the free space. Therefore, it has only (15*14*13*12) = 32,760 unique combinations. The product of the five rows (360,360⁴ * 32,760) describes the total number of unique playing cards. That number is 552,446,474,061,128,648,601,600,000 simplified as 5.52x10²⁶ or 552 septillion.\nPrinting a complete set of Bingo cards is impossible for all practical purposes. If one trillion cards could be printed each second,","-22.479589157635928"],["a random rank, and so it is not guaranteed to be in the middle 50 percent. However, when we start from a random permutation, in each recursive call the pivot has a random rank in its list, and so it is in the middle 50 percent about half the time. That is good enough. Imagine that you flip a coin: heads means that the rank of the pivot is in the middle 50 percent, tail means that it isn't. Imagine that you are flipping a coin over and over until you get k heads. Although this could take a long","-22.461630382051226"],["of the quoted 400,000 digit capacity was in the form of reels of punched paper tape.\nAddition took 285 microseconds and multiplication 20 milliseconds, making arithmetic operations much faster than the Harvard Mark I. Data that had to be retrieved quickly was held in electronic circuits; the remainder was stored in relays and as holes in three continuous card-stock tapes that filled another wall. A chain hoist was needed to lift the heavy reels of paper into place. The machine read instructions or data from 30 paper tape readers connected to three punches, and another a table look-up unit consisted","-22.460112402564846"],["bob is 10p.\nThe introduction of decimal currency caused a new casual usage to emerge, where any value in pence is spoken using the suffix pee: e.g. \"twenty-three pee\" or, in the early years, \"two-and-a-half pee\" rather than the previous \"tuppence-ha'penny\". Amounts over a pound are normally spoken thus: \"five pounds forty\". A value with less than ten pence over the pound is sometimes spoken like this: \"one pound and a penny\", \"three pounds and fourpence\". The slang term \"bit\" has almost disappeared from use completely, although in Scotland a fifty pence is sometimes referred to as a \"ten bob bit\".","-22.42543246205605"],["of experimental error in measurements. Least count error The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least count. Measured values are good only up to this value. The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.\nIf we use a metre scale for measurement of length, it may have graduations at 1 mm division scale spacing or interval. A Vernier scale on caliper may have a least count of 0.1 mm while a micrometer may have a least count of 0.01 mm.\nThe least count error occurs with both systematic and random","-22.396479493239895"],["normally distributed variables is skewed, unless the means are much larger than the standard deviations. If the sample is large enough this will not be a problem, however determining when a sample is sufficiently large is somewhat subjective. Problems with the product of coefficients In some situations it is possible that (τ – τ’) ≠ (αβ). This occurs when the sample size is different in the models used to estimate the mediated effects. Suppose that the independent variable and the mediator are available from 200 cases, while the dependent variable is only available from 150 cases. This means that the","-22.388862451945897"],["might vary on basis of a broadsheet or a pullout, however in general stands at 4 cm width.\nNowadays, most newspapers and magazines have converted to a \"modular\" system that simplifies ad size and eliminates the need to figure out column inches. In a modular system ad sizes are represented by the amount of the total page the ad takes up. For example 1/2 page, 1/4 page, 1/8 page, etc. This has been a popular system among many newspapers because it simplifies the layout process (i.e. less ad sizes to fit in newspaper) and makes pricing much easier for","-22.37331551432726"],["other combination of the same length. A normal number can be thought of as an infinite sequence of coin flips (binary) or rolls of a die (base 6). Even though there will be sequences such as 10, 100, or more consecutive tails (binary) or fives (base 6) or even 10, 100, or more repetitions of a sequence such as tail-head (two consecutive coin flips) or 6-1 (two consecutive rolls of a die), there will also be equally many of any other sequence of equal length. No digit or sequence is \"favored\". \nA number is said to be absolutely normal if","-22.358071152411867"],["of the paper propose taking a number of bins for X and whose product is relatively small compared with the size N of the data sample. Concretely, they propose:\nIn some cases it is possible to achieve a good correspondence between and with numbers as low as and , while in other cases the number of bins required may be higher. The maximum for is determined by H(X), which is in turn determined by the number of bins in each axis, therefore, the mutual information value will be dependent on the number of bins selected","-22.35314223752357"],["a collection of 36: a–z and 0–9, representing 0–25 and 26–35 respectively. A digit lower than a threshold value marks that it is the most-significant digit, hence the end of the number. The threshold value depends on the position in the number. For example, if the threshold value for the first digit is b (i.e. 1) then a (i.e. 0) marks the end of the number (it has just one digit), so in numbers of more than one digit, range is only b–9 (1–35), therefore the weight b₁ is 35 instead of 36. Suppose the threshold values for the second","-22.344713096215855"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"hand can count to twelve, and two hands can count to 144. Twelve dozen (12² = 144) are known as a gross; and twelve gross (12³ = 1,728, the duodecimal 1,000) are called a great gross, a term most often used when shipping or buying items in bulk. A great hundred, also known as a small gross, is 120 or ten dozen. \\nA baker's dozen, also known as a big or long dozen, is 13. Varying by country, some products are packaged or sold by the dozen, often foodstuff (a dozen eggs). Dozen may also be used to express a\",\n \"-25.998400560580194\"\n ],\n [\n \"cylindrical billets having 8% moisture weighing between 4.9 to 6 pounds (2.2 to 2.7 kg). The billets are sorted by weight after being weighed \\\"to the thousandth ounce\\\", and the slope of the grain is visually graded; billets with the straightest grain are reserved for MLB players.\\nEach bat model can be manufactured using billets in a small range of weights (for example, the bat manufactured for Miguel Cabrera is made from billets between 5.380 to 5.420 pounds (2.440 to 2.458 kg), usually 5.400 pounds (2.449 kg)). After a final visual inspection, it is mounted into a wood tracer lathe, which in up to\",\n \"-25.887690525327343\"\n ],\n [\n \"each of which is a 1 dollar coin or a package consisting of two or more smaller coins whose denominations total 1 dollar. They are also sorted in order of numismatic value. The coin collector then selects the least value N of them.\\nNote that the time of the algorithm is linear in the number of coins. Reduction of length-limited Huffman coding to the coin collector's problem Let L be the maximum length any code word is permitted to have.\\nLet p₁, …, pₙ be the frequencies of the\\nsymbols of the alphabet to be encoded. We first sort the symbols so\",\n \"-25.849753106129356\"\n ],\n [\n \"value of π. Taking a cubit to be about 18 inches and a handbreadth to be about 4 inches, the ratio of the described dimensions of the bowl differs from π by less than 1%.\",\n \"-25.33917834039312\"\n ],\n [\n \"precise value equates to 36.5 0.1; 36.4 or 36.6 mL. Therefore, there are 3 significant figures can be read from the given graduated cylinder picture. Another example, if the reading is done and the value calculated is set to be 40.0 mL. The precise value would be 40.0 0.1; 40.1 or 39.9 mL.\",\n \"-25.20279561841744\"\n ],\n [\n \"Where's Willy? Willy Index The \\\"Willy Index\\\" is a method of rating users based on how many bills they've entered and also by how many total hits they've had. The formula is as follows:\\nBecause of the nature of square roots and natural logarithms, the higher a user's bills entered and hits are, the more of each are necessary to increase the score.\",\n \"-25.038838291391585\"\n ],\n [\n \"the bits in the column by a third of the number of rows of summands. At worst, the reduction will be 2/3 the number of rows per round of reduction.\\nThe following shows how the first round of reduction is performed. Note that all \\\"empty\\\" positions of the summands are considered to be zero (a . is used here as indicator of the \\\"assumed zero values\\\"). In each row, the top three bits are the three inputs to the full adder (two terms and carry-in). The sum is placed in the top bit of the column. \",\n \"-24.98052891372936\"\n ],\n [\n \"of different value. A sorter usually makes no attempt at counting, providing only collections of uncounted coins to be separately passed through a counter. Coin counter The phrase coin counter may refer to a device which both sorts and counts coins at the same time, or only counts presorted coins that are all the same size..\\nA typical counter of presorted coins uses a bowl with flat spinning disc at the bottom to distribute coins around the bowl perimeter. An opening in the edge of the bowl is only wide enough to accept one coin at a time. Coins either pass\",\n \"-24.977106382983038\"\n ],\n [\n \"Sorter came out in 1928. It had 12 pockets that could hold 80 cards. It could sort 150 cards per minute.\\nThe Type 75, Model 1, 19??, 400 cards per minute\\nThe Type 75, Model 2, 19??, 250 cards per minute\",\n \"-24.91809459810611\"\n ],\n [\n \"the similarity between the shape of a sawbuck device and the Roman numeral X (10), which formerly appeared on $10 bills. A \\\"double sawbuck\\\" is a twenty dollar bill.\",\n \"-24.88017138009309\"\n ],\n [\n \"$100. He also tells them that if both write down the same number, he will treat that number as the true dollar value of both suitcases and reimburse both travelers that amount. However, if one writes down a smaller number than the other, this smaller number will be taken as the true dollar value, and both travelers will receive that amount along with a bonus/malus: $2 extra will be paid to the traveler who wrote down the lower value and a $2 deduction will be taken from the person who wrote down the higher amount. The challenge is: what strategy\",\n \"-24.781941643566824\"\n ],\n [\n \"be no smaller than .\\nNext, we consider probability distributions and on . Distribution is the probability distribution of choosing the first bits in with probability given by , and the remaining bits uniformly at random. We have thus :\\nWe thus have (a simple calculus trick shows this), thus distributions and can be distinguished by . Without loss of generality, we can assume that , with a polynomial.\\nThis gives us a possible construction of a Turing machine solving the next-bit test : upon receiving the first bits of a sequence, pads\",\n \"-24.68714902336069\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the basic word length because it gave the system a reasonable number range and precision for processing audio (sound), the 56000's main concern. 24 bits correspond to a large 144 dB dynamic range, sufficient in the 1980s when analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and digital-to-analog converters (DACs) rarely exceeded 20 bits. One example is ADSL applications, where filters typically require 20 bits of accuracy. The leftmost four bits are considered ample headroom for calculations.\\nThe processor is capable of carrying out 16.5 Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS) at the maximum specified clock speed of 33 MHz., and has hardware support for block-floating\",\n \"-24.523329889867455\"\n ],\n [\n \"packets whose sizes are the number of tails and the number of heads flipped, and use the same coin flip sequence to determine from which packet to pull each card of the shuffled deck.\\nAnother alternative description is more abstract, but lends itself better to mathematical analysis. Generate a set of n values from the uniform continuous distribution on the unit interval, and place them in sorted order. Then the doubling map from the theory of dynamical systems maps this system of points to a permutation of the points in which the permuted ordering obeys the Gilbert–Shannon–Reeds model, and the\",\n \"-24.445523398462683\"\n ],\n [\n \"3¼ inches, and a single 1/4 inch increment to 3½ inches. One aspect of this method of sizing is that the size increment between drill bits becomes larger as bit sizes get smaller: 100% for the step from 1/64th to 1/32nd, but a much smaller percentage between 1 47/64th and 1 3/4.\\nDrill bit sizes are written as irreducible fractions. So, instead of 78/64 inch, or 1 14/64 inch, the size is noted as 1 7/32 inch.\\nBelow is a chart providing the decimal-fraction equivalents that are most relevant to fractional-inch drill bit sizes (that is, 0 to 1 by 64ths). (Decimal places for .25, .5, and\",\n \"-24.431523351930082\"\n ],\n [\n \"table contains a large variety of makes and models to choose from. If the point value of the vehicle is less than 500, additional points may be spent on performance parts, as long as the total point calculation of vehicle plus performance parts does not exceed 500. This point calculation excludes required safety equipment, as well as maintenance and replacement of wear items with OEM or OEM-equivalent parts. No credit is given toward the point calculation of the vehicle for selling removed parts. Vehicles with a point calculation in excess of 500 are allowed to compete\",\n \"-24.37003498233389\"\n ],\n [\n \"is commonly calculated as the difference between wholesale price and retail price, as a percentage of wholesale. Other methods are also used.\",\n \"-24.3413274717459\"\n ],\n [\n \"without a prefix or with SI unit prefixes other than deci; it is preferred, for example, to use hundredths of a decibel rather than millibels. Thus, five one-thousandths of a bel would normally be written '0.05 dB', and not '5 mB'.\\nThe method of expressing a ratio as a level in decibels depends on whether the measured property is a power quantity or a root-power quantity; see Field, power, and root-power quantities for details. Properties The decibel is useful for representing large ratios and for simplifying representation of multiplied effects such as attenuation from multiple sources along a signal chain. Its\",\n \"-24.30429102841299\"\n ],\n [\n \"percentage\\n total(0.0){ }\\nThe drawback to this is that it takes two steps to change the value of the created Bill object. The following shows creation and changing the values within the main program:\\nBill cafe;cafe.tip = 0.10;cafe.total = 4.00;\\nBy overloading the constructor, one could pass the tip and total as parameters at creation. This shows the overloaded constructor with two parameters. This overloaded constructor is placed in the class as well as the original constructor we used before. Which one gets used depends on the number of parameters provided when the new Bill object is created\",\n \"-24.21495523909107\"\n ],\n [\n \"to shop online where most large cup sizes are readily available on certain sites. Others recommend rounding to the nearest whole number. Band measurement methods There are several possible methods for measuring the bust. Underbust +0 A measuring tape is pulled around the torso at the inframammary fold. The tape is then pulled tight while remaining horizontal and parallel to the floor. The measurement in inches is then rounded to the nearest even number for the band size. As of March 2018, Kohl's uses this method for its online fitting guide. Underbust +4 This method begins the same way as the\",\n \"-24.093744461686583\"\n ],\n [\n \"writing paper, capacitors, and many other products are usually sold in only a few standard sizes.\\nMany design procedures describe how to calculate an approximate value, and then \\\"round\\\" to some standard size using phrases such as \\\"round down to nearest standard value\\\", \\\"round up to nearest standard value\\\", or \\\"round to nearest standard value\\\".\\nWhen a set of preferred values is equally spaced on a logarithmic scale, choosing the closest preferred value to any given value can be seen as a form of scaled rounding. Such rounded values can be directly calculated. Dithering and error diffusion When digitizing continuous signals, such\",\n \"-24.073909151600674\"\n ],\n [\n \"chosen as 32, 40, 48, or 56 bits, with 56 bits being the standard value. Whatever the setting, long floating-point numbers still occupy 64 bits in memory (the first eight bits are the sign and the exponent); the setting only leads, when it was less than 56 bits, to long floating-point operations ignoring some of the least significant bits of these numbers. This provides an improvement in speed when greater precision is not needed.\\nAn optional feature provides six external interrupt lines.\\nThe direct word feature allows the transfer of a full 32-bit word of information between an external device and main storage.\",\n \"-24.046474545612\"\n ],\n [\n \"the standard sizes, can take much longer delivery time, and are not desirable as inventory for the supply house or the machine shop (because the chance of selling or using any particular custom size is slim).\\nSometimes it is necessary that the bar not be very much larger than the intended part, because the metallurgical properties of some metal alloys in some finishing processes may vary by how far inside the bar the metal lies. Thus an engineering drawing will specify a certain size (or a maximum size) that the bar may start out as. These specs face the aforementioned limitation\",\n \"-23.98163695378753\"\n ],\n [\n \"prices are collected so as to reflect the shares of sales to consumers of the different outlet types covered, self-weighted elementary aggregate indices may be computed. Similarly, if the market shares of the different types of product represented by product types are known, even only approximately, the number of observed products to be priced for each of them can be made proportional to those shares. Reweighing Ideally, in computing an index, the weights would represent current annual expenditure patterns. In practice they necessarily reflect past using the most recent data available or, if they are not of high quality, some\",\n \"-23.976895694388077\"\n ],\n [\n \"arose from non-contractual measurements, taken off drawings to assist tenderers in quoting lump sum prices.\\nThere are different styles of bills of quantities, mainly the elemental BOQ and trade bills. Contingency sum A contingency sum is an item found within a bill of quantities (BoQ).\\nThe item refers to unforeseeable cost likely to be incurred during the contract.\\nThere are two types of contingency sum. The first refers to a specific item, e.g., \\\"additional alterations to services when installing said shower unit\\\", where an item for alterations to existing services is not contained within the BoQ but some work is envisaged.\\nThe second type\",\n \"-23.888137323549017\"\n ],\n [\n \"our prior beliefs that the smaller amount is any number x = 1,2, ... ; the summation over all values of x being equal to 1. It follows that given the amount a in Envelope A, the amount in Envelope B is certainly 2a if a is an odd number. However, if a is even, then the amount in Envelope B is 2a with probability , and a/2 with probability . If one would like to switch envelopes if the expectation value of what is in the other is larger than what we have in ours, then a simple calculation shows\",\n \"-23.863452406483702\"\n ],\n [\n \"is the nominal size (the hole or slot size in standard manufacturing practice through which the shank of the screw can easily be pushed) and Y is the threads per inch (TPI). For sizes ¹⁄₄ inch and larger the size is given as a fraction; for sizes less than this an integer is used, ranging from 0 to 16. The integer sizes can be converted to the actual diameter by using the formula 0.060 + (0.013 × number). For example, a #4 screw is 0.060 + (0.013 × 4) = 0.060 + 0.052 = 0.112 inches in diameter. \",\n \"-23.841422282916028\"\n ],\n [\n \"with the 360/40, these were the two largest revenue producing System/360 models, accounting for over half the System/360 units sold. Models Four models of the 360/30 were initially offered. They vary by the amount of core memory with which the system was offered. The C30, D30, E30 and F30 were respectively configured with 8K, 16K, 32K and 64K of core memory.\\nIt was little publicized that there were two versions of the Model 30, known (on the rare occasions when they were distinguished at all) as the 30-1 and the 30-2. The original 30-1 had a 2.0 microsecond storage cycle. Later,\",\n \"-23.823345817858353\"\n ],\n [\n \"input and output. As in the Baby from which it was developed, and in contrast to the established mathematical convention, the machine's storage was arranged with the least significant digits to the left; thus a one was represented in five bits as \\\"10000\\\", rather than the more conventional \\\"00001\\\". Negative numbers were represented using two's complement, as most computers still do today. In that representation, the value of the most significant bit denotes the sign of a number; positive numbers have a zero in that position and negative numbers a one. Thus the range of numbers that could be held\",\n \"-23.755399801884778\"\n ],\n [\n \"distribution of the sum is the convolution of the distributions of the individual random variables).\",\n \"-23.719820739264833\"\n ],\n [\n \"sorted by numismatic value. He then packages the smallest denomination coins in pairs, starting from the pair of smallest total numismatic value. If there is one coin left over, it will be the coin of highest numismatic value of that denomination, and it is set aside and ignored henceforth. These packages are then merged into the list of coins of the next smallest denomination, again in order of numismatic value. The items in that list are then packaged in pairs, and merged into the next smallest list, and so forth.\\nFinally, there is a list of items,\",\n \"-23.66781333781546\"\n ],\n [\n \"the underlying hardware design, the unit octet was defined to explicitly denote a sequence of eight bits.\\nComputers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally named \\\"words\\\". Like the byte, the number of bits in a word also varies with the hardware design, and is typically between 8 and 80 bits, or even more in some specialized computers. In the 21st century, retail personal or server computers have a word size of 32 or 64 bits.\\nThe International System of Units defines a series of decimal prefixes for multiples of standardized units which are commonly also used with the bit and the\",\n \"-23.665838859480573\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the data, we should expect that the following two properties hold, as much as made possible by the own nature of the data. First, the bins would have roughly the same size, because the entropies and are maximized by equal-sized binning. And second, each bin of X will roughly correspond to a bin in Y.\\nBecause the variables X and Y are reals, it is almost always possible to create exactly one bin for each (x,y) datapoint, and that would yield a very high value of the MI. To avoid forming this kind of trivial partitioning, the authors\",\n \"-23.64175458822865\"\n ],\n [\n \"of a large, heavy set of different size bits, as well as providing uncommon bit sizes. A ruler or vernier scale is usually provided to allow precise adjustment of the bit size.\\nThese bits are available both in a version similar to an auger bit or brace bit, designed for low speed, high torque use with a brace or other hand drill (pictured to the right), or as a high speed, low torque bit meant for a power drill. While the shape of the cutting edges is different, and one uses screw threads and the other a twist bit for the\",\n \"-23.593012767494656\"\n ],\n [\n \"in other words, pick a number so that there is no need to examine the remainders. Any number in one range of quotas will accomplish this, with the highest number in the range always being the same as the lowest number used by the D'Hondt method to award a seat (if it is used rather than the Jefferson method), and the lowest number in the range being the smallest number larger than the next number which would award a seat in the D'Hondt calculations.\\nApplied to the above example of party lists, this range extends as integers from 20,001 to 25,000.\",\n \"-23.44712456461275\"\n ],\n [\n \"needs to use some of his coin collection to buy something of cost N. He wishes to select a subset of coins from his collection of minimum numismatic value whose denominations total N.\\nThe binary version of this problem is that all denominations are powers of 2, that is, 1, 1/2, 1/4, etc. dollars. Description of the package-merge algorithm Assume that the largest denomination is 1 dollar, and that N is an integer. (The algorithm works even if these assumptions do not hold, by trivial modifications.) The coin collector first separates his coins into lists, one for each denomination,\",\n \"-23.446413493948057\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the multiplicand and, under it, the ones-digit of the multiplier. Find the product of these two digits: write this product under the line and in the ones-column. If the product has two digits, then write down only the ones-digit of the product. Write the \\\"carry digit\\\" as a superscript of the yet-unwritten digit in the next column and under the line: in this case the next column is the tens-column, so write the carry digit as the superscript of the yet-unwritten tens-digit of the product (under the line).\\nIf both first and second number each have only one digit, then\",\n \"-23.41031861701049\"\n ],\n [\n \".\\nThe difference between the results for discrete and continuous variables may surprise many readers. Speaking intuitively, this is explained as follows. Let h be a small quantity and imagine that the amount of money we see when we look in Envelope A is rounded off in such a way that differences smaller than h are not noticeable, even though actually it varies continuously. The probability that the smaller amount of money is in an interval around a of length h, and Envelope A contains the smaller amount is approximately . The probability that the larger amount of money is in\",\n \"-23.397724044974893\"\n ],\n [\n \"value of a good or service is included in the total output. This avoids an issue often called 'double counting', wherein the total value of a good is included several times in national output, by counting it repeatedly in several stages of production. In the example of meat production, the value of the good from the farm may be $10, then $30 from the butchers, and then $60 from the supermarket. The value that should be included in final national output should be $60, not the sum of all those numbers, $100. The values added at each stage\",\n \"-23.395184438006254\"\n ],\n [\n \"worksheet also indicates the reel strip settings, number of coins that may be played, the payout schedule, the number of reels and other information descriptive of the particular type of slot machine.\\nWeight count is an American term, referring to the dollar amount of coins or tokens removed from a slot machine's drop bucket or drop box and counted by the casino's hard count team through the use of a weigh scale.\\nWild Symbol Wild symbols act like joker cards in a slot game. Basically, they substitute for all other symbols in the game, usually except for other special symbols, such as\",\n \"-23.352258532773703\"\n ],\n [\n \"bits, such as a byte or word, is referred to, it is usually specified by a number from 0 upwards corresponding to its position within the byte or word. However, 0 can refer to either the most or least significant bit depending on the context. Other information units Similar to angular momentum and energy in physics; information-theoretic information and data storage size have the same dimensionality of units of measurement, but there is in general no meaning to adding, subtracting or otherwise combining the units mathematically.\\nOther units of information, sometimes used in information theory, include the natural digit also called\",\n \"-23.344052806234686\"\n ],\n [\n \"of 60,000 (00000–59999). Word size versus address size word size is a characteristic given to computer architecture. It denotes the number of bits that a CPU can process at one time. Modern processors, including embedded systems, usually have a word size of 8, 16, 24, 32 or 64 bits; most current general purpose computers use 32 or 64 bits. Many different sizes have been used historically, including 8, 9, 10, 12, 18, 24, 36, 39, 40, 48 and 60 bits.\\nVery often, when referring to the word size of a modern computer, one is also describing the size of address space\",\n \"-23.287873021006817\"\n ],\n [\n \"0 0\\n 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0|0\\n ------------------------------\\n 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0\\n ^ ^\\nSo the carry-less product of a and b would be c = 101100011101100₂. For every bit set in the number a, the number b is shifted to the left as many bits as indicated by the position of the bit in a. All\",\n \"-23.225721264316235\"\n ],\n [\n \"Units of paper quantity Various measures of paper quantity have been and are in use. Although there are no S.I. units such as quires and bales, there are ISO and DIN standards for the ream. Expressions used here include U.S. Customary units. Quire A quire of paper is a measure of paper quantity. The usual meaning is 25 sheets of the same size and quality: ¹⁄₂₀ of a ream of 500 sheets. Quires of 25 sheets are often used for machine-made paper, while quires of 24 sheets are often used for handmade or specialised paper of 480-sheet reams. (As\",\n \"-23.19490449919249\"\n ],\n [\n \"be removed from this site\\\". George Score The \\\"George Score\\\" is a method of rating users based on how many bills they have entered, and by how many total hits they have had. The formula is as follows:\\nThis logarithmic formula means the more bills a user enters and the more hits the user receives, the less the user's score increases for each entered bill or new hit. Thus, a user's score does not increase as quickly when the user has entered many bills. User ranking can decrease based on inactivity (failure to refresh the \\\"Your Bills\\\" report). Wattsburg Gary,\",\n \"-23.19004185240192\"\n ],\n [\n \"is a very minor variation of the 1:24 scale, where many automobile plastic model kits are scaled at 1:25.\\n1:24 is the largest of the traditional slot car sizes - and the earliest. Lionel's (USA) 1:24 electric autos of 1912-1916 became the first known commercial slot cars. In 1955, the Model Automobile Racing Association of Kalamazoo, Michigan, built the first track for electric rail-racing (the short-lived immediate predecessor to slot racing) in the US. Unlike the seminal Southport (UK) track that inspired it, the MARA table was designed for 1:24 as well as 1:32 competition. With that beginning, the US adopted\",\n \"-23.094404488103464\"\n ],\n [\n \"devised a new format for storing real numbers in computers use a variable number of bits depending on the number of digits required, called unum number format. Normal formats store numbers as a fixed number of bits, for example 64 bits is usual for double-precision floating-point format numbers. This can allow them to be smaller than doubles for fast processing and also more precise or larger than the limits for double when desirable.\",\n \"-23.088076370069757\"\n ],\n [\n \"× 35. Since the second \\\"digit\\\" is not less than the threshold value of 2, there is more to come. The weight for the third \\\"digit\\\" is the previous weight times 36 minus the new threshold value; 35 × 34. The third \\\"digit\\\" in this example is 0, which is less than 2, meaning that it is the last (most significant) part of the number. Therefore, \\\"kva\\\" represents the number (10 × 1) + (21 × 35) + (0 × 35 × 34) = 745.\\nThe threshold itself is determined by an algorithm keeping it between 1 and 26\",\n \"-23.069177938974462\"\n ],\n [\n \" Moreover, since the largest order is at most O(log n), these bits can be encoded in O(1) machine words, assuming a transdichotomous machine model.\\nNote that O(1) machine words is not the same thing as one machine word. A 32-bit vector would only suffice for sizes less than L(32) = 7049155. A 64-bit vector will do for sizes less than L(64) = 34335360355129 ≈ 2⁴⁵. In general, it takes 1/log₂(φ) ≈ 1.44 bits of vector per bit of size.\",\n \"-23.068915926967748\"\n ],\n [\n \"feet per minute (15 m/min) through 22 stations.\\nThe time for one product to take shape can be represented by a simple function: t = (L + n⋅d) / V, where L is the length of the piece being formed, n is the number of forming stands, d is the distance between stands, and V is the velocity of the strip through the rolls.\\nIn general, roll forming lines can run from 5 to 500 feet per minute (1.5 to 152.4 m/min) or higher, depending on the application. In some cases the limiting factor is the punching or cutoff applications.\",\n \"-23.033966957824305\"\n ],\n [\n \"will have very different actual scales, but for the passenger automobiles in many die cast lines, 1:64 is a reasonable approximation. Brands of die-cast toys in and around this scale include Hot Wheels and Matchbox, Ertl, GreenLight, Auto World, Code 3, Johnny Lightning, and Jada Toys.\\nOutside the USA brands like Maisto, Siku, Norev Mini Jet, Corgi, Tomica, Autoart, Edocar, Kyosho, Majorette, Schuco, Welly, and many others, are available in this scale. Slot Cars Small-scale slot cars are often sized to fit a standard motorized chassis, and therefore vary somewhat in scale.\\nThe mechanisms have increased in size over the years to\",\n \"-23.022688276309054\"\n ],\n [\n \"the number of bins the inserting candidate intersects. In practice delete is much slower than insert.\\nLike a hash table, bin's efficiency depends a lot on the distribution of both location and size of candidates and queries. In general, the smaller the query rectangle, the more efficient the query. The bin's size should be such that it contains as few candidates as possible but large enough so that candidates do not span too many bins. If a candidate span many bins, a query has to skip this candidate over and over again after it is reported at the first bin of\",\n \"-23.021685418556444\"\n ],\n [\n \"or 136-tonne capacity one).\\nAlso, in a number of cases, multiple single-well cars (usually 3 or 5) are connected by drawbars and share a single reporting mark.\\nOn both types of multiple-unit cars, the units are typically distinguished by letters, with the unit on one end being the \\\"A\\\" unit, and the unit on the other end being the \\\"B\\\" unit. Middle units are labeled starting with \\\"C\\\", and going up to \\\"E\\\" for five-unit cars starting from the \\\"A\\\" unit and increasing towards the \\\"B\\\" unit. Carrying capacity Double-stack cars come in a number of sizes, related to the standard\",\n \"-22.99743712018244\"\n ],\n [\n \"as random numbers. Memory and variables The 35s provides 30k bytes of user memory, which is shared among data, stored equations, and programs.\\nSince complex numbers and vectors of up to three elements can be stored as a single value, each data variable occupies 37 bytes, enough for a type indicator and three floating-point numbers.\\nThe 26 alpha-labelled variables and the six statistics registers are permanently allocated; the rest of the memory space can be occupied by up to 801 more variables which can only be accessed indirectly. Indirect access to any variable is achieved by storing its sequence number (0 upwards)\",\n \"-22.983838096493855\"\n ],\n [\n \".75 are shown to thousandths [.250, .500, .750], which is how machinists usually think about them [\\\"two-fifty\\\", \\\"five hundred\\\", \\\"seven-fifty\\\"]. Machinists generally truncate the decimals after thousandths; for example, a 27/64\\\" drill bit may be referred to in shop-floor speech as a \\\"four-twenty-one drill\\\".)\\nCharts like this, printed at poster size, are widely posted on machine shop walls for handy reference by machinists as they work. For some tasks it is faster and less annoying to glance down a column of numbers on a poster than it is to punch calculator buttons or do penciled arithmetic. It is also true that\",\n \"-22.97268217417877\"\n ],\n [\n \"not standardized and the actual sizes varied depending on the country of manufacture and date.\\nThe size and proportions of a book will thus depend on the size of the original sheet of paper used in producing the book. For example, if a sheet 19 inches (480 mm) by 25 inches (640 mm) is used to print a quarto, the resulting book will be approximately 12 ¹⁄₂ inches (320 mm) tall and 9 ¹⁄₂ inches (240 mm) wide, before trimming. Because the size of paper used has differed over the years and localities, the sizes of books of the same format will also differ. A typical octavo\",\n \"-22.96584620559588\"\n ],\n [\n \"can be combined into an existing table, or placed into a new table. Tables can be collected by the user onto single or multiple canvases. Whereas a typical Excel sheet has data strewn across it, a Numbers canvas could build the same output through smaller individual tables encompassing the same data. Formulas and functions Consider a simple spreadsheet being used to calculate the average value of all car sales in a month for a given year. The sheet might contain the month number or name in column A, the number of cars sold in column B, and the total income\",\n \"-22.933050973311765\"\n ],\n [\n \"the same amount of information as one hexadecimal digit. Crumb A pair of two bits or a quarter byte was called a crumb, often used in early 8-bit computing (see Atari 2600, ZX Spectrum). It is now largely defunct. Word, block, and page Computers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally called words. The number of bits in a word is usually defined by the size of the registers in the computer's CPU, or by the number of data bits that are fetched from its main memory in a single operation. In the IA-32 architecture more\",\n \"-22.93274025444407\"\n ],\n [\n \"the example above, then it would have to sell only 1000/(2.3 - 0.6)= 589 units to break even, rather than 715.\\nTo make the results clearer, they can be graphed. To do this, draw the total cost curve (TC in the diagram), which shows the total cost associated with each possible level of output, the fixed cost curve (FC) which shows the costs that do not vary with output level, and finally the various total revenue lines (R1, R2, and R3), which show the total amount of revenue received at each output level, given the price you will be charging.\\nThe break-even\",\n \"-22.923196624207776\"\n ],\n [\n \"The carry-out is placed in the second row of the column to the left. The bottom bit is a single feed into an adder. The sum of this adder is placed in the third row of the column. Carry-out is ignored as it will always be zero, but by design it would be placed in the fourth row of the column to the left. For design, it is important to note that rows 1, 3, 5, ... (counting from the top) are filled with sums from the column itself. Rows 2, 4, 6, ... are\",\n \"-22.922905609128065\"\n ],\n [\n \"letter through a slot, picks up pebble-like objects at secure grasp points, and scales her grip correctly to pick up Efron blocks (which match in surface area, texture, mass, and color, and differ only in length and width).\\nAnd yet, Patient DF cannot judge the width of an object, such as a guitar pick, by using her thumb and forefinger to show how big it is. However, when asked to pick it up, her hand moves to the correct width. Her estimates (she is asked to put her thumb and forefinger the correct distance apart without moving to grasp the object)\",\n \"-22.92088537942618\"\n ],\n [\n \"full adder that accepts two 1-bit terms and a carry-in bit. It produces a sum and a carry-out. The full adders are arranged such that the sum remains in the same column of summands, but the carry-out is shifted left. In each round of reduction, three bits in a single column are used as the two terms and carry-in for the full adder, producing a single sum bit for the column. This reduces the bits in the column by a factor of 3. However, the column to the right will shift over carry-out bits, increasing\",\n \"-22.90668206239934\"\n ],\n [\n \"as the following illustrates:\\nfunction max(int[] items) -> (int r)// Requires at least one element to compute maxrequires |items| > 0// (1) Result is not smaller than any elementensures all { i in 0..|items| | items[i] <= r }// (2) Result matches at least one elementensures some { i in 0..|items| | items[i] == r }:\\n //\\n nat i = 1\\n int m = items[0]\\n //\\n while i < |items|\\n // (1) No item seen so far is larger than m\\n \",\n \"-22.901620390606695\"\n ],\n [\n \"than 1/2000 the magnitude of the stored value f(x), and the computed correction is more than ±1/1000 of a bit away from exactly half a bit (the difficult rounding case), then it is known whether the exact function value should be rounded up or down.\\nThe technique provides an efficient way to compute the function value to within ±1/1000 least-significant bit, i.e. 10 extra bits of precision. If this approximation is more than ±1/1000 of a bit away from exactly midway between two representable values (which happens all but 2/1000 of the time, i.e. 99.8% of the time), then the\",\n \"-22.868508110404946\"\n ],\n [\n \"the data at the top or the bottom end, typically an equal amount at each end and then taking the arithmetic mean of the remaining data. The number of values removed is indicated as a percentage of the total number of values. Mean of angles and cyclical quantities Angles, times of day, and other cyclical quantities require modular arithmetic to add and otherwise combine numbers. In all these situations, there will not be a unique mean. For example, the times an hour before and after midnight are equidistant to both midnight and noon. It is also possible that no mean\",\n \"-22.866257174871862\"\n ],\n [\n \"data in the sheet was given a name, and could then be grouped into categories. Formulas were typed into a separate section, and referred to data through their range, not their physical position in the sheets. Views of the data, some of which looked like spreadsheets, others like charts, could be created dynamically and were not limited in number.\\nTo illustrate the difference between Improv and other systems, consider the simple task of calculating the total sales for a product, given unit sales per month and unit prices. In a conventional spreadsheet the unit price would be typed into one set\",\n \"-22.821367274504155\"\n ],\n [\n \"1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1\\nThe top row shows the carry bits used. Instead of the standard carry from one column to the next, the lowest-ordered \\\"1\\\" with a \\\"1\\\" in the corresponding place value beneath it may be added and a \\\"1\\\" may be carried to one digit past the end of the series. The \\\"used\\\" numbers must be crossed off, since they are already added. Other long strings may likewise be\",\n \"-22.807224763731938\"\n ],\n [\n \"than . Example For instance, suppose a value is measured experimentally in several trials as 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, and 50. The mean is 16.7 and the standard deviation 16.34. 50 differs from 16.7 by 33.3, slightly more than two standard deviations. The probability of taking data more than two standard deviations from the mean is roughly 0.05. Six measurements were taken, so the statistic value (data size multiplied by the probability) is 0.05×6 = 0.3. Because 0.3 < 0.5, according to Chauvenet's criterion, the measured value of 50 should be discarded (leaving a new mean of 10,\",\n \"-22.769014854333363\"\n ],\n [\n \"at all. Most of the time, estimation cannot be executed due to the lack of supporting information either in the story description itself or directly from the Product Owner. Small Try to keep your PBI sizes to typically a few person-days and at most a few person-weeks (a good rule of thumb is that any single Product Backlog Item does not take more than 50% of an iteration; for example a single item won't take more than 5 days for a 2-week / 10 day sprint). Anything beyond that range should be considered too large to be estimated with a\",\n \"-22.750841748551466\"\n ],\n [\n \"..., n−1}), where a 1-bit indicates the presence and a 0-bit the absence of a number in the set. This set data structure uses about n/w words of space, where w is the number of bits in each machine word. Whether the least significant bit (of the word) or the most significant bit indicates the smallest-index number is largely irrelevant, but the former tends to be preferred (on little-endian machines). More complex operations As with character strings it is straightforward to define length, substring, lexicographical compare, concatenation, reverse operations. The implementation of some of these operations is sensitive to endianness.\",\n \"-22.74678130063694\"\n ],\n [\n \"Lot number A lot number is an identification number assigned to a particular quantity or lot of material from a single manufacturer. Lot numbers can typically be found on the outside of packaging. For cars, a lot number is combined with a serial number to form the Vehicle Identification Number.\\nThe lot number enables tracing of the constituent parts or ingredients as well as labor and equipment records involved in the manufacturing of a product. This enables manufacturers and other entities to perform quality control checks, calculate expiration dates, and issue corrections or recall information to subsets of their production output.\",\n \"-22.7427278906398\"\n ],\n [\n \"Where one number being multiplied is sufficiently small to be multiplied with ease by any single digit, the product can be calculated easily digit by digit from right to left. This is particularly easy for multiplication by 2 since the carry digit cannot be more than 1.\\nFor example, to calculate 2 × 167:\\n2×7=14, so the final digit is 4, with a 1 carried and added to the 2×6 = 12 to give 13, so the next digit is 3 with a 1 carried and added to the 2×1=2 to give 3. Thus, the product is 334. Multiplying by 5 To multiply\",\n \"-22.717681204725523\"\n ],\n [\n \"Least count In metrology, the least count of a measuring instrument is the smallest change in the measured quantity that can be resolved on the instrument's scale. The least count is related to the precision of an instrument; an instrument that can measure smaller changes in a value relative to another instrument, has a smaller \\\"least count\\\" value and so is more precise. Any measurement made by the instrument can be considered repeatable to no less than the resolution of the least count. The least count of an instrument is inversely proportional to the precision of the instrument.\\nFor example, a\",\n \"-22.705348821618827\"\n ],\n [\n \"Peel P50 Statistics At 54 in (1,372 mm) long and 39 in (991 mm) wide and with an unladen weight of 59 kilograms (130 lb), the P50 holds the record as the smallest car ever to go into production. The Peel P50's diminutive size and width means that it can quite easily fit through doorways and enter buildings, as demonstrated by Jeremy Clarkson during a sequence on a 2008 episode of Top Gear, where a blue P50 was driven through the BBC's Television Centre. 1962–1966 The P50 used a 49 cc (3.0 cu in) DKW engine, which gave it a top speed of approximately 37 mph (60 km/h), and was\",\n \"-22.701333300909027\"\n ],\n [\n \"in the larger scales, and currently 1:43 is largely used for toy or starter sets. Collectibles This scale is still popular, with many models now being made in China, but as time has passed, many new scales for diecast cars, both smaller (1:87, 1:64, and somewhere around 1:55), and larger (1:24, 1:18, and 1:12) have also competed, often more successfully in the toy and diecast market.\\nOriginally meant as toys and accessories for rail layouts, more specialized and expensive limited edition handbuilt collectibles made in white metal or resin produced in more limited numbers have become available. This has occurred as\",\n \"-22.69676891817653\"\n ],\n [\n \"other concerns when using the same methods of figuring costs, he can only conclude that his goods or his marketing, or both of them, are costing him too much. His next step, naturally, is to analyse closely the methods and conditions under which he is manufacturing and marketing his product, until he finds and corrects the inefficiencies which are handicapping him so seriously...\\nIn their 1919 \\\"Cost Accounting\\\" Nicholson and Rohrbach expressed the idea, that \\\"if the accuracy of the cost estimate has been tested and the sales price of the product has been properly determined on the basis of the\",\n \"-22.681487870635465\"\n ],\n [\n \"him correctly to keep Envelope A if its contents are larger than those of B, but to switch to Envelope B if A has smaller contents than B. Altogether, this means that he ends up with the envelope with the larger number with probability strictly larger than 1/2. To be precise, the probability that he ends with the \\\"winning envelope\\\" is 1/2 + P(Z falls between the two numbers)/2.\\nIn practice, the number Z we have described could be determined to the necessary degree of accuracy as follows. Toss a fair coin many times, and convert the sequence of heads\",\n \"-22.65684718871489\"\n ],\n [\n \"the number of units can vary from day to day, the average number of units must be calculated or estimated for a given month to obtain the most accurate possible ARPU figure for that month.\\nAlso related is the ARPPU (Average Revenue Per Paying User), which is calculated by dividing up the revenue amongst the users who paid anything at all. That yields a figure that is significantly larger than ARPU. For example, in the case of a subscription game that has a free to play version, the ARPPU, measured by accounts, is the subscription price, diluted slightly by free trials.\\nA\",\n \"-22.654932670586277\"\n ],\n [\n \"a bin covers the range from 0.1 to 0.2, then when the user asks for all values less than 0.15, all rows that fall in the bin are possible hits and have to be checked to verify whether they are actually less than 0.15. The process of checking the base data is known as the candidate check. In most cases, the time used by the candidate check is significantly longer than the time needed to work with the bitmap index. Therefore, binned indexes exhibit irregular performance. They can be very fast for some queries, but much slower if the query\",\n \"-22.647078409674577\"\n ],\n [\n \"an interval around a of length h corresponds to the smaller amount being in an interval of length h/2 around a/2. Hence the probability that the larger amount of money is in a small interval around a of length h and Envelope A contains the larger amount is approximately . Thus, given Envelope A contains an amount about equal to a, the probability it is the smaller of the two is roughly .\\nIf the player only wants to end up with the larger amount of money, and does not care about expected amounts, then in the discrete case he should\",\n \"-22.641191367292777\"\n ],\n [\n \"a yard (4.5 inches) was sometimes called a finger, but was more commonly referred to simply as an eighth of a yard, while the half-yard (18 inches) was called \\\"half a yard\\\".\\nOther units related to the yard, but not specific to cloth measurement: two yards are a fathom, a quarter of a yard (when not referring to cloth) is a span.\",\n \"-22.63921148236841\"\n ],\n [\n \"inch to the right, one has 10, one inch to the right of 10 one has 10×10 = 100, then 10×100 = 1000 = 10³, then 10×1000 = 10,000 = 10⁴, etc. Similarly, one inch to the left of 1, one has 1/10 = 10–1, then 1/100 = 10–2, etc.\\nThis approach is useful, when one wants to represent, on the same figure, values with very different order of magnitude. For example, one requires a logarithmic scale for representing simultaneously the size of the different bodies that exist in the Universe, typically, a photon, an electron, an atom, a molecule, a\",\n \"-22.631075439090637\"\n ],\n [\n \"1:64 scale Die-cast vehicles Many die cast automobiles and commercial vehicle models for collectors have been made to a strict scale of 1:64. However, for much of the die-cast toy market, 1:64 is only a nominal scale. Though collectors and manufacturers loosely describe popular lines of die-casts as 1:64, toy vehicles are usually made to \\\"box scale.\\\" This means that the size of the model is determined by the size of the standard packaging (formerly a cardstock box, now usually a clear blister-card). Models of a 1959 Cadillac and an Austin Mini-Cooper designed to fill up the same packaging space\",\n \"-22.61407616327051\"\n ],\n [\n \"between the cup sizes is always one inch, or 2.54 cm. The difference between 2 band sizes is 2 inches or 5.08 cm.\\nLeading brands and manufacturers including Panache, Bestform, Gossard, Freya, Curvy Kate, Bravissimo and Fantasie, which use the British standard band sizes 28-30-32-34-36-38-40-42-44, and so on. Cup sizes are designated by AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-FF-G-GG-H-HH-J-JJ-K-KK-L.\\nHowever, some clothing retailers and mail order companies have their own house brands and use a custom sizing system. Marks and Spencers uses AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-GG-H-J, leaving out FF and HH. As a result, their J-Cup is equal to a British standard H-cup. Evans and ASDA sell bras (ASDA as part of their\",\n \"-22.58549757822766\"\n ],\n [\n \"guess that 50 would be near the middle of the set after it is sorted. This approximate location is called a class. If numbered 1 to , the class of an item is the quantile, computed as:\\n \\nwhere is the input set. The range covered by every class is equal, except the last class which includes only the maximum(s). The classification ensures that every element in a class is greater than any element in a lower class. This partially orders the data and reduces the number of inversions. Insertion sort is then applied to the classified set. As long\",\n \"-22.566439415124478\"\n ],\n [\n \"Consumer price index Calculating the CPI for multiple items Many but not all price indices are weighted averages using weights that sum to 1 or 100.\\nExample: The prices of 85,000 items from 22,000 stores, and 35,000 rental units are added together and averaged. They are weighted this way: Housing: 41.4%, Food and Beverage: 17.4%, Transport: 17.0%, Medical Care: 6.9%, Other: 6.9%, Apparel: 6.0%, Entertainment: 4.4%. Taxes (43%) are not included in CPI computation.\\nwhere the terms do not necessarily sum to 1 or 100. Weights and sub-indices By convention weights are fractions or ratios summing to one, as percentages summing\",\n \"-22.541795903001912\"\n ],\n [\n \"five-percent or home-market-viability test. This test is applied globally by comparing the quantity sold of a like product on the domestic market with the quantity sold to the importing market.\\nNormal value cannot be based on the price in the exporter's domestic market when there are no domestic sales. For example, if the products are only sold on the foreign market, the normal value will have to be determined on another basis. Additionally, some products may be sold on both markets but the quantity sold on the domestic market may be small compared to quantity sold on foreign market.\",\n \"-22.528195112608955\"\n ],\n [\n \"to most common machines having 6 figure accuracy and a dynamic range of 10⁻³⁸ to 10⁺³⁸. This was achieved by using base 256 for the floating point format, rather than the more common base 2, and using six bytes for storing numbers, rather than the more common four. Five bytes stored the basic number, with the last byte storing the sign in the first bit, and the remaining seven bits storing the exponent. For example, π was stored as 3.14159265358.\\nBenchmarks show that even though the NewBrain performed double accuracy calculations, it was one of the fastest 8-bit computers available for\",\n \"-22.52558321649849\"\n ],\n [\n \"multiple of 5 is more \\\"convenient\\\" to measure or verify than one which is not. In addition, where operations involve the subdivision of quantities into two or more equal parts, any number that is highly divisible has an explicit advantage.\\\"\",\n \"-22.525572264072252\"\n ],\n [\n \" As 5+9+4+2=20, the total mixture contains 5/20 of A (5 parts out of 20), 9/20 of B, 4/20 of C, and 2/20 of D. If we divide all numbers by the total and multiply by 100, we have converted to percentages: 25% A, 45% B, 20% C, and 10% D (equivalent to writing the ratio as 25∶45∶20∶10).\\nIf the two or more ratio quantities encompass all of the quantities in a particular situation, it is said that \\\"the whole\\\" contains the sum of the parts: for example, a fruit basket containing two apples and three oranges and no other\",\n \"-22.51965045928955\"\n ],\n [\n \"are available for each of the third, fourth, and fifth rows. Thus, the number of unique \\\"B\\\" (and \\\"I\\\", \\\"G\\\", and \\\"O\\\", respectively) columns is (15*14*13*12*11) = 360,360. The combinations of the \\\"N\\\" column differ due to the use of the free space. Therefore, it has only (15*14*13*12) = 32,760 unique combinations. The product of the five rows (360,360⁴ * 32,760) describes the total number of unique playing cards. That number is 552,446,474,061,128,648,601,600,000 simplified as 5.52x10²⁶ or 552 septillion.\\nPrinting a complete set of Bingo cards is impossible for all practical purposes. If one trillion cards could be printed each second,\",\n \"-22.479589157635928\"\n ],\n [\n \"a random rank, and so it is not guaranteed to be in the middle 50 percent. However, when we start from a random permutation, in each recursive call the pivot has a random rank in its list, and so it is in the middle 50 percent about half the time. That is good enough. Imagine that you flip a coin: heads means that the rank of the pivot is in the middle 50 percent, tail means that it isn't. Imagine that you are flipping a coin over and over until you get k heads. Although this could take a long\",\n \"-22.461630382051226\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the quoted 400,000 digit capacity was in the form of reels of punched paper tape.\\nAddition took 285 microseconds and multiplication 20 milliseconds, making arithmetic operations much faster than the Harvard Mark I. Data that had to be retrieved quickly was held in electronic circuits; the remainder was stored in relays and as holes in three continuous card-stock tapes that filled another wall. A chain hoist was needed to lift the heavy reels of paper into place. The machine read instructions or data from 30 paper tape readers connected to three punches, and another a table look-up unit consisted\",\n \"-22.460112402564846\"\n ],\n [\n \"bob is 10p.\\nThe introduction of decimal currency caused a new casual usage to emerge, where any value in pence is spoken using the suffix pee: e.g. \\\"twenty-three pee\\\" or, in the early years, \\\"two-and-a-half pee\\\" rather than the previous \\\"tuppence-ha'penny\\\". Amounts over a pound are normally spoken thus: \\\"five pounds forty\\\". A value with less than ten pence over the pound is sometimes spoken like this: \\\"one pound and a penny\\\", \\\"three pounds and fourpence\\\". The slang term \\\"bit\\\" has almost disappeared from use completely, although in Scotland a fifty pence is sometimes referred to as a \\\"ten bob bit\\\".\",\n \"-22.42543246205605\"\n ],\n [\n \"of experimental error in measurements. Least count error The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least count. Measured values are good only up to this value. The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.\\nIf we use a metre scale for measurement of length, it may have graduations at 1 mm division scale spacing or interval. A Vernier scale on caliper may have a least count of 0.1 mm while a micrometer may have a least count of 0.01 mm.\\nThe least count error occurs with both systematic and random\",\n \"-22.396479493239895\"\n ],\n [\n \"normally distributed variables is skewed, unless the means are much larger than the standard deviations. If the sample is large enough this will not be a problem, however determining when a sample is sufficiently large is somewhat subjective. Problems with the product of coefficients In some situations it is possible that (τ – τ’) ≠ (αβ). This occurs when the sample size is different in the models used to estimate the mediated effects. Suppose that the independent variable and the mediator are available from 200 cases, while the dependent variable is only available from 150 cases. This means that the\",\n \"-22.388862451945897\"\n ],\n [\n \"might vary on basis of a broadsheet or a pullout, however in general stands at 4 cm width.\\nNowadays, most newspapers and magazines have converted to a \\\"modular\\\" system that simplifies ad size and eliminates the need to figure out column inches. In a modular system ad sizes are represented by the amount of the total page the ad takes up. For example 1/2 page, 1/4 page, 1/8 page, etc. This has been a popular system among many newspapers because it simplifies the layout process (i.e. less ad sizes to fit in newspaper) and makes pricing much easier for\",\n \"-22.37331551432726\"\n ],\n [\n \"other combination of the same length. A normal number can be thought of as an infinite sequence of coin flips (binary) or rolls of a die (base 6). Even though there will be sequences such as 10, 100, or more consecutive tails (binary) or fives (base 6) or even 10, 100, or more repetitions of a sequence such as tail-head (two consecutive coin flips) or 6-1 (two consecutive rolls of a die), there will also be equally many of any other sequence of equal length. No digit or sequence is \\\"favored\\\". \\nA number is said to be absolutely normal if\",\n \"-22.358071152411867\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the paper propose taking a number of bins for X and whose product is relatively small compared with the size N of the data sample. Concretely, they propose:\\nIn some cases it is possible to achieve a good correspondence between and with numbers as low as and , while in other cases the number of bins required may be higher. The maximum for is determined by H(X), which is in turn determined by the number of bins in each axis, therefore, the mutual information value will be dependent on the number of bins selected\",\n \"-22.35314223752357\"\n ],\n [\n \"a collection of 36: a–z and 0–9, representing 0–25 and 26–35 respectively. A digit lower than a threshold value marks that it is the most-significant digit, hence the end of the number. The threshold value depends on the position in the number. For example, if the threshold value for the first digit is b (i.e. 1) then a (i.e. 0) marks the end of the number (it has just one digit), so in numbers of more than one digit, range is only b–9 (1–35), therefore the weight b₁ is 35 instead of 36. Suppose the threshold values for the second\",\n \"-22.344713096215855\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":98,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"2dv23y"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Insane Clown Posse"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["I'm not even trying to be funny, I would just honestly love to see someone try to explain that shit. Good luck to whoever takes this on.","Ok, so. I have met a few of these \"juggalos\" in my life, and lived with one for a while. As far as I understood when he explained it to me its kinda like a family that takes you in and takes care of you if you don't get along with your parents or don't fit in elsewhere or whatever. So basically its a group that kids join (that have too much anger towards their parents or teenage angst built up) so they can act like fools and do as they please straight into middle age and sometimes beyond. They are foolhardy and intense as well as crazy and short term thinkers. But they have a love for their own and will protect eachother. ELI5: Somewhere between a gang and a family of misfits and outcasts that like attention and bad music.","J and Shaggy aren't evangelical Christians in the sense that, say, Pat Robertson or Benny Hinn are or Jerry Falwell was. They seem to believe in the Christian perception of God without all the bullshit filler endorsing slavery, rape, etc. that the Bible contains. They believe in divine retribution, the afterlife, doing good by your fellow man, and all that jazz, but they framed it all in the form of the Dark Carnival mythos because, simply put, it's way more fucking entertaining. However, the problem with this is that they ain't exactly scholars (neither ever even got to 10th grade) or particularly deep storytellers. Around 2002, after they released \"The Wraith: Shangri-La\" & \"The Wraith: Hell's Pit\" (the finale to their Joker's Cards series), life was just so good for them and they were feeling so happy & blessed that they seemed to go off the deep end. The song \"Miracles\", with its infamous line about magnets, was the lowest point of that journey. Since then, they've dialed back the God talk and tried to get back to their schlocky, pulpy roots, but the non-Juggalo world doesn't really know it because they don't pay close enough attention.","Huh, well because they are ass backward morons? They dress as clowns, and the fans look like dumpster divers. The ones I have meet are not the slightest bit intelligent, and it seems more like a way to fit in with other simple minded morons. Lots of attention seeking, and a need to fit in. The need to fit in is a huge need (not want) for youth as a way to form ones identity (or realize what they are NOT). I was a punk once, and talk about not fitting in! I was the shittiest punker on the planet. Eventually I realized that I kinda got along with everybody, and didn't need to adhere to a clique. Some folks need that, and some folks identify with others who drink shit beer, threaten women with harm, and spit shock value for attention. They are not the only ones either, as hipsters, and the emo movement are equally disgusting in my opinion. I have a lot more respect for goths to be honest. I used to hate them, but seeing some of them still practice the style twenty years later is kinda cool. They know who they are, where as some of the cliques these days will fade away (remember grunge). Plus, that stupid \"ax man\" logo is a hop skip and jump away from the favorite of the 90's. You know what I am talking about, the stupid fuckin' \"no fear\" guy. I laugh when I see folks with that damn ax man tattoo.","You'd probably be better off asking for an explanation of Homestuck."],"string":"[\n \"I'm not even trying to be funny, I would just honestly love to see someone try to explain that shit. Good luck to whoever takes this on.\",\n \"Ok, so. I have met a few of these \\\"juggalos\\\" in my life, and lived with one for a while. As far as I understood when he explained it to me its kinda like a family that takes you in and takes care of you if you don't get along with your parents or don't fit in elsewhere or whatever. So basically its a group that kids join (that have too much anger towards their parents or teenage angst built up) so they can act like fools and do as they please straight into middle age and sometimes beyond. They are foolhardy and intense as well as crazy and short term thinkers. But they have a love for their own and will protect eachother. ELI5: Somewhere between a gang and a family of misfits and outcasts that like attention and bad music.\",\n \"J and Shaggy aren't evangelical Christians in the sense that, say, Pat Robertson or Benny Hinn are or Jerry Falwell was. They seem to believe in the Christian perception of God without all the bullshit filler endorsing slavery, rape, etc. that the Bible contains. They believe in divine retribution, the afterlife, doing good by your fellow man, and all that jazz, but they framed it all in the form of the Dark Carnival mythos because, simply put, it's way more fucking entertaining. However, the problem with this is that they ain't exactly scholars (neither ever even got to 10th grade) or particularly deep storytellers. Around 2002, after they released \\\"The Wraith: Shangri-La\\\" & \\\"The Wraith: Hell's Pit\\\" (the finale to their Joker's Cards series), life was just so good for them and they were feeling so happy & blessed that they seemed to go off the deep end. The song \\\"Miracles\\\", with its infamous line about magnets, was the lowest point of that journey. Since then, they've dialed back the God talk and tried to get back to their schlocky, pulpy roots, but the non-Juggalo world doesn't really know it because they don't pay close enough attention.\",\n \"Huh, well because they are ass backward morons? They dress as clowns, and the fans look like dumpster divers. The ones I have meet are not the slightest bit intelligent, and it seems more like a way to fit in with other simple minded morons. Lots of attention seeking, and a need to fit in. The need to fit in is a huge need (not want) for youth as a way to form ones identity (or realize what they are NOT). I was a punk once, and talk about not fitting in! I was the shittiest punker on the planet. Eventually I realized that I kinda got along with everybody, and didn't need to adhere to a clique. Some folks need that, and some folks identify with others who drink shit beer, threaten women with harm, and spit shock value for attention. They are not the only ones either, as hipsters, and the emo movement are equally disgusting in my opinion. I have a lot more respect for goths to be honest. I used to hate them, but seeing some of them still practice the style twenty years later is kinda cool. They know who they are, where as some of the cliques these days will fade away (remember grunge). Plus, that stupid \\\"ax man\\\" logo is a hop skip and jump away from the favorite of the 90's. You know what I am talking about, the stupid fuckin' \\\"no fear\\\" guy. I laugh when I see folks with that damn ax man tattoo.\",\n \"You'd probably be better off asking for an explanation of Homestuck.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["Clown (comics) Publication history The first Clown first appeared in The Incredible Hulk #3 (September 1962), and was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko. Half-brother A new Clown appeared in Brand New Day as one of the villains in the bar. He was later sighted as a member of Hood's crime syndicate. Later, the Clown is contacted by Zodiac and Death Reaper, who offer him a spot on their rogue band of criminals. Together, they attack the Human Torch, hijack the Red Ronin to attack Times Square, and cause Norman Osborn a large amount of consternation. Clown, along with","-27.038504407566506"],["their stupidity\". Spin likened Insane Clown Posse's stage act to \"a sort of circus karaoke\" and portrayed the group's fans as overweight suburbanites. On the group's website, Bruce responded to the article by stating, \"I could give a fuck less\".\nAfter a show in Indianapolis, Insane Clown Posse's tour bus stopped at a Waffle House in Greenfield, Indiana. When a customer began to harass Spaniolo and Bruce, a fight broke out between the customer and all of the bands' members. Months later on June 4, 1998, Bruce and Utsler pleaded guilty to misdemeanor disorderly conduct charges (reduced from battery) in an","-26.553464755546884"],["new name: Insane Clown Posse. Upon returning home that night, Bruce had a dream in which spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him—an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group's Joker's Cards series. These stories each offer a specific lesson designed to change the \"evil ways\" of listeners before \"the end consumes us all.\" Insane Clown Posse has a dedicated following, often referred to by the group as Juggalos and Juggalettes.\nJohn Utsler left the group about a month before the release of Carnival of Carnage and Insane Clown Posse has since","-26.431813584116753"],["Cards series. These stories each offer a specific lesson designed to change the \"evil ways\" of listeners before \"the end consumes us all.\" Insane Clown Posse has a dedicated following, often referred to by the group as Juggalos and Juggalettes.\nJohn Utsler left the group in 1992, and Insane Clown Posse has since been composed of Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler, who perform under the respective personas of the murderous, wicked clowns Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo perform a style of hardcore hip hop known as horrorcore, and is known for its dark, violent lyrics and elaborate live","-26.31778419294278"],["been composed of Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler, who perform under the respective personas of the murderous, wicked clowns Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo performs a style of hardcore hip hop known as horrorcore, and is known for its dark, violent lyrics and elaborate live performances. Insane Clown Posse has earned two platinum and five gold albums. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the entire catalog of the group has sold 6.5 million units in the United States and Canada as of April 2007. Golden Goldies (1995) Golden Goldies was a comical group whose lyrics focused solely on gold.","-25.784978482945007"],["Insane Clown Posse 1985–94: Early history Joseph Bruce (Violent J) and Joseph Utsler (Shaggy 2 Dope) met in Oak Park, a suburb on the north border of Detroit, Michigan. Along with Utsler's brother, John, and friend, Lacy, they wrestled in backyard rings that they had built themselves. They also listened to hip hop music, including 3rd Bass, Beastie Boys, N.W.A and local rappers like Awesome Dre. In 1989, Joseph Bruce, as Jagged Joe, Joseph Utsler, as Kangol Joe, and John Utsler, as Master J, released the single titled \"Party at the Top of the Hill\" under the name of JJ","-25.63656056456057"],["their plans, and the final concept instead featured Insane Clown Posse performing actions which Joseph Bruce later described as \"[Some of] the stupidest thing[s] I had ever heard of.\" Because the group and the label were disappointed with the video, it was not publicly released at the time, although a snippet of it later appeared on Stranglemania in 1996 and finally the full video was released on Psychopathic: The Videos in 2007. Legacy Ringmaster's popularity enabled Insane Clown Posse to sell out larger nightclubs across their hometown of Detroit, Michigan such as St. Andrews Hall and the State Theatre. Because","-25.631686825916404"],["are fans of the hip hop group Insane Clown Posse. Members often have tattoos and wear face paint. The FBI has classified juggalos as a \"loosely organized hybrid gang\", and in 2011, the Justice Department's Gang Task Force said group members were \"forming more organized subsets and engaging in more gang-like criminal activity\".\nJason Webber, an organizer of the march and publicist for Insane Clown Posse's record label Psychopathic Records, said the government's labeling \"exposed law-abiding Juggalos to harassment and discrimination by police, employers and others\". March supporters claimed they were a nonviolent group who should not be compared to gangs","-25.599493107016315"],["Spaniolo, and Methric agreed on the band name Twiztid. The House of Horrors Tour thus featured Insane Clown Posse, with opening groups Twiztid, Myzery, and Psycho Realm. Legal troubles On November 16, 1997, Bruce was arrested on an aggravated battery charge after allegedly striking an audience member thirty times with his microphone at a concert in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Bruce was held for four hours before being released on $5,000 bail. The January 1998 issue of Spin magazine ran a four-page cartoon lampooning Insane Clown Posse and Juggalos, claiming that the group was offensive \"not for their obscenity, but for","-25.552309000049718"],["\"Spiral\" arc. This Clown's identity hasn't been revealed yet.\nDuring the \"Opening Salvo\" part of the Secret Empire storyline, Clown was with the Circus of Crime at the time when Baron Helmut Zemo recruited them to join the Army of Evil. Powers and abilities The first Clown has no superhuman powers but often uses his clown paraphernalia in attacking his victims, such as using his juggling balls and trick canes. As Griffin, he is a Harpy-like man (based on Betty Ross's Harpy mutation) with sharp claws and talons, and can spit a slimy corrosive venom. He is shown to be somewhat","-25.463272063654586"],["by taking bumps. Heyman also favored the idea of using Insane Clown Posse, because it was unlikely that anyone knew of the relationship the group had with Van Dam and Sabu. Heyman presented his idea to Bruce and Utsler, who agreed to participate. Insane Clown Posse opened the ECW program by performing songs and exciting the crowd. Then Van Dam and Sabu, the main villains at the time, attacked Bruce and Utsler. The top fan favorite, The Sandman, came in and saved them by chasing away Van Dam and Sabu with his signature Singapore cane. ICP's Strangle-Mania Live (1997) Being","-25.41172198211916"],["Clown Posse released a statement on the Robida attacks. The group's manager Alex Abbiss extended Bruce and Utsler's condolences and prayers to the families of the victims, stating that \"It's quite obvious that this guy had no clue what being a Juggalo is all about. If anyone knows anything at all about ICP, then you know that they have never, ever been down or will be down with any racist or bigotry bullshit\".\nOn October 21, 2006, Insane Clown Posse performed at one of twenty benefit shows organized by Myspace as part of the \"Rock for Darfur\" campaign to raise awareness","-25.38937499432359"],["their plans, and the final concept instead featured Insane Clown Posse performing actions which Joseph Bruce later described as \"[Some of] the stupidest thing[s] I had ever heard of.\" Because the group and the label were disappointed with the video, it was not publicly released at the time, although it later appeared on Psychopathic: The Videos in 2007.\nThe music video for the \"Slaughter House Mix\" was shot at the State Theatre during an actual Insane Clown Posse concert. The director of the video, former Cro-Mags rhythm guitarist Parris Mayhew, wanted Insane Clown Posse to perform the song several times in","-25.323252540809335"],["agreed. Several names were considered before Bruce recalled his dream of a clown running around in Delray, which became the inspiration for the group's new name: Insane Clown Posse. The other members agreed, deciding that they would take on this new genre and name, and would all don face paint due to the success of their former clown-painted hype man. Upon returning home that night, Bruce says he had a dream in which \"spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him\"—an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group's Joker's Cards series, beginning","-25.23672848514252"],["them anything that they're not claiming for themselves.\"\nIn 2011, Insane Clown Posse appeared on Attack of the Show! and refuted claims that they were a Christian band. Bruce explained that their Dark Carnival mythology \"comes from the basic principle of right and wrong, you know; evil and good. That’s all. We’re just trying to say that there’s bad guys out there and that there’s good guys out there [...] We were taught there’s a heaven and a hell, but that’s all we were taught. We weren’t taught about the [Ten] Commandments [... or] what’s in the Bible and all that.","-25.015460201655515"],["a friend of the duo, Insane Clown Posse attended several shows. The group hung out backstage with their friends, and also began talking to and smoking with Robinson, eventually befriending him. Juggalo Championship Wrestling (1999–2012) In 1997, Robinson wrestled for Insane Clown Posse at the event ICP's Strangle-Mania Live. Two years later, he, 2 Tuff Tony, and Mad Man Pondo wrestled at the Dan Curtis Memorial, an independent wrestling booker who had recently worked for Insane Clown Posse. Several days after the event, Tony, Robinson, and Pondo were booked to wrestle for Insane Clown Posse's first Juggalo Championshit Wrestling show.","-24.88107248392771"],["\"Anti-Clown Army\" and students were later seen roaming the campus armed with baseball bats. North Carolina On September 4, children in a Winston-Salem neighborhood reported to the police about a person dressed as a clown trying to lure them into some woods. They described him as wearing white overalls and gloves, red shoes, and bushy, red hair. His face was described as white with a red nose. They claim that he offered them treats if they would go with him. According to police, an adult heard, but did not see, the clown.\nOn September 7, a witness reported seeing a person","-24.802492485527182"],["The Ringmaster (album) Background Following a dream by group member Joseph Bruce in which \"spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him\", Insane Clown Posse created the mythology of the Dark Carnival. The Carnival, a metaphoric limbo in which the lives of the dead await to be judged, was planned to be elaborated through a series of stories called Joker's Cards, each of which offers a specific lesson designed to change the \"evil ways\" of listeners before \"the end consumes us all.\"\nFollowing the release of the first Joker's Card, Carnival of Carnage, the group began to build a local following.","-24.766653864524415"],["Juggalo: Insane Clown Posse, Their Fans, and the World They Made About the book According to Miller's website, the book focuses on its dedicated fans, aka juggalos, who've been questionably labeled a gang by the F.B.I.. Here is a snippet of the book's description: \"The FBI is certain this family is dangerous. Come see how the FBI has again failed to shoot straight and enter the world of ICP, Juggalos and their endeavor to live free.\" About the Author Miller, a journalist and Edgar-nominated author, previously covered Insane Clown Posse in his Detroit Rock City (book) and various magazine features,","-24.61426975298673"],["Los Psycho Circus History Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (AAA) has a long history of using clown based ring characters ever since the company was founded in 1992, most famously the group known as Los Payasos (Spanish for \"The Clowns\") that existed until 1999. AAA later tried to promote other clown trios such as Payasos del Mal (\"Evil Clowns\") in 2007. It was not until AAA took the wrestler who had worked as Aliens, Kronus (son of Brazo de Plata) and a third wrestler whose previous identity has not been revealed and turned them into Los Psycho Circus. Aliens became","-24.465961322421208"],["images of the fool in myth and history, and ruminations on the mingling of ecstasy and dread in the Information Age, Dery asserts the evil clown is an icon of our times. Clowns are often depicted as murderous psychopaths at many American haunted houses.\nWolfgang M. Zucker points out the similarities between a clown's appearance and the cultural depictions of demons and other infernal creatures, noting \"[the clown's] chalk-white face in which the eyes almost disappear, while the mouth is enlarged\nto a ghoulish bigness, looks like the mask of death\".\nAccording to psychology professor Joseph Durwin at California State University, Northridge, young","-24.361396482316195"],["The clown knocks out the cashier and steals the handy supply of drugs and junk food while a woman (the cowgirl) stops for gas. The clown then ties the woman up while Fay stops for gas. As Fay searches the station for a clerk the clown rummages through her car, stealing her wallet, and then leaves in the cowgirl's truck, which later breaks down.\nAfter the clown takes a mysterious ride in the Devil Girl's flying vehicle, and Fay's car breaks down, both stop separately in an eerie, highly religious, nearby town. Fay takes a room in the local motel, using","-24.348454113716798"],["on the Insane Clown Posse song \"Ride the Tempest\", from their album The Tempest. He performs a carnival barker-style introduction to the song, featuring the signature laughter of his Sinister Minister gimmick.","-24.347682154242648"],["Posse. On September 25, Mike Awesome defeated Insane Clown Posse in a Handicap Hardcore match. Juggalo Championship Wrestling (1999–2006) On December 19, 1999, Bruce and Utsler created their own wrestling promotion, Juggalo Championshit Wrestling (now known as Juggalo Championship Wrestling). That night, the duo defeated the team of two Doink the Clowns to become the first ever JCW Tag Team Champions. The event was taped and released as JCW, Volume 1. Commentary was provided by Bruce and Utsler under their \"3D\" and \"Gweedo\" announcing personas. In 2000, Insane Clown Posse was involved in a rivalry with The Rainbow Coalition (Big","-24.331948737672064"],["gang called the Juggalo Killers, who knocked her unconscious before carving the letters \"JK\" into her chest, because they wanted to be the only group wearing Insane Clown Posse merchandise in their territory.\nIn 2012, a Juggalo gang member, who was wanted for violating probation, was placed on New Mexico's most wanted list.\nJuggalos in Oregon have been reported to have extorted homeless and homosexual individuals on the street with the threat of beatings.\nIn August 2013, a Juggalo street gang member was arrested on charges of attempted murder, battery with a deadly weapon and possession of a controlled substance for allegedly attacking","-24.244127011217643"],["Posse wherein spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him. The group decided to incorporate this dream into their band's newly created persona. The spirits are each revealed in a series of albums called the Six Joker's Cards. Each spirit relays a message through the use of a moral story.\nWith the advent of Insane Clown Posse's Second Deck (2009), the character Bang! Pow! Boom!, a new spirit in the Dark Carnival, was introduced. The character is a demon-like figure that Bruce describes as a \"continuous explosion that stomps his way through the crowd blowing [...] evil souls [...] to Hell\".","-24.235663032071898"],["unveiled in two separate seminars, The Wraith: Shangri-La and Hell's Pit, given by Violent J. The second seminar, detailing Insane Clown Posse's entire rise to fame, was captured on video and released with The Wraith: Shangri-La on DVD.\nA riot occurred after police tried to stop female attendees from showing their breasts. The police released tear gas and pepper balls into the surrounding crowd, causing mass confusion. Psychopathic Record employees Rob Bruce and Alex Abbiss negotiated with police, and the festival continued after airing out for 30 minutes. Expansion and development (2003–2006) In 2003, the Juggalo Gathering was held outdoors for","-24.19847945444053"],["manager, who established the Psychopathic Records record label with the group in 1991. Later that year the group released the self-produced EP titled Dog Beats. Insane Clown Posse (1991–present) In late 1991, Inner City Posse changed their style, look, and name. Joseph Bruce recalled a dream of a clown running around in Delray, which became the inspiration for the group's new name: Insane Clown Posse. Upon returning home that night, Bruce had a dream in which spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him—an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group's Joker's","-24.162282679404598"],["dark characters, complete with statements about the clowns \"rejoicing in the pain of others\" and \"Violence without measure\", a fabricated profile to help enhance their \"evil\" characters.\nThe team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star, Super Fly and Pegasso). Los Psycho Circus was physically larger than most of the AAA wrestlers and soon established themselves as a dominant force in the ring, booked to easily defeat a series of low card teams. While Los Psycho Circus was booked as Rudos (bad guys) they faced both tecnico","-24.137176193340565"],["three men who supposedly saw the clown. New Hampshire In Durham, New Hampshire, UNH College Students (University of New Hampshire) reported to the police that a person dressed as a creepy clown was roaming the campus. Police followed up the report claiming that the clown was found with no weapons except a megaphone. It is unknown why the clown had a megaphone. New Jersey On Monday, October 4, at around 10pm, a male in a clown mask carrying a plastic machete scared a woman at a Quick Chek convenience store in Parsippany. A second eyewitness also was scared by the","-24.108867047987587"],["a Don and co-owner of the label. Solo (1992-2006; 2012-Present) Bruce was included in Insane Clown Posse's debut album Carnival of Carnage in 1992. Taking the name Jumpsteady, he performed on the final track \"Taste\". He rapped about political and economical problems he had experienced first hand, such as the government's lack of consideration of the problems facing the ghetto, and their actions taken during Desert Storm. Soon after his appearance on the duo's next studio album Ringmaster, Jumpsteady took a leave from rapping.\nIn 1996 an ad for his debut EP The Chaos Theory was featured in Insane Clown Posse's","-24.02381247853191"],["Evil Clowns Referenced in We're All Devo, The Evil Clowns are Big Entertainment's \"mega-metal group\". Pictures of the lead singer, Numero Uno, allegedly consist of Mark Mothersbaugh's head pasted on the body of David Lee Roth. The Big Dirty Farmers The Big Dirty Farmers appeared in the only \"Club Devo\" animation for shockwave.com, performing the song \"It's All Good\". Skunk Man Fly Skunk Man Fly, featured in the Devo song \"Chango,\" were proposed for a later, unfinished installment of \"Club Devo\", but no material was recorded. The Sex Dolls The Sex Dolls were proposed for an unrealized installment of \"Club","-23.947353552321147"],["Clown and Murder Clown. Unlike previous Clown characters who wore fabric masks Los Psycho Circus wore rubber masks with more horrific, twisted facial expressions, inspired by the movie Killer Klowns from Outer Space. Zombie Clown's mask features rotting yellow teeth, skin blotches and a small blue tophat. The team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star, Super Fly and Pegasso). Los Psycho Circus was physically larger than most of the AAA wrestlers and soon established themselves as a dominant force in the ring as they began","-23.864713545219274"],["lake, but no evidence of clowns or clown paraphernalia was found.\nWhile some of these reports have been harmless, others reports have been more suspicious. In one instance, a woman reported a person in a clown costume was standing in her backyard and ran away as she took a picture. In one case, an individual had heard clanging chains and a banging noise at his front door. While other cases report a clown offering money or candy to children to follow the clown into the woods. South Dakota On October 4, a 19-year-old man in a clown costume was arrested on","-23.85497844632482"],["ignored, and Insane Clown Posse was never mentioned during the show. MTV later informed Island Records that the heads of the network must choose the band first before it can become eligible to be featured on TRL.\nBoth Bizaar and Bizzar received three-out-of-five-star ratings in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, the highest rating that the magazine ever gave to any Insane Clown Posse album.\nOn July 10, 2017 Richard Newton, a Boston area juggalo went to the Top 40 radio station Kiss 108 to make a request for the song \"My Axe\" in person, with an axe in hand and other","-23.808951283805072"],["being a clown. It is now that she comes to the realization that it wasn't Sam who killed her child but the clown and that her memory was wrong. She agrees to help Sam, who has been present at the murders not as a perpetrator but as the hunter of the monster, known as the Hellbreed.\nMeanwhile, Detective Weiss has pulled up Alice's files and it is revealed that she has been committed to a mental institution in 1989. She escaped in 1995 and is still wanted by the authorities. Alice is handcuffed and taken to the institute. Outside they encounter","-23.801945874816738"],["\"Juggalo Street Fight\". Insane Clown Posse won against the team of Glen Gilbertti and Kid Kash on February 18. Two weeks later, Insane Clown Posse announced that they would take part in a \"Dark Carnival Match\" the next week against Glen Gilbertti and any partner he chooses. The following week, Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony took on Glen Gilbertti, Kid Kash, and David Young. \"The Alpha Male\" Monty Brown made his TNA return, and cost Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony the match. During their stint in TNA, Insane Clown Posse brought the company its largest paying","-23.727180042566033"],["the group's genesis, including Bruce's involvement in professional wrestling, the formation of group Inner City Posse with John and Joey Utlser, as well as establishing their record label Psychopathic Records. The book also discusses the beginnings of what would become Insane Clown Posse and the origins of the group's Dark Carnival mythology, and the albums inspired by it.\nThe book also documents the group's early struggles, personnel changes and the changing local Detroit music scene.\nThe book also focus their highly publicized falling-out with Hollywood Records and subsequent signing to Island Records, their eventual return to Psychopathic Records and the production of","-23.667398563928145"],["in an interview with faygoluvers.net, Insane Clown Posse announced that they are cutting ties with Twiztid and Majik Ninja Entertainment, as they have repeatedly declined invites to the Juggalo March On Washington, and the alternative to not march, going on a Wizard of the Hood Tour, which they also declined. Also in doing so, Insane Clown Posse stated that Psychopathic Records will stop reaching out to Twiztid and Majik Ninja Entertainment for Juggalo Day and the Gathering of the Juggalos. Also during the interview it was announced that new music will come from Insane Clown Posse, DJ Clay, Big Hoodoo,","-23.621165792865213"],["be harmless and were merely waving at passing cars.\nReports of clowns have also been made in the Kansas cities of Chanute, Pittsburg, and Parsons; however the Parsons report was later revealed to be a hoax. Kentucky On September 23, 20-year-old Jonathan Martin was arrested for wearing a hood or mask in a public place, disorderly conduct and two outstanding warrants for non-payment of fines and failure to appear in court. Martin was found in a full clown costume, lurking in wooded area near a Kentucky apartment block.\nOn October 1, a woman reported that while she was walking on a trail","-23.607722269836813"],["performances. Insane Clown Posse has earned two platinum and five gold albums. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the entire catalog of the group has sold 6.5 million units in the United States and Canada as of April 2007. Solo career (1994–present) In 1994, Utsler released his first solo album, Fuck Off!, containing only four tracks. His second planned solo album Shaggs The Clown, was never released due to sampling issues. After almost 12 years of promotion, Utsler released his second solo album, F.T.F.O. (Fuck The Fuck Off!), in 2006. During ICP's 2013 GOTJ seminar Shaggy and J stated that they were","-23.595950769013143"],["across a clown walking around on the dirt track they were going to bike on. The Clown appeared to be about Five-Eight and very skinny. The clown also was holding a mallet but was not threatening the boys since the clown had not seen them yet. At first the boys thought it was just a person walking until the got closer and saw that it was a clown. The clown did not see them until one of the boys asked the clown what it was doing from a far distance. The clown did not respond and started to chase the","-23.584539079194656"],["clown pranksters were reported in France, the United States and Germany, possibly inspired by American Horror Story: Freak Show.\nIn 2014, \"the Wasco clown\" attracted social media attention in California. Again this clown would shared similar resemblance to Pennywise, and it was revealed that the social media postings were part of a year-long photography project conducted by the artist's wife. In Bakersfield, California \"menacing\" clowns were reported, some with weapons. In July 2015, a \"creepy\" clown was seen around a local cemetery in Chicago and terrorizing anyone in the graveyard.\nThere was another burst of such sightings in 2016, including in Greenville,","-23.573446828057058"],["Flam, Bob, and Neil). That April, the duo teamed with Vampiro to defeat The Rainbow Coalition. They defeated the Coalition again when they teamed with Evil Dead later that year, and the match that was featured on JCW, Volume 2.\nIn 2003, Insane Clown Posse defended, and retained, their JCW Tag Team Championships against Kid Cock (a parody of Kid Rock) and Feminem (a parody of Eminem). The match was featured on JCW, Volume 3. At the 2006 Gathering of the Juggalos, Bruce, Nosawa, and Vampiro lost to Mad Man Pondo and The Headhunters, but defeated Pondo and Powers of Pain","-23.566560616716743"],["'petal' of the lotus,\" and it was announced that there would be six members. After switching between two different \"sixth members,\" Marz and Anybody Killa, Dark Lotus decided to keep the group to only five. On January 19, 2017 via an interview with faygoluvers.net, Insane Clown Posse announced that the group disbanded. Psychopathic Rydas (1999–present) Psychopathic Rydas formed in 1999, and consists of Psychopathic Records-associated rappers performing under alternate stage names in the style of mainstream gangsta rap. The group's current lineup consists of Bruce (Bullet), Utsler (Full Clip), Methric (Foe Foe), Spaniolo (Lil' Shank), Rouleau (Cell Block) and David","-23.55422558123246"],["known as Zombie Clown, Kronus became Psycho Clown and the third man became known as Killer Clown. Unlike previous clown characters who wore fabric masks Los Psycho Circus wore rubber masks with more horrific, twisted facial expressions, inspired by the movie Killer Klowns from Outer Space. Psycho Clown's mask features a foot high brightly colored Mohawk and a long plastic tongue, Zombie Clown's mask features rotting yellow teeth, skin blotches and a small blue tophat while Murder Clown's mask features vampire like fangs and a balding multicolored afro. Each of the wrestlers was given a backstory befitting their twisted and","-23.544749751046766"],["55-year-old man in a clown mask was arrested for menacing at Floyd Light Middle School in Portland. An assistant principal confronted the man, who then allegedly threatened to hurt him. The suspect is facing charges of menacing and disorderly conduct. There has been at least eight \"scary clown\" sightings, and police responding in some cases, in Douglas County since October 1, 2016. Pennsylvania On September 18, 2016, in State College, a person dressed as a clown was seen acting strangely at the parking lot of a YMCA early in the morning. In late September, reports stated that an individual dressed","-23.53223124615033"],["dressed as clowns were spotted in Belfast. On October 7, a school in Coleraine had closed its doors for a short time because of fears that people dressed as clowns were on their way to the school. On 7 October a clown threatened children with a knife in Riverside Park, Ballymoney, County Antrim. On Instagram an account called 'killerclownsballymoney' said a clown would be \"waiting at Ballymoney High school gates at 3:55 and on Mondays it'll be Dalriada at 2:40\". On social media, an image appeared of a clown stood outside Cullybackey College in the village of Cullybackey The police","-23.515188863657386"],["are explored in multiple Insane Clown Posse songs. Throughout their career, the group has used parables set within the Dark Carnival mythology to warn of the ultimate consequences of immoral behavior. Their 2002 album The Wraith: Shangri-La ended the first set of Joker Card albums and included the song The Unveiling, which explicitly revealed that the hidden message of ICP's music had always been to follow God. Joseph Bruce remarked that \"The ending of the Joker Cards, the way we looked at it, was death. Heaven and hell. That's up to each and every juggalo [to decide]\".\nSeveral journalists have commented","-23.511843461892568"],["that follows mimics and idolizes the music group, Insane Clown Posse. The music encourages and condones extreme acts of violence, which some Juggalos carry out. Juggalo members paint their faces black and white, dress in black clothing, attend raves together that often end violently, and consider themselves a family.\"\nHowever, some law enforcement officers have been firm in their assertion that Juggalos are a criminal group. Police watch commander Jay Mackanin of Citrus Heights has stated that, \"Juggalos are a gang. I know sometimes they say they're not, but they are.\"\nKelly Snyder, a former Drug Enforcement Administration officer who tracks Juggalo","-23.453241578492452"],["also recalls the 1980s clown sightings in various US cities, as well as providing a phone number, email address and information about a smartphone app that citizens can use to report suspicious behavior to authorities.\nThat same day the Bucks County Courier Times interviewed Joyce Meder, also known as \"Bubbles the Clown\" regarding the \"creepy clown\" phenomenon. Meder is an Abington, PA-based professional clown who provides entertainment for children. Describing herself as a \"happy\" and \"fun\" clown, Meder expressed disappointment over the recent clown scare, citing her newfound fears of possible run-ins with law enforcement when she is in public dressed","-23.445852503209608"],["commit his crimes while wearing his clown costume.\nThe modern stock character of the evil clown was popularized by Stephen King's novel It, published in 1986, which introduced the fear of an evil clown to a modern audience. In the novel, the eponymous character is a pan-dimensional monster which feeds mainly on children by luring them in the form of Pennywise the Dancing Clown and then assuming the shape of whatever the victim fears the most.\nThe evil clown archetype plays strongly off the sense of dislike it caused to inherent elements of coulrophobia; however, it has been suggested by Joseph Durwin","-23.429302502008795"],["became the company's logo.\nInner City Posse released their first professionally recorded album, Dog Beats, on the label later that year. Shortly after, the group underwent a change in style, look, and name to become Insane Clown Posse, and created the Dark Carnival concept that would be continued by much of the label's other artists for years to come. Esham and Kid Rock were paid to appear on the debut \"Insane Clown Posse\" album to increase the album's marketability. The group and their label began to gain moderate popularity in the Detroit area following the releases of Carnival of Carnage and","-23.418987267054035"],["Psycho Clown Biography The wrestler who would later become known as Psycho Clown was born on December 16, 1985, son of Luchador José Alvarado Nieves, better known under the ring names Brazo de Plata or Super Porky. He is one of Alvarado's six children and was the first of them to take up wrestling although he was later joined by at least one brother and two sisters. Independent circuit (2000–2003) He was not trained by his father or any of his uncles for his professional wrestling career, instead Memo Díaz was responsible for training the young Alvarado as well as","-23.410162358219168"],["Chris Benoit (song) Music and lyrics Inspiration for the song came from wrestler Chris Benoit, who murdered his wife and son before committing suicide. Insane Clown Posse broadly alluded to the murders in the song's lyrics, but the focus of the song is not the murders themselves, but of suddenly losing one's sanity, and eclipsing in violence. The song pertains to the album's overall concept, which \"teaches us to respect the life we've been given and do our best to avoid an early death.\" The song was remixed by Kuma for the remix album Mike E. Clark's Extra Pop Emporium.","-23.400800649484154"],["the album. In June 2014 Psychopathic Records announced that Insane Clown Posse and Da Mafia 6ix were working on a collaboration album, and Insane Clown Posse posted pictures on their official instagram page of them and Da Mafia 6ix sitting around in Violent J's home studio. The album is scheduled to be released sometime in August 2014. A few days after Faygoluvers.net conducted the interview with Insane Clown Posse, Psychopathic Records, Insane Clown Posse, Twiztid and Blaze Ya Dead Homie released a picture of the Dark Lotus hand sign stating that all original members (Insane Clown Posse, Twiztid & Blaze","-23.383835829532472"],["called Circus the Clown because he was an alcoholic like Maura. He stopped drinking for Annie, yet custody went to the mother.\nBack in the confessional, Circus tells the priest he sinned with Ondine the night before, and fears the good luck she brings, since he lost hope long ago. As he leaves, the unknown man approaches him about Ondine, Circus ignores him. Circus brings Annie back from dialysis, but is locked out since Maura and Alex are drinking in a pub. Annie asks to be left with them. Circus returns to find the caravan has been ransacked, and Ondine hiding","-23.371821614768123"],["Card in Insane Clown Posse's Dark Carnival concept album series. The Dark Carnival is a concept of the afterlife in which souls are sent to a form of limbo while waiting to be sent to heaven or hell based on their individual actions. These concepts are related by Insane Clown Posse in a series of albums called the six Joker's Cards. Each of the six Joker's Cards relate to a specific character — an entity of the Dark Carnival — that tries to \"save the human soul\" by showing the wicked inside of one's self.\nRiddle Box is one of several","-23.363316144037526"],["Curtis suggested that Insane Clown Posse start its own promotion while continuing with its music. He came to Bruce's house each night to discuss ideas about the promotion. Curtis convinced Bruce to coordinate another Strangle-Mania Live show, to be followed by an eighty-city \"Hellfire Wrestling\" tour. Curtis booked the talent and wrote the scripts. Strangle-Mania Live sold out the Majestic Theater in Detroit. Two days after the show, Curtis was found dead in his apartment, due to a sudden diabetic problem. The \"Hellfire Wrestling\" tour was subsequently canceled. World Championship Wrestling (1999–2000) Bruce then went on to wrestle a long","-23.35538152341178"],["wearing a clown mask and holding a chainsaw, scaring a woman and child. Iowa On October 11, an 18-year-old man with a clown mask was arrested for allegedly chasing two people with a metal baseball bat in Urbandale. Kansas On September 27, 2016, a person dressed as a clown was spotted creeping in the bushes near the intersection of 85th Street and Parallel Parkway in Kansas City, Kansas.\nOn October 1, 2016, in Topeka, a clown was spotted near the intersection of Southeast 37th Street and Southeast Adams Street. Again in Topeka, a few days later on the morning of October","-23.327529969988973"],["de Tabarin by Catulle Mendès and in Ruggero Leoncavallo's Pagliacci (accused of being a plagiarism of Mendès' piece), both works featuring murderous clowns as central characters.\nDuring the 1970s the National Lampoon published a series of mock comic books in the pages of the magazine, entitled \"Evil Clown\", which featured a malevolent titular character named Frenchy the Clown. During that decade, American serial killer and rapist John Wayne Gacy became known as the Killer Clown when arrested in 1978, after it was discovered he had performed as Pogo the Clown at children's parties and other events; however, Gacy did not actually","-23.304210813323152"],["to wrestle today in Juggalo Championship Wrestling as well as in various independent promotions.\nInsane Clown Posse gained fame for being both professional musicians and professional wrestlers. Overall, they are two-time JCW Tag Team Champions. Additionally, Bruce is a one-time JCW Tag Team Champion with 2 Tuff Tony, and Utsler is a one-time JCW Heavyweight Champion. Bruce and Utsler are also founding members of the Juggalo World Order.\nIn addition they were largely involved in Backyard Wrestling: Don't Try This at Home, where most of the wrestlers in the game were members of JCW.","-23.257796595513355"],["The King and the Clown Plot Set in the late 15th century during the reign of King Yeonsan, two male street clowns and tightrope walkers, Jangsaeng (Kam Woo-sung) and Gong-gil (Lee Joon-gi), are part of an entertainer troupe. The effeminate and beautiful Gong-gil specializes in female roles ; their manager prostitutes him to rich customers, and Jangsaeng is sickened by this practice. After Gong-gil kills the manager in defense of Jangsaeng, the pair flee to Seoul, where they form a new group with three other street performers.\nTogether the group comes up with a skit mocking some members of the royal court,","-23.239743919635657"],["Insane Clown Posse returned to Europe for a tour. The group released a three-disc compilation of their guest appearances with other artists called Featuring Freshness in November 2011. The compilation also included new songs with artists Paris, Cold 187um, and Tone Tone.\nAt the 2011 Detroit Music Awards, Insane Clown Posse received the Distinguished Achievement Award. In June, Insane Clown Posse issued a cease and desist notice to the Upright Citizens Brigade, threatening legal action over a planned performance, \"The Gathering of the Juggalos For A Mother Fucking Baby Funeral\". 2012–14: The Mighty Death Pop! Era At their 2010 Hallowicked concert,","-23.22678335168166"],["paid $1 million to purchase the Insane Clown Posse contract from Battery/Jive Records.\nThe expansion of the Juggalo fanbase into its own culture inspired Insane Clown Posse to write the songs \"What Is A Juggalo?\" and \"Down With The Clown\" for this album. Recording The group started recording The Great Milenko in 1996, and Violent J began thinking of a title for the album shortly after. Bruce later came up with the title The Great Milenko. Bruce also admitted that he had always liked the ring name of professional wrestler Dean Simon (\"Dean Malenko\"), because he felt that the name Malenko","-23.217513917043107"],["An evil clown has sabotaged the services and imprisoned the carnival manager. Shaggy and Scooby help the manager and rescue the others stranded in a lake. After trying out all the rides, Shaggy and Scooby find out that the clown has a prime interest in getting employment in the carnival but was immediately rejected by the manager and proceeded to capture him. Reception The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly scored the Genesis game a 7.625 out of 10. They particularly praised the game's strong similarity to the TV series, though two of them felt the game to be too","-23.178092671267223"],["Carnage. He leads \"the phantoms of the dead\" that take the form of the Carnival. The creatures fiercely tear doomed souls from their living bodies and drag them down into Hell. The album tells morality tales as the Ringmaster character takes the listener through exhibits of the Carnival, as in such songs as \"Murder Go Round\", \"Wagon Wagon\", and \"House of Mirrors.\" Release and promotion To help promote the album, Insane Clown Posse created the comic book Wicked Clownz featuring themselves and the Ringmaster character. The comic was written by Bruce, illustrated by Joseph Utsler, and printed in Canada. The","-23.170160887617385"],["reported sighting of people dressed as evil clowns was in Greenville, South Carolina, where a small boy spoke to his mother of a pair of clowns that had attempted to lure him away. After such an incident, a number of clowns have since been spotted in various American states including Florida, New York, Wisconsin and Kentucky, and subsequently in other Western countries, from August 2016. By October 2016, in the wake of hundreds of \"clown sightings\" across the United States and Canada, the phenomenon had spread from North America to Europe, Australasia and Latin America.\nSome explanations for the 2016 clown","-23.166574978992458"],["a sketch titled \"Kickspit Underground Rock Festival\", which parodied the Gathering of the Juggalos infomercial. Bruce stated that he was not offended by the parody, and that he thought that the sketch was \"hilarious\" and \"a humongous compliment\". On February 17, 2010, Psychopathic Records signed a contract with Universal Music Group's Fontana Distribution. On March 9, 2010, Insane Clown Posse were interviewed by Nightline journalist Martin Bashir. Bruce hated the segment, stating that Bashir took statements made by the duo out of context, pairing one of Bruce's responses with a different question than he had been asked.\nThe trailer for Big","-23.09229939314173"],["Murder Clown Los Psycho Circus In late 2007 AAA decided to repackage Aliens turning him into \"Zombie Clown\" and making him a part of Los Psycho Circus along with Psycho Clown and Monster Clown. Unlike previous Clown characters who wore fabric masks Los Psycho Circus wore rubber masks with more horrific, twisted facial expressions, inspired by the movie Killer Klowns from Outer Space. Zombie Clown's mask features rotting yellow teeth, skin blotches and a small blue tophat. The team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star,","-23.084624495182652"],["duo announced that they would face whoever Jeff Jarrett threw at them next in a \"Juggalo Street Fight\". Insane Clown Posse won against the team of Glen Gilbertti and Kid Kash on February 18. Two weeks later, Insane Clown Posse announced that they would take part in a \"Dark Carnival match\" the next week against Glen Gilbertti and any partner he chooses. The following week, Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony took on Glen Gilbertti, Kid Kash, and David Young. \"The Alpha Male\" Monty Brown made his TNA return, and cost Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony the","-23.062599483779195"],["Jester (Quality Comics) Powers and abilities The Jester has no superpowers, but is an Olympic-level athlete and a brilliant hand-to-hand combatant and in some later adventures is aided by a small flying sphere with a smiling face and handles on the side called \"Quinopolis\". He is also a skilled detective, trained in various techniques of police procedure. In other media A different version of The Jester appears in the 2010 film Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths, voiced by James Patrick Stuart, this version is a heroic version of the Joker from Earth-Three. He is a member of the Justice","-23.052980091604695"],["reported seeing a clown wearing a multi-colored wig, overalls, and a mask carrying what appeared to be a machete. Upon seeing the police car, the clown fled. His or her whereabouts remain unknown. Missouri One driver reported seeing a person dressed as a clown lurking around by Republic High School during the night in Republic, Missouri.\nPeople dressed as clowns have also been sighted in Platte City, Joplin and Neosho, Missouri. Clown related threats were also made in Blue Springs, Missouri. Clown sightings have also been reported in Clinton, Versailles and University of Missouri campus. Montana On October 12, a 15-year-old","-23.04261192836566"],["stint in World Championship Wrestling with Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo formed two stables. The first stable, The Dead Pool, consisted of Insane Clown Posse, Vampiro, and Raven; the second consisted of Insane Clown Posse, Vampiro, Great Muta, and Kiss Demon, known as The Dark Carnival.\nOn August 9, 1999, Insane Clown Posse made their WCW debut on Monday Nitro in a six-man tag team match. Insane Clown Posse and Vampiro defeated Lash LeRoux, Norman Smiley, and Prince Iaukea. At Road Wild 1999, Rey Mysterio, Jr., Billy Kidman, and Eddie Guerrero defeated Vampiro and Insane Clown Posse. Insane Clown Posse continued","-23.02237930856245"],["a clown calling himself \"HE who gets slapped\", the star attraction of a small circus near Paris. His act consists of his getting slapped every evening by other clowns, and includes Paul pretending to present in front of the Academy of Science.\nAnother of the performers is Bezano (John Gilbert), a daredevil horseback rider. Consuelo (Norma Shearer), the daughter of the impoverished Count Mancini, applies to join his act. Bezano falls in love with Consuelo, as does Paul. Consuelo and her father, however, are planning to restore the family's fortunes with a marriage to her father's wealthy friend.\nOne night, during HE's","-23.00363803235814"],["Rouleau. Each member was said to \"act as a 'petal' of the lotus,\" and it was announced that there would be six members. After switching between two different \"sixth members,\" Marz, and Anybody Killa, Dark Lotus decided to keep the group to only five. On January 19, 2017 via an interview with Faygoluvers, Insane Clown Posse announced that the group disbanded. Psychopathic Rydas (1999–present) Psychopathic Rydas formed in 1999, and consists of Psychopathic Records-associated rappers performing under alternate stage names in the style of mainstream gangsta rap. The group's current lineup consists of Bruce (Bullet), Utsler (Full Clip), Methric (Foe","-22.995913963386556"],["the man, blocking his path and then refused to move when asked, before the man chased the clown away. Devon and Cornwall Police were investigating the incident.\nOn October 9, a 30-year-old man dressed as a clown was arrested after chasing a woman through Eaton Park in Norwich, East Anglia.\nOn October 10, a gang of three people dressed as clowns were spotted in Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire. Kent Police reported there had been 59 clown-related incidents between October 7 and 10. On 11 October a teenage boy was hospitalized for a cut to his head after a clown threw a log","-22.922645199647377"],["incidents regarding people dressed as clowns, but no arrests were made.\nOn 10 October 2016, organizers of a Halloween haunted house attraction apologised after three people dressed as evil clowns and carrying imitation chainsaws frightened students in the grounds of Newpark Comprehensive School in Blackrock, Dublin. The clowns were said to be publicising the attraction and unaware that the grounds were private property. The attraction's spokesperson said it was \"'in no way linked' to the 'creepy clown' craze sweeping across the UK and US\". After the incident police said they are taking the clown craze seriously and reports will be investigated.","-22.88010919484077"],["Request Live (TRL) with requests for the video. While on their \"Bizaar Bizzar Tour\", Insane Clown Posse posted on its website that December 8 was the day for their fans request the video. Bruce and Utsler named that day \"The Mighty Day of Lienda,\" meaning \"The Mighty Day of All or Nothing\". On December 8, Rudy Hill, Robert Bruce, Tom Dub, and six other Psychopathic Records employees and friends drove down to New York City.\nThey were met by nearly 400 Insane Clown Posse fans standing outside in front of the TRL studio window, all with signs supporting the duo. Thirty","-22.822323542728554"],["of just come straight out and just speak straight out of religion\".\nIn an October 2010 article for The Guardian, Jon Ronson characterized the Insane Clown Posse as \"evangelical Christians\" who have \"only been pretending to be brutal and sadistic to trick their fans into believing in God\". In an interview with ICP conducted for the article, two of Ronson's queries referred parenthetically to ICP's \"Christian message\" and to the members' identities as \"[secret] Christians\". Several papers, including The Washington Post, published summaries of Ronson's claims.\nEight days after publication of the Guardian article, Joseph Bruce Tweeted \"I think [it's] crazy how","-22.80257618392352"],["are criminals and gang members, he does not believe that Juggalos as a whole constitute a gang.\nIn January 2014 Insane Clown Posse along with the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan filed suit again against the FBI. The suit aimed to have Juggalos no longer considered to be a gang and to have any \"criminal intelligence information\" about Juggalos destroyed. The suit was dismissed in July 2014, ruling that that band and its fans lack standing to bring the suit. The ACLU has stated that it intends to appeal the dismissal.\nIn September 2015, the U.S. Court of Appeals for","-22.794429235640564"],["Psycho Clown won his first singles title in AAA, when he defeated Chessman for the AAA Latin American Championship. He lost the title to Pentagón Jr. on July 3, 2016. On October 2, 2016, at Héroes Inmortales X, Monster and Murder Clown turned on Psycho Clown and formed a new partnership with his rival Pagano.\nOn August 26, 2017, Psycho Clown won Dr. Wagner Jr.'s mask in a Lucha de Apuestas at Triplemanía XXV.\nOn July 21, 2018, at AAA vs. Elite, Clown teamed up with El Hijo del Fantasma and Rey Wagner, representing AAA, as the trio lost to team \"Liga","-22.757073361732182"],["Guestella. 3D and Gweedo announced in an episode of SlamTV! that Insane Clown Posse had been stripped of the JCW Tag Team Championships due to them not defending the title. At the first annual Bloodymania, JCW's premier wrestling event, Insane Clown Posse teamed with Sabu to defeat Trent Acid and The Young Alter Boys w/ Annie Social the Nun.\nLater that night, Corporal Robinson, Scott Hall, and Violent J formed the Juggalo World Order (JWO). Shaggy 2 Dope, Nosawa, Kevin Nash, 2 Tuff Tony, and Sid Vicious later joined the group. On January 26, 2008, Bruce and Tony won the JCW","-22.7476390332522"],["in her room by a masked man and assumes it was the clown, due to the fact that she saw him outside of her window. The next night, the clown is back at the strip club, only to be kicked in the face by Fay and once again thrown out. Fay leaves in a rage to be picked up by the Devil Girl, and the two partake in sexual activities.\nThe Devil Girl then confronts the local preacher and accuses him of being a pervert by nature, which is later revealed to be true when Fay attempts to retrieve her ring","-22.736917154630646"],["Paste-Pot Pete, rob a bank during Red Ronin's rampage, with Clown executing the bound security guards. Clown is seen with Manslaughter Marsdale killing a large amount of H.A.M.M.E.R troops at an old S.H.I.E.L.D. barbershop base as Zodiac reveals the stolen Zodiac Key to an Agent Murphy.\nClown is revealed to not be Eliot Franklin, but his half-brother. The reason for this deception is unknown.\nBoomerang and Owl hire Clown onto the Sinister Sixteen, assembled to distract the Chameleon's forces while Boomerang steals from him. Unnamed A third Clown appeared as a member of the Circus of Crime at the time of the","-22.714795703752316"],["aware of a \"Jolly Joker\" clown club whose members would regularly perform at fund-raising events and parades in addition to voluntarily entertaining hospitalized children. In late 1975, Gacy joined the Jolly Jokers and created his own performance characters: \"Pogo the Clown\" and \"Patches the Clown.\" Gacy designed his own costumes and taught himself how to apply clown makeup, although some professional clowns noted the sharp corners Gacy painted at the edges of his mouth are contrary to the rounded borders that professional clowns normally employ, so as not to scare children. Gacy is known to have performed as Pogo or","-22.667807117060875"],["the most terrifying clown characters in film and television. In fact, it is \"widely considered the archetype of the [clown horror] genre,\" wrote Jessica Glenza. As The Atlantic summarized the terror of the performance and character, \"He speaks in a kind of singsongy, guttural growl, his teeth are sharp fangs, and the contrast between his comical yellow dungarees and his penchant for ripping off children’s limbs is fairly stark.\" Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins described it as \"the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours","-22.665736368857324"],["Death Racers Production In January 2008, it was announced that Insane Clown Posse and Twiztid had received a treatment for a low-budget horror film titled Road Rage, to be directed by Roy Knyrim of Sota Productions, who had previously directed J and Shaggy in The Chronicles of the Dark Carnival. It was stated that filming would take place over a two-week period in Los Angeles, California during the Spring of that year.\nIn March, a second announcement was made, stating that Insane Clown Posse would star in a film scheduled to begin production in the first week of May. Bruce and","-22.65660932521132"],["Fuck the World (Insane Clown Posse song) Background In 1996, Insane Clown Posse signed a contract with Disney-owned label Hollywood Records, which reportedly paid US$1 million to purchase their contract from Battery/Jive Records. Their album The Great Milenko, which featured guests Alice Cooper (on vocals), Steve Jones (on guitar), and Slash (on guitar), was recorded and released on June 25, 1997. However, just hours after the release, Hollywood Records pulled the album from stores nationwide, cancelled Insane Clown Posse's in-store signings and nationwide tour, pulled commercials for the album and the music video for \"Halls of Illusions\" from television, and dropped","-22.61502614683559"],["Leck mich im Arsch (Insane Clown Posse song) Background In August 2011, Insane Clown Posse was contacted by Jack White, who invited Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler to his mansion, because he wanted to collaborate with them. White played the track he was working on, an arrangement of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's \"Leck mich im Arsch\" with live instrumentation by JEFF the Brotherhood, for Bruce and Utsler and explained that the title of the track translated to \"Lick My Ass\".\nInsane Clown Posse were surprised that White wanted to work with them, and said that they had respect for White, who is","-22.599286279901207"],["shows DM Pranks \"pranking\" a victim dousing the area around his car with what appears to be gasoline. In the same video a clown set up large bottles on a dummy's head that he filled with fake blood and then hit them with a hammer to simulate a murder.\nThe video \"Killer Clown Returns Scare Prank!\" was posted on June 15, 2014 and has over 85 million views. It features a fake clown pranking passers by running after them with an iron hammer or a chainsaw.\nOn September 7, 2014, DM Pranks received the first significant success, with the video \"Killer Clown","-22.550261193719052"],["wearing clown masks. Both of the alleged robbers were armed with weapons, and a gun was fired once during one of the robberies, but no one was injured. The two were arrested for robbery. Arkansas People dressed as clowns were reported in Lowell near the elementary schools. A person dressed as a clown was arrested in Downtown Bentonville, Arkansas on October 5, 2016. California On October 4, people dressed as clowns threatened Fairfield, Sacramento, and Vallejo public school campuses. A clown sighting was reported in Temecula.\nOn October 5, a person dressed as a clown was accused of trying to kidnap","-22.530999319278635"],["Clown Posse to genuinely flip them over and begin throwing punches. Realizing that the match was getting too heated, McMahon ended the feud after that match. Bruce and Utsler were put into other matches along with The Oddities. Vince Russo told Bruce and Utsler to \"make it seem like you don't know anything about wrestling, and you guys keep choking and digging into their eyes\".\nDuring this time, Bruce and Utsler had no contract with WWF. They, however, did have an agreement that the WWF would occasionally play Insane Clown Posse commercials, and in return, Bruce and Utsler would wrestle for","-22.509992185339797"],["powerful animals, rodeo clowns are often injured seriously, and, sometimes, fatally. \nIn some venues, rodeo bullfighters still wear clown make-up and some may also provide traditional clowning entertainment for the crowd between rodeo events, often parodying aspects of cowboy culture. But most modern bullfighters no longer dress as clowns, though they still wear bright, loose-fitting clothing. At larger events in the USA, the job is split, a bullfighter (sometimes two or more) protects the riders from the bull, and a barrelman (sometimes one person, sometimes two) provide comic humor. Some barrelmen provide both comedy and support to bullfighters,","-22.49860738258576"],["(Laredo Kid, Super Fly and Aero Star) in a sub-three minute match which Los Psycho Circus dominated. In August, 2009 it was announced the Zombie Clown's name had been changed to Monster Clown and Killer Clown would be known as \"Murder Clown\" from that point forwards due to copyright problems with the original names. Los Psycho Circus kept their winning streak alive as they defeated La Yakuza (El Oriental, Kenzo Suzuki and Sugi San) in the opening match of the 2009 Verano de Escandalo. In the winter of 2009 Los Psycho Circus began siding with Cibernético in his feud with","-22.464903570125898"],["Brazo Jr., Super Brazo Jr., Robin, and a cousin who works as the second Brazo de Plata Jr. Psycho Clown is engaged and has a daughter. In April 2015, Psycho Clown got engaged to Zaraida Casas, the daughter of Negro Casas.\nOn May 19, 2017 footage emerged of a man believed to be an unmasked Psycho Clown and other members of the Alvarado family, including his brother José (Máximo Sexy) and cousins Felipe (La Máscara) and Robin, as well as his uncle Daniel Alvarado (Brazo de Platino), destroying an expensive car belonging to José Gutiérrez, better known as Último Guerrero.","-22.456441228508993"],["Clown (film) Production In November 2010, Jon Watts and Christopher D. Ford uploaded a fake trailer to YouTube that announced Eli Roth would produce the film; Roth was not involved at the time. Roth spoke about the film, saying: \"I loved how ballsy they were, issuing a trailer that said, 'From the Master of Horror, Eli Roth.' Some people thought I'd made the movie, or that it was another fake Grindhouse trailer... I really felt these guys deserved a shot, and that people are truly freaked out by evil clowns. It's new territory to make this a version of The","-22.44118901019101"],["face\". This natural dislike of clowns makes them effective in a literary or fictional context, as the antagonistic threat perceived in clowns is desirable in a villainous character.\nResearcher Ben Radford, who published Bad Clowns in 2016 and is regarded as an expert on the phenomenon, writes that looking throughout history clowns are seen as tricksters, fools, and more; however, they always are in control, speak their minds, and can get away with doing so. When writing the book Bad Clowns, Radford found that professional clowns are not generally fond of the bad-clown (or evil-clown) persona. They see them as \"the","-22.43603055982385"],["gang was ridiculed by the technology magazine Wired in a November 2011 article, with journalist Spencer Ackerman referring to previous scandals involving FBI harassment of Muslim-Americans.\nOn January 8, 2014, Insane Clown Posse along with the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan filed suit again against the FBI. The suit aims to have Juggalos no longer considered to be a gang and to have any \"criminal intelligence information\" about Juggalos destroyed. Gathering of the Juggalos The Gathering of the Juggalos (The Gathering or GOTJ) is an annual festival put on by Psychopathic Records, featuring performances by the entire label as well","-22.433004424376122"],["asked a judge to dismiss the lawsuit against them.\nIn an interview given in 2013, Shaggy 2 Dope of Insane Clown Posse addressed the Juggalo gang classification and the impending FBI lawsuit. He stated that at first he believed that the classification of Juggalos was \"pretty dope\" because it would afford the band a tougher image, but later changed his mind after realizing the negative repercussions of being labeled a gang, such as gang enhancements for Juggalos who commit crimes. He also expressed concern about innocent Juggalos being targeted in \"Shithole, Nebraska\" by MS-13 members. He argued that while some Juggalos","-22.428499283312703"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"Clown (comics) Publication history The first Clown first appeared in The Incredible Hulk #3 (September 1962), and was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko. Half-brother A new Clown appeared in Brand New Day as one of the villains in the bar. He was later sighted as a member of Hood's crime syndicate. Later, the Clown is contacted by Zodiac and Death Reaper, who offer him a spot on their rogue band of criminals. Together, they attack the Human Torch, hijack the Red Ronin to attack Times Square, and cause Norman Osborn a large amount of consternation. Clown, along with\",\n \"-27.038504407566506\"\n ],\n [\n \"their stupidity\\\". Spin likened Insane Clown Posse's stage act to \\\"a sort of circus karaoke\\\" and portrayed the group's fans as overweight suburbanites. On the group's website, Bruce responded to the article by stating, \\\"I could give a fuck less\\\".\\nAfter a show in Indianapolis, Insane Clown Posse's tour bus stopped at a Waffle House in Greenfield, Indiana. When a customer began to harass Spaniolo and Bruce, a fight broke out between the customer and all of the bands' members. Months later on June 4, 1998, Bruce and Utsler pleaded guilty to misdemeanor disorderly conduct charges (reduced from battery) in an\",\n \"-26.553464755546884\"\n ],\n [\n \"new name: Insane Clown Posse. Upon returning home that night, Bruce had a dream in which spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him—an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group's Joker's Cards series. These stories each offer a specific lesson designed to change the \\\"evil ways\\\" of listeners before \\\"the end consumes us all.\\\" Insane Clown Posse has a dedicated following, often referred to by the group as Juggalos and Juggalettes.\\nJohn Utsler left the group about a month before the release of Carnival of Carnage and Insane Clown Posse has since\",\n \"-26.431813584116753\"\n ],\n [\n \"Cards series. These stories each offer a specific lesson designed to change the \\\"evil ways\\\" of listeners before \\\"the end consumes us all.\\\" Insane Clown Posse has a dedicated following, often referred to by the group as Juggalos and Juggalettes.\\nJohn Utsler left the group in 1992, and Insane Clown Posse has since been composed of Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler, who perform under the respective personas of the murderous, wicked clowns Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo perform a style of hardcore hip hop known as horrorcore, and is known for its dark, violent lyrics and elaborate live\",\n \"-26.31778419294278\"\n ],\n [\n \"been composed of Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler, who perform under the respective personas of the murderous, wicked clowns Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo performs a style of hardcore hip hop known as horrorcore, and is known for its dark, violent lyrics and elaborate live performances. Insane Clown Posse has earned two platinum and five gold albums. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the entire catalog of the group has sold 6.5 million units in the United States and Canada as of April 2007. Golden Goldies (1995) Golden Goldies was a comical group whose lyrics focused solely on gold.\",\n \"-25.784978482945007\"\n ],\n [\n \"Insane Clown Posse 1985–94: Early history Joseph Bruce (Violent J) and Joseph Utsler (Shaggy 2 Dope) met in Oak Park, a suburb on the north border of Detroit, Michigan. Along with Utsler's brother, John, and friend, Lacy, they wrestled in backyard rings that they had built themselves. They also listened to hip hop music, including 3rd Bass, Beastie Boys, N.W.A and local rappers like Awesome Dre. In 1989, Joseph Bruce, as Jagged Joe, Joseph Utsler, as Kangol Joe, and John Utsler, as Master J, released the single titled \\\"Party at the Top of the Hill\\\" under the name of JJ\",\n \"-25.63656056456057\"\n ],\n [\n \"their plans, and the final concept instead featured Insane Clown Posse performing actions which Joseph Bruce later described as \\\"[Some of] the stupidest thing[s] I had ever heard of.\\\" Because the group and the label were disappointed with the video, it was not publicly released at the time, although a snippet of it later appeared on Stranglemania in 1996 and finally the full video was released on Psychopathic: The Videos in 2007. Legacy Ringmaster's popularity enabled Insane Clown Posse to sell out larger nightclubs across their hometown of Detroit, Michigan such as St. Andrews Hall and the State Theatre. Because\",\n \"-25.631686825916404\"\n ],\n [\n \"are fans of the hip hop group Insane Clown Posse. Members often have tattoos and wear face paint. The FBI has classified juggalos as a \\\"loosely organized hybrid gang\\\", and in 2011, the Justice Department's Gang Task Force said group members were \\\"forming more organized subsets and engaging in more gang-like criminal activity\\\".\\nJason Webber, an organizer of the march and publicist for Insane Clown Posse's record label Psychopathic Records, said the government's labeling \\\"exposed law-abiding Juggalos to harassment and discrimination by police, employers and others\\\". March supporters claimed they were a nonviolent group who should not be compared to gangs\",\n \"-25.599493107016315\"\n ],\n [\n \"Spaniolo, and Methric agreed on the band name Twiztid. The House of Horrors Tour thus featured Insane Clown Posse, with opening groups Twiztid, Myzery, and Psycho Realm. Legal troubles On November 16, 1997, Bruce was arrested on an aggravated battery charge after allegedly striking an audience member thirty times with his microphone at a concert in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Bruce was held for four hours before being released on $5,000 bail. The January 1998 issue of Spin magazine ran a four-page cartoon lampooning Insane Clown Posse and Juggalos, claiming that the group was offensive \\\"not for their obscenity, but for\",\n \"-25.552309000049718\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Spiral\\\" arc. This Clown's identity hasn't been revealed yet.\\nDuring the \\\"Opening Salvo\\\" part of the Secret Empire storyline, Clown was with the Circus of Crime at the time when Baron Helmut Zemo recruited them to join the Army of Evil. Powers and abilities The first Clown has no superhuman powers but often uses his clown paraphernalia in attacking his victims, such as using his juggling balls and trick canes. As Griffin, he is a Harpy-like man (based on Betty Ross's Harpy mutation) with sharp claws and talons, and can spit a slimy corrosive venom. He is shown to be somewhat\",\n \"-25.463272063654586\"\n ],\n [\n \"by taking bumps. Heyman also favored the idea of using Insane Clown Posse, because it was unlikely that anyone knew of the relationship the group had with Van Dam and Sabu. Heyman presented his idea to Bruce and Utsler, who agreed to participate. Insane Clown Posse opened the ECW program by performing songs and exciting the crowd. Then Van Dam and Sabu, the main villains at the time, attacked Bruce and Utsler. The top fan favorite, The Sandman, came in and saved them by chasing away Van Dam and Sabu with his signature Singapore cane. ICP's Strangle-Mania Live (1997) Being\",\n \"-25.41172198211916\"\n ],\n [\n \"Clown Posse released a statement on the Robida attacks. The group's manager Alex Abbiss extended Bruce and Utsler's condolences and prayers to the families of the victims, stating that \\\"It's quite obvious that this guy had no clue what being a Juggalo is all about. If anyone knows anything at all about ICP, then you know that they have never, ever been down or will be down with any racist or bigotry bullshit\\\".\\nOn October 21, 2006, Insane Clown Posse performed at one of twenty benefit shows organized by Myspace as part of the \\\"Rock for Darfur\\\" campaign to raise awareness\",\n \"-25.38937499432359\"\n ],\n [\n \"their plans, and the final concept instead featured Insane Clown Posse performing actions which Joseph Bruce later described as \\\"[Some of] the stupidest thing[s] I had ever heard of.\\\" Because the group and the label were disappointed with the video, it was not publicly released at the time, although it later appeared on Psychopathic: The Videos in 2007.\\nThe music video for the \\\"Slaughter House Mix\\\" was shot at the State Theatre during an actual Insane Clown Posse concert. The director of the video, former Cro-Mags rhythm guitarist Parris Mayhew, wanted Insane Clown Posse to perform the song several times in\",\n \"-25.323252540809335\"\n ],\n [\n \"agreed. Several names were considered before Bruce recalled his dream of a clown running around in Delray, which became the inspiration for the group's new name: Insane Clown Posse. The other members agreed, deciding that they would take on this new genre and name, and would all don face paint due to the success of their former clown-painted hype man. Upon returning home that night, Bruce says he had a dream in which \\\"spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him\\\"—an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group's Joker's Cards series, beginning\",\n \"-25.23672848514252\"\n ],\n [\n \"them anything that they're not claiming for themselves.\\\"\\nIn 2011, Insane Clown Posse appeared on Attack of the Show! and refuted claims that they were a Christian band. Bruce explained that their Dark Carnival mythology \\\"comes from the basic principle of right and wrong, you know; evil and good. That’s all. We’re just trying to say that there’s bad guys out there and that there’s good guys out there [...] We were taught there’s a heaven and a hell, but that’s all we were taught. We weren’t taught about the [Ten] Commandments [... or] what’s in the Bible and all that.\",\n \"-25.015460201655515\"\n ],\n [\n \"a friend of the duo, Insane Clown Posse attended several shows. The group hung out backstage with their friends, and also began talking to and smoking with Robinson, eventually befriending him. Juggalo Championship Wrestling (1999–2012) In 1997, Robinson wrestled for Insane Clown Posse at the event ICP's Strangle-Mania Live. Two years later, he, 2 Tuff Tony, and Mad Man Pondo wrestled at the Dan Curtis Memorial, an independent wrestling booker who had recently worked for Insane Clown Posse. Several days after the event, Tony, Robinson, and Pondo were booked to wrestle for Insane Clown Posse's first Juggalo Championshit Wrestling show.\",\n \"-24.88107248392771\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Anti-Clown Army\\\" and students were later seen roaming the campus armed with baseball bats. North Carolina On September 4, children in a Winston-Salem neighborhood reported to the police about a person dressed as a clown trying to lure them into some woods. They described him as wearing white overalls and gloves, red shoes, and bushy, red hair. His face was described as white with a red nose. They claim that he offered them treats if they would go with him. According to police, an adult heard, but did not see, the clown.\\nOn September 7, a witness reported seeing a person\",\n \"-24.802492485527182\"\n ],\n [\n \"The Ringmaster (album) Background Following a dream by group member Joseph Bruce in which \\\"spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him\\\", Insane Clown Posse created the mythology of the Dark Carnival. The Carnival, a metaphoric limbo in which the lives of the dead await to be judged, was planned to be elaborated through a series of stories called Joker's Cards, each of which offers a specific lesson designed to change the \\\"evil ways\\\" of listeners before \\\"the end consumes us all.\\\"\\nFollowing the release of the first Joker's Card, Carnival of Carnage, the group began to build a local following.\",\n \"-24.766653864524415\"\n ],\n [\n \"Juggalo: Insane Clown Posse, Their Fans, and the World They Made About the book According to Miller's website, the book focuses on its dedicated fans, aka juggalos, who've been questionably labeled a gang by the F.B.I.. Here is a snippet of the book's description: \\\"The FBI is certain this family is dangerous. Come see how the FBI has again failed to shoot straight and enter the world of ICP, Juggalos and their endeavor to live free.\\\" About the Author Miller, a journalist and Edgar-nominated author, previously covered Insane Clown Posse in his Detroit Rock City (book) and various magazine features,\",\n \"-24.61426975298673\"\n ],\n [\n \"Los Psycho Circus History Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (AAA) has a long history of using clown based ring characters ever since the company was founded in 1992, most famously the group known as Los Payasos (Spanish for \\\"The Clowns\\\") that existed until 1999. AAA later tried to promote other clown trios such as Payasos del Mal (\\\"Evil Clowns\\\") in 2007. It was not until AAA took the wrestler who had worked as Aliens, Kronus (son of Brazo de Plata) and a third wrestler whose previous identity has not been revealed and turned them into Los Psycho Circus. Aliens became\",\n \"-24.465961322421208\"\n ],\n [\n \"images of the fool in myth and history, and ruminations on the mingling of ecstasy and dread in the Information Age, Dery asserts the evil clown is an icon of our times. Clowns are often depicted as murderous psychopaths at many American haunted houses.\\nWolfgang M. Zucker points out the similarities between a clown's appearance and the cultural depictions of demons and other infernal creatures, noting \\\"[the clown's] chalk-white face in which the eyes almost disappear, while the mouth is enlarged\\nto a ghoulish bigness, looks like the mask of death\\\".\\nAccording to psychology professor Joseph Durwin at California State University, Northridge, young\",\n \"-24.361396482316195\"\n ],\n [\n \"The clown knocks out the cashier and steals the handy supply of drugs and junk food while a woman (the cowgirl) stops for gas. The clown then ties the woman up while Fay stops for gas. As Fay searches the station for a clerk the clown rummages through her car, stealing her wallet, and then leaves in the cowgirl's truck, which later breaks down.\\nAfter the clown takes a mysterious ride in the Devil Girl's flying vehicle, and Fay's car breaks down, both stop separately in an eerie, highly religious, nearby town. Fay takes a room in the local motel, using\",\n \"-24.348454113716798\"\n ],\n [\n \"on the Insane Clown Posse song \\\"Ride the Tempest\\\", from their album The Tempest. He performs a carnival barker-style introduction to the song, featuring the signature laughter of his Sinister Minister gimmick.\",\n \"-24.347682154242648\"\n ],\n [\n \"Posse. On September 25, Mike Awesome defeated Insane Clown Posse in a Handicap Hardcore match. Juggalo Championship Wrestling (1999–2006) On December 19, 1999, Bruce and Utsler created their own wrestling promotion, Juggalo Championshit Wrestling (now known as Juggalo Championship Wrestling). That night, the duo defeated the team of two Doink the Clowns to become the first ever JCW Tag Team Champions. The event was taped and released as JCW, Volume 1. Commentary was provided by Bruce and Utsler under their \\\"3D\\\" and \\\"Gweedo\\\" announcing personas. In 2000, Insane Clown Posse was involved in a rivalry with The Rainbow Coalition (Big\",\n \"-24.331948737672064\"\n ],\n [\n \"gang called the Juggalo Killers, who knocked her unconscious before carving the letters \\\"JK\\\" into her chest, because they wanted to be the only group wearing Insane Clown Posse merchandise in their territory.\\nIn 2012, a Juggalo gang member, who was wanted for violating probation, was placed on New Mexico's most wanted list.\\nJuggalos in Oregon have been reported to have extorted homeless and homosexual individuals on the street with the threat of beatings.\\nIn August 2013, a Juggalo street gang member was arrested on charges of attempted murder, battery with a deadly weapon and possession of a controlled substance for allegedly attacking\",\n \"-24.244127011217643\"\n ],\n [\n \"Posse wherein spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him. The group decided to incorporate this dream into their band's newly created persona. The spirits are each revealed in a series of albums called the Six Joker's Cards. Each spirit relays a message through the use of a moral story.\\nWith the advent of Insane Clown Posse's Second Deck (2009), the character Bang! Pow! Boom!, a new spirit in the Dark Carnival, was introduced. The character is a demon-like figure that Bruce describes as a \\\"continuous explosion that stomps his way through the crowd blowing [...] evil souls [...] to Hell\\\".\",\n \"-24.235663032071898\"\n ],\n [\n \"unveiled in two separate seminars, The Wraith: Shangri-La and Hell's Pit, given by Violent J. The second seminar, detailing Insane Clown Posse's entire rise to fame, was captured on video and released with The Wraith: Shangri-La on DVD.\\nA riot occurred after police tried to stop female attendees from showing their breasts. The police released tear gas and pepper balls into the surrounding crowd, causing mass confusion. Psychopathic Record employees Rob Bruce and Alex Abbiss negotiated with police, and the festival continued after airing out for 30 minutes. Expansion and development (2003–2006) In 2003, the Juggalo Gathering was held outdoors for\",\n \"-24.19847945444053\"\n ],\n [\n \"manager, who established the Psychopathic Records record label with the group in 1991. Later that year the group released the self-produced EP titled Dog Beats. Insane Clown Posse (1991–present) In late 1991, Inner City Posse changed their style, look, and name. Joseph Bruce recalled a dream of a clown running around in Delray, which became the inspiration for the group's new name: Insane Clown Posse. Upon returning home that night, Bruce had a dream in which spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him—an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group's Joker's\",\n \"-24.162282679404598\"\n ],\n [\n \"dark characters, complete with statements about the clowns \\\"rejoicing in the pain of others\\\" and \\\"Violence without measure\\\", a fabricated profile to help enhance their \\\"evil\\\" characters.\\nThe team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star, Super Fly and Pegasso). Los Psycho Circus was physically larger than most of the AAA wrestlers and soon established themselves as a dominant force in the ring, booked to easily defeat a series of low card teams. While Los Psycho Circus was booked as Rudos (bad guys) they faced both tecnico\",\n \"-24.137176193340565\"\n ],\n [\n \"three men who supposedly saw the clown. New Hampshire In Durham, New Hampshire, UNH College Students (University of New Hampshire) reported to the police that a person dressed as a creepy clown was roaming the campus. Police followed up the report claiming that the clown was found with no weapons except a megaphone. It is unknown why the clown had a megaphone. New Jersey On Monday, October 4, at around 10pm, a male in a clown mask carrying a plastic machete scared a woman at a Quick Chek convenience store in Parsippany. A second eyewitness also was scared by the\",\n \"-24.108867047987587\"\n ],\n [\n \"a Don and co-owner of the label. Solo (1992-2006; 2012-Present) Bruce was included in Insane Clown Posse's debut album Carnival of Carnage in 1992. Taking the name Jumpsteady, he performed on the final track \\\"Taste\\\". He rapped about political and economical problems he had experienced first hand, such as the government's lack of consideration of the problems facing the ghetto, and their actions taken during Desert Storm. Soon after his appearance on the duo's next studio album Ringmaster, Jumpsteady took a leave from rapping.\\nIn 1996 an ad for his debut EP The Chaos Theory was featured in Insane Clown Posse's\",\n \"-24.02381247853191\"\n ],\n [\n \"Evil Clowns Referenced in We're All Devo, The Evil Clowns are Big Entertainment's \\\"mega-metal group\\\". Pictures of the lead singer, Numero Uno, allegedly consist of Mark Mothersbaugh's head pasted on the body of David Lee Roth. The Big Dirty Farmers The Big Dirty Farmers appeared in the only \\\"Club Devo\\\" animation for shockwave.com, performing the song \\\"It's All Good\\\". Skunk Man Fly Skunk Man Fly, featured in the Devo song \\\"Chango,\\\" were proposed for a later, unfinished installment of \\\"Club Devo\\\", but no material was recorded. The Sex Dolls The Sex Dolls were proposed for an unrealized installment of \\\"Club\",\n \"-23.947353552321147\"\n ],\n [\n \"Clown and Murder Clown. Unlike previous Clown characters who wore fabric masks Los Psycho Circus wore rubber masks with more horrific, twisted facial expressions, inspired by the movie Killer Klowns from Outer Space. Zombie Clown's mask features rotting yellow teeth, skin blotches and a small blue tophat. The team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star, Super Fly and Pegasso). Los Psycho Circus was physically larger than most of the AAA wrestlers and soon established themselves as a dominant force in the ring as they began\",\n \"-23.864713545219274\"\n ],\n [\n \"lake, but no evidence of clowns or clown paraphernalia was found.\\nWhile some of these reports have been harmless, others reports have been more suspicious. In one instance, a woman reported a person in a clown costume was standing in her backyard and ran away as she took a picture. In one case, an individual had heard clanging chains and a banging noise at his front door. While other cases report a clown offering money or candy to children to follow the clown into the woods. South Dakota On October 4, a 19-year-old man in a clown costume was arrested on\",\n \"-23.85497844632482\"\n ],\n [\n \"ignored, and Insane Clown Posse was never mentioned during the show. MTV later informed Island Records that the heads of the network must choose the band first before it can become eligible to be featured on TRL.\\nBoth Bizaar and Bizzar received three-out-of-five-star ratings in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, the highest rating that the magazine ever gave to any Insane Clown Posse album.\\nOn July 10, 2017 Richard Newton, a Boston area juggalo went to the Top 40 radio station Kiss 108 to make a request for the song \\\"My Axe\\\" in person, with an axe in hand and other\",\n \"-23.808951283805072\"\n ],\n [\n \"being a clown. It is now that she comes to the realization that it wasn't Sam who killed her child but the clown and that her memory was wrong. She agrees to help Sam, who has been present at the murders not as a perpetrator but as the hunter of the monster, known as the Hellbreed.\\nMeanwhile, Detective Weiss has pulled up Alice's files and it is revealed that she has been committed to a mental institution in 1989. She escaped in 1995 and is still wanted by the authorities. Alice is handcuffed and taken to the institute. Outside they encounter\",\n \"-23.801945874816738\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"Juggalo Street Fight\\\". Insane Clown Posse won against the team of Glen Gilbertti and Kid Kash on February 18. Two weeks later, Insane Clown Posse announced that they would take part in a \\\"Dark Carnival Match\\\" the next week against Glen Gilbertti and any partner he chooses. The following week, Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony took on Glen Gilbertti, Kid Kash, and David Young. \\\"The Alpha Male\\\" Monty Brown made his TNA return, and cost Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony the match. During their stint in TNA, Insane Clown Posse brought the company its largest paying\",\n \"-23.727180042566033\"\n ],\n [\n \"the group's genesis, including Bruce's involvement in professional wrestling, the formation of group Inner City Posse with John and Joey Utlser, as well as establishing their record label Psychopathic Records. The book also discusses the beginnings of what would become Insane Clown Posse and the origins of the group's Dark Carnival mythology, and the albums inspired by it.\\nThe book also documents the group's early struggles, personnel changes and the changing local Detroit music scene.\\nThe book also focus their highly publicized falling-out with Hollywood Records and subsequent signing to Island Records, their eventual return to Psychopathic Records and the production of\",\n \"-23.667398563928145\"\n ],\n [\n \"in an interview with faygoluvers.net, Insane Clown Posse announced that they are cutting ties with Twiztid and Majik Ninja Entertainment, as they have repeatedly declined invites to the Juggalo March On Washington, and the alternative to not march, going on a Wizard of the Hood Tour, which they also declined. Also in doing so, Insane Clown Posse stated that Psychopathic Records will stop reaching out to Twiztid and Majik Ninja Entertainment for Juggalo Day and the Gathering of the Juggalos. Also during the interview it was announced that new music will come from Insane Clown Posse, DJ Clay, Big Hoodoo,\",\n \"-23.621165792865213\"\n ],\n [\n \"be harmless and were merely waving at passing cars.\\nReports of clowns have also been made in the Kansas cities of Chanute, Pittsburg, and Parsons; however the Parsons report was later revealed to be a hoax. Kentucky On September 23, 20-year-old Jonathan Martin was arrested for wearing a hood or mask in a public place, disorderly conduct and two outstanding warrants for non-payment of fines and failure to appear in court. Martin was found in a full clown costume, lurking in wooded area near a Kentucky apartment block.\\nOn October 1, a woman reported that while she was walking on a trail\",\n \"-23.607722269836813\"\n ],\n [\n \"performances. Insane Clown Posse has earned two platinum and five gold albums. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the entire catalog of the group has sold 6.5 million units in the United States and Canada as of April 2007. Solo career (1994–present) In 1994, Utsler released his first solo album, Fuck Off!, containing only four tracks. His second planned solo album Shaggs The Clown, was never released due to sampling issues. After almost 12 years of promotion, Utsler released his second solo album, F.T.F.O. (Fuck The Fuck Off!), in 2006. During ICP's 2013 GOTJ seminar Shaggy and J stated that they were\",\n \"-23.595950769013143\"\n ],\n [\n \"across a clown walking around on the dirt track they were going to bike on. The Clown appeared to be about Five-Eight and very skinny. The clown also was holding a mallet but was not threatening the boys since the clown had not seen them yet. At first the boys thought it was just a person walking until the got closer and saw that it was a clown. The clown did not see them until one of the boys asked the clown what it was doing from a far distance. The clown did not respond and started to chase the\",\n \"-23.584539079194656\"\n ],\n [\n \"clown pranksters were reported in France, the United States and Germany, possibly inspired by American Horror Story: Freak Show.\\nIn 2014, \\\"the Wasco clown\\\" attracted social media attention in California. Again this clown would shared similar resemblance to Pennywise, and it was revealed that the social media postings were part of a year-long photography project conducted by the artist's wife. In Bakersfield, California \\\"menacing\\\" clowns were reported, some with weapons. In July 2015, a \\\"creepy\\\" clown was seen around a local cemetery in Chicago and terrorizing anyone in the graveyard.\\nThere was another burst of such sightings in 2016, including in Greenville,\",\n \"-23.573446828057058\"\n ],\n [\n \"Flam, Bob, and Neil). That April, the duo teamed with Vampiro to defeat The Rainbow Coalition. They defeated the Coalition again when they teamed with Evil Dead later that year, and the match that was featured on JCW, Volume 2.\\nIn 2003, Insane Clown Posse defended, and retained, their JCW Tag Team Championships against Kid Cock (a parody of Kid Rock) and Feminem (a parody of Eminem). The match was featured on JCW, Volume 3. At the 2006 Gathering of the Juggalos, Bruce, Nosawa, and Vampiro lost to Mad Man Pondo and The Headhunters, but defeated Pondo and Powers of Pain\",\n \"-23.566560616716743\"\n ],\n [\n \"'petal' of the lotus,\\\" and it was announced that there would be six members. After switching between two different \\\"sixth members,\\\" Marz and Anybody Killa, Dark Lotus decided to keep the group to only five. On January 19, 2017 via an interview with faygoluvers.net, Insane Clown Posse announced that the group disbanded. Psychopathic Rydas (1999–present) Psychopathic Rydas formed in 1999, and consists of Psychopathic Records-associated rappers performing under alternate stage names in the style of mainstream gangsta rap. The group's current lineup consists of Bruce (Bullet), Utsler (Full Clip), Methric (Foe Foe), Spaniolo (Lil' Shank), Rouleau (Cell Block) and David\",\n \"-23.55422558123246\"\n ],\n [\n \"known as Zombie Clown, Kronus became Psycho Clown and the third man became known as Killer Clown. Unlike previous clown characters who wore fabric masks Los Psycho Circus wore rubber masks with more horrific, twisted facial expressions, inspired by the movie Killer Klowns from Outer Space. Psycho Clown's mask features a foot high brightly colored Mohawk and a long plastic tongue, Zombie Clown's mask features rotting yellow teeth, skin blotches and a small blue tophat while Murder Clown's mask features vampire like fangs and a balding multicolored afro. Each of the wrestlers was given a backstory befitting their twisted and\",\n \"-23.544749751046766\"\n ],\n [\n \"55-year-old man in a clown mask was arrested for menacing at Floyd Light Middle School in Portland. An assistant principal confronted the man, who then allegedly threatened to hurt him. The suspect is facing charges of menacing and disorderly conduct. There has been at least eight \\\"scary clown\\\" sightings, and police responding in some cases, in Douglas County since October 1, 2016. Pennsylvania On September 18, 2016, in State College, a person dressed as a clown was seen acting strangely at the parking lot of a YMCA early in the morning. In late September, reports stated that an individual dressed\",\n \"-23.53223124615033\"\n ],\n [\n \"dressed as clowns were spotted in Belfast. On October 7, a school in Coleraine had closed its doors for a short time because of fears that people dressed as clowns were on their way to the school. On 7 October a clown threatened children with a knife in Riverside Park, Ballymoney, County Antrim. On Instagram an account called 'killerclownsballymoney' said a clown would be \\\"waiting at Ballymoney High school gates at 3:55 and on Mondays it'll be Dalriada at 2:40\\\". On social media, an image appeared of a clown stood outside Cullybackey College in the village of Cullybackey The police\",\n \"-23.515188863657386\"\n ],\n [\n \"are explored in multiple Insane Clown Posse songs. Throughout their career, the group has used parables set within the Dark Carnival mythology to warn of the ultimate consequences of immoral behavior. Their 2002 album The Wraith: Shangri-La ended the first set of Joker Card albums and included the song The Unveiling, which explicitly revealed that the hidden message of ICP's music had always been to follow God. Joseph Bruce remarked that \\\"The ending of the Joker Cards, the way we looked at it, was death. Heaven and hell. That's up to each and every juggalo [to decide]\\\".\\nSeveral journalists have commented\",\n \"-23.511843461892568\"\n ],\n [\n \"that follows mimics and idolizes the music group, Insane Clown Posse. The music encourages and condones extreme acts of violence, which some Juggalos carry out. Juggalo members paint their faces black and white, dress in black clothing, attend raves together that often end violently, and consider themselves a family.\\\"\\nHowever, some law enforcement officers have been firm in their assertion that Juggalos are a criminal group. Police watch commander Jay Mackanin of Citrus Heights has stated that, \\\"Juggalos are a gang. I know sometimes they say they're not, but they are.\\\"\\nKelly Snyder, a former Drug Enforcement Administration officer who tracks Juggalo\",\n \"-23.453241578492452\"\n ],\n [\n \"also recalls the 1980s clown sightings in various US cities, as well as providing a phone number, email address and information about a smartphone app that citizens can use to report suspicious behavior to authorities.\\nThat same day the Bucks County Courier Times interviewed Joyce Meder, also known as \\\"Bubbles the Clown\\\" regarding the \\\"creepy clown\\\" phenomenon. Meder is an Abington, PA-based professional clown who provides entertainment for children. Describing herself as a \\\"happy\\\" and \\\"fun\\\" clown, Meder expressed disappointment over the recent clown scare, citing her newfound fears of possible run-ins with law enforcement when she is in public dressed\",\n \"-23.445852503209608\"\n ],\n [\n \"commit his crimes while wearing his clown costume.\\nThe modern stock character of the evil clown was popularized by Stephen King's novel It, published in 1986, which introduced the fear of an evil clown to a modern audience. In the novel, the eponymous character is a pan-dimensional monster which feeds mainly on children by luring them in the form of Pennywise the Dancing Clown and then assuming the shape of whatever the victim fears the most.\\nThe evil clown archetype plays strongly off the sense of dislike it caused to inherent elements of coulrophobia; however, it has been suggested by Joseph Durwin\",\n \"-23.429302502008795\"\n ],\n [\n \"became the company's logo.\\nInner City Posse released their first professionally recorded album, Dog Beats, on the label later that year. Shortly after, the group underwent a change in style, look, and name to become Insane Clown Posse, and created the Dark Carnival concept that would be continued by much of the label's other artists for years to come. Esham and Kid Rock were paid to appear on the debut \\\"Insane Clown Posse\\\" album to increase the album's marketability. The group and their label began to gain moderate popularity in the Detroit area following the releases of Carnival of Carnage and\",\n \"-23.418987267054035\"\n ],\n [\n \"Psycho Clown Biography The wrestler who would later become known as Psycho Clown was born on December 16, 1985, son of Luchador José Alvarado Nieves, better known under the ring names Brazo de Plata or Super Porky. He is one of Alvarado's six children and was the first of them to take up wrestling although he was later joined by at least one brother and two sisters. Independent circuit (2000–2003) He was not trained by his father or any of his uncles for his professional wrestling career, instead Memo Díaz was responsible for training the young Alvarado as well as\",\n \"-23.410162358219168\"\n ],\n [\n \"Chris Benoit (song) Music and lyrics Inspiration for the song came from wrestler Chris Benoit, who murdered his wife and son before committing suicide. Insane Clown Posse broadly alluded to the murders in the song's lyrics, but the focus of the song is not the murders themselves, but of suddenly losing one's sanity, and eclipsing in violence. The song pertains to the album's overall concept, which \\\"teaches us to respect the life we've been given and do our best to avoid an early death.\\\" The song was remixed by Kuma for the remix album Mike E. Clark's Extra Pop Emporium.\",\n \"-23.400800649484154\"\n ],\n [\n \"the album. In June 2014 Psychopathic Records announced that Insane Clown Posse and Da Mafia 6ix were working on a collaboration album, and Insane Clown Posse posted pictures on their official instagram page of them and Da Mafia 6ix sitting around in Violent J's home studio. The album is scheduled to be released sometime in August 2014. A few days after Faygoluvers.net conducted the interview with Insane Clown Posse, Psychopathic Records, Insane Clown Posse, Twiztid and Blaze Ya Dead Homie released a picture of the Dark Lotus hand sign stating that all original members (Insane Clown Posse, Twiztid & Blaze\",\n \"-23.383835829532472\"\n ],\n [\n \"called Circus the Clown because he was an alcoholic like Maura. He stopped drinking for Annie, yet custody went to the mother.\\nBack in the confessional, Circus tells the priest he sinned with Ondine the night before, and fears the good luck she brings, since he lost hope long ago. As he leaves, the unknown man approaches him about Ondine, Circus ignores him. Circus brings Annie back from dialysis, but is locked out since Maura and Alex are drinking in a pub. Annie asks to be left with them. Circus returns to find the caravan has been ransacked, and Ondine hiding\",\n \"-23.371821614768123\"\n ],\n [\n \"Card in Insane Clown Posse's Dark Carnival concept album series. The Dark Carnival is a concept of the afterlife in which souls are sent to a form of limbo while waiting to be sent to heaven or hell based on their individual actions. These concepts are related by Insane Clown Posse in a series of albums called the six Joker's Cards. Each of the six Joker's Cards relate to a specific character — an entity of the Dark Carnival — that tries to \\\"save the human soul\\\" by showing the wicked inside of one's self.\\nRiddle Box is one of several\",\n \"-23.363316144037526\"\n ],\n [\n \"Curtis suggested that Insane Clown Posse start its own promotion while continuing with its music. He came to Bruce's house each night to discuss ideas about the promotion. Curtis convinced Bruce to coordinate another Strangle-Mania Live show, to be followed by an eighty-city \\\"Hellfire Wrestling\\\" tour. Curtis booked the talent and wrote the scripts. Strangle-Mania Live sold out the Majestic Theater in Detroit. Two days after the show, Curtis was found dead in his apartment, due to a sudden diabetic problem. The \\\"Hellfire Wrestling\\\" tour was subsequently canceled. World Championship Wrestling (1999–2000) Bruce then went on to wrestle a long\",\n \"-23.35538152341178\"\n ],\n [\n \"wearing a clown mask and holding a chainsaw, scaring a woman and child. Iowa On October 11, an 18-year-old man with a clown mask was arrested for allegedly chasing two people with a metal baseball bat in Urbandale. Kansas On September 27, 2016, a person dressed as a clown was spotted creeping in the bushes near the intersection of 85th Street and Parallel Parkway in Kansas City, Kansas.\\nOn October 1, 2016, in Topeka, a clown was spotted near the intersection of Southeast 37th Street and Southeast Adams Street. Again in Topeka, a few days later on the morning of October\",\n \"-23.327529969988973\"\n ],\n [\n \"de Tabarin by Catulle Mendès and in Ruggero Leoncavallo's Pagliacci (accused of being a plagiarism of Mendès' piece), both works featuring murderous clowns as central characters.\\nDuring the 1970s the National Lampoon published a series of mock comic books in the pages of the magazine, entitled \\\"Evil Clown\\\", which featured a malevolent titular character named Frenchy the Clown. During that decade, American serial killer and rapist John Wayne Gacy became known as the Killer Clown when arrested in 1978, after it was discovered he had performed as Pogo the Clown at children's parties and other events; however, Gacy did not actually\",\n \"-23.304210813323152\"\n ],\n [\n \"to wrestle today in Juggalo Championship Wrestling as well as in various independent promotions.\\nInsane Clown Posse gained fame for being both professional musicians and professional wrestlers. Overall, they are two-time JCW Tag Team Champions. Additionally, Bruce is a one-time JCW Tag Team Champion with 2 Tuff Tony, and Utsler is a one-time JCW Heavyweight Champion. Bruce and Utsler are also founding members of the Juggalo World Order.\\nIn addition they were largely involved in Backyard Wrestling: Don't Try This at Home, where most of the wrestlers in the game were members of JCW.\",\n \"-23.257796595513355\"\n ],\n [\n \"The King and the Clown Plot Set in the late 15th century during the reign of King Yeonsan, two male street clowns and tightrope walkers, Jangsaeng (Kam Woo-sung) and Gong-gil (Lee Joon-gi), are part of an entertainer troupe. The effeminate and beautiful Gong-gil specializes in female roles ; their manager prostitutes him to rich customers, and Jangsaeng is sickened by this practice. After Gong-gil kills the manager in defense of Jangsaeng, the pair flee to Seoul, where they form a new group with three other street performers.\\nTogether the group comes up with a skit mocking some members of the royal court,\",\n \"-23.239743919635657\"\n ],\n [\n \"Insane Clown Posse returned to Europe for a tour. The group released a three-disc compilation of their guest appearances with other artists called Featuring Freshness in November 2011. The compilation also included new songs with artists Paris, Cold 187um, and Tone Tone.\\nAt the 2011 Detroit Music Awards, Insane Clown Posse received the Distinguished Achievement Award. In June, Insane Clown Posse issued a cease and desist notice to the Upright Citizens Brigade, threatening legal action over a planned performance, \\\"The Gathering of the Juggalos For A Mother Fucking Baby Funeral\\\". 2012–14: The Mighty Death Pop! Era At their 2010 Hallowicked concert,\",\n \"-23.22678335168166\"\n ],\n [\n \"paid $1 million to purchase the Insane Clown Posse contract from Battery/Jive Records.\\nThe expansion of the Juggalo fanbase into its own culture inspired Insane Clown Posse to write the songs \\\"What Is A Juggalo?\\\" and \\\"Down With The Clown\\\" for this album. Recording The group started recording The Great Milenko in 1996, and Violent J began thinking of a title for the album shortly after. Bruce later came up with the title The Great Milenko. Bruce also admitted that he had always liked the ring name of professional wrestler Dean Simon (\\\"Dean Malenko\\\"), because he felt that the name Malenko\",\n \"-23.217513917043107\"\n ],\n [\n \"An evil clown has sabotaged the services and imprisoned the carnival manager. Shaggy and Scooby help the manager and rescue the others stranded in a lake. After trying out all the rides, Shaggy and Scooby find out that the clown has a prime interest in getting employment in the carnival but was immediately rejected by the manager and proceeded to capture him. Reception The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly scored the Genesis game a 7.625 out of 10. They particularly praised the game's strong similarity to the TV series, though two of them felt the game to be too\",\n \"-23.178092671267223\"\n ],\n [\n \"Carnage. He leads \\\"the phantoms of the dead\\\" that take the form of the Carnival. The creatures fiercely tear doomed souls from their living bodies and drag them down into Hell. The album tells morality tales as the Ringmaster character takes the listener through exhibits of the Carnival, as in such songs as \\\"Murder Go Round\\\", \\\"Wagon Wagon\\\", and \\\"House of Mirrors.\\\" Release and promotion To help promote the album, Insane Clown Posse created the comic book Wicked Clownz featuring themselves and the Ringmaster character. The comic was written by Bruce, illustrated by Joseph Utsler, and printed in Canada. The\",\n \"-23.170160887617385\"\n ],\n [\n \"reported sighting of people dressed as evil clowns was in Greenville, South Carolina, where a small boy spoke to his mother of a pair of clowns that had attempted to lure him away. After such an incident, a number of clowns have since been spotted in various American states including Florida, New York, Wisconsin and Kentucky, and subsequently in other Western countries, from August 2016. By October 2016, in the wake of hundreds of \\\"clown sightings\\\" across the United States and Canada, the phenomenon had spread from North America to Europe, Australasia and Latin America.\\nSome explanations for the 2016 clown\",\n \"-23.166574978992458\"\n ],\n [\n \"a sketch titled \\\"Kickspit Underground Rock Festival\\\", which parodied the Gathering of the Juggalos infomercial. Bruce stated that he was not offended by the parody, and that he thought that the sketch was \\\"hilarious\\\" and \\\"a humongous compliment\\\". On February 17, 2010, Psychopathic Records signed a contract with Universal Music Group's Fontana Distribution. On March 9, 2010, Insane Clown Posse were interviewed by Nightline journalist Martin Bashir. Bruce hated the segment, stating that Bashir took statements made by the duo out of context, pairing one of Bruce's responses with a different question than he had been asked.\\nThe trailer for Big\",\n \"-23.09229939314173\"\n ],\n [\n \"Murder Clown Los Psycho Circus In late 2007 AAA decided to repackage Aliens turning him into \\\"Zombie Clown\\\" and making him a part of Los Psycho Circus along with Psycho Clown and Monster Clown. Unlike previous Clown characters who wore fabric masks Los Psycho Circus wore rubber masks with more horrific, twisted facial expressions, inspired by the movie Killer Klowns from Outer Space. Zombie Clown's mask features rotting yellow teeth, skin blotches and a small blue tophat. The team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star,\",\n \"-23.084624495182652\"\n ],\n [\n \"duo announced that they would face whoever Jeff Jarrett threw at them next in a \\\"Juggalo Street Fight\\\". Insane Clown Posse won against the team of Glen Gilbertti and Kid Kash on February 18. Two weeks later, Insane Clown Posse announced that they would take part in a \\\"Dark Carnival match\\\" the next week against Glen Gilbertti and any partner he chooses. The following week, Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony took on Glen Gilbertti, Kid Kash, and David Young. \\\"The Alpha Male\\\" Monty Brown made his TNA return, and cost Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony the\",\n \"-23.062599483779195\"\n ],\n [\n \"Jester (Quality Comics) Powers and abilities The Jester has no superpowers, but is an Olympic-level athlete and a brilliant hand-to-hand combatant and in some later adventures is aided by a small flying sphere with a smiling face and handles on the side called \\\"Quinopolis\\\". He is also a skilled detective, trained in various techniques of police procedure. In other media A different version of The Jester appears in the 2010 film Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths, voiced by James Patrick Stuart, this version is a heroic version of the Joker from Earth-Three. He is a member of the Justice\",\n \"-23.052980091604695\"\n ],\n [\n \"reported seeing a clown wearing a multi-colored wig, overalls, and a mask carrying what appeared to be a machete. Upon seeing the police car, the clown fled. His or her whereabouts remain unknown. Missouri One driver reported seeing a person dressed as a clown lurking around by Republic High School during the night in Republic, Missouri.\\nPeople dressed as clowns have also been sighted in Platte City, Joplin and Neosho, Missouri. Clown related threats were also made in Blue Springs, Missouri. Clown sightings have also been reported in Clinton, Versailles and University of Missouri campus. Montana On October 12, a 15-year-old\",\n \"-23.04261192836566\"\n ],\n [\n \"stint in World Championship Wrestling with Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo formed two stables. The first stable, The Dead Pool, consisted of Insane Clown Posse, Vampiro, and Raven; the second consisted of Insane Clown Posse, Vampiro, Great Muta, and Kiss Demon, known as The Dark Carnival.\\nOn August 9, 1999, Insane Clown Posse made their WCW debut on Monday Nitro in a six-man tag team match. Insane Clown Posse and Vampiro defeated Lash LeRoux, Norman Smiley, and Prince Iaukea. At Road Wild 1999, Rey Mysterio, Jr., Billy Kidman, and Eddie Guerrero defeated Vampiro and Insane Clown Posse. Insane Clown Posse continued\",\n \"-23.02237930856245\"\n ],\n [\n \"a clown calling himself \\\"HE who gets slapped\\\", the star attraction of a small circus near Paris. His act consists of his getting slapped every evening by other clowns, and includes Paul pretending to present in front of the Academy of Science.\\nAnother of the performers is Bezano (John Gilbert), a daredevil horseback rider. Consuelo (Norma Shearer), the daughter of the impoverished Count Mancini, applies to join his act. Bezano falls in love with Consuelo, as does Paul. Consuelo and her father, however, are planning to restore the family's fortunes with a marriage to her father's wealthy friend.\\nOne night, during HE's\",\n \"-23.00363803235814\"\n ],\n [\n \"Rouleau. Each member was said to \\\"act as a 'petal' of the lotus,\\\" and it was announced that there would be six members. After switching between two different \\\"sixth members,\\\" Marz, and Anybody Killa, Dark Lotus decided to keep the group to only five. On January 19, 2017 via an interview with Faygoluvers, Insane Clown Posse announced that the group disbanded. Psychopathic Rydas (1999–present) Psychopathic Rydas formed in 1999, and consists of Psychopathic Records-associated rappers performing under alternate stage names in the style of mainstream gangsta rap. The group's current lineup consists of Bruce (Bullet), Utsler (Full Clip), Methric (Foe\",\n \"-22.995913963386556\"\n ],\n [\n \"the man, blocking his path and then refused to move when asked, before the man chased the clown away. Devon and Cornwall Police were investigating the incident.\\nOn October 9, a 30-year-old man dressed as a clown was arrested after chasing a woman through Eaton Park in Norwich, East Anglia.\\nOn October 10, a gang of three people dressed as clowns were spotted in Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire. Kent Police reported there had been 59 clown-related incidents between October 7 and 10. On 11 October a teenage boy was hospitalized for a cut to his head after a clown threw a log\",\n \"-22.922645199647377\"\n ],\n [\n \"incidents regarding people dressed as clowns, but no arrests were made.\\nOn 10 October 2016, organizers of a Halloween haunted house attraction apologised after three people dressed as evil clowns and carrying imitation chainsaws frightened students in the grounds of Newpark Comprehensive School in Blackrock, Dublin. The clowns were said to be publicising the attraction and unaware that the grounds were private property. The attraction's spokesperson said it was \\\"'in no way linked' to the 'creepy clown' craze sweeping across the UK and US\\\". After the incident police said they are taking the clown craze seriously and reports will be investigated.\",\n \"-22.88010919484077\"\n ],\n [\n \"Request Live (TRL) with requests for the video. While on their \\\"Bizaar Bizzar Tour\\\", Insane Clown Posse posted on its website that December 8 was the day for their fans request the video. Bruce and Utsler named that day \\\"The Mighty Day of Lienda,\\\" meaning \\\"The Mighty Day of All or Nothing\\\". On December 8, Rudy Hill, Robert Bruce, Tom Dub, and six other Psychopathic Records employees and friends drove down to New York City.\\nThey were met by nearly 400 Insane Clown Posse fans standing outside in front of the TRL studio window, all with signs supporting the duo. Thirty\",\n \"-22.822323542728554\"\n ],\n [\n \"of just come straight out and just speak straight out of religion\\\".\\nIn an October 2010 article for The Guardian, Jon Ronson characterized the Insane Clown Posse as \\\"evangelical Christians\\\" who have \\\"only been pretending to be brutal and sadistic to trick their fans into believing in God\\\". In an interview with ICP conducted for the article, two of Ronson's queries referred parenthetically to ICP's \\\"Christian message\\\" and to the members' identities as \\\"[secret] Christians\\\". Several papers, including The Washington Post, published summaries of Ronson's claims.\\nEight days after publication of the Guardian article, Joseph Bruce Tweeted \\\"I think [it's] crazy how\",\n \"-22.80257618392352\"\n ],\n [\n \"are criminals and gang members, he does not believe that Juggalos as a whole constitute a gang.\\nIn January 2014 Insane Clown Posse along with the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan filed suit again against the FBI. The suit aimed to have Juggalos no longer considered to be a gang and to have any \\\"criminal intelligence information\\\" about Juggalos destroyed. The suit was dismissed in July 2014, ruling that that band and its fans lack standing to bring the suit. The ACLU has stated that it intends to appeal the dismissal.\\nIn September 2015, the U.S. Court of Appeals for\",\n \"-22.794429235640564\"\n ],\n [\n \"Psycho Clown won his first singles title in AAA, when he defeated Chessman for the AAA Latin American Championship. He lost the title to Pentagón Jr. on July 3, 2016. On October 2, 2016, at Héroes Inmortales X, Monster and Murder Clown turned on Psycho Clown and formed a new partnership with his rival Pagano.\\nOn August 26, 2017, Psycho Clown won Dr. Wagner Jr.'s mask in a Lucha de Apuestas at Triplemanía XXV.\\nOn July 21, 2018, at AAA vs. Elite, Clown teamed up with El Hijo del Fantasma and Rey Wagner, representing AAA, as the trio lost to team \\\"Liga\",\n \"-22.757073361732182\"\n ],\n [\n \"Guestella. 3D and Gweedo announced in an episode of SlamTV! that Insane Clown Posse had been stripped of the JCW Tag Team Championships due to them not defending the title. At the first annual Bloodymania, JCW's premier wrestling event, Insane Clown Posse teamed with Sabu to defeat Trent Acid and The Young Alter Boys w/ Annie Social the Nun.\\nLater that night, Corporal Robinson, Scott Hall, and Violent J formed the Juggalo World Order (JWO). Shaggy 2 Dope, Nosawa, Kevin Nash, 2 Tuff Tony, and Sid Vicious later joined the group. On January 26, 2008, Bruce and Tony won the JCW\",\n \"-22.7476390332522\"\n ],\n [\n \"in her room by a masked man and assumes it was the clown, due to the fact that she saw him outside of her window. The next night, the clown is back at the strip club, only to be kicked in the face by Fay and once again thrown out. Fay leaves in a rage to be picked up by the Devil Girl, and the two partake in sexual activities.\\nThe Devil Girl then confronts the local preacher and accuses him of being a pervert by nature, which is later revealed to be true when Fay attempts to retrieve her ring\",\n \"-22.736917154630646\"\n ],\n [\n \"Paste-Pot Pete, rob a bank during Red Ronin's rampage, with Clown executing the bound security guards. Clown is seen with Manslaughter Marsdale killing a large amount of H.A.M.M.E.R troops at an old S.H.I.E.L.D. barbershop base as Zodiac reveals the stolen Zodiac Key to an Agent Murphy.\\nClown is revealed to not be Eliot Franklin, but his half-brother. The reason for this deception is unknown.\\nBoomerang and Owl hire Clown onto the Sinister Sixteen, assembled to distract the Chameleon's forces while Boomerang steals from him. Unnamed A third Clown appeared as a member of the Circus of Crime at the time of the\",\n \"-22.714795703752316\"\n ],\n [\n \"aware of a \\\"Jolly Joker\\\" clown club whose members would regularly perform at fund-raising events and parades in addition to voluntarily entertaining hospitalized children. In late 1975, Gacy joined the Jolly Jokers and created his own performance characters: \\\"Pogo the Clown\\\" and \\\"Patches the Clown.\\\" Gacy designed his own costumes and taught himself how to apply clown makeup, although some professional clowns noted the sharp corners Gacy painted at the edges of his mouth are contrary to the rounded borders that professional clowns normally employ, so as not to scare children. Gacy is known to have performed as Pogo or\",\n \"-22.667807117060875\"\n ],\n [\n \"the most terrifying clown characters in film and television. In fact, it is \\\"widely considered the archetype of the [clown horror] genre,\\\" wrote Jessica Glenza. As The Atlantic summarized the terror of the performance and character, \\\"He speaks in a kind of singsongy, guttural growl, his teeth are sharp fangs, and the contrast between his comical yellow dungarees and his penchant for ripping off children’s limbs is fairly stark.\\\" Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins described it as \\\"the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours\",\n \"-22.665736368857324\"\n ],\n [\n \"Death Racers Production In January 2008, it was announced that Insane Clown Posse and Twiztid had received a treatment for a low-budget horror film titled Road Rage, to be directed by Roy Knyrim of Sota Productions, who had previously directed J and Shaggy in The Chronicles of the Dark Carnival. It was stated that filming would take place over a two-week period in Los Angeles, California during the Spring of that year.\\nIn March, a second announcement was made, stating that Insane Clown Posse would star in a film scheduled to begin production in the first week of May. Bruce and\",\n \"-22.65660932521132\"\n ],\n [\n \"Fuck the World (Insane Clown Posse song) Background In 1996, Insane Clown Posse signed a contract with Disney-owned label Hollywood Records, which reportedly paid US$1 million to purchase their contract from Battery/Jive Records. Their album The Great Milenko, which featured guests Alice Cooper (on vocals), Steve Jones (on guitar), and Slash (on guitar), was recorded and released on June 25, 1997. However, just hours after the release, Hollywood Records pulled the album from stores nationwide, cancelled Insane Clown Posse's in-store signings and nationwide tour, pulled commercials for the album and the music video for \\\"Halls of Illusions\\\" from television, and dropped\",\n \"-22.61502614683559\"\n ],\n [\n \"Leck mich im Arsch (Insane Clown Posse song) Background In August 2011, Insane Clown Posse was contacted by Jack White, who invited Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler to his mansion, because he wanted to collaborate with them. White played the track he was working on, an arrangement of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's \\\"Leck mich im Arsch\\\" with live instrumentation by JEFF the Brotherhood, for Bruce and Utsler and explained that the title of the track translated to \\\"Lick My Ass\\\".\\nInsane Clown Posse were surprised that White wanted to work with them, and said that they had respect for White, who is\",\n \"-22.599286279901207\"\n ],\n [\n \"shows DM Pranks \\\"pranking\\\" a victim dousing the area around his car with what appears to be gasoline. In the same video a clown set up large bottles on a dummy's head that he filled with fake blood and then hit them with a hammer to simulate a murder.\\nThe video \\\"Killer Clown Returns Scare Prank!\\\" was posted on June 15, 2014 and has over 85 million views. It features a fake clown pranking passers by running after them with an iron hammer or a chainsaw.\\nOn September 7, 2014, DM Pranks received the first significant success, with the video \\\"Killer Clown\",\n \"-22.550261193719052\"\n ],\n [\n \"wearing clown masks. Both of the alleged robbers were armed with weapons, and a gun was fired once during one of the robberies, but no one was injured. The two were arrested for robbery. Arkansas People dressed as clowns were reported in Lowell near the elementary schools. A person dressed as a clown was arrested in Downtown Bentonville, Arkansas on October 5, 2016. California On October 4, people dressed as clowns threatened Fairfield, Sacramento, and Vallejo public school campuses. A clown sighting was reported in Temecula.\\nOn October 5, a person dressed as a clown was accused of trying to kidnap\",\n \"-22.530999319278635\"\n ],\n [\n \"Clown Posse to genuinely flip them over and begin throwing punches. Realizing that the match was getting too heated, McMahon ended the feud after that match. Bruce and Utsler were put into other matches along with The Oddities. Vince Russo told Bruce and Utsler to \\\"make it seem like you don't know anything about wrestling, and you guys keep choking and digging into their eyes\\\".\\nDuring this time, Bruce and Utsler had no contract with WWF. They, however, did have an agreement that the WWF would occasionally play Insane Clown Posse commercials, and in return, Bruce and Utsler would wrestle for\",\n \"-22.509992185339797\"\n ],\n [\n \"powerful animals, rodeo clowns are often injured seriously, and, sometimes, fatally. \\nIn some venues, rodeo bullfighters still wear clown make-up and some may also provide traditional clowning entertainment for the crowd between rodeo events, often parodying aspects of cowboy culture. But most modern bullfighters no longer dress as clowns, though they still wear bright, loose-fitting clothing. At larger events in the USA, the job is split, a bullfighter (sometimes two or more) protects the riders from the bull, and a barrelman (sometimes one person, sometimes two) provide comic humor. Some barrelmen provide both comedy and support to bullfighters,\",\n \"-22.49860738258576\"\n ],\n [\n \"(Laredo Kid, Super Fly and Aero Star) in a sub-three minute match which Los Psycho Circus dominated. In August, 2009 it was announced the Zombie Clown's name had been changed to Monster Clown and Killer Clown would be known as \\\"Murder Clown\\\" from that point forwards due to copyright problems with the original names. Los Psycho Circus kept their winning streak alive as they defeated La Yakuza (El Oriental, Kenzo Suzuki and Sugi San) in the opening match of the 2009 Verano de Escandalo. In the winter of 2009 Los Psycho Circus began siding with Cibernético in his feud with\",\n \"-22.464903570125898\"\n ],\n [\n \"Brazo Jr., Super Brazo Jr., Robin, and a cousin who works as the second Brazo de Plata Jr. Psycho Clown is engaged and has a daughter. In April 2015, Psycho Clown got engaged to Zaraida Casas, the daughter of Negro Casas.\\nOn May 19, 2017 footage emerged of a man believed to be an unmasked Psycho Clown and other members of the Alvarado family, including his brother José (Máximo Sexy) and cousins Felipe (La Máscara) and Robin, as well as his uncle Daniel Alvarado (Brazo de Platino), destroying an expensive car belonging to José Gutiérrez, better known as Último Guerrero.\",\n \"-22.456441228508993\"\n ],\n [\n \"Clown (film) Production In November 2010, Jon Watts and Christopher D. Ford uploaded a fake trailer to YouTube that announced Eli Roth would produce the film; Roth was not involved at the time. Roth spoke about the film, saying: \\\"I loved how ballsy they were, issuing a trailer that said, 'From the Master of Horror, Eli Roth.' Some people thought I'd made the movie, or that it was another fake Grindhouse trailer... I really felt these guys deserved a shot, and that people are truly freaked out by evil clowns. It's new territory to make this a version of The\",\n \"-22.44118901019101\"\n ],\n [\n \"face\\\". This natural dislike of clowns makes them effective in a literary or fictional context, as the antagonistic threat perceived in clowns is desirable in a villainous character.\\nResearcher Ben Radford, who published Bad Clowns in 2016 and is regarded as an expert on the phenomenon, writes that looking throughout history clowns are seen as tricksters, fools, and more; however, they always are in control, speak their minds, and can get away with doing so. When writing the book Bad Clowns, Radford found that professional clowns are not generally fond of the bad-clown (or evil-clown) persona. They see them as \\\"the\",\n \"-22.43603055982385\"\n ],\n [\n \"gang was ridiculed by the technology magazine Wired in a November 2011 article, with journalist Spencer Ackerman referring to previous scandals involving FBI harassment of Muslim-Americans.\\nOn January 8, 2014, Insane Clown Posse along with the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan filed suit again against the FBI. The suit aims to have Juggalos no longer considered to be a gang and to have any \\\"criminal intelligence information\\\" about Juggalos destroyed. Gathering of the Juggalos The Gathering of the Juggalos (The Gathering or GOTJ) is an annual festival put on by Psychopathic Records, featuring performances by the entire label as well\",\n \"-22.433004424376122\"\n ],\n [\n \"asked a judge to dismiss the lawsuit against them.\\nIn an interview given in 2013, Shaggy 2 Dope of Insane Clown Posse addressed the Juggalo gang classification and the impending FBI lawsuit. He stated that at first he believed that the classification of Juggalos was \\\"pretty dope\\\" because it would afford the band a tougher image, but later changed his mind after realizing the negative repercussions of being labeled a gang, such as gang enhancements for Juggalos who commit crimes. He also expressed concern about innocent Juggalos being targeted in \\\"Shithole, Nebraska\\\" by MS-13 members. He argued that while some Juggalos\",\n \"-22.428499283312703\"\n ]\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":99,"cells":{"question_id":{"kind":"string","value":"6f733x"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Given that polar bears have existed 600,000 years, they must have gone through periods warmer than today (prior to and after the ice age) and somehow survived. But today they are on the endangered species list due to expected climate changes. Are they really in danger?"},"answers":{"kind":"list like","value":["The issue is not actually the temperatures we are going to be changing to. It is the speed of the change. We have taken a warming process that would have taken up to 100,000 years or more and sped it up. Even if we have only made it 10 times faster some animals that could have adapted in 100,000 will not be able to adapt in 10,000. And odds are that the speed we have increased the change is far far faster so the chances of animals adapting is far lower. But with polar bears there does seem to be one kind of adaptation occurring. They are mating with Grizzly and Brown bear and having hybrids that are fertile.","Animal populations can adapt and evolve along with a changing environment if the change happens slow enough. Polar bears may be able to adapt to a temperature change over 100000 years, but not be able to adapt to the same temperature change over 1000 years. Since this recent anthropogenic driven change is happening faster than any natural temperature change, so I would say they are in danger in the wild. I guess we will be able to see them in zoos though.","There is wide scientific speculation about polar bears but the most common conclusion is that they have only been around for 150,000 years. If they are 150k then they have survived only one event of warming like we are currently undergoing. If they are 600k then only two events of current magnitude. Before large-scale encroachment & habitat destruction polar bears could migrate if they had to.","while your polar bear example is a good one - this is a major problem facing ALOT of wild animals. I don't want to sound like a doomsday soothsayer, but if humans keep breeding uncontrollably - there will come a time in the not too distant future when the only wild animals on earth will be humans and the farm animals and cattle used to feed those humans. It sounds crazy but it's alot closer than you think. For hundreds of thousands of years, there was a natural selection - survival of the fittest where the food chain was a natural process - but humans have banded together to become bigger/smarter/better weaponized to overcome all other predators, and have halted natural selection - to where now - it is humans - and whatever humans want to let live. If the elephants have valuable ivory - humans hunt them until they are nearly extinct or until the only elephants left are close to extinction. Its the same with the millions of fishes in the ocean and the corral reefs that provide their homes. Except instead of hunting/fishing them to extinction, the humans have polluted the earth and caused the earths temperature to rise so much - that the reefs are dying off, as well as the fishies that used to call those reefs home. Humans' un-controlled breeding without limits to the point of massive over-population is a much bigger issue than greenhouse gases, (and is the biggest cause of greenhouse gases) if you had a world full of 1 million people who wanted to run electricity full blast year round - no problem, they could burn coal and drive cars and throw their trash in landfills, or directly in the ocean and the impact would be minimal. but when you are talking 7.5 Billion people and increasing every single day - with longer life expectancy and no end in site - humans will continue to destroy the earth until there's nothing left for wild animals.","Over the period of about 1000 years, it is theorized that polar bears will [adapt into brown bears]( URL_0 ). We won't be alive to see if that happens, though."],"string":"[\n \"The issue is not actually the temperatures we are going to be changing to. It is the speed of the change. We have taken a warming process that would have taken up to 100,000 years or more and sped it up. Even if we have only made it 10 times faster some animals that could have adapted in 100,000 will not be able to adapt in 10,000. And odds are that the speed we have increased the change is far far faster so the chances of animals adapting is far lower. But with polar bears there does seem to be one kind of adaptation occurring. They are mating with Grizzly and Brown bear and having hybrids that are fertile.\",\n \"Animal populations can adapt and evolve along with a changing environment if the change happens slow enough. Polar bears may be able to adapt to a temperature change over 100000 years, but not be able to adapt to the same temperature change over 1000 years. Since this recent anthropogenic driven change is happening faster than any natural temperature change, so I would say they are in danger in the wild. I guess we will be able to see them in zoos though.\",\n \"There is wide scientific speculation about polar bears but the most common conclusion is that they have only been around for 150,000 years. If they are 150k then they have survived only one event of warming like we are currently undergoing. If they are 600k then only two events of current magnitude. Before large-scale encroachment & habitat destruction polar bears could migrate if they had to.\",\n \"while your polar bear example is a good one - this is a major problem facing ALOT of wild animals. I don't want to sound like a doomsday soothsayer, but if humans keep breeding uncontrollably - there will come a time in the not too distant future when the only wild animals on earth will be humans and the farm animals and cattle used to feed those humans. It sounds crazy but it's alot closer than you think. For hundreds of thousands of years, there was a natural selection - survival of the fittest where the food chain was a natural process - but humans have banded together to become bigger/smarter/better weaponized to overcome all other predators, and have halted natural selection - to where now - it is humans - and whatever humans want to let live. If the elephants have valuable ivory - humans hunt them until they are nearly extinct or until the only elephants left are close to extinction. Its the same with the millions of fishes in the ocean and the corral reefs that provide their homes. Except instead of hunting/fishing them to extinction, the humans have polluted the earth and caused the earths temperature to rise so much - that the reefs are dying off, as well as the fishies that used to call those reefs home. Humans' un-controlled breeding without limits to the point of massive over-population is a much bigger issue than greenhouse gases, (and is the biggest cause of greenhouse gases) if you had a world full of 1 million people who wanted to run electricity full blast year round - no problem, they could burn coal and drive cars and throw their trash in landfills, or directly in the ocean and the impact would be minimal. but when you are talking 7.5 Billion people and increasing every single day - with longer life expectancy and no end in site - humans will continue to destroy the earth until there's nothing left for wild animals.\",\n \"Over the period of about 1000 years, it is theorized that polar bears will [adapt into brown bears]( URL_0 ). We won't be alive to see if that happens, though.\"\n]"},"ctxs":{"kind":"list like","value":[["2080, they could disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic Archipelago. However, in the short term, some polar bear populations in historically colder regions of the Arctic may temporarily benefit from a milder climate, as multiyear ice that is too thick for seals to create breathing holes is replaced by thinner annual ice.\nPolar bears diverged from brown bears 400,000–600,000 years ago and have survived past periods of climate fluctuation. It has been claimed that polar bears will be able to adapt to terrestrial food sources as the sea ice","-34.368829866589294"],["The body condition of polar bears has declined during this period; the average weight of lone (and likely pregnant) female polar bears was approximately 290 kg (640 lb) in 1980 and 230 kg (510 lb) in 2004. Between 1987 and 2004, the Western Hudson Bay population declined by 22%, although the population was listed as \"stable\" as of 2017. As the climate change melts sea ice, the U.S. Geological Survey projects that two-thirds of polar bears will disappear by 2050.\nIn Alaska, the effects of sea ice shrinkage have contributed to higher mortality rates in polar bear cubs, and have led to changes in the","-33.88389945367817"],["for Conservation of Nature estimated that there are between 22,000 to 31,000 polar bears worldwide.\nAccording to a 2013 study in the journal Nature, global warming is increasingly affecting the planet more than in the past. Model suggestions say that Arctic sea ice is declining at a rate of 13 percent per decade. Scientists believed this climate change is the main reason for the aggressive behavior of the polar bears. Aftermath Polar bears don’t usually hunt humans, usually feeding on sea mammals, but a close encounter with them can result in serious injuries even death for people.\nThe local authorities have taken","-33.565656385894385"],["recorded. Polar bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases that may be caused by mites or other parasites. Life expectancy Polar bears rarely live beyond 25 years. The oldest wild bears on record died at age 32, whereas the oldest captive was a female who died in 1991, age 43. The causes of death in wild adult polar bears are poorly understood, as carcasses are rarely found in the species's frigid habitat. In the wild, old polar bears eventually become too weak to catch food, and gradually starve to death. Polar bears injured in fights or accidents may either","-33.41153267938353"],["more readily in a warmer climate.\nProblematic interactions between polar bears and humans, such as foraging by bears in garbage dumps, have historically been more prevalent in years when ice-floe breakup occurred early and local polar bears were relatively thin. Increased human-bear interactions, including fatal attacks on humans, are likely to increase as the sea ice shrinks and hungry bears try to find food on land.\nThe effects of climate change are most profound in the southern part of the polar bear's range, and this is indeed where significant degradation of local populations has been observed. The Western Hudson Bay subpopulation, in","-32.35193000885192"],["listing polar bears on the endangered-species list, its findings were contradicted by reports from the U.S. Geological Survey and other independent researchers, who concluded that man-made climate change was likely to devastate polar-bear populations by 2050. The paper was also criticized by an expert at the National Snow and Ice Data Center, who wrote that it \"doesn't measure up scientifically.\" A subsequent in depth international independent study, Re-Assessment of the Baffin Bay and Kane Basin Polar Bear Subpopulations: Final Report to the Canada-Greenland Joint Commission on Polar Bear has determined that polar bear populations are not declining overall and are","-31.83627353470365"],["Another concern is the spread of infectious diseases, such as brucellosis or phocine distemper virus, to previously untouched populations. This is a particular danger among marine mammals who were previously segregated by sea ice.\n3 April 2007, the National Wildlife Federation urged the United States Congress to place polar bears under the Endangered Species Act.\nFour months later, the United States Geological Survey completed a year-long study which concluded in part that the floating Arctic sea ice will continue its rapid shrinkage over the next 50 years, consequently wiping out much of the polar bear habitat. The bears would disappear from Alaska,","-31.55805705167586"],["area. Since 1981, the polar bear population has been declining. This is because global warming causes the ice to break up faster so the polar bears are going to the coasts when there are poor conditions. Conservation efforts Whoever owns the land is responsible or managing it. And the owners of the land differ between the Antarctic and Arctic and also within the polar regions. In the Arctic, there are six nations that own the land about 60°N. These nations include: Canada, Russia, Finland, USA, Denmark, Iceland and Norway. There have been international treaties set up so there are no","-31.519632456242107"],["a southern part of the range, also happens to be one of the best-studied polar bear subpopulations. This subpopulation feeds heavily on ringed seals in late spring, when newly weaned and easily hunted seal pups are abundant. The late spring hunting season ends for polar bears when the ice begins to melt and break up, and they fast or eat little during the summer until the sea freezes again.\nDue to warming air temperatures, ice-floe breakup in western Hudson Bay is currently occurring three weeks earlier than it did 30 years ago, reducing the duration of the polar bear feeding season.","-31.517248484015"],["for Conservation of Nature, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, United States Geological Survey and many leading polar bear biologists have expressed grave concerns about the impact of climate change, including the belief that the current warming trend imperils the survival of the polar bear.\nThe key danger posed by climate change is malnutrition or starvation due to habitat loss. Polar bears hunt seals from a platform of sea ice. Rising temperatures cause the sea ice to melt earlier in the year, driving the bears to shore before they have built sufficient fat reserves to survive the period of scarce food in the","-31.465048360238143"],["bears in the region for the last 25 years, and over that time, the animals have declined in number by a quarter. Each year the Arctic ice is also now melting three weeks earlier. The overall rate of glacier melt is accelerating: in southern Greenland, the amount of ice flowing into the sea has doubled in a decade, resulting in a rise of sea levels. This is exacerbated by the increase in temperatures, which causes oceans to expand. When Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans, the sea temperatures of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean were the highest ever","-31.37119778734632"],["occupy during this time, this includes the area with which they need to inhabit. However, fossils in this area did show a concentration of marine mammals, especially ringed seals, which are a common staple to polar bears diet. 2012 An international study led by Penn State University and the University of Buffalo has estimated that polar bears split from brown bears between 4 million and 5 million years ago. This would have been due to climate changes, which included ice ages. Hybrids have also been documented within the Northern Beaufort Sea of Arctic Canada. This is an area where the","-31.210384835663717"],["known for traveling in the region to den and give birth. Nearly 50 of these species migrate along the coast to the refuge in September. These bears extend more than 800 miles along the coast of Northern Alaska and Canada. Due to changes in climate, Polar bears are recorded to now spend more time on land waiting on new sea ice to form, as they depend on sea ice for much of their hunting. This limits their ability to hunt seals to build up fat for hibernation. Much controversial, the polar bears are widely affected by the climate change happening","-31.146921392617514"],["It is estimated that polar bears and brown bears began to interbreed again about 160,000 years ago. The study shows that previous estimates of polar bears only existing 600,000 years ago was wrong, and that they have in fact been around much longer – four to five million years ago. This research analysis in particular discovered more genetic similarities between the polar bears and ABC Islands brown bears. This indicates that the study of the ABC Islands bears is also important to understanding the evolution of the polar bear. 2011 A study on matrilineal polar bear hybridization in relationship to","-31.046926262788475"],["range of polar bears overlaps with the range of brown bears. Data was collected using the entire genome of three brown bears and one black bear in comparison to one modern polar bear and one polar bear remains estimated at 120,000 years old. Data shows that the brown bears and polar bears were isolated at the same time in which black bears became their own species. Brown bears and polar bears continued to remain isolated for a long period of time, theorized due to the presence of ice, before recent changes allowed polar bears and brown bears to interbreed again.","-30.84324138466036"],["2019 mass invasion of Russian polar bears Climate change effects Russia's World Wildlife Fund said \"Today, polar bears are entering human areas more frequently than in the past and climate change is the reason. Global warming is reducing sea-ice and this phenomenon forces polar bears to come to land in order to find new sources of food\". Liz Greengrass, a director at the UK animal conservation charity Born Free Foundation told to CNN that seals are the most popular food for polar bears, but global warming is shrinking their environment, so polar bears must change their food regime.\nThe International Union","-30.772352657746524"],["they use to hunt seals disappears. However, most polar bear biologists think that polar bears will be unable to completely offset the loss of calorie-rich seal blubber with terrestrial foods, and that they will be outcompeted by brown bears in this terrestrial niche, ultimately leading to a population decline. Controversy over species protection Warnings about the future of the polar bear are often contrasted with the fact that worldwide population estimates have increased over the past 50 years and are relatively stable today. Some estimates of the global population are around 5,000 to 10,000 in the early 1970s; other estimates","-30.760408782811282"],["bears found inland. Additionally, genetic tests have shown them to be more closely related to present-day polar bears than mainland bears. This evidence suggests that they may have inhabited the Archipelago for at least 40,000 years, with habitable refugia existent throughout this time.\nAnother species that might have made use of refugia during this time is the Chum salmon. It appears that the different groups of salmon that spawn on the Prince of Wales Island are more similar to one another than they are to salmon elsewhere in SE Alaska. This has been interpreted as meaning that Prince of Wales Island","-30.630194240016863"],["denning locations of pregnant females. In recent years, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, possibly resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005.\nA new development is that polar bears have begun ranging to new territory. While not unheard of but still uncommon, polar bears have been sighted increasingly in larger numbers ashore, staying on the mainland for longer periods of time during the summer months, particularly in North Canada, traveling farther inland. This may cause an increased reliance on terrestrial diets, such as goose eggs, waterfowl","-30.583933285466628"],["silty areas.\nMany marine mammals seasonally migrate. Annual ice contains areas of water that appear and disappear throughout the year as the weather changes, and seals migrate in response to these changes. In turn, polar bears must follow their prey. In Hudson Bay, James Bay, and some other areas, the ice melts completely each summer (an event often referred to as \"ice-floe breakup\"), forcing polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze-up. In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year-round. Seals may","-30.542418201628607"],["into and through the ice. Arctic sea ice Recent projections of sea ice loss suggest that the Arctic ocean will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078.\nModels showing decreasing sea ice also show a corresponding decrease in polar bear habitat. Some scientists see the polar bear as a species which will be affected first and most severely by global warming because it is a top-level predator in the Arctic, which is projected to warm more than the global average. Recent reports show polar bears resorting to cannibalism, and scientists state that these are the only","-30.382014438713668"],["infants, can also be disturbed by nearby oil exploration and development. Disturbance of these sensitive sites may trigger the mother to abandon her den prematurely, or abandon her litter altogether. Predictions Steven Amstrup and other U.S. Geological Survey scientists have predicted two-thirds of the world's polar bears may disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by climate change, though the validity of this study has been debated. The bears could disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By","-30.091162108117715"],["unclear, with estimations based on genetics and fossils ranging from 400,000 to 70,000 years ago, but most recent analysis has indicated that the polar bear split somewhere between 250,000 and 130,000 years ago. Under some definitions, the brown bear can be construed as the paraspecies for the polar bear.\nDNA analysis shows that, apart from recent human-caused population fragmentation, brown bears in North America are generally part of a single interconnected population system, with the exception of the population (or subspecies) in the Kodiak Archipelago, which has probably been isolated since the end of the last Ice Age. These data demonstrate","-30.07330831408035"],["larger due to the colder climate.\nCO₂ continued to fall and the climate continued to get colder. At 28.1 million years ago, the Gamburtsev and Transantarctic ice caps merged into a main central ice cap. At this point, ice was now covering a majority of the continent.\n28 million years ago was the time period in which the largest land mammal existed, the Paraceratherium.\nThe Dronning Maud ice cap merged with the main ice cap 27.9 million years ago. This was the formation of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.\n25 million years ago brought about the first deer. It also was the time period","-30.041592706053052"],["bears, two brown bears, and one black bear to gather ancestral alleles. Based on research using various simulation scenarios, the team concluded that the ABC Islands bears descended from polar bears that gradually converted into brown bears through hybridization of male brown bears dispersing from the Alaskan mainland. It is believed that the present polar bear DNA stems from a group of polar bears that were stranded in Southeast Alaska at the end of the last ice age, and the bears were stranded due to receding ice. This would happen with male brown bears swimming over to the islands and","-29.988660312257707"],["not available for polar bears and for some aquatic life. Biodiversity extinction Due to increase in ecological crisis, vast numbers of species are being annihilated. Every year between 17,000 and 100,000 species vanish from the planet. The speed in which species are becoming extinct is much faster than in the past. The previous mass extinction was caused by a meteor collision 66 million years ago.\nThe loss of new species in an ecosystem will eventually affect all living creatures. In the U.S. and Canada, there was a dramatic reduction of shark population along the U.S. east coast. Since then, there","-29.939894135168288"],["1999, November 2002, and April 2008. Polar bears continue to be listed as a species of special concern in Canada because of their sensitivity to overharvest and because of an expected range contraction caused by loss of Arctic sea ice.\nMore than 600 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate calculated by scientists to be unsustainable for some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed sport hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. The guiding of sport hunters provides meaningful employment and an important source","-29.93661641777726"],["expensive and not effective. Polar bears In December 2007, Palin wrote an opinion column in which she described her opposition to the listing of polar bears as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. In it she also stated that the polar bear population is more numerous now than 40 years ago and \"there is insufficient evidence of polar bears becoming extinct in the foreseeable future\". After Dirk Kempthorne, the Republican Secretary of the United States Department of the Interior listed the bear as threatened on May 14, 2008, Palin (representing the state of Alaska) sued the federal government,","-29.830524873919785"],["a further 52% decline in their range between 1920 and 1970. Grizzly bears managed to survive this last period of hunting only in remote wilderness areas larger than 26,000 km² (10,000 mi2). Overall, grizzly bears were eliminated from 98% of their original range in the contiguous United States during a 100-year period.\nPrior to Anglo-American colonization in 1820, black bears were widely distributed throughout all major eco-regions in Texas. The supply of both meat and fat lasted about a century after the first Anglo-American settlers arrived. However, after their value for grease and food had decreased, black bears continued to be pursued","-29.82154489122331"],["of the tusks of mastodons from the American Great Lakes region appears inconsistent with the climate change hypothesis. Over a span of several thousand years prior to their extinction in the area, the mastodons show a trend of declining age at maturation. This is the opposite of what one would expect if they were experiencing stresses from deteriorating environmental conditions, but is consistent with a reduction in intraspecific competition that would result from a population being reduced by human hunting. Increased temperature The most obvious change associated with the termination of an ice age is the increase in temperature. Between","-29.764002875890583"],["an average of approximately 1 per year during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.\nAccording to bear biologist Charles Jonkel, one reason for bear attacks is the lack of important foods such as huckleberry, buffalo berry, and white-bark pine nut. Winter freezes may be one reason for the food shortages. Polar bears Polar bear attacks on humans are extremely rare, and according to records by James Wilder, out of 73 fatal bear attacks between 1870 and 2014, only 20 have been the result of polar bears. Polar bear attacks can also happen in captivity. Sloth bears In some areas of India and","-29.72803907142952"],["highly disparate from those that continue today between brown bears and the Siberian tiger. Unlike most of these species, the brown bear was able to survive the Quaternary extinction event that concluded the Ice Age. Presumably, this was due to its greater dietary and habitat plasticity and its adoption of a more extensively herbivorous diet, as most temperate zone herbivores that may have provided meals for more specialized large land carnivores went extinct, as the warming climate killed off their food source.\nIt is likely that humans have caused the extinction and fragmentation of bear populations and their habitats since prehistoric","-29.714566324662883"],["Mammal Protection Act of 1972 afforded polar bears some protection in the United States. It banned hunting (except by indigenous subsistence hunters), banned importing of polar bear parts (except polar bear pelts taken legally in Canada), and banned the harassment of polar bears. On 15 May 2008, the United States Department of the Interior listed the polar bear as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act, citing the melting of Arctic sea ice as the primary threat to the polar bear. It banned all importing of polar bear trophies. Importing products made from polar bears had been prohibited from","-29.69902997207828"],["China, and date back about 500,000 years. It is known from mtDNA studies that during the Pleistocene ice age it was too cold for the brown bear to survive in Europe except in three places: Russia, Spain, and the Balkans.\nModern research has made it possible to track the origin of the subspecies. The species to which it belongs developed more than 500,000 years ago, and researchers have found that the Eurasian brown bear separated about 850,000 years ago, with one branch based in Western Europe and the other branch in Western Europe, Russia, Eastern Europe and Asia. Through research of","-29.571896931156516"],["bears from the sub-Arctic zone, from the Brooks Range to the Mackenzie Mountains, presumably because food becomes much sparser in such regions, although perhaps the most northerly recorded grizzly bears ever, in the Northwest Territories, was a large and healthy male weighing 320 kg (710 lb), more than twice as much as an average male weighs near the Arctic Circle. Data from Eurasia similarly indicates a diminished body mass in sub-Arctic brown bears, based on the weights of bears from northern Finland and Yakutia.\nHead-and-body length in grizzly bears averages from 1.8 to 2.13 m (5 ft 11 in to 7 ft 0 in) while in Eurasian brown","-29.47006072406657"],["Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears The Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears is a multilateral treaty signed in Oslo, November 15, 1973, by the five nations with the largest polar bear populations: Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), the United States, and the Soviet Union. This treaty was brought about due to increased hunting of polar bears during the 1960s and 1970s which led to polar bears being under severe survival pressure from hunters.\nThe agreement prohibits random, unregulated sport hunting of polar bears and outlaws hunting of polar bears from aircraft and icebreakers which have been the most","-29.39646396454191"],["rapidly diminishing, and the latest forecasts predict that the polar bear may be almost extinct in the wild 40 years from now.\nSiku's mother, Ilka, had no milk in her breasts for the third year running, and so the park decided to \"immobilize\" her. According to park manager Frank Vigh-Larsen, Siku weighed three pounds (1.8 kg) at birth, but grew within his first month to seven pounds' (3.2 kg) weight. Receiving insufficient milk from Ilka, Siku was revealed on surveillance video inside the bear cave to be \"moaning and being unruly all the time.\" At two days old, he","-29.39315331657417"],["clam bed they might revisit in another five years.\nThe two animals then take similar paths. They have to travel because shorter winters mean ice that freezes later and melts sooner, making it harder to survive and eat as the water of Arctic Ocean expands. Male polar bears pose a threat to both of the main creatures, as the cubs have to navigate around him and the walruses try to get away from being prey. After Nanu's brother dies, Nanu has to leave her mother earlier than is customary because of the changing climate conditions, but she still has trouble finding","-29.38097916415427"],["and \"there is insufficient evidence of polar bears becoming extinct in the foreseeable future.\" Alaskan state biologists and environmental groups disagreed with Palin's position. After Dirk Kempthorne, the Republican Secretary of the United States Department of the Interior listed the bear as threatened on May 14, 2008, Palin sued the federal government, claiming that the listing would adversely affect energy development in the bears' habitat off Alaska's northern and northwestern coasts, while again questioning the scientific basis for the listing.\nPalin claimed the scientists found no ill effects of global warming on the polar bear. Rick Steiner, a University","-29.37013228010619"],["mainland Australia, but long periods of cold and very dry weather. This dry weather during the last ice age may have killed off all the large diprotodonts.\nCritics point out a number of problems with this theory. First, large diprotodonts had already survived a long series of similar ice ages, and no particular reason is apparent that the most recent one should have achieved what all the previous ice ages had failed to do. Also, climate change apparently peaked 25,000 years after the extinctions. Finally, even during climatic extremes, some parts of the continent always remain relatively exempt; for example, the","-29.333873210824095"],["and the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Conservation status, threats, and controversies Polar bear population sizes and trends are difficult to estimate accurately because they occupy remote home ranges and exist at low population densities. Polar bear fieldwork can also be hazardous to researchers. As of 2015, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports that the global population of polar bears is 22,000 to 31,000, and the current population trend is unknown. Nevertheless, polar bears are listed as \"Vulnerable\" under criterion A3c, which indicates an expected population decrease of ≥30% over the next three generations (~34.5 years) due to","-29.321901597693795"],["a \"threatened\" species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. The FWS is concerned that climate change is or will place polar bears at risk of extinction. SCI/SCIF argued that the science cited by the FWS was speculative and incomplete at the time. Relatively healthy populations of polar bears exist in the areas where hunting is allowed and it said that sport hunting of these populations would provide funding for habitat and study as well as income for native populations. SCI stated, \"[...] [T]he U.S. decision to list will merely change the identity of those who hunt the animals from U.S.","-29.248203464288963"],["declared off limits. The killing of females and cubs was made illegal in 1965. Killing of polar bears decreased somewhat 25–30 years before the treaty. Despite this, the polar bear population continued to decline and by 1973, only around 1000 bears were left in Svalbard. Only with the passage of the treaty did they begin to recover. Russia The Soviet Union banned the harvest of polar bears in 1956; however, poaching continued and is estimated to pose a serious threat to the polar bear population. In recent years, polar bears have approached coastal villages in Chukotka more frequently due to","-29.169026354546077"],["They survived longer in this area, however, than in other parts of the eastern United States. Because of the high altitude the climate is cool and some animals are more similar to ones found about 1,600 miles (2,600 km) farther north in Canada. Many species found here are near their southernmost range. For example, the snowshoe hare found in Dolly Sods is usually found in Canada and Alaska and is adapted to snow conditions, with its large, hairy feet which allow it to run on the snow surface.\nBeaver — which were restored to the state after a period of extirpation —","-29.104209038661793"],["extent about 18,000 years ago and ending by about 10,000 years ago. During these ice ages, large areas of northern North America and Eurasia were covered by ice sheets similar to the one found today on Greenland; Arctic climate conditions would have extended much further south, and conditions in the present-day Arctic region were likely colder. Temperature proxies suggest that over the last 8000 years the climate has been stable, with globally averaged temperature variations of less than about 1 °C (34 °F); (see Paleoclimate). Global warming There are several reasons to expect that climate changes, from whatever cause, may be enhanced","-29.09400454866409"],["decline some 25,000 years before the species' extinction. Conflicts between bears and humans Brown bears usually avoid areas where extensive development or urbanization has occurred, unlike the smaller, more inoffensive American black bear which can adapt to peri-urban regions. Under many circumstances, extensive human development may cause brown bears to alter their home ranges. High road densities (both paved and gravel roads) are often associated with higher mortality, habitat avoidance and lower bear density. However, brown bears can easily lose their natural cautiousness upon being attracted to human-created food sources, such as garbage dumps, litter bins and dumpsters. Brown bears","-29.057559034670703"],["40 different species (gorillas, cheetahs, tigers, orangutans, snow leopards, and others) into the US for \"scientific research and incentive for propagation and survival of the species.\" Because the animals were to be hunted, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service denied the request. Polar bear imports In 1994, SCI successfully lobbied for a change in the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 to allow for the importation of previously banned sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the United States from Canada. In 2007, SCI testified at a U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service hearing opposing the proposed listing of polar bears as","-29.049599942518398"],["late summer and early fall. Reduction in sea-ice cover also forces bears to swim longer distances, which further depletes their energy stores and occasionally leads to drowning. Thinner sea ice tends to deform more easily, which appears to make it more difficult for polar bears to access seals. Insufficient nourishment leads to lower reproductive rates in adult females and lower survival rates in cubs and juvenile bears, in addition to poorer body condition in bears of all ages.\nIn addition to creating nutritional stress, a warming climate is expected to affect various other aspects of polar bear life: Changes in sea","-28.99863784108311"],["15,000 BP and 10,000 BP, a 6 °C increase in global mean annual temperatures occurred. This was generally thought to be the cause of the extinctions.\nAccording to this hypothesis, a temperature increase sufficient to melt the Wisconsin ice sheet could have placed enough thermal stress on cold-adapted mammals to cause them to die. Their heavy fur, which helps conserve body heat in the glacial cold, might have prevented the dumping of excess heat, causing the mammals to die of heat exhaustion. Large mammals, with their reduced surface area-to-volume ratio, would have fared worse than small mammals.\nA study covering the past 56,000","-28.972628255577547"],["groups and Canada's Inuit at opposing positions; the Nunavut government and many northern residents have condemned the U.S. initiative to list the polar bear under the Endangered Species Act. Many Inuit believe the polar bear population is increasing, and restrictions on commercial sport-hunting are likely to lead to a loss of income to their communities. Indigenous folklore For the indigenous peoples of the Arctic, polar bears have long played an important cultural and material role. Polar bear remains have been found at hunting sites dating to 2,500 to 3,000 years ago and 1,500-year-old cave paintings of polar bears have been","-28.961574854445644"],["\"decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat\". Risks to the polar bear include climate change, pollution in the form of toxic contaminants, conflicts with shipping, oil and gas exploration and development, and human-bear interactions including harvesting and possible stresses from recreational polar-bear watching.\nAccording to the World Wildlife Fund, the polar bear is important as an indicator of Arctic ecosystem health. Polar bears are studied to gain understanding of what is happening throughout the Arctic, because at-risk polar bears are often a sign of something wrong with the Arctic marine ecosystem. Climate change The International Union","-28.952775788930012"],["is thought to have split from other carnivorans about 38 million years ago. The subfamily Ursinae originated approximately 4.2 million years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130,000 to 110,000-year-old jaw bone, found on Prince Charles Foreland in 2004. Fossils show that between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago, the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear. Polar bears are thought to have diverged from a population of brown bears that became isolated during a period of glaciation in the Pleistocene from the eastern part of Siberia (from Kamchatka and the Kolym Peninsula).\nThe","-28.934183657052927"],["be the indirect result of the wide-scale extermination of large baleen whales in the Antarctic due to commercial whaling in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the subsequent increase in krill densities. Genetic evidence suggests that Weddell and crabeater seal populations may have increased in size during the Pleistocene. None of the four species is currently thought to be declining in numbers.","-28.88712692577974"],["Although many prior adverse practises are now banned, the issues surrounding past exploitation of animal resources in the Svalbard area remain a problem. With whale, seal and walrus populations are still far below than they were even two centuries ago (the average age of a Greenland whale). The population of polar bears are locally recovering from the major culls of the 1960s and 1970s that came about due to the availability of snow scooters; however, the polar bear remains threatened at a global level, due to unsustainable levels of killing by humans and marine water pollution. There are a wide","-28.86958610912552"],["habitat of the brown bear is increasing. The warming of that region has allowed the species to move farther north into what was once exclusively the domain of the polar bear (potentially another offshoot of a radiation of coastal brown bears). In non-Arctic areas, habitat loss is blamed as the leading cause of endangerment, followed by hunting. Conservation status While the brown bear's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions, it remains listed as a Least concern species by the IUCN, with a total population of approximately 200,000. As of 2012, this and the American black bear are","-28.843435113318264"],["populations which can have negative long-term effects. This isolation poses one of the greatest threats to the future survival of the grizzly bear in the contiguous United States. Although there is no record of their existence in the United States east of the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains regions (except for a relic population in the Ungava Peninsula which survived until the dawn of the 20th century) in human history, fossil records from Kentucky do in fact show that grizzly bears once roamed in eastern North America. Mexico Although many people believe some brown bears may be present in Mexico,","-28.779265567776747"],["polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze-up. In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year-round. Physical characteristics The only other bear similar in size to the polar bear is the Kodiak bear, which is a subspecies of brown bear. Adult male polar bears weigh 350–700 kg (772–1,543 lb) and measure 2.4–3 metres (7 ft 10 in–9 ft 10 in) in total length. Around the Beaufort Sea, however, mature males reportedly average 450 kg (992 lb). Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150–250 kg","-28.754645671593607"],["last ice age (approx. 18,000 years ago), the species migrated north in order to maintain its large populations. The organism's overwintering strategy gives it the ability to survive during long periods of food shortage, typical of temperate and high latitudes. During this six-month period of hibernation, many of these organisms will sink to depths from 500-2,500m in the ocean. They tend to remain at rest until the following spring when they awake and return to the surface waters. Many scientists believe that C. finmarchicus use this strategy as a survival method by reducing physiological costs and predation risk. This ability","-28.731123770121485"],["more, are a more formidable quarry. Although ungulates are not typical prey, the killing of one during the summer months can greatly increase the odds of survival during that lean period. Like the brown bear, most ungulate prey of polar bears is likely to be young, sickly or injured specimens rather than healthy adults. The polar bear's metabolism is specialized to require large amounts of fat from marine mammals, and it cannot derive sufficient caloric intake from terrestrial food.\nIn their southern range, especially near Hudson Bay and James Bay, Canadian polar bears endure all summer without sea ice to hunt","-28.686151589237852"],["is fierce, many do not breed until the age of eight or ten. A study in Hudson Bay indicated that both the reproductive success and the maternal weight of females peaked in their mid-teens.\nPolar bears appear to be less affected by infectious diseases and parasites than most terrestrial mammals. Polar bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism, although infections are usually not fatal. Only one case of a polar bear with rabies has been documented, even though polar bears frequently interact with Arctic foxes, which often carry rabies. Bacterial leptospirosis and Morbillivirus have been","-28.653619644697756"],["of previous interglacials, yet some of the same large mammals survived similar temperature increases. Therefore, warmer temperatures alone may not be a sufficient explanation.\nIn addition, numerous species such as mammoths on Wrangel Island and St. Paul Island survived in human-free refugia despite changes in climate. This would not be expected if climate change were responsible (unless their maritime climates offered some protection against climate change not afforded to coastal populations on the mainland). Under normal ecological assumptions island populations should be more vulnerable to extinction due to climate change because of small populations and an inability to migrate to more","-28.52758342825109"],["changed currents are expected to affect marine mammals by altering the distribution of important prey species, and changing the suitability of breeding sites and migratory routes. The Arctic food chain would be disrupted by the near extinction or migration of polar bears. Arctic sea ice is the polar bear's habitat. It has been declining at a rate of 13% per decade because the temperature is rising at twice the rate of the rest of the world. By the year 2050, up to two-thirds of the world's polar bears may vanish if the sea ice continues to melt at its current","-28.517753157182597"],["Hirnantian faunal stage that ended the long, stable greenhouse conditions typical of the Ordovician. The ice age was probably not as long-lasting as once thought; study of oxygen isotopes in fossil brachiopods shows that it was probably no longer than 0.5 to 1.5 million years. The event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000ppm to 4400ppm) which selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. As the southern supercontinent Gondwana drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it. Evidence of these ice caps have been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of","-28.48734221747145"],["were 20,000 to 40,000 during the 1980s. Current estimates put the global population at between 20,000 and 25,000 or 22,000 and 31,000.\nThere are several reasons for the apparent discordance between past and projected population trends: estimates from the 1950s and 1960s were based on stories from explorers and hunters rather than on scientific surveys. Second, controls of harvesting were introduced that allowed this previously overhunted species to recover. Third, the recent effects of climate change have affected sea ice abundance in different areas to varying degrees.\nDebate over the listing of the polar bear under endangered species legislation has put conservation","-28.482427899492905"],["Ecological crisis Crises caused by abiotic factors Climate change is starting to have major impacts on ecosystems. With global temperature rising, there is a decrease in snow-fall, and sea levels are rising. Ecosystems will change or evolve to cope with the increase in temperature. Consequently, many species are being driven out of their habitats.\nPolar bears are being threatened. They need ice for hunting seals, their primary prey. However, the ice caps are melting, making their hunting periods shorter each year. As a result, the polar bears are not developing enough fat for the winter; therefore, they are not able","-28.46560890204273"],["the species is sometimes found around sub-Arctic ice fields. This is indicated by brown bears in the Chukotka Peninsula on the Asian side of the Bering Strait, which are the only Asian brown bears to live year-round in lowland tundra like their North American cousins. Genetics relay that two separate radiations led to today's North American brown bears, one a coastal form that led to the Kodiak bear (from U. a. beringianus or a common ancestor) and one an interior form that led to the grizzly bear (from U. a. lasiotus or a common ancestor). In Arctic areas, the potential","-28.366918154410087"],["and increasing trade, dramatically increased the harvest of polar bears. However, since polar bear fur has always played a marginal commercial role, data on the historical harvest is fragmentary. It is known, for example, that already in the winter of 1784/1785 Russian Pomors on Spitsbergen harvested 150 polar bears in Magdalenefjorden. In the early 20th century, Norwegian hunters were harvesting 300 bears per year at the same location. Estimates of total historical harvest suggest that from the beginning of the 18th century, roughly 400 to 500 animals were being harvested annually in northern Eurasia, reaching a peak of 1,300 to","-28.346460110507905"],["between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and ice floes north, reinforcing the cooling. The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago.\nThe northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart. In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with","-28.32543541160703"],["the world's oceans.\nDuring this ice-house period (as scientists sometimes call periods of global cold weather and glaciation), surviving species began to adapt. Cold environment species replaced the warm environment species that had thrived during the previous hot period (hot-house to scientists).\nJust as the species were adapting, however, the climate changed again. During the latter part of the Hirnantian, temperatures rose, the glaciers melted, and sea level rose to the same or perhaps an even higher level than before the glaciation. The exposed shelves were flooded, resulting in additional extinctions among the fauna that had survived the first extinction event. Dating","-28.32256017839063"],["shortly after. Brown bear remains from the Pleistocene period are common in the British Isles, where it is thought they might have outcompeted cave bears (Ursus spelaeus). The species entered Alaska 100,000 years ago, though they did not move south until 13,000 years ago. It is speculated that brown bears were unable to migrate south until the extinction of the much larger giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus).\nSeveral paleontologists suggest the possibility of two separate brown bear migrations: inland brown bears, also known as grizzlies, are thought to stem from narrow-skulled bears which migrated from northern Siberia to central Alaska and","-28.230712342832703"],["to today's −9 °C, and the rest of the globe underwent a similar change. For perhaps the first time in its history, the planet had ice caps at both of its poles. A geologically rapid decrease in temperature between 49 and 47 million years ago, around the Azolla event, is evident: dropstones — which are taken as evidence for the presence of glaciers — are common in Arctic sediments thereafter. This is set against a backdrop of gradual, long-term cooling: it is not until 15 million years ago that evidence for widespread northern polar freezing is common. Alternative explanations While a verdant","-28.144799776782747"],["suggests that such events may have been more frequent in the United States during the late 1800s and early 1900s.\" A 2009 MIT study found that such events are increasing and may be caused by the rapid loss of the Arctic ice pack.\nSSW events of similar magnitude occurred in 1985 in North America, and in 2009 and 2010 in Europe. Canada As of February 27, Winnipeg was experiencing the second-coldest winter in 75 years, the coldest in 35 years and with snowfall total being 50 per cent more than normal. Saskatoon was experiencing the coldest winter in 18 years;","-28.13342297053896"],["200,000 seals in or adjacent to Alaska, are not in danger of becoming extinct, nor are they likely to become so in the \"foreseeable future\", even though global warming has caused a loss in arctic ice mass. The announcement stated: \"We do not predict the expected fluctuations in sea ice will affect them enough to warrant listing at this time.\"\n\nIn South Korea, spotted seals have been designated Natural Monument No. 331 and second-class endangered species. This is because the seals from South Korea travel to Dalian, China to breed every year where several thousands are harvested for their genitals and","-28.122583838237915"],["polar bears present in the Arctic and Sub Arctic. Although this predator factor is involved with more recent research, it does not necessarily mean this will be the outcome, considering the uncertainty in such projections. Overall, ringed seals populations will fluctuate regardless of each potential outcome and climate change is certain to affect not only the ringed seal but all Arctic and Sub Arctic animal populations.","-28.05580687755719"],["while males in captivity have been verified to live up to 47 years, with one captive male possibly attaining 50 years of age.\nWhile male bears potentially live longer in captivity, female grizzly bears have a greater annual survival rate than males within wild populations per a study done in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Annual mortality for bears of any age is estimated at around 10% in most protected areas; however, the average annual mortality rate rises to an estimated 38% in hunted populations. Around 13% to 44% of cubs die within their first year even in well-protected areas. Mortality rates","-27.978164796164492"],["bear seem to be most vulnerable to predatory attacks by brown bears when the latter species leaves hibernation sooner in early spring and ambushes the smaller ursids in their dens.\nThere has been a recent increase in interactions between brown bears and polar bears (Ursus maritimus), theorized to be caused by climate change. Brown bears have been seen moving increasingly northward into territories formerly claimed by polar bears. Despite averaging somewhat smaller sizes, brown bears tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses, and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens.\nLarge herbivores, such as moose, bison","-27.970710380817764"],["has a slightly positive trend over the last three decades (1979–2009). Historical cases Over the past several decades, Earth's polar ice caps have gained significant attention because of the alarming decrease in land and sea ice. NASA reports that since the late 1970s, the Arctic has lost an average of 20,800 square miles (53,900 square kilometers) of sea ice per year while the Antarctic has gained an average of 7,300 square miles (18,900 km²) of sea ice per year. At the same time, the Arctic has been losing around 50 cubic kilometers (gigatons) of land ice per year, almost entirely from","-27.964113592694048"],["years, the conservation of polar bears was the only subject in the entire Arctic that nations from both sides of the Iron Curtain could agree upon sufficiently to sign an agreement. Such was the intensity of human fascination with this magnificent predator, the only marine bear.\"\nAgreements have been made between countries to co-manage their shared polar bear subpopulations. After several years of negotiations, Russia and the United States signed an agreement in October 2000 to jointly set quotas for indigenous subsistence hunting in Alaska and Chukotka. The treaty was ratified in October 2007. In September 2015, the polar bear range","-27.925363674323307"],["1973, the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears was signed by all five nations whose territory is inhabited by polar bears: Canada, Denmark, Norway, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers, and conduct further research. The treaty allows hunting \"by local people using traditional methods\". Norway is the only country of the five in which all harvest of polar bears is banned. The agreement was a rare case of international cooperation during the Cold War. Biologist Ian Stirling commented, \"For many","-27.868991046882"],["the case of hybridization). Genomics studies of brown bears and polar bears have revealed that gene flow from polar bears into brown bears — but not the other way around — was widespread in time and space during the Pleistocene. Of particular note, the bears living on the islands of the Alexander Archipelago of southeast Alaska trace their maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA entirely to polar bears, but over 90% of their nuclear genome to brown bears. This appears to reflect a process in which a population of polar bears was left behind as the species retreated northwards at the end","-27.85923946031835"],["of the global population.\nThe range includes the territory of five nations: Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), Russia, the United States (Alaska) and Canada. These five nations are the signatories of the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, which mandates cooperation on research and conservation efforts throughout the polar bear's range. Bears sometimes swim to Iceland from Greenland—about 600 sightings since the country's settlement in the 9th century AD, and five in the 21st century as of 2016—and are always killed because of their danger, and the cost and difficulty of repatriation.\nModern methods of tracking polar bear populations have been","-27.85220053268131"],["sources of food. Beginning in December 2018 and coming to an apex in February 2019, a mass invasion of polar bears into the archipelago of Novaya Zemlya caused local authorities to declare a state of emergency. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes and public buildings and inhabited areas. Clathrate breakdown Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilize methane deposits on and near the shoreline, preventing the clathrate breaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into","-27.849034840437525"],["Tremarctos floridanus Environment T. floridanus was widely distributed south of the continental ice sheet, along the Gulf Coast through Florida, north to Tennessee, and across the southern United States to California.\nArctodus (3 million–11,000 years ago) was a contemporary and shared its habitat with T. floridanus. The closest living relative of the Florida cave bear is the spectacled bear of South America; they are classified together with the huge short-faced bears in the subfamily Tremarctinae. They became extinct at the end of the last ice age, 10,000 years ago (possibly as late as 8,000 years ago at Devil's Den in Florida),","-27.84439824090805"],["and Virginia, while distant relatives Bootherium and Euceratherium lived in the forests of the Southern United States and the western shrubland, respectively. Though they were always less common than other Ice Age megafauna, muskox abundance peaked during the Würm II glaciation 20,000 years ago and declined afterwards, especially during the Pleistocene/Holocene extinction event, where its range was greatly reduced and only the populations in North America survived. The last known muskox population in Europe died out in Sweden 9,000 years ago, and the last one in Asia, which lived on Siberia's Taymyr Peninsula, about 2,000 years ago.\nAfter the disappearance of","-27.83886169924517"],["to estimate a global population of polar bears as much of the range has been poorly studied; however, biologists use a working estimate of about 20–25,000 or 22–31,000 polar bears worldwide.\nThere are 19 generally recognized, discrete subpopulations, though polar bears are thought to exist only in low densities in the area of the Arctic Basin. The subpopulations display seasonal fidelity to particular areas, but DNA studies show that they are not reproductively isolated. The 13 North American subpopulations range from the Beaufort Sea south to Hudson Bay and east to Baffin Bay in western Greenland and account for about 54%","-27.834862246643752"],["temperatures caused by the high amounts of carbon dioxide and possibly methane greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This caused a lack of permanent ice coverage in the polar regions, though the carbon dioxide level dropped between 115 and 66 million years ago (mya), possibly allowing some permanent ice cover. It is possible that, throughout the Cretaceous, several small ice sheets developed. Increased tectonic activity, causing more geothermal heat, may have prevented glaciation and increased global temperatures. Temperatures may have been up to 15 °C (27 °F) warmer than they are in the modern age. Jurassic The landscape of the Middle Jurassic polar","-27.833877948112786"],["bears, reducing their numbers drastically. Because of this and the carrying capacity reduction due to habitat destruction has resulted in the recognition that the Japanese black bear is at a high risk of extinction. The species will likely be gone within the next 100 years at the rate they are currently declining.","-27.815594534156844"],["instances that they have observed of polar bears stalking and killing one another for food. Antarctica The Antarctic peninsula has lost a number of ice shelves recently. These are large areas of floating ice which are fed by glaciers. Many are the size of a small country. The sudden collapse of the Larsen B ice shelf in 2002 took 5 weeks or less and may have been due to global warming. Larsen B had previously been stable for up to 12,000 years.\nConcern has been expressed about the stability of the West Antarctic ice sheet. A collapse of","-27.808314502603025"],["increase in the total amount of saltwater present in these wetlands could prove to be problematic for many species. While some may simply have to migrate to other areas, smaller ecosystems within the wetlands could be destroyed which, once again, influences the animal food chain.\nPolar bears are animals that are specifically affected through the process of rising sea levels. Living near the Arctic region, polar bears find their food on ice caps and sheets of ice. As these sheets continue to become fewer in quantity, it is predicted that the polar bears will have a difficult time sustaining life and","-27.74917000811547"],["been used to track current climate patterns but also patterns over the past several thousands years from the traces of CO2 and CH4 found trapped in the ice. In the past decade, polar ice caps have shown their most rapid decline in size with no true sign of recovery. Josefino Comiso, a senior research scientist at NASA, found that the “rate of warming in the Arctic over the last 20 years is eight times the rate of warming over the last 100 years.” In September 2012, sea ice reached its smallest size ever. Journalist John Vidal stated that sea ice","-27.716330217197537"],["documented, two subspecies were identified: the American polar bear (Ursus maritimus maritimus) by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and the Siberian polar bear (Ursus maritimus marinus) by Peter Simon Pallas in 1776. This distinction has since been invalidated. One alleged fossil subspecies has been identified: Ursus maritimus tyrannus, which became extinct during the Pleistocene. U.m. tyrannus was significantly larger than the living subspecies. However, recent reanalysis of the fossil suggests that it was actually a brown bear. Population and distribution The polar bear is found in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses as far south as Newfoundland. Due to","-27.70282520429464"],["by polar bears, bear-destroyed supply caches and melting ice. As temperatures continued to rise, the remaining crews made several short trips of observation, noting the migratory birds and employing the returning vegetation as a cure for their persisting scurvy.\nBy early July 1854 Kane was considering the possibility of another winter locked in the ice measured against the fact that they were not provisioned for another year. The option of abandoning the Advance was considered dishonorable at best. Kane and five men undertook an attempt in a modified 23 feet (7.0 m) whaleboat to reach Beechey Island, where Kane, as part of","-27.66364296223037"],["eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued.\nAlthough a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a warm period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the Oligocene. The Miocene warming began 21 million years ago and continued until 14 million years ago, when global temperatures took a sharp drop—the Middle Miocene Climate Transition (MMCT). By 8 million years ago, temperatures dropped sharply once again, and the Antarctic ice sheet was already approaching its present-day size and thickness. Greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 7 to 8 million years ago,","-27.656398037914187"],["2.8 million years ago, the early ice age began with the icing of the North Pole, causing the distribution of Dioon to shrink very sharply.\nIn the Paleocene (55.8 - 65.5 ka) Dioon was next to Zamia and Anemia the only today neotropical genus that was still present in the flora of Alaska. During the Tertiary period, about 2.6 million years ago, Dioons died in almost all of North America with only a few relic collections remained in a small area in Central America, where today still the diversity center of the genus lies. A spread to South America was not","-27.654433179995976"],["European brown bear.\nIn the 1900s, bear populations had been decreasing because of increased hunting of bears for sustenance (done mostly by native peoples such as the Inupiat of Alaska and the Inuvialuit of Canada) and for trophy prizes. Polar bear skins became popular as a sign of wealth and prestige, especially in Europe during the Victorian era. Comparatively, the pelts of giant panda, were also highly valued, priced at around 176,000 U.S. dollars. Settlers, indigenous, villagers and farmers defended their families and livestock by killing the local predators, including bears. This practice is still in place where necessary and legal.","-27.62032009573886"],["The remains of polar bears have found in the stomachs of large Greenland sharks (Somniosus microcephalus), although it certainly cannot be ruled out that the bears were merely scavenged by this slow-moving, unusual shark. A rather unlikely killer of a grown polar bear has reportedly included a wolverine (Gulo gulo), anecedotely reported to have suffocated a bear in a zoo with a bite to the throat during a conflict. This report may well be dubious, however. Polar bears are sometimes the host of arctic mites such as Alaskozetes antarcticus. Long-distance swimming and diving Researchers tracked 52 sows in the southern","-27.610842642199714"],["about 10 thousand years ago near the end of the last Major Ice Age when the climate became more stable. However, abrupt climate change on the decade time scale has occurred regionally. Since civilization originated during a period of stable climate, a natural variation into a new climate regime (colder or hotter) could pose a threat to civilization.\nIn the history of the Earth, many ice ages are known to have occurred. An ice age would have a serious impact on civilization because vast areas of land (mainly in North America, Europe, and Asia) could become uninhabitable. Currently, the world is","-27.57225798914442"],["on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely independent regional climate changes rather than a globally synchronous increased glaciation. At most, there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period.\nSeveral causes have been proposed: cyclical lows in solar radiation, heightened volcanic activity, changes in the ocean circulation, variations in Earth's orbit and axial tilt (orbital forcing), inherent variability in global climate, and decreases in the human population (for example from the Black Death and the colonization of the Americas). Areas involved The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change","-27.561458872864023"],["went extinct at the end of the Pleistocene Era. In its much longer history in Eurasia, brown bears diverged from the two species of cave bear, the cave bear (U. spelaeus) and the Pleistocene small cave bear (U. rossicus), two species that it existed alongside in what is now Europe for the larger species and Central Asia and Siberia for the smaller species. The cave bears were similar in size to the larger forms of brown bear and polar bear alive today in terms of length, but were bulkier, with much higher-density skeletal remains and presumably rather heavier than the","-27.549061529902247"],["of Hudson Bay are ice-free for three weeks longer than they were thirty years ago, affecting polar bears, which prefer to hunt on sea ice. Species that rely on cold weather conditions such as gyrfalcons, and snowy owls that prey on lemmings that use the cold winter to their advantage may be hit hard. Marine invertebrates enjoy peak growth at the temperatures they have adapted to, regardless of how cold these may be, and cold-blooded animals found at greater latitudes and altitudes generally grow faster to compensate for the short growing season. Warmer-than-ideal conditions result in higher metabolism and consequent","-27.541443633148447"]],"string":"[\n [\n \"2080, they could disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic Archipelago. However, in the short term, some polar bear populations in historically colder regions of the Arctic may temporarily benefit from a milder climate, as multiyear ice that is too thick for seals to create breathing holes is replaced by thinner annual ice.\\nPolar bears diverged from brown bears 400,000–600,000 years ago and have survived past periods of climate fluctuation. It has been claimed that polar bears will be able to adapt to terrestrial food sources as the sea ice\",\n \"-34.368829866589294\"\n ],\n [\n \"The body condition of polar bears has declined during this period; the average weight of lone (and likely pregnant) female polar bears was approximately 290 kg (640 lb) in 1980 and 230 kg (510 lb) in 2004. Between 1987 and 2004, the Western Hudson Bay population declined by 22%, although the population was listed as \\\"stable\\\" as of 2017. As the climate change melts sea ice, the U.S. Geological Survey projects that two-thirds of polar bears will disappear by 2050.\\nIn Alaska, the effects of sea ice shrinkage have contributed to higher mortality rates in polar bear cubs, and have led to changes in the\",\n \"-33.88389945367817\"\n ],\n [\n \"for Conservation of Nature estimated that there are between 22,000 to 31,000 polar bears worldwide.\\nAccording to a 2013 study in the journal Nature, global warming is increasingly affecting the planet more than in the past. Model suggestions say that Arctic sea ice is declining at a rate of 13 percent per decade. Scientists believed this climate change is the main reason for the aggressive behavior of the polar bears. Aftermath Polar bears don’t usually hunt humans, usually feeding on sea mammals, but a close encounter with them can result in serious injuries even death for people.\\nThe local authorities have taken\",\n \"-33.565656385894385\"\n ],\n [\n \"recorded. Polar bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases that may be caused by mites or other parasites. Life expectancy Polar bears rarely live beyond 25 years. The oldest wild bears on record died at age 32, whereas the oldest captive was a female who died in 1991, age 43. The causes of death in wild adult polar bears are poorly understood, as carcasses are rarely found in the species's frigid habitat. In the wild, old polar bears eventually become too weak to catch food, and gradually starve to death. Polar bears injured in fights or accidents may either\",\n \"-33.41153267938353\"\n ],\n [\n \"more readily in a warmer climate.\\nProblematic interactions between polar bears and humans, such as foraging by bears in garbage dumps, have historically been more prevalent in years when ice-floe breakup occurred early and local polar bears were relatively thin. Increased human-bear interactions, including fatal attacks on humans, are likely to increase as the sea ice shrinks and hungry bears try to find food on land.\\nThe effects of climate change are most profound in the southern part of the polar bear's range, and this is indeed where significant degradation of local populations has been observed. The Western Hudson Bay subpopulation, in\",\n \"-32.35193000885192\"\n ],\n [\n \"listing polar bears on the endangered-species list, its findings were contradicted by reports from the U.S. Geological Survey and other independent researchers, who concluded that man-made climate change was likely to devastate polar-bear populations by 2050. The paper was also criticized by an expert at the National Snow and Ice Data Center, who wrote that it \\\"doesn't measure up scientifically.\\\" A subsequent in depth international independent study, Re-Assessment of the Baffin Bay and Kane Basin Polar Bear Subpopulations: Final Report to the Canada-Greenland Joint Commission on Polar Bear has determined that polar bear populations are not declining overall and are\",\n \"-31.83627353470365\"\n ],\n [\n \"Another concern is the spread of infectious diseases, such as brucellosis or phocine distemper virus, to previously untouched populations. This is a particular danger among marine mammals who were previously segregated by sea ice.\\n3 April 2007, the National Wildlife Federation urged the United States Congress to place polar bears under the Endangered Species Act.\\nFour months later, the United States Geological Survey completed a year-long study which concluded in part that the floating Arctic sea ice will continue its rapid shrinkage over the next 50 years, consequently wiping out much of the polar bear habitat. The bears would disappear from Alaska,\",\n \"-31.55805705167586\"\n ],\n [\n \"area. Since 1981, the polar bear population has been declining. This is because global warming causes the ice to break up faster so the polar bears are going to the coasts when there are poor conditions. Conservation efforts Whoever owns the land is responsible or managing it. And the owners of the land differ between the Antarctic and Arctic and also within the polar regions. In the Arctic, there are six nations that own the land about 60°N. These nations include: Canada, Russia, Finland, USA, Denmark, Iceland and Norway. There have been international treaties set up so there are no\",\n \"-31.519632456242107\"\n ],\n [\n \"a southern part of the range, also happens to be one of the best-studied polar bear subpopulations. This subpopulation feeds heavily on ringed seals in late spring, when newly weaned and easily hunted seal pups are abundant. The late spring hunting season ends for polar bears when the ice begins to melt and break up, and they fast or eat little during the summer until the sea freezes again.\\nDue to warming air temperatures, ice-floe breakup in western Hudson Bay is currently occurring three weeks earlier than it did 30 years ago, reducing the duration of the polar bear feeding season.\",\n \"-31.517248484015\"\n ],\n [\n \"for Conservation of Nature, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, United States Geological Survey and many leading polar bear biologists have expressed grave concerns about the impact of climate change, including the belief that the current warming trend imperils the survival of the polar bear.\\nThe key danger posed by climate change is malnutrition or starvation due to habitat loss. Polar bears hunt seals from a platform of sea ice. Rising temperatures cause the sea ice to melt earlier in the year, driving the bears to shore before they have built sufficient fat reserves to survive the period of scarce food in the\",\n \"-31.465048360238143\"\n ],\n [\n \"bears in the region for the last 25 years, and over that time, the animals have declined in number by a quarter. Each year the Arctic ice is also now melting three weeks earlier. The overall rate of glacier melt is accelerating: in southern Greenland, the amount of ice flowing into the sea has doubled in a decade, resulting in a rise of sea levels. This is exacerbated by the increase in temperatures, which causes oceans to expand. When Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans, the sea temperatures of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean were the highest ever\",\n \"-31.37119778734632\"\n ],\n [\n \"occupy during this time, this includes the area with which they need to inhabit. However, fossils in this area did show a concentration of marine mammals, especially ringed seals, which are a common staple to polar bears diet. 2012 An international study led by Penn State University and the University of Buffalo has estimated that polar bears split from brown bears between 4 million and 5 million years ago. This would have been due to climate changes, which included ice ages. Hybrids have also been documented within the Northern Beaufort Sea of Arctic Canada. This is an area where the\",\n \"-31.210384835663717\"\n ],\n [\n \"known for traveling in the region to den and give birth. Nearly 50 of these species migrate along the coast to the refuge in September. These bears extend more than 800 miles along the coast of Northern Alaska and Canada. Due to changes in climate, Polar bears are recorded to now spend more time on land waiting on new sea ice to form, as they depend on sea ice for much of their hunting. This limits their ability to hunt seals to build up fat for hibernation. Much controversial, the polar bears are widely affected by the climate change happening\",\n \"-31.146921392617514\"\n ],\n [\n \"It is estimated that polar bears and brown bears began to interbreed again about 160,000 years ago. The study shows that previous estimates of polar bears only existing 600,000 years ago was wrong, and that they have in fact been around much longer – four to five million years ago. This research analysis in particular discovered more genetic similarities between the polar bears and ABC Islands brown bears. This indicates that the study of the ABC Islands bears is also important to understanding the evolution of the polar bear. 2011 A study on matrilineal polar bear hybridization in relationship to\",\n \"-31.046926262788475\"\n ],\n [\n \"range of polar bears overlaps with the range of brown bears. Data was collected using the entire genome of three brown bears and one black bear in comparison to one modern polar bear and one polar bear remains estimated at 120,000 years old. Data shows that the brown bears and polar bears were isolated at the same time in which black bears became their own species. Brown bears and polar bears continued to remain isolated for a long period of time, theorized due to the presence of ice, before recent changes allowed polar bears and brown bears to interbreed again.\",\n \"-30.84324138466036\"\n ],\n [\n \"2019 mass invasion of Russian polar bears Climate change effects Russia's World Wildlife Fund said \\\"Today, polar bears are entering human areas more frequently than in the past and climate change is the reason. Global warming is reducing sea-ice and this phenomenon forces polar bears to come to land in order to find new sources of food\\\". Liz Greengrass, a director at the UK animal conservation charity Born Free Foundation told to CNN that seals are the most popular food for polar bears, but global warming is shrinking their environment, so polar bears must change their food regime.\\nThe International Union\",\n \"-30.772352657746524\"\n ],\n [\n \"they use to hunt seals disappears. However, most polar bear biologists think that polar bears will be unable to completely offset the loss of calorie-rich seal blubber with terrestrial foods, and that they will be outcompeted by brown bears in this terrestrial niche, ultimately leading to a population decline. Controversy over species protection Warnings about the future of the polar bear are often contrasted with the fact that worldwide population estimates have increased over the past 50 years and are relatively stable today. Some estimates of the global population are around 5,000 to 10,000 in the early 1970s; other estimates\",\n \"-30.760408782811282\"\n ],\n [\n \"bears found inland. Additionally, genetic tests have shown them to be more closely related to present-day polar bears than mainland bears. This evidence suggests that they may have inhabited the Archipelago for at least 40,000 years, with habitable refugia existent throughout this time.\\nAnother species that might have made use of refugia during this time is the Chum salmon. It appears that the different groups of salmon that spawn on the Prince of Wales Island are more similar to one another than they are to salmon elsewhere in SE Alaska. This has been interpreted as meaning that Prince of Wales Island\",\n \"-30.630194240016863\"\n ],\n [\n \"denning locations of pregnant females. In recent years, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, possibly resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005.\\nA new development is that polar bears have begun ranging to new territory. While not unheard of but still uncommon, polar bears have been sighted increasingly in larger numbers ashore, staying on the mainland for longer periods of time during the summer months, particularly in North Canada, traveling farther inland. This may cause an increased reliance on terrestrial diets, such as goose eggs, waterfowl\",\n \"-30.583933285466628\"\n ],\n [\n \"silty areas.\\nMany marine mammals seasonally migrate. Annual ice contains areas of water that appear and disappear throughout the year as the weather changes, and seals migrate in response to these changes. In turn, polar bears must follow their prey. In Hudson Bay, James Bay, and some other areas, the ice melts completely each summer (an event often referred to as \\\"ice-floe breakup\\\"), forcing polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze-up. In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year-round. Seals may\",\n \"-30.542418201628607\"\n ],\n [\n \"into and through the ice. Arctic sea ice Recent projections of sea ice loss suggest that the Arctic ocean will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078.\\nModels showing decreasing sea ice also show a corresponding decrease in polar bear habitat. Some scientists see the polar bear as a species which will be affected first and most severely by global warming because it is a top-level predator in the Arctic, which is projected to warm more than the global average. Recent reports show polar bears resorting to cannibalism, and scientists state that these are the only\",\n \"-30.382014438713668\"\n ],\n [\n \"infants, can also be disturbed by nearby oil exploration and development. Disturbance of these sensitive sites may trigger the mother to abandon her den prematurely, or abandon her litter altogether. Predictions Steven Amstrup and other U.S. Geological Survey scientists have predicted two-thirds of the world's polar bears may disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by climate change, though the validity of this study has been debated. The bears could disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By\",\n \"-30.091162108117715\"\n ],\n [\n \"unclear, with estimations based on genetics and fossils ranging from 400,000 to 70,000 years ago, but most recent analysis has indicated that the polar bear split somewhere between 250,000 and 130,000 years ago. Under some definitions, the brown bear can be construed as the paraspecies for the polar bear.\\nDNA analysis shows that, apart from recent human-caused population fragmentation, brown bears in North America are generally part of a single interconnected population system, with the exception of the population (or subspecies) in the Kodiak Archipelago, which has probably been isolated since the end of the last Ice Age. These data demonstrate\",\n \"-30.07330831408035\"\n ],\n [\n \"larger due to the colder climate.\\nCO₂ continued to fall and the climate continued to get colder. At 28.1 million years ago, the Gamburtsev and Transantarctic ice caps merged into a main central ice cap. At this point, ice was now covering a majority of the continent.\\n28 million years ago was the time period in which the largest land mammal existed, the Paraceratherium.\\nThe Dronning Maud ice cap merged with the main ice cap 27.9 million years ago. This was the formation of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.\\n25 million years ago brought about the first deer. It also was the time period\",\n \"-30.041592706053052\"\n ],\n [\n \"bears, two brown bears, and one black bear to gather ancestral alleles. Based on research using various simulation scenarios, the team concluded that the ABC Islands bears descended from polar bears that gradually converted into brown bears through hybridization of male brown bears dispersing from the Alaskan mainland. It is believed that the present polar bear DNA stems from a group of polar bears that were stranded in Southeast Alaska at the end of the last ice age, and the bears were stranded due to receding ice. This would happen with male brown bears swimming over to the islands and\",\n \"-29.988660312257707\"\n ],\n [\n \"not available for polar bears and for some aquatic life. Biodiversity extinction Due to increase in ecological crisis, vast numbers of species are being annihilated. Every year between 17,000 and 100,000 species vanish from the planet. The speed in which species are becoming extinct is much faster than in the past. The previous mass extinction was caused by a meteor collision 66 million years ago.\\nThe loss of new species in an ecosystem will eventually affect all living creatures. In the U.S. and Canada, there was a dramatic reduction of shark population along the U.S. east coast. Since then, there\",\n \"-29.939894135168288\"\n ],\n [\n \"1999, November 2002, and April 2008. Polar bears continue to be listed as a species of special concern in Canada because of their sensitivity to overharvest and because of an expected range contraction caused by loss of Arctic sea ice.\\nMore than 600 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate calculated by scientists to be unsustainable for some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed sport hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. The guiding of sport hunters provides meaningful employment and an important source\",\n \"-29.93661641777726\"\n ],\n [\n \"expensive and not effective. Polar bears In December 2007, Palin wrote an opinion column in which she described her opposition to the listing of polar bears as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. In it she also stated that the polar bear population is more numerous now than 40 years ago and \\\"there is insufficient evidence of polar bears becoming extinct in the foreseeable future\\\". After Dirk Kempthorne, the Republican Secretary of the United States Department of the Interior listed the bear as threatened on May 14, 2008, Palin (representing the state of Alaska) sued the federal government,\",\n \"-29.830524873919785\"\n ],\n [\n \"a further 52% decline in their range between 1920 and 1970. Grizzly bears managed to survive this last period of hunting only in remote wilderness areas larger than 26,000 km² (10,000 mi2). Overall, grizzly bears were eliminated from 98% of their original range in the contiguous United States during a 100-year period.\\nPrior to Anglo-American colonization in 1820, black bears were widely distributed throughout all major eco-regions in Texas. The supply of both meat and fat lasted about a century after the first Anglo-American settlers arrived. However, after their value for grease and food had decreased, black bears continued to be pursued\",\n \"-29.82154489122331\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the tusks of mastodons from the American Great Lakes region appears inconsistent with the climate change hypothesis. Over a span of several thousand years prior to their extinction in the area, the mastodons show a trend of declining age at maturation. This is the opposite of what one would expect if they were experiencing stresses from deteriorating environmental conditions, but is consistent with a reduction in intraspecific competition that would result from a population being reduced by human hunting. Increased temperature The most obvious change associated with the termination of an ice age is the increase in temperature. Between\",\n \"-29.764002875890583\"\n ],\n [\n \"an average of approximately 1 per year during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.\\nAccording to bear biologist Charles Jonkel, one reason for bear attacks is the lack of important foods such as huckleberry, buffalo berry, and white-bark pine nut. Winter freezes may be one reason for the food shortages. Polar bears Polar bear attacks on humans are extremely rare, and according to records by James Wilder, out of 73 fatal bear attacks between 1870 and 2014, only 20 have been the result of polar bears. Polar bear attacks can also happen in captivity. Sloth bears In some areas of India and\",\n \"-29.72803907142952\"\n ],\n [\n \"highly disparate from those that continue today between brown bears and the Siberian tiger. Unlike most of these species, the brown bear was able to survive the Quaternary extinction event that concluded the Ice Age. Presumably, this was due to its greater dietary and habitat plasticity and its adoption of a more extensively herbivorous diet, as most temperate zone herbivores that may have provided meals for more specialized large land carnivores went extinct, as the warming climate killed off their food source.\\nIt is likely that humans have caused the extinction and fragmentation of bear populations and their habitats since prehistoric\",\n \"-29.714566324662883\"\n ],\n [\n \"Mammal Protection Act of 1972 afforded polar bears some protection in the United States. It banned hunting (except by indigenous subsistence hunters), banned importing of polar bear parts (except polar bear pelts taken legally in Canada), and banned the harassment of polar bears. On 15 May 2008, the United States Department of the Interior listed the polar bear as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act, citing the melting of Arctic sea ice as the primary threat to the polar bear. It banned all importing of polar bear trophies. Importing products made from polar bears had been prohibited from\",\n \"-29.69902997207828\"\n ],\n [\n \"China, and date back about 500,000 years. It is known from mtDNA studies that during the Pleistocene ice age it was too cold for the brown bear to survive in Europe except in three places: Russia, Spain, and the Balkans.\\nModern research has made it possible to track the origin of the subspecies. The species to which it belongs developed more than 500,000 years ago, and researchers have found that the Eurasian brown bear separated about 850,000 years ago, with one branch based in Western Europe and the other branch in Western Europe, Russia, Eastern Europe and Asia. Through research of\",\n \"-29.571896931156516\"\n ],\n [\n \"bears from the sub-Arctic zone, from the Brooks Range to the Mackenzie Mountains, presumably because food becomes much sparser in such regions, although perhaps the most northerly recorded grizzly bears ever, in the Northwest Territories, was a large and healthy male weighing 320 kg (710 lb), more than twice as much as an average male weighs near the Arctic Circle. Data from Eurasia similarly indicates a diminished body mass in sub-Arctic brown bears, based on the weights of bears from northern Finland and Yakutia.\\nHead-and-body length in grizzly bears averages from 1.8 to 2.13 m (5 ft 11 in to 7 ft 0 in) while in Eurasian brown\",\n \"-29.47006072406657\"\n ],\n [\n \"Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears The Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears is a multilateral treaty signed in Oslo, November 15, 1973, by the five nations with the largest polar bear populations: Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), the United States, and the Soviet Union. This treaty was brought about due to increased hunting of polar bears during the 1960s and 1970s which led to polar bears being under severe survival pressure from hunters.\\nThe agreement prohibits random, unregulated sport hunting of polar bears and outlaws hunting of polar bears from aircraft and icebreakers which have been the most\",\n \"-29.39646396454191\"\n ],\n [\n \"rapidly diminishing, and the latest forecasts predict that the polar bear may be almost extinct in the wild 40 years from now.\\nSiku's mother, Ilka, had no milk in her breasts for the third year running, and so the park decided to \\\"immobilize\\\" her. According to park manager Frank Vigh-Larsen, Siku weighed three pounds (1.8 kg) at birth, but grew within his first month to seven pounds' (3.2 kg) weight. Receiving insufficient milk from Ilka, Siku was revealed on surveillance video inside the bear cave to be \\\"moaning and being unruly all the time.\\\" At two days old, he\",\n \"-29.39315331657417\"\n ],\n [\n \"clam bed they might revisit in another five years.\\nThe two animals then take similar paths. They have to travel because shorter winters mean ice that freezes later and melts sooner, making it harder to survive and eat as the water of Arctic Ocean expands. Male polar bears pose a threat to both of the main creatures, as the cubs have to navigate around him and the walruses try to get away from being prey. After Nanu's brother dies, Nanu has to leave her mother earlier than is customary because of the changing climate conditions, but she still has trouble finding\",\n \"-29.38097916415427\"\n ],\n [\n \"and \\\"there is insufficient evidence of polar bears becoming extinct in the foreseeable future.\\\" Alaskan state biologists and environmental groups disagreed with Palin's position. After Dirk Kempthorne, the Republican Secretary of the United States Department of the Interior listed the bear as threatened on May 14, 2008, Palin sued the federal government, claiming that the listing would adversely affect energy development in the bears' habitat off Alaska's northern and northwestern coasts, while again questioning the scientific basis for the listing.\\nPalin claimed the scientists found no ill effects of global warming on the polar bear. Rick Steiner, a University\",\n \"-29.37013228010619\"\n ],\n [\n \"mainland Australia, but long periods of cold and very dry weather. This dry weather during the last ice age may have killed off all the large diprotodonts.\\nCritics point out a number of problems with this theory. First, large diprotodonts had already survived a long series of similar ice ages, and no particular reason is apparent that the most recent one should have achieved what all the previous ice ages had failed to do. Also, climate change apparently peaked 25,000 years after the extinctions. Finally, even during climatic extremes, some parts of the continent always remain relatively exempt; for example, the\",\n \"-29.333873210824095\"\n ],\n [\n \"and the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Conservation status, threats, and controversies Polar bear population sizes and trends are difficult to estimate accurately because they occupy remote home ranges and exist at low population densities. Polar bear fieldwork can also be hazardous to researchers. As of 2015, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports that the global population of polar bears is 22,000 to 31,000, and the current population trend is unknown. Nevertheless, polar bears are listed as \\\"Vulnerable\\\" under criterion A3c, which indicates an expected population decrease of ≥30% over the next three generations (~34.5 years) due to\",\n \"-29.321901597693795\"\n ],\n [\n \"a \\\"threatened\\\" species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. The FWS is concerned that climate change is or will place polar bears at risk of extinction. SCI/SCIF argued that the science cited by the FWS was speculative and incomplete at the time. Relatively healthy populations of polar bears exist in the areas where hunting is allowed and it said that sport hunting of these populations would provide funding for habitat and study as well as income for native populations. SCI stated, \\\"[...] [T]he U.S. decision to list will merely change the identity of those who hunt the animals from U.S.\",\n \"-29.248203464288963\"\n ],\n [\n \"declared off limits. The killing of females and cubs was made illegal in 1965. Killing of polar bears decreased somewhat 25–30 years before the treaty. Despite this, the polar bear population continued to decline and by 1973, only around 1000 bears were left in Svalbard. Only with the passage of the treaty did they begin to recover. Russia The Soviet Union banned the harvest of polar bears in 1956; however, poaching continued and is estimated to pose a serious threat to the polar bear population. In recent years, polar bears have approached coastal villages in Chukotka more frequently due to\",\n \"-29.169026354546077\"\n ],\n [\n \"They survived longer in this area, however, than in other parts of the eastern United States. Because of the high altitude the climate is cool and some animals are more similar to ones found about 1,600 miles (2,600 km) farther north in Canada. Many species found here are near their southernmost range. For example, the snowshoe hare found in Dolly Sods is usually found in Canada and Alaska and is adapted to snow conditions, with its large, hairy feet which allow it to run on the snow surface.\\nBeaver — which were restored to the state after a period of extirpation —\",\n \"-29.104209038661793\"\n ],\n [\n \"extent about 18,000 years ago and ending by about 10,000 years ago. During these ice ages, large areas of northern North America and Eurasia were covered by ice sheets similar to the one found today on Greenland; Arctic climate conditions would have extended much further south, and conditions in the present-day Arctic region were likely colder. Temperature proxies suggest that over the last 8000 years the climate has been stable, with globally averaged temperature variations of less than about 1 °C (34 °F); (see Paleoclimate). Global warming There are several reasons to expect that climate changes, from whatever cause, may be enhanced\",\n \"-29.09400454866409\"\n ],\n [\n \"decline some 25,000 years before the species' extinction. Conflicts between bears and humans Brown bears usually avoid areas where extensive development or urbanization has occurred, unlike the smaller, more inoffensive American black bear which can adapt to peri-urban regions. Under many circumstances, extensive human development may cause brown bears to alter their home ranges. High road densities (both paved and gravel roads) are often associated with higher mortality, habitat avoidance and lower bear density. However, brown bears can easily lose their natural cautiousness upon being attracted to human-created food sources, such as garbage dumps, litter bins and dumpsters. Brown bears\",\n \"-29.057559034670703\"\n ],\n [\n \"40 different species (gorillas, cheetahs, tigers, orangutans, snow leopards, and others) into the US for \\\"scientific research and incentive for propagation and survival of the species.\\\" Because the animals were to be hunted, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service denied the request. Polar bear imports In 1994, SCI successfully lobbied for a change in the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 to allow for the importation of previously banned sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the United States from Canada. In 2007, SCI testified at a U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service hearing opposing the proposed listing of polar bears as\",\n \"-29.049599942518398\"\n ],\n [\n \"late summer and early fall. Reduction in sea-ice cover also forces bears to swim longer distances, which further depletes their energy stores and occasionally leads to drowning. Thinner sea ice tends to deform more easily, which appears to make it more difficult for polar bears to access seals. Insufficient nourishment leads to lower reproductive rates in adult females and lower survival rates in cubs and juvenile bears, in addition to poorer body condition in bears of all ages.\\nIn addition to creating nutritional stress, a warming climate is expected to affect various other aspects of polar bear life: Changes in sea\",\n \"-28.99863784108311\"\n ],\n [\n \"15,000 BP and 10,000 BP, a 6 °C increase in global mean annual temperatures occurred. This was generally thought to be the cause of the extinctions.\\nAccording to this hypothesis, a temperature increase sufficient to melt the Wisconsin ice sheet could have placed enough thermal stress on cold-adapted mammals to cause them to die. Their heavy fur, which helps conserve body heat in the glacial cold, might have prevented the dumping of excess heat, causing the mammals to die of heat exhaustion. Large mammals, with their reduced surface area-to-volume ratio, would have fared worse than small mammals.\\nA study covering the past 56,000\",\n \"-28.972628255577547\"\n ],\n [\n \"groups and Canada's Inuit at opposing positions; the Nunavut government and many northern residents have condemned the U.S. initiative to list the polar bear under the Endangered Species Act. Many Inuit believe the polar bear population is increasing, and restrictions on commercial sport-hunting are likely to lead to a loss of income to their communities. Indigenous folklore For the indigenous peoples of the Arctic, polar bears have long played an important cultural and material role. Polar bear remains have been found at hunting sites dating to 2,500 to 3,000 years ago and 1,500-year-old cave paintings of polar bears have been\",\n \"-28.961574854445644\"\n ],\n [\n \"\\\"decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat\\\". Risks to the polar bear include climate change, pollution in the form of toxic contaminants, conflicts with shipping, oil and gas exploration and development, and human-bear interactions including harvesting and possible stresses from recreational polar-bear watching.\\nAccording to the World Wildlife Fund, the polar bear is important as an indicator of Arctic ecosystem health. Polar bears are studied to gain understanding of what is happening throughout the Arctic, because at-risk polar bears are often a sign of something wrong with the Arctic marine ecosystem. Climate change The International Union\",\n \"-28.952775788930012\"\n ],\n [\n \"is thought to have split from other carnivorans about 38 million years ago. The subfamily Ursinae originated approximately 4.2 million years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130,000 to 110,000-year-old jaw bone, found on Prince Charles Foreland in 2004. Fossils show that between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago, the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear. Polar bears are thought to have diverged from a population of brown bears that became isolated during a period of glaciation in the Pleistocene from the eastern part of Siberia (from Kamchatka and the Kolym Peninsula).\\nThe\",\n \"-28.934183657052927\"\n ],\n [\n \"be the indirect result of the wide-scale extermination of large baleen whales in the Antarctic due to commercial whaling in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the subsequent increase in krill densities. Genetic evidence suggests that Weddell and crabeater seal populations may have increased in size during the Pleistocene. None of the four species is currently thought to be declining in numbers.\",\n \"-28.88712692577974\"\n ],\n [\n \"Although many prior adverse practises are now banned, the issues surrounding past exploitation of animal resources in the Svalbard area remain a problem. With whale, seal and walrus populations are still far below than they were even two centuries ago (the average age of a Greenland whale). The population of polar bears are locally recovering from the major culls of the 1960s and 1970s that came about due to the availability of snow scooters; however, the polar bear remains threatened at a global level, due to unsustainable levels of killing by humans and marine water pollution. There are a wide\",\n \"-28.86958610912552\"\n ],\n [\n \"habitat of the brown bear is increasing. The warming of that region has allowed the species to move farther north into what was once exclusively the domain of the polar bear (potentially another offshoot of a radiation of coastal brown bears). In non-Arctic areas, habitat loss is blamed as the leading cause of endangerment, followed by hunting. Conservation status While the brown bear's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions, it remains listed as a Least concern species by the IUCN, with a total population of approximately 200,000. As of 2012, this and the American black bear are\",\n \"-28.843435113318264\"\n ],\n [\n \"populations which can have negative long-term effects. This isolation poses one of the greatest threats to the future survival of the grizzly bear in the contiguous United States. Although there is no record of their existence in the United States east of the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains regions (except for a relic population in the Ungava Peninsula which survived until the dawn of the 20th century) in human history, fossil records from Kentucky do in fact show that grizzly bears once roamed in eastern North America. Mexico Although many people believe some brown bears may be present in Mexico,\",\n \"-28.779265567776747\"\n ],\n [\n \"polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze-up. In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year-round. Physical characteristics The only other bear similar in size to the polar bear is the Kodiak bear, which is a subspecies of brown bear. Adult male polar bears weigh 350–700 kg (772–1,543 lb) and measure 2.4–3 metres (7 ft 10 in–9 ft 10 in) in total length. Around the Beaufort Sea, however, mature males reportedly average 450 kg (992 lb). Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150–250 kg\",\n \"-28.754645671593607\"\n ],\n [\n \"last ice age (approx. 18,000 years ago), the species migrated north in order to maintain its large populations. The organism's overwintering strategy gives it the ability to survive during long periods of food shortage, typical of temperate and high latitudes. During this six-month period of hibernation, many of these organisms will sink to depths from 500-2,500m in the ocean. They tend to remain at rest until the following spring when they awake and return to the surface waters. Many scientists believe that C. finmarchicus use this strategy as a survival method by reducing physiological costs and predation risk. This ability\",\n \"-28.731123770121485\"\n ],\n [\n \"more, are a more formidable quarry. Although ungulates are not typical prey, the killing of one during the summer months can greatly increase the odds of survival during that lean period. Like the brown bear, most ungulate prey of polar bears is likely to be young, sickly or injured specimens rather than healthy adults. The polar bear's metabolism is specialized to require large amounts of fat from marine mammals, and it cannot derive sufficient caloric intake from terrestrial food.\\nIn their southern range, especially near Hudson Bay and James Bay, Canadian polar bears endure all summer without sea ice to hunt\",\n \"-28.686151589237852\"\n ],\n [\n \"is fierce, many do not breed until the age of eight or ten. A study in Hudson Bay indicated that both the reproductive success and the maternal weight of females peaked in their mid-teens.\\nPolar bears appear to be less affected by infectious diseases and parasites than most terrestrial mammals. Polar bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism, although infections are usually not fatal. Only one case of a polar bear with rabies has been documented, even though polar bears frequently interact with Arctic foxes, which often carry rabies. Bacterial leptospirosis and Morbillivirus have been\",\n \"-28.653619644697756\"\n ],\n [\n \"of previous interglacials, yet some of the same large mammals survived similar temperature increases. Therefore, warmer temperatures alone may not be a sufficient explanation.\\nIn addition, numerous species such as mammoths on Wrangel Island and St. Paul Island survived in human-free refugia despite changes in climate. This would not be expected if climate change were responsible (unless their maritime climates offered some protection against climate change not afforded to coastal populations on the mainland). Under normal ecological assumptions island populations should be more vulnerable to extinction due to climate change because of small populations and an inability to migrate to more\",\n \"-28.52758342825109\"\n ],\n [\n \"changed currents are expected to affect marine mammals by altering the distribution of important prey species, and changing the suitability of breeding sites and migratory routes. The Arctic food chain would be disrupted by the near extinction or migration of polar bears. Arctic sea ice is the polar bear's habitat. It has been declining at a rate of 13% per decade because the temperature is rising at twice the rate of the rest of the world. By the year 2050, up to two-thirds of the world's polar bears may vanish if the sea ice continues to melt at its current\",\n \"-28.517753157182597\"\n ],\n [\n \"Hirnantian faunal stage that ended the long, stable greenhouse conditions typical of the Ordovician. The ice age was probably not as long-lasting as once thought; study of oxygen isotopes in fossil brachiopods shows that it was probably no longer than 0.5 to 1.5 million years. The event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000ppm to 4400ppm) which selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. As the southern supercontinent Gondwana drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it. Evidence of these ice caps have been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of\",\n \"-28.48734221747145\"\n ],\n [\n \"were 20,000 to 40,000 during the 1980s. Current estimates put the global population at between 20,000 and 25,000 or 22,000 and 31,000.\\nThere are several reasons for the apparent discordance between past and projected population trends: estimates from the 1950s and 1960s were based on stories from explorers and hunters rather than on scientific surveys. Second, controls of harvesting were introduced that allowed this previously overhunted species to recover. Third, the recent effects of climate change have affected sea ice abundance in different areas to varying degrees.\\nDebate over the listing of the polar bear under endangered species legislation has put conservation\",\n \"-28.482427899492905\"\n ],\n [\n \"Ecological crisis Crises caused by abiotic factors Climate change is starting to have major impacts on ecosystems. With global temperature rising, there is a decrease in snow-fall, and sea levels are rising. Ecosystems will change or evolve to cope with the increase in temperature. Consequently, many species are being driven out of their habitats.\\nPolar bears are being threatened. They need ice for hunting seals, their primary prey. However, the ice caps are melting, making their hunting periods shorter each year. As a result, the polar bears are not developing enough fat for the winter; therefore, they are not able\",\n \"-28.46560890204273\"\n ],\n [\n \"the species is sometimes found around sub-Arctic ice fields. This is indicated by brown bears in the Chukotka Peninsula on the Asian side of the Bering Strait, which are the only Asian brown bears to live year-round in lowland tundra like their North American cousins. Genetics relay that two separate radiations led to today's North American brown bears, one a coastal form that led to the Kodiak bear (from U. a. beringianus or a common ancestor) and one an interior form that led to the grizzly bear (from U. a. lasiotus or a common ancestor). In Arctic areas, the potential\",\n \"-28.366918154410087\"\n ],\n [\n \"and increasing trade, dramatically increased the harvest of polar bears. However, since polar bear fur has always played a marginal commercial role, data on the historical harvest is fragmentary. It is known, for example, that already in the winter of 1784/1785 Russian Pomors on Spitsbergen harvested 150 polar bears in Magdalenefjorden. In the early 20th century, Norwegian hunters were harvesting 300 bears per year at the same location. Estimates of total historical harvest suggest that from the beginning of the 18th century, roughly 400 to 500 animals were being harvested annually in northern Eurasia, reaching a peak of 1,300 to\",\n \"-28.346460110507905\"\n ],\n [\n \"between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and ice floes north, reinforcing the cooling. The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago.\\nThe northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart. In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with\",\n \"-28.32543541160703\"\n ],\n [\n \"the world's oceans.\\nDuring this ice-house period (as scientists sometimes call periods of global cold weather and glaciation), surviving species began to adapt. Cold environment species replaced the warm environment species that had thrived during the previous hot period (hot-house to scientists).\\nJust as the species were adapting, however, the climate changed again. During the latter part of the Hirnantian, temperatures rose, the glaciers melted, and sea level rose to the same or perhaps an even higher level than before the glaciation. The exposed shelves were flooded, resulting in additional extinctions among the fauna that had survived the first extinction event. Dating\",\n \"-28.32256017839063\"\n ],\n [\n \"shortly after. Brown bear remains from the Pleistocene period are common in the British Isles, where it is thought they might have outcompeted cave bears (Ursus spelaeus). The species entered Alaska 100,000 years ago, though they did not move south until 13,000 years ago. It is speculated that brown bears were unable to migrate south until the extinction of the much larger giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus).\\nSeveral paleontologists suggest the possibility of two separate brown bear migrations: inland brown bears, also known as grizzlies, are thought to stem from narrow-skulled bears which migrated from northern Siberia to central Alaska and\",\n \"-28.230712342832703\"\n ],\n [\n \"to today's −9 °C, and the rest of the globe underwent a similar change. For perhaps the first time in its history, the planet had ice caps at both of its poles. A geologically rapid decrease in temperature between 49 and 47 million years ago, around the Azolla event, is evident: dropstones — which are taken as evidence for the presence of glaciers — are common in Arctic sediments thereafter. This is set against a backdrop of gradual, long-term cooling: it is not until 15 million years ago that evidence for widespread northern polar freezing is common. Alternative explanations While a verdant\",\n \"-28.144799776782747\"\n ],\n [\n \"suggests that such events may have been more frequent in the United States during the late 1800s and early 1900s.\\\" A 2009 MIT study found that such events are increasing and may be caused by the rapid loss of the Arctic ice pack.\\nSSW events of similar magnitude occurred in 1985 in North America, and in 2009 and 2010 in Europe. Canada As of February 27, Winnipeg was experiencing the second-coldest winter in 75 years, the coldest in 35 years and with snowfall total being 50 per cent more than normal. Saskatoon was experiencing the coldest winter in 18 years;\",\n \"-28.13342297053896\"\n ],\n [\n \"200,000 seals in or adjacent to Alaska, are not in danger of becoming extinct, nor are they likely to become so in the \\\"foreseeable future\\\", even though global warming has caused a loss in arctic ice mass. The announcement stated: \\\"We do not predict the expected fluctuations in sea ice will affect them enough to warrant listing at this time.\\\"\\n\\nIn South Korea, spotted seals have been designated Natural Monument No. 331 and second-class endangered species. This is because the seals from South Korea travel to Dalian, China to breed every year where several thousands are harvested for their genitals and\",\n \"-28.122583838237915\"\n ],\n [\n \"polar bears present in the Arctic and Sub Arctic. Although this predator factor is involved with more recent research, it does not necessarily mean this will be the outcome, considering the uncertainty in such projections. Overall, ringed seals populations will fluctuate regardless of each potential outcome and climate change is certain to affect not only the ringed seal but all Arctic and Sub Arctic animal populations.\",\n \"-28.05580687755719\"\n ],\n [\n \"while males in captivity have been verified to live up to 47 years, with one captive male possibly attaining 50 years of age.\\nWhile male bears potentially live longer in captivity, female grizzly bears have a greater annual survival rate than males within wild populations per a study done in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Annual mortality for bears of any age is estimated at around 10% in most protected areas; however, the average annual mortality rate rises to an estimated 38% in hunted populations. Around 13% to 44% of cubs die within their first year even in well-protected areas. Mortality rates\",\n \"-27.978164796164492\"\n ],\n [\n \"bear seem to be most vulnerable to predatory attacks by brown bears when the latter species leaves hibernation sooner in early spring and ambushes the smaller ursids in their dens.\\nThere has been a recent increase in interactions between brown bears and polar bears (Ursus maritimus), theorized to be caused by climate change. Brown bears have been seen moving increasingly northward into territories formerly claimed by polar bears. Despite averaging somewhat smaller sizes, brown bears tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses, and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens.\\nLarge herbivores, such as moose, bison\",\n \"-27.970710380817764\"\n ],\n [\n \"has a slightly positive trend over the last three decades (1979–2009). Historical cases Over the past several decades, Earth's polar ice caps have gained significant attention because of the alarming decrease in land and sea ice. NASA reports that since the late 1970s, the Arctic has lost an average of 20,800 square miles (53,900 square kilometers) of sea ice per year while the Antarctic has gained an average of 7,300 square miles (18,900 km²) of sea ice per year. At the same time, the Arctic has been losing around 50 cubic kilometers (gigatons) of land ice per year, almost entirely from\",\n \"-27.964113592694048\"\n ],\n [\n \"years, the conservation of polar bears was the only subject in the entire Arctic that nations from both sides of the Iron Curtain could agree upon sufficiently to sign an agreement. Such was the intensity of human fascination with this magnificent predator, the only marine bear.\\\"\\nAgreements have been made between countries to co-manage their shared polar bear subpopulations. After several years of negotiations, Russia and the United States signed an agreement in October 2000 to jointly set quotas for indigenous subsistence hunting in Alaska and Chukotka. The treaty was ratified in October 2007. In September 2015, the polar bear range\",\n \"-27.925363674323307\"\n ],\n [\n \"1973, the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears was signed by all five nations whose territory is inhabited by polar bears: Canada, Denmark, Norway, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers, and conduct further research. The treaty allows hunting \\\"by local people using traditional methods\\\". Norway is the only country of the five in which all harvest of polar bears is banned. The agreement was a rare case of international cooperation during the Cold War. Biologist Ian Stirling commented, \\\"For many\",\n \"-27.868991046882\"\n ],\n [\n \"the case of hybridization). Genomics studies of brown bears and polar bears have revealed that gene flow from polar bears into brown bears — but not the other way around — was widespread in time and space during the Pleistocene. Of particular note, the bears living on the islands of the Alexander Archipelago of southeast Alaska trace their maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA entirely to polar bears, but over 90% of their nuclear genome to brown bears. This appears to reflect a process in which a population of polar bears was left behind as the species retreated northwards at the end\",\n \"-27.85923946031835\"\n ],\n [\n \"of the global population.\\nThe range includes the territory of five nations: Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), Russia, the United States (Alaska) and Canada. These five nations are the signatories of the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, which mandates cooperation on research and conservation efforts throughout the polar bear's range. Bears sometimes swim to Iceland from Greenland—about 600 sightings since the country's settlement in the 9th century AD, and five in the 21st century as of 2016—and are always killed because of their danger, and the cost and difficulty of repatriation.\\nModern methods of tracking polar bear populations have been\",\n \"-27.85220053268131\"\n ],\n [\n \"sources of food. Beginning in December 2018 and coming to an apex in February 2019, a mass invasion of polar bears into the archipelago of Novaya Zemlya caused local authorities to declare a state of emergency. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes and public buildings and inhabited areas. Clathrate breakdown Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilize methane deposits on and near the shoreline, preventing the clathrate breaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into\",\n \"-27.849034840437525\"\n ],\n [\n \"Tremarctos floridanus Environment T. floridanus was widely distributed south of the continental ice sheet, along the Gulf Coast through Florida, north to Tennessee, and across the southern United States to California.\\nArctodus (3 million–11,000 years ago) was a contemporary and shared its habitat with T. floridanus. The closest living relative of the Florida cave bear is the spectacled bear of South America; they are classified together with the huge short-faced bears in the subfamily Tremarctinae. They became extinct at the end of the last ice age, 10,000 years ago (possibly as late as 8,000 years ago at Devil's Den in Florida),\",\n \"-27.84439824090805\"\n ],\n [\n \"and Virginia, while distant relatives Bootherium and Euceratherium lived in the forests of the Southern United States and the western shrubland, respectively. Though they were always less common than other Ice Age megafauna, muskox abundance peaked during the Würm II glaciation 20,000 years ago and declined afterwards, especially during the Pleistocene/Holocene extinction event, where its range was greatly reduced and only the populations in North America survived. The last known muskox population in Europe died out in Sweden 9,000 years ago, and the last one in Asia, which lived on Siberia's Taymyr Peninsula, about 2,000 years ago.\\nAfter the disappearance of\",\n \"-27.83886169924517\"\n ],\n [\n \"to estimate a global population of polar bears as much of the range has been poorly studied; however, biologists use a working estimate of about 20–25,000 or 22–31,000 polar bears worldwide.\\nThere are 19 generally recognized, discrete subpopulations, though polar bears are thought to exist only in low densities in the area of the Arctic Basin. The subpopulations display seasonal fidelity to particular areas, but DNA studies show that they are not reproductively isolated. The 13 North American subpopulations range from the Beaufort Sea south to Hudson Bay and east to Baffin Bay in western Greenland and account for about 54%\",\n \"-27.834862246643752\"\n ],\n [\n \"temperatures caused by the high amounts of carbon dioxide and possibly methane greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This caused a lack of permanent ice coverage in the polar regions, though the carbon dioxide level dropped between 115 and 66 million years ago (mya), possibly allowing some permanent ice cover. It is possible that, throughout the Cretaceous, several small ice sheets developed. Increased tectonic activity, causing more geothermal heat, may have prevented glaciation and increased global temperatures. Temperatures may have been up to 15 °C (27 °F) warmer than they are in the modern age. Jurassic The landscape of the Middle Jurassic polar\",\n \"-27.833877948112786\"\n ],\n [\n \"bears, reducing their numbers drastically. Because of this and the carrying capacity reduction due to habitat destruction has resulted in the recognition that the Japanese black bear is at a high risk of extinction. The species will likely be gone within the next 100 years at the rate they are currently declining.\",\n \"-27.815594534156844\"\n ],\n [\n \"instances that they have observed of polar bears stalking and killing one another for food. Antarctica The Antarctic peninsula has lost a number of ice shelves recently. These are large areas of floating ice which are fed by glaciers. Many are the size of a small country. The sudden collapse of the Larsen B ice shelf in 2002 took 5 weeks or less and may have been due to global warming. Larsen B had previously been stable for up to 12,000 years.\\nConcern has been expressed about the stability of the West Antarctic ice sheet. A collapse of\",\n \"-27.808314502603025\"\n ],\n [\n \"increase in the total amount of saltwater present in these wetlands could prove to be problematic for many species. While some may simply have to migrate to other areas, smaller ecosystems within the wetlands could be destroyed which, once again, influences the animal food chain.\\nPolar bears are animals that are specifically affected through the process of rising sea levels. Living near the Arctic region, polar bears find their food on ice caps and sheets of ice. As these sheets continue to become fewer in quantity, it is predicted that the polar bears will have a difficult time sustaining life and\",\n \"-27.74917000811547\"\n ],\n [\n \"been used to track current climate patterns but also patterns over the past several thousands years from the traces of CO2 and CH4 found trapped in the ice. In the past decade, polar ice caps have shown their most rapid decline in size with no true sign of recovery. Josefino Comiso, a senior research scientist at NASA, found that the “rate of warming in the Arctic over the last 20 years is eight times the rate of warming over the last 100 years.” In September 2012, sea ice reached its smallest size ever. Journalist John Vidal stated that sea ice\",\n \"-27.716330217197537\"\n ],\n [\n \"documented, two subspecies were identified: the American polar bear (Ursus maritimus maritimus) by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and the Siberian polar bear (Ursus maritimus marinus) by Peter Simon Pallas in 1776. This distinction has since been invalidated. One alleged fossil subspecies has been identified: Ursus maritimus tyrannus, which became extinct during the Pleistocene. U.m. tyrannus was significantly larger than the living subspecies. However, recent reanalysis of the fossil suggests that it was actually a brown bear. Population and distribution The polar bear is found in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses as far south as Newfoundland. Due to\",\n \"-27.70282520429464\"\n ],\n [\n \"by polar bears, bear-destroyed supply caches and melting ice. As temperatures continued to rise, the remaining crews made several short trips of observation, noting the migratory birds and employing the returning vegetation as a cure for their persisting scurvy.\\nBy early July 1854 Kane was considering the possibility of another winter locked in the ice measured against the fact that they were not provisioned for another year. The option of abandoning the Advance was considered dishonorable at best. Kane and five men undertook an attempt in a modified 23 feet (7.0 m) whaleboat to reach Beechey Island, where Kane, as part of\",\n \"-27.66364296223037\"\n ],\n [\n \"eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued.\\nAlthough a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a warm period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the Oligocene. The Miocene warming began 21 million years ago and continued until 14 million years ago, when global temperatures took a sharp drop—the Middle Miocene Climate Transition (MMCT). By 8 million years ago, temperatures dropped sharply once again, and the Antarctic ice sheet was already approaching its present-day size and thickness. Greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 7 to 8 million years ago,\",\n \"-27.656398037914187\"\n ],\n [\n \"2.8 million years ago, the early ice age began with the icing of the North Pole, causing the distribution of Dioon to shrink very sharply.\\nIn the Paleocene (55.8 - 65.5 ka) Dioon was next to Zamia and Anemia the only today neotropical genus that was still present in the flora of Alaska. During the Tertiary period, about 2.6 million years ago, Dioons died in almost all of North America with only a few relic collections remained in a small area in Central America, where today still the diversity center of the genus lies. A spread to South America was not\",\n \"-27.654433179995976\"\n ],\n [\n \"European brown bear.\\nIn the 1900s, bear populations had been decreasing because of increased hunting of bears for sustenance (done mostly by native peoples such as the Inupiat of Alaska and the Inuvialuit of Canada) and for trophy prizes. Polar bear skins became popular as a sign of wealth and prestige, especially in Europe during the Victorian era. Comparatively, the pelts of giant panda, were also highly valued, priced at around 176,000 U.S. dollars. Settlers, indigenous, villagers and farmers defended their families and livestock by killing the local predators, including bears. This practice is still in place where necessary and legal.\",\n \"-27.62032009573886\"\n ],\n [\n \"The remains of polar bears have found in the stomachs of large Greenland sharks (Somniosus microcephalus), although it certainly cannot be ruled out that the bears were merely scavenged by this slow-moving, unusual shark. A rather unlikely killer of a grown polar bear has reportedly included a wolverine (Gulo gulo), anecedotely reported to have suffocated a bear in a zoo with a bite to the throat during a conflict. This report may well be dubious, however. Polar bears are sometimes the host of arctic mites such as Alaskozetes antarcticus. Long-distance swimming and diving Researchers tracked 52 sows in the southern\",\n \"-27.610842642199714\"\n ],\n [\n \"about 10 thousand years ago near the end of the last Major Ice Age when the climate became more stable. However, abrupt climate change on the decade time scale has occurred regionally. Since civilization originated during a period of stable climate, a natural variation into a new climate regime (colder or hotter) could pose a threat to civilization.\\nIn the history of the Earth, many ice ages are known to have occurred. An ice age would have a serious impact on civilization because vast areas of land (mainly in North America, Europe, and Asia) could become uninhabitable. Currently, the world is\",\n \"-27.57225798914442\"\n ],\n [\n \"on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely independent regional climate changes rather than a globally synchronous increased glaciation. At most, there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period.\\nSeveral causes have been proposed: cyclical lows in solar radiation, heightened volcanic activity, changes in the ocean circulation, variations in Earth's orbit and axial tilt (orbital forcing), inherent variability in global climate, and decreases in the human population (for example from the Black Death and the colonization of the Americas). Areas involved The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\",\n \"-27.561458872864023\"\n ],\n [\n \"went extinct at the end of the Pleistocene Era. In its much longer history in Eurasia, brown bears diverged from the two species of cave bear, the cave bear (U. spelaeus) and the Pleistocene small cave bear (U. rossicus), two species that it existed alongside in what is now Europe for the larger species and Central Asia and Siberia for the smaller species. The cave bears were similar in size to the larger forms of brown bear and polar bear alive today in terms of length, but were bulkier, with much higher-density skeletal remains and presumably rather heavier than the\",\n \"-27.549061529902247\"\n ],\n [\n \"of Hudson Bay are ice-free for three weeks longer than they were thirty years ago, affecting polar bears, which prefer to hunt on sea ice. Species that rely on cold weather conditions such as gyrfalcons, and snowy owls that prey on lemmings that use the cold winter to their advantage may be hit hard. Marine invertebrates enjoy peak growth at the temperatures they have adapted to, regardless of how cold these may be, and cold-blooded animals found at greater latitudes and altitudes generally grow faster to compensate for the short growing season. Warmer-than-ideal conditions result in higher metabolism and consequent\",\n \"-27.541443633148447\"\n ]\n]"}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":0,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":1507,"offset":0,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSJ9.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTcxNDgwOTY0MSwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL3ByZXNlbmNlc3cvdGFzazEiLCJleHAiOjE3MTQ4MTMyNDEsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vaHVnZ2luZ2ZhY2UuY28ifQ.V8hT84wEXrohkRAdTg_nMwOiEIXwrd2VRZ_tq_nN3FO-IIm_285sfDBrw0DzcgLDyNcSpfZ3amCbinQU1zdNDg","displayUrls":true},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":0,"total":0},"fullWidth":true,"hasAccess":true}">
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1kiwfx | In Trading Places (1983, Akroyd/Murphy) how does the scheme at the end of the movie work? Why would buying a lot of OJ at a high price ruin the Duke Brothers? | [
"The final scene involves future contracts. This simply means entering into a contract to buy something (oil, wheat, even frozen concentrated orange juice(FCOJ)) at a specified time for the current price. The person selling the future does not have to own the FCOJ at the time of sale he simply has to provide them at the agreed upon date. Futures help companies mitigate risk against the unpredictable price of FCOJ. If the price of FCOJ goes up the buyer wins the seller loses and visa versa. This price is often affected by fresh oranges. If there is a good harvest FCOJ price goes down and so on. The Dukes believed there was going to be a bad harvest. Their plan was to buy as much FCOJ as they could and basically corner the market then sell it at a much higher price due to a lack of oranges. So here is what happened. At first Winthrop and Valentine begin selling futures contracts at inflated prices caused by the Dukes (on the info from the fake report of a bad orange harvest) at approximately $1.45 per unit. When the report comes out that the orange harvest is expected to be good caused a massive selloff and the futures price plummeted to about $.22 cents. This is when Winthrop and Valentine begin buying futures instead of selling. So now they can fill the futures orders of $1.45 with oranges costing $.22 earning something like a 545% profit.",
"They had an episode of Marketplace that addressed this a few weeks ago: URL_0 ",
"NPR actually did a interview explaining everything pretty well. URL_0 ",
"If I remember correctly, they knew that the price of orange juice was going to fall. Normally this wouldn't matter, because you are supposed to buy and hold stocks, but they were buying what's called 'futures'. In a nutshell, they were buying contracts that afford them the legal right to purchase units of OJ at a specific price. Since they knew the price of OJ would fall (remember the dude with the locked briefcase?) they were buying option contracts to purchase OJ at a higher price. Anyone with half a brain would sell them these and of course that's what happened. For in depth knowledge, look up \"how futures trading works.\"",
"The unrealistic part of that flick is not the trading but Winthorp and Valentine being able just to waltz in to that pit and stand wherever they want. Spots in a commodity pit are protected like gang turf. They just go in and stand in the middle. Also if they deposit the cash from everyone's savings lets say 100k and the margin per contract is 5k per contract they can only buy or sell 20 contracts. I don't know what the FCOJ margins are, but if they trade more than 20 the profit goes to the exchange. At least that's how the CME rolls.",
"Fun fact: In \"Coming to America\", when Akeem's character gave the money to the 2 homeless guys, it was the Duke brothers. :) URL_0 ",
"odd things I noted - 1. They didn't go in with that much cash. I understand they first sold high and then bought low. So how did they sell so much with just a small sum? They should've bought very little contracts of fcoj which would sell out in 1min with that frenzy and then the buyers would go somewhere else and price would rise even beyond $1.42 2. They all look at the clock and then 9am (I think) strikes and crop report is read. Then they all panic because they need to unload whatever they bought and finding the 2 buying they sell ASAP. Again how can these 2 buy everything with so little money? 3. Finally the closing bell strikes and trading stops. How did all this scheme happen so fast ? Doesnt trading happen 9:30am to 4pm at NYSE (why wtc was shown?) for such commodities. Did they spend that many hours there? It just seemed sudden and abrupt the time flow.",
"it was the margin call for the duke brothers. as i'm sure others explained, the dukes shorted the market based on info from the phony crop report. so when the price shot up, a margin call was due, even after the price settled a bit after billy and louie sold their holdings for huge gains. when the market closed with the price still up, the movie shows the guy affiliated with the exchange saying \"Margin call.\". In reality I think it would've been the firm that they trade through and that provided them the loan in the first place. (margin call means pay back the loaned amount) edit: maybe I had it backwards and the dukes were going to go long on OJ futures, but it's the same principle. margin call did them in after the market worked against them based on their false knowledge.",
"I feel so old. People have been askinbg what happened at the end of this movie for what must be the last 15 years of my life. It never stops. Every year/month/fortnight, I see someone asking what happened, and someone explaining. Andf it will keep on happening, until I am 90yrs old, in a home, with nothing but the Internet and my bladder to keep me going. And there it will be: \"what happens at the end of Trading Places?\""
] | [
[
"do now that he has gambled away their money, leaving little to pay their debts, especially to Olive (Jessie Royce Landis). They pawn their last few valuable possessions, hoping to win enough in the casino. However, Olive takes the seat the husband was waiting for and proceeds to win a great deal of money. When she gets up, he takes his rightful place and loses all he has. That night, the couple awake to find Olive's chauffeur, Murdoch (Jack Warner), trying to steal from them. After laughing at him (since they have nothing worth the effort), the wife proposes he",
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"or getting the turn over man to find an incentive usually in the form of a smaller less expensive unit or a trade in unit from another owner. This tactic is commonly used as a sales ploy, because the resort is not interested in reselling already deeded property. Similar to the automobile sales industry, the manager and salesman know beforehand exactly what the lowest price is that will be offered to the prospect, well before the prospect has arrived for the tour. If one incentive doesn't move a prospect to purchase, another will follow shortly, until the prospect has either",
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"National Kinney expanded from parking and building services into real estate development by purchasing the Uris Buildings Corporation, but the timing was bad as the New York real estate market collapsed in the 1973-75 recession. The main Uris Building asset was soon lost to foreclosure.\nIn 1979, after some protracted negotiations, National Kinney attempted to purchase The Aladdin hotel and casino in Las Vegas in a joint venture with Johnny Carson, planning to rename it after the star. However, Carson's wife Joanna gossiped about the deal, and subsequent trading in National Kinney stock led to insider trading charges against third parties",
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"and exit the scheme as a captain. Therefore, the participants in the bottom three tiers of the pyramid lose their money if the scheme collapses.\nIf a person is using this model as a scam, the confidence trickster would take the majority of the money. They would do this by filling in the first three tiers (with one, two, and four people) with phony names, ensuring they get the first seven payouts, at eight times the buy-in sum, without paying a single penny themselves. So if the buy-in were $5,000, they would receive $40,000, paid for by the first eight investors.",
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"Estate, to buy the property for $225 million (including assumption of $130 million in debt). Hedwigs planned to redesign and rebrand the casino once again, as a \"lifestyle, entertainment-driven boutique hotel\". Analysts called the agreement \"curious\" given Hooters's poor earnings performance. The deal fell through in June 2008 when Hedwigs failed to make a required payment.\nWith revenue declining, the casino began defaulting on loan payments in April 2009. Canpartners Realty Holding Co., a subsidiary of Canyon Capital, bought up much of the company's debt at a heavy discount and planned to foreclose on the hotel. The owners, seeking",
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"claimed that they would never have invested in the company in the first place if they had known Brink had already sold her shares. Though the prospectus noted that Brink had \"transferred\" her shares, aggrieved shareholders claimed that they were misled because the prospectus should have said she \"sold\" her shares to Baystar.\nIt later became known that, fearing a market collapse, the banks had wanted the WOL float to go ahead quickly. The AEX, however, had threatened to stop the initial offering because of Brink's pre-selling of most of her holding. ABN Amro responded by threatening an injunction against the",
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"gambling casino, but although Ziegfeld passes, Fanny insists on investing. When the venture fails and they lose their money, Fanny tries to make light of it, which propels Nick to get involved in a shady bond deal, resulting in his arrest for embezzlement. Fanny feels helpless but stronger than ever in her love for him (\"The Music That Makes Me Dance\").\nIn the present, Fanny is waiting for Nick to arrive and has time to reflect on her situation. Nick arrives, newly released from prison, and he and Fanny decide to separate. She is heartbroken, but resolves to pick up her",
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"scheme\"; in this scheme, new investors contribute funds that get redistributed to earlier investors (including Lewis himself). As long as new investors keep contributing, earlier ones keep getting a return on their investment and the fraud continues. But eventually, new investors stop contributing and the whole pyramid collapses, with the later contributors getting nothing in return for their investment.\nAs is the case with many Ponzi schemes, Lewis relied on trust and word of mouth to help build his scheme. Many of Lewis' victims were members of churches and church-related groups, of which Lewis was reportedly a member.\nIn 2003, investors became",
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"billion borrowing $3 billion for the deal. The takeover made The Stars Group, then called Amaya, the world's biggest publicly listed online gambling company. The deal was closed on August 1, 2014, with final payment being made on May 31, 2017.\nDavid Baazov was Amaya's CEO at that time. In March 2016, following charges by Canadian regulators with multiple securities fraud charges, he took an indefinite leave of absence, and resigned in August. \nOn June 6, 2018, the Court of Quebec ordered a Stay of the Proceedings brought by the Autorite Des Marches Financiers (Canada) against David Baazov. The Supreme",
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"gambles away what little money they have, and Quilp seizes the opportunity to take possession of the shop and evict Nell and her grandfather. Her grandfather suffers a breakdown that leaves him bereft of his wits, and Nell takes him away to the Midlands of England, to live as beggars.\nConvinced that the old man has stored up a large and prosperous fortune for Nell, her wastrel older brother, Frederick, convinces the good-natured but easily led Dick Swiveller to help him track Nell down, so that Swiveller can marry Nell and share her supposed inheritance with Frederick. To this end, they",
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"Trading Places Plot Duke brothers Randolph and Mortimer own a successful commodities brokerage firm Duke & Duke in Philadelphia. Holding opposing views on the issue of nature versus nurture, they make a wager and agree to conduct an experiment switching the lives of two unwitting people at opposite sides of the social hierarchy and observing the results. They witness an encounter between their managing director—the well-mannered and educated Louis Winthorpe III, engaged to the Dukes' grand-niece Penelope—and a poor street hustler named Billy Ray Valentine; Valentine is arrested at Winthorpe's insistence because of a suspected robbery attempt. The Dukes decide",
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"Marylin Star Insider trading In December 1999 she was charged with insider trading for using bank merger information given by former lover James McDermott, an investment banker and former chairman and CEO of the investment banking firm of Keefe, Bruyette & Woods, and for sharing that information with another lover, New Jersey businessman Anthony Pomponio. Prosecutors stated Star used the tips to make $88,135 in the stock market from May 1997 through the summer of 1998, and Pomponio made a comparable amount.\nStar escaped arrest by fleeing to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, where she married stockbroker Michael Gilley in 2000. She",
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"5% interest, in one of his early ventures when he first moved to the Las Vegas area. (Wynn indicated that he did not know that the other owners had mob connections.\nIn 1988, Margaret Elardi bought The Frontier from the late Howard Hughes company, Summa Corp. Elardi had previously been the part-owner of the Pioneer Club Las Vegas and the Pioneer Hotel & Gambling Hall in Laughlin. She closed the showroom, which had featured Siegfried and Roy, and down-scaled much of the hotel.\nIn September 1991, union workers began a strike at the hotel, which lasted for years. Plans for new resort",
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"and Winthorpe close their futures position by buying futures at the lower price from everyone but the Dukes, turning a large profit. The Dukes fail to meet a margin call, and are left owing $394 million. Valentine and Winthorpe explain to the Dukes that they had made a wager on whether they could simultaneously get rich while making the Dukes poor. Valentine collects $1 from Winthorpe while Randolph collapses holding his chest and Mortimer shouts angrily at his brother about their failed plan. Later, the now wealthy Valentine, Winthorpe, Ophelia, and Coleman vacation on a tropical beach, while Beeks and",
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"Bo, he must first try to sell the house to Carl on whatever terms Abe is willing to sell. If they reach an agreement, Abe sells the house to Carl. However, if they fail, Abe is free to start fresh negotiations with Bo without any restriction as to price or terms. In venture capital In venture capital deals, the right of first refusal is a term sheet provision permitting existing investors in a company to accept or refuse the purchase of equity shares offered by the company, before third parties have access to the deal. The main goal of the",
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"the scheme knew that there was no money to invest in a trading venture, and no realistic expectation that there would ever be a trade to exploit, but the potential for great wealth was widely publicised at every opportunity, so as to encourage interest in the scheme. The objective for the founders was to create a company which they could use to become wealthy, and which offered future scope for further government deals. Flotation The Charter for the company was drawn up by Blunt, based on that of the Bank of England. Blunt was paid £3,846 for his services in",
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"employee of the hotel, had spoken to the owner about her previous termination by Anne only to be reminded that her previous purchase of stocks in the company to keep it afloat during a financial crisis had blossomed proving her with an impressive fortune. Citing her cruel treatment of employees and her less than satisfying contact with customers Emma fires Anne much to everyone's delight. Before leaving Madea reveals that Mr. Brown is actually Cora's father much to Cora's then despair. Everyone is shown repairing their relationships as the play ends with a powerful and grateful appeal from the cast",
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"they end up humiliating themselves. They return and convince Ethel to reveal the fortune, which is in the form of half-million dollar negotiable bonds. They are in the teddy bear that she has been carrying around with her, and Mrs. Savage is about to hand them over, only to have Mrs. Paddy turn out the lights. The room is thrown into darkness and chaos. When the lights come back on, the money is gone. Act III The staff begin to search for Mrs. Paddy and the bonds. After much effort from all, Mrs. Paddy is found, but she does not",
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"for what The Economist has dubbed the 2011 \"starburst revival\" is that \"companies seeking buyers for parts of their business are not getting good offers from other firms, or from private equity\". For example, Foster's Group, an Australian beverage company, was prepared to sell its wine business. However, due to the lack of a decent offer, it decided to spin off the wine business, which is now called Treasury Wine Estates. Conglomerate discount According to The Economist, another driving force of the proliferation of spin-offs is what it calls the \"conglomerate discount\" — that \"stockmarkets value a diversified group at",
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"ultimately find their lives changed because of him.\nMelmotte sets up his office in the City of London and purchases a fine house in Grosvenor Square. He sets out to woo rich and powerful investors by hosting a lavish party. He finds an appropriate investment vehicle when he is approached by an American entrepreneur, Hamilton K. Fisker, to float a company to construct a new railway line running from Salt Lake City, USA, to Veracruz, Mexico. Melmotte's goal is to ramp up the share price without paying any of his own money into the scheme itself, thus further enriching himself, regardless",
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"right ones for the infamous and not always apt gambler Jonathan Tuttle (Frank Darien). When Tuttle passes away shortly after their enterprise has taken off, Suzanne finds out that he has left her seven thousand dollars through his will. She is more than surprised, since he wasn't that successful in his gambling. Suzanne takes the money to Bill, offering him to use them to scale up his business, but once again his pride comes in the way. She decides to leave Bill, returns the engagement ring, and leaves for New York to try her own wings of fortune.\nHer lucky pin",
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"as a pump and dump by stockbrokers. This is when a stockbroker who owns a security artificially inflates the price by upgrading it or spreading rumors, and then sells the security and adds short position. They will then downgrade the security or spread negative rumors to push the price back down. This is an example of stock fraud. It is a conflict of interest because the stockbrokers are concealing and manipulating information to make it misleading for the buyers. The broker may claim to have the \"inside\" information about impending news and will urge buyers to buy the stock quickly.",
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"the property with an interest to purchase it. CEO Alex Meruelo was intrigued by the property's potential to truly become an elite destination resort. After negotiations between Meruelo and JPMorgan, a deal was reached to sell the 145-acre site for only $42 million. This payment was made in cash, and the deal was announced in February 2011. Quickly, the deal closed after regulatory approval in April 2011. Out of bank ownership, Meruelo pledged to continually make improvements. Not gamers, Meruelo, owner of successful restaurant chains, TV stations and construction companies, was now in the business of hotel/casinos. He brought on",
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"as he had done to countless other traders before). This led to a rather dramatic showdown between Little and the financiers involved. At the time, making good on a purchase promise required a transaction at the associated clerk's office, and on the day it was due the brokers gathered at the Erie Railroad Company clerk's office, smug at the likelihood that they had beaten Little at his own game. What the traders did not know was that Little had purchased convertible bonds at a company sale in London a few years before; Little entered the premises, apparently unrushed, carrying an",
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"and forcing Maxine to hand over her share of the Casino to the Company.",
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"You Can't Take It with You (film) Plot A successful banker, Anthony P. Kirby (Edward Arnold), has just returned from Washington, D.C., where he was effectively granted a government-sanctioned munitions monopoly, which will make him very rich. He intends to buy up a 12-block radius around a competitor's factory to put him out of business, but there is one house that is a holdout to selling. Kirby instructs his real estate broker, John Blakely (Clarence Wilson), to offer a huge sum for the house, and if that is not accepted, to cause trouble for the family. Meanwhile Grandpa Vanderhof",
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"Fletcher) out of their restaurant, \"The Hutch\". Marnie asks Diane if she would consider selling the business to her, to which Diane refuses. This prompts Marnie to convince James to help steal it for themselves. Marnie sets off a fire alarm to disrupt the restaurant during peak trading and James steals Tony's laptop to scrutinise the business accounts. When Diane's nephew Scott Drinkwell causes The Hutch to lose money on a catering job, James and Marnie decide to use his error to their advantage. James begins to fool Scott into believing he is attracted to him in order to use",
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"also made changes in the distribution of the money from the entry fees in the World Series of Poker that were unpopular with the casino dealers, and closed a popular restaurant in the casino. Benny had used one of the tables in the restaurant as his office. Despite these measures, the Horseshoe became bogged down in debt. Under her father and brothers, the Horseshoe had reportedly been the most profitable casino in Las Vegas (it was privately held, so it never had to report its earnings).\nBehnen also attracted the attention of the state regulators by failing to keep sufficient funds",
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"the brink of collapse because the company needs $200,000 that it owes to its creditors. Luckily Matilda Wedderburn comes to Truscott’s rescue, even though he put their romance to an end, by offering her good friend the money that he desperately needs therefore saving the company.\nStella moves back to Cloverdale leaving Groveland in her rear-view mirror because she wants to forget about her experience working for Wendell Truscott as much as possible. She soon receives a letter from Truscott asking her to come back to work because he cannot find anyone who did as good a job as she did,",
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],
[
"him money to fund projects as needed. However, Nash eventually learns that his deal was too good to be true when the investors declare that the vineyard is not a good investment and they want to tear it down to build a mall.\nJared's lie that he was a Buchanan was exposed by Dorian Lord at a share holder's meeting at Buchanan Enterprises. Dorian also exposed that Jared and Natalie had been sleeping together. She declared that all deals made under Jared were null and void. She declared that she owned Buchanan Enterprises. Of the deals made null and void, was",
"-26.054847365172463"
],
[
"lease space to operate the casino in the hotel. The company gave notice of intent to terminate the lease agreement with Jackpot in February 1996, in accordance with the terms, owing to monthly loss of revenue on a consistent basis. Gambling operations discontinued as of March 31, 1996. By December 31, 1996, the company was in default, unable to make principal and interest payments on their mortgage. Payroll taxes of approximately $1,063,000, along with other accounts payable and accrued liabilities of approximately $3,643,000, were also in default.\nIn 1997, Fisher began pursuing avenues to sell the property to timeshare developer ILX",
"-26.02845485243597"
],
[
"out the business was rejected. As a result, they were forced to sell the company to another businessman. Now they are out of wealth and back to the doughnuts when all of a sudden, just before Joan is to marry a Frenchman, the same woman that came and gave Belle the $50,000 for her mine comes and tells her they didn’t find any gold, just water. Now, Joan and Jerry get married and Belle and Kate are back where they started, at the doughnut business!",
"-26.026306664774893"
],
[
"2007 finale in St. Petersburg, Russia, was attended by Russian President Vladimir Putin, former Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi and actor Jean-Claude Van Damme.\nIn 2018, Ayre revealed plans to build a $100 million five-star resort on Antigua's Valley Church beach. He claimed that the project would be entirely funded by profits he made from trading Bitcoin, of which he was an early investor.\nAs of 2018 Ayre is involved with Bitcoin SV. Retirement and reemergence In 2006, the online gambling industry underwent realignment as US authorities made high-profile arrests of several online gambling executives. Ayre sold Bodog's US-facing online gambling business",
"-25.985719588352367"
],
[
"Reuben Parsons Life A native of New England, Parsons originally arrived in New York City with the intention of starting his own business. He lost the small fortune he had brought with him, several thousand dollars, in a gambling house soon after his arrival. Impressed by how quickly he had lost his money, he instead decided to open his own gambling house and used his entrepreneurial skills to build a successful gambling empire by financing other gamblers. He also differed from typical gamblers by being \"dressed plainly and was unassuming in manner\". Parsons also refrained from publicly appearing at his",
"-25.967179509345442"
],
[
"Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas, and a competing group led by Wayne Newton successfully bought the property. According to lawyer Henry Bushkin, Carson became annoyed that he was often portrayed by the media as having \"lost\" the deal and reacted by telling jokes on his show about Newton, who had spent a great deal of effort building a masculine image. This created something of a high-profile feud between Carson and Newton. Years later, Newton appeared on Larry King Live, declaring that \"Johnny Carson is a mean-spirited human being. And there are people that he has hurt that people will",
"-25.959082868954283"
],
[
"in April 1996, and selling the taverns it had acquired in the course of slot route operations. In December, the company decided, after performing due diligence, not to make an offer for the Diamond Jo.\nWith Kirkland's backing in place, analysts expected the company to execute a major merger. United was cited as a possible suitor to buy Casino Magic, Caesars World, or Circus Circus.\nIn December 1994, United changed its name to Alliance Gaming Corporation, to reflect the company's \"revitalization and redefinition\". Bally Gaming acquisition Alliance began seeking ways to apply its marketing strength in the equipment business. Company executives felt",
"-25.95622492948314"
],
[
"to marry for the money. Fortunately for her, she trusts Bo's words and turns the tables on Simona and Marco, and also turns down the money from her father and departs, claiming that money and greed ruined the family long before that day. She realizes that she was allowing herself to slowly turn into a selfish and greedy person like her father and she sees how she may have been doomed to turn into him. If she didn't wise up and decides to break away from him once and for all.\nAt the end of the film, Bo is working as",
"-25.953452673275024"
],
[
"customer of the Legendre's company, visits the city, Lil thinks she has found a way to force her way into the highest social circles. She seduces Charles, then blackmails him into throwing a party at her mansion, knowing that no one would dare offend him by not showing up. It seems like a social coup for Lil, until her hairdresser friend and confidante Sally (Una Merkel) points out that all the guests have left early to attend a surprise party for Irene (who lives across the street).\nHumiliated, she decides to move to New York City, even if it means a",
"-25.953330164484214"
],
[
"that the Schoudler empire has run out of capital. As this will depress the share price, his plan is to buy a controlling interest on the cheap. When the market price starts falling, François is in despair and Maublanc tells him that the only decent thing to do is to put a bullet through his head. Unfortunately, the impressionable young man does so. Noël then goes down to the stock exchange where, speaking to brokers, he reassures them that his businesses are sound. The share price soars and Maublanc's plot is foiled.",
"-25.884104022607062"
],
[
"sued the city and Marriott in the Superior Court of Santa Clara County to block the transaction. The court nullified the sale, forcing the city to attempt to salvage the deal through negotiations with the other parties. Unable to broker a timely agreement, the city council voted 6–1 to scuttle the sale on February 5, 1985, though the city was still interested in owning the park. After Marriott refunded a $20 million down payment back to the city, negotiations were restarted. All parties were able to agree on a compromise, which was signed in marathon sessions taking place in early",
"-25.88315946405055"
],
[
"a stock scheme, and promptly loses it as well when the stock tanks. Hardy Livingston (Irving Pichel), a wealthy lady's man, has his eye on Elsa and finds his chance to trap her into an adulterous affair by giving her the money she needs to repay the charity money.\nThe next day Jeffrey informs her his investments have paid off and they are now fabulously wealthy. She attempts to repay the money she had borrowed from Livingston, however he wants sexual favors instead. Elsa says she would rather commit suicide; Livingston hands her a pistol and invites her to do so",
"-25.88261653156951"
],
[
"purchases the property immediately, he secretly takes out a new mortgage, hoping to buy it back after George invests in the venture. However, water instead of copper is found on the land, and all dealings with George end, and banker Sam Howell begins to repossess the Hefferen's furniture.\nHaving concluded telling Hart her story, Emily returns home and finds the furniture being returned, thanks to the kindness of Jim's friends, who paid off the loan. Jim, ashamed he has not provided for his family, prepares to leave. Rosemary reminds her mother that without Jim the town never would have had a",
"-25.875875389494468"
],
[
"They would continue to buy in underneath the real investors, and promote and prolong the scheme for as long as possible to allow them to skim even more from it before it collapses.\nAlthough the \"captain\" is the person at the top of the tree, having received the payment from the eight paying passengers, once they leave the scheme they are able to re-enter the pyramid as a \"passenger\" and hopefully recruit enough to reach captain again, thereby earning a second payout. Matrix schemes Matrix schemes use the same fraudulent, unsustainable system as a pyramid; here, the participants pay to join",
"-25.87464478390757"
],
[
"or debt financing), Crown Jewel maneuvers (selling off attractive assets at a discount to anyone except the acquirer) and similar. The main difference is that they are done to such an extreme that they threaten the company's livelihood. Companies attempting such maneuvers may thus find themselves insolvent, and in a position where they cannot resist continued takeover bids. The flip side is that the tactics reduce the company's value to potential buyers such that, unless the firm still possesses intangible assets (like a brand name or other intellectual property) that are valuable to the acquirer, the acquisition of this now-troubled",
"-25.86410812716349"
],
[
"a fortune from an accidental racing bet and from some apparently worthless gold mining shares sold to him by some crooks, including Arthur's boss Leon Fencott. Chedworth moves into a large house, unaware the money he discovered was counterfeit. Fencott is the head of the forgers.\nWhen Arthur tries to pass off one of his forged bank notes to Fencott, the gangsters come after the money and kidnap Chedworth. They are arrested by Brian Carford, a federal agent who has been romancing Gwen and watching Chedworth to see if he is a forger. Chedworth gets to keep his legitimate fortune and",
"-25.85417882836191"
],
[
"connections with millionaire Japanese families. Clay immediately sees an opportunity to make Jacob Hale believe he has investors in time. His idea is that he will have the investors pull out at the last minute, which will put an end to Charming Heights. After retrieving the last brick of cocaine that Juice had stolen, framing Miles for it, Clay asks Romeo for help killing Tara, to keep the secret of the letters hidden.\nClay comes to Piney's cabin in the night. After discussing trust issues and differences in the cabin, Clay leaves, only to break down the door, knocking Piney off",
"-25.83576606673887"
],
[
"Real Deal (American TV series) Format It follows the \"sellers\" who try to pitch their items to the \"dealers\". The dealers will offer an amount after a brief evaluation of the item, based on their professional evaluation and years of experience. After debating on the price, the seller can accept the cash offer, or choose to go to auction and potentially lose money or exceed the dealer's offer. The auction is hosted at Don Presley's auction house in Anaheim, CA. Season 1 (2011) The first season had a wide variety of items presented to the dealers, including a restored gas",
"-25.83369714624132"
],
[
"The investor is free to either agree with his quoted price and trade with him, or ignore him completely. Mr. Market doesn't mind this, and will be back the following day to quote another price.\nThe point of this anecdote is that the investor should not regard the whims of Mr. Market as a determining factor in the value of the shares the investor owns. He should profit from market folly rather than participate in it. The investor is advised to concentrate on the real life performance of his companies and receiving dividends, rather than be too concerned with Mr. Market's",
"-25.83152026764583"
],
[
"Woe to the Young Plot The story concerns a rich old man named Andreas, who wants to be young again so as to marry a young girl, that makes a deal with the Devil. He becomes young but poor and the little money he has he spends. Moreover, the girl - after her mother's coercion - rejects him and wounds up marrying another rich old man. The film ends with Andreas waking up, realizing this was all but a dream.",
"-25.79422743525356"
],
[
"million mortgage in April. The hotel's general manager said in October 2011 that Columbia Sussex would not fight the foreclosure, and that the hotel was overleveraged due to property values declining in the recession. Lenders asked a court to appoint Pyramid Hotel Group as receiver to operate the resort. Pyramid leased the property's casino to 777 Gaming, a company that had operated several rural casinos and a slot route, for four years beginning in May 2012.\nThe hotel was later renamed The Westin Las Vegas. The casino floor had fewer than 300 slot and video poker machines and only ten table",
"-25.77797581080813"
],
[
"price, A can do a badla transaction. Suppose there is a badla financier B who has enough money to purchase the shares, so on A's request, B purchases the shares and gives the money to his broker. The broker gives the money to exchange and the shares are transferred to B. But the exchange keeps the shares with itself on behalf of B. Now, say one month later, when A has enough money, he gives this money to B and takes the shares. The money that A gives to B is slightly higher than the total value of the shares.",
"-25.729408101557055"
],
[
"is a disagreement regarding a potential PokerSpot buyout offer that might have refunded all money deposited by former PokerSpot players. Burton Ritchie posted an open letter on RGP in January 2003 stating the details of the buyout offer, which included the paying off of existing debts and a $200,000 payday and 10% equity stake for Boyd in the new company. While defending himself against Ritchie's claims, Boyd subsequently acknowledged that he had indeed backed out of a deal with Ritchie to pursue a better deal with Golden Palace. Boyd claims that Golden Palace backed out of their deal, which lead",
"-25.72213296254631"
],
[
"with three corporations interested in purchasing the resort.\nOn October 23, 1968, billionaire Howard Hughes reached an agreement to purchase the Landmark through Hughes Tool Company for $17.3 million, after previously denying reports in March 1968 that he was interested in purchasing the project. As part of the sale agreement, Hughes' Hotel Properties, Inc. would accept responsibility for approximately $8.9 million owed to the Teamster Union, as well as approximately $5.9 million in other debts and a balance of $2.4 million to Plaza Tower, Inc. At the time of the agreement, Hughes also owned five other hotel-casinos in Las Vegas. The",
"-25.710906228632666"
],
[
"dropped this plan, due in part to the state's concerns about the company's viability.\nIn 2007, the company attempted to negotiate a buyout with several public and private firms, but on July 2, it announced that it could not reach a deal, and would take itself off the market. The company planned to lay off employees in order to cut costs. 2009 bankruptcy and restructuring The casino group filed for bankruptcy again in February 2009, owing $1.2 billion. Two sets of debt holders eventually proposed reorganization plans for the group in U.S. bankruptcy court.\nTrump initially made an agreement with banker and",
"-25.708469047676772"
],
[
"to a shareholder's meeting. This entails buying a GML share on Wall Street, which has become a hybrid stock-market and public casino. Mundin braves the touts and thugs of the market to trick his way to buying a share, normally impossible because of the activities of certain brokers. Hiding out in Belly Rave, he meets Bligh, who has become adept in negotiating with the gangs there. Bligh arranges Mundin's safe passage to the company meeting, in a deliberately obscure building on Long Island.\nAt the meeting Mundin, learning to play off the power brokers against each",
"-25.685323927551508"
],
[
"and assumed ownership, assigning it to their affiliate Credit Markets Real Estate Holdings to oversee operations. That affiliate brought on Las Vegas-based management companies such as Catalyst, who flips struggling hotel/casinos and makes them attractive to a buyer. Those companies, including the Navengante Group and Santo Gaming, both Las Vegas based, continued to make improvements to the resort such as adding or replacing restaurants. The hotel/condo program was eliminated and settlements with buyers are ongoing to this day, the renovated rooms above the 17th floor that are non-private owned rent as hotel rooms.\nIn 2009, The Meruelo Group began looking at",
"-25.677598001013394"
],
[
"large sum of money for their property, enough to pay back all their investors. Parker's partner, Clarke, overhears Benton's offer, and not wanting to lose out on such a lucrative prospect, offers the pair even more money. Lum and Abner agree to sell to Clarke, and return to Pine Ridge, able to pay back all their investors with interest, as well as making a tidy profit for themselves. Parker and Clarke, meanwhile, are left with a worthless piece of property. Production In July 1944, RKO announced that Goin' to Town would be one of at least 50 films on their",
"-25.67456543413573"
],
[
"throwing spit balls at one another and at lecturers, calling phone sex lines and then broadcasting them over the company's intercom, gambling on behavioral traits (such as how long it took certain trainees to fall asleep during lectures), and the trainees' incredible lust for money and contempt for any position that did not earn much.\nLewis attributed the bond traders' and salesmen's behavior to the fact that the trading floor required neither finesse nor advanced financial knowledge, but, rather, the ability and desire to exploit others' weaknesses, to intimidate others into listening to traders and salesmen, and the ability to spend",
"-25.662252115434967"
],
[
"in a rundown house, and Jake and Star renew their relationship. Star asks him what his dreams are, and he shows her his private stash of cash and items he's stolen from the houses he visits, which he intends to use to buy a home.\nKrystal dumps the girls off where oil workers are about to go to work in the morning. Star climbs in the back of their truck and tries to sell to them, but one of the oil workers tells her he'll pay her five hundred dollars to go on a date with him. Star asks for a",
"-25.64549799193628"
],
[
"meltdown.\nPrince famously said about Citigroup's continued commitment to leveraged buy-out deals, despite fears of reduced liquidity because of the occurring sub-prime meltdown: \"As long as the music is playing, you’ve got to get up and dance.\" Personal life Prince is currently married to Margaret L. Wolff. The couple was wed on September 20, 2003 at The Pierre Hotel in New York City. Semi-retired Judge Robert W. Sweet presided over the ceremonies. Affiliations Prince serves in the influential trade group the Financial Services Forum, as well as a member of the Council of Foreign Relations, the Business Roundtable, and several other",
"-25.632631927190232"
],
[
"Reversal of Fortune (2003 film) Plot Having turned his back on a promising career as a professional golfer, Kang Seung-wan is now a down on his luck stock exchange worker, and in debt to local gangster Ma Kang-sung. After crashing his car while driving through a tunnel, Seung-wan wakes up to find himself in an alternate reality where he fulfilled his sporting ambitions, and is now a famous golf champion. But things aren't as perfect as they first seem; he now has a wife who wants a divorce, and must compete in a major golf tournament despite not having played",
"-25.627286903967615"
],
[
"in other jurisdictions (see Regulated Markets below). On February 10, 2012, PokerStars acquired a European Union license granted by the Malta Lotteries and Gaming Commission.\nWhile privately owned, PokerStars had been the subject of financial media speculation regarding a possible initial public offering or merger with a publicly listed company. Analysts estimated its market value would have been approximately $2 billion (US) in 2006, which would have made the company one of the world's largest privately held gambling companies. PokerStars overtook PartyPoker as the world's largest online poker room after the U.S. Congress passed the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act",
"-25.60222014336614"
],
[
"makes the sale. Jake, however, fearing the worst, arrives and threatens the men with a gun before stealing their car. Initially angry at Jake, Star is later touched that he came to find her, and the two have sex in the car. When they return to the hotel for the evening, Jake tells her not to mention their relationship, and he gives the money Star earned to Krystal.\nFor a while, things between Jake and Star are tense, and Krystal threatens to drop her on the side of the road if she keeps causing trouble. The crew ends up living temporarily",
"-25.6015235814848"
],
[
"of locating Charlotte as a favour to Jimmy's pal, and promises that if he is successful, Price will allow him to retire without fuss.\nPrice also tells the narrator about a crew of gangsters who have recently acquired two million high quality Ecstasy pills from Amsterdam. Price tasks the narrator with finding a buyer for the pills, and quickly. During the meeting with the gangsters, collectively known as the \"Yahoos,\" the narrator finds that he cannot reason with them, and he leaves upon promising to find a buyer for the pills, albeit at a much lower price than if the Yahoos",
"-25.59743530410924"
],
[
"proposal. Bankruptcy and attempted sale During the fight over the building's zoning, Sommer claimed that he would go bankrupt if he was unable to develop the property. Fourways filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1989, and by October 1989, the Fourways restaurant had closed.\nTrying to pay creditors, Sommer attempted to sell the mansion. Sommer's initial asking price was $7 million, which he later reduced to $3 million. A number of embassies and chanceries looked at the mansion, but none purchased. According to real estate broker Stanley Holland, Sommer \"thought it was worth more than it was.\"",
"-25.595734161965083"
],
[
"stock out the back door or treat the business like a personal bank when it was going well.\nEventually Hallas despaired and by mutual agreement let himself be bought out by Peterson's mother Joan for just $1000. If run well the business should have been a gold mine, but he thought getting out was the smartest thing to do, and he remained friends with Peterson. Joan took charge, but couldn't much improve the overall operation. She ended up walking away in 1977 when Peterson brought in a girlfriend who Joan strongly disapproved of, and shortly after that the",
"-25.588180146552986"
],
[
"founded Rialto Capital Management, which was originated to acquire distressed real estate and mortgage debt. In 2011, former businessman and convicted felon Barry Minkow engaged in an extortion scheme to manipulate the company's stock, which caused the shares to lose 26% of their value in one day. Minkow was sentenced to 5 years in prison, and was ordered to pay $584 million in restitution. San Diego real estate developer Nicolas Marsch III hired Minkow to back his claims that Lennar cheated Marsch out of millions of dollars on a private golf community.\nIn 2012 the company's home orders returned to its",
"-25.559956399549264"
],
[
"as interested in purchasing the chain for a reported sum of $750 million; however, the parties could not reach agreement and the deal was not finalised. It has also been reported that both Wesfarmers and the US based Blackstone Group had expressed interest in purchasing the chain. Analysts valued the business at close to $600 million, however it was believed the Muir family would not sell for less than $1 billion. The organisation of the company, with stores being held in joint ownership, added complexity to negotiations with potential buyers.\nIn September 2016 JB Hi-Fi bought The Good Guys for $870 million. Community involvement In",
"-25.547330939531093"
],
[
"that investment banks are interested in the company, causing the share price to soar. Further complications arise when Jay Ray, Ray Jay, and J.R. get Molly fired so that she will spend more time with Henry. She thinks Henry is responsible for her firing. She also discovers that he is actually an Easterner and a Yale University graduate; masquerading as a Texan just helps him with his wheeling and dealing. The judge dismisses the Federal Securities Commission case when it is determined that all the Universal Widgets shares are in the hands of just a handful of shareholders, not the",
"-25.534890819326392"
],
[
"first time, but is successful the second time when tricked into signing the consent when presented with the false Lease for Pillage.\nTradelove is described as a stickler for trade, hates anything that comes with a sword, and a great admirer of Dutch traders believing they understand trade better than any other nation. It is also noted that he is devilish in his dealings, as he cheated his father for the advantage of stock to get a bargain. He is encouraged to offer his consent to marry Anne Lovely to the Dutch trader in lieu of the payment of two thousand",
"-25.50644985733379"
],
[
"2½ years of construction, the resort formally opened to the public at 8:00 pm on December 22, 2008, to large crowds. Due to the period's economic downturn, the opening was designed to be more subdued than previous casino resort openings. The resort's jewelry shop featured the 231 carats (46.2 g), prune-sized Wynn Diamond, billed as \"the largest cut pear-shaped diamond in the world\". To open the betting, Steve Wynn gave high-rollers a few million dollars to make the initial bets and initiated the action by declaring over a microphone, \"Let the games begin!\"; the start of gambling was accompanied",
"-25.500949925219174"
],
[
"commission, and Sachs and Tobman were forced to sell the Stardust and surrender their gaming licenses. Suspicions, accusations and controversy about the Stardust's hidden ownership over the years was finally squelched when Sam Boyd's locally based, squeaky-clean gaming company, Boyd Gaming, purchased the Stardust in March 1985.\nThe Stardust was a gold mine to the Chicago Outfit, the skim being extremely large. When it was taken over by the reputable Boyd family, they were surprised by its huge profits, with every penny of income recorded. Ex-FBI agent William F. Roemer, Jr., longtime senior agent of the FBI's organized-crime squad in Chicago",
"-25.49556368633057"
],
[
"would constitute the crime of insider trading. This may be because of a stronger presumption of equality between investors, or it may be because a company employee who also trades in the company's stock has a conflict of interest, and has thus misrepresented himself the company.\nAn advantage player typically uses mental, observational or technical skills to choose when and how much to bet, and neither interferes with the instruments of the game nor breaks any of its rules. Representatives of the casino industry have claimed that all advantage play is cheating, but this point of view is reflected neither among",
"-25.48516008682782"
],
[
"company claims to act as their \"forex dealer\", it is financially interested in making the retail customer lose money. The contract is directly between the customer and the pseudo-dealer, so it is an off-exchange one; it cannot be normally registered and traded on futures exchanges.\nAlthough it is possible for a few experts to successfully arbitrage the market for an unusually large return, this does not mean that a larger number could earn the same returns even given the same tools, techniques and data sources. This is because the arbitrages are essentially drawn from a pool of finite size; although information",
"-25.466829418332054"
],
[
"the legality of the stock proposal, as the sale could not proceed without the approval of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Local opposition was high, and the plan eventually came to nothing.\nIn the spring of 1931, Stewart incorporated as the Columbia Transportation Company, and began a plan to put his rival, Captain Elfving, out of business. He began quietly buying up underwater parcels of real estate all around the Elfving ferry dock, and then one night with a hired marine pile driver drove in pilings around the dock so that a ferry could not get through. This move, which had been",
"-25.419567454780918"
],
[
"wife, Hazel Temple (Jacqueline deWit), discovers the mistake and suggests that Benny be hired to avoid an accounting scandal, as they have been \"cooking the books\". Unfortunately, Benny is fired from his salesman post after only one day. Clarence transfers Benny to the company's Stockton branch, which is run by Morrison's cousin, Tom Chandler (also played by Bud Abbott).\nBenny's misfortunes continue, including a prank played on him by his new coworkers when they convince him that he can read minds. However, the prank gives Benny sufficient confidence to become Hercules' 'Salesman of the Year'. He is sent back to",
"-25.41670605749823"
],
[
"finds himself even deeper in debt and the target of a hitman named Dale (Michael Rapaport). Gig then proposes Russ rig the Pennsylvania Lottery with the help of his amoral girlfriend Crystal Latroy (Lisa Kudrow), a ditzy model who pulls and announces the winning numbers on television, and her oddball cousin Walter (Michael Moore), who will pose as the owner of the lucky ticket.\nTheir plan works, but before the $6.4 million jackpot can be claimed, everything begins to unravel. First, Walter gets greedy, refuses to hand the winning ticket over to his cousin and Crystal's physical confrontation triggers Walter's ultimately",
"-25.413470464845886"
],
[
"some of his acts to get the trade back up, leading to a love/hate friendship with him. The following year, Newton & Ridley decides to sell the licence to the pub and offers Bet first refusal; however, Bet cannot raise the money and Alec (who was attracted to her) lends her the cash to purchase the licence, allowing her to become the landlady.\nShe starts having serious trouble keeping up with the repayments and, panicking, suddenly disappears. Alec convinces Newton & Ridley to appoint him as a temporary manager so he can mind his investment. When Bet gets in touch with",
"-25.391972418874502"
],
[
"get access to the backstage, which will be crucial in the route to the elevator shaft that is the sole means to the basement vault in which the casino proceeds are kept. Francis does this by beginning a romance with dancer Brigitte. However, enjoying his affluent facade, he gets so caught up in the wooing of Brigitte he frequently ignores Charles' communications, which almost leads to the robbery being cancelled until Francis assures him he can stick to the intricate plan. Meanwhile, Louis tells Charles he will forego his share of the money, fearing that he will be seduced by",
"-25.388812678400427"
],
[
"the hope of getting enough to pay back the debts. On his way to the casino, he meets a pink-socked assassin who he fears may have been sent to kill him. It turns out that he has not (or at least, Eddie is not the man's current target).\nWhen gambling the last of his money, Eddie wins- thanks to him mimicking the gambling decisions of a man who looks uncannily like himself-, but the casino is no longer operational; due to the Willflower's imminent departure, the town (which was created only to house people working on the project), is closing down,",
"-25.388617671458633"
],
[
"job that the couple that wants to invest at the resort became pissed and cancelled the investment. In order to help him, Turo, Mr.Toribio, Nemo and Bogart tricked Mac by telling them they have a catering service in Manila, but in Boni's birthday. Meanwhile, in a convenience store,a confrontation ensued when 2 perverted men tried to harass 2 customers (Pia Guanio and Zsa Zsa Padilla). They defend the women and thank them, Mac pulling an anti-asthma medicated nebulizer. Mac was shocked when he learned when he arrived at his own house. He was confronted by her wife, for not being",
"-25.38260390458163"
],
[
"by being forced to buy an undesired good (the tied good) to purchase a good they actually want (the tying good), and so would prefer that the goods be sold separately. The company doing this bundling may have a significantly large market share so that it may impose the tie on consumers, despite the forces of market competition. The tie may also harm other companies in the market for the tied good, or who sell only single components.\nAnother common example comes from how cable and satellite TV providers contract with content producers. The production company pays to produce 25 channels",
"-25.376436522594304"
],
[
"out of money. Millborough gives him alcohol, causing him to pass out. Millborough takes him home, steals jewels and runs away with Felix. Angelo wakes realising what he has allowed to happen. Overcome with guilt, he confesses to Gabrielle. They have now lost their house to Angelo's gambling.\nGabrielle confesses her kindness is driven by her suffering and duty and not love for Angelo. Both are ill from despair and poverty. Gabrielle tries to sell her jewels, only to find that Angelo replaced them with fake ones after gambling them away. She works as a painter, but is so weak and",
"-25.369798177387565"
],
[
"and stated his \"only asset is a $250 set of golf clubs\".\nPickering acknowledged he helped establish Cohen Strachan Investments, a betting software company which went into bankruptcy in 2010 with millions of dollars lost by gamblers. Pickering stated that he \"feels sorry for people who lost money\" but that he \"had nothing to do\" with the company. A private investigator employed by the gamblers presented a report to the Queensland Police and the Australian Securities and Investments Commission claiming ongoing links between the companies and Pickering, a claim he denied. In November 2015, Queensland Fraud Squad detectives reopened the investigation",
"-25.359574400587007"
],
[
"both parties, the buyer would usually negotiate for the best offer if interested and a deposit may be requested by the owner. Finally, both parties will agree on a date for full payment, signing on official payment, and the handover of keys to the property. Design Generally, buyers are attracted to internet real estate due to its accessibility and its range of properties available. Convenience Due to distance decay, personal commitments and time constraints, many turn to the web to carry out their daily activities – online shopping, booking of tickets and even for communication between parties. Using the web",
"-25.321992867582594"
],
[
"his control, Lee determines to acquire a larger share of the bribes by shaking down the gangsters. After learning that Number One, the head of the organization, is planning on opening a new gambling house, he threatens Blanco that he will print that information unless he gets a bigger share of money. Upon meeting Number One, Lee obtains the larger graft, but is warned that if the story gets published, he will be in danger. Feeling that Lee is untrustworthy, Collins agrees to marry fellow reporter Charles \"Breezy\" Russell (Regis Toomey). Consequently, Lee decides to go straight and leave",
"-25.318765516858548"
],
[
"then force the short sellers to pay for their borrowed shares. The aggressive purchasing would drive up the share price, and, being unable to find shares elsewhere, the short sellers would have no option but to turn to the Heinzes, who could then name their price.\nTo finance the scheme, Otto, Augustus and Charles Morse met with Charles T. Barney, president of the city's third-largest trust, the Knickerbocker Trust Company. Barney had provided financing for previous Morse schemes. Morse, however, cautioned Otto that in order to attempt the squeeze, Otto needed much more money than Barney had, and Barney declined to",
"-25.29505705399788"
],
[
"globally and \"exploit the Sotheby's brand through adjacent businesses\" and offered to \"join the Board immediately and to help recruit several new directors who have experience increasing shareholder value, share a passion for art, understand technology and luxury brands, or have operated top-performing sales organizations.\"\nOn 3 October 2013, Sotheby's responded to Third Point's rapid accumulation of Sotheby's stock by announcing its adoption of a shareholder rights plan, known generally as a \"poison pill\", whereby it forcibly diluted investor holdings in an attempt to ward off a hostile takeover. Third Point described the action as \"a disproportionate response\" and \"a",
"-25.28040803875774"
],
[
"completed as well as the prevailing level of interest rates. The bet in a merger arbitrage is that such a spread will eventually be zero, if and when the takeover is completed. The risk is that the deal \"breaks\" and the spread massively widens. Spoofing One strategy that some traders have employed, which has been proscribed yet likely continues, is called spoofing. It is the act of placing orders to give the impression of wanting to buy or sell shares, without ever having the intention of letting the order execute to temporarily manipulate the market to buy or sell shares",
"-25.27761448576348"
],
[
"value of the property and if you want your money back you either need to wait for the property to be sold or sell your share to another investor. We cannot guarantee you will be able to find a buyer but everyone who has wanted to sell so far has managed to do so within a few days.’ Returns As Money Observer explains, an investor has two options ‘a fixed income-type product promising to pay between 7.5 and 10 per cent per year, [or] an equity set-up whereby investors take three-quarters of net profits.’ Dragon's Den CEO Frazer Fearnhead appeared",
"-25.27685276750708"
],
[
"Harken was advised by the endowment fund of Harvard University to spin off two of its lower-performing divisions. \"According to a Harken memo, if the plan did not go through, the company had 'no other source of immediate financing.'\" Bush had already taken out a $500,000 loan and sought Harken's general counsel for advice. The reply was explicit: \"The act of trading, particularly if close in time to the receipt of the inside information, is strong evidence that the insider's investment decision was based on the inside information... the insider should be advised not to sell\". This memo was turned",
"-25.272387934091967"
],
[
"working in Barret’s Coffee House, an establishment similar to the real-world Lloyd's Coffee House. The job gave him an opportunity to have another go at business and Roo eventually becomes possibly the richest man in the Western Realm by exploiting a shortage of grain in the free cities and through it forming the Bitter Sea Trading Company.\nRoo marries the daughter of his first business partner Karli and has a number of children but at the same time starts an affair with Sylvia Esterbrook, a callous but beautiful woman who seduces Roo under the orders of her father and Roo's",
"-25.25864729617024"
],
[
"again in 1995. The failures were partly attributed to gaming regulations that would make a purchase by a foreign company difficult, leading the company to consider a spinoff of its gaming operations.\nBy 1996, new CEO Stephen Bollenbach, a financial expert with experience in the hotels industry and 1990-1992 CFO of The Trump Organization, had set a goal of becoming the biggest company in the gaming industry, discarding the idea of a spinoff. With growth in the number of gaming jurisdictions stalled, Bollenbach aimed to expand through acquisitions, especially in Atlantic City, where Hilton had no presence. Bally Entertainment, with five",
"-25.25601712136995"
],
[
"to take the two guests money.\nEveryone is unaware that the place is haunted by Blake's dead relatives, and they are quite disappointed with how Blake has turned out. They also regret leaving the place to him in their wills and send one of them, uncle Ezra Dewey, to set Blake straight.\nThe gambling begins, and soon Washington and Jefferson has won the whole club from Blake through a bet. Ezra finds that the place is just as sinful and decadent under the management of Washington and Jefferson as it was under Blake. The former owners start scheming to get the",
"-25.253370597652975"
],
[
"to the gaming room to play baccarat. The conversation moves to discussing shares in the Jungfrau Railway, which most of the guests at the party have invested in to varying extents, and which appear to be performing magnificently.\nThe Marquis has discovered Lulu's true identity, and is blackmailing her (duet:Sag es nur gleich heraus, wieviel du haben willst; Tell me without delay, how much money you want), threatening to hand her over to the authorities. She offers herself to him, having had a previous affair, but his interests lie more in human trafficking of women and girls for commercial sexual exploitation,",
"-25.249981192755513"
],
[
"seeks out an investor that would be willing to be a silent partner, even asking Vincent Jones if he would like to purchase the other half of the vineyard. Vincent declines, and Nash soon finds himself in a game of high-stakes poker. Mysterious newcomer Jared Banks, who holds an unusual interest in Jessica's family, talks his way into the game. Though at first on a winning streak, Nash soon loses everything to Jared; to add insult to injury, Jared has already bought Antonio's share of the winery. Jared then reveals his motive for coming to town: Revenge on Jessica, who",
"-25.241890737466747"
],
[
"bond, with two sureties, that he would break up his purchase within a year.",
"-25.229322557453997"
],
[
"the marriage and she is so worried about proving everyone wrong that she digs in her heels. In addition to revealing Levi's true agenda, the wedding also launches another story. The jewels are not \"endgame.\" While Levi's vendetta against the Jones family is made evident, it is clear that Maxie's best friend, Lulu Spencer-Falconeri (Emme Rylan) also factors into the mystery. The next twist in the story raises the stakes. Carlivati revealed in an interview that another villain would factor into the story and said \"I think this is going to be a classic, old-school General Hospital action/adventure story\" similar",
"-25.227594856958603"
],
[
"companies had become interested in the property because of its location and the potential to increase the hotel to 1,000 rooms.\nOn September 13, 2001, Foothill Capital said during a court hearing that Vacation Village had failed to comply with a court order to sign an auction agreement for the sale of the property in November. Foothill Capital also said the hotel-casino failed to advance $50,000 for advertising costs to Eric Nelson Auctioneering, as well as failing to fully cooperate with the auctioneer's requests. An attorney for Vacation Village said the hotel-casino did not have money for advertising costs. However, various",
"-25.196012681059074"
],
[
"apartment where she glumly tells him that none of her old apartment neighbors recognized her. She tells him she does not want to go back to the mansion and wants her old life back. Cavender argues against the idea, but finally gives in and zaps her back to her normal life. With excitement, she greets and jokes with all her old friends. She thanks Cavender and he realizes that she is \"the richest woman I know\" and that money does not necessarily equal happiness.\nCavender goes up to see his boss, who rebukes him for his behavior at the party and",
"-25.19327211199561"
]
] |
52py6m | What causes the trail behind jets at high altitude? | [
"It is water vapor and ice. They are produced from the hot engine exhaust in the cold atmosphere. Water vapor from the engine exhaust mixed with unburnt particulate in the jet fuel gives the surrounding moist air something to latch onto and ice crystals form. Depending on the hight of the aircraft, they can last seconds to hours. If you have seen a running car on a brisk morning, that is a similar effect. The car is too close to the relatively warmer ground that trails do not last for more than a second.",
"awwww man, I'm disappointed. I came to this thread looking to read [and laugh at] some tinfoil hat chemtrail craziness. I cant believe I'm going to say this, but: Reddit you are far too reasonable",
"You are both right. In moist air the compression and expansion of air around the wings can form a temporary cloud [like this]( URL_0 ). However, what you see that lasts in the sky as a contrail is water vapor byproducts of the fuel combustion.",
"Jets passing over typically are flying at altitudes where temperatures are fairly low - -40C. At this temperature, in clear air, there isn't a lot of water vapor (humidity) in the air. A jet engine takes this air in and uses it to burn fuel, which it pushes out of its exhaust. The fuel burns to mostly carbon dioxide and water. The air exiting the engine now has considerable water vapor in it. The exiting air mixes with the surrounding air, dropping its temperature rapidly. When hot, this air could hold a lot of water vapor. After cooling, it can't. The water vapor, which is clear, has to go somewhere, and where it goes is into ice or water droplets. These are no longer invisible, but reflect light, and appear white. There's a little more than that, in that the jet engine doesn't really burn the fuel perfectly, so some stuff is left over other than carbon dioxide and water - partly burned fuel. This makes particles that are needed to start the water vapor on its way to becoming liquid water or ice. These particles are called seeds.",
"Jets leave white trails, or contrails, in their wakes for the same reason you can sometimes see your breath. The hot, humid exhaust from jet engines mixes with the atmosphere, which at high altitude is of much lower vapor pressure and temperature than the exhaust gas.",
"Your teacher's explanation can also be right (in addition to exhaust-based explanations given already). As I'm sure you learned in class, pressure and temperature are related. Wings work because they create a low pressure area on top and a high pressure area on bottom -- the wing is essentially sucked upwards. Since the air pressure around the wing is changing so drastically (and complicated things happen to the air after the wing has traveled through it) you can have a reasonably large change in temperature of the air that is at low pressure. If the temperature of air changes, it also changes the amount of water vapor that can possibly be mixed in the air -- so if the temperature drops enough, some of the water vapor can condense out into either liquid water droplets or ice crystals.",
"Fuel and Oxygen mix and burn in the engines and produce water and carbon dioxide. The water condenses and forms the trail."
] | [
[
"through the jet stream—a phenomenon not well understood in 1947, in which high-altitude winds can blow at high speed in directions different from those of winds observed at ground level. If the airliner, which had to cross the Andes mountain range at 24,000 feet (7,300 m), had entered the jet-stream zone—which in this area normally blows from the west and south-west, resulting in the aircraft encountering a headwind—this would have significantly decreased the aircraft's ground speed.\nMistakenly assuming their ground speed to be faster than it really was, the crew may have deduced that they had already safely crossed the Andes, and",
"-37.38427777297329"
],
[
"one mile, the runway seems 200 ft (60 meters) lower than it actually is. This illusion caused the crew to apply a nose down input and reduced to flight idle when the aircraft was 800 meters from the runway. The nose down input caused the aircraft to reach an airspeed of 310 km/h. The aircraft touched down on the runway at a speed of 260 km/h, it then broke up and burst into flames. The AAIB then issued a recommendation to study with pilots the possible illusions that could be encountered during landing in heavy rain.",
"-34.36447428842075"
],
[
"because there was a tailwind on the approach to runway 31, which was also covered with precipitation. The flight crew initiated the approach procedure by joining the Hibbing distance measuring equipment (DME) arc from the Hibbing VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) radio navigation system, and intercepting the instrument landing system localizer at 8,000 feet (2,400 m) MSL. That delayed the start of the plane's descent, which meant that an excessive rate of descent was required. The aircraft descended at 2,000 feet (610 m) /min and was 1,200 feet (370 m) above the minimum altitude when above the Kinney final approach fix. The Jetstream 31",
"-34.27488683442061"
],
[
"(100 mph) in flights, for example, from the US to the UK. Similarly in 1944 a team of American meteorologists in Guam, including Reid Bryson, had enough observations to forecast very high west winds that would slow bombers going to Japan. Description Polar jet streams are typically located near the 250 hPa (about 1/4 atmosphere) pressure level, or seven to twelve kilometres (23,000 to 39,000 ft) above sea level, while the weaker subtropical jet streams are much higher, between 10 and 16 kilometres (33,000 and 52,000 ft). Jet streams wander laterally dramatically, and have large changes in their altitude. The jet streams",
"-34.18672592481016"
],
[
"airborne, it was to fire its own rocket engine and continue to climb to an altitude of 145 km (90 mi), at which point it would be travelling at about 21,800 km/h (13,500 mph). It would then gradually descend into the stratosphere, where the increasing air density would generate lift against the flat underside of the aircraft, eventually causing it to \"bounce\" and gain altitude again, where this pattern would be repeated. Because of aerodynamic drag, each bounce would be shallower than the preceding one, but it was still calculated that the Silbervogel would be able to cross the Atlantic, deliver a 4,000 kg (8,800 lb)",
"-34.058953135390766"
],
[
"but mistook it for the runway.\nAs the aircraft was at 150 metres (490 ft), the captain returned to the cockpit and became aware of the fact that the aircraft was descending onto a highway with truck traffic on it. He initiated a sudden climb with full power. However, the heavily loaded aircraft struck the slope of a hill at Karatepe with its right wing and crashed.",
"-33.846724502160214"
],
[
"wind shear was affecting the aircraft's airspeed through late final approach, and the aircraft touched down onto the 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) long runway 12L at a point approximately 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) beyond the upwind threshold, at a speed of 162 kts. Two seconds later, the cockpit RAAS issued a \"LONG LANDING\" warning and the crew initiated a go-around. Six seconds after main-wheel touchdown, and with the nose-wheel still off the runway, the aircraft became airborne again after rotating to climb attitude. Four seconds later the flap setting was reduced to 20°, followed by the undercarriage being selected to retract.",
"-33.79080080895801"
],
[
"light aircraft to descend more quickly without increasing forward speed, but it is practically never executed in large jet airliners outside of rare circumstances like those of this flight.\nComplicating matters yet further was the fact that with both of its engines out, the plane made virtually no noise during its approach. People on the ground thus had no advanced warning of the impromptu landing and little time to flee. As the gliding plane closed in on the decommissioned runway, the pilots noticed that there were two boys riding bicycles within 1,000 feet (300 m) of the projected point of impact. Captain",
"-33.74987238069298"
],
[
"of 285° the aircraft descended at a vertical speed of about 800 feet (240 m) per minute and had already descended to 1,400 feet (430 m) when the crew saw the mountains right on the course. Engine power was increased, and the aircraft began to climb with a vertical speed of 600 feet (180 m)–700 feet (210 m) feet per minute (3–3.6 m / s). 10 later seconds at 22:04 pm local time, the aircraft, at an altitude of 1,600 feet (490 m), 50 miles from Dubai airport and 10 miles north of the continuation of the longitudinal axis of runway 30 at a",
"-33.70461365394294"
],
[
"fuel faster than in ground effect mode, though the aircraft still performs at a fuel efficiency similar to a Boeing 747-400F aircraft freighter. The Pelican can fly to a height of 25,000 ft (7,600 m), so it can clear all of the world's highest mountain ranges except for the Himalayas.\nThe aircraft takes off and lands at airfields differently from conventional airliners because of the Pelican's unusual landing gear configuration. A typical aircraft pitches its nose up right before final liftoff or touchdown, but the Pelican appears to have little or no rotation. Like the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress strategic bomber, the Pelican seems",
"-33.62967986695003"
],
[
"the pilot flying the plane rotated the controls to bring the aircraft airborne, and raised the gear when the craft was 2 feet above the runway. The plane began its takeoff with a headwind, but the winds quickly shifted to a right crosswind of 11 knots (13 mph; 20 km/h), increasing to 33 knots (38 mph; 61 km/h) as the plane proceeded down the runway. The plane had reached its maximum altitude of about 30 feet (9 m) and a maximum indicated airspeed of 151 knots (174 mph; 280 km/h) when the wind direction suddenly shifted to a 24-knot (28 mph; 44 km/h) tailwind. The plane rapidly lost airspeed",
"-33.6259943030891"
],
[
"was distracted while trying to locate the runway in heavy fog, as a consequence, the plane went below the minimum safe altitude in a mountainous region with the flight crew ignoring the voice commands of the proximity radar until seconds before impact.",
"-33.58242847688962"
],
[
"climbing through 28,300 feet to reach its cruising altitude of 35,000 feet when a blade detached from the fan of the port (left) CFM International CFM56 engine. While the pilots did not know the source of the problem, a pounding noise was suddenly heard, accompanied by severe vibrations. In addition, smoke poured into the cabin through the ventilation system and a burning smell entered the plane. Several passengers sitting near the rear of the plane noticed smoke and sparks coming from the left engine.\nThe flight was diverted to nearby East Midlands Airport at the suggestion of British Midland Airways Operations.\nAfter",
"-33.53719072241802"
],
[
"Transonic Condensation clouds At transonic speeds supersonic expansion fans form intense low-pressure, low-temperature areas at various points around an aircraft. If the temperature drops below the dew point a visible cloud will form. These clouds remain with the aircraft as it travels. It is not necessary for the aircraft as a whole to reach supersonic speeds for these clouds to form. Typically, the tail of the aircraft will reach supersonic flight while the bow of the aircraft is still in subsonic flight. A bubble of supersonic expansion fans terminating by a wake shockwave surround the tail. As the aircraft continues",
"-33.51539968472207"
],
[
"Miami ARTCC. Several minutes after contact was established, the jet's altitude began increasing with a rate of climb gradually increasing to approximately 9,000 feet per minute. Following this rapid ascent, the rate of climb decreased through zero when the altitude peaked momentarily at just above 19,000 feet. During this time, the jet's airspeed decreased from 270 to 215 knots and as the peak altitude was approached, the vertical accelerations changed rapidly from 1G to about -2G.\nIn the next seven seconds, the negative acceleration continued to increase at a slower rate, with several fluctuations, to a mean value of about -2.8G,",
"-33.468378607649356"
],
[
"Valley exit jet A valley exit jet is a strong, down-valley, elevated air current that emerges above the intersection of the valley and its adjacent plain. These winds frequently reach a maximum of 20 m/s (45 mph) at a height of 40–200 m (130–660 ft) above the ground. Surface winds below the jet may sway vegetation but are significantly weaker.\nThe presence of these strong nighttime down-valley air flows has been documented at the mouth of many Alpine valleys that merge with basins, such as the Inn Valley of Austria, where the jet is strong enough to be heard at the ground. In the United",
"-33.449288272095146"
],
[
"at around six thousand feet to avoid light anti-aircraft fire, dropping to five hundred feet or so to avoid night fighters once inland and to make it possible to verify location, assuring that checkpoints on the ground corresponded exactly to the area being looked at in the cockpit and nose of the aircraft. Limited visibility at higher altitude would make this more difficult if not impossible. Since drops were made at 400–500 feet (120–150 m) at the pilot's discretion, being already at such a height made the drops more efficient.\nWhen only a few miles from the target area all available eyes",
"-33.420159124310885"
],
[
"aircraft are required to approach the airport at very low speeds, making the aircraft extremely vulnerable to sudden downdrafts and strong winds that are known to occur in the mountains. Contributing factors might include poor visibility on final approach and the inexperience and lack of technology available to air traffic control.\nIn December 2017, an investigation committee of the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal submitted its final report on the accident and concluded that \"Very low visibility\" was the cause of the accident. As the aircraft was flying through dense fog for several minutes before the approach, it missed the runway",
"-33.35675800940953"
],
[
"into a headwind reduces the Ground Speed (GS) for the same TAS. This is beneficial to pilots as well as Air traffic controllers (ATC). An aircraft landing into a headwind will require less runway and will be able to vacate the runway sooner. If the headwind decreases near the ground, there's a decrease in the performance of the aircraft and it will tend to sink and possibly under shoot the aiming point.\nTailwind increases the Ground Speed of an aircraft for the same TAS and thus a longer runway distance will be required for an aircraft to land. Landing",
"-33.32780791935511"
],
[
"point. This distance is known as trail. The SABS adjusted for trail by simply tilting the entire range unit aft on a trunnion, rather than sending adjustments into the calculator itself. If the aircraft is crabbing to adjust for any winds from the side, this also causes the trail to move to the side - the bombs are falling straight but the aircraft is actually flying sideways into the wind and imparts this velocity on the bombs. To account for this side trail, the sight was rotated to one side or the other.\nThe range unit also contained the bomb release",
"-33.27719738939777"
],
[
"maintain a constant altitude (similar to mountain waves), because pushing the stick can cause his airspeed to increase to the point of hitting the yellow arc (on the airspeed indicator). An airspeed this high is not permissible in turbulent conditions and may lead to break-up of the aircraft. Indeed, when the pilot exits the updraught zone, he will encounter very strong turbulence due to the shear between rising and sinking air. If the airspeed is too high at this point, the airplane will break apart. The crash of Flight AF 447 is indirectly related to this situation: the pilot, being",
"-33.254126867628656"
],
[
"metres (200 to 300 ft), and slow, at about 190 kilometres per hour (120 mph). They had to take the wind into account, as it might cause parachuted packages to miss the drop zone. The load would be placed in the doorway, and three or four men would push it out when the pilot gave the signal. The pilot would fly level or with the nose slightly down, so that cargo would not hit the tail of the aircraft. The pilot would retract the landing gear if it was down, and climb to gain altitude. Multiple passes over the drop zone might",
"-33.24997973127756"
],
[
"by August that year.\nWhile intended as a high altitude fighter, the PB-2 flew relatively few high altitude flights, partly because of the discomfort for the crew. One exception took place in March 1937, when a PB-2A was flown to 39,300 feet (12,000 m) before being forced to return to lower altitudes when the aircraft's controls froze. On 17 October 1936, a PB-2A flown by Lt. John M. Sterling won the Mitchell Trophy air race with a speed of 217.5 miles per hour (350.0 km/h). Since the PB-2A was one of the few aircraft at the time to have retractable landing gear, they",
"-33.04044956411235"
],
[
"visibility, but with clouds blowing down the runway towards them. The aircraft completed its 180-degree turn in relatively clear weather and lined up on Runway 30. The next cloud was 900 m (3,000 ft) down the runway and moving towards the aircraft at about 12 knots (14 mph; 22 km/h). Collision According to the cockpit voice recorder (CVR), the Pan Am captain said, \"There he is!\", when he spotted the KLM's landing lights through the fog just as his plane approached exit C-4. When it became clear that the KLM aircraft was approaching at takeoff speed, captain Grubbs exclaimed, \"Goddamn, that son-of-a-bitch is coming!\",",
"-33.02392218100431"
],
[
"heavy precipitation shown on radar, they encountered heavy rain, hail, and turbulence. Passing through 16,500 feet (5,000 m), both engines flamed out, leaving the jet gliding with neither engine producing thrust or electrical power. The auxiliary power unit (APU) was started as the plane descended through 10,500 feet (3,200 m), restoring electrical power. While attempts to \"windmill start\" the engines using the airflow generated by the plane's descent were unsuccessful, the pilots were later able to start them using the engine starters, which were powered by the APU. However, neither engine would accelerate to normal idle speed, much less to a point",
"-32.95088354602922"
],
[
"all aircraft had used runway 28 due to favorable wind conditions, climb-up conditions, and short distance from the terminal. The weather at the accident area was dominated by a low pressure trough, causing rain showers and wind from 15 to 30 knots (28 to 56 km/h; 17 to 35 mph) at 240–270°. Visibility exceeded 10 kilometres (6.2 mi; 5.4 nmi). Between 08:00 and 09:00, a weak trough passed, reducing visibility to six kilometres (4 mi) and a cloud base at 400 to 450 metres (1,300 to 1,500 ft). Accident At 07:55 UTC (09:55 local Central European Summer Time, CEST), the crew requested clearance to start their descent.",
"-32.927852158856695"
],
[
"after 1000 feet. The aircraft's speed was 160 knots, which was more than the prescribed speed, and the pilot should not have descended below 500 feet (Minimum Descent Altitude) unless he had sighted the runway. The cockpit voice recorder conversation between the pilot and the co-pilot showed that both were focused on trying to see the runway and they had decided to attempt such a landing and in their anxiety to see the field, they lost track of height. Instead of the pilot-in-command concentrating on the instruments, both the pilot-in-command and the co-pilot were trying to sight the runway without",
"-32.92128174536629"
],
[
"resumed flights in June 1953 and was eventually developed into the de Havilland Sea Vixen naval fighter.\nMore stringent airshow safety measures were subsequently introduced: jets were obliged to keep at least 230 m (750 ft) from crowds if flying straight and 450 m (1,480 ft) when performing manoeuvres, and always at an altitude of at least 150 m (490 ft).",
"-32.87306324020028"
],
[
"were subject to \"clutter\" from stray returns from the ground and other objects, which meant a minimum angle existed above the horizon where they could detect a target. Bombers flying at low altitudes could remain under these angles simply by keeping their distance from the radar sites. This combination of effects made SAMs of the era ineffective against low-flying aircraft. The same effects also meant that low-flying aircraft were difficult to detect by higher-flying interceptors, since their radar systems could not readily pick out opposing aircraft against the clutter from ground reflections (lack of look-down/shoot-down capability).\nThe switch from high-altitude to",
"-32.78459532206762"
],
[
"of Mach 3, the plane is rocketed upwards. The maximum acceleration is 3 g (30 m/s²). At an altitude of 60 km, the rocket engine is shut down and the plane continues to climb up to a maximum altitude of 100 km. This is the weightlessness phase.\nThen the plane gets down to 15 km at a high angle of attack, being progressively decelerated by the atmosphere; at this altitude, after transition to aeronautical mode, the jets are reignited to bring the plane back to a classical landing strip. Characteristics The total mass of the vehicle is 18 metric tons (39,700 lb) at takeoff. The plane",
"-32.77198806160595"
],
[
"F-4 Jet. After successfully hitting the targets at low elevation with 80% of the loaded agent, the plane climbed up to 1,500 feet (460 m) as the remaining agent leaked out of the tanks. It began to rain and snow shortly afterwards, and it is assumed that the precipitation contained the agent, and that when sheep licked up the water and snow they began to show the symptoms of VX poisoning.\nThe Army has never admitted fault in this incident, though a 1970 report by researchers from the Edgewood Arsenal, indicates that the evidence of nerve gas was incontrovertible. Due to the",
"-32.75229056144599"
],
[
"steeper jump in ground-level emissions as planes manoeuvre and taxi under their own power before waiting for their takeoff slot.\nThe finding that the average passenger jet aircraft consumes over 477 litres of fuel while taxiing led Israeli Aerospace Industries (IAI) to investigate a ground handling tractor capable of towing the aircraft to its takeoff position, where the main engines would then be started. This would not only save fuel, emissions and ground- level noise, but would also reduce the amount of ground-level engine running, where debris ingestion is a major risk.\nIAI had a concept for a semi-robotic tug – Taxibot",
"-32.73758055141661"
],
[
"fly at altitudes up to about 52,000 feet, at which point the thinner air means it can no longer climb. The aircraft can also fly at up to Mach 1.1 at sea level, but no faster. This outer surface of the curve represents the zero-extra-power condition. All of the area under the curve represents conditions that the plane can fly at with power to spare, for instance, this aircraft can fly at Mach 0.5 at 30,000 feet while using less than full power.\nIn the case of high-performance aircraft, including fighters, this \"1-g\" line showing straight-and-level flight is augmented with additional",
"-32.70945477276109"
],
[
"the window of my office\". Imran Abbasi told The New York Times that he \"could tell it was trouble because it stayed so low even though the mountains were up ahead\". He stated that the jet was \"flying as low as a four-story building\". It was reported that Abbasi said that \"as the aircraft started to turn, the right side of its front banged into the highest mountain, emitting an instant billow of blue fire and black smoke\".\nThe plane was found near Daman-e-Koh viewing point in the Margalla Hills outside Islamabad. The Los Angeles Times reported that \"television footage of",
"-32.708107124315575"
],
[
"steady climb, where the increase in potential energy comes from mechanical work done by the engines, rather than from the aircraft's kinetic energy.\nZoom climbs are somewhat commonly performed by modern fighter aircraft. Typically referred to as an \"unrestricted climb\", pilots will take off and accelerate to a high speed near the ground and then pull the aircraft vertically or nearly vertical in order to quickly climb up to the aircraft's cruising altitude.\nIn a demonstration of their performance, English Electric Lightning fighter aircraft have sometimes used zoom climbs to climb above a Lockheed U-2 (which cruises at an altitude above the",
"-32.69899453985272"
],
[
"engines in later versions gave the B-36 a wide margin between stall speed (VS) and maximum speed (Vₘₐₓ) at these altitudes. This made the B-36 more maneuverable at high altitude than the USAF jet interceptors of the day, which either could not fly above 40,000 ft (12,000 m), or if they did, were likely to stall out when trying to maneuver or fire their guns. However, the U.S. Navy argued that their McDonnell F2H Banshee fighter could intercept the B-36, thanks to its ability to operate at more than 50,000 feet (15,000 m). The USAF declined the invitation from the U.S. Navy for",
"-32.66637171001639"
],
[
"particularly once adverse density altitude conditions are taken into account. An engine-out situation typically results in a descent rate of about 250 ft/min (1.3 m/s), and the Lancer's single-engine, best-rate-of-climb speed VYSE–generally a gauge of engine-out climb performance for other airplanes–has been characterized as actually being a \"single-engine, least-rate-of-coming-down-speed.\" Flying magazine noted that the craft could generally maintain altitude at or below 2,200 feet (670 m) and was reasonably easy to fly at airfield traffic pattern altitude on a single engine, but that an engine-out go-around would be potentially risky, and that a pilot is best advised \"...to commit [himself or herself] to",
"-32.64875619809027"
],
[
"of the runway,\" and found that the pilots of each plane and the air traffic controller each had their own slightly different definition of the term. The NTSB concluded that DAL 379 was not actually \"clear of the runway\" because its jet exhaust continued to pose a hazard to aircraft attempting to use runway 27L.\nThe jet blast from DAL 379 caused a compressor stall in Flight 159's number four engine. The compressor stall caused a loud noise heard by the pilots, and the jet blast caused a movement of the Boeing 707's flight controls during the takeoff. The 707 did",
"-32.64058526995359"
],
[
"the aircraft at the lower altitude will first receive a \"Descend, descend\" RA, and when reaching an extreme low altitude, this will change to an \"Adjust Vertical Speed, Adjust\" RA, together with a green arc indication directing the pilot to level off the aircraft. This could place the aircraft dangerously into the path of the intruder above, who is descending to land. A change proposal has been issued to correct this problem. Relationship to automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast (ADS–B) Automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast (ADS–B) messages are transmitted from aircraft equipped with suitable transponders, containing information such as identity,",
"-32.61809472227469"
],
[
"which point he would circle the airport to land on Runway 29. To perform this manoeuvre, the pilot was not permitted to descend below an altitude of 1,045 ft (319 m). However, the weather reports the pilot received when he departed and others he received while en route show the cloud base was down to 400 ft (122 m) (\"broken\" cloud layer). This was acceptable for an approach to Runway 11, but not for the circling manoeuvre to Runway 29. At the same time, the wind had increased from 8 kn to 15 kn in Campbeltown, making a landing on Runway 11 increasingly difficult,",
"-32.613221089035505"
],
[
"jet took off.\nWhile maintaining 5,000 feet and a heading of 300 degrees, Flight 705 contacted controllers and requested clearance to climb to a higher altitude. After a discussion between the flight and the radar departure controller about the storm activity, and while clearance to climb was being coordinated with the Miami Air Route Traffic Control Center, the flight advised \"Ah-h we're in the clear now. We can see it out ahead ... looks pretty bad.\"\nAt 13:43, Flight 705 was cleared to climb to flight level 250. They responded, \"OK ahhh, we'll make a left turn about thirty degrees here and",
"-32.601845945595414"
],
[
"conduct a missed approach) after wind shear alerts are issued. LLWAS wind shear alerts are defined as wind speed gain or loss of between 20 and 30 knots aligned with the active runway direction. \"Low level\" refers to altitudes of 2,000 ft (610 m) or less above ground level (AGL). Arriving aircraft on descent, generally within six nautical miles of touchdown will fly within this low level, maintaining a glide slope and may lack recovery altitude sufficient to avoid a stall or flight-into-terrain if caught unaware by a microburst. LLWAS microburst alerts are issued for greater than 30 knot loss of airspeed",
"-32.57096417492721"
],
[
"perspective, it may best be thought of as a roll around a point on the horizon that is 45 degrees off the flightpath. Starting from a level flight, the pilot will usually pick such a point on the horizon as a reference, which is typically between the nose and the wing-tip, out the side window (if the plane has side windows). This point can be anything in that area, like a distant lake, mountain peak, or cloud. The pilot will then pull back on the stick, bringing the plane up into a brief climb. As the nose passes through the",
"-32.510427467059344"
],
[
"that it had subsided a bit and it probably he did not expect visibility to go below the minimum safe level. The crew began to execute the approach as planned, but by the fourth turn the aircraft was 500 metres (1,600 ft) to the right of the center of the runway. When the flight was 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) away from the runway, the controller instructed the flight to decrease altitude to 300 metres (980 ft) and warned that visibility was starting to worsen. When the aircraft was 8.5 kilometres (5.3 mi) from the end of the runway it entered the glidepath and continued",
"-32.508254634041805"
],
[
"the aircraft descends. In practice, once the aircraft has descended to an altitude of two feet (0.61 m) above the tarmac the pilot initiates a stall and the aircraft falls from this height. Chase cars and live calling of aircraft altitude are necessary because the landing gear is not designed to absorb the weight of the aircraft when falling from altitudes much above two feet (0.61 m).\nInstead of the typical tricycle landing gear, the U-2 uses a bicycle configuration with a forward set of main wheels located just behind the cockpit, and a rear set of main wheels located behind the engine.",
"-32.48553798830835"
],
[
"takeoff of 33 knots (38 mph; 61 km/h) on a dry runway.\nContrary to the \"average\" wind data reported to the incident pilots, the NTSB investigation found that a sensor at one end of the runway showed a crosswind of 40 knots (46 mph; 74 km/h), with analysis showing the airplane was hit with a peak gust crosswind of 45 knots (52 mph; 83 km/h). in addition to being much higher than the data reported to the pilots as they prepared for takeoff, this was also much higher than the airline industry used in pilot training. The NTSB also received a report analyzing 250,327 departures involving 737-500s,",
"-32.45406733849086"
],
[
"runway meant he needed to initiate a missed approach maneuver (called a \"go-around\"), his call for the go-around came too late; the plane's engines were not able to spool up fast enough to generate sufficient thrust to climb above the hill that had been obstructing his view, and the plane crashed into the hilltop at 22:06 CET. Dramatization The hourlong Discovery Channel Canada / National Geographic TV series Mayday featured the crash in a Season 10 episode titled Cockpit Failure.",
"-32.40584902800765"
],
[
"southern polar jet stream mostly circles Antarctica and sometimes the southern tip of South America. The term jet stream in these contexts thus usually implies the northern polar jet stream. Aviation The location of the jet stream is extremely important for aviation. Commercial use of the jet stream began on 18 November 1952, when Pan Am flew from Tokyo to Honolulu at an altitude of 7,600 metres (24,900 ft). It cut the trip time by over one-third, from 18 to 11.5 hours. Not only does it cut time off the flight, it also nets fuel savings for the airline industry. Within",
"-32.392013338627294"
],
[
"direction.\nThe submarines were also able to carry three Sei ran aircraft (the Aichi M6A), each carrying a 1,760 pounds (800 kg) bomb 650 mi (1,050 km) at 360 mph (580 km/h). Its name was combination of sei (\"clear sky\") and ran (\"storm\"), literally \"storm out of a clear sky,\" because the Americans would not know they were coming. It had a wing span of 40 ft (12 m) and a length of 38 ft (12 m). To fit the aircraft into the hangar, the wings of the aircraft were folded back, the horizontal stabilizers folded down, and the top of the vertical stabilizer folded over so the overall profile",
"-32.37301891227253"
],
[
"well in advance. Due to the faulty equipment, the flight deviated to the right from its course about 32 kilometres (20 mi). At 11:16, the aircraft descended from a height of 3,600 metres (11,800 ft) to 2,700 metres (8,900 ft). Shortly before the crash, the flight crew intentionally misinformed the flight deck that the airfield was in sight, and the air tower gave them visual instructions on landing; the crew accepted these instructions at 11:21, without actually being in sight of the air field. The pilot then mistook the Holy Nose Peninsula for the location of the air field.\nAt 11:22 MSK, the aircraft",
"-32.37157069006935"
],
[
"boundaries, icing due to the heavy precipitation, as well as large hail, strong winds, and lightning, all of which can cause severe damage to an aircraft in flight. Volcanic ash is also a significant problem for aviation, as aircraft can lose engine power within ash clouds. On a day-to-day basis airliners are routed to take advantage of the jet stream tailwind to improve fuel efficiency. Aircrews are briefed prior to takeoff on the conditions to expect en route and at their destination. Additionally, airports often change which runway is being used to take advantage of a headwind. This reduces the",
"-32.361822569189826"
],
[
"left four degrees. When the aircraft reached 255–260 kilometres per hour (158–162 mph), 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) down the runway the pilot rotated the nose wheels off the ground. At a distance of 1,850 metres (6,070 ft) meters from the beginning of the runway, accelerating through 275 kilometres per hour (171 mph), the left main landing gear entered the 60 centimetres (24 in) deep snow, causing the aircraft to yaw left and pitch down. The left main gear then impacted a runway edge light. Instead of aborting the take-off the pilot banked right, striking the propellers of engines 3 and 4 on the runway. The",
"-32.3590973972"
],
[
"speeds close to the stall speed the aircraft's wings are at a high angle of attack.\nAt higher altitudes, the air density is lower than at sea level. Because of the progressive reduction in air density, as the aircraft's altitude increases its true airspeed is progressively greater than its indicated airspeed. For example, the indicated airspeed at which an aircraft stalls can be considered constant, but the true airspeed at which it stalls increases with altitude.\nAir conducts sound at a certain speed, the \"speed of sound\". This becomes slower as the air becomes cooler. Because the temperature of the atmosphere generally",
"-32.35884801100474"
],
[
"are typically flown at 1,000 feet (300 m) feet AGL. The break At some point during \"the run\", usually midway down the runway, the pilot will fly the aircraft up and away from the runway in a tight crosswind leg, to position downwind in the pattern to land. This maneuver is performed at high-g which causes significant induced drag; this drag causes a rapid reduction of airspeed. During this the aircraft is configured to land. The aircraft therefore arrives late downwind in the pattern at a safe low speed, configured to land, with minimum time spent at lower",
"-32.339485564036295"
],
[
"many jet aircraft to help slow down just after touch-down, redirecting engine exhaust forward instead of back. Some propeller-driven airplanes also have this feature, where the blades of the propeller are re-angled to push air forward instead of back using the 'beta range'. Environmental factors Factors such as crosswind where the pilot will use a crab landing or a slip landing will cause pilots to land slightly faster and sometimes with different aircraft attitude to ensure a safe landing.\nOther factors affecting a particular landing might include: the plane size, wind, weight, runway length, obstacles, ground effects, weather, runway altitude, air",
"-32.300692279590294"
],
[
"area, which is dependent on the wind direction, where they can lose height (if necessary) by flying circles. From this position, they follow the legs of a flightpath in a rectangular pattern to the landing zone: downwind leg, base leg, and final approach. This allows for synchronization between multiple pilots and reduces the risk of collisions, because a pilot can anticipate what other pilots around him are going to do next. Techniques Landing involves lining up for an approach into wind and, just before touching down, \"flaring\" the wing to minimise vertical and/or horizontal speed. This consists of gently going",
"-32.271110670117196"
],
[
"aircraft. At 70,000 m (230,000 ft), while descending into the rapidly increasing density of the atmosphere, the X-15 entered a Mach 5 (5,300 km/h) spin.\nIn the NASA 1 control room, there was no way to monitor the heading of the aircraft, so the situation was unknown to the engineers monitoring the flight. Normal conversation continued between Knight and Adams, with Knight advising Adams that he was \"a little bit high\", but in \"real good shape\". Adams radioed that the aircraft \"[seemed] squirrelly\", and moments later repeatedly told Knight that he had entered a spin. The ground controllers sought to get the X-15 straightened out,",
"-32.24723365646787"
],
[
"navigation log was recovered from the crash site; according to this the aircraft's altitude at 18:00 was 5,000 feet (1,500 metres). However, the barographs with which the aircraft was fitted recorded an altitude of less than 3,000 feet (910 metres) at this time. The impact point was 2,300 feet (700 metres) above sea level. Two possible causes are that the log entry was erroneous and that the aircraft had, due to the poor weather, descended and that the difference in barometric pressure between Tunisia and Cranwell had caused them to believe that their altitude was greater than was the case;",
"-32.22890489909332"
],
[
"60 second intervals between them. The pilot would slowly climb to the designated height and head for the group's assembly point near the coast. Once airborne every airman had to hope that his oxygen mask and supply functioned properly when it was switched on at 5,000 feet and did not suffer from icing in the frigid temperatures at high altitude, their electrically heated flying suits, boots and gloves were completely necessary to avoid frostbite throughout the year. Enemy coast ahead Bombers operating from bases north of the River Humber usually crossed the English coast at Flamborough Head or Spurn Point",
"-32.22337140527088"
],
[
"and the jet began diving toward the ground with increasing rapidity. As the descent continued, the acceleration trace went from the high negative peak to 1.5G, where it reversed again.\nBelow 10,000 feet, the forward fuselage broke up as a result of the forces of the dive. The main failures in both wings and horizontal stabilizers were in a downward direction, and virtually symmetrical. The forward fuselage broke upward and the vertical stabilizer failed to the left. All four engines generally separated before the debris of the aircraft fell in an unpopulated area of the Everglades National Park, 37 miles west-southwest",
"-32.2149747768417"
],
[
"turboprop plane. This in turn extended the jet's flying time inside the air corridor and resulted in higher operating costs due to increased fuel consumption at 10,000 ft (3,050 m), especially on short-haul internal German services covering a maximum distance of 300 mi (480 km).\nFor commercial and operational reasons, the airlines had their flights routed through the centre corridor whenever possible as this was the shortest of the three air corridors, thereby minimising the time aircraft spent cruising at 10,000 ft (3,000 m). At such a low altitude, modern jet aircraft could not attain an efficient cruising speed. This extended flight times and increased fuel consumption.",
"-32.20004710709327"
],
[
"entire front of the aircraft. This smooth glazed nose was first tested on the He 111 V8 in January 1938. These improvements allowed the aircraft to reach 475 km/h (295 mph) at 5,000 m (16,400 ft) and a cruise speed of 370 km/h (230 mph), although a full bomb load reduced this figure to 300 km/h (190 mph). The design was implemented in 1937 because pilot reports indicated problems with visibility.\nThe pilot's seat could actually be elevated, with the pilot's eyes above the level of the upper glazing, complete with a small pivoted windscreen panel, to get the pilot's head above the level of the top of the",
"-32.19268554705195"
],
[
"if the wind direction was constant, it was changing relative to the aircraft during the 47° visual right turn. The landing would become even more challenging when crosswinds from the northeast were strong and gusty during typhoons. The mountain range northeast of the airport also makes wind vary greatly in both speed and direction. Watching large aircraft banking at low altitudes and taking big crab angles during their final approaches was popular for plane spotters. Despite the difficulty, the runway 13 approach was used most of the time due to the prevailing wind direction in Hong Kong.\nDue to the turn",
"-32.18039728293661"
],
[
"low flying generally vary with the aircraft speed, aircraft maneuverability and the ruggedness of the terrain. Helicopters are capable of flying with no more than a few feet of clearance below the helicopter's skids or wheels. Fast jets are more constrained and at a typical low-flying speed of 450 knots (800 km/h), 200 feet (60 m) is not unusual and 50 feet (15 m) is possible in relatively flat terrain. Power wires are a danger to all aircraft flying at low level and \"wire strikes\" are common, such as the Cavalese cable car disaster. Special maps are",
"-32.16750827094074"
],
[
"because of the thick fog. One pilot discerned some lights in the distance but was not sure what exactly they belonged to.\nNonetheless, violating standard procedures, the captain decided to continue the approach to as close as 1 mile (1.6 km) to the runway and descended further to 500 feet (150 m) and beyond, well below the MDA. At 1 mile (1.6 km) off the threshold of the runway and at an altitude of 200 feet (60 m) (which in this case constituted the decision height), the ground proximity warning system (GPWS) started to trigger aural alarms. Eight seconds later, the crew decided to abort",
"-32.15974654792808"
],
[
"1,000 feet. All throughout, the smoke progressively worsened; by the time the aircraft had reached the four-mile point, black smoke and actual flames could be seen trailing from the underside of the right engine nacelle. Shortly after the landing gear was lowered, a large burst of flames erupted from underneath the right nacelle. The aircraft banked left to an angle of about 10 degrees and continued onwards in this position for another 4.5 miles, gradually losing altitude as it went.\nWhile flying over the nearby city of Elizabeth, the aircraft, at an estimated altitude of just 200 feet,",
"-32.15365745133022"
],
[
"aircraft was flying straight to the mountain.\nAt 14:02, at a speed of 260 knots, the plane passed a height of 6500 feet (1981 meter) and got into a zone of light turbulence. At 14:03 Adcock stated, \"Ah after two thousand yeah we'll get below these clouds.\" At 14:06 at a speed of 250 knots, and at a height of 2,000 feet (610 m) the airliner experienced heavy turbulence near Santo Espírito, with Daugherty saying at 14:07:52, \"Can't keep this son of a bitch thing straight up and down.\" Adcock asked Daugherty if he needed help, to with Daugherty replied, \"no.\" Then",
"-32.14381442015292"
],
[
"way to keep the aircraft out of reach of potential enemy attack. At their operational altitude of 18,000 feet (5,500 m) and assuming clear channels, these aircraft can transmit radio and TV signals approximately 170 miles (270 km), which does not reach the objective areas near Baghdad. Straightforward physics dictate the range, given the power installed and the antenna configuration and assuming clear channels.\nThe enhanced altitude capability of the Commando Solo EC–130J (now funded) is increasing transmitter range. While this is an improvement over 130E capability, it is a small step, since the increase in altitude is only 7,000 feet (less than",
"-32.14067444615648"
],
[
"at 13:50 and took off into the northwest wind at 13:58. After takeoff, the aircraft made a continuous climbing right turn over Tokyo Bay, and rolled out on a southwest heading, passing north of Odawara. It then turned right again toward the mountain, flying over Gotemba on a heading of approximately 298°, at an indicated airspeed of 320 to 370 knots, and an altitude of approximately 4,900 m (16,000 ft), well above the 3,776 m (12,388 ft) mountain peak. The aircraft then encountered strong turbulence, causing it to break up in flight and crash into a forest. Investigation The aircraft left a debris field 16 km (10 mi)",
"-32.129292739817174"
],
[
"used all of the 1,800-metre (5,900 ft) runway, but was still not airborne. It traveled another 95 m (310 ft) over grass and struck a perimeter fence. It then crossed a road, hit a shed and a tree before finally becoming airborne. Due to the impact, the right main landing gear detached from the aircraft, the inboard right flap was damaged, engine 3 lost power and one hydraulic system was damaged due to leaking. The aircraft achieved an altitude of 790 ft (240 m), entered a slight right hand descending turn which completed a near 270-degree arc and then impacted flat terrain, bursting into flames.",
"-32.122332740109414"
],
[
"a window while in flight caused buffeting by setting up turbulence through the tailplane. Pilots taking low altitude assignments often flew stripped down to shorts, tennis shoes, and parachute. While the P-38 could not out-turn the A6M Zero and most other Japanese fighters when flying below 200 mph (320 km/h), its superior speed coupled with a good rate of climb meant that it could use energy tactics, making multiple high-speed passes at its target. In addition, its tightly grouped guns were even more deadly to lightly armored Japanese warplanes than to German aircraft. The concentrated, parallel stream of bullets allowed aerial victory",
"-32.117049119318835"
],
[
"received, but calculations based on the official technical data suggested that, while one engine thrust was insufficient for the aircraft to maintain altitude, it was enough to reach the runway and try to land. No explanation was found why the aircraft with one engine operating at maximum power suddenly entered a steep dive.\nDetailed analysis of the pieces of the turbine disc found several metallic impurities on the edges of two of them; in one case, they were identified as coming from the engine nacelle, in another, the impurities came from the nacelle, the hull, control actuators and finally, electrical cables.",
"-32.106692904548254"
],
[
"ran the engines up to 45.5 inches of manifold pressure and 2,500 RPM.\nWhen the pilot accelerated down the runway he noticed that when the aircraft lifted off, it could not gain any height. The ice on the wings disturbed the air flow, which resulted in the aircraft not gaining any height. It was however too late to abort take-off so the crew was forced to try to get the aircraft to climb. The aircraft flew only a few metres high straight down Angus Drive from the end of the runway until the left wing contacted some rooftops and the aircraft",
"-32.09973286087006"
],
[
"aircraft. This is typically sloped in the same manner as the stall line due to air resistance getting lower at higher altitudes, up to the point where an increase in altitude no longer increases the maximum speed due to lack of oxygen to feed the engines.\nThe power needed varies almost linearly with altitude, but the nature of drag means that it varies with the square of speed—in other words it is typically easier to go higher than faster, up to the altitude where lack of oxygen for the engines starts to play a significant role. Velocity vs. load factor chart",
"-32.02680430340115"
],
[
"grooves on the runway were in good condition and there were no recent reports of hydroplaning on that runway. The NTSB discovered from eyewitnesses that the airport's control tower could not see the flight arriving due to low visibility. However, they and passengers on the flight reported that the aircraft traveled an unusually long distance before landing. According to the flight's cockpit voice and flight data recorders, the aircraft was at an unusually high speed of 205 knots before landing. It was also noticed that the captain only monitored his airspeed, not the shown ground speed. To avoid striking the",
"-32.014060982270166"
],
[
"slats and usually flaps, which increase the camber and often area of the wing, making it more effective at low speed, thus creating more lift. These are deployed from the wing before takeoff, and retracted during the climb. They can also be deployed at other times, such as before landing.\nThe speeds needed for takeoff are relative to the motion of the air (indicated airspeed). A headwind will reduce the ground speed needed for takeoff, as there is a greater flow of air over the wings. Typical takeoff air speeds for jetliners are in the 130–155 knot range (150–180 mph, 240–285 km/h). Light",
"-32.00664496120589"
],
[
"was wet spark plugs. The flight made a 180° turn to return to Baku. Shortly thereafter, the crew reported strong vibrations and low revs from the left engine. \nAt 07:59, the crew reported that the temperature had dropped sharply in both engines. Three minutes later, the pilots reported reaching an altitude of 200 m (660 ft). However, due to the bad weather, the aircraft had already flown past the airport and was located over the Caspian Sea south of the Absheron Peninsula. Five seconds later, the crew radioed an SOS call and reported that they would ditch the aircraft in the sea.",
"-31.99275796453003"
],
[
"to climb to 3,000 feet (910 m). The plane struggled to climb due to the severe weather conditions, veered to the right and rapidly descended. The flight crew desperately tried to control the airplane as it plummeted toward the ground. It was later determined that the wind shear alert system did not alert them with a red indicator and aural warning because of a software discrepancy that lowered the sensitivity while the flaps were in transit from 40 degrees to 15 degrees during the go around procedure. A Honeywell engineer stated that the pilots should have received a warning 8–9 seconds",
"-31.990690905462543"
],
[
"in or near what is known as the coffin corner (stall speed = Vne), thus making it structurally dangerous to climb higher. However, some cells can rise to 70000 feet. Another option would be to navigate around the cells. This is strongly discouraged, however, because in the opening, new cells can grow very rapidly and engulf the aircraft. Whenever an aircraft moves to the west and crosses a thunderstorm line, the pilot will first encounter a line of powerful and laminar updraughts (that are not thermal but dynamic). The pilot should refrain from pushing the stick to try to",
"-31.986232352806837"
],
[
"though the reported clouds at the time would have made a circling approach impossible at the minimum altitude of 1,045 ft (319 m).\nAs the aircraft approached the MAC VOR from the north, the pilot turned right, heading out to sea, 1.0 to 1.5 nmi (1.9 to 2.8 km) before reaching the MAC VOR. This made it difficult to establish the aircraft on the proper outbound course, though this was eventually done. The aircraft began its descent on this outbound leg, but it failed to level off at the minimum altitude of 1,540 ft (469 m). At 2416:22, the last radar contact was recorded with the aircraft",
"-31.980477473232895"
],
[
"board. While on approach to Coolidge International Airport in stormy weather, at an altitude of 2,760 ft (841 m), the aircraft hit the 3,002 ft (915 m)-high Chances Peak and caught fire. The cause was determined to be pilot error: the crew made a navigational error and descended below the safe minimum altitude while unsure of their position.",
"-31.9601929418277"
],
[
"as £9,000. Transits On a transit flight (getting to or from a display location) the team may fly at the relatively low altitude of 1,000 feet (300 m). This avoids the complication of moving though the cloud base in formation, and also avoids much controlled air space. Jets are more efficient at higher altitude, so longer flights are made at 35,000 to 42,000 feet (11,000 to 13,000 m). On transit flights, the formation can include spare planes. Sometimes a C-130 Hercules accompanies them, carrying spare parts. They often provide flypasts and brief displays to smaller events if they are already passing over",
"-31.95396796381101"
],
[
"he was entering the hold according to the Spanish air traffic controller's instructions, he actually turned the aircraft to the left towards the southeast into an area of high ground, where the minimum safe altitude was 14,500 feet (4,400 m). When during the aircraft's descent towards 5,000 feet (1,500 m) the Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) activated, the crew reacted quickly and initiated a climb. With the engines on full power, the aircraft entered a steep turn to the right and struck mount La Esperanza at 13:21:15 local time. The aircraft was flying in cloud when it struck the mountain. The impact",
"-31.95215357397683"
],
[
"began searching for the drop area, which would usually be identified by three high powered flashlights placed in a row, with a fourth at a 90 degree angle to indicate the direction of the drop. Coming towards the target, the aircraft slowed to between 120–125 miles per hour (193–201 km/h) and dropped to an altitude of 400 feet (120 m), higher in hilly country: agents were dropped first, with supplies on a second drop. Often, pilots had to fly several miles farther into enemy territory after completing their drops to disguise the actual drop location should any enemy observers recognize the aircraft's",
"-31.9020119549823"
],
[
"13, 1977. At 40 kilometres (25 mi; 22 nmi) from Almaty airport the aircraft was at an altitude of 2,100 metres (6,890 ft). Witnesses noticed the left engine of the aircraft on fire about 15 kilometres (9 mi; 8 nmi) from the airport. With the wing still on fire, it then climbed from about 180 metres (600 ft) to 300 metres (1,000 ft) before diving and exploding in a snow-covered field. The sky above the airport at the time was clear, although due to the haze visibility was at 1,850 metres (2,023 yd). The aircraft hit the ground at an angle of 28° with a roll, at a",
"-31.901485750218853"
],
[
"altitude of 9,700 meters the crew sent a message about a fire in the number one engine. The climb was stopped at 8,700 meters. The airplane, three minutes before the crash, made a turn of 270 degrees then started to descend rapidly with a high vertical speed of about 70 meters per second. 16 minutes after takeoff, the Tu-154M, at high speed, collided with the ground in a field near the village of Džannatabad, approximately 120 km from the Khomeini airport. The aircraft was destroyed upon impact. At the scene of the disaster a crater formed whose depth",
"-31.901407700410346"
],
[
"precision approach descent rates are 600–700 feet (180–210 m) per minute). The aircraft continued to descend at a rate of 1,500 feet (460 m) per minute, emerging from cloud 500 feet (150 m) above the ground, until it reached its level-off altitude at MDA. The captain leveled the plane off and increased engine power, but did not advance the throttles fully. With the spoilers still extended, thrust was not enough to maintain level flight without losing speed. The stick shaker, a stall warning device attached to the pilots' control yoke, activated 6–7 seconds after the aircraft leveled off and continued",
"-31.88788923237007"
],
[
"creating a condition known as \"hot and high\" (high density altitude, producing a lower climb rate on takeoff and greater danger of stalling), the C-414 could do little but struggle into the air within ground effect, and once airborne was left virtually uncontrollable. These factors prevented the aircraft from ever attaining sufficient altitude, and it crashed into trees less than a mile from the airport.\nKeith Gordon Green, Josiah David Green (September 18, 1978 – July 28, 1982), and Bethany Grace Green (February 5, 1980 – July 28, 1982) are interred in the same coffin at Garden Valley Cemetery behind the",
"-31.862618170212954"
],
[
"air pressure at standard altitudes, such as 5,000 and 10,000 feet. Wind speed and direction were determined from the aircraft's drift off course. By watching for sharp changes in temperature and humidity on the aerograph chart, the weather officer noted the strength and locations of cold fronts. By having the airplane fly along a constant pressure altitude, the weather officer could map an isobaric surface.\nLooking outside, he observed the height, amount and type of clouds and could photograph significant formations. He could also observe the amount and duration of any icing. At low altitudes, he could estimate the wind speed",
"-31.856225475785322"
],
[
"\"coffin corner\", because breaching either limit was likely to cause airflow separation at the wings or tail. For most of the time on a typical mission the U-2 was flying less than five knots (6 mph; 9 km/h) above stall speed. A stall would cause a loss of altitude, possibly leading to detection and overstress of the airframe.\nThe U-2's flight controls are designed for high-altitude flight; the controls require light control inputs at operational altitude. However, at lower altitudes the higher air density and lack of a power-assisted control system makes the aircraft very difficult to fly: control inputs must be extreme",
"-31.84084206627449"
],
[
"when the aircraft was climbing through 397 feet (121 m) with a pitch of 4–5 degrees nose up and at an indicated air speed of 149 knots (276 km/h; 171 mph), there was an external influence on the aircraft at 12:56. This external influence resulted in the aircraft pitch changing to 7 degrees nose down within the next five seconds. Windshear warning came on at 12:56, pitch attitude steepened further to about 9–10 degrees nose down, and the speed increased to 180 knots (330 km/h; 210 mph). As a consequence, the aircraft rapidly lost height.\nImpact with the ground seems to have occurred at 12:56. In",
"-31.836947935225908"
],
[
"eight jet engines for four reciprocating engines. As a result, the airframe promptly flew to more than 40,000 ft (12,000 m) and topped 520 mph (840 km/h) in flight tests, verifying the XB-35 air frame's aerodynamics, but at the price of range. The prop-version had a design range capable of reaching targets 4,000 mi (6,400 km) away, but the jet-engine version's range was cut nearly in half. The new version disqualified it for the Air Force's top-priority mission as a strategic bomber, which at that time meant striking at the USSR's industrial and military complexes in the Ural Mountains. The Air Force, itself involved in a",
"-31.828497124137357"
],
[
"an unusually narrow or long runway may produce the visual illusion of being too high on final approach. The pilot may then increase their rate of descent, positioning the aircraft unusually low on the approach path. Downsloping terrain or wide runway A final approach over a downsloping terrain with a flat runway, or to an unusually wide runway may produce the visual illusion of being too low on final approach. The pilot may then pitch the aircraft's nose up to increase the altitude, which can result in a low-altitude stall or a missed approach. Black-hole approach A black-hole approach illusion",
"-31.82847166445572"
],
[
"to bring the plane to 4,000 ft (1,220 m) and begin the approach to Tan Son Nhut's runway 25L. While turning on final approach, the plane's descent rate suddenly began to increase rapidly. The crew increased power to the engines in an attempt to arrest the descent, but despite their efforts, the plane touched down at 4:45 p.m. in a rice paddy, and skidded for a quarter of a mile (400 m), became airborne again for another half-mile (800 m), crossing the Saigon River, then hit a dike and broke up into four pieces. The fuel caught fire and some of the wreckage was",
"-31.827609738218598"
],
[
"some historians such as Erwin Hood, state that the Me 209 V1's flight was 450 meters above sea level due to the topography of where its flight was held (at Augsburg) compared to that the He 100 V8's location of 50 meters above sea level (in Mecklenburg), thus their speed comparisons are not valid as the higher an aircraft goes, the lower the density of the atmosphere is, thus there is less drag. Hood then asserts that, based on his own calculations, if the He 100 V8 had flown at the same altitude of the Me 209 V1, it would",
"-31.81389999180101"
],
[
"to abort their descent and conduct a go-around, as low clouds had formed near the airport. The aircraft climbed, the thrust levers were moved to climb position, the flaps and slats remained fully extended, and the landing gear remained fully extended. A few minutes later, the \"Speed Speed Speed\" (LOW ENERGY) warning sounded. This warning advises the crew that \"the aircraft energy is decreasing to the limit, below which the engine thrust must be increased to regain a positive angle of the flight path\". At the moment when the aural warning sounded, the aircraft altitude was 1,150 ft (350 m), the crew",
"-31.78989051368262"
],
[
"orders. On the rocket-powered \"scharfer-start\" takeoff the next day, after dropping the takeoff dolly and retracting the skid, Brown later described the resultant climb as \"like being in charge of a runaway train\", the aircraft reaching 32,000 ft (9.76 km) altitude in 2 minutes, 45 seconds. During the flight, while practicing attacking passes at an imaginary bomber, he was surprised at how well the Komet accelerated in the dive with the engine shut down. When the flight was over Brown had no problems on the approach to the airfield, apart from the rather restricted view from the cockpit due to the flat",
"-31.7808762161294"
],
[
"the Worcester Boy Scouts on the necessity of developing foolproof planes, but had delayed his departure until the next morning because of a soggy field. An escort plane had nosed up when it landed just ahead of Capt. Hawks. After attempting to take off from a short dirt road which cut diagonally across the airport, he headed his low-wing monoplane down the field, less than 700 ft. in length. Oozy ground sucked at the wheels, kept him from attaining the 70 m.p.h. required to zoom off. Toward the end of the runway, going about 50 m.p.h., the ship bounced off",
"-31.76100491557736"
],
[
"aircraft began its normal descent after passing the outer marker, but did not arrest its descent and hold altitude at 1240 ft, as required by the assigned instrument approach procedure. Instead, the descent continued for another 300 ft for unknown reasons, apparently without either crewmember actually seeing the airport lights or runway. In the transcript of their cockpit communications in the final minutes, the pilots briefly debated that their autopilot had \"captured\" for a glide slope descent, although the airport was only equipped with a localizer. The report also noted that the craft approached a refinery in the final 30 seconds",
"-31.758392738061957"
],
[
"dramatic colour scheme, thus emphasising their entertainment function.\nTeams often fly V-formations (otherwise known as echelon formation)— they will not fly directly behind another aircraft because of danger from wake vortices or engine exhaust. Aircraft will always fly slightly below the aircraft in front, if they have to follow in line (the \"trail formation\").\nAerobatic maneuvers flown in a jet-powered aircraft are limited in scope as they cannot take advantage of the gyroscopic forces that a propeller driven aircraft can exploit. Jet-powered aircraft also tend to fly much faster, which increases the size of the figures and the length of time the",
"-31.74012640613364"
]
] |
83bow1 | babies crying pre-sedentary/having shelters if it would technically be a death sentence attracting predators in nature | [
"Hardly. First, remember that babies were not left unattended. Our early ancestors (much like some hunter gatherer tribes still do to this day) carries their babies around constantly. Babies that are worn cry much less because pretty much their every need (food and comfort) are very close by. Additionally, we are a species that lives in groups. A group of humans is going to be loud in any situation, and the occasional baby cry is not going to add much to that. Living in a group was our protection already, not stealth.",
"Human infants were rarely without shelter, even during the hunter-gatherer nomadic phase humans lived in camps and caves. Infants were also never left alone. There were always adults around to attend to their needs and protect them from predators. This is one of the reasons that humans live in groups.",
"Predators don't want to tangle with a bunch of hunter-gatherers, whether or not they are in a shelter. Humans are scary, and predators in general tend to go for isolated young or old individuals. Also, in mobile societies the babies spend a whole lot of time on their mothers, either in arms or wrapped on. They tend to cry a lot less when being held.",
"There are no predators in nature that will attack a group of humans (except maybe when completely desparate). Heck, there are very few that will even attack a single adult human. The few predators that are actually bigger and stronger than humans also understand the concept of strength in numbers."
] | [
[
"infanticide have been reported in the species, potentially caused by human visual and acoustic interference. Though not confirmed, it has been suspected that similar occurrences happen in the wild due to tourists. In the wild, polar bear mothers will sometimes kill their young because they lack adequate food, but in captivity the main reason is stress. Nonparental infanticide In many instances of nonparental infanticide in carnivores, the male of a species kills the young of a female to make her sexually receptive, e.g. brown bears. When one or two new male lions defeat and exile the previous males of a",
"-28.827712747035548"
],
[
"Although brooding parent birds are strongly aggressive toward intruders and can successfully deter small predators such as opossums, jays and vultures; they apparently lose to larger predators such as capuchin monkeys and great black hawks. For example, large groups of capuchins have been observed to attack plumbeous ibis nests, whereby some assailants violently force the parent bird out of the nest while others steal the eggs. Brooding adults of this species also show marked aggression toward human intruders. If approached by a human, this ibis screams loudly; whereby it lowers its body, bristles its feathers and jabs its bill at",
"-27.797255356388632"
],
[
"to human habitations, causing wolves to lose their fear of humans and consequently approach too closely, much like urban coyotes. Habituation can also happen when people intentionally encourage wolves to approach them, usually by offering them food, or unintentionally, when people do not sufficiently intimidate them. This is corroborated by accounts demonstrating that wolves in protected areas are more likely to show boldness toward humans than ones in areas where they are actively hunted. Dingoes Attacks on humans by dingoes are rare, with only two recorded fatalities in Australia. Dingoes are normally shy of humans and avoid encounters with them.",
"-27.59216973441289"
],
[
"Infanticide in carnivores Infanticide is the killing of a neonate after birth. In zoology, this commonly refers to the killing and in some cases consumption of newborn animals by either a parent or an unrelated adult of the species. In carnivores, it is not uncommon for an unrelated male to commit infanticide to make females sexually receptive. Parental infanticide is sometimes a result of extreme stress by human intrusion. Parental infanticide The giant otter becomes extremely sensitive to human activity when rearing its young. Giant otters in captivity must be given privacy when raising their litters as cases of parental",
"-27.512223825615365"
],
[
"and collect food for them when very young. They will also lead them to feeding ground over quite a large area. Bush stone-curlews have been seen lifting young after brooding and the Senegal thick-knee is suspected of carrying their chicks. The parents will warn chicks to lay down when disturbed and the chicks will drop down, head and neck stretched out, making them very difficult to see.\nMinor disturbances will cause parents to quietly leave nest, while more serious threats will cause them to defend the nest. This can include distraction displays and aggressive behaviour, though very occasionally a broken wing",
"-27.382225514982565"
],
[
"predators.\nAn avian example published in Nature is acorn woodpeckers. Females nest together, possibly because those nesting alone have their eggs constantly destroyed by rivals. Even so, eggs are consistently removed at first by nest partners themselves, until the entire group lays on the same day. They then cooperate and incubate the eggs as a group, but by this time a significant proportion of their eggs have been lost because of this ovicidal behavior. Counter-strategies Because this form of infanticide reduces the fitness of killed individuals' parents, animals have evolved a range of counter-strategies against this behavior. These may be divided",
"-27.227529331055848"
],
[
"go back underground after being shot, probably badly maimed. They will die a long lingering death underground from lead poisoning etc. We are going to have a lot of cubs left underground where their mothers have been shot above ground.\" He also suggests that domestic pets will be at risk in the cull areas, as some farmers will mistake black and white cats and dogs for badgers.\nMany cull opponents cite vaccination of badgers and cattle as a better alternative to culling. In Wales, where a policy of vaccination in 2013 was into its second year, Stephen James, who is the",
"-27.19581321682199"
],
[
"otherwise be spent on unrelated offspring. A common causal factor of infanticide, particularly among sciurid rodents, is direct resource competition, therefore killing the pups of an unrelated neighbour would prevent resource competition with those individuals in the future. Exceptions Not all rodent species commit infanticide, and in fact some species are remarkable for their lack of this behaviour. One such species is the common degu, a highly social caviomorph rodent from central Chile. Common degus have been found not to harm even unfamiliar pups, and male degus will even accept other males' litters into a group without problems. This is",
"-27.19132681901101"
],
[
"when Northern climes are particularly harsh during brooding, destruction by humans, and predation by various animals. The chances of survival increase incrementally both when they reach the fledging stage and when they can start hunting for themselves. Death of flying immatures and adults are often the result of human activity, including collisions with power lines, buildings and vehicles, incidental ingestion of poison or lead from prey or illegal hunting and trapping.\nMost predation recorded on this species is on the young at the nest. Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus), brown bears (Ursus arctos) and wolverines (Gulo gulo) have all eaten eggs and",
"-27.172475702536758"
],
[
"Both parents take part in incubation and hissing from within the nest when threatened. They may also roost in cavities such as those in cut bamboo.\nA species of flea Ceratophyllus gallinae has been recorded in their nests from India.",
"-27.135666835136362"
],
[
"to stay indoors at night. Most likely arising from the baby-like cry, the unusual nature evolved into a myth about a powerful animal that can kidnap humans. It is also said that wild bush babies/galagos in Nigeria can never be found dead on plain ground. Rather, they always make a nest out of sticks/leaves/branches and die on it. Endangerment of the species, however, in sub-Saharan Africa has made this claim difficult to verify. Social structure Generally, the social structure of the galago has components of both social life and solitary life. This can be seen in their play. They swing",
"-27.003931793849915"
],
[
"approach the nest both parents may engage in a distraction display but known ground predators (including domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)) are physically attacked almost immediately.\nNew hatchlings are generally quite helpless but are able to crawl away from danger within a few hours, can swim soon after hatching and can run with their parents at 24 hours old. Chicks respond to danger by freezing, using their camouflaged brownish down to defend them beyond their fierce parents. Young chicks use their wings to stabilise them while running, while by 9 weeks of age they can fly short distances. The adult birds",
"-26.729696881273412"
],
[
"snapping off large branches in her temper, occasionally stunning herself or inadvertently knocking down her own youngster if it is attempting to fledge. Apparently, the less extensive prior exposure they have to humans may make mature females more aggressive towards humans near the nest. Although development is asynchronical in most nests, runting may sometimes be recorded and even siblicide may occur, with the parents feeding the weaker, younger chicks less so and both the siblings and parents occasionally aggressively pecking the “runts” of the nest. Ultimately, the runt in such cases does not usually survive and may be either found",
"-26.702816073346185"
],
[
"teenagers. After a successful escape, Derrick is attacked by a bird but escapes. The group continues north and discovers a house. They check the nearby shed, which is a meat locker.\nDerrick's infection begins ravaging his body and Johnson plans to shoot him because he's a liability. Garret and Jacqueline pinpoint the teens' location, but can't reach them because the birds are outside. The group makes a run for the meat shed. Lola and Eva throw out some meat to catch the birds' attention but the birds aren't taking it; they like fresh meat. Derrick hobbles out and offers himself as",
"-26.6302014363755"
],
[
"successful in defending their eggs about one third of the time, though some are seriously injured in doing this. Males will only put up a fight as eggs are first being destroyed, and have been witnessed to abruptly cease defending their eggs and begin copulating with the encroaching female.\nInfanticide has also been recorded in another insect, the burying beetle Nicrophorus orbicollis.",
"-26.485366339591565"
],
[
"diving and chasing) towards any suspected threat, but they generally do not make physical contact. Predators of eggs and nestlings include raccoons, crows, porcupines, and American black bears. Adults have been known to fall to red-tailed hawks, great horned owls, bald eagles, and golden eagles. The hatchlings need 5–6 weeks before they are able to leave the nest. Some young, even after that time, remain in the area of the nest for several weeks more.",
"-26.472764654110506"
],
[
"alloparenting or cooperative breeding. This is known to occur in black-tailed prairie dogs and Belding's ground squirrels, where mothers have communal nests and nurse unrelated young along with their own. There is some question as to whether these mothers can distinguish which young are theirs. In the Patagonian mara, young are also placed in communal warrens, but mothers do not permit youngsters other than their own to nurse.\nInfanticide exists in numerous rodent species and may be practiced by adult conspecifics of either sex. Several reasons have been proposed for this behavior, including nutritional stress, resource competition, avoiding misdirecting parental care",
"-26.35195019179082"
],
[
"were left to fend for themselves in juvenile groups while adults preoccupied themselves with nesting or brooding.",
"-26.221327470149845"
],
[
"prey to find.\nForest dormice are very aggressive. Not even in captivity are they tame. It has been noted that they may allow humans to pet them. However, when efforts are made to hold them, they bite with their sharp teeth. If agitated while resting they may wake up suddenly, leap high, spit, and hiss. Forest dormice may have a negative impact for humans due to raiding fruit orchards and chewing on the bark of coniferous trees. They have also been known to be vectors for such diseases as tick-borne encephalitis, leptospirosis, and possibly the Black Death. They may have a",
"-26.069105529168155"
],
[
"humans may find themselves the victim of long-eared owl defensive attacks if they approach or, especially, if they climb up to a nest. The young leave the nest at 20–27 days of age (average about 22 days) but are initially flightless, often climbing about surrounding branches. At this stage they may be referred to as \"branchers\". Quite often the young fall to the ground, but they are usually able to climb back up using their claws and bill with heavy wing flapping. At dusk the begging branchers call to their parents with high pitched notes to indicate their location. At",
"-26.066794991667848"
],
[
"the danger. Dogs, cats and humans may be assaulted, sometimes without provocation. Perhaps the best-known victim of the tawny owl's fierce attack was the renowned bird photographer Eric Hosking, who lost his left eye when struck by a bird he was attempting to photograph near its nest in 1937. He later called his autobiography An Eye for a Bird.\nThe parents care for young birds for two or three months after they fledge, but from August to November the juveniles disperse to find a territory of their own to occupy. If they fail to find a vacant territory, they usually starve.",
"-25.994680530158803"
],
[
"Wildcare Australia, Orphan Native Animal Rear and Release Association Incorporated, Wildlife Carers Darling Downs, Bat Care, Bat Rescue, Tweed Valley Wildlife Carers, and WIRES when reported as injured, sick, orphaned or abandoned. A very high proportion of adult flying fox injuries are caused by entanglement in barbed wire fences or loose, improperly erected fruit tree netting, both of which can result in very serious injuries and a slow, agonizing death for the animal if not rescued quickly.",
"-25.961059411296446"
],
[
"areas. Due to their talent at observational learning, adult captive wolves can quickly work out how to escape confinement, and require constant reinforcement by caretakers or owners, which makes raising wolves difficult for people who raise their pets in an even, rather than subordinate, environment.\nSome pet wolves are euthanised or might be released into the wild where they are likely to starve or be killed by resident wolf packs in regions where they are still present. Abandoned or escaped captive wolves can be more destructive and pose a greater danger to humans and livestock than wild wolves, seeing as their",
"-25.898184791905805"
],
[
"at humans when the birds are held in captivity. Undoubtedly, they have this inclination in order to repel natural predators, from both themselves and their offspring. Known natural predators of this species have included ocelots and ornate hawk-eagles, though chicks and eggs likely have a broader range of predators. When a potential predator is near their offspring, curassows have been noted to engage in a distraction display, feigning injury. When attacking humans, the curassows leap in fluttering flight and scratch about the head, targeting the eyes. Their lifespan in captivity has reached at least 24 years. Paleontology The great curassow",
"-25.704482162283966"
],
[
"is any human disturbances present near them, the parents would leave their nest, thus leaving their unhatched eggs to be vulnerable for attacks. This shows the predation or even the seemingly threatening acts result in decrease of reproduction and survival of the young. Also because they are so sensitive, there have been restoration efforts to rebuild the Western grebes' native lands, so that they are able to reproduce and raise their young without any threats inflicted to them. Not only by the predation threat, the number of the Grebes has been slowly declining in the last two decades, with oil",
"-25.63582542858785"
],
[
"the offspring of the previous male. This causes the mother to go into estrus sooner. However, most infanticide is done by close relatives. Lactating females will kill the offspring of a related female both to decrease competition for the female’s offspring and for increased foraging area due to a decrease in territorial defense by the victimized mother. Supporters of the theory that prairie dogs are communal breeders state that another reason for this type of infanticide is so that the female can get a possible helper. With their own offspring gone, the victimized mother may help raise the young of",
"-25.55731717031449"
],
[
"to predation by the fact that they are ground-dwelling birds which are reluctant to fly. Predators of eggs and hatchlings include raptors, corvids, hedgehogs, foxes, badgers (Meles ssp.), martens (Martes ssp.), rats (Rattus ssp.) and wild boars (Sus scrofa). The most serious natural predators of nests are perhaps red foxes and hooded crows (Corvus cornix). Chicks grow very quickly, by 6 months being nearly two-thirds of their adult size, and are predated by foxes, lynxes, wolves (Canis lupus), dogs, jackals and eagles. Predation on adult male great bustards has been reportedly committed by white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) while golden eagles",
"-25.494641486759065"
],
[
"called filial infanticide. In virtually all species, brood reduction only occurs via siblicide, however in some species such as the white stork, filial infanticide has been observed. Siblicide often occurs via harassment and intimidation, preventing the smaller chicks from having enough food. However, fatal aggression between siblings is also common.\nBrood reduction by means of siblicide can be facultative or obligate. Facultative brood reduction depends on the conditions of that particular year, and only occurs when there is a limit to the resources available for the nestlings. Obligate brood reduction always occurs and does not depend on food availability. \nHatching asynchrony",
"-25.478204614424612"
],
[
"humans before fledging but only do so rarely. Despite the size and power of the eagle, attacks by the eagles may have minor consequences as well since the attacks are meant only to displace and not kill or seriously maim the intruding animal. However, nest-defense attacks may nonetheless possibly result in deep, painful, open wounds, which can lead to risk of infection or the need for stitches.\nThe crowned eagle is perhaps the only extant raptorial bird which has been believed to attack human children as prey. In one case, a 7-year-old boy, of a weight of approximately 20 kg (44 lb), was",
"-25.4608898924198"
],
[
"in pairs, often quiet, yet alert. They can usually tolerate the presence of humans and it is possible to observe them up close, especially in areas where they have become habituated to humans feeding them. When disturbed, they will slowly and cautiously seek out shelter within surrounding vegetation, rather than fluttering away in panic. If desperate, they will fly short distances, gliding down the mountainside. The males are territorial, with a range of 200–400 metres in radius. Both sexes make soft clucking sounds when feeding, and the males make ke, ke, ke calls when fighting for their mate or territory.",
"-25.452604454967513"
],
[
"presence of any male, even the father of the litter, once she gives birth to her cubs.\nIf the father of a leopard's litter is present for the rearing of the cubs, there are fewer instances of infanticide as foreign males stay farther away from the cubs.\nGroups of banded mongooses have been observed kidnapping and/or killing the members of other groups for no confirmed reason, though many theories have been suggested. Exceptions Unlike other African felids, no infanticidal behavior has been observed in the cheetah. Scientists hypothesize that this is because many cheetah litters have cubs from different fathers and males",
"-25.41451299248729"
],
[
"to be unafraid of humans stalked a couple walking their four-year-old daughter in September that year, losing interest when the family took refuge in a trailer. Two days later, the wolf attacked a 19-month-old boy, causing several puncture wounds on his chest and back before being driven off by campers. After the animal was killed later that day, it was found to be non-rabid.",
"-25.4104386693798"
],
[
"child, often with a silencing bite to the mouth and nose, and carries a child off by the head. Such attacks typically occur in local clusters, and generally do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated. Agonistic attacks Agonistic attacks are motivated not by hunger nor fear but rather by aggression; designed to kill or drive off a competitor away from a territory or food source. As with predatory attacks, these may begin with or be limited to exploratory or investigative attacks designed to test the vulnerability and determination of the victim. Even when pressed until the death of",
"-25.37246136862086"
],
[
"the weakest and most vulnerable categories of prey are targeted. Aside from their physical inferiority, children were historically more vulnerable to wolves as they were more likely to enter forests unattended to pick berries and mushrooms, as well as tend and watch over cattle and sheep on pastures. While these practices have largely died out in Europe, they are still the case in India, where numerous attacks have been recorded in recent decades. Further reason for the vulnerability of children is the fact that some may mistake wolves for dogs and thus approach them. Wild vs. captive wolf attacks Experts",
"-25.32051577238599"
],
[
"always occurs in some, such as tropical members of the booted eagle group, is that the smaller siblings are a kind of insurance policy that if the oldest, strongest nestling dies, one of the smaller siblings may take its place. In most species that have displayed siblicide, times of food plenty may result in two or more the nestlings being successfully raised to fledging.\nIn most accipitrids, the smaller males typically attain food both for the incubating and brooding female and the nestlings. Males, however, occasionally take a shift incubating or even more sporadically of brooding of the nestlings, which allows",
"-25.313817325630225"
],
[
"infant due to resource competition. Primates from outside of familial groups might infiltrate areas and kill infants from other groups to eliminate competition for resources. When resources are limited, infants are easier to eliminate from the competition pool than other group members because they are the most defenseless and thus become targets of infanticide. Primate infanticide motivated by resource competition can also involve cannibalizing the infant as a source of nutrition.\nResource competition is also a primary motivator in inter-species infanticide, or the killing of infants from one species by another species. Through eliminating infants of another species in the",
"-25.301040082151303"
],
[
"nests. The time they spend outside of their nests searching for food to bring back for their young also puts them at a higher risk of predation.",
"-25.26770410320387"
],
[
"cubs on their own were still yearlings. Brown bears practice infanticide, as an adult male bear may kill the cubs of a female bear. When an adult male brown bear kills a cub, it is usually because he is trying to bring the female into oestrus, as she will enter that state within two to four days after the death of her cubs. Cubs flee up a tree, if available, when they see a strange male bear and the mother often successfully defends them, even though the male may be twice as heavy as she, although females have been known",
"-25.267288035422098"
],
[
"fights between males frequently occur because the plovers see their broods threatened. During such fights, it occurs that chicks get injured or even killed. When approached by a predator, chicks usually try to find a spot where they can hide, crouch down and stay motionless to remain unseen. When they are older, they try to run away with their parents. Nesting and Incubation Kentish plovers either nest solitarily or in a loose semicolonial manner. They are ground-nesting birds that lay their eggs in small shallow scrapes prepared by the male during courtship on the bare ground. Selection of the breeding",
"-25.239253343688688"
],
[
"Infanticide Infanticide is the killing of a non-adult animal by an adult of the same species. Infanticide is often, but not always, accompanied by cannibalism. It is often displayed in lions; a male lion encroaching on the territory of a rival pride will often kill any existing cubs fathered by other males; this brings the lionesses into heat more quickly, enabling the invading lion to sire his own young. This is a good example of cannibalistic behavior in a genetic context.\nIn many species of Lepidoptera, such as Cupido minimus and the Indian mealmoth, the first larvae to hatch will consume",
"-25.186464596306905"
],
[
"resident males, 1 was still alive and 3 were displaced by rivals. Five litters of cubs were killed by infanticide, 2 litters died because they were too young to fend for themselves when their mothers died. One juvenile tiger was presumed dead after being photographed with severe injuries from a deer snare. The remaining young lived long enough to reach dispersal age, 2 of them becoming residents in the study area. Hunting and diet The tiger is a carnivore. It prefers hunting large ungulates such as chital, sambar, gaur, and to a lesser extent also barasingha, water buffalo, nilgai, serow",
"-25.172490167213255"
],
[
"likely to attack any sudden threat. Black bears present something of an exception to this, however, as mother black bears sometimes urge their cubs to climb trees for safety instead of remaining on the ground to protect their young. Hunger Another dangerous situation is when a human is faced with a hungry bear that has lost its natural fear of humans. With the decrease of hunting grounds and food crops such as berries and bark, bears often become more desperate and aggressive. However, this hunger has also triggered an unexpected reaction: bears began to follow gunfire because they associate it",
"-25.138841004518326"
],
[
"to be socialized or kill them outright. The feral adults are usually killed or euthanized, due to the large time commitment, but some shelters and vets will spay or neuter and vaccinate a feral cat and then return it to the wild. Dogs In domesticated dogs, the process of socialization begins even before the puppy's eyes open. Socialization refers to both its ability to interact acceptably with humans and its understanding of how to communicate successfully with other dogs. If the mother is fearful of humans or of her environment, she can pass along this fear to her puppies. For",
"-25.135830704457476"
],
[
"from the wild. Main reasons for a pups rescue can be because they are separated from their mothers and are unable to feed, or they can be entangled in marine litter. The aim is to release them back into the wild having given them the best chance of survival.\nThe rescue normally starts with a call about an apparently abandoned pup. If the rescue team decide that the pup is in danger, it is captured and taken to the sanctuary. Upon arrival, a full medical assessment is carried out, and a course of treatment is decided. Many of the pups are",
"-25.1273106377339"
],
[
"been adopted or stolen are quickly abandoned once again, as the female is unable to feed and care for the chick alone. The parentless chicks wander around the colony attempting to seek food and protection from other adults. They will even try to shelter themselves in an adult bird's brood pouch already occupied by their own chick. These stray chicks are brusquely driven away by the adults and their chicks. All orphaned chicks will rapidly become weaker and die of starvation, or freeze to death.\nAbout 45–50 days after hatching, the chicks form a crèche, huddling together for warmth",
"-25.102661625889596"
],
[
"than one fledgling, though in captivity two have been known to survive with human assistance (supplementally feeding the younger chick or taking it out of the nest). In cases where the older nestling dies, the younger one may be fed more regularly and survive.\nAfter hatching, the male kill rate rises to one kill every 1.5 days. Pair behavior while raising chicks is very variable, some males are very attentive to their young, while others leave virtually all brooding to the female. After 40 days of age, the young is capable of feeding itself, though is often still fed. The first",
"-25.010639705200447"
],
[
"days where the young fledging period extends to around six weeks.\nBanded dotterel chicks leave their nests upon the day of hatching where they accompany their parents in the hunt for food. At the slimmest indication of potential danger, watchful adult birds sound the alarm causing the chicks to run a few feet in a scattered motion then squat with their legs doubled over beneath them and their head stretched out firmly against the ground in front of them, camouflaging into the coastal terrain around them. They remain stationed without moving until the parents decide the surrounding environment is clear and",
"-25.0070263678208"
],
[
"Bear danger Bear danger is the risk encountered by humans and their pets or livestock when interacting with bears.\nAlthough most bears are alpha predators in their own habitat, most do not, under normal circumstances, hunt and feed on humans. Most bear attacks occur when the animal is defending itself against anything it perceives as a threat to itself or its territory. For instance, bear sows can become extremely aggressive if they feel their cubs are threatened. Any solitary bear is also likely to become agitated if surprised or cornered, especially while eating.\nSome species are more aggressive than others; sloth bears,",
"-24.98559637897415"
],
[
"(C. quoyi), the spangled drongo (Dicrurus bracteatus), and the pied currawong (Strepera graculina), as well as the feral cat (Felis catus), and rat species. The proximity of nesting to human habitation has also left nests open to destruction by children. Feeding The willie wagtail perches on low branches, fences, posts, and the like, watching for insects and other small invertebrates in the air or on the ground. It usually hunts by hawking flying insects such as gnats, flies, and small moths, but will occasionally glean from the ground. It will often hop along the ground and flit behind people and",
"-24.973349434614647"
],
[
"healthy with no signs of health abnormalities. Therefore, infanticide did not appear to occur due to low viability of infant. Additionally, overcrowding or feeding competition were not factors in infanticide. In this case, there were no clear functions of the infanticide; the reason for infanticide in black-fronted titi monkeys is currently unknown. Sexual Competition Infanticide increases a male's reproductive success when he takes over a new troop of females. This behavior has been observed in langurs who live in single male breeding groups. The females whose infants were killed exhibited estrous behavior and copulated with the new leader. These effects",
"-24.960084111313336"
],
[
"found outside of nests, and do not exhibit aggressive behavior towards humans unless disturbed.",
"-24.933578637224855"
],
[
"the Chesapeake Bay area, 100% of 39 radio-tagged nestlings survived to their first year. Occasionally, nestling or egg fatalities are due to nest collapses, starvation, sibling aggression or inclement weather. Another significant cause of egg and nestling mortality is predation. These have been verified to be preyed by large gulls, corvids (including ravens, crows and magpies), wolverines (Gulo gulo), fishers (Martes pennanti), red-tailed hawks, owls, eagles, bobcats (Lynx rufus), American black bears (Ursus americanus) and raccoons. If food access is low, parental attendance at the nest may be lower because both parents may have to forage thus resulting in less",
"-24.932024536188692"
],
[
"give birth to up to four cubs, and most commonly to two. The mother will not tolerate the presence of males after the birth of cubs, given a risk of infanticide; this behavior is also found in the tiger.\nThe young are born blind, gaining sight after two weeks. Cubs are weaned at three months, but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts. They will continue in their mother's company for one to two years before leaving to establish a territory for themselves. Young males are at first nomadic, jostling with their",
"-24.90245148696704"
],
[
"were crosses with wolves or domestic dogs, rabid, starving, or protecting a carcass. None of these suggestions were subsequently borne out, causing a reassessment of potential risk to humans from coyote attacks. It was also thought by experts that Mitchell may have inadvertently provoked a predation behaviour by running away, though a coyote may have been behind her when she was confronted by the oncoming ones.\nAs is standard practice when an animal remains at large after killing a human, wardens searched for the attacker animal in the vicinity, where five or six coyotes were believed to live. Mitchell's mother",
"-24.84619748228579"
],
[
"feel threatened. Sows with cubs account for the majority of injuries and fatalities in North America. Habituated or food conditioned bears can also be dangerous, as their long-term exposure to humans causes them to lose their natural shyness, and in some cases associate humans with food. Small parties of one or two people are more often attacked than large groups, with no attacks being recorded against parties of more than seven people. In contrast to injuries caused by American black bears, which are usually minor, brown bear attacks tend to result in serious injury and in some cases death. In",
"-24.81203717988683"
],
[
"boys being meanwhile ready in hiding. When the cannibals tried to climb the barricade, they slipped and fell, and the boys rushing out succeeded in killing them both after a hard fight. The children then called to the boy's mother, who had been greatly terrified, and when she came and saw both the cannibals dead, she built a fire, and they cut up the bodies and burned them, saving only the breasts of the ogress. These Tamus put in a coco-nut-shell, and setting it afloat on the sea, said: \"Go to the people who ran away from here, and if",
"-24.791454234276898"
],
[
"confrontation in which humans would kill them.\nIn 2003, Treadwell was camping in Katmai National Park with his girlfriend, Amie Huguenard. Treadwell usually left the park at the end of summer but that year stayed into early October. This put him and Huguenard at greater risk, as in this period, bears are aggressive about searching for food to store up calories for hibernation during the winter. Herzog speculates that their staying later in the season ultimately resulted in the deaths of Treadwell and Huguenard.\nIn addition to presenting views from friends and professionals, Herzog narrates and offers his own interpretations of",
"-24.786922258384948"
],
[
"of the adults are taken captive. Jaguar Paw nearly kills the sadistic raider Middle Eye, who kills the captive Flint Sky in retaliation and names Jaguar Paw \"Almost\". Jaguar Paw's heavily pregnant wife Seven and their young son Turtles Run escape by hiding in a small natural pit cave that also serves as a water reservoir, but are left trapped when Jaguar Paw is captured. The raiders then lead the captives on a long forced march through the jungle, leaving the children behind to fend for themselves.\nOn the journey, Cocoa Leaf, a badly wounded captive, is killed by Middle Eye,",
"-24.775907660136"
],
[
"their pups are toxic as soon as they are born. They reach sexual maturity at three years of age. It is also common for females to give birth at communal den sites with the young born between August and October. Conservation status This species is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (v3.1, 2001). Species are listed as such due to their wide distribution, presumed large population, or because they are unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category. The population trend was stable when assessed in 2006.",
"-24.774332491797395"
],
[
"house to try to get a look at the babies when Karen has a vision of a dog guarding the house. Ron was terrified of dogs, so Karen had to go warn him. As she gets to him, the dog attacks, Ron shoots him, and Karen screams. Jed then comes out and shoots Ron in the shoulder. They were taken inside, and Karen tries to keep Ron from losing much blood. Soon, the police come and rescue them both, returning all of the missing babies. Karen’s mother was the one who alerted the police, after receiving a vision.\nKaren's mother then",
"-24.76377235574364"
],
[
"the nest is common between males. Adult males begin attacking juveniles when they are around 11 weeks old, and attackers can include males that previously cared for the fledgling. Adult females are less aggressive towards young birds, although mothers do occasionally attack their own offspring, and infanticide has been recorded. There is little male to female aggression other than the 'driving flights' that form part of the mating ritual. In direct attacks of young birds pecks are directed at the eye patch. Agonistic behaviour has been observed among nestlings, with aggression intensifying after fledging and at times resulting in the",
"-24.757317200814214"
],
[
"predation avoidance. It is thought that the male undertakes the majority of incubation during the night. If a clutch is lost, it is highly likely that a pair will re-lay eggs. Parental Care The fledging period of chicks is approximately 35–38 days, and the proportion of hatched chicks that actually fledge is estimated to be 28%. If a predator or threat is near, adults with chicks or eggs near hatching date will perform distraction displays such as ‘rodent running’ and ‘injury feigning’. ‘Rodent running’ consists of the adult running fast, with a low head and a low spread tail, similar",
"-24.73016534675844"
],
[
"less than 50% for males in Wind Cave National Park. Primary causes of death were predation and infanticide. Infanticide partially or totally eliminated 39% (361 individuals) of all litters. Lactating females were the most common killers. Mortality of young was highest due to heavy predation during the winter and early spring following birth. Mortality increases with dispersal from a colony or coterie.\nSylvatic plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, can quickly eliminate entire black-tailed prairie dog colonies. Once infected, death occurs within a few days. Black-tailed prairie dogs are also susceptible to diseases transmitted by introduced animals. Predators The most",
"-24.728820404969156"
],
[
"resources are limited, it benefits the parents to allow brood reduction, because it reduces the amount of work they must do and increases their chances of surviving and reproducing again in future years.\nBrood reduction has been observed in many avian species including seabirds such as black-legged kittiwakes, birds of prey such as Swainson's hawk and several eagle species, and songbirds including black-billed magpies and house wrens. Infanticide Brood reduction often occurs as infanticide, the killing nestlings by members of the same species. Infanticide can be done by siblings, which is referred to as siblicide, or by the parents, which is",
"-24.722842595772818"
],
[
"where they can't easily get away. Even predators will only possibly attack when hungry or to protect their offspring. In most cases animals are far more scared of people than the other way around and will likely run away.\nIn the opposite direction several animals who have a non-threatening appearance and actually look cute, cuddly, graceful and playful are often portrayed as adorable: rabbits, dogs, mice, kittens, sheep, seals, dolphins, chipmunks, monkeys, ladybugs, butterflies. Various pet owners tend to treat their pets almost as if they are toys or cute little babies. Once again, this is a serious oversimplification. Monkeys, for",
"-24.693150970968418"
],
[
"or home. The court stated that the father's actions of repeatedly calling the mother late a night, honking his car outside her home and arriving at her children's activities without warning constituted as an \"ongoing campaign\" of stalking. It found that this behaviour was undertaken with the intent to control and intimidate the mother. The judge concluded that as the Act states that the need to protect a child from harm is the priority of the Family Court and stalking constitutes as family violence the father should be denied access to his children. Oakes v Oakes In the case Oakes",
"-24.687982784351334"
],
[
"Fund for Animal Welfare and assistance from Don Manolo Lopez of MERALCO. It had an informal operation in 2002. Limited-Admission shelter It is exclusively for animals in distress. An “animal in distress” is one that is suffering or is in imminent danger of losing its life. Not all animals in distress can be taken in at a given time due to the limited space & number of caretakers in the organization's shelter and due to its strict quarantine protocols.\nPAWS has never advertised its shelter as a \"NO-KILL\" shelter. The organization strives to provide the best care for shelter animals",
"-24.68360613839468"
],
[
"is very inviting to do so, especially since even at daytime, the animal is not easily scared by approaching people and tends to rest on tree trunks and twigs at eye level.\nThe tarsier, especially if it's a male, is also a territorial creature. A male would attack any young tarsier venturing into its territory and kill it with a fierce bite. \"That's why when there's a newborn, we try to check on the position [of mother and offspring] three times a day,\" he said, adding that the male tarsier's murderous disposition precluded keeping it in a small, enclosed space. The",
"-24.674629501765594"
],
[
"they do not generally recognize humans as prey. In a 10-year study in New Mexico of wild cougars who were not habituated to humans, the animals did not exhibit threatening behavior to researchers who approached closely (median distance=18.5 m; 61 feet) except in 6% of cases; 14/16 of those were females with cubs. Attacks on people, livestock, and pets may occur when a puma habituates to humans or is in a condition of severe starvation. Attacks are most frequent during late spring and summer, when juvenile cougars leave their mothers and search for new territory.\nBetween 1890 and 1990, in North",
"-24.666803004060057"
],
[
"telling for harem-polygynous males, with a risk of infection. It is also energetically costly to pursue a mother's young, which may try to escape.\nCosts of the behavior described in prairie dogs include the risk to an individual of losing their own young while killing another's, not to mention the fact that they are killing their own relatives. In a species where infanticide is common, perpetrators may well be victims themselves in the future, such that they come out no better off; but as long as an infanticidal individual gains in reproductive output by its behavior, it will tend to become",
"-24.63936919439584"
],
[
"in the Home Guard. On the one hand, he was worried about Germans appearing out of the dark but he was equally concerned that if a bomb dropped near the zoo the animals might escape from their cages. ‘Often, 17 year olds like myself exchanged our fears about what one would do if, spare the thought, in such an event the monstrous form of Alfred were to lumber forward out of the darkness’, he recalled, ‘probably run towards the enemy!’ he concluded. Death In 1946 Alfred became sluggish and overweight before being diagnosed with thyroid deficiency. He recovered from the",
"-24.60979415375914"
],
[
"for food, and future competition among offspring.\nSimilar behavior has been reported in the meerkat (Suricata suricatta), including cases of females killing their mother's, sister's, and daughter's offspring. Infanticidal raids from neighboring groups also occurred. Other Bottlenose dolphins have been reported to kill their young through impact injuries. Dominant male langurs tend to kill the existing young upon taking control of a harem. There has been sightings of infanticide in the leopard population. The males of the Stegodyphus lineatus species of spider have been known to exhibit infanticide as a way to encourage females to mate again.\nIn mammals, male infanticide is",
"-24.6037402816728"
],
[
"took place, of which 8,000 were sufficiently serious to require police or medical intervention and at least one being fatal. In part, the problem is traced to status dogs that are abandoned when they become troublesome, and in part due to those dogs living in forested areas that are poorly socialized and more prone to aggressive territorialism.",
"-24.597403763094917"
],
[
"gives birth during hibernation, so the increased food supply is expected to produce an increase in the numbers of cubs observed. Dozens of other species, including eagles, ravens, magpies, coyotes and black bears have also been documented as scavenging from wolf kills within the park. Human trophic level Ecologists have debated whether humans are apex predators. Sylvain Bonhommeau and colleagues argued in 2013 that across the global food web, a fractional human trophic level (HTL) can be calculated as the mean trophic level of every species in the human diet, weighted by the proportion which that species forms in",
"-24.590964577902923"
],
[
"predators will prey on young cygnets, as will common snapping turtle (Chelhydra serpentina), California gull (Larus californicus), great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and American mink (Mustela vison). Larger cygnets and, rarely, nesting adults may be ambushed by golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), bobcat (Lynx rufus), and probably both coyotes and gray wolves. When their eggs and young are threatened, the parents can be quite aggressive, initially displaying with head bobbing and hissing. If this is not sufficient, the adults will physically combat the predator, battering with their powerful wings and biting with their large bills; adults have",
"-24.560902493161848"
],
[
"and, in the case of males, attempting to make the mother sexually receptive. The latter reason is well supported in primates and lions but less so in rodents. Infanticide appears to be widespread in black-tailed prairie dogs, including infanticide from invading males and immigrant females, as well as occasional cannibalism of an individual's own offspring. To protect against infanticide from other adults, female rodents may employ avoidance or direct aggression against potential perpetrators, multiple mating, territoriality or early termination of pregnancy. Feticide can also occur among rodents; in Alpine marmots, dominant females tend to suppress the reproduction of subordinates by",
"-24.560139037726913"
],
[
"in strepsirrhines such as galagoes. Galagoes give birth to single young which is left in a nest as an infant and carried to a parking place in the vegetation orally by the mothers. In addition, the use of nests or tree holes as shelters for young infants differs functionally from the use of resting places by adult animals (which may be accompanied by infants).",
"-24.545038977026707"
],
[
"of migratory birds. No permit is required to remove nests and eggs or kill juveniles or adults. Research was undertaken in 1966 to identify a suitable avicide that would both kill common starlings and would readily be eaten by them. It also needed to be of low toxicity to mammals and not likely to cause the death of pets that ate dead birds. The chemical that best fitted these criteria was DRC-1339, now marketed as Starlicide. In 2008, the United States government poisoned, shot or trapped 1.7 million birds, the largest number of any nuisance species to be destroyed. In 2005,",
"-24.51425814186223"
],
[
"side of its nest while fluttering its wings; some birds use their tails as a prop underneath the nest to help support themselves. Rockfowl have been known to kill the young of other rockfowl, while nest predation is carried out by cobras of the genus Naja, the Nile monitor, sun squirrels, red-chested goshawks, and Procolobus monkeys. This leads on average to only 0.44 nestlings surviving per pair of rockfowl. Due to potential infanticide by other rockfowl, parents protect their nest and vicious fights often occur. Rare among other bird species, this behaviour is prevalent in white-necked rockfowl. Not fully understood,",
"-24.505741980858147"
],
[
"not even approach the nest until several days after the eggs hatch. She sits facing the back wall of the nest, with her head and body sheltered by its roof and her tail sticking out the opening. She sits tight at the approach of danger, typically not flying until a potential predator actually makes contact with the nest.\nBoth adults feed the nestlings and remove fecal sacs, though the female removes far more than the male does. The parents move deceptively when approaching the nest, foraging – or pretending to forage – in nearby vegetation. They stay only a few seconds",
"-24.500350350435838"
],
[
"an existing group. They will attempt to kill any cubs that are roughly nine months old or younger, though as in other species, the female will attempt to defend her cubs viciously. Males have, on average, only a two-year window in which to pass on their genes, and lionesses only give birth once every two years, so the selective pressure on them to conform to this behavior is strong. In fact it is estimated that a quarter of cubs dying in the first year of life are victims of infanticide.\nMale mice show great variation in behavior over time. After fertilizing",
"-24.49904955344391"
],
[
"to help the children, since humans had taken them in when they had no home and if this senseless flesh-eating frenzy continues, there is no guarantee that the kittens inside her womb will be safe.\nThe tortoise signals the crocodiles to start the attack, the cat frees the children who manage to start the tractor engine and escape from the crocodiles, who are in pursuit of the barn. In the meantime Ferdinand finally manages to wake up and sees that the barn is coming at them at full speed. The tortoise finally manages to break the engine down and the barn",
"-24.47398886764131"
],
[
"been termed \"abandonment homicides,\" and are most commonly committed by men with childhood histories of abandonment and trauma, in conjunction with markedly low serotonin levels and frontal cortex damage that contribute to poor impulse control. The male is more likely to kill his mate before she has had the chance to form a new relationship with another man as he fears she will then devote her reproductive resources to a male rival's offspring. Therefore, by killing his partner he will avoid the reputational damage associated with intrasexual competition and will eliminate the chances of another man having access to a",
"-24.471249471695046"
],
[
"will retreat to avoid injuries and/or save energy. Nestling barn owls refrain from vocalization when a rival is more hungry, but escalate once the rival has been fed by a parent, and refrain from and escalate vocalization in enlarged and reduced broods. Thus, when parents are not at the nest, a nestling vocally refrains when the value of the next delivered prey item will be higher for its nest-mates. Trained animals Several species of animals are trained by humans to perform begging behavior to earn money or food.\nFishermen in the central Philippines have been feeding whale sharks young shrimp since",
"-24.46822125336257"
],
[
"may even attack the predator or intruder. The chicks are precocial; their parents do not feed them.",
"-24.454550517519237"
],
[
"more food, a hunter was necessarily the one to feed on whatever food was left. However, a common response to desperate conditions and the threat of starvation was infanticide. A mother abandoned an infant in hopes that someone less desperate might find and adopt the child before the cold or animals killed it. The belief that the Inuit regularly resorted to infanticide may be due in part to studies done by Asen Balikci, Milton Freeman and David Riches among the Netsilik, along with the trial of Kikkik. Other recent research has noted that \"While there is little disagreement that there",
"-24.44814485896495"
],
[
"them to be born as animals in their next birth. Their hostility continues in their next birth as well. One day these two animals were seized by Garuda, who took them in his claws to a mountain and ate them. Garuda killed them on the advice of his father Kashyapa. Supratika (Bhagadatta's elephant) On the twelfth day of the Kurukshetra War, Duryodhana sent a large elephant division against Bhima. Bhima killed all the elephants with his mace. This created a havoc among the Kaurava army and they fled for their life in all directions. Angered by this, the king of",
"-24.446656882893876"
],
[
"young of this species if they are capable of accessing nests on foot. Avian scavengers, especially maurading groups of common ravens, will also readily prey on eggs and nestlings, as will skuas (Stercorarius ssp.). Snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus) are a potential predator at the nest as well. Adults, being a large raptorial bird, have fewer natural predators but may die in conflicts, especially if they are defending their own nests and are occasionally preyed on by other large raptorial birds. Raptors who prey on rough-legged buzzards of most ages at varied times of year may include numerous eagles (especially the",
"-24.443678138777614"
],
[
"applies to species in which a male has a very long tenure as the dominant male, and faces little instability in this hierarchy. Females choose these dominant males as the best available form of protection, and therefore mate exclusively with this male. This is especially common within small rodents. An additional behavioural strategy to prevent infanticide by males may be aggressive protection of the nest along with female presence. This strategy is commonly used in species such as European rabbits. Infanticide by parents and caregivers Filial infanticide occurs when a parent kills its own offspring. Both male and female parents",
"-24.43994565180037"
],
[
"or less frequently would have a lower chance of survival.\nMaintaining individual vigilance may be a more beneficial strategy if vigilant animals gain some sort of advantage. Non-vigilant individuals are often the last to flee to safety, as groups generally flee in succession from the individual who spots the predator, individuals who were vigilant when the first animal departs, and finally the non-vigilant individuals. Predators may also target less vigilant prey as they are likely to detect the predator later and therefore respond more slowly. Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) select less vigilant Thomson's gazelles (Eudorcas thomsonii) before initiating a chase and target",
"-24.40998849621974"
],
[
"other dangers are near, and smaller birds often recognize this call and hide themselves away accordingly. It may occasionally impersonate the calls of raptors, especially those of the red-tailed and red-shouldered hawks, possibly to test if a hawk is in the vicinity, though also possibly to scare off other birds that may compete for food sources. It may also be aggressive towards humans who come close to its nest, and if an owl roosts near the nest during the daytime the blue jay mobs it until it takes a new roost. However, blue jays have also been known to attack",
"-24.399467888710205"
],
[
"because the young reared each year only just makes up for those that die during hibernation. Sixty percent of young individuals and the majority of elderly adults (over the age of four) do not survive the winter. Another cause of mortality is storms which may cause the death of juveniles in unprotected nests. Dormice are also preyed upon by pine marten, stone martens, wildcats, owls and crows. Two of its main predators are tawny owls (Strix aluco) and Eurasian eagle-owls (Bubo bubo). However, due to individuals being extremely careful not to travel away from brushy cover forest dormice are difficult",
"-24.37726020536502"
],
[
"reduced reproductive success if the clutch is lost. This results in vicious battles where injury and even death can occur. Jacana jacana, a tropical wading bird, provides an example of infanticide by the female sex. Females guard a territory while males care for their young. As males are a limited resource, other females will commonly displace or kill their young. Males can then mate again and care for the young of the new female.\nThis behavior is costly to both sides, and counter-adaptations have evolved in the affected sex ranging from cooperative defense of their young to loss minimization strategies such",
"-24.348714560910594"
],
[
"produced another 18%. Remaining causes of death included hunting (5 cases), entanglement in wire (1 case), the removal of cassowaries that attacked humans (4 cases), and natural causes (18 cases), including tuberculosis (4 cases). The cause for 14 cases were indicated as, for unknown reasons.\nHand feeding of cassowaries poses a significant threat to their survival because it lures them into suburban areas. There, the birds are more susceptible to encounters with vehicles and dogs. Contact with humans encourages cassowaries to take food from picnic tables. Feral pigs also are a significant threat to their survival. They destroy nests and eggs",
"-24.340790429720073"
],
[
"be fed and to roost at night.\nAt least one adult remains in the nest for two to three weeks after hatching to protect the young. Both parents feed the young by regurgitating onto the floor of the nest. Black stork parents have been known to kill one of their fledglings, generally the weakest, in times of food shortage to reduce brood size and hence increase the chance of survival of the remaining nestlings. Stork nestlings do not attack each other, and their parents' method of feeding them (disgorging large amounts of food at once) means that stronger siblings cannot outcompete",
"-24.314209369314995"
],
[
"have been observed to do this, as well as sterile worker castes in some eusocial animals. Filial infanticide is also observed as a form of brood reduction in some birds species, such as the white stork. This may be due to a lack of siblicide in this species. Maternal Maternal infanticide occurs when newborn offspring are killed by their mother. This is sometimes seen in pigs, a behavior known as savaging, which affects up to 5% of gilts. Similar behavior has been observed in various animals such as rabbits and burying beetles. Paternal Paternal infanticide—where fathers eat their own offspring—may",
"-24.309697274628434"
],
[
"human victims out of desperation. In one case, a post-mortem examination of a killed tigress revealed two broken canine teeth, four missing incisors and a loose upper molar, handicaps which would make capturing stronger prey extremely difficult. Only upon reaching this stage did she attack a workman.\nIn some cases, rather than being predatory, tiger attacks on humans seem to be territorial in nature. In at least one case, a tigress with cubs killed eight people entering her territory without consuming them at all. Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans The Bengal tigers of the Sundarbans (translation: 'beautiful forest'), bordering India and",
"-24.30243010313825"
],
[
"take an infant from its mother (allomothering) and forcibly retain it until starvation. This is known as the \"aunting to death\" phenomena; these non-lactating female primates gain mothering-like experience, yet lack the resources to feed the infant. Resource Competition Resource competition results when there are too few resources in a particular area to support the existing population. In primates, resource competition is a prime motivator for infanticide. Infanticide motivated by resource competition can occur both outside of and within familial groups. Dominant, high ranking, female chimpanzees have been shown to more often aggress towards a lower ranking female and her",
"-24.30199884083413"
],
[
"crushed in the nest, discarded out of the nest after starvation or consumed by the parents or the siblings. However, as a whole, such killings are fairly rare and only occur when food supplies are extremely low, often this being in sync with poor spring weather (such as overly rainy or cold conditions). If there is too much food, such as California ground squirrels in California, the parents will discard remains after a day or two since decomposition of their prey invites infection, other diseases and blood-sucking insects to the nest that may endanger the nestlings. However, after about four",
"-24.30073659030313"
],
[
"For the first ten days after hatching, one adult rockfowl stays and guards the nestlings while the other collects food; despite this, nests have been destroyed by chimpanzees and drills. The chicks leave the nest after 24 days. Infanticide has been recorded in this species, with rockfowl killing other rockfowl's young. In one case, a second pair of rockfowl moved onto a nest after killing the first pair's nestlings. Relationship with humans In Cameroon, the grey-necked rockfowl is respected by the indigenous peoples and, in some cases, even feared. It is known by many names to the indigenous peoples of",
"-24.29056654276792"
]
] |
1dvkc7 | Do animals know they're going to die? | [
"Animals, at least higher functioning mammals, have some sort of concept of death, though I don't know how much it differs from what you or I understand death to be. Elderly pack animals (wolves, for example) will voluntarily leave the pack, stop eating, and find a quiet place to die, for example. Elephants that come across the bones of another elephant will stop and \"feel\" skulls with their trunks and even cover remains with brush.",
"I think they do because about 2 years ago, my dog suddenly just jumped out of my bed and went over to the living room. After some struggling, he died. I think he knew he was going and he didn't want to die where me and him went to sleep. Gosh, I miss him.",
"Well, considering that human beings are animals, and we understand what death is, I think it would be safe to assume that sufficiently intelligent animals understand what death is. It is easy to imagine that dolphins, monkeys, apes, and other intelligent animals understand that death means the end of an individual's existence."
] | [
[
"Animal suicide Animal suicide refers to any kind of self-destructive behavior displayed by various species of animals, resulting in their death. Although contradicting the natural progression of life and an animal's evolutionary instinct for survival, some situations may lead to an animal inducing their own death. Animal suicide in the defense of the group could be instantaneous or altruistic self-removal once an animal becomes diseased. There are anecdotal reports of grieving pets displaying such behaviour after the death of their owner, or monogamous animals refusing to feed after the death of their mate.\nSome parasites manipulate the behavior of their host,",
"-35.774196884187404"
],
[
"Animal loss The death of a pet or an animal to which one has become emotionally bonded can be an intense loss, comparable with the death of a human loved one, or even greater depending on the individual. The death can be felt more intensely when the owner has made a decision to end the pet's life through euthanasia. While there is strong evidence that animals can feel such loss for other animals, this article focuses on human feelings, when an animal is lost, dies or otherwise is departed. Effect of animal loss on humans There is no set amount",
"-35.49628602917073"
],
[
"explode, covering their enemies with sticky goo.\nThere have been anecdotal reports of dogs, horses, and dolphins killing themselves, but little scientific study of animal suicide. Animal suicide is usually put down to romantic human interpretation and is not generally thought to be intentional. Some of the reasons animals are thought to unintentionally kill themselves include: psychological stress, infection by certain parasites or fungi, or disruption of a long-held social tie, such as the ending of a long association with an owner and thus not accepting food from another individual.",
"-35.42268664785661"
],
[
"range of animals, e.g. lizards, birds, rodents, and sharks, behave as if dead as an anti-predator adaptation, as predators usually take only live prey.\nIn beetles, artificial selection experiments have shown that there is heritable variation for length of death-feigning. Those selected for longer death-feigning durations are at a selective advantage to those at shorter durations when a predator is introduced. Birds often feign death to escape predation; for example tonic immobility in quail reduces the probability of attacks by cats.\nDeath feigning may also play a role in reproduction, for example, in the nursery web spider, the male sometimes feigns death",
"-33.17033968010219"
],
[
"down and die for our dinner? Organisms have evolved to do everything in their power to avoid being extinguished. How long would any lineage be likely to last if its members effectively didn't care if you killed them? Animals killed in crop harvesting Steven Davis, a professor of animal science at Oregon State University, argues that the least harm principle does not require giving up all meat. Davis states that a diet containing beef from grass-fed ruminants such as cattle would kill fewer animals than a vegetarian diet, particularly when one takes into account animals killed by agriculture.\nThis conclusion has",
"-32.883645329100545"
],
[
"supply, waste predator energy and risk them being injured. Nonetheless, researchers say animals surplus kill whenever they can, in order to procure food for offspring and others, to gain valuable killing experience, and to create the opportunity to eat the carcass later when they are hungry again.",
"-32.77431652320956"
],
[
"to ensure the animal is completely dead without the possibility of recovery, which includes cessation of blood flow via the removal of the heart from the circulatory system and/or complete destruction of the brain and spinal column. Following this, common measures of animal morphology are usually rapidly obtained, such as animal length, animal body mass and other biomechanical markers that may be of importance. Once collected, the animal is then prepared appropriately for the harvesting of the target muscle. In isolated muscles, these tend to be muscles of the hind limbs, such as the soleus or EDL of mammals, or",
"-32.684663599793566"
],
[
"die when he is bitten by a poisonous snake, but decides to return the favor and save his life instead. This mutual affair causes a friendship to form between the two, and they team up to save the other animals from predators and humans.",
"-32.65284762473311"
],
[
"by Connolly, animals are given a stroke and maintained on anesthesia and analgesia for 12–18 hours. Then, when anesthesia is removed, animals that are not self-caring are euthanized. All other animals may be kept alive for three days, in accordance with established ethical guidelines. Then, if animals are not self-caring, they are euthanized. Animals that are self-caring at 72 hours may be kept alive for up to 10 days.\nA USDA investigation of the Columbia baboons found \"no indication that the experiments...violated federal guidelines.\" Further, the Dean of Research at Columbia's School of Medicine noted that Connolly stopped the experiments because",
"-32.55541905043356"
],
[
" When animals killed for tissues or organs (but not undergoing any prior procedure) are included the number of animals is just under 2.80 million. The number of animals rose steadily from around 1.8 million in 2000 to over 3 million in 2014, before coming back down below 3 million. In 2016, 61% of procedures were classified as mild, 23% as moderate, 5% as severe, and 11% as non-recovery (in which the animal is anaesthetised and never woken up).\nIn 2014, animal activists released graphic undercover footage of monkeys being used for brain research in Germany, provoking a public outcry.",
"-32.291977444896474"
],
[
"one duck did so after the death of its mate. Some dogs will refuse food from some unknown person after the death of their owner, a behavior that might lead to disease and/or death in severe cases. The death of mourning animals is likely to be caused by depression leading to starvation or drowning, instead of the intent of suicide. In 2009, 28 cows and bulls mysteriously threw themselves off a cliff in the Swiss Alps over the span of three days. One deer leapt from a cliff to its death to avoid being captured by hunting dogs.\nAnother example of",
"-32.05933684378397"
],
[
"distinction between moral and legal culpability is unclear, as is the threshold which triggers animalling; however, being responsible for the death of another human is a definite trigger.\nEvery animal gives its \"owner\" a different psychic power; however, the owner must stay close to the animal at all times, or be subject to debilitating panic attacks, nausea, and other withdrawal symptoms. The animals are not limited by the normal lifespans of their species, but can die by violence; should the animal die, the owner will be torn to shreds by a mysterious dark cloud called the Undertow within minutes. Development history",
"-32.02671647188254"
],
[
"no centralized government records database of animal sickness or death in the United States as there are with humans (such as the Centers for Disease Control). As a result, many sources speculate that the actual number of affected pets may never be known and experts are concerned that the actual death toll could potentially reach into the thousands.\nOverall, several major companies have recalled more than 100 brands of pet foods, with most of the recalled product coming from Menu Foods. Although there are several theories of the source of the agent causing sickness in affected animals, with extensive",
"-31.737941298884834"
],
[
"of most machairodonts.\nMany modern cats show this mixture of traits. Lions are able-bodied hunters, but will steal when they are given the opportunity. Tigers and cougars bury their kills and return later to keep eating, even days later. All cats prefer killing the sick or injured, and there is a fine line between an animal so sick it cannot move and a dead animal. The abundance of Smilodon skeletons in the La Brea tar pits in California supports the hypothesis, as well. The animals caught in the pits would have been dying or dead, the kind of meal a true",
"-31.70523808900907"
],
[
"produced another 18%. Remaining causes of death included hunting (5 cases), entanglement in wire (1 case), the removal of cassowaries that attacked humans (4 cases), and natural causes (18 cases), including tuberculosis (4 cases). The cause for 14 cases were indicated as, for unknown reasons.\nHand feeding of cassowaries poses a significant threat to their survival because it lures them into suburban areas. There, the birds are more susceptible to encounters with vehicles and dogs. Contact with humans encourages cassowaries to take food from picnic tables. Feral pigs also are a significant threat to their survival. They destroy nests and eggs",
"-31.69005500471394"
],
[
"articulated; one rhino still bears her unborn fetus, while others retain the contents of their last meal.\nThe bones of the animals show features that indicate that the animals died of lung failure induced by inhaling volcanic ash. The smaller animals with smaller lung capacity were the first to die, and the larger animals were the last. Bite-marks on some bones show that local predators (the carnivorous bone-crunching dog Aelurodon) scavenged some of the carcasses, but no predator remains have yet surfaced. There are also abundant clues to the region's ecology, indicating a savanna of grassland interspersed with trees that luxuriated",
"-31.578336126287468"
],
[
"rapid, labored respiration. If not recovered, the animal dies, often after a coma.\nIt may also happen in horses.",
"-31.575099567708094"
],
[
"time, the death of an animal could lead to an inability to complete required tasks and cause a farm to fail. This was important because it could, in turn, lead to eviction and poverty and, in extreme cases, loss of human life. For the same reasons, farmers also asked Biddy to help with other problems related to daily life, such as restoring a spring well or fixing a problem with the farm's butter production.\nAt some point Biddy acquired a bottle that became as famous as she was. She would frequently look into the bottle, which contained some sort of dark",
"-31.497547713224776"
],
[
"who was working on foot for many years without any problems with resident tigers, but was chased by a tiger soon after he started riding a bicycle for his work. There are approximately 85 or fewer people killed and injured by tigers each year. These deaths and injuries are not all deliberate; many are accidental. The reason for many of the human killings and injuries are due to rare incidents at zoos, or to the man-eating tigers in India.\nIn some cases, tigers will change their natural diet to become man-eaters. This is usually due to a tiger being incapacitated by",
"-31.480740789847914"
],
[
"walked on Earth's surface. Existing animals have ancestors who shared the same terrain with this monstrous predator, and many of them have fared well and are equally adept predators as the carnivore dinosaurs. This detective story traces the closest surviving offspring of this remarkable beast. Episode 13 : People as Prey People who live close to wild animals sometimes face a sudden and violent death. The chance to die at wild animals jaws is very small, but it does little to comfort the victims. This film examines this serious matter lightly, and it raises some very difficult questions. The program is",
"-31.33982789100628"
],
[
"progressive; affected animals become increasingly emaciated and usually die as the result of dehydration and severe cachexia.\nSigns are rarely evident until two or more years after the initial infection, which usually occurs shortly after birth. Animals are most susceptible to the infection in the first year of life. Newborns most often become infected by swallowing small amounts of infected manure from the birthing environment or udder of the mother. In addition, newborns may become infected while in the uterus or by swallowing bacteria passed in milk and colostrum. Animals exposed at an older age, or exposed to",
"-31.257933408778626"
],
[
"up to 65% mortality are seen in cattle. The prognosis is poor in large animals that are recumbent.\nIn cattle, the symptoms may include drooling, restlessness, uncoordination, urine retention, dysphagia, and sternal recumbency. Laterally recumbent animals are usually very close to death. In sheep, the symptoms may include drooling, a serous nasal discharge, stiffness, and incoordination. Abdominal respiration may be observed and the tail may switch on the side. As the disease progresses, the limbs may become paralyzed and death may occur.\nPhosphorus-deficient cattle, especially in southern Africa, are inclined to ingest bones and carrion containing clostridial toxins and consequently suffer lame",
"-31.257820022172382"
],
[
"when a small animal and a lighted candle were placed in a closed vessel full of air the candle first went out and soon afterwards the animal died. However, if there was no candle present the animal lived twice as long. He concluded that this constituent of the air is absolutely necessary for life, and supposed that the lungs separate it from the atmosphere and pass it into the blood. It is also necessary, Mayow inferred, for all muscular movements, and he thought there was reason to believe that the sudden contraction of muscle is produced by its combination",
"-31.2555172231514"
],
[
"during their observations, injured animals never received veterinary care, but instead were piled by the dozens in \"feces-smeared coolers\" and then gassed to death with carbon monoxide; others were put into ziplock bags and frozen to death. Over the span of roughly three months, PETA’s investigator found hundreds of dead animals at the complex, often in habitats which contained no drinking water.\nIn February 2016, another PETA investigation discovered rampant abuse and neglect at Mack, an Ohio reptile mill and a supplier for Petsmart, including, among other things, frogs, lizards, turtles and other animals being \"crammed into filthy, crowded plastic bins",
"-31.217922637966694"
],
[
"acclaimed BBC Documentary Life on Earth shows this in detail – the elephants, upon finding a dead herd member, pause for several minutes at a time, and carefully touch and hold the dead creature's bones. Birds Some birds seem to lack the perception of grief or quickly accept it- for example, Mallard hens, although shocked for a moment when losing one of their young to a predator, will soon return to doing what they were doing before the predator attacked. However, some other waterbirds, such as mute swans are known to grieve for the loss of a partner or cygnet,",
"-31.17912545206491"
],
[
"the reproductive fitness of others outweighs the reproductive fitness of the individual. There are examples of animals dying in defense of their family or colony, such as the case of pea aphids increasing their chances of death as a response to parasitism. Vervet monkeys will alert others when a predator is near, consequently drawing attention to itself and increasing their likelihood of being attacked.\nMany animals that appear to be depressed or grieving begin to exhibit self-destructive behavior that sometimes ends in death, but this is not considered suicide, as the achieving of death was not necessarily the purpose or",
"-31.056416204897687"
],
[
"older yet less common method of killing small animals such as mice. Performed properly it is intended to cause as painless death as possible and has no cost or equipment involved. The handler must know the proper method of executing the movement which will cause the cervical displacement and without proper training and method education there is a risk of not causing death and can cause severe pain and suffering. It is unknown how long an animal remains conscious, or the level of suffering it goes through after a correct snapping of the neck, which is why it has",
"-31.006033817662683"
],
[
"during the filming of The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, 27 animals died. Nevertheless, the movie received a \"no animals were harmed\" disclaimer. During the filming of the movie Life of Pi, the tiger \"King\" nearly drowned in a pool, yet this incident was not reported outside of the American Humane organization.\nIn early 2017, CNN reported that American Humane's representative for the movie A Dog's Purpose failed to properly monitor and protect a dog used in the film. American Humane placed an employee on leave after a video was published showing the dog in distress while performing a stunt for the",
"-30.854459947091527"
],
[
"hundreds of years, and anyone who tries to kill or capture it dies. It also is said to be a fearsome animal that when hungry could completely engulf a calf.",
"-30.795641363598406"
],
[
"normally live harmlessly in their tonsils, to cross into their bloodstream and cause Hemorrhagic septicemia. This event wiped out 60% of the population of this critically endangered species. Mass mortality events are not uncommon for saiga. In 1981, 70,000 died, in 1988 there were 200,000 deaths and more recently in 2010 12,000 died. Brumby (2019) In 2019, an extreme heatwave with temperatures exceeding 42C in central Australia, lead to the death of approximately 40 brumbies. Explanations According to most scientists, massive die offs of animals are not unusual in nature and happen for a variety of reasons including bad weather,",
"-30.790189835082856"
],
[
"Neither are likely to ever be confirmed without the ponderer having to actually die. In biology After death, the remains of an organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle, during which animals may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger. Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms which recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain, where these chemicals may eventually end up being consumed and assimilated into the cells of a living organism. Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice and dung beetles.\nMicroorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature",
"-30.787714962672908"
],
[
"animals in the enclosure to search for prey as in their natural environment. However, in some cases animals in zoos need to be fed with other live animals, because they would not eat non-living food items. Whenever this has to be done however, the prey should have, as in natural conditions, a possibility to hide and it must be assured that the prey animal is killed as quickly as possible without pain and suffering. Whenever the animals accept dead prey or food items, they are not to be given live animals as food.\nIndeed, most contemporary zoos led by professionals are",
"-30.67708501641755"
],
[
"and when the carcass is found, determining with certainty the cause of death is often difficult. Since the outcome of an attack on livestock depends to a high degree on the behaviour and experience of the predator and the prey, only direct observation is certain to determine whether an attack was by dingoes or other domestic dogs. Even the existence of remnants of the prey in the scat of wild dogs does not prove they are pests, since wild dogs also eat carrion.\nThe cattle industry can tolerate low to moderate, and sometimes high, grades of wild dogs (therefore dingoes",
"-30.650080021936446"
],
[
"wipe out humanity for the sake of letting the animals survive difficult but necessary. He later turns against the League when Damian convinces him, Vixen, and Jason Todd about the carnage Amazo is wreaking on humanity. When they try to escape, Buddy is killed as he is shot through the head by Athanasia al Ghul.",
"-30.647963211347815"
],
[
"rapid onset with animals developing a high fever, facial edema, cyanosis, anorexia, melena, and may begin to hemorrhage at the cutaneous, subcutaneous, and retrobulbar levels. Thrombocytopenia will develop soon after. Death usually occurs within 10–15 days after symptoms appear.",
"-30.62432191344851"
],
[
"more than a third of marine mammals, and 10 percent of all insects are threatened with extinction.\nSince the 16th century, at least 680 species of vertebrates have become extinct. By 2016, among mammals, more than nine percent of livestock breeds were extinct, and another 1,000 breeds are threatened with extinction. The authors have coined the expression \"dead species walking\" for the more than 500,000 species that are not yet extinct but, due to changes in, or reduction of, their habitats, have no chance of long-term survival.\nAccording to the Report, the threat to species diversity is human-caused. The main cause is",
"-30.591368946188595"
],
[
"advance to grand mal convulsions followed by death of the animal. The animal may also show signs of sensitivity to light, incoordination, circling, increased sensitivity to sensory stimuli such as pain or touch, and deterioration of motor capabilities. Less commonly, they may lead to blindness and paralysis. The length of the systemic disease may be as short as 10 days, or the start of neurological signs may not occur until several weeks or months later. Those few that survive usually have a small tic or twitch of varying levels of severity. With time, this tic usually diminishes somewhat in its",
"-30.581644744903315"
],
[
"and from bringing more and more captive animals into the cycle of being born, contracting parasites, ageing, falling ill and dying; eating and being eaten.\nDavid Benatar emphasizes that his asymmetry applies to all sentient beings, and mentions that humans play a role in deciding how many animals there will be: humans breed other species of animals and are able to sterilize other species of animals.\nMagnus Vinding argues that the life of wild animals in their natural environment is generally very bad. He draws attention to phenomena such as dying before adulthood, starvation, diseases, parasites, infanticide, predation and being eaten alive.",
"-30.401453512407898"
],
[
"or put much effort into building their own. As nocturnal animals, they favor dark, secure areas. These areas may be below ground or above.\nWhen threatened or harmed, they will \"play possum\", mimicking the appearance and smell of a sick or dead animal. This physiological response is involuntary (like fainting), rather than a conscious act. In the case of baby opossums, however, the brain does not always react this way at the appropriate moment, and therefore they often fail to \"play dead\" when threatened. When an opossum is \"playing possum\", the animal's lips are drawn back, the teeth are bared,",
"-30.369694052322302"
],
[
"Killing of animals Animal euthanasia Animal euthanasia (euthanasia from Greek: εὐθανασία; \"good death\") is the act of putting an animal to death or allowing it to die by withholding extreme medical measures. This is often done for domesticated livestock and house pets. Hinduism In Assam and West Bengal states of India and Nepal some Hindu temples sacrifice goats and chickens. Occasionally water buffalos are also sacrificed. Temples following Shakti school of Hinduism are the ones where sacrifice usually takes place. There are many village temples in Tamil Nadu where this kind of sacrifice takes place. Many animals are sacrificed ",
"-30.296424031839706"
],
[
"that cause[s] suffering to animals.\" A more comprehensive 1934 decree stipulated that animals not be overworked or kept where they cannot breathe properly, move, or rest, or are deprived of air or light, and that animals be given a quick death (whether or not they are for human consumption). The decree also prohibits abandoning a sick, injured or mutilated animal and failing to provide an animal with \"all that is necessary\", including veterinary assistance. Lawyers from the Public Ministry or from animal protection organizations are allowed to assist animals in court, giving animals a degree of legal",
"-30.237525099597406"
],
[
"Act). The main threats to its survival are dieback caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi, weed invasion, grazing and frequent fires.",
"-30.068264848348917"
],
[
"or suicide. After death, the remains of an organism re-enter the biogeochemical cycle. Organisms may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger and leftover organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms that recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain.\nOne of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. Death would seem to refer to either the moment life ends, or when the state that follows life begins. However, determining when death has occurred is difficult, as cessation of life functions is often not simultaneous across organ systems.",
"-30.056178294413257"
],
[
"like all other humans, when that human dies, it will cease to exist.\nIn Leven Thumps and the Gateway to Foo, it's impossible to kill anyone intentionally in Foo; Sabine gets around this by causing third parties to take action which, unknown to them, will kill his intended victims.",
"-30.052195099095115"
],
[
"is kill or be killed on a daily basis, as creatures struggle to survive and a cycle of life and death is an everyday event in the wild. This documentary series chronicles the different yet lethal techniques used in this dance of death, from animals that work in well-organized gangs to lone killers that capture prey using camouflage and the element of surprise. Episode 1 : Dining Alone Lone predators have developed an amazing range of means to survival. The speed of cheetahs, snake venom and the ability of leopard to lie in ambush are examples of refined instincts needed when",
"-30.03930957315606"
],
[
"or predation. In the case of horses, the animal may quiver or tremble, be easily startled and be awkward to handle. More severely affected animals may repeatedly nod their head, show a tendency to splay their legs, and stumble and fall. The hind-quarters, moreover, may become paralysed. Treatment Recovery usually occurs when the animal is removed from the contaminated pasture. The chief danger to stock at this stage is caused by their lack of coordination, which may result in accidental death by falling in awkward places such as ditches and ponds. Prevention The disease is particularly prevalent in New Zealand.",
"-30.03008263616357"
],
[
"amount of threats and need approximately the same amount of protection (at the relative timescale of the animals) as large animals with fewer natural enemies that grow more slowly (e.g. that many small carnivores that could not eat even a very young human child could easily eat multiple very young blind meerkats). This criticism also argues that when a carnivore eats a batch stored together, there is no significant difference in the chance of one surviving depending on the number of young stored together, concluding that humans do not stand out from many small animals such as mice in selection",
"-30.021011866658228"
],
[
"nature. So, killing us would mean breaking a bond. My friend informed me that people concerned about animals like us have formed a group. They teach others to protect animals, too.\nThe news that people are trying their best to save the phumdis, deer like me, and the Loktak Lake, infuses new hope in me. 'How nice of them!' I thought.\n\nAnyway, it is getting dark and my friend and I have to return to our herd. And those of you who are around can enjoy our dancing gait as we trot back home. It would be great if I could meet",
"-30.00825112592429"
],
[
"sentenced to stable and long-term loss of living capacities, even despite continuing metabolic reactions and viability. In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths that occur on a daily basis relates to senescence, while around the world it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place daily (Hayflick & Moody, 2003).\nAlmost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from biological aging, known in life sciences as \"senescence\". Some organisms experience negligible senescence, even exhibiting biological immortality. These include the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, the hydra, and the planarian.",
"-29.97861606298102"
],
[
"is almost unheard of.\nAnimals were also severely affected by Roog's judgement. Although rendered wild and \"mad\", they still retain their instinct, though their relations with humans would be changed forever. Some became human pets others retained their freedom away from human habitation. Despite this separation, animals are respected and would form part of Serer temism.\nHumans were the least affected. The only thing they have lost was their original size and duration of life. Along with being giants, the first humans were believed to have had larger eyes and bigger bones than the present. Roog did not touch the human spirit.",
"-29.971324083424406"
],
[
"cause harm. Incidents with wild orcas There are a few recorded cases of wild orcas threatening humans. However, there have been no fatalities. Captive orca attacks There have been attacks on humans by captive killer whales, some fatal.",
"-29.947509923251346"
],
[
"leading to coma. Death is normally due to ventricular arrhythmias, progressive hypotension unresponsive to treatment, and secondary lung infections.\nSymptoms in domestic animals vary: dogs tend to show nervous system signs such as convulsions, vocalization, and uncontrollable running, whilst large herbivores such as cattle and sheep more predominantly show cardiac signs.\nSub-lethal doses of sodium fluoroacetate may cause damage to tissues with high energy needs — in particular, the brain, gonads, heart, lungs, and fetus. Sub-lethal doses are typically completely metabolised and excreted within four days. Treatment Effective antidotes are unknown. Research in monkeys has shown that the use of glyceryl monoacetate",
"-29.905889656423824"
],
[
"diet and actively hunt and kill humans. Most reported cases of man-eaters have involved lions, tigers, leopards, and crocodilians. However, they are not the only predators that will attack humans if given the chance; a wide variety of species have also been known to adopt humans as usual prey, including bears, Komodo dragons and hyenas. Tigers Tigers are recorded to have killed more people than any other big cat, and tigers have been responsible for more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild mammal. About 1,000 people were reportedly killed each year in India during the early 1900s,",
"-29.861937038600445"
],
[
"Eating live animals Eating live animals is the practice of humans eating animals that are still alive. It is a traditional practice in many Asian food cultures as well as in Western television game shows. Eating live animals, or parts of live animals, may be unlawful in certain jurisdictions under animal cruelty laws. Religious prohibitions on the eating of live animals by humans are also present in various world religions. Animals are also eaten alive for shock value. For shock value Several television game shows such as Fear Factor, Survivor and I'm a Celebrity feature segments where contestants must eat",
"-29.85993352951482"
],
[
"farm cattle to reduce pain so that they can work on the land for longer. Farmers leave dead farm animals out in the open for the vultures to tidy up, and the vultures then feed from the carcasses of the cattle that die, and are poisoned by the diclofenac contained in the flesh they eat.\nVultures are now not present in large enough numbers to tidy up all the dead animals. Instead, dead animals are now likely to rot in the open and be partly eaten by rats or wild dogs or other pests, causing major concern and human health hazards",
"-29.856576754478738"
],
[
"parties who either had them seized or relinquished them, wild animals that have injuries that would prevent them from being released back into the wild, and wild animals that have been captured due to their interactions with humans. Once in the zoo, the animals are generally not bred, sold, or traded; but are cared for until they die. Animals at the zoo Many, but not all, of the zoo residents are native to North America. Animals at the zoo include bears, tigers, mountain lions, bobcats, foxes, wolves, wolf hybrids, coyote, sheep, mule deer, macaques, squirrel monkeys, raccoons, skunks, eagles, parrots,",
"-29.8330482179299"
],
[
"survive, but humans do not. Third, he considers the fact that animals are killed in the harvesting process. These animals, he suggests, are killed for human survival, but as fewer are killed than would be killed were humans eating meat, they do not possess a concrete right to life. Despite this, political communities must take steps to ensure that fewer animals are killed in harvest.\nAfter looking at agriculture, Cochrane considers the relationship between animals and genetic engineering. The question of whether an animal has a right not to be genetically engineered, he suggests, makes no sense, as live animals are",
"-29.806367762503214"
],
[
"leaves—making itself inconspicuous—and lies coiled in ambush, twitching its grub-like tail close to its head as a lure. When an animal approaches to investigate the movement, the death adder quickly strikes, injecting its venom and then waits for the victim to die before eating it. The death adder is not aggressive, yet its ambush hunting technique and reliance on camouflage rather than flight to avoid threats renders it more dangerous to humans who venture into bushland habitats. Reproduction Unlike most snakes, death adders produce litters of live young. In the late summer, a female death adder will produce a litter",
"-29.795576460193843"
],
[
"include subadult tapirs. Prey is swallowed whole, and may take several days or even weeks to fully digest. Despite their intimidating size and muscular power, they are generally not dangerous to humans.\nContrary to popular belief, even the larger species do not crush their prey to death; in fact, prey is not even noticeably deformed before it is swallowed. The speed with which the coils are applied is impressive and the force they exert may be significant, but death is caused by suffocation, with the victim not being able to move its ribs to breathe while it is being constricted. Reproduction",
"-29.78448059198854"
],
[
"for the wild are immediately released in an appropriate habitat. Animals that cannot be released because of injuries or trauma are cared for by Wildlife Alliance's Care for Rescued Wildlife team at the Phnom Tamao Wildlife Rescue Center.\nWhile Wildlife Alliance provides capacity building with logistical and technical support to WRRT, WRRT also trains teams working for other organizations that are addressing the illegal wildlife trade, both in the manner in which they conduct operations and in animal handling skills. WRRT’s skill in handling and caring for rescued wild animals is such that there are almost never any fatalities, despite the",
"-29.779764036473352"
],
[
"following animals are being killed by motor vehicles in the United States annually: 41 million squirrels, 26 million cats, 22 million rats, 19 million opossums, 15 million raccoons, 6 million dogs, and 350,000 deer. This study may not have considered differences in observability between taxa (e.g. dead raccoons are easier to see than dead frogs), and has not been published in peer-reviewed scientific literature. Insects A recent study showed that insects, too, are prone to a very high risk of roadkill incidence. Research showed interesting patterns in insect roadkills in relation to the vehicle density.\nIn 2003-2004, the Royal Society for",
"-29.77543097839225"
],
[
"Professor of Animal Science at Colorado and a study completed in 1992 by Dr. Flemming Bager, Head of the Danish Veterinary Laboratory, which showed that when the animals were slaughtered in a comfortable position they appeared to give no resistance and none of the animals attempted to pull away their head. The studies concluded that the animals had no pain and were not even aware that their throats were cut.\nTemple Grandin – a leading designer of animal handling systems – gives various research times for loss of consciousness via kosher and halal ritual slaughter and elaborates on what parts of",
"-29.754011275363155"
],
[
"with little effort, leaping a fence with the animals tucked under its arm. In one scene, a kitten is shown as having been \"scared to death\" by the creature. The narrator informs the audience that, while people have shot at the creature in the past, it has always managed to escape. In another sequence, hunters attempt to pursue the creature with dogs, but the dogs refuse to give chase. A police constable states that while driving home one night, the creature suddenly ran across the road in front of his car.\nIn a later sequence, culled from the actual newspaper accounts",
"-29.710519490065053"
],
[
"Death Death is the permanent cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include aging, predation, malnutrition, disease, suicide, homicide, starvation, dehydration, and accidents or major trauma resulting in terminal injury. In most cases, bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death.\nDeath – particularly the death of humans – has commonly been considered a sad or unpleasant occasion, due to the affection for the being that has died and the termination of social and familial bonds with the deceased. Other concerns include fear of death, necrophobia, anxiety, sorrow, grief, emotional",
"-29.660372969576855"
],
[
"as full-grown adults, they can be dangerous. Injuries to humans may be relatively common, but reported yearly deaths due to exotic pet ownership are rare. Statistics compiled by an advocacy organization indicate a yearly average of less than 3.5 fatalities per year in the United States; and another lists 87 exotic animal incidents resulting in human death from June 20, 1990 to April 15, 2016. Primates It has been estimated that as many as 15,000 primates are kept by private individuals as pets in the United States. Nine states ban the keeping of non-human primates, but no federal law regulates",
"-29.63829390250612"
],
[
"patients to cure their regular symptoms caused by an illness called \"DOTES\". True Story Later in the game, the true background of the story is revealed: One day, dogs and cats, which were commonly held as pets, succumbed to mysterious deaths all over the world. With the new type of infectious disease, human beings struggled to save dog and cats, leading to their complete extinction on earth. Over time, the virus mutated and infected the humans. It caused them to become animalized (women received cat traits and men dog traits), loss of ability to reason, and ultimately death. This disease",
"-29.625133169476612"
],
[
"because it was thought that fish die off before they can be eaten by larger animals, but this study also showed that fish can bioaccumulate brevetoxin and survive long enough to poison cetaceans. This is important because while a bloom might not be currently occurring, wildlife still could potentially die from exposure due to brevetoxin moving through the food web. Another way of assessing a pathway for exposure is the location of lesions and hemorrhaging, for example lesions in the lungs from inhalation. \nAnother study investigates differing concentrations of brevetoxin in different organs between avian, cetacean, and sirenian species, specifically",
"-29.62114055645361"
],
[
"and throat muscles. Death is usually caused by respiratory arrest. Horses Rabies can be contracted in horses if they interact with rabid animals in their pasture, usually being bitten on the muzzle or lower limbs. Signs include aggression, incoordination, head-pressing, circling, lameness, muscle tremors, convulsions, colic and fever. Horses that experience the paralytic form of rabies have difficulty swallowing, and drooping of the lower jaw due to paralysis of the throat and jaw muscles. Incubation of the virus may range from 2–9 weeks. Death often occurs within 4–5 days of infection of the virus. There are no effective treatments for",
"-29.618646469898522"
],
[
"dishes, fur) or by other animals, fleas, and humans. (See fomites). It persists long after evidence of the original body secretion has faded away, and can be transported long distances. Like all parvoviruses, FPLV is extremely resistant to inactivation and can survive for longer than one year in a suitable environment. Kitten deaths have been reported in households of fully vaccinated cats, possibly because of exposure to large amounts of virus in the environment.\nInfection occurs when the virus enters the body through the mouth or nose. Whether illness results or not depends on the immunity in the victim vs. the",
"-29.586170324197155"
],
[
"firstly in 1994 (when it was de-listed within the year) and again in 1996 (which listing has continued until the present). The limited numbers of the animal in the wild (at least 300, down from almost 1,600) has led to the belief that prospects for its survival are bleak. Rediscovery On April 2009, footprints and animal droppings belonging to the creature were found in the North Negros Natural Park by a scientific team of six British, five Filipinos, and one Irishman, who were studying the biodiversity of the park. The team, who were from Negros Interior Biodiversity Expedition, estimate that",
"-29.585100834143304"
],
[
"2005, scientists at the University of Pittsburgh's Safar Center for Resuscitation Research announced they had managed to place dogs in suspended animation and bring them back to life, most of them without brain damage, by draining the blood out of the dogs' bodies and injecting a low temperature solution into their circulatory systems, which in turn keeps the bodies alive in stasis. After three hours of being clinically dead, the dogs' blood was returned to their circulatory systems, and the animals were revived by delivering an electric shock to their hearts. The heart started pumping the blood around the body,",
"-29.57789572601905"
],
[
"no further notation about consulting with a veterinarian, the record reads, 'At 1:30 p.m. the animal died in the cage.'\" Reaction In a letter to PETA, neurologist Robert S. Hoffman stated that he regards such experiments to be a \"blind alley,\" and that the baboons are \"kept alive for either three or ten days after experiencing a major stroke and in a condition of profound disability. This is obviously as terrifying for animals as it is for humans unless one believes that animals are incapable of terror or other emotional distress\" \"\". Wayback Machine (10.5 KiB). According to the published stroke model",
"-29.57757072529057"
],
[
"and a second shot that causes death. This allows the owner the chance to say goodbye to a live pet without their emotions stressing the pet. It also greatly mitigates any tendency toward spasm and other involuntary movement which tends to increase the emotional upset that the pet's owner experiences.\nFor large animals, the volumes of barbiturates required are considered by some to be impractical, although this is standard practice in the United States. For horses and cattle, other drugs may be available. Some specially formulated combination products are available, such as Somulose (secobarbital/cinchocaine) and Tributame (embutramide/chloroquine/lidocaine), which cause deep",
"-29.535676527942996"
],
[
"she never thought the kitten was dead. She remembers how it sucked the breath out of her and knows it never saw her as a predator—if anything, it was the predator. She remembers how they went to a vet, and how she had been forced to leave the kitten in a box downstairs. Then she discovers that it is sleeping in bed beside her and assumes Anwar or Astair must have brought it up.",
"-29.449752260232344"
],
[
"the animals used, and this suffering outweighs the cost to humans of not using the method. Killing animals for their flesh is also challenged, and objections that this infringes on human liberty, that many humans would lose their jobs and that flesh-consumption is necessary for human health are all considered and rejected. Milk and egg production may be permissible under certain circumstances, provided animals are not killed or made to suffer, and, equally, animal corpses could be used provided that the animals have died naturally. Three counter arguments are considered. First, Cochrane contends that the fact farmed animals would not",
"-29.436894750833744"
],
[
"food. He told the animals in the village that it was time for them to bury Gun, their arch-enemy, for Gun had died. The animals knew Gun was very evil, for he had been killing many of them whenever he went through the bush. Thus when word of Gun's passing reached them, the animals all rejoiced, and agreed that they would come to celebrate Gun's death when Anansi buried him.\nWhile the animals gathered to meet at Gun's funeral, Anansi set a trap for them. Anansi made each of the animals pass in front of Gun's coffin during the funeral while",
"-29.41042929913965"
],
[
"considered prey, but any animal that tries to attack it dies; it wins if at least nine other animals die over the course of the game. The Chameleon is able to mask itself as any other animal in the peeking phase. The Plover, AKA the Alligator Bird, wins if the Alligator survives. Similarly, the Mouse wins if the Lion survives. The Crow only has to correctly predict another animal that will win in order to win themselves. Finally, the Deer, Rabbit, Duck, and Otter are all immune to attack if all surviving members of this group are in the same",
"-29.399546373228077"
],
[
"homes are often left without food or water. Some do not survive because of the lack of resources and are found dead when realtors or banks enter the premises. The animals are put in harm's way, and it is often believed it is done as a way to retaliate against those who took the home away. Shelters Many animals left at a shelter are euthanized due to lack of space and financial resources for these animals. Shelters unable to raise additional funds to provide for the increased number of incoming animals have no choice but to euthanize them, sometimes within",
"-29.393011263862718"
],
[
"He cites research on what animal life looks like in the wild. One of eight male lion cubs survives into adulthood. Others die as a result of starvation, disease and often fall victims to the teeth and claws of other lions. Attaining adulthood is much rarer for fish. Only one in a hundred male chinook salmon survive into adulthood. Vinding is of the opinion that if human lives and the survival of human children looked like this, current human values would disallow procreation; however, this is not possible when it comes to non-human animals, who are guided by instinct. He",
"-29.37662178624305"
],
[
"While conducting autopsies on the bodies, an animal control team at a different site is killed by the creature after investigating a call.\nWhile investigating the animal control team deaths, Charlie is attacked by the creature, but it fails to kill him after Olivia arrives on the scene. Walter explains he believes the creature is a man-made chimera, which has the best genetic traits of many different creatures, including a lizard, bat, and wasp. He had tried to create the creature years before, but his experiments failed, and concludes that someone else must have taken up his research. Though initially thinking",
"-29.37503448955249"
],
[
"45 centimetres (18 in) into the carcass. Some of these fragments are so small that they cannot be visibly seen, but will show up on x-ray scans of the animal. Predators and scavengers that then find these animal remains and waste will consume these small lead pieces. The fragments are then broken down and the lead is absorbed into the bloodstream due to the grinding action of the gizzard, which thus results in a plethora of health concerns' In terms of fishing tackle, peak fishing season has been found to result in the highest number of mortalities caused by lead tackle.",
"-29.362158868520055"
],
[
"been implicated and proven to attack and devour humans, with corpses containing hundreds of fish being recorded in morgues. It is worth noting however that humans only become prey of C. candiru when dead or incapacitated, such as when drowned or drunk.",
"-29.33866349782329"
],
[
"in horses and without veterinary treatment, death. The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart, and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound. A line of premium dog and cat food, AvoDerm, uses oils and meal made from avocado meat as main ingredients. The manufacturer says the avocado's leaves and pit are the source of toxicity, and only in the Guatemalan variety of avocados, and the fruit is often eaten by orchard dogs as well as wildlife such as bears and coyotes. Coevolution In",
"-29.30410588138693"
],
[
"Death is usually due to respiratory paralysis. There is no specific treatment for ABLV. Cleansing properly of the wound will reduce the risk of infection. Hendra virus The natural hosts for Hendra virus are fruit bats. However Hendra virus has been found in dogs, so there is a possibility of other bats carrying the disease. It is most commonly transmitted to horses by ingesting the faecal matter of bats. Hendra was discovered in 1994 after a large racing stable had an outbreak of sick horses. Since this time, over 60 horses have been infected and either died or were euthanised.",
"-29.285454144352116"
],
[
"yaks and zebra were first to be killed. Some animals survived: the monkeys were thought to be too akin to humans to be killed, the lions and tigers were too dangerous, and the hippopotamus of the Jardin des Plantes also escaped because the price of 80,000 francs demanded for it was beyond the reach of any of the butchers. Menus began to offer exotic dishes such as Tête d'Ane Farcie (Stuffed Donkey's Head), Côtes d'Ours (Bear Ribs), Chat flanqué des Rats (Cat with Rats), Cuissot de Loup, Sauce Chevreuil (Haunch of Wolf with a Deer Sauce), Terrine d'Antilope aux truffes",
"-29.275056522747036"
],
[
"as a “higher rank” than the rest did not want to be with the group for weeks. As shown here it also depends on who passed away on how long an animal can grieve. Though through the time spent mourning many signs can appear of an animals grief and agony of the loss of their companion.\nAnother example mentioned is the dog Hachiko from Tokyo. In this case the dog was not grieving due to the death of an animal, but of the loss of its owner. It is known that this dog went to the station where his owner would",
"-29.265429457998835"
],
[
"into the surrounding environment, impact on the ecosystem and may alter hormonal functions. These contaminants and many other chemicals are toxic to aquatic lives, most often affecting their life spans and ability to reproduce; they make their way up the food chain as predator eats prey and bioaccumulate in the adipose tissues of these organisms. Road traffic accidents Every year the lives of approximately 1.25 million people are cut short as a result of a road traffic crash. Between 20 and 50 million more people suffer non-fatal injuries, with many incurring a disability as a result of their injury. Road",
"-29.25719866254076"
],
[
"while others may die; some become ill and recover and others may not show any symptoms at all. There is currently no risk to humans. For domestic animals, there is a high concern and there should be a prevention of any interaction between wild birds and domestic poultry. Wild bird species affected by the disease are infectious and are often found in close contact with domestic species. Wildlife rehabilitation and treatment Wildlife rehabilitators should be careful to not misdiagnose M. gallisepticum infection with other diseases with similar clinical signs, such as avian influenza, chlamydiosis, Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, head",
"-29.25406076195941"
],
[
"six animals were subsequently euthanised as a way of preventing relapsing infection and possible further transmission. The trainer, Victory ('Vic') Rail, and the stable foreman, Ray Unwin, were involved in nursing the index case, and both fell ill with an influenza-like illness within one week of the first horse’s death. The stable hand recovered but Rail died of respiratory and renal failure. The source of the virus was most likely frothy nasal discharge from the index case.\nA second outbreak occurred in August 1994 (chronologically preceding the first outbreak) in Mackay 1,000 km north of Brisbane resulting in the deaths of two",
"-29.232421164400876"
],
[
"expose the person to snakes in the absence of any traumatic event, leading to extinction of maladaptive behaviours related to fear. However, due to the fact that extinction is a context-dependent process, it may lead to relapse once the patient is no longer in the extinction context. \nIn a study by Crombag and Shaham, rats were taught to self-administer a heroin and cocaine mixture followed by twenty days of extinction. Half of the rats experienced extinction in the same context as the original self-administration and the other half in a new context. The rats that underwent extinction in a new",
"-29.23037581704193"
],
[
"into pieces. They may be unable to deal with a large animal with a thick hide, and may wait until it becomes putrid and comes apart more easily. To tear a chunk of tissue from a large carcass, a crocodilian spins its body continuously while holding on with its jaws, a manoeuvre known as the \"death roll\". During cooperative feeding, some individuals may hold on to the prey, while others perform the roll. The animals do not fight, and each retires with a piece of flesh and awaits its next feeding turn. Food is typically consumed by crocodilians with their",
"-29.221615339512937"
],
[
"in groups have increased vigilance, and even solitary animals are capable of rapid escape when needed. Even if it does make a capture, its prey may attract competing predators, giving it a chance to escape in the struggle. It may also strike a non-vital organ: some species have deceptive appearances such that one part of their body resembles another, such as insects with false heads. This makes consumption (or fatal wound)s less probable, giving the prey a second chance at escaping.\nPredators may have extensive capabilities in finding prey, but even when they are successful in doing so they may not",
"-29.200782395215356"
],
[
"they die, return as vampires. This also gives rise to the legend of vampires that can turn into animals such as wolves, dogs, or owls and bats. The common theme of all these animals being that they are nocturnal hunters much like vampires.\nEven as recently as modern times, many people living in rural areas of Romania have claimed to have been viciously attacked by abnormally large and fierce wolves. Apparently, these wolves attack silently, unexpectedly and only solitary targets. Victims of such attacks often claim that their aggressor wasn't an ordinary wolf, but a pricolici who has come back to",
"-29.191357835254166"
],
[
"the decomposing body of a squirrel monkey being found behind a radiator, a leopard tortoise dying from the cold, two snow leopards found partially eaten in their enclosure, a white ruffed lemur killed after accessing the wolf enclosure, lions and baboons euthanized due to a lack of space to keep the animals, and a jaguar euthanised after it chewed off its own paw. The Captive Animals' Protection Society (CAPS), who called South Lakes one of the worst zoos it had ever seen, stated that many of these deaths were preventable. A number of animals had \"died from exposure, emaciation, hypothermia",
"-29.188950825220672"
],
[
"animals he killed.",
"-29.18266666564159"
],
[
"is killed by constriction; after an animal has been grasped to restrain it, a number of coils are hastily wrapped around it. Then, by applying and maintaining sufficient pressure, the snake prevents its prey from inhaling, so that it eventually succumbs to asphyxiation. Recently, the pressures produced during constriction have been suggested as the cause of cardiac arrest by interfering with blood flow, but this hypothesis has not yet been confirmed.\nLarger specimens usually eat animals about the size of a house cat, but larger food items are not unknown: the diet of the common anaconda, Eunectes murinus, is known to",
"-29.16066360642435"
],
[
"enters the home. Animals lucky enough to survive until they are discovered are often in poor condition due to lack of resources such as food and water. Abandonment Pets are abandoned for a variety of reasons. Often, when abandoned, pets are forced to fend for themselves, and become feral. In particular, cats and dogs go to colonies. Feral cats are said to outnumber feral dogs. Feral cats are difficult to deal with, as often they become impossible to socialize enough to be re-introduced to a new human owner. In general, only some newly abandoned cats and very young feral kittens",
"-29.159795893225237"
],
[
"or buried after the pet is euthanized, and there are pet funeral homes that specialize in animal burial or cremation. Otherwise, the animal facility will often freeze the body and subsequently send it to the local landfill.\nIn some instances, animals euthanized at shelters or animal control agencies have been sent to meat rendering facilities to be processed for use in cosmetics, fertilizer, gelatin, poultry feed, pharmaceuticals and pet food. It was proposed that the presence of pentobarbital in dog food may have caused dogs to become less responsive to the drug when being euthanized. However, a 2002 FDA study found",
"-29.155645832316623"
],
[
"up where the animals are to be released. Here the animal will stay for a few weeks, still without human contact, getting used to the environment and overall settling in, before the gates are opened and they are free to live their lives in the wild. Many animals are also monitored after release.\nThis whole process from rescue to release aims to give the animals the best chance of survival, and the animals needs are always prioritized. History Secret World, located New Road farm was originally a dairy farm ran by Pauline Kidner and her husband, Derek. Pauline was known for",
"-29.155398312672332"
],
[
"or as a result of illness are the usual causes of emaciation in domestic animals like dogs, cats and horses; in wild animals, starvation with emaciation is caused by unavailable sources of food, loss or changes of habitat, or neglect in captivity. The rehabilitation of emaciated animals, through treating their starvation and dehydration with slow renourishment, can be challenging. The unique and specific physiological and dietary needs of animals, be they mammals, birds, reptiles, carnivores, herbivores, etc. are carefully considered to avoid causing harm.",
"-29.14627428917447"
]
] |
4lnk7x | Does marijuana impair driving ability? | [
"Cannabis is a depressant drug, which means it slows down messages travelling between your brain and body. When large doses of cannabis are taken, it may also produce hallucinogenic effects. Cannabis can cause: reduced coordination, slower reaction times, slower information processing, confusion, changes in vision, hearing, and time and space perception. A person who has been using cannabis may think that they will be able to drive safely. However, the cannabis may have affected their view and experience of reality, and their judgement. Their actions and responses may be quite different to what is actually needed, but they may not be aware of how much their driving skills have been affected. Even after a small amount of cannabis you should not drive for at least 5 hours. (From: URL_0 )",
"Your are going to get answers that are anecdotal and won't really give you a definite answer as to whether it does impair driving ability or not due to a number of factors such as tolerance, personal bias, etc. At the end of the day, you just have to realize that marijuana or any psychoactive drug will have an affect on your brain chemistry and it will change the way you react to things, whether it be an hyperactive response or a depressed one. Neither is better in comparison to you driving in a normal psychological state.",
"Yes. It's really dumb to drive while high. I find that the next day, I drive less aggressively because I'm mellowed out and I don't think there is any impairment at that point. Maybe people don't care about risking their own lives, but the comments here about \"getting used to it\" may end up killing someone else. You are controlling 2 tons of metal. Kids run where they shouldn't. People run red lights. Sometimes people brake hard for animals and such. You have to be alert. Being stoned is not alert.",
"*Car & Driver* magazine wondered if it did.... 36 years ago. They performed a scientific study (using their own staff who volunteered - yay!) and compared driving performance while sober and while stoned. Their results put quantifiable measurement to the impairment. URL_0 ",
"Tried it, didn't like it. I'll give an example of thinking you're fine... Having lunch with friends at KFC, everything is awesome, need a drink... what what... where's my drink... friend points out its to me the left of my hand on the table... Some people are more than fine, just like you have \"functional drunks\", you can have \"functional pothds\"... the question is, what are the reactions like if something goes wrong..."
] | [
[
"debilitating disease. Effects on driving While several studies have shown increased risk associated with cannabis use by drivers, other studies have not found increased risk. Cannabis usage has been shown in some studies to have a negative effect on driving ability.\nThe British Medical Journal indicated that \"drivers who consume cannabis within three hours of driving are nearly twice as likely to cause a vehicle collision as those who are not under the influence of drugs or alcohol\".\nIn Cannabis and driving: a review of the literature and commentary, the United Kingdom's Department for Transport reviewed data on cannabis and driving, finding",
"-35.16414321781485"
],
[
"increase in accident risk associated with alcohol, as well as the high accident rate among young drivers, the increases in risk associated with the use of drugs are surprisingly small.\"\nA report from the University of Colorado, Montana State University, and the University of Oregon found that on average, states that have legalized medical cannabis had a decrease in traffic-related fatalities by 8–11%. The researchers hypothesized \"it’s just safer to drive under the influence of marijuana than it is drunk....Drunk drivers take more risk, they tend to go faster. They don’t realize how impaired they are. People who are",
"-32.673914763261564"
],
[
"States have generally dealt with cannabis-and-driving criminalization by importing the alcohol DUI regime into the cannabis context. This has led to complications down the road when cannabis-driving cases land in criminal court because cannabis detection science differs vastly from alcohol detection science. For example, blood alcohol content (BAC) has similar rates of absorption, distribution, and elimination across all humans, and there is also a fairly good correlation between BAC and level of impairment (in other words, impairment increases when BAC increases, and impairment decreases when BAC decreases). This has allowed law enforcement to use tools like breathalyzers and blood tests",
"-32.237159883457934"
],
[
"on cannabis policy, in particular, was some of the first studies using natural experiments to investigate the causal impact that medical marijuana legislation had on other types of risky behavior such as drunk driving. Hansen along with D. Mark Anderson and Daniel Rees found that the availability of medical marijuana in a state was apparently associated with a causal reduction in alcohol-related driving and fatalities, suggesting that individuals had been previously using alcohol for self medication. In addition, this suggested that cannabis policy had unintended positive effects due to its substitutability for other types of worse forms of",
"-31.236569470143877"
],
[
"risky behaviors. He, again along with Anderson and Rees found little evidence that marijuana availability from medical marijuana legislation was resulting in increases in adolescent use, suggesting that it was possible for prohibition to be relaxed without spilling over to vulnerable populations.\nMuch of Hansen's work relates to all forms of risky behaviors, including as mentioned alcohol policy. In an article published in the American Economic Review, Hansen studied the causal effect of driving while intoxicated (DWI) arrests, proxied by blood alcohol content of 0.08 or greater, had on rearrest using a regression discontinuity strategy. He found evidence",
"-30.751771384413587"
],
[
"\"are consistent with the approach taken in other jurisdictions.\" Critics have argued that the smell of marijuana in a vehicle could lead an officer to suspect impairment, regardless of whether it has been used by the driver, therefore leading to the requirement being ineffective.\nSerge Joyal raised concerns that the act would create additional court challenges and complications, and would not reduce litigation and delays, in the frequently litigated fields of drug-impaired and drunk driving.",
"-30.65761000285056"
],
[
"under the influence of marijuana drive slower, they don’t take as many risks\". Another consideration, they added, was the fact that users of marijuana tend not to go out as much.\nOn the other hand, a recent study of Journal of Transport & Health indicated that the numbers of fatal crashes involving marijuana after the recreational marijuana legalization or decriminalization have significantly increased in Colorado, Washington, and Massachusetts. Detection of impairment A major US insurance company states that \"there are no widely accepted methods for detecting impairment from marijuana\". The U.S. drug czar Gil Kerlikowske said in 2012, \"I'll be dead",
"-30.650294747261796"
],
[
"plasma. It is also unlawful to drive with a concentration of cannabis metabolite of 35 ng/ml in their urine or 50 ng/ml in their blood or blood serum or plasma. Oklahoma Oklahoma Statute 47 § 11-902 makes it unlawful to drive or be in actual physical control of a vehicle who has any amount of cannabis or one of its metabolites or analogs in their \"blood, saliva, urine or any other bodily fluid at the time of a test . . . within two hours after [their] arrest.\" Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Statute § 3802(d)(1) makes it a crime to drive if",
"-30.35148078581551"
],
[
"showing substantial impairment. The District Court of New York dismissed state's case for lack of probable cause. Ohio Ohio Statute § 4511.19 makes it unlawful to drive with a concentration of cannabis of at least 10 ng/ml in their urine or 2 ng/ml in their blood or blood serum or plasma. If the person is the under the influence of alcohol, a drug of abuse, or a combination of them, then it is unlawful to drive with a concentration of cannabis metabolite of at least 15 ng/ml in their urine, or 5 ng/ml in their blood or blood serum or",
"-30.337059842830058"
],
[
"travelling within the country (but not internationally) are allowed to carry up to 30 grams of cannabis. Naturally, driving under the influence of drugs remained illegal. Key court decisions All of these decisions have invalidated the prohibition of cannabis based on the insufficiency of the exemptions provided for legitimate medical users of the drug. However, the laws have been and will probably continue to be modified in order to adapt them to constitutional requirements. As such, there is the possibility that a judge will uphold as valid a newer revision of the law. This also does not stop prosecutors from",
"-30.244897878248594"
],
[
"marijuana were no more likely to crash than those who had not used any drugs or alcohol prior to driving\".\nOn the other hand, a recent study of Journal of Transport & Health indicated that the numbers of fatal crashes involving marijuana after the recreational marijuana legalization or decriminalization have significantly increased in Colorado, Washington, and Massachusetts. Cardiovascular effects Short-term (one to two hours) effects on the cardiovascular system can include increased heart rate, dilation of blood vessels, and fluctuations in blood pressure. There are medical reports of occasional heart attacks or myocardial infarction, stroke and other cardiovascular side",
"-30.145983838725442"
],
[
"a driver's likelihood of getting in accident by 100% in comparison to sober drivers. They also suggest that increased use will lead to higher workplace accidents, with employees who tested positive for cannabis being 55% more likely to get in an accident, and 85% more likely to get injured on the job. Big business In a Huffington Post interview, Mark Kleiman, the \"Pot Czar\" of Washington State, said he was concerned that the National Cannabis Industry Association would favor profits over public health. He also said that it could become a predatory body like the lobbying arms of the tobacco",
"-30.141596328059677"
],
[
"article, attorney Joshua Snow has argued that this statute violates the Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution as well as the Utah Constitution's Uniform Operation of Laws Clause. Washington Revised Code of Washington § 46.61.502 provides that a person is guilty of driving under the influence if, within two hours of driving, they have a THC concentration of 5.00 or higher as shown by analysis of their blood. The state legalized cannabis for recreational use in 2014. The research director of the Washington Traffic Safety Commission has called the 5.00-nanogram threshold \"completely arbitrary,\" saying that it \"wasn't backed by scientific",
"-29.75160747091286"
],
[
"or she may exhibit difficulties in meeting personal obligations or participating in important life activities, preferring to use cannabis instead. People who are cannabis dependent have the inability to stop or decrease using cannabis on their own. One study has shown that between 2001-2002 and 2012-2013, the use of marijuana in the US doubled.\nCannabis dependence develops in about 9% of users, significantly less than that of heroin, cocaine, alcohol, and prescribed anxiolytics, but slightly higher than that for psilocybin, mescaline, or LSD. Of those who use cannabis daily, 10–20% develop dependence. Withdrawal Cannabis withdrawal symptoms can occur in one half",
"-28.853820335247292"
],
[
"160 (2014), which held that the presence of a non-impairing metabolite of cannabis is not sufficient for a DUI conviction. The Iowa Supreme Court, however, declined to adopt the Harris rule and instead reaffirmed Comried. Michigan Section 257.625 of the Michigan Vehicle Code criminalizes driving a motor vehicle with \"any amount of a controlled substance listed in schedule 1 under section 7212 of the public health code.\" (Cannabis is listed as a controlled substance.) In People v. Koon, 832 N.W.2d 724, the Supreme Court of Michigan held that drivers who possess a valid Michigan Medical Marijuana Act card are not",
"-28.62246627517743"
],
[
"Code Section 41-6a-502 criminalizes driving \"under the influence of alcohol, any drug, or the combined influence of alcohol and any drug to a degree that renders the person incapable of safely operating a vehicle.\" Where a person is not under the influence of cannabis to the extent sufficient to be convicted under this DUI code section, but still has a detectable level of THC in their system, they can still be convicted under section 41-6a-517, which criminalizes driving with \"any measurable controlled substance in the body.\" (THC is listed as a \"controlled substance\" under Section 58-37-4's.) In a law review",
"-28.543111979255627"
],
[
"poll indicated, \"Almost two thirds of Canadians are concerned that roads will become more dangerous [due to impairment by the drug] with the legalization of marijuana\". An October 2016 national poll by Forum suggests that about five million adult Canadians now use cannabis at least once a month; this is expected to increase by 19 percent after marijuana is legalized. Canaccord Genuity analysts Matt Bottomley and Neil Maruoka released a research note with a more moderate estimate of the number of users. They predicted that approximately 3.8 million persons will be recreational users (presumably on a frequent basis) by 2021.",
"-28.498040217207745"
],
[
"risk of accidents if a person drives a motor vehicle while intoxicated. Psychotic episodes are well-documented and typically resolve within minutes or hours. There have been few reports of symptoms lasting longer.\nAccording to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, there were 455,000 emergency room visits associated with cannabis use in 2011. These statistics include visits in which the patient was treated for a condition induced by or related to recent cannabis use. The drug use must be \"implicated\" in the emergency department visit, but does not need to be the direct cause of the visit. Most of",
"-28.112229901191313"
],
[
"laws that focus on whether the driver was actually impaired or affected by THC; and (4) \"permissible inference\" laws, which allow an inference of impairment if the THC blood level is at least 5ng/ml. Arizona Arizona Revised Statute § 28-1381(A)(3) makes it illegal to drive or be in actual physical control of a vehicle while there is cannabis or its metabolite in the body. The statute was challenged as violating the equal protection clauses of the federal and Arizona constitutions in State v. Hammonds, but the Court of Appeals of Arizona upheld the statute on the grounds that the",
"-28.07188921631314"
],
[
"the pamphlet entitled \"Speaking Out Against Drug Legalization\"\nIn 2001, a report by David Boyum and Mark A.R. Kleiman entitled \"Substance Abuse Policy from a Crime-Control Perspective\" found the \"high\" from cannabis is unlikely to trigger violence and concluded:\nMaking marijuana legally available to adults on more or less the same terms as alcohol would tend to reduce crime, certainly by greatly shrinking the illicit market and possibly by reducing alcohol consumption via substitution if smoking marijuana acts, on balance, as a substitute for drinking alcohol rather than a complement to it since drinking seems to have a greater tendency to unleash",
"-28.05634630419081"
],
[
"This only applies to areas in the vehicle occupied by passengers and does not apply to a trunk. Additionally, any conviction will result in a 6 month suspension of driving privileges.\nPossession of larger amounts are felonies, as is sale, cultivation and trafficking. For example, the sale of over 10 pounds of marijuana carries a life sentence without the possibility of parole. However, the penalty can be reduced if the person charged provides information on their supplier or other relevant persons to state authorities. Penalties for possession of hash and concentrates is more severe than for marijuana, with any amount greater",
"-27.946981830195"
],
[
"drug is one proscribed by Public Health Law § 3306; (3) defendant drove after ingesting the drug; and (4) while driving, defendant's driving ability was impaired by the drug. But there is a qualification to this test where the ingested drug is cannabis: there must be a showing of substantial impairment. In People v. Shakemma, a police officer's observation of defendant's car swerving off of the road and onto the road shoulder by half a car width, of the smell of cannabis on her car, and of her red eyes and pinpoint pupils, did not rise to the level of",
"-27.89539141691057"
],
[
"the body will deem a motorist impaired to drive\". Reporting has indicated that blood tests would be utilized. Canadian draft regulations proposed in 2017 (Bill C-46) had summary conviction offences starting at 2 nanograms per milliliter. United States Some legal scholarship has argued that per se cannabis-DUID laws violate the Due Process Clause under the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution because they \"subject[] drivers to criminal prosecutions without any real culpability.\" Federal At the federal level, the United States Department of Transportation regulates public transportation (e.g. pilots, bus drivers, and train operators) and commercial truckers. 49 CFR Part 199 ",
"-27.839945020794403"
],
[
"they have gay tendencies is disqualified, per se, for the job\" but \"that would be a big concern that the American people might feel—might feel uneasy about that\".\nSessions is against legalizing marijuana for either recreational or medicinal use. \"I'm a big fan of the DEA\", he said during a hearing with the Senate Judiciary Committee. Sessions was \"heartbroken\" and found \"it beyond comprehension\" when President Obama said that cannabis is not as dangerous as alcohol. In April 2016, he said that it was important to foster \"knowledge that this drug is dangerous, you cannot play with it, it is not",
"-27.75085371163732"
],
[
"suspicion of operating a motor vehicle while under the influence of alcohol, driving so as to endanger and speeding and driving with no license in possession.",
"-27.745429830159992"
],
[
"for drivers under 21; however the Constitutionality of those statutes has not been tested. (As a practical matter, most criminal lawyers advise not engaging in discussion or \"justifying\" a refusal with the police.)\nCommercial drivers are subject to PBT testing in some US states as a \"drug screening\" requirement. Testing for cannabis In the recent wake of legalized marijuana, law enforcement has sought a method of breath testing to determine the content of THC present in an individual. Law enforcement efficiently combats driving under the influence with tools like breathalyzers during field sobriety tests. Excluding edibles, a THC breathalyzer has",
"-27.719355865498073"
],
[
"vulnerable people, a warning can be given instead of a fine. Larger quantities (more than 100 g or 3.5 oz) generally results in a prison sentence. Driving under the influence of cannabis is illegal and all but the smallest amounts of THC in a blood sample results in a fine and loss of the driver's license (conditional or unconditional). Usage Despite its illegal status, a report by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2015) shows that slightly more than ¹⁄₃ of adult Danes have tried cannabis at some point in their life, which is above the European average where",
"-27.558998774242355"
],
[
"necessarily leads to a substantial increase in marijuana use.\"\nIn 2001, a report by Robert MacCoun and Peter Reuter entitled \"Evaluating alternative cannabis regimes\", was published in the British Journal of Psychiatry. The report found there was no available evidence cannabis use would increase if cannabis were decriminalized.\nIn 2004, a study entitled \"The Limited Relevance of Drug Policy: Cannabis in Amsterdam and in San Francisco\", found strict laws against cannabis use have a low impact on usage rates. Increased safety concerns Studies conducted following the legalization of cannabis in Washington and Colorado show that driving under the effects of marijuana increases",
"-27.558128072669206"
],
[
"that taking cannabis created only a \"relatively small risk\" of psychotic illness, and that \"the obscenity of hunting down low-level cannabis users to protect them is beyond absurd\". Nutt objected to the recent re-upgrading (after 5 years) of cannabis from a Class C drug back to a Class B drug (and thus again on a par with amphetamines), considering it politically motivated rather than scientifically justified. In October 2009 Nutt had a public disagreement with psychiatrist Robin Murray in the pages of The Guardian about the dangers of cannabis in triggering psychosis. Dismissal Following the release of this pamphlet, Nutt",
"-27.500425249309046"
],
[
"Attorney Michael Tantillo stated that videos of Stewart's driving did not demonstrate any aberrational driving and that Ward was under the influence of cannabis with levels high enough to impair judgment.\nWard's father, Kevin Ward Sr., wrote a letter vowing to \"pursue to make all remedies for Kevin,\" implying the civil lawsuit they later filed. When Ward's family was informed that he had been high on cannabis, Ward Sr. wrote a letter that went viral on the internet, saying:\nTell me how a man the size of Kevin can make a sprint car turn to the right on impact. Tell me how",
"-27.370384357433068"
],
[
"Marijuana and Drug Abuse to produce an in-depth report on cannabis. The report, entitled \"Marijuana: A Signal of Misunderstanding\", reviewed existing cannabis studies and concluded that cannabis does not cause physical addiction.\nStudies conducted in Oregon, California, and Maine within a few years of decriminalization found little increase in cannabis use, compared to the rest of the country; \"The most frequently cited reasons for non-use by respondents was 'not interested,' cited by about 80% of non-users. Only 4% of adults indicated fear of arrest and prosecution or unavailability as factors preventing use.\"\nIn 1997, the Connecticut Law Revision Commission examined states that",
"-27.33067034173291"
],
[
"subject to the same restrictions as smoking cigarettes under the Smoke Free Places Act. Using cannabis while in a vehicle is prohibited under section 22 of the Cannabis Control Act. While transporting cannabis in vehicles, it must in closed packaging or packaging that is fastened closed and out of reach of or not readily accessible to any person in the vehicle. Medical cannabis As of February 2019 there were four licensed producers of medical cannabis located in Nova Scotia. Usage Nova Scotia has the highest cannabis usage per capita in Canada. In 2012, the province led the country with the",
"-27.289947472629137"
],
[
"have a great deal of problems from the use of alcohol so we should multiply that with marijuana\". Arguments against inconsistent drug laws Since alcohol prohibition ended and the War on Drugs began there has been much debate over the issue of consistency among legislators with regard to drug prohibition. Many anti-prohibition activists focus on the well-documented dangers of alcohol (such as alcoholism, cystisis, domestic violence, brain and liver damage). In addition to anecdotal evidence, they cite statistics to show more deaths caused by drunk driving under the influence of alcohol than by drivers under the influence of marijuana, and",
"-27.272416974126827"
],
[
"early October 2018, all of the plans and rules for recreational cannabis had been finalized for PEI. The legal age for possession or use is 19 and there are many locations where cannabis consumption is prohibited, including in any vehicle or boat. Adults may also grow marijuana plants, up to four per household. The Highway Traffic Act will be amended to include cannabis intoxication in a motor vehicle, similar to alcohol. \nAdults may possess up to 30 grams of cannabis away from home but there is no limit to the amount kept in the home, if it is secure",
"-27.212633598353932"
],
[
"in some states made residents of neighboring states increasingly tolerant toward cannabis regulation.\nA 2013 study found that medical cannabis legalization is associated with an 8-11% reduction in traffic fatalities.\nSeveral studies have found decreased rates of opioid use and abuse in states that have legalized medical cannabis.\nSeveral studies have found no increase in teen use in states that have legalized cannabis for medical purposes. A 2018 meta-analysis in the journal Addiction similarly found no increase.",
"-27.1758831871266"
],
[
"to the ownership of retail stores (government or private enterprise) but all provinces decided to offer an option for on-line sales.\nSince marijuana is illegal in the US per federal legislation, the government warned that \"previous use of cannabis, or any substance prohibited by U.S. federal laws, could mean that you are denied entry to the U.S\". Canadians travelling within the country (but not internationally) are allowed to carry up to 30 grams of cannabis. Driving under the influence of drugs remained illegal.",
"-26.711974832462147"
],
[
"have, that person is under the influence of a controlled substance. If, as a result of consuming a controlled substance, the person's ability or capacity to [drive] is impaired, the statute has been violated.\" These standard jury instructions were cited by the Court of Appeals of Minnesota in an unpublished case, State v. Suber, 2008 WL 942622. In Suber, the Court of Appeals of Minnesota overturned the defendant's conviction, finding lack of sufficient evidence. The defendant admitted he had consumed cannabis about 17 hours before his arrest; police testified that defendant performed poorly on field sobriety tests; police testified that",
"-26.597731998583185"
],
[
"The legal age for possession or use is 19 and there are many locations where cannabis consumption is prohibited, including in any vehicle or boat. Adults may also grow marijuana plants, up to four per household. The Highway Traffic Act will be amended to include cannabis intoxication in a motor vehicle, similar to alcohol. Adults may possess up to 30 grams of cannabis away from home but there is no limit to the amount kept in the home, if it is secure from access by those under age 19. No other entity is licensed to retail recreational cannabis in the",
"-26.57980185173801"
],
[
"federal legislation mandates that states adopt laws prohibiting the sale of alcohol to individuals under 21 years old. If states do not comply, they risk losing federal transportation funding. Drug policy Johnson says his drug policy is \"Don't do drugs.\" He believes drugs are \"harmful, addictive and destructive to our lives and society.\" He believes the same about alcohol, and has not had a drink in decades.\nHowever, Johnson believes that the War on Drugs has not been successful, and should be ended. Concerning marijuana, he \"believes it is insane to arrest roughly 800,000 people a year for choosing",
"-26.567010303784627"
],
[
"replied, \"Sir, the motor car is dangerous if used improperly...Human stupidity and ignorance is the only danger human beings face in this world.\" To conclude his testimony, Leary suggested that legislation be enacted that would require LSD users to be adults who were competently trained and licensed, so that such individuals could use LSD \"for serious purposes, such as spiritual growth, pursuit of knowledge, or their own personal development.\" He presciently noted that without such licensing, the United States would be faced with \"another era of prohibition.\" Leary's testimony proved ineffective; on October 6, 1966, just months after the subcommittee",
"-26.515357880387455"
],
[
"and sale of cannabis, including Law Enforcement Against Prohibition, argue that fully decriminalizing cannabis would largely decrease financial gains earned by gangs in black market cannabis sales and trafficking. Displacement of alcohol consumption A study in the Journal of Policy Analysis and Management by Mark Anderson and Daniel Reese indicated that increased marijuana use in California is a substitute for alcohol. This research showed that participants frequently choose marijuana over other substances. They reported that over 41 percent of the people said that they prefer to use marijuana instead of alcohol. Some of the main reasons for this substitute were",
"-26.48110898534651"
],
[
"for purchase or use is 19, and recreational cannabis may not be consumed in public spaces or in any vehicle; other restrictions apply as to where the product may be consumed. An adult may carry up to 30 grams of cannabis. Driving while impaired is illegal, whether the cannabis is used for medical or recreational purposes. Adults may grow up to four marijuana plants per household for personal use; restrictions may be placed by landlords or condo corporations. Only six cannabis stores were open initially operated by private enterprise companies and licensed by the province; on-line purchases could also be",
"-26.457765557803214"
],
[
"of “safety sensitive work” or include operating machinery or large vehicles are also free to institute a zero-tolerance policy for its employees. For the approximate 10 million CDL (Commercial Drivers Licenses) drivers in the USA, federal law requires they pass employer drug tests under the Omnibus Transportation Employee Safety Act of 1991.\nDrivers that use cannabis show impairment both in simulator and on the road tests, mainly on the abilities to “..concentrate and maintain attention, estimate time and distance, and demonstrate coordination on divided attention tasks—all important requirements for operating a motor vehicle”\nThe Department of Transportation (DOT) has also stated in",
"-26.45463926185039"
],
[
"disorder than subjects in the study who did not use cannabis prior to using other drugs.\nIn September 2010, a study from the University of New Hampshire examined survey data from 1,286 young adults who had attended Miami-Dade County Public Schools in the 1990s and found the association between teenage cannabis use and other illicit drug abuse by young adults was significantly diminished after controlling for other factors, such as unemployment. They found that after young adults reach age 21, the gateway effect subsides entirely. Increased crime The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has claimed that cannabis leads to increased crime in",
"-26.297770302655408"
],
[
"possession, and especially for selling it without the required licence, according to statistics gathered by the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH). Nearly half (44%) of Canadians admit to trying it at least once; no statistics were provided as to the percentage who use it frequently. The CAMH report also indicates that by the last year of high school, nearly half (46%) of Ontario students admit to having used marijuana in the past year. The CAMH discussion includes warnings about the negative effects of cannabis. Other groups also warn about the risk, including the Canadian Automobile Association whose 2016",
"-26.282716747489758"
],
[
"actually are significantly more potent than older ones. Gateway drug The Gateway Hypothesis states that cannabis use increases the probability of trying \"harder\" drugs. The hypothesis has been hotly debated as it is regarded by some as the primary rationale for the United States prohibition on cannabis use. A Pew Research Center poll found that political opposition to marijuana use was significantly associated with concerns about the health effects and whether legalization would increase marijuana use by children.\nSome studies state that while there is no proof for the gateway hypothesis, young cannabis users should still be considered as a risk",
"-26.228991905911244"
],
[
"including the metabolites and derivatives of each or both . . . .\" Subsection (b) of the statute provides that being legally entitled to use a drug is not a defense to the statute if the person is still \"rendered incapable of driving safely as a result\" of using that drug. Illinois Illinois Vehicle Code 625 § 5/11-501 makes it a crime to drive or be in actual physical control of a vehicle while under the influence of any drug \"to a degree that renders the person incapable of safely driving,\" (subsection (a)(3)) or while \"there is any amount of",
"-26.193030069116503"
],
[
"horticultural equipment that was supposedly used to grow cannabis. The program also traced lists of customers who had bought such materials, and raided their homes. Smoke a Joint, Lose Your License In 1990, the Bush administration began a program which called for states to further punish drug offenses, including cannabis use, with a six month driver's license suspension, and threatened to withhold federal highway funds from states that did not comply by 1995. Since the law did not require that the drug offense be at all related to driving, it was nicknamed \"Smoke a Joint, Lose Your License.\" Compassionate Investigational",
"-26.181049351216643"
],
[
"for a number of illegal drugs. Limits were also set for certain prescription medications. The laws, however, did not end the use of the field impairment test, but made them more relevant for determining driver impairment by those drugs that are not now covered by the new legislation, or cannot be identified by the limited use of a device, that currently are only authorised for cannabis and cocaine. Prevalence In the United States, local law enforcement agencies made 1,467,300 arrests nationwide for driving under the influence of alcohol in 1996, compared to 1.9 million such arrests during the peak year",
"-26.14875104073144"
],
[
"people's mental development, their ability to concentrate in school, and their motivation and initiative to reach goals. And marijuana affects people of all ages: Harvard University researchers report that the risk of a heart attack is five times higher than usual in the hour after smoking marijuana.\n— US Drug Enforcement Administration (2003). \"Speaking Out Against Drug Legalization\"\nMany of the deaths from using cannabis, other than from car accidents while intoxicated or violence and aggression, are more likely to figure in the longer term, just as with tobacco, where both nicotine overdose and cannabis overdose are extremely rare or nonexistent. While",
"-25.977768520766404"
],
[
"only at government licensed retailers, and grown only by licensed producers. During the federal election campaign, the Liberals had promised \"new, stronger laws\" against sales to minors, driving while impaired, and sales through channels not specifically authorized to do so.\nUntil 17 October 2018, cannabis remained illegal (except with a physician's prescription, for medical purposes), as Trudeau reminded police forces across the country in late 2016. He insisted that they \"enforce the law\": criminally charge illegal storefront dispensaries. Trudeau also explained that the intent of the legislation is not to encourage recreational use of cannabis. The intent is \"to better protect",
"-25.953416929092782"
],
[
"of marijuana and cocaine, as well as driving while intoxicated after failing a field sobriety test. At first, DeMato claimed it had all been a misunderstanding. While Connecticut has severe penalties against drunk driving, she was able to avoid a jail term and a criminal record by negotiating, through her lawyer, an alternative sentence involving community service and a program of drug and alcohol education.",
"-25.912324400647776"
],
[
"marijuana offenders were significantly lower in states that had done away with criminal penalties for possessing small amounts; (2) there was a greater increase in marijuana use in states that continue to treat possession as crime than in states that treated it as a civil offense; (3) easing the penalties for marijuana did not lead to a substantial increase in the use of either alcohol or hard drugs.\" Reduction of income earned by organized crime The Drug Enforcement Administration has reported that cannabis sales and trafficking support violent criminal gangs. Proponents of fully decriminalizing cannabis to allow the regulated cultivation",
"-25.756282742426265"
],
[
"after being pulled over in a car by Oregon State Police for traveling 118 miles per hour on Interstate 5 with a suspended license. He had been cited for the same pair of offenses in the recent past on multiple occasions. The trooper could also smell marijuana in the vehicle. When he asked who may currently be in possession of the drug, Harris memorably replied \"We smoked it all\", though at one point he also implied that someone else in the car, a cousin, was the only person using it. Harris was not charged with reckless driving as the",
"-25.747061683272477"
],
[
"category of the offense at a higher BAC level, such as 0.12%, 0.15% or 0.20%. In many jurisdictions, police officers can conduct field tests of suspects to look for signs of intoxication. The US state of Colorado has a maximum blood content of THC for drivers who have consumed cannabis.\nIn most countries, driver's licence suspensions, fines and prison sentences for DUI offenders are used as a deterrent. Anyone who is convicted of driving while under the influence of alcohol or other drugs can be heavily fined and/or given a prison sentence. In some jurisdictions, impaired drivers who injure or kill",
"-25.7182890708209"
],
[
"prior to or during driving but only after they ceased driving--and only that post-driving ingestion caused their blood to contain the drug. Subsection 3(b) provides that no person shall be convicted under (a)(6) when they \"consumed the drug or drugs detected according to the directions and terms of a lawfully obtained prescription for such drug or drugs; however, nothing in 3(a) or 3(b) prevent a driver from being prosecuted under § 4177(a)(2). Georgia Georgia Statute § 40-6-391 makes it to drive while there is \"any amount of marijuana . . . present in the person's blood or urine, or both,",
"-25.69336732054944"
],
[
"of illegal narcotics, and that legalization of marijuana would increase other types of drug use and make the state a magnet for addicts; however, there is no evidence marijuana is a gateway drug. It is argued that as with alcohol, sobriety is the only safe alternative, and existing drug laws should be enforced. Opponents also state that the costs of enforcement are minimal compared to the costs of drug addiction and treatment, as well as the fact that legalization at the state level would not affect federal laws and international treaties concerning marijuana.\nSome employees of the Drug Enforcement Administration were",
"-25.682650344038848"
],
[
"previous governments to adequately educate the public on drugs policy changes. Gateway theory The report found that there was no evidence to support the gateway theory, which holds that the use of legal drugs such as tobacco and alcohol can lead to the subsequent misuse of illegal drugs and that the use of \"soft drugs\" such as cannabis can lead to the abuse of harder drugs such as heroin:\nEven if the gateway theory is correct, it cannot be a very wide gate as the majority of cannabis users never move on to Class A drugs… The gateway theory has",
"-25.561660575214773"
],
[
"marijuana plants inside their homes. Marijuana packaging is now required to provide the net weight, origin, age, and type of the product, as well as the milligram amount per serving of tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, and other cannabinoids, and if any pesticides were used during cultivation.\nSmoking marijuana in public is subject to a $100 fine. Driving under the influence of marijuana remains illegal, although some California Highway Patrol officers are concerned that they will be unable to identify intoxicated drivers. The penalty for unlicensed sale of marijuana is now reduced from four years in state prison to six months in",
"-25.558908758161124"
],
[
"stopped before and during pregnancy as it can result in negative outcomes for both the mother and baby. However, maternal use of marijuana during pregnancy does not appear to be associated with low birth weight or early delivery after controlling for tobacco use and other confounding factors. A 2014 review found that while cannabis use may be less harmful than alcohol use, the recommendation to substitute it for problematic drinking was premature without further study. Various surveys conducted between 2015 and 2019 found that many users of cannabis substitute it for prescription drugs (including opioids), alcohol, and tobacco; most of",
"-25.526060914780828"
],
[
"legalize use in the US, there are concerns surrounding the use of cannabis and its effects on job performance and safety. There are also concerns that the concentration of THC have increased over the past 50 years, thereby increasing the effects of the drug.\nThe Controlled Substances Act of 1970 currently lists cannabis as a Schedule 1 drug, deeming it to be a substance with high risk of dependence, abuse and no (supervised) medical uses.\nThe CATO institute estimates that legalizing drugs would save $41 billion per year along with $46.7 billion in revenue, if taxed at the same rates as alcohol",
"-25.516195792355575"
],
[
"hours after consuming enough alcohol to reach a BAC of 0.10, despite the fact that the BAC had returned to zero by that point. Reefer madness Originating in the 1930s, this myth was the basis for films like Reefer Madness, and used by Harry Anslinger of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics as justification for outlawing cannabis. The allegation was that even the calmest, most normal person could be transformed into a psychopathic killer or rapist solely from smoking a joint. No relationship has ever been proven linking such crimes to the acute intoxication of cannabis alone, and cannabis' psychological effects",
"-25.491611179488245"
],
[
"being prohibited at the federal level by the Controlled Substances Act. Even though the woman grew cannabis strictly for her own consumption and never sold any, the Supreme Court stated that growing one's own cannabis affects the interstate market of cannabis. The theory was that the cannabis could enter the stream of interstate commerce, even if it clearly wasn't grown for that purpose and that was unlikely ever to happen (the same reasoning as in Wickard v. Filburn). It therefore ruled that this practice may be regulated by the federal government under the authority of the Commerce Clause. Supremacy Clause",
"-25.483969298831653"
],
[
"not determine the driver's level of impairment. However, state laws usually provide for a rebuttable legal presumption of intoxication at a BAC of 0.08% or higher (see blood alcohol test assumptions). Booking and charging If it is determined after arrest that the person's BAC is not at or above the legal limit of 0.08%, they will probably be released without any charges. One may, however, still be charged with driving under the influence of alcohol on the basis of driving symptoms, observed impairment, admissions or performance on the field sobriety tests. And if there is suspicion of drug usage, a",
"-25.450243982602842"
],
[
"stated that after the Supreme Court ruling (decriminalizing cannabis possession for self consumption), everyone should grow his own cannabis. He encouraged everyone not to buy in the black market and fight against Illegal drug trade.",
"-25.439398931863252"
],
[
"influence and for refusing to take a sobriety test. Additionally, though \"suspected drunken drivers [currently] face revocation before they go to court,\" Emmer's bill would have delayed revocations until after conviction. Supporters of Emmer's bill said \"it's needed because pre-conviction revocations penalize drivers before proving they're guilty.\" Mothers Against Drunk Driving and the head of the Minnesota DWI task force opposed the legislation because it would allow arrested drivers to continue to drive during the time between their arrest and hearing.\nEmmer's own history became an issue in relation to his bill. At age 20, Emmer received a driving under the",
"-25.327085717148066"
],
[
"factor of a regulated legalization of cannabis. \"Today, some people smoke way too much cannabis and get problems, but we doesn't help them by punishing them, when they in reality need help. We should treat cannabis like alcohol, and focus on the one's, who get addicted.\" - Lisbeth Bech Poulsen.\nAfter the incident at Freetown Christiania, where the police destroyed all the stalls, and cleared them of cannabis, the Danish Social Liberal Party have chanced stance on this issue. They now want a 3-year trial, where you can buy state regulated cannabis across the country.\nRed-Green Alliance wants to legalize cannabis sold",
"-25.296687224312336"
],
[
"it as a fundamental premise of our intoxicated-driving laws that a driver soused enough to swerve once can be expected to swerve again — and soon. If he does not, and if the only evidence of his first episode of irregular driving is a mere inference from an uncorroborated, vague, and nameless tip, then the Fourth Amendment requires that he be left alone.\" In his concluding remarks, Justice Scalia wrote \"[d]runken driving is a serious matter, but so is the loss of our freedom to come and go as we please without police interference .... After today’s opinion all of",
"-25.23854861536529"
],
[
"and may be asked to be tested summarily and without probable cause. Thus the Constitution would prohibit people from being stopped without a search warrant or at least without reasonable suspicion that they have committed a crime; however, the warrant requirement only attaches should the search be unreasonable and the US Supreme Court, as shown below, decided that such stops are not unreasonable under certain circumstances.\nDriving under the Influence of alcohol, or Drunk Driving, is a special type of crime, as driving with a blood alcohol content (BAC) over a set limit is defined as the crime; it is",
"-25.234210059279576"
],
[
"marijuana.\nBut Mr. Brecher was more than a compiler of facts, and Licit and Illicit Drugs is more than a primer on addiction. He pierced the veil of moral righteousness and special pleading that still colors drug policy, offering sober prescriptions for limiting the damage that many Americans still don't want to hear.\nThe editorial concluded: \"Good or bad, marijuana is here to stay. The billions spent to fight it are wasted dollars. Indeed, they may be worse than wasted: properly regulated, marijuana might serve as a less dangerous substitute for alcohol.\"\nAn earlier book by Mr. Brecher, The Sex Researchers was first",
"-25.203787955164444"
],
[
"growing of marijuana plants even for personal use. Under Quebec's law, it is prohibited to cultivate cannabis for personal use.\nThe consumption of cannabis is heavily restricted; it cannot be used wherever tobacco smoking is prohibited, as well as in a long list of other locations. Some municipalities have restricted smoking in some or all public spaces, but this does not include Montreal. Impairment under the influence of drugs is illegal as it is for drunk driving.\nAs of 10 January 2019, there were 12 (government-run) retail stores in operation, but due to a shortage of product, were open only Thursday to",
"-25.186988607340027"
],
[
"Drugs and Driving It was estimated approximately 400 people per month were being arrested for drug driving in England and Wales, based on statistics obtained from UK police force by IAM RoadSmart, with 900 arrests made by police forces between March and June 2015. By 2016 it's estimated as many as 200 drug driving related deaths occurred every year in Great Britain. Surveys suggest that one in ten young male drivers have driven under the influence of cannabis, and 370,000 have driven under the influence of class A drugs.",
"-25.182178703369573"
],
[
"and for the second time. She cited the growth of neighboring casino projects as part of her reasoning. Cannabis prohibition In early 2015, Paiva Weed was quoted as being both open-minded but concerned regarding the movement to end cannabis prohibition in the State. She went further to say \"Revenue is something that always gets people's attention. However I believe that the decision to legalize marijuana should be made in conjunction with law enforcement and our health officials and not be revenue driven\".",
"-25.03420811559772"
],
[
"not necessary to drive recklessly or cause an accident in order to be convicted (although an impaired driver who also drives recklessly could face additional charges). To determine BAC accurately, it is generally necessary for the driver to subject himself to tests that are self incriminating, and drivers sometimes exercise their right against self incrimination to refuse these tests. To discourage this, some jurisdictions set the legal penalties for refusing a BAC test to equal or worse than those for failing a BAC test. In other jurisdictions, the legal system may consider refusing the roadside alcohol breath test to be",
"-25.006156731309602"
],
[
"legalized, as this might reduce the level of heroin addiction.\nIn 2015, Lok Sabha MP Tathagata Satpathy criticized the ban on cannabis as \"elitist\", and labeling cannabis the \"intoxicant\" of the poor. He also felt that the ban was \"an overreaction to a scare created by the United States\". Sathpathy has also advocated the legalisation of cannabis. On 2 November 2015, Lok Sabha MP Dharamvir Gandhi announced that had received clearance from Parliament to table a Private Member's Bill seeking to amend the NDPS Act to allow for the legalised, regulated, and medically supervised supply of \"non-synthetic\" intoxicants including cannabis and",
"-24.95808239292819"
],
[
"to use a natural substance that is, by any reasonable objective standard, less harmful than alcohol, a drug that is advertised at every major sporting event.\" He compares present-day prohibition of drugs to the failed alcohol prohibition in the 1920s. He says \"90% of the drug problem is prohibition-related, not use-related.\"\nJohnson believes that marijuana should be legalized, regulated, and taxed, \"just like tobacco.\" But he promises \"it will never be legal for a person to smoke marijuana, become impaired, and get behind the wheel of a car or otherwise do harm to others, and it will never be legal for",
"-24.955445514977328"
],
[
"marijuana, with the incidence of cyclic vomiting prominently doubling in the US state of Colorado after legalization. As the use of marijuana continues to be legalized at the state level, the prevalence of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome is expected to increase in the US. History Cannabinoid hyperemesis was first reported in the Adelaide Hills of South Australia in 2004.\nThe name cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome was also coined at this time. The report focused on nine patients who were chronic cannabis users who presented with cyclical vomiting illness. One woman in the study reported that warm baths provided the only relief from the",
"-24.934585914597847"
],
[
"kids to smoke marijuana.\" If elected, he would de-schedule marijuana by executive order. He says this \"would lead to a lower price for the product and eliminate the criminal element from its distribution, much like the repeal of the prohibition of alcohol many decades back.\"\nJohnson does not advocate outright legalization of other drugs. Instead, he believes other drugs should be treated as a health problem rather than a criminal justice problem. He believes these steps will lessen crime in the United States, help balance the budget, increase the quality of courts and prisons, and protect civil liberties. Education On the",
"-24.928979263393558"
],
[
"impaired (DWAI), may apply when a driver's BAC exceeds 0.05%. Research Research suggests that misdemeanor drunk driving offenses, but not felony drunk driving offenses, are related to county-based closing times for on-premises licensed venues. Requirements for ignition interlock device's for first-time DWI offending introduced with Leandra's Law might explain why there was no relationship between alcohol availability and felony drunk driving offenses. Public intoxication New York State has no law against being intoxicated from alcohol in public, but there is a law prohibiting other substances. Any person found under the influence of a substance other than alcohol in public who",
"-24.907828890834935"
],
[
"a year after an accident, thereby giving law enforcement officials the necessary time needed to complete their investigation of the most difficult incidents – ones that cause serious bodily injury or death and frequently involve multiple vehicles. Opposition to marijuana legalization Baker is opposed to cannabis legalization and does not support the legalization of medical cannabis. As chairman of the House Health Committee, Representative Baker has blocked medical cannabis legislation in PA. According to Baker: \"Federal law places Marijuana as being so potentially harmful and dangerous that it has listed the drug as a schedule 1 drug right next to",
"-24.892912988580065"
],
[
"the program essentially gave cannabis quasi-legality, as \"anyone can obtain a recommendation for medical marijuana at any time for practically any ailment\". Acknowledging that there were instances in which the system was abused and that laws could be improved, Stephen Gutwillig of the Drug Policy Alliance insisted that what Proposition 215 had accomplished was \"nothing short of incredible\". Gutwillig argued that because of the law, 200,000 patients in the state had safe and affordable access to medical cannabis to relieve pain and treat medical conditions, without having to risk arrest or buy off the black market. Conflict with federal law",
"-24.878247208631365"
],
[
"of marijuana:\nI think we consume far more dangerous drugs that are legal: cigarette smoking, nicotine and alcohol ... I feel they cause much more devastating effects physically. We need to lift the prohibition on marijuana.\nShe received a Candace Award from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women in 1991.",
"-24.847252851177473"
],
[
"aggression than does cannabis use.\nIn 2004, a study by Scott Bates from the Boreal Economic Analysis & Research center entitled \"The Economic Implications of Marijuana Legalization in Alaska\", was prepared for Alaskans for Rights & Revenues. The study found there was no link between cannabis use and criminal behavior.\nA 2014 study published in PLoS ONE found that not only did the legalization of Medical cannabis did not increase violent crime, but that a 2.4% reduction in homicide and assault was found for each year the law was in effect. Increased cannabis usage The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has claimed that",
"-24.815307891985867"
],
[
"of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature\". There are numerous other reasons why people look for medical cannabis and to make people aware of whether they are eligible to accept medical cannabis as a dose, there are numerous websites that are currently providing online consultations through video calling. People are provided licenses with the help of which, they can either grow medical cannabis, or purchase it legally throughout the state. This is done only after precisely reviewing the applications of patients. Cognitive effects A 2011 systematic review evaluated published studies of the acute and long-term",
"-24.786151332433292"
],
[
"United States. Vehicles Those with epilepsy are at about twice the risk of being involved in a motor vehicular collision and thus in many areas of the world are not allowed to drive or only able to drive if certain conditions are met. In some places physicians are required by law to report if a person has had a seizure to the licensing body while in others the requirement is only that they encourage the person in question to report it themselves. Countries that require physician reporting include Sweden, Austria, Denmark and Spain. Countries that require the individual to report",
"-24.724401972576743"
],
[
"marijuana are not yet fully classified. As a result, further studies must carry out to fully understand the benefits as well as adverse psychiatric and medical side effects of the drug. Economic arguments Many proponents of cannabis decriminalization have argued that decriminalizing cannabis would largely reduce costs of maintaining the criminal justice and law enforcement systems, while legalizing cannabis to allow the cultivation and sale would generate a substantial amount of income from taxing cannabis sales.\nIn 2005, more than 530 distinguished economists called for the legalization of cannabis in an open letter to President Bush, Congress, Governors, and state legislatures.",
"-24.720280609253678"
],
[
"longer believe alcohol is a recreational drug I would encourage my children to use. Knowing full well that when the time comes the choice will not be mine to make, I have made it a goal of mine to investigate, research and comment on current drug policy juxtaposed with the negative effects alcohol, with a view towards providing researched based information to those who are seeking it. This has allowed me to see the place that cannabis should rightly have in our society, specifically in its capacity to reduce the harmful effects of alcohol.\nAs of February 2013, Responsible Choice provides",
"-24.682813458144665"
],
[
"in favor of cannabis legalization. This is the case for both medical and recreational. \"I want a state regulated sale of cannabis, like the state regulates alcohol and cigarettes. That way, we have a better control of which drugs are on the market, and that they aren't sold to kids.\" - Christina Egelund.\nAlternativet are in factor of cannabis legalization. This is the case for both medical and recreational. \"This is a great way to take a stand against criminal gangs, decriminalize normal Danes and to secure that there aren't any dangerous chemicals added.\" - Josephine Fock.\nSocialist People's Party are in",
"-24.677869035222102"
],
[
"offenders and those who drove after imbibing large amounts of alcohol, but not steadily reducing thresholds for breath tests which progressively lower amounts of social drinking. In 2010, Lightner wrote a letter to an ABI executive thanking him for his continued support working \"on legislation that would increase punishment for drivers who drive with a higher blood [alcohol] content.\"\nIn 2013, Lightner opposed the lowering of the blood alcohol limit, opposing the National Transportation Safety Board's efforts to persuade states to do so.",
"-24.67319081738242"
],
[
"2011. Reform In 2013, Centre Party Youth (CUF) announced their advocacy for the legalization of cannabis. Among their justifications are the idea that the ban will lead to greater harm than the drug itself, that prohibition favors organized crime, and possession and controlled sale of alcohol is already legal.",
"-24.659300012979656"
],
[
"anxiety and seizures that he had experienced through most of his adult life. Before receiving a proper diagnosis, he self-medicated with marijuana.\nOn August 26, 2016, Jeffress was arrested for driving while intoxicated.",
"-24.65770229732152"
],
[
"Field Sobriety Tests (SFSTs) and drug recognition evaluations to determine whether the officer believes the driver is under the influence of drugs.\" In the province of Manitoba, an \"...officer can issue a physical coordination test. In B.C., the officer can further order a drug recognition evaluation by an expert, which can be used as evidence of drug use to pursue further charges.\"\nIn the US state of Colorado, the state government indicates that \"[a]ny amount of marijuana consumption puts you at risk of driving impaired.\" Colorado law states that \"drivers with five nanograms of active tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in their",
"-24.649812185642077"
],
[
"marijuana, cannabis is a substance which is dangerous because it's illegal. It's not illegal because it's dangerous,\".\nOn September 8, 2012, Jill Stein campaigned in Oregon, where neither Romney nor Obama campaigned in person, and spoke at a popular pro-marijuana, pro-hemp festival, Hempstalk 2012. Stein voiced support for Oregon's Measure 80, on the November ballot, that would legalize marijuana use for adults, regulate and tax it, and lift restrictions on using industrial hemp in clothing and other products. Stein stated, \"Poor people are being thrown into prison for the recreational use of a substance that is not dangerous, and that is",
"-24.64635885009193"
],
[
"double the legal limit in Missouri. Police also found 8.55 grams of marijuana along with a glass smoking pipe in his vehicle, although toxicology tests later proved no drugs were in his system except alcohol. In addition, Hancock was talking on a cell phone when the accident occurred and was not wearing a seatbelt. An accident reconstruction team determined that Hancock was driving 68 mph in a 55 mph zone.",
"-24.642993824119912"
],
[
"argument that legalizing marijuana would still allow minors access because minors clearly have access to tobacco and alcohol despite age restrictions, had the unintended consequence of also being an argument against the legalization of the latter two substances, as noted by pundits.\nYoung was acclaimed as the Conservative candidate in Oakville riding for the 2015 Canadian federal election. At an all candidates' debate hosted by the Oakville Chamber of Commerce on October 6, 2015, when asked how he and his party would create employment for young Canadians, Young changed the subject stating one of the biggest problems Canada’s youths have is",
"-24.6365679656883"
],
[
"(Billy Caldwell, 12, and Alfie Dingley, 6) both experienced significant improvement in their conditions after they began using cannabis, but were initially not allowed to continue their treatment under UK law. This led to increased public outcry, particularly in the case of Billy Caldwell who was hospitalised with life-threatening seizures after his medication was confiscated by authorities.\nOn 20 June 2018, then Health Secretary Jeremy Hunt announced his support for the medical use of cannabis and that a review would be undertaken to study changes to the law. On 26 July 2018, Home Secretary Sajid Javid announced that cannabis products would",
"-24.600522647277103"
],
[
"support for cannabis legalization and increased incidence of chronic pain among patients. While medical cannabis use is increasing, there are major social and legal barriers which lead to cannabis research proceeding more slowly and differently from standard medical research. Reasons why cannabis is unusual as a treatment include that it is not a patented drug owned by the pharmaceutical industry, and that its legal status as a medical treatment is ambiguous even where it is legal to use, and that cannabis use carries outside the norm of a typical medical treatment. The ethics around cannabis research is in a state",
"-24.578702229977353"
],
[
"bi-partisan and historic Medical Marijuana Safety and Regulation Act (AB 266) in 2015. Part of a package of laws intended to create a statewide framework for regulating medical marijuana. Part of the law is aimed at addressing the proliferation of drugged driving in California and is funding a study at UC San Diego to create tools to recognize marijuana-impairment in drivers.\nThe California Police Chiefs Association named Lackey their 2015 Legislator of the Year for his promotion of public safety and his efforts to curb driving under the influence of drugs and alcohol. He also received the 2015 Legislator of Year",
"-24.578137918368157"
],
[
"driver's licence of the accused. Nonetheless the accused may be charged with driving while prohibited under criminal law despite possessing a valid driver's licence.\nOften the provincial suspensions are more severe than the criminal prohibition. For instance many jurisdictions require the accused to complete a remedial program and participate in the ignition interlock program, failing which will result in an indefinite suspension until the conditions are met. Also an accused may be suspended from driving for medical reasons if a physician reports that the accused has a serious alcohol problem likely to result in an unacceptable risk to the public should",
"-24.5388665482169"
],
[
"drivers are deemed to have consented to being tested for intoxication as a condition of their operating motor vehicles on public roadways. Implied consent laws may result in punishment for those who refuse to cooperate with blood alcohol testing after an arrest for suspected impaired driving, including civil consequences such as a driver's license suspension. The State of Kansas found unconstitutional a state law that made it an additional crime to refuse such a test when no court-ordered warrant for testing exists.\nUnder the implied consent law of the State of Michigan, a person who is arrested for drunk driving is",
"-24.520353429805255"
]
] |
5fpy11 | What caused racial division and discrimination between Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda? | [
"According to the excellent \"We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will be Killed Along with Our Families,\" a book on the genocide, there had long been a divide in Rwanda between more agrarian and more trade oriented groups, which was loosely correlated to Hutu and Tutsi lineage. Colonizing forces sharpened and deepened this divide as a way to ease their control over the society, making it more explicitly ethnic. By the time colonization ended, the group identities had solidified as a basis for the political and social order. The divide continued to be used in politics and ultimately spiraled into the genocide.",
"This is what I know of the topic from my time in Rwanda: Initially Hutu and Tutsi had recognizable differences (mainly the shape of their noses) and just focused on different things. With the arrival of the Belgians and their interests in controlling the people, they introduced a national ID paper where it would also state whether someone was a Hutu, a Tutsi or else (there were/are other tribes as well). Afterwards it was also possible to acquire the status of Tutsi depending on your wealth (how many cows you owned). Then Tutsi started being given more and more positions of power, which then became some sort of requirement. This led to a growing distance between the two groups causing the rapture we know about. Basically tagging people and discriminating some (the majority) led to the genocide, especially because of the non-intervention of outsiders.",
"So before the Europeans arrived Rwandan and Burundian society had a hierarchy with Tutsis at the top and Hutus and the twa at the bottom there was no clear racial distinction because most Rwandans have the same features and the system was primarily economic with the those who were rich considered Tutsis and those without considered Hutus. Then the Belgians came and colonized the region and they saw the hierarchical system as a way to effectively control the people. In doing so they added a racial dynamic in which those with lighter skin,narrow noses and tall height were considered Tutsi while those who had more negroid features were considered Hutu or twa. The Tutsis who ran Rwanda weren't very nice to the Hutus and this sowed the hatred and resentment for the Tutsis amongst Hutus. This changed with the wave of African independence movements which made the Tutsis demand independence(because being upper class they were more educated and were more exposed to pan Africanist ideas spreading at the time).This resulted in Belgium switching its support to the Hutus because with Tutsi leaders pushing for independence there was a fear that Rwanda would become communist and Hutus were seen as easier to control. Eventually the Hutus would overthrow the Tutsi monarchy in Rwanda which was then followed by a purge of Tutsi leading many into exile and installing a hardline regime that ruled until it was overthrown in 1994, by The Rwandan patriotic front led by Tutsi exiles based and supported by Uganda.",
"Not an expert, but my understanding is that the colonial powers installed the Tutsis in a position of power. I've heard arguments that Hutu and Tutsi are constructed identities that didn't exist in a meaningful sense before colonialism. Try /r/AskHistorians, they're pretty good about this sort of thing."
] | [
[
"among the Hutu majority who felt disenfranchised and politically repressed. This political resentment fueled the development of an ethnic gulf between the Tutsis who wielded political power, and the Hutus who were locked out of power.\nBelgian economic policies also further increased the ethnic divide between Tutsis and Hutus. Colonial elites appropriated large land grants to Tutsis, and displaced formerly wealthy Hutu landowners. The Belgians strengthened the feudal arrangement of Rwanda’s pre-colonial past by forcing Hutus to work on lands owned by Tutsis. Moreover, Tutsis were appointed as trade officials and tax collectors, further reinforcing Tutsi economic hegemony over the Hutus.",
"-31.09441315746517"
],
[
"through universal elections after independence. This partly reflected internal Belgian domestic politics, in which the discrimination against the Hutu majority came to be regarded as similar to oppression within Belgium stemming from the Flemish-Walloon conflict, and the democratization and empowerment of the Hutu was seen as a just response to the Tutsi domination. Belgian policies wavered and flip-flopped considerably during this period leading up to independence of Burundi and Rwanda. Independence of Rwanda and Burundi (1962) The Hutu majority in Rwanda had revolted against the Tutsi and was able to take power. Tutsis fled and created exile communities outside Rwanda",
"-30.798294161097147"
],
[
"within the parameters of the Tutsi-Hutu division. Regardless of the historical validity of the division, Rwandans in the late 20th century acted as if they were real.\nBelgium began to withdraw from Rwanda in 1959, and in 1961 a Hutu-dominated government was established. This replaced the colonial government of Belgium, which had ruled through a favored Tutsi royal family. One of the consequences of the Hutu victory was sporadic attacks against Tutsis that led to over 300,000 Tutsis fleeing the country over the next several years. Anti-Hutu attacks in neighboring Burundi by the Tutsi-led government there led a",
"-30.62637131602969"
],
[
"that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating into (rather than conquering) the existing society. In this theory the Hutu-Tutsi distinction arose later as a class distinction, rather than a racial one.\nThe population coalesced, first into clans (ubwoko) and into about eight kingdoms by 1700. The country was fertile and densely populated, with its kingdoms strictly controlled socially. The Kingdom of Rwanda, ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became increasingly dominant beginning in the mid-18th century. From its origins as a small toparchy near Lake Muhazi the kingdom expanded through conquest and assimilation, reaching its zenith under",
"-30.521416529023554"
],
[
"were an imposed and an arbitrary construct based more on physical characteristics than ethnic background. However, the social differences between the Hutu and the Tusi have traditionally allowed the Tutsi, with a strong pastoralist tradition, to gain social, economic, and political ascendancy over the Hutu, who were primarily agriculturalists. The distinction under colonial powers allowed Tutsis to establish ruling power, until a Hutu revolution in 1959 abolished the Tutsi monarchy by 1961. \nThe hostility between the two groups continued, as \"additional rounds of ethnic tension and violence flared periodically and led to mass killings of Tutsi in Rwanda, such as",
"-30.505023662088206"
],
[
"country's Tutsi minority, since the missionaries ran the colonial-era schools, these pernicious values were systematically transmitted to several generations of Rwandans…\nWhen the Roman Catholic missionaries came to Rwanda in the late 1880s, they contributed to the \"Hamitic\" theory of race origins, which taught that the Tutsi were a superior race. The Church has been considered to have played a significant role in fomenting racial divisions between Hutu and Tutsi, in part because they found more willing converts among the majority Hutu. Role of religion in 1994 genocide An estimated 800,000 Rwandans died during ethnic violence over a brief span of",
"-30.455849154444877"
],
[
"transition to the Habyarimana regime illustrated the ease and means by which Rwandan national regimes could redraw and manipulate the racial/ethnic divisions of their own people in order to fit their own political agendas. Despite years of relative peace following the formation of the 2nd republic, Habyarimana’s goals of reconciliation ultimately failed. Hutu/Tutsi differences remained codified in law. When Habyarimana’s government began the transition to a democratic system in the late 1980s, it was perhaps inevitable that divisions would manifest once again along Hutu/Tutsi lines. As well, popular Hutu resentment at the disproportional representation of Tutsi in the quota system",
"-30.176713908382226"
],
[
"there are considerable cultural and physical similarities between the two \"ethnicities\", a primordial view of the genocide seems unfeasible. However, Jefremovas does add that, despite ethnicity being \"hard to define in Rwanda, these labels are recognised by people and have power\".\nThe primordialist view suggests that the irreconcilable cultural differences between the Hutu and the Tutsi was the major cause of the Rwandan genocide as it included notions about the right to the homeland and led the Hutu to regard the Tutsi as intruders. Furthermore, in this view, the different cultural identities led to hardened beliefs of \"us\" and \"them\", making",
"-30.12828162466758"
],
[
"Tutsis as more civilized, superior, but most importantly, more European than the Hutus. This perspective justified placing societal control in the hands of the Tutsis at the expense of the Hutus. Moreover, this Belgian affirmation of the Hamitic theory provided a conceptual foundation for Tutsis and Hutus to start identifying themselves as different ethnic groups. The Belgians established a comprehensive race theory that was to dictate Rwandan society until independence: Tutsi racial superiority and Hutu oppression. The institutionalization of Tutsi and Hutu ethnic divergence was accomplished through administrative, political economic, and educational means.\nPrimarily, Belgian colonialism stressed physical and social differences.",
"-30.10595024342183"
],
[
"formed a distinct racial group, possibly of Cushitic origin. An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady from neighbouring regions, with incoming groups bearing high genetic similarity to the established ones, and integrating into rather than conquering the existing society. Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was not a racial one, but principally a class or caste distinction in which the Tutsi herded cattle while the Hutu farmed the land. The Hutu, Tutsi and Twa of Rwanda share a common language and are collectively known as the Banyarwanda.\nThe population coalesced, first into",
"-29.809467758983374"
],
[
"in Uganda and Tanzania. Since Burundi's independence, more extremist Tutsi came to power and oppressed the Hutus, especially those who were educated. Their actions led to the deaths of up to 200,000 Hutus. Overt discrimination from the colonial period was continued by different Rwandan and Burundian governments, including identity cards that distinguished Tutsi and Hutu. Burundi genocide (1993) In 1993, Burundi's first democratically elected president, Melchior Ndadaye, a Hutu, was assassinated by Tutsi officers, as was the person entitled to succeed him under the constitution. This sparked a genocide in Burundi between Hutu political structures and the Tutsi military, in",
"-29.762839335751778"
],
[
"attempted to maintain strict separation from the agricultural subjects, called Hutu. The Tutsi rulers lost their Nilotic language and became Bantu speakers, but they preserved an ideology of superiority in political and social life and attempted to monopolise high status and wealth. In the 20th century, the Hutu revolt after independence led to the expulsion from Rwanda of the Tutsi elite, who became refugees in Uganda. A counter-revolution in Burundi secured power for the Tutsi through periodic massacres of the Hutu majority.\nThe Bito type of state, in contrast with that of the Tutsi, was established in Bunyoro, which for several",
"-29.72631255950546"
],
[
"king was the ultimate judge and arbiter for those cases that reached him. Despite the traditional nature of the system, harmony and cohesion had been established among Rwandans and within the kingdom since the beginning of Rwanda.\nThe distinction between the three ethnic groups was somewhat fluid, in that Tutsis who lost their cattle due to a disease epidemic, such as rinderpest, sometimes would be considered Hutu. Likewise Hutu who obtained cattle would come to be considered Tutsi, thus climbing the ladder of the social strata. This social mobility ended abruptly with the onset of colonial administration. Colonial Rwanda Unlike much",
"-29.597650572191924"
],
[
"the Hutu disenfranchised. In 1935, Belgium introduced identity cards labelling each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. While it had previously been possible for particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi, the identity cards prevented any further movement between the groups. Revolution and Hutu–Tutsi relations after independence After World War II, a Hutu emancipation movement began to grow in Rwanda, fuelled by increasing resentment of the inter-war social reforms, and also an increasing sympathy for the Hutu within the Catholic Church. Catholic missionaries increasingly viewed themselves as responsible for empowering the underprivileged Hutu rather than the Tutsi elite,",
"-29.512352038815152"
],
[
"the moderate constitutionalists L’Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la Masse (APROSOMA). This marked the first time in Rwandan history that such stark party identification had emerged along exclusively ethnic lines. Not all parties championed segregation of the Hutu and Tutsi people, yet the divide ensured that the socio-political differentiation pioneered under colonialism would continue to flourish in independence.\nIn the ensuing provisional elections, the nationalist party of Grégoire Kayibanda (MDR-PARMEHUTU) rose to the fore. This victory gave PARMEHUTU an apparent mandate to initiate their program of segregation and discrimination against the Tutsi. Soon, Kayibanda would find the political cover he",
"-29.480377110652626"
],
[
"\"Nazism\" against the Tutsi minorities, and discriminatory actions by the government and Belgian authorities.\nThe revolution of 1959 marked a major change in political life in Rwanda. Some 150,000 Tutsis were exiled to neighbouring countries. Tutsis who remained in Rwanda were excluded from political power in a state becoming more centralized under Hutu power. Tutsi refugees also fled to the South Kivu province of the Congo, where they were known as Banyamalenge.\nIn 1960, the Belgian government agreed to hold democratic municipal elections in Ruanda-Urundi. The Hutu majority elected Hutu representatives. Such changes ended the Tutsi monarchy, which had existed for centuries.",
"-29.356378308788408"
],
[
"utilized by the Belgians and the Tutsis to systematically oppress the Hutu, the Hutu themselves internalized the hypothesis and flipped it around as a framework for viewing the Tutsi. Hutu intellectuals re-framed the race theory as a defense mechanism: Hutu inferiority evolved into rightful supremacy in Rwanda, while Tutsi superiority evolved into an illegitimate foreignness to rule in Rwanda. Tutsis were viewed not as the rightful rulers that the Belgians claimed they were, but as foreigners from northeast Africa who invaded “rightful” Hutu territories. This Hutu reconstruction of the myth of Tutsi foreignness was disseminated and propagated as a",
"-29.31664635404013"
],
[
"presented as impossible.\nIt has been argued that an appeal to ethnic homelands was present in the genocide, \"based on the notion that Rwanda belonged to the Hutu, its true inhabitants\" and that the Tutsi had encroached on this ancient, ethnic territory (cf. Hamitic Theory). The scholar Jefremovas offers a criticism of a primordial view of ethnicity within Rwanda, stating that, despite the strong focus on ethnic differences, \"Tutsi and Hutu live in the same places, speak the same language, practice the same religions\". Jefremovas further argues that an \"enormous overlap in physical characteristics between the groups\" is evident. Thus, as",
"-29.286235346575268"
],
[
"as Belgium's desire for labourers in North Kivu, accelerated this process. The migrant Rwandans in North Kivu became known as the Banyamasisi. Recent history In 1959, following a decade of increasing tension between the Tutsi and the Hutu, a social revolution took place in Rwanda. Hutu activists began killing Tutsi, overturning the centuries-old Tutsi dominance amongst the Banyarwanda. The Belgians suddenly changed allegiance, becoming pro-Hutu, and the Rwandan monarchy was abolished in 1962 following a referendum. Rwanda then gained independence as a republic, under Hutu leadership. As the revolution progressed, Tutsi began leaving the country to escape the Hutu purges,",
"-29.214088214561343"
],
[
"an alliance with the king. German policy was to rule the country through the Rwandan monarchy; this system had the added benefit of enabling colonization with small European troop numbers. The colonists favoured the Tutsi over the Hutu when assigning administrative roles, believing them to be migrants from Ethiopia and racially superior. The Rwandan king welcomed the Germans, using their military strength to widen his rule. Belgian forces took control of Rwanda and Burundi during World War I, and from 1926 began a policy of more direct colonial rule. The Belgians modernised the Rwandan economy, but Tutsi supremacy remained, leaving",
"-29.147594663547352"
],
[
"monarchy and the Belgians continued this following their takeover. Belgian rule reinforced the difference between Tutsi and Hutu. Tutsis were deemed superior and were propped up as a ruling minority supported by the Belgians, while the Hutu were systematically repressed. The country's power later dramatically shifted following the so-called Hutu Revolution, during which Rwanda gained independence from their colonizers and formed a new Hutu-dominated government. Deep-seated ethnic tensions did not leave with the Belgians. Instead, the new government reinforced the cleavage. Civil society Joel Migdal of the University of Washington believes weak postcolonial states have issues rooted in civil society.",
"-29.073096409090795"
],
[
"reaction to “unjust” Tutsi rule. The ethnic security dilemma Other theoretical frameworks can also explain the construction of ethnic divergence between Tutsis and Hutus. First, the creation of salient ethnic identities can be seen as a better mechanism of capturing class resentment on the part of Hutus; layering an ethnic dimension over class identities was a better strategy for mobilizing the masses and legitimizing resistance against upper-class, ethnically different Tutsis. Second, a reworking of Michael Mann’s security dilemma in the Rwandan case produces the “ethnic” security dilemma: Hutus perceived that the Tutsis were forming a distinct ethnic identity, pushed by",
"-29.042294073384255"
],
[
"native policies. The Germans believed the Tutsi ruling class was racially superior to the other native peoples of Rwanda because of their alleged \"Hamitic\" origins on the Horn of Africa, which they believed made them more \"European\" than the Hutu. The colonists, including powerful Roman Catholic officials, favored the Tutsis because of their taller stature, more \"honorable and eloquent\" personalities, and willingness to convert to Roman Catholicism. The Germans favored Tutsi dominance over the farming Hutus (almost in a feudalistic manner) and granted them basic ruling position. These positions eventually turned into the overall governing body of Rwanda.\nPrior to the",
"-28.991730844485573"
],
[
"by the Belgians and their local, mainly Tutsi, allies. A system of corvée that had existed under Mwami Rwabugiri was used. This forced labour approach to colonization was condemned by many internationally, and was extremely unpopular in Rwanda. Hundreds of thousands of Rwandans immigrated to the British protectorate of Uganda, which was much wealthier and did not have the same policies.\nBelgian rule reinforced an ethnic divide between the Tutsi and Hutu, and they supported Tutsis political power. Due to the eugenics movement in Europe and the United States, the colonial government became concerned with the differences between Hutu and Tutsi.",
"-28.845771748223342"
],
[
"Kingdom of Rwanda Pre-colonization In the 15th century, one chiefdom managed to incorporate several of its close neighbor territories establishing the Kingdom of Rwanda after disintegration of the Bunyoro-Kitara Empire (Bachwezi Empire), which ruled over most of what is now considered Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, and parts of Tanzania. The Hutu majority, 82–85% of the population, were mostly peasants while the kings, known as Mwamis, were generally from Tutsi. Certainly some Hutus were nobility and, equally, considerable intermingling took place.\nBefore the 19th century, it was believed that the Tutsis held military leadership power while the Hutus possessed healing power and",
"-28.774599586060503"
],
[
"in shaping a singular Tutsi identity among the privileged upper classes.\nLastly, the education system reinforced the bifurcation of Tutsi and Hutu ethnic identity. The Roman Catholic Church, the primary educators in the country, subscribed to the differences between Hutus and Tutsis by developing separate educational systems for each. Not surprisingly, in the 1940s and 1950s, the vast majority of students were Tutsis, even though the majority of Rwandans now self-identified as Hutus. Hutu race theory Current anthropologists argue that the sum totality of these colonial measures fashioned a resentful inferiority complex among the Hutus. Although the Hamitic theory was jointly",
"-28.758672017604113"
],
[
"Kagame's birth, Rwanda was a United Nations Trust Territory; long-time colonial power Belgium still ruled the territory, but with a mandate to oversee independence. Rwandans were made up of three distinct groups: the minority Tutsi were the traditional ruling class, and the Belgians had long promoted their supremacy, while the majority Hutu were agriculturalists. The third group, the Twa, were a forest-dwelling pygmy people descended from Rwanda's earliest inhabitants, who formed less than 1% of the population.\nTension between Tutsi and Hutu had been escalating during the 1950s, and culminated in the 1959 Rwandan Revolution. Hutu activists began killing Tutsi, forcing",
"-28.709512474830262"
],
[
"created, and the country became independent in 1962.\nAs the revolution progressed, Tutsi began leaving the country to escape the Hutu purges, settling in the four neighbouring countries: Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania and Zaire. These exiles, unlike the Banyarwanda who migrated during the pre-colonial and colonial era, were regarded as refugees in their host countries, and began almost immediately to agitate for a return to Rwanda. They formed armed groups, known as inyenzi (cockroaches), who launched attacks into Rwanda; these were largely unsuccessful, and led to further reprisal killings of Tutsi and further Tutsi exiles. By 1964, more than 300,000 Tutsi had",
"-28.61129717955191"
],
[
"the Tutsi and Hutu as separate races, labelling the Tutsi as \"Hamites\" and accusing them of establishing a \"racist monopoly\". The manifesto called for a transfer of power from the Tutsi to the Hutu based on \"statistical law\". The release of these competing visions for the country's future brought attention from Belgian politicians and the public to Rwanda's social problems which, up until that point, had only been the concern of sociologists and sections of the colonial administration.\nIn 1958, Gitera visited the king at his palace in Nyanza. Although Gitera had considerable respect for the monarchy, Rudahigwa treated him contemptuously;",
"-28.498999919451308"
],
[
"fled, and were forced to remain in exile for the next three decades. Pro-Hutu discrimination continued in Rwanda itself, although the indiscriminate violence against the Tutsi did decrease somewhat following a coup in 1973, which brought President Juvénal Habyarimana to power.\nAt 408 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,060/sq mi), Rwanda's population density is among the highest in Africa. Rwanda's population had increased from 1.6 million people in 1934 to 7.1 million in 1989, leading to competition for land. Historians such as Gérard Prunier believe that the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to population density. Rwandan Civil War In the 1980s, a group of",
"-28.476923850888852"
],
[
"if he owned more than ten cows. A Hutu owned less than ten cows and usually worked in the fields. Creating an ethnic class and empowering the Tutsi as \"upper class\" created hatred and jealousy between these newly imposed \"tribes\".\nIn 1959, the Belgians left Rwanda and Hutus quickly took over the government. There was a series of battles between the Hutu and the Tutsi between 1959 and 1994, during which Tutsis would often take sanctuary in churches in order to survive. Knowing this, the Hutu government in 1994 forged partnerships with several Catholic priests, prefects, and nuns, such that this",
"-28.39649935637135"
],
[
"argues that ethnicity existed historically, long before the Cold War, which merely gave way to ideological issues.\nFurthermore, the primordialist argument \"suggests that irreconcilable differences due to cultural gaps cause fear and conflict that beget violence\". Although more recent historical studies have purported that the 1994 genocide in Rwanda was a result of disparities in power and wealth between the Tutsi and the Hutu, primordialists assert that the Hutu and Tutsi developed entirely separate cultures and will thereby inevitably come into conflict with one another. As primordial ethnicity is archaic, \"fixed and unchanging\", the possibility for cultural assimilation within Rwanda was",
"-28.34387731505558"
],
[
"There was no one crystallization point. The long process of constructing ethnicity, however, continued and strengthened in post-colonial years. Post-colonial framework The predominant American theory regarding this period is that as Belgium’s era of colonial dominance over Rwanda drew to a close during the 1950s, the Hutu and Tutsi, as racial identities, had been firmly institutionalized. Manipulative racial engineering by the Belgians, and the despotic practices of the Tutsi chieftains they empowered, helped drive together the disparate Rwandan sub-classes under the “Hutu” moniker. When the Belgians were to finally leave Rwanda in the early years of the 1960s, the politics",
"-28.262752017006278"
],
[
"declining prices of Rwanda's main export: coffee. These problems combined with a history of previously existing conflict. With the introduction of the Second Republic under Habyarimana, former Tutsis in power were immediately purged, and racism served as an explanation as keeping the majority Hutu in legitimate government power. As a result, when the war came, the Hutu were already introduced to the concept of racism against their very own peers.\nThe division in Rwanda was reinforced for hundreds of years. King Kigeli IV, a Tutsi, centralized Rwandan power in the 1800s, just in time for Belgian colonization. The Belgian furthered the",
"-28.224580929090735"
],
[
"established the future tone of the Hutu nationalist movement by identifying the “indigenous racial problem” of Rwanda as the social, political, and economic “monopoly which is held by one race, the Tutsi.” The manifesto also served as a prescient omen that future political identities in Rwanda would be defined along racial identities.\nAt the beginning of the Social Revolution of 1959 two years later, four major political parties emerged: two Tutsi monarchist parties, Union Nationale Rwandaise (UNAR) and Rassemblement Democratique Rwandais (RADER), and two Hutu parties, the nationalist Mouvement Democratique Rwandais / Parti du Mouvement et de L’Emancipacion Hutu (MDR-PARMEHUTU), and",
"-28.203310431868886"
],
[
"and many migrated to surrounding countries. The tensions grew up until 1959 when civil war broke out and many Tutsis were killed. Others went into exile. 1960 to 1994 After independence, the focus was on the restructuring of the education system and development of a national curriculum. The main goal was to reach more Rwandan children and in particular to improve access to schooling in rural areas.\nA national curriculum and double shifting were introduced in 1966. From 1977 on, primary school 8 years of in Kinyarwanda, while 3 years of post-primary and secondary education were taught in French. 2012 to",
"-28.170673386659473"
],
[
"not racial, and the moratorium on Tutsi government participation was lifted (but Tutsi participation in government remained low). Quota systems were established for ethnic participation in education and public sector jobs; attempting to proportionally distribute participation between the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups. In this case, however, participation for the historically better educated Tutsi remained inflated. In his stated quest to redress historical wrongs, Habyarimana committed the government to a policy of “reconciliation.” However, a reclassification of the Hutu/Tutsi differentiation from racial to ethnic was not equivalent to a repudiation of the differentiation itself, and discrimination was still prevalent in",
"-28.078320738626644"
],
[
"all Rwandan people'. However, political instability and tribal conflict grew despite efforts by the monarchy and others. Only a month after Kigeli's November 1959 ascension, Hutu versus Tutsi militancy increased to the point that hundreds died. Many Tutsi went into exile. Issues with the increasingly restive Hutu population were encouraged by the Belgian military, promoting widespread revolt. Kigeli later wrote, \"I am not clinging to power... I will always accept the people’s verdict; what I cannot accept is that the Belgian Administration should influence or distort this verdict.\"\nIn July 1960, Kigeli sought safe haven in the newly independent nation of",
"-28.003679983434267"
],
[
"helped shed light on their background.\nThe Rwandan myth of the Tutsi and Hutu difference was perpetuated by the Belgian Colonial Administration, helped by filmmaker Harmand Dennis during the 1930s. <ref>https://sungrammata.com/the-rwandan-myth<ref> Migration hypothesis vs. Hamitic hypothesis The colonial scholars who found complex societies in sub-Saharan Africa developed the Hamitic hypothesis, The Hamitic hypothesis continues to echo into the current day, both inside and outside of academic circles. As scholars developed a migration hypothesis for the origin of the Tutsi that rejected the Hamitic thesis, the notion that the Tutsi were civilizing alien conquerors was also put in question.\nOne school of",
"-27.98770855087787"
],
[
"economic prosperity and for purposes of creating social standing. Another way in which Tutsi power was weakened by Germany was through the introduction of the head-tax on all Rwandans. As some Tutsis had feared, the tax also made the Hutus feel less bonded to their Tutsi patrons and more dependent on the European foreigners. A head-tax implied equality among those being counted. Despite Germany's attempt to uphold traditional Tutsi domination of the Hutus, the Hutu began to shift their ideas.\nBy 1899 the Germans placed advisors at the courts of local chiefs. The Germans were preoccupied with fighting uprisings in Tanganyika,",
"-27.972556370077655"
],
[
"of divergent ethnic “Tutsi” and “Hutu” identities was formulated during the era of European colonization from the late 1880s to the 1950s. German colonialism did little to alter the existing stratified social system. The Germans were not interested in disrupting social affairs – their sole concern was the efficient extraction of natural resources and trade of profitable cash crops. Colonial bureaucrats relied heavily on native Tutsi chiefs to maintain order over the Hutu lower classes and collect taxes. Thus, the German affirmation of the stratified social structure was utilized by the Tutsi aristocracy as justification for minority rule over the",
"-27.97230573766865"
],
[
"the Tutsi ruling class of Rwanda were converted, the rest of the population would automatically accept the Catholic faith, so they focused their effort on the Tutsis.\nThe Nyundo mission was founded on 4 April 1901.\nThe German colonial authority established an important base at Kisenyi, in alliance with the Tutsi elite, and the missionaries at Nyundo found themselves obliged to take the side of the Tutsis. When Hutu Christians took action against Tutsi exactions, the priests were blamed for causing this insubordination. \nThe local Tutsi rulers also resented the missionaries, with their growing power and demands.\nThe mission was badly damaged during",
"-27.949541005109495"
],
[
"lower-class Hutu masses. Germany’s defeat in World War I allowed Belgian forces to conquer Rwanda. Belgian involvement in the region was far more intrusive than German administration. In an era of Social Darwinism, European anthropologists claimed to identify a distinct “Hamitic race” that was superior to native “Negroid” populations. Influenced by racialized attitudes, Belgian social scientists declared that the Tutsis, who wielded political control in Rwanda, must be descendants of the Hamites, who shared a purported closer blood line to Europeans. The Belgians concluded that the Tutsis and Hutus composed two fundamentally different ethno-racial groups. Thus, the Belgians viewed the",
"-27.871588190319017"
],
[
"Burundian Civil War Background Before becoming subject to European colonial rule, Burundi was governed by an ethnic Tutsi monarchy, similar to that of its neighbour Rwanda. German, and subsequently Belgian, colonial rulers found it convenient to govern through the existing power structure, perpetuating the dominance of the Tutsi minority over the ethnic Hutu majority. The Belgians generally identified the ethnic distinctions in Burundi and Rwanda with the following observations: the Twa who were short, the Hutu who were of medium height and the Tutsi who were tallest among them. Those individuals who owned more than ten cows were normally described",
"-27.862500467163045"
],
[
"settling in the four neighbouring countries Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania and Zaire. These exiles, unlike the Banyarwanda who migrated during the pre-colonial and colonial era, were regarded as refugees in their host countries, and began almost immediately to agitate for a return to Rwanda. They formed armed groups, known as inyenzi (cockroaches), who launched attacks into Rwanda; these were largely unsuccessful, and led to further reprisal killings of Tutsi and further Tutsi exiles. By 1964, more than 300,000 Tutsi had fled, and were forced to remain in exile for the next three decades. Pro-Hutu discrimination continued in Rwanda itself, although the",
"-27.842301826458424"
],
[
"married into the Tutsi ruling class, and many Tutsis were poor farmers with no cattle, \nbut there were still social distinctions that set the Tutsis above the Hutus at the start of the colonial era.\nAt first, the missions in Rwanda were under the Apostolic Vicariate of Southern Victoria Nyanza, headed by John Joseph Hirth.\nKabgayi was founded as a mission post after the Germans, the colonial power, \nhad received reluctant permission from the court of King Musinga of Rwanda in 1904.\nThe missionaries received Kabgayi hill in February 1905.\nThey obtained about 120 hectares (300 acres) of land.\nThey embarked on a massive building",
"-27.694213655311614"
],
[
"that indigenous people claimed as their own. From 1963 to 1966 the Hunde and Nande ethnic groups of North Kivu fought against Rwandan emigrants — both Tutsi and Hutu – in the Kanyarwandan War, which involved several massacres.\nDespite a strong Rwandan presence in Mobutu's government, in 1981, Zaire adopted a restrictive citizenship law which denied the Banyamulenge and Banyarwanda citizenship and therewith all political rights. Though never enforced, the law greatly angered individuals of Rwandan descent and contributed to a rising sense of ethnic hatred. From 1993 to 1996 Hunde, Nande, and Nyanga youth regularly attacked the Banyamulenge,",
"-27.67803989093227"
],
[
"Rwandan genocide Pre-independent Rwanda & the origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa groups The earliest inhabitants of what is now Rwanda were the Twa, a group of aboriginal pygmy hunter-gatherers who settled in the area between 8000 BC and 3000 BC and remain in Rwanda today. Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of Bantu groups migrated into Rwanda, and began to clear forest land as a way to gain space for agriculture. Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations: one theory is that the first settlers were Hutu, while the Tutsi migrated later and",
"-27.67037771374453"
],
[
"ethnic prejudices.\nThe Indian community has been subject to Zulu racist attacks dating back to the arrival of indentured labor in South Africa which ultimately resulted in the Durban Riots of 1949 followed by riots in 1985 where homes for 1500 Indians were set on fire. Governmental Racism Under Apartheid The first example of apartheid legislation was the Population Registration Act. This act \nwas the first to force citizens to be registered under their race, and this set the stage for later racial tension. One example of apartheid legislation was the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act, which was passed into law",
"-27.660706795868464"
],
[
"of racial and ethnic division remained. And in the following decades, regimes under both Hutu ultra-nationalists and moderate conciliators would demonstrate how the labels of Hutu and Tutsi could be molded and twisted to fit political expediency. Racialization of Hutu and Tutsi identities Under Kayibanda Communist intellectuals argue that despite their systematic oppression, a class of Hutu political intelligentsia influenced by contemporary communist thought emerged, forming a stance against elite rule of the proletariat masses, which was reinterpreted as Tutsi rule over the Hutu. This Hutu counter-elite exploded onto the political scene in the late 1950s as both Belgian colonial",
"-27.653528888244182"
],
[
"as the attempt by Biafra to secede from Nigeria in 1970, or the continuing demand of the Somali people in the Ogaden region of Ethiopia for complete independence. In Asia, the division of British India into India and Pakistan was in part due to ethnic differences, which might have been aided by other factors like colonial mismanagement of the situation. The Rwandan genocide as well as the recurrent problems experienced by the Sudan can also be related to a lack of ethnic, religious, or racial cohesion within the nation. It has often proved difficult to unite states with similar ethnic",
"-27.59176156821195"
],
[
"The situation in Rwanda had been influenced in great detail by the situation in Burundi. Both countries had a Hutu majority, yet an army-controlled Tutsi government in Burundi persisted for decades. After the assassination of Rwagasore, his UPRONA party was split into Tutsi and Hutu factions. A Tutsi Prime Minister was chosen by the monarch, but, a year later in 1963, the monarch was forced to appoint a Hutu prime minister, Pierre Ngendandumwe, in an effort to satisfy growing Hutu unrest. Nevertheless, the monarch soon replaced him with another Tutsi prince. In Burundi's first elections following independence, in 1965, Ngendandumwe",
"-27.576760557945818"
],
[
"immediately took local power from the traditional chiefs; many implemented feudal policies similar to that of the Tutsi elite, but favouring Hutu rather than Tutsi. Although after the elections Guy Logiest announced that \"the revolution is over\", tensions remained high and local massacres of Tutsi continued throughout 1960 and 1961. King Kigeli, living under virtual arrest in southern Rwanda, fled the country in July 1960 and lived for several decades in locations across East Africa before settling in the United States. Independence Rwanda settled into the new reality of Hutu dominance after the 1960 elections; Belgium and Logiest supported PARMEHUTU,",
"-27.554844945669174"
],
[
"perceived to be in total control of cattle, the long-standing measure of a person's wealth and social position. The reforms contributed to ethnic tensions.\nThe Belgian institution of ethnic identity cards contributed to the growth of group identities. Belgium introduced electoral representation for Rwandans, by means of secret ballot. The majority Hutus made enormous gains within the country. The Catholic Church, too, began to oppose Tutsi mistreatment of Hutus, and began promoting equality.\nMwami Mutara took steps to end the destabilization and chaos he saw in the land. Mutara made many changes; in 1954 he shared out the land between the Hutu",
"-27.533226685482077"
],
[
"and the Tutsi, and agreed to abolish the system of indentured servitude (ubuhake and uburetwa) the Tutsis had practised over the Hutu until then. Strife and lead up to independence In the 1950s and early 1960s, a wave of Pan-Africanism swept through Central Africa, expressed by leaders such as Julius Nyerere in Tanzania and Patrice Lumumba in the Congo. Anti-colonial sentiment rose throughout central Africa, and a socialist platform of African unity and equality for all Africans was promoted. Nyerere wrote about the elitism of educational systems.\nEncouraged by the Pan-Africanists, Hutu advocates in the Catholic Church, and by Christian Belgians",
"-27.523995735449716"
],
[
"and eventually reached Lake Kivu, the western edge of the kingdom. With only 2,500 soldiers in East Africa, Germany hardly changed the social structures in much of the region, especially in Rwanda.\nWar and division seemed to open the door for colonialism, and in 1897 German colonialists and missionaries arrived in Rwanda. The Rwandans were divided; a portion of the royal court was wary and the other thought the Germans might be a good alternative to dominance by Buganda or the Belgians. Backing their faction in the country a pliant government was soon in place. Rwanda put up less resistance than",
"-27.443551403353922"
],
[
"of German East Africa. German rule allowed Rwabugiri's centralisation policy to continue, and the rift between Tutsi and Hutu deepened.\nBelgian forces took control of Rwanda and Burundi during World War I, and the country came under Belgian control in a 1919 League of Nations mandate, named Ruanda-Urundi. Although Belgium initially continued the German method of government through the monarchy, in 1926, it began a policy of direct colonial rule in line with the norm in the Congo. Reforms included simplifying the complex three-chieftain system, so one chief (usually Tutsi) instead of three (typically split between Tutsi and Hutu) ruled a",
"-27.418504849774763"
],
[
"other has no right to exist.\nIn the central African states of Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo another territorial dispute over resources, land, and ethnic superiority is that of the Tutsi and Hutu peoples. Although a National policy of reconciliation that prohibits discussion of the 1994 genocide and promotes using the national label of \"Rwandan,\" rather than the ethnic categories of the past, civil unrest continues. Slavery Within American history, our forefathers believed that they were morally superior to Africans. Contemporary scholars, such as Michel Focault, describe this as cultural imperialism. Yet, at the time the",
"-27.39973491262208"
],
[
"Colonial policies deepened the pre-existing class stratification: Tutsis were primarily upper-class wealthy landowners and merchants, while Hutus occupied lower-class occupations as poor farmers and laborers. These deep class differences provided a framework for mapping ethnic identities on top of them: class-hatred was a prominent tool for fueling divergent ethno-nationalist ideologies. Thus, this socioeconomic stratification was a chief driver in formulating both ethnic identities: the oppression of the Hutus by the Tutsis served as a key catalyst in forming a common Hutu identity among the exploited lower classes, while the Tutsi economic supremacy over the Hutus served as a key catalyst",
"-27.35538414941402"
],
[
"analogous racial criteria, such as which would be used later by the Nazis. In 1931, an ethnic identity was officially mandated and administrative documents systematically detailed each person's \"ethnicity,\". Each Rwandan had an ethnic identity card.\nA history of Rwanda that justified the existence of these racial distinctions was written. No historical, archaeological, or above all linguistic traces have been found to date that confirm this official history. The observed differences between the Tutsis and the Hutus are about the same as those evident between the different French social classes in the 1950s. The way people nourished themselves explains a large",
"-27.280199524306227"
],
[
"power was manifest in their land and cattle ownership. Most of these chiefs were Tutsis. The land was farmed under an imposed system of patronage under which Tutsi chiefs demanded manual labor in return for the rights of Hutus to occupy their land. This system left Hutus with the status of serfs. Additionally, when Rwanda conquered the peoples on its borders, their ethnic identities were cast aside and they were simply labeled “Hutu”. Therefore, “Hutu” became an identity that was not necessarily ethnic, but rather just associated with subjugation. German and Belgian colonization Some European intellectuals argue that the construction",
"-27.26612906320952"
],
[
"colonial period the Tutsis comprised about 15 to 16% of the population. While many Tutsis were poor peasants, they comprised the majority of the ruling elite and monarchy were Tutsi. A significant minority of the remaining non-Tutsis political elite were Hutu.\nThe German presence had mixed effects on the authority the Rwandan governing powers. The Germans helped the Mwami increase their control over Rwandan affairs. But Tutsi power weakened with the introduction of capitalist forces and through increased integration with outside markets and economies. Money came to be seen by many Hutus as a replacement for cattle, in terms of both",
"-27.155793360667303"
],
[
"over indigenous groups. Initially, Belgian administrators used an expedient method of classification based on the number of cattle a person owned – anyone with ten or more cattle was considered a member of the aristocratic Tutsi class. However, the presence of wealthy Hutu was problematic. Then in 1933, the colonial administration institutionalized a more rigid ethnic classification by issuing ethnic identification cards; every Rwandan was officially branded a Tutsi, Hutu, or Twa. Tutsi political & economic hegemony One theory suggests that Belgian promotion of Tutsi political domination served as a prime catalyst of growing ethnic resentments. The Belgians dismantled Hutu",
"-27.139882991206832"
],
[
"the preceding Belgian colonizers, ethnicity was not primordialist in nature. Instead, ethnicity was a socially-constructed, superimposed identity that could potentially be changed, regardless of identity card issuance.\nThe end of the genocide resulted in the election of a Tutsi government—the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). This shift in power provided the minority Tutsi with access to power and privilege, completely shifting social conceptions. Attempts to re-build the war-torn country focused on eclipsing identity for fear that retaliation and punishment towards the Hutus would occur. The government’s agenda thus was to reduce identity to that of just being “Rwandan”. In this post-genocide society,",
"-27.076567948039155"
],
[
"subsequent tensions between the two governments, after a progressive rift with the Kagame-led regime that has ruled Rwanda since 1994 (described in greater detail below), Rwanda repeatedly broke diplomatic relations with France; the Rwandan government shut down all French institutions in Rwanda, including schools and cultural organisations, with only some being subsequently reopened; the language of instruction in Rwandan schools \"has even been switched from French to English\"; and Rwanda strove to join the British-led Commonwealth, thus becoming one of only two members that were not former British colonies. During the genocide During the first few days of the genocide,",
"-27.018372281105258"
],
[
"as Tutsi.\nBurundi became independent in 1962, breaking from a colonial federation with Rwanda. The independent country initially preserved its monarchy. The country's first multi-party national elections were held in June 1993. These elections were immediately preceded by 25 years of Tutsi military regimes, beginning with Michel Micombero, who had led a successful coup in 1966 and replaced the monarchy with a presidential republic. Under the Micombero regime, the minority Tutsi generally dominated governance. In 1972, an all-Hutu organization, known as Umugambwe w'Abakozi b'Uburundi or Burundi Workers' Party (UBU), organized and carried out systematic attacks on ethnic Tutsi, with the declared",
"-26.930179360788316"
],
[
"leading rapidly to the formation of a sizeable Hutu clergy and educated elite that provided a new counterbalance to the established political order. The monarchy and prominent Tutsi sensed the growing influence of the Hutu and began to agitate for immediate independence on their own terms. In 1957, a group of Hutu scholars wrote the \"Bahutu Manifesto\". This was the first document to label the Tutsi and Hutu as separate races, and called for the transfer of power from Tutsi to Hutu based on what it termed \"statistical law\".\nOn 1 November 1959 Dominique Mbonyumutwa, a Hutu sub-chief, was attacked close",
"-26.888419953378616"
],
[
"as its top colonial administrators in the colony. From 1959 to 1962, Logiest served as special military resident, and High Representative (1962) of Rwanda. In 1959 the Hutu majority overthrew the Tutsi monarchy in the Rwandan Revolution. It had controlled much of the country for centuries. Although in the minority, the Tutsi had been favored by the German and Belgian colonial administrations.\nDuring the years when Rwanda was developing institutions to gain independence from colonial rule, Logiest helped guide the creation of a political framework for administration. This included preparation for elections, with the expected result that the Hutu majority would",
"-26.793496577854967"
],
[
"as a colony by Germany (prior to World War I) and Belgium. Both the Tutsi and Hutu had been the traditional governing elite, but both colonial powers allowed only the Tutsi to be educated and to participate in the colonial government. Such discriminatory policies engendered resentment.\nWhen the Belgians took over, they believed it could be better governed if they continued to identify the different populations. In the 1920s, they required people to identify with a particular ethnic group and classified them accordingly in censuses.\nIn 1959, Belgium reversed its stance and allowed the majority Hutu to assume control of the government",
"-26.74701739626471"
],
[
"The first major contact between the Banyarwanda and the Europeans occurred in 1894 when explorer Gustav Adolf von Götzen crossed Rwanda from the south-east to Lake Kivu and met the king. The Germans did not significantly alter the social structure of the country, but exerted influence by supporting the king and the existing hierarchy and delegating power to local chiefs. Belgian forces took control of Rwanda and Burundi during World War I, and ruled the country much more directly. Both the Germans and the Belgians promoted Tutsi supremacy, considering the Hutu and Tutsi different races while downplaying the Rwandan ethnicity.",
"-26.692313773790374"
],
[
"traditional and colonial hierarchies were still appointed rather than elected, and these remained overwhelmingly Tutsi. The imbalance between these two weightings highlighted the perceived unfairness of the system for Hutu.\nBefore 1956, the monarchy and prominent Tutsi had been relaxed about the timeline of independence, convinced that full power would be transferred to them from the Belgians in due course. Alarmed at the growing influence of the Hutu and the tensions between the groups, they began campaigning in late 1956 for a rapid transition to independence. King Rudahigwa and the Tutsi-dominated Conseil Supérieur proposed new ministries of finance, education, public works",
"-26.691098376031732"
],
[
"with two declarations of independence by the Rwandan people. The first, a proclamation by the Mwami’s (king’s) high council proposed a rapid transfer of power from the Belgians to the Tutsi royal leadership. Called Mise au Point, the document emphasized the importance of ending racial tensions between white colonizers and black colonials. One month later, the Hutu political elites responded with their own declaration, the “Bahutu Manifesto”. This document called for a double liberation of the Hutu people, first from the race of white colonials, and second from the race of Hamitic oppressors, the Tutsi. The document in many ways",
"-26.658815137692727"
],
[
"at the time, as they had limited forces in East Africa, and Rwanda was a densely populated territory with an existing strict administrative network. The death of Kigeli IV, however, and the subsequent coup weakened the state and opened a window for German direct colonization in 1897.",
"-26.637826371297706"
],
[
"Rwandan Revolution Precolonial Rwanda The earliest inhabitants of what is now Rwanda were the Twa, a group of aboriginal pygmy hunter-gatherers who settled the area between 8000 and 3000 BC and remain in the country today. Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of Bantu groups migrated into Rwanda and began clearing forests for agriculture. After losing much of their habitat, the forest-dwelling Twa moved to the mountains. Historians have several theories about the Bantu Migrations. According to one, the first settlers were Hutu; the Tutsi migrated later and formed a distinct racial group, possibly of Cushitic origin. An alternative theory is",
"-26.510167396976613"
],
[
"society and policy. Although the “Tutsi” were defined by the state as an ethnic minority, they were denied recognition as a protected minority and remained conspicuously absent from elected offices. \nSome vestiges of the old regime remained codified as well, such as the law that Hutu military officials were not allowed to marry Tutsi women. As well, Habyarimana assured the Hutu majority that a Hutu leader would always be the “leader and protector” of the republic. Thus, Juvénal Habyarimana still defined the terms of the “reconciliation” as Tutsis remained politically subservient under his regime.\nPerhaps most insidiously, however, was how the",
"-26.3862981481725"
],
[
"great help in helping the colony advance. The Hutus would much rather receive orders from the Tutsi nobles than from commoners. In 1930 he again said that suppressing the Tutsi caste would cause great damage, leading to anarchy and viciously anti-European communism. The Tutsis were intelligent, active, and able to understand progressive ideas.\nClasse played an important role in the deposition of Yuhi V Musinga in 1931 and in the choice of his successor, Mutara III Rudahigwa, who was a Catholic catechist at the time. By 1943 all but two of the fifty-two chiefs of Rwanda were Christian. That year Classe",
"-26.325252237031236"
],
[
"for Tutsi chiefs. Rwabugiri's changes caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations. The Twa were better off than in pre-Kingdom days, with some becoming dancers in the royal court, but their numbers continued to decline. Migrations and colonial influence The first exodus of ethnic Banyarwanda from the jurisdiction of the Rwanda kingdom was the Banyamulenge, who crossed the Ruzizi river into the South Kivu province of the Belgian Congo. Rwandan historian Alexis Kagame wrote in 1972 that soldiers under King Kigeli II settled in the Congo in the seventeenth century, although Gérard Prunier casts some doubt",
"-26.30873760135728"
],
[
"Habyarimana continued to favor a smaller and smaller coterie of supporters, the more Hutu groups —slighted by the nation's leader— cooperated with Tutsis to weaken his leadership. By the start of the invasion from Uganda by the army of the Rwanda Patriotic Front, a rebel army made up mostly of refugee Tutsi who had helped Uganda's Museveni seize control of the presidency, Habyarimana's supporters had shrunk down to the akazu (\"little house\" or \"President's household\"), which was mainly composed of an informal group of Hutu extremists from his home region, namely from the northwestern provinces of Gisenyi and Ruhengeri.\nFrom 1975",
"-26.282692049164325"
],
[
"1972 Genocide of Burundian Hutus Background The demographics of Burundi through the 1960s and 1970s were roughly 86 percent Hutu, 13 percent Tutsi, and 1 percent Twa. For most of this period, the Tutsi maintained a near monopoly on senior government and military positions. Burundi gained its independence from Belgium in 1962, and in May 1965 the first post-independence elections were held. The Hutu candidates scored a landslide victory, capturing 23 seats out of a total 33. But, instead of appointing a Hutu prime minister, the king Mwambutsa IV appointed a Tutsi prince, Léopold Biha, as Prime Minister. On October",
"-26.254400351201184"
],
[
"became an expansionist state. Rwabugiri did not bother to assess the ethnic identities of conquered peoples and simply labeled all of them “Hutu”. The title “Hutu”, therefore, came to be a trans-ethnic identity associated with subjugation. While further disenfranchising Hutus socially and politically, this helped to solidify the idea that “Hutu” and “Tutsi” were socioeconomic, not ethnic, distinctions. In fact, one could kwihutura, or “shed Hutuness”, by accumulating wealth and rising through the social hierarchy.",
"-26.238503644577577"
],
[
"Congo-Léopoldville. The exiles, unlike the ethnic Rwandans who migrated during the pre-colonial and colonial eras, were seen as refugees by their host countries and began almost immediately to agitate for a return to Rwanda. Their aims differed; some sought reconciliation with Kayibanda and the new regime, some affiliated with the exiled King Kigeli and others wished to oust the new PARMEHUTU regime from power and establish a socialist republic.\nBeginning in late 1960 armed groups of Tutsi exiles (called inyenzi or \"cockroaches\" by the Hutu government) launched attacks into Rwanda from neighbouring countries, with mixed success. The Tutsis in Burundi, supported",
"-26.236631961073726"
],
[
"Musinga refused to convert, and in 1931 he was deposed by the Belgian administration; his eldest son, Mutara III Rudahigwa, succeeded him and eventually became Rwanda's first Christian king. During the 1930s the Belgians introduced large-scale projects in education, health, public works and agricultural supervision, including new crops and agricultural techniques to improve food supply. Though Rwanda was modernised the Tutsis remained in power, leaving the Hutu disenfranchised and subject to large-scale forced labour. In 1935 Belgium introduced identity cards, labelling an individual as Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. Although wealthy Hutu had previously been able to become honorary Tutsi,",
"-26.22195073775947"
],
[
"It has also been observed that there were at least 3,000 Flemish settlers in Rwanda, although many were targeted for extermination as part of the Rwandan Genocide. This seemed to be largely because Belgian colonisers had offered better education and employment opportunities to Tutsi tribesmen under colonial rule than the Hutus, who controlled the government during the genocide. Radio messages broadcast by Hutu extremists advocated the killing of white Rwandans should they be of Belgian ancestry, despite the fact that Belgium itself attempted to remain neutral during the 1994 conflict. Today, estimates put the Rwandan white population at about 6,000;",
"-26.208418416281347"
],
[
"class and remained in effect regardless of social position or parentage. Although other populations in Ethiopia also faced varying degrees of discrimination, little of that adversity was by contrast on account of racial differences. It was instead more typically rooted in disparities in class and competition for economic status. The Oromo for example, not considered by the highlander groups as being racially barya, owing to their similar physical features. Background In Ethiopia, slavery was legal and widespread; slave raiding was endemic in some areas, and slave trading was a fact of life. The largest slavery-driven polity in the Horn",
"-26.053205581578368"
],
[
"mantra of \"demographic majority and democracy\". The regime did not tolerate dissent, ruling in a top-down manner similar to the pre-revolution feudal monarchy and promoting a deeply Catholic, virtuous ethos. By the early 1970s this policy had isolated Rwanda from the rest of the world, and a rebellion began within the Hutu elite. In 1973 senior army commander Juvénal Habyarimana organised a coup, killing Kayibanda and assuming the presidency.\nIn 1990 the Front Patriotique Rwandais (FPR), a rebel group composed primarily of Tutsi refugees, invaded northern Rwanda; this began the Rwandan Civil War. Although neither side gained a decisive advantage",
"-26.04514581768308"
],
[
"of the socially constructed nature of ethnic groups, drawing on Benedict Anderson's concept of the imagined community. Proponents of this account point to Rwanda as an example because the Tutsi/Hutu distinction was codified by the Belgian colonial power in the 1930s on the basis of cattle ownership, physical measurements and church records. Identity cards were issued on this basis, and these documents played a key role in the genocide of 1994.\nSome argue that constructivist narratives of historical master cleavages are unable to account for local and regional variations in ethnic violence. For example, Varshney highlights that in the 1960s",
"-26.038111568661407"
],
[
"Classe's view, the political structure of Rwanda was much like the feudal structure of the Middle Ages in Europe. As a presumed expert on the country, his 1916 paper on the political organization had great influence on the thinking of the Belgian administration, which came to support the leadership position of the Tutsis.\nIn 1920, when the territories of German East Africa were being divided by the victors of World War I, there was debate between the Belgians and British over the boundaries of Rwanda. The Belgian colonial authorities asked Hirth for a study of the effect of ceding part of",
"-25.97808467480354"
],
[
"Burundian genocides Background The demographics of Burundi through the 1960s and 1970s were roughly 86 percent Hutu, 13 percent Tutsi, and 1 percent Twa. For most of this period, the Tutsi maintained a near monopoly on senior government and military positions. Burundi gained its independence from Belgium in 1962, and in May 1965 the first post-independence elections were held. The Hutu candidates scored a landslide victory, capturing 23 seats out of a total 33. But, instead of appointing a Hutu prime minister, the king Mwambutsa IV appointed a Tutsi prince, Léopold Biha, as Prime Minister. On October 18, 1965, Hutus,",
"-25.936284615600016"
],
[
"Kigeli IV Rwabugiri Pre-colonial Rwanda Tradition has it that the kingdom of Rwanda was originally occupied by a number of Bantu chieftainships which were conglomerated during the 10th century by Tutsi pastoralists from the North who brought ideas of caste systems and a political society. By the 19th century, the state had become much more centralized. Rwabugiri established a royal court that collected labor dues and claimed tributary food in Rubengera around 1870. This served the purpose of channeling food across the country and becoming a center of commerce. During periods of food shortages, most of the country would suffer",
"-25.853196157258935"
],
[
"national referendum that led to independence. By contrast, in the northwestern part of the country (predominantly Hutu), large regional landholders shared power, similar to Buganda society (in what is now Uganda).\nUnder their holy king, Tutsi culture traditionally revolved around administering justice and government. They were the only proprietors of cattle, and sustained themselves on their own products. Additionally, their lifestyle afforded them a lot of leisure time, which they spent cultivating the high arts of poetry, weaving and music. Due to the Tutsi's status as a dominant minority vis-a-vis the Hutu farmers and the other local inhabitants, this relationship has",
"-25.849038910935633"
],
[
"leaders from Rwanda's north (abakonde), felt marginalised by the Southern-dominated Parmehutu regime. The Parmehutu party was suspended and was officially banned two years later when Rwanda became a one-party state under Habyarimana's new National Revolutionary Movement for Development (MRND), which was dominated by Hutu from the northern and northwestern parts of the country.",
"-25.834294693311676"
],
[
"its interim president. The UN published a report that an \"oppressive system has been replaced by another one\", but its ability to influence events had ended. PARMEHUTU won control of the legislature in September 1961; Kayibanda assumed the presidency, and Rwanda became fully independent in July 1962. Tutsi refugees and rebel attacks As the revolution progressed, many Tutsi left Rwanda to escape Hutu purges. The exodus, which began during the November 1959 arson attacks, continued steadily throughout the revolution. An official, late-1964 total of 336,000 Tutsi settled primarily in the four neighbouring countries of Burundi, Uganda, Tanganyika (later Tanzania) and",
"-25.817660796121345"
],
[
"clans (ubwoko), and then, by 1700, into around eight kingdoms. The Kingdom of Rwanda, ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became the dominant kingdom from the mid-eighteenth century, expanding through a process of conquest and assimilation, and achieving its greatest extent under the reign of King Kigeli Rwabugiri in 1853–1895. Rwabugiri expanded the kingdom west and north, and initiated administrative reforms which caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations.\nRwanda and neighbouring Burundi were assigned to Germany by the Berlin Conference of 1884, and Germany established a presence in the country in 1897 with the formation of",
"-25.780585012515076"
],
[
"entrenching supposed “past” ethnic divisions.\nFurthermore, government policy to reduce identity to “just a Rwandan one” has only “been successful in the public sphere of government rhetoric and bureaucracy.” In fact, ethnicity still remains socially relevant. Its salience however has been transferred into the private sphere—a space that may make the divisions even more destructive. Thus, the concept of “eliminating” ethnicity is problematic in both concept and reality—as it is unreasonable to expect such a drastic change in the Rwandan perception.",
"-25.763604488631245"
],
[
"and thus should not be part of the Hutu-majority country) and the rhetoric of the Hutu revolution to promote a doctrine of militant Hutu purity. The \"Hutu Ten Commandments\" were essential in creating and spreading the anti-Tutsi feeling among Rwandan Hutus that led to the Rwandan genocide.\nIn 1993, Ngeze became a shareholder and correspondent for the newly founded Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM), which was largely a radio equivalent of Kangura. He was interviewed approximately eight times on RTLM. Genocide During the Rwandan genocide, Ngeze provided RTLM with names of people to be killed in his prefecture, which",
"-25.703871745732613"
],
[
"meant that friction between the groups never truly dissipated. Some political scientists credit these failures as a few of the reasons why Rwanda so quickly slipped back into political turmoil along ethnic lines in the years immediately preceding the 1993 genocide. Ethnic identity cards in contemporary Rwanda In 1933 Rwanda’s Belgian administration issued identity cards—a policy that would remain for over a half-a-century and one that would not create ethnicity, but instead would ensure its proof and social salience. These instruments of documentation would be key in fomenting Rwanda’s devastating genocide in 1994.\nDuring the early 1990s the Hutus—who comprised a",
"-25.64200126565993"
],
[
"discriminatory. Kenya The end of British colonial rule in Kenya in 1964 led to an inadvertent increase in ethnic segregation. Through private purchases and government schemes, farm land previously held by European farmers was transferred to African owners. These farms were further sub-divided into smaller localities, and, due to joint migration, many adjacent localities were occupied by members of different ethnic groups. This separation along these boundaries persists today. Kimuli Kasara, in a study of recent ethnic violence in the wake of the disputed 2007/2008 Kenyan elections, used these post-colonial boundaries as an instrument for the degree of ethnic segregation.",
"-25.62710816351796"
],
[
"result of the Rwandan Revolution, many Rwandan Tutsi refugees arrived in Burundi during the period from 1959 to 1961.\nBurundi's first elections took place on 8 September 1961 and UPRONA, a multi-ethnic unity party led by Prince Louis Rwagasore won just over 80% of the electorate's votes. In the wake of the elections, on 13 October, the 29-year-old Prince Rwagasore was assassinated, robbing Burundi of its most popular and well-known nationalists.\nThe country claimed independence on 1 July 1962, and legally changed its name from Ruanda-Urundi to Burundi. Burundi became a constitutional monarchy with Mwami Mwambutsa IV, Prince Rwagasore's father, serving as",
"-25.626200501938"
],
[
"a Tutsi-dominated monarchy after mid-1600. Beginning in about 1880, Roman Catholic missionaries arrived in the Great Lakes region. Later, when German forces occupied the area during World War I, the conflict and efforts for Catholic conversion became more pronounced. As the Tutsi resisted conversion, missionaries found success only among the Hutu. In an effort to reward conversion, the colonial government confiscated traditionally Tutsi land and reassigned it to Hutu tribes.\nIn Burundi, meanwhile, Tutsi domination was even more entrenched. A ruling faction, the Ganwa, soon emerged from amongst the Tutsi and assumed effective control of the country's administration.\nThe area was ruled",
"-25.624789199515362"
],
[
"Kiga people Colonial period The Bakiga communities defended their independence until the collaboration of German colonial forces and the royal troops of the Mwami or Mukama succeeded in incorporating the region into the Rwandan colonial state at the turn of the twentieth century. The region remained a hotbed of discontent against the central authority for many years. One of the strongest influences upon the character of the Bakiga was the anti-centrist cult of Nyabingi.\nAfter the death of the Rwandan King, Kigeri IV Rwabugiri in 1895, one of his wives called Muhumuza fled to the mountains of Kiga and proclaimed",
"-25.590284831938334"
]
] |
5s7ksf | Why do we use an tiered income tax system, instead of something more precise (like an integral-based tax)? | [
"It's way easier for the average person to do the math if the tax rates are stepwise rather than continuous. The average person isn't very comfortable with formulas, but can deal with subtraction and multiplication.",
"I have a feeling that using a formula to calculate income tax is more complicated and harder to understand amongst the un-educated, which make up a significant portion of a country's population. I know a couple of relatives who cannot grasp the concept of \"x-squared\" but have no problem with the current tax code. Hell, there are even people who don't understand the brackets system and think that accepting a raise will make you poorer. Another main reason is that it is hard to find a polynomial curve that fits into what the government wants. Try plotting US's tax system with a parabola, I'm sure you'll end up with very strange coefficients.",
"H & R Block, Intuit (who owns TurboTax), etc. actively lobby (i.e. bribe) lawmakers to keep the tax code as confusing as possible because their industry depends on individuals not being able to prepare or file taxes on their own. Imagine if we had a flat tax that was simple and automatic, and based on the income statements that the government already has access to. Why would anyone pay to have their taxes done? The system isn't broken, it works exactly as designed. It was just designed to serve them, not us. That's not the sole reason, but it's certainly a contributor.",
"A very common misconception is that your tax burden immediately jumps up to a higher percentage if your income (AGI) crests into a higher bracket. What actually (currently) happens is that your first $x of income is taxed at the first bracket's percentage, the next $y of income at the next percentage, and so on. For example, if the next bracket is 20% at $86,000 and your AGI was $86,091, only $91 would be taxed at 20%, and the remaining $86,000 is separated into lower rates (e.g. 10% of your first $30,000, plus 15% of $56,000). If you were to graph taxes paid against AGI, it would have a slight curve. Against gross income, there would be a \"landing area\" corresponding to the standard exemption. Graphing percentage paid as tax against income might actually look somewhat like a parabola, depending on the number of brackets and the rates in between. [add] [Actual tax brackets for 2016]( URL_0 )",
"That would be more complicated. And whether or not it would be theoretically more efficient, that can end up being less efficient in practice due to the complexity of implementing it. If every single additional dollar you make changes the tax rate you pay, the accounting calculations become a bit more complicated than if you can simply apply a single arithmetic calculation for everything you make under a threshold you may be nowhere near. A business can handle that, but just some random person might find it frustrating, easy to screw up, and untrustworthy if they don't understand how a number is arrived at.",
"I think we need new formulas that consider GDP, Cornflation, Home Inflation, Cost of Living and adjust for each region. After all, Fort Wayne Indiana and San Fransisco have different costs of living. That said, rich people should pay more. Period. Paying more doesn't stop them from earning it right back and it also doesn't take away their billionaire and millionaire status."
] | [
[
"where lower income tax units pay a greater fraction of income in tax) has a negative Suits index. A theoretical tax where the richest person pays all the tax has a Suits index of 1, and a tax where the poorest person pays everything has a Suits index of −1. Tax preferences (credits and deductions) also have a Suits index. Income tax By definition, a flat income tax has a Suits index of zero. However, almost all income tax systems allow for some amount of income to be earned without tax (an exemption amount) to avoid collecting tax",
"-32.78597016942513"
],
[
"any taxpayer, including individuals and corporations, as well as entities that themselves do not pay tax, such as partnerships, in which case it may be called “net profit”.\nMost systems require that all income realized (or derived) be included in taxable income. Some systems provide tax exemption for some types of income. Many systems impose tax at different rates for differing types (e.g., capital gains or salaries) or levels of income (e.g., graduated rates). In the United States, gross income includes all income realized from whatever source, but excludes particular tax exempt items, such as municipal bond interest.",
"-32.20708124691737"
],
[
"incomes and greater ability to pay are able to avoid paying taxes in ways that those in the lower brackets cannot. However, the concept of vertical equity is necessary in considering how best to create and implement a fair tax code. Because it is widely agreed upon that those of higher incomes should pay more in taxes, this helps alleviate the tax burden on those whose ability to pay is lower. It is then up to policy makers to determine what this looks like and how much more higher-income earners should be required to pay.\nHowever, as with any tax, implementing",
"-31.858501140843146"
],
[
"from very low income units. Also, most income tax systems provide for higher marginal tax rates at higher income. These effects combine to make income taxes generally progressive, and therefore have a positive Suits index. Sales tax Sales taxes are generally charged on each purchase, with no low income exemption. Additionally, lower income tax units generally spend a greater proportion of income on taxable purchases, while higher income units will save or invest a larger part of income. Therefore, sales taxes are generally regressive, and have a negative Suits index. Excise taxes Excise taxes are typically",
"-31.742676541907713"
],
[
"While tax rules vary widely, there are certain basic principles common to most income tax systems. Tax systems in Canada, China, Germany, Singapore, the United Kingdom, and the United States, among others, follow most of the principles outlined below. Some tax systems, such as India, may have significant differences from the principles outlined below. Most references below are examples; see specific articles by jurisdiction (e.g., Income tax in Australia). Taxpayers and rates Individuals are often taxed at different rates than corporations. Individuals include only human beings. Tax systems in countries other than the USA treat an entity as a corporation",
"-31.231490159101668"
],
[
"be refunded if they exceed the tax calculated. Taxable income may differ from income for other purposes (such as for financial reporting). The definition of taxable income for federal purposes is used by many, but far from all states. Income and deductions are recognized under tax rules, and there are variations within the rules among the states. Book and tax income may differ. Income is divided into \"capital gains\", which are taxed at a lower rate and only when the taxpayer chooses to \"realize\" them, and \"ordinary income\", which is taxed at higher rates and on an annual basis. Because",
"-31.152384813176468"
],
[
" This results in a dual level of tax. Most systems require that income tax be withheld on distribution of dividends to foreign shareholders, and some also require withholding of tax on distributions to domestic shareholders. The rate of such withholding tax may be reduced for a shareholder under a tax treaty.\nSome systems tax some or all dividend income at lower rates than other income. The United States has historically provided a dividends received deduction to corporations with respect to dividends from other corporations in which the recipient owns more than 10% of the shares. For",
"-31.0566110718064"
],
[
"For example, France uses a residence-based system for individuals but a territorial system for corporations, while Singapore does the opposite, and Brunei and Monaco taxes corporate but not personal income. Exclusion Many systems provide for specific exclusions from taxable (chargeable) income. For example, several countries, notably the United States, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Netherlands and Spain, have enacted holding company regimes that exclude from income dividends from certain foreign subsidiaries of corporations. These systems generally impose tax on other sorts of income, such as interest or royalties, from the same subsidiaries. They also typically have requirements for portion and time of ownership",
"-30.985921785468236"
],
[
"regular US income tax, whereas there is a second income tax, the Alternative Minimum Tax, that uses a different schedule. A taxpayer's tax obligation is the higher of those two income taxes, which makes drawing conclusions from the table even more difficult. Use of rate schedules To use a rate schedule, a taxpayer must know their filing status and amount of taxable income. Definitions related to one's filing status can be found in IRC § A.2(a-b), and general guidelines regarding taxable income are described in IRC § A.63(a-b). Once a taxpayer has made these determinations, he (1)",
"-30.96694209938869"
],
[
"tax, but that it is part of an overall fiscal system that is highly progressive: higher-income earners pay the highest fraction of their income in taxes, and also spend more. When all taxes were taken into account (income tax, property tax, GST and other indirect taxes), the top 10% of households accounted for 38% of the taxes paid, while the top 20% contributed 53% of all taxes. In contrast, lower-income earners receive substantially more transfers than the taxes they pay. Low- and middle-income households effectively pay 'negative' tax. From 2006 to 2010, the second bottom decile of Singaporean households (ranked",
"-30.945833324687555"
],
[
"such by default), paid a low rate tax in the foreign country, then repatriated its income to the US by paying qualified dividends to its owner, the total proportion of tax paid on income might actually be less, as qualified dividends are only taxed at 15%. However, this treatment is only available for dividends from corporations in certain countries, and is set to sunset in 2010 under the Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act of 2005.\nForeign owners of US corporations also benefit from the ability to have entities normally treated as flow-through instead be taxed as corporations by the IRS.",
"-30.9348527637776"
],
[
"tax years 2004–2010, the United States also has imposed a reduced rate of taxation on dividends received by individuals.\nSome systems currently attempt or in the past have attempted to integrate taxation of the corporation with taxation of shareholders to mitigate the dual level of taxation. As a current example, Australia provides for a “franking credit” as a benefit to shareholders. When an Australian company pays a dividend to a domestic shareholder, it reports the dividend as well as a notional tax credit amount. The shareholder utilizes this notional credit to offset shareholder level income tax.\nA previous system",
"-30.899335178313777"
],
[
"rate. In the personal income tax, a clearer distinction between labour income and investment income was introduced (split - a dual income tax system). Ordinary income, income less standard deductions and deductible expenses, was taxes at a flat rate of 28%. On personal income, income from work and pensions, there were in addition levied social security contributions and surtax. To avoid that income that was taxed at the corporate level also were taxed at the individual level (double taxation), the imputation tax credit for dividends and treasury system gains was introduced. 2006 tax reform After the 1992 tax reform the",
"-30.686776893853676"
],
[
"tax\" has been criticized as the burden of it falls on personal end-consumers of products. Some critics consider it to be a regressive tax, meaning that the poor pay more, as a percentage of their income, than the rich. Defenders argue that relating taxation levels to income is an arbitrary standard, and that the value-added tax is in fact a proportional tax in that people with higher income pay more in that they consume more. The effective regressiveness of a VAT system can also be affected when different classes of goods are taxed at different rates. Some countries implementing a",
"-30.680217501241714"
],
[
"Taxable income Taxable income refers to the base upon which an income tax system imposes tax. Generally, it includes some or all items of income and is reduced by expenses and other deductions. The amounts included as income, expenses, and other deductions vary by country or system. Many systems provide that some types of income are not taxable (sometimes called non-assessable income) and some expenditures not deductible in computing taxable income. Some systems base tax on taxable income of the current period, and some on prior periods. Taxable income may refer to the income of",
"-30.651410179794766"
],
[
"in a unified manner on all types of income while individuals are taxed in differing manners depending on the nature or source of the income. Many jurisdictions impose tax at both an entity level and at the owner level on one or more types of enterprises. These jurisdictions often rely on the company law of that jurisdiction or other jurisdictions in determining whether an entity's owners are to be taxed directly on the entity income. However, there are notable exceptions, including U.S. rules characterizing entities independently of legal form.\nIn order to simplify administration or for other agendas, some governments have",
"-30.61516996100545"
],
[
"avoid an increase in effective and marginal tax rates due to inflation pushing taxpayers taxable income into higher tax brackets even though their pre tax purchasing power has not changed. Tax codes of various countries can be very complicated. As a result, certain types of taxes may be partially or entirely subject to deindexation even though the main tax rate structure is not. This is the case in the US where the standard tax rate is indexed to inflation. But, its parallel Alternative Minimum Tax (AMT) code is not. As a result, a rising share",
"-30.531936462502927"
],
[
"flat tax. The basic idea is the same as a flat tax with personal deductions, except that when deductions exceed income, the taxable income is allowed to become negative rather than being set to zero. The flat tax rate is then applied to the resulting \"negative income,\" resulting in a \"negative income tax\" that the government would owe to the household—unlike the usual \"positive\" income tax, which the household owes the government.\nFor example, let the flat rate be 20%, and let the deductions be $20,000 per adult and $7,000 per dependent. Under such a system, a family of four making",
"-30.4779193920549"
],
[
"tax Many jurisdictions tax the income of individuals and business entities, including corporations. Generally, the authorities impose tax on net profits from a business, on net gains, and on other income. Computation of income subject to tax may be determined under accounting principles used in the jurisdiction, which may be modified or replaced by tax-law principles in the jurisdiction. The incidence of taxation varies by system, and some systems may be viewed as progressive or regressive. Rates of tax may vary or be constant (flat) by income level. Many systems allow individuals certain personal allowances and other non-business reductions to",
"-30.41330847144127"
],
[
"treatment of this dividend income varies considerably between countries: United States and Canada The United States and Canada impose a lower tax rate on dividend income than ordinary income, on the assertion that company profits had already been taxed as corporate tax. Australia and New Zealand Australia and New Zealand have a dividend imputation system, wherein companies can attach franking credits or imputation credits to dividends. These franking credits represent the tax paid by the company upon its pre-tax profits. One dollar of company tax paid generates one franking credit. Companies can attach any proportion of franking up to a",
"-30.392394367954694"
],
[
"Proportional tax Proportional rates Proportional taxes on consumption are considered by some to be regressive; that is, low-income people tend to spend a greater percentage of their income in taxable sales (using a cross section timeframe) than higher income people. A regressive tax is when the average tax rate is lower, with higher income. So income and average tax rate have an inverse relationship. However, this calculation is derived when the tax paid is divided not by the tax base (the amount spent) but by income, which is argued to create an arbitrary relationship. The tax rate itself",
"-30.28827713627834"
],
[
"statutory tax rate are more popular among companies as countries with high statutory tax rates. Depreciation Important elements of the tax base are tax depreciation rules. The faster companies can depreciate assets, the higher is the present value of the tax savings as the tax base is lowered earlier. EU member state In the European Union (EU) withholding taxes are reduced by the Parent-Subsidiary Directive as well as the Interest and Royalties Directive for transactions within the EU. As a consequence royalties, interests and dividends might be able to be transferred between two EU member countries without withholding taxes being",
"-30.265144757868256"
],
[
"taxable income, although business deductions tend to be favored over personal deductions.\nPersonal income tax is often collected on a pay-as-you-earn basis, with small corrections made soon after the end of the tax year. These corrections take one of two forms: payments to the government, for taxpayers who have not paid enough during the tax year; and tax refunds from the government to those who have overpaid. Income-tax systems will often have deductions available that reduces the total tax liability by reducing total taxable income. They may allow losses from one type of income to count against another. For example, a",
"-30.209637039049994"
],
[
" In 2010, the United Kingdom and the United States both provided reduced rates of tax for capital gains and dividends.\nMost systems and jurisdictions allow businesses to reduce taxable income by cost of goods or other property sold, as well as deductions for business expenses. Many systems limit some sorts of business deductions. For example, deductions for automobile expenses are limited in the United Kingdom and United States.\nSome systems allow tax deductions for certain nonbusiness expenses (sometimes called personal or domestic expenses). Such outlays may include personal expenses, such as a home mortgage interest deduction, and vary widely",
"-30.20732521521859"
],
[
"be reconciled by recognizing that the latter simply excludes certain types of income from being defined as taxable income; hence, both kinds of tax are flat on taxable income. Flat tax with limited deductions Modified flat taxes have been proposed which would allow deductions for a very few items, while still eliminating the vast majority of existing deductions. Charitable deductions and home mortgage interest are the most discussed examples of deductions that would be retained, as these deductions are popular with voters and are often used. Another common theme is a single, large, fixed deduction. This large fixed deduction",
"-30.144014079396584"
],
[
"or type of income.\nIncome generally includes most types of receipts that enrich the taxpayer, including compensation for services, gain from sale of goods or other property, interest, dividends, rents, royalties, annuities, pensions, and all manner of other items. Many systems exclude from income part or all of superannuation or other national retirement plan payments. Most tax systems exclude from income health care benefits provided by employers or under national insurance systems. Deductions allowed Nearly all income tax systems permit residents to reduce gross income by business and some other types of deductions. By contrast, nonresidents are generally subject to",
"-30.11027247144375"
],
[
"is proportional, with people with higher incomes paying more tax but at the same rate.\nIf a consumption tax is to be related to income, the unspent income can be treated as tax-deferred (spending savings at a later point in time), at which time it is taxed creating a proportional rate using an income base. However, consumption taxes such as a sales tax can often exclude items or provide rebates in an effort to create social justice. In many locations, \"necessary\" items such as non-prepared food, clothing, or prescription drugs are exempt from sales tax to alleviate the burden on the",
"-30.08344590125489"
],
[
"a certain income level, ensure that the marginal tax remains steady. Third, reaching an optimal tax level could mean flat taxes. Fourth, the increase in wage inequality is directly proportionate to the extent of income redistribution as revenue is distributed to low-income earners. Fifth, taxes should not only depend on income amounts, but also on personal characteristics such as a person's wage earning capabilities. Sixth, goods produced should only be taxed as a final good and should be taxed uniformly, which leads to their seventh point that capital should also not be taxed because it is considered an input of",
"-30.059892069155467"
],
[
"therefore requires the lowest flat tax rate to raise any requisite amount of revenue. Since financial transactions in stocks, bonds, international currency transactions and derivatives comprise most of the automated payment transaction (APT) tax base, it is in essence the broadest of financial transaction taxes. Initially proposed as a revenue neutral replacement for the entire Federal tax system of the United States, it could alternatively be considered as a global tax whose revenues could be used by national governments to reduce existing income, corporate and VAT tax rates as well as reducing existing sovereign debt burdens. If adopted by all",
"-30.03316173586063"
],
[
"rate there is no longer any incentive for a rational taxpayer to earn any income, thus the revenue raised will be 100% of nothing. If both a 0% rate and 100% rate of taxation generate no revenue, it follows from the extreme value theorem that there must exist at least one rate in between where tax revenue would be a maximum. The Laffer curve is typically represented as a graph which starts at 0% tax, zero revenue, rises to a maximum rate of revenue raised at an intermediate rate of taxation and then falls again to zero revenue at a",
"-29.990225360670593"
],
[
"Ordinary income Rates In the United States, ordinary income is taxed at the marginal tax rates. As of 2006, there are six \"tax brackets\" ranging from 10% to 35%. Ordinary income is taxed within the particular tax bracket listed on the rate schedules or tax tables as a percentage for each dollar within that bracket. However, after the 2003 Tax Cut, qualified dividends and long-term capital gains are taxed at the same rate of 15% (up to 20% after 2012).",
"-29.988565739651676"
],
[
"tax rates than others. On the other hand, individuals or corporations which received the bulk of their income from such sources as capital gains or were in a position to benefit from net lease arrangements, from accelerated depreciation on real estate, from percentage depletion, or from other tax-preferred activities tended to pay relatively low rates of tax. In fact, many individuals with high incomes who could benefit from these provisions paid lower effective rates of tax than many individuals with modest incomes. In extreme cases, individuals enjoyed large economic incomes without paying any tax at all. This was true for",
"-29.98414148244774"
],
[
"total household income. Hence a flat tax limited to wages would seem to leave the wealthy better off. Modifying the tax base can change the effects. A flat tax could be targeted at income (rather than wages), which could place the tax burden equally on all earners, including those who earn income primarily from returns on investment. Tax systems could utilize a flat sales tax to target all consumption, which can be modified with rebates or exemptions to remove regressive effects (such as the proposed Fair Tax in the U.S.). Border adjustable A flat tax system and income",
"-29.980728405702394"
],
[
"a specific good. In the case of a regressive tax, persons with relatively low incomes pay a tax that is a relatively high percentage of the amount of income, when the percentage is compared to the percentage paid by persons with relatively high incomes. For example, where a tax on an item worth $25,000 is paid by a person with a salary of $100,000 will constitute a lesser percentage as compared to the percentage of income paid by a person with salary $50,000, as the tax amount will depend on the item and not the income . Similarly, if person",
"-29.97716453776229"
],
[
"be based on assets, capital, wages, or some alternative measure of taxable income. Often the alternative tax functions as a minimum tax.\nUnited States federal income tax incorporates an alternative minimum tax. This tax is computed at a lower tax rate (20% for corporations), and imposed based on a modified version of taxable income. Modifications include longer depreciation lives assets under MACRS, adjustments related to costs of developing natural resources, and an addback of certain tax exempt interest. The U. S. state of Michigan previously taxed businesses on an alternative base that did not allow compensation of",
"-29.958978620823473"
],
[
"dividend income received by corporations. The Netherlands system provides a “participation exception” to taxation for corporations owning more than 25% of the dividend paying corporation. Transfer pricing A key issue in corporate tax is the setting of prices charged by related parties for goods, services or the use of property. Many jurisdictions have guidelines on transfer pricing which allow tax authorities to adjust transfer prices used. Such adjustments may apply in both an international and a domestic context. Taxation of shareholders Most income tax systems levy tax on the corporation and, upon distribution of earnings (dividends), on the shareholder.",
"-29.908099052729085"
],
[
"tax system which mainly consists of central and local taxes, including a personal income tax, a corporate income tax and a value added tax. Among the total tax income the ratio of local taxes is solely 5% while the EU average is 30%. Until 2010, the taxation of an individual was progressive, determining the tax rate based on the individual's income: with earning up to 1,900,000 forints a year, the tax was 18%, the tax on incomes above this limit was 36% since 1 of July, 2009.\nBased on the new one-rate tax regime introduced January 2011, the overall tax rate",
"-29.888450686237775"
],
[
"Flat tax Major categories Flat tax proposals differ in how the subject of the tax is defined. True flat-rate income tax A true flat-rate tax is a system of taxation where one tax rate is applied to all personal income with no deductions. Marginal flat tax Where deductions are allowed, a 'flat tax' is a progressive tax with the special characteristic that, above the maximum deduction, the marginal rate on all further income is constant. Such a tax is said to be marginally flat above that point. The difference between a true flat tax and a marginally flat tax can",
"-29.843417872907594"
],
[
"many loopholes, or a progressive tax system without loopholes, and that a progressive tax system could be as simple, or simpler, than a flat tax system. A simple progressive tax would also discourage tax avoidance.\nUnder a pure flat tax without deductions, every tax period a company would make a single payment to the government covering the taxes on the employees and the taxes on the company profit. For example, suppose that in a given year, a company called ACME earns a profit of 3 million, spends 2 million in wages, and spends 1 million on other expenses that under the",
"-29.781704344932223"
],
[
"Two states with a tax only on interest and dividend income of individuals, are New Hampshire and Tennessee. \n State and local taxes are generally deductible in computing federal taxable income. Federal and many state individual income tax rate schedules differ based on the individual's filing status. Income Taxable income is gross income less adjustments and allowable tax deductions. Gross income for federal and most states is receipts and gains from all sources less cost of goods sold. Gross income includes \"all income from whatever source\", and is not limited to cash received. Income from illegal activities is taxable",
"-29.7402936052531"
],
[
"percentage of gross revenues for some types of businesses, particularly branches of nonresidents. Credits Nearly all systems permit residents a credit for income taxes paid to other jurisdictions of the same sort. Thus, a credit is allowed at the national level for income taxes paid to other countries. Many income tax systems permit other credits of various sorts, and such credits are often unique to the jurisdiction. Alternative taxes Some jurisdictions, particularly the United States and many of its states and Switzerland, impose the higher of regular income tax or an alternative tax. Switzerland and U.S. states generally impose such",
"-29.727777306339704"
],
[
"most. Some even argue that they should be free at the point of use.\nThe alternative to funding facilities and services with user fees is to fund them with income taxes. Unlike user fees, income taxes are paid by everyone, including those who don't necessarily use or benefit from a specific facility or service.",
"-29.719798279664246"
],
[
"that the average top income tax rate for OECD member countries fell from 62 percent in 1981 to 35 percent in 2015, and that in addition, tax systems are less progressive than indicated by the statutory rates, because wealthy individuals have more access to tax relief. Educational attainment Economist Gary Becker has described educational attainment as the root of economic mobility. Progressive tax rates, while raising taxes on high income, have the goal and corresponding effect of reducing the burden on low income, improving income equality. Educational attainment is often conditional on cost and family income, which for the poor,",
"-29.69573505385779"
],
[
"it now stands, the U.S. Internal Revenue Code is over several million words long, and contains many loopholes, deductions, and exemptions which, advocates of flat taxes claim, render the collection of taxes and the enforcement of tax law complicated and inefficient.\nIt is further argued that current tax law slows economic growth by distorting economic incentives, and by allowing, even encouraging, tax avoidance. With a flat tax, there are fewer incentives than in the current system to create tax shelters, and to engage in other forms of tax avoidance.\nFlat tax critics contend that a flat tax system could be created with",
"-29.611911841202527"
],
[
"also is not imposed on unearned income, including interest on savings deposits, stock dividends, and capital gains such as profits from the sale of stock or real estate. The proportion of total income that is exempt from FICA tax as \"unearned income\" tends to rise with higher income brackets.\nSome, including Third Way, argue that since Social Security taxes are eventually returned to taxpayers, with interest, in the form of Social Security benefits, the regressiveness of the tax is effectively negated. That is, the taxpayer gets back (more or less) what they put into the Social Security system. Others, including The",
"-29.477575509808958"
],
[
"\"of Laffer-type behavioral responses generating revenue increases from the tax cut elements of these reforms\" in Russia or in other countries. Overall structure Taxes other than the income tax (for example, taxes on sales and payrolls) tend to be regressive. Hence, making the income tax flat could result in a regressive overall tax structure. Under such a structure, those with lower incomes tend to pay a higher proportion of their income in total taxes than the affluent do. The fraction of household income that is a return to capital (dividends, interest, royalties, profits of unincorporated businesses) is positively correlated with",
"-29.46141014189925"
],
[
"rates differing from the prevailing income tax rates. Further, the rate of withholding may vary by type of income or type of recipient. Generally, withholding taxes are reduced or eliminated under income tax treaties (see below). Generally, withholding taxes are imposed on the gross amount of income, unreduced by expenses. Such taxation provides for great simplicity of administration but can also reduce the taxpayer's awareness of the amount of tax being collected. Treaties Tax treaties exist between many countries on a bilateral basis to prevent double taxation (taxes levied twice on the same income, profit, capital gain, inheritance or other",
"-29.395272376932553"
],
[
"life of the asset.\nMost systems allow individuals some sort of notional deductions or an amount subject to zero tax. In addition, many systems allow deduction of some types of personal expenses, such as home mortgage interest or medical expenses. Business profits Only net income from business activities, whether conducted by individuals or entities is taxable, with few exceptions. Many countries require business enterprises to prepare financial statements which must be audited. Tax systems in those countries often define taxable income as income per those financial statements with few, if any, adjustments. A few jurisdictions compute net income as a fixed",
"-29.35607217924553"
],
[
"would not otherwise have paid income tax on the dividend income, became entitled to claim a refund of the ACT amount, or after 1993 a lesser amount. The refund of ACT for non-taxpayers was scrapped in 1997, but in 1999 ACT was itself scrapped, effectively making dividend income of non-taxpayers tax-free again.\nThe amount of ACT paid by a company could also be offset against the company's profits reducing its final corporation tax bill. ACT was scrapped in 1999. History Until 1973, company profits were taxed as profits, and dividend payments were then taxed as income. In 1973, a partial imputation",
"-29.316923715523444"
],
[
"withholding tax system known as pay-as-you-earn (PAYE), although the term \"withholding tax\" is not commonly used in the UK. Unlike many other withholding tax systems, PAYE systems generally aim to collect all of an employee's tax liability through the withholding tax system, making an end of year tax return redundant. However, taxpayers with more complicated tax affairs must file tax returns.\nAustralia operates a pay-as-you-go (PAYG) system, which is similar to PAYE. The system applies only at the federal level, as the individual states do not collect income taxes. Other domestic withholding Some systems require that income taxes be withheld",
"-29.292285500268918"
],
[
"value added tax is levied on sales of goods and services (including imports) at a rate of 19%, with a few exemptions. The income tax revenue comprises different taxes. While there is a corporate income tax of 20% over profits from companies (called First Category Tax), the system is ultimately designed to tax individuals. Therefore, corporate income taxes paid constitute a credit towards two personal income taxes: the Global Complementary Tax (in the case of residents) or the Additional Tax (in the case of non-residents). The Global Complementary Tax is payable by those that have different sources of income, while",
"-29.28661286854185"
],
[
"earnings are distributed. Such distribution of earnings is generally referred to as a dividend.\nDividends received by other corporations may be taxed at reduced rates, or exempt from taxation, if the dividends received deduction applies. Dividends received by individuals (if the dividend is a \"qualified dividend\") are taxed at reduced rates. Exceptions to shareholder taxation apply to certain nonroutine distributions, including distributions in liquidation of an 80% subsidiary or in complete termination of a shareholder's interest.\nIf a corporation makes a distribution in a non-cash form, it must pay tax on any gain in value of the property",
"-29.250065100219217"
],
[
"of any constitutional restrictions then the tax is lawful, call it what you will. The complexity of the U.S. income tax laws United States tax law attempts to define a comprehensive system of measuring income in a complex economy. Many provisions defining income or granting or removing benefits require significant definition of terms. Further, many state income tax laws do not conform with federal tax law in material respects. These factors and others have resulted in substantial complexity. Even venerable legal scholars like Judge Learned Hand have expressed amazement and frustration with the complexity of the",
"-29.240151794161648"
],
[
"Differences between taxable income and the pre-tax income or profit number reported for financial statements are either temporary or permanent in nature. Permanent differences result when deductibility rules differ in perpetuity between accounting and tax law. Temporary differences result when the recognition of deductions for tax and accounting standards differ in their timing. The result is a gap between tax expense computed using income before tax and current tax payable computed using taxable income. This gap is known as deferred tax. If the tax expense exceeds the current tax payable then there is a deferred tax payable; if",
"-29.23319249910128"
],
[
"for the UK total economy. The difference occurs because taxes less subsidies on products are not included in the production account by sector and are instead included within resources for the UK total economy. The sum of gross value added and taxes less subsidies on products for the UK economy is equal to GDP at market prices.\nThe distribution and use of income accounts exist for all the institutional sectors. These accounts describe the distribution and redistribution of income and its use in the form of final consumption. The distribution and use of income are analysed in four stages, each of",
"-29.176654763548868"
],
[
"the entity does not pay taxes on its income. Instead, the owners of the entity pay tax on their \"distributive share\" of the entity's taxable income, even if no funds are distributed by the partnership to the owners. Federal tax law permits the owners of the entity to agree how the income of the entity will be allocated among them, but requires that this allocation reflect the economic reality of their business arrangement, as tested under complicated rules. United Kingdom In general, a partnership is treated under Section 111 Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988 and Section 848 Income Tax",
"-29.17436454887502"
],
[
"However, income taxes are generally much higher than taxes on qualified dividends.\nIn order to understand the legal structure that an investment club should choose, the club should first understand its club type. Each of the different club types will have different legal requirements as well as different reporting requirements. Typically, the SEC only requires reporting for investment groups with over 100 members, which is reclassified as an investment group, not an investment club. Publicly held offerings like a Real Estate Investment Trust as known as a REIT also have additional reporting requirements. Tax implications Investment club accounting software can",
"-29.148395843920298"
],
[
"profit income and on capital. These make up a relatively small portion of total tax revenue. Tax is paid on corporate income at the corporate level before it is distributed to individual shareholders as dividends. A tax credit is provided to individuals who receive dividend to reflect the tax paid at the corporate level. This credit does not eliminate double taxation of this income completely, however, resulting in a higher level of tax on dividend income than other types of income. (Where income is earned in the form of a capital gain, only half of the gain is",
"-29.111219829530455"
],
[
"because any profits distributed to shareholders will eventually be taxed twice. One solution, followed by as in the case of the Australian and UK tax systems, is for the recipient of the dividend to be entitled to a tax credit to address the fact that the profits represented by the dividend have already been taxed. The company profit being passed on is thus effectively taxed only at the rate of tax paid by the eventual recipient of the dividend.\nIn other systems, dividends are taxed at a lower rate than other income (for example, in the US), or shareholders are taxed",
"-29.1002767062746"
],
[
"whether group relief for third countries, i.e., non-EU countries, is available, depends on national legislation. Dividend taxation All intra-group dividends are treated as tax-free domestic dividends. Thus, profits of subsidiaries and permanent establishments (PE) are equally taxed and all profits are taxed only once. For dividends from third countries, the European Commission proposes tax exemption and an anti-abuse rule (which is to switch over to credit in case of low taxation). Neutrality of legal form More in general, subsidiaries are treated as PEs under CCCTB regulation. Hence, there is no tax incentive for one of these forms of establishments. This",
"-29.080295897088945"
],
[
"tax rates in the US right now would raise taxable income enough so that the annual total tax revenue would be higher within five years than without the tax cut\", none of the economists surveyed agreed and 71% disagreed. Empirical analysis One of the conceptual uses of the Laffer curve is to determine the rate of taxation that will raise the maximum revenue (in other words, \"optimizing\" revenue collection). The revenue maximizing tax rate should not be confused with the optimal tax rate, which economists use to describe tax rates in a tax system that raises a given amount of",
"-29.06439420595416"
],
[
"is thus not subject to withholding tax, unlike a dividend paid to a foreign company) which then pays interest to a foreign company, while the home country tax law will see a US company paying dividends directly to its home country parent. Under typical treaties for the relief of double taxation, neither government has the right to tax the payment, because each sees it as a type of payment which only the other has the right to tax.",
"-29.061310636345297"
],
[
"rate times taxable income. Taxable income is defined as gross income less allowable deductions. Taxable income as determined for federal tax purposes may be modified for state tax purposes. Gross income The Internal Revenue Code states that \"gross income means all income from whatever source derived,\" and gives specific examples. Gross income is not limited to cash received, but \"includes income realized in any form, whether money, property, or services.\" Gross income includes wages and tips, fees for performing services, gain from sale of inventory or other property, interest, dividends, rents, royalties, pensions, alimony, and many",
"-29.038495117798448"
],
[
"and are deductible for federal tax purposes. State and local income tax rates vary from 1% to 16% of taxable income. Some state and local income tax rates are flat (single rate) and some are graduated. State and local definitions of what income is taxable vary highly. Some states incorporate the federal definitions by reference. Taxable income is defined separately and differently for individuals and corporations in some jurisdictions. Some states impose alternative or additional taxes based on a second measure of income or capital.\nStates and localities tend to tax all income of residents.",
"-29.03687152970815"
],
[
"tax law requires individuals to reduce the foreign income tax by the ratio of the rate differential on dividends (39.6% less 20%) to the maximum individual tax rate (39.6%). Some countries have at times allowed shareholders a credit against the shareholder's tax for taxes paid by the corporations. Several countries allow corporations who own significant shares of other corporations to claim a foreign tax credit for a portion of the foreign income taxes paid by the owned corporation when the shareholding corporation receives a dividend. Effect of FTC on worldwide tax burden Assume that Carpet Ltd is a UK resident",
"-29.034870798699558"
],
[
"Tax deducted at source In most cases employers deduct the relevant amount of income tax from salary and wages prior to these being paid to the individual. This system, known as pay-as-you-earn, or PAYE, was introduced in 1958, prior to which employees paid tax annually.\nIn addition, banks and other financial institutions deduct the relevant amount of income tax on interest and dividends as these are earned. This withholding tax is known as either resident withholding tax(RWT) or non-resident withholding tax(NRWT), depending on the status of the lender; NRWT is at a higher rate.\nAt the end of each tax year, individuals",
"-29.026471654709894"
],
[
"controlled subsidiary companies managed and controlled outside the UK which are subject to \"low\" foreign taxes. Low tax is determined as actual tax of less than three-fourths of the corresponding UK tax that would be due on the income determined under UK principles. Complexities arise in computing the corresponding UK tax. Further, there are certain exceptions which may permit deferral, including a \"white list\" of permitted countries and a 90% earnings distribution policy of the controlled company. Further, anti-deferral does not apply where there is no tax avoidance motive.\nRules in Germany provide that a German individual or company shareholder of",
"-29.002912311814725"
],
[
"will be taxed instead as earned income. If an individual gets more than 150,000 € in dividends from non-listed limited companies, the tax-exempt percentage will only be 15% for the amount that exceeds 150,000 €. The effective tax rate for a dividend that does not exceed 8% of the value of a stock will be 7.5% - 8.5%. Due to the effect of net assets, dividends of debted private companies will usually have their dividends taxed as earned income. Corporate taxes The corporate income tax rate is 20.0%. The corporate tax was fully paid as dividend tax before 2004, but",
"-29.000138034345582"
],
[
"should be active in policy decisions such as this, then claims that flat taxes are cheaper/simpler to administer than others are incomplete until they factor in costs for alternative policy administration. Minimizing deductions In general, the question of how to eliminate deductions is fundamental to the flat tax design; deductions dramatically affect the effective \"flatness\" in the tax rate. Perhaps the single biggest necessary deduction is for business expenses. If businesses were not allowed to deduct expenses, businesses with a profit margin below the flat tax rate could never earn any money since the tax on revenues would always exceed",
"-28.990120874834247"
],
[
"give rise to specific tax costs due to conflicting qualifications. However, transfer pricing problems are replaced by allocation problems. Furthermore, the problems of transfer pricing do not vanish regarding transactions with third countries. Economic consequences of formula apportionment In principle, the profit tax becomes a tax on the factors included into the formula, i.e., capital, sales and labour. This means that the tax bill increases in the country where one of the factors rises. Thus, tax planning is still possible as companies have an incentive to shift the tax base to low-tax jurisdictions by means of transferring the formula factors,",
"-28.984640872542514"
],
[
"system. A progressive tax is a tax by which the tax rate increases as the taxable base amount increases. In a progressive tax system, the level of the top tax rate will often have a direct impact on the level of inequality within a society, either increasing it or decreasing it, provided that income does not change as a result of the change in tax regime. Additionally, steeper tax progressivity applied to social spending can result in a more equal distribution of income across the board. Tax credits such as the Earned Income Tax Credit in the US can also",
"-28.983763206226286"
],
[
"further acquisitions under tax subsidy. This process can raise prices and thereby make it harder for people who wish to buy a house as an owner-occupier. United Kingdom While allowing for negative gearing in its basic form, the United Kingdom does not allow the transfer of one type of income (or loss) to another type of income. This is due to its schedular system of taxation. In this type of taxation system, the tax paid is dependent on income source. Therefore, an individual who received an income from labour and from land would pay two separate tax rates for the",
"-28.95137456819066"
],
[
"that it assumes a single tax rate and a single labor supply. Actual systems of public finance are more complex, and there is serious doubt about the relevance of considering a single marginal tax rate. In addition, revenue may well be a multivalued function of tax rate; for instance, an increase in tax rate to a certain percentage may not result in the same revenue as a decrease in tax rate to the same percentage (a kind of hysteresis). Furthermore, the Laffer curve does not take explicitly into account the nature of the tax avoidance taking place. It is possible",
"-28.938105286448263"
],
[
"in the employee's taxable income until paid under the terms of the plan. Four rules must be considered—the constructive receipt doctrine, the economic benefit doctrine, IRC §83, and IRC §409A.\nState income taxation, as well as employment taxation (FICA and FUTA), may differ in their timing from federal income taxation. Constructive receipt doctrine does not require immediate taxation Although individuals (as cash-basis taxpayers) normally include amounts in taxable income only when the amount is actually received, under the \"constructive receipt doctrine\", the individual is taxed on the amount when it is made available to him or her so that he or",
"-28.9319831628236"
],
[
"income: \"it would thus tend to place on the same tax footing persons who are economically similarly situated.\" However, the current system allows the IRS a degree of \"administrative convenience.\" Moreover, it is arguably unfair to treat unrealized gains as income if the taxpayer may not have the appropriate funds to cover the tax liability, presumably forcing the taxpayer to sell the asset in question simply to pay the tax resulting from it. In the end, economic gain will be taxed. \"Realization is fundamentally a matter of timing.... [t]he unrealized total gain, of course, may fluctuate from time",
"-28.927443416207097"
],
[
"relative weight of different taxes) differs from the OECD average. In 2016, the Danish tax system was characterized by substantially higher revenues from taxes on personal income, whereas on the other hand, no revenues at all derive from social security contributions. A lower proportion of revenues in Denmark derive from taxes on corporate income and gains and property taxes than in OECD generally, whereas the proportion deriving from payroll taxes, VAT, and other taxes on goods and services correspond to the OECD average.\nProfessor of Economics at Princeton University Henrik Kleven has suggested that three distinct principles of policies in Denmark",
"-28.91249906201847"
],
[
"only adopt the tax system that is mainly based on turnover tax. From the perspective of taxation, due to restrictions on the level of taxation in developing countries, tax revenues can only be raised through indirect taxes that focus on taxes such as value-added tax and consumption tax, while direct taxes represented by income taxes and property taxes are included in total tax revenue. The proportion is relatively low. Bird and Zolt pointed out that, contrary to the practice of taxation in developed countries, personal income tax still plays a very limited role in developing countries today, both in terms",
"-28.861868580337614"
],
[
"about tax reform. Democrats argue for the wealthy to pay more via higher income tax rates, while Republicans focus on lowering income tax rates. While both parties discuss reducing tax expenditures (i.e., exemptions and deductions), Republicans focus on preserving lower tax rates for capital gains and dividends, while Democrats prefer educational credits and capping deductions. Political realities make it unlikely that more than $150 billion per year in individual tax expenditures could be eliminated. One area with more common ground is corporate tax rates, where both parties have generally agreed that lower rates and fewer tax expenditures would align the",
"-28.861183872446418"
],
[
"adoption of the definition of \"net income\" used by the Internal Revenue Service. For federal income tax purposes, dividends from domestic subsidiaries are allowed to be exempted from the parent corporations income to avoid double taxation. The Iowa Supreme Court rejected a Commerce Clause claim because Kraft failed to show \"that Iowa businesses receive a commercial advantage over foreign commerce due to Iowa's taxing scheme.\" Considering an Equal Protection Clause challenge, the Iowa Supreme Court held that the use of the federal government's definitions of income were convenient for the state and was \"rationally related to the goal of administrative",
"-28.8526887006592"
],
[
"incomes, depending upon the size of their preference income. In general, those individual or corporate taxpayers who received the bulk of their income from personal services or manufacturing were taxed at relatively higher tax rates than others. On the other hand, individuals or corporations which received the bulk of their income from such sources as capital gains or were in a position to benefit from net lease arrangements, from accelerated depreciation on real estate, from percentage depletion, or from other tax-preferred activities tended to pay relatively low rates of tax. In fact, many individuals with high incomes who could benefit",
"-28.808386152086314"
],
[
"Payments of rent may also be subject to withholding tax or may be taxed as business income. The amounts may vary by type of income. A few jurisdictions treat fees paid for technical consulting services as royalties subject to withholding of tax. Income tax treaties may reduce the amount of tax for particular types of income paid from one country to residents of the other country.\nSome countries require withholding by the purchaser of real property. The U.S. also imposes a 10% withholding tax on the gross sales price of a U.S. real property interest unless advance IRS",
"-28.80546107585542"
],
[
"income is taxed at a lower rate of 5%. A separate health insurance contribution of 9% (6% payable by the employee and 3% by the employer, although exceptions exist) is levied on some of the income, including income from employment.\nLithuanian personal income tax system is classified as a case of flat tax, although the existence of basic deduction on salaries (Lithuanian: neapmokestinamasis pajamų dydis) means that the effective tax rate will depend on the level of income. As of 2015, the size of the basic deduction depends on the basic salary, the number of children, and the level of disability.\nSince",
"-28.784661649624468"
],
[
"based on the personal exemption and usually various other tax exemptions, such as the Earned Income Tax Credit and home mortgage payments. The US federal tax system also includes deductions for state and local taxes for lower income households which mitigates what are sometimes regressive taxes, particularly property taxes. Higher income households are subject to the alternative minimum tax that limits deductions and sets a flat tax rate of 26% to 28% with the higher rate commencing at $175,000 in income. There are also deduction phaseouts starting at $112,500 for single filers. The net effect is increased",
"-28.769760253140703"
],
[
"individual societies to determine what tax structure to implement.\nVertical equity states that the government should implement higher taxes on those who have higher abilities to pay than those who have a lower ability to pay. However, problems immediately arise with vertical equity because not only do policy makers have to define what having a higher ability means, but they also have to determine what an appropriate increase in taxation is for those with a greater ability to pay. Practically, vertical equity provides no solution to these problems. Furthermore, because of the complexity of current tax policies, those who have greater",
"-28.764935956336558"
],
[
"tax, to the extent that it is a direct tax, must be apportioned among the states.\nNo income tax enacted by the US Congress (either before or after the Sixteenth Amendment) has ever been apportioned among the states by population. All income taxes enacted after the Amendment have been treated as excises (they have been imposed with geographic uniformity but have not been required to be apportioned).\nSince the income tax may be imposed on income from whatever source and without regard to any apportionment requirement (by virtue of the wording of the 16th Amendment), an income tax cannot be treated as",
"-28.76308504201006"
],
[
"If the tax is generally applied at high rates, it will severely impair financial operations and create international liquidity problems, especially if derivatives are taxed as well. A lower tax rate would reduce the negative impact on financial markets, but not mitigate speculation where expectations of an exchange rate change exceed the tax margin.\"\nIn 1995, Spahn suggested an alternative, involving \"a two-tier rate structure consisting of a low-rate financial transactions tax, plus an exchange surcharge at prohibitive rates as a piggyback. The latter would be dormant in times of normal financial activities, and be activated only in the case of",
"-28.739624463196378"
],
[
"income is determined under state law, and often is based on federal taxable income. Most states conform to many federal concepts and definitions, including defining income and business deductions and timing thereof. State rules vary widely regarding to individual itemized deductions. Most states do not allow a deduction for state income taxes for individuals or corporations, and impose tax on certain types of income exempt at the federal level.\nSome states have alternative measures of taxable income, or alternative taxes, especially for corporations.\nStates imposing an income tax generally tax all income of corporations organized in the state and individuals residing in",
"-28.726458592398558"
],
[
"even avoiding royalty payments and interest as well as on withholding taxes levied on distributed profits. This is a reason why companies are located in countries that have signed double tax treaties with many countries worldwide. Withholding tax rate dividends Withholding taxes on dividends grant the source country its share in tax revenue. From the perspective of a company, withholding taxes are disadvantageous. Profits are taxed again when they are distributed (in contrast to dividends that are not distributed across borders) even though they have already been subject to corporate taxation. Enterprises in countries with no/low withholding taxes are more",
"-28.725222671870142"
],
[
"tax unit in U.S. income tax law, the second earner's income is added to the first wage earner's taxable income and thus gets the highest marginal rate. This type of tax creates a large distortion disfavoring women from the labor force during years when the couple have great child care needs. Optimal linear income tax Eytan Sheshinski has studied a simplified income-tax model, in which the tax is a linear function of the income: , where y is the income, t(y) is the tax paid by an individual with an income of y, 1-b is the tax rate, and",
"-28.70057190814987"
],
[
"are often used by legislatures as policy instruments for encouraging numerous undertakings deemed socially useful — including the buying of life insurance, the funding of employee health care and pensions, the raising of children, home ownership, and the development of alternative energy sources and increased investment in conventional energy. Special tax provisions granted for any purpose increase complexity, irrespective of the system's flatness or lack thereof. State, local and territorial income taxes Income tax is also levied by most U.S. states and many localities on individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts. These taxes are in addition to federal income tax",
"-28.691727056982927"
],
[
"increases in the previous year. Application The tax rate schedules give tax rates for given levels of taxable income. There is a complex relationship between taxable income and actual income, making it difficult to draw conclusions from the tables. Even the marginal tax rates are misleading because there are various laws that relate taxable income to actual income such that an increase of a dollar of actual income results in an increase of more than a dollar in taxable income, thus making the marginal tax rate greater than what is suggested by the table.\nThese schedules apply only to",
"-28.684523058182094"
],
[
"Dividends received deduction The dividends-received deduction (or \"DRD\"), under U.S. federal income tax law, is a tax deduction received by a corporation on the dividends it receives from other corporations in which it has an ownership stake. Impact This deduction is designed to reduce the consequences of alleged triple taxation. Otherwise, corporate profits would be taxed to the corporation that earned them, then to the corporate shareholder, and then to the individual shareholder. While Congress allowed for double taxation on corporations, it did not intend a triple - and potentially infinitely-tiered - tax to apply to corporate profits at every",
"-28.683022826735396"
],
[
"where a tax rule determines otherwise. Such adjustments typically include depreciation and expenses which for policy reasons are not deductible for tax purposes, such as entertaining costs and fines.\nBut the U.S. is not the only jurisdiction in which there is a wide divergence between tax and financial accounting. Hugh Ault and Brian Arnold, in their book \"Comparative Income Taxation,\" have observed that in The Netherlands, where financial accounting is known as \"commercial accounting,\" there is a substantial divergence between those and the tax books.\n\"[D]ifferences between tax and commercial accounting rules arise where the tax instrument is employed to pursue economic,",
"-28.682933304080507"
],
[
"areas. For example, the \"9-9-9\" flat tax proposal would allow businesses to deduct purchases but not labor costs. (This effectively taxes labor-intensive industrial revenue at a higher rate.) How deductions are implemented will dramatically change the effective total tax, and thus the flatness of the tax. Thus, a flat tax proposal is not fully defined unless the proposal includes a differentiation between deductible and non-deductible expenses. Diminishing marginal utility Flat tax benefits higher income brackets progressively due to decline in marginal value. For example, if a flat tax system has a large per-citizen deductible (such as the \"Armey\" scheme below),",
"-28.671240764204413"
],
[
"As tax royalty payments to licensors are lowered on an after tax basis, withholding taxes are not attractive from the perspective of a company. Therefore, in countries with higher withholding tax rates licensors demand higher before tax royalty rates from licensees. Enterprises in countries with low withholding taxes can license intellectual property at lower cost.",
"-28.66909094201401"
],
[
"government or its instrumentalities. Income tax Taxes based on income are imposed at the federal, most state, and some local levels within the United States. The tax systems within each jurisdiction may define taxable income separately. Many states refer to some extent to federal concepts for determining taxable income. History of the income tax The first Income tax in the United States was implemented with the Revenue Act of 1861 by Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War. In 1895 the Supreme Court ruled that the U.S. federal income tax on interest income, dividend income and rental income was unconstitutional in",
"-28.66807822958799"
],
[
"received on the basis of property ownership forms the basis for the Marxist class analysis of capitalism, where unearned income and exploitation are viewed as inherent to capitalist production. Taxation Unearned income has often been treated differently for tax purposes than earned income, in order to redistribute income or to recognize its qualitative difference from income derived from productive work. Such a tax structure is often associated with a progressive income tax structure. Supporters argue that extraordinarily high incomes are unearned incomes, with the example of the United Kingdom, where income taxes on the highest brackets reached 98% in 1979.",
"-28.659330565074924"
],
[
"to differing definitions of tax base, which can make comparisons between the two confusing. Under the existing individual income plus employment (Social Security; Medicare; Medicaid) tax formula, taxes to be paid are included in the base on which the tax rate is imposed (known as tax-inclusive). If an individual's gross income is $100 and the sum of their income plus employment tax rate is 23%, taxes owed equals $23. Traditional state sales taxes are imposed on a tax base equal to the pre-tax portion of a good's price (known as tax-exclusive). A good priced at $77 with a 30% sales",
"-28.658937715692446"
],
[
"on foreign income of resident corporations until it is remitted to the country. Individuals versus enterprises Many tax systems tax individuals in one manner and entities that are not considered fiscally transparent in another. The differences may be as simple as differences in tax rates, and are often motivated by concerns unique to either individuals or corporations. For example, many systems allow taxable income of an individual to be reduced by a fixed amount allowance for other persons supported by the individual (dependents). Such a concept is not relevant for enterprises.\nMany systems allow for fiscal transparency of certain forms of",
"-28.658347290591337"
],
[
"federal law principles in their tax laws to some extent. Federal taxable income equals gross income (gross receipts and other income less cost of goods sold) less tax deductions. Gross income of a corporation and business deductions are determined in much the same manner as for individuals. All income of a corporation is subject to the same federal tax rate. However, corporations may reduce other federal taxable income by a net capital loss and certain deductions are more limited. Certain deductions are available only to corporations. These include deductions for dividends received and amortization of organization expenses. Some states",
"-28.63134685609839"
]
] |
3wb152 | How are companies like Snapchat and Tinder, worth anything when most people don't pay to use them? | [
"If you're not paying for it, YOU are the item being sold. They probably sell your data to 3rd party advertisers.",
"Snapchat makes a lot of ad revenue through advertising. They have deals with the NFL and stuff like that to have snapchat stories posted to everyone.",
"They're worth a lot of money because of the amount of users and the frequency that the app is used. For example (I'm just making up numbers here to get the point across). Instagram might have 1,000,000 users. Half the users look at the app at least 1 time every day and 1 quarter of the users make use of the app more than 5 times every day. So, an advertiser can pay Instagram for access to those users. Maybe they only pay for female users in France that use the app at least twice a day, or maybe they only pay for Male users in Australia that follow certain types of accounts (surf companies for example). This gives the company value because their user base is easily accessible by advertising companies. The data that we generate (views, likes, personal data like age, gender etc..) also provides value. In this example Instagram can show what different groups of people are into and what sort of trends are happening. At the moment I don't think Tinder has any paid content. Snapchat has the discover page, but we don't pay to access that. For companies like this, every single user is worth money to them and other companies are willing to pay to have data on what we do.",
"Don't know about these two, but in college (BBA Marketing), we learned a lot about data mining. Two notable companies: OKCupid and Angry Birds are actually data mining (marketing research) firms, and when you agree to their terms of service, you're unknowingly granting them access to any and all information on your device, and giving them the right to sell said collected information for a profit to a third party. Learning about Angry Birds was totally out of left field, but OKCupid made a good bit of sense. If you or anyone reading this is unfamiliar with it, OKCupid is an online dating site/app that's less casual/hook up oriented than tinder, but more low maintenance and less serious than URL_0 . Algorithms \"predict compatibility\" based on your answers to questions, combined with which answer(s) you want a SO to choose. There's thousands of different questions, and it gives unprecedented access to the personal details of people's lives you wouldn't be able to find out on a site that wasn't meant for dating. It's some pretty creepy stuff. I'm sure tinder and snapchat do similar things to an extent, but probably not identical to OKC or Angry Birds.",
"One possibility is that they have the *potential* to make money in the future. Say you're a big investing company with many billions of dollars. If you're pretty sure you could make $2B by adding ads to Snapchat, and you can buy it for only $1B, then why wouldn't you do that?"
] | [
[
"Spiegel again declined. On December 11, 2013, Snapchat confirmed $50 million in Series C funding from Coatue Management. Four more funding rounds, from December 2014 to March 2016, amounted to approximately $1.2 billion and totaled funding at $1.36 billion. Beyond 2014, the company had achieved a valuation of $10–$20 billion, depending on the source. According to reports in May 2016, the company's estimated worth was said to be approaching $22 billion in the event of a new round of investment. Further reports in 2016 suggested that funding was almost at $3 billion and that Snapchat was targeting yearly revenues of",
"-26.13651955872774"
],
[
"Tinder users swiped through 1.6 billion Tinder profiles and made more than 26 million matches per day. More than 8 billion matches had been made since Tinder launched in 2012. Financials In March 2014, media and internet conglomerate IAC increased its majority stake in Tinder, a move that caused speculation that the valuation of Tinder was at several billion dollars. In July 2015, Bank of America Merrill Lynch valued Tinder at $1.35 billion, based upon an estimate of $27 per user on an estimated user base of 50 million, with an additional bullish-estimate of $3 billion by taking the average",
"-26.13573475019075"
],
[
"time stated that many of the service providers are simply out to make extra revenue on top of their main income stream.\nThe Gadget Show picked the website as one of their top 3 places to buy gifts online. Site structure Services sold via the website are referred to as \"micro-jobs\", due to the low prices and short completion time typically involved. All micro-jobs fall within 4 payment structures of either £5, £10, £20 or £50.\nPayment for services must be made upfront in order for the work to commence. The money is sent to the sellers account however the buyer's purchase",
"-25.95921729609836"
],
[
"reported profits of £45.8m for 2011 from revenue of £185m, up from a profit of £12.4m in 2010. Customer profile Wonga claims that its customers are \"tech-savvy young professionals who previously used the banks to borrow money\". It accepts that its APR is \"not cheap\" but claims that its typical customer is on a mid-level salary and is temporarily short of cash because of an unexpected bill, for example to buy a new central heating boiler or tickets to a music festival.\nDr Gathergood of the University of Nottingham described payday loan users as falling into two groups, those who have",
"-25.18061028351076"
],
[
"Benchmark Capital, which valued the company at between $60 million and $70 million. In June 2013, Snapchat raised $60 million in a funding round led by venture-capital firm Institutional Venture Partners, and the firm also appointed a new high-profile board member, Michael Lynton of Sony's American division. By mid-July 2013, a media report valued the company at $860 million. On November 14, 2013, The Wall Street Journal reported that Facebook offered to acquire Snapchat for $3 billion, but Spiegel declined the cash offer. Tech writer Om Malik then claimed on November 15, 2013, that Google had offered $4 billion, but",
"-25.156066057359567"
],
[
"company had 30 employees. As of May 2017 the company had not yet started shipping to backers of the Kickstarter, though shipments of the spoons to customers in India, has been proceeding without issue. Many Kickstarter backers are currently attempting legal action against Bakeys due to no response after pledging over $250,000 in US dollars.",
"-25.052732711774297"
],
[
"The World's Billionaires Methodology Each year, Forbes employs a team of more than 50 reporters from a variety of countries to track the activity of the world's wealthiest individuals. Preliminary surveys are sent to those who may qualify for the list. According to Forbes, they received three types of responses – some people try to inflate their wealth, others cooperate but leave out details, and some refuse to answer any questions. Business deals are then scrutinized and estimates of valuable assets – land, homes, vehicles, artwork, etc. – are made. Interviews are conducted to vet the figures and improve the estimate of an",
"-24.990815397992264"
],
[
"Rakuten.com Buy.com (1997–2010) Buy.com originally sold only computers, at below cost, intending to bring in revenue through advertising and ancillary services such as sales of warranties and equipment leases, before expanding into numerous other categories, including software, books, videos and games. The company sold $125 million worth of goods and services in 1998, its first full year, beating Compaq's 1984 record for most first-year sales.\nAfter raising $120 million from Japanese tech company SoftBank in 1998 and 1999, founder Scott Blum sold the remainder of his stake to SoftBank in 1999 shortly before Buy.com's $195 million initial public offering in early",
"-24.9735964273641"
],
[
"offered a \"pay what you like\" feature.\nIn May 2011, PayPal placed their account \"in a permanent limitation\" with a held balance of £4,454.47. Developers Chris Simpson and Andy Hodgetts later explained how they \"didn't pay close attention to terms and conditions in PayPal or Google Checkout,\" and that \"the problem was selling a product that didn't currently exist,\" leading The Indie Stone to instead sell \"the world's worst games\" with the Project Zomboid Alpha advertised as a free bonus. Leak to public distribution In June 2011, soon after the game's release as a paid pre-alpha tech demo, the game was",
"-24.937272843148094"
],
[
"initially valued at $1 billion on account of it highly desirable customer base (social media fanatics, smart phone users) and its attractive industry niche (smart phone space).\nSeveral other high-profile tech companies have had a valuation based on MPM including: Google's purchase of Snapseed and Money Supermarket's purchase of MoneySavingExpert.com ($120million).",
"-24.87169292807812"
],
[
"their business on Facebook, Twitter and the company's website, which infringes the copyright of SPH and violates copyright law in Singapore. Exploitation of foreign workers In 2013, Twelve Cupcakes was alleged of exploiting foreign workers, where the allegations stated foreign workers are only earning $3 an hour while Singaporean workers earn more and has shorter working hours. The allegations has since been proven untrue by founder, Daniel Ong, who stated in an interview with Yahoo Singapore that his company is “employee-oriented”, citing examples of an incentive programme which rewards all employees with S$150 a month each if no one took",
"-24.82886273893746"
],
[
"companies are often low-quality directories which simply listed a link to a company website with manipulative anchor text for a fee. Google argues that such pages offer no value to the Internet and are often deindexed as a result. Such links are often referred to as paid links. Paid links Paid links are simply links that people place on their site for a fee as they believe this will have a positive impact on the search results. The practice of paid links was very popular prior to the Penguin update when companies believed they could add any types of links",
"-24.81067111180164"
],
[
"on whom they otherwise would have expended more resources hiring and screening. This method of pay per task is attractive to employers; therefore, companies like Microsoft, AT&T, Yahoo! are currently crowdsourcing some of their work through CrowdFlower, a company that specializes in allocating jobs for foreign and local crowd workers. CrowdFlower alone has completed 450 million completed human intelligence tasks between 2007 and 2012. CrowdFlower operates differently than Amazon Mechanical Turk. Jobs are taken in by the company; then in turn they are allocated to the right workers through a range of channels. They implemented a system called Virtual",
"-24.707668642979115"
],
[
"not be the ultimate and only guarantee for the company of achieving it. However, it shows to be valuable as it is not provided by many suppliers and it facilitates the usage of the product by the customer. It is also rare and difficult to imitate as not too many companies have capabilities of providing service to the customer, as the producer has the superior knowledge and experience in the product functioning. Moreover, services are less visible and require more labour, therefore, prove to be more difficult to imitate. Last but not least market commoditisation is pushing the prices down,",
"-24.616696836194023"
],
[
"company that offered not only the virtual commodities in exchange for real money but also provided professional customer service. IGE had a trained staff that would handle financial issues, customer inquiries and technical support to ensure that gamers are satisfied with each real money purchase. It also took advantage of the global reach of synthetic worlds by setting up a shop in Hong Kong where a small army of technically savvy but low wage workers could field orders, load up avatars, retrieve store goods and deliver them wherever necessary. This lucrative market has opened a whole new type of",
"-24.597677001729608"
],
[
"Jet.com History After Marc Lore sold Diapers.com to Amazon in November 2010, he speculated that users may be willing to accept longer wait times on obtaining online-purchased goods if they can save money on their purchases. He said that existing Internet retailers were catering only to wealthier customers \"who care more about convenience than value\". Lore initially set out to create a site that would use a fee-based membership model like Costco and Sam's Club and combine this with the broad selection of a general e-commerce retailer, somewhat like Amazon Prime but emphasizing reduced product prices for members rather than",
"-24.54581348213833"
],
[
"From there, we can match them with a local company.” As another 1BOG executive said to Venture Beat, \"It's that difference between paying about $10,000 and just a thousand up front.\"\n1BOG is an important example of social entrepreneurship, in which a company discovers a way to make a good profit while promoting social activism and community development, or otherwise making the world a better place. It is also one of the more successful, making its money on economies of scale and payments from installers.",
"-24.479179651025333"
],
[
"chips it supplied were purchased from outside chip foundries or made offshore rather than made locally. In 2003, 3,000 of the best jobs in town disappeared when Agere Systems closed the Reading Works. But the jobs won't come back when the economy does; like many other high-tech companies, Agere Systems moved production overseas.\nOutsourcing is a new name for a long-standing phenomenon: the movement of jobs from the USA to countries where wages, benefits and the cost of living are much lower. In the 1970s and 1980s, heavy manufacturing jobs went to other countries by the tens of thousands. The result",
"-24.46967000386212"
],
[
"worth about $2.3 million. MIT Technology review estimates that, as of February 2015, fewer than 5,000 bitcoins per day (worth roughly $1.2 million at the time) were being used for retail transactions, and concludes that in 2014 \"it appears there has been very little if any increase in retail purchases using bitcoin.\" Financial institutions Bitcoin companies have had difficulty opening traditional bank accounts because lenders have been leery of bitcoin's links to illicit activity. According to Antonio Gallippi, a co-founder of BitPay, \"banks are scared to deal with bitcoin companies, even if they really want to\". In 2014, the National Australia",
"-24.368918547494104"
],
[
"a scheme to raise hundreds of millions of dollars through unregistered sales of its XRP tokens. [creating] billions of coins 'out of thin air' and then profited by selling them to the public in 'what is essentially a never-ending initial coin offering'.\"",
"-24.35012075502891"
],
[
"served as Tinder's CEO on two occasions. He was the company's initial CEO until March 2015, when he was replaced by former eBay and Microsoft executive Chris Payne. Payne left the company, and Rad simultaneously returned as CEO, in August 2015. Rad stepped down as CEO again in December 2016, becoming Tinder's chairman and ceding the CEO position to former Tinder chairman Greg Blatt. 2014–2015 By October 2014, Tinder users completed over one billion swipes per day, producing about twelve million matches per day. By this time, Tinder's average user generally spent about 90 minutes a day on the app.\nTinder",
"-24.249768827547086"
],
[
"69% of small businesses last at least two years, but this percentage drops to 51% for firms reaching five years in operation. The U.S. Small Business Administration counts companies with as much as $35.5 million in sales and 1,500 employees as \"small businesses\", depending on the industry. Outside government, companies with less than $7 million in sales and fewer than five hundred employees are widely considered small businesses. Cyber crime Cyber crime, in the business world can be broken down into 4 main categories. They include loss of reputation and consumer confidence, cost of fixing the issue, loss of capital",
"-24.223163617833052"
],
[
"of sale (POS) options like EasyPay, “in general, what happens is that there’s a fairly significant surge in sales” at first, due to the novelty of the new system. That’s then followed by some “shakeout of people that don’t like it for a lot of reasons—user difficulty, user error, and the like.”'\nKurt Jetta's research pertaining to Kmart and Sears found that both of their rewards programs gave discounts of one percent, which Jetta stated, has the effect of hurting their whole customer base. Jetta has also criticized JcPenney for what he perceives to be a lack of understanding of trade",
"-24.220680432685185"
],
[
"of the IPOs of similar companies. Analysts also estimated that Tinder had about half a million paid users within its userbase that consisted mostly of free users. The monetization of the site has come through leaving the basic app free, and then adding different in-app purchase options for additional functions. In January 2015 Tinder acquired Chill, the developers of Tappy—a mobile messenger that uses \"images and ephemerality\". Advertising An ad campaign launched by \"The Barn\" internship program of Bartle Bogle Hegarty (BBH) used Tinder profiles to promote their NYC Puppy Rescue Project. Using Facebook pet profiles, BBH was able to",
"-24.190141532890266"
],
[
"Pay what you can Pay what you can (PWYC) is a non-profit or for-profit business model which does not depend on set prices for its goods, but instead asks customers to pay what they feel the product or service is worth to them. It is often used as a promotional tactic, but can also be the regular method of doing business. It is a variation on the gift economy and cross-subsidization, in that it depends on reciprocity and trust to succeed.\n\"Pay what you want\" is sometimes used synonymously, but \"pay what you can\" is often more oriented to charity or",
"-24.14090332982596"
],
[
"individually, collectively they represent an aggregated purchasing power of $1 trillion. Research has even been done to show poor people can mobilize capital to purchase goods only if they are made at a price point that is affordable to them.\nThe vast majority of social enterprises benefit the local community, at 90% in Bangladesh and 80% in Pakistan. Only a minority work with large numbers of beneficiaries, with 2% of enterprises in India having helped a total of 60 million people. The largest beneficiary groups are women and youth. Legal forms for social enterprises There is not one designation across countries",
"-24.078995710093295"
],
[
"for Fortune 500 companies. Small and mid-sized firms, as well as busy professionals, can outsource their work to increase their productivity and free time for more important commitments. It's time for the world to take advantage of this revolution.\"",
"-24.064099758310476"
],
[
"2013 that $40 million to $360 million to date were earned from the sale of and the potential benefits of buying fake Twitter followers. $200 million a year is also earned from fake Facebook activities. About 40 to 80 percent of Facebook advertisements are bought on a pay-per-click basis. Advertisers have claimed that about 20 percent of Facebook clicks are invalid and they had tried to seek refunds. This could cost Facebook $2.5 billion of their 2014 revenue.\nSome companies have tried to mitigate the effects of click farming. Coca-Cola made its 2010 Super Bowl advert \"Hard Times\" private after learning",
"-23.99668963998556"
],
[
"are however well over 30 smaller companies providing some 1,200 jobs in a wide variety of areas including financial and technology services, pharmaceuticals, engineering, food and insurance.",
"-23.95786497736117"
],
[
"and Google Play, above Groupon, eBay and Lyft, is regularly named one of the best places to sell gently used goods and has been lauded for being easier to list products on than sites like eBay, thanks to its clean user interface.\nAccording to Mary Meeker, a partner at Kleiner Perkins Caulfield & Byers, during her 2016 “Internet Trends” report, OfferUp sees average daily time spent per user in the United States, growing from 12 minutes per day in November 2014 to 25 minutes in June 2015, on par with Instagram and Snapchat and more than Twitter and Pinterest. She also",
"-23.925322331662755"
],
[
"by the company, uniquely numbered receipts from in-store sales terminals. paysafecard is distributed country-wise by varying external partners, which is why also shop types offering paysafecard vary by country. Typical examples include newsagents, petrol stations, post offices, pharmacies, supermarkets, electrical retailers and vending machines. The world-wide number of points of sales sums up to 600,000. Other services Aside normal paysafecard, the company offers several other services, most notably in most countries an online account called my paysafecard to upload PINs and to do repeated payments more comfortably. At the payment checkout of a webshop, customers may choose between entering a",
"-23.925062133464962"
],
[
"advantage for companies is user fulfillment. The less time a customer spends working out how to do something, the more likely they are to purchase again.",
"-23.897929182916414"
],
[
"made it difficult to access the information they paid for. A local business lookup feature called \"Store Finder\" was added in June 2010. The following month, Whitepages.com launched a deal site, Dealpop.com, which differed from Groupon by offering short-term deals on nationally available products. Dealpop was sold to Tippr the following year.\nIn 2010, Superpages and Yellowpages cut back spending with Whitepages from $33 million to $7 million, causing a substantial decline in revenues and a tense relationship with investors. Algard spent $50 million in cash the company had on-hand and $30 million from a bank loan, to buyout the investors",
"-23.87751562165795"
],
[
"first day and closed at $20.09. In October 2002, eBay acquired PayPal for $1.5 billion.\nSacks is a member of the \"PayPal Mafia\"—a group of founders and early employees of PayPal who went on to found a series of other successful technology companies. They are often credited with inspiring Web 2.0 and for the re-emergence of consumer-focused Internet companies after the dot com bust of 2001. Thank You for Smoking Following PayPal’s acquisition, Sacks produced and financed the hit movie Thank You For Smoking through his independent production company, Room 9 Entertainment.\nBased on Christopher Buckley’s acclaimed 1994 novel of the same",
"-23.823340016126167"
],
[
"which never fully made it off the ground. The first was a website called EmpowerAll.com, which attempted to sell electronic goods for no more than a $2 markup, and the second was Funbug, a gaming and marketing platform that gave users the chance to win cash prizes. Nick received a $235,000 investment from his father, an investment banker in Silicon Valley, and used his parents' connections in venture capital to launch GoPro. Career While in Australia and Indonesia on a surf trip, he used a 35mm camera attached to the palm of his hand by a rubber band to try",
"-23.784117692048312"
],
[
"have an easy platform where they can post photos to inspire and attract consumers. Give consumers information on places to go and where to stay, and even once the travel is over successful marketing strategies can be used to help the consumer remember their time there (Popesku, 2014). Businesses can either choose to have paid advertisements or unpaid advertisements on social media. Unpaid, are groups and competitions run by the company. Paid is where the business pays the social media site to have their advertisement show up on the users screen without the user giving permission. These are usually either",
"-23.768899692455307"
],
[
"time called \"mystery buyer\". The company's goal is to fund 100 bitcoin businesses within 2–3 years with $10,000 to $20,000 for a 6% stake. Investors also invest in bitcoin mining. According to a 2015 study by Paolo Tasca, bitcoin startups raised almost $1 billion in three years (Q1 2012 – Q1 2015). Price and volatility The price of bitcoins has gone through cycles of appreciation and depreciation referred to by some as bubbles and busts. In 2011, the value of one bitcoin rapidly rose from about US$0.30 to US$32 before returning to US$2. In the latter half of 2012 and",
"-23.756604793597944"
],
[
"issues for retail workers, including harassment and death threats from customers, an intense internal criticism policy that feels \"like a cult\", a lack of any significant bonus if a worker manages to secure a business contract worth \"hundreds of thousands\", a lack of promotion opportunities, and are paid so little that many workers are unable to buy products themselves even with a \"generous\" discount on any Apple product or Apple stock. Third-party retail Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple, returned to the company as interim CEO in 1997. According to his biographer Walter Isaacson, Jobs began a concerted campaign to help",
"-23.70628199353814"
],
[
"tried to shut down third-party sites and apps that provide paid services to individual accounts for buying followers, likes, comments, and more, but there still are paid websites that allow you to buy followers.\nA marketing agency researched to test whether fake influencer accounts can profit. The company created two fictitious accounts - with their presence built up through paid followers and engagement (likes and comments) - and applied to campaigns on popular influencer marketing websites. They published their results with a step-by-step explanation of how the false accounts were created and the brands which had sponsored them.\nAn analysis involving over",
"-23.677259820804466"
],
[
"a third of users perceive little or no value from the money their IT department spends on them each year. More than 50% of users have to chase every request they make at least once to make sure they receive the software they ask for and more than two thirds (68%) of users feel it would be quicker and easier to find and install software themselves rather than contacting their IT help desk.\nIn 2016 1E released the Software Usage and Waste Report 2016, which discovered that 38% of enterprise software was going to waste, equating to billions of dollars in",
"-23.662129649193957"
],
[
"of India described the Indian consumers as \"discount hunters\" who opt for Chinese online retailers due to their cheaper price.\nIn 2018, the electronic commerce platform raised $100 million in a series C or venture round of funding from existing investors like IDG Capital, Kunlun Capital and Bertelsmann Asia Investment (BAI). In July 2018, Club Factory appointed Ranveer Singh and Manushi Chhillar as ambassadors in India.",
"-23.65196691197343"
],
[
"pricing models. Up-to-date versions of the app can be downloaded, at no cost, in the App Store and Google Play. Merchants can accept Visa, MasterCard, Discover, and American Express credit and debit cards. As of December 2015, Payanywhere charges inactivity fees for idle accounts; otherwise they claim there are no monthly fees or cancellation fees.\nThe Payanywhere platform also includes security features like data encryption, tokenization, and fraud protection. Additionally, in-app and online reporting provide small and medium-sized business owners with analysis tools. Users can monitor their daily sales, create inventories and generate customized reports of all sales activity in real",
"-23.648152956506237"
],
[
"payment per posting) trains and employs tens of thousands of online commentators to promote the PRC party line and control public opinion on microblogs, bulletin board systems, and chatrooms. \nThe social media marketing business model did not originate in China, and is a worldwide phenomenon exemplified by companies such as FansandInvites in the US, SocioNiks in the United Kingdom, and uSocial in Australia. For instance, uSocial sells their customers Digg votes, Twitter followers, and Facebook friends; Hamilton Nolan, a blog editor at Gawker, revealed a marketing agency that offered bribes – first $130, then $175 – for linking their clients'",
"-23.643425269343425"
],
[
"more frequently purchased items show up faster, which along with online payments being possible through the app, makes it even simpler for the consumer to choose, order, pay for and enjoy the food. The teen segment There are 73 million people under the age of 18 in the U.S. and these individuals represent the next generation of spenders, a marketing-savvy group that has grown up immersed in technology, the Internet and is accustomed to instantaneous delivery of information. Marketing to the teenage segment of the population is becoming increasingly difficult as the segment now experiences targeted marketing from a very",
"-23.628431782854022"
],
[
"this paid touch pint there is long list too. First of all, it is the most expensive paid touch point a company can choose. It finishes the advertisement budgets of small businesses really quickly (\"Television advertising pros and cons\" n.d.). Initial production cast for the commercial is also very high (Fill, et al.,2013). It includes paying writers, actors, film industry, advertisement agency and soon (\"Television advertising pros and cons\" n.d.). Second biggest problem with this paid touch point is that it is very short lived. Indeed, some seconds. Multiple studies also show that most audience can't recall the commercials they",
"-23.621917063137516"
],
[
"nobody pays 100% of the purchase price with cash; they pay about 20% in cash and borrow the rest. Supergap financing works by the same principle: put down 20-30% cash/equity and borrow the rest.\nOver the years, because of the high risk nature, many supergap companies have come and gone, but a few established players have survived the ups and downs of the markets with Relativity Media, Screen Capital International, Grosvenor Park, Helios Productions, Endgame Entertainment, Blue Rider, Newmarket Capital, Aramid Entertainment, MDG Entertainment Holdings, Limelight, RJG Entertainment, BondIt Media Capital and 120 dB all active in the current debt financing space.\nThe",
"-23.607130968033744"
],
[
"buy an expensive but potentially worthless item, such as an e-book, for their position in the queue.The scheme organizer profits because the income from joiners far exceeds the cost of sending out the item to the person at the front. Organizers can further profit by starting a scheme with a queue with shill names that must be cleared out before genuine people get to the front. The scheme collapses when no more people are willing to join the queue. Schemes may not reveal, or may attempt to exaggerate, a prospective joiner's queue position, a condition that essentially means the scheme",
"-23.57999477267731"
],
[
"clarified things on Kickstarter a day later a follow up article was published from these postings that went into detail on the history of the company and where the 1.4 million in Kickstarter funds went.\nAs of 1 August 2016 no additional information about the company has been shared with the backers or with the public. How it works The Buccaneer is a machine that can be easily setup. Users have to download The Buccaneer application to create objects with it. The application allows users to easily edit and create basic objects, without having to learn how to use a 3D",
"-23.556277787894942"
],
[
"successful $2 billion deal. Account Based Marketing has also been used at Shell to drive a $13 million deal.\nResearch demonstrates that buyers are looking for their existing suppliers to keep them updated with relevant propositions, but are often disappointed with this. In UK research, existing suppliers came top of all the different information channels that IT buyers use to look for new solutions – but more than 50% felt that marketing by their suppliers was poor. The research also demonstrates how much easier it is for organizations to generate more sales from existing customers than from new customers - 77",
"-23.54291578521952"
],
[
"price and sells them to another company inside the group for another price. Thus, company A has earned some revenue from selling, but the group as a whole didn't make any profit out of that transaction. Until those goods are sold to an outsider company, the group has unrealised profit.",
"-23.536418556119315"
],
[
"hit paper, it just became impossible to ignore.\" Some web comic creators use Kickstarter, which launched in 2009, to raise money to self-publish their books. Digi DG (Cucumber Quest) set out to raise $10,000 USD for a print release of her webcomic, and her fans raised over $63,000 USD in order to make the concept a reality. Similarly, Jake Parker went on Kickstarter in order to start his comics anthology The Antler Boy, and he went on to receive $85,532 USD in pledges. Advertisement and product placement Online advertisement has also been a prevalent source of revenue for many webcomic",
"-23.53364016918931"
],
[
"IT entrepreneurs who become millionaires when their company is bought out, and in the food comedic documentary Eat Your Heart Out (Dave). He also performed Work in Progress shows at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe.",
"-23.532628177898005"
],
[
"Forbes, CNBC, and Business Insider. In 2014, Kiplinger named it one of the top money and finance blogs to read. In August 2017, British marketing company XLMedia announced it had acquired Money Under 30 for $7 million. Services The website compares financial services and offers advice on paying off debt, credit cards, student loans, mortgages, banking, and buying cars, and addresses such issues as common money mistakes and money saving strategies. It also offers a weekly newsletter and a seven-day course, MoneySchool, teaching basic finances. It caters to young adults who need help understanding the basics of personal finance.",
"-23.50917745626066"
],
[
"the person purchasing the company's shares or bonds gains the right to dividend or the sale of shares (confirmed by a paper certificate). Currently, small transactions can only take place between shareholders because Beesfund issuers do not run public companies. Unless the majority of the issuer's shares were taken up by a large investor and introduced to the public market. Beesfund users can also make payments using bitcoins. Failure to meet the financial goal is not related to the failure of the project (the \"you-take-what-you-collect\" model).\nHowever, not all crowdfunding equity issues of companies end with the collection of all planned",
"-23.504887108454568"
],
[
"Behalf Overview Since the recession of 2008 small businesses and entrepreneurs have a difficult time gaining access to financing. Alternative finance companies emerged to fill the void the credit crunch creates.\nBehalf's solution offers microloans to small business ranging between $300-$50,000 for up to 180 days with interest rates of $10-$30 per $1000 per month. The online financing platform works as a line of credit, so businesses only pay interest on the amount of credit they use to fund their purchases.\nBy paying vendors up front, on behalf of businesses, Behalf eliminates the vendors’ credit risk. Vendors get paid on day one,",
"-23.48616346961353"
],
[
"UK (and overseas) have the opportunity to lend as little as £10 to a chosen entrepreneur in a developing country. 100% of the money loaned goes direct to that person, and is paid back within 12 months – it can then be withdrawn or re-lent again. Even a small initial investment can help a number of people to raise themselves out of poverty. Deki has many notable supporters such as Luol Deng and Nick Park. In October 2016, Deki celebrated making a million pounds of loans across seven countries, impacting over 37,000 lives. Juggling work life with two small children",
"-23.479942141100764"
],
[
"Funpals Summary Instead of merely having the cartoon or movie's logo, Funpals uses the characters from the movie or television show on the underpant. Example of characters used in Funpals are Jurassic Park, Bob the Builder, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, Spider-Man, Batman (based on the general concept of the DC Comics superhero), Superman, Batman Begins (based on the 2005 American motion picture), Angry Birds, and Pokémon. In order to trim costs and improve profitability, all Funpals undergarments intended for sale in the Americas are manufactured in Latin American countries. Other places that manufacture Funpals briefs include Canada, Europe, and North",
"-23.460115549896727"
],
[
"the company dropped the Moggle Inc. name, and became Virtual Piggy, Inc. It was publicly traded at the symbol VPIG.\nThe technology is COPPA-compliant, \nThe company has been featured in many articles as the first company to digitize a teen's monthly allowance. Forbes referred to the service as \"PayPal for Kids\".\nOink is notable for being the first, and currently the only service that enables transactions for under-13 users that are COPPA-compliant. This means the service is the only way for someone 12 or younger to make an online purchase without violating these laws regulated by the FTC, which heavily restrict which",
"-23.413323891349137"
],
[
"Billionaire A billionaire, in countries that use the short scale number naming system, is a person with a net worth of at least one billion (1,000,000,000, i.e. a thousand million) units of a given currency, usually major currencies such as the United States dollar, the euro or the pound sterling. Additionally, a centibillionaire (or centi-billionaire) has been deemed applicable to a billionaire worth one hundred billion dollars (100,000,000,000), a mark first achieved in 2017 by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos, with a net worth of $112 billion in a report issued in early 2018. The American business magazine Forbes produces a",
"-23.40609391545877"
],
[
"million in stock, but were unsuccessful due to Yahoo's unsolicited cash and stock bid of $430 million late in the year. Yahoo had previously announced plans to enter the job board business, but decided to jump start that venture by purchasing the established brand. In February 2010, Monster acquired HotJobs from Yahoo for $225 million. Job postings A job board is a website that facilitates job hunting and range from large scale generalist sites to niche job boards for job categories such as engineering, legal, insurance, social work, teaching, mobile app development as well as cross-sector categories such as",
"-23.405790155728027"
],
[
"they hire too many people it could lead to money being wasted on staff income (wages are the highest costs to business). As well as other issues, as the saying goes: “too many cooks spoil the broth”! On the other hand, if they hire too few people, it could lead to inefficiencies and large costs for the small business in the long run.\nThe best approach for small businesses will be to have a job preview, assess whether individuals are capable of learning the skills needed by the company. This will help filter out those candidates who will not be suitable",
"-23.405496450621285"
],
[
"make online payments via acquirers like PayPal. This may affect their financial discipline and foster overspending behavior, becoming one of the underlying causes of compulsive or obsessive consumerism. Hong Kong In 2012, MassMutual Asia Ltd commissioned the Public Opinion Programme of the University of Hong Kong to conduct a telephone survey about post-80s and post-90s. The survey findings revealed that one out of seven respondents represented the Moonlight Clan, as they spent as much as they earned monthly, or even spent more than they earned. China A survey in 2011 on Guangzhou youth aged fifteen to thirty-five revealed that thirty-five",
"-23.405484940623865"
],
[
"Twitter, Uber, Walmart, and Yahoo! are among the corporations that own offshore companies, According to The Express Tribune, \"Apple, Nike, and Facebook avoided billions of dollars in tax using offshore companies.\"\nApple criticised the reports as inaccurate and misleading, saying that it is the largest taxpayer in the world, and it \"pays every dollar it owes in every country around the world\".\nAmong the Indian companies listed in the papers are Apollo Tyres, the Essel Group, D S Construction, Emaar MGF, GMR Group, Havells, Hinduja Group, the Hiranandani Group, Jindal Steel, the Sun Group and Videocon. Apple A great deal of the",
"-23.404209261527285"
],
[
"Snappy Gifts History Snappy Gifts was founded in 2015 by Dvir Cohen and Hani Goldstein in San Francisco and later moved its headquarters to New York. Initially, the company raised 1.6 million dollars and started off focusing on \"personal client gifting\" but in 2017 shifted its business model to corporate gift giving while offering an enterprise version of its platform.\nBy 2019, the company raised an additional 8.5 million dollars in a funding round which was led by 83North and Hearst Ventures.\nThe company, which was established in San Francisco, later moved its headquarters to New York and opened an additional branch",
"-23.402399404905736"
],
[
"costs of production.\nThere is a lot of \"free stuff\" available these days that people can get hold of very fast – if they know their way around information. They can often share it very quickly too, all around the world – bypassing markets, money and laws. When information is shared, givers and receivers both have the information, unlike the ownership transfer of an alienable commodity. If people can get a lot of goods for free, it is going to be more difficult to sell things to them. In turn, that disturbs ordinary commercial trading, pricing and market functioning, so that",
"-23.38944010605337"
],
[
"it: \"the flash-sale website is straining to hold on to customers and realizing it may have inundated shoppers with too many deals\". Although revenue was up 29% in the first quarter of 2015 compared to the prior year, that was less of a huge increase than the 52% shown for the last quarter of 2014 compared to one year earlier, leading the company to lower its estimate of anticipated revenues in 2015.\nAlthough the web site for the company says they hold no inventory, in 2015 they began to hold some merchandise in warehouses to shorten the time for delivery. The",
"-23.38740293047158"
],
[
"billion company by the year 2000, or to beat I.B.M. -- but they didn't have anything to do with customers. The new C.E.O. should look at everything Eckhard acquired and ask: did the customer benefit from that. If the answer isn't yes, they should get rid of it. On one hand, Compaq struggled to compete in the PC market with the Dell Computer Corporation, which sold directly to buyers, avoiding the dealer channel and its markup, and built each machine to order to keep inventories and costs at a minimum. At the same time, Compaq, though its acquisitions of the",
"-23.38330868887715"
],
[
"of World Billionaires released by Forbes.",
"-23.379429016378708"
],
[
"Oxford Brookes University estimated the global market for concierge services to be worth around $1bn, and suggested the most popular use for a concierge service is sourcing and booking restaurants (46%), followed by sourcing and booking a holiday (32%) and to helping to arrange business travel (27%).\nThe lifestyle management industry has a number of trade groups, many of which are closely affiliated to the hospitality industry, such as Les Clefs D'Or and The International Concierge and Lifestyle Management Association.",
"-23.37111337191891"
],
[
"that enable them to combine a low house edge with comps in order to profit.\" Another step up are practitioners of \"ACES (Advanced Comp Earning System). People practicing this kind of system earn a dollar's worth of comps for every dime they lose gambling.\"",
"-23.351629451906774"
],
[
"company that trained and paid him to make social media postings. Each mission had a project manager; a trainer team that plans schedules, distributes shared user IDs, and maintains quality control; a posters team, typically college students and unemployed people, that gets 30 to 50 cents per validated post; a resources team that registers and collects online user IDs; and a PR team that maintains relationships with social media webmasters. Reasons Online marketing in China has become a big and profitable business and has spawned many Internet public relations agencies.Internet water armies working for these PR firms not only advertise",
"-23.34814279980492"
],
[
"to lock-up periods. The most successful entrepreneurs, such as Mark Cuban, sold their shares or entered into hedges to protect their gains. Spending tendencies of dot-com companies Most dot-com companies incurred net operating losses as they spent heavily on advertising and promotions to harness network effects to build market share or mind share as fast as possible, using the mottos \"get big fast\" and \"get large or get lost\". These companies offered their services or products for free or at a discount with the expectation that they could build enough brand awareness to charge profitable rates for their services in",
"-23.34426688074018"
],
[
"rent, expenses, or just earn extra spending money. Young workers may also use micro jobs as a great first step toward independence. Having a micro job can help with resume building, can set up future business relationships, and may evolve into full-time work. Micro jobs can also be done by people working from home who are self-employed. The number of websites listing micro jobs are growing and offer thousands of different micro services \nMicro jobs sites are growing rapidly and creating a new type of on-demand income for workers. Micro jobs sites are earning billions of dollars. Disadvantages",
"-23.342313736735377"
],
[
"These billionaires then fly in to the airport on private planes, are driven to their camps, served by hired help (nicknamed \"sherpas\"), and sleep in air-conditioned beds. One venture capitalist billionaire threw a $16,500-per-head party at his camp. In 2017, Google employees shipped a box of lobsters to the playa for a meal.\nDespite allowing the rich to participate in Burning Man per the \"radical inclusion\" principle, many traditional Burners have spoken out against their exclusive practices. Larry Harvey wrote that they also conflict with the \"radical self-reliance\" and other principles, but has also stated that permitting the wealthy to attend",
"-23.32883731275797"
],
[
"provides tools and information to help consumers make better personal financial decisions. Entrepreneur magazine named Bills.com No. 3 in the Hot 100, of fastest growing companies in America. Bills.com has been named to the Inc. 500/5000 in 2008, 2009, and 2010. The company employs approximately 600 people, and has annual revenue of $106 million.\nStroh also wrote the fictional novel The Dharma King about Tibetan Buddhism and the search for the Panchen Lama.",
"-23.328126959619112"
],
[
"Snapdeal decided to invest $20 million into the same.\nOn 18 May 2017, Jasper Infotech, which owns and operates FreeCharge, decided to invest Rs. 22 Crore more in the company, making it its third such investment.\nOn 27 July 2017, it was officially reported that Axis Bank bought out FreeCharge for $60 million\nOn 27 August 2019, FreeCharge launched Digital Credit Cards that empowers these digital natives with easy access to credit, that comes with an instant and seamless experience, while also being flexible and secure.",
"-23.321181570820045"
],
[
"usually cheaper to retain old customer rather than seeking new ones. A lot of businesses are not bothered that much about the customers that already have purchased its products/services and they mainly focus on attracting new ones, however a customer who has been with a company over a long time, in general is more profitable, mostly because customer buys the product/service on regular basis and can refer to the company when recommending to family/friends.\n5. Add on products or services: Customers that buy many items from the company are more profitable because the cost of acquiring that customer is now spread",
"-23.32047198730288"
],
[
"were $1,037,151 and $600,000, and for chief investment officers were $1,039,974 and $300,000, respectively.\nOf the 1,226 people on the Forbes World's Billionaires List for 2012, 36 of the financiers listed \"derived significant chunks\" of their wealth from hedge fund management. Among the richest 1,000 people in the United Kingdom, 54 were hedge fund managers, according to the Sunday Times Rich List for 2012.\nA porfolio manager risks losing his past compensation if he engages in insider trading. In Morgan Stanley v. Skowron, 989 F. Supp. 2d 356 (S.D.N.Y. 2013), applying New York's faithless servant doctrine, the court held that a hedge",
"-23.298812003515195"
],
[
"materials. \nPurchasing second-hand goods is increasing, also thanks to some second-hand buying and selling sites which can be used with an Internet connection all over the world. The most famous sites are E-bay and Amazon, where it is possible to buy new or used products belonging to different categories. An interesting novelty is Depop, an app through which customers can easily buy or sell used objects, especially clothes.",
"-23.27457351994235"
],
[
"eBay have been surprised to discover a seemingly ordinary-looking cover bid up to several hundred dollars because it was one of the sought-after solo usages.",
"-23.239835398970172"
],
[
"in comparison to the other platforms, the only difference is that the official website has an \"Points Redemption Shop\". It is assumed that the consumer has registered an account on the official website, and regular purchases items from this website, which means that they will be awarded the corresponding number of points for this transaction. Hence, customers can exchange these points for Pechoin's products, which demonstrates the marketing approach that company has made to attract more customers to buy products through its own website. Projects In 2001, the company collaborated with Disney company to launch a children's care product series.",
"-23.23746315248718"
],
[
"in Tel-Aviv.\nIn 2017, Snappy was included in Retail Accelerator XRC Labs' third cohort of startups.\nIn late 2018, a company survey detailing the top 25 worst corporate gifts was featured in Business News Daily and Fortune Magazine.\nIn September 2019, Snappy Gifts was listed in Forbes Magazine's list of \"10 Most Promising Young Israeli Startups in New York\".\nSnappy Gifts partners with human resources firms such as TriNet, ADP, BambooHR, HR Uncubed, and Crain's Best Places to Work. The Snappy platform The Snappy Gifts system, which is available for both mobile and desktop consumers, provides companies with software for personalized gifting based on",
"-23.234252847614698"
],
[
"The Last Millionaire Format The Last Millionaire takes 12 of Britain's most successful young entrepreneurs and drops them into six of the world's most exciting and demanding cities. Here they face the ultimate business challenge; to make money from scratch in just five days.\nUsed to running successful businesses, these award-winning entrepreneurs have proved themselves at home, but can they do it abroad? This time they'll be stripped of their legions of staff, company contacts, personal cash/credit cards and all their business lifelines. All they have left is a small amount of start up capital plus their raw money making talent.\nTo",
"-23.21436062391149"
],
[
"Get-rich-quick scheme A get-rich-quick scheme is a plan to obtain high rates of return for a small investment. The term \"get rich quick\" has been used to describe shady investments since at least the early 20th century.\nMost schemes create an impression that participants can obtain this high rate of return with little risk, and with little skill, effort, or time. Get rich quick schemes often assert that wealth can be obtained by working at home. Legal and quasi-legal get-rich-quick schemes are frequently advertised on infomercials and in magazines and newspapers. Illegal schemes or scams are often advertised through spam or",
"-23.195856858743355"
],
[
"social e-commerce platform where users can interact with one another to explore, discover, and purchase items.\nFancy is distinctly different from sites like Pinterest in that it offers merchants the ability to sell items directly to consumers. In order to sell on Fancy, a merchant needs to 'claim' an item that users have already posted. Fancy takes a commission fee from each sale.\nFancy has attracted a number of well-known backers and board members, including American Express, Francois-Henri Pinault, Len Blavatnik, Will Smith, Jack Dorsey of Twitter, and Chris Hughes of Facebook. High-profile users include Mark Zuckerberg and Kanye West, who has",
"-23.178157317626756"
],
[
"42% of online consumers have \"followed\" a retailer proactively through Facebook, Twitter or the retailer's blog, and that a full one-third of shoppers say they would be likely to make a purchase directly from Facebook (35%) or Twitter (32%). Trends in 2013 A new focus on social media marketing may come to fruition in 2013. With Americans using sites like Facebook and Twitter more often than ever before, businesses should find new methods to make those social users online shoppers. \nWhile social media grew significantly in 2012, it's still a bit unclear as to how professionals can use these networks",
"-23.17645569247543"
],
[
"allows customers to make payments on websites that do not accept PayPal directly by generating a unique, single-use MasterCard number for each checkout. By the end of 2007, the company generated $1.8 billion in revenue.\nIn January 2008, PayPal acquired Fraud Sciences, a privately held Israeli start-up company with expertise in online risk tools, for $169 million, in order to enhance PayPal's fraud management systems. In November 2008, the company acquired Bill Me Later, an online payments company offering transactional credit at over 9000 online merchants in the US. PayPal revenues for Q1 2009 were $643 million, up 11 percent year",
"-23.17011447918958"
],
[
"They make the users to purchase the product as soon as possible with an offered discount whose value is about to decrease from the date of the download. In this way of offering e-coupons, manufacturers take an advantage of immediate selling goods and promotion of product circulation while it is more pressure for customers that they have to find a better priced products on time. Hence, dynamic e-coupons are preferable for the companies to advertise their products and services on the web.",
"-23.154585748678073"
],
[
"websites. Adario Strange reported on Internet advertising companies trying to game Digg's ranking system through paying registered users for votes. For instance, the Subvert And Profit website claims \"25,000 users who earn money by viewing, voting, fanning, rating, or posting assigned task\", with payments ranging from $0.40 (e.g., Facebook) to $1.00 (e.g., Digg).\nChrysanthos Dellarocas, a professor of Management at Boston University, said: \"Online forum manipulation strategies can take many forms, and firms (or, depending on the context of interest, political parties and special interest groups) are getting more sophisticated about them by the day. The simplest firm strategy is to",
"-23.152989542169962"
],
[
"posted examples of payments as low as eighty cents per delivery attracted media and customer attention, Instacart announced in February 2019 that it would revise its pay system and give back pay to some workers. Under the new pay system, tips were no longer factored into the minimum base wages, which were newly set at $7-10 for a full-service shopping order (based on delivery market) and $5 for delivery only. Funding The company had a $2-billion valuation by investors as of May 2015. Forbes named Instacart \"the Most Promising Company in America\" that same year.\nIn March 2017, it was reported that",
"-23.144549153978005"
],
[
"from Coinbase transactions.\nAccording to Bloomberg, in 2013 there were about 250 bitcoin wallets with more than $1 million worth of bitcoins. The number of bitcoin millionaires is uncertain as people can have more than one wallet. Venture capital Venture capitalists, such as Peter Thiel's Founders Fund, which invested US$3 million in BitPay, do not purchase bitcoins themselves, instead funding bitcoin infrastructure like companies that provide payment systems to merchants, exchanges, wallet services, etc. In 2012, an incubator for bitcoin-focused start-ups was founded by Adam Draper, with financing help from his father, venture capitalist Tim Draper, one of the largest bitcoin",
"-23.140640829573385"
],
[
"holders after winning an auction of 30,000 bitcoins, at the time called 'mystery buyer'. The company's goal is to fund 100 bitcoin businesses within 2–3 years with $10,000 to $20,000 for a 6% stake. Investors also invest in bitcoin mining. According to a 2015 study by Paolo Tasca, bitcoin startups raised almost $1 billion in three years (Q1 2012 – Q1 2015). Crowdfunding Bitcoin is useful for crowdfunding. For example, one college football sign netted over $20,000 in donations for a bitcoin enthusiast. He was shown by local TV company with a broadsheet \"Hi mom, send bitcoins\". Political economy The",
"-23.134243538991086"
],
[
"to affect at least a billion people (i.e., have universal appeal), it had to be able to be delivered to customers living where there was not a FedEx office or even a road, and it had to be \"radically affordable\" to attract someone who earned less than $2 a day. Creating entrepreneurs Rather than encouraging multinational businesses to meet the needs of the poor, some organizations such as iDE, the World Resources Institute, and the United Nations Development Programme began to focus on working directly with helping bottom-of-the-pyramid populations become local, small-scale entrepreneurs. Since so much of this population is",
"-23.107746426947415"
],
[
"people trying to start their own companies is that the minimum amount of capital needed to launch the company is 5 times the average annual income, and prices are regulated by the government, which almost forces people to have to work for the larger, more corrupt businesses; otherwise, they won't have work. It is hard for the DRC to encourage foreign trade because of the regulatory barriers. International Relations International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) Trust Fund for the Congo.\nPoor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a",
"-23.098546097811777"
],
[
"year in sales. However, due to inexperience and internal mismanagement, the company had gone into over $100,000 in debt and lost all of its payment processing privileges from PayPal, Google Checkout and credit card processing companies.\nHellinger brought his younger brother Yosef in to help him turn things around. They sold whatever inventory they had left on eBay in order to pay off their creditors and slowly re-establish terms. Two years later, in 2011, the company reported between $40–70,000/month in sales from their website.",
"-23.098191676319402"
],
[
"Bank Singapore receives US dollars at JPMorgan Chase. Example An oil company is a customer of ING in Amsterdam, and sells a cargo of 500,000 barrels of oil for $40 million to a trading company who is a customer of Credit Suisse. ING Amsterdam holds its dollars at Bank of America and Credit Suisse holds its dollars at The Bank of New York Mellon. When the Swiss trader instructs its bank to pay the money, Credit Suisse debits the trader's account and transfers dollars from its account at BNY to ING's account at BofA. Then, ING credits the dollars to",
"-23.08444036054425"
],
[
" It is somewhat interesting and definitely educational and takes less than 30 minutes. The cool thing that you get to do is to make your own currency with your picture on it and have it emailed to you. Current Board of Directors The following people are on the board of directors as of 2013:",
"-23.080285246949643"
],
[
"Compal Electronics Overview The company is known for producing selected models for Dell (Alienware included), Hewlett-Packard and Compaq, and Toshiba. Compal has designed and built laptops for all of the major brands as well as custom builders for over 22 years. The company is listed in Taiwan Stock Exchange. As of 2017, revenues were US$24 billion, with a total workforce of 64,000. The company's headquarters is in Taipei, Taiwan, with offices in the People's Republic of China, South Korea, the United Kingdom and the United States. Compal's main production facility is in Kunshan, China.\nCompal is the second largest notebook manufacturer",
"-23.077235890144948"
],
[
"products made of bits. In essence, a copy of a product made of bits can be made cheaply and quickly, and shipped across the country or internationally quickly and at very low cost. Automation, productivity and job gain The Information Age has affected the workforce in that automation and computerisation have resulted in higher productivity coupled with net job loss in manufacture. In the United States for example, from January 1972 to August 2010, the number of people employed in manufacturing jobs fell from 17,500,000 to 11,500,000 while manufacturing value rose 270%.\nAlthough it initially appeared that job loss in the",
"-23.070586129731964"
],
[
"user-friendly tool by enabling users to transfer money via a free online registration and email rather than by exchanging bank account information.\nPayPal went public on February 15, 2002 and was sold to eBay for $1.5 billion in October of that year. Thiel remained CEO of the company until the sale. His 3.7% stake in the company was worth $55 million at the time of acquisition. In Silicon Valley circles, Thiel is colloquially referred to as the \"Don of the PayPal Mafia\". Clarium Capital Following PayPal's sale to eBay in 2002, Thiel devoted $10 million of his proceeds to establish",
"-23.059498094022274"
]
] |
4kzgh9 | What determines whether or not someone is a naturally good singer? | [
"Physically speaking, being a naturally good singer means you were born with a good \"instrument\". Your vocal cords would be more elastic and flexible, and this would make your voice able to produce more overtones, or the right mix of overtones which sound pleasant. Overtones are basically sound waves on top of sound waves which have wavelengths that overlap on the original wave, e.g. half the wavelength, one third the wavelength, and we can tell the difference between a trumpet and a piano or a sweet and a shrill voice largely by picking up on the differences between the mixtures of overtones. Besides that, being naturally coordinated would help controlling the muscles which keep a steady pitch or vibrato or volume, being naturally gifted in pitch and tone differentiation would be important(good ear, perfect pitch), and because IMO natural abilities get a little too much credit with the general public, a natural patience, memory, intelligence, passion and persistence would all be very important when it comes to learning and practicing. Because no one comes out of the womb singing.",
"Having a good *ear* is more relevant to developing a good voice than any vocal talent. That being said, the best indicator is how hard you are willing to work at it. Singing well - in tune, on rhythm, intentional intonation, good projection, without damaging your voice - is very hard, and takes discipline, practice, and determination. You also have to maintain it, because your voice changes as you age, and you need to be on top of the transitions. Puberty is the most dramatic example, but it's only one of many. tl;dr: A decent ear and a strong desire to work hard and intelligently.",
"I'm not a singer so I can't comment specifically on that. But when someone says a person is \"naturally\" good at something it means that they naturally do something with good form or with proper technique from the start. They don't have to unlearn bad habits which gives them a leg up from the start. It still requires practice to excel at something.",
"My personal theory is that naturally good singers hear their voice at the same pitch other people hear it. When you sing or speak, you hear your voice through the air (like everyone else hears you) but mostly through the bones and tissue in your neck and head. If this tissue and bone distorts the pitch of the sound, when you hear yourself singing in tune everyone else will hear you singing out of tune. Naturally bad singers can figure out how to only listen to their voice through the air or to figure out what pitch they need to hear themselves sing to produce the correct pitch for everyone else.",
"I have a piggy back question. What effect do you think getting a nose job would have on someone's singing voice? I have a prominent \"Roman\" nose with a big bump on the bridge and I've always wanted a nose job, but I'm a singer and my mom told me it would mess up my voice. I've heard that Barbara Streisand wanted one too but didn't do it because she was worried about her voice. But I feel like a lot of singers have plastic surgery or naturally small noses. So how would shaving down cartilage on top of my nose impact my sinuses and vocal tone?"
] | [
[
"I said, go,\" she replied. On what the thing she loved the most in the show, she said, \"Working with these great young talents. I know there are still many unknown people that are really good singers. I'm glad that there will be a Season 2, and I hope that there will be a Season 3 and 4. I've learned a lot from them. Every chance that hear them sing, it's an amazing moment, an amazing experience. Today's music is really different. It's not what most people grew up that you need to sing the highest notes. It's all about",
"-34.99330806254875"
],
[
"He had also recorded hits with Melba Montgomery and, most famously, Wynette. In the liner notes to the 2005 Sony reissue of the album, the singer states, \"The fans just react to a man and woman singing a powerful ballad together. When you perform a duet with a woman, she should sing the lead and the man should sing harmony. Of course, there are exceptions...You know, I don't really fall in love with all them girl singers - I fall in love with their singing!\" Recording For the most part, Ladies' Choice pairs the singer up with",
"-34.70544601860456"
],
[
"fine change from one range to another was accomplished by this incomparable singer the effect was as overwhelming as it was unexpected... Deceit, passion, love, fear and despair were expressed in each note.\" Another is quoted: \"She is one of those rare artists who fills the stage with her attractive personality. ... her voice is one of the rarest beauty. One feels inclined to say that she is a soprano, but her range is so wide that the full tone covers three registers, from the high soprano to the alto range. Certainly no living singer can be compared in fullness",
"-34.440993735566735"
],
[
"best casts I've ever worked with. These people are not professional singers, so to do a musical like this which I think is one of the most difficult musicals, they all went for it. Every day on the set was a very, very special thing for me. Hearing all these guys sing, I don't know if I can ever have an experience like that again.\"\" Burton said of the singing, \"You can't just lip synch, you'd see the throat and the breath, every take they all had to belt it out. It was very enjoyable for me to see, with",
"-34.125956535501246"
],
[
"as a professional singer. In reference to talent shows being readily accessible to young people these days, A-Lin commented, \"I am impressed that there is now a Million Star-type of singing platform, which allows both everyone who enjoys singing and those who are talented singers a tough but realistic chance - an accomplished dream.\" They also have a brother.\nOn 1 July 2007, A-Lin married Huang Kan-lin, a well-known Taiwanese baseball player. They have a daughter, Huang Qiaoyu. (A-Lin said: \"At the first time Huang Kan-lin requested a song \"How Do I Live\" by LeAnn Rimes in her Tainan Pub",
"-33.94416213105433"
],
[
"in front of a Music Director. Depending on the style of vocal music that a person has trained in, the \"talent buyers\" that they seek out may be Record company, A&R representatives, Music Director, choir directors, nightclub managers, or concert promoters. A CD or DVD with excerpts of vocal performances. Some singers hire an agent or manager to help them to seek out engagements and other performance opportunities; the agent or manager is often paid by receiving a percentage of the fees that the singer gets from performing onstage. Singing competitions In recent years, the talent of singing has become",
"-33.886745649637305"
],
[
"Vocal highlights include a rare lead performance by Otis Williams on his own composition, \"Darling, Stand by Me (Song for My Woman)\", the Richard Street-led ballad, \"If I Don't Love You This Way\" (a cover of a song by the Jackson 5 originally featured on their Dancing Machine album and named by the family group's lead singer Michael Jackson as one of his favourite songs); Glenn Leonard's debut in the ensemble vocal of \"What You Need Most (I Do Best of All)\"; and fan-favorite bass singer Melvin Franklin's lead vocals on \"Ways of a Grown-Up Man.\"",
"-33.39169427611341"
],
[
"singer and words. It was almost like having an actor on stage, telling a story, rather than a singer in the traditional sense. Previously, I'd been put off the idea of jazz and singing together because there was certain style of doing that — very over the top, lots of vibrato —while I prefer something quite different, more natural.\nThen a few years later, when I did the Jazzpar, and they asked me to put together a contrasting project, the first thing I saw when I went to gigs in Copenhagen was a student jam session. There was this girl who",
"-33.34127413101669"
],
[
"to grips with who I was personally, I also came to grips with who I was as a singer. You know, I love my country music roots, but deep down, I really always wanted to be a pop singer. It’s actually nerve-racking to stand here and just be 100 percent me. There’s only one shot to reinvent myself.\"\nIn the blind audition broadcast on September 20, 2016, Gilman sang Adele's song \"When We Were Young\". Gilman impressed all four judges, Adam Levine, Miley Cyrus, Alicia Keys and Blake Shelton with his performance. Adam Levine was the first to turn his",
"-33.30691458878573"
],
[
"part of the performance (e.g., hip hop), singers who are doing a vocal audition may also be required to demonstrate that they can dance while singing. In some popular music groups, such as a rock band, a backup singer may be expected to be able to play an instrument while singing, such as strumming a simple rhythm guitar part or playing a percussion instrument (e.g., tambourine or congas). While an ability to sing in multiple languages with the appropriate diction and pronunciation is more associated with Classical music than popular music, there are some popular styles where multiple languages are",
"-33.166790285293246"
],
[
"some form of scrutiny from her male competitors.\nA large number of women singers in the country music genre have been influential to the industry through their success. Despite the popularity of male country artists and the discrimination that is displayed throughout their music, many female artists have worked their way past, leading them to achieve multiple accomplishments.\nDolly Parton, a female country singer that has been in the industry for over 55 years, developed a successful career for herself. Parton consistently created new projects to release to her fans and was described as \"unstoppable\" by a pop culture magazine titled Rolling",
"-33.044028236414306"
],
[
"just sang a standard beautifully and then sat down—and all these males improvised for about an hour, all taking turns to solo kind of competitively, while she sat there quietly, like in a trance. Then when they finished she just got up and sang the song again. Something about that amused me and I was impressed by it.\n\nAfter that, I got more interested in having the power of the human voice in my music. Because people had always said, \"Yeah, I like your stuff, but it's kind of complicated, anybody who isn't a musician isn't going to be able to",
"-33.04326645680703"
],
[
"sing, they're all considered 'bad singers'. The last person standing will get to sing alongside the guest artist(s).\nIf the winner is a 'good singer', they will get a chance to release the song alongside the guest artist(s) as a digital single. If the winner is a 'bad singer', they receive ₩5,000,000 ($4,500). On the 5ᵗʰ season's first episode, the winning skilled vocalist received a pair of specially-made microphones. Round and clues There are six individual or groups standing on a platform referred to as \"SEE-cret songers\", with their own aliases to make them keep secret. They do not speak until",
"-32.92885375302285"
],
[
"singers call them instantly to mind and rearrange them constantly, and often unconsciously, to suit their personal and community aesthetics\".",
"-32.793866404594155"
],
[
"he was a part of the school's theater program for all four years of school. If he could not be a singer he would likely be an actor. The first concert he ever attended was by Beyoncé. He grew up singing in his family church and writes songs and lyrics for and attends the House of Prayer Holiness Church. He has a large extended family and said his proudest moment outside singing is being an uncle to all his nieces and nephews.\nWhen asked to tell something about himself that would surprise most people he stated it was that he only",
"-32.78106910770293"
],
[
"Therefore each singer is an important part of the musical work\".",
"-32.724871589336544"
],
[
"was the best but not the only singer on stage. There was never a moment when one felt that here was a singer acting while beside her were actors singing.\"\nShe devised, with John Derum, Piaf, the Songs and the Story, which premiered at the Princess Theatre, Melbourne in February 1982. Again, she took the title role. It included four national tours, with an associated soundtrack album released in that year. Also in 1982 Lewis created and performed For a Dancer about her mother's life; it premiered at the Adelaide Festival. Ethel had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease and Lewis \"would",
"-32.56932440283708"
],
[
"the singer encompasses the knowledge that her powerful and kinky voice is enough to snare an audience and keep them pinned for as long as she wants.\"",
"-32.566922568308655"
],
[
"Gretchen Seager of Mary's Danish who appeared on the magazine's first cover:\nI don’t want to be qualified as a female singer. I just want to be a singer. And I don’t think you should be qualified by your gender. That’s always bullshit. And unfortunately, it’s probably not going to change in my lifetime. But I just want to be considered a good lyricist and a good singer, not a “girl” singer or a “girl” lyricist. That’s not relevant. Just evaluate me on my music and my lyrics and I'll be happy.\n— Gretchen Seager, ROCKRGRL Issue #1\n\nDeSantis recalled:\nSo many of the stories",
"-32.50564584025415"
],
[
"stylist in his own right. A vocalist that can be as comfortable singing up tempo songs, rhythmic numbers, as well as performing slow ballads making him a much sought after talent... This CD goes straight onto my Top 10 of 2010 list!\"",
"-32.50032812544441"
],
[
"where she was terrified about singing in a school play, I wasn't nervous at all. I had to try really hard to make myself feel nervous.\" She revealed she had to play down her voice and make it \"a bit cleaner\" and a \"bit more inexperienced\". This was due to the fact it was meant to be that she had never sung before – \"I have to pull her back a bit.\" She added the storyline was realistic because there are no set guidelines for discovering vocal talent. Departure In June 2012, TV Week's Miller reported that Breeds had filmed",
"-32.49560793633282"
],
[
"wanted to sing one of his songs since I first heard his music and to be able to do it with him in his show gives me a feeling I can't even describe!\"\nOn the 12th December 2018 her most recent album \"A Real Romantic\" was released.",
"-32.37777996092336"
],
[
"such as Andree Right Hand, Big Daddy, Shadow P (all featured in a popular song called Để anh được yêu) or Lil' Knight and countless others who have risen to fame through the Internet. In addition, there are also other singers that have gone mainstream such as M4U, Hồ Ngọc Hà, Bảo Thy, Wanbi Tuấn Anh, Khổng Tú Quỳnh, Radio Band, etc. There are also amateur singers whose songs have been hits in Vietnam such as Thùy Chi. These singers tend to view singing as a hobby, therefore not being labeled as mainstream artists. Overall, the quality of recording and",
"-32.29185720006353"
],
[
"male singers who had the same range I did, when I was growing up, didn't do much for me. But put on Nina Simone, Carmen McRae or Nancy Wilson, and I'd be in seventh heaven. Female vocalists just did more with their voices, and that's why I paid more attention to them.\" Perhaps the female vocalist who had the most impact on him was Billie Holiday who he called \"a BIG influence.\" He began developing a vocal style that would eventually incorporate traces of jazz, R&B, and pop.\nHe began his singing career at eleven, appearing on local radio station WPEN,",
"-32.281766910571605"
],
[
"singer doesn't mean you're a star or a diva. Therefore, when I first started I had to wait to sing after big stars finished their performances. If no big stars were there, then it would be my turn.\nShe got her big break when her song \"Hoa Cau Vuon Trau\" was played during halftime of the 1994 World Cup, which was broadcast in Vietnam. She has released 12 solo albums in Vietnam and the U.S. Book Phuong wrote a book in 2017 titled Finding Julia, which was inspired by her life. In the book, a Eurasian acting student is haunted by",
"-32.24142733775079"
],
[
"problem worse by not giving boys as many opportunities to sing as girls. Other researchers have noted that having an ensemble or even a workshop dedicated to male singers can help with their confidence and singing abilities. Arrangements on stage There are various schools of thought regarding how the various sections should be arranged on stage. It is the conductor's decision on where the different voice types are placed. In symphonic choirs it is common (though by no means universal) to order the choir behind the orchestra from highest to lowest voices from left to right, corresponding to the typical",
"-32.22666065732483"
],
[
"\"Female Vocalist of the Year\" honor and was also regarded as a \"new traditionalist\" by many music critics, along with country artists, George Strait and Ricky Skaggs.",
"-32.18424755142769"
],
[
"wide variety of songs to access the amount of competition which is in a given area. When males are present in an area with a large number of other males their vocal repertories are much smaller than when in an area with only a few males.",
"-32.175175193930045"
],
[
"never been in a nightclub until I sang in one.\"\nDennen now wanted to expose Streisand to his vast record collection of female singers, including Billie Holiday, Mabel Mercer, Ethel Waters, and Édith Piaf. His effort made a difference in her developing style as she gained new respect for the art of popular singing. She also realized she could still become an actress by first gaining recognition as a singer. According to biographer Christopher Nickens, hearing other great female singers benefited her style, as she began creating different emotional characters when performing, which gave her singing a greater range.\nFeeling more",
"-32.164246429048944"
],
[
"to have been shelved. Artistry Menzel is usually classified as a mezzo-soprano. Writing for the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Sharon Eberson wrote, \"Possessing a voice that could be categorized as coquettish to flat-out belter and everything in between—and with a stage presence to match—she usually is labeled a mezzo-soprano. But why pigeonhole someone so intriguingly offbeat? Ms. Menzel interprets songs as much as an actress as a singer, and therein lies her connection to the music and her fans.\" Describing Menzel as a loud, \"full-volume soprano\" similar to Broadway actress Ethel Merman, Stephen Holden of The New York Times wrote of Menzel's",
"-32.11783252056921"
],
[
"career both as a writer, a songwriter and also as a singer. His third place confirmed the strength of his career.\nOther contestants such as the Dominican Fausto rey and the Nicaraguan Carlos Mejía Godoy, went on with their strong musical careers releasing more studio albums and creating music for many more singers.",
"-32.08603946946096"
],
[
"artist—i.e., someone who relies on others to make her sound interesting and trendy. She also lacks a sharply defined personality, both as an artist and celebrity. Where singers like Ms. Houston and Mariah Carey have commanding vocal power, Ms. Jackson's is a relatively indistinguishable studio voice.\" Richard Branson rebutted this argument stating \"Ms. Jackson has met with great success working with the production team of Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, just as her brother Michael Jackson has experienced his greatest successes with the producer Quincy Jones. It is interesting that Mr. Holden doesn't mention this similar 'liability' when discussing Michael",
"-32.07760034754756"
],
[
"a pop icon for being an inspiration especially to today's youth. She stated: \"In amateur singing competitions, there will be at least three contestants that will have their own rendition of 'To Love You More' or 'Forever's Not Enough'. When these little girls are asked who their favorite singer is, and whose path they’d like to follow someday, you can bet more or less 75 percent of them will have the same answer: Sarah Geronimo.\"\nQuezon City Vice Mayor Joy Belmonte described Geronimo in The Philippine Star: \"She's wholesome on and off camera, untainted by unsavory rumors. She's an ideal daughter",
"-32.045397210051306"
],
[
"smaller venues and theaters that are \"far more suitable to her sophistication and talent.\" USA Today praised the singer because she \"shakes the confinements of her recordings' calculated productions and gets downright gutsy and soulful\"",
"-32.04389235805138"
],
[
"sets McBride apart from the rest of the country music singers is that she still possesses the enthusiasm of a newcomer. She put her heart and soul into every song and seemed to be genuinely having a good time. She also showed that she hasn’t lost her sense of humor. Before singing a duet with her younger brother on 'Trying to Find a Reason', a song off her new album in which she is joined by Keith Urban, she was able to make fun of herself. 'I feel kind of weird singing with my little brother' […] It's sort of",
"-31.95914482010994"
],
[
"vocal range more suitable to their natural voice, so that artists who may not have the higher range of a soprano can perform the song. Derivative works The Pet Shop Boys song \"Happiness Is an Option\" on their 1999 album Nightlife incorporates a large portion of the \"Vocalise\" melody in each verse, performed on oboe as background material beneath the spoken text.",
"-31.90957619965775"
],
[
"They, however, had nothing but good things to say about each other when asked specifically how they felt. Sinatra, when specifically asked about Presley's singing style, responded “Only time will tell. They said I was a freak when I first hit, but I’m still around. Presley has no training at all. When he goes into something serious, a bigger kind of singing, we’ll find out if he is a singer. He has a natural, animalistic talent.” For his part, when asked again about Sinatra's previous comments regarding rock and roll, Presley was just as kind about Sinatra; \"I admire the",
"-31.90168967441423"
],
[
"young singers. In his view students were not equipped for a professional career because they were trained in the principal operatic roles rather than in the chorus parts, which almost all singers new to the profession would need to sing before being promoted to leading roles. He instanced his own early career: \"I studied both at the Royal Academy, Dublin, and the Royal Academy, London, and then in Italy, and when I came back to London, all I could get was an engagement in comic opera where I sang for eighteen months before I could become a principal. It was",
"-31.877322486951016"
],
[
"off you are. Men stay the same and I always smile when I sing that song. I'm a much happier person in my marriage than I was five or six years ago because I figured that out.\" Walker told the Lodi News-Sentinel, \"I'm a romantic, so I like love songs. I guess there are a lot of people out there that are in love or want to be in love.\"\nRichie McDonald who co-wrote \"She's Always Right\" previously toured with Walker as a member of Lonestar in 1996. Content \"She's Always Right\" is about a man whose lover according to him",
"-31.8763582855172"
],
[
"song in Bollywood. The singers have recorded for those actors whom they generally do the playback singing for in their films.\"Apna Bombay Talkies\" is the only song which brings legendary singers trio of 90's Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan & Abhijeet together for the first time that too with veteran singer S. P. Balasubrahmanyam and finest singers of 2000 like Sonu Nigam, Sukhwinder Singh, Shaan, KK & Mohit Chauhan.The female singer league had a great combination from all times like Kavita Krishnamoorthy, Alka Yagnik, Sadhana Sargam, Sunidhi Chauhan, Shreya Ghoshal and Shilpa Rao making this song the rarest and finest",
"-31.84206635307055"
],
[
"but it annoys me how polite it can sound when perhaps what I'm singing is deeply acidic.\" He said he keeps vocals in mind whenever he builds music, no matter the genre: \"It's almost impossible for me to listen to a dance tune from beginning to end without picturing a voice.\"\nIn 2005, readers of Blender and MTV2 voted Yorke the 18th greatest singer of all time. In 2008, Rolling Stone ranked him the 66th, writing that \"by the turn of the century ... Yorke's voice had made him one of the most influential singers of his generation,\" influencing bands including",
"-31.837082590183854"
],
[
"of various experiences, further elaborating on its themes of kindness, having faith, heartbreak, the \"passion of a relationship\" as well as \"being [her] own person\". As the album's executive producer, she \"wanted to know that every single song meant the world to me, whether I wrote it or not. For me, I had to discover what was going to separate me. I know that I’m not the world’s greatest singer, but I do know that I have a unique tone. And I’m an actress—I love being able to translate everything I’m feeling inside through my voice and through the songs.",
"-31.779837164329365"
],
[
"him with a number of folk-rock acts from his early days of performing, most notably Joan Baez.\nA large number of country-pop and soft rock songs fit into the singer-songwriter classification — that is, songs written and recorded by the same person. Some of the most successful singer-songwriter artists were Jackson Browne, Eric Carmen, Jim Croce, John Denver, Steve Goodman, Arlo Guthrie, Joel, Dave Mason, Don McLean, Joni Mitchell, Paul Simon, Taylor and Neil Young. Some artists — including King, Kris Kristofferson and Gordon Lightfoot — had previously been primarily songwriters but began releasing albums and songs of their own. King's",
"-31.57989172836824"
],
[
"Totally a belter – to her, singing is less about the right pitch, and more about how you express yourself.\nKerri Taylor - High School Sophomore. Student Manager of the Ladies in Red. Doesn’t have Tourette's, but it seems like it. She’d sing if there wasn’t the potential for onstage embarrassment. Loves being the manager, it's a pretty essential position to the team's success. Ideally, this actress should truly be a great belter.\nDr. Larry Mergh - School psychologist. Kind-hearted; knows how dangerous a cappella singing can be on a young mind.\nGoran Dhiardeaubovic - Older brother, only living relative and legal guardian",
"-31.509106735000387"
],
[
"nor negative. He said \"Singers always like to sing about how brilliantly attractive and astonishing (and bossy) they are. Even if the words have a double meaning, which hints that they are merely mouthing the self-regard of a rampant egomaniac, who is laughing and rubbing his hands every time they start to sing, they don't mind. Why would they? The song mentions hair, and being better than the other ladies. That's what singers live for. [I awarded it] one extra star for the stoopid grammar switcheroo ... because of the chorus, which rules.\" Gavin Martin of The Mirror made similar",
"-31.50883266767596"
],
[
"that she prefers to avoid moving her shoulders while singing, telling The Philippine Star, \"I actually try to take a smaller breath for a bigger, longer note because there's less air that will come pummeling out.\" Professionally trained as a classical singer from age eight, Menzel decided to pursue other genres, specifically R&B and jazz when she entered high school. Upon becoming a wedding singer, Menzel was eventually exposed to a wide variety of genres, ranging from jazz and rock to Motown. Personal life Menzel married actor Taye Diggs on January 11, 2003. They met in 1995 during the original",
"-31.496592335111927"
],
[
"match the slow rhythm of old songs as for those who prefer other singers' performing style previously; however, the more they listen to it, the better it becomes as her singing style was quite different – \"cheesy\" enough alongside vibrant emotional notes.\nAt the end of 2010, it was suspected that she was pregnant. However she never confirmed the rumor widely until the performance with a belly bum at Green Wave 2010 show. Also in this show, she was one of the Top 5 Favorite Singers. 2011: De Nho Mot Thoi Ta Da Yeu, Khuc Tinh Xua 2 – Tra Lai",
"-31.48266429110663"
],
[
"the singer, although they live in very distant countries and have some differences in their music, they also share a lot of similarities, so the name reflects well the embracing of both.",
"-31.4709034236148"
],
[
"a successful singer on the music charts. DeGarmo noted that her father, Angelo, \"who thinks his spoiled-brat daughter sings like a choir of angels\" puts pressure on Devon Hamilton (Bryton James), a young and upcoming music producer, to show Angelina the ropes of the music industry and make her a success. DeGarmo said: \"Unfortunately, she’s not as good a singer as she and her father think she is [sic] Angelina is a bit oblivious to reality, but will slowly come to grips with it over the next few weeks. As a singer myself, it’s liberating to get on the",
"-31.456537109508645"
],
[
"article states about the album and Henderson's performance: \"Taylor Henderson has a voice that you can’t help but want to listen to, no matter what he’s singing. Part of what makes him so exceptional is that his voice always has the right tone for the right song, and doesn’t make the mistake of over-singing like so many others\".",
"-31.451630602183286"
],
[
"performed in jazz clubs. When she married, Peoples stopped performing, but she could not stay away from singing. Not only did she want to serve God with song, Peoples had the voice to inspire. In fact, with a vocal range of soprano to alto to tenor, she has been compared to Patti LaBelle. The Philadelphia Tribune called Peoples a ``vocal powerhouse. But singing was not the most important thing in her life. She told writer Jimmy Stewart, \"I love singing, but it's my personal relationship with Jesus that inspires me to do it.\"\nIn the seventies, while working at Salem Baptist",
"-31.423494141869014"
],
[
"singer, with whom he has performed all over the world during the last 30 years.",
"-31.414845807594247"
],
[
"musicians, most of whom have strong, distinctive personalities, and many of whom died young or under tragic circumstances. For example, Greek-American opera singer Maria Callas—who reached her peak in the 1950s—became a gay icon because the uniquely compelling qualities of her stage performances were allied to a tempestuous private life, a sequence of unhappy love affairs, and a lonely premature death in Paris after her voice had deserted her.\nLesbian icons, sometimes called \"dykons\" (a portmanteau of the words \"dyke\" and \"icon\") are most often powerful women who are, or are rumored to be, lesbian or bisexual. However, a few male",
"-31.359903450356796"
],
[
"them catchy. He was a beautiful wordsmith. If you look at his lyrics, he obviously was processing his pain and depression, and all of those things. I think that's part of what people, myself included, responded to when he was singing. With the songwriting he had that voice, there's not too many people that have that many options with their voice. He could do a lot of different things with it, and have a lot of different characters in that voice. I feel so lucky that I got to be in a project with him, got to hang out with",
"-31.34327047120314"
],
[
"a Woman\" is a soulful, old-school ballad \"that brings out the best in both singers\". Writing that Blige is \"particularly heavy\" on the R&B vibes of the song, Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine further commented that \"without a doubt, it's sure to gain some stream whenever radio DJs catch wind of it. Why? Because 'Love a Woman' features silky production, strong harmonies, and guest vocals from Beyoncé. Yeah, there's no stopping this one.\" Katie Hasty of HitFix commented that \"It's actually a pretty standard list of grievances and explanations, but the real guts of the thing is when the two",
"-31.319983848676202"
],
[
"Boy\" in the final on 8 June. Dixon said \"It takes artists years to get to that level of performance and presence, and your voice, by the time you get into a recording studio, you have one of the nicest tones to your voice and I can’t wait to hear your album.\" Amanda Holden stated \"You have such attitude. You remind me of Will Smith’s daughter. Simon Cowell said \"You have done three performances so far for us and this is so far the best by a mile. When I meet you backstage you’re a sweet normal girl and when",
"-31.29540902149165"
],
[
"vocalists are forced to depend solely on their own individual talent, ingenuity, and intelligence in the composition of a Dogma 19 record.",
"-31.290468796316418"
],
[
"felt she was not right for the part, he encouraged her to begin including her talent as a singer on her résumé when looking for other work.\nThat suggestion prodded Streisand to think seriously about a singing career, in addition to acting. She asked her boyfriend, Barry Dennen, to tape her singing, copies of which she could then give out to possible employers. Dennen had acted with her briefly in an off-Broadway play, but had no reason to think she had any talent as a singer, and she never mentioned it. Nevertheless, he agreed and found a guitarist to accompany her:\nWe",
"-31.262882373761386"
],
[
"the singing contest was limit of age but she decided to compete singing contest. The singing contest had many challenger, it that make the contest higher rating of competition. Finally, she got the reward from this contest by herself, she was a singer.\nWhen she was a singer, she worked together with famous artists and singers such as Reward, Yuemai, Tanis Sriglindee and Surachai Junthimatorn until she was herself famous.\nShe has more than 100 songs from 1988 to 2014 Concert Her concert was arranged embellishment in 2007, and her concert name is “The sweet song in downtown Concert” (Thai: เพลงหวานกลางกรุง). This",
"-31.2617937711766"
],
[
"\"If you're really going to be a singer, then you have two choices, you're going to have to write your own songs, or you're going to have to buy somebody else's.\"\nIn January 2016, Caillat met with media entrepreneur Frank Pollifrone, who worked for Jefferson Starship producer Peter Wolf and co-founded PalmStar Media Capital, in Los Angeles. The two shared their passion for the history of the Record Plant studio in Sausalito, California, where Rumours had been recorded, and necessity for its restoration. After developing what was thought to be a more sustainable business model for the music industry, Pollifrone brought",
"-31.234450054296758"
],
[
"singing in public was at one of her parents' parties at the age of 13. She recalls that, as a teenager, her mother was able to gauge her mood according to how much singing she was doing. When she was 14, she was given a Billie Holiday album that was the first piece of music to affect her emotionally. She was then opened up to artists such as Patti Smith, Radiohead, and Low, artists whom she still cites as some of her favorites. She never considered a formal career in singing until after she graduated from Trinity College, Dublin, with",
"-31.232848142506555"
],
[
"playing, and to compose vocal music, either sacred or secular depending on their inclination. This demanding schedule meant that, if sufficiently talented, they were able to make a debut in their mid-teens with a perfect technique and a voice of a flexibility and power no woman or ordinary male singer could match.\nIn the 1720s and 1730s, at the height of the craze for these voices, it has been estimated that upwards of 4,000 boys were castrated annually in the service of art. Many came from poor homes and were castrated by their parents in the hope that their child might",
"-31.225380790536292"
],
[
"himself remembers: \"It was hard to believe, such a young person could sing that well. She was so easy to rehearse with and she was never shy onstage. The only thing I taught her was to sing out. In those days, she had a tendency of holding back her voice a little.\" With the Evald Eks Orchestra, the 13-year-old Lyngstad, performed every weekend in front of a dancing audience. The sets often lasted up to five hours. The songs she liked most to sing were the evergreens; \"All of Me\", \"Night and Day\" and \"Begin the Beguine\". To advance and",
"-31.21710392049863"
],
[
"lead singer. This was significant since she realized that she could be a lead singer. Recording career At the age of 15, her parents sent her for vocal coaching in Manhattan, N.Y. After a while her coach sent her to record a demonstration record in a sound studio near Broadway. Upon hearing her sing, the sound engineer contacted his friend who was a producer of a small record company in N.Y.C.; he was impressed by her voice and immediately signed her to a contract. The singer's mother co-signed the document since Baron was a fifteen-year-old minor at the time.\nBaron became",
"-31.21630260044185"
],
[
"She is a sharp dancer, an appealing performer, and as \"That's the Way Love Goes\" proves—an ace pop-song writer.\" Renee Graham of The Boston Globe commented that \"Jackson is not so much a singer as a performer and entertainer, more concerned with the visual presentation than scintillating vocals.\"",
"-31.210109501844272"
],
[
"in Durban, South Africa in October 1997. Reality television work Holley auditioned to become a featured vocalist on the American reality television show Dancing with the Stars. The audition consisted of him performing seven different sounds, ranging from Frank Sinatra to Sly Stone. He was successful and became a featured singer during the first three seasons of the series. Holley later noted that the concept of diversity in vocal performance was not a new experience for him. \"I've been at sessions where a producer has said he wants me to sound like Michael Jackson and Bruce Springsteen at the same",
"-31.191615512565477"
],
[
"singers, such as D'Masiv, Anuar Zain, and many other.",
"-31.17644685915002"
],
[
"a significant role, with the sisters Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle, who have mainly worked in Hindi films, often referred to as two of the best-known and most prolific playback singers in India. In 2011, Bhosle was officially acknowledged by the Guinness Book of World Records as the most recorded artist in music history. Iranian music Since the Iranian revolution, Iranian female solo vocalists have been permitted to perform for female audiences. Female vocalists can perform for male audiences only as a part of a chorus. Traditionally, it has been difficult for female singers to appear publicly. Women were only",
"-31.170517688486143"
],
[
"a recording artist and as a technically and artistically accomplished singer. Although she occasionally appeared on stage, she was known primarily through her many Victor records.\nThe \"recording artist\" was essential to the commercial success of recording companies such as Victor in the early days of acoustic recording technology, roughly from 1902 through 1924. Singers were required whose sound quality registered well through a mechanical diaphragm, who were reliable workers, and who were quick studies at learning the latest song or an arrangement prepared for a recording. Such singers had to master the techniques of singing into a horn,",
"-31.167568585049594"
],
[
"were filled up with girl singers\". She found Fred Foster who signed her on Monument Records. Beckham signed her to a publishing deal at Combine (she had written hundreds of songs). They were unsure of what genre would be best for her voice. \"They recorded me as a rock singer\", Parton said; \" I really came to do country because I always sung country. That's what I was and what I wanted to be\". The attempt at rock was unsuccessful; however, two of the songs she had co-written with her uncle, Bill Owens, made the top ten when recorded by",
"-31.10686009633355"
],
[
"speaking and singing voices have been improved to the point of being able to enter a new career as a professional singer. He also acts more refined than usual. Most importantly Donald suffers from partial amnesia and has no memory of Daisy. Donald goes on becoming a well-known crooner and his rendition of When You Wish upon a Star becomes a hit. He is surrounded by female fans in his every step. Meanwhile, Daisy cannot even approach her former lover and her loss results in a number of psychological symptoms. Various scenes feature her suffering from anorexia, insomnia, and self-described",
"-31.097867873497307"
],
[
"before I forget, I meant to mention how much I like the vocals on. They fit well with the music and I really like that the range is pretty wide. The highs are awesome and the lows feel natural and not too overdone.\"",
"-31.082260162569582"
],
[
"blues singers,. High-pitched singer Jordan Smith has demonstrated having more of a tenorial chest register.\nActor Chris Colfer has soprano voice. Colfer has stated in interviews that when his voice began to change at puberty he sang in a high voice \"constantly\" in an effort to retain his range. Actor and singer Alex Newell has soprano range. Voice actor Walter Tetley may or may not have been a castrato; Bill Scott, a co-worker of Tetley's during their later work in television, once half-jokingly quipped that Tetley's mother \"had him fixed\" to protect the child star's voice-acting career. Tetley never personally divulged",
"-31.08123971412715"
],
[
"good music, how you give your own interpretation and it's the uniqueness actually.\" When asked about her coaching style, she said, \"Anything that I see that is lacking or wrong, I always say it straightforward. That the trouble me sometimes. I also said that I really don't know how to speak well so that is why I'm straightforward. \"If you have no emotions while singing,\" it's very plain. Sometimes other people say that, 'Sarah always repeatedly speak what she always say.' When I critique a performance, I always say that 'You lack sincerity or emotion in singing,' because I'm like",
"-31.06087103812024"
],
[
"There are not so many artists today that are capable of doing so.\" Angham's vocal trademark is her ability to sing in the whistle register and to transfer true emotions through her songs.",
"-31.039408337324858"
],
[
"I have to mix with other people, because with me alone, the polyphony is not there,\" says Daulne. \"I knew there must be singers in the world I could mix with, and I found them.\" Daulne auditioned scores of female singers looking for the right combination of voices for an a cappella ensemble. \"When I did my first album, I was looking for girls that were the same mix as me--African and European,\" she says. \"Because I wanted to put these two sounds together to prove that to have blood from white and black was perfect harmony on the",
"-31.030145053518936"
],
[
"with. They selected \"One Man in My Heart\", much to the surprise of the band. Oakey was said to be happy with the choice, but the only person in the band who wasn’t was Sulley herself. To have a single with her on lead vocals with Oakey barely contributing four lines was something never done before; it was an enormous creative and commercial risk. Sulley's vocal ability had been harshly criticized in the past and she expected to be mauled badly by the music critics. If the single bombed it would make it difficult to release a third single from",
"-31.020438327948796"
],
[
"Holland explained, \"He was the only singer I have ever heard known to take a song of that nature, that was so far removed from his natural voice where he liked singing, and do whatever it took to sell that song.\"\nIn songs such as \"Pride and Joy\", Gaye used three different vocal ranges—singing in his baritone range at the beginning, bringing a lighter tenor in the verses before reaching a gospel mode in the chorus. Holland further stated of Gaye's voice that it was \"...one of the sweetest and prettiest voices you ever wanted to hear.\" And while he noted",
"-31.017315346281976"
],
[
"joined Singer 2018 (歌手2018) after turning the show down for three years, alongside Jessie J, Wang Feng, Tengger, Angela Chang, James Li, Juno Su, KZ Tandingan and more. His rearrangements have earned him rising popularity in China. During the show, he won the first place in four episodes, and his average percentage of votes ranked 2nd among all the previous contestants in the 6 seasons of Singer (and I Am a Singer before it re-branded). In the finale episode, Hua's performance of \"Light Years Away\"《光年之外》with G.E.M 邓紫棋 which brought him to Top Four together with Jessie J, Wang Feng and",
"-31.00887987277747"
],
[
"(A term in South Korea for singers who are not considered visually appealing by the public) for a long time which also partly affected his career due to the industry avoiding putting him in the spotlight, despite being one of the country's best vocalists, because of South Korea's standards of looks being just as important as talent. In an interview with Cindy Zimmer of ATK Magazine in August 2016, he shared, \"I was not happy that my song was judged by my appearance, not by my talent, or the song itself. I wanted to show and let them think how",
"-31.001324774464592"
],
[
"is a real \"singer's singer\" with a beautifully lyrical and expressive voice. Contemporary vocalists and musicians such as Henry Fiol count him as a major influence. A few compilations of Cheo Marquetti's solo recordings have recently been reissued. Family His cousin, Luis Marquetti, was a famous composer, responsible for, among others, the classic song Deuda.",
"-30.973980249214947"
],
[
"below.\nSome have advocated, as in an 2011 article in the Toronto Star, that everyone to sing, even if they are not musically talented, because of its health benefits. Singing lowers blood pressure by releasing pent up emotions, boosting relaxation and reminding them of happy times. It also allows singers to breathe more easily. Patients with lung disease and chronic pulmonary disease experience relief from their symptoms from singing just two times a week. In addition to breathing related illness, singing also has numerous benefits for stroke victims when it comes to relearning the ability to speak and communicate by singing",
"-30.953189597232267"
],
[
"list of \"The 100 Outstanding Pop Vocalists.\"\nRegarding her voice type, Carey said that she is an alto, though several critics have described her as a Coloratura soprano. The singer claims that she has nodules in her vocal cords since childhood, due to which she can sing in a higher register than others. However, tiredness and sleep deprivation can affect her vocals due to the nodules, and Carey explained that she went through a lot of practice to maintain a balance during singing.\nJon Pareles of The New York Times described Carey's lower register as a \"rich, husky alto\" that extends to",
"-30.898450594278984"
],
[
"and pointed out that singers often lose the upper register when they pass fifty. In addition, she contended that in her opinion her voice became a more interesting and expressive alto range when she could no longer hit the high notes, let alone hold them like she did in her youth. 2000–2005: Both Sides Now, retirement and retrospectives The singer's next two albums featured no new songs and, Mitchell has said, were recorded to \"fulfill contractual obligations\", but on both she attempted to make use of her new vocal range in interpreting familiar material. Both Sides Now (2000) was an",
"-30.888840470724972"
],
[
"to his lover to set realistic expectations, particularly during the chorus: \"If you want this to be more / Then you got to let me know / But if you want me to be right every time / You're gonna be disappointed.\" David Brewis described the song in this way: \"I'm imagining a couple trying to get together and not quite managing it because they're a bit older and they've already built up complete lives as individuals. Their expectations of what love should be have become too byzantine to let themselves take a risk.\" Occasionally, the singer is questioning his",
"-30.850295742631715"
],
[
"or low a singer could sing, if a particular part would sound better with their tonal quality, etc.\"\nIn interviews on CNN and ABC World News, Lavie explained how the video was made, given that its 57 contributors would not be performing in the same studio and generally did not even know each other. After deciding on the assignments of singers to song segments, she sent all the singers the same instrumental backing. A Radio Canada feature included a video segment of Montréal singer Heidi Jutras' vocal performance, in which she suppressed the instrumental accompaniment by using earphones. ",
"-30.842351124352717"
],
[
"bought for her. She once told an interviewer that she could sing before she could walk, adding, \"I even sang in my dreams\". Her vocal talent was first noticed when she began to sing in her church choir. A choirmaster near her home heard her sing and advised her to take voice lessons.\nShe studied with Ragnar Blennow in Åstorp for six months to prepare for an audition at the Royal Academy of Music in Stockholm where she came in first out of a group of 47 singers and was awarded the Christina Nilsson scholarship named for the famous soprano. Her",
"-30.819735468503495"
],
[
"Daddy Rocks Me With One Steady Roll\". This period was also times for \"cross-vocals\", which are songs intended to be sung by a woman but are sung by men instead, without changing pronouns. This came about in the 20s and 30s when music producers would not allow singers to change a song's wording. This led to men singing about men and subsequently women singing about women without public scrutiny, because they were aware of the restrictions placed on the singers by the music producers. (An example of \"cross-vocals\" would be Bing Crosby and his recording of \"Ain't No Sweet Man",
"-30.771999206845067"
],
[
"July 2013 as an aspiring singer in her own right. In 2015, after A-Lin entered I Am A Singer, Lea became a contestant for 'The most beautiful harmonies' (最美和聲). They also have an older brother, and A-Lin's cousin-in-law is her fitness coach and also a guitarist. A-Lin was extremely popular as a student and the confidence she gained from this led to her decision to compete in a 'Singing Strength Elite Rivalry Competition' [歌唱實力精英角逐比賽]. She chose the hit song 'At least you are still there' [至少還有你], by Sandy Lam, and the competition allowed A-Lin to believe she had a future",
"-30.76368309155805"
],
[
"and my Mariah Carey record and my Etta James record.' It brings you back to a place where it becomes your personal responsibility to infuse the next generation with more information about learning every intricate note. That's why a song called 'Sing for Me' is a special song. It's one of those singer's songs where if you're not a vocalist you can't mess with that song. Composition and lyrical interpretation \"Sing for Me\" is a power ballad, with a duration of four minutes (4:00). Its instrumentation consists of \"soft\" strings, a \"delicate\" piano melody and \"80s power ballad-type drums\" at",
"-30.75328653602628"
],
[
"opera star, though his mother continues to support his hopes of becoming a star of Italian opera because she feels something \"in her heart\" when she hears him sing. Pavarotti continues to develop his voice with hopes of becoming an accomplished singer.\nWhen he auditions for his first major role, Pavarotti singles himself out by his ability to hit a high 'C' with command and authority during his performance. After the audition, he is cast in an opera that allows him to hit the high 'C' several times in one performance. This sufficiently impresses the audience that they applaud his",
"-30.748343351267977"
],
[
"artists. George Jones cited Smith as his favorite female singer in his 1995 autobiography. Elvis Presley had many of Smith's albums in his record collection at his Graceland home and intended on recording Smith's version of \"The Wonders You Perform\", but never got around to doing so. In a discussion with country songwriter Fred Foster, Dolly Parton famously said, \"You know, there's really only three female singers in the world: Barbra Streisand, Linda Ronstadt, and Connie Smith. The rest of us are only pretending\". Personal life Smith has been married four times. In 1961, she married Jerry Smith, a ferroanalyst",
"-30.72570538645232"
],
[
"Male Choir is open to male singers from all walks of life who share a common delight in choral singing.\nThe choir comprises four sectional groups; First Tenors, Second Tenors (or Leads), First Basses (or Baritones) and Second Basses. Following a successful audition the Musical Director will assigns a singer to one of these sections based on his assessment of the singer's vocal range. Repertoire Over the past 122 years the choir has been in existence it has sung a huge array of different music styles and genres. The list is far too long to display here but has included traditional",
"-30.714814029808622"
],
[
"England Conservatory in 1974 and met opera singer Maria Callas, who told him: \"I will give you one piece of advice. People will tell you constantly how to sing. Make it louder, softer, faster, slower.\" She then placed her hand over his heart and said: \"Always remain true to this when you sing no matter what they tell you!\" Career Langan has performed with opera singers and conductors including Luciano Pavarotti, Plácido Domingo, Marilyn Horne, Sherrill Milnes and Seiji Ozawa, and has gained the reputation of achieving one of the longest and most productive singing careers on the opera stage",
"-30.705848498131672"
],
[
"quarters of the female singers on TV singing contests seem to want to be Houston, what she does on this disc makes them all seem like kindergarten kids wiping their noses on their sleeves.' He further stated, 'She wasn’t long for this world. But when it came to stuff like this, find me anyone in her time that did it better. Maybe, if we’re lucky no one again will ever try.'\nThe Slant Magazine review noted that the song list, apart from a few obvious inclusions, was inexplicable and did little to showcase the range of Whitney Houston's live talent. Andrew",
"-30.698054392356426"
],
[
"described how Heaven, Heartache and the Power of Love (compared with her previous efforts) sounded more confident when she recorded the album. Yearwood noted that finding a comfort zone when recording was more important than simply finding confidence.\n\n\"I think there's a comfort level. I used to worry so much about it being pitch-perfect and over-thinking things. As a demo singer, you would go into a studio and you'd have a limited amount of time to sing your songs. You were getting paid $40 a song, you did your own harmonies, and you got work because you knew the song when",
"-30.694783255807124"
],
[
"from music. The couple of Hà Anh-Trung Dũng performed the song \"Còn Gì Khi Anh Vắng Em\" achieved the highest score and judge Lê Hoàng insisted that Hà Anh \"can completely be a singer.\" Hồ Trung Dũng talked about her \"being a perfect playmate\" and \"working professionally, responsibly, feeling good and singing.\" However, the couple stopped at the fifth week, due to allegedly performing poorly on the song \"Tình 2000\". After the contest, Hà Anh announced that she would become a serious singer and practice dancing and vocal every day. She talked about pursuing singing career: \"I have been working",
"-30.693195008469047"
],
[
"career, as a result of his energetic stage performances:\nYour calypso name is given to you by your peers, based on your style. In the old days they tried to emulate British royalty. There was Lord Kitchener, Lord Nelson, Duke. When I started singing, the bands were still using acoustic instruments and the singers would stand flat footed, making a point or accusing someone in the crowd with the pointing of a finger, but mostly they stood motionless. When I sing, I get excited and move around, much like James Brown, and this was new to them. The older singers",
"-30.6897268058965"
],
[
"for Singers: A manual for English and foreign language diction (Pst. Incorporated, 1989); a text which is widely used as a university/music conservatory textbook in the United States. She has co-authored several books on singing, including Anyone Can Sing: How to become the singer you always wanted (Doubleday, 1978), Diction for Singers,Mastering the Fundamentals: Excellence in Singing: Multilevel Learning, Multilevel Teaching (Caldwell Publishing Company, 2001), and Managing Vocal Health: Teaching and learning vocal health (Caldwell Publishing, 2001).",
"-30.6884126564255"
],
[
"singer also claims to giving birth to three children, yet still \"remaining a virgin\". Oh Land commented on her inspiration in the lyrics of \"Renaissance Girls\":\nThe inspiration is taken from my own life, but also all my girlfriends who are very strong, confident girls who want to be their best in all levels of life. They’re kind of like overachievers and never seem to be satisfied with how [much] they achieve in life. I can see that with myself as well because you expect so much from yourself. You expect yourself to be the best friend, have a great career,",
"-30.68796365255548"
]
] |
1qdjpv | Why wouldn't life on another habitable planet look similar to Earth's? | [
"There probably would be similarities. Things that were swimmers would probably be sleek, for instance, due to natural selection. It's just that there would have been an entirely different evolutionary history and so different things may/would have been tried that didn't get a chance on our world.",
"There are many ways that human race could have turned out - the problems we needed to evolve for would, most of the time, have more than one solution. That means chances are that life on a similar planet to ours would have solved the problems in a different way - Maybe giving us more blubber and less hair to combat cold; more opposable thumbs; more eyes, etc etc. Also, if other things on the world are a little different it could cause an evolutionary butterfly effect, making them much different to us. Another factor would be if there was an unlucky disaster that wiped out all of the species similar to ours maybe their version of the Neanderthal lived on and became the dominant species. So many variables = a species with some similarities to us but probably much different",
"Life evolves through random mutations. This image demonstrates how you could take one of two paths, and keep doing this over and over until your destination is incredibly distant. URL_0 Life doesn't have to live in the same way we do. There are the radioactive fungi recently discovered for example. We just live by one set of rules and there's no reason why we couldn't have lived by another.",
"I guess the first question is, what do you mean by habitable? Same atmosphere? Same atmosphere earth started with, or same atmosphere earth has now? Let's do a thought experiment. We'll take a bunch of different planets that started out identical to earth, but \"split off\" at different points. So, that would be like saying \"what if I hadn't gotten on the train last tuesday\". Your life might be different, you might have lost your job, or found your wife, but humanity would not cease to exist (nor would you not be born). You get the idea. First stop, a planet that only branched 5 million years ago. If you visited this planet, you will still recognize many animals, or at least animal types. Humanity may or may not have ever evolved (at least to the point you see them now) but other than that, the earth would look quite similar. Next we'll branch at 200 million years ago. Maybe now the planet you're coming to (in the present) still has dinosaurs, maybe mammals never took hold. No matter how evolution continued in this world, you may recognize very few TYPES of animals, but you'll still recongize them AS animals. Insects will be relatively recognizable, plants will as well. Next we'll branch at 550 MYA. At this point, it becomes more of a crapshoot. Depending on the circumstances, land plants might not have evolved. Sure, something would fill that niche, but that something might look entirely foreign to you. We're also missing vertebrates (all higher animals). Again, something would probably evolve to fill that niche, but that something would likely not have the body plan that's so familiar to us. The world would look increasingly alien. Of course, again, we could still recognize what lived there as life, and there would still be animals, and fungus, and all sorts of things we could at least SOMEWHAT relate to. Now for the gist of your question, what if the planets branched before life even evolved? That's where we really don't know, but we can speculate. The biggest question is, is the basic structure of our DNA a chemical necessity (as in, there is no other way to have a self-replicating molecule to build higher life on), or was it a fluke? Are there a variety of different molecules that could form, and could self replicate in the way DNA/RNA did, and the only reason why we have DNA is because once SOMETHING like that forms, it will immediately become the ONLY thing, and change the environment in such a way to prevent any other \"things\" from ever forming? If that's the case, a planet that started out like earth could very well end up with \"life\" that is so alien we might not even recognize it AS life.",
"it would be less of a question of *are they simalir* and more of a question *how far along in the natural history are we on that planet, and how are specific traits exhibited, and are there any traits that we have never seen before?* you will have sleek swimmers, maybe they have fins. maybe they have jet propulsion, maybe they just float there. the major fluid present is a factor here. you will have flyers. how many wings, or do they use buoyancy? air pressure becomes a factor here, as well as gravity, and atmospheric components. they will have *mouths* or some way to eat/gain nutrition. but how, would they have a standard digestive system? maybe more of a venom based system is selected for, leading to a whole planet looking like Australia. would the plants ue sunlight, or be more like the fungi from earths early history? perhaps hey get selected more towards carnivorous plants, and you have things like giant Venus flytraps, or pitcher plants more common then here on earth. maybe they use a different system entirely, and it might be totally possible for a plant and animal symbioid to appear *think bulbasaur* youll have things with legs, youll have prehensile limbs, youll have horns or a means of self defense. there will be a anolog for all of these things, its just how they are expressed that will be diffrent. and weather or not life on that planet has been around long enough for its life to get a chance to express analogs to our life. animals will have some sort of camoflauge, we dont know what kind exactly, but we can guess it probably would depend on the local environment and selective pressure. but it will be there in SOME form. and if the planet has had life long enough MAYBE it might have a intelligent species. now...would that be a hive mind caste system like ants? like us? are they aquatic like dolphins or octopi? do they communicate with voice? or by pheromones? maybe they comunicate by flashes of light? eyes will evolve unless its a very dark world. but where would they be? what would they look like? maybe compound style eyes are preferred. maybe the use their whole body to see. another thing to consider, if you had visited earth a very long time ago, you wouldn't see much of anything that looks like today animals. giant bugs existed cause oxygen was so plentiful in the atmosphere. hell, go deep enough into the sea and you can find fish that can stretch their bellies like 5 times their size. and ones that entrance their prey with light. we have electric eels. ELECTRIC. FUCKING. EELS. if you have never heard of them, they delver a sizable shock of around 600 fucking volts. idr what amperage its at. but, hell i didn't think that was possible till i heard of it. and that's on EARTH. point is, we wont know till we look. we can be sure the same niches will exist, its just how the alien life solves it would be the question."
] | [
[
"an Earth-like planet to form elsewhere that would allow the emergence of complex, multi-cellular life. In contrast, the Rare Earth hypothesis asserts that if the strictest criteria are applied, such a planet, if it exists, may be so far away that humans may never locate it.\nBecause the Solar System proved to be devoid of an Earth analog, the search has widened to extrasolar planets. Astrobiologists assert that Earth analogs would most likely be found in a stellar habitable zone, in which liquid water could exist, providing the conditions for supporting life. Some astrobiologists, such as Dirk Schulze-Makuch, estimated that a",
"-32.4487214468827"
],
[
"Earth on several planets and moons of the Solar System and on planets of other stars.\nSince the 1950s, astronomers have proposed that \"habitable zones\" around stars are the most likely places for life to exist. Numerous discoveries of such zones since 2007 have generated numerical estimates of many billions of planets with Earth-like compositions. As of 2013, only a few planets had been discovered in these zones. Nonetheless, on 4 November 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and",
"-32.43600734643405"
],
[
"for the emergence and evolution of life than Earth did or does.\" While still assuming that life requires water, they hypothesize that Earth may not represent the optimal planetary habitability conditions for maximum biodiversity; in other words, they define a superhabitable world as a terrestrial planet or moon that could support more diverse flora and fauna than there are on Earth, as it would empirically show that its environment is more hospitable to life.\nHeller and Armstrong also point out that not all rocky planets in a habitable zone (HZ) may be habitable, and that tidal heating can render terrestrial",
"-31.96872660698864"
],
[
"simulated martian environment. The lithopanspermia hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially microorganism-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars.\nEven at relatively low altitudes in the Earth's atmosphere, conditions are hostile to the human body. The altitude where atmospheric pressure matches the vapor pressure of water at the temperature of the human body is called the Armstrong line, named after American physician Harry G. Armstrong. It is",
"-31.925391309108818"
],
[
"cycles for the creatures. The amount of life on planets are factored based on their distance from their local sun, with planets far outside the habitable zone typically being barren of life. Not all stars have habitable planets, but still offer potential opportunities for resources to the player if they can survive its inhospitable atmosphere. The developers aimed for a 90–10 rule, with around 90% of the planets being uninhabitable, and of the 10% that do support life, 90% of those only include mundane lifeforms, making the planets that thrive with a vivid ecosystem rare.\nSome facets of realism have been",
"-31.815754522453062"
],
[
"years, it was believed that life on such planets would be limited to a ring-like region known as the terminator, where the star would always appear on the horizon.\nIt was also believed that efficient heat transfer between the sides of the planet necessitates atmospheric circulation of an atmosphere so thick as to disallow photosynthesis. Due to differential heating, it was argued, a tidally locked planet would experience fierce winds with permanent torrential rain at the point directly facing the local star, the subsolar point. In the opinion of one author this makes complex life improbable. Plant life would have",
"-31.6272338925628"
],
[
"habitable planet, for life to spontaneously arise on such a planet and the time required for intelligent life to evolve and build a civilization. Brian weighs the evidence and arrives at his own provocative answer to the puzzle of our apparent solitude. He argues that the difficulty inherent in the development of eukaryotic cells represents such a barrier to the emergence of intelligent life that Earth may be the only planet where this has taken place in the Milky Way galaxy. In this episode Brian also tells us how Kepler observes into deep space seeking other solar systems just like",
"-31.552534433008987"
],
[
"Rick Colwell, a member of the Deep Carbon Observatory team from Oregon State University, told the BBC: \"I think it’s probably reasonable to assume that the subsurface of other planets and their moons are habitable, especially since we’ve seen here on Earth that organisms can function far away from sunlight using the energy provided directly from the rocks deep underground\".\nMars may have niche subsurface environments where microbial life might exist. A subsurface marine environment on Jupiter's moon Europa might be the most likely habitat in the Solar System, outside Earth, for extremophile microorganisms.\nThe panspermia hypothesis proposes that life elsewhere in",
"-31.54485355320503"
],
[
"Planetary habitability Earth habitability comparison The chemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when the Universe was only 10–17 million years old. According to the panspermia hypothesis, microscopic life—distributed by meteoroids, asteroids and other small Solar System bodies—may exist throughout the Universe. Nonetheless, Earth is the only place in the Universe known to harbor life. Estimates of habitable zones around other stars, along with the discovery of hundreds of extrasolar planets and new insights into the extreme habitats here on Earth, suggest that there may be many more",
"-31.44626581738703"
],
[
"microscopic life—distributed by meteoroids, asteroids and other small Solar System bodies—may exist throughout the universe. According to research published in August 2015, very large galaxies may be more favorable to the creation and development of habitable planets than such smaller galaxies as the Milky Way. Nonetheless, Earth is the only place in the universe humans know to harbor life. Estimates of habitable zones around other stars, sometimes referred to as \"Goldilocks zones,\" along with the discovery of hundreds of extrasolar planets and new insights into extreme habitats here on Earth, suggest that there may be many more habitable places in",
"-31.437508672242984"
],
[
"not identical, building blocks, they also are expected to have some biochemical qualities that are unique. If life has had a comparable impact elsewhere in the Solar System, the relative abundances of chemicals key for its survival – whatever they may be – could betray its presence. Whatever extraterrestrial life may be, its tendency to chemically alter its environment might just give it away. Life in the Solar System People have long speculated about the possibility of life in settings other than Earth, however, speculation on the nature of life elsewhere often has paid little heed to constraints imposed by",
"-31.278270341310417"
],
[
"Life on Venus Historical views Until the mid 20th century, the surface environment of Venus was believed to be similar to Earth, and hence it was widely believed that Venus could harbor life.\nIn 1870, the British astronomer Richard Proctor said the existence of life on Venus was impossible near its equator, but possible near its poles.\nSince the 1960s, increasingly clear evidence from various space probes showed Venus has an extreme climate, with a greenhouse effect generating a constant temperature of about 500 °C on the surface. The atmosphere contains sulfuric acid clouds and the atmospheric pressure at the surface is 90",
"-31.23192837536044"
],
[
"liquid water and ultraviolet habitable zones. Stars smaller than the Sun, on the other hand, have distinct impediments to habitability. For example, Michael Hart proposed that only main-sequence stars of spectral class K0 or brighter could offer habitable zones, an idea which has evolved in modern times into the concept of a tidal locking radius for red dwarfs. Within this radius, which is coincidental with the red-dwarf habitable zone, it has been suggested that the volcanism caused by tidal heating could cause a \"tidal Venus\" planet with high temperatures and no hospitable environment to life.\nOthers maintain that circumstellar habitable zones",
"-30.966118545809877"
],
[
"than having a planet located at the right distance from its host star so that water can be liquid on its surface: various geophysical and geodynamical aspects, the radiation, and the host stars plasma environment can influence the evolution of planets and life, if it originated. The planet is more likely to resemble a larger and cooler version of Venus.",
"-30.68700357573107"
],
[
"any case, the multitude of scenarios that can turn an Earth-mass planet located in the habitable zone of a solar analogue into an inhospitable place are less likely on a planet that meets the basic features of a superhabitable world, so that the latter should be more common.",
"-30.674978210998233"
],
[
"as the odds that a habitable planet ever develops intelligent life. For Earth to have the only civilization that has ever occurred in the universe, then the odds of any habitable planet ever developing such a civilization must be less than 2.5×10⁻²⁴. Similarly, for Earth to host the only civilization in our galaxy for all time, the odds of a habitable zone planet ever hosting intelligent life must be less than 1.7×10⁻¹¹ (about 1 in 60 billion). The figure for the universe implies that it is highly unlikely that Earth hosts the only intelligent life that has ever occurred. The",
"-30.641499110206496"
],
[
"currently icy satellites such as those of Jupiter and Saturn—Europa and Enceladus respectively, although if life exists in either place, it would probably be confined to subsurface habitats. Historically, life on Earth was thought to be strictly a surface phenomenon, but recent studies have shown that up to half of Earth's biomass could live below the surface. Europa and Enceladus exist outside the circumstellar habitable zone which has historically defined the limits of life within the Solar System as the zone in which water can exist as liquid at the surface. In the Solar System's habitable zone, there are only",
"-30.554773792464403"
],
[
"be a potentially habitable planet. Based on its relatively low mass (~11 M⊕) and the high metal content of the parent star (+0.11 [Fe/H]), it has a moderate chance of being an ocean planet. While these types of worlds have no solid surfaces for life to develop, it is predicted that biology would arise in ways other than that of Earth. The planet also appears to have a fairly similar temperature to Earth, if somewhat hotter than Earth's 255 K (−18 °C; −1 °F) equilibrium temperature. HD 219134 g has an equilibrium temperature of 298 K (25 °C; 77 °F), in fact exactly the same as",
"-30.44414482775028"
],
[
"the planet that does not have at least some small trace of Chtorran life forms in it, even micro-organisms. \nGenerally, Chtorran life has been slower to spread to desert or polar regions — again, possibly because there is simply less bio-mass to consume in them. Due to its desert climate, Australia is cited as the only inhabited continent in which the infestation has been relatively light (and it is also light in frozen Antarctica). Europe has been only moderately infested, for reasons not entirely clear (possibly because the initial plagues devastated its highly concentrated population centers so badly",
"-30.334244002966443"
],
[
"crew member from Gravity who has been kept in hibernation for over 400 years. Humanity has colonized four planets with another two more in the process of terraforming. One planet has been lost in a black domain, placing itself in the black domain out of fear that it had been detected by another alien civilization. Planet Blue, despite being habitable, is only visited by expeditions due to its proximity to regular alien traffic. Galactic humans lost the location of the first Trisolaran fleet while the second Trisolaran fleet was engaged in a space battle, though Humanity is unaware who the",
"-30.232183087422527"
],
[
"potentially host life.\nAstronomers have started to discover extrasolar Earth analogs – planets that lie in the habitable zone of space surrounding a star, and therefore could possibly host life as we know it.",
"-30.200871529174037"
],
[
"them has any ability to tell if any detected life is intelligent. This is sometimes referred to as the \"algae vs. alumnae\" problem.\nLife on Earth has existed for 4 billion years, but intelligent life has only arisen with the genus Homo about 3 million years ago. For most of its existence, Earth was a wild planet. If other uninhabited planets developed similarly to Earth, they are more likely not to bear intelligent life yet. Intelligent alien species lack advanced technology It may be that while alien species with intelligence exist, they are primitive or have not reached the level of",
"-30.026056560338475"
],
[
"arose because of its unique asteroid belts. A few other multiplanetary systems have been found, but none resemble the Solar System. The Solar System has unique planetesimal systems, which led the planets to have near-circular orbits. The exoplanet systems discovered have either no planetesimal systems or one very large one. Low eccentricity is needed for habitability, especially advanced life. High multiplicity planet systems are much more likely to have habitable exoplanets. Planet-hosting stars There is at least one planet on average per star.\nAbout 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an \"Earth-sized\" planet in the habitable zone.\nMost known exoplanets orbit stars",
"-29.950220904313028"
],
[
"that blue plants would be unlikely, however yellow or red plants may be relatively common. Variable environments Many Earth plants and animals undergo major biochemical changes during their life cycles as a response to changing environmental conditions, for example, by having a spore or hibernation state that can be sustained for years or even millennia between more active life stages. Thus, it would be biochemically possible to sustain life in environments that are only periodically consistent with life as we know it.\nFor example, frogs in cold climates can survive for extended periods of time with most of their body",
"-29.942003224045038"
],
[
"red dwarfs in the Milky Way, 11 billion of which may be orbiting Sun-like stars. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away, according to the scientists. Astrobiologists have also considered a \"follow the energy\" view of potential habitats. Evolution A study published in 2017 suggests that due to how complexity evolved in species on Earth, the level of predictability for alien evolution elsewhere would make them look similar to life on our planet. One of the study authors, Sam Levin, notes \"Like humans, we predict that they are made-up of a hierarchy of entities, which all cooperate to",
"-29.92498191195773"
],
[
"members, are unlikely to host habitable terrestrial planets.\nIn spite of the lower likelihood of giant planet formation, just such an object has been found in the globular cluster Messier 4. This planet was detected orbiting a pulsar in the binary star system PSR B1620-26. The eccentric and highly inclined orbit of the planet suggests it may have been formed around another star in the cluster, then was later \"exchanged\" into its current arrangement. The likelihood of close encounters between stars in a globular cluster can disrupt planetary systems, some of which break loose to become free floating planets. Even close",
"-29.903638222865993"
],
[
"ones we are finding today, are clearly more metal rich than stars without planetary companions.\" This relationship between high metallicity and planet formation also means that habitable systems are more likely to be found around stars of younger generations, since stars that formed early in the universe's history have low metal content. Planetary characteristics Habitability indicators and biosignatures must be interpreted within a planetary and environmental context. Whether a planet will emerge as habitable depends on the sequence of events that led to its formation, which could include the production of organic molecules in molecular clouds and protoplanetary disks, delivery",
"-29.74087018892169"
],
[
"habitable system probably also requires a supply of long-term orbiting bodies to seed inner planets. Without comets there is a possibility that life as we know it would not exist on Earth. Microenvironments and extremophiles One important qualification to habitability criteria is that only a tiny portion of a planet is required to support life. Astrobiologists often concern themselves with \"micro-environments\", noting that \"we lack a fundamental understanding of how evolutionary forces, such as mutation, selection, and genetic drift, operate in micro-organisms that act on and respond to changing micro-environments.\" Extremophiles are Earth organisms that live in niche environments under",
"-29.680094085051678"
],
[
"lifetimes of red dwarfs could allow the development of habitable environments on planets with thick atmospheres. This is significant, as red dwarfs are extremely common. (See Habitability of red dwarf systems).\nSince Earth is the only planet known to harbor life, there is no evident way to know if any of these simplifying assumptions are correct. Communication attempts Research on communication with extraterrestrial intelligence (CETI) focuses on composing and deciphering messages that could theoretically be understood by another technological civilization. Communication attempts by humans have included broadcasting mathematical languages, pictorial systems such as the Arecibo message and computational approaches to detecting",
"-29.669105208595283"
],
[
"system I cannot entertain any serious possibility for intelligent life on other planets, not even for Mars... The logistics of visitations from planets revolving around the nearer stars is staggering. In consideration of the hundreds of millions of years in the geologic time scale when such visits may have possibly occurred, the odds of a single visit in a given century or millennium are overwhelmingly against such an event.\n\nA much more likely source of explanation is some natural optical phenomenon in our own atmosphere. In my 1949 sightings the faintness of the object, together with the manner of fading",
"-29.655739052803256"
],
[
"separates the illuminated side and the dark side could potentially be habitable, as the temperature there could be suitable for liquid water to exist. Additionally, a much larger portion of the planet could also be habitable if it has a thick enough atmosphere to facilitate heat transfer away from the side facing the star.",
"-29.593606667825952"
],
[
"the question of how life arose on Earth and whether it exists anywhere else in the Solar System.> It may also be possible to find pre-biotic chemistry occurring, which could provide clues to how life started on Earth. Any life detected at the remote ocean worlds in the outer Solar System would likely have formed and evolved along an independent path from life on Earth, giving us a deeper understanding of the potential for life in the universe.\nOceanographers, biologists and astrobiologists are part of the team developing the strategy roadmap. The planning also considers implementing planetary protection measures to",
"-29.57006284594536"
],
[
"the universe than considered possible until very recently.\nCurrent studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers are searching for evidence of ancient life as well as plains related to ancient rivers or lakes that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic molecules on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA and ESA objective.\nEven if extraterrestrial life is never discovered, the interdisciplinary nature of astrobiology, and the cosmic and evolutionary perspectives engendered by it, may still result in a range of benefits here on Earth. Overview The term",
"-29.532424418779556"
],
[
"quite large, at 1.91+0.43\n−0.56 times the level of Earth. Using the nominal parameters, the planet is too close to the star to be habitable, though the uncertainties allow for the possibility that it may actually lie in the innermost region of the habitable zone, however even with the lowest error bar measurement, a stellar flux of 1.35 S⊕ would still be high enough to boil away any oceans. A more recent analysis has shown that the planet is likely more analogous to Venus, which is known to be one of the most inhospitable places to life in the Solar System,",
"-29.530020122459973"
],
[
"environmental change is called the Great Oxygenation Event. This oxygen proved fundamental to the respiration of later animal species. The Gaia hypothesis, a scientific model of the geo-biosphere pioneered by James Lovelock in 1975, argues that life as a whole fosters and maintains suitable conditions for itself by helping to create a planetary environment suitable for its continuity. Similarly, David Grinspoon has suggested a \"living worlds hypothesis\" in which our understanding of what constitutes habitability cannot be separated from life already extant on a planet. Planets that are geologically and meteorologically alive are much more likely to be biologically",
"-29.40917659807019"
],
[
"important questions we can ask is: “Are there any life forms in space?” Therefore, great attention is paid to physical, chemical, and atmospheric similarities between the earth and other planets. Scientists recently discovered the “Gliese 581” extra solar planet; the Sun of the “Gliese planetary system.” To date, seven planets have been discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope and are named respectively as Gliese 581 a, b, c, etc. These planets have structural similarities to the earth and the Composer uses uncommon instruments like the Theremin, Waterphone, Daxaphone, Log drum, Hapi drum, Ufo drum, Vibratones and Sansula for this part",
"-29.37023840766051"
],
[
"of habitability; a good example of this is Kepler-438b. However, with the low activity of its host, Luyten b is likely to retain any atmosphere for billions of years, potentially enabling the development of life as we know it.\nIt has an Earth Similarity Index (ESI) value of 0.91, having the fourth-highest ESI of any confirmed planet.",
"-29.359492596937343"
],
[
"life need not originate during this stage of stellar evolution for it to be detected. Once the star becomes a red giant, and the habitable zone extends outward, the icy surface would melt, forming a temporary atmosphere that can be searched for signs of life that may have been thriving before the start of the red giant stage. Desert planets A planet's atmospheric conditions influence its ability to retain heat, so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have",
"-29.35608304364723"
],
[
"had found disappointingly few habitable worlds, and even fewer signs of intelligent alien life. At the time, only three examples had been identified:\n(a) The planet Pinnacle, which had evidently been home to an intelligent society that became extinct nearly a million years earlier, and had left very little trace of themselves on their now-inhospitable planet;\n(b) The planet Quraqua, which had many similarities to Earth, had been home to an intelligent species (the Quraquans) until they became extinct just a few centuries prior; and\n(c) Inakademeri - aka \"Nok\" - a moon of a ringed gas giant, and home to the only",
"-29.349925681832246"
],
[
"stable conditions and did not have to adapt to changing environments like life on Earth. As a result of this lack of selection pressure, it would be covered in prehistoric swamps. Venus thus became, until the early 1960s, a place for science fiction writers to place all manner of unusual life forms, from quasi-dinosaurs to intelligent carnivorous plants. Comparisons often referred to Earth in the Carboniferous period.\nIn the 1930s, Edgar Rice Burroughs wrote the \"sword-and-planet\" style \"Venus series,\" set on a fictionalized version of Venus known as Amtor. The Venus of Robert Heinlein's Future History series and Henry Kuttner's Fury",
"-29.296674991812324"
],
[
"the native life would be more adapted to the conditions there. However, the experience on Earth shows that species moved from one continent to another may be able to outcompete the native life adapted to that continent. Additionally, evolutionary processes on Earth might have developed biological pathways different from extraterrestrial organisms, and so may be able to out-compete it. The same is also possible the other way around for back contamination introduced to Earth's biosphere.\nIn addition of science concerns, ethical or moral issues have also been raised on accidental and intentional interplanetary transport of life. Evidence for possible habitats outside",
"-29.271657179575413"
],
[
"environments are likely to support life, a distinction is usually made between simple, unicellular organisms such as bacteria and archaea and complex metazoans (animals). Unicellularity necessarily precedes multicellularity in any hypothetical tree of life, and where single-celled organisms do emerge there is no assurance that greater complexity will then develop. The planetary characteristics listed below are considered crucial for life generally, but in every case multicellular organisms are more picky than unicellular life. Mass Low-mass planets are poor candidates for life for two reasons. First, their lesser gravity makes atmosphere retention difficult. Constituent molecules are more likely to reach escape",
"-29.200511239876505"
],
[
"that a near-identical planet must exist somewhere. In the far future, technology may be used by humans to artificially produce an Earth analog by terraforming. The multiverse theory suggests that an Earth analog could exist in another universe or even be another version of the Earth itself in a parallel universe.\nOn November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarf stars within the Milky Way galaxy. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun-like",
"-29.15881663246546"
],
[
"other planets, true Earth analogs in the CHZ are most likely to provide the closest natural habitat; this concept was the basis of Stephen H. Dole's 1964 study. With suitable temperature, gravity, atmospheric pressure and the presence of water, the necessity of spacesuits or space habitat analogues on the surface may be eliminated and complex Earth life can thrive.\nPlanets in the CHZ remain of paramount interest to researchers looking for intelligent life elsewhere in the universe. The Drake equation, sometimes used to estimate the number of intelligent civilizations in our galaxy, contains the factor or parameter nₑ, which is the",
"-29.148684039886575"
],
[
"life\" after ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago. According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, \"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe.\" Extent Every part of the planet, from the polar ice caps to the equator, features life of some kind. Recent advances in microbiology have demonstrated that microbes live deep beneath the Earth's terrestrial surface, and that the total mass of microbial life in so-called \"uninhabitable zones\" may, in biomass, exceed all animal and plant life on the",
"-29.124065294279717"
],
[
"than once on the Earth—that is, all terrestrial life stems from a common origin. If abiogenesis were more common it would be speculated to have occurred more than once on the Earth. Scientists have searched for this by looking for bacteria that are unrelated to other life on Earth, but none have been found yet. It is also possible that life arose more than once, but that other branches were out-competed, or died in mass extinctions, or were lost in other ways. Biochemists Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel laid special emphasis on this uncertainty: \"At the moment we have no",
"-29.1033021239964"
],
[
"Venus's orbit, if it had Venus's slow rotation. If Venus lost its water ocean due to a runaway greenhouse effect, it is likely to have had a higher rotation rate in the past. Alternatively, Venus never had an ocean because water vapor was lost to space during its formation and could have had its slow rotation throughout its history.\nTidally locked planets (a.k.a. \"eyeball\" planets) can be habitable closer to their star than previously thought due to the effect of clouds: at high stellar flux, strong convection produces thick water clouds near the substellar point that greatly increase the planetary",
"-29.098786614169512"
],
[
"only parts of Earth in any way useful to them, and they presumably have no need or use for the dry land or even the shallower parts of the seas. Bocker puts forward the theory that the two species could co-exist indefinitely, hardly noticing each other's presence.\nHumanity nevertheless feels threatened by this new phenomenon – particularly since the newcomers show signs of intensive work to adapt the ocean deeps to their needs. A British bathysphere is sent down to investigate, and is destroyed by the aliens with the loss of two lives. The British government responds by exploding a nuclear",
"-29.059217774221906"
],
[
"around other star systems, though in far less detail. Astrobiology Earth is the only body known to contain life; this results in geologic and atmospheric life signatures apart from the organisms themselves. Methane observed on Mars has been postulated but cannot be definitively ascribed as a biosignature. Multiple processes of non-biological methane generation are seen on Earth as well.\nThe detection of biomarkers or biosignatures on other worlds is an active area of research. Although oxygen and/or ozone are generally considered strong signs of life, these too have alternate, non-biological explanations.\nThe Galileo mission, while performing a gravity assist flyby of Earth,",
"-29.0157368956352"
],
[
"Earth Enceladus and Europa show the best evidence for current habitats, mainly due to the possibility of their hosting liquid water and organic compounds. Mars There is ample evidence to suggest that Mars once offered habitable conditions for microbial life. It is therefore possible that microbial life may have existed on Mars, although no evidence has been found.\nIt is thought that many bacterial spores (endospores) from Earth were transported on Mars spacecraft. Some may be protected within Martian rovers and landers on the shallow surface of the planet. In that sense, Mars may have already been interplanetarily contaminated.\nCertain lichens from",
"-29.011991515988484"
],
[
"The planet was announced as orbiting within the habitable zone of Kepler-438, a region where liquid water could exist on the surface of the planet. However it has been found that this planet is subjected to powerful radiation activity from its parent star every 100 days, much more violent storms than the stellar flares emitted by the Sun and which would be capable of sterilizing life on Earth.\nResearchers at the University of Warwick say that Kepler-438b is not habitable due to the large amount of radiation it receives. The question of what makes a planet habitable is much more complex",
"-28.996384635407594"
],
[
"and thus highly unlikely to be habitable to such organisms.\nThe planet would be inhospitable because of a runaway greenhouse effect on its surface. Any oceans on its surface would've boiled away due to the high stellar flux, and as this occurred, the temperature would've risen to around 322 K (49 °C; 120 °F). The water vapor would've accumulated in the atmosphere to the point where the surface temperature would rise to around 500 K (227 °C; 440 °F) as the planet would've been overwhelmed by water vapor (it is a powerful greenhouse gas). Little amounts of carbon dioxide would've been present, as Kepler-69c was probably an",
"-28.977684892975958"
],
[
"wide range of other factors in determining the suitability of a planet for hosting life.\nOne sign that a planet probably already contains life is the presence of an atmosphere with significant amounts of oxygen, since that gas is highly reactive and generally would not last long without constant replenishment. This replenishment occurs on Earth through photosynthetic organisms. One way to analyze the atmosphere of an exoplanet is through spectrography when it transits its star, though this might only be feasible with dim stars like white dwarfs. Terrestrial analysis The science of astrobiology considers life on Earth as well, and in",
"-28.964485513424734"
],
[
"periods of light and darkness are not as challenging for habitability as the eternal days and eternal nights on a planet tidally locked to its star. Extrasolar No extrasolar natural satellites have yet been detected. However, in October 2018 Professor Kipping announced in 'Cool Worlds' the discovery of a potential exomoon orbiting Kepler-1625b. Large planets in the Solar System like Jupiter and Saturn are known to have large moons with some of the conditions for life. Therefore, some scientists speculate that large extrasolar planets (and double planets) may have similarly large moons that are potentially habitable. A moon with sufficient",
"-28.87734588884632"
],
[
"may have greater biodiversity, since native species have had more time to evolve, adapt and stabilize the environmental conditions to sustain a suitable environment for life that can benefit their descendants.\nHowever, for many years it was thought that since older star systems have lower metallicity, they should display low planet formation, and thus such old planets may have been scant in the beginning, but the number of metallic items in the universe must have grown steadily since its inception. The first exoplanetary discoveries, mostly gas giants orbiting very close to their stars, known as Hot Jupiters, suggest that planets were",
"-28.854807044612244"
],
[
"Garfield reminds the others that \"wherever life has the slightest chance of surviving, you'll find it. This is the only chance it's ever had on Venus.\"\nGarfield and Hutchins leave the car and, wearing their thermosuits, climb the escarpment. They follow a dry river bed and reach a lake, the first free water found on Venus. What seems to be a horizontal patch of black rock at the edge of the lake is moving. The plant, or colony of plants, seems to be approaching them, but retreats when they move forward, a reaction to the heat expelled from the thermosuits' refrigeration",
"-28.812176815990824"
],
[
"PlanetSide Plot After exploring through a deep space wormhole, the Terran Republic, a highly centralized oligarchic galactic government which had unconditionally ruled humanity for the past thousand years, discovered a single habitable planet. Not only was this planet suitable for the sustenance of life, but it also already possessed many native, highly developed, and staggeringly familiar flora. The Science Institute named this planet Auraxis. Taking a keen interest in this aberration, the Republic quickly sent expeditions through the wormhole to explore and colonize the planet. Shortly after arriving, the colonists discovered the remains and technology of a lost and ancient",
"-28.79120436089579"
],
[
"which case, when we do build starships and head out there, perhaps we’ll find lots and lots of life worlds, but they’re all like Polynesia. We’ll find lots and lots of intelligent lifeforms out there, but they’re all dolphins, whales, squids, who could never build their own starships. What a perfect universe for us to be in, because nobody would be able to boss us around, and we’d get to be the voyagers, the Star Trek people, the starship builders, the policemen, and so on.\" It is the nature of intelligent life to destroy itself This is the argument that",
"-28.76808400871232"
],
[
"10–17 million years old. According to the panspermia hypothesis, microscopic life—distributed by meteoroids, asteroids and other small Solar System bodies—may exist throughout the universe. Nonetheless, Earth is the only place in the universe known by humans to harbor life. The sheer number of planets in the Milky Way galaxy, however, may make it probable that life has arisen somewhere else in the galaxy and the universe. It is generally agreed that the conditions required for the evolution of intelligent life as we know it are probably exceedingly rare in the universe, while simultaneously noting that simple single-celled microorganisms may",
"-28.76322907084068"
],
[
"the Earth's atmosphere.\nJupiter's moon, Europa, and Saturn's moon, Enceladus, are now considered the most likely locations for extant extraterrestrial life in the Solar System due to their subsurface water oceans where radiogenic and tidal heating enables liquid water to exist.\nThe origin of life, known as abiogenesis, distinct from the evolution of life, is another ongoing field of research. Oparin and Haldane postulated that the conditions on the early Earth were conducive to the formation of organic compounds from inorganic elements and thus to the formation of many of the chemicals common to all forms of life we see today. The",
"-28.75776379671879"
],
[
"have attempted to influence the evolution of life forms here in a direction consistent with their own genetic makeup, and similar to their own physiology and general physical structure, since genetically that is what they would presumably be most familiar with. Counter to this view, the anatomy, physiology, and genetic makeup of primates and humans are extremely similar to other animals on Earth, including those with divergent non-humanoid forms such as sea urchins, sea squirts, and acorn worms.\nSince the history of life on Earth gives some idea of what is and is not feasible on other worlds, and there is",
"-28.746060054167174"
],
[
"the surface may also have been detected in the form of bright spots. The presence of water on Ceres had led to speculation that life may be possible there. Jupiter Carl Sagan and others in the 1960s and 1970s computed conditions for hypothetical microorganisms living in the atmosphere of Jupiter. The intense radiation and other conditions, however, do not appear to permit encapsulation and molecular biochemistry, so life there is thought unlikely. In contrast, some of Jupiter's moons may have habitats capable of sustaining life. Scientists have indications that heated subsurface oceans of liquid water may exist deep under the",
"-28.661616874407628"
],
[
"of materials during and after planetary accretion, and the orbital location in the planetary system. The chief assumption about habitable planets is that they are terrestrial. Such planets, roughly within one order of magnitude of Earth mass, are primarily composed of silicate rocks, and have not accreted the gaseous outer layers of hydrogen and helium found on gas giants. The possibility that life could evolve in the cloud tops of giant planets has not been decisively ruled out, though it is considered unlikely, as they have no surface and their gravity is enormous. The natural satellites of giant planets,",
"-28.65373874240322"
],
[
"Green Patches Plot summary A human colony ship lands on an unknown planet (later named \"Saybrook's Planet\"). The ship's captain, Saybrook, analyzed the planet's abundant plant and animal life and discovered that it is all part of a single organism with a unified consciousness. However, that organism perceived the humans (and all the other lifeforms they have brought along) as being \"incomplete\" and mere \"life fragments\", because they were not part of the perfect planetary consciousness. In an altruistic attempt to help the humans, the planetary organism decides to make them part of itself; it induces pregnancy in all the",
"-28.641177389625227"
],
[
"planets (or moons) in the Goldilocks position with substantial atmospheres may possess oceans and water clouds like those on Earth. In addition to surface water, a true Earth analog would require a mix of oceans or lakes and areas not covered by water, or land.\nSome argue that a true Earth analog must not only have a similar position of its planetary system but also orbit a solar analog and have a near circular orbit such that it remains continually habitable like Earth. Extrasolar Earth analog The mediocrity principle suggests that there is a chance that serendipitous events may have allowed",
"-28.613358059206803"
],
[
"heat flow. Planets d and e are the most likely to be habitable. Planet d avoids the runaway greenhouse state if its albedo is ≳ 0.3. Possible effects of strong X-ray and extreme UV irradiation of the system Bolmont et al. modelled the effects of predicted far ultraviolet (FUV) and extreme ultraviolet (EUV/XUV) irradiation of planets b and c by TRAPPIST-1. Their results suggest that the two planets may have lost as much as 15 Earth oceans of water (although the actual loss would probably be lower), depending on their initial water contents. Nonetheless, they may have retained enough water",
"-28.59892407220468"
],
[
"planets, the only one known to have current geological activity, and the only place where life is known to exist. Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth's atmosphere is radically different from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21% free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System. Mars Mars (1.5 AU from the Sun) is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 M⊕). It has an",
"-28.515770191559568"
],
[
"Interplanetary contamination Overview Most of the Solar System appears hostile to life as we know it. No extraterrestrial life has ever been discovered, but there are several locations outside Earth where microbial life could possibly exist, have existed, or thrive if introduced. If extraterrestrial life exists, it may be vulnerable to interplanetary contamination by foreign microorganisms. Some extremophiles may be able to survive space travel to another planet, and foreign life could possibly be introduced by spacecraft from Earth and transform the location from its current pristine state. This poses scientific and ethical concerns.\nLocations within the Solar System where life",
"-28.406651539960876"
],
[
"of individual planets located in the numerous star systems randomly generated at the beginning of each game. Each star system will have from one to eight planets and each planet is rated on a scale of habitability related to your race's physical requirements. Red 2 and Red 1 planets are the least habitable to your species, with Yellow 2 and 1 and Green 2 and 1 designating increasingly friendly environments up to the so-called 'Sweet Spot', which is a planet perfectly suited to your race or the conquered race(s) you are using to colonize. The factors that can affect habitability",
"-28.383339478634298"
],
[
"challenges for eventual biospheres because of likely extreme variations in surface temperature during different parts of the orbit. If the separation is significantly close to the planet's distance, a stable orbit may be impossible.\nPlanets that orbit just one star in a binary pair are said to have \"S-type\" orbits, whereas those that orbit around both stars have \"P-type\" or \"circumbinary\" orbits. It is estimated that 50–60% of binary stars are capable of supporting habitable terrestrial planets within stable orbital ranges. Non-circumbinary planet In non circumbinary planets, if a planet's distance to its primary exceeds about one fifth of the closest",
"-28.358269721415127"
],
[
"years, but it is not likely to ever colonize other planets. However, he expressed a hope to be proven wrong, because \"colonizing other worlds is our best chance to hedge our bets and improve the survival prospects of our species\".\nIn a theoretical study from 2019, a group of researchers have pondered the long-term trajectory of human civilization. It is argued that due to Earth's finitude as well as the limited duration of our solar system, mankind's survival into the far future will very likely require extensive space colonization. This 'astronomical trajectory' of mankind, as it is termed, could come about",
"-28.355005261255428"
],
[
"Venus' equilibrium temperature, that is if Venus like Earth had an albedo of 0.3. However, the planet was not reported in the most recent analysis of the system with the HARPS-N spectrograph, which suggests that the planet may not actually exist. Although, even if the planet did exist, but wasn't tidally locked, it would arguably not fit the understood criteria for being located within the star's habitable zone, except for all but the most liberal interpretations of where stars' habitable zones are located. For example, the habitable zone for this star, as defined by Kopparapu et al. 2014, for a",
"-28.310882649908308"
],
[
"projects such as SETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilizations. Other locations within the Solar System that may host microbial life include the subsurface of Mars, the upper atmosphere of Venus, and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.\nBeyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone. The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than",
"-28.276003820938058"
],
[
"with those conclusions; another study by Guillem Anglada-Escudé later supported the planet's existence. In 2012, a reanalysis by Vogt supported its existence. A new study in 2014 concluded that it was a false positive; however, in 2015, a reanalysis of the data suggested that it could still exist. The planet is thought to be tidally locked to its star. If the planet has a dense atmosphere, it may be able to circulate heat. The actual habitability of the planet depends on the composition of its surface and the atmosphere. It is thought to have temperatures around −37 to −11 °C (−35",
"-28.25135987638464"
],
[
"alternate world science fiction, where Venus had either been terraformed by aliens in the distant past to provide an earth-like biosphere, or had undergone different processes of planetary formation to arrive at an inhabitable alternative. Alternatively, science fantasy authors deliberately overlooked recent discoveries in favor of a setting they loved.\nThe authors whose stories were included ranged from C.S. Lewis (excerpt from Perelandra) to Edgar Rice Burroughs (excerpt from Pirates of Venus) and from Olaf Stapledon (excerpt from Last and First Men) to Poul Anderson (The Big Rain, Sister Planet). Essays and meditations from a variety of scientists and",
"-28.24047913652612"
],
[
"at Mars) currently in use on board the Mars Science Laboratory's Curiosity rover, has three capabilities that should allow it to detect organics despite interference from perchlorate.\nA null result would establish that Earth-like life is likely not present in the ground ice, arguably the most habitable environment currently known on Mars, implying that Earth-like life is absent on Mars generally. This would lower the risk for biohazards during human exploration or sample return. However, this would not rule out life that does not have Earth-like biomarkers. Planetary protection The mission must comply with the planetary protection requirements established by NASA",
"-28.18263730459148"
],
[
"superhabitable exoplanets belonging to K-type stars, orbiting within its habitable zone, could provide a longer, steadier, and better environment for life than Earth. Appearance The appearance of a superhabitable planet should be, in general, very similar to Earth. The main differences, in compliance with the profile seen previously, would be derived from its mass. Its denser atmosphere probably prevent the formation of ice sheets as a result of lower thermal difference between different regions of the planet. Also, it has a higher concentration of clouds, and abundant rainfall.\nProbably the vegetation is very different due to the increased air density, precipitation,",
"-28.127102332364302"
],
[
"essentials for life, sunshine and moisture, are most abundant, great forests grow. And here plants and animals proliferate in such numbers that we still have not even named all the different species. Here, animals and plants, insects and birds, mammals and man live together in intimate and complex communities, each dependent on one another. Two thirds of the surface of this unique planet are covered by water, and it was here indeed that life began. From the oceans, it has spread even to the summits of the highest mountains as animals and plants have responded to the changing face of",
"-28.08866943771136"
],
[
"life as currently understood may not necessarily be the same in other parts of the universe, the extent of the tenacity of life on Earth itself has not yet been shown. Creatures known as extremophiles exist on Earth, preferring extreme habitats. Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles thrive at temperatures reaching above the boiling point of water, acidophiles thrive at a pH level of 3 or below, polyextremophiles can survive a varied number of extreme conditions, and many other types of extremophiles exist on Earth.\nThe surface temperature of Venus (over 450 °C) is far beyond the extremophile range, which extends only tens of degrees",
"-28.087864453555085"
],
[
"habitable planets was extended in late September 2010 to include exoplanets around red dwarf stars because of Gliese 581g, which is a tidally locked planet in the middle of the habitable zone. Weather studies show that tidally locked planets may still have the ability to support life. Deep-sky objects Libra is home to one bright globular cluster, NGC 5897. It is a loose cluster, 50,000 light-years from Earth; it is fairly large and has an integrated magnitude of 9. IC 1059 is a galaxy in the constellation Libra. Astrology As of 2002, the Sun appears in the constellation Libra from",
"-28.03161972441012"
],
[
"but their potential for supporting life is still under study. Their low luminosity reduces the size of the habitable zone, which are exposed to ultraviolet radiation outbreaks that occur frequently, especially during their first billion year of existence. When a planet's orbit is too short, it can cause tidal locking of the planet, where it always presents the same hemisphere to the star, known as day hemisphere. Even if the existence of life were possible in a system of this type, it is unlikely that any exoplanet belonging to a red dwarf star would be considered superhabitable.\nDismissing both ends, systems",
"-28.016714204917662"
],
[
"the broader astronomical context. In 2015, \"remains of biotic life\" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia, when the young Earth was about 400 million years old. According to one of the researchers, \"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe.\" Cosmic pluralism Cosmic pluralism, the plurality of worlds, or simply pluralism, describes the philosophical belief in numerous \"worlds\" in addition to Earth, which might harbor extraterrestrial life. Before the development of the heliocentric theory and a recognition that the Sun is just one of many stars, the notion of pluralism",
"-27.982675212435424"
],
[
"centuries to reach their destination. The drawback of the lifeships is that as they plod through space, their occupants regress in technical sophistication.\nIn part due to this, and perhaps because colony worlds with small populations cannot support sophisticated social constructs, all spheres in the Cluster series suffer spherical regression—i.e., the farther a colony is from its home star, the less technology the inhabitants use, while the social order begins to resemble periods of the home planet's past. For instance, the inhabitants of Outworld, Sphere Sol's farthest colony, are paleolithic tribes. They hunt with flint spears and make",
"-27.97713038645452"
],
[
"would result in a double-eyeball pattern with hotspots in both eastern and western hemispheres. Planets with both an eccentric orbit and a tilted axis of rotation would have more complicated insolation patterns. Habitability As more planets are discovered, the field of exoplanetology continues to grow into a deeper study of extrasolar worlds, and will ultimately tackle the prospect of life on planets beyond the Solar System. At cosmic distances, life can only be detected if it is developed at a planetary scale and strongly modified the planetary environment, in such a way that the modifications cannot be explained by classical",
"-27.97139035584405"
],
[
"the habitability criteria of other stellar systems and planets. A 1993 paper on habitable zones was particularly decisive in shaping thinking on this field.\nKasting has published two books, The Earth System, and How to Find a Habitable Planet, along with more than 140 publications in research journals. In their popular 2001 work Rare Earth:Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe, Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee note: \"Although many scientists have been doggedly pursuing the various attributes necessary for a habitable planet...one name stands out in the scientific literature: James Kasting.\"\nKasting is also a member of numerous professional scientific societies",
"-27.939385521545773"
],
[
"close-in habitable zones. If the atmosphere were to be depleted over the timescale less than Gyr, this could prove to be problematic for the origin of life (abiogenesis) on the planet. Methane habitable zone If methane-based life is possible (similar to the hypothetical life on Titan), there would be a second habitable zone further out from the star corresponding to the region where methane is liquid. Titan's atmosphere is transparent to red and infrared light, so more of the light from red dwarfs would be expected to reach the surface of a Titan-like planet. Frequency of Earth-sized worlds around ultra-cool",
"-27.914378126966767"
],
[
"Venus had atmospheres in chemical equilibrium. This difference with the Earth atmosphere was considered to be a proof that there was no life in these planets.\nLovelock formulated the Gaia Hypothesis in journal articles in 1972 and 1974, followed by a popularizing 1979 book Gaia: A new look at life on Earth. An article in the New Scientist of February 6, 1975, and a popular book length version of the hypothesis, published in 1979 as The Quest for Gaia, began to attract scientific and critical attention.\nLovelock called it first the Earth feedback hypothesis, and it was a way to explain the",
"-27.888947431019915"
],
[
"conditions for these bodies to have habitable planets are very stringent, the habitable zone being narrow and decreasing with time, due to the cooling of the brown dwarf. The orbits there would have to be of extremely low eccentricity (of the order of 10⁻⁶) to avoid strong tidal forces that would trigger a greenhouse effect on the planets, rendering them uninhabitable.",
"-27.88125230721198"
],
[
"being far from supernovae and being stable for a sufficient time.\nThe discovery of numerous gas giants in close orbit with their stars has introduced doubt that life-supporting planets commonly survive the formation of their stellar systems. So-called hot Jupiters may migrate from distant orbits to near orbits, in the process disrupting the orbits of habitable planets.\nOn the other hand, the variety of star systems that might have habitable zones is not just limited to solar-type stars and Earth-sized planets. It is now estimated that even tidally locked planets close to red dwarf stars might have habitable zones, although the flaring",
"-27.8671299116686"
],
[
"under a colonial system, steal the planet's resources, or destroy the planet altogether.\nAlthough evidence of alien life has never been proven, scientists such as Carl Sagan have postulated that the existence of extraterrestrial life is very likely. In 1969, the \"Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law\" was added to the United States Code of Federal Regulations (Title 14, Section 1211) in response to the possibility of biological contamination resulting from the U.S. Apollo Space Program. It was removed in 1991. Scientists consider such a scenario technically possible, but unlikely.\nAn article in The New York Times discussed the possible threats for humanity of intentionally",
"-27.841556279629003"
],
[
"before the events in the series, a large population had emigrated from Earth to a new star system in generation ships: \"Earth-that-was could no longer sustain our numbers, we were so many\". The emigrants established themselves in this new star system, with \"dozens of planets and hundreds of moons\" and many of these were terraformed, a process that was only the first step in making a planet habitable. The outlying settlements often did not receive any further support in the construction of their civilizations. This resulted in many of the border planets and moons having forbidding, dry environments, well-suited to",
"-27.83451523052645"
],
[
"surface. Since the planet has only been detected indirectly through observations of the star, properties such as its radius, composition, and temperature are unknown.\nSince HD 28185 b orbits in its star's habitable zone, some have speculated on the possibility of life on worlds in the HD 28185 system. While it is unknown whether gas giants can support life, simulations of tidal interactions suggest that HD 28185 b could harbor Earth-mass satellites in orbit around it for many billions of years. Such moons, if they exist, may be able to provide a habitable environment, though it is unclear whether such satellites",
"-27.81744569442526"
],
[
"marginal desert planet. Mars remained a favored destination for fictional travellers down to the early 1960s (see Mars in fiction). Since probes revealed the absence of any indications of intelligent life on Mars, the science fictional Mars has changed to a possible future home for the human race, e.g. through terraforming.\nVenus was never quite so popular as Mars, probably because it obdurately refused to display any surface features (it is covered with sulfuric acid clouds only dimly translucent to visible light), making any statement about its nature disturbingly speculative. In 1918, chemist Svante Arrhenius, deciding that Venus' cloud cover was",
"-27.808911889325827"
],
[
"may travel dormant for an extended amount of time before colliding randomly with other planets or intermingling with protoplanetary disks. Under certain ideal impact circumstances (into a body of water, for example), and ideal conditions on a new planet's surfaces, it is possible that the surviving organisms could become active and begin to colonize their new environment. At least one report finds that endospores from a type of Bacillus bacteria found in Morocco can survive being heated to 420 °C (788 °F), making the argument for Panspermia even stronger. Panspermia studies concentrate not on how life began, but on",
"-27.808302269433625"
],
[
"environmental parameters. Chemical, physical, geological, and geographic attributes shape the environments on Mars. Isolated measurements of these factors may be insufficient to deem an environment habitable, but the sum of measurements can help predict locations with greater or lesser habitability potential.\nHabitable environments need not be inhabited, and for purposes of planetary protection, scientists are trying to identify potential habitats where stowaway bacteria from Earth on spacecraft could contaminate Mars. If life exists —or existed— on Mars, evidence or biosignatures could be found in the subsurface, away from present-day harsh surface conditions such as perchlorates, ionizing radiation, desiccation and freezing. Habitable",
"-27.789610862564587"
],
[
"(or perhaps totally) geologically dead and has lost much of its atmosphere. Thus it would be fair to infer that the lower mass limit for habitability lies somewhere between that of Mars and that of Earth or Venus: 0.3 Earth masses has been offered as a rough dividing line for habitable planets. However, a 2008 study by the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics suggests that the dividing line may be higher. Earth may in fact lie on the lower boundary of habitability: if it were any smaller, plate tectonics would be impossible. Venus, which has 85% of Earth's mass, shows no",
"-27.772271341469605"
],
[
"all lie in their own universe and consist of seven planets and seven suns.\nThere are 15 planets in our universe which contain human life. We started our divine cycle on the Moon and, via six other planets, arrived on Mars. Then again, via six other planets, we finally arrived on Earth. Each of these planets pushed the development of the human body a bit further. For example, on the Moon, we reached only a fishlike phase but on Mars, we were already like an ape. This means that there are no other planets in our universe which contain human life",
"-27.75509664672427"
],
[
"present in the planet's atmosphere.\nBecause it is the outermost planet of its star system, the effects of tidal evolution from the inner planets and the host star on Kepler-62f are not likely to have had significant outcomes over its lifetime. The axial tilt is likely to have been unchanged, and thus, the planet may have an axial tilt (anywhere from 14°–30°) and rotational period somewhat similar to Earth. This can further make the planet more sustainable for habitability, as it would be able to transfer heat to the night side, instead of it being a planet with its surface being",
"-27.717600680713076"
],
[
"L’Indépendant Perpignan, November 30, 1954). The possibility of life on another planet in our solar system is approached in La Lune fille et mère de la Terre (The Moon, Daughter and Mother of the Earth with advanced explanations to understand the mysterious lunar relief (magazine Sources Vives, Perpignan, No. 5, April 1958).\nIn 1958, still following the law of Flammarion, Brousse enlarged the planetary family with two \"trônes de ténèbres\" (seats of darkness), Bacchus and Hercules, respectively 33.9 and 79.5 billion miles from the Sun (magazine Agni, Perpignan, No. 18, Winter 1958). With flourishing growth, in 1960, he suggested the existence of",
"-27.711775017727632"
],
[
"way that life could initially protect itself from radiation, would be remaining underwater until the star had passed through its early flare stage, assuming the planet could retain enough of an atmosphere to sustain liquid oceans. The scientists who wrote the television programme \"Aurelia\" believed that life could survive on land despite a red dwarf flaring. Once life reached onto land, the low amount of UV produced by a quiescent red dwarf means that life could thrive without an ozone layer, and thus never need to produce oxygen.\nIt is worth noting that the violent flaring period of a red dwarf's",
"-27.70899340568576"
]
] |
37a8or | Why is Google Fibre taking so long to roll out? | [
"One does not simply lay down a large fiber network. First, you have to have the money. That's not really an issue for Google. Then, you have to convince municipal governments to let you build a network, and you have to get past the incumbent ISP, who wants to keep their monopoly intact. You have to find enough subscribers, you have to find people to build the network, you have to do customer service and installation, and you have to not be hated by the public. Throwing money at those problems is ineffective.",
"I'm in Georgia so hopefully I'll see fiber within my lifetime. Considering that we've paid for fiber to the home twice over. Please see the $300 billion broadband scandal. The fiber is actually the cheap part.. the labor is probably the most expensive part to it. The slowest part is all the paper work and fighting the counties and att and the cable providers. I was alSo told that getting across a railroad takes 5 months of paperwork and $40k Basically because the local monopolies have so much money, they pay people on the board to vote against public interest. So they tie Google up in legal paperwork and local monopolies get it blocked. I really wish Google would've hired me for the Atlanta fiber team. I would've been keeping everyone updated to what's taking so long. I'm pretty sure I could beast through all this political garbage. The fastest way through red tape is to steamroll through it. :)",
"One of two possibilities, firstly Google doesn't really want to be an ISP but wants to coax other ISP's into rolling out substantial faster internet services. Secondly Google can't roll out fiber everywhere it wants by throwing money at it. Who gets Google fiber and when might not be in Googles control.",
"Putting stuff in the ground takes time. On top of that there's a lot of paperwork, city regulations and so on. That's part of the reason why Google Fibre isn't going to be everywhere, Google are only picking cities which are \"easy\" for it to roll out in.",
"Bureaucracy, Politics, and money are the reason. Google has the money, but most local governments have some sort of contracts with 1 or more ISPs that essentially grant them a monopoly(or a near monopoly) over certain areas. This is the reason why a lot of ISPs have failed and companies like Comcast refuse to increase bandwidth because they know they have a monopoly and they have enough money to get the local city officials on their side and shut down competitors.",
"There are a few factors: * Installing the fibre is expensive, so google will only roll it out where there is enough market to support it (or where there will be enough market during the lifetime). Add to this that as soon as Google moves to put in fibre, the existing providers all drop their prices and try to lock in customers contractually to prevent google from succeeding. * Planning can be hard to get. Some local governments already granted monopolies to other providers, others don't want the hassle, still others are getting kickbacks from existing suppliers to \"stand on the hose\". * The idea for google is not to actually roll out it's fibre nationwide. That's not the business they want to be in. The idea is to force existing providers to up their game and do their actual jobs nationwide. It's sort of like how google are not in the bus business and don't want to be. But they run their own buses because otherwise there is no way for the workers to get to work on time. Google does not want to be your ISP or an infrastructure company. But since your ISP and Infra companies are so bad, it's having to do their job for them just to get their product to you."
] | [
[
"that the company announced the expansion of its beta service to cover 3 cities: Boston, Los Angeles, and Washington, DC, the speeds were still limited to up to 200 Mbit/s.\nIn June 2016, Google Fiber acquired Webpass to boost its effort in its experiments with wireless technologies. As a result, Google Fiber put its effort on fiber to the premises on hold to explore more on the cheaper wireless alternative. By early 2017, the Webpass division of Google Fiber expanded 1 Gbit/s wireless service to customers in many cities in the United States.\nIn November 2016, Atlas Networks, an ISP that serves",
"-26.567433416333188"
],
[
"about how technology can promote \"democracy, integrity, civility, and citizenship.\" Google Fiber In 2016, the hiring of Stricker to lead policy and communications at Google Fiber, a subsidiary of Alphabet Inc., fueled speculation that Alphabet would accelerate its plans to bring high speed internet connectivity more broadly across the United States. Jennifer Fritzsche, senior analyst at Wells Fargo, published in her research report: \"the appointment of executive Gabriel Stricker as Head of Policy and Communications for Google Fiber, is an indication that Google is getting more serious about its fiber expansion.\" Conversely, his departure from Google Fiber was described as",
"-25.389429643089898"
],
[
"amount of installed fiber infrastructure is not being used because it is currently excess capacity \"dark fiber\".\nThis excess backbone capacity exists in spite of the trend of increasing per-user data rates and overall quantity of data. Initially, only the inter-LAN connections were high speed. End-users used existing telephone lines and modems, which were capable of data rates of only a few hundred bit/s. Now almost all end users enjoy access at 100 or more times those early rates. Wired systems (including optical fiber) Wired systems provide guided conduits for Information-Carrying Energy (ICE). They all have some degree of shielding, which",
"-25.18177152633507"
],
[
"Journal wrote that the suite competes with existing marketing cloud offerings by companies including Adobe, Oracle, Salesforce, and IBM. Internet services In February 2010, Google announced the Google Fiber project, with experimental plans to build an ultra-high-speed broadband network for 50,000 to 500,000 customers in one or more American cities. Following Google's corporate restructure to make Alphabet Inc. its parent company, Google Fiber was moved to Alphabet's Access division.\nIn April 2015, Google announced Project Fi, a mobile virtual network operator, that combines Wi-Fi and cellular networks from different telecommunication providers in an effort to enable seamless connectivity and fast Internet",
"-24.73623376594452"
],
[
"developing patents to shift the device's processing burden to \"backend servers in the cloud,\" DataWind identified the need for low-cost devices for web access as a means to provide an alternative to increasing costs of mobile internet devices caused by the corresponding increases in web complexity, which require greater memory and processing power. DataWind's web-delivery platform reduces bandwidth consumption by creating a parallel processing environment, which shifts the burden of memory and processing power to back-end servers, thus allowing users to access the web with a lower-cost device and lower data costs.\nDatawind's web-delivery platform serves as the basis for its",
"-24.63496774364546"
],
[
"kilometers. Therefore, FTTP has been selected by every major communications provider in the world to carry data over long 1 Gbit/s symmetrical connections directly to consumer homes. FTTP configurations that bring fiber directly into the building can offer the highest speeds since the remaining segments can use standard Ethernet or coaxial cable.\nFiber is often said to be \"future-proof\" because the data rate of the connection is usually limited by the terminal equipment rather than the fiber, permitting substantial speed improvements by equipment upgrades before the fiber itself must be upgraded. Still, the type and length of employed fibers chosen, e.g.",
"-24.486820415272177"
],
[
"the former head of Lucent's Optical Networking Group at Bell Labs, the amount of data that could be carried by an optical fibre was doubling every nine months at the time. This progress in the ability to carry data over fiber reduced the need for more fibres.\nJust as with the Railway Mania, the misfortune of one market sector became the good fortune of another, and this overcapacity created a new telecommunications market sector. Market For many years incumbent local exchange carriers would not sell dark fibre to end users, because they believed selling access to this core asset would cannibalize",
"-24.34556693756167"
],
[
"fibers is that they offer a drastic increase in data capacity. TAT-8 itself was able to carry 10 times as many telephone calls as the last copper cable laid at that time and today's optic fibre cables are able to carry 25 times as many telephone calls as TAT-8. This increase in data capacity is due to several factors: First, optic fibres are physically much smaller than competing technologies. Second, they do not suffer from crosstalk which means several hundred of them can be easily bundled together in a single cable. Lastly, improvements in multiplexing have led to an exponential",
"-24.136681018753734"
],
[
"of hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans where the cost and reliability of repeaters is one of the key factors determining the performance of the whole cable system. The main advances contributing to these performance improvements are dispersion management, which seeks to balance the effects of dispersion against non-linearity; and solitons, which use nonlinear effects in the fiber to enable dispersion-free propagation over long distances. Last mile Although fiber-optic systems excel in high-bandwidth applications, optical fiber has been slow to achieve its goal of fiber to the premises or to",
"-23.35866921507568"
],
[
"upload ratio of 100:1 is the most asymmetrical fiber connection in the world. However, on 15 May 2010, Superonline sent an e-mail to its customers stating that the announcement on the bills was a \"technical glitch\" which should be ignored. This incident decreased Superonline's credibility among its fiber internet customers.\nSuperonline announced on 9 July 2010 that customers would be discriminated according to their internet service starting dates. Customers who started using fiber internet before 15 March 2010 will not be affected by the \"fair usage policy\", thus they will be able to download unlimited data while paying half the price",
"-23.354053316879344"
],
[
"nationwide ultra-fast broadband network uses Fibre connectivity to provide download/upload speeds of up to 100Mbit/s/50Mbit/s for residential customers. Fibre will enable faster downloads and streaming - content including movies may be up to 50x the speed of regular broadband.\nSlingshot Fibre is currently being trialled with a number of customers and will be rolled out across New Zealand soon. Market Position Slingshot is the third largest ISP in New Zealand. As of 2015, it has 16% of the residential market. Parent Company Slingshot is a subsidiary of telecommunications company CallPlus. Callplus was founded in 1996 to provide NZ consumers with",
"-23.345683916723942"
],
[
"often causing costly re-routing by lengthy distances and construction of entirely new conduits. Fiber technology Stealth implements WDM fiber transmission technology for connecting customers to its hubs, by allocating a wavelength for each customers, whereas each wavelength is capable of transmitting between 1 Gbit/s to 100 Gbit/s. The company claims that it makes use of special materials to split and combine multiple wavelengths running through the fiber-optic cables without requiring electricity.",
"-23.319405845899382"
],
[
"able to download files from many different sources, thus \nspeeding up the download time, especially for users with faster download than upload speeds. Thus, the more popular a file is, the faster a user will be able to download it, since many people will be downloading it at the same time, and these people will also be uploading the data to other users.\nCohen claims he has Asperger syndrome based on a self diagnosis. BitTorrent In April 2001, Cohen quit MojoNation and began work on BitTorrent. Cohen unveiled his novel ideas at the first CodeCon conference, which he and his roommate",
"-23.178326659491177"
],
[
"not presented to the user interface, can rapidly consume gigabytes of transfer especially on a faster 4G connection. Even fixed connections are often subject to usage limits, especially the faster connections (100Mbit/s and up) which can quickly saturate a network if filled by streaming media. \nIt is a known problem with most web browsers, including Firefox, that restoring sessions often plays multiple embedded ads at once. However, this annoyance can easily be averted simply by setting the web browser to clear all cookies and browsing-history information each time the browser software is closed. Another preventive option is to use",
"-23.153993384567457"
],
[
"their browser will use data compression technology to speed up data transmission. While pre-compressed data such as ZIP files, JPEG images, MP3 audio, MPEG video will not show significantly improved transmission speeds, uncompressed data will be transmitted in as little as one sixth the time, depending upon how efficiently it can be compressed. If and when successfully combined with Server-side web compression, 1G Analog Internet service might actually be able to compete with 2G or 3G digital internet service. Datawind claims that their browser can give up to 30 times faster speeds. Development and testing Kapil Sibal has stated that",
"-23.145755615291364"
],
[
"connection is represented by Vodafone fibre, the availability of which is limited to some areas of Milan and Bologna, reaching speeds of 1 Gbit/s in download and 200 Mbit/s in upload. This is a FTTH, just like the 100/50 connections provided by Fastweb in a bunch of cities. Most of other connections advertised as fibre are actually FTTC / VDSL (Telecom Italia is currently offering 30/3 and 50/10 connections, whereas Fastweb goes up to 200/20 and Vodafone reaches 100/20). As it might be expected, the real speed is about 20% less than the advertised speed in the case of FTTC.\nFiber",
"-23.14219358250739"
],
[
"December 2010, the total number of fiber-to-the-home enabled homes had passed 2.5 million, with more than 348,000 subscribers.)\nIn September 2010, the European Commission published a new \"Recommendation for Regulated Access to NGA Networks\" along with a list of measures to promote deployment of fast broadband and next generation access networks.\nPortugal Telecom plans to complete its fiber-to-the-home nationwide roll out by 2020. Currently 200 mbs down, 100mbs up costs 22 euros per month.\nGoogle Fiber provides speed of up to 1 Gbit/s. FTTP Copper telephone networks built in the 20th century are being replaced by FTTP in most countries. FTTN and FTTC",
"-23.108067762888822"
],
[
"make browsing much faster and simpler. Typically, there is no setup for Web-based Usenet. It is as easy as navigating through a browser to the provider's Web site. Web-based Usenet is especially useful for those who have access to the internet but do not have, or do not know how to set up, a traditional newsreader. Web-based popularity Google Groups was the most popular and by far the largest Web-based Usenet archive (consisting of over 700 million posts dating from as early as 1981) until its advanced search functionality became nonfunctional in February 2015. As of May 2017, Easynews appears",
"-23.05500916991923"
],
[
"it. Etisalat have chosen not to improve their ADSL speeds any further, as they have already started implementing high speed cable connections using fiber optics, which supports speeds up to 500Mbps.",
"-22.862374471875228"
],
[
"was able to establish a 304 km (about 188 mi) link at data rates between 4 and 5 Mbit/s.\nThe company (under its \"Ubiquiti Labs\" brand) also manufactures a home-oriented wireless mesh network router and access point combination as a consumer-level product, called AmpliFi. U-Boot configuration extraction In 2013, it was discovered that there was a security issue in the version of the U-Boot boot loader shipped on Ubiquiti's devices. It was possible to extract the plaintext configuration from the device without leaving a trace using Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and an Ethernet cable, revealing information such as passwords.\nWhile this issue is",
"-22.847257368028295"
],
[
"because those functions require interaction with the host website. The Wayback Machine's web crawler has difficulty extracting anything not coded in HTML or one of its variants, which often results in broken hyperlinks and missing images. Due to this, the web crawler cannot archive \"orphan pages\" that contain no links to other pages. The Wayback Machine's crawler only follows a predetermined number of hyperlinks based on a preset depth limit, so it cannot archive every hyperlink on every page. Netbula LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. In a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc., defendant Chordiant filed a motion",
"-22.833022661934592"
],
[
"a sandbox. The sandbox limits visibility and access to the file-system and to the operating system on the client to the application server on the other side of the connection. This approach allows the client system to handle local activities, reformatting and so forth, thereby lowering the amount and frequency of client-server traffic, especially versus client-server implementations built around so-called thin clients. HTML5 trend In November 2011, there were a number of announcements that demonstrated a decline in demand for rich internet application architectures based on plug-ins in order to favor HTML5 alternatives. Adobe announced that Flash would no longer",
"-22.830885176434094"
],
[
"ribbon cable serve to reduce crosstalk (signal carrying conductors inducing signals in nearby conductors), but there is no empirical evidence of rounding cables reducing performance. This may be because the length of the cable is short enough so that the effect of crosstalk is negligible. Problems usually arise when the cable is not electromagnetically protected and the length is considerable, a more frequent occurrence with older network cables.\nThese computer cables can then be cable tied to the chassis or other cables to further increase airflow.\nThis is less of a problem with new computers that use Serial ATA which has a",
"-22.70717562123673"
],
[
"cable separately. It has a web upload speed of 48kbit/s.",
"-22.553916810398732"
],
[
"The desktop application however, is exempted from uploading files greater than 2GB in size. Amazon Drive streaming is not available for videos longer than 20 minutes or larger than 2 GB, but these can be stored in Amazon Drive to download and watch offline. Unlike other popular file hosting services, Amazon Drive does not offer file-syncing or automatic backup in Web, so users cannot have the latest desktop version of all their documents and images. Also, shared documents cannot be collaborated with others, but can only be downloaded for editing. However, mobile applications support automatic backup capabilities.\nThe service limits the",
"-22.512671252838118"
],
[
"27018:2014 security and privacy standard, which confirmed that Google would not use data in Drive for Work accounts for advertising, enabled additional tools for handling and exporting data, more transparency about data storage, and protection from third-party data requests.\nIn March 2017, Google introduced Drive File Stream, making it possible for G Suite customers on Windows and macOS computers to search their Drive folders and download specific files on-demand rather than downloading all files during installation, potentially preventing large amounts of data from \"gobbling up your hard drive\". Additionally, the feature guesses what files users need in the future and downloads",
"-22.511673453553158"
],
[
"sent until another transfer can be initiated. This reduces bus occupancy, meaning that nothing is sent for considerable fractions of bus time. A gap every 23 frames is not noticeable, but a gap every three frames can be very costly to throughput.\nAs USB has become faster, devices have also become hungrier for data and so there is now demand for sending large amounts of data - either to be stored on the device, or be relayed over wireless links (see 3GPP Long Term Evolution).\nSince the new devices, although faster than before, are still much lower in power than desktop PCs,",
"-22.32905555257912"
],
[
"Ease of printing a web page depends on its length: longer web pages are harder to print, as the user will not know the number of sheets of paper required.\nClickbait makes printing a web page difficult, as the printed version contains ads. This issue can be overcome using browser extensions such as Print Friendly & PDF in Google Chrome.",
"-22.303975596663804"
],
[
"Fiber to the x Fiber to the x (FTTX) (also spelled Fibre to the x) or fiber in the loop is a generic term for any broadband network architecture using optical fiber to provide all or part of the local loop used for last mile telecommunications. As fiber optic cables are able to carry much more data than copper cables, especially over long distances, copper telephone networks built in the 20th century are being replaced by fiber.\nFTTX is a generalization for several configurations of fiber deployment, arranged into two groups: FTTP/FTTH/FTTB (Fiber laid all the way to the premises/home/building) and",
"-22.269692569138897"
],
[
"interface clients. Mobile interface support is also offered by clients such as Transmission.\nSeedboxes on high-speed networks are typically able to download large files within minutes, provided that the swarm can actually handle such a high upload bandwidth. Seedboxes generally have download and upload speeds of 100 Mbit/s. This means that a 1 GB file can finish downloading in under two minutes. That same 1 GB file can be uploaded to other users in the same amount of time, creating a 1:1 share ratio for that individual file. The ability to transfer files so quickly makes them very attractive to the P2P communities. Because",
"-22.23998041876075"
],
[
"had visited a Web site, 13% said they have requested more information about a product or service and 11% said they have gone to a store to check out a product. Accelerated Mobile Pages In the fall of 2015, Google announced it would be rolling out an open source initiative called \"Accelerated Mobile Pages\" or AMP. The goal of this project is to improve the speed and performance of content-rich pages which include video, animations, and graphics. Since the majority of the population now consumes the web through tablets and smartphones, having web pages that are optimized for these products",
"-22.157854558070824"
],
[
"allows users to browse the web on a GPRS connection with any alacrity.\" In 2005, CNET stated that it was impressed with Pocket Surfer's page-load times. Various media outlets conducted live, speed tests on television with competitive products, including some on 3G networks, which resulted in DataWind's Pocket Surfer beating its competition in terms of page download time. Business Model Datawind's business model focuses on providing to entry-level users a cost-effective, web-access device with free Internet access. The company, as a mobile, virtual-network operator (MVNO), purchases wholesale access to mobile data from wireless-network operators or as part of a bundling",
"-22.146566875181634"
],
[
"FlashGot Software A download manager is an app specialized in downloading files from the Internet faster and in a more organized manner. However, not all these apps integrate with Mozilla Firefox. The FlashGot add-in resolves this situation by integrating the download managers into Firefox allowing interoperability.. As of December 2011, FlashGot recognizes and supports 51 different external download managers. When a user chooses to download one or more files, FlashGot offers to send them to the detected download manager. Additionally, FlashGot can detect video embedded in web pages and send their download links to download managers. It supports downloading from the",
"-22.13619973878758"
],
[
"a small number (often one) of relatively slow and congested bottleneck links. Most Internet backbone links are now so fast (e.g. 10 Gbit/s) that their delays are dominated by the transmission medium (e.g. optical fiber) and the routers driving them do not have enough buffering for queuing delays to be significant. Some VoIP providers now offer fiber to the building (FTTB) in order to ensure the highest VoIP call quality, reliability, and service up-time.\nA number of protocols have been defined to support the reporting of quality of service (QoS) and quality of experience (QoE) for VoIP calls. These include RTP Control",
"-22.130792867028504"
],
[
"time consuming and results in more I/O and less free space on the hard drive.\nPostgreSQL's command line utility, psql, also supports loading data from named pipes.",
"-22.119197197789617"
],
[
"new technologies and multimedia for Swisscom, while increasing cash flow and revenue. Expansion under Swisscom In 2008, Fastweb launched connections of up to 100 Mbits/s for small and medium enterprises in areas served by its fiber-optic network, making this connectivity speed available in Italy for the first time. Over the next year, Fastweb signed an agreement with Telecom Italy to promote the development of fiber-optic next-generation networks (NGN) by sharing infrastructures.\nFastweb worked to continue expanding faster service, and in 2010, “Fibra 100” became available to residential consumers, and 2 million homes and businesses had the ability to use the Internet at",
"-22.10921263910768"
],
[
"amplifiers within the system. These factors set an upper limit on per-user information capacity, particularly when many users share a common section of cable or access network. Optical fiber Fiber offers high information capacity and after the turn of the 21st century became the deployed medium of choice (\"Fiber to the x\") given its scalability in the face of the increasing bandwidth requirements of modern applications.\nIn 2004, according to Richard Lynch, Executive Vice President and Chief Technology Officer of the telecom giant Verizon, the company saw the world moving toward vastly higher bandwidth applications as consumers loved everything broadband had",
"-22.107054387644894"
],
[
"was 1.05 Pbit/s.\nIn 2009, Bell Labs broke the 100 (Pbit/s)·km barrier (15.5 Tbit/s over a single 7000 km fiber).\nFor short-distance applications, such as a network in an office building (see FTTO), fiber-optic cabling can save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can carry much more data than electrical cables such as standard category 5 Ethernet cabling, which typically runs at 100 Mbit/s or 1 Gbit/s speeds. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables, and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a",
"-22.0941023922951"
],
[
"This is because the first load has to bring down the framework and the application code before rendering the required view as HTML in the browser. A server-based application just has to push out the required HTML to the browser, reducing the latency and download time. Speeding up the page load There are some ways of speeding up the initial load of an SPA, such as a heavy approach to caching and lazy-loading modules when needed. But it's not possible to get away from the fact that it needs to download the framework, at least some of the application code,",
"-22.077905461218904"
],
[
"massive increases in demand for communications bandwidth due to increased use of the Internet, and commercialization of various bandwidth-intensive consumer services, such as video on demand. Internet protocol data traffic was increasing exponentially, at a faster rate than integrated circuit complexity had increased under Moore's Law. From the bust of the dot-com bubble through 2006, however, the main trend in the industry has been consolidation of firms and offshoring of manufacturing to reduce costs. Companies such as Verizon and AT&T have taken advantage of fiber-optic communications to deliver a variety of high-throughput data and broadband services to consumers' homes.",
"-22.01886610233487"
],
[
"and install fiber-optic cable at far less cost.” The bill is supported by Google.",
"-21.973487701968224"
],
[
"discouraging online usage in users due to the fear of incurring overage charges for any bandwidth consumed once one's data cap has been exceeded. This results in further difficulties for low income families and minority groups regarding being able to afford and make significant use of high speed internet access at home.\nPlans offered by new entrant ISPs frequently have higher data caps than those offered by incumbent ISPs, with some new entrant plans offering unlimited bandwidth during times of the day when overall network use is lower. Some plans offered by new entrant carriers also feature no data cap at",
"-21.96583448737988"
],
[
"services.\nAs of May 2014, QuickBooks Online had the most subscribers for an online accounting platform, with 624,000 subscribers. compared to Xero, which reported 284,000 customers as of July 2014.\nThe cloud version is a distinct product from the desktop version of QuickBooks, and has many features that work differently than they do in desktop versions.\nIn 2013, Intuit announced that it had rebuilt QuickBooks Online \"from the ground up\" with a platform that allows third parties to create small business applications and gives customers the ability to customize the online version of QuickBooks.\nQuickBooks Online is supported on Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer 10,",
"-21.953530642795158"
],
[
"research study conducted by Forrester Research, online shoppers expected the web pages they visited to download content instantly. When a page fails to load at the expected speed, many of them simply click out. A study found that even a one-second delay could lead to \"11% fewer page views, a 16% decrease in customer satisfaction, and 7% loss in conversions\". This delay can cause a server problem to small innovators who have created new technology. If a website is slow by default, the general public will lose interest and favor a website that runs faster. This helps large corporate companies",
"-21.939948021304872"
],
[
"deep linking are used with libraries like SWFAddress to provide multiple links within Flash websites and web applications. User interface widgets in Flash objects don't always behave like their host native counterparts. Keyboard, mouse and other accessibility shortcuts may not work unless the webpage developer explicitly adds support for it. Search engines Both Flash content and HTML content can be indexed by Google, Yahoo!, and Bing, although bi-directional text (e.g. Arabic, Hebrew) is not supported by Google. Yahoo! added support for indexing Flash sites in 2008, although Google had been able to index them for several years before that. Bing",
"-21.874644792018444"
],
[
"users do data offloading for data service cost control and the availability of higher bandwidth. The main complementary network technologies used for mobile data offloading are Wi-Fi, femtocell and Integrated Mobile Broadcast. It is predicted that mobile data offloading will become a new industry segment due to the surge of mobile data traffic. Mobile data surge Increasing need for offloading solutions is caused by the explosion of Internet data traffic, especially the growing portion of traffic going through mobile networks. This has been enabled by smartphone devices possessing Wi-Fi capabilities together with large screens and different Internet applications, from browsers",
"-21.836924158939837"
],
[
"the Fiber-to-the-x (FTTx) family that includes Fiber-to-the-building or basement (FTTB), Fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP), Fiber-to-the-desk (FTTD), Fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC), and Fiber-to-the-node (FTTN). These methods all bring data closer to the end user on optical fibers. The differences between the methods have mostly to do with just how close to the end user the delivery on fiber comes. All of these delivery methods are similar to hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) systems used to provide cable Internet access.\nThe use of optical fiber offers much higher data rates over relatively longer distances. Most high-capacity Internet and cable television backbones already use fiber optic technology, with data switched",
"-21.829938515856156"
],
[
"(SEA-ME-WE 4) submarine optical fiber cable on Wednesday morning (27 March 2013) has been reported leading to a degradation of internet speed by 60% in several countries including Pakistan and Egypt. A consortium of SEA-ME-WE-4 Cable System is working on the fault but they have not come up with a resolution time for this problem and confirmed nature of fault is yet to be determined\nThree men were arrested for trying to cut the cable near Alexandria.\nThe issue was resolved on the 8 April 2013. 25–28 December 2013 fault Fiber cut in SMW4 segment 3 (Egypt terrestrial path). Slow internet speeds",
"-21.784201258472876"
],
[
"coming weeks and replacing it with Firebase Dynamic Links\" (although existing goo.gl links will continue to function). Advantages The main advantage of a short link is that it is, in fact, short, looks neat and clean and can be easily communicated and entered without error. To a very limited extent it may obscure the destination of the URL, though easily discoverable; this may be advantageous, disadvantageous, or irrelevant. A short link which expires, or can be terminated, has some security advantages. Shortcomings Short URLs often circumvent the intended use of top-level domains for indicating the country of origin; domain registration",
"-21.77795165727548"
],
[
"as an Internet service provider for those using the browser. The Silk browser includes the option to turn off Amazon server-side processing. On July 26, 2016 it was reported that Silk prevents access to Google over HTTPS, but that bug has since been fixed. Name Amazon says \"a thread of silk is an invisible yet incredibly strong connection between two different things\", and thus calls the browser Amazon Silk as it is the connection between Kindle Fire and Amazon's EC2 servers.",
"-21.748808729767006"
],
[
"technique; users' download speed is limited during peak times, if they have downloaded a large amount of data that day.",
"-21.73701720894951"
],
[
"Amazon Silk Architecture For each webpage, Silk decides which browser subsystems (networking, HTML or page rendering) to run locally on the device and which to run remotely on its own Amazon EC2 servers.\nSilk uses Google's SPDY protocol to speed up loading of web pages. Silk gives SPDY performance improvements for non-SPDY optimized websites if the pages are sent through Amazon's servers. Some early reviewers found that cloud-based acceleration did not necessarily improve page loading speed, most notably on faster connections or for simpler web pages.\nSome privacy organizations raised concerns with how Amazon passes Silk traffic via its servers, effectively operating",
"-21.692459045318174"
],
[
"connection, since bettered by a Minneapolis, Minnesota service. Malaysia Telekom Malaysia (TM) officially launched FTTH on 24 March 2010. TM High Speed Broadband (HSBB) was released to end users in stages. The deployment from start to the connection of the first end user to the fiber network took only 18 months, which is the fastest ever in the world. The product name is Unifi and it initially offers speeds of 5, 10 and 20 Mbit/s under the VIP5, VIP10 and VIP20 brand name. The packages were later revised to UniFi Advance (30 and 50Mbit/s) and UniFi Pro (100Mbit/s). The fiber",
"-21.68492743214665"
],
[
"links on every page it finds. It then follows these links to other web pages. New web pages must be linked to from other known pages on the web in order to be crawled and indexed or manually submitted by the webmaster.\nA problem that webmasters with low-bandwidth Web hosting plans have often noted with the Googlebot is that it takes up an enormous amount of bandwidth. This can cause websites to exceed their bandwidth limit and be taken down temporarily. This is especially troublesome for mirror sites which host many gigabytes of data. Google provides \"Search Console\" that allow",
"-21.665527530899453"
],
[
"instead of unaffiliated ones. Many argue that one fast network is much more efficient than deliberately throttling web traffic to create a tiered Internet. AT&T AT&T had a trial in 2008 in Reno, NV which was one of the first cases of tiered service for in-home broadband internet pertaining to the amount of data used. BT Group BT Group, a British telecommunications giant, is now going to charge users of their service extra for faster delivery of content. Meaning that they will not be handling all traffic across their network equally. AT&T AT&T revised their cellular data plans to create",
"-21.65680468141636"
],
[
"unstable countries and unreliable overland transit networks.\nCurrently, internet traffic bounded from South Africa to the Americas routes through Europe. The SAex cable if constructed, will reduce latency and bandwidth costs associated with the distance that internet traffic currently has to travel by providing the shortest route possible from South Africa to the Americas. The initial design capacity of the cable is 40 TBit/s and will be over 10,000 kilometres in length (7,400 km from South Africa to Brazil and 3,000 km from Cape Town to Mtunzini). It will consist of four fibre pairs, each capable of carrying 10 TBit/s of data using",
"-21.656170782620393"
],
[
"in over 120 days, it would not be reactivated. The company stated that they had decided to focus Fastmail as a \"premium brand\" with only paid accounts.\nWhen first established, the service was intended to differentiate itself through providing features that were not yet available from other market players. Early on, this included the ease and speed of email transport and access, personalities and IMAP and SSL support, and an independent public forum and wiki among user support options. Over the years, these features became commonplace, but features such as WebDAV, secure LDAP, opportunistic inter-server encryption, reliability via minimization of",
"-21.656088030920728"
],
[
"bandwidth is shared between both the mesh links and client access, further reducing the end to end traffic available.",
"-21.628565270854324"
],
[
"up to 45,000 properties with a further 60,000, bringing the total fibre network to 105,000 properties by 2017.\nKCOM's Fibre to the premises product, Lightstream, requires a new fibre-optic cable be laid to each premises that is terminated inside the home in an ONT. A router is then plugged into the ONT to distribute the service throughout the home. As of April 2015, the service offers software limited speeds of up to 250Mbit/s downstream bandwidth. Due to delivery being FTTH greater speeds are a formality and fuelled by market expectation and not network restriction.\nThis led to Hull gaining a reputation for",
"-21.61480943728725"
],
[
"handsets), to have full access to the cloud, thereby making these devices appear to be as large as there is data available in the cloud. Criticism Slow broadband connection speeds can make streaming large files, such as movies to mobile and other remote devices difficult.\nWhile ZumoDrive encrypts transport of all content with 256-bit SSL, and stores that content encrypted on Amazon S3 servers, that content is still accessible to ZumoDrive administrators.",
"-21.61224678448707"
],
[
"speed and distance limits are 100 Mbit/s for distances up to 2 km (100BASE-FX), 1 Gbit/s up to 1000 m, and 10 Gbit/s up to 550 m.\nBecause of its high capacity and reliability, multi-mode optical fiber generally is used for backbone applications in buildings. An increasing number of users are taking the benefits of fiber closer to the user by running fiber to the desktop or to the zone. Standards-compliant architectures such as Centralized Cabling and fiber to the telecom enclosure offer users the ability to leverage the distance capabilities of fiber by centralizing electronics in telecommunications rooms, rather than having active electronics on each",
"-21.59895054892786"
],
[
"URL shortening services filter their links through bad-site screening services such as Google Safe Browsing. Many sites that accept user-submitted content block links, however, to certain domains in order to cut down on spam, and for this reason, known URL redirection services are often themselves added to spam blacklists.\nAnother privacy problem is that many services' shortened URL format is small enough that it is vulnerable to brute-force search. Many people use URL shorteners when they share links to private content, and in fact many web services like Google Maps have offered automatic generation of shortened links for driving directions",
"-21.574950125685973"
],
[
"email, and if the recipient also has Google Trips, the information will be automatically available in their apps as well. History Google has supported secure HTTPS since the day it launched. In the beginning, it was only default on the login page, a reason that Google engineer Ariel Rideout stated was because HTTPS made \"your mail slower\". However, users could manually switch to secure HTTPS mode inside the inbox after logging in. In July 2008, Google simplified the ability to manually enable secure mode, with a toggle in the settings menu.\nIn 2007, Google fixed a cross-site scripting security issue that",
"-21.57356472882202"
],
[
"to wait for another complete disk revolution before reading could be performed.\nHowever, because interleaving introduces intentional physical delays between blocks of data thereby lowering the data rate, setting the interleave to a ratio higher than required causes unnecessary delays for equipment that has the performance needed to read sectors more quickly. The interleaving ratio was therefore usually chosen by the end-user to suit their particular computer system's performance capabilities when the drive was first installed in their system.\nModern technology is capable of reading data as fast as it can be obtained from the spinning platters, so hard drives usually have",
"-21.560272349793195"
],
[
"breaking CRTC policy by not \"indicat[ing] that there are circumstances whereby the Rogers ITMP will also affect download speeds available to subscribers.\"\n Despite the letter from the CRTC, Rogers still had not updated their policy pages as of February 4, 2011, and continued throttling all non-whitelisted internet traffic (no longer just P2P) for up to 15 minutes after P2P had been disabled. Several games had been caught up in this more restrictive throttling as Rogers was incorrectly detecting them as P2P, and had also been slow to fix it despite offers of assistance from customers, and game manufacturers.\nOn",
"-21.556348102368247"
],
[
"product innovations. Based on a patent portfolio of 14 US and international patents, DataWind's technology accelerates the delivery of web-content across wireless networks, and reduces data consumption by a factor of ten.\nDatawind's acceleration and data-reduction is accomplished through the use of proprietary algorithms on its application servers, which constitute a gateway between the primary (Internet-based) content server, selected by the user, and the end user.\nDatawind claims that its patented, acceleration technology allows its devices to deliver the fastest, mobile-web experience across cellular networks. A product review by PC Magazine of the Pocket Surfer stated that \"it’s the only device that",
"-21.540755585486295"
],
[
"that '\"cable company does not offe[r] its customers high-speed Internet access because it offers that access only in conjunction with particular applications and functions, rather than ‘separate[ly], ‘as a stand alone offering.’”",
"-21.535608455554268"
],
[
"over a greater distance, but SEA-ME-WE 4 provides far higher data transmission speeds intended to accommodate increasing demand for high-speed internet access in developing countries. Technologies The cable uses dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM), allowing for increased communications capacity per fibre compared to fibres carrying non-multiplexed signals and also facilitates bidirectional communication within a single fibre. DWDM does this by multiplexing different wavelengths of laser light on a single optical fibre so that multiple optical carrier signals can be concurrently transmitted along that fibre. Two fibre pairs are used with each pair able to carry 64 carriers at 10 Gbit/s each. This",
"-21.52686794287274"
],
[
"most users, and online connectivity was rare and expensive. Download of large files (then considered to be over a few megabytes) was nearly impossible due to bandwidth limitations, as well as frequent errors and lost connections. The original FTP specification did not allow for a session to be resumed, and the transmission had to restart from the beginning.\nFTPmail gateways allowed people to retrieve such files. The file was broken into smaller pieces and encoded using a popular format such as uuencode. The receiver of the email messages would later reassemble the original file and decode it. As the file was",
"-21.501798410145057"
],
[
"of the USB system without the need for users to calculate cable lengths or enforce technical rules.\nThe intention of USB is to make sure any standard-compliant cable can be used to connect any two compatible devices, and the connection will work, without question. To this end, the USB standard limits the maximum length of any compliant (and thus logo-bearing) USB cable (to about 15 feet), and up to this length, users are expected to buy a longer cable rather than extending a shorter one they already have. For a longer cable length, a USB hub is required. ",
"-21.49166231804884"
],
[
"own fibre optic cables.\nIf customers are not in a fibre optic area they can take up Virgin's ADSL broadband which offers speeds of around 20Mbit/s almost every area in Northern Ireland are able to get this service as it uses the telephone lines rented of BT to provide the service.",
"-21.435195298107146"
],
[
"inside data centers. Conventional PCI-E data cables carry data at up to eight gigabits per second, while networking cables reach 40 Gbit/s. The latest version of the USB standard tops out at ten Gbit/s. The technology does not directly replace existing cables in that it requires a separate circuit board to interconvert electrical and optical signals. Its advanced speed offers the potential of reducing the number of cables that connect blades on a rack and even of separating processor, storage and memory into separate blades to allow more efficient cooling and dynamic configuration.\nGraphene photodetectors have the potential to surpass germanium devices",
"-21.418644964893247"
],
[
"This fiber supports multi mode communication and doesn't support single mode communication. The fiber end is connected with the transceiver device called Small form-factor pluggable transceiver.\nThe companies working to define the specification include Ericsson\nAB, Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd, NEC Corporation,\nAlcatel Lucent and Nokia.",
"-21.39896026480757"
],
[
"broken into smaller pieces, the chances of losing the transmission was much smaller. In case of loss of connectivity, the transmission could be restarted from that part. The process was slower but much more reliable. It also allowed people who accessed the Internet only through email using dial-up lines to download files that were located remotely. Unlike FTP, files could be transferred through FTPmail even if the user did not have an online Internet connection (for example, using BBSes or other specialized e-mail software).\nServers located at universities, such as ftpmail@sunsite.unc.edu and bitftp@pucc.princeton.edu, were popular. Some of these servers hosted software",
"-21.398633073875317"
],
[
"the time taken to access the page, and also the risk of failure, since the shortening service may become unavailable. Another operational limitation of URL shortening services is that browsers do not resend POST bodies when a redirect is encountered. This can be overcome by making the service a reverse proxy, or by elaborate schemes involving cookies and buffered POST bodies, but such techniques present security and scaling challenges, and are therefore not used on extranets or Internet-scale services.",
"-21.398267334810953"
],
[
"combined with the small size of the contacts, prevented connections in some cases. Also, the plug's 'hook' tended to lose its hooking capability, making it even easier to accidentally lose connection. The data cables had to be original in most cases.",
"-21.38814044720857"
],
[
"Europe India Gateway Organization and owners It is about 15,000 kilometres long. It is capable of delivering up to 3.84 terabits per second. The cable system is built by both Alcatel-Lucent and TE Subcom (Formerly known as Tyco) and was scheduled to be completed in the second quarter of 2010. The EIG is the first direct high-bandwidth optical fibre system from Britain to India.\nThe cable system was invested in by 18 companies, including: AT&T; Bharti Airtel; BT Group; Cable & Wireless Worldwide; Djibouti Telecom; Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Co. (du); Gibtelecom; IAM; Libyan Post Telecommunications & Information Technology Company; Mauritius Telecom;",
"-21.377969620216618"
],
[
"a website was crawled and when it became available for viewing in the Wayback Machine. Currently, the lag time is 3 to 10 hours. The Wayback Machine offers only limited search facilities. Its \"Site Search\" feature allows users to find a site based on words describing the site, rather than words found on the web pages themselves.\nThe Wayback Machine does not include every web page ever made due to the limitations of its web crawler. The Wayback Machine cannot completely archive web pages that contain interactive features such as Flash platforms and forms written in JavaScript and progressive web applications,",
"-21.30147535197466"
],
[
"a Wi-Fi router. This enables both wired and wireless computers to access the USB hard drive and use it for storage or for retrieving files a user needs to share on the network thereby acting like a cloud.\nThe challenge for the home-made cloud is that in order to set it up a user has to have a certain degree of skills in technology and network setup. This solution is not for novices and average consumers. If this setup is not done by a tech expert the biggest issue will be security and leaving the files accessible to anyone with technical",
"-21.275712633218063"
],
[
"bright-red party balloon to an outside wall of their property in order to connect to the network.\nThe technology designed in the project could allow countries to avoid using expensive fiber cable that would have to be installed underground to allow users to connect to the Internet. Alphabet feels this will greatly increase Internet usage in developing countries in regions such as Africa and Southeast Asia that can't afford to lay underground fiber cable. Equipment The balloon envelopes used in the project are made by Raven Aerostar, and are composed of polyethylene plastic about 0.076 mm (0.0030 in) thick. The balloons are superpressure",
"-21.273373120478027"
],
[
"without having to replace everything and deploy new hardware.\nMost backbone installations install more cabling or fiber optic pairs than is initially necessary, even if they have no immediate need for the additional cabling. This is done because labor costs are higher than the cost of the cable, and running extra cable reduces future labor costs if networking needs change. Link aggregation can allow the use of these extra cables to increase backbone speeds for little or no extra cost if ports are available. Order of frames When balancing traffic, network administrators often wish to avoid reordering Ethernet frames. For example,",
"-21.26761802211786"
],
[
"shortening services, such as goo.gl, tinyurl.com, and bit.ly can generate URLs that are human-readable, although the resulting strings are longer than those generated by a length-optimized service. Finally, URL shortening sites provide detailed information on the clicks a link receives, which can be simpler than setting up an equally powerful server-side analytics engine, and unlike the latter, does not require any access to the server.\nURLs encoded in two dimensional barcodes such as QR code are often shortened by a URL shortener in order to reduce the printed area of the code, or allow printing at lower density in order to",
"-21.267276555307944"
],
[
"at the IP layer or using Web proxies to intercept and filter HTTP and HTTPS requests to websites that are not kid safe. This type of solution is difficult to implement as much of the web is moving to HTTPS, so it does not have a high efficiency.",
"-21.25055254603194"
],
[
"having dropped out a second time and not coming back.\nGoogle has used a sneakernet to transport large datasets, such as the 120 TB of data from the Hubble Space Telescope. Users of Google Cloud can import their data into Google Cloud Storage through sneakernet.\nThe SETI@home project uses a sneakernet to overcome bandwidth limitations: data recorded by the radio telescope in Arecibo, Puerto Rico is stored on magnetic tapes which are then shipped to Berkeley, California for processing. In 2005, Jim Gray reported sending hard drives and even \"metal boxes with processors\" to transport large amounts of data by postal",
"-21.244272052481392"
],
[
"homes by 2025, using fibre to the premises (FTTP) technology.\nIn June 2017 Openreach demonstrated its version of G.fast technology, using \"side pods\" that can be bolted on to existing cabinets to offer potential UK broadband speeds of up to 100Mbit/s. The technology is designed for distances of less than 500 metres between the cabinet and the property, and is cheaper to implement than FTTP because it does not involve laying fibre cables, although its maximum speed capacity is less than FTTP. Openreach proposed making G.fast-enabled broadband available to 12 million premises by 2020. By June 2018 G.fast technology had been",
"-21.239752300447435"
],
[
"the application. For example, when copying data from an optical drive to a hard drive (such as during software installation), this effect probably will not matter. Such jobs are necessarily limited by the speed of the optical drive no matter where it is. But if the hard drive in question is also expected to provide good throughput for other tasks at the same time, it probably should not be on the same cable as the optical drive. HDD passwords and security ATA devices may support an optional security feature which is defined in an ATA specification, and thus not specific",
"-21.225410410986115"
],
[
"it: \"the flash-sale website is straining to hold on to customers and realizing it may have inundated shoppers with too many deals\". Although revenue was up 29% in the first quarter of 2015 compared to the prior year, that was less of a huge increase than the 52% shown for the last quarter of 2014 compared to one year earlier, leading the company to lower its estimate of anticipated revenues in 2015.\nAlthough the web site for the company says they hold no inventory, in 2015 they began to hold some merchandise in warehouses to shorten the time for delivery. The",
"-21.215702820949446"
],
[
"Mobile data offloading Mobile data offloading is the use of complementary network technologies for delivering data originally targeted for cellular networks. Offloading reduces the amount of data being carried on the cellular bands, freeing bandwidth for other users. It is also used in situations where local cell reception may be poor, allowing the user to connect via wired services with better connectivity.\nRules triggering the mobile offloading action can be set by either an end-user (mobile subscriber) or an operator. The code operating on the rules resides in an end-user device, in a server, or is divided between the two. End",
"-21.21055191796222"
],
[
"is lightly licensed which can be more accessible to more providers to provide such services.\nThere had been some early adopters of the hybrid fiber-wireless approach to provide Gbit/s services to customers. One of those ISP's was Webpass, a company founded in 2003 in San Francisco as a wireless ISP focusing on buildings in big cities. Since then, Webpass had been increasing the speeds along with improved wireless technologies. By 2015, Webpass offered 1 Gbit/s connections to commercial customers, however, the residential customers were limited to speeds of up to 500 Mbit/s to share the 1 Gbit/s wireless link among many",
"-21.17871318869993"
],
[
"attached to one of the sides. Additionally, Apple 10BASE2 cables would terminate the network if no device was attached to them. Thus the number of mistakes that could be made hooking up a thinnet network was reduced considerably. Since any of these mistakes would disable the network in an area this was a significant improvement.\nFriendlyNet equipment was quite expensive and even third-party AAUI transceivers were rather expensive. Because of this, Apple's computers, which were billed as having built-in Ethernet, were actually rather expensive to connect to Ethernet, perhaps adding as much as 10% to the total price of the computer",
"-21.17439969079288"
],
[
"speeds.\nFTTO should not be confused with fibre to the desk (FTTD), which is a concept for structured cabling that is found mostly in military environments as a secure communication technology. Benefits Due to the signal transfer qualities of fibre and its electromagnetic interference (EMI) resilience, signals can be transferred over distances longer than 100 m (100 m is the channel limit in traditional structured cabling networks).\nMulti-mode fibre cabling covers distances of up to 550 m and single-mode of up to 10 km for Gigabit Ethernet and more. This is ideal for large, spatially distributed facilities typically found in public administration, universities, hospitals, airports, shopping",
"-21.169857340147246"
],
[
"significantly lowered the cost of transmitting information. Reflecting this, the mid-1990s saw the network industry such as Yahoo, Google and Rakuten appear one after the other. Optical fiber communications has progressed and the Internet has developed, and instantaneous transmission of a large volume of knowledge is now a daily occurrence. In 2018, the Internet population reached 39 Billions, 52% of world population.\nIn the electrical communication era of the 1960s, large volumes of data, such as documents on which civilization depend on, were circulated slowly in forms such as books. In contrast, the proliferation of high-capacity and long-distance optical fiber communications",
"-21.071167301173773"
],
[
"URL shortening Purposes There are several reasons to use URL shortening. Often regular unshortened links may be aesthetically unpleasing. Many web developers pass descriptive attributes in the URL to represent data hierarchies, command structures, transaction paths or session information. This can result in URLs that are hundreds of characters long and that contain complex character patterns. Such URLs are difficult to memorize, type out or distribute. As a result, long URLs must be copied and pasted for reliability. Thus, short URLs may be more convenient for websites or hard copy publications (e.g. a printed magazine or a",
"-21.064564287345092"
],
[
"the level. In-app purchases make play easier. Cut the Rope Cut the Rope premiered on October 4, 2010 for iOS. A native (HD) version for the iPad was released on October 6, 2010. This was followed by the release of a free version with fewer levels for each device, called Cut the Rope Lite and Cut the Rope HD Lite respectively. Nine days after its initial release, the game had been purchased one million times and rose to the top of the App Store's charts. According to Chillingo, this made it the fastest-selling iOS game to reach that number of",
"-21.014610429589084"
],
[
"longer. This feature is named as High-Speed Channel and allows Xunlei users retrieve data faster than others. But only paying users have access to these servers and download files.",
"-21.009781916882275"
],
[
"benefit from this by gaining more targeted advertising and deals, but most are harmed by the lack of privacy. As the world of technology grows, consumers are more and more in risk of losing privacy. Applications Clickstreams can be used to allow the user to see where they have been and allow them to easily return to a page they have already visited, a function that is already incorporated in most browsers. Clickstream can display the specific time and position that individuals browsed and closed the website, all the web pages they viewed, the duration they spent on each page",
"-21.008026567413708"
],
[
"the short-seller either closes out the position or borrows the shares.\nIt is difficult to measure how often naked short selling occurs. Fails to deliver are not necessarily indicative of naked shorting, and can result from both \"long\" transactions (stock purchases) and short sales. Naked shorting can be invisible in a liquid market, as long as the short sale is eventually delivered to the buyer. However, if the covers are impossible to find, the trades fail. Fail reports are published regularly by the SEC, and a sudden rise in the number of fails-to-deliver will alert the SEC to the possibility",
"-20.994415936414953"
],
[
"when the user is able to cross with ONLY other hidden liquidity that is also not represented on the market. In other words, the user has a tradeoff: reduce the speed of execution by crossing with only dark liquidity or increase it and increase their market impact. Adverse selection One potential problem with crossing networks is the so-called winner's curse. Fulfillment of an order implies that the seller actually had more liquidity behind their order than the buyer. If the seller was making many small orders across a long period of time, this would not be relevant. However, when",
"-20.99257197003135"
],
[
"that trades compression throughput for very high ratios and higher decompression throughput.",
"-20.992396844752875"
],
[
"for additional usage after the 100% warning for exceeding their limit. The overcharge fees are charged on a per-gigabyte basis, rounded down to the nearest gigabyte. Overage costs as low as $0.50 for the high-end Ultimate plan, but costs as much as $4.00 for the low-end Lite plan. All plans except for Lite are DOCSIS 3.0 compatible. Fibre Internet (FTTH) Rogers confirmed that it is using fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) to power a new broadband service tier that provides upload and download speeds of up to 350Mbit/s (symmetric). The tier, called Rogers Ultimate Fibre Internet, is currently available only in",
"-20.955324436330557"
]
] |
21t83f | as someone from the UK, I have no idea why obamacare has been getting so much hate. explain. | [
"Obamacare mandates that you buy healthcare insurance, or apply for free coverage from the government if you're poor enough or old enough to qualify. It gives subsidies based on income. Long story short, there are a lot of Americans who think that the free market is the best solution to all problems - healthcare included. They view Obamacare as evil for two reasons: 1) it forces you to purchase something against your will, and 2) it runs contrary to free market principles. Many (most?) of these people also tend believe that healthcare in the US is significantly superior to that which exists in the UK/Canada/Switzerland/etc.. Thus, any move toward a European model is viewed as a degradation of current services.",
"If you understand what \"obamacare\" is, you might understand the opposition. It's NOT government medical service (like NHS). It's NOT government medical insurance (like Canada). It's NOT free market medicine. IT IS mandatory purchase of private insurance (racket). In essence it's the worst of all worlds. Not to mention, it was imposed upon the US in abnormal circumstances, without actual debate or public scrutiny. It mandates millions of new customers to wealthy medical insurance companies, and results in significantly higher premiums. It does not address the rising prices of medical services, it makes it the law you must pay for them, and if you don't you must pay more tax. (though currently the law does not include prison for failure to pay those new taxes, you can bet in short order that it will include \"criminal\" sentences in the near future.) So, it boils down to this, people who like \"Obamacare\" don't know what it actually is (or they might be evil). People who oppose it, can do math.",
"In general people don't like it for several reasons: 1. Congress passed the law and President Obama signed it without allowing the public to read the law. This isn't necessarily unprecedented but it riles folks up anyway. 2. Congress passed the law using the reconciliation process. Normally an important bill needs at least 60 votes in the senate to pass, but the senate used a special process to pass the bill with 51 votes instead. It was a very shady, underhanded way to get the law passed. (This is very ELI5 - there's a lot more to it) 3. Many Americans are inherently distrustful of government, especially the federal government. It's something that's ingrained in our culture. Many of us don't even trust the government to handle basic government services due to personal experiences, so trusting them with anything to do with something so intimate (healthcare) is not easy for Americans. 4. For many people, especially small business owners who make a decent income, their existing plans were cancelled due to the new regulations, and the new healthcare plans that match the new regulations are often more costly. I'm at work and out of time for the moment, but there are so many more reasons. It's not 100% bad, but it's not the right solution.",
"Its really really expensive. I don't qualify for any tax credits and for my family of four it's two fucking thousand dollars a month. TWO FUCKING THOUSAND DOLLARS!",
"I'm from New Zealand, so I'm just looking at it as an outside observer, but I can completely understand why the idea of a universal healthcare system mightn't be incredibly attractive to an American. You're from the UK, right; how would you feel if the NHS was abolished, and suddenly your healthcare was the responsibility of the European Commission? I'm not saying a publicly-funded healthcare system isn't a good idea. I actually think quite the opposite. But I don't see what's stopping individual states from implementing their own system that best suits their own set of circumstances. I also think it would be a lot easier to sell that solution, specifically tailored to the people of one state, instead to trying to satisfy the whole country with a one-size-fits-all progamme. Would an American be able to explain why none of the states have done this? (I understand Massachusetts had some kind of reform, but it was more along the lines of 'mandated healthcare insurance', à la Obamacare.)",
"As someone who opposes Obamacare (but doesn't hate it, just dislikes it very strongly) I'll try explaining. Insurance is all about spreading risk. Some people will end up getting more money than the insurance costs, and some people will pay in more money than they get out. This is how it works for all insurance. Healthcare insurance is difficult to do because of this. Generally speaking, young people will pay in more money than they get out, and old people less, simply from the fact that old people get sicker than young people. All insurance plans account for this fact, which is why large age diverse groups generally have lower costs (and why large employers can often provide healthcare where small ones can't - obviously not true in all cases). In a market where people are forced to buy in, what you get is essentially a tax on young people. Since they are not getting as much out of their insurance as they put in, they'd be better of not having it and saving the money instead, or doing what they please with it. This is why Obama has been so focused on signing up young people - because, for lack of a better phrase, they're the ones it screws over. Now Americans are generally opposed to the government making decisions for you, regardless of whether they are beneficial for yourself or not. And now the government is forcing people to make a decision that is very clearly detrimental to themselves - simply because it is good for a government program as a whole. In essence the healthcare law falls on young people disproportionately, and for very obvious reasons - young people don't vote as often as old people do. In a country where everyone is supposed to be equal in the eyes of the law, the healthcare act is specifically attempting to force through legal means to get young people to make decisions against their interest. I hope this explains this a bit better in a clearly argued way. I know it isn't popular, but besides the crazy pundits who just rage against Obamacare, there are good arguments against it. I'm much less opposed to national insurance programs - which are funded by taxation, which falls on people much more evenly (or at least falls on those that can most afford it, rather than young people who can't). Thanks for reading",
"1) Lobbyists from the insurance industry wrote the law, and the law says that you must purchase a product from said insurance industry. Many people find this objectionable. 2) The law was passed with no bipartisan support; the Democrats said \"we win, you lose, deal with it\" to 50% of America. This is polarizing, and generally a bad way to get things done. 3) President Obama lied about it in order to pass it, then again to win a second term in office. He said he would not raise taxes on middle class families (the \"Individual Mandate\" [see point 1] was determined to be a tax by the US Surpreme Court), and he also said that if you like your insurance plan, you can keep your insurance plan (a statement that he knew was false, yet repeated several times). Add on top of all of this: the fact that the implementation of the program was extremely \"sloppy\", and that President Obama is delaying / modifying / not implementing parts of the law on a whim (seemingly for political gain), instead of going to Congress (as the Constitution requires him to do) makes many people wary of the program. **In summary, people are being forced to buy something, despite wide public opposition, and they're not only NOT receiving the service that was promised, it's being delivered in an embarassing and legally dubious way.**",
"Because it didn't improve the current situation. It made healthcare more expensive for those who have to purchase it themselves. Because they were stuck on the private industry profit-driven model, and no controls or limits were placed on prices, the insurance companies decided that since everyone _has_ to purchase from them anyhow, there's no reason to lower the price. It's a horrifyingly murdered version of the free market, where demand is locked in at 100%, so the providers are free to charge any price, and make as much profit as they want. I truly can't imagine a worse way to provide healthcare.",
"Obamacare is nothing like healthcare in Europe. Obamacare is not a (Universal healthcare)[ URL_0 ] It doesn't protect people that earn less than 17k. URL_1 > 90% health insurance coverage Most of the healthcare options are terrible in obamacare. I've seen that deductibles are very high, copayments are high, and broze plans require coinsurance of 30-40% payed out of your pocket. My family got the flu, and we payed about $600 in cash for the care and medicine. I don't see the point of the insurance because we're paying about $300 per month. **TL;DR** Obamacare is like paying for a nonexistant expensive german car.",
"Because Obamacare is just a massive blowjob for the insurance industry. They should something like medicare for all. Not the crap they pushed. It does nothing to bring down costs as they said it would.",
"We had health insurance through work. We aren't rich, but above average income earners (so pretty solidly middle class). Our monthly rate for insurance was good and affordable, and our deductibles were reasonable. For the kid I'm about to have, we would have paid about $200 total (for hospital visit) and everything else was covered 100%. Since our plan changed Jan 1st to go along with the new obamacare plan, that $200 will now be a minimum of $2300 just for me - $300 deductible and $2000 max out of pocket for me as an individual since my services are now only covered at 80%. I'm certain I will reach this maximum amount for myself since insurance has become more \"affordable\" but they seemed to have forgotten to make the cost of healthcare affordable and just the hospital visit will run 40k or more (I've already paid out about $1000 out of pocket and I haven't even had the baby yet). If the baby needs care that's another potential $2300 and then I will hit my max cap for the year of $600 deductible for family and $4000 out of pocket for whole family before everything (should) be covered at 100%. So, from $200 to a potential of $4600 just for this one medical event. This will repeat every year depending on what medical issues we have, some years we may not pay much but it will almost certainly be a lot more than we ever had to pay before. Plus our monthly rate has increased. Now, if we had to buy on the exchange in my state? Would be absolutely unaffordable for our family without some serious lifestyle changes. We make too much to qualify for much in subsidies but not enough to actually afford it. Other states have better exchanges but ours basically has one single company that is on it (but others you can buy from individually outside the exchange). If they had actually made the cost of health services affordable it might not be so bad, and our plan is not terrible in comparison to others who now pay $500 a month and end up with 10k deductibles. Being from the UK, your healthcare isn't something you know you pay for monthly, you are used to it being part of your taxes. I know my taxes pay for roads but I don't think each month \"ok, I've paid $25 towards roads this month\". This is a big addition to monthly expenses for most people instead of an assumed expense that's already rolled in and adjusted for in lifestyle. It's a huge change and hit on many peoples income - the very people who didn't have a lot of extra income in the first place. You may be less likely to go into millions of debt for medical care but the people that happens to are a small minority compared to EVERYONE now having their monthly income reduced. Ok, not everyone, but I'd hazard a vast majority are feeling a decent to large hit because of the new plans.",
"There are a litany of issues at play. In the interest of ELI5, let me try to break them down clearly: 1. Some people believe that the Affordable Care Act (so-called Obamacare) is an attempt to move us towards a socialized system. Those people often equate socialism with evil and are mad. 2. Some people believe that the USA can not afford the ACA so they are mad. 3. Some people believe the American system has played out very well and that we have the best doctors and services in the world. They view they ACA as a measure that will send good doctors packing, so they are mad. 4. Some people were happy not having health insurance and didn't want to be forced to buy it, so they are mad. 5. Some people just hate anything Obama says, ACA included, so they are mad. 6. Some people wanted to propose it first and Obama beat them to the punch. They can no longer claim this as their victory, so they are mad. Edit: Also, its important to understand the political landscape right now. Fighting between the Democrats and Republicans (the 2 major parties in our system) has become very bitter. Anything one side is for, the other side is staunchly against. This creates a situation where one party is feeding the media one opinion staunchly pro-ACA, and the other is feeding it just the opposite.",
"Because it is NOT what it was pitched to be. The ACA was supposedly going to be universal, affordable healthcare - it is not. It is nothing like the NHS. You are still buying insurance at high rates from private insurance companies. You still have all the same private insurance bullsht- deductibles, copays, etc. It does very little to bring down the absolutely staggering cost of US healthcare (over 2x as high as the next highest per capita healthcare cost country, France). It may have started our as a good idea, but it was gutted by insurance companies and special interest groups (lobbyists). The plan ultimately was not written for the people- it was constructed by the private insurance companies. There is no single payer (the most critical part for affordable coverage) entity and so, it is basically shit - a way for insurance companies to get more $$ - a single payer was really the only thing that mattered, but it got removed after Kstreet got their money-grubbing paws on it.",
"\"you will be able to keep your plan.....Period\" -- President Obama",
"When Obamacare was being introduced, President Obama repeatedly promised that for those who already had healthcare that worked for them, nothing would change. \"If you like your doctor/ insurance plan, you can keep it.\" But when it got rolling, that turned out to be not true at all. Suddenly their insurance plans were being cancelled and their premiums were significantly increased, while their plans were downgraded, and doctors they had been with for years were no longer available to them.",
"There are two main schools of thought in economics. Capitalism and socialism. Either every man for himself, or we all pool our resources and divide them evenly. The problem is, Obamacare is **neither**. It's a product of insurance companies and their lobbies getting together and putting together legislation the *requires* everyone to *buy* health insurance. It was a very clever and well orchestrated cash grab by American insurers to sell more insurance.",
"Enough about ACA, let's talk about this scam they call \"Insurance\". I would rather get some medicaid and have my taxes raised than give my money to those Insurance Cartels!!",
"It has very little to do with healthcare and is about a government power grab.",
"Free healthcare does not equal universal healthcare. The biggest issue I see is that many private insurance premiums cost much, much less than Obamacare, especially for younger, healthy Americans. ANY insurane is principled upon some people paying more while others pay less. We all share a fixed premium, but some will use insurance benefits more than others. Where this screws Obamacare is that the young, healthy Americans (who offset the cost for the older, sicker ones) can typically just go buy a better plan for pennies on the dollar. That leaves the older, sicker group left with higher rates and still stuck on a basic Obama plan. Picture you're getting a group discount for buying hotels. You also get a free upgrade with the group. But then a significant chunk of your party just buys through Expedia or Priceline and gets a smoking deal. Because of your scenario, you can't buy online so you're stuck with (a) not getting the group rate and (b) not getting the upgraded room. That's the biggest flaw with Obamacare. The healthy don't want it and the sick are left with nothing but higher rates and worse care. Ask yourself this- if Obamacare was really THAT amazing, why aren't all the leaches in Washington signing up? Like it or not, America IS a free market economy. If you hate your healthcare, find a better job. Sounds harsh, but that's exactly what many of us have done. Stop being a victim and waiting for the government to bail you out. Low-cost healthcare will always exist for the handicapped or unable, but a large number of the Obamacare critics and fans are neither. Basic healthcare should be a right. But that doesn't mean I'll subject myself to basic care if I have better options elsewhere.",
"I will start with my situation. My husband and I work for the same organization, our health insurance is 100% paid for by our employers, but our dependants health insurance is not. To cover our children under our job would be $300 per child. Obamacare considers them covered by our job, so we cannot get them covered by Obamacare, unitl they become independants at age 23. We have been insuring them privately at a rate of about $80 per child. This insurance has always worked well for us, even when my son broke his arm we only paid $100 out of pocket. Now our insurance has been cancelled and we are being offered new policies of $185 a month. Now for my children of 7 and 8 we are required to have insurance that covers everything anyone would ever need, such as colonscopies, mammograms and birth control. (Yes for childen). I personally would be happy with just catatrophic insurance. I can afford doctors visits, its the big things I can't afford. But that is now illegal. Now we make a good salary, there are a lot of people at my organization making closer to minimum wage, how can they afford this? For two children, that is $370 a month (or $600 if you stick with the employee plan) . It is a big convoluted system. Yes, there are many many problems with the healthcare system in this country, but I dont believe this is the fix for it.",
"Also, big insurance lobbied hardcore to get it through. Their only concern is making their shareholders happy, not taking care of people. And people are losing their current insurance plans because they don't meet the new criteria, and now they have to sign up for more expensive ones. The whole thing just seems like a real shady deal. I don't know enough about it, and I don't think anyone else does either. They make these laws so complex intentionally so the average person has no clue what's going on.",
"One of the other problems with this health care is that numerous people in America believe it is free. Just like how Canada and Some European countries have \"free\" health care. So many people quickly supported this health care bill and when it turned out that we all have to pay something and that those who thought they were poor enough to get it for \"free\" weren't actually poor enough. Now that even the poor have to pay, many Americans are angry about this health bill.",
"I'm very late to the party, but I work in a think tank at an insurance company and this topic has been widely debated. The problem people are having is that it's not really going to act like insurance. Insurance is protection against a future loss. By having a large group pay a monthly premium you offset the cost of a few individuals having huge losses. Each monthly premium is adjusted by your individual risk towards having a loss. Under Affordable Healthcare act you're not paying money into a system to offset future risk, you're paying money so that people without insurance can get assistance. This boils down to essentially you are paying for someone elses surgery who in many cases didn't pay their fair share into insurance to begin with. Another problem for younger demographics is that for 99.99% of people under 40 you're just losing money. Many people in their 20's don't get insurance just because it's far cheaper to just pay for their minor accidents when they occur. Insurance companies know the risk of a 20 year old needing major surgery is slim, so they adjust the insurance rate as such. Under Affordable healthcare act young people are forced to not only have insurance, but to also pay higher monthly premiums than they would normally have. When you add college debt, car payments, cellphone, apartment, saving for a house and saving for retirement into the mix many young adults can't afford the extra money without vastly decreasing their comfort levels.",
"In a nutshell? Right Wing nutters hate it because the is forcing people to buy health insurance (subsidized for poor people) instead of letting \"the free market\" decide that poor people should just die of preventable illness. Left wing nutters like me hate it because it is forcing everyone to pour even more money into the evil health insurance industry rather than putting them out of business by administering a taxpayer funded single payer system like every other sane country in the developed world does. And *both* sides agree that the obvious unintended consequence resulting from insurance companies now having *hostages* rather than *customers* and jacking up rates is bullshit. But I guess if the system is pissing *everyone* off it must be a pretty well balanced compromise. /s",
"Not to argue right and wrong, but America is America because it's America. It's a country where social well-being is not as valued as rolling up your sleeves and doing it yourself. It is the ultimate social darwinistic society. If you cannot afford health insurance, go make it happen. If you can't, pour hot coffee on your lap and sue someone or develop a pet rock. Things like this are only possible in the states and what drive the push back to socialized healthcare.",
"Well, in my life, I am not thrilled by it for two reasons. 1) We are pretty much being forced to give our money to corporations for a service that we don't even want. 2) I am covered through my work, but Obamacare for my wife would cost a lot more money per year than what she spends going to the doctor uninsured. The whole thing just feels like \"protection money\" that you would give a mobster or something.",
"Hi all, mid-late 20's american corporate worker here. Here are some real numbers: -last year, i effectively paid ~$80 a month for medical and dental coverage. Deductible was $70 (which in medicine is nothing) -this year, i effectively pay ~$95 a month for the same coverage. Deductible has gone up to $700 (which is still not bad, but a 10X difference from the year prior)",
"B/c I feel allowing the federal government to force me to buy anything in this manner is a really dangerous precedent.",
"First you have to look at what it claims to do, then what problems we have, and then if what it does addresses the problems we have. *What it claims to do*: Make healthcare more accessible and more affordable. For the Accessible part, there were only about 12 million people that are \"Chronically\" uninsured in America. The total \"number of uninsured\" was inflated grossly. And the \"Affordable\" part doesn't hold muster period. There was a lot of hand-waving, saying that uninsured people were costing a ton for Emergency Rooms, and if you got them regular care it would actually be cheaper. In reality what they're really doing is trying to socialize and subsidize insurance payments. If you extend free or subsidized coverage to an extra 30 million people, it's going to cost more, period. Which isn't automatically bad. It's just they weren't honest about it. *What we had* pre-Obamacare The main (valid) complaint is that it is too expensive. And it *was* pretty expensive. The flip side of that expense is that we have very short waiting periods, and our doctor and care networks were very extensive. If my liver started blowing up, I'd get shipped over to Seattle *that night*, and get treated at University of Washington's premiere Medical facility with top doctors. I'd get as good of care as any CEO or any President. This is in contrast to the single-payer systems in Britain and formerly in Canada, where lower costs also mean less supply, so time-sensitive procedures were delayed by days, months, or even years. I say 'former' in Canada because their system was declared a human rights violation about a decade ago, the waits were so bad. So they had to allow private clinics to re-open. Which means, even in 'socialized medicine' you get two classes of treatment. Those for the poor and those for the rich. In America, the disparity of care between classes (amongst the insured) is significantly smaller. But anyway, what was the main cause of the high cost of our system? **This is an important part**. It isn't free-loading ER walk-ins that are making my hospital visits so expensive. It's the incentives of the system that make it so *nobody* has any reason to be efficient. We have a 3-party payment system. Person A pays Insurance Company B to Pay for doctor & hospital C for whatever treatments A wants to get. As an example, you go into the doctor with a broken ankle. Before this mess, the doctor would say *\"Yep, that's a sprained ankle. I'll wrap it; take some Advil as you need and stay off it for two weeks\"*. You pay him $40 for his time and you both go on your way. Now, the doctor says: *\"That's a sprained ankle. But I want to get a* [$1000] *MRI to be sure.\"* Because he doesn't want to get sued if you actually have a broken bone. This is called defensive medicine. You say: *\"How much would that cost me?\"* and he says that your insurance covers it, so you say *\"Okay!*\". A $50 visit just became a $1500 visit unnecessarily because the doctor doesn't want to get sued, and you have no reason to say no to an extra and costly test, because it doesn't affect your bottom line. The 3 party payment system insulates choices from consequence. None of us and individually incentivize to care about our health cost. Then we all complain when we all (rationally) act wasteful, because we're paying for all this extra care whether we use it or not. So the question is what does the Affordable Care Act Do? It solidifies the 3-party system. Mandating people buy insurance, and mandating a minimum amount of coverage an insurance plan covers. This includes 50-year-old bachelors paying for pregnancy and mammograms, incidentally. Next, to 'reduce' health costs on the old, they mandate that two people can't pay more than ~3x difference for the same coverage. Now a lung transplant costs the same for me as it does for an 80-year-old smoker. But he's 10x as *likely* to need it. So normally the little part of his payment that goes towards lung transplant coverage should be 10x mine. But it can only be 3x. So my costs are artificially inflated and his deflated until our prices get within those bounds. *This* is socializing medicine - when you have to pay for the average health of the group, rather than pay for the average health of a bunch of clones of you. But wait, this will make healthcare *very* expensive for healthy young kids making very little money just starting out. Especially the ones who were skipping on health insurance to start with. To cover this issue, we add in 'subsidies'. Which adds up to a lot of distorted prices, further insulation of cost, and less choice. So the reason I personally dislike it, is because it had to have this hybrid system to get passed period. And this hybrid system further institutionalizes the very problems that make out healthcare prohibitively expensive. **TL:DR** 3-party system tells everybody to be wasteful with their healthcare service, thinking they're spending other people's money even though it loops back around to them. ACA institutionalizes that, socializes costs by diverting your insurance payment from your predicted healthcare costs, and adds a ton of new subsidized healthcare users to the Federal Dole while throwing a great big bureaucracy on top of a sixth of the economy. There is no world where all of this results in a net gain for the population at large. And as millions of people are getting coverage they liked canceled, they're getting new coverage which is less good, in a smaller network, for a higher cost. And those are among the ~10 million independently insured people. When people who get insurance through their business - when those insurance plans have to comply, you'll see the same thing happen to those ~50 million plans. Tens of millions of people will suffer the same fate. Which is why our President is delaying the mandate unilaterally (without consent of congress despite no provision for such a delay) until after the 2014 election. The 2014 election will be disastrous for Democrats because every single Democrat Senator voted for it, and only democrats voted for it. They can't run away from the disaster, and their majority in the Senate is threatened, so they have to delay the disaster. This is a small taste of the practical and political complaints about the ACA. The TLDR of the TLDR is that it's too complicated, and doesn't actually solve any problems. It just makes us pay our health insurance by funneling money through the government first. 3-party free system into a 4-party coerced system. It will implode when the Business mandate is finally implemented and the majority of Americans actually finally get to experience Obamacare.",
"Why I don't like it. Forced to buy, so I get it, its like $250/mo for just enough to keep from going bankrupt if i'm in an accident, not dental, no eyes, does have free preventive care. So i'm now paying $250/mo I wasn't expecting, which sucks being unemployed. Apply for gov. subsidy, they offer $4/month. Not worth the mountain of paperwork. Thanks Obama. Also, don't like that Gov can force us to buy things, don't like that when I am employed, my taxes will go to pay for subsidies I was denied.",
"I have a problem with the fact that I will be forced to pay $2k this year to get \"insurance\" that doesn't kick in until I first pay another $12k in medical bills. Last year: $150 on my one check up during winter months when I had a cold This year: $2,150 on my one check up during the winter months when I get a cold If I actually have an emergency this year: $14k **before I ever get a lick of help from insurance.** I think I'll take the $95 penalty",
"My understanding is that NHS costs about as much per capita as Medicare did before the ACA. Also, constantly lying about the ACA makes it hard to know what the truth is \"You can keep your plan\".",
"Its an over-complicated system that is the only healthcare system we can put in place because everyone is opposed to moving towards a \"good\" system because \"good\" systems are \"socialist\" and \"socialist\" is a bad word.",
"I'm not seeing a lot of Americans commenting on this. As an American, let me lay out my fears. First of all, I am young. I'm 20 years old and I am just starting out, and I'm in college. (At Uni, eh). For me, heathcare is hard to come by. My employer, a fast food chain, offers me a small package because they are required to, but it costs around 15% of my income and yet covers very little. (45% off emergency care, 38% off dental work, access to a Family Practitioner aka GP for 50% off. Keeping in mind, say I get a rash and I need an antibiotic, visiting my FP will take me around 2 days to get an appointment and I'll get 50% off a visit that will last an hour and yet cost me 681 dollars. < -real example from last year. So I still payed $340.50.) Now. I work in fast food because at this particular university, we are surrounded by a rural bible belt county. I say county because the county (not including the population of the uni) has a population of about 10,000. The individual towns hover around 2,000, meaning there is not a lot of businesses around here, and I say bible belt because I have to point out that almost everything around here closes at 5pm Mon-Fri, 2pm on Saturdays and almost everything is closed on Sundays. So finding a job that I can work after my morning classes end around noon ish is fast food. I struggle, and I sweat and I stress out every day for the legal minimum of $7.25 an hour. This means, if I am able to work 35 hours a week, I'll get paid 507 bucks every two weeks. Minus state/federal taxes, which works out to around 17% when added together. So of 507, Ill make 421.50. Minus the healthcare at 15%. So now I'm at $345. Working from 3pm to 11Pm daily, I have to work 5 days a week almost to make that. Under Obamacare, businesses like mine will have to pay the cost of my healthcare for me. (The 15% of my income that I pay now.) Except the business will have to pay more than I've been paying, because they are required to cover me . If I work at least 29 hours a week. I repeat IN ORDER TO BE COVERED, I HAVE TO WORK MORE THAN 29 HOURS A WEEK. If I don't work that 29 hours, my business becomes exempt from paying for my healthcare. So what do they do? They cut my hours back to less than 29 hours and I go back to where I was before, except now I can only work 28 hours a week. So now I start at 403 dollars. Minus healthcare is 345, minus regular taxes I'm now left with $275. Times 2 for the month means I make 550 a month with Obamacare. ( my health care is slightly better and cheaper, but I'm in great health so it doesnt affect me anyways.) I have pretty cheap rent- utilities plus rent itself comes out to a pretty consistent $465 a month. Now I have $85 dollars left for the month to pay my cell and my gas and my insurance and my groceries. Obviously that isn't enough. I go into debt. Before obamacare I had $690 a month minus rent/utilities and leftover was 225. I was poor as shit, but I could make it stretch into what I had to pay. This is just one example. Ask other Americans how it affects them. For me, it puts me into debt. If this gets replies/karma I will come back and give you more examples of other ways it affects me.",
"There are two reasons why: (1) Some people don't want nationalized health care. The belief can stem from fear of government intrusion into their lives (anytime the governments money gets in something, you play by their rules, etc), slower service, getting denied for care, etc. Then there are the people that want free market only options. (2) But the bigger reason is the terrible implementation of it, what it doesn't do, and its increase in costs (either by premium spikes or by lower coverage than you got before. Obamacare is not free health care. You still have to pay for the insurance. You might be eligible for subsidies or you might not. Even if you are, HOLY FREAKING COW the deductibles are crazy! Common low tier plans have an average of $5000 annual deductible per person (about $12,000 for a family) before coverage even begins (at only 60% coverage). We spent over $600 million a website that is terrible and has been plagued by problems. Many people have seen their premiums spike or their deductibles increase dramatically (personally, my prices have dropped about 5% but my deductibles have increased over 60%). Worst of all, it doesn't really do much of anything to stem the costs of medical care. We don't have review boards that determine procedure costs. We still have the \"throw it at the wall and see what sticks\" system that has been shafting us. So you might have health insurance now when you didn't before, but if you were too poor to have it before and now you do have a major accident, you are still out several thousand dollars before coverage even begins. Yes, you may not be out $100k, but you still might be financially destroyed.",
"Because America has a great sickness. Americans have decided that anything the government gives away will be abused to the point of bankrupting the country. They believe that although they themselves are trustworthy and have no problem taking advantage of whatever programs they can that nobody else should because they would abuse it. They believe that although the richest 35 people have more money then the poorest 35 million that its because they worked harder some how and earned it by being super smart. They believe that the poor are poor because they are stupid and refuse to work hard, and even though they themselves work hard and are underpaid that any minute they could be turned into billionaires and if they were billionaires they wouldn't want the government taxing them so they support the nontaxing of the rich. Then you have the whole \"job creators\" joke where the rich are job creators so you shouldn't mess with them when its total BS. the rich squirrel away their money demanding high interest on it, the middle/lower class spend all their money on stuff so that money goes back into the economy. so the poor and middle class are the job creators because they create demand, the rich suck out the money they spend and squirrel it away. I watched a great documentary last night about the gap between rich and poor and its amazing people don't see it. how the rich spend very little of their money while the middle/low spend all of theirs. if the rich were forced to spend all their income yearly like the other classes then the economy would be amazing.",
"So, most of the responses on here are really great as far as explaining what health care is like in the US, as well as in other countries, but to actually answer OP's question. It has been getting so much hate because the opposition party has done, and will continue to do everything it can to make the Obama administration appear to be ineffective while also trying to make it appear as though the administration is over reaching it's power. The top Republican(opposition party) in the senate even stated during the presidents first term that their priority should be to make sure that Obama was a one term president. The truly interesting kicker in all of this is that in the 90's the Republicans proposed a very similar plan. Furthermore, a Republican governor signed a similar plan into law in the state of Massachusetts. That governor went on to challenge Barack Obama for the presidency in 2012 you may remember Mitt Romney. TL:DR It has much less to do with the policy itself and much more to do with the the politics of the opposing parties.",
"It's a complicated issue for sure.. Bottom line? It's an attempt to have more people covered WITHOUT addressing the root cause of the issue. Healthcare in the United States is too expensive! Yes mandating coverage by the government is Un-American. It takes the choice away from the individual which is, largely, a no-go for many people. Couple that with it now being MORE expensive for middle income Americans (premiums, deductibles etc), the lies about \"keeping your doctor\", and it's effect on employment mandates for small companies or larger ones. AND!! Lest we forget... This was passed without it being completely read by those who voted for it. THIS is what bothers me the most. Legislation passed which affects everyone, yet it was voted for by people who didnt know what it is.",
"American here. Personally, I don't want my taxes explicitly paying for Mary the obese lady's 5 triple bypass surgeries, Bill the 2014 cigarette smoker's emphysema drugs, or Cindy the alcoholic's follies. If everybody is under the same care, we all pool in finances to pay. How does it make sense for me, a health-conscious person, to pay in for all these people? It really doesn't and it really isn't fair! And it's true, socialized anything typically turns mediocre-- it's the only way accommodate millions of people. The one problem is one size does not fit all.",
"1) the majority of lawmakers that passed it admitted to not reading it that is just ridiculous 2) It is a widely held opinion that the result will more money spent with the result of a worse overall system. 3) A typical big government MO. Offer an entitlement that is popular get votes. Use allocated money to benefit friends and special interests. Dont worry if it doesnt work or if you deliver nothing apparatly its only the thought that counts and there is no fiscal responsibility or consequences.",
"Because Americans will work against themselves. We don't have a free market for healthcare in America - we pretend we do. But we really don't. Americans hate to be told they have to do anything.",
"It's really just a big tax increase. Ask the Supreme Court. If it weren't a tax it would violate the commerce clause of the constitution.",
"It is simply a tax on the poor to benefit large medical corporations.",
"Because it's not healthcare. 20 years ago Hillary Clinton tried to push universal health care only to get bribed by the insurance lobby to shut up and go away. Now cue 20 yrs and you have hospitals, clinics and big pharma gouging people for basics. The thought was that insurance would be subsidized by the healthier to pay for the unhealthy and uninsured but because everybody has their hand in your pocket the insurance companies were becoming unprofitable... Something had to change.... Hillary get back here! America is also in deep debt so any scheme to extort money from the already underwater population looked good too. Intro Obamacare. A nefarious scheme to force America to buy insurance, and those who don't pay a tax; all done under the color of law.... Trouble by decree. It's premise was medieval. By forcing people to purchase insurance the insurance companies stand to profit in ways unheard of. For those who choose not to participate they benefit the government by being taxed. Win-Win for Uncle Sam and insurance companies. What about the people? In order to pull the wool over the American public's eyes, untruth had to prevail and prevail it did. *\"If you like your current plan/Dr you can keep it\", Barrack Obama*... **AN EPIC LIE BY AN EPIC LIAR!!!** Plans got canceled and people lost their doctors. By forcing everybody into a policy insurance, companies could triple or even quadruple the price of a premium. Or you could just sign up for Obamacare or one of your states exchange programs -that also don't work cause everybody who was contracted to set up the websites took the money and ran....to the the tune of billions of tax payer dollars. So basically we are now forced to purchase healthcare that's 3-4X what we used to pay or get taxed; AND we must also spend an absolutely unjust amount out of pocket after premiums to cover the deductible before coverage even begins... The alternative to the dupe is the tax, which is something like $600 or 1% of our income or whichever is higher- (could be wrong on this though). There's much more but already angry just typing this. I'm sure others will fill in missing details. Again this is not nor ever was about caring for the health of the people...this was about making money for insurance companies, big pharma and the U.S gob't.....be all end all! **So what is the ONLY solution???** Daniel 2:44, Matt 6:9-10.... “Amen! Come, Lord Jesus.” Revelation 22:20",
"Honestly, there are many reasons why people don't like this, so the answer would likely confuse a five year old. America has never been big on socialized things, so on its face making everybody pay in to get insurance just rubs people the wrong way. There is also a deep distrust of the federal government which can be traced to the deep mistrust of the British government all those years ago. Beyond that, there are different groups with different views. There are some who want a system like the NHS in the UK where this does not go far enough. To these people, as to others, the subsidies to corporations like insurance companies and hospitals are abhorrent. To others, this is a violation of the free market and a dramatic increase in what is already a very large government. Like I said before, people do not trust the feds, and beyond that they don't trust them to do something well. So all people can see is tax increases and inefficiency. Lastly, no one, and I mean no one likes medical insurance. It is expensive. It is capricious. It is maddening. It hides prices so no one knows how much anything costs. So how is it better to enshrine into the entitlements of the country something which people despise? Anyone who has received a denial of service from the insurance company after having seen a doctor and getting a doctor's bill for the full amount knows what I am talking about. Lastly, it is expensive. Here, traditionally, insurance is partially paid by the employer, and what people see when they see the prices on the exchanges is the non-subsidized price, which can be over double what people normally pay, so the whole concept of affordable becomes a value judgement, where sure if you don't have any income it's free, but if you are earning a low income at some point it becomes very, very expensive. So that's why people hate it.",
"Obama Care does exactly zero to control costs for the average person. It offers no transparency in the prices charges nor any consistency. It imposed a law to pay or be penalized on individuals and businesses. Pretty much a huge tax increase. Hospitals and medical providers are not required to tell you what a service costs before a procedure. Let's say you have a routine colonoscopy scheduled. The prices are negotiated by third parties. The provider comes up with a ridiculous price they bill and the insurance - whether it's Medicare or Private - has already decided what their agreement to pay the facility will be. The price the provider bills has no basis in reality, it's just highly inflated so the provider can get paid all they can after the insurance has discounted it. The cash pay customer gets screwed because they don't have access to the same discounted rates - sometimes as high as 80%! Then the other problem! You go for that routine procedure. You have a set date under your insurance as a copay and everything is included. At the last minute the routine anesthesia provider is not available for a multitude of legitimate reasons. So the MD uses another provider. That one may not have the same agreement with the insurance so the insurance company says whoa, we aren't paying and you get sent the bill. In its application Obama Care - the Affordable Care Act - is only affordable to the great big conglomerates and that's why you see huge mergers in Healthcare now. The big organizations are going to win. The system won't provide any better for the vast majority of people, it will only ensure that the average working person will pay out the nose without any control of benefits. Edited some autocorrect. :)",
"Coming from an American who does not and never has supported the new healthcare laws we have a lot of reasons why we are against it. First the law was abnormally passed in the house of reps using a basically a procedural trick, without the support of a single republican, and with a majority of American against it. So as far as it being unpopular it never has been anything but. If the law was even a half decent piece of legislation it would not have already been changed 38 times, that is unprecedented. If a law is so poorly written that it has to been changed numerous times right after being passed, how bad will it be in the long term? Cost....... this is the the biggest for most people. The president and everyone involved in this has lied numerous times about how this would reduce cost for everyone. Nothing has been further from the truth. Everyones insurance premiums have gone up tremendously, and often to receive less coverage than they used to have. Note on other countries having better healthcare, the notion that Canadian or European healthcare is better is laughable. The study most people site that statistic from is flawed. It does not adjust for our violent crime rate which is much higher than Canada's and most of Europes. If you adjust for all the murders and victims would fare no better elsewhere the US is number one in healthcare. Canada does not even have the Gama Knife yet, canadians have to come here for treatment for many types of brain cancer because they would die in Canada.",
"Here is why I dont like it. I I've been privately insured for my entire adult life through my employer's insurance. I work for a small company but the coverage was still very good and affordable for both myself and my employer. The insurance company that offered coverage for myself and my coworkers was forced to drop all of us on the first of this year. They could no longer offer us the same deal. A comparable plan was offered, but it cost enough to put my employer out of business in less than a year after 25 years of buisness. Since I don't make a ton of money I qualify for free insurance under the new legislation. This is something a lot of poor or unemployed Americans are happy about. Not me. All of my more established or higher earning friends and family members who don't qualify for free coverage like I do are now being forced to pay for insurance premiums that are about 4 times higher and they can't afford it. The insurance That myself and my unemployed crackhead neighbor must take for free, by law, is going to quickly knock the middle class of America down a peg. I see that as a problem.",
"As said, it mandates you purchase health insurance. As already existed, if you are impoverished, you can get it from the govt. But the poverty limits are low. Many don't qualify. At $60k a year a family of 4 doesn't even come close and this is a good est. of income for most typical families. The rub is that if you don't have HI then you are fined. The fines are low now but increase every year. Keep in mind if you are fired or quit and you don't get another job you could have made to much already that year and end up with fines as well if you didn't have HI for more than 60 days. It's not socialized health care at all. The propaganda makes it seem like this is the issue. It's fines for not buying health insurance. It's mandating people by something or be fined for not doing it. And it's not something that's cheap. Private individual HI can be thousands a month. Yet another part of the propaganda. .. It's not cheap. It's a two way money grab. The are also increased costs to employers and other issues for HC providers, but that's a whole other topic.",
"For people like me, who don't need/have obama care, my rates went way up to compensate for the new market competition. I'm fine with paying a little more knowing that it goes towards my nation getting more health coverage, but we're talking a HUGE difference in cost. I went from spending about $3-4k a year on my family of 3 for health care, to now the cost of almost $10k. And this is basic check ups and what not. Also, I am very lucky because my company gives us an HSA with 2k contribution and our insurance rates our based on how much we are paid (Paid less, cost less) It has caused me to go from \"My son has been really sick, let's go to the doctor\" to \"my son is really sick but we definitely cannot afford to take him to do the doctor. Should we or shouldn't we?\" and to me, that is the exact opposite reason of why Obama care was created.",
"In my country I dont pay anything for hospital stays, or seeing the doctor. Instead everyone with an income pays a medical tax. I think it was 6 or 7 percent last year. As I didnt go to the hospital or saw a doctor, I payed quite a lot of money for a service I didnt use. However everyone pays so we all, in the case we need it, can go free of charge at that moment. Dental care however, is not covered. Luckily, I am covered in the neighbouring country, where 85% is payed by the government there, so best of both worlds. Still, universal healthcare is quite expensive, its just an expense disguised as a tax. But the tax is a percentage of your income so if you are poor you pay little, and if you have no income, you still have coverage. Im a danish citizen, but live in Sweden.",
"I think we are all asking the wrong questions about healthcare in the US. Instead of asking why is X-system better than Y-system, why are we not asking why the cost of medical care has sky rocketed? I had a very simple medical procedure performed just this morning (small wart removed from my tougne), was in and out of the office in no more than 15 minutes. Yet the total cost was $1165! This is fucking ridiculous! No anestegiologist, just a local numbing gel, quick cut, and four taps with a cauterizing pen. Done, how the hell does that cost so much. I could have done the exact same at home with whiskey, sharp knife, a paper clip and a lighter.",
"Let me tell this to you from the perspective of a striving-to-be-middle class citizen. Your girlfriend, un-married, makes crap money: she gets subsidies. She pays ten dollars a month for health care for herself and her kid (not your kid btw). You however, have a decent job. It's not formal-attire good, but it pays. You make JUST enough money to not qualify for subsidies, so apparently you pay the exact same as a millionaire. You also have 2 kids of your own (from previous wives) that you spend every dollar on them and at the end of the day... you break even. It's actually CHEAPER to take the penalty than to pay health insurance. Fucked up.",
"As a college student on financial aid making less than $500 a month, I resent the ACA simply because I have to pay $80 a month with a $6000 deductible. It takes at least 5 hours to get on the phone with them, and when I do they always tell me something is wrong with my account and that I need to call back the next day. I've been struggling to finalize all of my information for almost 3 weeks now, and I wonder if it would b better to just not have any insurance and pay $300 a year.",
"Basically, now you have to get insurance. If you can't afford it, you will be subsidized by those who can. If you have health insurance, chances are you will be paying more. How much more? It depends on how much you can afford. Most people are now paying a lot more money for it, many whom don't need or want it. Because you have to have it, insurance companies can basically name their price. Are you young, healthy and have a good paying job? Great, how's $400 a month sound? Hand it over or you will be fined.",
"There is also opposition to requiring that certain types of coverage be provided. Currently there is a case in the U.S. Supreme Court with many companies who oppose to the requirements for contraceptives (specifically late stage/post-conception contraceptives like Plan B) as being inconsistent with the company's moral/religious alignment, essentially mandating that they provide a service they aren't comfortable with, or face financial penalties. This issue (in some ways) transcends healthcare, as it requires an examination of higher constitutional questions of the role of religion and religious freedom against what is considered essential or mandated services. URL_0 ",
"At work we all hate it, but only because the corporation we work for won't supply us with healthcare which they have to do if we get 30 hours a week. So instead all of the lower staff gets maxed out at 28 hours. Which means that we need twice as many employees to make up for the lost hours. But no one wants to work for minimum wage for 28 hours at most, everyone is getting second jobs that pay better and cutting their availability down.",
"I thought I broke my hand so i went to the hospital. There wasnt really a wait, but I think this had more to do with it being a very small hospital. After I got an xray and a little splint I was relieved to find out I had just sprained it. With decent health insurance (So I thought) it still cost me about 400$ out of pocket... For an xray and splint.",
"I just can't afford it. I fall into a loophole where I won't be able to afford it, therefore causing me to be fined for not having it. I did just hear that I may also fall into a loophole that prevents me from being fined. Either way, I now don't have healthcare where I did before.",
"Many people have seen private healthcare cost increases. Significant at that. It provides healthcare for the poor by making healthcare less affordable for those just above the cutoffs. From personal experience, the cost of family coverage increased 500 percent. That's not a small change. There are other problems, of course, but that's been my experience.",
"I'm a 23 year old male in America. Because of Obamacare my monthly health insurance bill will go from somewhere around 30$ a month to 200$. I have no reason to even need insurance... yet.",
"Most Americans don't either. We all just pick a side & argue until it's time to vote for the perceived best choice given. Wash & repeat.",
"my quote for healthcare with a 12,000 dollar deductible was ~400 a month. It wouldn't pay more than 12k as well so its basically... useless",
"the existing system of health care insurance was so bad that they passed a law making it a requirement.",
"My premiums are going from ~$80 to $280 a month, I don't like that.",
"In one statement, 'Involuntary redistribution of wealth'. The subsidies = taxes."
] | [
[
"and low-information voters. \"Obamacare\" The term \"Obamacare\" was originally coined by opponents as a pejorative. The term emerged in March 2007 when healthcare lobbyist Jeanne Schulte Scott used it in a health industry journal, writing \"We will soon see a 'Giuliani-care' and 'Obama-care' to go along with 'McCain-care', 'Edwards-care', and a totally revamped and remodeled 'Hillary-care' from the 1990s\". According to research by Elspeth Reeve, the expression was used in early 2007, generally by writers describing the candidate's proposal for expanding coverage for the uninsured. It first appeared in a political campaign by Mitt Romney in May 2007 in Des",
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[
"the use of \"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act\" or \"Affordable Care Act\" became limited to more formal and official use. Use of the term in a positive sense was suggested by Democrat John Conyers. Obama endorsed the nickname, saying, \"I have no problem with people saying Obama cares. I do care.\"\nIn March 2012, the Obama reelection campaign embraced the term \"Obamacare\", urging Obama's supporters to post Twitter messages that begin, \"I like #Obamacare because ...\".\nIn October 2013, the Associated Press and NPR began cutting back on use of the term. Stuart Seidel, NPR's managing editor, said that the term",
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"services.\nBacon favors repealing the Affordable Care Act, commonly known as Obamacare. He was supportive of the March 2017 version of American Health Care Act, the GOP's replacement plan for Obamacare. On May 4, 2017, Bacon voted to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and pass the American Health Care Act, nicknamed \"Trumpcare.\" Foreign policy He is a steadfast backer of Israel, and supports the United States recognizing Jerusalem as Israel's capital. In an American Family Association candidate questionnaire from 2016, Bacon opposed the question \"The U.S. military should wait for militant Islamic groups to directly threaten our national",
"-28.276197803323157"
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[
"\"Obamacare\" and the \"Affordable Care Act\" were different or did not know. Approximately 45% were unsure whether the \"repeal of Obamacare\" also meant the \"repeal of the Affordable Care Act.\" 39% did not know that \"many people would lose coverage through Medicaid or subsidies for private health insurance if the A.C.A. were repealed and no replacement enacted,\" with Democrats far more likely (79%) to know that fact than Republicans (47%).\nA 2017 study found that personal experience with public health insurance programs leads to greater support for the Affordable Care Act, and the effects appear to be most pronounced among Republicans",
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[
"For example, the editorial by Skinner and Chandra criticized Obama's claim that the ACA was limiting the growth of health care spending, and Butler's editorial argued that the savings produced by the ACA may not have benefited consumers. Conclusions regarding the Affordable Care Act In the article, Obama reviews the effects of his signature health care reform law, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, widely known as \"Obamacare\". He concludes that since the law took effect, 20 million more Americans have gained health insurance under it, and the uninsurance rate has dropped to 9.1% (as of 2015). He also",
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[
"Affordable Care Act signed into law in 2010 by President Obama, but the two differ on how to approach the legislation known as Obamacare. McAllister opposed the United States federal government shutdown of 2013 as a proper method to force the repeal of the measure: \"Obamacare is a nightmare, but it's a reality, and it's here. [We] have to live with it, we have to make it livable. We have to make it work for the people until one day we [have the votes] to repeal it.\" Riser supported the House Republicans' failed effort to de-fund the Affordable Care Act",
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[
"the repeal of the Affordable Care Act (also known as Obamacare). However, she does support improving upon the act, which she has called \"imperfect.\" She has co-sponsored the Marketplace Certainty Act to bring more stability to the healthcare marketplace in lieu of insurance providers leaving the program.\nIn December 2018, Cortez Masto was one of forty-two senators to sign a letter to Trump administration officials Alex Azar, Seema Verma, and Steve Mnuchin arguing that the administration was improperly using Section 1332 of the Affordable Care Act to authorize states to \"increase health care costs for millions of consumers while weakening protections",
"-27.387861866824096"
],
[
"American Health Care Act of 2017 Background The ACA (colloquially called \"Obamacare\"), a major reform of health care in the United States, was passed in 2010 by the 111th Congress and signed by President Barack Obama in 2010 after nearly a year of bipartisan debate. The ACA draws from many conservative ideas proposed by the Heritage Foundation in the 1980s and 1990s, which included a mandate that all have coverage (to prevent \"free riders\"), subsidy tax credits, and Medicaid reform. Heritage proposed funding program costs by taxing health insurance premiums paid by employers on behalf of workers (presently exempt from",
"-27.32073728949763"
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[
"(Obamacare) with a \"Medicare-for-All\" healthcare system and has said that it is an \"illusion\" that Obamacare is a \"step in the right direction\" toward single-payer healthcare. When asked in August 2016 whether she supported a ballot measure in Colorado to create the first universal healthcare system in the nation (ColoradoCare), Stein said she was not ready to endorse the plan, citing concerns about gaps and loopholes in the ballot measure.\nStein has been critical of subsidizing unhealthy food products and of \"agri-business\" for its advertisements encouraging unhealthy eating. She has said that due to agri-business, Greeks no longer have the healthy",
"-27.134284700616263"
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[
"public option, and asserted that the option has popular support because \"when people hear 'public option' they hear 'free health care'. Everybody wants free health care. Everybody wants health care they don't have to pay for.\"\nLandrieu voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (known as \"Obamacare\") in December 2009. In September 2013, Landrieu voted to restore funding for the ACA that House Republicans had eliminated in their version of the funding bill.\nOn March 1, 2012, Landrieu voted against a measure that would have repealed a birth control mandate in the health care bill. In October 2013, she introduced",
"-27.044040838925866"
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[
"as a result of health care reform, a family would \"be denied medical care, emergency or otherwise, because they can't afford it.\" Political efforts to repeal the Affordable Care Act The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, commonly called the \"Affordable Care Act (ACA)\" or \"Obamacare\", was enacted by the 111th United States Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama in 2010. From 2011 to 2017, numerous attempts to repeal the Affordable Care Act were made by Republicans opposed to the law, although none were successful before President Obama left office on January 20, 2017.\nOn March 6, 2017,",
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[
"denying at a public event that insurers were cancelling insurance. Rather, they were signing customers up “with new plans that are compliant with ACA.” He insisted that under five percent of the population would lose their insurance under Obamacare and that most would “get a much better deal in the healthcare exchange - good price and much better benefits than what they were paying before.” He added that young people are “probably going to get a real good deal” under Obamacare.\nKind voted against the 2017 Republican health-care bill. \"I thought it was a bad piece of legislation,” he said, “both",
"-26.76011819870837"
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[
"although the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act could have been better, he supports it because it provides 450,000 uninsured Arkansans with health care. He criticized Blanche Lincoln for watering down the act, claiming she \"sided with the insurance companies and HMOs who gave her campaign more than $800,000.\" Farming and rural communities Halter has made agriculture one of his \"top priorities\", pledging to support farmers, not corporate agribusiness. He believes that too much money is given in subsidies to those who don't need it, whilst failing to provide support for family farmers. Consumer protection and financial reform Halter has",
"-26.595103238360025"
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[
"the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, also known as the \"ACA\" or \"Obamacare\". According to the United States Census Bureau, in 2012 there were 45.6 million people in the US (14.8% of the under-65 population) who were without health insurance. Following the implementation of major ACA provisions in 2013, this figure fell by 18.3 million or 40%, to 27.3 million by 2016 or 8.6% of the under-65 population.\nHowever, under President Trump these gains in healthcare coverage have begun to reverse. The Commonwealth Fund estimated in May 2018 that the number of uninsured increased by 4 million from early 2016",
"-26.586625798081513"
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[
"for their health insurance.\" \nPresident Obama, whose late mother had problems and disagreements with her own insurance carrier before she died from ovarian cancer, followed up on May 8, 2010, by severely criticizing WellPoint for the practice in his weekly radio address.\nAs a result of the intense pressure from the Obama administration, WellPoint agreed to voluntarily end such practices. The nation's other largest health insurance companies only days later followed suit.\nPraising the reform, The New York Times editorial page said in a May 2, 2010 editorial:\nAmericans are already starting to see the benefits of health care reform ... In",
"-26.456436011882033"
],
[
"Fairness for American Families Act Background The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), commonly called Obamacare or the Affordable Care Act (ACA), is a United States federal statute signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, it represents the most significant government expansion and regulatory overhaul of the U.S. healthcare system since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.\nThe ACA is aimed at increasing the affordability and rate of health insurance coverage for Americans, and reducing the overall costs of health care (for individuals and the",
"-26.454518629121594"
],
[
"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA, also known simply as the Affordable Care Act or \"Obamacare\") and perceived attacks by the federal government on their 1st, 2nd, 4th and 10th Amendment rights. Tea Party groups have also voiced support for right to work legislation as well as tighter border security, and opposed amnesty for illegal immigrants. On the federal health care reform law, they began to work at the state level to nullify the law, after the Republican Party lost seats in congress and the Presidency in the 2012 elections. It has also mobilized locally against the United Nations",
"-26.449657163931988"
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[
"out that not all policy proposals have been modeled. Affordable Care Act and health-care reform As the 2016 campaign unfolded, Trump stated that he favors repealing the Affordable Care Act (ACA or \"Obamacare\")—which Trump refers to as a \"complete disaster\"—and replacing it with a \"free-market system.\" On his campaign website, Trump says, \"on day one of the Trump Administration, we will ask Congress to immediately deliver a full repeal of Obamacare.\" Trump's campaign has insisted that the candidate has \"never supported socialized medicine.\"\nTrump has cited the rising costs of premiums and deductibles as a motivation to repeal the Affordable Care",
"-26.367787445371505"
],
[
"creation of a National Care Service (a care-focused counterpart to the National Health Service) and extension of voting rights to all residents of the UK regardless of their citizenship.\nJeremy Corbyn brought his speech forward by a day due to the Supreme Court ruling that the prorogation of Parliament by Prime Minister Boris Johnson was unlawful.",
"-26.287451532902196"
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[
"dismissed the allegations that he engages in \"pay-to-play\". President Obama In 2009, Levin described as \"absolutely right\" the statement by Sarah Palin that the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) includes death panels to decide whether elderly people or sick children were worthy of medical care. In 2011, a caller to Levin's show, claiming to be a neurosurgeon, said that the Department of Health and Human Services had issued a document saying that people over age 70 would not be allowed to receive medical treatments. Levin said to the caller, \"so Sarah Palin was right.\" The call was later",
"-26.28129160005483"
],
[
"to repeal and replace Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA or \"Obamacare\"). Shortly after taking office, he urged Congress to repeal and replace it. In May of that year, the House of Representatives voted to repeal it. Over the course of several months' effort, however, the Senate was unable to pass any version of a repeal bill. Trump has expressed a desire to \"let Obamacare fail\", and the Trump administration has cut the ACA enrollment period in half and drastically reduced funding for advertising and other ways to encourage enrollment. The tax reform Trump signed into law at the",
"-26.236225143889897"
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[
"American Health Care Act because it has more bad policy than any bill I have ever faced.\" On May 4, 2017 Brooks voted to pass the American Health Care Act, which would repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.\nIn an interview with CNN's Jake Tapper, Brooks controversially argued that the AHCA \"will allow insurance companies to require people who have higher health care costs to contribute more to the insurance pool. That helps offset all these costs, thereby reducing the cost to those people who lead good lives, they're healthy, they've done the things to keep their bodies healthy. And",
"-26.20961226412328"
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[
"ran more than $3 million worth of advertisements opposing the Affordable Care Act, including a series of ads in which Uncle Sam was depicted as a \"creepy\" doctor. The ads are directed at women and young adults, and are designed to \"undermine confidence\" and to dissuade younger people from enrolling in health care coverage through exchanges which opened October 1, 2013. In October 2013, the Americans for Prosperity group began a campaign to oppose \"Obamacare\" in the state of Virginia. Criminal justice reform The Koch brothers have advocated reform of the United States' criminal justice system. In 2011, Koch Industries",
"-26.13385523110628"
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[
"Affordable Care Act. That's my main issue, because I think that's, again, about the health and financial health of the America's families and if Hillary had won, I could go home.\" She furthered that Republicans had misrepresented their prior position of being opposed to pre-existing conditions during the election cycle and called for Republicans to join Democrats in \"removing all doubt that the pre-existing medical condition is the law – the benefit – is the law of the land\". Abortion Pelosi voted against the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 and earlier attempts at similar bans, and voted against the",
"-26.11840237682918"
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[
"(Obamacare). His health care policy aims to serve three basic principles: \"One, no American should suffer or die from preventable or treatable illness. Two, no one should go broke because they get sick. And three, no business should go under or lay off employees because it can't keep up with health insurance premiums.\" He does not support pushing for a single-payer health care system.\nOssoff opposed both the March 2017 and May 2017 versions of the American Health Care Act, the House Republican bill that repeals and replaces the Affordable Care Act. Ossoff said that the May 2017 version was worse",
"-26.068833054294373"
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[
"would amend the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to include a ban on discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.\nRegarding the Affordable Care Act, he has stated his desire to improve the law rather than fight to repeal or defund it. Dold has said the Affordable Care Act was right to require insurance coverage for pre-existing conditions and to allow students to stay on a parent's insurance to age 26. Upon his return to the House in 2015, Dold became one of just three Republican Congressmen to vote against repeal of the Affordable Care Act - the",
"-26.055140391777968"
],
[
"“Obamacare has not delivered on countless promises.” It was reported in April 2017 that Upton had “serious concerns” with President Donald Trump’s proposed health-care law because it would mean “potential higher costs to those with pre-existing illnesses.” In May 2017, after the addition of a new amendment written by Upton that provided additional funds for those with pre-existing conditions, he said he would vote for the bill and said he believed it could now pass the House. In July, Upton was among a group of members from both parties who “unveiled a set of solutions” intended to improve health-care coverage.",
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],
[
"the American people.\" Health care After voting dozens of times to repeal Obamacare, McMorris Rodgers responded in 2014 to reports that Obama's program had provided coverage to over 600,000 Washington residents by acknowledging that the law's framework would probably remain and that she favored reforms within its structure. In May 2017, she voted for American Health Care Act of 2017, which would have repealed and replaced Obamacare, and defended her vote in a Washington Post op-ed column. For her 2018 re-election campaign, McMorris Rodgers no longer mentioned the Affordable Care Act. LGBT rights McMorris Rodgers opposes same-sex marriage and cosponsored",
"-26.03613657192909"
],
[
"the Affordable Care Act. On May 4, 2017, he voted to pass the American Health Care Act, which would have effectively repealed the ACA and included cuts to Medicaid. He said it included the best parts of previous attempts to repeal the ACA. He received criticism for taking money from insurance companies and avoiding discussions of his vote to repeal. In his 2018 campaign the health care section of Poliquin's website no longer explicitly mentioned the Affordable Care Act.\nIn 2018 Poliquin co-sponsored legislation that would have cut $7 billion of federal aid to children's health insurance. Veterans affairs In October",
"-26.013246223388705"
],
[
"that upset many in the United Kingdom. Trump, in an attempt to rebuke a push by some in the United States' Democratic Party to implement universal healthcare, Trump tweeted that, \"thousands of people are marching in the UK because their U system is going broke and not working\". This was a reference the healthcare provided in the United Kingdom by the National Health Service. Trump's tweets were factually inaccurate in their characterization of the United Kingdom's health system. mischaracterizing reasons behind recent protests in the United Kingdom (which had not been protesting against the universal healthcare system, but rather been",
"-25.950496015313547"
],
[
"that parents cover their children, but does not require adults to buy insurance.\nAccording to an October 26, 2008 article in the New York Times, Obama is considering a new payroll tax on large and medium employers who do not already provide their employees with health insurance, and this tax would be used to pay for health care for uninsured people, but Obama has not cited the specific percentage of payroll that the tax would be, or how small a number of employees the employer would have to have in order to be exempt from the tax. Homes, mortgages, mortgage crisis,",
"-25.946987858507782"
],
[
"plans have not been refiled with the regulatory agencies of the various states. Opponents argue that this situation makes it difficult or impossible for insurance companies to undo the policy cancellations made in preparation for Obamacare. Subsequent criticism President Obama's promise and the subsequent legislation aimed to allow American citizens to keep their healthcare plan were widely seen as promises that could not be kept. Obama's statement \"if you like your healthcare plan you can keep it...\" was later dubbed \"Lie of the Year\" by PolitiFact.com.",
"-25.94658270671789"
],
[
"by the nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office, Blum stated that there was an urgent need for a fix to Obamacare.\nDuring his town halls in May 2017, Blum falsely claimed that if the current version of AHCA became law that coverage would not change for those on Medicaid. He also told his constituents, \"If you're getting your insurance through the group health care marketplace — your employer — nothing changes.\" This was found to be partly false when fact checked by National Public Radio, as whether someone's insurance would change under the GOP bill depends on whether an employer is based in",
"-25.936030822311295"
],
[
"on 4 May 2016 Cameron made a comment that UK's public health system was completely protected under TTIP.\nAlthough the UK government agreed to amend the Queen's Speech, there was a question of whether this amendment guaranteed that the UK government would legislate to ensure that the NHS was protected from TTIP. Assistant general secretary of Unite Gail Cartmail said that this amendment gave MPs a unique opportunity to prevent the irreversible privatisation of the NHS and to neutralise the NHS as an EU referendum issue. Tory MP William Wragg said that if UK were to stay in EU, the UK",
"-25.917175311478786"
],
[
"Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and thinks the country should eventually move to a single-payer healthcare system. Quist opposes the American Health Care Act (AHCA), the House Republican bill to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare). Quist said that AHCA \"will raise healthcare costs for working Montanans\", which is consistent with an analysis by the Kaiser Family Foundation. Quist has described AHCA as a \"tax cut for millionaires\".\nQuist has criticized inequality in the United States, and argued that tax breaks for the rich exacerbates the inequality. He has called for tax cuts for the working class.\nQuist opposes the privatization of",
"-25.8998626274697"
],
[
"it now. He told the Lawrence Journal-World in response to a question if the Affordable Care Act should be repealed in its entirety, amended to address specific problems or left as it is, he said, \"I opposed ACA because it did nothing to fix a broken system. We had a national crisis in health care before the Affordable Care Act passed, and that crisis still exists today. But instead of playing political games with this issue as Republicans and Democrats in Congress have done, I believe we need to focus on what Washington can actually do to ensure that health",
"-25.86968225875171"
],
[
"respondents say that the Affordable Care Act \"is working well the way it is\". In late 2014, a Rasmussen poll reported Repeal: 30%, Leave as is: 13%, Improve: 52%.\nIn 2015, a CBS News / New York Times poll reported that 47% of Americans approved the health care law. This was the first time that a major poll indicated that more respondents approved ACA than disapproved of it. The recurring Kaiser Health Tracking Poll from December 2016 reported that: a) 30% wanted to expand what the law does; b) 26% wanted to repeal the entire law; c) 19% wanted to move",
"-25.750821571415145"
],
[
"Health Care Act \"is a critical step\" towards the goal of rescuing \"this failing healthcare system\".\nOn May 4, 2017, Walters voted to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and pass the American Health Care Act. In early 2017, Walters tweeted that she was \"committed to protecting patients w/ pre-existing conditions to ensure their access to quality, affordable healthcare\". However, USA Today noted that the version of the American Health Care Act that she voted in favor of allows insurance companies to charge higher premiums to individuals with pre-existing conditions (such as cancer, epilepsy, diabetes and pregnancy). Walters",
"-25.733524703100557"
],
[
"had taken on health-care issues during the previous year.\nMcCaskill voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, popularly known as ObamaCare, in December 2009.\nIn April 2017, McCaskill expressed her opposition to a single-payer healthcare system, saying it is too expensive and not realistic.\nIn August 2017, she introduced the Health Care Options for All Act, whereby people living in counties with no health-care exchanges \"would be able to buy coverage through the D.C. small business exchange, called SHOP,\" with the U.S. government \"contribut[ing] toward the cost of premiums if they meet a certain income threshold.\" Criticizing Trump's health-care bill in",
"-25.732696802704595"
],
[
"the Fairness for American Families Act, Rep. Young argued that \"rather than driving healthcare costs down, the individual mandate is imposing a new tax and burdensome costs on middle class families\" and therefore \"hardworking Americans deserve the same exemptions that President Obama is unilaterally granting to businesses and labor unions.\" House Majority Leader Eric Cantor agreed with this, announcing that the House would work on this bill the week of July 15, 2013.\nThe New York Times (NYT) described Obama's decision to delay the employer mandate as a \"self-inflicted wound\" which Republicans saw as an opportunity. The NYT suggested",
"-25.726161179540213"
],
[
"which many Republicans assail it as an attack on freedom, but the provision in President Obama's health care law requiring all Americans to buy health insurance has its roots in conservative thinking.\"\nOther Republican politicians who had previously supported individual mandates, including Romney and Orrin Hatch, similarly emerged as vocal critics of the mandate in Obama's legislation. Writing in The New Yorker, Ezra Klein stated that \"the end result was... a policy that once enjoyed broad support within the Republican Party suddenly faced unified opposition.\"\nThe Affordable Care Act signed in 2010 by Obama included an individual mandate to take effect in 2014.\nOn",
"-25.67636595838121"
],
[
"of their primary policy goals. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010, has been one of the most significant pushes for universal health care to become a reality. As of April 2014, more than 10 million Americans have enrolled in healthcare coverage since the Affordable Care Act was launched. Education Democrats favor improving public education by raising school standards and reforming the head start program. They also support universal preschool and expanding access to primary education (some Democrats who support this through charter schools). They call for slashes in",
"-25.669537998910528"
],
[
"to roll over like a fat dog and get scratched by the pharmaceutical and insurance companies because, gee, we have to apologize for so-called Obamacare. I'm not going to apologize a damn bit.\" Schweitzer has said that, instead of \"Obamacare,\" he supports expanding Medicare eligibility to all persons, instead of only those 65 years of age and older as under the current system. Under his proposal, persons not eligible for private health insurance would be able to pay to enroll in Medicare. He has presented his plan as a simpler alternative to \"Obamacare,\" saying it could \"fit on the",
"-25.663391562527977"
],
[
"Act (Obamacare). On May 4, 2017, he voted to repeal Obamacare and pass the American Health Care Act.\nHultgren supported a bill that would allow employers to exclude veterans receiving health insurance from the United States Department of Defense or the United States Department of Veterans' Affairs from their list of employees. This would keep their list of employees shorter, allowing some small businesses to fall underneath the 50 full-time employees line that would require them to provide their employees with healthcare under the Affordable Care Act. Identity fraud Hultgren and three other members of Congress sponsored the Protecting Children from",
"-25.654033363505732"
],
[
"of regulations about Obamacare, which included a shift to an \"honor system\" for judging eligibility for Obamacare subsidies. After it was introduced, the White House released a statement indicating that the President will veto the bill if it was passed by Congress. Debate about the final version Some Republicans were unhappy with the final deal. Senator Cruz referred to the Senate bill as a \"terrible deal.\" Two of the conservative organizations that had pushed for the attempt to defund the health law, Heritage Action and the Club for Growth, opposed it.\nRepublicans did not get a delay on",
"-25.647823748731753"
],
[
"bill in July. Health care Yoder opposed the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare). On May 4, 2017, he voted to repeal the act and pass the American Health Care Act. \nIn March 2017, ProPublica reported that Yoder had said that the quality of health care in the country had declined due to the Affordable Care Act, an assertion that ProPublica found to be without proof and in contradiction to some data. Scientific research Yoder has advocated for increased funding for biomedical research. In 2016, Yoder tried to convince \"the most ardent or strident conservatives in the House of Representatives to get",
"-25.602098524046596"
],
[
"question the fairness of what they feel amount to subsidies for having children, such as the Earned Income Tax Credit (US), free K–12 education paid for by all taxpayers, family medical leave, and other such programs.\nOthers, however, do not believe overpopulation to be a problem in itself; regarding such problems as overcrowding, global warming, and straining food supplies to be problems of public policy and/or technology.\nSome have argued that this sort of conscientiousness is self-eliminating (assuming it is heritable), so by avoiding reproduction for ethical reasons the childfree will only aid deterioration of concern for the environment and future generations.",
"-25.57325112054241"
],
[
"said the bill was \"necessary to stop students from basically doing what I did when I was a kid: voting as a liberal.\" Controversy over the Affordable Care Act and slavery In August 2013, O'Brien spoke at a rally in New Hampshire of the Americans for Prosperity, a conservative political advocacy group, where he likened the Affordable Care Act to an 1850 pro-slavery federal law. In his remarks O'Brien called the healthcare act, popularly known as Obamacare, \"a law as destructive to personal and individual liberty as the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 that allowed slave owners to come",
"-25.57290616352111"
],
[
"and Medicaid (Medicaid provides free long-term care to the elderly poor). The fiscal and human impact of these issues have motivated reform proposals.\nAccording to 2009 World Bank statistics, the U.S. had the highest healthcare costs relative to the size of the economy (GDP) in the world, even though estimated 50.2 million citizens (approximately 15.6% of the September 2011 estimated population of 312 million) lacked insurance. In March 2010, billionaire Warren Buffett commented that the high costs paid by U.S. companies for their employees' health care put them at a competitive disadvantage.\nFurther, an estimated 77 million Baby Boomers are reaching retirement",
"-25.546044947681366"
],
[
"larger pool. Economists believe the repeal of the individual mandate will lead to higher premiums and lower enrollment in the current market though they do not agree with how much. In 2017 the new Republican healthcare bill known as the American Health Care Act was passed by the House of Representatives under President Donald Trump. Although the Affordable Care Act and the American Health Care Act both propose tax cuts in order to make insurance more affordable for Americans; however, each of these bills affected Americans in different ways. The people most affected by President Trump's plan are young people,",
"-25.541855488321744"
],
[
"if we replace or substitute Obamacare, that means it would no longer exist.\"\nOn May 3, 2017, Curbelo tweeted that \"I just reiterated to @HouseGOP leaders that #AHCA in its current form fails to sufficiently protect Americans with pre-existing conditions.\" On May 4, 2017, he voted to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and pass the American Health Care Act (AHCA). Explaining his vote, Curbelo said the AHCA was \"not perfect, but that it was important for him to be a part of negotiations\" and that the vote \"is just a step in the legislative process for this bill",
"-25.510642006396665"
],
[
"consumer and business confidence, and manufacturing job creation (initially) compared favorably, while government debt, trade deficits, and persons without health insurance did not. Legislation President Trump advocated repealing and replacing the Affordable Care Act (ACA or \"Obamacare\"). The Republican-controlled House passed the American Health Care Act (AHCA) in May 2017, handing it to the Senate, which decided to write its own version of the bill rather than voting on the AHCA. The Senate bill, called the \"Better Care Reconciliation Act of 2017\" (BCRA), failed on a vote of 45–55 in the Senate during July 2017. Other variations also failed to",
"-25.49827111599734"
],
[
"American Health Care Reform Act of 2013 Background All Republicans in the United States House of Representatives opposed the passage of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) championed by President Barack Obama. After gaining control of the House following the 2010 elections, they moved to \"repeal and replace\" the ACA. Opponents offered alternatives including the Patient's Choice Act of 2009, Empowering Patients First Act of 2009 and 2013. Rep. Steve Scalise chaired the 175-member Republican Study Committee which produced the draft of the American Health Care Reform Act. Rep. Scalise told reporters, \"I think we’ve done a very effective job of",
"-25.445527492513065"
],
[
"was slower to recover due to budget cuts.\nPresident Obama followed with the 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), commonly referred to as \"Obamacare\". By 2016, the law covered approximately 24 million people with health insurance via a combination of state healthcare exchanges and an extension of Medicaid. It lowered the rate of those without health insurance from approximately 16% in 2010 to 9% by 2015. Throughout his tenure, healthcare costs continued to moderate. For example, healthcare premiums for those covered by employers rose by 69% from 2000 to 2005, but only 27% from 2010 to 2015.\nBy 2017, nearly",
"-25.44511794803111"
],
[
"Act (PPACA; commonly called ObamaCare or the Affordable Care Act).\nIn advance of the rollout of the PPACA, Shaheen said that people who liked their current health care plans could keep them. When asked about individuals who were losing their health care plans due to the PPACA, Shaheen said people could keep their health care plans if they were \"willing to pay more.\"\nIn August 2019 Shaheen was one of 19 senators to sign a letter to United States Secretary of the Treasury Steve Mnuchin and United States Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar requesting data from the Trump administration",
"-25.417619562984328"
],
[
"the expansion of school voucher programs. Health care Messer is in favor of repealing the Affordable Care Act (\"Obamacare\") and replacing it with \"something better\".\nIn May 2017, Messer voted for the House bill American Health Care Act of 2017, to partially repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Immigration In July 2017, Messer authored legislation that would prevent undocumented immigrants from claiming the child tax credit. President Donald Trump included the same proposal in his 2018 budget request to Congress.\nMesser commented on the work of a 2013 bipartisan House working group on immigration reform, saying that a pathway to",
"-25.39827990269987"
],
[
"American Health Care Act of 2017, also known as TrumpCare. Comstock stated her opposition was due to her concern over some of its provisions, in particular one that would allow states to let insurers again charge more to customers with preexisting medical problems, while conservative blogger Jim Hoeft suggested that her decision was an attempt to walk a fine line in a district where elections are becoming more favorable to Democrats. Wexton is not yet in favor of moving forward with impeachment, saying she wants to collect facts and evidence first, although she has said, \"The biggest problem facing those",
"-25.319886785015115"
],
[
"provisions.\" On March 23, 2017 (the seventh anniversary of ACA and one day prior to the vote on the American Health Care Act), former President Obama hailed the successes of the Affordable Care Act, including 20 million more Americans insured, preexisting conditions covered, young people staying on their parents' plans until 26, lowered costs for women's health care and free preventive care. Later versions After the House passed the AHCA, but before any legislation passed the Senate, Republican congressmen gathered with Trump to celebrate in the Rose Garden. In his speech, Trump described the bill as \"very incredibly well-crafted.\" Republican",
"-25.30275449847977"
],
[
"for hardworking Americans\".\nOn May 4, 2017, Blum voted to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and pass the revised version of the American Health Care Act. Blum said that the bill had been improved to his liking. He described the bill as \"Trumpcare\" but also as \"Obamacare 2.0\" because \"We've probably changed 10, 20 percent of the bill is all.\" Blum said that \"AHCA will stabilize the market, lower premiums for Iowans, increase choices, reduce taxes, and protect people who have pre-existing conditions.\"\nAsked why he voted for the legislation before the impact of the bill had been assessed",
"-25.29825362074189"
],
[
"an original co-sponsor of the Equality Act. Health care policy Bennet voted in support of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act signed by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. In November 2009, when the bill was still working its way through Congress, Bennet said that he would support health care reform even if it meant losing the election. In 2016, in response to western and central Colorado having some of the highest healthcare costs in the United States, Bennet said he \"didn't have answers\" and called it \"next to impossible\" to fix the Affordable Care Act given partisan",
"-25.286820960929617"
],
[
"that AT&T had discriminated Hulteen and several other women. In 2001, Hulteen and several other women sued AT&T, stating its decision to pay them smaller pensions because of their pregnancy disability leaves constituted an unlawful employment practice under the 1978 Pregnancy Discrimination Act, an amendment to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of pregnancy and allows those on maternity leave the same coverage as other medical leave. Lawyers for the women argued that each reduced retirement check that they receive is \"a fresh act of discrimination\" a reference to the first",
"-25.273908863251563"
],
[
"acknowledges that more work remains to be done to improve America's health care system, noting that many Americans still cannot afford many of their medical treatments and visits, or have no health insurance at all. Recommendations In the article, Obama recommends that after he leaves office, the next president should introduce a \"public option\" for health insurance in parts of the United States where there are few insurers in the marketplace. He also calls on his successor to try to reduce prices of prescription drugs.",
"-25.2528948988911"
],
[
"puts Americans first.\" Defense In March 2012 she called for cuts in defense spending. Health care Bustos strongly supports the Affordable Care Act (commonly known as Obamacare). In October 2012, her congressional campaign website said, \"The new reform law is not perfect, but makes real improvements in our health care system. It lowers costs for small businesses and makes sure you have coverage that cannot be taken away. It stops insurance companies from denying coverage of preexisting conditions and allows children to stay on their parents' health insurance for longer.\" Bustos, a Catholic, supports legalized abortion. She also supported President",
"-25.21394115453586"
],
[
"stating that Canada rations care and that many Canadians come to the U.S. to get treatment because of it, and that similar rationing here would result in deaths.\nHe has said that coverage mandates for Maine insurance policies should be pared back because they make insurance policies too expensive. He believes that MaineCare, the state Medicaid program, has too many enrollees and is too easy to qualify for. He vetoed a bill to expand MaineCare under the Affordable Care Act on June 17, 2013, and has criticized efforts by the Legislature to write an expansion bill that will obtain enough votes",
"-25.188785269885557"
],
[
"are uninsured, noting that taxpayers already pay over $15 billion annually to care for the uninsured. Obama cites cost as the reason so many Americans are without health insurance. Obama's health care plan includes implementing guaranteed eligibility for affordable health care for all Americans, paid for by insurance reform, reducing costs, removing patent protection for pharmaceuticals, and required employer contributions. He would provide for mandatory health care insurance for children.\nIn July 2008 The New York Times reported that Senator Obama has promised to \"bring down premiums by $2,500 for the typical family.\" His advisers have said that the",
"-25.172521105298074"
],
[
"over President Barack Obama's health care proposals, the organization's president at the time, Charmaine Yoest, met with representatives of the Obama administration to discuss \"conscience protection\" and the absence of \"explicit language banning abortion funding and coverage\" in the bill. AUL later came out in opposition to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, and its affiliated legislative action group launched a targeted campaign in congressional districts of House members who supported the bill. In the two op-eds for the Wall Street Journal, Yoest argued that the health care bill would allow for federal funding of abortions and does not",
"-25.137387406881317"
],
[
"\"partial-birth\" abortions saying the ban didn't sufficiently consider the mother's health. He has, however, expressed support of banning some late-term abortions, provided they include exemptions for the mental and physical health of the mother.\nDuring the third debate during the 2008 presidential election, Obama further detailed his stance on abortion:\n\n\"[...] there surely is some common ground when both those who believe in choice and those who are opposed to abortion can come together and say, 'We should try to prevent unintended pregnancies by providing appropriate education to our youth, communicating that sexuality is sacred and that they should not be engaged",
"-25.12763442710275"
],
[
"World Autism Awareness Day Onesie Wednesday In 2014, WAAD coincided with Onesie Wednesday, a day created by the National Autistic Society to encourage people in England, Wales and Northern Ireland to show their support for anyone on the autistic spectrum. By wearing a onesie or pyjamas, participants are saying, \"it's all right to be different\". United States In a 2015 Presidential Proclamation, President Obama highlighted some of the initiatives that the US government was taking to bring rights to those with autism and to bring awareness to the disorder. He highlighted things like The Affordable Care Act, which prohibits health",
"-25.127073542273138"
],
[
"to citizenship. Health care Enyart is against repealing the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Speaking about the health care law, Enyart said \"Now are there problems with it? Of course there are problems with it. Let’s not throw the baby out with the bathwater. Let’s change the things that are problems and move on.\" In an analysis of 2014 campaign websites, The Hill found that Enyart is among six congressional Democrats whose websites do not mention the Affordable Care Act, noting that \"Most Democrats in competitive elections are seeking to avoid the topic, opting not to tout the controversial",
"-25.120501245968626"
],
[
"lobbyist for the healthcare industry who also helped to defeat the Clinton health care plan of 1993. These critics allege that it includes mandatory language aimed at pressing elderly and disabled patients toward euthanasia. Their interpretation was the basis for the charge about this section by prominent Republican 2008 Vice Presidential candidate Sarah Palin.\nMy parents or my baby with Down Syndrome will have to stand in front of Obama's \"death panel\" so his bureaucrats can decide, based on a subjective judgment of their level of productivity in society, whether they are worthy of health care.\n— Sarah Palin\nHowever, the \"level of productivity",
"-25.114617768049357"
],
[
"Affordable Care Act, due to \"appearance of a conflict of interest\" based on the work of his wife.\nThomas was reconciled to the Catholic Church in the mid-1990s. In his 2007 autobiography, he criticized the church for its failure to grapple with racism in the 1960s during the civil rights movement, saying it was not so \"adamant about ending racism then as it is about ending abortion now\". Thomas is (as of 2019) one of 14 practicing Catholic justices in the Court's history, of 114 justices total, and one of five currently serving (along with Samuel Alito, Brett Kavanaugh, John Roberts,",
"-25.101093238044996"
],
[
"five-page ruling agreed with Scott's argument that only the Commission on Ethics “has constitutional authority to investigate Mr. Hinkle's complaint.” Health care Scott has been a harsh critic of the Affordable Care Act, also known as Obamacare, but in his 2018 Senate campaign stopped harshly criticizing the bill. In 2017, Scott said that individuals with preexisting conditions should be protected. In June 2018, when the Trump administration sought to remove provisions of the Affordable Care Act protecting individuals with preexisting conditions, Scott declined to criticize the administration. Scott said that he did not know enough about it to comment.\nScott has",
"-25.08816740691691"
],
[
"0.1 and 0.2 percent of GDP in the 2020s. Other Republicans disavowed the legislation, with the Republican-led House passing a nonbinding measure in July 2018 describing the legislation as \"detrimental\".\nFor his efforts Curbelo in December 2018 was called \"ridiculous. That guy is a pretend environmentalist\" by Tom Steyer. Healthcare Speaking about the Affordable Care Act (\"Obamacare\"), Curbelo said: \"I clearly do not support the law and think it is bad policy. ... However I prefer to use the word 'replace' or 'substitute' Obamacare because to just say 'repeal' implies that there is no need for health care reform. But yes,",
"-25.071041803686967"
],
[
"noted that the UK has the worst death rate of OECD countries and that most deaths of children from asthma are preventable. He also successfully campaigned to change the law from 1 October 2014 to allow emergency inhalers for asthma attacks to be kept in schools.\nMcPartland was Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of State for Trade and Investment, Lord Livingston in 2014-15.\nMcPartland initiated a parliamentary inquiry into electronic invoicing in the public sector; it delivered its findings in June 2014. He has also called for greater interoperability, with the launch of an Interoperability Charter in April 2013, to encourage",
"-25.070918793207966"
],
[
"disease. Public opinion A survey of Americans done in late June 2009 by the Harvard School of Public Health found that roughly 90% said they would be willing to avoid shopping malls, movie theaters, public transportation, and worship services for more than two weeks if health officials told them to. It also found that parents were worried about closures of schools or day care centers, with 43% saying they would lose pay or have money problems if they had to stay home a week or more because they were sick or had to care for someone. In the UK, the",
"-24.9888856907055"
],
[
"Department of Labor to investigate ways that would \"allow more small businesses to avoid many of the [Affordable Care Act's] costly requirements.\" Under the ACA, small-employer and individual markets had \"gained important consumer protections under the ACA and state health laws — including minimum benefit levels.\" In a December 28, 2017 interview with the New York Times, Trump explained that, \"We've created associations, millions of people are joining associations. ...That were formerly in Obamacare or didn't have insurance. Or didn't have health care. ...It could be as high as 50 percent of the people. So now you have associations, and",
"-24.97346180110253"
],
[
"Employee Health Care Protection Act of 2013 Background President Barack Obama, when arguing in favor of healthcare reform and talking about his signature legislation, the Affordable Care Act (ACA), Obama often said that \"if you like your plan, you can keep it\" in reference to individuals' health insurance plans. However, the ten requirements from the ACA meant that some existing health insurance plans were being forced to be discontinued. Provisions of the bill The Employee Health Care Protection Act of 2013 would permit a health insurance issuer that has in effect health insurance coverage in the group market on any",
"-24.966732117827632"
],
[
"Party, has made single-payer universal health care one of their primary policy goals. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, signed into law by President Obama on March 23, 2010, has been one of the most significant pushes for universal health care to become a reality. By April 2014, more than 10 million Americans had enrolled in health care coverage since the launch of the Affordable Care Act. Education Democrats favor improving public education by raising school standards and reforming the head start program. They also support universal preschool and expanding access to primary education, including through charter schools. They",
"-24.962111945147626"
],
[
"and nurses' organisations both say Brexit is bad for the nation's health. Paul Willims said, “Instead of the £350m a week for the NHS we were promised by the Brexiters, we have had cuts and closures as the NHS loses staff and struggles with budgets that are limited by the Brexit economic squeeze. If Brexit actually happens, it seems certain it will only make things worse – with new drug treatments, investment in research and sustainable funding all under threat.”\nWithdrawal from the EU could potentially cause a wide range of problems. Radioisotopes for treating cancer patients could",
"-24.95694443001412"
],
[
"supports dismantling Obamacare. During an interview with New Hampshire Public Radio, Garcia declined to answer the question of whether she received health care insurance coverage under the Affordable Care Act. Garcia later stated that she is covered by health insurance outside of the Affordable Care Act network. Immigration During her 2014 campaign, Garcia criticized President Barack Obama's Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals policy. On an influx of Central American unaccompanied minors fleeing to the United States, Garcia wrote \"I believe the necessary action is to send these children back to their families and homes.\" Garcia also pledged, if elected, \"to",
"-24.94571942044422"
],
[
"care in the UK and the EU would be unclear. A large majority of doctors and nurses believe Brexit will make the NHS worse. Staff shortages concern doctors and nurses, who also fear longer waiting times and funding cuts that Brexit could cause. 85% said that the NHS needs overseas nurses and doctors, and 90% said training UK nationals to replace them would take a long time. A high proportion of NHS trusts have made no preparations for Brexit.\nIf the UK leaves the EU at the end of October 2019 without a deal, ministers will not know if",
"-24.936294017825276"
],
[
"Act (also known as Obamacare) instead of repealing it. He had previously called on Congress to renew the Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) after its funding lapsed in September 2017. \nMcAdams does not support a \"Medicare-for-all\" type plan, saying he doesn't think it is an approach that would \"work for [his] constituents.\" Immigration McAdams has called for comprehensive immigration reform that includes secured borders, increased legal immigration, and a permanent solution for participants in the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program, also known as Dreamers. He also supports the principles in the Utah Compact.\nDuring the 2018 election campaign McAdams",
"-24.929758898739237"
],
[
"the care penalty is more severe in the United Kingdom since part-time employment is more common.\nMany benefits arise when parents raise successful children. Not only do the children themselves benefit, but employers benefit from new, productive employees. Also, the elderly benefit from the Social Security taxes paid by the younger generations. Parents benefit because of reciprocity, with the child in the care-giving role and the parents in the care-receiving role. These positive externalities make it hard for those who provide the care services to charge a price that would reflect the true value of their services. Thus, the care penalty",
"-24.917688047513366"
],
[
"Authority for Mandate Delay Act Background The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), commonly called Obamacare or the Affordable Care Act (ACA), is a United States federal statute signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, it represents the most significant government expansion and regulatory overhaul of the U.S. healthcare system since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.\nIn July 2013, a letter signed by the leaders of the Teamsters, UFCW, and UNITE-HERE stated, \"the ACA will shatter not only our hard-earned health benefits, but destroy",
"-24.87326984613901"
],
[
"Moines, Iowa. Romney said, \"In my state, I worked on healthcare for some time. We had half a million people without insurance, and I said, 'How can we get those people insured without raising taxes and without having government take over healthcare?' And let me tell you, if we don't do it, the Democrats will. If the Democrats do it, it will be socialized medicine; it'll be government-managed care. It'll be what's known as Hillarycare or Barack Obamacare, or whatever you want to call it.\"\nBy mid-2012, Obamacare had become the colloquial term used by both supporters and opponents. In contrast,",
"-24.855901198345236"
],
[
"reduce the cost of health care, but as the economist Thomas Sowell has pointed out, government health care will not reduce the cost; it will simply refuse to pay the cost. And who will suffer the most when they ration care? The sick, the elderly, and the disabled, of course. The America I know and love is not one in which my parents or my baby with Down Syndrome will have to stand in front of Obama's \"death panel\" so his bureaucrats can decide, based on a subjective judgment of their \"level of productivity in society,\" whether they are worthy",
"-24.85232892484055"
],
[
"Care Act, citing its inclusion of a provision mandating that companies provide access to the morning-after pill, claimed by his companies to be an abortifacient.\nIn September 2012, Hobby Lobby filed a lawsuit against the United States over new regulations requiring health insurance provided by employers to cover emergency contraceptives, stating: \"[T]he Green family's religious beliefs forbid them from participating in, providing access to, paying for, training others to engage in, or otherwise supporting abortion-causing drugs and devices\". Hobby Lobby argued that the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and the Religious Freedom Restoration Act",
"-24.84437590453308"
],
[
"of the symptoms. Wehby has called her advocacy for the surgery her \"proudest professional achievement\" and said \"It was worth all the hassles and the slings and arrows. I know that I've changed the lives of so many kids that otherwise would not have been helped.\" At the same time, a super PAC supporting Jason Conger launched a statewide ad campaign that criticised her for saying that repealing the Affordable Care Act was \"not politically viable at this point. We can't get it repealed with [President] Obama in office. We have to focus on coming together with solutions.\" Stalking and",
"-24.813947004025977"
],
[
"ACA or \"Obamacare\", with laws to keep the federal government open or to increase the federal debt limit. The organization played an instrumental role in the government shutdown of October 2013. While the shutdown was ongoing Heritage Action continued to urge lawmakers not to negotiate a measure to fully fund the government without dismantling the ACA. The strategy of Heritage Action in tying the ACA to the shutdown, according to then-CEO Michael Needham, was to make President Obama \"feel pain\" because of the shutdown. Senator Orrin Hatch criticized Heritage for warning legislators not to vote for the Senate budget compromise",
"-24.787794762392878"
],
[
"the majority of Americans (77%) feel that it is either \"Quite Important\" or \"Extremely Important\" to \"give people a choice of both a public plan administered by the federal government and a private plan for their health insurance\" in August 2009. A Rasmussen Reports poll taken on August 17–18 stated that 57% of Americans did not support the current health care bill being considered by Congress that did not include a public option, a change from their findings in July 2009. A NBC News/Wall Street Journal poll, conducted August 15–17, found that 47% of Americans opposed the idea",
"-24.781960931242793"
],
[
"May 2018 that the repeal of the individual mandate would increase the number of uninsured by eight million and that individual healthcare insurance premiums increased by 10% between 2017 and 2018.\nTrump repeatedly expressed a desire to \"let Obamacare fail\", and the Trump administration has undermined Obamacare through various actions. The open enrollment period was cut from twelve weeks to six, the advertising budget for enrollment was cut by 90%, and organizations helping people shop for coverage got 39% less money. The administration ordered HHS regional directors not to participate in state open enrollment events, as they had in previous years.",
"-24.77948427395313"
],
[
"and beyond. \n\nAnother 13 million who are covered under the ACA's Medicaid expansion (in the 31 states that chose to expand coverage) were not directly affected by Trump's action.\nPresident Trump's argument that the CSR payments were a \"bailout\" for insurance companies and therefore should be stopped, actually results in the government paying more to insurance companies ($200B over a decade) due to increases in the premium tax credit subsidies. Implementation At various times during and after the ACA debate, Obama stated that \"if you like your health care plan, you'll be able to keep your health care plan\". However, in",
"-24.771097890974488"
],
[
"Act Scott voted for the Affordable Care Act (\"ObamaCare\"). On August 6, 2009, Scott was confronted by a constituent who was also a local doctor. The doctor, who later appeared in subsequent debates with his opposition candidate, asked Scott why he was going to vote for a health care plan similar to the plan implemented in Massachusetts and if he supported a government-provided health care insurance option. Scott questioned whether or not the doctor was a resident of Scott's district, although the local TV station WXIA-TV's news department confirmed that the doctor did live and work in Scott's district. Scott",
"-24.765292848664103"
],
[
"challenge to the act. The Court noted that previous attempts to reform health care insurance \"encouraged people to wait until they got sick to buy insurance\" resulting in \"an economic 'death spiral': premiums rose, the number of people buying insurance declined, and insurers left the market entirely.\"\nIt further noted that in 2006 \"Massachusetts discovered a way to make the guaranteed issue and community rating requirements work—by requiring individuals to buy insurance and by providing tax credits to certain individuals to make insurance more affordable.\" and that \"the Affordable Care Act adopts a version of the three key reforms that made",
"-24.748313707081252"
],
[
"health insurance increased utilization of services and improved health.\n A study at Johns Hopkins Hospital found that heart transplant complications occurred most often amongst the uninsured, and that patients who had private health plans fared better than those covered by Medicaid or Medicare. Reform The Affordable Care Act of 2010 was designed primarily to extend health coverage to those without it by expanding Medicaid, creating financial incentives for employers to offer coverage, and requiring those without employer or public coverage to purchase insurance in newly created health insurance exchanges. This requirement for almost all individuals to maintain health insurance",
"-24.73912694727187"
],
[
"operations and other facilities.\" The decision prompted criticism from animal welfare advocates (such as the Animal Welfare Institute), investigative journalists, and some of the regulated industries (the Association of Zoos and Aquariums and the group Speaking of Research said that the move created an impression of non-transparency). Legislation President Trump advocated repealing and replacing the Affordable Care Act (ACA or \"Obamacare\"). The Republican-controlled House passed the American Health Care Act (AHCA) in May 2017, handing it to the Senate, which decided to write its own version of the bill rather than voting on the AHCA. The Senate bill, called the",
"-24.71269079123158"
],
[
"Barack Obama rely on a \"public option\" in which government insurance would supposedly \"compete\" with private insurers, a move many see as leading to a single-payer system. By contrast, the Wyden-Bennett Healthy Americans Act relies on the private insurance market while imposing a series of regulations to squeeze savings from the private sector. It also requires individuals to buy coverage for themselves, the controversial \"individual mandate.\"\nDavid Brooks of The New York Times provided evidence of the political impediments to HAA, citing an incident witnessed during a May 12, 2009 hearing during which the Senate Finance Committee heard from a \"vast",
"-24.704900452386937"
],
[
"the decision of Senator Murkowski and Senator Dan Sullivan of Alaska to take a critical stance towards the abolition of the Affordable Care Act in 2017 (Obamacare), Babcock stated that he was dismayed. He reminded Murkowski and Sullivan in a letter that the American people were promised on non-negotiable terms that Obamacare would be repealed. Personal life Babcock is married to Kristie Babcock, who is a state farm agent. The couple has eight children. The family lives on the Kenai Peninsula.",
"-24.68406630284153"
],
[
"reintroduction of the death penalty in the UK.\nIn 2015, Farage attracted widespread press attention for suggesting that HIV positive patients who were not UK citizens should not receive treatment on the NHS. In that same speech he stated that the UK should put the NHS \"there for British people and families, who in many cases have paid into the system for years\". Farage has spoken in favour of an insurance-based system in the past, which he said would resemble the French and Dutch style system rather than an American style private system, but this was rejected by the party. He",
"-24.669063122792977"
],
[
"law during Obama's tenure, but to no avail. Coverage By 2016, the law covered approximately 24 million people with health insurance via a combination of state healthcare exchanges and funding for the state-level expansion of Medicaid to more people. It lowered the rate of those without health insurance from approximately 16% in 2010 to 9% by 2015. Poltifact cited various estimates that only about 2% of the total insured population (4 million out of 262 million) received notices that substandard policies would have to be changed, even though Obama was roundly criticized for claims that \"if you like your health",
"-24.657422692645923"
]
] |
4yvbtp | Why is a 1 degree temperature difference in climate such a big deal? | [
"Ice, ice, baby. Much of the land on earth is covered by ice...snow pack, ice caps, glaciers, etc. They stay ice, and even grow, because it is cold enough they get more snow on them then they lose to melting. But if the temperature goes up just a little bit, some of them will melt faster than they grow, and start to shirk. That water eventually makes it to the ocean raising its level. Even worse, ice is *reflective*. When the energy from the sun hits dirt instead of ice, more of it is absorbed, and less is reflected. That causes the earth to heat even more. Finally, change the configuration of ice around the world can change weather patterns. It might not get a lot hotter where you are, but if prevailing winds change the rainfall you get, your farmland can turn to desert or swamp. Over time, even a small increase in temperature can make a big difference.",
"It's not a 1 degree local, it's 1 degree global, meaning local temperatures could vary much more. I believe a 1 degree global change could mean the tropics being several degrees hotter than that. It would cause greater ice melting, as u/kouhoutek described in good detail. It would also cause the oceans in the tropical reason to be much hotter, and as tropical storms and hurricanes require certain temperatures, it would increase the frequency and intensity of those storms. Given how destructive those storms can be (Sandy, Katrina, ect), that could cost a lot in lives and money. Also, wildlife and where certain things can live is greatly effected. If an area relied on cold winter weather to get rid of certain bugs, but those bugs end up being able to stay longer, it could be worse for any plants those bugs eat. In turn, that could have larger consequences for the wildlife there.",
"The amount of \"extra\" energy needed to raise the average temperature of the water and atmosphere by a single degree is enormous. But the bigger deal is that it's an indication of a trend vice a single event... as what we are doing has raised the temperature with these negative knock on effects... if we don't stop it's gonna get hotter with additional more extreme consequences",
"Ecosystems and climate are very complex systems and sensitive to changes. Sort of like the human body. If your body temperature rises by one degree (Celsius), you have a fever and you are ill. A three degree rise of your body temperature and you can already be in need of hospitalization. Likewise on the global climate and ecosystems, one degree change already causes issues. It's not catastrophic yet (the global temperature has already risen almost one Celsius degree), but definitely causing problems. The more big deal is the future change. For comparison, when the last ice age ended the global temperature rose about three degrees Celsius and glaciers covering much of Northern Europe and North America melted. So if from this day the global temperature rises still two degrees, it's comparable to the change when the last ice age ended. And before the ice age ended, the world [looked very different]( URL_0 ).",
"Climate is the weather average over a long time and wide area. So one degree rise will mean that the temperature rises more in some parts of the world than in others, so it will have more effect. Here is one example of the more exotic unpleasant consequences from that warming that surprised everyone: [Anthrax infected deer carcasses are thawing up, infecting people in Siberia]( URL_0 ). I think it's pretty safe to assume that more muck is going to happen that we can't yet imagine."
] | [
[
"couple of years to be cooler because of the large serial correlation in the global temperatures. Bassett and Lin found the statistical odds of a new temperature record to be small. Hansen countered by saying that having insider information shifted the odds to those who know the physics of the climate system, and that whether there is a new temperature record depends upon the particular data set used.\nThe temperature data was updated in 1999 to report that 1998 was the warmest year since the instrumental data began in 1880. They also found that the rate of temperature change was larger",
"-36.77976361061155"
],
[
"15 warmest years have occurred since 2004. The capital of New Delhi broke its all-time record with a high of 48 degrees Celsius.\n\"Science as well as our subjective experiences has made it unequivocally clear that longer, hotter and deadlier summers are poised to become the norm due to climate change,\" environmental researcher Hem Dholakia wrote\"\nToday, because of global warming, the world is one degree Celsius warmer than it was before the industrial revolution. According to author Wallace-Wells, if the temperature rises even one more degree, “Cities now home to millions, across India and the Middle East, would become so hot",
"-36.54889180384362"
],
[
"is a 7% variation in sunlight received.\nOrbital eccentricity can influence temperatures, but on Earth, this effect is small and is more than counteracted by other factors; research shows that the Earth as a whole is actually slightly warmer when farther from the sun. This is because the Northern Hemisphere has more land than the Southern, and land warms more readily than sea.\nAny noticeable intensification of southern winters and summers due to Earth's elliptical orbit is mitigated by the abundance of water in the Southern Hemisphere. Maritime and hemispheric Seasonal weather fluctuations (changes) also depend on factors such as proximity to",
"-35.28827542241197"
],
[
"large regions, \"a significant fraction of the 21st-century greenhouse gas-induced climate change simulated by global climate models.\" Large-scale adaptive design could completely offset this increase, however. For example, the temperature increase in California was calculated to be as high as 1.31 °C (2.36 °F), but a 100% deployment of \"cool roofs\" would result in a temperature drop of 1.47 °C (2.65 °F)—more than the increase. Urban cold island The same urban area that is hotter in the day can be colder than surrounding rural areas at ground level at night, leading to a new term urban cold island. Snow cover in rural areas, for",
"-35.143075908883475"
],
[
"the 'best climate in the world'; the reason for this attribution is that climatic factors like temperature and humidity are stable all year round, with temperatures ranging from 19 Celsius at night to 34 Celsius during the day with a yearly average of 26 Celsius.\nIt also has a varied sets of altitudes starting at 300 meters above sea level in the Balsa and Rio Grande areas ascending to up to 1,200 meters above sea level in the San Isidro area. This wide spectrum of heights provides to marked and well defined climatic subregions within the greater Atenas area.",
"-34.467248849075986"
],
[
"warmer than surrounding areas. Misconceptions \"Temperate Climate\" refers to climates between Polar and Tropical. However, there is a gradual change from polar to tropical climates across the middle latitude temperate zones. Normally, in the northern hemisphere, the northern portions of the temperate zone feature Boreal, Continental, and Oceanic climates, while the southern portions of the temperate zone are often Mediterranean and humid subtropical climates. These different climates all fall within the temperate zone which has a basic definition as being any climate with a mean temperature above −3 °C (26.6 °F) but below 18 °C (64.4 °F) in the coldest month. Obviously winter temperatures",
"-34.25294575425869"
],
[
"the ocean having hundreds of times more mass than in the atmosphere, and thus very high thermal inertia. For example, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat in the world's oceans. Due to the long timescales of this circulation, ocean temperature at depth is still adjusting to effects of the Little Ice Age which occurred between the 1600 and 1800s. Random forcing From a climate perspective, the weather can be considered as being random. If there are little clouds in a particular year, there is an energy imbalance and extra heat can",
"-33.98656277463306"
],
[
"Climate of the United States The climate of the United States varies due to changes in latitude, and a range of geographic features, including mountains and deserts. Generally, on the mainland, the climate of the U.S. becomes warmer the further south one travels, and drier the further west, until one reaches the West Coast.\nWest of the 100th meridian, much of the U.S. has a cool to cold semi-arid climate in the interior upper western states, to warm to hot desert and semi-arid climates in the rest of the western and southwestern U.S. East of the 100th meridian, the climate is",
"-33.76563068846008"
],
[
"hot and cold semi-arid climates — the 18°C average annual temperature or that of the coldest month (0°C or −3°C), the warm side of the isotherm of choice defining a BSh climate from the BSk on the cooler side. As a result of this, some areas can have climates that are classified as hot or cold semi-arid depending on the isotherm used. One such location is San Diego, California (at its main airport), which has cool summers for the latitude due to prevailing winds off the ocean (so the average annual temperature is below 18°C) but mild winters (average",
"-33.634222503053024"
],
[
"than average. This correlation has generated hypotheses that low solar activity produces cooler than average global temperatures, although Jiang and Xu point out that while the period 1430-1520 (starting slightly before the Spörer minimum) was indeed colder than average in China, the period 1520-1620 (the second half of the minimum) was warmer than average.\nA specific mechanism by which solar activity results in climate change has not been established, One theory is modification of the Arctic Oscillation/North Atlantic Oscillation due to a change in solar output.",
"-33.58062543789856"
],
[
"climates exist where cold air masses infiltrate during the winter and warm air masses form in summer under conditions of high sun and long days. Places with continental climates are as a rule are either far from any moderating effect of oceans (examples: Omaha, Nebraska and Kazan, Russia) or are so situated that prevailing winds tend to head offshore (example: Boston, USA). Such regions get quite warm in the summer, achieving temperatures characteristic of tropical climates but are colder than any other climates of similar latitude in the winter. Neighbouring climates In the Koppen climate system, these climates grade",
"-33.52619186431372"
],
[
"climate with a marked character of a continental climate. The continentalized Mediterranean climate is similar to a typical Mediterranean climate, but with more extreme temperatures typical of a continental climate. Lack of a marine influence leads to much more extreme temperatures: hotter summers and quite cold winters, with a daily oscillation of 18.5 °C (33.3 °F). Summer is the driest season, with temperatures often exceeding 30 °C (86 °F), sometimes reaching and exceeding 35 °C (95 °F). In winter, temperatures often drop below 0 °C (32 °F), producing frosts on clear nights, and occasional snow on cloudy nights.\nCastilla–La Mancha is part of what has traditionally been called",
"-33.49229136123904"
],
[
"there. Increased temperatures, causing warmer winter conditions, made the city more similar in climate to the more northerly wildland habitat of the species.\nWith attempts to mitigate and manage urban heat islands, temperature changes and availability of food and water are reduced. With temperate climates, urban heat islands will extend the growing season, therefore altering breeding strategies of inhabiting species. This can be seen the best in the effects that urban heat islands have on water temperature. With the temperature of the nearby buildings sometimes reaching over 50 degrees different from the near-surface air temperature, precipitation will warm rapidly, causing runoff",
"-33.44492052891292"
],
[
"year are more influenced by latitude and proximity to the ocean. Temperatures are the highest in southern and central areas and lowest in the north. Hot weather above 27 °C (81 °F) in most places and in most years occurs on multiple days per year, but more frequently in London and south-east England where temperatures can exceed 30 °C (86 °F) and less so in parts of Scotland. The record maximum is 38.7 °C (101.7 °F), recorded in Cambridge on 25 July 2019.\nHeatwaves and occasional droughts occur in Britain such as in the summers of 2003, 2006 and recently in 2018 when forest fires broke out",
"-33.44137729670183"
],
[
"however, some positive possible aspects to climate change as well. The projected increase in temperature during the first half of the century (1-3 °C) is expected to benefit crop and pasture yields in the temperate regions. This will lead to higher winter temperatures and more frost-free days in these regions; resulting in a longer growing season, increased thermal resources and accelerated maturation. If the climate scenario results in mild and wet weather, some areas and crops will suffer, but many may benefit from this. Drought and flood Extreme weather conditions continue to decrease crop yields in the form of droughts and",
"-33.377246121832286"
],
[
"and emissions.\nFurthermore, the Arctic region is warming faster than the Antarctic and faster than northern mid-latitudes and subtropics, despite polar regions receiving less sun than lower latitudes. Altitude Solar forcing should warm Earth's atmosphere roughly evenly by altitude, with some variation by wavelength/energy regime. However, the atmosphere is warming at lower altitudes while cooling higher up. This is the expected pattern if greenhouse gases drive temperature, as on Venus. Solar variation theory A 1994 study of the US National Research Council concluded that TSI variations were the most likely cause of significant climate change in the pre-industrial era, before significant",
"-33.36778974940535"
],
[
"Aspect (geography) Importance of aspect Aspect can have a strong influence on temperature. This is because of the angle of the sun in the northern and southern hemispheres which is less than 90 degrees or directly overhead. In the northern hemisphere, the north side of slopes is often shaded, while the southern side receives more solar radiation for a given surface area insolation because the slope is tilted toward the sun and isn't shaded directly by the earth itself. The further north or south you are and closer to winter solstice the more pronounced the effects of aspect of this",
"-33.34490450669546"
],
[
"more specific to climates (i.e. precipitation, temperature, and humidity based) and less dependent on the yearly minimum.\nIn contrast the United Kingdom (UK) and Western Europe have an oceanic climate, and experience a narrower range of temperatures that is tempered by the presence of the Gulf Stream. This results in areas like western Scotland experiencing relatively mild winter conditions that enable the growing of subtropical plants, despite being well to the north of subtropical climate areas. The Royal Horticultural Society has published a set of hardiness ratings applicable to the UK. The ratings range from H1a to H7. H1a, higher than",
"-33.33365874085575"
],
[
"colder is assumed to be necessary to bring this about; thus the climate of a location where at least one full month is this cold is classified as microthermal (however, at least one month in the summer must average 10°C or higher; otherwise the climate would be reckoned as polar). This definition places almost all of the world's microthermal climates in the Northern Hemisphere, as the absence of broad land masses at upper-middle latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere precludes, with few exceptions, the existence of such temperature conditions there.\nMicrothermal climates are typically subdivided into three categories based on the",
"-33.283011186518706"
],
[
"the \"urban heat island effect\", they may actually increase global temperature. The study noted that it did not account for the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions that results from building energy conservation (annual cooling energy savings less annual heating energy penalty) associated with cool roofs (meaning that one will need to use more energy to heat the living space due to reduction in heat from sunlight in winter.) However, this applies only to those areas with low winter temperatures – not tropical climates. Also, homes in areas receiving snow in winter months are unlikely to receive significantly more heat from",
"-33.19362537085544"
],
[
"the form of heat waves and cold waves. Shorter-term climate oscillations typically do not directly result in longer-term climate change in temperatures. However, the effects of underlying climate trends such as recent global warming and oscillations can be cumulative to global temperature, producing shorter-term fluctuations in the instrumental and satellite temperature records.\nCollapses of past civilizations such as the Maya may be related to cycles of precipitation, especially drought, that in this example also correlates to the Western Hemisphere Warm Pool.\nOne example of possible correlations between factors affecting the climate and global events, popular with the media, is a 2003 study",
"-33.11673618864734"
],
[
"said that \"we show that, globally, temperatures over land have risen as much on windy nights as on calm nights, indicating that the observed overall warming is not a consequence of urban development.\"\n\nA view often held by those who reject the evidence for global warming is that much of the temperature increase seen in land based thermometers could be due to an increase in urbanization and the siting of measurement stations in urban areas. For example, Ross McKitrick and Patrick J. Michaels conducted a statistical study of surface-temperature data regressed against socioeconomic indicators, and concluded that about half of the",
"-33.035195691278204"
],
[
"Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming. The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide. When the global temperature changes, the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth. In particular, land areas change more quickly than oceans, and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics, and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores.\nRegional",
"-32.98579372229142"
],
[
"United States temperature extremes For the United States, the extremes are 134 °F (56.7 °C) in Death Valley, California in 1913 and −79.8 °F (−62.1 °C) recorded in Prospect Creek, Alaska in 1971.\nThe largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15, 1972 in Loma, Montana, when the temperature rose from −54 to 49 °F (−47.8 to 9.4 °C).\nThe most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds. For example, the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 °F (27.2 °C) occurred in Spearfish, South Dakota, a rise from −4 to 45 °F (−20.0 to 7.2 °C). Lack of extremes Among",
"-32.95610505458899"
],
[
"however, studies found that temperatures were relatively warmer in the 11th century, but colder by the early 17th century. The degree of climate change which occurred in all regions across the world is uncertain, as is whether such changes were all part of a global trend. Climate trends seemed to be more recognizable in the Northern than in the Southern Hemisphere.\nThere are shorter climate periods that could be said roughly to account for large scale climate trends in the Post-classical Period. These include the Late Antique Little Ice Age, the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age. The extreme",
"-32.9370750042508"
],
[
"scattered or reflected, which is the same thing that causes winters to be colder than the rest of the year in temperate areas.\nThe axial tilt of the Earth has a major effect on climate of the polar regions. Since the polar regions are the farthest from the equator, they receive the least amount of sunlight and are therefore frigid. The large amount of ice and snow also reflects a large part of what little sunlight the Polar regions receive, contributing to the cold. Polar regions are characterized by the polar climate, extremely cold temperatures, heavy glaciation wherever there is sufficient",
"-32.78194705588976"
],
[
"evidence and found to be valid. This introduced a new difficulty: more CO\n2 would produce warmer tropical sea temperatures, and the evidence suggested they were the same or even colder than today's. Data supporting cool tropical oceans Foraminiferal data, suggesting tropical temperatures cooler than today's, disagreed with terrestrial proxies, which spoke of warmer temperatures - although most of the terrestrial figures are based on extrapolation of data from outside the tropics. Sources of error Analytical error is around 2−3 °C for individual specimens, but this drops to 0.5−1.0 °C when a sample is analysed - not enough to explain the discrepancy. Other",
"-32.73128814945812"
],
[
"reasons why these regions of the world are consistently cold in all seasons (others include the effect of albedo, the relative increased reflection of solar radiation of snow and ice). Even at the summer solstice, when the Sun reaches its highest point above the horizon at noon, it is still only 23.44° above the horizon at the poles. Additionally, as one approaches the poles the apparent path of the Sun through the sky each day diverges increasingly from the vertical. As summer approaches, the Sun rises and sets become more northerly in the north and more southerly in the south.",
"-32.70529013720807"
],
[
"year as a whole. Definition Under the broadest definition, all places with an average temperature in their coldest month that is colder than 18 °C, but warmer than −3 °C, are said to have a mesothermal climate. In some climate classification schemes, however, this is divided into two segments, with a coldest-month average of 6 °C being the line of demarcation between them; then only those locations with a coldest-month temperature of between −3 °C and 6 °C are reckoned as mesothermal, the label \"subtropical\" being applied to areas where the average temperature in the coldest month ranges from 6 °C to 18 °C.\nObserving the narrower",
"-32.69857603660057"
],
[
" As a result, the temperature structure of the three oceans display dramatic asymmetries. The equatorial Pacific and Atlantic both have cool surface temperatures in Northern Summer in the east, while cooler surface temperatures prevail only in the western Indian Ocean. These changes in surface temperature reflect changes in the depth of the thermocline.\nChanges in the Walker Circulation with time occur in conjunction with changes in surface temperature. Some of these changes are forced externally, such as the seasonal shift of the Sun into the Northern Hemisphere in summer. Other changes appear to be the result of",
"-32.68261446914403"
],
[
"alters the behaviour of weather and atmosphere, but decadal and centennial climate cycles are also attributed to solar variation. Effects on human populations and climate The Homeric Minimum has been linked with a phase of climate change, during which the Western United States, Europe and the North Atlantic became colder and wetter although the eastern parts of Europe appear to have become drier. This climate oscillation has been called the \"Homeric Climate Oscillation\" or the \"2.8 kyr event\".\nHuman cultures at that time underwent changes, which also coincide with the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. The climate",
"-32.66113281605067"
],
[
"temperatures is at −18 °C (−1 °F). Indoor air dewpoint temperatures are more likely to be in the order of around 0 °C (32 °F) when it is that cold outdoors, much lower than the predicted vapor barrier temperature, and hence the 1/3:2/3 rules is quite conservative. For climates that do not often experience −18 °C, the 1/3:2/3 rule should be amended to 40:60% or 50:50. As the interior air dewpoint temperature is an important basis for such rules, buildings with high interior humidities during cold weather (e.g., museums, swimming pools, humidified or poorly ventilated airtight homes) may require different rules, as can buildings with",
"-32.66052736589336"
],
[
"strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. On the Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. Over thousands of years, changes in the Earth's orbit have affected the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influence long-term climate\nSurface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences.",
"-32.63994331902359"
],
[
"neither the warmest century over the last 1000 years, nor is it the most extreme.\"\nIn the paper, Soon, Baliunas, and their co-authors investigated the correlation between solar variation and temperatures of the Earth's atmosphere. When there are more sunspots, the total solar output increases, and when there are fewer sunspots, it decreases. Soon and Baliunas attributed the Medieval warm period to such an increase in solar output, and believe that decreases in solar output led to the Little Ice Age, a period of cooling lasting until the mid-19th Century. In a statement to The Chronicle of Higher Education, Soon",
"-32.47719706405769"
],
[
"led to high temperatures around the globe, due to the greenhouse effect. One study, estimating CO₂ concentrations of 1120 parts per million, predicted average winter temperatures in western North America of 20 °C (68 °F) and summer temperatures averaging 40–45 °C (104–113 °F). A more recent study suggested even higher CO₂ concentrations of up to 3180 parts per million. Warm temperatures that led to significant evaporation year-round, along with possible rain shadow effect from the mountains to the west, led to a semi-arid climate with only seasonal rainfall. This formation is similar in age to the Solnhofen Limestone Formation in Germany and the",
"-32.3930835032952"
],
[
"as high as 22 °F (12 °C).\"\nThe UHI can be defined as either the air temperature difference (the canopy UHI) or the surface temperature difference (surface UHI) between the urban and the rural area. These two show slightly different diurnal and seasonal variability and have different causes Diurnal behavior The IPCC stated that \"it is well-known that compared to non-urban areas urban heat islands raise night-time temperatures more than daytime temperatures.\" For example, Barcelona, Spain is 0.2 °C (0.36 °F) cooler for daily maxima and 2.9 °C (5.2 °F) warmer for minima than a nearby rural station. A description of the very first report of",
"-32.34084355244704"
],
[
"warm for thermohaline circulation as it is today to occur, and deep water temperatures more likely change as a response to global temperature change rather than affecting it. The modern thermohaline circulation may have been a result of the cooling trend in the Eocene, rather than it causing the cooling event.\nIn the Arctic, coastal upwelling may have been largely temperature and wind driven. In summer, the land surface temperature was probably higher than oceanic temperature, and the opposite was true in the winter. This annual cycling is consistent with monsoon seasons in Asia, and, based on this, summer surface water",
"-32.337527278781636"
],
[
"is required to increase relative humidity values to 100% at higher temperatures (or to get the temperature to fall to the dew point). Periods of warmth quicken the pace of fruit and vegetable production, increase evaporation and transpiration from plants, and worsen drought conditions. El Niño Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the Amazon River Basin, Colombia, and Central America during El Niño events. Winters during the El Niño are warmer and drier than average conditions in the Northwest, northern Midwest, and northern Mideast United States, so those regions experience reduced snowfalls. Conditions are also",
"-32.33652717589575"
],
[
"These occur in the middle latitudes, between 35° and 55° north and south and are the ones with the most of practically equal influence from the equator and the poles, and the most characteristic temperate climates with the typical distinct four season pattern. In these the temperatures remain relatively cool through most of the year as opposed to mild and warm in the subtropics and cold in the subpoles. Oceanic (Cfb) The Oceanic climates are created by the onshore flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool (but",
"-32.32738512416836"
],
[
"high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.\nArctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect. Climate and weather Albedo affects climate by determining how much",
"-32.32255583498045"
],
[
"temperatures of 10 °C (50 °F) or higher (subtropical), and the average annual precipitation must not exceed 900 mm (35 in). Thus, under this system, many Csb zones in the Köppen system become Do (temperate oceanic), and the rare Csc zones become Eo (subpolar oceanic), with only the classic dry-summer to warm winter, low annual rainfall locations included in the Mediterranean type climate. Temperature The majority of the regions with Mediterranean climates have relatively mild winters and very warm summers. However winter and summer temperatures can vary greatly between different regions with a Mediterranean climate. For instance, in the case of winters, Barcelona",
"-32.29836909045116"
],
[
"this as \"entirely misleading\".\nIn January 2013 James Hansen and colleagues published their updated analysis that temperatures had continued at a high level despite strong La Niña conditions, and said the \"5-year mean global temperature has been flat for a decade, which we interpret as a combination of natural variability and a slowdown in the growth rate of the net climate forcing\", noting \"that the 10 warmest years in the record all occurred since 1998.\" Under the heading \"Global Warming Standstill\" they \"noted that the 'standstill' temperature is at a much higher level than existed at any year in the prior",
"-32.22253838888719"
],
[
"water supply dropped regularly. This shows that the wet, humid conditions were punctuated by dry seasons, in which the environment became more arid. Evidence from the study of oxygen isotopes has shown that the average yearly temperature during this time period was 10 degrees celsius (50 degrees Fahrenheit), significantly colder than once thought. This indicates a temperate climate with unusually cold winters for the generally warm Mesozoic era, possibly due to northern China's high latitude during this time. A study by Wu et al. (2013) concluded that orbital forcing, which is the effect on climate caused by shifts in",
"-32.189858440106036"
],
[
"the last 2,000 years.\nBy the end of the 21st century, temperatures may increase to a level not experienced since the mid-Pliocene, around 3 million years ago. At that time, models suggest that mean global temperatures were about 2–3 °C warmer than pre-industrial temperatures. In the early Pliocene era, the global temperature was only 1-2 °C warmer than now, but sea level was 15–25 meters higher. Physical impacts A broad range of evidence shows that the climate system has warmed. Evidence of global warming is shown in the graphs (below right) from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Some of the",
"-32.18456933840935"
],
[
"To date, no climate model has been able to reproduce the proposed warming in the Pacific (Yin and Battisti 2001), with most preferring a several degree cooling. Also, it appears that climate models which are forced to match the CLIMAP sea surface measurements are too warm to match estimates for changes at continental locations (Pinot et al. 1999). This suggests that either climate model design is missing some important unknown factor, or CLIMAP systematically overestimated the temperatures in the tropical oceans during the last glacial, though there is at present no consistent explanation for why or how this should have",
"-32.1524360509502"
],
[
"Climate change adaptation Effects of global warming The projected effects for the environment and for civilization are numerous and varied. The main effect is an increasing global average temperature. The average surface temperature could increase by 3 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit (approximately 1.67 to 5.56 degrees Celsius) by the end of the century if carbon emissions aren't reduced. This causes a variety of secondary effects, namely, changes in patterns of precipitation, rising sea levels, altered patterns of agriculture, increased extreme weather events, the expansion of the range of tropical diseases, and the opening of new marine trade routes.\nPotential effects include",
"-32.149179887375794"
],
[
"water of different temperatures which allow for a large difference in deep water and surface temperatures.\nThe poles probably had a cool temperate climate; northern Antarctica, Australia, the southern tip of South America, what is now the US and Canada, eastern Siberia, and Europe warm temperate; middle South America, southern and northern Africa, South India, Middle America, and China arid; and northern South America, central Africa, North India, middle Siberia, and what is now the Mediterranean Sea tropical. Climatic events The effects of the meteor impact 66 mya, such as the impact winter, and the climate across the K-Pg boundary were",
"-32.12930052774027"
],
[
"2008 United Nations Climate Change Conference History of Climate Change Since the late 1800s, the surface of the earth has experienced an increase of 0.6 °C in global temperatures. The earth historically has experienced periods of large increases in global temperatures. For example, around 2 million B.C the surface temperature of the earth is estimated to have been 5 °C warmer than today. While these temperatures increased as a result of the natural warming and cooling of the earth, current increases in global temperatures are attributed to increasing amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases have increased since the",
"-32.120612604077905"
],
[
"the Leeuwin Current, but there are a number of other factors involved, including high evaporation of coastal waters in summer.\nTemperatures can also vary substantially from year to year. Annual mean temperatures vary by as much as 1 °C (2 °F); with cooler years usually cooler throughout the year. There is evidence that annual mean temperatures are related to El Niño-Southern Oscillation events.\nThe water column is generally well-mixed, with no evidence of a significant halocline or thermocline. Mean differences in water temperature between sea surface and sea bed range from only half a degree (Celsius; 1 °F) in summer to almost zero in winter,",
"-32.11499372179969"
],
[
"Weather Attribution estimated that global warming more than doubled the overall likelihood of the heat wave, and in some places like Denmark made it up to five times as likely. The heat has built up for two months due to slow and weakened jet stream. One possible cause for the jet stream to be slow and weak relates to global warming. In the polar regions, the average surface temperature is rising more quickly than at mid latitudes in a phenomenon called polar amplification. Many researchers believe a strong polar amplification reduces the strength and changes the pattern",
"-32.10428259841865"
],
[
"a distinction between an As and Aw climate is a quibble. In most places that have tropical wet and dry climates, however, the dry season occurs during the time of lower sun and shorter days because of reduction of or lack of convection, which in turn is due to the meridional shifts of the Intertropical Convergence Zone during the entire course of the year.",
"-32.09914542589104"
],
[
"temperatures per year, while their British counterpart may have to plan for several months.\nIn addition, the zones do not incorporate any information about summer temperature or insolation; thus sites which may have the same mean winter minima, but markedly different summer temperatures, will be accorded the same hardiness zone. For example, zone 8 covers coastal, high latitude, cool summer locations like Seattle and London, as well as lower latitude, hot summer climates like Charleston and Madrid. Farmers, gardeners, and landscapers in the former two must plan for entirely different growing seasons from those in the latter.\nIn the colder",
"-32.09854864330737"
],
[
"cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called Alpine. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see adiabatic lapse rate). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature, often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain. The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and",
"-32.08487134758616"
],
[
"whose formation will accelerate with the increase of temperature.\nSome cities exhibit a heat island effect, largest at night. Seasonally, UHI shows up both in summer and winter. The typical temperature difference is several degrees between the center of the city and surrounding fields. The difference in temperature between an inner city and its surrounding suburbs is frequently mentioned in weather reports, as in \"68 °F (20 °C) downtown, 64 °F (18 °C) in the suburbs\". \"The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be 1.8–5.4 °F (1.0–3.0 °C) warmer than its surroundings. In the evening, the difference can be",
"-32.08479555649683"
],
[
"produce warmer conditions at middle and high latitudes, as much as 10–20 °C warmer than today above 70°N. They also indicate little temperature variation in the tropics. Model-based biomes are generally consistent with Pliocene paleobotanical data indicating a northward shift of the Tundra and Taiga and an expansion of Savanna and warm-temperate forest in Africa and Australia.",
"-32.08236668336758"
],
[
"(10.8 °F) colder than the 2013-2017 average.\nThe figures given by the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change (IPCC) estimate a slightly lower global temperature than the figures given by the Zurich University of Applied Sciences. However, these figures are not exact figures and are open more to interpretation. According to the IPCC, average global temperatures increased by 5.5 ± 1.5 °C (9.9 ± 2.7 °F) since the last glacial maximum, and the rate of warming was about 10 times slower than that of the 20th Century. It appears that they are defining the present as sometime in the 19th Century for this case,",
"-32.080756860443216"
],
[
"mildew. Like continental climates, maritime climates will have distinct seasonal changes, but they are usually not as drastic, with warm, rather than hot, summers and cool, rather than cold, winters. Maritime climates also exist in some wine-growing areas of highlands of subtropical and tropical latitudes, including the southern Appalachian Mountains in the USA, eastern Australian highlands, and central highlands of Mexico.",
"-32.044662219064776"
],
[
"south can bring cooler temperatures. An extreme example of this was in November 2007, when cold polar air from the south brought temperatures down to 2.5 °C (36.5 °F) on the morning of November 15. The same polar air affected many parts of the country, bringing cold temperatures and snow in coastal parts of Patagonia. In contrast, hot humid air from the north produces sultry days; the highest temperature recorded in spring is 36.8 °C (98.2 °F) on 27 November 1955. In some cases, heat waves, can occur, particularly in November. Summer Summers are hot and humid. On average, mornings and afternoons are hot",
"-32.02299287955975"
],
[
"air temperature show no significant differences. In fact, the lower-tropospheric temperatures warm at a slightly greater rate over North America (about 0.28°C/decade using satellite data) than do the surface temperatures (0.27°C/decade), although again the difference is not statistically significant.\n\nGround temperature measurements, like most weather observations, are logged by location. Their siting predates the massive sprawl, roadbuilding programs, and high- and medium-rise expansions which contribute to the UHI. More importantly, station logs allow sites in question to be filtered easily from data sets. Doing so, the presence of heat islands is visible, but overall trends change in magnitude, not direction.\nThe effects",
"-32.02216947983834"
],
[
"Thermal lag Examples The slow night-time cooling of a home after its external brick wall has been heated by the sun is one example of thermal lag. Thermal lag is the reason the high temperatures in summer continue to increase after the summer solstice (in this case, it is termed seasonal lag), and it is the reason a day's high temperature peaks in the afternoon instead of when the Sun is at its peak (12 noon).",
"-32.00524474008125"
],
[
"regionally. For a medium increase in global mean temperature (2–3 °C of warming, relative to the average temperature between 1990–2000), market sectors in low-latitude and less-developed areas might experience net costs due to climate change. On the other hand, market sectors in high-latitude and developed regions might experience net benefits for this level of warming. A global mean temperature increase above about 2–3 °C (relative to 1990–2000) would very likely result in market sectors across all regions experiencing either declines in net benefits or rises in net costs.\nIn 2019 the National Bureau of Economic Research found that increase in average global temperature",
"-31.989120384590933"
],
[
"The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air. This, combined with the rising of the hot air, results in the formation of a low pressure area. Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude. Over the water, instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body. Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations, and can extend to 3,100 metres (10,200 ft) in height. Thermal lows",
"-31.9870810835273"
],
[
"temperature difference between tropics and middle latitudes, what would enable storms as strong as in the last interglacial, the Eemian, whose evidence includes, among others, megaboulders on Bahamas. Analysis of climate change causation Hansen noted that in determining responsibility for climate change, the effect of greenhouse gas emissions on climate is determined not by current emissions, but by accumulated emissions over the lifetime of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.\nBy this measure, the U.K. is still the largest single cause of climate change, followed by the U.S. and Germany, even though its current emissions are surpassed by the People's Republic of",
"-31.952261063241167"
],
[
"observations have a warm bias of around 0.6 °C (1 °F) due to the heat of the engine room. This bias has led to changes in the perception of global warming since 2000. Fixed weather buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres (9.8 ft). Measurements of SST have had inconsistencies over the last 130 years due to the way they were taken. In the nineteenth century, measurements were taken in a bucket off of a ship. However, there was a slight variation in temperature because of the differences in buckets. Samples were collected in either a",
"-31.885547567610047"
],
[
"with a very low average global temperature gradient. As a consequence, high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present. This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions.\nAs a response to elevated global temperatures, the Earth's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean. In turn, the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level. Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas, including expanses of epeiric seas.\nAn increase in surface area",
"-31.884364336408908"
],
[
"cause warming of near-surface air is much shallower in the Arctic than in the tropics. Fourth, a reduction in sea-ice extent will lead to more energy being transferred from the warm ocean to the atmosphere, enhancing the warming. Finally, changes in atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns caused by a global temperature change may cause more heat to be transferred to the Arctic, enhancing Arctic warming.\nAccording to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), \"warming of the climate system is unequivocal\", and the global-mean temperature has increased by 0.6 to 0.9 °C (1.1 to 1.6 °F) over the last century. This report also",
"-31.882713790313574"
],
[
"the middle of the 20th century, it was likely that human influences had significantly contributed to surface temperature increases in every continent except Antarctica. The magazine Scientific American reported on December 23, 2008, that the 10 places most affected by climate change were Darfur, the Gulf Coast, Italy, northern Europe, the Great Barrier Reef, island nations, Washington, D.C., the Northwest Passage, the Alps, and Uganda. Northern hemisphere In the northern hemisphere, the southern part of the Arctic region (home to 4,000,000 people) has experienced a temperature rise of 1 °C to 3 °C (1.8 °F to 5.4 °F) over the last 50 years.",
"-31.80265105270155"
],
[
"less sun to warm neighboring regions. These Highs change character and weaken once they move further over relatively warmer water bodies.\nSomewhat weaker but more common are high-pressure areas caused by atmospheric subsidence, that is, areas where large masses of cooler, drier air descend from an elevation of 8 to 15 km after the lower temperatures have precipitated out the water vapor.\nMany of the features of Highs may be understood in context of middle- or meso-scale and relatively enduring dynamics of a planet's atmospheric circulation. For example, massive atmospheric subsidences occur as part of the descending branches of Ferrel cells and Hadley",
"-31.80083810185897"
],
[
"local maximum in the tropics. Insolation effects The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the arctic and antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo,",
"-31.78654102573637"
],
[
"a subarctic climate (Dfc according to the Köppen classification). The maritime influence explains why its early summers are colder than they are farther inland, but its autumns are in contrast more mild. The topography causes important local variations.\nThe climate is humid, with about 700 millimetres (28 in) of precipitation per year, of which more than a third in the form of snow, forming a snow cover lasting on average 175 days. Spring is the driest season, and in certain years this relative dryness has important consequences for the environment, especially because the thinness of the soil retains moisture poorly. In the",
"-31.75072340649058"
],
[
"and cold between A.D. 1000 and 1900, but human-induced forcings are needed to reproduce the late-20th century warming.\nAnother line of evidence against the sun having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed.\nModels and observations (see figure above, middle) show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the lower atmosphere at the surface (called the troposphere) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (called the stratosphere). Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants has also resulted in a cooling effect in the stratosphere. If the sun was responsible for observed",
"-31.74869146582205"
],
[
"in the thermosphere, which receives strong ionizing radiation at the level of the Van Allen radiation belt.\nTemperature varies as one moves vertically upwards from the Earth's surface. It also depends on the change of latitude. Uses A location which combines an average temperature of 19 degrees Celsius, 60% average humidity and a temperature range of about 10 degrees Celsius around the average temperature (yearly temperature variation) is considered ideal in terms of comfort for the human species. Most of the places with these characteristics are located in the transition between temperate and tropical climates, approximately around the tropics, particularly in",
"-31.743425345877768"
],
[
"temperature results in a rise in water temperature, which is also very significant in water degradation as the water would become more susceptible to bacterial growth. An increase in water temperature can also affect ecosystems greatly because of a species' sensitivity to temperature, and also by inducing changes in a body of water's self-purification system from decreased amounts of dissolved oxygen in the water due to rises in temperature. Climate change and precipitation A rise in global temperatures is also predicted to correlate with an increase in global precipitation but because of increased runoff, floods, increased rates of soil erosion,",
"-31.733098969009006"
],
[
"Provinces (less than 40% possible sunshine). The southernmost islands receive some of the lowest average annual sunshine hours in the world. Temperatures Temperatures are relatively cold for its latitude due to the cold Malvinas Current and the high altitude. For example, in Tierra del Fuego temperatures are colder than at equal latitudes in the northern hemisphere in Europe since they are influenced by the cold Malvinas Current rather than the warm North Atlantic Current. A characteristic of the temperature pattern is the NW–SE distribution of isotherms due to the presence of the Andes.\nThe warmest areas are in northern parts of",
"-31.726280439783295"
],
[
"climates are defined as the warmest temperature of any month is below 10 °C (50 °F). Polar climates are further divided into two types, tundra climates and icecap climates: Ecological significance The Köppen climate classification is based on the empirical relationship between climate and vegetation. This classification provides an efficient way to describe climatic conditions defined by temperature and precipitation and their seasonality with a single metric. Because climatic conditions identified by the Köppen classification are ecologically relevant, it has been widely used to map geographic distribution of long term climate and associated ecosystem conditions.\nOver the recent years, there has been an",
"-31.69790908205323"
],
[
"temperatures According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, \"warming in the Arctic, as indicated by daily maximum and minimum temperatures, has been as great as in any other part of the world.\" The period of 1995–2005 was the warmest decade in the Arctic since at least the 17th century, with temperatures 2 °C (3.6 °F) above the 1951–1990 average. Some regions within the Arctic have warmed even more rapidly, with Alaska and western Canada's temperature rising by 3 to 4 °C (5.40 to 7.20 °F). This warming has been caused not only by the rise in greenhouse gas concentration, but also the",
"-31.683100974507397"
],
[
"California Senate Bill 32 Background The global community recognized the climate trends most recently at the 21st yearly session of the Conference of Parties (COP 21) in Paris, where a universal commitment to reduce average “global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius and to drive efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.” \nClimate science dictates that global warming of more than 2 °C would have serious consequences, beyond those already being experienced, such as an increase in the number of extreme climate events. In order to avoid a global average",
"-31.66433537157718"
],
[
"is instead absorbed by buildings and asphalt; leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories, and industrial and domestic heating and cooling units release even more heat. As a result, cities are often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than surrounding landscapes. Impacts also include reducing soil moisture and a reduction in reabsorption of carbon dioxide emissions.\nIn his book Whole Earth Discipline, Stewart Brand argues that the effects of urbanization are primarily positive for the environment. First, the birth rate of new urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate and keeps falling, reducing environmental stresses caused by population growth. Secondly,",
"-31.658259791191085"
],
[
"Subarctic climate Description This type of climate offers some of the most extreme seasonal temperature variations found on the planet: in winter, temperatures can drop to below −40 °C (−40 °F) and in summer, the temperature may exceed 30 °C (86 °F). However, the summers are short; no more than three months of the year (but at least one month) must have a 24-hour average temperature of at least 10 °C (50 °F) to fall into this category of climate and the coldest month should average below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)). Record low temperatures can approach −70 °C (−94 °F).\nWith 5–7 consecutive months where the average",
"-31.616823740594555"
],
[
"of many different plants, thereby acting more like thermal insulation, meaning, it reduces the rate of temperature flowing through it.\nApproximately 50% of the heat from the Sun is absorbed at the surface. Consequently, the temperature at the surface may vary considerably according to the day / night cycle, according to weather and particularly according to season. Underground, these temperature changes are blunted and delayed, termed thermal lag. The thermal properties of earth therefore mean that in Winter the temperature below the surface will be higher than the surface air temperature, and conversely in Summer the earth temperature will be lower",
"-31.590943568211515"
],
[
"infrared light). Variations in the amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of the Earth are a principal driver of global and regional climate. Latitude is the most important factor determining the yearly average amount of solar radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere; the incident solar radiation decreases smoothly from the Equator to the poles. Therefore, temperature tends to decrease with increasing latitude.\nIn addition the length of each day, which is determined by the season, has a significant impact on the climate. The 24-hour days found near the poles in summer result in a large daily-average solar flux reaching",
"-31.585596980905393"
],
[
"great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures.\nThe oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that",
"-31.570976131013595"
],
[
"Atmospheric temperature Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth's atmosphere. It is governed by many factors, including incoming solar radiation, humidity and altitude. When discussing surface air temperature, the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome, as measured by the Köppen climate classification. Temperature versus height In the Earth's atmosphere, temperature varies greatly at different heights relative to the Earth's surface. The coldest temperatures lie near the mesopause, an area approximately 80 km above the surface. In contrast, some of the warmest temperatures can be found",
"-31.56006935350888"
],
[
"development. However, when dry air is found at the same height, temperatures at 500 hPa need to be even colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than moist atmospheres. At heights near the tropopause, the 30-year average temperature (as measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990) was −77 °C (−132 °F).",
"-31.53846041613724"
],
[
"Earth's atmosphere over the past 100 years,\" according to Moore's testimony. \"Today, we live in an unusually cold period in the history of life on earth and there is no reason to believe that a warmer climate would be anything but beneficial for humans and the majority of other species. The fact that we had both higher temperatures and an ice age at a time when CO\n2 emissions were 10 times higher than they are today fundamentally contradicts the certainty that human-caused CO\n2 emissions are the main cause of global warming. When modern life evolved over 500 million years ago,",
"-31.523622172651812"
],
[
"points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees compared to the pre-industrial levels, through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting this threshold is below the 2-degree temperature target, agreed upon by the Paris climate deal. Study author Katherine Richardson stresses, \"We note that the Earth has never in its history had a quasi-stable state that is around 2 °C warmer than the pre-industrial and suggest that there is substantial risk that the system, itself, will 'want' to continue warming because of all of these other processes – even if we stop emissions. This implies",
"-31.51519478051341"
],
[
"the day seeing daylight and warmer temperatures, due to the higher directness of solar rays, the longer period of daytime itself, and less absorption of sunlight in the atmosphere. While increased daylight can have some effect on the higher temperatures in the summer, most of temperature rise results from the directness of the Sun, not the increased daylight. The high angles (around the zenith) of the Sun causes the tropics to be warm, while low angles (barely above the horizon) causes the polar regions to be cold. The slight effect of daylight hours on average seasonal temperature can be seen",
"-31.512604823190486"
],
[
"one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the surrounding ocean is more felt.\nThe most important climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an exceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier",
"-31.507191806071205"
],
[
"Physical impacts of climate change Global warming Global surface temperatures have increased about 0.74 °C (plus or minus 0.18 °C) since the late-19th century, and the linear trend for the past 50 years of 0.13 °C (plus or minus 0.03 °C) per decade is nearly twice that for the past 100 years. The warming has not been globally uniform. Some areas have, in fact, cooled slightly over the last century. The recent warmth has been greatest over North America and Eurasia between 40 and 70°N. Lastly, seven of the eight warmest years on record have occurred since 2001 and the 10 warmest years have",
"-31.50596112170024"
],
[
"both take into account only two variables, shade temperature and atmospheric moisture (humidity), thus providing only a limited estimate of thermal comfort. Wind passing over wet or sweaty skin causes evaporation and a wind chill effect that the heat index does not measure. The other major factor is sunshine; standing in direct sunlight can add up to 15 °F (8.3 °C) to the apparent heat compared to shade. There have been attempts to create a universal apparent temperature, such as the wet-bulb globe temperature, \"relative outdoor temperature\", \"feels like\", or the proprietary \"RealFeel\". Meteorological considerations Outdoors in open conditions, as",
"-31.492947836130043"
],
[
"ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night, and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.)\nFarther south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea coast.\nIn the extreme north and south the climate is a warm temperate",
"-31.46693385328399"
],
[
"whilst the minimum temperature averages to be about 19 °C (66 °F). The heat during summer can be quite extreme, so it is not unusual for a couple of days to exceed 40 °C (104 °F), during this season. Winter temperatures drop substantially, when being compared to summer temperatures, as the minimum temperature averages at 9 °C (48 °F) and the maximum averages at 15 °C (59 °F). Coastal temperatures, such as Madora Bay's, are preferred over inland temperatures because after travelling only a few kilometres inland, temperatures may be up to 5 °C warmer during summer days or cooler during winter nights.\nAs for precipitation, the rainfall in Madora",
"-31.460300690639997"
],
[
"influenced by continental air masses. For this reason, in this part of the region, the winters are colder with medium temperatures above −10 °C (14 °F), but sometimes down to −26 °C (−15 °F). The summers are very hot with average temperatures of 20 °C (68 °F), sometimes up to 37 °C (99 °F). This area is characterized by a dry climate and a total annual precipitation of 600 mm per year, approximately. The climatic area of Metohija, which includes the watershed of the White Drin river, is influenced very much by the hot air masses, which cross the Adriatic Sea. Medium temperatures during winter range from 0.5 °C (32.9 °F)",
"-31.459281658608234"
],
[
"temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country. The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 °C (50.0 °F). Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures. The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 °C (69.8 °F). In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 °C (33.8 °F) or 2 °C (35.6 °F) are common. In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south-west of England, however convective cloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the number of hours of sunshine. Annual sunshine rates are",
"-31.455505051853834"
],
[
"1990 Temperatures have tended to be higher in recent years, which may be a consequence of global warming. Using the same data source but with the more recent 20-year period 1991-2010 as a base period, this results in winter temperatures for the same stations that are 1 to 2.5 °C (1.8 to 4.5 °F) higher, while 24 July-hr average temperatures increases by approximately 1 °C. For Blindern/Oslo, the 1991-2010 period gives a January average of −2.4 °C (27.7 °F) and a 24 July-hour average of 17.4 °C (63.3 °F). For Bergen the corresponding temperatures are 2.6 and 15.5 °C (36.7 and 59.9 °F), for Værnes/Trondheim −1.0 and 15.1 °C (30.2",
"-31.43992142745992"
],
[
"temperature more than 1.0 C (1.8 F) above the 1850-1900 average.\nECCC lists impacts of climate change consistent with global changes. Temperature-related changes include longer growing season, more heatwaves and fewer cold spells, thawing permafrost, earlier river ice break-up, earlier spring runoff, and earlier budding of trees. Meteorological changes include an increase in precipitation and more snowfall in northwest Arctic. Highlighting that \"Warming is not uniform ...(the) Arctic is warming even faster\", ECCC notes 2012 had the lowest extent of Arctic sea ice on record up to 2014.\nECCC's Climate Research Division summarized annual precipitation changes to support biodiversity assessments by the",
"-31.430904429391376"
],
[
"winters characteristic especially of China) or Dfb or Dwb (cold winters, warm summers, same distinction for winter dryness). Dry summer continental climates (Dsa and Dsb) exist in high altitude areas near Mediterranean climates. In some cases, the semi-arid climate classification of BSk can also be considered to be continental as long as it has cold winters. The definition of this climate regarding temperature is as follows: the mean temperature of the coldest month must be below 0 °C (32.0 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 °C (50 °F). Climatology Continental",
"-31.392798888555262"
],
[
"with the cautious title Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: inferences, uncertainties, and limitations. Mann said that \"As you go back farther in time, the data becomes sketchier. One can't quite pin things down as well, but, our results do reveal that significant changes have occurred, and temperatures in the latter 20th century have been exceptionally warm compared to the preceding 900 years. Though substantial uncertainties exist in the estimates, these are nonetheless startling revelations.\" When Mann gave a talk about the study to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman nicknamed",
"-31.39041125937365"
],
[
"the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are cool due to cool ocean currents, but winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes, but usually very cloudy. \nAverage temperature changes between 7-8,3 °C. August is the warmest month in the year, and January – the coldes. Max temperature is between 32,1 – 33,1 °C, and min. temperature is between -18,6- -19,2 °C. Annual precipitation rate ranges from 550 mm to 650 mm. Length of growing period is 210–220 days. Winds blow mostly from the South-West and North-West direction. Tourism The town is close to Zalew Kamieński (Kamieński Bay). The Cathedral of",
"-31.38867994910106"
],
[
"Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves",
"-31.38739179164986"
]
] |
1saccp | What makes a feature film look different than regular video recording? | [
"Higher quality cameras, different ratios, but mainly color correcting. Color correcting adds the overall theatric and cinematic feel o a film. It's why when you see raw footage of the movie it looks like a lower quality. There is sometimes some cg overlay as well.",
"It's been touched on, but not enough, but shutter speed and frame rate. Specifically, that films are almost always at 24 frames per second, and much TV (though this is changing) and home video is shot at 30 frames per second or 60i (60 half frames per second, essentially). Have you seen a movie on display at best buy that looked like a soap opera or live production? That's because they have frame interpolation on, which interpolates (fakes, basically) extra frames to smooth out the motion. This makes it look like something shot at a higher frame rate. Films also often use somewhat slower shutter speeds (the length of time the camera iris is open per frame) then videos, often 1/48th or a multiple of this, which gives a distinct look. Color correction and proper lighting also play major roles, along with focal depth (most cinema films deliberately focus on specific parts of the frame for effect - they don't have to though, watch Citizen Kane and you'll note almost everything is in focus much of the time).",
"More factors than I could ever possibly name, being a layman myself, but just for starters: better cameras, better lighting, better make-up, and definitely better post-production, by which I mean the digital treatment of the image after it's filmed. I think other factors play a psychological role as well. Even the better actors, sets, production value, etc. help transport you more into the image and allow for that feeling of richness and realness.",
"The magic happens in post production. When the film is scanned and digitized and then touched up in detail. Left eye lighter than right eye, let me fix that for you. Glare on the window obscures an actor - gone. Bad white correction across takes, not a problem. Foley effects so you can get complete enjoyment of the sound of someone stepping on a tarantula. The music and the footage coordinated in editing. And, oh yeah, a script. When you watch the credits at the end of a movie check out all the specialists that touched the film. They are the difference.",
"You've answered your question *in your question*. The fidelity of 35mm film usually vastly outstrips that of a video camera. 35mm film threads through the projector at ~24 frames per second and it's effective resolution is about 4K - 4096x2160, i.e. 8.8 megapixels. (Note, there exists some argument as to what the actual \"resolution\" of film is. Some people say 1 MP, some say 10 MP. But it's pretty high, and it's running through the projector pretty fast.) Sure, there are cameras that outstrip that, but not at 24 frames per second. Also, you'll see bona fide movie cameras with big-ass lenses, which allow in a great deal more light and allow much higher resolution than the relatively small lenses on a video camera or (shudder) an iPhone. But the biggest difference is the format. Film is still a peerless format when it comes to moving pictures."
] | [
[
"screen.\nA significant aspect of the film is that it illustrates the use of the long shot to establish the setting of the film, followed by a medium shot, and then a close-up. As the camera is static for the entire film, the effect of these various \"shots\" is achieved by the movement of the subject alone. Nonetheless, it is these different types of shots are clearly illustrated here, and later film makers moved their cameras to achieve these shots. 3D version What most film histories leave out is that the Lumière Brothers were trying to achieve a 3D image",
"-32.49364545717253"
],
[
"on the timeline, clips can be duplicated, split, repositioned or edited. An AutoMovie feature offers predefined editing styles (titles, effects and transitions) for quickly creating movies.\nThe original camera file on the hard drive is not modified; the project file is just a list of instructions for reproducing a final output video file from the original file. Thus, several different versions of the same video can be simultaneously made from the original camera footage.\nEarlier versions of Windows Movie Maker could only export video in Windows Media Video or DV AVI formats. It includes some predefined profiles, but users can also",
"-32.44800516105897"
],
[
"news broadcast. The movie was shot on videotape rather than film, which gave the presentation the visual appearance of being \"live\" (at the time, film was used by some real-life news crews, so a few news reports within the narrative accordingly use film stock). Other small touches, such as actors hesitating or stumbling over dialogue (as if being spoken extemporaneously) and small technical glitches (as would often be experienced in a live broadcast), contributed to the realism. With the exception of RBS network and news jingles, there is also no musical score used (the end credits are accompanied by",
"-32.3301539456279"
],
[
"more jump and weave, giving the result a sense of constant jitter. Limitations Footage that has been shot with the knowledge that it will be subsequently electronically filmized is usually shot in a very different way, with film-style lighting and framing. Regardless, there have been several attempts to process ordinary videotape to look like film, usually with little success. Notable examples include Red Dwarf Remastered - digitally remastered versions of the first three series of Red Dwarf. As well as being filmized, the episodes had been cropped to widescreen and had all their special effects remade.\nBBC hospital drama-soap Casualty also",
"-32.291749149279894"
],
[
"Making-of In cinema, a making-of, also known as behind-the-scenes, the set or on the set is a documentary film that features the production of a film or television program. This is often referred to as the EPK (electronic press kit) video, due to its main usage as a promotional tool, either concurrent with theatrical release or as a bonus feature for the film's DVD or Blu-ray release.\nFeature length documentaries on the making of other films has become a film genre in its own right. The making-of film may ultimately be more important than the film itself. In the case",
"-32.21402290122933"
],
[
"VidFIRE Background Film recorded for the purposes of United Kingdom television production is usually recorded at 25 frames per second; there is an unrecorded temporal gap between each frame and the next. In contrast, video pictures are recorded as a stream of video fields. Each field can be loosely seen as half a frame, but each field is also a discrete image separated from the previous field by 1/50 second. This difference in the rate of change of the image is one of the factors contributing to the \"video look\", familiar to viewers as the more immediate, \"live\" feel seen",
"-32.1581723409181"
],
[
"helps minimize the construction of unnecessary scene components and models, just as it helps live-action filmmakers evaluate what portions of sets need not be constructed because they will never come into the frame.\nOften storyboards are animated with simple zooms and pans to simulate camera movement (using non-linear editing software). These animations can be combined with available animatics, sound effects, and dialog to create a presentation of how a film could be shot and cut together. Some feature film DVD special features include production animatics, which may have scratch vocals or may even feature vocals from the actual cast (usually where",
"-32.022930461738724"
],
[
"of frames) and the sequences of media elements that appear in these frames.\n3. The media elements (video clips, sound, still images, text, etc.) are selected \nfrom a large database to construct a potentially unlimited number of different films.\n4. In Soft Cinema ‘films’ video is used as only one type of representation among \nothers: motion graphics, 3D animations, diagrams, etc. Texas The original piece was created for the 2002 \"Soft Cinema installation\", for an exhibition titled 'Future Cinema: Cinematic Imaginary after Film.'\nTexas looks at the 'Modern experience of living between layers', that is, how time has created different 'layers' of space",
"-32.00910311642656"
],
[
"B-roll Film and video production Films and videos may cut away from the main story to show related scenery or action. Establishing shots may be used to show the audience the context of the story. These secondary images are often presented without sound, as the sound from the primary footage is expected to continue while the other images are shown. The various shots presented without sound are called B-roll.\nB-roll may be shot by smaller second unit crews, since there is no need for sound. In film, smaller MOS cameras may be used for greater portability and ease of setup. In",
"-31.88761749866535"
],
[
"motion picture, a movie camera captures the image on 35 mm film and a separate audio recorder (such as a Nagra tape recorder or digital hard disk recorder) records the sound on-set.\nThe film negative is developed and printed or telecined so that the images can be viewed on a projector or video monitor.\nThe sound is synched to the film using a clapperboard as a reference. The clapperboard is labeled to identify the scene, shot, and take number for the camera. The numbers are also read aloud to label the audio recording. Once camera and sound are rolling, a camera assistant",
"-31.84189177936787"
],
[
"of the act, a \"cinematograph film\" means \"any work of visual recording on any medium produced through a process from which a moving image may be produced by any means and includes a sound recording accompanying such visual recording and cinematograph shall be construed as including any work produced by any process analogous to cinematography including video films.\" The phrase \"process analogous to cinematography\" has a non-exhaustive list attached, meaning that part of the definition is open-ended enough to allow for video games to be covered, but there is no jurisprudence on this issue.) The law in India does clearly",
"-31.718704294042254"
],
[
"Film-out Film-out of live action video Many modern documentaries and low-budget films are shot on videotape or other digital video media, instead of film stock, and completed as digital video. Video production means substantially lower costs than 16 mm or 35 mm film production on all levels. Until recently, the relatively low cost of video ended when the issue of a theatrical presentation was raised, which required a print for film projection. With the growing presence of digital projection, this is becoming less of a factor. Standard definition (SD) video Film-out of standard-definition video – or any source",
"-31.717917512287386"
],
[
"– the 1964 New York production of Hamlet with Richard Burton, for example, was shot on video and printed as a film that was released in movie theaters using this process. Fernando Arrabal was the first to use the technique of video-to-film for aesthetic purposes, for the 1971 film Viva la muerte, which used heavily color-adjusted video footage only for the fantasy sequences. Experimental filmmaker Scott Bartlett also utilized video footage and effects for portions of his 1972 film OffOn, by filming such with a 16 mm film camera off of a video monitor.\nTechnicolor also experimented in the early 1970s",
"-31.713960699518793"
],
[
"video, and a preview pane. When in Storyboard view, the video project appears as a film strip showing each scene in clips. The storyboard/timeline consists of one 'Video' (with accompanying 'Audio' bar), one 'Music/Audio' bar, and one 'Titles/Credits' bar. In each bar, clips can be added for editing (e.g., a .WAV music file will belong on the 'Music/Audio' bar). Still images can also be imported into the timeline and \"stretched\" to any desired number of frames.\nThe Video and Music/Audio bars can be \"cut\" to any number of short segments, which will play together seamlessly, but the individual segments are isolated",
"-31.685779926017858"
],
[
"while filming video; to keep a subject in focus, the user must manually track subject motion. Soon after the D90's introduction, many new DSLRs from Nikon and other manufacturers began including video recording as a standard feature.\nAs with other DSLRs, the D90's CMOS sensor captures video frames using a rolling shutter, which may cause skewing artifacts during rapid camera or subject motion. Recorded videos are limited to a 2 GB file size and a duration of 5–20 minutes for each continuous clip, depending on resolution.\nThe first feature film shot with a D90 was Reverie. Ray Mist, the film's cinematographer, praised the",
"-31.652202068071347"
],
[
"and some newer footage to give some resemblance of a story. Compilation films with new footage A special kind of compilation films are movies where old footage is simply filmed again, but on a higher budget. A famous example is the first Monty Python movie And Now For Something Completely Different (1973), where most of the scenes are recreations of the most popular sketches from the first two seasons of the TV series Monty Python's Flying Circus. So although the footage is new, the content is mostly not. Examples Examples of compilation films include the Ghost in the Shell: Stand",
"-31.542014900122012"
],
[
"of both audio and video is as good as it gets. The down side, however, is that a snapshot can only give you so much information.\" UnCut wrote the film \"doesn’t have much in the way of narrative, but it makes up for it in sheer beauty, a powerful Doors quality. Notionally an account of the band’s 1968 American tour, in truth that fact is more something that you discover for yourself than from the film.\"",
"-31.535226551481173"
],
[
"critically: When shooting on video, there was little difference between the individual films in terms of profit, which helped minimise production risk, but the overall profit and hence the quality of the individual productions that were shot on video were lower compared to productions shot on film. For example, the crew on an early 35mm shoot such as Juliet & Romeo had been much larger, including lighting staff, camera assistants, make-up artists, and set decorators; dubbing was done in post-production.\nAmong D'Amato's best known films from this late hardcore period are his collaborations with Rocco Siffredi (Tarzan X – Shame of",
"-31.472186767250605"
],
[
"feature film. The process began with actors performing a dramatic \"radio-style\" voice recording of the entire script. Storyboard artists then drew more than 1800 individual storyboard frames. These drawings were then recorded onto analog videodisks and edited according to the voice recordings. Once production began, video taken from the video tap of the 35 mm camera(s) shooting the actual movie was used to gradually replace storyboarded stills to give the director a more complete vision of the film’s progress.\nInstead of working with the actors on set, Coppola directed while viewing video monitors in the \"Silverfish\" (nickname) Airstream trailer,",
"-31.466213456391415"
],
[
"pulldown. While this recording scheme is widely used in other camcorders that offer 24- frame/s shooting mode, the camera employs an unusual algorithm of generating progressive frames, and then converting them back into video fields.\nAs Cinema effect is a synthetic method of achieving film-like motion on an interlaced camcorder, it does not improve vertical resolution or light sensitivity. On contrary, spatial resolution is reduced compared to native interlaced recording. The same or better film look effect can be achieved by shooting regular interlaced video and then converting it into pseudo-progressive format with computer software.\nOther consumer-grade camcorders are more suitable for",
"-31.45779211572517"
],
[
"and the ideas: \"I think that was probably more useful than rehearsal would have been.\" Principal photography You Are Here was shot on almost all possible formats: 35mm, 16mm, RED, HD, MiniDV, Super 8, and BetaMax. Cockburn was proud of the spectrum of visual styles brought to the work with this approach, and said BetaMax was his favourite footage in the entire film, once remarking that since only about 15% of the work was actually shot on film, he avoids calling it a \"film\". Having shot it entirely in Toronto, Cockburn deliberately fudged the city's geography in the dialogue, making",
"-31.37779676420905"
],
[
"fall into two types: (1) an installation of several hours' duration, with the music pieces played consecutively, with a long loop of several hours of work before repetition, and with multiple images that are shown simultaneously; or (2) a performance, with several simultaneous works of music and film, usually lasting between one and three hours. In these performances Niblock generally projects three (or more) film images simultaneously, on large screens three to four meters wide. The films are 16mm and color. The music is produced from stereo or quad tapes, with four or more speakers in the corners of the",
"-31.328033983707428"
],
[
"Kids. Two lesser-known movies, Vidocq (2001) and Russian Ark (2002), had also been shot with the same camera, the latter notably consisting of a single long take.\nToday, cameras from companies like Sony, Panasonic, JVC and Canon offer a variety of choices for shooting high-definition video. At the high-end of the market, there has been an emergence of cameras aimed specifically at the digital cinema market. These cameras from Sony, Vision Research, Arri, Silicon Imaging, Panavision, Grass Valley and Red offer resolution and dynamic range that exceeds that of traditional video cameras, which are designed for the limited needs of broadcast",
"-31.28882109559845"
],
[
"may need to rush from one project to another). Animated films have different workflow at the production phase, in that voice talent can record their takes in the recording studio at different times and may not see one another until the film's premiere, while most physical live-action tasks are either unnecessary or are simulated by various types of animators. Post-production Here the video/film is assembled by the film editor. The shot film material is edited. The production sound (dialogue) is also edited; music tracks and songs are composed and recorded, \nif a film is sought to have a score; sound",
"-31.26802547700936"
],
[
"of computer-based visual effects, although it still sees limited utilization. Innovations in sound Three different digital soundtrack systems for 35 mm cinema release prints were introduced during the 1990s. They are: Dolby Digital, which is stored between the perforations on the sound side; SDDS, stored in two redundant strips along the outside edges (beyond the perforations); and DTS, in which sound data is stored on separate compact discs synchronized by a timecode track on the film just to the right of the analog soundtrack and left of the frame. Because these soundtrack systems appear on different parts of the film, one",
"-31.245418454374885"
],
[
"raw image format for still cameras. However, each CinemaDNG image is encoded using that DNG image format. The image stream can then be stored in one of two formats: either as video essence using frame-based wrapping in an MXF file, or as a sequence of DNG image files in a specified file directory. Each clip uses just one of these formats, but the set of clips in a movie may use both. Rationale The purpose of CinemaDNG is to streamline workflows and help ensure easy archiving and exchange. There are several advantages from using raw image data for cinema, just",
"-31.224847027799115"
],
[
"audio and video tracks of a clip, allowing the original score or soundtrack to be removed — these contribute most to a scene's tone—and replaced with another. By placing clips of different characters (typically closeups) together in sequence, a relation between them may be implied, regardless of where each character is actually situated within their respective movie. All that remains is to include certain conventions such as voice-over narration, titles and credits, and the familiar MPAA rating system copy (the white-on-green introductory screen). History The earliest identified re-cut trailer debuted in December 2003, named Kill Christ, created by an NYU",
"-31.223499304469442"
],
[
"are often multiple frames on the screen at once, each in an irregular white enclosure, all against a background of pure black. Some animated still photographs are also incorporated inside certain windows, as well as a handful of the colorful special effects and experimental film techniques that Hertzfeldt first utilized in his 2005 film, The Meaning of Life. As with many of his films, no computers were used in creating the picture and all of the split-screen effects were captured in-camera on his 35mm animation camera through careful multiple-exposure photography.\nThere is no dialogue spoken directly by the characters (with the",
"-31.2005203726294"
],
[
"films in which visual effects are more expensive), and the film quality may or may not be the same as in the rest of the film, but that may depend only on how much post-production editing was done.\nAdditionally, deleted scenes of animated films may not be in the form of a fully animated scene but instead be included in the form of an animatic or a blooper form, as is the case with the deleted scenes on the DVD release of Pixar's Toy Story and Finding Nemo. Parody The DVD release for The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy's feature film",
"-31.145551370165776"
],
[
"to Moura the intention was to make a DVD completely different from the market, putting everything that a disk has capacity. The images were taken in high definition, which allowed them to reach the disc with quality seven times higher than normal DVDs.\nThe user can enjoy three screen formats: full screen (Pan and scan), with Letterboxing, and Widescreen. The options are available not only to the movie but also to all the extras. The director of the DVD, Brent Hieat, said some scenes have already been recorded for multi-angle viewing. \"By the way, the whole movie can be seen like",
"-31.11154118698323"
],
[
"2000s by pioneering filmmakers like George Lucas and Robert Rodriguez, who used HD video cameras (such as the Sony HDW-F900) to capture images for popular movies like Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones and Spy Kids 2, respectively, both released in 2002.\nIndependent filmmakers, especially those participating in the Dogme movement of filmmaking, have also shot their films on MiniDV videotape, to be transferred to 35 mm film stock for theatrical release. Some examples of independent movies being shot on videotape are Lone Scherfig's Italian For Beginners (a Dogme film), Steven Soderbergh's Full Frontal (which was shot on",
"-31.10894882449793"
],
[
"CCD technology, the idea, now re-branded as \"digital cinematography,\" began to gain traction in the market. Shot and released in 1998, The Last Broadcast is believed by some to be the first feature-length video shot and edited entirely on consumer-level digital equipment.\nIn May 1999 George Lucas challenged the supremacy of the movie-making medium of film for the first time by including footage filmed with high-definition digital cameras in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. The digital footage blended seamlessly with the footage shot on film and he announced later that year he would film its sequels entirely on",
"-31.1015764449985"
],
[
"Footage In filmmaking and video production, footage is raw, unedited material as originally filmed by a movie camera or recorded by a video camera, which typically must be edited to create a motion picture, video clip, television show or similar completed work.\nFootage may also refer to sequences used in film and video editing, such as special effects and archive material (for special cases of this, see stock footage and B roll). \nSince the term originates in film, footage is only used for recorded images, such as film stock, videotapes or digitized clips – on live television, the signals from video",
"-31.101571653038263"
],
[
"place of the traditional cinema camera and it's negatives, which were edited in post-production and transferred to 35mm film for theatrical release & exhibition. Nilsson liked the visual look of video-to-film transfer, and shot several other of his films the same way.\nArrilaser film recorders are also used for film-out.",
"-31.067893199797254"
],
[
"alternative to 35 mm film that produced an acceptably sharp and bright image on smaller screens.\nCine film, being commonly available, was also used to record scientific data, such as observations of animal behaviour and human gait. In some cases, such as studies of fluid dynamics, recording was done onto cine film at higher speeds than those used in home movies.\nIn the mid-1970s, Betamax and VHS home videocassette recorders were introduced. Color video cameras, previously beyond the financial reach of all but the richest amateurs, gradually became cheaper and smaller. Battery-powered camcorders combined the recorder and the camera into one portable and",
"-31.052460775070358"
],
[
"similar to model railroads or dolls' houses. Live video cameras are embedded in each diorama, capturing the miniature figures and landscapes from various angles. The resulting video feeds are then sequenced by special computer software which acts as the film editor, creating a real-time animated film sequence to be projected on the gallery wall. In 'Soft Rains' (2003), the McCoys recreated archetypal scenes from cinema in this miniature form, making references to films such as Goldfinger, Friday the 13th, and Blue Velvet. 'Soft Rains' consisted of 6 installations: 'Beach Adventure,' \"Cabaret,' 'Dinner Party,' 'The Loft,' 'The Spa,' and 'Suburban Horror.'",
"-31.03559157139898"
],
[
"plays at 25 frames. These two television and video systems also have different resolutions and color encodings. Many of the technical difficulties involving film and video concern translation between the different formats. Video aspect ratios are 4:3 (1.33) for full screen and 16:9 (1.78) for widescreen. Multiple cameras Multiple cameras may be placed side-by-side to record a single angle of a scene and repeated throughout the runtime. The film is then later projected simultaneously, either on a single three-image screen (Cinerama) or upon multiple screens forming a complete circle, with gaps between screens through which the projectors illuminate an opposite",
"-30.950337244430557"
],
[
"is a standard, single disc theatrical cut (the version seen in theaters) which comes in fullscreen or widescreen (in separate editions). Both discs are the same, except for the film presentation. The only features are an audio commentary, deleted scenes, and a digital copy of the film. Also released on the same day as the standard edition is the two-disc special edition, which adds six minutes of footage to the film, along with the commentary from the standard edition DVD and a second disc that contains bonus features, as well as a digital copy of the widescreen theatrical version of",
"-30.918587955413386"
],
[
"same shallow depth of field as 35 or 65 mm motion picture film cameras, which many cinematographers consider an essential visual tool.\nCodecs\nProfessional RAW video recording codecs include Blackmagic RAW, RED RAW, ARRI RAW and Canon RAW. Video formats Unlike other video formats, which are specified in terms of vertical resolution (for example, 1080p, which is 1920×1080 pixels), digital cinema formats are usually specified in terms of horizontal resolution. As a shorthand, these resolutions are often given in \"nK\" notation, where n is the multiplier of 1024 such that the horizontal resolution of a corresponding full-aperture, digitized film frame is exactly ",
"-30.915342488267925"
],
[
"on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged. The making-of documentary shows how a movie or a computer game was produced. Usually made for promotional purposes, it is closer to an advertisement than a classic documentary.\nModern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices. The first film to take full advantage of this change was Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' Voices of Iraq, where 150 DV cameras were sent to Iraq during the war and passed out to Iraqis to record themselves. Documentaries without",
"-30.873268836614443"
],
[
"movie was shot on high definition digital video tape (using the Panasonic Varicam) and transferred to film. Using real high school football teams, the football action sequences were shot by the film's director of photography, Bob Scott, who is a veteran cinematographer for NFL Films. Another NFL Films technician, Rob Whitehurst, recorded the movie's sound. Principal photography began on April 27, 2004. Release The film was released to DVD in early 2007 and made its television debut on September 21, 2008, on Trinity Broadcasting Network. Box office In its first weekend, the film opened on 441 screens nationwide in the",
"-30.835393154833582"
],
[
"built in, allowing for both indoor and outdoor shooting.\nThe original Super 8 film release was a silent system only, but in 1973 a sound on film version was released. The film with sound had a magnetic soundtrack and came in larger cartridges than the original cartridge in order to accommodate the sound recording head in the film path. Sound film requires a longer film path (for smoothing the film movement before it reaches the recording head), and a second aperture for the recording head. Sound cameras are compatible with silent cartridges, but not vice versa. Sound film is typically filmed",
"-30.82434382219799"
],
[
"and fullscreen version of the film on the same disc as well as the film trailer.",
"-30.807903926368454"
],
[
"films had been using extensive computer images since the mid-70s. A number of modern films have been noted for their heavy use of photo realistic CGI. Digital installation art Digital installation art constitutes a broad field of activity and incorporates many forms. Some resemble video installations, particularly large scale works involving projections and live video capture. By using projection techniques that enhance an audience's impression of sensory envelopment, many digital installations attempt to create immersive environments. Others go even further and attempt to facilitate a complete immersion in virtual realms. This type of installation is generally site-specific, scalable, and without",
"-30.783137732025352"
],
[
"have added support for raw images. Rendering to standard images from raw sensor data allows more flexibility in making major adjustments without losing image quality or retaking the picture.\nFormats for movies are AVI, DV, MPEG, MOV (often containing motion JPEG), WMV, and ASF (basically the same as WMV). Recent formats include MP4, which is based on the QuickTime format and uses newer compression algorithms to allow longer recording times in the same space.\nOther formats that are used in cameras (but not for pictures) are the Design Rule for Camera Format (DCF), an ISO specification, used in almost all camera since",
"-30.731585330047892"
],
[
"to be recorded live on a single track of audio. They can be captured separately on individual tracks and carefully synchronized with their visual counterpart. Foley studios employ hundreds of props and digital effects to recreate the ambient sounds of their films. Uses Foley complements or replaces sound recorded on set at the time of the filming, known as field recording. The soundscape of most films uses a combination of both. A Foley artist is the person who creates this sound art. Foley artists use creativity to make viewers believe that the sound effects are actually real. The viewers should",
"-30.697779031994287"
],
[
"lower resolution than the HD option, and the quality is adequate for sites like YouTube. Motion Snapshot At the touch of the shutter, the camera takes a high-resolution still, plus a one-second movie vignette. Upon playback, this creates a motion series in slow motion, accompanied by music. This feature can be used to capture portrait, as well as landscape, photographs. This mode is really only interesting when used on the camera. Once uploaded to a computer, the video plays at normal speed and without the sound produced on the camera. The images and the video are saved as different files,",
"-30.59303149972402"
],
[
"the feature film. These extra features can include audio commentary; documentary features, commonly about the making of the main title; interviews; deleted footage; outtakes; photo galleries; storyboards; isolated music scores; trivia text commentary; simple games; film shorts; TV spots; radio spots; theatrical trailers which were used to promote the main title; and teaser trailers advertising related movies or DVDs.\nExtra features often provide entertainment or add depth and understanding to the film. Games, bloopers, and galleries provide entertainment. Deleted scenes and alternative endings allow the audience to view additional content which was not included in a theatrical release. Directors cuts allow",
"-30.57394008619667"
],
[
" The movie is produced in 1.375 format, and then the resulting image is simply cropped in post-production (or perhaps in the theater's projector) to fit the desired aspect ratio of 1.85:1 or 1.66:1 or whatever is desired. Besides costing less, the main advantage of the matte technique is that it leaves the studio with \"real\" footage (the areas that are cropped for the theatrical release) which can be used in preference to pan-and-scan when producing 4:3 DVD releases, for example.\nThe anamorphic encoding on DVD is related to the anamorphic filming technique (like CinemaScope) only by name. For",
"-30.5643997049483"
],
[
"Inexplicable, yet a Fact Video Videographically, the TV show features a roughly even blend of footage recorded originally and short sequences of shots from motion pictures. For this reason, Inexplicable, yet a Fact has featured an exceedingly rich array of films from experimental (notably, Jean-Pierre Jeunet's The Bunker of the Last Gunshots) to mainstream (notably, Bram Stoker's Dracula), with the heavier inclusion of the Qatsi trilogy, Mondo cane, and BBC documentaries (notably The Planets, The Human Body).\nStills showcasing themes of narration (such as images of books, people, and phenomena mentioned) are also present. Audio Inexplicable, yet a Fact features a",
"-30.563907579751685"
],
[
"recordings can be very grainy, dirty and scratched. The appearance of these film artefacts on the processed programme would break the illusion that the viewer is watching a videotape recording. Therefore, to maintain the VidFIRE effect it is imperative the image be as clean and stable as possible. The best available copy of the film-recorded programme should be used, preferably the original camera negative. Before processing, the film should be cleaned, digitally noise-reduced, and repaired.\nA further, self-imposed limitation is that VidFIRE is used only to process material that originally was produced using video cameras. There is no technical reason why",
"-30.546509309046087"
],
[
"all of the show elements, per him: “Everything that you see and hear from the 8 screens, 2 Audio-Animatronic figures, and the 10 discreet channels of sound.\" The complexity of creating the seemingly uncut point-of-view shots which had to interact with several other pieces of media was a \"wild\" task for the ambitious director. Without optical or digital assistance, he used camera tricks and matching blur frames to stitch together the POV footage to seem like one continuous shot. In addition, Rees took the cinematographer and camera operators to the filming locations prior to shooting. When there, they would do",
"-30.529631337791216"
],
[
"of one piece, Ten Meters of Film, draws a simple correlation between film length and running time, denoting on the screen the number of meters of film that have run through the projector (up to ten). Another short film display the artist's face in a variety of scenes with at least one feature obscured. The film calls into question the ability of the artist to fully communicate an idea, arguing that once the work is observed by another, the authority of the artist is lost. Of the films and of film as a medium, Partum as said, \"It’s not dealing",
"-30.5207235806447"
],
[
"while you took the scene. Real sound does not merely add to the images, it multiplies it.\" Regarding Rashomon, Kurosawa said, \"I like silent pictures and I always have... I wanted to restore some of this beauty. I thought of it, I remember in this way: one of the techniques of modern art is simplification, and that I must therefore simplify this film.\"\nAccordingly, there are only three settings in the film: Rashōmon gate, the woods, and the courtyard. The gate and the courtyard are very simply constructed and the woodland is real. This is partly due to the low budget",
"-30.502479454909917"
],
[
"instance, Star Wars (1977) was filmed in 2.39:1 ratio using an anamorphic camera lens, and shown in theaters using the corresponding projector lens. Since it is a widescreen film, when encoded on a widescreen-format DVD the studio would almost certainly use the anamorphic encoding process. Monty Python and the Holy Grail was filmed in 1.85:1 ratio without using an anamorphic lens on the camera, and similarly was shown in theaters without the need for the decompression lens. However, since it is also a widescreen film, when encoded on a widescreen-format DVD the studio would probably use the",
"-30.49237539782189"
],
[
"cameo appearance and a music video were filmed in the weeks leading up to the release, the former at the Whistling Woods Studios in Mumbai.\nRa.One featured three major action sequences, which were filmed in sets and real locations across Mumbai and London. The cinematography borrowed ideas from video games, such as rapid transitions between first-person and third-person perspectives. Procedures such as bullet time were also incorporated into the film. The production design was closely associated with the lighting and cinematography to facilitate smooth filming. However, filming faced a number of difficulties including increasing costs, delays and safety constraints. In addition,",
"-30.47831096383743"
],
[
"large libraries of stock footage and charge filmmakers a fee for using it, but they rarely demand royalties. Stock footage comes from a myriad of sources including the public domain, other movies and television programs, news outlets, and purpose-shot stock footage. Evolution With each introduction of new standard, it requires reshooting or rerendering the popular footage as well as new images to show the capabilities of the next standard. Betacam SP, VHS, and early digital footage was shot in Standard Definition (SD), in 4:3 aspect ratio. Next came a higher resolution format, High Definition (HD), with a 16:9 aspect ratio,",
"-30.435639352930593"
],
[
"juxtaposes fictional scenes with footage taken from disparate sources, such as newsreels.” Combining different types of footage can have various implications depending on the director’s approach. Collage film can also refer to the physical collaging of materials onto filmstrips. Canadian Film maker, Arthur Lipsett, was especially renown for his collage films, many of which were made from the cutting room floors of the National Film Board studios. In post-production The use of CGI, or computer-generated imagery, can be considered a form of collage, especially when animated graphics are layered over traditional film footage. At certain moments during Amélie",
"-30.39341718617652"
],
[
"editions of film DVDs) have also become fairly common. Sharing similarities with the concept of a director's cut (another long-suffering inflation-by-marketing term). These generally feature additional in-movie material. The material may be footage originally deleted from the final cut, or new digitally-created, interpolated content. Unlike true director's cuts, the directors may not have had part in such projects, such as in Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut, in which Richard Donner did not help create the new version, just supply the material. The Doctor Who television movie The Five Doctors was edited, recut, amongst various other changes, to make the",
"-30.388795262260828"
],
[
"Cinemagraph Cinemagraphs are still photographs in which a minor and repeated movement occurs, forming a video clip. They are published as an animated GIF or in other video formats, and can give the illusion that the viewer is watching an animation. A variation is a video snapshot (clip composed like a still photo, but instead of a shutter release it is captured using the video recording function with its audio track and perhaps showing minor movement such as the subject's eye blinks). Another variation is an audio snapshot (still photo linked to an audio file created at the moment of",
"-30.364701294718543"
],
[
"commonly if released for awards consideration simply, \"FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION.\" Apart from this, some movie studios release their screeners with a number of scenes of varying duration shown in black-and-white. Aside from this message, and the occasional B&W scenes, screeners are normally of only slightly lower quality than a retail DVD-Rip, due to the smaller investment in DVD mastering for the limited run. Some screener rips with the overlay message get cropped to remove the message and get released mislabeled as DVD-Rips.\nNote: Screeners make a small exception here—since the content may differ from a retail version, it can be considered",
"-30.353242716257228"
],
[
"the quality of those seen in feature films. To do this, the film uses visual computer effects created by special effects company Area 51 FX, which created over 100 different shots using the digital modeling program LightWave 3D. During shooting, special effect supervisor Craig Weiss noted that the scenes with Randy Quaid were particularly difficult to capture on film due to his appearing in multiple scenes where his character was chased by twisters and surrounded by their destructive aftermaths. The actors also faced new challenges, as the film often replaced traditional green screen setup, where the special effects were",
"-30.352405777703098"
],
[
"twelve minutes, with twenty separate shots and ten different indoor and outdoor locations. He used cross-cutting editing method to show simultaneous action in different places.\nThese early film directors discovered important aspects of motion picture language: that the screen image does not need to show a complete person from head to toe and that splicing together two shots creates in the viewer's mind a contextual relationship. These were the key discoveries that made all non-live or non live-on-videotape narrative motion pictures and television possible—that shots (in this case, whole scenes since each shot is a complete scene) can be photographed at",
"-30.325789898743096"
],
[
"of video], you had to do collages on paper, but now you present them in rhythm—living time—in video.\" The film collages made by and for groups such as the Test Dept, Throbbing Gristle and San Francisco's Tuxedomoon became part of their live shows.\nAn example of mixing film with live performance is that of Public Image Ltd. at the Ritz Riot in 1981. This club, located on the East 9th St in New York, had a state of the art video projection system. It was used to show a combination of prerecorded and live video on the club's screen. PiL played",
"-30.32062615878749"
],
[
"pushed to the end, rather than the beginning, of the post-production chain, in the form of real-time digital grading systems and digital intermediate mastering systems, increasingly running in software on commodity computer systems. These are sometimes called virtual telecine systems. Video cameras that produce telecined video, and \"film look\" Some video cameras and consumer camcorders are able to record in progressive \"24 frames/s\" or \"23.976 frames/s\" . Such a video has cinema-like motion characteristics and is the major component of so-called \"film look\" or \"movie look\".\nFor most \"24 frames/s\" cameras, the virtual 2:3 pulldown process is happening inside the camera.",
"-30.302752384144696"
],
[
"movie in a variety of formats in context which may range from broadcast tape formats to compressed file formats for the Internet, DVD and mobile devices. As digital NLE systems have advanced their toolset, their role has expanded and most consumer and professional NLE systems alike now include a host of features for colour manipulation, titling and visual effects, as well as tools for editing and mixing audio synchronized with the video image sequence.",
"-30.300704887900793"
],
[
"flick. Made with a bit more style than most, it looks very good in a fair DVD release. Heavily stylised visuals run through this movie, and they work well in a top-notch picture transfer. Various camera tricks and variable filming speeds are used, and the effect remains sharp and clear.\"",
"-30.300605700162123"
],
[
"of documentaries, the film Closer is a work of great creativity. The director uses with amazing sensitivity a large scale of real sounds and music of different types and genres (electronic, techno, modern artificial music) to underline the distinct and meaningful changes in the atmosphere. The manipulation of authentic sound almost to the extent that there is total silence is particularly compelling in the central scene of the film in which there is an intimate discussion between mother and daughter. The use of sound exponentiates the message of the film, which is a testimony about an uneasy way to find",
"-30.272405523079215"
],
[
"Although often the CD size is dictated by the length of the movie or video. One movie typically uses two CDs, although length may force the release to be a 3 or 4 CD release. The source of these theatrical releases is typically analog, such as CAM, telecine or telesync releases (movies recorded by a camera in theatres, often with external audio sources). VCDs from other sources such as DVD, VHS, TV, Pay-Per-View specials, Porn or Anime may also be released in the .mpg or .asf format. DVD and VHS rips are only allowed if there was no screener released",
"-30.256003405549563"
],
[
"IMAX theaters in Los Angeles to ensure the volume of low-end frequencies was consistent with the rest of the soundtrack. The edited video footage featured 10- to 20-second-long shots, in contrast to the shorter shots usually found in concert films. Extended gaps were added between songs to slightly slow down the pace of the film. All audio and video footage used was recorded live in concert, with no added overdubs. Following post-production, U2 3D became the first live-action film to be shot, posted, and exhibited entirely in 3D, the first live-action digital 3D film, and the first 3D concert",
"-30.22480832520523"
],
[
"hostile environments, were able to shoot an entire programme with a filming ratio of less than 5:1. \nReplacing analog video devices, digital video has made significant inroads in television production use. Nevertheless, 16 mm is still in use in its Super 16 ratio (see below) for low-cost productions. Perforations Two perforation pitches are available for 16 mm film. One specification, known as \"long pitch\", has a spacing of 7.62 mm (0.300 in) and is used primarily for print and reversal film stocks. Negative and intermediate film stocks have perforations spaced 7.605 mm (0.2994 in), known as \"short pitch\". These differences allow for the sharpest and smoothest",
"-30.207633127291047"
],
[
"used as introductions for special features, scene selection, etc.) or Short Track (without video introductions). The film is presented on standard DVD in four different configurations, giving consumers the choice between either theatrical or unrated versions and anamorphic widescreen (2.40:1 aspect ratio) or pan and scan presentations. As for the audio, each standard DVD carries Dolby Digital 5.1 tracks in English and French with optional English and French subtitles.\nExtras for the standard DVD editions include a retrospective \"25 Years Later\" commentary track featuring most of the main cast, deleted and extended scenes along with bonus race footage, features, interviews with",
"-30.173852604420972"
],
[
"definition of movies. Similarly to the quality issues addressed later by high-definition television, the visual fidelity of movies was limited by the medium. When projected onto a large screen, the film grain of 35 mm film stock is often quite visible, reducing the quality of the displayed image. The problem is further exacerbated by the larger grain in fast film stock often used to capture high-speed action. Trumbull chose 70 mm film for his new process, to provide higher resolution.\nHe also did research into frame rate, running a series of tests with 35 mm stock filmed and projected at various speeds, shown to",
"-30.160630231315736"
],
[
"using a virtual camera then shot with a Panasonic DVX100 videoing the computer screen. The coverage was edited traditionally using Final Cut Pro then sound design, voice acting and score were added to complete the film.",
"-30.156953946447175"
],
[
"form of cinematography until the early 21st century when digital formats supplanted the use of film in many applications. This has also led to the replacement of film projectors with digital projection.\nYet, digital videos are sometimes deliberately altered to achieve a film look, such as adding film grain or other noise for artistic effect.",
"-30.155874418436724"
],
[
"all movies seemed to be made under an unwritten set of rules and conventions. Most scenes would start with a few lines of dialogue, have performers engage in foreplay (fellatio), followed by anal penetration, and ending with a visual climax close-up of ejaculating penises, called a money shot or cum shot. Video technology allowed the recording of longer scenes than did the costly film stock. Scenes were often composed of extended footage of the same act filmed from different shots using multiple cameras. The quality of the picture and sound were often very poor.\nMajor directors such as Matt Sterling, Eric",
"-30.14749939568719"
],
[
"Dream, were low-budget and used montages of extremely short shots, also known as hip hop montages. While an average 100-minute film has 600 to 700 cuts Requiem for a Dream features more than 2,000. Split-screen is used extensively, along with extremely tight closeups. Long tracking shots, including those shot with an apparatus strapping a camera to an actor, called the Snorricam, and time-lapse photography are also prominent stylistic devices. Often with his films, Aronofsky alternates between extreme closeups and extreme wide shots to create a sense of isolation.\nWith The Fountain, Aronofsky restricted the use of computer-generated imagery. Henrik Fett, the",
"-30.141285899022478"
],
[
"explanation of how various shots or effects were achieved. For instance, producer Lorenzo explains how shots of the crowd were composited onto a green chroma keying carpet, laid down underneath the fake ledge used for shots recorded in-studio. For those who are visually impaired, a version of the film is included where a voiceover explains everything that is happening so that people with these visual ailments are still able to enjoy the film.\nThe Steelbook version of the film completely lacks any menus to speak of, and as a result is missing the special features present in the DVD and Blu-ray",
"-30.136178087301232"
],
[
"with using video gear & videotape to make feature-length motion pictures with, by transferring the videotape to film for final release and distribution. Films made with this process were the 1973 film Why, the 1971 film The Resurrection of Zachary Wheeler, and the most famous film using this process, Frank Zappa's 1971 film 200 Motels, which was originally shot on 2 inch Quadruplex videotape, and then transferred to film by Technicolor, being the first independent film originally to be shot on videotape and distributed theatrically in 35 mm.\nAlso, countless educational, medical, industrial, and promotional videotapes produced from the late 1950s",
"-30.13388245238457"
],
[
"movie, Danny Boyle and cinematographer Alwin Küchler implemented three different film formats: 16mm for 1984, 35mm for 1988, and digital for 1998. They also wanted each of the film's three time periods to visually reflect Jobs' own development at the time. For instance, Küchler explains that the filming at Flint Center, De Anza college for the first act combined the graininess of 16 mm film and setting to accentuate a provisional, spontaneous look – much in the vein of how Jobs is portrayed at that time. The third act, shot with an Arri Alexa at the Davies Symphony Hall, incorporated an",
"-30.116785319754854"
],
[
"of footage from Alfred Hitchcock's films. It arranges them into clusters to illustrate Hitchcock's techniques and motifs. Girardet and Müller use low-quality footage from VHS tapes to draw attention to their appropriation. In contrast, Marclay seeks to replicate Hollywood production through high-quality footage with standardised sound production and aspect ratios. Girardet's 2003 work 60 Seconds (analog) is a 60-second film intended to be played on a loop. 60 brief shots show the hands of watches and clocks counting the seconds. Girardet wanted to show how interchangeable the cinema footage could be. Müller described it as The Clock \"in a conceptual,",
"-30.09385831664258"
],
[
"a giant green screen. And to think that every single thing in that video was created is amazing, 'cause a lot of people worked really hard on it\", White said. The visual effects team were at work for the video for some time, sometimes staying overnight in the office to produce the video. The direction was to make the video seem \"magical\". Some of the props used when filming were recreated using digital animation, such as the door and the desks. Because extras were filmed separately, White was meticulous to find the right shots to make the scene more cohesive.",
"-30.059545844589593"
],
[
"the audience to see how the director envisioned the main title without the constraints which are placed on a theatrical release.\nOther extras that can be included on DVDs are motion menus, still pictures, up to 32 selectable subtitles, seamless branching for multiple storylines, up to 9 camera angles, and DVD-ROM / data files that can be accessed on a computer.\nExtra features require additional storage space, which often means encoding the main title with lower than possible data rate to fit both the main title and the extras on one disc. Lower data rate may decrease visual and sound quality, which",
"-30.056833136355635"
],
[
"format (the first being Tom and Jerry: Blast Off to Mars and Tom and Jerry: The Fast and the Furry), although the Region 1 DVD and the U.S. version of Boomerang were in full screen (cropping the left and right of the image) though not pan and scan as the camera stays directly in the center of the image. Like other television shows and films filmed in high-definition, the monitor the animation team would have worked from would have 16:9 and 4:3 safe areas so that the full screen version would not crop off too much of any important visual",
"-30.046660643463838"
],
[
"on a \"fixed\" reel. In silent film terminology, two films on one reel.\nAs digital cinema catches on, the physical reel is being replaced by a virtual format called Digital Cinema Package, which can be distributed using any storage medium (such as hard drives) or data transfer medium (such as the Internet or satellite links) and projected using a digital projector instead of a conventional movie projector.\nActors may submit a demo reel of their work to prospective employers, often in physical reel format.",
"-30.035035313863773"
],
[
"incorporate cinematic techniques by showing objects and action at varying scale. While cinematic technique can be applied to any ASL genre, there is a genre specifically dedicated to these techniques, called Cinematic Stories, which are often signed recreations of movie scenes. Two styles of Cinematic stories are either “live action” or “animation” style. Manny Hernandez's story “Durassic Park”, which depicts scenes from Jurassic Park through cinematic technique is an example of the live action style. Animation style is influenced by cartoon animation, and uses classifier to describe events such as one's eyes popping out of their head. This is",
"-30.033903255840414"
],
[
"of short. Companion films After the advent of DVD technology, the term also gained the meaning of \"a brief documentary film covering one or more aspects of the film creation process\". In DVD features descriptions, the term \"featurette\" usually refers to \"behind-the-scenes\"–type bonus material such as documentaries on special effects, set design, or cast and crew interviews.",
"-30.019043459105887"
],
[
"cartoons, documentary capture and display for various purposes (including education), and limited \"high end\" amateur use. Today the format also is frequently used for student films, while usage in documentary has almost disappeared. With the advent of HDTV, Super 16 film is still used for some productions destined for HD. Some low-budget theatrical features are shot on 16 mm and super 16 mm such as Kevin Smith's 16 mm 1994 independent hit Clerks, or Man Bites Dog, and Mid90s.\nThanks to advances in film stock and digital technology—specifically digital intermediate (DI)—the format has dramatically improved in picture quality since the 1970s, and is now",
"-30.01141524159175"
],
[
"side. While scenes from miniature sets were composed of long shots, scenes were actors were shot entirely in close-ups, which make up about 300 feet of the final film reel. Rather than attempting to put the actor into the miniature backgrounds through trick photography, the scenes were cut rapidly and successively, so the viewer first sees the actor and then the set, creating the impression they are in the same place. Sets involving actors were minimalistic, with some consisting of only a few elements like a table, telephone, two chairs, and a cigar.\nA film studio set was created by photographing",
"-29.991052517550997"
],
[
"format (Schlafes Bruder, Showgirls, Mikrokosmos).\nVideo was stretched vertically to fill the whole 4/3 picture of a Laserdisc (and add more information where black bars would be at the top and bottom) then either un-squeezed horizontally on a 16:9 TV set or using an anamorphic lens on a 4:3 video projector. DVD Video A DVD labeled as \"Widescreen Anamorphic\" contains video that has the same frame size in pixels as traditional fullscreen video, but uses wider pixels. The shape of the pixels is called pixel aspect ratio and is encoded in the video stream for a DVD player to correctly identify",
"-29.97961254925758"
],
[
"feature films, documentaries, music videos which have to be recorded as interlaced video for viewing on interlaced monitors, but want to offer “progressive-look” to their motion. Besides, the video taken in the Progressive Scan mode can be edited and output as true progressive video if needed.\nConsumer camcorders as well as most professional camcorders do not use PsF to record 24-frame/s video; instead they either record it natively in progressive form or apply 2:3 pulldown.\nMost video formats including professional ones utilize chroma subsampling to reduce amount of chroma information in a video, taking advantage of the human visual system's lower acuity for",
"-29.96841513196705"
],
[
"cabinet cards, people put the silhouette-like photographic images in zoetropes to watch them in motion. Most sequences could later be animated into very short films with fluent motion (relatively often the footage can be presented as a loop that repeats the motion seamlessly). Silent era In the 1890s, films were seen mostly via temporary storefront spaces and traveling exhibitors or as acts in vaudeville programs. A film could be under a minute long and would usually present a single scene, authentic or staged, of everyday life, a public event, a sporting event or slapstick. There was little to no cinematic",
"-29.96241559140617"
],
[
"2010, through Pathé, in two formats: a single-disc wide-screen version which special features include a trailer, making-of and a photo gallery; and a two-disc wide-screen special edition. The latter contains the director's cut of the film which has 1 re-cut, 23 extended scenes and 12 additional scenes integrated into the original footage, running about 16 minutes longer than the theatrical version. The Warner Home Video Dutch release includes new specials features: interactive menu, scene access, a making-of, a behind the scenes, deleted scenes and a photo gallery. On 11 January 2011, it was released in Canada through Entertainment One on",
"-29.956592872231568"
],
[
"frames was very thin. When sound-on-film was introduced in the late 1920s, the soundtrack was recorded in a stripe running just inside of one set of the perforations and cut into the 1.33 image. This made the image area \"taller\", usually around 1.19, which was slightly disorienting to audiences used to the 1.3 frame and also presented problems for exhibitors with fixed-size screens and stationary projectors.\nFrom studio to studio, the common attempt to reduce the image back to a 1.3:1 ratio by decreasing the projector aperture in-house met with conflicting results. Each movie theater chain, furthermore, had its own",
"-29.951944710832322"
],
[
"made in a cinema using a camcorder or mobile phone. The sound source is the camera microphone. Cam rips can quickly appear online after the first preview or premiere of the film. The quality ranges from subpar to adequate, depending on the group of persons performing the recording and the resolution of the camera used. The main disadvantage of this is the sound quality. The microphone does not only record the sound from the movie, but also the background sound in the cinema. The camera can also record movements and audio of the audience in the theater, for instance, when",
"-29.936003291324596"
],
[
"previously recorded footage and splice them together into a single movie. Sound effects and music may also be added. Theater Movies may be watched in this room. Such movies may come with the game, be created by the player, or be downloaded from the Internet. The game also comes with a tool called MAKEONE which may be used to generate a self-contained version of a movie, which may be played on a machine without the game by using the PLAYONE tool. Reception Computer Gaming World in 1993 praised Stunt Island's graphics, ease of use, editing features, and variety of aircraft,",
"-29.93150241600233"
],
[
"a video tape with film dailies from the 1950s TV show Gunsmoke. These film dailies have been used by many film schools for the last 40 years.\nRushes and dailies are also used to create trailers, even if they may contain footage that is not in the final movie, or the trailer editor and the film editor may use different takes of a particular shot.",
"-29.93088787981469"
],
[
"used when film or video material is not available. Action is given to still photographs by slowly zooming in on subjects of interest and panning from one subject to another. For example, in a photograph of a baseball team, one might slowly pan across the faces of the players and come to a rest on the player the narrator is discussing. By employing simulated parallax, a two-dimensional image can appear as 3D, with the viewpoint seeming to enter the picture and move among the figures. \nThe effect can be used as a transition between clips as well. For example, to",
"-29.93047346441017"
],
[
"however, this is not a true multicamera setup in the television sense. Sometimes feature films will run multiple cameras, perhaps four or five, for large, expensive and difficult-to-repeat special effects shots, such as large explosions. Again, this is not a true multicamera setup in the television sense as the resultant footage will not always be arranged sequentially in editing, and multiple shots of the same explosion may be repeated in the final film—either for artistic effect or because the different shots can appear to the audience to be different explosions since they are taken from different angles. United Kingdom The",
"-29.929315885936376"
],
[
"to the piece to show how a film could be shot and cut together. Increasingly used by advertisers and advertising agencies to research the effectiveness of their proposed storyboard before committing to a 'full up' television advertisement.\nThe Photomatic is usually a research tool, similar to an animatic, in that it represents the work to a test audience so that the commissioners of the work can gauge its effectiveness.\nOriginally, photographs were taken using color negative film. A selection would be made from contact sheets and prints made. The prints would be placed on a rostrum and recorded to videotape using a",
"-29.92738152720267"
]
] |
1xqd5e | Why can I fall asleep in noisy environments (school lectures, public transport, cinemas, etc) but an even lesser amount of noise can disturb my sleep when I'm in bed? | [
"Much of our perception is focused on revealing differences. Thus it is not the level of the noise but the uniformity of it. Say for example you fixed tacos for dinner. You notice the yummy smell of food as its cooking, you enjoy the aroma as you take your first bit. Then after dinner you clean up, watch a tv show and relax. Before you head upstairs to go to bed you take the trash out. You notice the air smells brisk and clean. You walk back in and the smell of mexican food nearly knocks you over. You didn't notice this before you took the trash out because it became the new normal. You mind adjusted to the mexican food smell and it became the new baseline odor. Sounds even vision are the same way. Right now your brain is rendering invisible tiny blood vessels in your eye because they don't move. You mind erases them assuming you don't care about them, allowing you to focus your attention on the things that change. Think about how noise canceling head phones work. They create a wave form opposite of the wave form entering your ear and play that back to cancel out the outside sound. Essentially they are making sounds to fill in the differences of the outside sound. You still have the same sound pressure level reaching your ear, but because its constant and causes no vibration you hear nothing (or less).",
"I'm going to throw some confirmation bias into the mix here. You will never notice when a loud noise doesn't wake you up while sleeping.",
"Attempt fandeath or use white noise when you sleep. Trust me your sleep will be a million times better.",
"In my experience it's more than just the sudden increase in noise. I can fall asleep on a noisy underground train, but I simply cannot sleep at all whatsoever if I can hear even the faintest sound of TV somewhere far away even if it's constant and monotonous. For me I think it's psychological: if you're on the train, you accept that it's supposed to be noisy and you're okay with that. However, at home, someone watching TV might annoy you or make you angry which might prevent you from sleeping. It's not the sound itself, it's the meaning of the sound, as it may give you a sense of security or hostility.",
"I just lectured on this. Yay practical knowledge. The process is called habituation, you adapt to the environment around you. A specific response is guided by environmental cues (stimulus discrimination). If there was a novel noise in the noisy environment, you might wake up to it. This is because you haven't habituated to the noise. If you wanted a practice example type thing of this. Sit in a room you're used to sitting in, then start focusing on all the little things you hear. Every room we're in is much more noisy than you would expect. If you want to learn more, look for a text on behavioral psychology, this falls in the classical conditioning domain. I'd also be happy to send you my power point on the topic from my lecture.",
"So, put simply, your brain chooses to ignore certain stimuli it deems \"unimportant\". I.e. certain sounds, smells. So, when you're in a loud area the brain mainly equates the noises to white noise and allows you to disregard them. In a quiet area any sudden noise cause the brain to react as it is different for them norm and could assist in alerting you to some information you may need to know about your surroundings.",
"Your ears slowly adjust to their surroundings and ambient noise, and it's the sudden change in volume that cause you wake up. Ex: I keep my car stereo at the same volume level. If I get into my car in the morning after quiet nights sleep, it can be a little overbearing and loud, however I get into my car after watching a loud movie/tv then it will seem quieter even though the volume level is the same. If you heard a much louder noise while you were asleep in a noisy environment you would wake up just the same.",
"Most people have mentioned habituation, which is fair enough as it goes, but fundamentally it is harder to sleep, and especially to hit REM sleep, in an objectively louder environment. You are probably comparing apples and oranges. When you are sleep deprived during the day, your body is dying to shut down, and it will do so whenever you are in a resting position and your attention becomes unfocused. On the other hand, if you decide 11pm is bedtime, but you just spent three hours eating, drinking, watching YouTube, or running, your body is physiologically unready to sleep and even very slight irritants (a street light, a car racing down the street) make it impossible to drift off.",
"For me it's the *change* in noise, not really the volume. Our hearing doesn't turn off and our brain continues to process the incoming noises as we sleep, it just filters out noises it is ok (read safe) with. Anything unexpected and different then what it is expecting and the info is sent through to a different level of processing and you may wake up. I have done shift work for 30 years, can sleep anywhere with any noise level and this is how I figure it works for me at least.",
"Not all sleep is created equal. The napping you're doing in public is not the deep, restorative sleep you're trying for in bed. If you're sufficiently tired and/or bored, most people can nod off for a few minutes almost anywhere. But settling down and attaining the much deeper sleep we get at night doesn't happen there as a rule. This is why you can sleep for most of a cross-country flight and still be exhausted afterwards.",
"Ha. Bring deaf is awesome. Bet you guys are all jelly.",
"I haven't read all the comments here, but a large majority of them explain it as the difference in noise levels or your adaptation to the noises (how accustomed to them you are). I think it's slightly different than that, based upon my own experiences. I think that our subconscious mind hears, and is aware of, whatever noise occurs around us as we sleep, and it is our subconscious mind that 'chooses' which sounds it will allow to filter into our awareness. I'm a really heavy sleeper, REALLY heavy sleeper. I've had roommates come home from the bars with tons of people and have loud parties in my house that didn't wake me. But I had one roommate come home one night and quietly grab a quick snack from the kitchen that did wake me. The partying, regardless of the varying levels of noise entering a silent house never even stirred me, while I woke up in alarm at the gentle almost-silent opening of the kitchen cabinets. My subconscious heard the partying, but designated it as harmless, while it designated the sound of someone attempting to be quiet and sneaking around the kitchen as an intruder. I've slept through fire alarms, loud music and every alarm clock known to man, but have been woken by a cat meowing at me or a branch lightly tapping my window. I can and have slept in brightly-lit lecture halls, overcrowded subways, and pretty much any loud environment you can imagine. I never have a problem falling or staying asleep. But when something occurs that is not just out of the ordinary, but something seemingly in need of attention, regardless of how loud or quiet it is, my subconscious will wake me to attend to it.",
"I always fell asleep when carpooling home from work. One day, my carpool partner had something come up, so she arranged for a friend to give me a lift back. How I fell asleep in a convertible with the top down, going 60 mph on a sunny day with my hair blowing all over, I'll never know.",
"temporary threshold shift, when you are in a loud environment your ear canal gets narrower to protect your ear drum from loud noises. When you are laying in bed and it is quiet, your ear canal is completely open and thus you are way more sensitive to loud noises.",
"I've always found it easier to fall asleep when I'm not supposed to fall asleep.",
"I have this similar issue. I can fall asleep easily in my boyfriend's bed while he has his loud screaming music going but it's difficult for me to fall asleep in my own bed when it's quiet. Maybe his bed is comfier than mine. Maybe I just tune out his music, since I can't understand the lyrics/screaming and therefore can't sing along in my head. I can't fall asleep listening to my music, because I know the lyrics well and that keeps me awake. So maybe the quietness of my bedroom at night just creeps me out. Any ideas?",
"Because sensory adaptation, a phenomenon where your senses get used to a certain level of stimulus. If you increase the stimulus significantly, you will be able to detect it again. When you're trying to sleep at night in a quiet room, you are used to next to no auditory stimulus. A small noise will seem like a big disturbance because the difference between the initial stimulus and the noise stimulus is greater than that of the difference between the initial stimulus in the classroom and another secondary auditory stimulus on top of that.",
"Isn't it because to fall asleep in a lecture, public transport or cinema you have to be ultra sleepy...like 'I can't stay awake' sleepy but when you are in bed you are more like 'hey body I have to wake up in 6 hours so going to sleep now would be nice' kind of tired. You stay asleep in noisy places because you are too tired to be woken by this kind of noise but when you are in bed you are not as sleepy and more easily awoken",
"I just want to know why loud noise *makes* me want to take a nap. I go to a loud concert, and no matter how good it is, I want to drift off and snooze. (I've actually done that in the movies, but to be fair, it was a calming movie and I was the only one there, and a bit worn out.)",
"Your brain naturally calibrates itself to its surroundings. Ever leave a concert and normal sounds seem muted? Ever hear of that room so quiet you can hear your own blood flowing? In a very noisy environment, your brain becomes so desensitized to sound that basically *nothing* seems noisy. In a very quiet environment, even a simple cough can seem very jarring.",
"I never understood the concept of falling asleep in public (school lectures, public transport, cinemas, etc). I'm too paranoid people will steal my stuff, shove something up my ass, or general fuckery. I always keep a low level consciousness when napping publicly, and am always at least slightly aware of my surroundings. I just get that good old REM going.",
"I wear foam ear plugs to bed. The master bedroom in my home faces the street and you'd be surprised how many car doors are slamming, engines are revving and car radios are blaring in the middle of the night. Only downside I suppose, would be if people outside were yelling ZOMBIE APOCALYPSE!!! and I didn't hear the warning. ;)",
"May I jump in and ask why (1) when I was 12 and lived over a bar I slept like a baby, (2) as an adult I prefer white noise like traffic, (3) hearing and anticipating noise from neighbors raises my heart rate ten fold, and (4) the thought of dead silence terrifies me.",
"It could be that you actually know the noise is not being directed at you when in a public place but in your own house you are the only person that noise can be targetting.",
"I really don't understand how someone could fall asleep during a lecture. I find it impossible to tune out words and not think about them when I'm trying to sleep.",
"as someone who was in the military....you quickly learn to fall asleep anywhere at any time....",
"Run a box fan at night. No more being woken up by random noises."
] | [
[
"understand language. Hospital noise, at any volume level, is credited with being the primary cause of sleep deprivation, a contributing factor in delirium, and a risk factor for errors. The current pressure to reduce noise at night has been mistakenly understood to mean undue quiet at night when patients most need cues that people are around them and available if they need help. Just s lighting must be designed to serve both day and night, so much the auditory environment be designed to support activity,cognition, rest, and sleep.\nAdding to the above, patients need positive visual and auditory",
"-30.034069008746883"
],
[
"loss, tinnitus, hypertension, vasoconstriction, and other cardiovascular adverse effects. Chronic noise exposure has been associated with sleep disturbances and increased incidence of diabetes. Adverse cardiovascular effects occur from chronic exposure to noise due to the sympathetic nervous system's inability to habituate. The sympathetic nervous system maintains lighter stages of sleep when the body is exposed to noise, which does not allow blood pressure to follow the normal rise and fall cycle of an undisturbed circadian rhythm.\nStress from time spent around elevated noise levels has been linked with increased workplace accident rates and aggression and other anti-social behaviors. The most",
"-28.47252395405667"
],
[
"sporting events, car racing, woodworking, pubs, people's activities on the street, etc.\nSound propagation outdoors is subject to meteorological effects (e.g. wind, temperature) that affect the distance, speed, and direction with which environmental noise travels from a source to a listener. Environmental noise and health effects Noise and quality of life are correlated. The increase of environmental noise, especially for those living near railways and airports, has created conflict. Getting adequate and quality sleep is difficult for those who live in areas of high noise exposure. When the body is at rest, noise stimuli is continually being presented in the",
"-28.44567213179107"
],
[
"of the top 10 councils ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located in London. Annoyance Sudden impulse noises are typically perceived as more bothersome than noise from traffic of equal volume. Annoyance effects of noise are minimally affected by demographics, but fear of the noise source and sensitivity to noise both strongly affect the 'annoyance' of a noise. Sound levels as low as 40 dB(A) can generate noise complaints and the lower threshold for noise producing sleep disturbance is 45 dB(A) or lower.\nOther factors that affect the 'annoyance level' of sound include beliefs about noise prevention and the importance of the",
"-28.381900181200763"
],
[
"to noise in learning environments experienced trouble with word discrimination, as well as various cognitive developmental delays. In particular, the writing learning impairment dysgraphia is commonly associated with environmental stressors in the classroom.\nHigh noise levels have also been known to damage the physical health of small children. Children from noisy residences often have a heart rate that is significantly higher (by 2 beats/min on average) than those of children from quieter homes. Prevention A hearing protection device (HPD) is an ear protection device worn in or over the ears while exposed to hazardous noise to help prevent noise-induced hearing",
"-28.27858731833112"
],
[
"than 13 have a much more difficult time distinguishing verbal signals from background noise. Students who have hearing loss (e.g. from ear infections), who are learning a new language, or have auditory or attention problems required even more favorable acoustics in order to understand speech. In response, acceptable limits of background noise in classrooms have been reduced to 35 dBA and 55 dBC by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Finishes The finishes of walls, floors, ceilings, and furniture can have significant effects on the functionality, durability, and effectiveness of the learning space. Light levels, glare, mood, and",
"-27.349912939593196"
],
[
"discovered between noise and psychological effects such as annoyance, psychiatric disorders, and effects on psychosocial well-being. Exposure to intense levels of noise can cause personality changes and violent reactions. Noise has also been shown to be a factor that attributed to violent reactions. The psychological impacts of noise also include an addiction to loud music. This was researched in a study where non-professional musicians were found to have loudness addictions more often than non-musician control subjects.\nPsychological health effects from noise include depression and anxiety. Individuals who have hearing loss, including noise induced hearing loss, may have their symptoms alleviated",
"-26.746298226702493"
],
[
"to music when running errands alone or turning on the television when at home, even if it is just for background noise. Using noise to interrupt the silence of isolated situations can often be a great help for people suffering from autophobia.\nHowever, it is important to remember that just because a person may feel alone at times does not mean that they have autophobia. Most people feel alone and secluded at times; this is not an unusual phenomenon. Only when the fear of being alone begins to interrupt how a person lives their daily life does the idea of being",
"-26.269654905656353"
],
[
"planting. Noise pollution Large amounts of noise pollution not only lead to lower property values and high frustration, they can be damaging to human hearing and health. In the study “Noise exposure and public health,” they argue that exposure to continual noise is a public health problem. They cite examples of the detriment of continual noise on humans to include: “hearing impairment, hypertension and ischemic heart disease, annoyance, sleep disturbance, and decreased school performance.” Since most roofs or vacant lots consist of hard flat surfaces that reflect sound waves instead of absorbing them, adding plants that can absorb these waves",
"-26.22978166094981"
],
[
"environment. The body responds to these sounds which can negatively affect sleep. \nHigh exposure to environmental noise can play a role in cardiovascular disease. Noise can raise blood pressure, change heart rate, and release stress hormones. Consistent changes in these health stats can lead to risks for hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and even more serious events such as a stroke or myocardial infarction. United States The Noise Control Act of 1972 established a U.S. national policy to promote an environment for all Americans to be free from noise that jeopardizes their health and welfare. In the past, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)",
"-26.1395497137637"
],
[
"the problem of noisy teen-agers is the enticingly titled bonus room, which is a spare room on the bedroom floor that can be used as a den, television room or guest room.\"",
"-25.753595131609472"
],
[
"the participants are addicted to social media, the less satisfied they are with life. Some parents restrict their children's access to social media for these reasons. Sleep disturbances According to a study released in 2017 by researchers from the University of Pittsburgh, the link between sleep disturbance and the use of social media was clear. It concluded that blue light had a part to play—and how often they logged on, rather than time spent on social media sites, was a higher predictor of disturbed sleep, suggesting \"an obsessive 'checking'\". The strong relationship of social media use and sleep disturbance has",
"-25.439856787619647"
],
[
"people may still be affected by the noise. In many universities, complaints from the residents are received every year during the committee election periods. Because the activity “Ngai Jong” is held at public spaces like the university entrance, corridors or near canteens, the noise may cause disturb to passers- by and the general public near the university or those who are using the university facilities. More and more complaints are received, which affects the university’s image and reputation.\nSince students are only allowed to use their own voices and body parts during \"Ngai Jong\" without the help of microphones or other",
"-25.369775692233816"
],
[
"Health effects from noise Noise health effects are the physical and psychological health consequences of regular exposure to consistent elevated sound levels. Elevated workplace or environmental noise can cause hearing impairment, tinnitus, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, annoyance, and sleep disturbance. Changes in the immune system and birth defects have been also attributed to noise exposure.\nAlthough age-related health effects (presbycusis) occur naturally with age, in many countries the cumulative impact of noise is sufficient to impair the hearing of a large fraction of the population over the course of a lifetime. Noise exposure has been known to induce noise-induced hearing",
"-25.31505789081166"
],
[
"Communication noise Psychological noise Psychological noise results from preconceived notions we bring to conversations, such as racial stereotypes, reputations, biases, and assumptions. When we come into a conversation with ideas about what the other person is going to say and why, we can easily become blinded to their original message. Most of the time psychological noise is impossible to free ourselves from, and we must simply strive to recognize that it exists and take those distractions into account when we converse with others. Environmental Noise Environmental noise is the summary of noise pollution from outside, caused by transport, industrial and",
"-25.251283827063162"
],
[
"increasing levels of aggression, hypertension and stress. In the extreme, excessive levels or periods of noise can have long-term negative health effects such as hearing loss, tinnitus, sleep disturbances, a rise in blood pressure, an increase in stress and vasoconstriction, and an increased incidence of coronary artery disease. In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator or prey detection and avoidance, interfering with reproduction and navigation, and contributing to permanent hearing loss.\nVarious cures are available to combat Environmental Noise; Roadway noise can be reduced by the use of noise barriers, limitation of vehicle speeds, alteration of",
"-25.175210861314554"
],
[
"notice if the visual field is highly patterned, complex, or in motion. When active observation is stopped, it is not obvious or noticeable, and seemingly disappears from normal physical perception. Individuals suffering from visual snow see similar noise but experience difficulty blocking it from conscious perception. Level 2: Light/dark flashes Some mental control can be exerted over these closed-eye visualizations, but it usually requires a bit of relaxation and concentration to achieve. \nWhen properly relaxed it is possible to cause regions of intense black, bright white or even colors such as yellow, green, or pink to appear in the noise.",
"-25.118162854516413"
],
[
"Effects of sleep deprivation on college students Sleep Hygiene Inadequate sleep hygiene is one primary cause as to why college students experience sleep deprivation. Sleep hygiene is defined as habits or practices that allow for healthy amounts of sleep on a daily basis. Good sleep hygiene habits include keeping a consistent sleep schedule, having a quiet sleep environment, and avoiding consuming caffeine and alcohol before sleeping. Many students have inadequate sleep hygiene that leads to sleep deprivation. Technology The blue light that is emitted from the screens of phones, computers and other devices stops the production of melatonin, the hormone",
"-25.035621475641165"
],
[
"suffer from sound annoyance. Other factors that correlate with sound annoyance are increased absence form work, sleep disturbance, and interference with performing cognitive tasks like paying attention at school.\nFor a more detailed article about health effects: health effects from noise. Measurement Historically, nuisance sound has been measured using A-weighted sound pressure level metrics such as LA,Smax which indicates the maximum sound pressure level with one-second time integration, LDN, a 24-hour average of daytime and weighted nighttime sound level, or other long term time-averages. Measurement is made using a sound level meter with appropriate statistical averaging and corrections to predict the",
"-24.871085416089045"
],
[
"Environmental noise Environmental noise is an accumulation of noise pollution that occurs outside. This noise can be caused by transport, industrial, and recreational activities.\nNoise is frequently described as 'unwanted sound'. Within this context, environmental noise is generally present in some form in all areas of human, animal, or environmental activity. The effects in humans of exposure to environmental noise may vary from emotional to physiological and psychological. \nNoise at low levels is not necessarily harmful. Environmental noise can also convey a sense of liveliness in an area, which can be desirable. However, the adverse effects of noise exposure (i.e. noise",
"-24.813199076146702"
],
[
"in order to see the screen better. From this, neck and back pains and problems increase, commonly referred to as repetitive strain injuries. Using electronics before going to bed makes it difficult for people to fall asleep, which has a negative effect on human health. Sleeping less prevents people from performing to their full potential physically and mentally and can also “increase rates of obesity and diabetes,” which are “long-term health consequences”. Obesity and diabetes are more commonly seen in students and in youth because they tend to be the ones using electronics the most. “People who frequently use their",
"-24.74139106599614"
],
[
"staying home was often attending school and experiencing bullying or isolation that was not conducive to learning. Language impairment and speech deficits Due to cultural influence and lack of adequate educational testing, children with language impairments are often diagnosed much later on than average. Language impairment can be caused by other cognitive disorders, through social and environmental factors, or through a variety of other disorders like cleft lip. Language impairment often affects psychosocial development as well as the capability of a child to be educated around people at their level and at their pace. Teachers are not often prepared to",
"-24.695960144803394"
],
[
"spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to",
"-24.69474472128786"
],
[
"noise on a daily basis, they may be exposed to noise sources such as firearms, music, power tools, sports, and noisy toys. All of these encounters with noise cumulatively increases their risk for developing Noise-induced hearing loss. With NIHL being a fully preventable ailment, providing children with this type of education has the potential to reduce future incidence of this condition. There are multiple organizations in existence that provide educators with the appropriate material to teach this topic; teachers simply need to be proactive about accessing them. Below are examples of hearing conservation programs that have been designed specifically for",
"-24.670045698876493"
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[
"also enable finer temporal discrimination. There are many theories of why noise is apparent in the neuronal networks, but many neurologists are unclear of why they exist.\nMore generally, two types of impacts of neuronal noise can be distinguished: it will either add variability to the neural response, or enable noise – induced dynamical phenomena which cannot be observed in a noise-free system. For instance, channel noise has been shown to induce oscillations in the stochastic Hodgkin-Huxley model.",
"-24.607866570644546"
],
[
"on the negative effects of sound on human beings, as in exposure to environmental noise. Noise has been shown to correlate with health-related problems like stress, reduced sleep and cardiovascular disease. More recently however, it has also been shown that some sounds, like sounds of nature and music, can have positive effects on health. While the negative effects of sound has been widely acknowledged by organizations like EU (END 2002/49) and WHO (Burden of noise disease), the positive effects have as yet received less attention. The positive effects of nature sounds can be acknowledged in everyday planning of urban and",
"-24.40688099822728"
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[
"environment, they will fail to develop the mental capacities to do so.\nIn a learning environment, a common cause of boredom is lack of understanding; for instance, if one is not following or connecting to the material in a class or lecture, it will usually seem boring. However, the opposite can also be true; something that is too easily understood, simple or transparent, can also be boring. Boredom is often inversely related to learning, and in school it may be a sign that a student is not challenged enough, or too challenged. An activity that is predictable to the students is",
"-24.32899462862406"
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[
"has no impact on either group, but that auditory stimulation such as distant conversations or music has a negative effect on both groups of students. Children with attention deficit disorder scored higher on tests when white noise was being pumped into the classroom than when music was played. The control group of children as well as the hyperactive group of children averaged the same test scores when there was no sound as when white noise was being played.\nBy utilizing soft surfaces, especially on the floor, the sounds within and outside of the classroom will be diminished, taking away",
"-24.323047040379606"
],
[
"authors found no significant association between noise exposure and birth weight after adjusting for relevant confounders, e.g. social class, maternal weight gain during pregnancy, etc. Cognitive development When young children are regularly exposed to levels of noise that interfere with speech, they may develop speech or reading difficulties, because auditory processing functions are compromised. Children continue to develop their speech perception abilities until they reach their teens. Evidence has shown that when children learn in noisier classrooms, they have more difficulties understanding speech than those who learn in quieter settings.\nIn a study conducted by Cornell University in 1993, children exposed",
"-24.29512717730404"
],
[
"also have irritable and irregular bowel habits, cold sores, and they may have problems with bed-wetting. These complaints have been associated with depressive disorders in children, a common emotional effect of domestic violence. Along with these general complaints of not feeling well, children who witness domestic violence may also appear nervous, as previously mentioned, and have short attention spans. These children display some of the same symptoms as children who have been diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. On the reverse, these children may show symptoms of fatigue and constant tiredness. They may fall asleep in school due to the",
"-24.195347405882785"
],
[
"last two years. Around one in eleven (9%) of those affected by domestic disturbances claims it has left them continually disturbed and stressed. More than 1.8 million people claim noisy neighbours have made their life a misery and they cannot enjoy their own homes. The impact of noise on health is potentially a significant problem across the UK given that more than 17.5 million Britons (38%) have been disturbed by the inhabitants of neighbouring properties in the last two year. For almost one in ten (7%) Britons this is a regular occurrence.\nThe extent of the problem of noise",
"-24.140090544708073"
],
[
"individuals have reported nocturnal hallucinations, they are more frequent in comorbidity with other sleep disorders, e.g. narcolepsy. Sleep talking (somniloquy) According to ICSD-3 it is not defined a disorder in particular. It is rather an isolated symptom or normal variant and ranges from isolated speech to full conversations without recall. With a lifetime prevalence of 69% is it considered fairly common. Sleep talking is associated with REM-related parasomnias as well as with disorders or arousal. It occurs in all sleep states. Until now, there is no specific treatment for sleeptalking available. Treatment Parasomnias can be considered as potentially harmful to",
"-24.118603693525074"
],
[
"signals and impede concentration. High intensity noise interferes with vital workplace communication which increases the chance of accidents and decreases productivity.\nNoise may also act synergistically with other hazards to increase the risk of harm to workers. In particular, toxic materials (e.g. some solvents, metals, asphyxiants and pesticides) have some ototoxic properties that may affect hearing function.\nModern thinking in occupational safety and health further identifies noise as hazardous to workers' safety and health. This hazard is experienced in various places of employment and through a variety of sources.\nNoise, in the context of industrial noise, is hazardous to a persons hearing because",
"-24.08847040310502"
],
[
"frequency is extremely vulnerable to being contaminated with spurious signals, such as adjacent radio stations, harmonics from non-adjacent radio stations, electrical equipment in the vicinity of the receiving antenna causing interference, or even atmospheric events such as solar flares and especially lightning.\nThere is evidence that white noise exposure therapies may induce maladaptive changes in the brain that degrade neurological health and compromise cognition. Work environment The effects of white noise upon cognitive function are mixed. Recently, a small study found that white noise background stimulation improves cognitive functioning among secondary students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), while decreasing performance",
"-24.06747092945443"
],
[
"sleep, is distinct from both somniloquy and obstructive sleep apnea. The sound is produced during exhalation as opposed to snoring which occurs during inhalation. It is usually not noticed by the person producing the sound but can be extremely disturbing to sleep partners, although once aware of it, sufferers tend to be woken up by their own groaning as well. Bed partners generally report hearing the person take a deep breath, hold it, then slowly exhale; often with a high-pitched squeak or groaning sound. Sleep-Related Painful Erections Painful erections appear only during the sleep. This condition is present during",
"-24.03864371786767"
],
[
"not funded by the federal government in part because of the disagreements in establishing causal links between sounds and health risks, since the effect of noise is often psychological and also, because it leaves no singular tangible trace of damage on the human body. For instance, hearing loss could be attributed to a variety of factors including age, rather than solely due to excessive exposure to noise. A state or local government is able to regulate indoor residential noise, however, such as when excessive noise from within a home causes disturbances to nearby residences. Effects on canines While people are",
"-23.93035511742346"
],
[
"a sharp decrease in the temperature of the extremities may independently reverse sleep inertia symptoms. Noise is thought to increase attentiveness upon awakening. A drop in temperature of the extremities may prevent heat loss, facilitating the return of core body temperature to homeostatic daytime levels.",
"-23.90304033306893"
],
[
"Dysfunction Disorder may feel that certain noises are painful or overwhelming. They may need to cover their ears when hearing a sound or in anticipation of what they think will be an offensive sound. They can find certain music to be soothing and become mesmerized by it. However, they may become overstimulated and upset if they hear something for which they are unprepared. Visual system The visual system involves sight. A child with Sensory Dysfunction Disorder may or may not be able to see an item that is directly in front of them. He or she may be sensitive to",
"-23.884040395831107"
],
[
"his philosophy is that ambient noise coming from ones surrounding is psychologically and physically damaging. His book Sound Health: The Music and Sounds that Make us Whole he commented that a combination of the decibels in the noises around us can combine to harm the body even in the home, and that noise from our neighbours can harm individuals even if their own homes are not producing too much noise. In 2014 Halpern appeared in the documentary, The Business of Disease produced by Sonia Barrett, he shared his insights about the healing effect of sound and the negative effects of",
"-23.72789125505369"
],
[
"noise exclusion deficit (impaired filtering of behaviorally irrelevant visual information in dyslexia or visual-noise) is an emerging hypothesis, supported by research showing that subjects with dyslexia experience difficulty in performing visual tasks (such as motion detection in the presence of perceptual distractions) but do not show the same impairment when the distracting factors are removed in an experimental setting. The researchers have analogized their findings concerning visual discrimination tasks to findings in other research related to auditory discrimination tasks. They assert that dyslexic symptoms arise because of an impaired ability to filter out both visual and auditory distractions, and to",
"-23.67795475019375"
],
[
"who spend too long on the internet face social problems such as loneliness, depression and anxiety.\nAccording to Dr. Victoria Dunckley, excessive use of electronic screen media can have ill effects on mental health related to mood, cognition, and behavior—and may even result in psychosis in the form of hallucination. She calls this \"Electronic Screen Syndrome\" (ESS). She claims the root of these symptoms appears to be linked to repeated stress on the nervous system, making self-regulation and stress management less efficient. She says interacting with screens shifts the nervous system into fight-or-flight mode which leads to dysregulation as an inability",
"-23.656836787587963"
],
[
"attempting to sleep, it is a good idea to create a comfortable sleeping environment by eliminating daytime noise and light.",
"-23.58988976094406"
],
[
"effects on vision and on hearing functions. Studies with experimental animals, as well as epidemiologic studies have observed a synergistic interaction with noise in causing hearing difficulties.",
"-23.58597155350435"
],
[
"On Dreams Content Aristotle explains that during sleep there is an absence of external sensory stimulation. While sleeping with our eyes closed, the eyes are unable to see, and so in this respect we perceive nothing while asleep. He compares hallucinations to dreams, saying \"...the faculty by which, in waking hours, we are subject to illusion when affected by disease, is identical with that which produces illusory effects in sleep.\" When awake and perceiving, to see or hear something incorrectly only occurs when one actually sees or hears something, thinking it to be something else. But in sleep, if it",
"-23.49088318197755"
],
[
"Peduncular hallucinosis Signs and symptoms The hallucinations are normally colorful, vivid images that occur during wakefulness, predominantly at night. Lilliputian hallucinations (also called Alice in Wonderland syndrome), hallucinations in which people or animals appear smaller than they would be in real life, are common in cases of peduncular hallucinosis. Most patients exhibit abnormal sleep patterns characterized by insomnia and daytime drowsiness. Peduncular hallucinosis has been described as a “release phenomenon” due to damage to the ascending reticular activating system, which is supported by the sleep disturbance characteristic of this syndrome. In most cases, people are aware that the hallucinations are",
"-23.478698659222573"
],
[
"trouble internalizing and/or externalizing problems according to the study done by Justin Parent. Some research suggests that the light from electronic screens can affect the circadian rhythm of children and disrupt alertness. These same studies found that for young children ages 3–7, the amount of sleep disturbances greatly increases after six hours of screen time, and for children 8–12 the amount of sleep disturbances greatly increased after the 10-hour mark. After four or six hours of daily screen time, sleep duration drops for adolescents.\nSome research suggests that screen time close to bedtime prevents children from getting adequate sleep. Research",
"-23.429446801543236"
],
[
" This difficulty appears to be closely related to the difficulty with filtering ambient data and focusing on relevant factors while disregarding irrelevant distractors. External noise interferes with the ability of dyslexic subjects to recognize patterns; the lack of a pattern-based template for interpretation of sensory information in turn may make it difficult to judge the relative importance and relevancy of details as they are perceived.\nThe presence a perceptual noise exclusion deficit has been further demonstrated in the auditory domain. Researchers found a speech perception deficit in dyslexic subjects which was present in noise but absent in silence. \nThis",
"-23.41708950002794"
],
[
"at the right type of day.\nNightlights are also helpful in reducing falls and injuries and, at the same time, help the elderly to maintain sleep. Falls are a major concern with the elderly; they threaten their independence and risk further health complications. Lighting systems can help seniors maintain balance and stability. Furthermore, sleep deprivation can contribute to decreased postural control. Nightlights that accent horizontal and vertical spaces, such as soft lighting above a doorway or at the foot of a bed, can reduce the risk of falls without disturbing sleep.",
"-23.3261125003919"
],
[
"as the military or police. Hunting is another good example. Sleep Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's snoring may have sound-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.\nTo determine the comfort of earplugs used for sleeping, it is important to try them on while actually lying down. The pressure on the ear between the head and pillow may cause significant discomfort. Furthermore, just tilting the head back or to",
"-23.29804136187886"
],
[
"Presbycusis Sociocusis Sociocusis is the condition of those who have hearing loss attributed to continuous noise exposures, unrelated to their job or occupation. This exposure to these stimuli is frequent, and are often considered common \"background noises\" that affect the hearing abilities of individuals. Examples of sociocusis-related stimuli are the continuous noises from traffic, home appliances, music, television, and radio. The accumulated exposure to these noises over many years can lead to a condition similar to pure presbycusis. Diagnosis Hearing loss is classified as mild, moderate, severe or profound. Pure-tone audiometry for air conduction thresholds at 250, 500, 1000, 2000,",
"-23.254233357798512"
],
[
"listen to music at high levels for many hours per day. Such listening habits may result in temporary or permanent hearing loss, tinnitus, and difficulties understanding speech in noisy environments.\nThe World Health Organization warns that increasing use of headphones and earphones puts 1.1 billion teenagers and young adults at risk of hearing loss due to unsafe use of personal audio devices. Many smartphones and personal media players are sold with earphones that do a poor job of blocking ambient noise, leading some users to turn up the volume to the maximum level to drown out street noise. People listening to their",
"-23.23055319604464"
],
[
"an increased level of noise in their prefrontal cortical information processing circuits. Abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex might cause some of the symptoms associated with schizophrenia, such as auditory hallucinations, delusional states, and impacts on the working memory. Knowing how noise affects the signaling in this area of the brain, for example, not being able to distinguish noise from a signal, might provide more information on why these abnormalities occur.\nFunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is affected by noise. Noise that is present during scanning can impact the integrity of an image by introducing an aspect of uncertainty through noise. More",
"-23.189015453506727"
],
[
"or the neural populations themselves have been disrupted. Hallucinations Several types of hallucinations have been linked to sleep paralysis: the belief that there is an intruder in the room, the presence of an incubus, and the sensation of floating. A neurological hypothesis is that in sleep paralysis the mechanisms which usually coordinate body movement and provide information on body position become activated and, because there is no actual movement, induce a floating sensation.\nThe intruder and incubus hallucinations highly correlate with one another, and moderately correlated with the third hallucination, vestibular-motor disorientation, also known as out-of-body experiences, which differ from the",
"-23.050287647754885"
],
[
"awakenings in at least a few nights per week due to their cell phones' ringers. Among those with the cell phone ringers on, being awakened by their cell phone was correlated to difficulty sustaining sleep.\nAccording to the article, \"Interrupted Sleep: College Students Sleeping with Technology\" by Elizabeth B. Dowdell and Brianne Q. Clayton, sleep-deprived college students performed significantly worse than peers who had adequate sleep on the cognitive task work and that the sleep-deprived students were not aware of the extent to which sleep deprivation negatively affects their ability to complete cognitive tasks. Insufficient sleep while in college may be",
"-22.940622067719232"
],
[
"the morning. The reliance on technology, specifically in the bedroom, which should be associated with sleep, created the difficulty with separating waking and sleeping activities. When measuring the amount of sleep during the week compared to the weekend, students with four or more technological devices in their bedroom had significantly less sleep compared to those with three or fewer devices. Since many students do not utilize sleep mode or do not disturb or silence their phones at night, each notification and alert from their phones disrupts their sleep in terms of sleep quality and duration of sleep. Caffeine A study",
"-22.881036372389644"
],
[
"psychosis such as hallucinations and secondary or specific delusions, represents an intrusion into waking consciousness of processes associated with stage 1 sleep. It is suggested that the reason for these intrusions is that the psychotic subject is in a state of hyper-arousal, a state that can lead to what Ian Oswald called \"micro-sleeps\" in waking life.\nSubjects may also experience sleep paralysis.",
"-22.828286096220836"
],
[
"Noise control Noise control or noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution or to reduce the impact of that noise, whether outdoors or indoors. Overview The main areas of noise mitigation or abatement are: transportation noise control, architectural design, urban planning through zoning codes, and occupational noise control. Roadway noise and aircraft noise are the most pervasive sources of environmental noise. Social activities may generate noise levels that consistently affect the health of populations residing in or occupying areas, both indoor and outdoor, near entertainment venues that feature amplified sounds and music that present significant challenges",
"-22.820940191682894"
],
[
"volume can be gradually increased to increase privacy. Manufacturers of sleeping aids and power-napping devices recommend that the volume level be set slightly louder than normal music listening level, but always in a comfortable listening range.\nSound and noise have their own measurement and color coding techniques, which allows specialized users to identify noise and sound according to their respective needs and utilization. These specialized needs are dependent on certain professions and needs, e.g. a psychiatrist who needs certain sounds for therapies and treatments on a mental level, and patients who have conditions such as insomnia, anxiety, and, tinnitus (these",
"-22.81894846503019"
],
[
"it is associated with sleep disturbance and poorer sleep quality and quality of life. However, it is unclear whether the observed associations are due to wind turbine noise or plausible confounders.\"\nA meta study published in 2014 reported that among the cross-sectional studies of better quality, no clear or consistent association is seen between wind turbine noise and any reported disease or other indicator of harm to human health. Noise from turbines played a minor role in comparison with other factors in leading people to report annoyance in the context of wind turbines. Policy impact In Ontario, Canada, the Ministry of",
"-22.81063257434289"
],
[
"discrepancy between subjective and objective reports, clinicians may conclude that the perception of poor sleep is primarily illusionary.\nAlternatively, some people may report excessive daytime sleepiness or chronic disabling sleepiness, while no sleep disorder has been found to exist. Methods of diagnosing sleepiness objectively, such as the Multiple Sleep Latency Test do not confirm the symptom—\"true\" sleepiness is not observed despite the complaint. (It may be speculated that such reports of daytime sleepiness may be a result of the nocebo response —the reverse of the placebo effect—due to patient expectations of adverse effects from their subjective perception of poor sleep.)\nFinally, on",
"-22.789366904296912"
],
[
"during NREM sleep in adolescence. School schedules are often incompatible with a corresponding delay in sleep offset, leading to a less than optimal amount of sleep for the majority of adolescents. Hospital stay A study performed nationwide in the Netherlands found that general ward patients staying at the hospital experienced shorter total sleep (83 min. less), more night-time awakenings, and earlier awakenings compared to sleeping at home. Over 70% experienced being woken up by external causes, such as hospital staff (35.8%). Sleep disturbing factors included noise of other patients, medical devices, pain, and toilet visits. Sleep deprivation is even",
"-22.773530687380116"
],
[
"may also have effects on the central nervous system. Exposure can enhance hearing loss caused by noise exposure. Animal tests suggest that this substance could cause damage to human development and reproductive systems.",
"-22.75101133872522"
],
[
"Local sleep Local sleep is a neurological phenomenon where brain activity in an organism that is otherwise awake enters a state which closely resembles that of sleep. In an Electroencephalogram, these patterns generally resemble NREM slow-wave sleep, and oscillate between 'on' and 'off' periods in the same way that would be expected during an actual sleeping state.\nLocal sleep can be induced by sustained and intense periods of activation of a particular brain region, especially when coupled with sleep deprivation (a condition colloquially called \"sleep drunk\"), although certain cortical regions of mice have been demonstrated to enter local sleep for very",
"-22.63247458810656"
],
[
"the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace. Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after",
"-22.632330908701988"
],
[
"sound systems, students would have to shout loudly in order to catch attention. The long time of shouting affects their vocal cords, causing voice loss or headaches. Also, as students have to stay outdoors overnight to get a good place for \"Ngai Jong\", they may lack sleep.",
"-22.607125676469877"
],
[
"absolute location in space while the neurons underneath it would have changed. Another source of physiological noise is the change in the rate of blood flow, blood volume, and use of oxygen over time. This last component contributes to two-thirds of physiological noise, which, in turn, is the main contributor to total noise.\nEven with the best experimental design, it is not possible to control and constrain all other background stimuli impinging on a subject—scanner noise, random thoughts, physical sensations, and the like. These produce neural activity independent of the experimental manipulation. These are not amenable to mathematical modeling and have",
"-22.591768756625243"
],
[
"could be that the higher threshold for sensory interruption during REM sleep allows the brain to travel further along unrealistic and peculiar trains of thought.\nSome dreaming can take place during non-REM sleep. “Light sleepers” can experience dreaming during stage 2 non-REM sleep, whereas “deep sleepers”, upon awakening in the same stage, are more likely to report “thinking” but not “dreaming”. Certain scientific efforts to assess the uniquely bizarre nature of dreams experienced while asleep were forced to conclude that waking thought could be just as bizarre, especially in conditions of sensory deprivation. Because of non-REM dreaming, some sleep researchers have",
"-22.587664307175146"
],
[
"and noise were also associated with lower levels of certain hormones in the mother. These hormones are thought to affect fetal growth and to be good indicators of protein production. The difference between the hormone levels of pregnant mothers in noisy versus quiet areas increased as birth approached.\nIn a 2000 publication, a review of studies on birthweight and noise exposure note that while some older studies suggest that when women are exposed to >65 dB aircraft noise a small decrease in birthweight occurs, in a more recent study of 200 Taiwanese women including noise dosimetry measurements of individual noise exposure, the",
"-22.58478285660385"
],
[
"noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\nThere is support",
"-22.558265234227292"
],
[
"11% of surveyed residents who slept for more than seven hours a night.\nTwenty-four hours of continuous sleep deprivation results in the choice of less difficult math tasks without decreases in subjective reports of effort applied to the task. Naturally caused sleep loss affects the choice of everyday tasks such that low effort tasks are mostly commonly selected. Adolescents who experience less sleep show a decreased willingness to engage in sports activities that require effort through fine motor coordination and attention to detail.\nGreat sleep deprivation mimics psychosis: distorted perceptions can lead to inappropriate emotional and behavioral responses.\nAstronauts have reported performance errors",
"-22.556467064394383"
],
[
"In particular, video usage was strongly associated with negative social well-being(p. 332). Of the girls surveyed, the media formats of music, talking on the phone, and online communication were found to be positively related to media multitasking, and even greater levels of media multitasking were seen with cell phone ownership and having TV in the bedroom (p. 334). With that the scholars also linked the two to less sleep. While the research indicated that face-to-face communication was positively related to hours of sleep, they found media multitasking, video use, and online communication to be negatively related to hours of sleep.\nThe rapidly fluctuating",
"-22.55114807735663"
],
[
"patient had slumped one way while falling asleep they woke up and immediately corrected, if not overcorrected), oral automatisms, and head turns. In most of the patients their eyes remained open. Sixty percent of the patients reported having visual and auditory hallucinations.",
"-22.54044284526026"
],
[
"mention of a contemporary but indifferent experience, and d) an internal significant experience, such as a memory or train of thought, that is invariably represented in the dream by a mention of a recent but indifferent impression.\nOftentimes people experience external stimuli, such as an alarm clock or music, being distorted and incorporated into their dreams. Freud explained that this is because \"the mind is withdrawn from the external world during sleep, and it is unable to give it a correct interpretation ...\" He further explained that our mind wishes to continue sleeping, and therefore will try to suppress external stimuli,",
"-22.53233326120244"
],
[
"Dennis Pelli and others' measurements assess whether visual-snow patients have increased levels of intrinsic visual noise. Causes The causes are unclear. The underlying mechanism is believed to involve excessive excitability of neurons within the cortex of the brain, specifically the right lingual gyrus and left cerebellar anterior lobe of the brain.\nPersisting visual snow can feature as a leading addition to a migraine complication called persistent aura without infarction, commonly referred to as persistent migraine aura (PMA). In other clinical sub-forms of migraine headache may be absent and the migraine aura may not take the typical form of the zigzagged fortification",
"-22.517466743360274"
],
[
"tired, anxious or intoxicated. During live broadcasts on TV or on the radio, for example, nonprofessional speakers and even hosts often make speech errors because they are under stress. Some speakers seem to be more prone to speech errors than others. For example, there is a certain connection between stuttering and speech errors. Charles F. Hockett explains that \"whenever a speaker feels some anxiety about possible lapse, he will be led to focus attention more than normally on what he has just said and on what he is just about to say. These are ideal breeding grounds for stuttering.\" Another",
"-22.426385619328357"
],
[
"tired and consequently disinterested in what the speaker has to say. Temperature and seating arrangements can distract an audience by causing them discomfort, shifting their focus to their own annoyance. Being too far from a speaker can also cause the audience to lose focus because of a sort of \"Hawthorne effect. Physiological noise can also lead to distractions that take an audiences attention from the speaker. This noise may range from ailments and illness, all the way to emotions like arousal. Both sides of the spectrum can affect the audiences attention, for example, a speaker giving a speech while under",
"-22.41451999824494"
],
[
"deprivation are reduced glucose tolerance, elevated evening cortisol levels, and increased sympathetic nervous system activity. Sleep quality at an old age is just as important as sleep duration to avoid lack of sleep. Research shows that feelings of loneliness and depression can result in poor sleep quality and daytime dysfunctions. These daytime impairments include physical and intellectual fatigue, irritability, and low cognitive abilities. Dementia Dementia is a variety of symptoms that apply to a decline in mental ability, not a specific disease. Geriatric psychologists work with dementia by aiding in the diagnosis of this disease. This is done through various",
"-22.399199938343372"
],
[
"cause hearing impairment for the worker, the noise has to be close enough, loud enough, and sustained long enough to damage the hair cells in the auditory system. Please see Occupational hearing loss or Noise-induced hearing loss for more information regarding the physiology of hearing loss. These factors have been taken into account by the governing occupational health and safety organization to determine the unsafe noise exposure levels and durations for their respective industries.\nNoise can also affect the safety of the employee and others. Noise can be a causal factor in work accidents as it may mask hazards and warning",
"-22.382395956008622"
],
[
"clock if it has been used for a period of time, making it less effective. Due to progressive alarm clocks' complex waking procedure, they can deter this adaptation due to the body needing to adapt to more stimuli than just a simple sound alert. Alarm signals for impaired hearing The deaf and hard of hearing are often unable to perceive auditory alarms when asleep. They may use specialized alarms, including alarms with flashing lights instead of or in addition to noise. Alarms which can connect to vibrating devices (small ones inserted into pillows, or larger ones placed under bedposts to",
"-22.3733805246884"
],
[
"rural environments, as well as in specific health treatment situations, like nature-based sound therapy and nature-based rehabilitation.\nSoundscapes from a computerized acoustic device with a camera may also offer synthetic vision to the blind, utilizing human echolocation, as is the goal of the seeing with sound project. Soundscapes and noise pollution Papers on noise pollution are increasingly taking a holistic, soundscape approach to noise control. Whereas acoustics tends to rely on lab measurements and individual acoustic characteristics of cars and so on, soundscape takes a top-down approach. Drawing on John Cage's ideas of the whole world as composition, soundscape researchers investigate",
"-22.358467841520905"
],
[
"and more a private, silent one—and as sleeping increasingly moved from communal sleeping areas to individual bedrooms, some raised concern that reading in bed presented various dangers, such as fires caused by bedside candles. Some modern critics, however, speculate that these concerns were based on the fear that readers—especially women—could escape familial and communal obligations and transgress moral boundaries through the private fantasy worlds in books.",
"-22.318529719603248"
],
[
"hear music, which is most likely due to a genetic defect, the rest of an amusic's brain remains normal. The only effect is on the ability to tell different notes apart due to the separation of two key areas in the brain. Most sufferers of amusia describe music as unpleasant. Others simply refer to it as noise and find it annoying. This can have social implications because amusics often try to avoid music, which in many social situations is not an option. In China and other countries where tonal languages are spoken, amusia may have a much more pronounced social",
"-22.314286949578673"
],
[
"which the child sleeps. Windows should be closed and potentially dangerous items should be removed from the bedroom, and additionally, alarms can be installed and the child placed in a downstairs bedroom.\nHypnosis could be efficient. Sleepers could become less sensitive to their sleep terrors.\nOne technique is to wake up just before the sleep terrors begin. When they appear regularly, this method can prevent their appearance.\nPsychotherapy or counseling can be helpful in many cases. There is some evidence to suggest that night terrors can result from lack of sleep or poor sleeping habits. In these cases, it can be helpful to",
"-22.309972925286274"
],
[
"film spectators as being in a \"para-oneiric\" state, feeling \"sleepy and drowsy as if they had just woken up\" when a film ends. Similarly, the French surrealist André Breton argues that film viewers enter a state between being \"awake and falling asleep\", what French filmmaker René Clair called a \"dreamlike state\". Edgar Morin's Le cinéma ou l'homme imaginaire (1956) and Jean Mitry's first volume of Esthétique et psychologie du cinéma (1963) also discuss the connection between films and the dream state. Filmmakers Filmmakers described as using oneiric or dreamlike elements in their films include Sergei Parajanov (e.g., Shadows of Forgotten",
"-22.28781385725597"
],
[
"Noise measurement In acoustics, noise measurement can be for the purpose of measuring environmental noise. Applications include monitoring of construction sites, aircraft noise, road traffic noise, entertainment venues and neighborhood noise.\nThe word \"noise\" means any \"unwanted sound\". Environmental noise monitoring is the measurement of noise in an outdoor environment caused by transport (e.g. motor vehicles, aircraft, and trains), industry (e.g. machines) and recreational activities (e.g. music). The laws and limits governing environmental noise monitoring differ from country to country.\nAt the very least, noise may be annoying or displeasing or may disrupt the activity or balance of human or animal life,",
"-22.280759416054934"
],
[
"result in speed reduction which lowers noise intensity. As a consequence of low traffic volumes, its residential streets show low air pollution levels. The high walking levels registered by the fused grid layout, mentioned above, indicate the potential of increased physical activity.\nIn addition to these three factors that may impact on resident's health - noise, air quality, and physical activity - a fourth one, proximity to natural open spaces, has emerged as a significant contributor. Previous studies have confirmed the beneficial effect of frequent contact with nature and some have investigated the probable mechanism of the effect via stress abating",
"-22.260416123332107"
],
[
"hearing loss; exposure to chemicals such as aromatic solvents and metals including lead, arsenic, and mercury can also cause hearing loss. Naturally, noise is more of concern for certain occupations than others; musicians, mine workers, and construction workers are exposed to higher and more constant levels of noise and therefore are at a higher risk of developing hearing loss. Since noise-induced hearing loss, while entirely preventable, is permanent and irreversible, it is vital that companies and their employees are aware of limits and prevention methods available.\nIn the United States, noise is recognized as a hazard in the workplace by",
"-22.244894880393986"
],
[
"Nightmare Signs and symptoms Those with nightmares experience abnormal sleep architecture and that the results of having a nightmare during the night were very similar to those of people who have insomnia. This is thought to be caused by frequent nocturnal awakenings and fear of falling asleep. Classification According to the International Classification of Sleep Disorders-Third Edition (ICSD-3) the nightmare disorder, together with REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD) and recurrent isolated sleep paralysis form the REM-related parasomnias subcategory of the Parasomnias cluster. Nightmares may be idiopathic without any signs of psychopathology or associated with disorders like stress, anxiety, substance abuse,",
"-22.236687293483556"
],
[
"and anxiety, which may make sleep more difficult and of inferior quality. This is the well-known first night effect. Complete adaptation to the sleep laboratory may take four days or longer, which is longer than the duration of most laboratory studies. Also, the content of dreams at the laboratory has been observed to be different from dreams at home. Similarly, the laboratory environment may alter the content of dreams recalled from spontaneous awakenings at the end of a night's sleep, as indicated by high frequency of laboratory references in morning spontaneous awakenings in REM and NREM dream reports).",
"-22.219646661367733"
],
[
"Personal listening devices Although research is limited, it suggests that increased exposure to loud noise through personal listening devices is a risk factor for noise induced hearing loss. More than half of people are exposed to sound through music exposure on personal devices greater than recommended levels. Research suggests stronger correlations between extended duration or elevated usage of personal listening devices and hearing loss. Hearing conservation programs Workers in general industry who are exposed to noise levels above 85 dBA are required by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to be in a hearing conservation program (HCP), which includes",
"-22.174139851995278"
],
[
"Perceptual noise exclusion hypothesis The concept of a perceptual noise exclusion deficit is an emerging hypothesis as to the origins and nature of dyslexia. It is supported by research showing that dyslexic adults and children experience difficulty in targeting visual information in the presence of visual perceptual distractions, but subjects do not show the same impairment when the distracting factors are removed in an experimental setting. Thus, some dyslexic symptoms appear to arise because of an impaired ability to filter out environmental distractions, and to categorize information so as to distinguish the important sensory data from the irrelevant.",
"-22.155704468154"
],
[
"to light (photophobia) or noise (phonophobia) may occur during a CH. Nausea is a rare symptom although it has been reported. Secondary effects may include inability to organize thoughts and plans, physical exhaustion, confusion, agitation, aggressiveness, depression and anxiety.\nPeople with CH may dread facing another headache and adjust their physical or social activities around a possible future occurrence. Likewise they may seek assistance to accomplish what would otherwise be normal tasks. They may hesitate to make plans because of the regularity, or conversely, the unpredictability of the pain schedule. These factors can lead to generalized anxiety disorders, panic disorder, serious",
"-22.139557941583917"
],
[
"a group of subjects with normal audiograms and a history of noise exposure, as well as a group of military recruits with no history of noise exposure and a normal audiogram. They found that an increase in severity of the noise-induced hearing loss resulted in OAEs with a smaller range of emissions and reduced amplitude of the emissions. The loss of emissions due to noise exposure was found to occur in mostly the high frequencies, and it was more prominent in the groups that had noise exposure in comparison to the non-exposed group. It was found that OAEs were more",
"-22.128063901553105"
],
[
"sleep deprivation as well. Researchers from the Imperial College School of Medicine conducted a randomized controlled study to investigate the effects of a night of sleep deprivation on the physical performance in students. The participants were randomized into two conditions, normal sleep or one night of sleep deprivation. Sleep deprivation was monitored using an online time-stamped questionnaire at 45-minute intervals, done in the participants' homes. The results show that reaction time and exercise performance were significantly affected by sleep deprivation. The researchers concluded that sleep deprivation can affect physical performance in university students. Naps Daytime naps offer a potential intervention",
"-22.12719218269922"
],
[
"religious cult.\nWriting for Comic Book Resources, Renaldo Matadeen contrasted The Silence from A Quiet Place, writing, \"There are quite a few plot threads which make it clear the Netflix movie is far from a rip-off and is, in fact, it's [sic] own thing.\" Matadeen said The Silence's deaf teenage girl can read lips and speak, \"After a while, you almost forget Ally is deaf, resulting in the film lacking some of the genuine tension of A Quiet Place. He found the creatures \"totally different\" as well as the times compared to the creature invasion. While both films have \"a somewhat",
"-22.108044144464657"
],
[
"in somnambulism (sleepwalking) or, conversely, sleep paralysis—where one remains partially or wholly paralysed for a short time after waking.\nAdditional to sleep paralysis is hypnagogia. In a near-dream state, it is common to experience auditory and visual hallucinations. Mostly these are forgotten upon fully waking or soon afterwards, in the same manner as dreams. However, most people remember the phenomenon of hearing music or seeing things in near-sleep states at some point in their lives. Typical examples include a feeling of being crushed or suffocated, electric \"tingles\" or \"vibrations\", imagined speech and other noises, the imagined presence of a visible or",
"-22.046281720948173"
],
[
"of non-ADHD students. Other work indicates it is effective in improving the mood and performance of workers by masking background office noise, but decreases cognitive performance in complex card sorting tasks.\nSimilarly, an experiment was carried out on sixty six healthy participants to observe the benefits of using white noise in a learning environment. The experiment involved the participants identifying different images whilst having different sounds in the background. Overall the experiment showed that white noise does in fact have benefits in relation to learning. The experiments showed that white noise improved the participant's learning abilities and their recognition memory slightly.",
"-22.02649273275165"
],
[
"are less strong in comparison to night terrors. In addition, nightmares appear ordinarily during REM sleep in contrast to night terrors, which occur in NREM sleep. Finally, individuals with nightmares can wake up completely and easily and have clear and detailed memories of their dreams.\nA distinction between night terrors and epileptic seizure is required. Indeed, an epileptic seizure could happen during the night but also during the day. To make the difference between both of them, an EEG can be done and if there are some anomalies on it, it would rather be an epileptic seizure. Treatment In most children,",
"-22.01623529958306"
],
[
"in a non-demanding task. The research showed that while distracted a subject isn’t maintaining one thought for a particularly long time, which in turn allows different ideas to float in and out of one’s consciousness—this sort of associative process leads to creative incubation.\nAmbient noise is another variable that is conducive to distraction, yet it has been proven that a moderate level of noise actually heighten creativity. Professor Ravi Mehta conducted a study to research the degree of distraction induced by various noise levels and their effect on creativity. The series of experiments show that a moderate level of ambient noise",
"-22.007980277267052"
],
[
"and avoidance of certain medication as prevention.\nNoise exposure is the most significant risk factor for noise-induced hearing loss that can be prevented. Different programs exist for specific populations such as school-age children, adolescents and workers. Education regarding noise exposure increases the use of hearing protectors. The use of antioxidants is being studied for the prevention of noise-induced hearing loss, particularly for scenarios in which noise exposure cannot be reduced, such as during military operations. Workplace noise regulation Noise is widely recognized as an occupational hazard. In the United States, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the",
"-21.982131667260546"
]
] |
1hr6o2 | Is time travel possible?? | [
"Sure. You are going forward in the future all the time. We also know exactly what to do for you to experience a second while the whole world ages through centuries. Basically the faster you move, the slower your time goes, so at certain speeds, your second will be a year for the rest of the world. Same thing happens with gravity - the more gravity the slower times goes, so clocks on the Moon go faster than clocks on Earth. You could theoretically get an orbit around a black hole, so that your time slows down enough, that when you return you'll find yourself in a far future. Both of these things are proven experimentally and most famous example are GPS satellites which were highly inaccurate before these effects were accounted for. --- Backwards time travel works too, but only in equatioms. Theoretivally if you were going faster than light it would work. The only problem is that going at the speed of light is impossible. If you were to find a wormhole (also exist only on paper), they could transport you in time as well.",
"Kind of hard to explain like you're five but I'll try: Go almost the speed of light=time travel. The laws of physics don't allow anything to travel faster or as fast as light so it slows down time for the object moving at that speed. Another way would be to orbit an extremely large object with huge gravity (Like a Black Hole) that would also cause the same effect. It is impossible to travel to the past, the laws of physics do not allow it. The only way would be to enlarge a wormhole, which is impossible. Source: [Into the Universe with Stephen Hawkin]( URL_0 )",
"Of course! We keep traveling forward all the time! It's going back that's the tricky part.",
"Go forward: yes. Go back: no. Look forward: no. Look back yes.",
"Let's say that a person truly figures out how to time travel. They get the science right and all that jazz. But there is still a huge problem regarding location. If a person goes back in time, theoretically they will go back to the same location at that point in the past. The earth wont be there anymore. The earth is in CONSTANT motion on its axis. It is constantly orbiting the sun, which is constantly moving about in the Milky Way galaxy, which is moving within the universe. If a person were to figure out time travel, they would also have to precisely move themselves to where the earth was or will be in the universe at that specific time, or risk popping up in the vacuum of space."
] | [
[
"on how fast any material objects can travel in space, intergalactic travel would either have to involve voyages lasting millions of years, or a possible faster than light propulsion method based on speculative physics, such as the Alcubierre drive. There are, however, no scientific reasons for stating that intergalactic travel is impossible in principle.\nUploaded human minds or AI may be transmitted to other galaxies in the hope some intelligence there would receive and activate them. Economics Space colonization can roughly be said to be possible when the necessary methods of space colonization become cheap enough (such as space access by",
"-27.077741313933075"
],
[
"The Time Traders Premise In her Time Trader novels Norton tacitly assumes that the physics of time travel differs so significantly from the physics of space travel, especially hyperdrive-propelled interstellar flight, that a civilization that discovers the technology of one simply will not discover the technology of the other. Earth’s physicists have discovered the secret of time travel, but the engineers and scientists who built and use the time transporters have devised a clever way to obtain the secrets of space travel: if it is not possible to discover the secrets, we get them from someone who did. Plot",
"-27.024424111841654"
],
[
"could have been used as a means of instantaneous travel, but that would have involved the traveller being in two places at the same time, at least for a split second; fearing a time paradox, such use of the device was strictly forbidden.\nMoreover, it was quickly realised that time-travel can become in effect a weapon of mass destruction, of which careless or ruthless use might undo the whole of present reality – and in particular, that it might provide the two great powers, locked in a long-lasting cold war, with a means of utterly destroying each other (similar to nuclear",
"-26.939598508397467"
],
[
"possibility of time travel and the people who dream about it. It screened at the Montreal World Film Festival; a feature film expansion is in development talks. Kaku also appeared in the ABC documentary UFOs: Seeing Is Believing, in which he suggested that while he believes it is extremely unlikely that extraterrestrials have ever actually visited Earth, we must keep our minds open to the possible existence of civilizations a million years ahead of us in technology, where entirely new avenues of physics open up. He also discussed the future of interstellar exploration and alien life in the Discovery Channel",
"-26.52485231015453"
],
[
"could travel to the center of the Milky Way (30,000 light years from Earth) and back in 40 years ship-time. But the speed according to Earth clocks will always be less than 1 light year per Earth year, so, when back home, the astronaut will find that more than 60 thousand years will have passed on Earth. Constant acceleration Regardless of how it is achieved, a propulsion system that could produce acceleration continuously from departure to arrival would be the fastest method of travel. A constant acceleration journey is one where the propulsion system accelerates the ship at a constant",
"-26.395677496957433"
],
[
"Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality, co-written with author Bruce Henderson, that was first published in 2006. In June 2008, motion picture director Spike Lee's production company announced it had acquired the film rights to Mallett's book. Lee is co-writing the movie script and directing the picture.\nIn 2006, Mallett declared that time travel into the past would be possible in the 21st century and possibly within a decade. Mallett uses general relativity to attempt to substantiate his claims. Criticism In a paper by Ken Olum and Allen Everett the authors claimed to have found problems with",
"-25.917528233549092"
],
[
"researching interstellar travel since its formation, translating important foreign language papers and conducting early studies on applying fusion propulsion, in the 1960s, and laser propulsion, in the 1970s, to interstellar travel.\nThe NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program (terminated in FY 2003 after a 6-year, $1.2-million study, because \"No breakthroughs appear imminent.\") identified some breakthroughs that are needed for interstellar travel to be possible.\nGeoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glenn Research Center states that a laser-powered interstellar sail ship could possibly be launched within 50 years, using new methods of space travel. \"I think that ultimately we're going to do it, it's just a",
"-25.542310675256886"
],
[
"like radical life extension or traveling with a generation ship. If traveling at a speed closer to the speed of light, time dilation would allow intergalactic travel in a timespan of decades of on-ship time.\nAdditional constraints include the variety of unknowns regarding the durability of a spaceship for such complex travel. Fluctuating temperatures as in the warm-hot intergalactic medium could potentially disintegrate future spacecraft if not properly shielded.\nThese challenges also mean a return trip would be very difficult. Therefore, all future studies on the risks and feasibility of intergalactic travel would have to include a wide range of simulations to",
"-25.415509139216738"
],
[
"the possibility of time travel using Lost's rules. Michio Kaku claimed that \"the show's producers did their homework\". According to Kaku, \"there's no law of physics preventing this kind of time travel—just a lack of know-how … [but] it would take a very advanced civilization to really do this\". Cuse stated that \"we [the writers] try to use enough science to give a sense of credibility\". \"The Constant\" was the first episode set on the Kahana, but the writers decided to avoid using the new setting just to give new information—Lindelof has declared that \"you would have mindless exposition",
"-25.375520423593116"
],
[
"and time travel. Unfortunately the immortality treatment can only be used on young children; and time travel is difficult, expensive, and only possible when going into the past and returning to your own time. History cannot be changed.\nDr. Zeus uses the technology simply to get rich. By travelling far into prehistory, the company creates its own immortal cyborg agents, who then have the mission of preserving cultural artifacts and other valuable items for sale in the 24th century. Usually these items are hidden in safe places, but in the case of extinct species, for instance, they",
"-25.256724808205036"
],
[
"Intergalactic travel Difficulties Due to the distances involved, any serious attempt to travel between galaxies would require methods of propulsion far beyond what is currently thought possible in order to bring a large craft close to the speed of light.\nAccording to the current understanding of physics, an object within space-time cannot exceed the speed of light, which means an attempt to travel to any other galaxy would be a journey of millions of earth years via conventional flight.\nManned travel at a speed not close to the speed of light, would require either that we overcome our own mortality with technologies",
"-25.148712502275885"
],
[
"slightly longer than it would to cross the same distance at the speed of light, but ship-time is just a few hours for those on board. It cannot apparently be used for trips within a solar system. Trips can begin or end close to a planet, but if used without a \"retemporalizer\", there are drastic physical effects at the end of long trips, at least according to the Shing, whose information may be suspect. It is also lethal if the traveler is pregnant.\nCity of Illusions mentions automatic death-machines that work on the same principle as the ansible",
"-24.900231419553165"
],
[
"star Another proposal is to artificially propel a star in the direction of another galaxy. Time dilation While it takes light approximately 2.54 million years to traverse the gulf of space between Earth and, for instance, the Andromeda Galaxy, it would take a much shorter amount of time from the point of view of a traveler at close to the speed of light due to the effects of time dilation; the time experienced by the traveler depending both on velocity (anything less than the speed of light) and distance traveled (length contraction). Intergalactic travel for humans is therefore possible, in",
"-24.549784198665293"
],
[
"would repeatedly return to the same point in spacetime if it stays in free fall. Returning to the original spacetime location would be only one possibility; the object's future light cone would include spacetime points both forwards and backwards in time, and so it should be possible for the object to engage in time travel under these conditions. Consequences One feature of a CTC is that it opens the possibility of a worldline which is not connected to earlier times, and so the existence of events that cannot be traced to an earlier cause. Ordinarily, causality demands that each event",
"-24.471913893445162"
],
[
"1 over 74,000 years to reach this distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. Another possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to make use of time dilation, as this would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. However, attaining such high speeds would still require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion.",
"-24.300114948680857"
],
[
"faster-than-light travel, it appears that there are no major theoretical barriers to the construction of \"slow\" interstellar ships, even though the engineering required is considerably beyond our present capabilities. This idea underlies the concept of the Von Neumann probe and the Bracewell probe as a potential evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence.\nIt is possible, however, that present scientific knowledge cannot properly gauge the feasibility and costs of such interstellar colonization. Theoretical barriers may not yet be understood, and the resources needed may be so great as to make it unlikely that any civilization could afford to attempt it. Even if interstellar travel",
"-24.219748772331513"
],
[
"there are far more damaging implications of time travel. Time-travel researcher Serguei Krasnikov similarly finds no inherent fault in causal loops, but finds other problems with time travel in general relativity.",
"-24.190304489224218"
],
[
"It has been argued that an interstellar mission that cannot be completed within 50 years should not be started at all. Instead, assuming that a civilization is still on an increasing curve of propulsion system velocity and not yet having reached the limit, the resources should be invested in designing a better propulsion system. This is because a slow spacecraft would probably be passed by another mission sent later with more advanced propulsion (the incessant obsolescence postulate).\nOn the other hand, Andrew Kennedy has shown that if one calculates the journey time to a given destination as the rate of travel",
"-24.13031005540688"
],
[
"probe to the nearest star.\nAstrophysicist Sten Odenwald stated that the basic problem is that through intensive studies of thousands of detected exoplanets, most of the closest destinations within 50 light years do not yield Earth-like planets in the star's habitable zones. Given the multitrillion-dollar expense of some of the proposed technologies, travelers will have to spend up to 200 years traveling at 20% the speed of light to reach the best known destinations. Moreover, once the travelers arrive at their destination (by any means), they will not be able to travel down to the surface of the target world and",
"-24.050941250723554"
],
[
"a laser to try to warp spacetime by 1 part in 10 million with the aim of helping to make interstellar travel possible. Feasibility The energy requirements make interstellar travel very difficult. It has been reported that at the 2008 Joint Propulsion Conference, multiple experts opined that it was improbable that humans would ever explore beyond the Solar System. Brice N. Cassenti, an associate professor with the Department of Engineering and Science at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, stated that at least 100 times the total energy output of the entire world [in a given year] would be required to send a",
"-23.70053627868765"
],
[
"while it may take thousands of years to arrive at working space flight from scratch, it might be considerably quicker if you know it's possible from the start, and estimates the natives will have space travel in under 100 years, given the fact they have now electricity (from the power plant), and have working, if damaged, space ships to copy. It is realised that the only way to avoid conflict with the natives is either to make friends with them or to exterminate them totally.\nA program is set up to recruit nest Guardians from within the OAP human population on",
"-23.557673974020872"
],
[
"Magical Space-time Plot The story follows Han Ruofei (Jia Nailiang), who underwent plastic surgery and a change of name following an explosion of the yacht he was in. He managed to obtain a time-traveling polaroid which was a gift from his wife who was already dead. By taking a selfie, it allows him to travel back in time to the same place 10 years ago. However, the time-traveling machine has limitations too. He cannot travel as many times as he wants, the maximum time for each travel is 10 minutes, and he can only travel back to exactly the same",
"-23.532768017765193"
],
[
"to travel such great distances within an acceptable time, and then decelerate upon approaching the destination. This limitation is overcome however with the development of the Quantum Drive less than a hundred years before the Sun is set to become a nova. This scientific break-through allows the construction of a fleet of manned interstellar vehicles, including the Starship Magellan. The Magellan escapes the Earth three years before the Sun explodes, an event that is witnessed by the Magellan's crew.\nIn the intervening years the colony on Thalassa loses contact with Earth due to the destruction of its communication abilities by a",
"-23.504240516675054"
],
[
"If interstellar travel is possible, even the \"slow\" kind nearly within the reach of Earth technology, then it would only take from 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the galaxy. This is relatively brief on a geological scale, let alone a cosmological one. Since there are many stars older than the Sun, and since intelligent life might have evolved earlier elsewhere, the question then becomes why the galaxy has not been colonized already. Even if colonization is impractical or undesirable to all alien civilizations, large-scale exploration of the galaxy could be possible by probes. These might leave detectable artifacts",
"-23.488944396172883"
],
[
"is not completely committed on the subject of time travel to the past. The book does say that nothing known excludes such travel, but he doesn't completely rule out the possibility that future research may prove it impossible. Copernicus method and Doomsday theory Gott first thought of his \"Copernicus method\" of lifetime estimation in 1969 when stopping at the Berlin Wall and wondering how long it would stand. Gott postulated that the Copernican principle is applicable in cases where nothing is known; unless there was something special about his visit (which he didn't think there was) this gave a 75%",
"-23.358900044077018"
],
[
"time to an outside observer, and with vast amounts of energy required. However, some scientists hypothesize that faster-than-light interstellar space travel might be feasible. This has been explored by NASA scientists since at least 1995. Hypotheses on extraterrestrial sources of illnesses Hoyle and Wickramasinghe have speculated that several outbreaks of illnesses on Earth are of extraterrestrial origins, including the 1918 flu pandemic, and certain outbreaks of polio and mad cow disease. For the 1918 flu pandemic they hypothesized that cometary dust brought the virus to Earth simultaneously at multiple locations—a view almost universally dismissed by experts on this",
"-23.24726147869478"
],
[
"like he and many before them, they have been caught in a space/time continuum where people from the past, present, future and from other worlds are trapped, co-existing on the island in a series of \"Time Zones\". The only way home can be found in a place called \"Evoland\", which lies \"far to the rising sun\". (It was indicated in interviews of the time that Evoland was also the name of the island.) The only way to travel between Time Zones is via invisible gateways that instantaneously transport individuals or groups from one zone to another. In one",
"-23.164074051077478"
],
[
"theory, from the point of view of the traveller.\nAccelerating to speeds closer to the speed of light with a relativistic rocket would allow the on-ship travel time to be drastically lower, but would require very large amounts of energy. A way to do this is space travel using constant acceleration. Traveling to the Andromeda Galaxy, 2 million light years away, would take 28 years on-ship time with a constant acceleration of 1g and a deceleration of 1g after reaching half way, to be able to stop.\nGoing to the Andromeda Galaxy at this acceleration would require 4 100 000 kg fuel per",
"-23.06760558838141"
],
[
"argument, within the framework of general relativity and without the introduction of wormholes, that it is possible to modify a spacetime in a way that allows a spaceship to travel with an arbitrarily large speed by a local expansion of spacetime behind the spaceship and an opposite contraction in front of it. Nevertheless, this concept would require the spaceship to incorporate a region of exotic matter, or hypothetical concept of negative mass. Artificial black hole A theoretical idea for enabling interstellar travel is by propelling a starship by creating an artificial black hole and using a parabolic reflector to reflect",
"-23.01624051523686"
],
[
"travelling at 64,000 km/h (40,000 mph), is the most distant man-made object from Earth and the first one to leave the Solar System. Its mission has been extended and continues to this day, with the aim of investigating the boundaries of the Solar System, including the Kuiper belt, the heliosphere and interstellar space. Operating for 42 years and 18 days as of today (23 September 2019), it receives routine commands and transmits data back to the Deep Space Network.\nVoyager 1 was expected to work only through the Saturn encounter. When the spacecraft passed the planet in 1980, Sagan proposed the idea of the",
"-22.916861397679895"
],
[
"due to miscalculations by Paul Serene, a time travel experiment goes wrong. Doused in chronon radiation, the material that makes time travel possible, Jack Joyce and Paul Serene are granted time-based abilities; for example, both can freeze time and move at higher speeds, whilst a higher dose of chronons means Serene can see into the future to decide which choices to make in the present. Additionally, the collapse of the machine damages the structure of time, causing a \"fracture\" that sporadically freezes the passage of time for all without time-travel abilities or the correct equipment. Joyce and his ally, Beth",
"-22.856293917255243"
],
[
"acceptable cost. Time dilation Physicists generally believe faster-than-light travel is impossible. \nRelativistic time dilation allows a traveler to experience time more slowly, the closer their speed is to the speed of light. This apparent slowing becomes noticeable when velocities above 80% of the speed of light are attained. Clocks aboard an interstellar ship would run slower than Earth clocks, so if a ship's engines were capable of continuously generating around 1 g of acceleration (which is comfortable for humans), the ship could reach almost anywhere in the galaxy and return to Earth within 40 years ship-time (see diagram). Upon return,",
"-22.849117881502025"
],
[
"time, navigation using Armstrong drives is sufficiently imprecise that ships must for safety reasons emerge from Armstrong space well away from stars and planets and travel substantial distances (and times) using magnetic drives. In addition, and partly as a result, travel through Armstrong space is time-consuming – as described in the novel, a voyage of 3,000 light years takes about seven months, of which about five months time is spent in Armstrong space. It is important to the story that some individuals, like Alex Benedict and most Ashiyyur, react physically badly to the transitions into and out of Armstrong space.\nAs",
"-22.833878297351475"
],
[
"So far the only benefits of this type have been \"spin-off\" technologies which were developed for space missions and then were found to be at least as useful in other activities (NASA publicizes spin-offs from its activities).\nOther practical motivations for interplanetary travel are more speculative, because our current technologies are not yet advanced enough to support test projects. But science fiction writers have a fairly good track record in predicting future technologies — for example geosynchronous communications satellites (Arthur C. Clarke) and many aspects of computer technology (Mack Reynolds).\nMany science fiction stories feature detailed descriptions of how people could extract",
"-22.806627342797583"
],
[
"would arrive at the planet's orbit and continue past it. However, if there is a planet between the departure point and the target, it can be used to bend the path toward the target, and in many cases the overall travel time is greatly reduced. A prime example of this are the two crafts of the Voyager program, which used slingshot effects to change trajectories several times in the outer Solar System. It is difficult to use this method for journeys in the inner part of the Solar System, although it is possible to use other nearby planets such as",
"-22.77591375686825"
],
[
"by his first documentary Obsessed and Scientific, as well as his upcoming documentary How to Build a Time Machine. Both aim to discuss the possibility of time traveling, and introduce fact while blending together elements and examples of fictitious time travel.",
"-22.721105767705012"
],
[
"search for extraterrestrial intelligence agrees that the technology of any civilization we detect will be thousands or even millions of years beyond ours. In his 1986 and 1987 SETI papers, Tough had discussed the likelihood that such a civilization can (one way or another) reach or study our solar system. In November 1994 he began to focus more intensively on such a possibility. One year later, at the Boston Museum of Science, he devoted his Wright Lecture on Cosmic Evolution to this topic, specifically to the feasibility of a small smart interstellar probe reaching our planet. During 1996, at SETI",
"-22.60409207579505"
],
[
"a parallel universe or fantasy world is known as isekai. Types The accidental time travel trope is known as time slip. A classical example of time slip is Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (19th century), which had considerable influence on later writers. \nOther kinds of accidental travel include space travel (e.g., through accidental wormholes, portals (portal fantasy) or other spatial irregularities, or a catastrophic spatial event), travel to an alternative universe, an RPG universe (litRPG), or into an alternative history. An early example of catastrophic space travel is Hector Servadac (1877) by Jules Verne, where",
"-22.54780962667428"
],
[
"was discovered in 2016. This means it would take more than 18,100 years to get there if a vessel could consistently travel as fast as the Juno spacecraft (250,000 kilometers per hour or 150,000 miles per hour). In other words, it is currently not feasible to send humans or even probes to search for biosignatures outside of our solar system. Given this fact, the only way to search for biosignatures outside of our solar system is by observing exoplanets with telescopes.\nTo date, there have been no plausible or confirmed biosignature detections outside of our solar system. Despite this, it is",
"-22.513164592179237"
],
[
"Clark, rather than urging immediate human time travel as he does in the TV series, demands that Project Tic-Toc refrain from going forward with it. He does this in the interests of humanity, which, in his view, would be adversely affected by a person from the future intruding into the past: ancestors of persons now living could be killed by a time traveler resulting in their descendants now living ceasing to exist or inventions and developments of the past being changed resulting in the wiping out of what exists in the present day.\nTony and Doug's relocation to Johnstown, Pennsylvania just",
"-22.50351413198223"
],
[
"there would be a difference between the time elapsed on the astronaut's ship and the time elapsed on Earth.\nFor example, a spaceship could travel to a star 32 light-years away, initially accelerating at a constant 1.03g (i.e. 10.1 m/s²) for 1.32 years (ship time), then stopping its engines and coasting for the next 17.3 years (ship time) at a constant speed, then decelerating again for 1.32 ship-years, and coming to a stop at the destination. After a short visit, the astronaut could return to Earth the same way. After the full round-trip, the clocks on board the ship show that 40",
"-22.485784949589288"
],
[
"has its advantages and disadvantages. It enables the protagonists of the stories to travel \"across mountains, grasslands, oceans, deserts, and forests\" without the use of any magical means for moving from world to world (such as those in C. S. Lewis's The Magician's Nephew (1955), which would be outside the domain of a science fiction story) or inexplicable \"hypertechnology.\" Rather, they travel under their own power from hex to hex. (With many hexes, it is possible to travel from one border to another in a matter of days, or sometimes weeks.) Since each hex not only",
"-22.31401616592484"
],
[
"members of group green arrive in the Pliocene. The Pliocene Gateway While the discovery of time travel is a great scientific achievement, its practical application is limited. After the initial discovery, it is soon found that due to its very specific geographic and other requirements, the time gate only works in one location and one point in time in the past. The device can be used to transport people, animals, and objects back in time to the Pliocene era intact, but any attempt to travel forward in time from the Pliocene by the same method ages the traveler or object",
"-22.201948912028456"
],
[
"author in his own right, gave his advice regarding how time travel might be possible. In addition, the opening episodes of the first two serials - \"The Wrong End of Time\" and \"The Time of the Ice Box\" - were introduced by Peter Fairley, who was science correspondent for ITN.\nThe plot of the first serial, \"The Wrong End of Time\", was inspired by an – initially apocryphal (but according to some accounts confirmed after remaining a State Secret for more than 70 years) – story of a German Expeditionary Force that landed in Britain to carry out a raid on",
"-22.15307911526179"
],
[
"time for a piece of information to travel half the globe along the surface is about 67 milliseconds. When light is travelling around the globe in an optical fibre, the actual transit time is longer, in part because the speed of light is slower by about 35% in an optical fibre, depending on its refractive index n. Furthermore, straight lines rarely occur in global communications situations, and delays are created when the signal passes through an electronic switch or signal regenerator. Spaceflights and astronomy Similarly, communications between the Earth and spacecraft are not instantaneous. There is a brief delay from",
"-22.149636528934934"
],
[
"by the Japanese IKAROS solar sail spacecraft.\nNo spacecraft capable of short duration (compared to human lifetime) interstellar travel has yet been built, but many hypothetical designs have been discussed. Because interstellar distances are very great, a tremendous velocity is needed to get a spacecraft to its destination in a reasonable amount of time. Acquiring such a velocity on launch and getting rid of it on arrival remains a formidable challenge for spacecraft designers. Effectiveness When in space, the purpose of a propulsion system is to change the velocity, or v, of a spacecraft. Because this is more difficult for",
"-22.14500528269855"
],
[
"astrophysicists Iosif Shklovsky [Shklovskii] and Carl Sagan devote a chapter to the argument that scientists and historians should seriously consider the possibility that extraterrestrial contact occurred during recorded history; however, Shklovskii and Sagan stressed that these ideas were speculative and unproven. Shklovskii and Sagan argued that sub-lightspeed interstellar travel by extraterrestrial life was a certainty when considering technologies that were established or feasible in the late 1960s; that repeated instances of extraterrestrial visitation to Earth were plausible; and that pre-scientific narratives can offer a potentially reliable means of describing contact with aliens.\nSagan illustrates this hypothesis by citing the 1786 expedition",
"-22.12515795516083"
],
[
"removing these connections are installed. Autonomy Rovers which land on celestial bodies far from the Earth, such as the Mars Exploration Rovers, cannot be remotely controlled in real-time since the speed at which radio signals travel is far too slow for real time or near-real time communication. For example, sending a signal from Mars to Earth takes between 3 and 21 minutes. These rovers are thus capable of operating autonomously with little assistance from ground control as far as navigation and data acquisition are concerned, although they still require human input for identifying promising targets in the distance to which",
"-22.092025870166253"
],
[
"technology that can help them travel back in time.\nArriving in the year 2500, the men visit a futuristic village. They are confronted by a militia that murders Sam and chases Martin back to the time machine. Martin travels to the year 3000, where he meets a tavern keeper named Belgotai, who confirms he must travel forward to a more advanced civilization to find the technology he needs. In exchange for this information, Martin agrees to take Belgotai with him in the time machine.\nThe men make several stops in various centuries trying to find a backwards time machine. The time machine,",
"-22.055328244168777"
],
[
"methods from space (such as the Kepler and TESS missions) are starting to detect and characterize Earth-size planets, and determine if they are within the habitable zones of their stars. Such observational refinements may allow us to better gauge how common potentially habitable worlds are. Conjectures about interstellar probes Self-replicating probes could exhaustively explore a galaxy the size of the Milky Way in as little as a million years. If even a single civilization in the Milky Way attempted this, such probes could spread throughout the entire galaxy. Another speculation for contact with an alien probe—one that would be trying",
"-21.922939258351107"
],
[
"has been visited by a probe other than Voyager 2.\nOn 25 August 2012, data from Voyager 1 indicated that it had become the first human-made object to enter interstellar space, traveling \"further than anyone, or anything, in history\". As of 2013, Voyager 1 was moving with a velocity of 17 kilometers per second (11 mi/s) relative to the Sun.\nOn 5 November 2018, data from Voyager 2 indicated that it also had entered interstellar space.\nData and photographs collected by the Voyagers' cameras, magnetometers and other instruments, revealed unknown details about each of the four giant planets and their moons. Close-up images from",
"-21.875917359626328"
],
[
"Interstellar communication Interstellar communication is the transmission of signals between planetary systems. Sending interstellar messages is potentially much easier than interstellar travel, being possible with technologies and equipment which are currently available. However, the distances from Earth to other potentially inhabited systems introduce prohibitive delays, assuming the limitations of the speed of light. Even an immediate reply to radio communications sent to stars tens of thousands of light-years away would take many human generations to arrive. Radio The SETI project has for the past several decades been conducting a search for signals being transmitted by extraterrestrial life located outside the",
"-21.858198905189056"
],
[
"much sway over the public.\nTechnological advancements include the discovery of N-waves, which are used to travel faster than the speed of light, advanced and sentient AI, and weaponized lasers.\nInterstellar travel is not in its infancy, but travel is only available to the more well off. The UNNS is the only body authorized to move cargo and passengers to the colonies. Because this artificial monopoly hurts colonial business, tensions are beginning to rise on the more stable worlds that are not dependent on Earth to survive. The Navy The UN Navy is the premier military body, held in higher regard than",
"-21.832477415387984"
],
[
"which is space-time travel.",
"-21.774479878833517"
],
[
"the form of Bussard ramjets to help colonize the nearest planetary systems. In the non-Known Space novel A World Out of Time, Jerome Branch Corbell (for himself), 'takes' a ramjet to the Galactic Center and back in 150 years ships time (most of it in cold sleep), but 3 million years passes on Earth.\nIn \"The Sparrow\", by Mary Doria Russell, interstellar travel is achieved by converting a small asteroid into a constant acceleration spacecraft. Force is applied by ion engines fed with material mined from the asteroid itself.\nIn the Revelation Space series by Alastair Reynolds, interstellar commerce depends upon \"lighthugger\"",
"-21.759380599825818"
],
[
"Journey to the Center of Time Plot Stanton (Scott Brady) has taken charge of a research company following the death of his father. He warns scientists Mark Manning (Anthony Eisley), \"Doc\" Gordon (Abraham Sofaer), and Karen White (Gigi Perreau) that unless they prove that their time travel experiments can produce some results, their funding will be cut off.\nDesperate, they push their equipment past the level of safety and travel 5000 years into the future. There, they encounter aliens led by Vina (Poupée Gamin) who are looking for a planet to colonize. The aliens find no welcome on Earth, which is",
"-21.757074542256305"
],
[
"The Journeyman Project (series) Plot The central story is set centuries in the future, where after horrific nuclear wars humanity united to create a peaceful global society. Due to the establishment of a utopian society, humanity has been invited to join an alien organization known as the Symbiotry of Peaceful Beings.\nIn the twenty-fourth century, time travel is realized by the Journeyman Project, the secret program to construct Pegasus, the world's first time machine. After a brief test period proves time travel is possible, the Journeyman Project is deactivated and the Pegasus device is put under the secret watch of the",
"-21.755658593334374"
],
[
"Timequest Plot In the year 2090 AD, the use of time machines (called interkrons) is regulated by officers of the Temporal Corps. There is a strict prohibition against travel into the past, because of its potentially disastrous effects on the timestream and the catastrophic consequences for current civilization.\nZeke S. Vettenmyer, a Lieutenant in the Temporal Corps, has stolen an interkron, traveled back into the past, and subtly altered historical situations so that the outcomes of these events will be changed. The world as we know it will be destroyed as the effects of these changes ripple forward towards",
"-21.75045351461449"
],
[
"and travel to the beginning of the universe. However, this goal is not due to be completed for a million years.\nNebogipfel and the Time Traveller acquire enough Plattnerite from the Constructors to journey to the point in the future (i.e., another million years hence) when the Constructors will have finished building their time ships. Once the Time Traveller and Nebogipfel reach this point, the Constructors integrate them into a time ship and thus begins the journey back to time's beginning. At this central point from where all matter and energy and timelines branch off, the Constructors apparently start a new",
"-21.718810183840105"
],
[
"could be important for interstellar travel because it means that deceleration at the destination can be performed with a magnetic parachute rather than a rocket.",
"-21.677624975283834"
],
[
"a fellow of the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (\"NIAC\"), where he worked on a project investigating the use of laser- and particle-beam pushed sails for propulsion for interstellar flight. In 2002 Landis addressed the annual convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Science on the possibilities and challenges of interstellar travel in what was described as the \"first serious discussion of how mankind will one day set sail to the nearest star\". Dr. Landis said, \"This is the first meeting to really consider interstellar travel by humans. It is historic. We're going to the stars. There really",
"-21.61764251990826"
],
[
"space travel monopolized by a Brazilian-dominated agency called the Viagens Interplanetarias (\"Interplanetary Tours\" in Portuguese). Interstellar travel is common between the Solar System and nearby stellar systems, though limited to sub-light speeds, as the author eschews such common science fiction gimmicks as hyperdrives. Most reachable systems have life-bearing planets inhabited by alien races; an Interplanetary Council regulates relations between the various civilizations. Terrans and the reptilian natives of the planet Osiris are the main spacefaring peoples.\nIn this early Viagens story, Earth is portrayed as already under the leadership of Brazilians in the wake of the exhaustion of the twentieth century's",
"-21.559253859421005"
],
[
"advance further into the future in a short period of their own time. For sufficiently high speeds, the effect is dramatic. For example, one year of travel might correspond to ten years on Earth. Indeed, a constant 1 g acceleration would permit humans to travel through the entire known Universe in one human lifetime.\nWith current technology severely limiting the velocity of space travel, however, the differences experienced in practice are minuscule: after 6 months on the International Space Station (ISS) (which orbits Earth at a speed of about 7,700 m/s) an astronaut would have aged about 0.005 seconds less than those on",
"-21.521718436444644"
],
[
"Murdoch and Lee talk about the implications of the machine's existence and how the space-time continuum could allow for time travel without introducing a paradox. They formulate theories similar to the many-worlds interpretation, finally deciding that none of the theories they discuss fit their previous observations.\nThe next day, Ted Cartland, a friend of Charles and a former Royal Air Force officer, arrives to examine the machine he had helped build. They repeat the experiment, and Ted is bewildered as well. Ted, however, has a trick up his sleeve. He writes a computer program to do what Murdoch had done the",
"-21.477427544275997"
],
[
"to Eligius IV in orbit where it is determined that it will take at least ten years before the Earth is habitable again. Along with everyone else, Clarke enters cryo sleep, only to emerge with Bellamy 125 years later, greeted by Jordan, the son of Monty and Harper. From Monty's video logs, Clarke and Bellamy learn of their friend's life on the ship and how Earth ultimately remained completely uninhabitable leading Monty to direct the ship to a new habitable world. Looking out over their new home world, Clarke expresses hope that they will get it right this time.\nIn the",
"-21.426526191702578"
],
[
"constructs over vast distances and rebuild on a remote machine, then it might not make a strong economic sense to travel the galaxy by spaceflight. After the first civilization have physically explored or colonized the galaxy, as well as sent such machines for easy explorations, then the subsequent civilizations, after having contacted the first, may find it cheaper, faster, and easier to explore the galaxy through intelligent construct transfers to the machines built by the first civilization, which is cheaper than spaceflight by a factor of 10⁸-10¹⁷. However, since a star system needs only one such remote machine, and the",
"-21.423388220355264"
],
[
"and Ixchel have travelled back in time, but it might not be so easy to get home again. They have landed in the Mayan era, when the prophecy about the world ending in 2012 was first foretold. And they cannot believe who they have found there. Clearly Josh is not the only person to have cracked the secret of time travel. But a bigger surprise awaits the pair when they return to the 21st century. It seems that the Bracelet of Itzamna has created a parallel universe where only one revival chamber exists. Nothing is quite as they remember it",
"-21.386194659942703"
],
[
"emerging in Central Park to the amazement of passers-by.\nFrom this, Don Miguel realises that people of the changed timeline have no knowledge of time-travel, which would have given them a clear explanation for a man appearing out of thin air, and that he is the only person in this timeline who knows the secret of time travel. Reflecting upon this he concludes that timelines where time travels exists eventually collapse on themselves, when somebody changes the reality leading to the invention of time-travel itself. He decides to accept developments as God's will and to begin a new life as \"the",
"-21.332853136364065"
],
[
"often a relative term.” By this definition of \"impossible\", he poses the question \"Is it not plausible to think that we might someday build space ships that can travel distances of light years, or think that we might teleport ourselves from one place to the other?\" Types of impossibilities Each chapter is named by a possible, or improbable, technology of the future. After a look at the development of today's technology, there is discussion as to how this advanced technology might become a reality. Chapters become somewhat more general towards the end of the book. Some of our present day",
"-21.33162289583197"
],
[
"the star's proximity to Earth, Proxima Centauri has been proposed as a flyby destination for interstellar travel.\nProxima currently moves toward Earth at a rate of 22.2 km/s. After 26,700 years, when it will come within 3.11 light-years, it will begin to move farther away.\nIf non-nuclear, conventional propulsion technologies are used, the flight of a spacecraft to a planet orbiting Proxima Centauri would probably require thousands of years. For example, Voyager 1, which is now travelling 17 km/s (38,000 mph) relative to the Sun, would reach Proxima in 73,775 years, were the spacecraft travelling in the direction of that star. A slow-moving probe would have",
"-21.320181384624448"
],
[
"one-way trip to Mars in a presentation at the International Space Development Conference, arguing that the mission could be done with less difficulty and expense without a return to Earth. In 2006, former NASA engineer James C. McLane III proposed a scheme to initially colonize Mars via a one-way trip by only one human. Papers discussing this concept appeared in The Space Review, Harper's Magazine, SEARCH Magazine and The New York Times. NASA Design Reference Mission 5.0 (2007) NASA released initial details of the latest version conceptual level human Mars exploration architecture in this presentation. The study further developed concepts",
"-21.25449160960852"
],
[
"through interstellar space is possible with something referred to as rhodomagnetic waves.\nIn Ivan Yefremov's 1957 novel Andromeda Nebula, a device for instant transfer of information and matter is made real by using \"bipolar mathematics\" to explore use of anti-gravitational shadow vectors through a zero field and the antispace, which enables them to make contact with the planet of Epsilon Tucanae.\nIn Cordwainer Smith's Instrumentality novels and stories, interplanetary and interstellar communication is normally relayed from planet to planet, presumably at superluminal speed for each stage (at least between solar systems) but with a cumulative delay. For urgent communication there is the",
"-21.25235766125843"
],
[
"they eventually had so much material for it that they broke it out as a separate episode. The reason the concept was originally under consideration for the \"What if...\" scenario was that when Groening and Cohen originally created Futurama they decided there would not be any time travel; however they changed their mind and decided to go forward with the idea. The writers did not want to create a situation that would leave fans wondering why the Planet Express crew could not simply travel through time on a regular basis. For this purpose they chose to have it occur unintentionally",
"-21.2499977175612"
],
[
"Philip K. Dick:\nIn this story I felt a vast weariness over the space program, which had thrilled us so at the start — especially the first lunar landing — and then had been forgotten and virtually shutdown, a relic of history. I wondered, if time-travel became a \"program\" would it suffer the same fate? Or was there an even worse possibility latent in it, within the very nature of the paradoxes of time-travel?\"",
"-21.22649644318153"
],
[
"Amos Ori Amos Ori (Hebrew: עמוס אורי, b.1956) is a professor of Physics at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa, Israel. He received media attention in 2005 when he proposed, in a letter to Physical Review Letters, what he claimed was a more \"realistic\" model for time travel.",
"-21.219621641394042"
],
[
"any technology in its current form or wait. This problem is widespread, and the story remains a common example raised during these discussions. Gregory Matloff recalls Robert Forward invoking it:\nHe had a famous plot of the velocity of human beings versus time. And he said if this is true, and you launch a thousand-year ship today, in a century somebody could fly the same mission in a hundred years. They're going to be passed and will probably have to go through customs when they get to Alpha Centauri A-2.\nThe basic plotline has been used as the basis for many other",
"-21.1642028435017"
],
[
"and sending precious minutes of warning before waves of dangerous particles arrive at inhabited regions of space.\nNobody knows what the long-term human future in space will be. Perhaps after gaining experience with routine spaceflight by exploring different worlds in the Solar System and deflecting a few asteroids, the possibility of constructing non-modular space habitats and infrastructure will be within capability. Such possibilities include mass drivers on the Moon, which launch payloads into space using only electricity, and spinning space colonies with closed ecological systems. A Mars in the early stages of terraformation, where inhabitants only need simple",
"-21.13639447154128"
],
[
"is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In practice, the use of the term is confined to travel between the planets of our Solar System. Interstellar ‘’New Horizons’’ is the fifth spacecraft put on an escape trajectory leaving the Solar System. Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 are the earlier ones. The one farthest from the Sun is Voyager 1, which is more than 100 AU distant and is moving at 3.6 AU per year. In comparison, Proxima Centauri, the closest star other than the Sun, is 267,000 AU distant. It will take Voyager",
"-21.090281780678197"
],
[
"Space-A travel Space-A travel is a means by which members of United States Uniformed Services (United States Military, reservists and retirees, United States Department of Defense civilian personnel under certain circumstances), and these groups' family members, are permitted to travel on aircraft under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of Defense when excess capability allows. Background Space available travel is a privilege that derives, in part, from United States Code, title 10, section 4744, which states, \"officers and members of the Military Departments, and their families, when space is available, may be transported on vessels operated by any military",
"-21.07584224364109"
],
[
"of the timeline and the other becomes the absolute outcome. Story Hundreds of years in the future, humans have begun colonizing other worlds, however they have been reliant on conventional propulsion systems that may take hundreds of years to reach their destination. This all changed when alien ruins were discovered in the Remnant system. Technology present in the ruins led to the development of instantaneous teleportation. Within a few decades, all colonies were linked by a network of gates, and new colonies could be constructed in significantly less time. However, humans never came across another intelligent race, until communications with",
"-20.99371067689208"
],
[
"could simply use the Web to invite contact.\nThe logic of this idea is simple. As Tough read and thought about the long-term future of human civilization and technology, he realized that a highly advanced civilization or intelligence would likely be able to study our civilization in detail. Humans will likely achieve a similar capability within 200 years, and NASA is already trying to design an interstellar probe; such feats should be easy for an intelligence and technology thousands of years older than we are. Tough realized that a highly advanced intelligence could learn our languages and learn about our civilization",
"-20.987934391203453"
],
[
"and they are able to travel in time and across universes without difficulty because of their advanced technology. In \"The End of All Things\", it is revealed that the group of Observers seen in the first four seasons are a team of scientists from the far future, or at least from one of humanity's many possible futures. This group of Observers traveled to their past to observe the events that led to their creation.\nThe group of Observers seen in the show during the first four seasons had designated code names, with each individual referred to as a month of the",
"-20.985929165006382"
],
[
"may be common, they would not communicate with us, could not travel across interstellar distances, or destroy themselves before they master the technology of either interstellar travel or communication..\nScience writer Timothy Ferris has posited that since galactic societies are most likely only transitory, an obvious solution is an interstellar communications network, or a type of library consisting mostly of automated systems. They would store the cumulative knowledge of vanished civilizations and communicate that knowledge through the galaxy. Ferris calls this the \"Interstellar Internet\", with the various automated systems acting as network \"servers\". If such an Interstellar Internet exists, the hypothesis",
"-20.95049132051645"
],
[
"own actions, particularly in Mike's case, may have changed the future so that there is no time travel, and that possibly it will involve Germany winning the war.\nKnowing something has gone wrong which prevents them from returning to 2060 Oxford, the three time travelers attempt to determine an escape plan, but none of their efforts are successful. A fellow student, Gerald Phipps, who was supposed to be at Bletchley Park studying Ultra, never came through to his assignment. They realize that another Oxford historian, John Bartholomew, is also in their place and time, but understand this only less than",
"-20.905764378461754"
],
[
"of 100,000 or more people. Thrust concepts Another concern is selection of power sources and mechanisms which would remain viable for the long time spans involved in interstellar travel through the desert of space. The longest lived space probes are the Voyager program probes, which use radioisotope thermoelectric generators having a useful lifespan of a mere 50 years.\nOne propulsion method for a crewed spacecraft could be a fusion microexplosion nuclear pulse propulsion system, like that proposed in Project Daedalus that may allow it to obtain an interstellar cruising velocity of up to 10% of the speed of light. However, if",
"-20.884242815111065"
],
[
"the logic of time travel in the episode: \"Star Trek's 'Time's Arrow' is both cognizant and respectful of … physical theory, offering a time travel loop in which causal order is not upset, or, in other words, in which no strictly logical paradoxes ensue.\"",
"-20.862551199395057"
],
[
"several means, including moving faster than the speed of light. The Legion of Super-Heroes from 1,000 years into the future in particular have access to time-travel technology (although the threeboot Legion lacks time travel technology) while Rip Hunter is the present day authority of the technology. Originally, it was impossible to change the past, or to exist in two places at the same time (a time traveler appearing in an era where they already existed would become an ineffectual, invisible phantom while there). However that was all changed after the Anti-Monitor tried to change history at the beginning of time",
"-20.86148732615402"
],
[
"'Time-Space Transmission' technology recently discovered by Arcadian scientists; wanting to use it to travel back in time and conquer Zi. Most of the game is spent travelling back and forward in time to stop the Emperor's henchmen from altering history.\nThe party (Atory and his three bodyguards to begin with) travel in time on several occasions in pursuit of the Emperor's four henchmen, appearing at three points during the Zoids: Chaotic Century series, twice during Zoids: Guardian Force, once during Zoids: New Century Zero, and once during the era of the Silver Liger Zero Game Boy game. Zoids Saga II In",
"-20.817606090800837"
],
[
"addition, there is an enormous amount of habitable real estate revealed by discoveries of extrasolar planets, but the difficulty of traveling beyond the Solar System will keep this beyond reach for a long time. More ambitious approaches include terraforming, where an entire planet or moon is altered to allow human habitation.\nThe final section of the book turns to the far future, where we might one day leave the planet and the Solar System. This will require ambitious new propulsion systems, capable of accelerating a payload to a few percent of the speed of light. The potential of exploration by sentient",
"-20.801871774667234"
],
[
"sustained dialogue that would be impossible using radio from hundreds or thousands of light-years away. Radio would be completely unsuitable for surveillance and continued monitoring of a civilization, and should an extraterrestrial civilization wish to perform these activities on humanity, artifacts may be the only option other than to send large, crewed spacecraft to the Solar System.\nAlthough faster-than-light travel has been seriously considered by physicists such as Miguel Alcubierre, Tough speculates that the enormous amount of energy required to achieve such speeds under currently proposed mechanisms means that robotic probes traveling at conventional speeds will still have an advantage for",
"-20.75358004658483"
],
[
"travel can never be.\"",
"-20.69023078121245"
],
[
"First Contact (novelette) Plot Space travel is routine between planets in the Solar System. Ships function very much like naval warships or research vessels. There are technologies such as \"overdrive\" which allows a ship to travel much faster than light in normal space, and apparently artificial gravity within a ship. Atomic power is used everywhere, even in a space suit propulsion unit. Ships are equipped with \"blasters\", not necessarily for use as weapons, but for destroying space debris which would otherwise collide with the ship.\nThe exploration ship Llanvabon is approaching the Crab Nebula when it suddenly detects another ship on",
"-20.613416869171488"
],
[
"capital is called New Geneva.\nThough having developed interstellar travel, spaceships can still only travel at the speed of light, and no faster, so it takes thirty-four years for even the fastest of ships to reach Deucalion. Passengers on board ships have to be cryogenically preserved.",
"-20.579423914481595"
],
[
"arriving on time or earlier than a given travel time budget. Others, alternatively, have put forward the concept of an α-reliable path based on which they intended to minimize the travel time budget required to ensure a pre-specified on-time arrival probability.",
"-20.568438210349996"
],
[
"detailed by the photons that had originated from Earth.\nSince Gott believes that time travel is not cosmologically excluded, he has presented the possibility that the universe was created out of itself (at a later time). This controversial suggestion was published with Li-Xin Lin, and it was described by Gott as \"it would be like having one branch of a tree circle around and grow up to be the trunk. In that way, the universe could be its own mother.\"\nIn his own book, Time Travel in Einstein's Universe: The Physical Possibilities of Travel Through Time, Gott argues that travel to the",
"-20.558176239210297"
],
[
"After an initial period of confusion, the four travellers find they have been transported forward in time to just before the end of the universe. They are in Milliways, the Restaurant at the End of the Universe, which was built on the ruins of Magrathea. So, as Arthur says, they have travelled through time but not through space. Waiting for them is Marvin the depressed robot, whom they left on Magrathea 40 million years ago. He's now an attendant at the car park, and still depressed. Just before the universe ends, Zaphod and Ford get Marvin to help them steal",
"-20.550413180550095"
],
[
"benefit Explorative high-speed missions to Alpha Centauri, as planned for by the Breakthrough Starshot initiative, are projected to be realizable within the 21st century. It is alternatively possible to plan for unmanned slow-cruising missions taking millennia to arrive. These probes would not be for human benefit in the sense that one can not foresee whether there would be anybody around on earth interested in then back-transmitted science data. An example would be the Genesis mission, which aims to bring unicellular life, in the spirit of directed panspermia, to habitable but otherwise barren planets. Comparatively slow cruising Genesis probes, with a",
"-20.538770912360633"
],
[
"the potential of time travel, Robertson offers Nick a licensing agreement on the technology.\nThe following week, Nick and Lisa meet at the supermarket and go on a date to the 1950s. However, another trip to 2041 reveals that GenCorp abused Nick's time travel technology, creating a dystopian future. In an attempt to tell J.K. about how GenCorp inadvertently ruined the future. J.K. dismisses the eventuality, and states that there's enough time to worry about how to fix it before it happens. J.K. sees Nick as a threat to GenCorp, and due to the association with the U.S. Government, considers",
"-20.532278405153193"
],
[
"interstellar travel is possible only or mainly via \"wormholes\" and it is possible to set up easily defended choke points.\nIn Master of Orion II, space combat occurs only within star systems, either over a planet one side is attacking or on the outskirts of a system, if one side is driving away the other's blockaders or trying to prevent an enemy build-up. If the defending side has warships and several colonies in a system, they automatically scramble to defend whichever colony is attacked. In general, enemy colonies can be taken over only after all orbital and planet-based defenses have been",
"-20.5278550429357"
],
[
"Interstellar travel Required energy A significant factor contributing to the difficulty is the energy that must be supplied to obtain a reasonable travel time. A lower bound for the required energy is the kinetic energy where is the final mass. If deceleration on arrival is desired and cannot be achieved by any means other than the engines of the ship, then the lower bound for the required energy is doubled to .\nThe velocity for a manned round trip of a few decades to even the nearest star is several thousand times greater than those of present space vehicles.",
"-20.490278614131967"
]
] |
2pen6e | Why every car I've driven only has the defrost option set to "defrost the windshield" or "defrost the windshield and blow on feet." | [
"Heating the window is, of course, a safety feature. As for the \"warm feet\", that's just blowing it at the bottom because warm air will rise, so it makes the most sense to send it out at your feet. You might look for an aftermarket accessory called \"gloves\".",
"The main reason is it allows the car makes to keep the air conditioning ducting simple. For example, [this is the ventilation diagram for a Subaru]( URL_0 ) which shows that when the windscreen defogger option is selected, the two outer ducts at the top are actually still functioning while the top-middle ducts are off. This is because there is a mechanism behind the centre-top ducts that directs air toward the windscreen. Also, the more vents that are open at one time, the less efficient the air conditioner becomes. Think of it like blowing through a straw and then blowing through a cardboard tube.",
"I have wondered this 100 times every winter since I was 16. Self driving cars, auto-park, GPS, Bluetooth, and rear view camera? Or course, this is the 21st century. Blow air on the windshield and vents at the same time? What do you think this is The Jetsons?",
"I have wondered this for my entire driving life. I live in Canada and it gets cold. I also wear insulated boots and heavy socks. I do not wear some kind of insulated boot for my hands with gloves underneath. I would love defrost and hand warmers. I would also love a defroster like the one on my back window, those lines, right by my wipers. Those defrost much faster than the air and it would make sure my wipers don't get fucked up. The. End.",
"I want a blow on the windshield and blow on my hands option",
"As you move the knob which selects the different air vents / modes, there is a paddle in the heater system which moves to direct air from the car's heater fan to different tubes behind the dash. These tubes lead to their respective air vents in the car. The more air vent combinations, the more complicated this paddle system would have to be. I'd guess thats the reason. I'd be interested to know the car with the widest range of blower configurations.",
"Defrost the window so you can see, warm your feet that have possibly just been trudging through snow and efficiently heat the interior of the vehicle because heat rises in one simple setting.",
"my vw lets me set it in between windshield and front vents or at my feet URL_0 ",
"I drive a Mitsubishi Lancer, and the defrost option automatically turns on the upper heat fans. The feet warmer is a secondary option. I thought that was standard on cars for the longest time. There's even an in-between option that does both."
] | [
[
"with the car moving at greater than three to five miles per hour was if the neutral button was depressed first, thereby removing hydraulic pressure from the inhibitor switch, and then the reverse or park button pushed. These actions would, as a result, either shear off the parking pawl or suddenly set the rear wheels turning in the reverse direction, effectively locking them up against the road surface and possibly damaging the reverse bands in the transmission. Ironically, the failed Autolite Packard system protected against this set of circumstances by locking out not only reverse and park, but also neutral",
"-32.059977712939144"
],
[
"from activating the power window switch. \nStarting with the 2008 model year, U.S. government regulations required automakers to install safety mechanisms to improve child safety. However, the rules do not prevent all potential injuries to a hand, finger, or even a child's head, if someone deliberately holds the switch when the window is closing. In 2009, the U.S. auto safety administration tentatively decided against requiring all cars to have automatic reversing power windows if they sense an obstruction while closing. Proposed requirements concern automatic (\"one-touch up\") window systems, but most vehicles with this feature already have automatic-reversing. The federal government",
"-31.827902400313178"
],
[
"This is done by activating the switch until a \"click\" response is felt.\nPower windows have become so common that by 2008, some automakers eliminated hand crank windows from all their models. So many vehicles now have power windows that some people no longer understand the (formerly) common sign from another driver of using their hand to simulate moving a window crank to indicate that they wish to speak with someone when stopped at a light or in a parking lot. The 2008 Audi RS4 sold in Europe, however, still has roll-up windows for the rear doors although its counterpart sold",
"-30.980081678775605"
],
[
"engage reverse gear when the car was in neutral. The right pedal operated the transmission brake – there were no brakes on the wheels. The floor lever also controlled the parking brake, which was activated by pulling the lever all the way back. This doubled as an emergency brake.\nAlthough it was uncommon, the drive bands could fall out of adjustment, allowing the car to creep, particularly when cold, adding another hazard to attempting to start the car: a person cranking the engine could be forced backward while still holding the crank as the car crept forward, although it was nominally",
"-30.73115051118657"
],
[
"manual crank, or switchable electrical motor (electric car windows other than the driver's window can usually be controlled at both the door itself and centrally by an additional control at the driver's position). In the past, certain retracting windows were operated by direct (up or down) pressure, and were held in the up position by friction instead of by an internal lift mechanism.\nOther cars, particularly older US-manufactured vans, have hinged windows with a folded lever mechanism to push and hold the window out from its closed position. Door brakes or stays Vehicle doors often include brakes, or 'stays', that",
"-30.214219593966845"
],
[
"allowing the driver to operate them without taking their eyes off the road. For example, the switches to the power windows and power locks were designed with one half of the switch raised up, with the other half recessed, in order for its function to be identified by touch (akin to the concept of Braille writing). To further enhance this \"user friendliness\", the dashboard was designed to have all of the controls in the central area, within reach of the driver. The left side of the dash also curved slightly around the driver, to make controls easily accessible as well",
"-30.1833240945125"
],
[
"to slide down because of the cut-out in the rear doors required to clear the rear wheel housings. The fixed portion of the glass is separated from the main window that rolls down by a slim opaque vertical bar (see top left image of a close-up of rear door).\nA quarter glass can be found set in the body or A-pillar ahead of the front door opening (examples include the Buick Encore, Chevrolet Lumina APV, Toyota Prius, Opel Astra J, Mitsubishi Endeavor, Fiat Grande Punto, Suzuki SX4 sedan, and the 8th-generation Honda Civic sedan).\nIn some automobiles the fixed quarter glass may",
"-30.02787162011373"
],
[
"the wiper to be \"parked\" in the middle of the windscreen, where it may partially obstruct the driver's view when not in use. A few models of automobile sometimes employ a pantograph arm on the driver's side and a normal arm for the passenger. Triumph cars, Lexus and several US makes employ this method to cover more glass area where the windscreen is quite wide but also very shallow. The reduced height of the windscreen would need the use of short wiper arms which would not have the reach to the edge of the windscreen.\nA simple single-blade setup with a",
"-29.78154401372376"
],
[
"Shift blocking Shift blocking is a feature of automobile manual transmissions added to improve fuel economy ratings in the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) system by preventing a driver from switching from first gear to second or third as would be done normally. A solenoid prevents the shifter from engaging these gears, forcing the driver to shift from first to fourth gear. The solenoid is computer controlled, and will deactivate if the throttle is opened wide enough, or the car reaches speeds above those typical in city driving. Usage The skip shift feature was originally introduced in the Chevrolet Corvette",
"-29.778937885566847"
],
[
"on the 2015 Suburban and Yukon XL because their radio control modules may not work, and thus prevent certain audible safety warnings. This would be followed on June 27 with another recall, in which the transfer case \"may electronically switch to neutral without input from the driver,\" adding that if this occurs while the vehicle is moving, power will not be sent to the wheels, meaning that if the vehicle is parked, it may roll away unexpectedly if the parking brake has not been set.\nOn December 5, 2014, GM announced that it is replacing ignition key units on the 2015",
"-29.620766340536647"
],
[
"be released by depressing the spring-loaded gear knob or lifting a spring-loaded collar on the shift stick, to reduce the likelihood of the driver inadvertently selecting reverse. \"Three on the tree\" vs. \"four on the floor\" During the period when U.S. vehicles usually had only three forward speeds and the steering column was the most common shifter location, this layout was sometimes called \"three on the tree\".\nIn contrast, high-performance cars, and European vehicles in general, mostly used a four-speed transmission with floor-mounted shifters. This layout was then referred to as \"four on the floor\".\nMost FR (front-engined, rear-wheel drive) vehicles have",
"-29.549158626818098"
],
[
"Mazda and Holden have used switches located in the center console, where they are accessible to all the occupants. In this case, the door-mounted switches can be omitted. This also removes the need to produce separate door components and wiring for left and right-hand drive variants. Operation Power windows are usually inoperable when the car is not running. This is primarily a security feature. It would be a simple thing to allow electric power windows to be operable when the ignition is turned off, however it would also make the car much easier to steal. Some systems offer the compromise",
"-29.457883172057336"
],
[
"headlights, and 4 cup holders: two in the front and two in the rear. Power door lock and power window switches were mounted on the center console to reduce costs. Rear seats were contoured for only 2 passengers and can split down 50/50 to increase cargo capacity. Two-speed front wipers had variable intermittent adjustment. The rear wiper had a single speed and fixed intermittent speed. Windshield and rear window washers were also standard. In the interest of light weight, optional sunroof was made of polymer plastics instead of glass. In later models, the sunroof was made of glass, probably for",
"-29.443508503143676"
],
[
"time makes much of the car's passive safety features, such as the two spoke steering wheel with a recessed central hub, rounded door handles and a lock on the front seat-backs to prevent them from tilting forwards unexpectedly. The padded dashboard and interior window frames were also unusual, and the claim can certainly be made that in terms of secondary safety (US English: \"crashworthiness\") the Lloyd Arabella marked a step forward for cars of this class. The spare wheel was stowed below the rear luggage compartment. It was stowed externally which meant it could be accessed without having",
"-29.44024004903622"
],
[
"out that the driver deactivated the cruise control of the car prior to the crash. Ars Technica also notes that the lane changes are semi-automatic; the car may auto lane change without any driver input if the vehicle detects slow moving cars or if it is required to stay on route but the driver must show the car that he or she is paying attention by touching the steering wheel before the car makes the change.\nAutopilot potentially saved the life of a pedestrian in Washington, D.C. on the night of July 17, 2016, and played a pivotal role in a",
"-29.34851555642672"
],
[
"diffusers at the rear and two spoilers that automatically raise at speed. The windshield is made of perspex and extends almost from the front to the back of the car; this is a necessity because of the driver's low seated position—if the windscreen ended higher, they would be unable to see the oncoming road. This visibility problem is compounded by typical concept-car omissions like wing mirrors.\nThe Birdcage also lacks doors; instead, a bubble canopy composed of much of the front bodywork can be raised, in a similar manner to the Bond Bug, Ferrari Modulo and Saab's 2006 Aero X concept",
"-29.12269940155238"
],
[
"driver to the weather (in a style dubbed \"a la Milord\" by at least one commentator) or fully folded back if the passenger in the back also wished to travel roofless. A single-cylinder engine from AMC or Ydral of 175 cc or 125 cc powered the rear axle via a three speed manual gear box and a chain drive mechanism.\nAn unusual feature of the front wheels was that when parked their supporting structure could be folded towards the centre of the car so that the parked vehicles had a curiously raised nose but a front track (corresponding in this case with the",
"-29.052586545818485"
],
[
"buttons, as well as small graphics, which caused the driver to have to look away from the road to be able to operate them properly. As a result, a large portion of the third generation's dash was devoted to the radio and climate control, with each button on these modules containing a unique design, making it easier for the driver to operate the radio and climate control without taking their eyes off the road. This would eventually lead to the creation of the Integrated Control Panel.\nMaking the new Taurus pleasing to the senses was a recurring theme throughout the third-generation",
"-28.918598023883533"
],
[
"drag. A much more common option is to replace the windshield wipers with lower profile wipers, or to only remove the windshield wiper on the passenger side of the vehicle, and even to fabricate a deflector to deflect the air up and over the wipers.\nAnother alternative is to equip the vehicle with a single wiper placed in the centre of the windshield, allowing it to cover both sides of the windshield. This mitigates the amount of drag by decreasing the frontal area of the blade. While such application may be useful for racing, for most road vehicles this would produce",
"-28.910536803785362"
],
[
"This system suppresses visual disturbances during driving and so reduces the reaction time of the driver in case of incident. Hidden wipers Some larger cars are equipped with hidden wipers (or depressed-park wipers). When wipers are switched off in standard non-hidden designs, a \"parking\" mechanism or circuit moves the wipers to the lower extreme of the wiped area near the bottom of the windscreen, but still in sight. For designs that hide the wipers, the windscreen extends below the rear edge of the hood, and the wipers park themselves below the wiping range at the bottom of the windscreen, but",
"-28.820158647722565"
],
[
"(or the S) could be engaged only by turning the lever to the right from the third. Reverse was opposite first. The idea was to put the most used gears opposite each other — for parking, first and reverse; for normal driving, second and third. This layout was adopted from the H-van's three-speed gearbox. Later models had an option for a semi-automatic clutch that allow the user to engage the first gear and wait at the traffic lights with the foot on the brakes only. Other The windscreen wipers were powered by a purely mechanical system: a cable connected to",
"-28.814954790577758"
],
[
"Check these parts for damage. Replace as required (located inside the transaxle, recommended that a transmission shop do the repair, but a full rebuild of the transaxle is NOT required). In general, however, difficulty shifting from neutral to overdrive, OD to N, N to R, and R to N is most likely caused by a stretched shifter cable.\nOther issues such as locking and/or breaking the parking \"pawl\" occurs in these transmissions primarily due to owner negligence in not operating the parking brake properly, or not using the parking brake at all. If the vehicle is allowed to \"roll back\"",
"-28.808652648411226"
],
[
"front window replacing the original configuration that had two small windows instead.\nIn the late 1990s the driver's side front window was enlarged to prevent eye and back problems for drivers focusing on the mainline ahead. The pillar separating the driver's window and the central window created a potentially dangerous blind spot and caused a distraction for drivers as their vision had to adjust to focus, or alternatively adopt unnatural sitting positions. Drivers started to notice left-eye fatigue and back issues after long shifts or extended periods driving the locomotives. The pillar was moved 100mm to the left with the top",
"-28.799481709080283"
],
[
"as well as saved an equivalent amount of time for all the cars that otherwise would have been stuck behind the left-turning car. In situations where there is so much oncoming, straight traffic that a left turn would not be otherwise possible during any part of the light cycle, the Pittsburgh left can allow a line of left turning traffic to proceed incrementally.\nFrequently, the on-coming cars will accelerate slowly enough to allow the turn to be completed without anyone slowing down or being delayed at all. This means that a \"Pittsburgh left\" can, in places other than Pittsburgh,",
"-28.779457952790835"
],
[
"car can stall are usually down to the driver, especially with a manual transmission. For instance, if a driver takes their foot off the clutch too quickly while stationary then the car will stall; taking the foot off the clutch slowly will stop this from happening. Stalling also happens when the driver forgets to depress the clutch and/or change to neutral while coming to a stop. Stalling can be dangerous, especially in heavy traffic.\nA car fitted with an automatic transmission could also have its engine stalled when the vehicle is travelling in the opposite direction to the selected gear. For",
"-28.761510640382767"
],
[
"Park-Neutral-Drive-Second-Low-Reverse (P-N-D-S-L-R) due to the placement of reverse adjacent to a forward gear as opposed to the more common P-R-N-D-S-L sequence found in most other automatic transmissions at the time that placed \"reverse\" between \"park\" and \"neutral\", which was also incorporated in the new Turbo Hydramatic design introduced on Buicks and Cadillacs in 1964, and then other GM divisions in 1965. Applications The Roto Hydramatic was used in all full-sized Oldsmobile models including the Dynamic 88, Super 88, Ninety-Eight and Starfire from 1961-1964 as well as the compact Oldsmobile F-85 from 1961-1963. Pontiac used the Roto Hydramatic from 1961-1964 on",
"-28.680971814930672"
],
[
"\"opposite\" the driver. This was decided pre-production after drivers of the prototypes reported that airflow at certain speeds made the wiper closest to the A-post lift off the windscreen, potentially disrupting the driver's line of sight. The problem was judged sufficiently serious that the car went on sale with a wiper position as if for driving on the other side of the road, though subsequent road testers questioned the effectiveness of this decision and the basis for it.\nBL was beset with problems including industrial action throughout the period, and the Marina was one of a number of models that suffered.",
"-28.642901484738104"
],
[
"needing to maintain idle engine speed.\nCoasting with a vehicle not in gear is prohibited by law in most U.S. states. An example is Maine Revised Statutes Title 29-A, Chapter 19, §2064 \"An operator, when traveling on a downgrade, may not coast with the gears of the vehicle in neutral\". Some regulations differ between commercial vehicles not to disengage the clutch for a downgrade, and passenger vehicles to set the transmission to neutral. These regulations point on how drivers operate a vehicle. Not using the engine on longer, precipitous downgrade roads, or excessively using the brake might cause a failure due",
"-28.612257022236008"
],
[
" jumping a red light during an argument with a backseat driver. Examples in context The term has been used for technology, such as devices installed in a car which observe the driving through electronic means, and inform the driver or a third party.\nThe Maine Department of Transportation has a web poster \"Are you a Good Back Seat Driver?\" asking \"True or False: Being a Backseat Driver means it is okay to be noisy or distracting to the driver as long as you are giving them safety tips.\" The Inland Register produced by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane",
"-28.55702360291616"
],
[
"Model X 90D largely disappoints, as rear doors are prone to pausing and stopping, the second-row seats that cannot be folded, and the cargo capacity is too limited. Even its panoramic, helicopter-like windshield was disapproved of as it is not tinted enough to offset the brightness of a sunny day. Also, Consumer Reports added that overall \"the ride is too firm and choppy for a $110,000 car\".\nCar and Driver, despite some criticism of the Model X's falcon wing doors, approved of the panoramic windshield, stating \"We were left dumbfounded, like slack-jawed tourists endlessly looking upward. Lose the Falcon Wing doors,",
"-28.526959365117364"
],
[
"once applied, generally cannot be removed from a windshield without destroying the pass unless a delicate process making use of heat from a blow-dryer or the sun is used to loosen the adhesive before carefully removing the sticker and reapplying it to a different windshield, after which the customer must update the vehicle description on the SunPass website. The SunPass Mini sticker will not work on motorcycle windshields as they are not made of glass. Currently, only the Type IIe transponder and SunPass Mini sticker are being sold.\nThe Sunpass Mini or E-Pass sticker can be used as a portable device,",
"-28.515841887681745"
],
[
"to as the Jackson Back Seat Steer. This gives new meaning to the term \"back seat driver\" because this is the actual location of the steering controls. The company probably introduced the car to see if having a car with the passengers seated in the front seat would be a winning sales proposition. Since this car only was around in 1913, it is not likely that there were many purchasers for such an unusual car.",
"-28.509549993206747"
],
[
"second gear (\"limp-home\" mode) caused by the transmission computer detecting problems with sensor data. Nine design changes were made in an attempt to fix clutch failure, and four were directed to excessive shifting on hills.\nAfter pressure from the US Center for Auto Safety, Consumer Reports, and others, Chrysler LLC promised to waive the $100 deductible in the warranty, provide loaners, and buy back any cars with Ultradrives that could not be fixed (US located cars only). Chrysler ran an unprecedented campaign to contact all American owners of cars with Ultradrives to find and fix problems.",
"-28.501518692675745"
],
[
"the suspension in order for the car to cope with the driver's desired driving mode according to the road/weather conditions. When turned on, the ADS automatically alters the suspension settings to ensure the driver has high levels of control at all times. Apart from the suspension getting stiffer, throttle and braking response is increased and steering is sharpened.\nThe DBS is fitted with Pirelli P-Zero tyres developed especially for the car, along with lightweight, aluminium 20-inch wheels.\nTo keep the weight as low as possible, Aston Martin made extensive use of carbon fibre throughout the whole car. The bonnet, the boot, the",
"-28.46079146116972"
],
[
"are closed and seat belts are prepared for impact. The seats are moved forward to protect the car's occupants. 2015 introduced the \"avoidance assistant\" system that intervenes in the steering to help the driver avoid an obstacle. If an accident occurs, the \"turning assistant\" monitors opposing traffic when turning left at low speeds. In critical situation, it brakes the car. \"Multicollision brake assist\" uses controlled braking maneuvers during the accident to aid the driver. Both systems were introduced on the Second generation Q7. BMW 2012: BMW introduced two systems on the 7 Series. \"Active Protection\" detects imminent accidents to pretension",
"-28.45751947403187"
],
[
"by a fabric piece reaching all the way from the nose of the car to their trailing edge which, when closed, leaves a perfectly smooth surface. Interior When the car is parked, the car's steering wheel and instruments sit in an \"idle\" position on the centre console to allow the driver easy entry. The steering wheel and instruments assume their correct positions when the driver presses the start button and the headrest rises from the seat once the driver is seated, making it easier to get in and out of the car. Jokes around the name The unusual name for",
"-28.39074101333972"
],
[
"Wrong-way driving warning Wrong-way driver warning is a new advanced driver-assistance system introduced in 2010 to prevent wrong-way driving.\nIn the case of signs imposing access restrictions, through the wrong-way driver warning function an acoustic warning is emitted together with a visual warning in the instrument cluster – making an effective contribution towards helping to prevent serious accidents caused by wrong-way drivers.",
"-28.39026818011189"
],
[
"cushioning too firm. The interior was praised for the high level of fit, but is quite bland, sparsely equipped, and uninspiring. New in this generation was Volkswagen's signature blue and red instrument lighting which became standard in all models in 1999. The climate controls were placed low on the console. The recirculation mode cannot be turned on when air is vented to the windshield, and if the driver changes the climate control to vent air to the windshield, an internal mechanism would turn off the recirculation mode. The power outlet is recessed next to the ash tray and is covered",
"-28.349755476112477"
],
[
"you are in the car, you may not feel the effect at all because the cool air does not blow out evenly. When I rode back north on a non-A/C car, I sat beside the open window and was actually cooler than I had been on 4041.\"\nStarting in 2006, the TTC installed a Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) security camera system on all surface vehicles including the CLRV/ALRV fleet as well as buses. The system is to deter crime on vehicles and help catch trouble-makers. It uses four cameras to make high-quality images stored in a 24-hour loop.\nUntil at least 2014, CLRV/ALRV",
"-28.29782486637123"
],
[
"all models. This roof has been fully redesigned, and is now easier to remove. The rear and side windows easily lift out, and the previous Velcro and zipper enclosures have been deleted. Once the rear and side windows have been removed (they can be stowed inside of the vehicle behind the rear seats), the driver is able to unlatch the roof latches, and drop the roof back, where it will stow behind the rear seats (a similar system to that of many soft top roadsters, such as the Mazda MX-5 Miata). There is a lever that allows the driver to",
"-28.264666332222987"
],
[
"while it is in use, it becomes impossible for the user to err by leaving the door open. Forcing functions are very effective in safety critical situations such as this, but can cause confusion in more complex systems that do not inform the user of the error that has been made.\nWhen automobiles first started shipping with on-board GPS systems, it was not uncommon to use a forcing function which prevented the user from interacting with the GPS (such as entering in a destination) while the car was in motion. This ensures that the driver's attention is not distracted",
"-28.26273354041041"
],
[
"interior design that did away with steering column stalks, allowing the driver to reach all controls while both hands remained on the steering wheel. A Citroën design principle was that turning signals should not cancel themselves – this should be a conscious decision of the driver. The CX perpetuated this feature, which is not shared by virtually any other contemporary automobile, limiting the CX's potential use as a rental car.\nThe ability of the CX suspension to soak up large undulations and yet damp out rough surfaces resulted in a consistent ride quality either empty, or fully laden. The suspension was",
"-28.25810592994094"
],
[
"rule, as enforced in the three open-wheel series, is designed to prevent lapped cars from blocking on ensuing restarts, as to prevent unsportsmanlike blocking when a lapped teammate or friend of one driver attempts to help that driver through impeding the progress of an opponent on the restart. Red and yellow striped flag The red and yellow striped flag, or surface flag is displayed stationary at local flag stations to indicate that track conditions have changed due to substances on the track which could reduce grip or cause a car to lose control. Generally oil, coolant, small pieces of debris",
"-28.243199063988868"
],
[
"moving the shift lever all the way down for \"low gear\" would accidentally select \"R\" and would unexpectedly move the car backwards. In addition, other manufacturers, such as Chrysler, used a push-button selector to choose gear ranges. Ford was the first to use the \"P R N D L\" pattern, which separated Reverse from forward ranges by Neutral. Eventually this pattern became the standard for all automatic-shift cars.\nChevrolet's Powerglide, at least as seen on the Corvair, used a \"R N D L\" pattern, which separated the Reverse from the Drive gears by neutral in the ideal way, but which had",
"-28.207885960524436"
],
[
"driver. However, the maximum speed in the reverse direction was, for safety reasons and because the back drive system had been deliberately made less robust to save weight, indicated by the manufacturer as 50 km/h. In both cases steering was via the front wheels, with a minimum turning radius of 11.15 m (36.6 ft). Both drivers had a full set of standard steering controls, even with separate odometers. Each driver had a rectangular hatch in front of him, that could hinge upwards to provide an unimpeded view of the road; due to the short nose there were no dead angles in his field",
"-28.16220431268448"
],
[
"impact wrench used to change the tires, and a prohibition of using an overhead boom to support air hoses. As a result, the outside rear changer also serves to wave at the driver to inform him of where his pit box is while holding the air hose up.\nAs soon as the car comes to a halt, the first step, taken while the fourth tire changer assumes his position, is for a mechanic to activate the car's built-in pneumatic jacks. A pressurized air hose is inserted into a receiving nozzle at the rear of the car, under the rear wing. Previously,",
"-28.1509984418808"
],
[
"at its front edge from the vent window to allow the vent window to pivot. In later production the sealing channel was attached to the door frame rather than to the window glass so that the vent window could be operated independently of the window glass. Windshield and rear quarter windows were made stationary. Absence of a windshield operating mechanism on the closed car allowed room to conceal the wiper motor behind the headboard. The cowl ventilator was baffled and drained in such a way as to be rainproof. Chassis changes were few and minor in nature. Controlled free wheeling",
"-28.14257414988242"
],
[
"cars, had a pantograph wiper on the driver's side, with a conventional pivot on the passenger side. Asymmetric wiper arrangements are usually configured to clear more windscreen area on the driver's side, and so are mostly mirrored for left and right-hand-drive vehicles (for example, Fig. 1 vs. Fig 10). One exception is found on the second generations of the Renault Clio, Twingo and Scénic as well as BMW's E60 5 Series and E63 6 Series, the Peugeot 206 and the Nissan Almera Tino, where the wipers always sweep towards the left. On right-hand-drive models, a linkage allows the right-hand",
"-28.11990213440731"
],
[
"clogging, causing a rough idle and stalling. In places where emissions testing is not required, a popular modification is to bypass the computer and disable the BBD's Idle Servo, or replace the BBD with a manually tuned carburetor. Several vendors (including Chrysler and Edelbrock) offer retrofit kits that replace the CEC and the carburetor with fuel injection.",
"-28.11552275402937"
],
[
"engine from oil starvation, the device disabled engine braking; the car was able to coast whenever the throttle was released. Drivers had the option of turning the freewheel off through a switch under the steering column to benefit from engine braking. Useful since the front brakes were prone to overheating and fading. However, most drivers never disabled the freewheel, because it made shifting gears significantly easier and smoother, though not quicker.\nToday the 353s are customized for reaching speeds well about 200 km/h (125 mph), whereas the original design called for critical speed of 150–155 km/h and 12 seconds to accelerate to 100 km/h (62 mph),",
"-28.08086817036383"
],
[
"example, if the selector is in the 'D' position and the car is moving backwards, (on a steep enough hill to overcome the torque from the torque converter) the engine will stall, due to the fact that the engine is forced to turn in the opposite direction to what it is actually doing. This is because, hypothetically, if the car is rolling backward fast enough, the force from the rotating wheels will be transmitted backward through the transmission and act as a sudden load on the engine.\nDigital electronics fuel injection and ECU ignition systems have greatly reduced stalling in modern",
"-28.07137240220618"
],
[
"retracted mode. Each mode allows the rear offset of the vehicle to be confined within a fixed distance of travel. In the retracted mode, the vehicle can make sharp turns, to the point of the rear wheels actually crossing the track slot (though this does not happen under normal operation). The extended mode does not allow such a large rear offset, and is thus used when the vehicle may have little clearance on the side. If the vehicle attempts to travel outside of the confined distances of travel, the vehicle will initiate an automatic power disconnect,",
"-28.067894403095124"
],
[
"the vehicle at the time of the accident was not familiar with its shift pattern and would shift into reverse when intending to shift to park. Nader makes an appeal to the auto industry to standardize gearshift patterns between makes and models as a safety issue.\nEarly automatic transmissions, including GM's Hydra-Matic, Packard's Ultramatic, and Borg Warner's automatic used by a number of independent manufacturers (Rambler, Studebaker) used a pattern of \"P N D L R\", which put Reverse at the bottom of the quadrant, next to Low which was contrary to the pattern used by other manufacturers. Drivers used to",
"-28.031407558883075"
],
[
"on the sliding rail and not at their support poles, which act as swords to unprotected road users.\nStatistical explanation for the automobile bias is found in use and fatality figures; motorcyclists are in numerical minority.\nRoad surface can also contribute to a crash. A sudden change in the surface can be sufficient to cause a momentary loss of traction, destabilizing the motorcycle. The risk of skidding increases if the motorcyclist is braking or changing direction. This is due to the fact that most of the braking and steering control are through the front wheel, while power is delivered through the rear",
"-27.99037648382364"
],
[
"2.0) is the executive Crown in its 15th generation. Volkswagen 2010: \"Front Assist\" on the 2011 Volkswagen Touareg can brake the car to a stop in case of an emergency and tension the seat belts as a precautionary measure.\n2012: Volkswagen Golf Mk7 introduced a \"Proactive Occupant Protection\" that will close the windows and retract the safety belts to remove excess slack if the potential for a forward crash is detected. Multi-collision brake system (automatic post-collision braking system) to automatically brake the car after an accident in order to avoid a second collision. City emergency braking automatically activates brakes at low",
"-27.980425321147777"
],
[
"wiper to move outwards towards the corner of the windscreen and clear more area. Rear wipers Some vehicles are fitted with wipers (with or without washers) on the back window as well. Rear-window wipers are typically found on hatchbacks, station wagons / estates, sport utility vehicles, minivans, and other vehicles with more vertically-oriented rear windows that tend to accumulate dust. First offered in the 1940s, they achieved widespread popularity in the 1970s after their introduction on the Porsche 911 in 1966 and the Volvo 145 in 1969. Headlight wipers In the 1960s, as interest in auto safety grew, engineers",
"-27.976234131725505"
],
[
"requirements for manufacturers, NEVs must be equipped with three-point seat belts or a lap belt, running lights, headlights, brake lights, reflectors, rear view mirrors, and turn signals. Windshield wipers are not required. In many cases, doors may be optional, crash protection from other vehicles is partially met compared to other non motorized transport such as bicycles because of the use of seat belts. State regulations Regulations for operating an NEV vary by state. The federal government allows state and local governments to add additional safety requirements beyond those of Title 49 Part 571.500. For instance, the State of New",
"-27.95408746082103"
],
[
"over protection) is a specific technology that helps keep the vehicle balanced. During harsh weather or tough road conditions that would cause vehicle steering to be extreme, this technology allows the drivers to regain control and prevent possible crashes, roll overs, and fishtails. This is the system which allows drivers to exit hydroplanes safely. In combination with automatic emergency braking technologies (see below), ESC controls each wheel individually to allow the driver to steer in the intended direction. To do this, ESC technologies apply singular breaks to all the wheels individually, slowing each one to the intended speed of the",
"-27.950808201174368"
],
[
"of auto-stop on these vehicles is critical because idling causes a severe drop in instantaneous fuel-mileage efficiency to zero miles per gallon, and this lowers the average (or accumulated) fuel-mileage efficiency. Anticipating traffic A driver may improve their fuel efficiency by anticipating the movement of other vehicles or sudden changes to the situation the driver is currently in. For example, a driver who stops quickly, or turns without signaling, reduces the options another driver has for maximizing their performance. By always giving road users as much information about their intentions as possible, a driver can help other road users reduce",
"-27.890932464746584"
],
[
"manufacturers, NEVs must be equipped with three-point seat belts or a lap belt, running lights, headlights, brake lights, reflectors, rear view mirrors, and turn signals; windshield wipers are not required. In many cases, doors may be optional, crash protection from other vehicles is partially met compared to other non motorized transport such as bicycles because of the use of seat belts. In 2011, a Time magazine article concluded that the lack of passenger safety protection made most LSVs unfit for city driving, despite their excellent maneuverability. Short commute vehicles Short Commute Vehicle (SCV) is a term sometimes used for",
"-27.86230784782674"
],
[
"Then, shifting to reverse automatically activates the backup camera system, and the car's rear view appears on dash navigation/camera display. The driver's selection of the parallel park guidance button on the navigation/camera touchscreen causes a grid to appear (with green or red lines, a flag symbol representing the corner of the parking spot, and adjustment arrows).\nThe driver is responsible for checking to see if the representative box on the screen correctly identifies the parking space; if the space is large enough to park, the box will be green in color; if the box is incorrectly placed, or lined in red,",
"-27.83332325122319"
],
[
"pleased that the alert existed, it was unhappy that the driver was able to turn it off.\" The NFB approves the Nissan Leaf's forward motion sound, but it said the forward noise should also be used for reversing because the \"intermittent sound is not as effective as a continuous sound\" and that the car should emit warning sounds when it is idling, not only when it's moving slowly. Nevertheless, their main complaint is that they don’t think the driver should be able to switch the sound off.\nSeveral anti-noise and electric car advocates have opposed the introduction of artificial sounds as",
"-27.815501287172083"
],
[
"a problem in large vehicles such as buses. Long rear overhang would require the driver to pay attention to nearby vehicles when turning at 90 degrees. Since the rear overhang is outside the wheelbase, it may hit a vehicle in the adjacent lane, especially when turning 90 degrees right (in a right-hand drive country).\nAlso, some specialized vehicles (such as the AM General HMMWV and the related Hummer H1) are designed with no frontal overhang, allowing it to possess incredible abilities such as climbing vertical walls. This does, however, place these vehicles' front wheels as the furthest forward point of the",
"-27.810188416595338"
],
[
"crash is transferred through the swivel mechanism, which is almost twice as strong as the minimum government requirement.\nThe swivel mechanism includes bumpers that stabilize the seat while in the lock position. When rotated the seat come off these bumpers to allow easy rotation.\nThe seat is not meant to be left in an unlocked position or swiveled with the occupant in it, although this will not damage swivel mechanism.\nSwivel 'n Go was dropped from the 2011 line of Chrysler and Dodge minivans due to a lack of consumer interest. Minivan production Chrysler Town & Country and Dodge Grand Caravan minivans with",
"-27.804181119892746"
],
[
"driving practices, but rather a safety technology to assist the driver in recovering from dangerous situations. ESC does not increase traction, so it does not enable faster cornering (although it can facilitate better-controlled cornering). More generally, ESC works within the limits of the vehicle's handling and available traction between the tyres and road. A reckless maneuver can still exceed these limits, resulting in loss of control. For example, during hydroplaning, the wheels that ESC would use to correct a skid may lose contact with the road surface, reducing its effectiveness.\nDue to the fact that stability control can be incompatible with",
"-27.772242326347623"
],
[
"or fascia mounted controls) includes a position lever which allows the driver to select whether the car would sit with the body in high, intermediate, normal or low positions, the extremes used for maintenance such as changing wheels or hydraulic system work. Up until 1995 when they added \"antisink\" to the range when the engine was turned off, the suspension slowly lost pressure until the car rested on the bump stops. When the engine was restarted it rose back to its pre-selected height. The addition of anti-sink added 2 non-return valves and an extra accumulator so that when hydraulic pressure",
"-27.768395471503027"
],
[
"ride.\nIf you drove a MOPAR in those days, unlike slack and loose seatbelts of today, the seatbelts bolted you to the vehicle. If you had a manual trans, one could focus on driving and shifting, keeping the car under control, instead of worrying about sliding around in your seat. As reported in the Denver Post, while filming, the brakes on the Charger went out during the chase segment.\nIn those pre-digital days, the dangers were real: in one shot Hickman accidentally loses control and clips the camera fixed to a parked car. The chase climaxes with his Charger careening off into",
"-27.768020484247245"
],
[
"with all cars finishing behind the pair moving up one place. The team cited a miscommunication with Baird as the reason for the error.",
"-27.760046048031654"
],
[
"the United States from Denmark. However, because most cars in the territory are imported from the mainland United States, the cars in the territory are left-hand drive. However, not all U.S. vehicle regulations are in force, and there are vehicles on the road that cannot be sold in the U.S. Additionlly, headlights use the U.S. pattern which casts light to the right, tending to blind oncoming drivers. Traffic signals are located on the opposite side of the road, and many standard road signs have been altered to fit the left-side driving.\nAs in other U.S. territories, U.S. Virgin Islands mail service",
"-27.729473182582296"
],
[
"operated at up to 60 MPH, or 96.5 kmh. Removable parts The front windshield can now easily be folded down, or completely removed, and is made of aluminum, as are some of the body panels (some body panels are still made of steel), as well as the hard roof, to make it easier to remove. The doors are also made of aluminum, making them easier to take off. \nA labeled and fitted storage area for roof, doors, and windshield screws is located in the rear cargo area, and a tool kit that stores in a fitted area in the upper",
"-27.724147474975325"
],
[
"as it slows the vehicle, doing the job of the brake pads or shoes. A well-executed rev-match in the same setting minimizes stresses on transmission components, so engine braking does the work of slowing the vehicle.\nImproper engine braking technique can cause the wheels to skid (also called shift-locking), especially on slippery surfaces, as a result of too much deceleration. As in a skid caused by overbraking, the vehicle will not regain traction until the wheels are allowed to turn more quickly. If the driver reduces engine braking by shifting back up, or disengaging the clutch on a manual transmission, traction",
"-27.702646975434618"
],
[
"pedal was released, the Model T entered high gear, but only when the lever was fully forward – in any other position, the pedal would only move up as far as the central neutral position. This allowed the car to be held in neutral while the driver cranked the engine by hand. The car could thus cruise without the driver having to press any of the pedals.\nThe first 800 units were sent in reverse with a lever; all units after that were sent in reverse with a pedal between the clutch and brake pedals. The middle pedal was used to",
"-27.693099471507594"
],
[
"go by the driver, even when the car is stationary. This is especially helpful when parking as the driver can be assured that his or her wheels will be in the correct position when the ignition is turned off; again this function also aids high speed, straight line driving on highways etc. Although an odd sensation to start with, most Citroën drivers become accustomed to DIRAVI in a very short time, only appreciating its unique abilities when they let go of the steering wheel in a car without DIRAVI, only to find nothing happens. DIRAVI makes the tendency of all",
"-27.651079437186127"
],
[
"Car glass Vehicle glass includes windscreens, side and rear windows, and glass panel roofs on a vehicle. Side windows can be either fixed or raised and lowered by depressing a button (power window) or switch or using a hand-turned crank. The power moonroof, a transparent, retractable sunroof, may be considered as an extension of the power window concept. Some vehicles include sun blinds for rear and rear side windows. The windshield of a car is appropriate for safety and protection of debris on the road. The majority of vehicle glass is held in place by glass run channels, which also",
"-27.647507905829116"
],
[
"is placed on the vehicle's floor producing a low center of gravity.\nThe driver and the passenger enter and exit the car through the front hatch that houses the windshield. The conventional steering wheel and the brake and throttle controls were replaced with a device similar to a airplane's yoke. When the driver pushes the control stick forward the car speeds up, while when pulled back the car slows down. Turns are made by moving the yoke control left or right. Demonstration projects Production aiming for 20 test pre-production cars began in July 2012 in Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain. These demonstration vehicles were",
"-27.64579784462694"
],
[
"stopped and then restarted, going backwards. This was effected by pushing the key further in the ignition switch than normal, whether intentionally or not. One result of this was that the KR200's sequential, positive-stop transmission provided the car with the same four gear ratios available in reverse as in forward movement. Controls Apart from the dual-mode ignition, the KR200 had a steering bar reminiscent of that of an aircraft. To steer the KR200, the driver would swivel the steering bar about its axis from the horizontal (straight-ahead) position instead of rotating it as with a conventional steering wheel. The mechanism",
"-27.638219525455497"
],
[
"close to the exhaust manifold, which often caused unpredictable movement of the selector mechanism and, in some cases, complete failure. The electrical design required drivers to shift from Park to Reverse to Neutral to Drive, in that order, to avoid overloading the Teletouch motor. The motor was also not powerful enough to bring the car out of Park while on a hill, so dealerships would instruct drivers to set the parking brake before pushing the Park button.\nMechanics of the time were wary of the 410-cubic-inch Edsel \"E-475\" engine because its perfectly flat cylinder heads lacked distinct combustion chambers. The",
"-27.62764815306582"
],
[
"dashboard fade and eventually crack, cause seat upholstery discoloration and aging, etc.\nThe windshield glass itself blocks most of the UV light and some of the infrared radiation. But it can't protect from the visible light that mostly penetrates through it and gets absorbed by the objects inside the car. The visible light that passes into the interior through the windshield is converted into the infrared light which, in its turn, is blocked by the glass and gets trapped inside, heating up the interior. Windshield sun shades have a reflective surface to bounce the light back, reducing the interior temperature Types",
"-27.620470578491222"
],
[
"with overdrive, it was very likely to be a Borg-Warner type, operated by briefly backing off the accelerator pedal when above 28 mph (45 km/h) to enable, and momentarily flooring the same pedal to return to normal gear. The control simply disables overdrive for such situations as parking on a hill or preventing unwanted shifting into overdrive.\nLater, European and Japanese models began to have 4-speed column shifters with this shift pattern:\nA majority of American-spec vehicles sold in the U.S. and Canada had a 3-speed column-mounted shifter—the first generation Chevrolet/GMC vans of 1964–70 vintage had an ultra-rare 4-speed column shifter. The column-mounted",
"-27.617880235309713"
],
[
"at any time the steering wheel is touched or the brake firmly pressed, the automatic parking will disengage. The vehicle also cannot exceed a set speed, or the system will deactivate. When the car's computer voice issues the statement \"The guidance is finished\", the system has finished parking the car. The driver can then shift to drive and make adjustments in the space if necessary. Advertising Lexus capitalized on the debut of the parking system in the U.S. with its LS flagship with two ads. The first, \"Pyramid,\" depicted a driver parking a car between two stacks of glasses",
"-27.614233343861997"
],
[
"Its interior was designed to be extremely user-friendly, with all of its controls designed to be recognizable by touch, allowing drivers to operate them without taking their eyes off the road. For example, the switches to the power windows and power locks were designed with one half of the switch raised up, with the other half recessed, in order for its function to be identified by touch. To further enhance this quality, the car's dashboard has all of the controls in the central area within reach of the driver. The left side of the dash curves slightly around the driver",
"-27.613581869009067"
],
[
"unlatching two header catches, power lowering the top, exiting the car (or reaching over to the right side latch), and folding down the rigid section manually. Mazda introduced with the convertible the first integral windblocker, a rigid panel that folded up from behind the passenger seats to block unwanted drafts from reaching the passengers—thereby extending the driving season for the car with the top retracted. The convertible also featured optional headrest mounted audio speakers and a folding leather snap-fastened tonneau cover. The convertible assembly was precisely engineered and manufactured, and dropped into the ready body assembly as a complete unit—a",
"-27.60266881203279"
],
[
"As with Rambler sedans built in right hand drive, windscreen wipers were not reversed, remaining LHD pattern, but the power brake booster and heater on the firewall were swapped over. Although the power steering pump remained in its usual left location, the remainder of the steering components were on the right side of the car. The cars came with 343 cu in (5.6 L) and automatic transmission, power steering, power disk brakes, \"twin-grip\" rear axle, and other items that were optional on the U.S. models. All of the Australian AMX interiors were finished in black and featured unique seats, door panels, and a",
"-27.60093165107537"
],
[
"the neutral gate of the transmission and it didn't even want to go to third,\" Johnson said. \"It stopped before it ever went to third. And then I tried fourth and third and eventually I got hit from behind...I thought maybe I missed a shift, but it wouldn't go into gear. Martin was good and patient with me. He gave me a couple of opportunities to try to find a gear but it just locked out and wouldn't go into gear for some reason.\" The subsequent cleanup forced the red flag to fly. The red flag was lifted after 11",
"-27.595011565077584"
],
[
"control. This has led to some concern that ESC could allow drivers to become overconfident in their vehicle's handling and/or their own driving skills. For this reason, ESC systems typically alert the driver when they intervene, so that the driver is aware that the vehicle's handling limits have been reached. Most activate a dashboard indicator light and/or alert tone; some intentionally allow the vehicle's corrected course to deviate very slightly from the driver-commanded direction, even if it is possible to more precisely match it.\nAll ESC manufacturers emphasize that the system is not a performance enhancement nor a replacement for safe",
"-27.579107052271866"
],
[
"with precise control inputs, making the car more difficult to control.\nBeing able to reach the controls easily is also an important consideration, especially if a car is being driven hard.\nIn some circumstances, good support may allow a driver to retain some control, even after a minor accident or after the first stage of an accident. Weather Weather affects handling by changing the amount of available traction on a surface. Different tires do best in different weather. Deep water is an exception to the rule that wider tires improve road holding. (See aquaplaning under tires, below.) Road condition Cars with",
"-27.565839716175105"
],
[
"no doubt delighted some keen drivers, but road tests of the time nonetheless included warnings to take great care with the car's handling on wet roads. In due course, the manufacturer switched from one extreme to the other, and on later cars 4½ turns were needed to turn the steering wheel from lock to lock. Broadening the range downmarket Early in 1953 the manufacturer launched a stripped-down version of the 4CV bereft of anything which might be considered a luxury. Tyre width was reduced, and the dummy grille was removed from the front of the car along with the",
"-27.56161821304704"
],
[
"Back-up collision Back-up collisions happen when a driver reverses the car into an object, person, or other car. Although most cars come equipped with rear view mirrors which are adequate for detecting vehicles behind a car, they are inadequate on many vehicles for detecting small children or objects close to the ground, which fall in the car's blind spot, particularly directly aft. That area has been called a \"killing zone.\" Large trucks have much larger blind spots that can hide entire vehicles and large adults. Prevention and regulation Prevention organizations suggest that parents use common sense, and also take",
"-27.554661294503603"
],
[
"the end of VS series III production in 2000.\nPart of the success of the Chrysler K-cars, the Dodge Aries and the Plymouth Reliant, was that by retaining front bench seating rather than adopting bucket seats usually fitted to compacts, they could still function as the six passenger cars they were designed to replace and compete against.\nBecause the shifter and parking brake cannot be mounted between the seats, the transmission selector or shifter is moved to the steering column, and the emergency brake is activated by a pedal in the driver's footwell. \nThe traditional sedans with full-width bench seating offered nearly",
"-27.545118216396077"
],
[
"are affixed to the hubs with a single lug nut, making it easier and faster to change them. After the tire changes are complete, the front tire changers may use manual adjusters to adjust the angle of the car's front wing, remove debris from air intakes, or make other minor repairs. While the service is being completed by the over-the-wall crew, another crew member behind the wall may use a stick to offer the driver a refreshment.\nAfter the tire changes are complete, the air jack hose is removed, dropping the car to the ground. However, the driver usually must wait",
"-27.530018786703295"
],
[
"wrong-side failure whereby the driver is given no indication or a 'clear' indication instead of a 'caution'. Because of this the rulebook states that \"AWS does not relieve the driver of the responsibility of observing and obeying lineside signals and indicators.\"\nAlso, there is no automatic brake application when a stop signal is passed. The newer TPWS, which is installed at signals where there is a risk of conflicting movements, the approach to reductions of permissible speed of more than a third and buffer stops, overcomes this problem. Bi-directional operation Because the permanent magnet is located in the centre of the",
"-27.518825583800208"
],
[
"in the U.S. has power windows for all doors. Safety Power windows have come under some scrutiny after several fatal accidents in which children's necks have become trapped, leading to suffocation. Some designs place the switch in a location on a hand rest where it can be accidentally triggered by a child climbing to place his or her head out of the window. To prevent this, many vehicles feature a driver-controlled lockout switch, preventing rear-seat passengers (usually smaller children) from accidentally triggering the switches. This also prevents children from playing with them and pets riding with their heads out windows",
"-27.51122710715572"
],
[
"be labelled with a specific symbol if it is not located on the left side of the steering column. The international UN Regulations do not include analogous specifications.\nVirtually all vehicles (except many motorcycles and commercial semi-tractors) have a turn-indicator self-cancelling feature that returns the lever to the neutral (no signal) position as the steering wheel approaches the straight-ahead position after a turn has been made. Beginning in the late 1960s, indicating for a lane change was facilitated by the addition of a spring-loaded momentary signal-on position just shy of the left and right detents. The signal operates for however long",
"-27.489858084067237"
],
[
"as automatic rain sensing windshield wipers and headlight washers. A smart key is available as an option coupled with two position memory seat that memorizes driver's seat positions and adjustments, exterior mirror adjustment, and climate control settings. The settings can be customized based on the smart key module being used to unlock and start the car. The Outback can be fitted with twin white LED lights installed on the interior hatch vertically surrounding the rear window, with a separate light switch for additional illumination when the rear hatch is open.\nOn the first anniversary of the introduction of the fourth generation,",
"-27.466248313634424"
],
[
"with specific units that meet road regulations, and a windscreen wiper and washer jets have been added. The rear bumper has been modified to allow for a Euro-spec registration plate to be installed, along with plate lights, and a reflector. The rear wing plates' ends contain an amber light strip for direction indicators, and the fuel cap has been modified. As for the interior, the seats (which originally had head support) have been changed to allow for visibility, and the steering wheel has been drastically modified. The doors are central locking, and the car contains an immobiliser key.\nAccording to RML,",
"-27.460061833960935"
],
[
"reverse, only doing so when the car was completely stopped. Pushing a button on the shift control preselected the chosen gear. The electrical circuit was closed only after the driver fully depressed the clutch pedal. This energized the appropriate transmission mounted solenoids necessary for returning the transmission to neutral and then completing engagement of the preselected gear; the driver would then release the clutch pedal to continue onwards. These seemed to have been very advanced automotive systems. The Vulcan Electric Shift Company was located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and was eventually bought out by Cutler-Hammer. The model year 1914",
"-27.445377984142397"
],
[
"clutch when they are trying to stay stationary on a hill without using neutral and the brake. They apply the clutch to climb a bit, then release to roll back, then apply again, etc. so that the car stays in about the same place. With enough practice, alternating is no longer needed. Applying the correct amount of clutch pressure and throttle causes just enough force from the engine to counter gravity and keep the vehicle stationary (See Balancing the clutch). The alternative to this technique of staying stationary on a hill would be to put the vehicle in neutral and",
"-27.431745797628537"
],
[
"to lessen wind resistance, the outside or \"cadet-type\" sun visors were no longer seen on cars starting from 1932. Henceforth, sun visors were mounted inside the vehicle, making the hinged flap easier to reach and adjust. Some were made of green mica.\nMost modern cars have two sun visors, one for the driver's side and a second for the passenger's side, with the rear-view mirror often mounted in between the two sun visors. Each visor can be lowered to help block light from the sun entering through the windshield. Some are designed so they can be released from one bracket and",
"-27.408440752062234"
],
[
"on the driving situation, driving skill and strength of the driver, steering assist loss may or may not lead to a crash. The difficulty of steering with inoperative power steering is compounded by the choice of steering ratios in assisted steering gears vs. fully manual. The NHTSA has assisted car manufacturers with recalling EPAS systems prone to failure.\nElectric systems have an advantage in fuel efficiency because there is no belt-driven hydraulic pump constantly running, whether assistance is required or not, and this is a major reason for their introduction. Another major advantage is the elimination of a belt-driven engine",
"-27.400045917136595"
],
[
"windshield maintains its position until changed with the rocker switch, even when the ignition is turned off.\nA number of changes were made beginning with the 2006 model year, including adding a rider-adjustable airflow system.\nAll Gen-II AE/AS models (and some A models, depending on year and market) have standard integrated heated handlebar grips with speed sensitive adjustment (available as an aftermarket OEM kit for models not so equipped by the factory). The handlebars are position adjustable, with 3 settings, and the seat is adjustable to high or low, with about an inch between the two.\nLocking side panniers are supplied as standard",
"-27.396448991959915"
]
] |
88u4t9 | Why can there never be true randomness? | [
" > So why can't there be true randomness We don't know that there cannot be, and indeed certain physical phenomena that we observe appears to be truly random, at least on an extremely small scale. So the assumption is not supported by current evidence.",
"In computing, random number generators are technically pseudo random number generators, denoting that they aren't truly random. Most use some seed value, commonly the number of milliseconds since January 1st, 1970, then perform a variety of bitwise mathematical operators on that number to generate streams of bits. Chunks of those bits are then taken and interpreted as a sequence of numbers. A good algorithm will be spread evenly enough that it can be used as if truly random, but if you reuse the same seed value, you can reproduce the same sequence of numbers. This is actually good for computing in that you often want to be able to recreate interesting results should the sequence expose something in your program. If you want to extend it beyond computing, the idea that there is no true randomness can be reflected in that if you knew the state of every atom in the universe in any particular moment and perfectly understood the laws of physics, you could theoretically predict everything that happens from that state.",
"This is incorrect. Quantum physics makes it perfectly clear that many phenomena, such as the moment an atom decays, or the polarization of a particular photon, are indeed random.",
"It's hard to know whether 'true randomness' randomness really exists. We have, perhaps, one example of values which might be truly random, which are measurements which can be taken on the quantum level. However, it is possible that these are not **actually** random, but are just impossible for us to predict, and if we knew the starting conditions and the method by which the values are changed, we might be able to guess them. Functionally, what 'random' number generators really provide is either practically *unpredictable* numbers (in the case of cryptographic RNGs) or numbers that are less unpredictable but which are suitable for, say, games, which need to make the different possible values are all likely to be hit at some point. In the case of cryptographic randomness, they use events, such as keystrokes, the current time, packets on the network card, etc, to use as inputs to the random number generator. These would be incredibly hard to reproduce or guess anywhere else, so the numbers that come out are unpredictable and thus 'random' for practical purposes. In the case of non-cryptographic RNGs, a seed number is used as the starting point. This is often saved so that debugging can happen when replaying, say, a game to find out what values are being sent out. The RNG seed number is sometimes saved in games to make sure that reloading at the same point gets similar outputs each time.",
"You *can* have true randomness. Quantum mechanics are legitimately based on 100% random outcomes, albeit weighted a certain way. One way to have a truly random number would be to put a smoke detector (contains radioactive Americium) next to a geiger counter, and time the wait between clicks. Weigh the time appropriately and voila, true randomness.",
"Random number generators in computers are really pseudo random number generators since they use a mathematical algorithm to generate the number. Any mathematical algorithm is deterministic and therefore not random. Whether there is anyway to create true randomness I'm not sure. I suspect some mathematicians will have a dissertation on the meaning of randomness."
] | [
[
"one possible outcome of a process.\nMethods for obtaining random numbers have existed for a long time and are used in many different fields (such as gaming). However, these numbers suffer from a certain bias. Currently the best methods expected to produce truly random sequences are natural methods that take advantage of the random nature of quantum phenomena.",
"-32.654801565862726"
],
[
"of a test for randomness. This contrasts with the idea of randomness in probability; in that theory, no particular element of a sample space can be said to be random.\nMartin-Löf randomness has since been shown to admit many equivalent characterizations — in terms of compression, randomness tests, and gambling — that bear little outward resemblance to the original definition, but each of which satisfies our intuitive notion of properties that random sequences ought to have: random sequences should be incompressible, they should pass statistical tests for randomness, and it should be impossible to make money betting on them. The existence",
"-32.4202073632041"
],
[
"ones as random if it is not biased by having the frequency stability property i.e. the frequency of zeros goes to 1/2 and every sub-sequence we can select from it by a \"proper\" method of selection is also not biased.\nThe sub-sequence selection criterion imposed by von Mises is important, because although 0101010101... is not biased, by selecting the odd positions, we get 000000... which is not random. Von Mises never totally formalized his definition of a proper selection rule for sub-sequences, but in 1940 Alonzo Church defined it as any recursive function which having read the first N elements of",
"-31.806099346315023"
],
[
"as random.\nA sufficient reason is sometimes described as the coincidence of every single thing that is needed for the occurrence of an effect (i.e. of the so-called necessary conditions). Such view could perhaps be also applied to indeterministic systems, as long as randomness is in a way incorporated in the preconditions. Schopenhauer's Four Forms According to Schopenhauer's On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, there are four distinct forms of the principle.\nFirst Form: The Principle of Sufficient Reason of Becoming (principium rationis sufficientis fiendi); appears as the law of causality in the understanding.\nSecond Form: The Principle of",
"-31.657451761420816"
],
[
"Random group In mathematics, random groups are certain groups obtained by a probabilistic construction. They were introduced by Misha Gromov to answer questions such as \"What does a typical group look like?\"\nIt so happens that, once a precise definition is given, random groups satisfy some properties with very high probability, whereas other properties fail with very high probability. For instance, very probably random groups are hyperbolic groups. In this sense, one can say that \"most groups are hyperbolic\". The few-relator model of random groups The simplest model of random groups is the few-relator model. In this model, a number of",
"-31.47892274183687"
],
[
"should be non-random. However, the halting probability Ω is and 1-random; it is only after 2-randomness is reached that it is impossible for a random set to be . Weaker than Martin-Löf randomness Additionally, there are several notions of randomness which are weaker than Martin-Löf randomness. Some of these are weak 1-randomness, Schnorr randomness, computable randomness, partial computable randomness. Yongge Wang showed \nthat Schnorr randomness is different from computable randomness. Additionally, Kolmogorov-Loveland randomness is known to be no stronger than Martin-Löf randomness, but it is not known whether it is actually weaker. \nAt the opposite end of the",
"-31.302609930440667"
],
[
"able to produce a tiny statistical deviation from chance. The physicist Robert L. Park wrote it was not clear if any of the machines used were random and there are no truly random machines, therefore it was possible that the lack of randomness only began to show up after many trials.\nPark questioned if mind really could influence matter then it would be easy for parapsychologists to measure such a phenomenon by using the alleged psychokinetic power to deflect a microbalance which would not require any dubious statistics but \"the reason, of course, is that the microbalance stubbornly refuses to budge.\"",
"-31.228408229828347"
],
[
"address chance and randomness. Around 400 BC, Democritus presented a view of the world as governed by the unambiguous laws of order and considered randomness as a subjective concept that only originated from the inability of humans to understand the nature of events. He used the example of two men who would send their servants to bring water at the same time to cause them to meet. The servants, unaware of the plan, would view the meeting as random.\nAristotle saw chance and necessity as opposite forces. He argued that nature had rich and constant patterns that could not be the",
"-30.93044094191282"
],
[
"short segment than would be predicted by chance, a phenomenon known as insensitivity to sample size. Kahneman and Tversky interpret this to mean that people believe short sequences of random events should be representative of longer ones. The representativeness heuristic is also cited behind the related phenomenon of the clustering illusion, according to which people see streaks of random events as being non-random when such streaks are actually much more likely to occur in small samples than people expect.\nThe gambler's fallacy can also be attributed to the mistaken belief that gambling, or even chance itself, is a fair process that",
"-30.74674585802495"
],
[
"related interpretations or versions of the problem, most authors use the Bayesian interpretation of probability, which means that probability reasoning is not only applied to truly random events like the random pick of an envelope, but also to our knowledge (or lack of knowledge) about things which are fixed but unknown, like the two amounts originally placed in the two envelopes, before one is picked at random and called \"Envelope A\". Moreover, according to a long tradition going back at least to Laplace and his principle of insufficient reason one is supposed to assign equal probabilities when one has no",
"-30.694869527127594"
],
[
"randomness is a fundamental property of mathematics and not an accident of Martin-Löf's particular model. The thesis that the definition of Martin-Löf randomness \"correctly\" captures the intuitive notion of randomness has been called the Martin-Löf–Chaitin Thesis; it is somewhat similar to the Church–Turing thesis. Interpretations of the definitions The Kolmogorov complexity characterization conveys the intuition that a random sequence is incompressible: no prefix can be produced by a program much shorter than the prefix.\nThe null cover characterization conveys the intuition that a random real number should not have any property that is “uncommon”. Each measure 0 set can be",
"-30.562223339919"
],
[
"formal analysis of probability and randomness.\nThe first known suggestion for viewing randomness in terms of complexity was made by Leibniz in an obscure 17th-century document discovered after his death. Leibniz asked how one could know if a set of points on a piece of paper were selected at random (e.g. by splattering ink) or not. Given that for any set of finite points there is always a mathematical equation that can describe the points, (e.g. by Lagrangian interpolation) the question focuses on the way the points are expressed mathematically. Leibniz viewed the points as random if the function describing them",
"-30.403263841872104"
],
[
"Applications of randomness Randomness has many uses in science, art, statistics, cryptography, gaming, gambling, and other fields. For example, random assignment in randomized controlled trials helps scientists to test hypotheses, and random numbers or pseudorandom numbers help video games such as video poker.\nThese uses have different levels of requirements, which leads to the use of different methods. Mathematically, there are distinctions between randomization, pseudorandomization, and quasirandomization, as well as between random number generators and pseudorandom number generators. For example, applications in cryptography usually have strict requirements, whereas other uses (such as generating a \"quote of the day\") can use a",
"-30.156293530584662"
],
[
"come from the unexpected — yet humans later convince themselves that these events are explainable in hindsight.\nOne problem, labeled the ludic fallacy by Taleb, is the belief that the unstructured randomness found in life resembles the structured randomness found in games. This stems from the assumption that the unexpected may be predicted by extrapolating from variations in statistics based on past observations, especially when these statistics are presumed to represent samples from a normal distribution. These concerns often are highly relevant in financial markets, where major players sometimes assume normal distributions when using value at risk models, although market returns",
"-30.114284107869025"
],
[
", could tell whether they were uniformly random or from . If we need to distinguish uniformly random samples from , where is chosen uniformly at random from , we could simply try different values sampled uniformly at random from , calculate and feed these samples to . Since comprises a large fraction of , with high probability, if we choose a polynomial number of values for , we will find one such that , and will successfully distinguish the samples.\nThus, no such can exist, meaning LWE and DLWE are (up to",
"-30.015338004013756"
],
[
"will be random relative to the other. Any time there is a Turing reduction from one sequence to another, the second sequence cannot be random relative to the first, just as computable sequences are themselves nonrandom; in particular, this means that Chaitin's Ω is not random relative to the halting problem.\nAn important result relating to relative randomness is van Lambalgen's theorem, which states that if C is the sequence composed from A and B by interleaving the first bit of A, the first bit of B, the second bit of A, the second bit of B, and so on, then",
"-29.906038025044836"
],
[
"rules always have nonrandomised alternatives, they are unnecessary in Bayesian statistics. However, in frequentist statistics, randomised rules are theoretically necessary under certain situations, and were thought to be useful in practice when they were first invented: Egon Pearson forecast that \nthey 'will not meet with strong objection'. However, few statisticians actually implement them nowadays. Randomised test In the usual formulation of the likelihood ratio test, the null hypothesis is rejected whenever the likelihood ratio is smaller than some constant , and accepted otherwise. However, this is sometimes problematic when is discrete under the null hypothesis, when is",
"-29.852227753173793"
],
[
"sample space can be said to be random.\nMartin-Löf randomness has since been shown to admit many equivalent characterizations — in terms of compression, randomness tests, and gambling — that bear little outward resemblance to the original definition, but each of which satisfy our intuitive notion of properties that random sequences ought to have: random sequences should be incompressible, they should pass statistical tests for randomness, and it should be difficult to make money betting on them. The existence of these multiple definitions of Martin-Löf randomness, and the stability of these definitions under different models of computation, give evidence that Martin-Löf",
"-29.755234742944594"
],
[
"until the 16th century.\nThe development of the concept of chance throughout history has been very gradual. Historians have wondered why progress in the field of randomness was so slow, given that humans have encountered chance since antiquity. Deborah Bennett suggests that ordinary people face an inherent difficulty in understanding randomness, although the concept is often taken as being obvious and self-evident. She cites studies by Kahneman and Tversky; these concluded that statistical principles are not learned from everyday experience because people do not attend to the detail necessary to gain such knowledge.\nThe Greek philosophers were the earliest Western thinkers to",
"-29.649169168318622"
],
[
"The study looked at the inability of respondents to properly understand randomness and random events; much like innumeracy can impair a person's judgement of statistical information, the hot hand fallacy can lead people to form incorrect assumptions regarding random events. The three researchers provide an example in the study regarding the \"coin toss\"; respondents expected even short sequences of heads and tails to be approximately 50% heads and 50% tails. The study proposed two biases that are created by the kind of thought pattern applied to the coin toss: it could lead an individual to believe that the probability of",
"-29.26655119677889"
],
[
"quantum randomness Quantum indeterminacy is often understood as information (or lack of it) whose existence we infer, occurring in individual quantum systems, prior to measurement. Quantum randomness is the statistical manifestation of that indeterminacy, witnessable in results of experiments repeated many times. However, the relationship between quantum indeterminacy and randomness is subtle and can be considered differently.\nIn classical physics, experiments of chance, such as coin-tossing and dice-throwing, are deterministic, in the sense that, perfect knowledge of the initial conditions would render outcomes perfectly predictable. The ‘randomness’ stems from ignorance of physical information in the initial toss or throw. In",
"-29.084226541570388"
],
[
"randomized rounding), and information theory. Introduction If every object in a collection of objects fails to have a certain property, then the probability that a random object chosen from the collection has that property is zero.\nSimilarly, showing that the probability is (strictly) less than 1 can be used to prove the existence of an object that does not satisfy the prescribed properties.\nAnother way to use the probabilistic method is by calculating the expected value of some random variable. If it can be shown that the random variable can take on a value less than the expected value, this proves that",
"-29.0554988943652"
],
[
"acceptable. Their use may be tempting, but in reality, they permit easier attacks than attacking the cryptography.\nSince most cryptographic applications require a few thousand bits at most, slow random number generators serve well—if they are actually random. This use of random generators is important; many informed observers believe every computer should have a way to generate true random numbers. Literature, music and art Some aesthetic theories claim to be based on randomness in one way or another. Little testing is done in these situations, and so claims of reliance on and use of randomness are generally poorly based in definite",
"-28.971101485949475"
],
[
"random numbers. It attempts to constantly replenish the pool, depending on the level of importance, and so will issue a random number. In computational complexity In theoretical computer science, a distribution is pseudorandom against a class of adversaries if no adversary from the class can distinguish it from the uniform distribution with significant advantage.\nThis notion of pseudorandomness is studied in computational complexity theory and has applications to cryptography.\nFormally, let S and T be finite sets and let F = {f: S → T} be a class of functions. A distribution D over S is ε-pseudorandom against F if for",
"-28.89616047492018"
],
[
"result of chance alone, but that these patterns never displayed the machine-like uniformity of necessary determinism. He viewed randomness as a genuine and widespread part of the world, but as subordinate to necessity and order. Aristotle classified events into three types: certain events that happen necessarily; probable events that happen in most cases; and unknowable events that happen by pure chance. He considered the outcome of games of chance as unknowable.\nAround 300 BC Epicurus proposed the concept that randomness exists by itself, independent of human knowledge. He believed that in the atomic world, atoms would swerve at random along",
"-28.84209792211186"
],
[
"small expected running time, whatever the input order. Randomness In theory, randomization functions are assumed to be truly random, and yield an unpredictably different function every time the algorithm is executed. The randomization technique would not work if, at every execution of the algorithm, the randomization function always performed the same mapping, or a mapping entirely determined by some externally observable parameter (such as the program's startup time). With such a \"pseudo-randomization\" function, one could in principle construct a sequence of calls such that the function would always yield a \"bad\" case for the underlying deterministic algorithm. ",
"-28.808052570559084"
],
[
"m, and the constants a and b, where x' = ax +b (mod m), given only five consecutive values. Even if a better random number generator is used, it might be insecure (e.g., the seed might be guessable), producing predictable keys and reducing security to nil. (A vulnerability of this sort was famously discovered in an early release of Netscape Navigator, forcing the authors to quickly find a source of \"more random\" random numbers.) For these applications, truly random numbers are ideal, and very high quality pseudo-random numbers are necessary if truly random numbers, such as coming from a hardware",
"-28.782008628164476"
],
[
"random process. Since we have no problem at all inferring that such objects must have had an intelligent designer who created it for some purpose, we ought to draw the same conclusion for another complex and apparently designed object: the universe.\nHume argued that the universe and a watch have many relevant dissimilarities; for instance, the universe is often very disorderly and random. This is the strategy of \"disanalogy\": just as the amount and variety of relevant similarities between two objects strengthens an analogical conclusion, so do the amount and variety of relevant dissimilarities weaken it. Creating a \"counteranalogy,\" Hume",
"-28.74367436618195"
],
[
"Convergence of random variables In probability theory, there exist several different notions of convergence of random variables. The convergence of sequences of random variables to some limit random variable is an important concept in probability theory, and its applications to statistics and stochastic processes. The same concepts are known in more general mathematics as stochastic convergence and they formalize the idea that a sequence of essentially random or unpredictable events can sometimes be expected to settle down into a behavior that is essentially unchanging when items far enough into the sequence are studied. The different possible notions of convergence",
"-28.741809798113536"
],
[
"that almost every sequence (from the point of view of the standard measure—\"fair coin\" or Lebesgue measure—on the space of infinite binary sequences) is random. Also, since it can be shown that the Kolmogorov complexity relative to two different universal machines differs by at most a constant, the collection of random infinite sequences does not depend on the choice of universal machine (in contrast to finite strings). This definition of randomness is usually called Martin-Löf randomness, after Per Martin-Löf, to distinguish it from other similar notions of randomness. It is also sometimes called 1-randomness to distinguish it from other stronger",
"-28.69193614536198"
],
[
"History of randomness In ancient history, the concepts of chance and randomness were intertwined with that of fate. Many ancient peoples threw dice to determine fate, and this later evolved into games of chance. At the same time, most ancient cultures used various methods of divination to attempt to circumvent randomness and fate.\nThe Chinese were perhaps the earliest people to formalize odds and chance 3,000 years ago. The Greek philosophers discussed randomness at length, but only in non-quantitative forms. It was only in the sixteenth century that Italian mathematicians began to formalize the odds associated with various games of chance.",
"-28.689405512297526"
],
[
"randomness of its own—often described by a different equation driven by a different Brownian Motion—the model is called a stochastic volatility model.",
"-28.57618713960983"
],
[
"random (in the sense of being invented out of thin air by the author, not in a modern technical sense). See also Eugenio Montale, Theatre of the Absurd.\nRandomness in music is generally thought to be postmodern, including John Cage's chance derived Music of Changes, stochastic music, aleatoric music, indeterminate music, or generative music. Other uses Random numbers are also used in situations where \"fairness\" is approximated by randomization, such as selecting jurors and military draft lotteries. In the Book of Numbers (33:54), Moses commands the Israelites to apportion the land by lot.\nOther examples include selecting, or generating, a \"Random Quote",
"-28.46730820776429"
],
[
"but generally proceeds to discuss the properties of random variables and stochastic sequences assuming some definition of randomness. The Bourbaki school considered the statement \"let us consider a random sequence\" an abuse of language. Early history Émile Borel was one of the first mathematicians to formally address randomness in 1909. In 1919 Richard von Mises gave the first definition of algorithmic randomness, which was inspired by the law of large numbers, although he used the term collective rather than random sequence. Using the concept of the impossibility of a gambling system, von Mises defined an infinite sequence of zeros and",
"-28.223176354898897"
],
[
"but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be 'prepared for luck' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected. This is what Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls \"Anti-fragility\"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile). Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it will flourish in the real world.\nPsychologist",
"-28.20128000810655"
],
[
"Interesting number paradox The interesting number paradox is a semi-humorous paradox which arises from the attempt to classify every natural number as either \"interesting\" or \"dull\" (or \"boring\" or \"uninteresting\"). The paradox states that every natural number is interesting. The \"proof\" is by contradiction: if there exists a non-empty set of uninteresting natural numbers, there would be a smallest uninteresting number – but the smallest uninteresting number is itself interesting because it is the smallest uninteresting number, thus producing a contradiction.\nThe number 1729 has been called a taxicab number, because in a discussion between the mathematicians G. H. Hardy and",
"-28.1876354724227"
],
[
"generally be subject to sample-to-sample variation. These variations in the possible sample values of a statistic can theoretically be expressed as sampling errors, although in practice the exact sampling error is typically unknown. Sampling error also refers more broadly to this phenomenon of random sampling variation.\nRandom sampling, and its derived terms such as sampling error, simply specific procedures for gathering and analyzing data that are rigorously applied as a method for arriving at results considered representative of a given population as a whole. Despite a common misunderstanding, \"random\" does not mean the same thing as \"chance\" as this idea is",
"-28.160682291840203"
],
[
"random numbers; the original ERNIE used a gas neon diode. In contrast, pseudorandom numbers, although sometimes simply referred to as random, are produced deterministically by the algorithm used to generate them. The randomness of ERNIE's numbers derived from random statistical fluctuations in the physical processes involved. ERNIE's output was independently tested each month by the Government Actuary's Department, the draw being valid only if it was certified to be statistically consistent with randomness. At the end of its life it was moved to Bletchley Park's National Museum of Computing. \nERNIE 5, the latest model, was brought into service in March",
"-28.132051772176055"
],
[
"Random man not excluded The probability produced with this method is the probability that a person randomly selected out the population could not be excluded from the analyzed data. This type of match statistic is easy to explain in a courtroom setting to individuals who have no scientific background but it also loses a lot of discriminating power as it does not take into account the suspect's genotype. This approach is commonly used when the sample is degraded or contains so many contributors that a singular profile cannot be determined. It is also useful in explaining to laypersons as the",
"-28.031230157066602"
],
[
"origins of quantum randomness An isolated quantum mechanical system, specified by a wave function, evolves in time in a deterministic way according to the Schrödinger equation that is characteristic of the system. Though the wave function can generate probabilities, no randomness or probability is involved in the temporal evolution of the wave function itself. This is agreed, for example, by Born, Dirac, von Neumann, London & Bauer, Messiah, and Feynman & Hibbs. An isolated system is not subject to observation; in quantum theory, this is because observation is an intervention that violates isolation.\nThe system's initial state is defined by the",
"-27.991861972521292"
],
[
"in trajectories during the numerical integration of the equations.\nDuring the 19th century, as probability theory was formalized and better understood, the attitude towards \"randomness as nuisance\" began to be questioned. Goethe wrote:\nThe tissue of the world\nis built from necessities and randomness;\nthe intellect of men places itself between both\nand can control them;\nit considers the necessity \nand the reason of its existence;\nit knows how randomness can be\nmanaged, controlled, and used.\nThe words of Goethe proved prophetic, when in the 20th century randomized algorithms were discovered as powerful tools. By the end of the 19th century, Newton's model of a mechanical universe was fading",
"-27.966876759790466"
],
[
"an example of what Martin calls the probability trap of treating non-random information as if it were random, and relates this to concepts in the game of bridge.\nA restated version of Selvin's problem appeared in Marilyn vos Savant's Ask Marilyn question-and-answer column of Parade in September 1990. (vos Savant 1990a) Though vos Savant gave the correct answer that switching would win two-thirds of the time, she estimates the magazine received 10,000 letters including close to 1,000 signed by PhDs, many on letterheads of mathematics and science departments, declaring that her solution was wrong. (Tierney 1991) Due to the overwhelming response,",
"-27.956629933294607"
],
[
"the term is therefore often used without being meticulously defined. Guessing may combine elements of deduction, induction, abduction, and the purely random selection of one choice from a set of given options. Guessing may also involve the intuition of the guesser, who may have a \"gut feeling\" about which answer is correct without necessarily being able to articulate a reason for having this feeling. Gradations of guessing Philosopher Mark Tschaepe, who has written extensively on the scientific and epistemological role of guessing, has noted that there are often-overlooked \"gradations\" of guessing - that is, different kinds of guesses susceptible to",
"-27.875054133677622"
],
[
"sampling, there is non-random sample selection and this can be unreliable. For example, interviewers might be tempted to interview those people in the street who look most helpful, or may choose to use accidental sampling to question those closest to them, to save time. The problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection, whereas in stratified sampling (its probabilistic version), the chance of any unit of the population is the same as 1/n (n= number of units in the population). This non-random element is a source of uncertainty about the nature of",
"-27.864076269994257"
],
[
"random events or phenomena with suitable Poisson point processes. The more rigorous methods involve deriving upper bounds on the probability metrics between the Poisson and non-Poisson point processes, while other methods can be justified by less formal heuristics. Clumping heuristic One method for approximating random events or phenomena with Poisson processes is called the clumping heuristic. The general heuristic or principle involves using the Poisson point process (or Poisson distribution) to approximate events, which are considered rare or unlikely, of some stochastic process. In some cases these rare events are close to being independent, hence a Poisson point",
"-27.75602017476922"
],
[
"chance (τύχη), others through our own agency (παρ’ ἡμᾶς).\n ...necessity destroys responsibility and chance is inconstant; whereas our own actions are autonomous, and it is to them that praise and blame naturally attach.\nLucretius (1st century BCE), a strong supporter of Epicurus, saw the randomness as enabling free will, even if he could not explain exactly how, beyond the fact that random swerves would break the causal chain of determinism.\n Again, if all motion is always one long chain, and new motion arises out of the old in order invariable, and if the first-beginnings do",
"-27.61484623630531"
],
[
"of sampling variability. Random error is just that: random. It can occur during data collection, coding, transfer, or analysis. Examples of random error include: poorly worded questions, a misunderstanding in interpreting an individual answer from a particular respondent, or a typographical error during coding. Random error affects measurement in a transient, inconsistent manner and it is impossible to correct for random error.\nThere is random error in all sampling procedures. This is called sampling error.\nPrecision in epidemiological variables is a measure of random error. Precision is also inversely related to random error, so that to reduce random error is to increase",
"-27.5453617389976"
],
[
"Random sequence The concept of a random sequence is essential in probability theory and statistics. The concept generally relies on the notion of a sequence of random variables and many statistical discussions begin with the words \"let X₁,...,Xₙ be independent random variables...\". Yet as D. H. Lehmer stated in 1951: \"A random sequence is a vague notion... in which each term is unpredictable to the uninitiated and whose digits pass a certain number of tests traditional with statisticians\".\nAxiomatic probability theory deliberately avoids a definition of a random sequence. Traditional probability theory does not state if a specific sequence is random,",
"-27.483447051257826"
],
[
"sequences which are not random relative to the oracle A. Important oracles often considered are the halting problem, , and the nth jump oracle, , as these oracles are able to answer specific questions which naturally arise. A sequence which is random relative to the oracle is called n-random; a sequence is 1-random, therefore, if and only if it is Martin-Löf random. A sequence which is n-random for every n is called arithmetically random. The n-random sequences sometimes arise when considering more complicated properties. For example, there are only countably many sets, so one might think that these",
"-27.478526102844626"
],
[
"by contrast.\n— Lachesis\nThe Random and the Purpose are concepts elaborating the \"grammar\" of All-World introduced in Insomnia. The Purpose and the Random are driving forces on the different levels (worlds or realities) the Dark Tower connects. There are even stronger forms like the Higher Purpose and the Higher Random. It is not totally clear whether these higher forms are multiple individual beings sharing a common aim, or if they are underlying forces not bound to personal forms. Both Purpose and Random have so-called agents, middlemen between ordinary human beings (\"Short-Timers\") and the god-like All-Timers. Clotho and Lachesis are agents of the",
"-27.44273778027855"
],
[
"betting on a random sequence. Relative randomness As each of the equivalent definitions of a Martin-Löf random sequence is based on what is computable by some Turing machine, one can naturally ask what is computable by a Turing oracle machine. For a fixed oracle A, a sequence B which is not only random but in fact, satisfies the equivalent definitions for computability relative to A (e.g., no martingale which is constructive relative to the oracle A succeeds on B) is said to be random relative to A. Two sequences, while themselves random, may contain very similar information, and therefore neither",
"-27.41408444312401"
],
[
"fact that whatever happens with probability greater than must happen sometimes; one may say with equal justice that many applications of probabilistic number theory hinge on the fact that whatever is unusual must be rare. If certain algebraic objects (say, rational or integer solutions to certain equations) can be shown to be in the tail of certain sensibly defined distributions, it follows that there must be few of them; this is a very concrete non-probabilistic statement following from a probabilistic one.\nAt times, a non-rigorous, probabilistic approach leads to a number of heuristic algorithms and open problems, notably Cramér's conjecture.",
"-27.411915565258823"
],
[
"sometimes used in contexts where it has nothing to do with physical randomness. Consider, for example, the claim that the extinction of the dinosaurs was probably caused by a large meteorite hitting the earth. Statements such as \"Hypothesis H is probably true\" have been interpreted to mean that the (presently available) empirical evidence (E, say) supports H to a high degree. This degree of support of H by E has been called the logical probability of H given E, or the epistemic probability of H given E, or the inductive probability of H given E.\nThe differences between",
"-27.392157289083116"
],
[
"of random element in which a single outcome is selected from some family of functions, where the family consists some class of all maps from the domain to the codomain. For example, the class may be restricted to all continuous functions or to all step functions. The values determined by a random function evaluated at different points from the same realization would not generally be statistically independent but, depending on the model, values determined at the same or different points from different realisations might well be treated as independent. Random process A Random process is a collection of random variables,",
"-27.141570838080952"
],
[
"choice the \"real\" chooser is going to make. Fatalism Newcomb's paradox is related to logical fatalism in that they both suppose absolute certainty of the future. In logical fatalism, this assumption of certainty creates circular reasoning (\"a future event is certain to happen, therefore it is certain to happen\"), while Newcomb's paradox considers whether the participants of its game are able to affect a predestined outcome. Extensions to Newcomb's problem Many thought experiments similar to or based on Newcomb's problem have been discussed in the literature. For example, a quantum-theoretical version of Newcomb's problem in which box B is entangled",
"-27.109388529497664"
],
[
" the field of probability and in more applied disciplines concerning random phenomena, due to its convenient properties as a mathematical model as well as being mathematically interesting. Depending on the setting, the process has several equivalent definitions as well as definitions of varying generality owing to its many applications and characterizations.\nA Poisson point process is defined on some underlying mathematical space, called a carrier space, or state space, though the latter term has a different meaning in the context of stochastic processes. The Poisson point process can be defined, studied and used in one dimension,",
"-27.095558697008528"
],
[
"is in a sense a conceptual abstraction, because, according to the Copenhagen approach, it is defined, not in its own right as an actual entity, but by the two macroscopic devices that should prepare and observe it. The random variability of the prepared specimens does not exhaust the randomness of a detected specimen. Further randomness is injected by the quantum randomness of the observing device. It is this further randomness that makes Bohr emphasize that there is randomness in the observation that is not fully described by the randomness of the preparation. This is what Bohr means when he says",
"-27.09444489465386"
],
[
"or equivalent. The groups may still differ on some preexisting attribute due to chance. The use of random assignment cannot eliminate this possibility, but it greatly reduces it.\nTo express this same idea statistically - If a randomly assigned group is compared to the mean it may be discovered that they differ, even though they were assigned from the same group. If a test of statistical significance is applied to randomly assigned groups to test the difference between sample means against the null hypothesis that they are equal to the same population mean (i.e., population mean of differences = 0), given",
"-27.084207816165872"
],
[
"can lead to algorithm failure because of \"dithering\". Deterministic search algorithms may use a slope function to go to a minimum. If the slope is very small, then underflow errors can cause the algorithm to wander, seemingly aimlessly; this is dithering. Finding value Guess values can be determined a number of ways. Guessing is one of them. If one is familiar with the type of problem, then this is an educated guess or guesstimate. Other techniques include linearization, solving simultaneous equations, reducing dimensions, treating the problem as a time series, converting the problem to a (hopefully) linear differential equation, and",
"-27.052433436736465"
],
[
"with 1 than with 2, more with 2 than with 3, etc. These proportions are measurable and expected for certain types of populations; there are distributions for both first and second digits. Since people cannot effectively create random numbers, there is a good chance that human-fabricated numbers will not follow Benford's law for the distribution of digits. Other experts, such as Joseph Deckert, Mikhail Myagkov and Peter C. Ordeshook from University of Oregon and California Institute of Technology, argue that fraud can move data in direction of satisfying that law. In a paper titled \"Benford’s Law and the",
"-27.05003500437124"
],
[
"randomised decision rules thus creates a larger decision space from which the statistician may choose his decision. As non-randomised decision rules are a special case of randomised decision rules where one decision or action has probability 1, the original decision space is a proper subset of the new decision space . Selection of randomised decision rules As with nonrandomised decision rules, randomised decision rules may satisfy favourable properties such as admissibility, minimaxity and Bayes. This shall be illustrated in the case of a finite decision problem, i.e. a problem where the parameter space is a finite set of, say,",
"-27.04954891477246"
],
[
"may very well happen in spite of the fact that some data render it improbable. In the case of the swans, a man might know that colour is a very variable characteristic in many species of animals, and that, therefore, an induction as to colour is peculiarly liable to error. But this knowledge would be a fresh datum, by no means proving that the probability relatively to our previous data had been wrongly estimated. The fact, therefore, that things often fail to fulfill our expectations is no evidence that our expectations will not probably be fulfilled in a given case",
"-27.02138909822679"
],
[
"other instances, imply various suppositions made, of which some one turns out to be the right one\".\nBy contrast, a guess made using prior knowledge to eliminate clearly wrong possibilities may be called an informed guess or an educated guess. Uninformed guesses can be distinguished from the kind of informed guesses that lead to the development of a scientific hypothesis. Tschaepe notes that \"[t]his process of guessing is distinct from that of a coin toss or picking a number\". It has also been noted that \"[w]hen a decision must be made, the educated guess of the experts will be the best",
"-27.0064210833807"
],
[
"Algorithmically random sequence History The first suitable definition of a random sequence was given by Per Martin-Löf in 1966. Earlier researchers such as Richard von Mises had attempted to formalize the notion of a test for randomness in order to define a random sequence as one that passed all tests for randomness; however, the precise notion of a randomness test was left vague. Martin-Löf's key insight was to use the theory of computation to formally define the notion of a test for randomness. This contrasts with the idea of randomness in probability; in that theory, no particular element of a",
"-26.978444663218397"
],
[
"whether or not there was a perception on the part of a reasonable person that there would be a real likelihood of bias\". The concept of \"likelihood\" entails \"possibility\" and not \"probability\". Phang opined that this is simply another way of stating that there is a \"reasonable suspicion\" on the part of the person concerned, meaning that although the concept of \"reasonable suspicion\" is supposed to be of a less stringent standard, this standard is reflected in the concept of \"possibility\" and thus there is essentially no substantial difference in the two tests. In addition, the word real in the",
"-26.9338129813259"
],
[
"algorithm would still have as many \"bad\" cases as the original, they will be certain peculiar orders that would be quite unlikely to arise in real applications. So, in practice one often uses randomization functions that are derived from pseudo-random number generators, preferably seeded with external \"random\" data such as the program's startup time. Uniformity The uniformity requirements for a randomizing function are usually much weaker than those of hash functions and pseudo-random generators. The minimum requirement is that it maps any input of the deterministic algorithm into a \"good\" input with a sufficiently high probability. (However,",
"-26.92530870102928"
],
[
"Almost surely In probability theory, one says that an event happens almost surely (sometimes abbreviated as a.s.) if it happens with probability one. In other words, the set of possible exceptions may be non-empty, but it has probability zero. The concept is precisely the same as the concept of \"almost everywhere\" in measure theory.\nIn probability experiments on a finite sample space, there is often no difference between almost surely and surely. However, the distinction becomes important when the sample space is an infinite set, because an infinite set can have non-empty subsets of probability zero.\nSome examples of the use of",
"-26.918958966387436"
],
[
"of little consequence epistemologically\". A guess made with no factual basis for its correctness may be called a wild guess. Jonathan Baron has said that \"[t]he value of a wild guess is l/N + l/N - l/N = l/N\", meaning that taking a true wild guess is no different than choosing an answer at random. Philosopher David Stove described this process as follows:\nA paradigm case of guessing is, when captains toss a coin to start a cricket match, and one of them 'calls', say \"heads\". This cannot be a case of knowledge, scientific knowledge or any other, if it is",
"-26.91792413056828"
],
[
"random variables There are several different senses in which random variables can be considered to be equivalent. Two random variables can be equal, equal almost surely, or equal in distribution.\nIn increasing order of strength, the precise definition of these notions of equivalence is given below. Convergence A significant theme in mathematical statistics consists of obtaining convergence results for certain sequences of random variables; for instance the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem.\nThere are various senses in which a sequence of random variables can converge to a random variable . These are explained in the article on",
"-26.912536869640462"
],
[
"need for true (i.e., hardware-based) random number generators.\nSince a requirement in cryptography is high entropy, any published random sequence is a poor choice, as are such sequences as the digits in an irrational number such as the φ or even in transcendental numbers such as π, or e. All are available to an enterprising attacker. Put another way, in cryptography, random bit streams need to be not only random, but also secret and hence unpredictable. Public or third-party sources of random values, or random values computed from publicly observable phenomena (weather, sports game results, stock prices), are almost never cryptographically",
"-26.886892395152245"
],
[
"to double the chances, just as in the classical case. However, if the show host has not randomized the position of the prize in a fully quantum mechanical way, the player can do even better, and can sometimes even win the prize with certainty (Flitney and Abbott 2002, D'Ariano et al. 2002). History The earliest of several probability puzzles related to the Monty Hall problem is Bertrand's box paradox, posed by Joseph Bertrand in 1889 in his Calcul des probabilités (Barbeau 1993). In this puzzle, there are three boxes: a box containing two gold coins, a box with two silver",
"-26.867611313587986"
],
[
"likelihoods (such as with one-parameter exponential families). Randomization-based models For a given dataset that was produced by a randomization design, the randomization distribution of a statistic (under the null-hypothesis) is defined by evaluating the test statistic for all of the plans that could have been generated by the randomization design. In frequentist inference, randomization allows inferences to be based on the randomization distribution rather than a subjective model, and this is important especially in survey sampling and design of experiments. Statistical inference from randomized studies is also more straightforward than many other situations. In Bayesian inference, randomization is also of",
"-26.867277378631115"
],
[
"solving problems that the ancestors of present-day humans routinely faced. For example, present day humans are far more likely to solve logic problems that involve detecting cheating (a common problem given humans' social nature) than the same logic problem put in purely abstract terms. Since the ancestors of present-day humans did not encounter truly random events, present day humans may be cognitively predisposed to incorrectly identify patterns in random sequences. \"Gamblers' Fallacy\" is one example of this. Gamblers may falsely believe that they have hit a \"lucky streak\" even when each outcome is actually random and independent of previous trials.",
"-26.86681090586353"
],
[
"be added that relevant randomness does not necessarily imply non self-averaging, especially in a mean-field scenario.\n\nThe RG arguments mentioned above need to be extended to situations with sharp limit of Tc distribution and long range interactions.",
"-26.852059521421324"
],
[
"and combined (usually by taking the worst value).\nLow-discrepancy sequences are also called quasirandom sequences, due to their common use as a replacement of uniformly distributed random numbers.\nThe \"quasi\" modifier is used to denote more clearly that the values of a low-discrepancy sequence are neither random nor pseudorandom, but such sequences share some properties of random variables and in certain applications such as the quasi-Monte Carlo method their lower discrepancy is an important advantage. Applications Quasirandom numbers have an advantage over pure random numbers in that they cover the domain of interest quickly and evenly. They have an advantage over purely",
"-26.742686935467646"
],
[
"the probability distribution, the null hypothesis will sometimes be \"rejected,\" that is, deemed not plausible. That is, the groups will be sufficiently different on the variable tested to conclude statistically that they did not come from the same population, even though, procedurally, they were assigned from the same total group. For example, using random assignment may create an assignment to groups that has 20 blue-eyed people and 5 brown-eyed people in one group. This is a rare event under random assignment, but it could happen, and when it does it might add some doubt to the causal agent in",
"-26.740545861248393"
],
[
"we guess probability by the ease with which an example comes to mind.)\nIn categorization studies, participants sometimes conclude that a new stimuli is not a member of a certain category by finding a counter exemplar. For example, participants based their disagreement with the statement, \"all birds are eagles\" on their retrieval of memories of birds that weren't eagles, such as robins. If participants used exemplars to make disagreeing decisions, they also use exemplars to make reaffirming decisions about category membership.\nA study by Barsalou et al. asserts that the categorization of event exemplars differs from the categorization of individual exemplars. Feature",
"-26.71832604208612"
],
[
"cases like these it is entirely rational to give up responsibility to people such as doctors. However, when it comes to events of pure chance, allowing another to make decisions (or gamble) on one's behalf, because they are seen as luckier is not rational and would go against people's well-documented desire for control in uncontrollable situations. However, it does seem plausible since people generally believe that they can possess luck and employ it to advantage in games of chance, and it is not a far leap that others may also be seen as lucky and able to control uncontrollable",
"-26.708202441848698"
],
[
"an individual or on a statistical basis remains a remote prospect.\nIn the late 1970s and early 1980s, computer scientists began to realize that the deliberate introduction of randomness into computations can be an effective tool for designing better algorithms. In some cases, such randomized algorithms outperform the best deterministic methods.",
"-26.689999654336134"
],
[
"2s, 3s, etc. were present; more complicated tests looked for the number of digits between successive 0s and compared the total counts with their expected probabilities. Over the years more complicated tests were developed. Kendall and Smith also created the notion of \"local randomness\", whereby a given set of random numbers would be broken down and tested in segments. In their set of 100,000 numbers, for example, two of the thousands were somewhat less \"locally random\" than the rest, but the set as a whole would pass its tests. Kendall and Smith advised their readers not to use those particular",
"-26.618634081358323"
],
[
"Knightian uncertainty Common cause and special cause The difference between predictable variation and unpredictable variation is one of the fundamental issues in the philosophy of probability, and different probability interpretations treat predictable and unpredictable variation differently. The debate about the distinction has a long history. Ellsberg paradox The Ellsberg paradox is based on the difference between these two types of imperfect knowledge, and the problems it poses for utility theory – one is faced with an urn that contains 30 red balls and 60 balls that are either all yellow or all black, and one then draws a ball from",
"-26.57659885653993"
],
[
"distribution of likelihoods between them, in which case Bayesian statistics could be used. There, one uses a likelihood function for all possible values of the prior instead of the p-value for a single null hypothesis. The p-value describes a property of data when compared to a specific null hypothesis; it is not a property of the hypothesis itself. For the same reason, p-values do not give the probability that the data were produced by random chance alone.",
"-26.570964927523164"
],
[
"order of their random numbers. This will generate a random permutation, unless any of the random numbers generated are the same as any others (i.e. pairs, triplets etc.). This can be eliminated either by adjusting one of the pair's values randomly up or down by a small amount, or reduced to an arbitrarily low probability by choosing a sufficiently wide range of random number choices. If using efficient sorting such as mergesort or heapsort this is an O(n log n) average and worst-case algorithm. In online gambling These issues are of considerable commercial importance in online gambling, where the randomness",
"-26.56414045789279"
],
[
"an obstacle and a nuisance for many centuries, in the twentieth century computer scientists began to realize that the deliberate introduction of randomness into computations can be an effective tool for designing better algorithms. In some cases, such randomized algorithms are able to outperform the best deterministic methods. Antiquity to the Middle Ages Pre-Christian people along the Mediterranean threw dice to determine fate, and this later evolved into games of chance. There is also evidence of games of chance played by ancient Egyptians, Hindus and\nChinese, dating back to 2100 BC. The Chinese used dice before the Europeans, and have a",
"-26.56205426750239"
],
[
"Clustering illusion The clustering illusion is the tendency to erroneously consider the inevitable \"streaks\" or \"clusters\" arising in small samples from random distributions to be non-random. The illusion is caused by a human tendency to underpredict the amount of variability likely to appear in a small sample of random or semi-random data. Examples Thomas Gilovich, an early author on the subject, argued that the effect occurs for different types of random dispersions, including two-dimensional data such as clusters in the locations of impact of World War II V-1 flying bombs on maps of London; or seeing patterns in stock",
"-26.542501262156293"
],
[
"been explicitly accounted for in the experimental design (according to the law of large numbers). Randomization also produces ignorable designs, which are valuable in model-based statistical inference, especially Bayesian or likelihood-based. In the design of experiments, the simplest design for comparing treatments is the \"completely randomized design\". Some \"restriction on randomization\" can occur with blocking and experiments that have hard-to-change factors; additional restrictions on randomization can occur when a full randomization is infeasible or when it is desirable to reduce the variance of estimators of selected effects.\nRandomization of treatment in clinical trials pose ethical problems. In some cases, randomization reduces",
"-26.521349956601625"
],
[
"that may be considered arbitrary. Rationalism holds that knowledge comes about through intellectual calculation and deduction; many rationalists (though not all) apply this to ethics as well. All decisions should be made through reason and logic, not via whim or how one \"feels\" what is right. Randomness may occasionally be acceptable as part of a subtask in furtherance of a larger goal, but not in general.\nIn semiotics, the general theory of signs, sign systems, and sign processes, Saussure introduced the notion of arbitrariness according to which there is no necessary connection between the material sign (or signifier)",
"-26.518827844643965"
],
[
"completely at random, missing at random, and missing not at random. Missing data can be handled similarly as censored data. Types Understanding the reasons why data are missing is important for handling the remaining data correctly. If values are missing completely at random, the data sample is likely still representative of the population. But if the values are missing systematically, analysis may be biased. For example, in a study of the relation between IQ and income, if participants with an above-average IQ tend to skip the question ‘What is your salary?’, analyses that do not take into account",
"-26.493672867654823"
],
[
"determined by prior events. A number of problems have been identified with this view. Firstly, it is difficult to establish the reason for any given choice by the agent, which suggests they may be random or determined by luck (without an underlying basis for the free will decision). Secondly, it has been questioned whether physical events can be caused by an external substance or mind – a common problem associated with interactionalist dualism. Causal determinism Causal determinism is the concept that events within a given paradigm are bound by causality in such a way that any state (of an object or",
"-26.47341589743155"
],
[
"outcome is due after a long streak of another outcome. Type two gambler's fallacy, as defined by Gideon Keren and Charles Lewis, occurs when a gambler underestimates how many observations are needed to detect a favorable outcome, such as watching a roulette wheel for a length of time and then betting on the numbers that appear most often. For events with a high degree of randomness, detecting a bias that will lead to a favorable outcome takes an impractically large amount of time and is very difficult, if not impossible, to do. The two types differ in that type one wrongly assumes",
"-26.462010888557415"
],
[
"quantified. In contrast, the complexity of discrete problems is typically unknown. For example, the classical complexity of integer factorization is unknown.\nOne example of a scientific problem that is naturally expressed in continuous terms is path integration. The general technique of path integration has numerous applications including quantum mechanics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, and computational finance. Because randomness is present throughout quantum theory, one typically requires that a quantum computational procedure yield the correct answer, not with certainty, but with high probability. For example, one might aim for a procedure that computes the correct answer with probability at least 3/4. One",
"-26.459262650692835"
],
[
"people reliably tend to judge a clearly patterned sequence such as HHHTTT as less likely than a less patterned sequence such as HTHTTH. These sequences have exactly the same probability, but people tend to see the more clearly patterned sequences as less representative of randomness, and so less likely to result from a random process. Tversky and Kahneman argued that this effect underlies the gambler's fallacy; a tendency to expect outcomes to even out over the short run, like expecting a roulette wheel to come up black because the last several throws came up red. They emphasised that even experts",
"-26.416465656278888"
],
[
"random values are required in cryptography, the goal is to make a message as hard to crack as possible, by eliminating or obscuring the parameters used to encrypt the message (the key) from the message itself or from the context in which it is carried. Pseudorandom sequences are deterministic and reproducible; all that is required in order to discover and reproduce a pseudorandom sequence is the algorithm used to generate it and the initial seed. So the entire sequence of numbers is only as powerful as the randomly chosen parts—sometimes the algorithm and the seed, but usually only",
"-26.40886328025954"
],
[
"electronic noise studies, engineering, and operations research. Many methods of statistical analysis, such as the bootstrap method, require random numbers. Monte Carlo methods in physics and computer science require random numbers.\nRandom numbers are often used in parapsychology as a test of precognition. Statistical sampling Statistical practice is based on statistical theory which is, itself, founded on the concept of randomness. Many elements of statistical practice depend on randomness via random numbers. Where those random numbers fail to be actually random, any subsequent statistical analysis may suffer from systematic bias. Elements of statistical practice that depend on randomness include: choosing a",
"-26.405626021747594"
],
[
"chances. Frequentists are unable to take this approach, since relative frequencies do not exist for single tosses of a coin, but only for large ensembles or collectives (see \"single case possible\" in the table above). In contrast, a propensitist is able to use the law of large numbers to explain the behaviour of long-run frequencies. This law, which is a consequence of the axioms of probability, says that if (for example) a coin is tossed repeatedly many times, in such a way that its probability of landing heads is the same on each toss, and the outcomes are probabilistically",
"-26.40024631781489"
],
[
"is random; they either have low ability with probability 1/3 or high ability with probability 2/3. In this case, it is convenient to model nature as another player of sorts who chooses the applicant's ability according to those probabilities. Nature however does not have any payoffs. Nature's choice is represented in the game tree by a non-filled node. Edges coming from a nature's choice node are labelled with the probability of the event it represents occurring.\nThe game on the right is one of complete information (all the players and payoffs are known to everyone) but of imperfect information (the",
"-26.374337910383474"
],
[
"is not applicable to final and formal causes as understood in Aristotelian or Thomist systems. The final causality is inherent in synchronicity (because it leads to individuation) or synchronicity can be a kind of replacement for final causality; however, such finalism or teleology is considered to be outside the domain of modern science. Probability theory Mainstream mathematics argues that statistics and probability theory (exemplified in, e.g., Littlewood's law or the law of truly large numbers) suffice to explain any purported synchronistic events as mere coincidences. The law of truly large numbers, for instance, states that in large enough populations, any",
"-26.372322758019436"
],
[
"turned out to be correct. And not for any conceptual maths reason so far – we have no idea why they’re true, we just compute both sides independently and indeed find the same structures, symmetries and answers on both sides. To a mathematician these things cannot be coincidence, they must come from a higher reason. And that reason is the assumption that this big mathematical theory describes nature…’’.\nProfessor de la Ossa has belonged to scientific committees of several organizations for the promotion of scientific events in Latin America, among them the Mesoamerican Centre for Theoretical Physics and the School of",
"-26.358537395120948"
],
[
"mathematicians to formally address randomness in 1909, and introduced normal numbers. In 1919 Richard von Mises gave the first definition of algorithmic randomness via the impossibility of a gambling system. He advanced the frequency theory of randomness in terms of what he called the collective, i.e. a random sequence. Von Mises regarded the randomness of a collective as an empirical law, established by experience. He related the \"disorder\" or randomness of a collective to the lack of success of attempted gambling systems. This approach led him to suggest a definition of randomness that was later refined and made mathematically rigorous",
"-26.344156707637012"
],
[
"encourage people to interpret their own cards and speculate on their meaning without adherence to any particular ideology, and without the intervention of an expert. This process makes possible the exploration of such phenomena as perception differences, projection, transference, stimulation, cognition, intuition, and meaning. Differences and similarities between individuals are highlighted. The use of random draws, or casts, has a long history related to, among other things, shamanism, occult practices, \"primitive\" religions, as well as science, where random numbers are often an essential ingredient in statistical analysis. One of the best known uses of this process is the consultation of",
"-26.248349450033857"
]
] |
718rr5 | Why does alcohol leave such a recognizable smell on your breath when non-alcoholic drinks, like Coke, don't? | [
"The smell lingers as long as you're drunk because it's not coming from residual booze in your saliva, it's the smell of your blood itself. When you imbibe an alcoholic beverage, ethanol (the active ingredient that gets you drunk), is absorbed into your bloodstream. Ethanol is a volatile chemical (it evaporates easily), so when alcoholic blood passes through your lungs, some of the ethanol evaporates into the air that you exhale. It's this process that allows a breathalyzer to measure BAC based on your exhalation.",
"Alcohol is volatile and easily vaporizes into the air, allowing you to smell it. Alcohol also is carried in the blood, which easily vaporizes in the lungs, from your blood stream, allowing you to breath it out. Coke is simply digested. You would only have residual coke after taste in your mouth, and would not be exhaling it from your lungs.",
"Because no one seems to know the right answer: URL_0 After an extended period drinking (exactly how long depends on a person's metabolism) alcohol is metabolised to acetone which is released through skin pores and through the lungs as you breath out. Acetone is the distinct smell that you find on drunks. A bit of trivia: diabetes sufferers are more prone to ketoacidosis than a healthy individual. edit: As u/3111111111 points out alcohol is not metabolised to acetone, it's metabolised to acetaldehyde. Over consumption inhibits the synthesis of glucose which leads to fatty acids being metabolised to acetone.",
"Everyone is talking about drunks, but I can smell beer practically coming out of certain people's pores even after they've only had one. What gives?",
"Pure ethanol has almost no odor. Your body metabolizes ethanol to acetaldehyde. Volatile aldehydes are potent fragrances. When you smell \"alcohol\" on someone's breath, what you are really smelling is acetaldehyde. [edited] As a PhD in Bacteriology, I have worked with ethanol and many other chemicals for a very long time.",
"You actually can smell sugar in the breath of diabetics when their blood sugar levels get all fucked up, IIRC it smells \"fruity\"",
"How would you avoid emitting this smell? Wearing long-sleeved clothing and holding your breath?",
"It also has to do with how alcohol is gotten rid of by the body. The liver stores it, then gradually releases it in the blood as it is metabolized, where it is then released into the air by the lungs. This is also how a breathalyzer estimates the amount of alcohol in your blood. The smell is actually acetone.",
"Too add to this, Alcoholic ketoacidosis produces a unique smelling smell that is not quite liquor on your breath smell, but still quite noticeable and gross to those who are say, trapped in a car with you. Stay healthy folks. Don't stop eating food.",
"So would a self contained sample of blood from a highly intoxicated person smell like alcohol?",
"Non-alcoholic drinks don't really have much smell because the molecules in them are not volatile. The exception is the bubbles of CO2 (which is odorless anyways). Alcohol by itself is a liquid that has significant pressure around body temperature. So if your stomach has alcohol and you burp it will come out smelling of alcohol. If you have alcohol in your blood, it will evaporate from it inside the lungs and come out as the air you breathe out.",
"the alcohol is in your bloodstream and the smell is coming out via your lungs. Thats why I always laugh at people who think mints and brushing your teeth will make the alcohol smell go away... it's like \"dude, the booze isn't on your teeth\".",
"Same thing occurs with foods high in sulfur compounds, like garlic and onions. However, the sulfur compounds in these two foods tend to stick around a lot longer than ethanol.",
"Alcohol in blood. In the lungs there is an exchange between the blood and air, alcohol readily evaporates. Alcohol smell permeates.",
"Several things going on here: 1. mostly you're smelling metabolized alcohol being _exhaled_ as an aldehyde. 2. secondarily, you can smell ethanol, it's kinda sweet. So...if you've just drank some and there is residual, then it will smell. In order to have something smell it has to make from liquid into the air and into your nose. Ethanol does this, but coke doesn't actually do this. If you had a flat cup of coke (no fizzles popping it into the air) you'd not smell _anything_. In fact, most primarily water beverages don't much, but if you combine them with things that evaporate quickly then they do. Take - for the obvious example - mouthwash.",
"One of the ways alcohol leaves your body is through your breath. You exhale it through your lungs. While a mixer like cola will leave your body when you pee. This is why you walk into a room where someone has been drinking heavily, there is a heavy alcohol scent. The drunken breath is lingering in the air.",
"The natural burn off rate is .015%BAC per hour after you've stopped consuming alcoholic beverages. In case anyone was wondering",
"Is it the same way that trained dogs can smell their owner's blood sugar level?"
] | [
[
"breath-alcohol reading.\nOther than recent drinking, the most common source of mouth alcohol is from belching or burping. This causes the liquids and/or gases from the stomach—including any alcohol—to rise up into the soft tissue of the esophagus and oral cavity, where it will stay until it has dissipated. The American Medical Association concludes in its Manual for Chemical Tests for Intoxication (1959): \"True reactions with alcohol in expired breath from sources other than the alveolar air (eructation, regurgitation, vomiting) will, of course, vitiate the breath alcohol results.\" For this reason, police officers are supposed to keep a DUI suspect",
"-35.45175919425674"
],
[
"components is another example of this; mixtures of volatile compounds can be more volatile than their components, which can create artificially high levels of ethanol (or other) vapors relative to the normal biological blood/breath alcohol equilibrium. Mouth alcohol One of the most common causes of falsely high breath analyzer readings is the existence of mouth alcohol. In analyzing a subject's breath sample, the breath analyzer's internal computer is making the assumption that the alcohol in the breath sample came from alveolar air—that is, air exhaled from deep within the lungs. However, alcohol may have come from the mouth, throat or",
"-34.7453713582363"
],
[
"heated, sometimes cold. This undoubtedly was to heighten the effects of the drug, but certainly, it must have made it more dangerous to the body. We are also told that after consuming the drug, it was necessary to \"circulate the powder\" (hsing-san 行散), that is, to move about so that the drug would circulate in the bloodstream. (Sailey 1978:427) \n\"Wine\" is the common English translation of Chinese jiu (酒 \"Chinese alcoholic beverages\"), which inclusively means \"beer\", \"wine, and \"liquor\".\nSailey (1978:430) notes that early drugs certainly varied in purity and quality, and \"this factor certainly must have influenced the effectiveness of",
"-33.848735821200535"
],
[
"may also be caused by mouth breathing, usually caused by partial obstruction of the upper respiratory tract. Examples include hemorrhage, vomiting, diarrhea, and fever.\nAlcohol may be involved in the cause of salivary gland disease, liver disease, or dehydration.\nSmoking is another possible cause. Other recreational drugs such as methamphetamine, cannabis, hallucinogens, or heroin, may be implicated.\nHormonal disorders, such as poorly controlled diabetes, chronic graft versus host disease or low fluid intake in people undergoing haemodialysis for renal impairment may also result in xerostomia, due to dehydration.\nXerostomia may be a consequence of infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) and a rare cause",
"-33.70288831691141"
],
[
"bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating urination and makes one's flesh white and smooth.\nThe intoxicating effect of beer was believed to last longer than that of wine, but it was also admitted that it did not create the \"false thirst\" associated with wine. Though less prominent than in the north, beer was consumed in northern France and the Italian mainland. Perhaps as a consequence of the Norman conquest and the travelling of nobles between France and England, one French variant described in",
"-33.66322914416378"
],
[
"and safety risks of inhaling alcohol vapor. Inhalation devices make it \"substantially easier to overdose on alcohol\" than drinking, because the alcohol bypasses the stomach and liver and goes directly into the bloodstream, and because the user does not have a reliable way of determining how much alcohol they have taken in. Inhaled alcohol cannot be purged from the body by vomiting, which is the body's main protection against alcohol poisoning. Inhaled alcohol can dry out nasal passages and make them more susceptible to infection. There is also a potential increased risk of addiction. Medical applications Inhalation of vapor obtained",
"-33.55769080540631"
],
[
"beers are due to reactive oxygen species. These may come in the form of oxygen free radicals, for example, which can change the chemical structures of compounds in beer that give them their taste. Oxygen radicals can cause increased concentrations of aldehydes from the Strecker degradation reactions of amino acids in beer.\nBeer is unique when compared to other alcoholic drinks because it is unstable in the final package. There are many variables and chemical compounds that affect the flavor of beer during the production steps, but also during the storage of beer. Beer will develop an off-flavor during storage because",
"-32.70576558832545"
],
[
"of aged tequila rather than the un-aged tequila, due to tannins and other compounds introduced into the spirit from the aging barrel. For instance, if stored in improper conditions, the dark and more complex flavors of the añejo tequila are more likely to be tainted than the blanco or the silver tequila.\nOnce the bottle is opened, the tequila will be subject to oxidation which will continue to happen even if no more oxygen is introduced. In addition, if the bottle has more room for air, the process of oxidation occurs faster on the liquor remaining inside the bottle. Therefore, it",
"-32.22377821884584"
],
[
"which leads to slurred speech, impaired fine-motor skills, and delayed reaction time. The effects of alcohol on the body's neurochemistry are more difficult to examine than some other drugs. This is because the chemical nature of the substance makes it easy to penetrate into the brain, and it also influences the phospholipid bilayer of neurons. This allows alcohol to have a widespread impact on many normal cell functions and modifies the actions of several neurotransmitter systems. Alcohol inhibits glutamate (a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system) neurotransmission by reducing the effectiveness at the NMDA receptor, which is related to",
"-31.887494508118834"
],
[
"Toxicology Isopropyl alcohol and its metabolite, acetone, act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants. Poisoning can occur from ingestion, inhalation, or skin absorption. Symptoms of isopropyl alcohol poisoning include flushing, headache, dizziness, CNS depression, nausea, vomiting, anesthesia, hypothermia, low blood pressure, shock, respiratory depression, and coma. Overdoses may cause a fruity odor on the breath as a result of its metabolism to acetone.\nIsopropyl alcohol does not cause an anion gap acidosis but it produces an osmolal gap between the calculated and measured osmolalities of serum, as do the other alcohols.\nIsopropyl alcohol is oxidized to form acetone by alcohol dehydrogenase in",
"-31.82375226460863"
],
[
"are unlikely to affect the nose in this way. Once comfortable with the strength of the spirit, it's typical to take deep sniffs of the spirit with the mouth open, which has the effect of opening up the palate and making it easier to detect aromas. The glass is then swirled whilst warming the whisky with the hand and the nosing process repeated. Palate The whisky is tasted, often a little at first, and then in larger amounts and with the spirit being moved around the tongue and swallowed slowly. The purpose of the first tasting is to appraise the",
"-31.71325361961499"
],
[
"and some bitters. As a consumer product, it is almost always mixed with other beverages to create drinks like alcoholic punch or Jello shots or is sometimes added to cocktails in place of vodka or rum. It is also used to make homemade liqueurs, such as limoncello or cassis, and in cooking because its high concentration of alcohol acts as a solvent to extract flavors. Rectified spirits are also used for medicinal tinctures and as a household solvent. It is sometimes consumed undiluted; however because the alcohol is very high proof, over consumption can cause alcohol poisoning more quickly than",
"-31.559987717540935"
],
[
"tract. Alcohol slows these cells' healing ability to repair the damage to their DNA caused by the harmful chemicals in tobacco. Alcohol contributes to cancer through this process.\nWhile lower quality evidence suggests a cardioprotective effect, no controlled studies have been completed on the effect of alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism. The American Heart Association \"cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation.\"\nAlcoholic drinks are classified by",
"-31.264006112120114"
],
[
"This less soluble gas gives the beer a different and flatter texture. In beer terms, the mouthfeel is smooth, not bubbly like beers with normal carbonation. Nitro beer could taste less acidic than normal beer. Storage and degradation A particular problem with beer is that, unlike wine, its quality tends to deteriorate as it ages. A cat urine smell and flavor called ribes, named for the genus of the black currant, tends to develop and peak. A cardboard smell then dominates which is due to the release of 2-Nonenal. In general, chemists believe that the \"off-flavors\" that come from old",
"-31.124268811254296"
],
[
"As with most CNS depressants, mixing with alcohol greatly increases the risk of respiratory failure and other complications. History According to Houston-based author Lance Scott Walker, purple drank developed in that city around the 1960s when blues musicians would take Robitussin and cut it with beer. Later when wine coolers came onto the market, they substituted for beer. These blues musicians lived in Houston's Fifth Ward, Third Ward, and South Park neighborhoods and the practice was taken up by the generation of rappers growing up in the same parts of the city. In the 1980s and 1990s the formula changed",
"-31.100876170530682"
],
[
"Independent Bottlers may also not chill filter the whisky, a process which involves removing fatty acids, proteins and esters to give the whisky a clearer appearance. Chill filtering can affect flavour, however, because these compounds account for a lot of the taste (the esters, for example, have a fruit-like aroma). One further measure often not taken when independently bottling whisky is the addition of spirit caramel for colouring.\nDue to the long history and marketing campaigns undergone by some distilleries, their brands may be associated with a great deal of prestige. As such, proprietary bottlings can sometimes command a higher price",
"-31.045416464447044"
],
[
"wine glass (which stops the evaporation of the alcohol). British physicist C. V. Boys argues that the biblical injunction, \"Look not thou upon the wine when it is red, when it giveth his colour in the cup, when it moveth itself aright\", (Proverbs 23:31) refers to this effect. Since the \"tears of wine\" are most noticeable in wine which has a high alcohol content, the author may be suggesting this as a way to identify wines that should be avoided in the interest of sobriety. Related phenomena Other fluid phenomena that arise in alcohol-water mixtures are beading and viscimetry.",
"-30.915365733671933"
],
[
"avoid getting leaves, peduncles or pieces of branches into the jar. The maceration in alcohol will amplify any bad taste there is in the fruit, such as fruit that started to rot, instead of hiding it. Wood or leaves will release an unpleasant tannin into the drink, which will only get softer with age.\nAlternately, you may use honey instead of sugar. Few people do, however, since honey is more expensive, and depending on its type may not contribute in a positive way to the taste.\nAlso as a variation, some people smash the sour cherries before putting them in the jar,",
"-30.88897676303168"
],
[
"sensitivity reaction will also suffer alcohol-induced reactions.\nIt seems likely, although further study is needed, that most respiratory symptoms induced by alcoholic beverages, particular wines and beers, occurring in non-Asian individuals are due to true allergic responses to the allergens that are part of, or contaminate, these drinks. Diagnosis Diagnosis of alcohol-induced respiratory symptoms can be strongly suggested on the bases of survey questionnaires. Questionnaires can be devised to determine the specific types of alcoholic beverages eliciting reactions; reactions evoked by one or only a few but not other types of alcoholic beverage, particularly when the offending beverage(s) is",
"-30.884142184862867"
],
[
"Alcohol inhalation Alcohol inhalation is a method of administering alcohol (also known as ethanol) directly into the respiratory system, with aid of a vaporizing or nebulizing device. It is chiefly applied for recreational use, when it is also referred to as alcohol smoking, but it has medical applications for testing on laboratory rats and treatment of pulmonary edema in humans. Recreational use To inhale alcohol, it must be first converted from liquid into gaseous state (vapor) or aerosol (mist). For recreational use, a variety of methods have been invented. Alcohol can be vaporized by pouring it over dry ice in",
"-30.842048677557614"
],
[
"strict storage conditions like wine does, and the same goes with most other distilled spirits such as whiskey, rum, or vodka. Furthermore, because the characteristics and certain quality (flavor, aroma, color, etc.) of the tequila are determined during the aging process inside wood barrels, the quality of the tequila should remain relatively constant after they are bottled. To maintain the quality of tequila, at least three conditions should be met: constant and moderate temperature (60 to 65 °F), no exposure to direct sunlight, and maintenance of proper seal of the bottle. Also, storage conditions will have more effect on the taste",
"-30.820278743107338"
],
[
"furfural, and tannins, many but not all of which are toxic. One study in mice indicates that fusel oil may have a mitigating effect on hangover symptoms, while some whiskey congeners such as butanol protect the stomach against gastric mucosal damage in the rat. Different types of alcoholic beverages contain different amounts of congeners. In general, dark liquors have a higher concentration while clear liquors have a lower concentration. Whereas vodka has virtually no more congeners than pure ethanol, bourbon has a total congener content 37 times higher than that found in vodka.\nSeveral studies have examined whether certain types of",
"-30.792004455492133"
],
[
"Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions, also termed alcohol-induced asthma and alcohol-induced respiratory symptoms, are increasingly recognized as a pathological bronchoconstriction response to the consumption of alcohol that afflicts many people with a \"classical\" form of asthma, the airway constriction disease evoked by the inhalation of allergens. Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions reflect the operation of different and often racially related mechanisms that differ from those of classical, allergen-induced asthma. History In 1973, Breslin et al. tested the effects of alcoholic beverage consumption on the respiratory symptoms of 11 asthmatic subjects who gave a history of asthma attacks following certain alcoholic",
"-30.688234337285394"
],
[
"of many factors, including sunlight and the amount of oxygen in the headspace of the bottle. Other than changes in taste, beer can also develop visual changes. Beer can become hazy during storage. This is called colloidal stability (haze formation) and is typically caused by the raw materials used during the brewing process. The primary reaction that causes beer haze is the polymerization of polyphenols and binding with specific proteins. This type of haze can be seen when beer is cooled below 0 degrees Celsius. When the beer is raised to room temperature, the haze dissolves. But if a beer",
"-30.678488663688768"
],
[
"distillation was known to Islamic chemists as early as the eighth century.\nThe Arab chemist, al-Kindi, unambiguously described the distillation of wine in a treatise titled as \"The Book of the chemistry of Perfume and Distillations\".\nThe Persian physician, alchemist, polymath and philosopher Rhazes (854 CE – 925 CE) is credited with the discovery of ethanol. Etymology The word \"alcohol\" is from the Arabic kohl (Arabic: الكحل, romanized: al-kuḥl), a powder used as an eyeliner. Al- is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English. Alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral",
"-30.65394998859847"
],
[
"by nebulization of water and ethanol in oxygen has been used in treatment of pulmonary edema in humans. Alcohol vapor acts as an anti-foaming agent in the lungs, so the sputum becomes more liquid, and can be easily expelled. The method has also been used to reduce the alcohol withdrawal syndrome in patients who had intestinal tract surgeries.",
"-30.6217178197694"
],
[
"is constantly changing due to the concentration, formulation and splitting of different esters. This is partly the reason why a wine will have one set of aromas at one time and other aromas later in its life. In wine tasting The sense of smell and detecting the aromas in wine is the primary means through which wine is tasted and evaluated. Prior to tasting the wine, wine drinkers will often smell the wine in the glass. Large bowl glasses with tapered openings, some of which are specifically designed to enhance aromatics of different wines, can assist in capturing more aromatics",
"-30.545785725757014"
],
[
"the liver, and in the bloodstream.\nHigh level of alcohol dehydrogenase activity results in fast transformation of ethanol to more toxic acetaldehyde. Such atypical alcohol dehydrogenase levels are less frequent in alcoholics than in nonalcoholics. Furthermore, among alcoholics, the carriers of this atypical enzyme consume lower ethanol doses, compared to the individuals without the allele.\nAn estimated one out of twenty people have an alcohol flush reaction. It is not in any way an indicator for the drunkenness of an individual. A mild flushing reaction occurs when the body metabolizes alcohol more quickly into acetaldehyde, a toxic metabolite. A more severe flushing",
"-30.531621594331227"
],
[
"Aroma of wine The aromas of wine are more diverse than its flavors. The human tongue is limited to the primary tastes perceived by taste receptors on the tongue-sourness, bitterness, saltiness, sweetness and savoriness. The wide array of fruit, earthy, leathery, floral, herbal, mineral, and woodsy flavor present in wine are derived from aroma notes sensed by the olfactory bulb. In wine tasting, wine is sometimes smelled before being drunk in order to identify some components of the wine that may be present. Different terms are used to describe what is being smelled. The most basic term is aroma which",
"-30.495639060081885"
],
[
"by the alcohol. Alcohol can also have damaging effects on some aromatic compounds.\nEther and propylene glycol based tinctures are not suitable for internal consumption, although they are used in preparations for external use, such as personal care creams and ointments.",
"-30.44132939017436"
],
[
"also employed. Effects and dangers An alcohol enema is a faster method of alcohol intoxication since the alcohol is absorbed directly into the bloodstream. The lower gastrointestinal tract lacks the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme present in the stomach and liver that breaks down ethanol into acetylaldehyde, which is actually more toxic than ethanol (drinking alcohol) and is responsible for most chronic effects of ethanol. When rectally absorbed, ethanol will still eventually arrive at the liver, but the high alcohol content could overwhelm the organ. Additionally, consuming the alcohol rectally neutralizes the body's ability to reject the toxin by vomiting. Native American",
"-30.3555691568763"
],
[
"alcohols have a strong aroma, and the quantity present in each tequila depends on the carbon:nitrogen ratio and temperature during the cooking and fermentation processes. Some of the most common alcohols present other than ethanol are: isoamyl alcohol, isobutanol, and 1-propanol. Methanol is thought to be mainly generated through hydrolysis of methylated pectin which is naturally present in the agave plant, but there has been speculation that it is also partly produced from the enzymatic reactions of yeast strains containing pectin methyl esterase enzyme, which break up the methoxyl group from the pectin. Nearly 50 different esters are identified in",
"-30.315455105737783"
],
[
"a consequence of more accurate screening and diagnostic methods, and are not due to any sort of environmental factor. Toxicants and their effects Substances which have been found to be particularly harmful are lead (which is stored in the mother's bones), cigarette smoke, alcohol, mercury (a neurological toxicant consumed through fish), carbon dioxide, and ionizing radiation. Alcohol Drinking alcohol in pregnancy can result in a range of disorders known as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. The most severe of these is fetal alcohol syndrome. Tobacco smoke Fetal exposure to prenatal tobacco smoke may experience a wide range of behavioral, neurological, and",
"-30.2718394609401"
],
[
"or sealed, but instead poured into unlabeled used bottles. The spirit can be bought wholesale from a brewer or by the glass at boutiques and bars. Although not professionally advertised, the drink is very popular. This is partially due to its price, which is lower than that of other professionally bottled or imported drinks. Its relative cheapness makes it a drink associated more with the poor, but even those who can afford better quality are said to consume the spirit in secret.\nThe potency of the liquor heavily affects the bodily senses, providing a feeling likened to that of a knockout",
"-30.25039964192547"
],
[
"them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for several years, as long as it is well stored. However, the presence of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and environmental factors will in the long run alter the smell of the fragrance.\nPerfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated to relatively low temperatures: between 3–7 °C (37–45 °F). Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray",
"-30.229976667222218"
],
[
"themselves at home or purchase it from neighbourhood producers or street sellers. Its taste is initially sweet, somewhat like root beer, but changes to a prolonged, but not astringent bitter aftertaste. To many, it is an acquired taste, and has been known to cause an initial laxative reaction unexpected to many first-time drinkers.",
"-30.188564360520104"
],
[
"a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic drinks as a taste mask, especially in distilled drinks. Some flavors may be naturally present in the beverage's raw material. Beer and wine may also be flavored before fermentation, and spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually made of American or French oak. A few brands of spirits may also have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle",
"-30.17858321813401"
],
[
"Wine, beer, distilled spirits and other alcoholic drinks contain ethyl alcohol and alcohol consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine, beer or spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Alcohol in carbonated drinks is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks.\nDrinking enough",
"-30.176613146672025"
],
[
"One of alcohol's primary effects is the allosteric inhibition of NMDA receptors and facilitation of GABAA receptors (e.g., enhanced GABAA receptor-mediated chloride flux through allosteric regulation of the receptor). At high doses, ethanol inhibits most ligand gated ion channels and voltage gated ion channels in neurons as well. Alcohol inhibits sodium-potassium pumps in the cerebellum and this is likely how it impairs cerebellar computation and body co-ordination.\nWith acute alcohol consumption, dopamine is released in the synapses of the mesolimbic pathway, in turn heightening activation of postsynaptic D1 receptors. The activation of these receptors triggers postsynaptic internal signaling events through protein",
"-30.159768580197124"
],
[
"Phenethyl alcohol Occurrence and uses Phenethyl alcohol is found in extract of rose, carnation, hyacinth, Aleppo pine, orange blossom, ylang-ylang, geranium, neroli, and champaca. It is also an autoantibiotic produced by the fungus Candida albicans \nIt is therefore a common ingredient in flavors and perfumery, particularly when the odor of rose is desired. It is used as an additive in cigarettes. It is also used as a preservative in soaps due to its stability in basic conditions. It is of interest due to its antimicrobial properties.",
"-30.04911128617823"
],
[
"lower blood alcohol content).\nA 2003 episode of the science television show MythBusters tested a number of methods that supposedly allow a person to fool a breath analyzer test. The methods tested included breath mints, onions, denture cream, mouthwash, pennies and batteries; all of these methods proved ineffective. The show noted that using these items to cover the smell of alcohol may fool a person, but, since they will not actually reduce a person's BrAC, there will be no effect on a breath analyzer test regardless of the quantity used, if any, it appeared that using mouthwash only raised the BrAC.",
"-30.044286891643424"
],
[
"the head and pain in the head, in addition to disturbances in thought. In the lower body cavity, excess wine ingestion can have a purging effect; it can be the source of stomach pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. An overall effect of wine that all Greek doctors of the time have observed and agree on is its warming property. Therefore, wine’s properties are described as “hot and dry.” As documented in the Hippocratic texts, extreme use of wine can result in death. \nPhysicians tried to study the human body with pure objectivity to give the most accurate explanation for",
"-30.0352016625111"
],
[
"Legal drinking age controversy in the United States History behind alcohol consumption Fermented beverages contain ethanol (C₂H₅OH), a consumable member of the alcohol class often simply called \"alcohol.\" They are legal in most countries. Currently, alcohol such as red wine is used to reduce risk of coronary artery disease, as an analgesic for pain, relief from exhaustion in hard labor, and a \"greeter\" at social gatherings and gaming entertainment. In Egypt, alcohol is made in the home on an everyday basis and used as a thirst quencher and to provide the majority of nutrients and calories. In China, alcohol was",
"-30.011797312414274"
],
[
"proteins and esters (created during the distillation process) precipitate out and are caught on the filter. Single malt whiskeys are usually chilled down to 0°C, while the temperature for blended whiskey tends to be lower because they have lower levels of fatty acid.\nFactors affecting the chill filtering process include the temperature, number of filters used, and speed at which the whiskey is passed through the filters. The slower the process and the more filters used, the more impurities will be collected, but at increasing cost.\nBecause this process is believed to sometimes affect the taste of the whisky, for example, by",
"-29.940990682691336"
],
[
"further comment, \"'common gin' is usually flavoured with turpentine\".\nAnother common variation was to distill in the presence of sulphuric acid. Although the acid itself does not distil, it imparts the additional aroma of diethyl ether to the resulting gin. Sulphuric acid subtracts one water molecule from two ethanol molecules to create diethyl ether, which also forms an azeotrope with ethanol, and therefore distils with it. The result is a sweeter spirit, and one that may have possessed additional analgesic or even intoxicating effects – see Paracelsus.\nDutch or Belgian gin, also known as jenever or genever, evolved from malt wine spirits, and",
"-29.86742993100779"
],
[
"use of alcohol is associated with a decrease in NREM stage 3 and 4 sleep as well as suppression of REM sleep and REM sleep fragmentation. Frequent moving between sleep stages occurs, with awakenings due to headaches, the need to urinate, dehydration, and excessive sweating. Glutamine rebound also plays a role as when someone is drinking; alcohol inhibits glutamine, one of the body's natural stimulants. When the person stops drinking, the body tries to make up for lost time by producing more glutamine than it needs.\nThe increase in glutamine levels stimulates the brain while the drinker is trying to sleep,",
"-29.857781012600753"
],
[
"series of short, quick sniffs versus one long inhale will also maximize the likelihood of aromatics being detected. The human nose starts to \"fatigue\" after around six seconds and so a pause may be needed between sniffs.\nWhen wine is sipped, it is warmed in the mouth and mixes with saliva to vaporize the volatile aroma compounds. These compounds are then inhaled \"retro-nasally\" through the back of the mouth to where it is received by nearly five million nerve cells. The average human can be trained to distinguish thousands of smells but can usually only name a handful at a time",
"-29.783603692310862"
],
[
"whisky may contain caramel and flavouring in addition to the distilled mash spirits. Scotch whisky may contain added (E150A) caramel colouring, but no other additives. The addition of flavourings is not allowed in American \"straight\" whiskey, but is allowed in American blends. Chill filtration Whisky is often \"chill filtered\": chilled to precipitate out fatty acid esters and then filtered to remove them. Most whiskies are bottled this way, unless specified as unchillfiltered or non chill filtered. This is done primarily for cosmetic reasons. Unchillfiltered whiskies often turn cloudy when stored at cool temperatures or when cool water is added to",
"-29.782353376038373"
],
[
"desirable way.\nGenerally speaking, however, browning is a sign of the wine going stale from too much exposure to oxygen. Although wine that has gone bad is typically associated with the smell and taste of vinegar or unwanted effervescence, oxidation itself can actually lead to \"nutty\", \"applesauce\", and \"burnt marshmallow\" aromas. The sharp vinegar component comes from acetic acid formed through bacterial processes. A lower pH level is typically preferred in wines because it decreases the overall risk of spoilage. The lower pH reduces the effect of browning and yields better colors, particularly in red wines. Significance of color The color",
"-29.758188526378945"
],
[
"important role in producing hangover effects because some, such as methanol, are metabolized to the notably toxic substances formaldehyde and formic acid. Pathophysiology After being ingested, the ethanol in alcoholic beverages is first converted to acetaldehyde by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase and then to acetic acid by oxidation and egestion process. These reactions also convert nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) to its reduced form NADH in a redox reaction. By causing an imbalance of the NAD⁺/NADH redox system, alcoholic beverages make normal bodily functions more difficult. Consequences of the alcohol induced redox changes in the human body include increased triglyceride production,",
"-29.741418671561405"
],
[
"At a mental health conference in February 2010, Dr. Ronald Peters, Jr., of the University of Texas Health Science Center said of \"Drank\": \"They're taking the name, and they're trying to market it to young people.\" He described the beverage as \"the worst thing I've ever seen on the street since the making of candy cigarettes\".",
"-29.702560285571963"
],
[
"acids associated with wine and is responsible for the sour taste of vinegar. During fermentation, activity by yeast cells naturally produces a small amount of acetic acid. If the wine is exposed to oxygen, Acetobacter bacteria will convert the ethanol into acetic acid. This process is known as the “acetification” of wine and is the primary process behind wine degradation into vinegar. An excessive amount of acetic acid is also considered a wine fault. A taster's sensitivity to acetic acid will vary, but most people can detect excessive amounts at around 600 mg/l.\nAscorbic acid, also known as vitamin C, is found",
"-29.668593588285148"
],
[
"of the spirits entered into the barrel and the proof of the bottled spirits are the same\". Drinking Consumers often add water to cask strength whiskies in order to reduce the \"heat\" – the \"burn\" sensation that goes with the drinking experience – and bring out different whiskey flavors. Diluting the whiskey with varying amounts of water will modify the flavor profile, and some consumers like to have control over that. Some add water to the whiskey, while others add ice. The water and temperature affect the taste of the whiskey, and the selection of water is also important. Aficionados",
"-29.652370139956474"
],
[
"spirits, such as whiskey, are distilled to a lower alcohol percentage to preserve the flavor of the mash.\nRectified spirit is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid that may contain as much as 95% ABV. It is often used for medicinal purposes. It may be a grain spirit or it may be made from other plants. It is used in mixed drinks, liqueurs, and tinctures, and also as a household solvent. Health effects Alcohol has significant negative health effects, including increased risk of death and cancer. Negative effects are related to the amount consumed with no safe lower limit seen. Short-term effects",
"-29.60221072886634"
],
[
"severe hangover symptoms.\nSome common complaints about non-alcoholic brews include a loss of flavor, addition of one step in the brewing process, sugary taste, and a shorter shelf life. There are also legal implications. Some state governments, e.g. Pennsylvania, prohibit the sale of non-alcoholic brews to persons under the age of 21. A study conducted by the department of psychology at Indiana University said, \"Because non-alcoholic beer provides sensory cues that simulate alcoholic beer, this beverage may be more effective than other placebos in contributing to a credible manipulation of expectancies to receive alcohol\", making people feel \"drunk\" when physically they",
"-29.530381064745598"
],
[
"and unclean dentures. Oral based lesions caused by viral infections like herpes simplex and HPV may also contribute to bad breath.\nThe intensity of bad breath may differ during the day, due to eating certain foods (such as garlic, onions, meat, fish, and cheese), smoking, and alcohol consumption. Since the mouth is exposed to less oxygen and is inactive during the night, the odor is usually worse upon awakening (\"morning breath\"). Bad breath may be transient, often disappearing following eating, drinking, tooth brushing, flossing, or rinsing with specialized mouthwash. Bad breath may also be persistent (chronic bad breath), which affects some",
"-29.514431176314247"
],
[
"amounts are inhaled. Such solvents are common inhalants for adolescents due, in part, to the fact that they are inexpensive in comparison to other recreational drugs. Use of correction fluid as an inhalant can cause the heart to beat rapidly and irregularly, which can cause death. An unpleasant smell is added to some brands in order to deter abusers.\nCompanies have worked closely with authorities in order to ensure that all the warnings are duly mentioned on packaging (card and product labels) to inform parents and younger users of the risks associated with inhaling or drinking the fluid.\nIndia has imposed a",
"-29.473985200340394"
],
[
"that contain a vast range of flavouring compounds, of which some 200 to 300 are easily detected by chemical analysis. The flavouring chemicals include \"carbonyl compounds, alcohols, carboxylic acids and their esters, nitrogen- and sulphur-containing compounds, tannins, and other polyphenolic compounds, terpenes, and oxygen-containing, heterocyclic compounds\" and esters of fatty acids. The nitrogen compounds include pyridines, picolines and pyrazines. The sulfur compounds include thiophenes and polysulfides which seem to contribute to whiskey's roasted character. Flavours from treating the malt The distinctive smoky flavour found in various types of whisky, especially Scotch, is due to the use of peat smoke",
"-29.456603449867544"
],
[
"Short-term effects of alcohol consumption The short-term effects of alcohol (more specifically ethanol) consumption – due to drinking beer, wine, distilled spirits or other alcoholic beverages – range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills and euphoria at lower doses to intoxication (drunkenness), stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia (memory \"blackouts\"), and central nervous system depression at higher doses. Cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol, so once alcohol is in the bloodstream, it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body.\nThe concentration of alcohol in blood is measured via blood alcohol content (BAC). The amount and circumstances of consumption",
"-29.44733897887636"
],
[
"for toxicity, competes with other alcohols for the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme, lessening metabolism into toxic aldehyde and carboxylic acid derivatives, and reducing more serious toxic effect of the glycols to crystallize in the kidneys. History Alcohol has been used as an antiseptic as early as 1363 with evidence to support its use becoming available in the late 1800s. Since antiquity, prior to the development of modern agents, alcohol was used as a general anesthetic.",
"-29.441153208026662"
],
[
"and resinous) adding to its quality, flavour and medicinal properties. Scholars have suggested that, given the low alcoholic content of early wine, its effects may have been due to an additional entheogenic ingredient in its sacramental form. Honey and beeswax were often added to wine, introducing an even older drink (mead). Károly Kerényi postulated that this wine lore superseded (and partly absorbed) earlier Neolithic mead lore involving bee swarms associated by the Greeks with Dionysus. Mead and beer (with its cereal base) were incorporated into the domain of Dionysus, perhaps through his identification with the Thracian corn deity Sabazius.\nOther plants",
"-29.42756388534326"
],
[
"alcohol consumption or smoking history, or breast self-examination. Associations for LCIS were similar.\" Ependymoma A review of the basic literature found that consumption of beer was associated with increased risk in one study but not in another Intraocular and uveal melanomas A study found no association between alcohol and uveal melanoma. Nasopharynageal cancer / Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) A systematic review found evidence that light drinking may decrease the risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma whereas high intake of alcohol may increase the risk. Neuroblastoma A few studies have indicated an increased risk of neuroblastoma with use of alcohol during pregnancy. Salivary gland",
"-29.421365865360713"
],
[
"and after absorption affects the liver and kidneys and increases the heart rate; that through the loss of the control of the muscles of the stomach the vomitus may be swallowed causing pneumonia.\nThe court ruled that the phrase \"for Drunkenness\" suggested that the powder was a cure or antidote for alcohol intoxication, with the judge concluding:\nthe articles in question are misbranded, since the labels thereon are false and misleading, because antimony and potassium tartrate in the dosage of 3.2 grains (the average in the articles analyzed) is not a \"cure, mitigation or treatment\" for drunkenness as purported to be and",
"-29.399253271723865"
],
[
"Alcohol and health Alcohol (also known as ethanol) has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol consumption include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain and alcoholism. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. Alcohol stimulates insulin production, which speeds up glucose metabolism and can result in low blood sugar, causing irritability and possibly death for diabetics. Even light and moderate alcohol consumption increases cancer risk in individuals. A 2014 World Health Organization report found that harmful alcohol consumption caused",
"-29.39138734759763"
],
[
"wine and/or beer, suggest that the reactions are due to classical allergic reaction to allergens in the beverage; reactions to all or most types of alcoholic beverages favors a genetic (i.e. acetaldehyde-induce) basis. Further differentiation between these two causes can be tested under medical supervision be determining if ingestion of a water-diluted pure ethanol solution elicits reactions or if an offending alcoholic beverage but not the same beverage without ethanol elicits reactions. Either result would favor an acetaldehyde-induced genetic basis for the reaction. \nDiagnosis of alcohol sensitivity due to the accumulation of acetaldehyde in",
"-29.37437064355254"
],
[
"when spilled. They are extinguishable by water and are not prone to explosion like LPG (propane and butane). Alcohol burns cleanly, producing only carbon dioxide and water vapor, and none of the soot or toxic chemicals produced by solid fuels and kerosene.\nAlcohol fuels are clean (with particle emissions far below the WHO levels). When paired with an efficient stove, alcohol fuels can drastically improve indoor air quality, and thus improve respiratory health and quality of life by reducing the global burden of disease.\" \nAlcohol is beginning to gain wider recognition as a source of fuel. Because of initiatives",
"-29.374260299722664"
],
[
"less intoxicated than they were.\"\nA further concern is the effect that the stimulant-depressant combination has upon the heart. Alcohol can reduce brain activity, impair heart function, and lead to a heart attack. When combined with an energy drink, its effects may include cardiovascular risks, shortness of breath, and rapid heartbeat. The body’s defenses are weakened by the dehydration caused by the alcohol and caffeine, both of which are diuretics.",
"-29.369121607160196"
],
[
"the (arterial) blood into the lungs to be expired in the breath. Arterial blood distributes oxygen throughout the body. Breath alcohol concentrations are generally lower than blood alcohol concentrations, because a true representation of blood alcohol concentration is only possible if the lungs were able to completely deflate. Vitreous (eye) fluid provides the most accurate account of blood alcohol concentration. Drinking after driving A common defense to an impaired driving charge (in appropriate circumstances) is that the consumption of alcohol occurred subsequent to driving. The typical circumstance where this comes up is when a driver consumes alcohol after",
"-29.34249978529988"
],
[
"As alcohol has a lower boiling point, it is more volatile and evaporates at a higher rate than water. Therefore, the concentration of alcohol in the vapour phase above the liquid is higher than in the liquid itself.\nDuring distillation, this vapour travels up the swan neck at the top of the pot still and down the lyne arm, after which it travels through the condenser, where is cooled to yield a distillate with a higher concentration of alcohol than the original liquid. This distillate, called \"low wines\" has a concentration of about 25–35% alcohol by volume.\nThese low wines can be",
"-29.279108710295986"
],
[
"carcinogen. Cardiovascular system Studies have shown that heavy drinkers put themselves at greater risk for heart disease and developing potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Excessive alcohol consumption can cause higher blood pressure, increased cholesterol levels and weakened heart muscles. Studies have shown that moderate wine drinking can improve the balance of low-density lipoprotein (LDL or \"bad\" cholesterol) to high-density lipoprotein (HDL or \"good\" cholesterol), which has been theorized as to clean up or remove LDL from blocking arteries. The main cause of heart attacks and the pain of angina is the lack of oxygen caused by blood clots and atheromatous plaque",
"-29.272559842298506"
],
[
"in the wine contributes much more than just intoxication. It has an immense impact of the weight and mouthfeel of the wine as well as the balance of sweetness, tannins and acids. In wine tasting, the anaesthetic qualities of ethanol reduces the sensitivity of the palate to the harsh effects of acids and tannins, making the wine seem softer. It also plays a role during the ageing of wine in its complex interaction with esters and phenolic compounds that produce various aromas in wine that contribute to a wine's flavor profile. For this reason, some winemakers will value having a",
"-29.269521828973666"
],
[
"exert their effects through a number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include facilitation of GABA, and inhibition of glutamatergic or monoaminergic activity. Other examples are chemicals that modify the electrical signaling inside the body. The most prominent of these being bromides and channel blockers. Alcohol An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains alcohol (also known formally as ethanol), an anesthetic that has been used as a psychoactive drug for several millennia. Ethanol is the oldest recreational drug still used by humans. Ethanol can cause alcohol intoxication when consumed. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general",
"-29.267955525428988"
],
[
"Dry drunk Dry drunk is a informal expression which describes an alcoholic or former alcoholic who no longer drinks but otherwise maintains the same behavior patterns of an alcoholic. They may have many different emotions during the period of them becoming sober.\nThe objective of groups such as Narcotics Anonymous (NA) and Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is not just to help their members stop abusing drugs and alcohol. It is acknowledged in these programs that addiction is more systemic than a \"bad habit\" and is fundamentally caused by self-centeredness. Long term membership in Alcoholics Anonymous has been found to reform pathological",
"-29.250375154628273"
],
[
"can measure the anxiolytic effects of alcohol in the human brain. The British National Formulary states, \"Alcohol is a poor hypnotic because its diuretic action interferes with sleep during the latter part of the night.\" Alcohol is also known to induce alcohol-related sleep disorders. Inhalants The anxiolytic effects of solvents act as positive modulators of GABAA receptors (Bowen and colleagues 2006). Alternatives to medication Psychotherapeutic treatment can be an effective alternative to medication. Exposure therapy is the recommended treatment for phobic anxiety disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been found to be effective treatment for panic disorder, social anxiety",
"-29.213649801909924"
],
[
"looks for direct products of ethanol metabolism. The main part of alcohol is oxidized in the human body. This means it is released as water and carbon dioxide. One part of the alcohol reacts with fatty acids to produce esters. The sum of the concentrations of four of these fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs: ethyl myristate, ethyl palmitate, ethyl oleate and ethyl stearate) are used as indicators of the alcohol consumption. The amounts found in hair are measured in nanograms (one nanogram equals only one billionth of a gram), however with the benefit of modern technology, it is possible to",
"-29.152266502911516"
],
[
"are produced by three major global brands: Coca-Cola, PepsiCo and the Dr Pepper Snapple Group. Alcoholic drinks A drink is considered \"alcoholic\" if it contains ethanol, commonly known as alcohol (although in chemistry the definition of \"alcohol\" includes many other compounds). Beer has been a part of human culture for 8,000 years.\nIn many countries, imbibing alcoholic drinks in a local bar or pub is a cultural tradition. Beer Beer is an alcoholic drink produced by the saccharification of starch and fermentation of the resulting sugar. The starch and saccharification enzymes are often derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted",
"-29.06907257111743"
],
[
"generally mixed with another batch of low wine, thereby entering the distillation cycle again. The middle heart fraction, richest in aromas and flavours, is preserved for later maturation.\nDistillation does not simply enhance the alcohol content of wine. The heat under which the product is distilled and the material of the still (usually copper) cause chemical reactions to take place during distillation. This leads to the formation of numerous new volatile aroma components, changes in relative amounts of aroma components in the wine, and the hydrolysis of components such as esters.\nBrandy is usually produced in pot stills (batch distillation), but the",
"-29.05861444969196"
],
[
"of the hops plant Humulus lupulus. These flowers contain over 250 essential oils, which contribute to the aroma and non-bitter flavors of beer. However, the distinct bitterness especially characteristic of pale ales comes from a family of compounds called alpha-acids (also called humulones) and beta-acids (also called lupulones). Generally, brewers believe that α-acids give the beer a pleasant bitterness whereas β-acids are considered less pleasant. α-acids isomerize during the boiling process in the reaction pictured. The six-member ring in the humulone isomerizes to a five-member ring, but it is not commonly discussed how this affects perceived bitterness. Yeast In beer,",
"-29.051809627446346"
],
[
"facial flushing after the ingestion of alcohol. In very high doses it can increase secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which can lead to hyponatremia. It also markedly raises the serum level of alkaline phosphatase. Chemical properties Chlorpropamide is a white crystalline powder with no characteristic taste or smell. It exhibits polymorphism. Its acid dissociation constant pKₐ is 5.0 at 20 °C.",
"-29.0374618738133"
],
[
"eaten, infused into other foods, or drunk) and a lack of production controls. The potential for adverse effects from smoke inhalation makes smoking a less viable option than oral preparations. Cannabis vaporizers have gained popularity because of a perception among users that fewer harmful chemicals are ingested when components are inhaled via aerosol rather than smoke. Cannabinoid medicines are available in pill form (dronabinol and nabilone) and liquid extracts formulated into an oromucosal spray (nabiximols). Oral preparations are \"problematic due to the uptake of cannabinoids into fatty tissue, from which they are released slowly, and the significant first-pass liver",
"-29.03279445937369"
],
[
"pull on the surrounding fluid more strongly than a region with a higher alcohol concentration. The result is that the liquid tends to flow away from regions with higher alcohol concentration. This can be easily and strikingly demonstrated by spreading a thin film of water on a smooth surface and then allowing a drop of alcohol to fall on the center of the film. The liquid will rush out of the region where the drop of alcohol fell.\nWine is mostly a mixture of alcohol and water, with dissolved sugars, acids, colourants and flavourants. Where the surface of the",
"-29.018076091539115"
],
[
"or wine was is associated with a lower risk of developing kidney stones. Sexual dysfunction Long term excessive intake of alcohol can lead to damage to the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system resulting in loss of sexual desire and impotence in men. This is caused by reduction of testosterone from ethanol-induced testicular atrophy, resulting in increased feminisation of males and is a clinical feature of alcohol abusing males who have cirrhosis of the liver. Hormonal imbalance Excessive alcohol intake can result in hyperoestrogenisation. It has been speculated that alcoholic beverages may contain estrogen-like compounds. In men, high",
"-28.98526144970674"
],
[
"drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating urination and makes one's flesh white and smooth.\nThe use of hops in beer was written of in 822 by the Carolingian Abbot Adalard of Corbie. Flavoring beer with hops was known at least since the 9th century, but was only gradually adopted because of difficulties in establishing the right proportions of ingredients. Before that, gruit, a mix of various herbs, had been used, but did not have the same preserving properties as hops. Beer flavored without it was often spoiled soon after preparation and could not be exported. The only",
"-28.98512346483767"
],
[
"within the glass for the drinker to detect. Wines served at warmer temperature will be more aromatic than wine served cooler due to heat's ability to increase the volatility of aromatic compounds in the wine. Swirling, or aerating, the wine will increase available surface area, increasing the rate at which aroma molecules volatilize. Some subtle aromatics can be overwhelmed by more dominant aromatics that arise after swirling, so most professional tasters will sniff the wine briefly first before swirling. The closer the nose is to the wine, even right inside the glass, the greater chances of aromatics being captured. A",
"-28.970328768336913"
],
[
"with this loss of tannins and pigment, will have a paler color and taste softer, less astringent. The sediment, while harmless, can have an unpleasant taste and is often separated from the wine by decanting.\nDuring the aging process, the perception of a wine's acidity may change even though the total measurable amount of acidity is more or less constant throughout a wine's life. This is due to the esterification of the acids, combining with alcohols in complex array to form esters. In addition to making a wine taste less acidic, these esters introduce a range of possible aromas. Eventually the",
"-28.966471272316994"
],
[
"ingestion of, and sometimes even the fumes from, ethanol and ethanol-containing beverages; these responses include the transient accumulation of acetaldehyde in blood and tissues; facial flushing (i.e. the \"oriental flushing syndrome\" or Alcohol flush reaction), urticaria, systemic dermatitis, and alcohol-induced respiratory reactions (i.e. rhinitis and, primarily in patients with a history of asthma, mild to moderately bronchoconstriction exacerbations of their asthmatic disease. These allergic reaction-like symptoms, which typically occur within 30–60 minutes of ingesting alcoholic beverages, do not appear to reflect the operation of classical IgE- or T cell-related allergen-induced reactions but rather are due, at least in large part,",
"-28.945440473995404"
],
[
"more noticeable to wine tasters if added at this point. In wine tasting The acidity in wine is an important component in the quality and taste of the wine. It adds a sharpness to the flavors and is detected most readily by a prickling sensation on the sides of the tongue and a mouth-watering aftertaste. Of particular importance is the balance of acidity versus the sweetness of the wine (the leftover residual sugar) and the more bitter components of the wine (most notably tannins but also includes other phenolics). A wine with too much acidity will taste excessively sour and",
"-28.94439978490118"
],
[
"to alter their chemical make-up and provide additional flavors. This is especially true in processes such as the making of blue cheese or aged beef. Extraction In the case of beverages, such as the aging of wine, beer, or whiskey, storing the beverage for extended periods of time in wooden casks allows the liquid to extract flavor compounds from the wood itself, adding to the complexity and depth of flavor. Traditional Balsamic Vinegar is aged for years in a succession of oak barrels to extract and concentrate flavors.",
"-28.927900462062098"
],
[
"in brandy appears to have been traditionally seen as an adulterant, one which caused ill health. It was also used as a term of slander.",
"-28.92787896246591"
],
[
"to the same substance, but highlight their different origins. Toxicity Like many alcohols, butanol is considered toxic. It has shown low order of toxicity in single dose experiments to laboratory animals and is considered safe enough for use in cosmetics. Brief, repeated overexposure with the skin can result in depression of the central nervous system, as with other short-chain alcohols. Exposure may also cause severe eye irritation and moderate skin irritation. The main dangers are from prolonged exposure to the alcohol's vapors. In extreme cases this includes suppression of the central nervous system and even",
"-28.90788696956588"
],
[
"a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds; from the blood it travels to the lungs (and from there to the mouth, causing bad breath; see garlic breath) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath. Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward. Plain water, mushrooms, and basil may",
"-28.870620465138927"
],
[
"(which in the Septuagint also often translates most of the Hebrew words for alcoholic beverages listed above) are commonly translated \"wine\", but the two are also rarely, and perhaps figuratively or anticipatorily, used to refer to freshly pressed non-alcoholic juice. For this reason, prohibitionist and some abstentionist Christians object to taking the default meaning to be fermented beverages, but others argue that the words can also refer to alcoholic beverages.\nWhile the wines drunk in the times depicted in the Hebrew Bible were not diluted with water, after the conquest of Palestine by Alexander the Great the Hellenistic custom of diluting",
"-28.864363169122953"
],
[
"an cask that once held Oloroso.) The Oloroso wine infused in the wood of the casks imparts some of the flavor and aroma of the wine to the whisky during the aging process. Oloroso casks are also used to age brandy for the same reasons. Whisky that was only matured in Oloroso casks is often fruitier, with stronger notes of tobacco, pepper and stewed fruits.",
"-28.860965971711266"
],
[
"texture while subsequent tastings are to analyse flavours and scents. In the second tasting the primary flavours are determined. There are only five of these, detected by the tongue: salt, sweet, sour, bitter and umami (savoury); the other 'flavours' are aromas and are picked up at the back of the nasal passage. Finish The flavour of the whisky will linger on the palate and will change over time as the flavour decays in the mouth. Water Optionally, the entire process will be repeated with a small amount of water, which changes the flavour profile of the spirit. This is because",
"-28.8526123019401"
],
[
"cocktails. Shrubs eventually fell out of popularity with the advent of home refrigeration. 21st century usage The serving of vinegar-based shrub drinks became popular again in 2011 in American restaurants and bars. The trend has also been noted in bars in Canada as well as London. The acidity of the shrub makes it well suited as an apéritif or used as an alternative to bitters in cocktails. Unlike cocktails acidulated with citrus, vinegar-based drinks will remain clear when shaken. Etymology As used here, the term \"shrub\" is a metathetic variant of the word \"shurb\", derived from the Arabic word sharāb",
"-28.829611026507337"
],
[
"aging are usually much less expensive to produce than straight whiskeys or single malt whiskeys and are often the primary spirits in blends, along with more premium whiskies and other ingredients added for flavoring.\nMost cocktails and mixed drinks that contain whiskey are made using economically priced blended whiskeys rather than higher priced whiskeys, primarily because the presence of the other ingredients makes the subtleties of the taste of the whiskey less critical to the overall taste of the drink. However, drink establishments often upsell the use of a premium top-shelf liquor in mixed drinks for better taste (and higher revenues).",
"-28.811610758653842"
],
[
"recommendation. Alcoholic beverages The term “drinking” is often used metonymically for the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Most cultures throughout history have incorporated some number of the wide variety of \"strong drinks\" into their meals, celebrations, ceremonies, toasts and other occasions. Evidence of fermented drinks in human culture goes back as early as the Neolithic Period, and the first pictorial evidence can be found in Egypt around 4,000 BC. \nAlcohol consumption has developed into a variety of well-established drinking cultures around the world. Despite its popularity, alcohol consumption poses significant health risks. Alcohol abuse and the addiction of alcoholism are common",
"-28.811606997187482"
],
[
"Oxygen bar An oxygen bar is an establishment, or part of one, that sells oxygen for recreational use. Individual flavored scents may be added to enhance the experience. The flavors in an oxygen bar come from bubbling oxygen through bottles containing aromatic solutions before it reaches the nostrils: most bars use food-grade particles to produce the scent, but some bars use aroma oils. History In 1776, Thomas Henry, an apothecary and Fellow of the Royal Society of England speculated tongue in cheek that Joseph Priestley’s newly discovered dephlogisticated air (now called oxygen) might become “as fashionable as French wine at",
"-28.783456984674558"
],
[
"and contribute to the taste of non-distilled drinks. It has been suggested that these substances contribute to the symptoms of a hangover. Tannins are congeners found in wine in the presence of phenolic compounds. Wine tannins add bitterness, have a drying sensation, taste herbaceous and are often described as astringent. Wine tannins adds balance, complexity, structure and makes a wine last longer, so they play an important role in the aging of wine. Food energy Alcoholic drinks are a source of food energy. The USDA uses a figure of 6.93 kilocalories (29.0 kJ) per gram of alcohol (5.47 kcal or 22.9 kJ per",
"-28.782719574839575"
],
[
"wine were drunk daily and were one of the treasury's biggest sources of income.\nAlcoholic beverages were widely used in all segments of Chinese society, were used as a source of inspiration, were important for hospitality, were considered an antidote for fatigue, and were sometimes misused. Laws against making wine were enacted and repealed forty-one times between 1100 BC and AD 1400. However, a commentator writing around 650 BC asserted that people \"will not do without beer. To prohibit it and secure total abstinence from it is beyond the power even of sages. Hence, therefore, we have warnings on the abuse",
"-28.776372416556114"
]
] |
4pmzko | How would someone who is fit be affected if they literally ate complete Junk food for one day? | [
"There's a show on A & E called \"Fit to Fat to Fit.\" It follows personal trainers who purposefully eat junk for 8 weeks to get fat. And then they lose the weight alongside their heaviest clients. Most episodes follow similar tropes. Typically, the trainers feel great for a week or two. The rush of processed sugars in their lean bodies and relaxation of regimens is a pretty common theme. After a while, they all become sluggish and disinterested in day to day stuff they used to love. They become flabby and all of that hits them psychologically since they pride themselves on fitness and their physique. TLDR while it might be fun for a little while to go on a binder, it would take a toll on your organs, your physique and quite possibly your mental state.",
"Well, if you've been considered \"fit\" for a long time, probably not too much, image-wise. You wouldn't magically get fatter like a cartoon character, so there's that. It also depends on how fit you are. If you're training like Michael Phelps did for the olympics, you're actually **below** what he was consuming...around 12,000 calories a day during peak Olympic training! So if you're a professional athlete, eating 10,000 calories in one day will probably have a minimal affect on you. Now, as for an average, 9-to-5 office worker who's in \"good\" shape, i.e. slightly above their optimal weight/height BMI and good cardiovascular shape with low blood pressure, probably not *too* much either. Our bodies are capable of some pretty amazing things. If you ate all that food throughout the course of the day, the most might be indigestion, upset stomach, and possible vomiting due to over-eating. You'll probably feel lethargic, maybe a headache due to the rush of too much sugar, etc. Basically you'd potentially feel kinda crappy. Actual detrimental effects? Probably minimal, depending on how much sugar/salt you had and whether or not you're diabetic or prone to high blood pressure. On average, bloated and yucky feeling, but otherwise probably okay. Disclaimer: I am not a doctor nor a nutritionist. Consult a doctor or nutritionist before consuming mass large quantities of food.",
"In the world of fitness, this is known as a \"cheat day.\" A lot of bodybuilders and powerlifters diet this way. Well, maybe not 10,000 calories extra... but they can eat junk food. I eat really clean throughout the week and I measure all of my portions, count every gram of protein, carbs and fat I eat. Then, on the weekends, I can have pizza, ice cream, whatever I'm craving. I don't binge or go crazy like 10,000 calories, but I can have a couple extra slices of pizza without affecting my physique or my strength. Basically, it all evens out over the course of a week assuming you don't eat 10,000 calories every two days or something crazy like that. You cannot get fat or ruin your physique/strength in just one day the same way you cannot get a six-pack and huge muscles in one single day. Your body fat and muscle mass change over the course of weeks, months, and years. So, one single cheat day is not going to make a significant impact. A 10,000 calorie cheat day is a little different, you'd gain more fat than a usual cheat day, but normal humans don't eat that way all the time. This is all assuming you are a normal, healthy individual without any medical conditions. Obviously, if you have some pre-existing condition, it may not be quite so simple for you.",
"Doctor here, My suspicion is that not much would happen from a one day calorie binge. Given that we are talking about junk food, the most likely consequence is a temporary increase in weight via expansion of total body water due to the insane amounts of salt in low quality foods. I would also suspect that the subject would have some pretty serious diarrhea from the huge osmotic load that is being delivered to the small intestine.",
"You would look the same, possibly a little bloated the next day due to all the excess salt. Otherwise you would: A) shit a lot more i) possibly also diarrhea B) get really thirsty, drink more water, and subsequently pee a lot C) feel sluggish af D) want to food coma and just sleep Source: ate Wendy's, cake, chocolate, and pizza all day yesterday.",
"they would throw up and then prbly get the shits. If its just one day, your body is going to reject it because it is so different from your normal food intake. even if they didn't get sick, theyre still going to feel like shit for being overfull and filled with junk.",
"It's still calories in vs. calories out. 10,000 is a huge amount for one day but if you eat 2,000 the other 6 days and are doing enough exercise such that your total energy use is 23,000 calories that week you're still going to lose weight.",
"Only one day? You'll probably feel sick, but after you digest/vomit it all, no consequence is the likely outcome. The risk is not eating 10k calories once, but eating an extra thousand everyday",
"You can also check out the movie Super Size Me. I'm pretty sure it's still streaming on Netflix. It explains pretty much the same thing hillrat mentioned on Fit to Fat to Fit.",
"One day? A huge poop the next day, maybe a little stomach pain, maybe fatigue. Maybe a few oz of body fat built up."
] | [
[
"Academic, Rowman & Littlefield, Berg, Earthscan, Routledge, Prospect, and Equinox Publishing. Food insecurity and health outcomes In America, almost 50 million people are considered food insecure. This is because they do not have the means to buy healthy food, therefore, lead an unhealthy lifestyle. At least 1.4 times more children who are food insecure are likely to have asthma, compared to food-secure children. And older Americans who are food-insecure will tend to have limitations in their daily activities. When a household is lacking the means (money) to buy proper food, their health ultimately suffers. Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly",
"-32.1599183167782"
],
[
"people may have problems because of aging or illness. People of college age have issues with malnutrition as well, though it may not be as severe as with the younger kids or the elderly.\nIn people in their undergraduate years of study at a four-year university, malnutrition can occur due to negligence of eating and even their diet. Other causes Students often eat to deal with the pressures of stress. Stress may come from the pressures of unclear assignments, homework, and the transition from high school to college. The biggest stress factor for students is exams and doing well on them.",
"-30.71608642621868"
],
[
"Children are more likely to get ill and require a longer recovery period when they don't consume the necessary amount of nutrients. Additionally, children who consume a high amount of highly processed, packaged goods are more-likely to develop chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease due to these food items containing a high amount of calories in the form of added sugars and fats. In regards to academics, children who experience hunger perform worse in school on both mathematic and reading assessments. Children who consistently start the day with a nutritious breakfast have an average increase of 17.5% on",
"-30.04453098303827"
],
[
"serious illnesses, and are disadvantaged especially in cases of incurable illnesses like AIDS where constant medicating with expensive, non-subsidized drugs is the only way to sustain a normal life.\nThose born into a lower class are at a higher risk of suffering from illness. In the past, the poor suffered from hunger and starvation. However, in high-income countries like the U.S, the opposite is true. Food-insecure families are the most prone to high rates of obesity, especially in children. This can be attributed to the generally higher cost of healthful foods, and a lack of education regarding healthy eating habits, causing",
"-29.9452002941689"
],
[
"Atul said: ‘For those of us fortunate enough to work with food every day, and never experience hunger, it’s so, so important to do what we can for those less fortunate.’",
"-29.541061076248297"
],
[
"or unbalanced diet, problems with digestion or absorption, or certain medical conditions. Hunger is a main cause of malnutrition because if it is not satisfied then malnutrition is sure to follow. People suffer from hunger because of a lack of food and the nutrients which accompany food in the short term. If hunger proceeds for an extended period of time there is a good chance that it will lead to malnutrition.\nMalnutrition can affect people of every age. Though infants, children, and adolescents suffer more from malnutrition because of their need for critical nutrients for their normal development, older",
"-28.950956360524287"
],
[
"food-secure homes. Hungry children are much more likely to have clinical levels of psychosocial dysfunction, and they show more anxious, irritable, aggressive, and oppositional behaviors than peers whose families are low-income but food-secure.\nIn addition to academic and behavioral problems, children with inadequate diets are more prone to illnesses. Researchers have found that malnutrition leads to an array of health problems that can become chronic. Underfed children may have \"extreme weight loss, stunted growth, weakened resistance to infection\", and even early death. Such ailments reduce the amount of time students can spend learning at school.\nThese cognitive, behavioral, and physical problems are",
"-28.930503385010525"
],
[
"as many as 60% of seniors living at home are either malnourished or at risk of becoming malnourished. In addition to the problems lack of nutrients will cause, this state also means that the complications of other illnesses, even the common cold, can be much more severe.\nFactors that lead to the syndrome include social isolation, psychological issues such as depression, illness, and physical limitations. Though less of a factor than psychological issues, the increased number of medications often taken by elderly people can also affect eating habits. These medications may suppress appetite, make food taste different, or affect how nutrients",
"-28.756686052453006"
],
[
"related to insufficient social care, where vulnerable people at home or in care homes are not helped to eat.\nIn Australia malnutrition or risk of malnutrition occurs in 80 percent of elderly people presented to hospitals for admission. Malnutrition and weight loss can contribute to sarcopenia with loss of lean body mass and muscle function. Abdominal obesity or weight loss coupled with sarcopenia lead to immobility, skeletal disorders, insulin resistance, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and metabolic disorders. A paper from the Journal of the American Dietetic Association noted that routine nutrition screenings represent one way to detect and therefore decrease the prevalence of",
"-28.40127393880539"
],
[
"with people having jobs to make a living for themselves, which goes into food and nourishment. Psychology and Disorders Eating disorders are also symbolic with the sociology of food. They represent how control (or lack thereof) someone can have over themselves about one of the things they need to live. Eating disorders do not limit themselves to anorexia. These disorders include bulimia and binge eating as well. Some people often use food a comfort, or even a reward. Or in other cases they see food as a negative thing to avoid, even though they need it for survival. The relationships",
"-28.291289203771157"
],
[
"in food properly, their health is effected drastically and their food preferences are limited greatly (to soft or liquids only).\nDeclines in physical health can cause deterioration in diet due to difficulties in preparing and eating food as a result of conditions like arthritis.\nAt the 2010 \"Providing Healthy and Safe Foods As We Age\" conference sponsored by the Institute of Medicine, Dr. Katherine Tucker noted that the elderly are less active and have lower metabolism with a consequent lower need to eat. Also, they tend to have existing diseases and/or take medications that interfere with nutrient absorption. With changing",
"-28.275870890327496"
],
[
"have if they did not have the disease. This can be changed by proper care and an overall sense of well-being, however when a person does not receive the proper nourishment and food choices, they will fall victim to this. \nAs a result of certain mental health conditions and/or diseases—like Alzheimer's—a person's food preferences might become affected. With certain diseases, people tend to develop specific preferences or distaste for various types of food. For example, people with Alzheimer's (which is the most common form of dementia), experience many big and small changes as a result of their symptoms. One change",
"-28.213064662151737"
],
[
"Child Nutrition Act Importance It is important for food programs such as these in schools because some students may receive all their meals from school. According to the CDC, a poor diet can lead to energy imbalance (e.g., eating more calories than one expends through physical activity) and can increase one’s risk for overweight and obesity. Without a well balanced diet it could cause a child's brain to not develop normally (Berger, 172). Children may be malnourished and could possibly suffer from Protein-calorie malnutrition (Berger 172). In the long run if children do suffer from lack of nutrients it will",
"-28.210333868395537"
],
[
"malnutrition is prevalent in girls than boys. The research used Harvard weight-for-age standard, which found that 14.4% of girls were classified as severely malnourished in comparison with only 5.1% of boys, showing sex-biased nutrition-related practices favoring boys. Single obese mothers in USA Low food security does not only display itself in hunger and decrease in body size, but also in weight-gaining. According to a number of studies showing the linkage between low food security and sex differences, low food security is linked to being over-weight and “gaining 5 pounds or more in one year, but only among women”.",
"-28.154347906754992"
],
[
"on one who has it can be significant. Because this disorder involves throwing away anything that may discomfort a person due to the clutter that it may add to their lives, there is a significant financial burden. This disorder causes people to think they are better off getting rid of what they currently have, because it is in the way, and buying a replacement if and when they need one. For example, if a pen is sitting on a desk, and it makes the desk look disorganized, somebody with compulsive decluttering disorder would most likely throw it away in an",
"-28.1452200161948"
],
[
"and the Dietary Reference Intake recommendations. Unhealthy meals and malnutrition Unhealthy school lunches contribute to malnutrition in both the short term and the long term. In many cases, unhealthy adult eating patterns can be traced back to unhealthy school lunches, because children learn eating habits from social settings such as school. A 2010 study of 1,003 middle-school students in Michigan found that those who ate school lunches were significantly more likely to be obese than those who did not.\nPromoting healthy eating in schools may reduce adolescent obesity by as much as 25 percent. One such effort is the Berkeley Food",
"-28.125661244121147"
],
[
"such as BED is developed there are two potential pathways that can occur for an individual.\nGetting help is the first step to getting better but the chances for relapse are high. Those with a food addiction were most likely overweight in childhood which leads to treatment resistance the longer gone untreated. Due to poor mental health and lack of control and environmental factors, overeaters relapse into their old habits even after completing various treatments. BED patients often report and acknowledge using substances daily as a coping mechanism.\nHowever, there is a 50% of recovery at the end of treatment and follow-ups.",
"-28.121804345748387"
],
[
"children in several ways. It is a major threat to \"growth, health, cognitive, and behavioral potential\", and most behavioral, emotional, and academic problems are more prevalent among hungry children than non-hungry children. Food insecurity is linked to lower math scores, trouble getting along with peers, poor health, and more frequent illness. A study by researchers at the Boston University School of Medicine found that children aged 6–11 who came from food-insecure homes had lower arithmetic scores, were more likely to have repeated a grade or seen a therapist, and had more difficulty getting along with peers than similar children in",
"-28.114186231257918"
],
[
"fast foods, or other unhealthy alternatives to be consumed often for their ease of acquisition and generally low price.This leads to long-term epidemiological problems in which children who become obese maintain their obesity into their adult lives, suffering from associated ailments such as heart disease, high blood pressure, increased risk for several types of cancer, type 2 diabetes, stroke, infertility, arthritis, breathing difficulties and/or depression. Social class system Social reproduction is the passing on of social inequality across generations. The upper class has many advantages; having money provides the ability to have even more resources to get ahead. The opposite",
"-27.907911004309426"
],
[
"hygiene and unsafe water sources compounded with the food crisis, which made people susceptible to disease. Similarly, a study conducted by Save The Children UK in February 2002 found that the food crisis affected people's health by causing swelling in the hands and feet of both adults and children.\nThe food shortage has resulted in several thousand hunger-related deaths; the exact numbers are unknown. Many of these deaths have further exacerbated the problem of HIV/AIDS, leaving those afflicted by the disease especially vulnerable and also producing a large orphan population. UNICEF estimates that 17% of children do not have living parents",
"-27.859882055003254"
],
[
"intake and nutritional balance necessary before people got ill or lost weight. He then surveyed the prices of food in York to discover what the cheapest prices in the area for the food needed for this minimum diet were and used this information to set his poverty line.\nIn analysing the results of the investigation he found that people at certain stages of life, for example in old age and early childhood, were more likely to be in abject poverty, living below the poverty line, than at other stages of life. From this he formulated the idea of the poverty cycle",
"-27.79310644799989"
],
[
"dietary requirements, one study developed a modified food pyramid for adults over 70. Mental health The impact of certain diseases can also impact the quality of the food in the elderly population, especially those that are in care facilities. More often than not, when some has Alzheimer's disease they do not receive the care that is needed, and a decline in one's mental health is seen. It is a proven fact that those who make connections with others live longer. When a person falls victim to such a disease that limits mental capability, they could die earlier than they would",
"-27.76052582050761"
],
[
"food intake, infections, psychosocial deprivation, the environment (lack of sanitation and hygiene), social inequality and perhaps genetics contribute to childhood malnutrition. Inadequate food intake Inadequate food intake such as a lack of proteins can lead to Kwashiorkor, Marasmus and other forms of Protein–energy malnutrition. Sanitation The World Health Organization estimated in 2008 that globally, half of all cases of undernutrition in children under five were caused by unsafe water, inadequate sanitation or insufficient hygiene. This link is often due to repeated diarrhoea and intestinal worm infections as a result of inadequate sanitation. However, the relative contribution of diarrhea to",
"-27.687207281305746"
],
[
"research has found that providing additional food to children aged three months to five years may result in modest gains in weight and height, and haemoglobin. Food supplementation resulted in positive impacts on psycho-motor development. However evidence on mental development was mixed. Disasters, war and famine increase risk for food shortages and decreased family incomes both during the disaster and in the aftermath therefore getting food to children and vulnerable populations in safe, effective and efficient ways is an important priority in crisis relief.\nMalnutrition contributed to the deaths of more than three million children in 2011. Malnutrition leads to higher",
"-27.638964109690278"
],
[
"more likely to die during the first month of their lives. Poor children are at far greater risk of going without health insurance and experience higher prevalence of chronic illness, lead poisoning and other environmental toxins, and accidental injury or death. Many poor children, especially infants, live in households that are \"food insecure\". Low access to proper and sufficient nutrition can lead to both impaired development and, perversely, obesity and a number of other weight-related illnesses such as type-2 diabetes. Some findings indicate that poor children, particularly Mexican-American children, are especially prone to low stature and higher rates of over-weight",
"-27.61981058055244"
],
[
"two factors results in the spread of diseases amongst the poor whom cannot afford better healthcare. Also, one cannot deny that a healthy and well-fed citizen is better suited for increased productivity as part of the workforce. Thus, poverty matters because it affects the social welfare of citizens.",
"-27.448449188756058"
],
[
"like. These diets usually include an extreme condition or restriction on a person's food intake that supposedly will result in weight loss. People become attracted to these weight loss claims because of the potential ease with which the weight loss can happen. However, these claims are not always founded in scientific research. In popular culture The 2004 documentary film, Super Size Me, directed by and starring Morgan Spurlock focuses on the ways in which the fast food industry in America is influencing how people and especially young children, view nutrition.",
"-27.410576405454776"
],
[
"emotional eating of normal and overweight female college students. The study confirmed the tendency of obese individuals to overeat, but these findings applied only to snacks, not to meals. That means that obese individuals did not tend to eat more while having meals; rather, the amount of snacks they ate between meals was greater. One possible explanation that Lowe and Fisher suggest is obese individuals often eat their meals with others and do not eat more than average due to the reduction of distress because of the presence of other people. Another possible explanation would be that obese individuals do",
"-27.294067826020182"
],
[
"meals, because if they do not eat at around the same time on the next days, they may suffer extra severe hunger pangs. Older people may feel less violent stomach contractions when they get hungry, but still suffer the secondary effects resulting from low food intake: these include weakness, irritability and decreased concentration. Prolonged lack of adequate nutrition also causes increased susceptibility to disease and reduced ability for the body to self heal. Pre world war II Throughout history, the need to aid those suffering from hunger has been commonly, though not universally, recognized. The philosopher Simone Weil wrote",
"-27.232932194907335"
],
[
"poverty since a lack of food helps perpetuate the cycle of poverty. Most obviously, when individuals live in poverty they lack the financial resources to purchase food or pay for unexpected events, such as a medical emergency. When such emergencies arise, families are forced to cut back on food spending so they can meet the financial demands of the unexpected emergency. There is not one single cause of hunger but rather a complex interconnected web of various factors. Some of the most vulnerable populations to hunger are the elderly, children, people from a low socioeconomic status, and minority groups; however,",
"-27.209329162085396"
],
[
"70% to 80% of pupils do not always have food at home or do not know how they will get their next meal. Children are sometimes visibly malnourished and some lose their adult teeth due to unhealthy diet. According to a March 2013 report, teachers in London schools said that at least five children per class turned up without having had breakfast, with 41% of teachers saying they believed the children's hunger led to symptoms such as fainting.\nThe UK Government responded to hunger in schools by re-introducing free school meals for infants up to Year 2; this was announced in",
"-27.147524541556777"
],
[
"from only having access to a single food source.\nIt is not just the total amount of calories that matters but specific nutritional deficiencies such as vitamin A deficiency, iron deficiency or zinc deficiency can also increase risk of death. Overnutrition Overnutrition caused by overeating is also a form of malnutrition. In the United States, more than half of all adults are now overweight—a condition that, like hunger, increases susceptibility to disease and disability, reduces worker productivity, and lowers life expectancy. Overeating is much more common in the United States, where for the majority of people, access to food is not",
"-27.145510853253654"
],
[
"habits. The third group of people are the least well-off. They need to obtain credit in order to attain a reasonable standard of living. They are frequently subject to relatively high interest rates. Potential consequences for the over-indebted household include financial hardship, depression, poor health, relationship breakdown, exclusion from basic financial services, a strain on social relations, absenteeism at work and lack of organizational commitment, a feeling of insecurity.\nResponses to household over-indebtedness can be preventive, alleviative and rehabilitative. Preventive measures include financial education and regulation. An example of the last is the European Union’s \"Directive on Credit Agreements for Consumers",
"-27.109979646589636"
],
[
"disorders typically begin between the ages of 18 and 21. The two most common eating disorders are anorexia and bulimia. Anorexia deals with a person’s refusal to gain weight, disturbance of body image and the inability to maintain a certain weight. Bulimia is generally eating large amounts of food in a short period of time, usually within a span of two hours, then trying to get rid of the food by various methods; purging, laxatives or over-exercising. The idea of the \"Freshman 15\" makes students think that it is impossible to avoid when going to college. This is what develops",
"-27.09895754295576"
],
[
"and victimised in the work place. Food is also used as a psychological coping mechanism for overweight adults who indulge when they are feeling stressed, lonely and sad. The guilt felt as a result of this \"mindless eating\" can, in turn, cause people to feel anxious and distressed. Physical The physical implications of obesity in children include sleep apnoea, breathlessness, a reduced tolerance to exercise and orthopaedic and gastrointestinal problems including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Children who reciprocate these physical health disadvantages tend to struggle to concentrate more in- school and find it harder to fit in, being marginalised",
"-27.065236961614573"
],
[
"and media articles spoke of \"compassion fatigue\" a belief that the public had grown weary of this seemingly intractable problem.\nA common misconception persists that many individuals who panhandle are not actually homeless, but actually use pity and compassion to fund their lifestyles, making up to $20 an hour and living luxurious lives. This exception to the rule seems more prevalent due to media attention, but in reality, only a few cases exist.\nPublic opinion surveys show relatively little support for this view, however. A 1995 paper in the American Journal of Community Psychology concluded that \"although the homeless are clearly stigmatized,",
"-27.05560511857766"
],
[
"children who lack food are unable to learn, meaning they lose an opportunity for personal development that ends up costing their family, community and economy.",
"-27.045877540644142"
],
[
"may crave certain types of food, such as sweets or carbohydrates. In children, failure to make expected weight gains may be counted towards this criteria. Overeating is often associated with atypical depression. Motor activity Nearly every day, others may see that the person's activity level is not normal. People suffering from depression may be overly active (psychomotor agitation) or be very lethargic (psychomotor retardation). Psychomotor agitation is marked by an increase in body activity which may result in restlessness, an inability to sit still, pacing, hand wringing, or fidgeting with clothes or objects. Psychomotor retardation results in a decrease in",
"-27.00981024664361"
],
[
"in their life than they previously would. Often these individuals are saddled with limited or no access to proper healthcare and are faced with a cycle of living on the streets, being institutionalized or even jailed. As a result of the fluctuating economy, many older adults are finding themselves at risk of homelessness. A group that was once able to live off of savings, retirements, or pensions are finding it increasingly harder to do so. Individuals aged 50–64 have little to no savings and as a result of the Great Recession of 2008 many saw a loss in the value",
"-26.987895157879393"
],
[
"much smaller for the poor, their bad decisions lead to worse consequences. Specifically, it was showed that poverty is like other types of scarcity such as time and dieting, which adversely affect people's cognitive performance and control.\nHowever, recent studies have shown that the psychology of the poor is similar to that of people who are stressed for other reasons such as from working too hard, those who are lonely and without connections or those who lack calories because they are on a diet, according to Shafir. \"The idea is that there is a psychology that comes from not having",
"-26.98153996982728"
],
[
"they eat and how they prepare it. They frequently check the freshness of the food along with washing it several times in order to prevent any potential sicknesses that they could contract from foods not handled properly. Eating out is also avoided, if possible, and when asked Lipsitz et al.'s survey, many felt they were underweight because of the strict diets that they put upon themselves. Emetophobia and anorexia There are some cases where anorexia is the result of a fear of vomiting instead of the typical psychological problems that trigger it. In Frank M. Datillio's clinical case study, a",
"-26.879698791337432"
],
[
"food-insecure or at risk of malnutrition. More recently, however, the NSLP has made a significant shift to fight childhood obesity as well as malnutrition. Unhealthy eating patterns in overweight children—like those in underweight children—are often tied not only to individual choices, but also to social and economic circumstances such as family income and access to fresh foods. School meal programs provide an avenue by which these socioeconomic circumstances can be targeted to improve children's diets.\nMost students benefit from the NSLP, even if they do not receive free lunches, because the program also subsidizes full-price meals in the majority of U.S.",
"-26.854869962875455"
],
[
"in hopeless poverty. There can be no peace for the 1% while our children suffer and go to bed hungry.\nWe also decry the shameless exploitation and manipulation of our young people for profit by companies selling them unhealthy foods and debilitating products. It must stop. As parents, we are aggrieved that our children's health and well-being is threatened by these outside influences beyond our ability to control.\nNor will we accept that our elderly parents, who worked and paid taxes all of their lives, should now live in fear that their pensions and their access to quality medical care should be",
"-26.78164240383194"
],
[
"asthma, depending on the age of the child.” \nNon senior adult had less research done on them in regards with the impacts of food insecurity “however, some of the studies in this limited set have shown that food insecurity is associated with decreased nutrient intakes; 20-25 increased rates of mental health problems and depression,10,26-30 diabetes, 31, 32 hypertension, 33 and hyperlipidemia; 32 worse outcomes on health exams; 33 being in poor or fair health; 23 , 34 and poor sleep outcomes 35.” Mothers who are food insecurity tend to be twice as likely to report mental health issues as well",
"-26.760654657133273"
],
[
"beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy. These diseases collectively can also cause diarrhea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.\nThere is insufficient scientific data on exactly how long people can live without food. Although the length of time varies with an individual's percentage of body fat and general health, one medical study estimates that in adults complete starvation leads to death within 8 to 12 weeks. Starvation begins when an individual has lost about 30%, or about a third, of their normal body weight. Once the loss reaches 40%",
"-26.707976507976127"
],
[
"the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from the academic year. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, flu, and colds. These illnesses could potentially restrict a child or student's focus and concentration.\nFor a child to grow up emotionally healthy, the children under three need \"A strong, reliable primary caregiver who provides consistent and unconditional love, guidance, and support. Safe, predictable, stable environments. Ten to 20 hours each week of harmonious, reciprocal interactions. This process, known as attunement, is most",
"-26.696133747216663"
],
[
"their standardized math scores than children who regularly miss breakfast.\nBehavioral issues arise in both the school environment and in the children's ability to interact with peers of the same age. This is identified by both parental and teacher observations and assessments. Hunger takes a psychological toll on youth and negatively affects their mental health. Their lack of food contributes to the development of emotional problems and causes children to have visited with a psychiatrist more often than their sufficiently fed peers. Research shows that hunger plays a role in late youth and young adult depression and suicidal ideation. It was",
"-26.656674577345257"
],
[
"(recurring expenses).\nCauses of over-indebtedness can be diverse. A 'risky life event' (for example, unemployment, relationship break-up, leaving the parental home, business failure, illness or unexpected home repairs. Such events can trigger income and expenditure shocks) can lie at the root, sometimes instantly turning indebtedness into over-indebtedness. Other households have unconsciously, or consciously, gradually become\nover-committed. They make use of available forms of credit, sometimes without realizing that they might not be able to repay in the future. Lack of financial management skills and aggressive marketing by lenders may both lie at the origin of this. Another potential cause includes escalating consumption",
"-26.639055555453524"
],
[
"adaptations to an environment that is chronically short of food\" (Bateson & Martin, 1999). Those with a thrifty phenotype who actually develop in an affluent environment may be more prone to metabolic disorders, such as obesity and type II diabetes, whereas those who have received a positive maternal forecast will be adapted to good conditions and therefore better able to cope with rich diets. This idea (Barker, 1992) is now widely (if not universally) accepted and is a source of concern for societies undergoing a transition from sparse to better nutrition (Robinson, 2001).\nRisk factors of thrifty phenotype include advanced maternal",
"-26.616318541226065"
],
[
"participate in a free or reduced breakfast program. The extent of American youth facing hunger is clearly shown through the fact that 47% of SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program) participants are under the age of 18. The states with the highest rate of food insecure children were North Dakota, Minnesota, Virginia, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts as of 2012.\nChildren who experience hunger have an increase in both physical and psychological health problems. Although there is not a direct correlation between chronic illnesses and hunger among children, the overall health and development of children decreases with exposure to hunger and food insecurity.",
"-26.589403691119514"
],
[
"ridicule and told she was lazy during the first ten years of her sickness. In 2014, she said, \"'I was not taken seriously, and that was disastrous. If I’d gotten decent medical care to start out with — or at least emotional support, because I didn’t get that either — could I have gotten better? Would I not be sick 27 years later?'”\nShe described the onset and early years of her illness in an award-winning essay, A Sudden Illness in 2003. The disease structured her life as a writer, keeping her mainly confined to her home. She read old newspaper",
"-26.563051916447876"
],
[
"family, you must not get sick, and you must not make a single mistake!\" \"If you avoid dying of starvation when young, good for you. But it was almost impossible to avoid dying of starvation when old.\" \nFurther, the book explores personality characteristics and their relationship to economic existence, especially tolerance for risk, tolerance for hard work, and assertiveness, and personal standards of human dignity. \"He had a strong body, a patient disposition, ambition, yet he allowed people to treat him like a pig or a dog and he couldn't keep a job.\" \nIsolation and individualism are important",
"-26.536008798429975"
],
[
"Index (BMI) once in care. Food Maintenance Syndrome is characterized by a set of aberrant eating behaviors of children in foster care. It is \"a pattern of excessive eating and food acquisition and maintenance behaviors without concurrent obesity\"; it resembles \"the behavioral correlates of Hyperphagic Short Stature\". It is hypothesised that this syndrome is triggered by the stress and maltreatment foster children are subjected to, it was prevalent amongst 25 percent of the study group in New Zealand. Bulimia nervosa is seven times more prevalent among former foster children than in the general population. Poverty and homelessness Nearly half of",
"-26.49316632677801"
],
[
"of children are underweight. Examples of food insecurity Famines have been frequent in world history. Some have killed millions and substantially diminished the population of a large area. The most common causes have been drought and war, but the greatest famines in history were caused by economic policy.\nIn 2017, floods and other climate shocks placed more than 21 million people in food crisis and more than 10 million in emergency situations in Afghanistan, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Yemen – many of which also suffer from conflict and political upheaval. Afghanistan In Afghanistan, about 35% of households are food",
"-26.476956524646084"
],
[
"malnutrition in UK hospitals; a rising number of children starting their first and primary year of primary school underweight. In 2015 for example, 6,367 children started reception class underweight, which is up 16% on 2012 figures. Official figures published in November 2016 indicated that the number of hospital beds assigned to folk suffering from malnutrition had nearly tripled in the last decade. Again though there is a need for caution on the extent to which such figures really reflect a rise in hunger – an NHS spokesperson said the rise may be partly explained by the health service getting better",
"-26.457125492204796"
],
[
"disorder symptoms typically do not purge their food, fast, or excessively exercise to compensate for binges. Additionally, these individuals tend to diet more often, enroll in weight-control programs and have a history of family obesity. However, many who have bulimia also have binge-eating disorder.",
"-26.432751125161303"
],
[
"behavior, post-traumatic stress disorder, and substance abuse\" could all play a role in the development of an eating disorder. \"Interpersonal and family problems as well as personality disorders are also common.\" The Mayo Clinic also notes that people with eating disorders may have \"low self-esteem, perfectionism, impulsive behavior, [and] anger management difficulties.\" Society Cassell and Gleaves also point out that, \"Society is currently preoccupied with thinness, dieting, beauty and health, and a great industry has arisen to take advantage of the fear of fatness that has spread through developed nations and is beginning to spread throughout others\". Family In",
"-26.382277248136234"
],
[
"than 10 percent of the \"young\" elderly (up to age 75) malnourished, while 30 to 65 percent of the elderly in home care, long-term care facilities, or acute hospitals are malnourished. Many elderly people require assistance in eating, which may contribute to malnutrition. However, the mortality rate due to undernourishment may be reduced. Because of this, one of the main requirements of elderly care is to provide an adequate diet and all essential nutrients. Providing the different nutrients such as protein and energy keeps even small but consistent weight gain. Hospital admissions for malnutrition in the United Kingdom have been",
"-26.337006328525604"
],
[
"would have periods of intense cravings for food and overeat for weeks, which often resulted in frequent vomiting. Patient D, who grew up with a tyrannical father, was repulsed by her weight and would fast for a few days, rapidly losing weight. Ellen West, a patient described by Ludwig Binswanger in 1958, was teased by friends for being fat and excessively took thyroid pills to lose weight, later using laxatives and vomiting. She reportedly consumed dozens of oranges and several pounds of tomatoes each day, yet would skip meals. After being admitted to a psychiatric facility for depression, Ellen ate",
"-26.31679348301259"
],
[
"\"Eating disorders involve serious disturbances in eating behavior, such as extreme and unhealthy reduction of food intake or severe overeating, as well as feelings of distress or extreme concern about body shape or weight.\"\nAs many cases go unreported, it is difficult to estimate how many people in the United States suffer from eating disorders. The National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Eating Disorders (ANAD) and the -03-28|df= report that anywhere between 7 and 10 million women, and 1 million men suffer from anorexia nervosa or bulimia; millions more suffer from binge-eating disorder. ANAD points out that, \"All segments of society are",
"-26.210360114302603"
],
[
"who are deprived of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. Both weight and growth are affected. A similar disorder, seen in very young malnourished children, is kwashiorkor. With emaciation mostly confined to the upper body, kwashiorkor often occurs after a child has been weaned and thus deprived of protein it was getting from its mother's milk. Slight emaciation is seen with nutrition disorders such as beriberi, caused by a lack of thiamine (vitamin B1), and pellagra, caused by insufficient intake of niacin (vitamin B3). The former is mainly characterized by mental impairment, and the latter is more serious, often leading to death.\nOther",
"-26.162953726845444"
],
[
"complex interactions between a person's job status, income and benefits, and the number of dependents they must provide for, influence the impact of hunger on a family. For example, food insecurity often increases with the number of additional children in the household due to the negative impact on wage labor hours and an increase in the household's overall food needs.\nDespite research on the correlation between poverty and hunger, comparison of data from the December Supplement of the 2009 Current Population Survey illustrated that poverty is not a direct causation of hunger. Of all household incomes near the federal poverty line,",
"-26.11985043556706"
],
[
"or reduced-price meals daily through the National School lunch program during the 2012 federal fiscal year. Nearly 14 million children are estimated to be served by Feeding America with over 3 million being of the ages of 5 and under.\nA 2014 report by the National Center on Family Homelessness states the number of homeless children in the U.S. has reached record levels, calculating that 2.5 million children, or one child in every 30, experienced homelessness in 2013. High levels of poverty, lack of affordable housing and domestic violence were cited as the primary causes. A 2017 peer-reviewed study published in",
"-26.062029709253693"
],
[
"Poor or non-existent breastfeeding causes another 1.4 million. Other deficiencies, such as lack of vitamin A or zinc, for example, account for 1 million. Malnutrition in the first two years is irreversible. Malnourished children grow up with worse health and lower education achievement. Their own children tend to be smaller. Malnutrition was previously seen as something that exacerbates the problems of diseases such as measles, pneumonia and diarrhea, but malnutrition actually causes diseases, and can be fatal in its own right. History While hunger has been a perennial human problem, there was relatively little awareness of the qualitative aspects of",
"-26.01934208451712"
],
[
"Renee Williams Biography By the age of 12, Williams was already in the category of super-morbid obesity, which refers to a body mass index over 50. After a car crash in 2003 she became unable to walk, and added another 420 lb to her then 460 lb frame inside 4 years. She was bedridden and ate large amounts of food. Williams' daughter attests that both before and after her accident, it was a common occurrence for Williams to keep eating until her stomach hurt, with reports of her eating up to eight burgers at a time. Williams had a gastric bypass at",
"-26.01723509884323"
],
[
"decline to the point that the person does not want to eat at all. They may not want to get out of bed, or may need complete assistance doing so. Commonly, the person no longer recognizes familiar people. They may have significant changes in sleeping habits or have trouble sleeping at all. Reversible causes Causes of easily reversible dementia include hypothyroidism, vitamin B12 deficiency, Lyme disease, and neurosyphilis. All people with memory difficulty should be checked for hypothyroidism and B12 deficiency. For Lyme disease and neurosyphilis, testing should be done if there are risk factors for those diseases in the",
"-25.967906547029997"
],
[
"be an individual having stomach cramps when household chores are completed by a family member. In the context of a person with a significant mental or psychiatric disability, this effect is sometimes called secondary handicap.\nTertiary morbid gain, a less well-studied process, is when a third party such as a relative or friend is motivated to gain sympathy or other benefits from the illness of the victim.",
"-25.942940444778287"
],
[
"scurvy, osteoporosis, impaired immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many others. Malnutrition Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients. In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption.\nAlthough there are more people in the world who are malnourished due to excessive consumption, according to the United Nations World Health Organization, the greatest challenge in developing nations today is not starvation, but insufficient nutrition – the lack of nutrients necessary for the growth and",
"-25.92402415908873"
],
[
"eating disorder, compulsive overeating, and bulimia nervosa. These diseases are more common for women and may involve eating thousands of calories at a time. Depending on which of these disorders is the underlying cause, an episode of overeating can have a variety of different motivations. Characteristics common among these three disorders include low self-esteem, depression, eating when not physically hungry, preoccupation with food, eating alone due to embarrassment, and feelings of regret or disgust after an episode. In these cases, overeating is not limited to palatable foods.\nImpulsivity differentially affects disorders involving the over control of food intake (such",
"-25.917677591642132"
],
[
"numerous eating disorders: \"I coped with stress by having every possible eating disorder from the time I was nine years old. I have weighed as much as 160 pounds and as little as 93. When I was a kid, I overate constantly. My weight distressed my mother and she took me to a doctor who put me on Dexedrine diet pills when I was ten years old.\"\nRadner was close to her father, who operated Detroit's Seville Hotel, where many nightclub performers and actors stayed while performing in the city. He took her on trips to New York to see Broadway",
"-25.911634507938288"
],
[
"affected: Men and women, young and old, rich and poor, all ethnicities, [and] all socio-economic levels.\" “The American College of Physicians lists eating disorders as one of the nine most serious problems affecting adolescents and young adults, and anorexia nervosa…as the third most common chronic illness.” \nIn addition, \"individuals with eating disorders have the highest mortality rate among any groups affected with mental illness as 20% of people suffering from eating disorders die prematurely from complications related to their eating disorder, including suicide and heart problems.\" DeBate et al. go on to note that, \"anorexia nervosa has the highest mortality",
"-25.893388690717984"
],
[
"found that 15.6% of boys and 17.4% of girls in high school were obese. Currently 15% of the population suffers from diabetes.\nIncreased consumption of fast food and predominance of sedentary lifestyles have led to this occurrence. These unhealthy eating habits are reinforced in school canteens, where high fat and high carbohydrate foods such as pizza, burgers, sandwiches, and za'atar, are available for lunch. Between meal times, children prefer French fries, chocolate, and soda, which lack micronutrients and dietary fiber. Kuwait From 1980 to 1993, the percentage of individuals age 18–29 that were overweight rose from 30.6% to 54.4% and the",
"-25.88949251192389"
],
[
"children suffering from food insecurity.\nAbout 4 million UK children live in families that cannot afford to follow the UK government guidelines for a healthy diet. This puts the children at increased risk of obesity, diabetes and other diet related illnesses. There are calls for increased welfare payments and for healthy food to be more widely available, for example through wider availability of free school meals and through maternity food vouhers.\nIn April 2018, head teachers said children come into school malnourished and hungry. A head teacher said, \"My children have grey skin, poor teeth, poor hair; they are",
"-25.888599214173155"
],
[
"urban areas with elderly who did not own a car. Aside from transportation, the kind and quality of available food can also shape food choice if a person lives in a so-called \"food desert\".\nSocial network type can also affect individuals food choices in our elderly population as well. For example, a person that has a larger social network and lower economic status is more likely to have proper nutrition that someone who has a smaller social network and higher economic status. This means that it is important for our elderly populations to keep social networks so they can",
"-25.80601254445719"
],
[
"which Simon says to him, \"There's one thing poor people have in common no matter who they are, they have no education. Education is the key; it's the way up, the way out. That's why you must do well in school Alex, not only for yourself but to help others as well\".\nIn May 1933 Bertha starts to show subtle signs of a threatening illness, and those symptoms continue during a summer vacation with the aging Cynthia (Beah Richards) in Henning.\nWhen Simon and his family return to Normal, they find that his antagonists have broken in, damaged their home, and destroyed",
"-25.780627839209046"
],
[
"— granted, many of them in animals — have shown that physical or emotional distress increases the intake of food high in fat, sugar, or both, even in the absence of caloric deficits. Once ingested, fat- and sugar-filled foods seem to have a feedback effect that dampens stress related responses and emotions, as these foods trigger dopamine and opioid releases, which protect against the negative consequences of stress. These foods really are \"comfort\" foods in that they seem to counteract stress, but rat studies demonstrate that intermittent access to and consumption of these highly palatable foods creates symptoms that resemble",
"-25.777525537187103"
],
[
"of whom live in sub-Saharan Africa. A 2008 review of malnutrition found that about 55 million children are wasted, including 19 million who have severe wasting or severe acute malnutrition.\nAs underweight children are more vulnerable to almost all infectious diseases, the indirect disease burden of malnutrition is estimated to be an order of magnitude higher than the disease burden of the direct effects of malnutrition. The combination of direct and indirect deaths from malnutrition caused by unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices is estimated to lead to 860,000 deaths per year in children under five years of age.",
"-25.77414574807335"
],
[
"has also been associated with an increased risk of overweight and obesity in children. The habits children develop early in life may encourage them to adopt unhealthy dietary practices which persist into adulthood, increasing the likelihood of overweight, obesity and associated health problems such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.\"\nIn the UK, efforts to increasingly limit or eliminate advertising of foods high in sugar, salt or fat at any time when children may be viewing are ongoing. The UK government has been criticized for failing to do enough to stop advertising and promotion of junk food aimed at children. ",
"-25.760895168306888"
],
[
"uncommonly, death—especially in children. These diarrheal diseases contribute not only to the decreased health of an individual, but also to an increase in poverty. Diseases of this nature cause an inability to attend school and work, thus directly decreasing income as well as educational development. The problem of inadequate sanitation is cyclical in nature—just as it is caused by poverty, it also worsens poverty. Poor nutrition Malnutrition disproportionately affects those in sub-Saharan Africa. Over 35 percent of children under the age of 5 in sub-Saharan Africa show physical signs of malnutrition. Malnutrition, the immune system, and infectious diseases operate in",
"-25.753685719857458"
],
[
"given some food before being sent home, which helps to emphasize to parents the importance of continuing to feed the child during diarrhea. Severe dehydration In severe dehydration, the person may be lethargic or unconscious, drinks poorly, or may not be able to drink.\nIn malnourished persons, rehydration should be performed relatively slowly by drinking or by nasogastric tube unless the person is also suffering from shock in which case it should be performed quicker. Malnourished patients should receive a modified ORS which has less sodium, more potassium, and modestly more sugar. For patients not malnourished, rehydration should be performed relatively",
"-25.75148804698256"
],
[
"identified as a factor in 5.6% of depression and suicidal ideation cases in a Canadian longitudinal study. College students College students are also significantly impacted by the negative effects of experiencing food insecurities. A correlational study at one Oregon university reported that 59% of their college students experienced food insecurities. Similar studies found prevalence rates to be higher among college students relative to the general population. For example, in 2016, 32% of college freshmen, who lived in residence halls from a large southwestern university, self-reported inconsistent access to food in the past month. Additionally, a correlational study conducted at the",
"-25.751067988625437"
],
[
"Human nutrition Human nutrition deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human life and health. Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security or a poor understanding of nutrition and dietary practices. Malnutrition and its consequences are large contributors to deaths and disabilities worldwide. Good nutrition is necessary for children to grow physically, and for normal human biological development. Overview The human body contains chemical compounds such as water, carbohydrates, amino acids (found in proteins), fatty acids (found in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds are",
"-25.73850614023104"
],
[
"people such as their friends. Social undermining pressures can cause serious challenges when a person is trying to maintain healthy eating and trying to stay active. The study found that people that engage in undermining behavior tend to feel guilty about their own unhealthy behavior and may feel jealous of someone else maintaining their healthy behavior when they cannot achieve the same behavior. The study also suggests when a person is satisfied with their weight it can help the person resist against social undermining. By being satisfied with one's own weight can reduce the likelihood of social undermining in social",
"-25.724858387970016"
],
[
"day had between a 17- 44% increased risk of being overweight, or a 10- 61% increased risk of obese (Cespedes 2011).\nChildhood obesity is common among children from, low-income, African American and Hispanic communities. This is mainly because minority children spend less time playing outside the house and staying active. Some contributors to childhood obesity is that parents would rather have their children stay inside the home because they fear that gang, drug violence, and other dangers might harm them. Advertising Advertising of unhealthy foods correlates with childhood obesity rates. In some nations, advertising of candy, cereal, and fast-food restaurants",
"-25.719015995731752"
],
[
"being correlated with the condition. Men and women were equally affected and there was no apparent connection to occupation or school attended. The individuals obtained their meals at several different sources, and other individuals who lived elsewhere and purchased their food at these same places had not been affected. The water supply and milk consumed there were tested, with no unusual findings. There were dog kennels in the area and some tenants had dogs as pets, but an inspection of the animals found no ticks or insects.\nMany residents had reported the presence of mice in and around the apartments, especially",
"-25.717002859862987"
],
[
"as well as taking care of their nutritional requirements. He explained:\nWhen I look back to my childhood, many concrete scenes come to my mind, good ones and bad ones. I had a difficult childhood, and even though I don't live in my country at present, I'm well aware of what's going on there and the devastating effect it's having on our poorest children. I've always believed that our public actions need to take account of our social responsibility,\nZanetti, along with his compatriot Esteban Cambiasso, founded this charity association to help coach young children with social isolation problems and motor coordination",
"-25.63310356080183"
],
[
"has the opposite effect on children's eating habits. In this article, researchers found that limiting or prohibiting a child's access to foods high in fat, sugar, and energy led to the desire to overeat these \"forbidden\" foods. It creates a sense of anxiety within the child which can lead into them feeling insecure lowering their self-esteem. Children and adults eating in this type of environment also tend to use technology, like being on their phones or watching television, at the table distracting each other from engaging in conversation. Not only was there less communication going on but they also",
"-25.63059909295407"
],
[
"the time such as fatigue, oversleeping, or the complete opposite and not being able to sleep such as insomnia. Other physical signs and symptoms are restlessness, irritability, digestive disorders, and headaches.\nIn extreme cases food addiction can result in suicidal thoughts. Effects A food addiction, especially long-term, can result in negative consequences to all aspects of a person’s life, creating damaging and chronic symptoms. Psychological consequences The psychological and mental effects can prove intense and plague an individual for years. These can include hopelessness, powerlessness, isolation, shame, depression, self-loathing, guilt, suicidal thoughts, suicide attempts and self-injurious behaviors. Relational consequences Food addiction",
"-25.618972418444173"
],
[
"likely than predominantly white higher-income communities to have access to foods that enable individuals to make healthy choices.\nHowever, some recent studies have not been able to confirm the claims that distance to supermarkets predicts obesity or even diet quality. Stress Stress and emotional brain networks foster eating behaviors that may lead to obesity. The neural networks underlying the complex interactions among stressors, body, brain and food intake are now better understood. Stressors, by activating a neural stress-response network, bias cognition toward increased emotional activity and degraded executive function. This causes formed habits to be used rather than a cognitive appraisal",
"-25.59863728066557"
],
[
"support and materials to teachers and staff. UNICEF reported that the program brought a \"great improvement\" in school attendance, in some cases even causing school buildings to overflow with children seeking food.\nThe overall social order has also worsened, as people have begun stealing from their neighbors, abandoning children, fighting for food, and exchanging sex for food. Theft of food and money has become much more common. In some areas, captured thieves are tortured and mutilated as punishment. The elderly, orphans, and women are increasingly vulnerable, not only because it is more difficult for them to provide for themselves, but also",
"-25.590390791883692"
],
[
"health and activeness well into his advanced age. Views on food additives and drugs LaLanne often stressed that artificial food additives, drugs, and processed foods contributed to making people mentally and physically ill. As a result, he writes, many people turn to alcohol and drugs to deal with symptoms of ailments, noting that \"a stream of aches and pains seems to encompass us as we get older.\" He refers to the human bloodstream as a \"River of Life\", which is \"polluted\" by \"junk foods\" loaded with \"preservatives, salt, sugar, and artificial flavorings\".\nRelying on evidence from The President's Council on Physical",
"-25.549417910340708"
],
[
"food to maintain a healthy and active life\", as defined by the World Food Summit of 1996. It is set on the basis of food availability, food access, and proper food use. The difficulty for some people suffering from HIV and AIDS involves how they must obtain food security because the virus increases fatigue, compromising their ability to work in order to provide food and food preparation. This impact is even greater on those living in poverty in rural areas, where providing food is largely based on farming and other household chores. Case study in Malawi In Malawi, the AIDS",
"-25.536754831307917"
],
[
"works in a similar fashion to maintain stability in emotion and behaviour. However, rapid environmental and economic changes generate challenging conditions for the human organism. Over-consumption of high-caloric, low-nutrient foods, combined with stressful living and working conditions, have caused imbalances in homeostasis, overweight and obesity in more than two billion people.\nThe Homeostasis Theory of Obesity was further elaborated in his 2016 book, \"Obesity. Comfort vs. Discontent\" (Marks, 2016). The book's dedication states: \"To the two-point-one billion people who are overweight or living with obesity. Please take note. It is not your fault. You are not to blame. You are",
"-25.528306454318226"
],
[
"lacking. Human hoarding Civil unrest or threat of natural disaster may lead people to hoard foodstuffs, water, gasoline and other essentials that they believe, rightly or wrongly, will soon be in short supply. Survivalists, also known as preppers, often stockpile large supplies of these items in anticipation of a large-scale disaster event. Treatment At this time there are no medications currently approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treating the symptoms of hoarding. Some medications, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), can be used off-label for individuals diagnosed with hoarding disorder.\nThe primary treatment",
"-25.51149959549366"
],
[
"poor children in their social space in ways that often cause additional social grief. Galeano shares the personal story of a street kid who looks to drugs to rid himself of all the problems he faces in his daily life of poverty. Meanwhile, the children that lie somewhere between rich and poor taught the \"fear of living, fear of falling, fear of losing your job, your car, your home, your possessions, fear of never having what you ought to have in order to be\". Teachers, after the redistribution of jobs so that jobs are now almost all temporary, have",
"-25.464083825150738"
],
[
"with weight loss include tuberculosis, HIV infection, endocarditis or chronic inflammatory disease with febrile vasculitis, Behcet's disease, connective, Still's disease, sarcoidosis, and certain cancers or blood diseases. Some neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s disease may also cause significant weight loss. Poisoning such as chronic alcoholism, drug addiction or taking drugs by mistake are also common causes. Taking too much medication is a possible cause of weight loss in the elderly and weak, if the medication suppresses appetite.\nFamine and third world conditions are usually involved. Severe emaciation can be caused by marasmus, a disorder that is seen in children",
"-25.454400007947697"
],
[
"Group estimate that under nutrition, “including fetal growth restriction, stunting, wasting, deficiencies of vitamin A and zinc along with suboptimum breastfeeding- is a cause of 3.1 million child deaths and infant mortality, or 45% of all child deaths in 2011”.\nWhen humans are undernourished, they no longer maintain normal bodily functions, such as growth, resistance to infection, or have satisfactory performance in school or work. Major causes of under nutrition in young children include lack of proper breast feeding for infants and illnesses such as diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, and HIV/AIDS. According to UNICEF 146 million children across the globe, that one",
"-25.42309328058036"
],
[
"land and some livestock and generally have enough to eat, their diets lack nutritional value. As a result of health problems or natural disasters, they are at risk of sliding deeper into poverty. Women are among the poorest of the rural poor, especially when they are the sole heads of their households. They suffer from discrimination and have few earning opportunities, and their nutritional intake is often inadequate. Urban poverty An estimated 21 percent of the population in urban areas lives below the poverty line. People living in urban areas, like Sylhet, Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, and Rajshahi, enjoy a better",
"-25.412986389485013"
],
[
"disorder is the most commonly diagnosed eating disorder, affecting 3.5% of women and 2% of men at some point in their adult lives.\nAlthough it often begins in late adolescence or early twenties, BED is also common during middle age. As many as one-half of people attending weight-loss clinics are binge eaters. Although BED affects blacks and whites equally, there has been little research on binge eating by other racial or ethnic groups. \nData from a 2011 study conducted by the National Institutes of Mental Health showed that the lifetime prevalence of binge eating disorder in teens is 1.6% (approximately 300,000",
"-25.397735120146535"
],
[
"population in the United States. According to research conducted by Washington University in St. Louis on food insufficiency by race, 11.5% of Whites experience food insufficiency compared to 22.98% of African Americans, 16.67% of American Indians, and 26.66% of Hispanics when comparing each racial sample group.\nFeeding America reports that 29% of all Hispanic children and 38% of all African American children received emergency food assistance in 2010. White children received more than half the amount of emergency food assistance with 11% receiving aid. However, Hispanic household are less likely to have interaction with SNAP than other ethnic groups and received",
"-25.365658349721343"
]
] |
5u7ljy | what the Right to Repair fight is about with Apple? | [
"Imagine you buy a car. Let's say a Chevy Cruze cuz why not. Now, Chevy has all sorts of reasons to want you to only use Chevy certified mechanics and official Chevy spare parts because they can make money from that service and maintain quality control. On the other hand, you as a consumer wants to find the best deal for repairs that you can and since you own the car, should be able to do so. Chevy says that they only provide parts to their guys and if you want a repair you're just stuck with a Chevy mechanic, sucks to be you. The right to repair is basically saying that you as the consumer should have a choice in who fixes your property.",
"Several States are trying to introduce a \"right to repair\" bill. Of all of these States, only one - Nebraska - has actually scheduled a hearing to discuss the possible new law. The law, if it goes through, will require manufacturers (including Apple) to provide spare parts and service manuals to third parties. Apple have said that they will send representatives to argue against this new law. They believe that members of the public and third parties are not qualified to repair Apple products, and if they attempt to do so, it could result in damage such as batteries exploding.",
"Apple wants to charge for their AppleCare and make it illegal for third-party entities to sell and/or service their products. They've argued things like if a third-party replaces a broken screen they can cut their finger accidentally so only Apple should be legally allowed to replace the screens on their products. Basically, Apple is trying to make it so that they can be the only entity to service and/or repair their products to keep out competition. Thus far, they have been fairly successful at suing and shutting down their competition in this space and are continuing the fight.",
"the reason this is controversial is because it essentially gives apple a complete monopoly regarding their products, which they want, but is ultimately bad for consumers. Apple has a long history of doing this monopolistic behavior. It was the same way with apple peripherals, such as i homes and such. but eventually third parties started making cheaper \"ihome\" alternatives and then the overly expensive apple products were being priced out of the market. enter the lightning cable. now all of the third party products are no longer compatible with any of your new apple products, and the only way to get products that are is to buy them from apple as they are the only ones with rights to that cable design. then with the market being non competitive you get charged $7mil for your i home and there's nothing you can do about it other than go without. you'll notice that a similar thing is happening with the new iphone's lack of headphone port. essentially having apple be the only one who is able to preform repair services on their products makes it so the market is non competitive and they can essentially charge whatever they want for the services unrestricted. cracked screen? $799. with competition such as those little kiosks in the mall however the price is competitive. if the mall kiosk guy will do it for $50 then apple can't feasibly charge much more than him or nobody will go for the service. TL;DR: apple wants a monopoly and the argument is that there should be a competitive market for apple device services",
"My girlfriend plugged an aux cord into her iPhone 6s and it short circuited. We took it to apple because the phone was bought less than a year ago and they told us it would be $300 to replace. They had never opened it to see what it was. We had bought the phone for $300.",
"Basically Apple wants to make more money. If any old company is allowed to repair your iPhone then Apple will have to compete with them, they will probably have to charge less and make less money. Apple has a great idea: they can block lawmakers from allowing this, by claiming that batteries are dangerous and that they will explode on planes etc., unless only Apple is allowed to repair them. Is this true? Well, yes and no, but as long as Apple can convince lawmakers that it is true then they will make more money replacing your battery for you."
] | [
[
"Apple's fee and were not secondary purchasers, that consumers could sue Apple directly since it was Apple's fee that affected the prices of the apps, and that while the structure for any damages that consumers may win in the continuing suit may be complicated, this is not a factor to determine the standing of the suit. The Court stated that Apple's interpretation of Illinois Brick \"did not make a lot of sense\", and only served to \"gerrymander Apple out of this and similar lawsuits\". Disagreeing with Apple's reasoning, the Court explained, that if adopted, it would \"directly contradict the longstanding",
"-28.616157261378248"
],
[
"number of Apple Dealers / Apple Specialists either closing and or filing lawsuits against Apple Computer. Most of these Apple Dealers were designated as Apple Specialist and only sold Apple Macintosh Computers making this conflict literally a life or death situation for their stores and businesses. The San Rafael Store The San Rafael (Marin) store location was reopened for a 3rd time in 2004 under new ownership using the new name C3 Computing Corp and later as The Marin Mac Shop finally closing in 2010.\nThis former ComputerWare location was still very much like the ComputerWare of lore. The San",
"-28.062611659115646"
],
[
"arbitration session.\nIn September 2012, a judge in Illinois ruled in favor of the Applebee's employees and will evaluate damages at a later date.",
"-27.191417497866496"
],
[
"as Apple's general control and lockdown of the platform itself. Particularly at issue is the ability for Apple to remotely disable or delete apps at will.\nSome in the tech community have expressed concern that the locked-down iOS represents a growing trend in Apple's approach to computing, particularly Apple's shift away from machines that hobbyists can \"tinker with\" and note the potential for such restrictions to stifle software innovation.\nFormer Facebook developer Joe Hewitt protested against Apple's control over its hardware as a \"horrible precedent\" but praised iOS's sandboxing of apps. Kernel The iOS kernel is the XNU kernel of Darwin. The",
"-26.988907724524324"
],
[
"and identified the plaintiffs as consumers of the iPhone and its apps, thus allowing for them to seek class-action. The District Court dismissed the suit with prejudice, upholding Apple's defense that the \"Illinois Brick doctrine\" from the Supreme Court case Illinois Brick Co. v. Illinois, 431 U.S. 720 (1977) applied, as only the developers of apps could be damaged by Apple's policies, and consumers did not have statutory standing to bring suit on the developers' behalf. The Court specifically noted that the 30% fee Apple collects is \"a cost passed-on to consumers by independent software developers\". Appeal The class appealed",
"-26.982253657712135"
],
[
"property rights and defend against Apple's claims to ensure our products remain available to consumers throughout the European Union\".",
"-26.662802706609"
],
[
"merely a \"more expensive iPhone 4\" if Siri fails to function as advertised. On July 22, 2013, U.S. District Judge Claudia Wilken in San Francisco dismissed the suit but said the plaintiffs could amend at a later time. The reason given for dismissal was that plaintiffs did not sufficiently document enough misrepresentations by Apple for the trial to proceed. Perceived lack of innovation In June 2016, The Verge's Sean O'Kane wrote about the then-upcoming major iOS 10 updates, with a headline stating \"Siri's big upgrades won't matter if it can't understand its users\": \n\"What Apple didn't talk about was solving",
"-26.400717049305968"
],
[
"has indicated its opposition to the order. By March 3, the deadline, a large number of amicus curiae briefs were filed with the court, with numerous technology firms supporting Apple's position, including a joint brief from Amazon.com, Box, Cisco Systems, Dropbox, Evernote, Facebook, Google, Lavabit, Microsoft, Mozilla, Nest Labs, Pinterest, Slack Technologies, Snapchat, WhatsApp, and Yahoo!. Briefs from the American Civil Liberties Union, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Access Now, and the Center for Democracy and Technology also supported Apple.\nThe think tank Niskanen Center has suggested that the case is a door-in-the-face technique designed to gain eventual approval for encryption backdoors",
"-26.053048686982947"
],
[
"of the matter in July 2010. In November, Apple was sued for the issues, with an unsatisfied customer alleging \"violating the Consumer Legal Remedies Act, unfair business practices, and false and deceptive advertising\", with further allegations that Apple knew its software would cause problems on older models. Apple hasn't responded to the allegations, but wrote in a reply to another unsatisfied customer in August that updates were \"coming soon\".\nIn all versions of iOS 4, the alarm clock in the clock app had a problem in DST when it would go off an hour too early or too late.\nUpon its release,",
"-26.016610377497273"
],
[
"the National Federation of the Blind to have Apple redesign the popular iTunes software so it would comply with the federal Americans with Disabilities Act, as well as the Massachusetts Equal Rights Act.\nIn November 2008, Coakley unsuccessfully argued the case of Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts before the United States Supreme Court.\nOn February 5, 2009, she led an 18-state coalition, as well as the Corporation Counsel for the City of New York and the City Solicitor of Baltimore, urging the Environmental Protection Agency to take action in response to the 2007 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Massachusetts v. EPA. Though the",
"-25.814164742070716"
],
[
"the possibility that Apple acted in a manner consistent with its lawful business interests. This relies on the Supreme Court's decision in Monsanto v. Spray-Rite. The defendant argued that it never intended to conspire to raise e-book prices. Apple argued that the Plaintiffs have failed to show that the Publishers actually \"increased\" e-book prices. This is because had Amazon not adopted the agency model, the Publishers would have simply withheld e-books from Amazon. Apple also argued that their conduct must be analyzed under the rule of reason. Finally, Apple argued that should the Plaintiffs win a verdict in their favor,",
"-25.639242405071855"
],
[
"have done to improve the Apple II, or how much could have been done by Apple to give us products in IBM's market.\n— Steve Wozniak, 1985\nThe Apple III's technical problems made marketing the computer difficult. Ed Smith, who after the APF Imagination Machine became a distributor's representative, described the computer as \"a complete disaster\". He recalled that he \"was responsible for going to every dealership, setting up the Apple III in their showroom, and then explaining to them the functions of the Apple III, which in many cases didn’t really work\". Pohlman said that Apple was only selling 500 units a",
"-25.561740471282974"
],
[
"the Central District of California.\nThe use of the All Writs Act to compel Apple to write new software was unprecedented and, according to legal experts, it was likely to prompt \"an epic fight pitting privacy against national security.\" It was also pointed out that the implications of the legal precedent that would be established by the success of this action against Apple would go far beyond issues of privacy. Apple's opposition to the order The February 16, 2016 order issued by Magistrate Judge Pym gave Apple five days to apply for relief if Apple believed the order was \"unreasonably burdensome\".",
"-25.55525148284505"
],
[
"Court case, Apple Inc. v. Pepper heard in the 2018-2019 which relates to whether consumers of third-party mobile applications through a marketplace can bring anti-trust actions against the owner of the marketplace. The Court determined that consumers that purchased apps through Apple's iOS app store were direct purchasers and had standing to sue Apple for antitrust actions, despite Apple's insistence that consumers were buying apps from developers.",
"-25.495096422499046"
],
[
"company reported the following month that Apple rejected its application to Apple's app, citing \"violence towards children\" violating content policies. Nicalis has worked with Apple to obtain preapproval and will release a universal iOS version of Rebirth (including the Afterbirth+ expansion) with improvements for that platform, including the use of iCloud for ease of play on multiple devices. Although Nicalis wants to add this to the Vita port, the company said it was a low priority due to the Vita's limited ability to handle many weapon combos. The initial iOS version of the core game, without expansions, was released on",
"-25.482059488189407"
],
[
"had not infringed Apple's copyright in the assembly code because they had copied only the contents of the ROMs in question.\nThe trial judge found that the software burned into Apple's ROMs were both a translation and reproduction of the assembly language source code, thus were protected by s. 3(1) of the Copyright Act. \nThe Federal Court of Appeal dismissed the appeal. Two of the appellate judges held that the object code was a reproduction of the assembly code, while the third held that the object code could be considered either a translation or a reproduction, both protected by copyright. Ruling",
"-25.367773770471103"
],
[
"store, Apple Corps rejected a $1 million offer from Apple Computer to use the Apple name on the iTunes store.\nOn 8 May 2006 the court ruled in favour of Apple Computer, with Justice Edward Mann holding that \"no breach of the trademark agreement [had] been demonstrated\".\nThe Judge focused on section 4.3 of that agreement:\n4.3 The parties acknowledge that certain goods and services within the Apple Computer Field of Use are capable of delivering content within the Apple Corps Field of Use. In such case, even though Apple Corps shall have the exclusive right to use or authorize others to use",
"-25.339125016063917"
],
[
"order for Apple to prove copyright infringement. Apple believed this to be too narrow of a standard and that a more broad \"look and feel\" was all that should be necessary at trial. As a result, both parties agreed that a jury trial was unnecessary given the rulings, and Apple filed an appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in order to have the district court's characterization overruled.\nAfter the district court ruled in favor of Microsoft, Apple appealed the decision arguing that the district court only considered infringements on the individual elements of Apple's GUI, rather than the interface",
"-25.246839927262045"
],
[
"summary judgement and found Apple's copyrights were violated as well as the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) when Psystar installed Apple's operating system on non-Apple computers. A hearing on remedies was set for December 14.\nOn December 1, 2009, Psystar agreed to pay Apple $2.7 million for copyright infringement, breach of contract, violation of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, additional damages and attorneys fees in the California lawsuit. The payments were deferred until all Psystar's appeals are exhausted.\nOn December 15, 2009, the judge in the California action issued a permanent injunction barring Psystar from manufacturing, distributing, or assisting anyone with any",
"-25.207959158346057"
],
[
"2, CamCard, TinyDeal.com, among others. Apple confirmed the attack and stated to be working with the developers to make sure they were using the proper version of Xcode to rebuild the apps.\nIn October 2015, Apple also confirmed having removed applications from the App Store due to the privacy concerns. They commented that applications could be used to compromise SSL/TLS security solutions.",
"-25.19937278199359"
],
[
"in August 2016 when reported by iFixit. On August 26, 2016, Apple Insider reported that based on data from four \"high-traffic\" Apple Store locations, there was a spike in the number of iPhone 6 devices brought into them for repairs following mainstream reports of the \"touch disease\" problem.\nOn August 30, 2016, a group of three iPhone 6 owners sued Apple Inc. in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California and filed for a proposed class action lawsuit, alleging that Apple was engaging in unfair business practices by having \"long been aware\" of the defective design, yet",
"-25.015481266978895"
],
[
"system in 2003. TigerDirect registered opposition against Apple's filing with the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board, and on May 13, 2005, Apple won an emergency hearing. The judge ruled in favor of Apple, considering the marks to be distinct. InfoWorld report InfoWorld's Robert X. Cringely reported in 2006 that \"Tiger's sister company OnRebate.com, which handles payouts for the discount dealer, appears to specialize in the 'insufficient documentation' gambit,\" Consumer-reported difficulties obtaining the rebates led to an investigation by the Florida Attorney General and a failure to maintain a satisfactory BBB rating. According to a former controller at TigerDirect, improperly unpaid",
"-25.01106461629388"
],
[
"your agreement to abide by the following terms, and subject to these terms, Apple grants you a personal, non-exclusive license, under Apple's copyrights in this original Apple software (the \"Apple Software\"), to use, reproduce, modify and redistribute the Apple Software, with or without modifications, in source and/or binary forms; provided that if you redistribute the Apple Software in its entirety and without modifications, you must retain this notice and the following text and disclaimers in all such redistributions of the Apple Software. Neither the name, trademarks, service marks or logos of Apple Computer, Inc. may be used to endorse or",
"-24.993008002013084"
],
[
"(hired by NRDC to publicize their report on Alar) claiming that unfair business practices (product disparagement in particular) cost them $100 million. The suit was moved from state to federal court at the request of CBS. U.S. District Judge William Fremming Nielsen ruled in 1993 that the apple growers had not proved their case, and it was subsequently dismissed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.\nElizabeth Whelan and her organization, the American Council on Science and Health (ACSH), which had received $25,000 from Alar's manufacturer, stated that Alar and its breakdown product UDMH had not",
"-24.950749902171083"
],
[
"of System Integrity Protection has been mixed. Macworld expressed the concern that Apple could take full control away from users and developers in future releases and move the security policy of macOS slowly toward that of Apple's mobile operating system iOS, whereupon the installation of many utilities and modifications requires jailbreaking. Some applications and drivers will not work to their full extent or cannot be operated at all unless the feature is disabled, either temporarily or permanently. Ars Technica suggested that this could affect smaller developers disproportionately, as larger ones may be able to work with Apple directly. However, they",
"-24.914583196048625"
],
[
"trial The injunction Apple sought in the U.S. to block Samsung smartphones such as the Infuse 4G and the Droid Charge was denied. Judge Koh ruled that Apple's claims of irreparable harm had little merit because although Apple established a likelihood of success at trial on the merits of its claim that Samsung infringed one of its tablet patents, Apple had not shown that it could overcome Samsung's challenges to the patent's validity.\nApple appealed Judge Koh's ruling, and on May 14, 2012, the appeals court reversed and ordered Judge Koh to issue the injunction. The preliminary injunction was granted in",
"-24.88121054682415"
],
[
"in Beijing, China to offer those renovations.\nIn February 2019, Apple announced that it would close two stores in Frisco and Plano, Texas and replace them with a new location at Galleria Dallas. Apple cited plans to invest in other locations in the region, as well as the new Dallas store, as reasoning. However, it was also noted by media outlets that the two affected stores both reside within the judicial territory of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, which is widely known for being favorable towards plaintiffs in patent infringement cases. Although it was ruled",
"-24.834063967689872"
],
[
"2015, Apple used the CAIA tool when its Irish subsidiary purchased US$300 billion in intangible assets from an Apple subsidiary based in Jersey. The CAIA tool enabled Apple to write-off the US$300 billion price as a capital allowance against future Irish profits (e.g. the next US$300 billion of profits Apple books in Ireland are free of Irish tax). The CAIA capitalises the effect of the Double Irish or Single Malt BEPS tools, and behaves like a corporate tax inversion of a U.S. multinational's non–U.S. business. However, the CAIA is more powerful, as Apple demonstrated by effectively doubling the tax shield",
"-24.801585312789257"
],
[
"dePlume Organization filed a responsive motion in the same court as the Does case, demanding dismissal of Apple's suit under the California Anti-SLAPP Statute. Lower court history On March 11, 2005, the Santa Clara County Superior Court trial judge declined to grant the defendants a protective order prohibiting discovery of their email. The court based its decision on its determination that (1) Apple's property as received by defendants was stolen, (2) that defendants did not convince the court they were journalists who could make legitimate use of the shield privilege, and (3) even if defendants were journalists, Apple's property rights",
"-24.77074575627921"
],
[
"Apple III Design Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs expected hobbyists to purchase the Apple II, but because of VisiCalc and Disk II, small businesses purchased 90% of the computers. The Apple III was designed to be a business computer and successor. Though the Apple II contributed to the inspirations of several important business products, such as VisiCalc, Multiplan, and Apple Writer, the computer's hardware architecture, operating system, and developer environment are limited. Apple management intended to clearly establish market segmentation by designing the Apple III to appeal to the 90% business market, leaving the Apple II to home and education",
"-24.682822882430628"
],
[
"legal fees, and that the final case may take a decade to reach a final verdict. Further controversy The EU Commission's findings cover the period from 2004 to end 2014, and its report notes that Apple had informed it at the start of 2015 that the controversial hybrid–Double Irish BEPS tool, ASI, had been closed down; which enabled the Commission to complete its State aid report, and finalise the fine of €13 billion.\nIn January 2018, economist Seamus Coffey, Chairman of the State's Irish Fiscal Advisory Council, and author of the State's 2017 Review of Ireland's Corporation Tax Code, showed Apple",
"-24.664288272644626"
],
[
"2013, US District Court Judge Denise Cote found Apple guilty of conspiring to raise the retail price of e-books and scheduled a trial for 2014 to determine damages. \nIn June 2014, Apple settled the e-book antitrust case out of court with the States; however still appealed Judge Cote's initial ruling.\nIn June 2015, the 2nd US Circuit Court of Appeals, by a 2-1 vote, concurred with Judge Cote that Apple conspired to e-book price fixing and violated federal antitrust law. Apple appealed the decision.\nIn March 2016, the Supreme Court of the United States declined to hear Apple's appeal that it conspired",
"-24.630922020645812"
],
[
"consumer protection statutes\". Similar lawsuits were later filed in Mexico and the United Kingdom. In early 2009, Apple was in the process of settling a court case over the scratched iPod Nano screens. It was suggested that Apple should set aside $22 million to refund users. At the time, it required a Judge's sign-off on the terms by April 28, 2009. Some commentators such as BusinessWeek's Arik Hesseldahl have criticized the lawsuits. Hesseldahl dismissed them as \"stupid\" and suggested that they benefitted \"no one but the trial lawyers,\" but also suggested that Apple could have avoided litigation by offering \"full refunds",
"-24.603458433470223"
],
[
"lawsuit, Apple Inc. revoked Monster's membership in the MFi Program on May 5, 2015, meaning that Monster can no longer manufacture licensed accessories for iPhone, iPod and iPad products, and must cease the sale of existing licensed products that contain the certification or technology licensed through the program by September 2015.\nThe case was dismissed in August 2016, with a Supreme Court ruling that Beats \"had the right to terminate the agreement as of January 7th, 2013 or when there was a transaction resulting in a change of control of Beats\", and that Monster \"did not obtain the right to approve",
"-24.548438050900586"
],
[
"2002). In the earlier years, it served as an annual rallying point for the Apple II community, as it found itself in a world shrinking in resources that would support it. Like Resource Central, other businesses that dealt with the Apple II also found it difficult to survive. The online homes for direct-dial Apple II access (GEnie, CompuServe, Delphi, and America Online) were having problems with either Y2K or transition to the World Wide Web, and were phasing out their text-based access. Although the annual KansasFest event was coordinated on those online services, the physical meeting provided a recurring connection",
"-24.34728860697942"
],
[
"programs. Apple released a security fix within a day and issued an apology, stating that \"regrettably we stumbled\" in regards to the security of the latest updates. After installing the security patch, however, file sharing was broken for users, with Apple releasing a support document with instructions to separately fix that issue. Though Apple publicly stated the promise of \"auditing our development processes to help prevent this from happening again\", users who installed the security update while running the older 10.13.0 version of the High Sierra operating system rather than the then-newest 10.13.1 release experienced that the \"root\" security vulnerability",
"-24.345971613645816"
],
[
"in order to publish apps on App Store, and banning applications that used third-party development tools. After developer backlash and news of a potential antitrust investigation, Apple again revised its agreement in September, allowing the use of third-party development tools.",
"-24.328489554784028"
],
[
"a monopoly for app distribution, artificially forcing developers to raise costs of apps to cover Apple's fee. Apple has asserted that it has not violated antitrust laws as it considers itself a reseller of apps, its 30% fee a commission on the sale of those apps. Case origins Several class-actions suits against Apple were filed shortly after the introduction of the iPhone; three of these were combined into a consolidated case In Re Apple & AT&TM Anti-Trust Litigation (No. C 07-05152 JW), filed in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. One of these focused on",
"-24.293019033502787"
],
[
"months after introducing the III Plus, after selling 65,000-75,000 computers and replacing 14,000 defective units.\nJobs said that the company lost \"infinite, incalculable amounts\" of money on the Apple III. Wozniak estimated that Apple had spent $100 million on the III, instead of improving the II and better competing against IBM. Pohlman claimed that there was a \"stigma\" at Apple associated with having contributed to the computer. Most employees who worked on the III reportedly left Apple. Legacy The file system and some design ideas from Apple SOS, the Apple III's operating system, were part of Apple ProDOS and Apple GS/OS,",
"-24.21494311123388"
],
[
"to the Ninth Circuit Appeals Court. The Ninth Circuit reversed the District Court's ruling, stating that the class had standing to sue under antitrust laws. The decision raised the question of \"whether Plaintiffs purchased their iPhone apps directly from the app developers, or directly from Apple\". The ruling opened the question of whether, in terms of the App Store, Apple was a manufacturer or producer, in which case under Illinois Brick the class would not have standing, or whether Apple was a distributor, in which case the class would have standing. This decision was split from the Eighth Circuit, where",
"-24.177740101586096"
],
[
"by the bond posted by Apple for the injunction granted during the trial (see below).\nOn October 23, 2012, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office tentatively invalidated Apple's bounce back patent (US Patent No. '381) possibly affecting the ruling in the Apple v. Samsung trial. Apple's attorneys filed a request to stop all sales of the Samsung products cited in violation of the US patents, a motion denied by Judge Lucy H. Koh on December 17, 2012, who also decided that the jury had miscalculated US$400 million in its initial damage assessment and ordered a retrial. Injunction of U.S. sales during first",
"-24.173183459206484"
],
[
"of its current devices in U.S. At the hearing, Judge Koh ruled against a permanent injunction. First trial appeal There was an interview given by the jury foreman, where, at the 3 minute mark in the video, the jury foreman Hogan said: \"the software on the Apple side could not be placed into the processor on the prior art and vice versa, and that means they are not interchangeable,\" and at the 2:42-2:45 minute mark, in which Hogan states \"each patent had a different legal premise.\" Groklaw reported that this interview indicates the jury may have awarded inconsistent damages and",
"-24.152173680486158"
],
[
"complaints towards Apple for violating the Sherman Antitrust Act in its alleged monopoly of the App Store marketplace, while a second set of complaints were aimed at both Apple and AT&T Mobility (AT&TM) for monopolizing the iPhone market via SIM card locking, forcing iPhone users to only use the AT&T Mobility cellular network. Apple sought to dismiss the case on various procedural grounds, including asserting that on consolidation, AT&T Mobility had been omitted as a defendant, and that as the class-action group, consumers using the iPhone, did not state they bought an iPhone or any App through the App Store,",
"-24.14372262742836"
],
[
"exist at time of purchase for the first six months after purchase. After the six-month-period this is reversed, meaning that the customer needs to establish that a hardware defect did exist when they received the product. Unlike the statutory guarantee AppleCare also covers defects that appeared after purchase, if the device was handled correctly.\nIn reality, this means that the EU legislation gives customers a 6-month guarantee, because it is typically impossible for a customer to prove a defect existed at the time of purchase.\nAppleCare also includes an express replacement service for iPad and iPhone. AppleCare+ insures against accidental damage, unlike",
"-24.137925381655805"
],
[
"an out-of-court agreement in November 1995, leading to Apple making a statement of apology. The engineers on the project made a third and final name change from \"BHA\" to \"LAW\", short for \"Lawyers are Wimps\".",
"-24.12454645326943"
],
[
"place of the AppleCare product. This offers the same hardware warranty without phone/Internet support. AppleCare and EU legislation In some parts of European countries apart of the European Union (EU), local regulations gives consumers a minimum of two years warranty on hardware defects that existed at time of purchase, which overlaps the benefits of AppleCare. This effectively means that, in certain countries in the EU, an AppleCare Protection Plan still extends phone/Internet support from 90 days on all devices. In most countries the onus under the EU law is on the merchant to establish that a hardware defect did not",
"-24.07607019378338"
],
[
"Apple still retained the practice of socketing all ICs so that servicing and replacement could be performed more easily. Later-production IIe models had the RAM soldered to the system board rather than socketed.\nDespite the hardware changes, the IIe maintains a high degree of backwards compatibility with the previous models, allowing most hardware and software from those systems to be used. Apple provided technical information on the IIe to hundreds of developers before its release, and claimed that, as a result, 85 to 90% of Apple II software worked with it. Reception BYTE wrote in February 1983 that the IIe was",
"-24.05659989733249"
],
[
"copyright holders. Billionaire Mark Cuban partially financed Grokster's fight before the Supreme Court. Oral arguments During oral argument, the Supreme Court justices appeared divided between the need to protect new technologies and the need to provide remedies against copyright infringement. Justice Antonin Scalia expressed concern that inventors would be chilled from entering the market by the threat of immediate lawsuits. Justice David Souter questioned how the interpretation of the law the plaintiffs argued for would affect devices like copy machines or the iPod.\nThe music industry suggested that iPods have a substantial and legitimate commercial use in contrast to Grokster, to",
"-24.05193747935118"
],
[
"Apple to save the poorly selling Lisa which had been usurped by the Macintosh line. After two years of marginal sales Apple was unprepared for the record number of orders placed for the newest member of the Macintosh family. Discontinuation Despite its relative success, the Macintosh XL was discontinued because it was unavailable. Parts had not been ordered to keep the XL in production and, once the last of the parts ran out, Apple made the decision to shut down production for good. In 1986, Apple offered all Lisa/XL owners the opportunity to turn in their computer (along with US$1,498)",
"-24.00580697026453"
],
[
"Apple IIe-like keyboard.\nOwners of the Apple III could purchase individual III Plus upgrades, like the clock and interlacing feature, and obtain the newer logic board as a service replacement. A keyboard upgrade kit, dubbed \"Apple III Plus upgrade kit\" was also made available – which included the keyboard, cover, keyboard encoder ROM, and logo replacements. This upgrade had to be installed by an authorized service technician. Design flaws According to Wozniak, the Apple III \"had 100 percent hardware failures\". Former Apple executive Taylor Pohlman stated that:\nThere was way too short a time frame in manufacturing and development. When the decision",
"-23.935063136625104"
],
[
"do many things, and integrate with many services – even though it was being built by a startup with limited funds and people. After Apple bought Siri, the giant company seemed to treat it as a backwater, restricting it to doing only a few, slowly increasing number of tasks, like telling you the weather, sports scores, movie and restaurant listings, and controlling the device's functions. Its unhappy founders have left Apple to build a new AI service called Viv. And, on too many occasions, Siri either gets things wrong, doesn't know the answer, or can't verbalize it. Instead, it shows",
"-23.882732163881883"
],
[
"the case and $2.8 million in damages. However, Macromedia initiated a countersuit which ended in a $4.9 million ruling against Adobe. The suits were settled on undisclosed terms. In 2005, Adobe ended further dispute between the two companies when it bought Macromedia for roughly $3.4 billion.\nOn April 18, 2007, the intellectual property agency IP Innovation LLC and its parent Technology Licensing Corporation filed a lawsuit against Apple Inc. regarding its infringement upon a US Patent originally filed by Xerox researchers in 1987.",
"-23.858464014716446"
],
[
"being signed, and the device's ECID (a unique identification number embedded in its hardware). When Apple wishes to restrict users' ability to restore their devices to a particular iOS version, Apple can refuse to generate this hash during the restore attempt, and the restore will not be successful (or at least will require bypassing the intended function of the system).\nThis protocol is part of iPhone 3GS and later devices. TATSU Code Signing for iOS Deployment & iTunes verification When iTunes restores or updates an iOS firmware, Apple has added many checkpoints before the iOS version is installed and on-device consolidation",
"-23.849792361143045"
],
[
"rights to Apple.",
"-23.84213531237765"
],
[
"drive it on the roads they said you could?\" Psystar says it will continue to sell the Open system, adding \"We're not breaking any laws.\"\nOn July 3, 2008, Apple filed a lawsuit against Psystar in the District Court of Northern California. \nOn August 28, 2008, Psystar Corporation responded to Apple's claims of copyright infringement, and also countersued Apple for anti-competitive practices, monopolistic behavior, and copyright misuse. This countersuit was dismissed on November 18, 2008.\nOn November 27, 2008, Apple claimed \"Psystar violated the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) by dodging copy-protection technologies Apple uses to protect Mac OS X.\" \"Apple employs",
"-23.832403920736397"
],
[
"to the damaging nature which a failed product would have on the preexisting parent product. As sales dropped from the new product after it is no longer pushed there is no guarantee that sales will stabilize to the old product that was sacrificed for the current item. One of the unavoidable risks is to the established product but for self-cannibalization and growth this is essential.\nApple cannibalized their own sales of the iPad when the iPhone 6 was released in September 2014 (Apple Corporation, 2014). According to a Forbes article, shipment of iPads was down 23% since the announcement of the",
"-23.793471565411892"
],
[
"had to do with an expired security certificate. On November 17, Apple sent an email with explanations to developers. The company stated that most of the issues were resolved and that troubleshooting information was provided to the AppleCare support team.\nOn December 17, 2015, responsibility for overseeing App Store was given to Phil Schiller, Apple's senior vice president of Worldwide Marketing. Previously App Store was led by Eddy Cue, Apple's senior vice president of Internet Software and Services.\nOn January 1, 2018, Apple announced it was no longer accepting 32-bit apps on the Mac App Store, while existing 32-bit apps on the",
"-23.78154654626269"
],
[
"application to the App Store, Apple holds firm control over its distribution. Apple can halt the distribution of applications it deems inappropriate, for example, I Am Rich, a US$1000 program that simply demonstrated the wealth of its user. Apple has been criticized for banning third-party applications that enable a functionality that Apple does not want the iPhone to have: In 2008, Apple rejected Podcaster, which allowed iPhone users to download podcasts directly to the iPhone claiming it duplicated the functionality of iTunes. Apple has since released a software update that grants this capability.\nNetShare, another rejected app, would have enabled users",
"-23.77549774752697"
],
[
"of CurrentC, such as Best Buy and Walmart, had initially stated that they would not accept Apple Pay as a result of exclusivity deals. CVS Pharmacy and Rite-Aid subsequently disabled all NFC payment systems in favor of CurrentC, although due to the exclusivity period ending in August 2015, Rite Aid has begun accepting it August 15, 2015. Best Buy has begun to accept Apple Pay at all stores starting in October 2015.\nTarget's CEO Brian Cornell said that they would be open to accepting Apple Pay eventually after the conversion to chip and PIN technology is done, but they remain involved",
"-23.76281739899423"
],
[
"Apple could do no wrong, introducing fresh new products and generating increasing profits in the process. The magazine MacAddict named the period between 1989 and 1991 as the \"first golden age\" of the Macintosh. Under the leadership of Sculley, Apple's sales multiplied from $982 million in 1983 to $7.9 billion in 1993.\nMicrosoft threatened to discontinue Microsoft Office for the Macintosh if Apple did not license parts of the Macintosh graphical user interface to use in the Windows operating system. Under pressure, Sculley agreed, a decision which later affected the Apple v. Microsoft lawsuit. About that time, Sculley coined the term",
"-23.729824430542067"
],
[
"iOS was developed by a third party company that has since gone bankrupt. According to a company representative, Ronimo Games never owned the source code, and therefore has no plans to release an update that will run on current Apple mobile devices. Sequel At the end of February 2014, it was announced that a sequel was in development. It will feature the Vikings versus two new factions, one of which will be demons. Players will be able to control the location of their base and tell units where to move.",
"-23.69069711130578"
],
[
"media consumption, and reading.\nIn June 2010, Apple rebranded iPhone OS as \"iOS\". The trademark \"IOS\" had been used by Cisco for over a decade for its operating system, IOS, used on its routers. To avoid any potential lawsuit, Apple licensed the \"IOS\" trademark from Cisco.\nIn October 2016, Apple opened its first iOS Developer Academy in Naples inside University of Naples Federico II's new campus. Software updates Apple provides major updates to the iOS operating system annually via iTunes and also, for iOS 5 and later, over-the-air. The latest version is iOS 13, released on September 19, 2019. It is available",
"-23.646997034782544"
],
[
"of Siri. After the announcement, Apple removed the existing standalone Siri app from App Store. TechCrunch wrote that, despite the Siri app's support for iPhone 4, its removal from App Store might also have had a financial aspect for the company, in providing an incentive for customers to upgrade devices. Third-party developer Steven Troughton-Smith, however, managed to port Siri to iPhone 4, though without being able to communicate with Apple's servers. A few days later, Troughton-Smith, working with an anonymous person nicknamed \"Chpwn\", managed to fully hack Siri, enabling its full functionalities on iPhone 4 and iPod Touch devices. Additionally,",
"-23.622536637092708"
],
[
"Amazon's services to obtain an injunction. Apple changed its complaint after Amazon started advertising the Kindle Fire, now saying that Amazon is trying to confuse customers further by dropping the “for Android” part of “Amazon Appstore for Android.” In the amended complaint, Apple wrote that “Amazon’s use is also likely to lessen the goodwill associated with Apple’s App Store service and Apple products designed to utilize Apple’s App Store service by associating Apple’s App Store service with the inferior qualities of Amazon’s service.”\nIn January 2013, Apple's claims were rejected by a US District judge, who argued that the company presented",
"-23.563151068636216"
],
[
"installation from a list of Apple programs to download by default, even when an existing installation of Safari was not detected on a user's machine. John Lilly, former CEO of Mozilla, stated that Apple's use of its updating software to promote its other products was \"a bad practice and should stop.\" He argued that the practice \"borders on malware distribution practices\" and \"undermines the trust that we're all trying to build with users.\" Apple spokesman Bill Evans sidestepped Lilly's statement, saying that Apple was only \"using Software Update to make it easy and convenient for both Mac and Windows users",
"-23.54631848691497"
],
[
"deadline of June 1, 2015. iOS 11 drops support for all iOS devices with 32-bit ARM processors as well as 32-bit applications, making iOS 64-bit only. Development The iOS SDK (Software Development Kit) allows for the development of mobile apps on iOS.\nWhile originally developing iPhone prior to its unveiling in 2007, Apple's then-CEO Steve Jobs did not intend to let third-party developers build native apps for iOS, instead directing them to make web applications for the Safari web browser. However, backlash from developers prompted the company to reconsider, with Jobs announcing in October 2007 that Apple would have a software",
"-23.54619818829815"
],
[
"in September 2015. Apple emphasizes that it does not incur any processing or other fees for iTunes donations, sending 100% of the payments directly to relief efforts, though it also acknowledges that the Red Cross does not receive any personal information on the users donating and that the payments may not be tax deductible.\nOn April 14, 2016, Apple and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) announced that they have engaged in a partnership to, \"help protect life on our planet.\" Apple released a special page in the iTunes App Store, Apps for Earth. In the arrangement, Apple has committed",
"-23.545997555804206"
],
[
"promote products derived from the Apple Software without specific prior written permission from Apple. Except as expressly stated in this notice, no other rights or licenses, express or implied, are granted by Apple herein, including but not limited to any patent rights that may be infringed by your derivative works or by other works in which the Apple Software may be incorporated.[…]",
"-23.523980740690604"
],
[
"Apple v. Microsoft, Motorola Mobility v. Apple Inc., and Apple Corps v. Apple Computer. Apple has also had to defend itself against charges on numerous occasions of violating intellectual property rights. Most have been dismissed in the courts as shell companies known as patent trolls, with no evidence of actual use of patents in question. On December 21, 2016, Nokia announced that in the U.S. and Germany, it has filed a suit against Apple, claiming that the latter's products infringe on Nokia's patents. Most recently, in November 2017, the United States International Trade Commission announced an investigation into allegations of",
"-23.51003439730266"
],
[
"Extension Program for the Apple Power Macintosh and Performa 5200, 5300, 6200, and 6300.\" While never formally described as a recall — a distinction Apple emphatically reinforced in its repair documentation — users were required to bring their machine to an authorized Apple reseller for a repair. The program remained in effect for seven years.\nDuring its lifespan, Apple updated the 5200 with a \"Revision B\" design, replacing the power supply, speakers, analog board, EMI shield, front bezel and rear housing with updated parts that are not interchangeable with the original model.",
"-23.508011664496735"
],
[
"not be mistaken about\" the difference between iTunes and the Apple record label. Furthermore, Apple Corps' logo was a green Granny Smith apple, whereas Apple's logo was a \"cartoonish apple with a neat bite out of its side\".\nThe trial opened on March 29, 2006, and the High Court of England and Wales handed down a judgment on May 8, 2006, in favor of Apple Inc., but the companies did not announce a final settlement until February 5, 2007. United States Attorney Marc J. Randazza cited \"a moron in a hurry\" as a defence in Beck v. Eiland-Hall for his client's",
"-23.458961068768986"
],
[
"in the Apple Proxy Statement for 1996.\nAmelio cited several problems at Apple including a shortage of cash and liquidity, low-quality products, lack of a viable operating system strategy, undisciplined corporate culture, and fragmentation in trying to do too much and in too many directions. To address these problems Amelio cut costs, reduced Apple's work force by one third, discontinued the Copland operating system project, and oversaw the development of Mac OS 8.\nTo replace Copland and fulfill the need for a next generation operating system Amelio started negotiations to buy BeOS from Be Inc. but negotiations stalled when Be CEO Jean-Louis",
"-23.428858310668147"
],
[
"a security vulnerability in iOS 11.2 within Apple's HomeKit smart home system, allowing unauthorized access to smart locks and garage door openers. It noted that Apple had already issued a server-side fix that, while preventing unauthorized access, also limited HomeKit functionality, with an upcoming software fix for the iOS operating system intended to restore the lost functionality. On December 13, Apple released iOS 11.2.1, which fixed the limitation on remote access.",
"-23.425290108309127"
],
[
"by companies including Apple Inc. Page wrote on Google's official blog on August 15, 2011 that \"companies including Microsoft and Apple are banding together in anti-competitive patent attacks on Android. The United States Department of Justice had to intervene in the results of one recent patent auction to \"protect competition and innovation in the open source software community\"... Our acquisition of Motorola will increase competition by strengthening Google's patent portfolio, which will enable us to better protect Android from anti-competitive threats from Microsoft, Apple and other companies\".\nPage also ventured into hardware and Google unveiled the Chromebook in May 2012. The",
"-23.41264319710899"
],
[
"2014, the Oakland Division of the U.S. Attorney's Office named Apple Inc. in papers invoking the Act, which were filed in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. Federal law enforcement sought to require Apple to extract data from a locked iPhone 5S as part of a criminal case.\nOn February 16, 2016, the Act was invoked again in an order that Apple Inc. create a special version of its iOS operating system, with certain security features removed, for Federal law enforcement officers to use as part of an investigation into the 2015 San Bernardino terrorist attack.",
"-23.391442254534923"
],
[
"Apple on any \"creative works whose principal content is music\", while Apple Computer held the right to use Apple on \"goods or services ... used to reproduce, run, play or otherwise deliver such content\", but not on content distributed on physical media. In other words, Apple Computer agreed that it would not package, sell or distribute physical music materials. 2003–2006 In September 2003, Apple Corps sued Apple Computer again, this time for breach of contract, in using the Apple logo in the creation and operation of Apple Computer's iTunes Music Store, which Apple Corps contended was a violation of the previous",
"-23.369950588268694"
],
[
"LLC $625.5 million in damages, but Apple appealed the award citing various legal arguments and the judge stayed the ruling to allow both parties to submit post-trial arguments. The initial ruling was \"the second-biggest jury verdict in 2010, and the fourth-biggest patent verdict in U.S. history\" according to Bloomberg News.\nOn April 4, 2011, \"U.S. District Judge Leonard E. Davis of Tyler ruled that Apple did not infringe on (the) patent\", and overturned the jury verdict.\nOn June 24, 2013, the Supreme Court of the United States declined to hear the appeal by Mirror Worlds, thereby letting stand the district court ruling",
"-23.341584658701322"
],
[
"some to believe that an iPhone version of the iWork suite would soon be available in the iOS App Store.\nOn June 28, 2010, several websites reported that in an attempt to sell AppleCare for the iPhone 4, several examples of services offered were given including one that read, \"Using iWork for iPhone and other Apple-branded iPhone apps.\" These sites also report that it was quickly removed.\nOn May 31, 2011, Apple released a press statement that iWork would be available on the iOS app store for the iPhone and iPod touch.\nOn September 10, 2013, Apple announced that iWork, iMovie and iPhoto",
"-23.28980813222006"
],
[
"were planning on suing Apple and AT&T for fraud by concealment, negligence, intentional misrepresentation and defective design. The legal challenge was started by a law firm, who set up a website to recruit disenchanted iPhone 4 buyers for a lawsuit against Apple. Later that day, Apple issued another statement stating that it had discovered the cause of the \"dramatic drop in bars\".\nApple explained how the formula it used to calculate the number of bars to display was \"wrong\". Apple promised to correct the issue and release a software update within a few weeks that would address the \"mistake\", which had",
"-23.28246572043281"
],
[
"that it had been negotiating trademark licensing with Apple and expected Apple to agree to the final documents that had been submitted the night before. On January 10, 2007, Cisco announced it had filed a lawsuit against Apple over the infringement of the trademark iPhone, seeking an injunction in federal court to prohibit Apple from using the name. In February 2007, Cisco claimed that the trademark lawsuit was a \"minor skirmish\" that was not about money, but about interoperability.\nOn February 2, 2007, Apple and Cisco announced that they had agreed to temporarily suspend litigation while they held settlement talks, and",
"-23.27198582654819"
],
[
"Apple in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act.\nOn June 7, 2006, the Norwegian Consumer Council stated that Apple's iTunes Music Store violates Norwegian law. The contract conditions were vague and \"clearly unbalanced to disfavor the customer\". The retroactive changes to the DRM conditions and the incompatibility with other music players are the major points of concern. In an earlier letter to Apple, consumer ombudsman Bjørn Erik Thon complained that iTunes' DRM mechanism was a lock-in to Apple's music players, and argued that this was a conflict with consumer rights that he doubted would be defendable by Norwegian copyright law.\nAs of",
"-23.248052058683243"
],
[
"that it was only concerned about the functionality of the app. However, The Whole Pantry was soon thereafter removed from inclusion in the Apple Watch launch. Apple subsequently deleted the app from the Apple Store, and removed it from all Apple Watch promotional material. Apple has not provided any public comment regarding the reasons behind the removal of the app, but an internal email from an Australian executive to the company's US office acknowledged that the removal would be subject to comment.\nLantern Books, when initially approached by investigative journalists, claimed it had not confirmed the validity of Gibson's cancer claims",
"-23.23358426010236"
],
[
"as a result of Apple's acquisition of Beats. However, two months later, Bose products returned to the shelves of Apple Stores. The companies settled in October 2014: details were not disclosed. Monster lawsuit In January 2015, Monster Inc. sued Beats for fraud, alleging that the company had used illicit tactics to force Monster out of the venture whilst retaining rights to the technologies and products that it had co-developed, and engaged in collusion to harm Monster's own audio products business. Monster argued that the acquisition of Beats by HTC and its founders' subsequent buyback was a \"sham\" to take control",
"-23.16655563234235"
],
[
"criticism, particularly by digital rights advocates such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation, computer engineer and activist Brewster Kahle, Internet-law specialist Jonathan Zittrain, and the Free Software Foundation who protested the iPad's introductory event and have targeted the iPad with their \"Defective by Design\" campaign. Competitor Microsoft, via a PR spokesman, criticized Apple's control over its platform.\nAt issue are restrictions imposed by the design of iOS, namely digital rights management (DRM) intended to lock purchased media to Apple's platform, the development model (requiring a yearly subscription to distribute apps developed for the iOS), the centralized approval process for apps, as well",
"-23.13463678820699"
],
[
"Court, ruled that Samsung did not infringe Apple's registered design right in the iPad designs. The judgment mirrored the decision made earlier in the US by a jury. In October 2012 the Court of Appeal upheld the judgment, including the publicity order imposed on Apple because it was necessary to clear up uncertainty in the market place after Apple took legal action in Germany against Samsung. The order required Apple to publicise that it had lost the case on its website and in the media. The Court of Appeal said, \"because this case (and parallel cases in other countries) has",
"-23.13245375303086"
],
[
"couldn't restore the tablet.\nApple temporarily stopped offering the 9.3.2 update, until a re-release of the version in June 2016 fixed the issue. iBooks crash The release of iOS 9.3.3 in July 2016 was followed by reports that the iBooks store crashed. However, Apple explained in August that the timing was a coincidence, and the iBooks app crash was a result of a server issue, not the software update. Spyware attack The release of iOS 9.3.5 in August 2016 fixed three critical security vulnerabilities. The vulnerabilities could be exploited to silently enable a jailbreak and allow the malicious installation of a",
"-23.127221569535322"
],
[
"IoSafe History ioSafe, Inc. was incorporated in 2005 by the primary inventor and CEO, Robb Moore. In response to independent research regarding data loss and catastrophic business loss from fire, flood and other natural disasters their first product (released in 2005) was the ioSafe S1, the first external hard drive to have both fire and flood protection. The ioSafe S1 hard drive was later redesigned and re-released in a dual drive RAID configuration called the S2.\nIn 2006 in response to enterprise business demand for a fire and flood resistant network storage, the ioSafe R4 was introduced. Shortly after this NAS",
"-23.088741136481985"
],
[
"from the securities industry for one year, and head trader William Mason fined $200,000 and suspended for six months.\nIn April 2013, U.S. District Judge Kiyo Matsumoto dismissed the class action lawsuit, ruling that investors had received sufficient disclosure to understand the risks of investing in its trusts. In her opinion, Judge Matsumoto wrote, “Plaintiffs’ belabored Complaint appears only to confirm that the Apple REITs are currently functioning in exactly the manner that was anticipated and disclosed in the REITs’ prospectuses and other offering documents.”\nIn December 2015, the FINRA Arbitration Panel dismissed with prejudice all claims in the FINRA customer arbitration",
"-23.08190214166825"
],
[
"Apple's Service Source CD, containing information for authorized technicians in the repair of Apple computers, lists the TAM as a \"closed unit\", to be returned to said repair locations for all repairs. It does not contain a \"take apart\" guide for the TAM. Websites Rather than a simple page on Apple's website, the TAM was given its own website, albeit one of only 6 brief pages. This was a departure from Apple's standard advertising practice for its other Macintosh computers of the time.\nNot long after the TAM's release, a community website was created by a TAM owner in the U.S",
"-23.06865137454588"
],
[
"from its owners, the return policy of select Apple Stores was briefly extended to thirty days to allow customers to exchange the third-generation model for the fourth-generation model. Software The third-generation iPad shipped with iOS 5.1, which was released on March 7, 2012. It can act as a hotspot with some carriers, sharing its internet connection over Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or USB, providing that it is a Wi-Fi + Cellular model. It can also access the App Store, a digital application distribution platform for iOS developed and maintained by Apple. The service allows users to browse and download applications from the",
"-23.06679683085531"
],
[
"speed delivery. The shortage caused concern among dealers, who blamed Apple's poor business planning.\nMacintosh Classics and LCs had been given to Scholastic Software 12 weeks before they were officially announced, and Scholastic planned to release 16 new Macintosh products in 1991. Peter Kelman, Scholastic's publisher, predicted that the Macintosh would become \"the school machine of the nineties.\" The Classic was sold to schools for $800. This, and the availability of educational software, led to the Classic's popularity in the education sector. Features The low-end model was sold with 1 MB of memory, a 1.44 MB floppy drive, no hard disk, and included a",
"-23.062713492661715"
],
[
"especially combined with the Apple III's bad reputation due to poor engineering and its high retail price of nearly US $4,000 (equivalent to $9,318 in 2018).",
"-23.056212792289443"
],
[
"agreement and the three founded Apple Computer on April 1, 1976. Wayne illustrated the first Apple logo, and wrote the Apple I manual.\nWayne's business attitude was already risk-averse due to his experience five years prior with the \"very traumatic\" failure of his slot machine business, the debt of which he had spent one year voluntarily repaying. Jobs secured a US$15,000 line of credit to buy product materials for Apple's first order which had been placed by The Byte Shop, whose reputation as a notoriously slow paying vendor gave Wayne great concern for his future. Legally, all members of a partnership",
"-23.03912562748883"
],
[
"within subsection 1.3(i) or (ii) (such as a compact disc of the Rolling Stones music).\nThe Judge held Apple Computer's use was covered under this clause.\nIn response, Neil Aspinall, manager of Apple Corps, indicated that the company did not accept the decision: \"With great respect to the trial judge, we consider he has reached the wrong conclusion\", and announced that it would \"be filing an appeal and putting the case again to the Court of Appeal\". The judgment orders Apple Corps to pay Apple Computer's legal costs at an estimated UK£2 million, but pending the appeal the judge declined Apple Computer's",
"-22.983445387239044"
],
[
"year debate, involving several revisions before the Apple management gave its approval. Apple's desire for custom signage put the company at odds with the Santa Clara County Fire Department, requiring several rounds of negotiations due to fears it could compromise safety in case of emergencies.",
"-22.973376127170923"
],
[
"Banker and e-Finance software and that the defendant's use and licensing of these software without his permission following the termination of their partnership amounted to an infringement of the plaintiff's copyright. The Court again cited the copyright Act and emphasized the fact that the author of a work has exclusive right in respect of the work and that the copy right in that work should not be contested. The court granted the plaintiff money for unpaid bills and granted the plaintiffs damages for infringement and stated that the defendants should reinstate the plaintiff by disgorging all the income they",
"-22.95131061016582"
],
[
"in 2017 that for the purpose of venue in patent infringement suits, a domestic corporation \"resides\" only in its state of incorporation, having retail locations in the district would constitute Apple having a \"regular and established place of business\" in East Texas. Genius Bar All Apple Stores feature a Genius Bar, where customers can receive technical advice or set up service and repair for their products. The Genius Bar provides software support for macOS and hardware service on products that are not classified vintage or obsolete. However, in most cases the Geniuses will at least attempt to assist customers with",
"-22.93218505382538"
],
[
"agreement. Some observers believed the wording of the previous settlement favoured Apple Computer in this case. Other observers speculated that if Apple Corps was successful, Apple Computer would be forced to offer a much larger settlement, perhaps resulting in Apple Corps becoming a major shareholder in Apple Computer, or perhaps in Apple Computer splitting the iPod and related business into a separate entity.\nThe trial opened on 29 March 2006 in England, before a single judge of the High Court. In opening arguments, a lawyer for Apple Corps stated that in 2003, shortly before the launch of Apple Computer's on-line music",
"-22.864502508862643"
],
[
"decision from the first trial that awarded nearly $400 million to Apple and returned the case to Federal Circuit court to define the appropriate legal standard to define \"article of manufacture\" because it is not the smartphone itself, but could be just the case and screen to which the design patents relate. Second Retrial of damages amount from first U.S. trial On Sunday, October 22, 2017 district court judge Lucy Koh ordered a second retrial of damages based upon the limitations imposed by the above decision of the United States Supreme Court. The parties were ordered to propose a schedule",
"-22.864253542997176"
],
[
"EU illegal State aid case against Apple in Ireland History of Apple in Ireland On 23 December 1980, Apple opened production facilities in Holyhill, Cork. By 1990, the number of jobs had grown from 700 jobs to 1000 permanent jobs, as well as 500 sub-contractors. Interview excerpts, published by European Commission, found that this information was used in the way of background information by a tax adviser representing Apple during meetings with Apple in 1990.\nBy November 2016, Apple employed 6,000 people in Ireland, almost all of whom were in the Apple Hollyhill Cork plant. The Cork plant is Apple's only",
"-22.850155292078853"
]
] |
49gx4f | Okay, so does Free Software Foundation just expect us to give everything away for free? How do you make money on free software? | [
"Remember -- free as in free speech, not free as in free beer. The mission of the FSF is to promote the expansion of practices for sharing. It is about enabling the investigation and modification of software by users, and ensuring proper attribution to the writers of software. Let's say you are using the GPL license, which is their most restrictive. You (and others) still have the right under that copyright definition to sell the software in whatever format you want for profit. You (and others) can sell services for helping with the software. You can run software as a service on top of the copyleft software. You can request donations. You can seek grants. You can sell ads on the project site. There are many ways to make money that are not just the selling of software.",
"I think you're looking at it the wrong way. Think: - How do churches make money? - How do charities make money? - How do friends make money off friends? - How do homeless shelters make money? For most people that write free software, we don't really care about the money. We just think that software should be free for a good cause. Imagine if: - All encryption libraries were proprietary - All browsers were proprietary - All SSH servers and clients were proprietary - All webservers were proprietary It'd be hard to trust anyone and anything just in principle. Gross! A lot of people don't want to live like that, so we take pride in donating our time. Then, you get: - Open security that is universally debugged and trusted - Standardized practice based off effectiveness, not sales - Knowing exactly what is running on your machine by proof, not blind trust - An open invitation to be a part of a community of developers by contributing as you please Hope this helps!",
" > How do I sell this thing that can essentially be spread legally for free? Most software is not actually sold. A bank pays developers to make something that fits their business and then uses it. At no point is that software for sale. There is software in your car that is useless separate from the car. When businesses do use off the shelf software, they tend to want good support and are willing to pay for it. Furthermore, traditional consumer software is already moving away from single sales to freemium and subscription models.",
"Software as a service is one way. You can roll your own server and compile it all yourself, or you can pay me to roll it out and support it for you. Mainly it is just support. If you can provide the software free, the support for the software can be an expect d revenue source.",
"A lot OSS monetization goes something like this: 1. Create project 2. Companies find project useful and start using it 3. Companies need support for the project 4. Charge companies for support and maybe premium features Of course there are other ways as well but in my experience the most crucial part is support. The questions I always get asked when I try to introduce an OSS library or tool is \"Can we get support?\" and \"Won't it get abandoned?\". This is how Canonical (Ubuntu) and Redhat make money on software that anyone can get for free.",
"The FSF doesn't really think the strategy of selling copies for money is the right way to sell things. Most software written is actually not sold this way. Usually software supports another product. Free software helps everyone in this case. For example, Intel invests a lot of money in developing free compilers. A good compiler means more people want their chips. Google will fund web browser and android development because they have a service that benefits from these things. A lot of tools are developed by developers for developers. They all benefit by sharing. So I produce a bug tracking tool. I share it. Other people can modify it. I end up with a better bug tracking tool. This also works with libraries. I want a library to handle computer vision. I write my own. If I share it with the community, the community will develop it, and my product will be better. Or you can sell support services. This is the business model most Linux distributors offer.",
" > [...] how do you expect to make money off of free software? * You could sell services related to your software. * Your software could be related to hardware you sell. * Your software could be related to services you provide. * You could have a strategic interest in promoting a programming language, file format, computer platform or similar. * You may have written the software primarily for your own commercial use. * Your could further your academic career or the standing of your institution. Though admittedly, the money is indirect at best in that case.",
"They regard users' freedom as the most important goal by far. You're welcome to make money by selling software but they regard doing that by restricting what others can do as heinous. Exactly _how_ you make money is up to you, but they don't think you should do it by stopping others running, modifying, and sharing computer programs.",
"you want to create a voicemail transcription service you buy a library for $500 that converts MP3 to txt you build a product using this library and charge 1¢ per voicemail one day you notice a bad bug in the libraey \"free\" software would let you have the source to inspect and possibly fix the bug \"closed\" software likely will not give the source, but if it did, may have a clause that says if you modify it without permission you are liable and the creator can sue you either way you still make money",
"I have read some response here and i am still confused. So basically i can make software and sell it, but i have to give the source code for anyone, free? am i right? But another guy will take that code, modify it, then sell it at higher price... of publish it free..."
] | [
[
"mailing list:\nI think it is ok for authors (please let's not call them creators, they are not gods) to ask for money for copies of their works (please let's not devalue these works by calling them content) in order to gain income (the term compensation falsely implies it is a matter of making up for some kind of damages). Open source for free software His requests that people use certain terms, and his ongoing efforts to convince people of the importance of terminology, are a source of regular misunderstanding and friction with parts of the free software and open-source communities.\nAfter",
"-28.065080225729616"
],
[
"who are not aware that it is free software, will later accept a non-free replacement or will add software that is not free software. Legislation and Government A lot of lobbying work has been done against software patents and expansions of copyright law. Other lobbying focusses directly on use of free software by government agencies and government-funded projects. France The French gendarmerie and the French National Assembly utilize Linux. Peru Congressmen Edgar David Villanueva and Jacques Rodrich Ackerman have been instrumental in introducing free software in Peru, with bill 1609 on \"Free Software in Public Administration\". The incident",
"-27.909659315191675"
],
[
"Free Software Foundation High priority projects The FSF maintains a list of \"high priority projects\" to which the Foundation claims that \"there is a vital need to draw the free software community's attention\". The FSF considers these projects \"important because computer users are continually being seduced into using non-free software, because there is no adequate free replacement.\"\nCurrent high priority tasks include reverse engineering proprietary firmware; reversible debugging in GNU Debugger; developing automatic transcription and video editing software, Coreboot, drivers for network routers and creating replacements for Skype, Google Earth, OpenDWG libraries, BitTorrent Sync and Oracle Forms.\nPrevious projects highlighted as needing",
"-27.19937329442473"
],
[
"Donationware Donationware is a licensing model that supplies fully operational unrestricted software to the user and requests an optional donation be paid to the programmer or a third-party beneficiary (usually a non-profit). The amount of the donation may also be stipulated by the author, or it may be left to the discretion of the user, based on individual perceptions of the software's value. Since donationware comes fully operational (i.e. not crippleware/Freemium) when payment is optional, it is a type of freeware. History An example of donationware is the 1987 Atari ST video game Ballerburg, whose programmer distributed the game for",
"-26.499084030510858"
],
[
"on GitHub money to developers who contribute and maintain the project. Bounty driven development The users of a particular software artifact may come together and pool money into an open-source bounty for the implementation of a desired feature or functionality. Offering bounties as funding has existed for some time. For instance, Bountysource is a web platform which has offered this funding model for open source software since 2003.\nAnother bounty source is companies or foundations that set up bounty programs for implemented features or bugfixes in open-source software relevant to them. For instance, Mozilla has been paying and funding freelance open-source",
"-26.4756177319141"
],
[
"the free software movement) has claimed that the project does not benefit the free software movement.",
"-26.22681034344714"
],
[
"free software is the most visible part of a new economy of commons-based peer production of information, knowledge, and culture. As examples, he cites a variety of FOSS projects, including both free software and open source.\nThis new economy is already under development. In order to commercialize FOSS, many companies, Google being the most successful, are moving towards an economic model of advertising-supported software. In such a model, the only way to increase revenue is to make the advertising more valuable. Facebook has recently come under fire for using novel user tracking methods to accomplish this.\nThis new economy is not without",
"-25.96362925162248"
],
[
"to the gift economy building on hobbyism and the absence of economic scarcity on the internet. E. Gabriella Coleman has emphasized the importance of accreditation, respect, and honour within the free software community as a form of compensation for contributions to projects, over and against financial motivations.\nThe Swedish Marxian economist Johan Söderberg has argued that the free software movement represents a complete alternative to Capitalism that may be expanded to create a post-work society. He argues that the combination of a manipulation of intellectual property law and private property to make goods available to the public and a thorough blend",
"-25.905619601457147"
],
[
"Swatantra 2014 Objective According to Satish Babu, Director, ICFOSS, free software is capable of offering a freedom-enhancing, robust and reliable alternative, with additional economic advantages, compared to proprietary software, and therefore that free software could find application in the public and private sector organizations in the field of, inter alia, education, arts, and culture. Event The theme of the event was \"Free Software for a Free World\". Over 200 delegates attended the conference. The inaugural speech was delivered by Richard Stallman, founder of the free software movement who was of the view that this software should enable access without",
"-25.224178868113086"
],
[
"was the last missing piece. Should principles be compromised? Eric Raymond criticises the speed at which the free software movement is progressing, suggesting that temporary compromises should be made for long-term gains. Raymond argues that this could raise awareness of the software and thus increase the free software movement's influence on relevant standards and legislation.\nRichard Stallman, on the other hand, sees the current level of compromise as a greater cause for worry. How will programmers get paid? Stallman said that this is where people get the misconception of \"free\": there is no wrong in programmers' requesting payment for a proposed",
"-25.18521559218061"
],
[
"a third of users perceive little or no value from the money their IT department spends on them each year. More than 50% of users have to chase every request they make at least once to make sure they receive the software they ask for and more than two thirds (68%) of users feel it would be quicker and easier to find and install software themselves rather than contacting their IT help desk.\nIn 2016 1E released the Software Usage and Waste Report 2016, which discovered that 38% of enterprise software was going to waste, equating to billions of dollars in",
"-25.148146114108386"
],
[
"encouraging use of free software by state government agencies. Venezuela The Venezuelan government implemented a free software law in January 2006. Decree No. 3,390 mandated all government agencies to migrate to free software over a two-year period. Economics The free software movement has been extensively analyzed using economic methodologies, including perspectives from heterodox economics. Of particular interest to economists is the willingness of programmers in the free software movement to work, often producing higher-quality than commercial programmers, without financial compensation. In his 1998 article \"The High-Tech Gift Economy,\" Richard Barbrook suggested that the then-nascent free software movement represented a return",
"-25.09203437026008"
],
[
"Donationware is a licensing model that supplies fully operational unrestricted software to the user and requests an optional donation be paid to the programmer or a third-party beneficiary (usually a non-profit). The amount of the donation may also be stipulated by the author, or it may be left to the discretion of the user, based on individual perceptions of the software's value. Since donationware comes fully operational (i.e. not crippleware) with payment optional, it is a type of freeware. Nagware Nagware is a type of shareware that persistently reminds (nags) the user to register it by paying a fee. It",
"-25.00296496260853"
],
[
"those based out of Chennai, Delhi, Kochi, Mumbai, Pune, and Trivandrum. Free Software Foundation of India, was formed in 2001 to promote the use and development of free software in India.\nSome of the state governments, notably Kerala and Tamil Nadu created policies on the use of Free Software in state level organizations and launched ambitions projects like IT@School, Elcot OpenSuse migration. The government of India rolled out a policy to adopt Open standards and promote open source and open technologies in 2015. Free software usage in India Free Software was almost synonymous with GNU/Linux and associated software in the",
"-24.85909249287215"
],
[
"(free software), Microsoft SQL Server, PostgreSQL (free software), IBM DB2, Microsoft Access, SQLite (free software), and MariaDB (free software).\nAccording to research company Gartner, in 2011, the five leading Proprietary software relational database vendors by revenue were Oracle (48.8%), IBM (20.2%), Microsoft (17.0%), SAP including Sybase (4.6%), and Teradata (3.7%).",
"-24.686506814041422"
],
[
"the user receives no donations, then no charge is made. Payment processors collect 2.9% and $.30 from each GoFundMe transaction.\nGoFundMe is unique to crowdfunding in that they are not an incentive-based crowdfunding website. Although it does allow projects that are meant to fund other projects for musicians, inventors, etc., the business model is set up to allow for donations to personal causes and life events such as medical bills. GoFundMe also has a special section dedicated solely to users who are trying to raise money to cover their tuition costs. One of the most notable tuition projects involved helping a",
"-24.554323901043972"
],
[
"costs for the developer as well as other businesses using the new program. Lower costs for businesses result in lower prices in the competitive free market. Lower prices from suppliers would also raise profits for the original developer. In abundance, businesses would continue to pay to improve the program to best suit their own needs, and increase profits. Over time, the original business makes a return on investment, and the final consumer has access to a program that suits their needs better than any one program developer can predict. This is the common rationale behind open-source software. Left-wing Social liberals,",
"-24.456629531283397"
],
[
"the Free Software movement, public software repositories are a system in which communities can work together on open-source software projects, typically through version control systems such as Git and Subversion. Public software repositories allow for individuals make contributions to the same project, allowing the project to grow bigger than the sum of its parts. A popular platform hosting public and open source software repositories is GitHub. City Top Level Domains Top Level Domains or TLDs are Internet resources that facilitate finding the numbered computers on the Internet. The largest and most familiar TLD is .com. Beginning in 2012, ICANN, the",
"-24.392027922091074"
],
[
"service often via subscription), freemium, donation-based funding, crowdfunding, and crowdsourcing.\nThere are several different types of business models for making profit using open-source software (OSS) or funding the creation and ongoing development and maintenance. Below are a list of current existing and legal commercial business models approaches in context of open-source software and open-source licenses. The acceptance of these approaches varies; some of these approaches are recommended (like open core and selling services), others are accepted, while still others are considered controversial or even unethical by the open-source community. The underlying objective of these business models is to harness the size",
"-24.263616405227367"
],
[
"on lawyers to help the Free Software movement, saying: \"Those who want to share their code can make products and share their work without additional legal risks.\" He urged his legal colleagues, \"It's worth giving up a little in order to produce a sounder ecology for all. Think kindly about the idea of sharing.\"\nMoglen has criticized trends which result in \"excluding people from knowledge.\" On the issue of Free Software versus proprietary software, he has argued that \"much has been said by the few who stand to lose.\" Moglen calls for a \"sensible respect for both the creators and users\"",
"-24.192243111723656"
],
[
"to finance the continued development of the free open-source version. Customers may prefer a no-cost and open-source edition for testing, evaluation, proof of concept development, and small scale deployment. If the customer wishes to deploy the software at scale, or in proprietary distributed products, the customer then negotiates for a commercial license to an enterprise edition. Further, customers will learn of open-source software in a company's portfolio and offerings but generate business in other proprietary products and solutions, including commercial technical support contracts and services. A popular example is Oracle's MySQL database which is dual-licensed under a commercial proprietary license as",
"-24.073306531761773"
],
[
"are not strictly economically beneficial to the contributor, but are related to leisure activities. People program as a hobby and are incentivized to contribute to open-source projects simply because they enjoy it. There are also altruistic reasons, such as creating a better world and donating one's time to a project one believes in. \nThere are also several economic arguments for producing open-source software. A potential economic benefit is the enhancement of a person's reputation or resume. A top contributor to open-source software may get easier access to venture capital money or better access to jobs. Further, developing open-source software can",
"-24.053532177000307"
],
[
"be \"set aside\" for projects sponsored by non-profit organizations, although non-profits more typically apply for credits under the \"general\" rules, without regard to the set-aside.\nThis allows each state to set its own priorities and address its specific housing goals. It also encourages developers to offer benefits that are better than the established minimums when competing against other projects (e.g., charging lower rents, or maintaining the low income requirements for a longer number of years, will often improve a project's rank in the competitive process; it is important to check the particular state's QAP and application to see how it makes",
"-23.987962766870623"
],
[
"to the highest ethical, safety and sustainability standards, preventing it from entering our waste stream and poisoning the environment. Free Geek also donates refurbished computers and technology directly back into the community; in 2017, for example, Free Geek was able to give away six laptop computers for every ten sold in the Free Geek Store. In 2016 Free Geek donated 4,400 refurbished items of technology back to the community, providing free computers to low-income individuals, schools and nonprofit partners throughout the Portland Metro area and beyond. Hardware Grant Program Free Geek is committed to providing free technology equipment and",
"-23.950715037062764"
],
[
"world and to creators from many countries, including the US, UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, The Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Spain, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland and Mexico.\nKickstarter applies a 5% fee on the total amount of the funds raised. Their payments processor applies an additional 3–5% fee. Unlike many forums for fundraising or investment, Kickstarter claims no ownership over the projects and the work they produce. The web pages of projects launched on the site are permanently archived and accessible to the public. After funding is completed, projects and uploaded media cannot be edited or removed",
"-23.91167022272566"
],
[
"Free Software Foundation Tamil Nadu Name Free Software Foundation Tamil Nadu is the body working as a part of Free Software Movement of India and not the Free Software Foundation of India. It is often believed that FSFTN is the official chapter of Free Software Foundation or Free Software Foundation of India. Recent disclaimer of Free Software Foundation, Tamil Nadu makes clear that FSFTN is a part of Free Software Movement of India and they are not associated with either Free Software Foundation or Free Software Foundation of India anyway other than the ideology. Activism The Free Software Foundation Tamil",
"-23.64723970956402"
],
[
"as in-kind donations. Instead of buying items off the wishlists users can donate money through PayPal or check. This money is used to make annual wholesale purchases to provide technology like iPads and Xbox systems as well as games and movies.\nThe charity also has a space for corporate sponsors who have donated. The sponsors also earn a corporate sponsorship level (Silver, Gold and Platinum) and get linked back on Childsplaycharity.org. These sponsors include several video game marathons such as the Mario Marathon and Desert Bus for Hope, as well as YouTube series such as Far Lands or Bust by Kurtjmac.",
"-23.473543021289515"
],
[
"those projects that are successfully funded.\nProjects using the Kickstarter model generally create multiple tiers of support. A minimum pledge assures that the funder will get the product in some form, but higher pledges will include additional benefits. In the case of video game-related works, this commonly can include being credited in the final work, receiving promotional items like T-shirts, obtaining early access to the game, or meeting the developers in person. History Prior to 2012, small independent video game developers had used Kickstarter and other crowdfunding services to generate capital for developing games. However, most of these were funded at",
"-23.418402461851656"
],
[
"the code. However, the foundation brought in less than $1 million per year, and the contract work tended to focus on adding new features rather than maintaining the old ones.\nOther open-source software projects have similar difficulties. For example, the maintainers of OpenBSD, a security-conscious operating system, nearly had to shut the project down in early 2014 because it could not pay the electricity bills. The initiative Jim Zemlin, the executive director of the Linux Foundation, conceived the idea of the Core Infrastructure Initiative not long after Heartbleed was announced, and spent the night of April 23 calling firms for support.",
"-23.339917502366006"
],
[
"Business models for open-source software Companies whose business center on the development of open-source software employ a variety of business models to solve the challenge of how to make money providing software that is by definition licensed free of charge. Each of these business strategies rests on the premise that users of open-source technologies are willing to purchase additional software features under proprietary licenses, or purchase other services or elements of value that complement the open-source software that is core to the business. This additional value can be, but not limited to, enterprise-grade features and up-time guarantees (often via a",
"-23.318338711280376"
],
[
"rights in respect to software ownership. The two opposing views are for closed source software distributed under restrictive licenses or for free and open source software.\nThe argument can be made that restrictions are required because companies would not invest weeks and months in development if there were no incentive for revenue generated from sales and licensing fees. A counter argument to this is that standing on shoulders of giants is far cheaper when the giants do not hold IP rights. Some proponents for open source believe that all programs should be available to anyone who wants to study them.",
"-23.266116896120366"
],
[
"service, hosted software is available as an application that is run at vendors’ own facilities. One of the benefits of hosted software is that customers often need little or no internal IT support. Despite some concern over security, hosted services are usually more secure than nonprofits’ own IT systems. Grant management software market Many nonprofits, schools and universities rely on grant funding. Each year, all U.S. grant sources give an estimated $1 trillion in grant money. The federal government alone spent $489 billion in grant funding in fiscal 2006. there is often confusion regarding the term Grant management in that",
"-23.260689981863834"
],
[
"invited the attention of Microsoft Inc, Peru, whose general manager wrote a letter to Villanueva. His response received worldwide attention and is seen as a classic piece of argumentation favouring use of free software in governments. United Kingdom Gov.uk keeps a list of \"key components, tools and services that have gone into the construction of GOV.UK\". Uruguay Uruguay has a sanctioned law requiring that the state give priority to Free Software. It also requires that information be exchanged in open formats. United States of America In the United States, there have been efforts to pass legislation at the state level",
"-23.06825786328409"
],
[
"contemplated including the special provision of AGPLv1 into GPLv3 but ultimately decided to keep the licenses separate. Partnership with funding organizations Other financial situations include partnerships with other companies. Governments, universities, companies, and non-governmental organizations may develop internally or hire a contractor for custom in-house modifications, then release that code under an open-source license. Some organizations support the development of open-source software by grants or stipends, like Google's Summer of Code initiative founded in 2005. Voluntary donations There were experiments by Independent developers to fund development of open-source software donation-driven directly by the users, e.g. with the Illumination Software",
"-23.048344522481784"
],
[
"When the deadline passed, they extended it to November 6, 2006, claiming that problems with PayPal made it impossible for people to donate money and that it was the only fair thing to do for Toby. It was later changed to Thanksgiving Day, 2006, because of the release of the book. In December 2006, the site announced that humor/games website bored.com had purchased the website, and therefore Toby had been saved. It is claimed that over $24,000 was collected by the website. Save Toby: Only YOU have the power to save Toby! The book was released in September",
"-23.03135573901818"
],
[
"are called Co-funding Projects. Co-funding projects Even though opsi is open source, there are some components which are not for free at the moment. These components are developed in a co-funding project. This means, that these parts are only available for those customers who paid a contribution to the cost of development. As soon as the development of a co-funding project is refinanced, the component will be part of the free opsi-version and can be used free of charge. It will be open source (as long as not prevented caused by technical reasons). The first of these co-funding Projects was",
"-23.02980343659874"
],
[
"Freei Services Freei provided a free alternative ISP, allowing users to anonymously log on to the internet using the Freei software and dialer. It reached over 2 million registered users nationally by 1999, and 3.2 million by the summer of 2000. In lieu of a subscription fee, the software displayed ads on the user's computer. IPO filing Freei filed for an IPO on March 31, 2000. Bankruptcy On October 9, 2000, Freei filed for bankruptcy after laying off 30% of its workforce.\nOne week later, on October 16, 2000, the rest of the workforce was laid off and the corporate",
"-23.02583707118174"
],
[
"this policy around open source adoption for implementation at the state government levels. Government of Kerala policy on Free Software In 2007, government of Kerala released its ICT policy where one of its objectives was to mandate appropriate use of Free Software in all ICT initiatives.\nThe Government realizes that Free Software presents a unique opportunity in building a truly egalitarian knowledge society. The Government will take all efforts to develop Free Software and Free Knowledge and shall encourage and mandate the appropriate use of Free Software in all ICT initiatives.\nThe state of Kerala has a rich history of free software",
"-22.978092979436042"
],
[
"system to support various web series (both entertainment- and education-oriented). Users subscribe to creators and decide how much they want to pay to receive their content on either a recurring basis or with a one-time donation. The money that users spend to support various projects goes into a \"perk bank\" and can be redeemed for creator-determined perks such as signed posters or shoutouts in videos. The money that users donate goes immediately and directly to each creator, minus 5% of revenue that goes to Subbable itself to pay for overhead and server costs and roughly 5% that goes to Amazon",
"-22.896424147940706"
],
[
"user raise $25,000 to pay out-of-state tuition to a PhD program.\nGoFundMe targets social media platforms to create awareness for campaigns, and encourages individual users to promote their fundraiser on social media throughout a campaign. According to a 2018 report by GoFundMe based on past campaign data, a donor sharing a campaign on social media results in $15 of donations on average, while any share of a campaign on social media, regardless of whether the user donated to the campaign, results in $13 of donations on average. GoFundMe hired Daniel Pfeiffer in 2015 as the communications and policy chief. Pfeiffer previously",
"-22.887236313108588"
],
[
"Stallman called for development of a free online encyclopedia through the means of inviting the public to contribute articles. The resulting GNUPedia was eventually retired in favour of the emerging Wikipedia, which had similar aims and was enjoying greater success.\nStallman is a world traveler and has visited at least 65 countries, mostly to speak about free software and the GNU project. According to Stallman, the free software movement has much in common with that of Mahatma Gandhi. Stallman is also highly critical of the effect that drug patents have had on developing countries.\nIn Venezuela, Stallman has delivered public speeches and",
"-22.693990239902632"
],
[
"Digital Freedom Foundation Digital Freedom Foundation (DFF) is a non-profit organisation that acts as the official organiser of Software, Hardware, and other Freedom Days, and is the legal body that handles donations, sponsorship contracts, and accounting. DFF has successfully obtained a tax-exempt status in the USA where it was registered as Software Freedom International, in order to make donations tax-deductible. Since it has moved to Hong Kong and is now registering in Cambodia due to board members relocation. History The organization was started in 2004 under the name Software Freedom International and formally registered as a charity in 2007. Name",
"-22.663895538120414"
],
[
"tax deduction.\nSecond, the donor maintains control of the account. With few exceptions, the named beneficiary has no rights to the funds. Most plans allow donors to reclaim the funds at any time for their own use. However, if a \"non-qualified\" withdrawal is made, the earnings portion will be subject to income tax and an additional 10% penalty tax.\nThird, a 529 plan can provide a convenient, hands-off way to save for college. Having selected which 529 plan to use, the donor completes a simple enrollment form and makes a contribution (or signs up for automatic deposits). The ongoing investment of the",
"-22.637880186812254"
],
[
"society as one of his motivations:\nIn the long run, making programs free is a step toward the post-scarcity world, where nobody will have to work very hard just to make a living. People will be free to devote themselves to activities that are fun, such as programming, after spending the necessary ten hours a week on required tasks such as legislation, family counseling, robot repair and asteroid prospecting. There will be no need to be able to make a living from programming. Marxism Karl Marx, in a section of his Grundrisse that came to be known as the \"Fragment on",
"-22.62029419024475"
],
[
"PayPal to donate a free amount of money, which will be collected as a whole \"booty\" sum of money and then used to \"pay\" the person or the team who proves himself to be capable of realizing the whole project). The project was announced on Amigaworld Portal on May 19, 2003 with an amount of 1000 US Dollars, and in only one day it collected 2000 dollars by donations, climbing from 1000 to 3000 dollars. Noteworthy for a very little community of users, by June 11, 2003 it had reached more than 4000 US$, and this enormous effort, and the",
"-22.609811901900684"
],
[
"Giveaway of the Day Previous titles and charge on Giveaway of the Day Categories of software on Giveaway of the Day include system tools, shell replacements, video and photo editing tools, office add-ons, file format converters, screen-savers and others. Software titles offered by Giveaway of the Day are free if downloaded from the Giveaway of the Day website. Mac Giveaway of the Day At the end of the 2008 Giveaway announced in the blog their plans to launch similar project for Mac products. Even though the idea was highly appreciated and supported by the users community the project team didn’t",
"-22.564525961854088"
],
[
"from the site.\nThere is no guarantee that people who post projects on Kickstarter will deliver on their projects, use the money to implement their projects, or that the completed projects will meet backers' expectations. Kickstarter advises backers to use their own judgment on supporting a project. They also warn project leaders that they could be liable for legal damages from backers for failure to deliver on promises. Projects might also fail even after a successful fundraising campaign when creators underestimate the total costs required or technical difficulties to be overcome.\nAsked what made Kickstarter different from other crowdfunding platforms, co-founder Perry",
"-22.53153954978916"
],
[
"Edgar David Villanueva Dr Edgar David Villanueva Núñez is a politician and congressman in the Republic of Peru. He is best known for introducing a bill to mandate use of free software in public agencies. The introduction of the Bill 1609 invited the attention of Microsoft,\nto whose letter Dr Villanueva wrote a famous reply.\nA bill that mandates consideration of open source software was passed into law in October 2005.\nBoth the Bill and Dr Villanueva's letter have been widely cited by pro-active governments and Free Software activists as a convincing rationale behind the introduction of Free Software in Governments.",
"-22.50542464767932"
],
[
"away for free: None seek or get royalties or fees from their sale. On the contrary, any access-denial to potential users means loss of potential research impact (downloads, citations) for the author's research—and researcher-authors' employment, salary, promotion and funding depends in part on the uptake and impact of their research.\n2. Source code modifiability and re-use. For published research articles, the case for allowing text modification and re-use is much weaker than for software code, because, unlike software, the text of a research article is not intended for modification and re-use. (In contrast, the content of research articles is and always",
"-22.50031032267725"
],
[
"meeting hosted about 4,000 visitors every year by 2011. Financing Entrance and participation in the event is entirely free. It is financed by sponsors who accept the non-commercial nature of the event, and by donors amongst the visitors. Donors receive an incentive in form of a token present and everything is organized and set up by volunteers. FSF Award The Free Software Foundation's ceremony for the Award for the Advancement of Free Software was held at FOSDEM from 2002 to 2006 (for the awards for 2001 to 2005).",
"-22.497558022179874"
],
[
"by Rick Gates; this project died before generating any encyclopedic content. Free software proponent Richard Stallman described the usefulness of a \"Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource\" in 1999. His published document \"aims to lay out what the free encyclopedia needs to do, what sort of freedoms it needs to give the public, and how we can get started on developing it.\" On Wednesday 17 January 2001, two days after the founding of Wikipedia, the Free Software Foundation's (FSF) GNUPedia project went online, competing with Nupedia, but today the FSF encourages people \"to visit and contribute to [Wikipedia]\". Formulation of",
"-22.442269744118676"
],
[
"court ruling that denied it non-profit 501(c)(3) status, on the basis that it was not \"operated exclusively for exempt purposes\", but instead \"in part, for the private benefit of artists and dealers\", and \"in furtherance of substantial nonexempt commercial, and social and entertainment purposes\".",
"-22.432630568742752"
],
[
"Sam Williams (journalist) Sam Williams (born 1969) is an American journalist. He is perhaps best known as the author of a biography of software programmer Richard Stallman, Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software (2002). Prior to beginning Free as in Freedom he met his wife Tracy. She had originally proposed the concept of the book to him.",
"-22.43196385106421"
],
[
"rare, a sponsoring organization could conceivably ignore the donor's intent. In addition, most donor-advised funds can only give to IRS certified 501(c)(3) organizations or their foreign equivalents. This rules out, for example, most kinds of donations to individuals, and scholarships—both things a private foundation can do more easily. Donor-advised funds do reap a significant cost advantage (foundations carry a 2.5-4% of assets overhead expense to maintain, a 1-2% excise tax on NET investment earnings and a required 5% spending of assets each year) but may also have one more drawback---limited lifetime, although this varies depending on the sponsor. American",
"-22.428627724730177"
],
[
"with several software developers, to LibreOffice, a free and open-source office suite. Other FOSS projects Red Hat has some employees working full-time on other free and open-source software projects that are not Red Hat products, such as two full-time employees working on the free software radeon (David Airlie and Jerome Glisse) and one full-time employee working on the free software nouveau graphic drivers. Another such project is AeroGear, an open-source project that brings security and development expertise to cross-platform enterprise mobile development.\nRed Hat also organises \"Open Source Day\" events where multiple partners show their open-source technologies. Red Hat India In",
"-22.39426208619261"
],
[
"of critics involve the idea that there cannot be such thing as \"free money\" or as economists say \"there is no such thing as a free lunch\". This criticism was notably expressed by Bank for International Settlements researchers Claudio Borio, Piti Disyatat, Anna Zabai., who claimed that helicopter drops to citizens would necessarily involve for the central bank to pay interests on the extra reserves being supplied.\nIn a response, the former IMF economist Biagio Bossone challenges the later assumption and argues that \"helicopter money is a 'free lunch' in the simple sense that, if it works and succeeds in closing",
"-22.383729331602808"
],
[
"the area of research. Many funded research projects produce software as part of their work. There is an increasing interest in making the outputs of such projects available under an open-source license. In the UK the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) has developed a policy on open-source software. JISC also funds a development service called OSS Watch which acts as an advisory service for higher and further education institutions wishing to use, contribute to and develop open-source software.\nOn 30 March 2010, President Barack Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, which included $2 billion over four years to",
"-22.38150120782666"
],
[
"organizer of the 2001 \"Freedom First!\" Conference that introduced the concept and vision of Free Software in Kerala and India. Later, he was a co-founder of the Society for Promotion of Alternative Computing and Employment (SPACE ) and its Executive Secretary during 2003–2010. As the founding Director of the International Centre for Free and Open Source Software (ICFOSS), he was involved in setting up and building the institution from 2011 through 2015. He has convened several conferences and workshops on Free Software, including FOSS workshops at the Internet Governance Forum. ICANN Satish Babu is a volunteer in ICANN. Besides contributing",
"-22.360772503947373"
],
[
"to have subscribers to pay for materials that are essentially in the public domain but with underlying licenses like those created by his organization Creative Commons.\nHe also argues for the creation of shorter renewable periods of copyright and a limitation on derivative rights, such as limiting a publisher's ability to stop the publication of copies of an author's book on the internet for non-commercial purposes or create a compulsory licensing scheme to ensure that creators obtain direct royalties for their works based upon their usage statistics and some kind of taxation scheme such as suggested by professor William Fisher of",
"-22.352438664995134"
],
[
"of charge. The donations are distributed by the (WFP).\nThe most common countries receiving rice are Bangladesh, Cambodia, Bhutan, Uganda, and Nepal, but Freerice can travel all over the world (as of early 2008). Following the earthquake in Haiti, nearly 6 billion grains were donated to help communities there. By this time, the site's creator had given over US$213,000 to the WFP, which encouraged people to visit the website. Effectiveness In its first ten months of operation, Freerice donated over 42 billion grains of rice. One month after the inception of the viral marketing program, users had earned enough points for",
"-22.31743640251807"
],
[
"in the world, only provides an investment of $120,000 to the companies that it incubates. Thus, a company that is accepted into Y Combinator would have to raise an additional $225,000 dollars from “qualified U.S. investors with established records of successful investments,” or satisfy the rule's alternative criteria. The rule also seems to place more importance on investment generated than revenue generated, at least during the initial parole period. Many companies are able to self-fund through revenue, but would likely fall short on the investment side of the rule. Another potential challenge is that currently in the U.S., the fastest",
"-22.304189388873056"
],
[
"funds outright from the time of their receipt, funds are managed in a tax-free environment, and can potentially result in a larger gift to the organization than the initial contribution. Charities can offer this method to encourage incremental gifts from investment-oriented donors, while fostering relationships between giver and recipient.",
"-22.30145251650538"
],
[
"a close look at the features of a program without being able to use it to generate output. Freemium models Freemium works by offering a product or service free of charge (typically digital offerings such as software, content, games, web services or other) while charging a premium for advanced features, functionality, or related products and services. For example, a fully functional feature-limited (\"lite\") version may be given away for free, with advanced features disabled until a license fee is paid. The word \"freemium\" is a portmanteau combining the two aspects of the business model: \"free\" and \"premium\". It has become",
"-22.300271142506972"
],
[
"Creator in 2012. Since 2011, SourceForge allows users to donate to hosted projects that opted to accept donations, which is enabled via PayPal.\nLarger donation campaigns also exist. In 2004 the Mozilla Foundation carried out a fundraising campaign to support the launch of the Firefox 1.0 web browser. It placed a two-page ad in the December 16 edition of The New York Times listing the names of the thousands who had donated.\nIn May 2019, GitHub, a Git-based software repository hosting, management and collaboration platform owned by Microsoft, launched a Sponsors program that allows people who support certain open source projects hosted",
"-22.26169543317519"
],
[
"501(c)(3) foundation that relies on grants from corporations, private foundations, law firms, and individuals.",
"-22.250997248316708"
],
[
"not merely serving as an agent or conduit of a foreign charitable organization. The 501(c)(3) organization's management should review the grant application from the foreign organization, decide whether to award the grant based on the intended use of the funds, and require continuous oversight based on the use of funds.\nIf the donor imposes a restriction or earmark that the contribution must be used for foreign activities, then the contribution is deemed to be for the foreign organization rather than the 501(c)(3) organization, and the contribution is not tax-deductible.\nThe purpose of the grant to the foreign organization cannot include endorsing or",
"-22.244345574639738"
],
[
"donation of $5, $20, $50 or whatever you can to protect and sustain Wikipedia.\"\nUK customers: \"This year, please consider making a donation of £5, £20, £50 or whatever you can to protect and sustain Wikipedia.\"\nThis also applies to digital downloads where the price is not a round number and where the costs are the same.\n\"The ever popular method of simply swapping the $ sign for a £ sign sees a monthly subscription to Spotify priced at $9.99 in the US and £9.99 in the UK.\"\n Says UK consumer magazine Which?\nAt its launch, Microsoft Windows Vista had a suggested retail price",
"-22.241669281269424"
],
[
"help your country to develop, to be free, independent and not weak. Working on this project you will be more powerful and you will give the others also the opportunity to get knowledge about freedom of software\" Richard Stallman.\nAt the end, Richard Stallman answered many questions put forth by the participants in the room.",
"-22.232650376099627"
],
[
"most. Some even argue that they should be free at the point of use.\nThe alternative to funding facilities and services with user fees is to fund them with income taxes. Unlike user fees, income taxes are paid by everyone, including those who don't necessarily use or benefit from a specific facility or service.",
"-22.219263936232892"
],
[
"Project. Funding model In 2005 Debian Project Leader Branden Robinson thanked the Linux Fund for their continued support of the Debian Project and noted the benefit of long-term grants to FOSS projects: \nThis funding will ... enable us to do a bit more forward planning. Debian runs entirely on donations ... and a steady, predictable flow of revenue should help us feel comfortable with some more long-range resource planning. Linux Fund deserves not just our thanks, but credit for pioneering new funding models for the Free Software community. Former Board Members Scott Rainey, Michael Dexter, Iris Oren, Benjamin Cox, Candace",
"-22.173727795787272"
],
[
"campaign. From federal contractors Despite a 36-year-old ban against federal contractors making federal political expenditures, Restore Our Future has accepted donations of $890,000 from at least five such companies, who are taking advantage of a legal gray area created by the U.S. Supreme Court's 2010 ruling in Citizens United v. FEC. Oxbow Carbon, a major coal and petroleum company founded by William Koch that contracts with the Tennessee Valley Authority, gave $750,000, and has insisted such donations are now legal. Another company, M.C. Dean, a Virginia-based electrical engineering company, donated $5,000, but has asked the funds to be returned",
"-22.128073358282563"
],
[
"practitioners and has been financed by the Broadcasting Board of Governors, a US governmental agency. Freegate also receives funding from Human Rights in China, which is also one of its clients and which receives some funding from the American non-profit organization the National Endowment for Democracy. According to a CRS report, the US government gave funding of $685,000 to Freegate in 2005. Malware reports In 2004, the Financial Times, citing a member of staff at Symantec in mainland China, reported that Norton AntiVirus identified Freegate as a Trojan horse. There were initial fears that the reports may be",
"-22.109139780164696"
],
[
"and others to look into how to bring free software principles and benefits to the commercial-software industry. They concluded that FSF's social activism was not appealing to companies like Netscape, and looked for a way to rebrand the free software movement to emphasize the business potential of the sharing of source code.\nThe label \"open source\" was adopted by some people in the free software movement at a strategy session held at Palo Alto, California, in reaction to Netscape's January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. The group of individuals at the session included Christine Peterson who suggested",
"-22.107946243369952"
],
[
"subscriptions and microtransactions. Websites and applications are \"ad-free\" when not using ads at all for revenue. For example, the online encyclopaedia Wikipedia provides free access to its content by receiving funding from charitable donations.",
"-22.083580294827698"
],
[
"the freemium model and prescribe a framework for implementing them into software products.\nThe freemium model is closely related to tiered services. It has become a popular model, with notable examples including LinkedIn, Badoo, and in the form of a \"soft\" paywall, such as those employed by The New York Times and by Press+. A freemium model is sometimes used to build a consumer base when the marginal cost of producing extra units is low.\nIn the US, in the Christian 501 (c) 3 religious education sector, Christian Leaders Institute (CLI) uses the freemium model to train Christian leaders. CLI offers free",
"-22.080560591304675"
],
[
"projects that would otherwise fall through the cracks that have not been able to garner the attention of larger grant-making organizations and where small grants can have great impact.\nThanks to a private gift covering operating and fundraising expenses, 100% of all public donations to GO Campaign go to programming costs, and donors are allowed to choose the project they want to support. Background Former attorney and successful Hollywood screenwriter Scott Fifer founded the organization in 2006 after taking a volunteer vacation in Tanzania. Originally established to help Tanzania's orphans and vulnerable children secure a better future, support for the",
"-21.99562471586978"
],
[
"donations are permitted under FEC laws. This decision will permit microdonations, and it may encourage more people to donate to campaigns. The decision may also encourage more people to attempt to hide their political donations behind the pseudonymity of Bitcoin.",
"-21.994766596391855"
],
[
"community often speak of their community as a gift economy. The IT research firm IDC valued the Linux kernel at US$18 billion in 2007 and projected its value at US$40 billion in 2010. The Debian distribution of the GNU/Linux operating system offers over 37,000 free open-source software packages via their AMD64 repositories alone. Collaborative works Collaborative works are works created by an open community. For example, Wikipedia – a free online encyclopedia – features millions of articles developed collaboratively, and almost none of its many authors and editors receive any direct material reward.",
"-21.957754295668565"
],
[
"In Kickstarter, project creators choose a deadline and a minimum funding goal. As an assurance contract, if the goal is not met by the deadline, no funds are collected. The platform is open to backers from anywhere in the world and to creators from some certain countries.",
"-21.954468726595678"
],
[
"as Assistance Initiatives and may go longer than one semester. Legal status The Global Charity Project has 501 (c) (3) status under Marymount University. Donations to the organization are tax exempt.",
"-21.942502086574677"
],
[
"they will recruit several more opponents... The bottom line is that in all of this Oracle had golden opportunity after golden opportunity to make real progress for everyone - not just the OpenOffice.org or the free software community. They could have been the key player and the biggest part of the most popular free software office suite and they treated it like a runny nose. They blew it.\nIn October 2010 Linux Magazine's Bruce Byfield suggested that the formation of The Document Foundation is just the Go-oo project reinventing itself to the long-term detriment of users.\nWhat happened, I suspect, was that",
"-21.93910943956871"
],
[
"email or websites. However, the 501(h) election is not advantageous for very large non-profits whose lobbying expenditures exceed the $1,000,000 total cap or the $250,000 grassroots lobbying cap. These organizations may still be able to justify the expenditures as insubstantial if their operating budget is much larger, although it does entail increased risk.\nMultiple commentators have called non-profit lobbying beneficial because it balances lobbying by for-profit corporations. Tufts University political science professor Jeffrey Berry wrote in The Washington Post that, given that many non-profits are health care or social service providers, \"they are the foot soldiers in a",
"-21.93272522519692"
],
[
"use Backer originated from App.net itself, in which the company asked if they should accept Bitcoin as a form of payment for the paid tiers. Some of the details for Backer are:\nYou don't have to integrate App.net APIs to use Backer.\nWe handle the entire process on a turn-key basis. If the project is successful, App.net sends the money to the project owner. If the project is not successful, the project owner has no further obligation or work to do.\n\nSuccessful open source Backer projects were not charged a fee. Successful proprietary Backer projects were charged a 5% fee. Unsuccessful Backer campaigns",
"-21.92828863410432"
],
[
"FreeBSD Core Team The FreeBSD Core Team would be the equivalent of a board of directors, if the FreeBSD Project were a company.\nThe FreeBSD Project is run by FreeBSD committers, or developers who have SVN commit access. The Core Team exists to provide direction and is responsible for setting goals for the FreeBSD Project and to provide mediation in the event of disputes, and also takes the final decision in case of disagreement between individuals and teams involved in the project. The Core Team is also responsible for selecting individuals for other teams related to the development and",
"-21.89876938634552"
],
[
"Freemium Freemium, a portmanteau of the words \"free\" and \"premium\", is a pricing strategy by which a product or service (typically a digital offering or an application such as software, media, games or web services) is provided free of charge, but money (a premium) is charged for additional features, services, or virtual (online) or physical (offline) goods that expand the functionality of the free version of the software. This business model has been used in the software industry since the 1980s. A subset of this model used by the video game industry is called free-to-play. Origin The business model has",
"-21.861359302536584"
],
[
"religious non-profits are something of a special case, because the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution forbids the government making a law \"respecting an establishment of religion,\" and also forbids \"prohibiting the free exercise thereof [that is, of religion].\" The First Amendment originally bound only the U.S. Federal Government, but by incorporation through the 14th Amendment, also binds state and local governments. Under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act many generally applicable state laws regarding employment, zoning and the like are relaxed for churches.\nSimilarly, some non-profits, as private organizations, are not subject to the anti-discrimination laws which might apply",
"-21.85829088895116"
],
[
"FreeAgent History FreeAgent was launched in September 2007. The company was founded by Ed Molyneux, Olly Headey and Roan Lavery.\nThe founders were originally working as freelance designers and developers. They put their heads together to come up with a new way to deal with bookkeeping (e.g. invoices, spreadsheets, receipts).\nAfter leaving the RAF and starting as a contractor, Ed started building the initial FreeAgent prototype.\nFreeAgent began a partnership with IRIS in 2010.\nIn 2012 FreeAgent acquired the American startup 60mo, in order to expand into the US market. It topped Deloitte's list of fastest growing technology firms in 2013.\nIn 2015, FreeAgent Mobile",
"-21.85326275359148"
],
[
"his speech Free Software as a Catalyst for Liberation, Social Justice and Social Medicine, he defines Free Software as a movement, as a philosophy, and as a way of activism. To him, the use of proprietary software in the public administration is a contradiction by definition. Public Education The initial projects that Luis Falcon started were related to Public Education. \nAfter observing the reality of many of the children on these schools, he incorporates Social Medicine to the project, to improve the socio-economic determinants of health on the communities. He conceives education and health as the basis for development and",
"-21.850770835124422"
],
[
"of their creating, usually maintained by trust funds, which independently own and operate large computing resources for their sakes, separated physically and economically from most of the rest of the world's computing power, which is privatized as a fungible commodity. Although the wealthiest copies face no financial difficulties, they can still be threatened because copies lack political and legal rights (they are considered software), especially where the global economy is in recession. Hence they cannot afford to retreat into solipsism and ignore what is happening in the real world.\nAt the opposite end from the wealthy Copies are those who can",
"-21.82685006770771"
],
[
"or institute.\n• being paid for directly by the end user (i.e., the investor) rather than by the alternative investment fund or its manager (due to the conflict of interest created if the fund or its manager is the “client”) or bundled as part of a wider service (for example as is the case with a fund of funds).",
"-21.819007689191494"
],
[
"Ourproject.org Philosophy Ourproject was founded in 2002 with the aims of hosting and boosting the cooperative work done in multiple domains (cultural, artistic, educational), with one specific condition: the results of the projects should remain freely accessible under a free license. This is understood in a broad way, as not all the available licenses are cataloged as free/libre (such as several Creative Commons licenses).\nIts non-profit perspective is partially imposed on its online community of projects, as no advertising is allowed in the hosted webpages. Thus, OurProject projects have mainly been carried out by social movements, university-supported groups, some free software",
"-21.818978150564362"
],
[
"calls \"freeloader debt\" or a \"freeloader's bill\": retroactive billing for any auditing received or any Scientology training received while in the Sea Org, which can run into tens of thousands of dollars. While this \"freeloader debt\" is not legally binding, many former Scientologists have reported that they felt trapped by the \"freeloader debt\" policy.\nIn his book The Complex: An Insider Exposes the Covert World of the Church of Scientology, ex-Scientologist John Duignan describes RPF members living in a rat-infested basement, engaging in degrading jobs for years at a stretch, while denied visits with spouses or children.\nDouglas E. Cowan and",
"-21.808513097872492"
],
[
"earlier generations of musicians.\n“What you may not realize is that what is free is actually costing us a fortune,” Mr. Keen writes. “The new winners — Google, YouTube, MySpace, Craigslist, and the hundreds of start-ups hungry for a piece of the Web 2.0 pie — are unlikely to fill the shoes of the industries they are helping to undermine, in terms of products produced, jobs created, revenue generated or benefits conferred. By stealing away our eyeballs, the blogs and wikis are decimating the publishing, music and news-gathering industries that created the original content those Web sites ‘aggregate.’ Our culture is",
"-21.78140520467423"
],
[
"payment for its use. It contains several non-free packages intended to add value for the end user, including non-free drivers like the NVIDIA and ATI graphics card drivers, non-free firmware for wireless chips and modems, some browser plugins such as Java and Flash, and some full applications such as Cedega, Adobe Reader and RealPlayer. It was sold directly from the Mandriva Store website and through authorized resellers. It was also made available via a subscription service, which allowed unlimited downloads of Powerpack editions for the last few Mandriva releases for a set yearly fee. It consisted of a subset of",
"-21.75819337705616"
],
[
"between labor and fun make the free software movement a communist economy. Subgroups and schisms Like many social movements, the free software movement has ongoing internal conflict between the many FOSS organizations (FSF, OSI, Debian, Mozilla Foundation, Apache Foundation etc.) and their personalities. For instance there is disagreement about the amount of compromises and pragmatism needed versus the need for strict adherence to values. Open source Although commercial free software was not uncommon at the time (see Cygnus Solutions for example), in 1998 after an announcement that Netscape would liberate their popular Web browser, a strategy session was held to",
"-21.740920141528477"
],
[
"providers can also make money through sponsorship. The majority of modern free DNS services are sponsored by large providers of telecommunication services.",
"-21.731227758602472"
],
[
"due to the cost of the initial investment and utter simplicity with which someone can apply the same budgeting principles for free. Often times, the time to recoup the investment cost can be over 5 years.\nOf course, there is difference in savings gained by using this unique software (that makes precise calculations), versus a human making best guesses. And users report the software helps them be more financially disciplined and motivated as well.\nAfter over 12 years on the market, the United First Financial program (also marketed under the name of Worth Unlimited and the Worth Account), has an A+ rating",
"-21.7198280870507"
],
[
"for Open Project Documentation gives a project a greater understandability and re-usability potential, than Open Source foundation. It is loosely connected with Free Software Foundation. OpenDoc project can also be commercial.",
"-21.694995504571125"
],
[
"offered to any person willing to take on an open problem. Bounties are offered for solving a particular math problem – ranging from small lemmas that graduate students solve in their spare time to some of the world's hardest math problems. Paul Erdős was famous for offering mathematical bounties. Open-source software In the computer science and open-source community, bounty refers to a reward offered to any person or project willing to solve open problems, for instance, implementing a feature or finding a bug in an open-source software program (open-source bounty). For instance, the Mozilla Foundation offers bounties for security bug",
"-21.68557145800878"
],
[
"resistance or show the way towards a potential transformation of capitalism.\nAccording to Yochai Benkler, Jack N. and Lillian R. Berkman Professor for Entrepreneurial Legal Studies at Harvard Law School, free software is the most visible part of a new economy of commons-based peer production of information, knowledge, and culture. As examples, he cites a variety of FOSS projects, including both free software and open-source.",
"-21.675222623627633"
]
] |
6afu19 | Why do lower-income folk work multiple jobs to support themselves rather than work more hours at a single job? | [
"It may not be available to them. Full-time positions are significantly more expensive for companies, as once you cross a certain threshold of hours the benefits you need to offer your employees increases. (Exactly what depends on the state.) Thus, a company may be able to save money by juggling several part-time people to meet their needs rather than employing one full time. This often puts employees in a position they're not fans of since it'll often mean they're working the equivalent of a full time load (at multiple employers), but not getting benefits like health insurance from any company.",
"Companies incur more costs hiring full-time workers. They must pay for benefits, sick time, vacation, etc. These are things not mandated for part-time workers. So a company can hire 100 part time workers instead of 20 full time workers, pay them the same hourly wage but give them less hours and the overall out-of-pocket cost to the company is much lower. They also have to worry about covering shifts and people quitting less because there's a bigger supply of people on the schedule.",
"The vast majority of jobs do not offer employees the option of working as many ours as they'd like. The service industry (where most low-income folks work) rarely has reliable schedules and often schedules only a week or less in advance. Which turns trying to work a reasonable amount of hours into a crazy juggling act.",
"Low income folk here: my main job simply cant give me any more hours. No more work to be done (i work in a lab). Part time jobs also offer the benefit of something different. 40 hours looking at beakers and 20 looking at food is better than 60 at beakers. So dull after awhile",
"There's a finite number of hours most jobs will offer to an employee. In some cases, there just isn't enough work to go around to maintain one employee for more than 30 or 40 hours, depending on the job. From another angle, employers in the US are required to pay overtime rates if an hourly employee (and some salaried employees in certain contexts) works more than 40 hours in a week, or either 8 or 12 hours in one day (I forget which at the moment). Say one employee worked 80 hours in a week. The law requires that additional hours after 40 get paid time-and-a-half, so the extra 40 hours is paid as though it were 60 hours. This single worker is getting paid for 100 hours of wages for 80 hours of work. Instead, the employer keeps their costs down - both in terms of labor and costs of operating the building (someone working 80 hours is going to be doing overnight shifts) - by hiring a second employee to work side-by-side. Now they're down to paying 80 hours of wages for 80 hours of work. There are also laws in some cases where certain benefits are required to be granted to an employee who works more than a certain number of hours per week. These benefits cost money for the company to offer. If the company doesn't want to incur *that* cost, they may hire more workers and reduce hours to just below that threshold. Again, that's a cost savings to the employer, but it reduces the income that worker can take home from that one job. --- Simply put, most companies just can't offer more hours to their workers. So, low-income workers take more than one job so they can work more hours and take home more income.",
"It's typically not by choice but rather due to the lack of full-time jobs available. The problem is a large number of the lower-waged jobs are part-time only since part time workers aren't required to be given benefits and are easier to slot into shift work. Most of those that have multiple jobs would love to have just one, stable job that can pay the bills, but those jobs aren't as readily available.",
"Having worked 2 jobs I did it because I couldn't erm enough working at one place. The place I worked in the week was shifts either 6am-2pm or 2pm-10pm 5 days a week warehouse work. But it wasn't open on the weekend so no more shifts available there but I would still work about 4-8 hours overtime in the week. The place at the weekend never had overtime was just a Saturday and Sunday job that paid quite well for the 16 hours so was a great boost to my money. I got paid about the same as 3.5 days in the week for 2 at the weekend. If I didn't have the weekend job I couldn't work enough overtime in the week to pay the bills so had to work 2 jobs.",
"Because they cannot work more hours at a single job. Their employer will not give them more hours either because they do not want to pay overtime pay, or because they do not want to pay them full time employee benefits.",
"Most low-pay jobs intentionally keep people under 32 hours so they don't need to give them benefits. And they most certainly avoid paying people overtime like the plague - labor costs need to be kept to a minimum.",
"When my ex worked hourly jobs and not salary, it was routine for everyone to be scheduled about 30 hours per week. Once the average hit 35 hours, more workers would be hired. This prevented them from ever having to pay overtime. The worst part for these workers is trying to manage two schedules from two different businesses. Each not caring that how they schedule you could lose you your second job.",
"Many lower end jobs limit the number of hours they let people work so that they don't have to offer benefits, don't have to worry about workers qualifying for overtime. So if people need more money, their option is typically to take on multiple jobs when they cannot get enough hours at their first job.",
"many jobs willnot let u work over 40 hours per week becuase then they have to pay u time and a half. i know this is the case at my job. so by working 30 hours/week at job A and 20 at job B they can get more than 40hrs. per week",
"Employers often have to pay for/offer benefits to full-time employees (40hrs). To avoid paying for such things, employers have begun employing 2 people at part-time (20hrs + 20hrs) instead of paying one person at full-time. Why can they do this? there is an abundance of workers, there is a shortage of work. if there were too few potential employees, then employers would be forced to hire full-time"
] | [
[
"may cut their use of labour by switching to a \"self-serve\" model in which customers do an action previously done by staff (e.g., self-serve gas stations); or buying machines, computers or robots to do part or all of employees' jobs (e.g., automated teller machines in banks, automated ticket kiosks in parking garages).\nConsequentially, unemployment is created (more people are looking for jobs than there are jobs available). At the same time, a minimum wage above the equilibrium wage would allow (or entice) more people to enter the labor market because of the higher salary. The result is a surplus in the",
"-30.280301062506624"
],
[
"household activities such as taking care of children. Because of this, and because they have many domestic duties, women often take part-time jobs and jobs in the informal sector in order to balance paid work with domestic work. Part-time jobs and jobs in the informal sector do earn less than full-time jobs, so men have to increase their paid work hours in order to compensate for the lacking family income. This will \"weaken her earning power and strengthen his\", leading to an unequal distribution of power in the household, and allow the man to exploit the woman's unpaid work. This",
"-30.202404820825905"
],
[
"and education costs soar. Many workers are forced to work second and third jobs to make ends meet. Most workers now average four different occupations during their lifetime, many involuntarily moved from job to job and career to career. Often, retirement-age workers are forced to continue working just to provide health care for themselves and their families. Millions of people continuously live below the poverty level; many suffer homelessness and hunger. Public and private programs to alleviate poverty and hunger do not reach everyone, and are inadequate even for those they do reach. With capitalist globalization, jobs move from place",
"-30.04623964219354"
],
[
"of the official labour force because they are discouraged and no longer actively looking for work; they are no longer counted as unemployed, although they are. Governments can also subsidize employment of people who would otherwise be unemployed, or put people on benefits even although they could be working. It may be that workers are hired, but that they do nothing while at work.\nOn the one side, governments often try to make unemployment seem as low as possible because that is politically desirable. On the other side, governments also often provide \"broader\" and \"narrower\" measures of unemployment. For example, the",
"-29.972751703346148"
],
[
"in the lower working class are employed in low-skill service jobs, lack of participation in the labor force remains the main cause for the economic plight experienced by those in the lower classes. In 2005, the majority of households (56%) in the bottom income quintile had no income earners while 65% of householders did not work. This contrasts starkly to households in the top quintile, 76% of whom had two or more income earners.\nLacking educational attainment as well as disabilities are among the main causes for the infrequent employment. Many households rise above or fall below the poverty threshold, depending",
"-29.849499989533797"
],
[
"going to school or are retired. Family responsibilities keep others out of the labour force. Still others have a physical or mental disability which prevents them from participating in labour force activities. Some people simply elect not to work preferring to be dependent on others for sustenance.\nTypically, employment and the labour force include only work done for monetary gain. Hence, a homemaker is neither part of the labour force nor unemployed. Nor are full-time students nor prisoners considered to be part of the labour force or unemployment. The latter can be important. In 1999, economists Lawrence F. Katz and Alan",
"-29.79153832118027"
],
[
"job is needed, not only keeps people unnecessarily unemployed, but seems foreign to the spirit of American freedom and opportunity.\"\n\"21. An additional injustice inevitably connected with labor agencies which charge fees is that they must place the entire cost of the service upon those least able to bear it. Employment agents say that employers will not pay the fees; hence they must charge the employees. Among the wage earners, too, however, those who are least in need and can wait for work pay the least for jobs and even get them free, while those who are most in need make",
"-29.73558881826466"
],
[
"and reason for not looking for work in past 4-week period.\nMultiple jobholders. These are employed persons who, have two or more jobs as a wage and salary worker, are self-employed and also held a wage and salary job, or work as an unpaid family worker and also hold a wage and salary job. Use The ratio is used to evaluate the ability of the economy to create jobs and therefore is used in conjunction with the unemployment rate for a general evaluation of the labour market stance. Having a high ratio means that an important proportion of the population",
"-29.56692103970272"
],
[
"unemployment is relatively low, average wages can be kept low; the only way that individual workers have in that case to raise their income is to work more hours or work themselves up to better-paying jobs.\nNormally, the government measure of unemployment defines \"unemployed\" as \"without any job, but actively looking for work\". There are also people defined as \"jobless\", who want work yet are not, or no longer, actively looking for work because they are discouraged and so on. This official view of the matter is closely linked to the administration of unemployment benefits. To be entitled for an unemployment",
"-29.491921282198746"
],
[
"found that working less (under-employed) is more detrimental. Most individuals' levels of subjective well-being returned to \"normal\" (level previous to time mismatch) within one year. Levels remained lower only when individuals worked more hours than preferred for a period of two years or more, which may indicate that it is more detrimental to be over-employed than under-employed in the long-term.\nEmployment status effects are not confined to the individual. Being unemployed can have detrimental effects on a spouse's subjective well-being, compared to being employed or not working (and not looking for work). Partner life satisfaction is inversely related to the number",
"-29.363687558856327"
],
[
"the population. Working-poor class (Typical Income: $25,000)\nThe working poor class includes unskilled laborers, people in service jobs and some of the lower-paid factory workers. Income depends on the number of workers in the family and the number of weeks that they work. Many have not finished high school. Unable to save money and when retired the working poor depend heavily on their social security pensions to live. Underclass (Typical Income $15,000)\nThese people are under-employed. They suffer from low education, low employability, and/or low income. Some can not work because of their age or disability.",
"-29.311370146926492"
],
[
"Because employers are looking for more specialized skill sets, people are required to develop more highly specialized skills. This makes it more difficult to find jobs, especially for older workers who are not as familiar with modern technology and specializing in specific skills. In the past, people have been able to have a more general skill set that encompasses many aspects of a business, but now they must be highly specialized in one or two specific skills. Although it remains consistent that the more skillful a worker is, the higher their wages will be, the role of skills in the",
"-29.293556338758208"
],
[
"addition, unemployed people have higher rates of medication use, poor diet, physician visits, tobacco smoking, alcoholic beverage consumption, drug use, and lower rates of exercise. According to a study published in Social Indicator Research, even those who tend to be optimistic find it difficult to look on the bright side of things when unemployed. Using interviews and data from German participants aged 16 to 94—including individuals coping with the stresses of real life and not just a volunteering student population—the researchers determined that even optimists struggled with being unemployed.\nIn 1979, Brenner found that for every 10% increase in the number",
"-29.24207592807943"
],
[
"does not discourage work and Social promotion, on the contrary, says Bénédicte de la Brière, responsible for the program at the institution:\nAdult work is not affected by the transfer of income. Even sometimes some adults work more because they have that basic income guarantee that allows them to assume a little more risk in their occupations.",
"-29.220257470733486"
],
[
"unemployed, excluding homemakers and students. They may also be described as underemployed or freelance workers. These people do not start a career after high school or university but instead usually live as parasite singles with their parents and earn some money with low skilled and low paid jobs. The low income makes it difficult for freeters to start a family, and the lack of qualifications makes it difficult to start a career at a later point in life.\nKarōshi (過労死 karōshi), which can be translated quite literally from Japanese as \"death from overwork\", is occupational sudden death. The major medical causes",
"-29.206213955709245"
],
[
"Job Jobs for people Most people spend up to forty or more hours each week in paid employment. Some exceptions are children, retirees, and people with disabilities; however, within these groups, many will work part-time, volunteer, or work as a homemaker. From the age of 5 or so, many children's primary role in society (and therefore their 'job') is to learn and study as a student. Types of jobs Jobs can be categorized, by the hours per week, into full time or part time. They can be categorized as temporary, odd jobs, seasonal, self-employment, consulting, or contract",
"-29.132898717507487"
],
[
"wage-earner or is self-employed, as well as meeting certain mandates such as being a current resident of Iceland, be actively searching for employment, and retaining a 25 percent position for three months within the past 12 months before filing for unemployment. Unemployed workers can be compensated through either basic or income-linked benefits. Basic unemployment benefits can cover both wage-earning and self-employing individuals for the first half-month (10 days) after they lose their job, whereas income-linked benefits can cover wage-earning and self-employing individuals for up to three months based on a set salary index and length of employment. However, those who",
"-28.80856126418803"
],
[
"can barely make ends meet and possibly rely on welfare This group of people struggle to meet basic needs, thus having a lower standard of living in comparison to Type 1. This group is mainly constituted by low socio-economic groups including people who are paid low hourly wages minimum wage, such as blue-collar workers. Behavior and lifestyle Lower-income consumers spend mostly on necessities and rent as they are burdened by the rising cost of living. They do not have extra money for expensive pleasure-seeking activities and luxurious goods. Low income and high cost of living With reference to the 2011",
"-28.763374099042267"
],
[
"who, (1) do any work at all as paid employees, work in their own business or profession or on their own farm, or work 15 hours or more as unpaid workers in a family-operated enterprise; and (2) all those who do not work but had jobs or businesses from which they were temporarily absent due to illness, bad weather, vacation, childcare problems, labor dispute, maternity or paternity leave, or other family or personal obligations—whether or not they were paid by their employers for the time off and whether or not they were seeking other jobs.\nUnemployed persons. All those who,",
"-28.730891047394834"
],
[
"likely to work fewer hours than men, they have less experience, which will cause women to be behind in the work force.\nAnother explanation of such gender pay gap is the distribution of housework. Couples who raise a child tend to designate the mother as the one who does the larger share of housework and takes on the main responsibility of child care, and as a result women tend to have less time available for wage-earning. This reinforces the pay gap between male and female in the labor market, and now people are trapped in this self-reinforcing cycle. Gender roles Another",
"-28.69129042851273"
],
[
"conditions workers will increasingly treat the paid work they do as something distinct or separate from their personality, a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Work becomes \"just work\", it no longer necessarily says anything at all about the identity, creativity or personality of the worker. With the development of an average skill level in the workforce, the same job can also be done by many different workers, and most workers can do many different jobs; nobody is necessarily tied to one type of work all his life anymore. Thus we can talk of \"a job\"",
"-28.662079570727656"
],
[
"the unemployed have and the type of skilled labour for which there is a demand. If the latter is the case, then it could be argued that if the unemployed were willing to retrain or do a different kind of work, then they could get a job. In a sense, it is always possible to get a job if a person is prepared to accept a low salary, but people might not want to work below a certain minimum amount of salary. Measurement There are endless debates about the best way to measure unemployment, its costs and its effects and",
"-28.63163799227914"
],
[
"and discrimination in society. Half of the men had not been fortunate enough to have a job because of their lack of motivation or qualifications.\nThese men who had always been unemployed were least likely to speak of the role that outside forces play in shaping a person's chances in life. On the other hand, the men that were a part of some sort of employment had completely different thoughts on mobility and attainment. Often, the men with more work experience had experienced social conflicts themselves and were able to talk thoroughly about their beliefs on how the role of external",
"-28.544824036303908"
],
[
"all adults... bind themselves to work 5 hours a day from the age of twenty or twenty-two to forty-five or fifty, and that they follow occupations they have chosen in any one branch of human work considered necessary. Such a society could in return guarantee well-being to all its members; that is to say, a more substantial well-being than that enjoyed to-day by the middle classes. And, moreover, each worker belonging to this society would have at his disposal at least 5 hours a day which he could devote to science, art, and individual needs which do not come under",
"-28.534415828995407"
],
[
"be good cause.\nGenerally, the worker must be unemployed through no fault of his/her own although workers often file for benefits they are not entitled to; when the employer demonstrates that the unemployed person quit or was fired for cause the worker is required to pay back the benefits they received. The unemployed person must also meet state requirements for wages earned or time worked during an established period of time (referred to as a “base period”) to be eligible for benefits. In most states, the base period is usually the first four out of the last five completed calendar quarters",
"-28.48631905473303"
],
[
"and women) in their 30s or 40s who are unemployed and qualified for these types of jobs - but the false pride stop them from taking any of these tasks. The dignity of labor has not gained roots in these types of communities yet. From an economic and labor point of view, young folks are not encouraged to learn semi-technical works (such as welders, electrician) and the old ambition of a cushy office job is very prevailing.",
"-28.411981253302656"
],
[
"that such workers will likely \"wait\" while having jobs, so that they are not counted as unemployed. In Hollywood, for example, those who are waiting for acting jobs also wait on tables in restaurants for pay (while acting in \"Equity Waiver\" plays at night for no pay). However, these workers might be seen as underemployed (definition 1).",
"-28.347855052619707"
],
[
"at their job, the more they will get paid. There is also a correlation between skill and education, suggesting that the more educated a worker is, the more skilled they will be. Therefore, there will be wage gaps between racial groups because of the differences in education and therefore, skill.\nAlso concerning the role of education in acquiring skills, people are now required to receive more education and earn higher degrees in order to get jobs than they have in the past. For example, many nurses are now required to have a bachelor's degree in nursing in order to work, which",
"-28.344307717925403"
],
[
"increasing differentiation and specialization. These workers are unable to switch between occupations because they require different skills and investment in training and qualifications. For example, nurses and doctors form separate occupational labor markets even though they work side by side in the same organizations.\nGeographical labor markets emerge because of the costs and disruption workers incur in changing locations. As a result, wages for the same work can remain higher in some locations than others. Conversely, employers would incur costs and disruption if they attempted to relocate to an area of lower labor costs, and might experience increases in non-labor expenses.",
"-28.339817492174916"
],
[
"keeping men idle. In the summer, when employment is plentiful, the fees are as low as 25 cents, and men are even referred to work free of charge. But this must necessarily be made up in the winter, when work is scarce. At such times, when men need work most badly, the private employment offices put up their fees and keep the unemployed from going to work until they can pay $2, $3, $5, and even $10 and more for their jobs. This necessity of paying for the privilege of going to work, and paying more the more urgently the",
"-28.322842261113692"
],
[
"and about three-fourths of children with a single mother are homeless. Single mothers are more likely to work part-time and to miss work in order to care for their children. Many homeless and low income women work in service industries, which offer few benefits and low wages, thus contributing greatly to their poverty. Job-based discrimination targets all women, but is present on a larger scale among minority women. On average, a larger percentage of minority women struggle to obtain and maintain jobs. The \"last-hired, first-fired complex\" refers to the higher level of unemployment among minorities. Thus, while all women",
"-28.29911929080845"
],
[
"this industry these jobs prove to empower them and allow for additional independence in place of simply limiting their rights. However, other studies suggest that these low-paying heavy-labor jobs simply are taken on by women because of economic necessity and do not contribute to their societal independence within the patriarchal society. Some argue that the reason women will rank their low-paying job as better than other options is because the other options they had as a domestic worker did not allow them to dispute bad working conditions or wages without losing their jobs.\nIn part because of the globalization of export",
"-28.24757865339052"
],
[
"relatively well, having access to more services and training as well as legal protections against employment discrimination. Despite this, in the United States the 2012 unemployment rate for workers with disabilities was 12.9%, while it was 7.3% for workers without disabilities. More than half of workers with disabilities (52%) earned less than $25,000 in the previous year, compared with just 38% of workers with no disabilities. This translates into an earnings gap where individuals with disabilities earn about 25 percent less of what workers without disabilities earn.Among occupations with 100,000 or more people, dishwashers had the highest disability rate (14.3%),",
"-28.210241648281226"
],
[
"there are many benefits for an elderly person to have a job and be working. One benefit is that having a job can help decrease the mortality rate within the elderly. In addition to living longer, one study found that the elderly that worked part-time had higher life satisfaction. Benefits of employing older workers In addition to the elderly benefiting from working, the companies employing elderly workers can also have several benefits. One study found that workforce professionals had stronger moral and ethical aptitudes, placed a greater importance on work in their lives, and disliked wasting time, more so than",
"-28.19080629874952"
],
[
"This difference is especially pertinent between male and female individuals searching for a job. If unemployed, the differences between the rates of high school graduates and college graduates may even be similar. However, women tend to find more opportunities in unpaid care work if they are unable to get into the paid work force. If individuals are unable to achieve a degree, they will not meet the threshold of what many jobs require. This inevitability is felt by much of the world population who are unable to attend school due to staying in their household to take care of elderly",
"-28.1450409371173"
],
[
"utilize family-friendly policies to make work sacrifices; they spend less at home and more time working. In essence, both men and women of class-advantaged occupations use the flexibility that their status provides them to \"enact neotraditional gender expectations\".\nClass-disadvantaged men and women do not have the same temporal flexibility that allows them to make decisions on how to allocate their time. They face stricter constraints on their work hours and policies, thus making it impossible for them to choose whether to spend more time at work or more time at home. For example, even if a class-disadvantaged woman wanted to spend",
"-28.111933338455856"
],
[
"Retraining Affected people The need to retrain workers is often thought to apply to older members of the workforce, many of whom saw their occupations disappear and their skills lose value as technology, outsourcing and a weak economy combined to erode their ability to make a living. While older Americans do not face as high a rate of unemployment as the country’s teenagers and young adults, when they do find themselves unemployed, they remain unemployed for more than twice as long as teenagers. \nWhile the stereotype for retraining needs is the older worker, youth in the United States and across",
"-28.056202477309853"
],
[
"Manual labour Relationship between low skill and low social class For various reasons, there is a strong correlation between manual labour and unskilled or semiskilled workers, despite the fact that nearly any work can potentially have skill and intelligence applied to it (for example, the artisanal skill of craft production, or the logic of applied science). It has always been the case for humans that many workers begin their working lives lacking any special level of skill or experience. (In the past two centuries, education has become more important and more widely disseminated; but even today, not everyone can know",
"-28.00744425258017"
],
[
"workers could be losing their jobs and are forced to be self-employed. Further, some research shows that higher local unemployment rates lead workers to self-select into self-employment, as does past unemployment experience. United Kingdom According to a 2016 study by the McKinsey Global Institute, there are 14 million independent workers in the United Kingdom. A self-employed person in the United Kingdom can operate as a sole trader or as a partner in a partnership (including a limited liability partnership or \"LLP\") but not through an incorporated limited (or unlimited) liability company. It is also possible for someone to form a",
"-27.927136497804895"
],
[
"well as job responsibilities, but since part-time, flexible hourly jobs pay less and have lower levels of benefits, large numbers of women in these lower income jobs lowers incentives to participate in the same market work as their male counterparts, perpetuating occupational gender lines in societies and within households. Schultz (1990) article indicates that \"working-class women have made it a priority to end job segregation for they want opportunities that enable them to support them and their families.\" (Schultz, 1990:1755) Additionally, economic development in countries is positively correlated with female workers in wage employment occupations and negatively correlated with female",
"-27.889564172481187"
],
[
"plasterers (of homes), porters, street cleaners, peddlers, street vendors, office cleaners, and laundry workers. These job categories, as well as others, also include at least one million workers who are employed only occasionally or seasonally, primarily as a result of the shortage of full-time positions in an economy that has had an official unemployment rate ranging between 10 and 15 percent of the labor force since the early 1990s. Although many government agencies and private charities provide assistance to the poor, a social stigma is associated with accepting such aid, especially among adult men, whom others judge according to their",
"-27.88570333784446"
],
[
"a worker's seasonal status. That is, in certain cases, a seasonal worker may not be considered \"unemployed\" during the off-season for the sake of benefits or aggregated statistics, despite being functionally inactive.",
"-27.87278725536453"
],
[
"thus allowing a person, for example, to more easily leave work to tend to a sick child. Similarly, Heather Boushey stated that men actually have more access to workplace flexibility and that it is a \"myth that women choose less-paying occupations because they provide flexibility to better manage work and family.\"\nBased on data from the 1980s, economists Blau and Kahn and Wood et al. separately argue that \"free choice\" factors, while significant, have been shown in studies to leave large portions of the gender earnings gap unexplained. Gender stereotypes Research suggests that gender stereotypes may be the driving force behind",
"-27.860857196210418"
],
[
"flexibility in working hours leads to a class struggle between capitalist and worker. The capitalist argues that they have the right to extract all of the value from a day's labor since that is what they bought. By contrast, the worker demands a limited working day. The worker needs to be able to renew his labor power so that it can be sold again anew. The capitalist sees working fewer hours as theft from capital and the worker see working too many hours as theft from laborers. This class struggle can be seen throughout history and eventually laws such",
"-27.86064945696853"
],
[
"\"When agents remain with an employer for a long period of time, there is no necessary reason why the employer should pay the worker his expected marginal product in all periods; instead, workers could be paid better in some periods than in others. One aspect of this that has attracted both theoretical and empirical interest has been 'deferred compensation,' where workers are overpaid when old, at the cost of being underpaid when young. From this perspective, part of the reason why older workers are better paid than younger workers is not that they are more productive, but simply that they",
"-27.79301477270201"
],
[
"shifts can tie employees to work for extended periods, and the time in between shifts can be lost traveling to and from work. People working split shifts report somewhat more work–family conflict, such as not being able to spend as much time with their children, than people on a regular work schedule, and slightly more than people on a rotating work schedule. Work stress is not increased by working a split shift.\nHowever, there are also benefits for some workers. For example, California law requires employers to pay the equivalent of one extra hour's pay to most employees",
"-27.77330774947768"
],
[
"willing qualified individuals and in many world regions are filled by migrant workers looking for higher wages. Economic status Traditionally, workers in 3D professions are better paid in relation to comparable employment available, due to the undesirability of the work, and the resulting need to pay higher wages to attract workers. This has allowed the uneducated and unskilled to earn a living wage by foregoing comfort, personal safety and social status. This concept proves itself in the economic theory of quantity supplied and quantity demanded (see Quantity adjustment). The wages paid to these workers is higher due to the undesirable",
"-27.771670592017472"
],
[
"how to find a job and fewer contacts to get jobs. Furthermore, some young people do not have the exact skills that some jobs require of them, resulting in a difficult transition from school to the workforce.\nHowever, there are some labor practices, especially in Europe, which specifically contribute to the problem of youth unemployment in the long term. Young people are more likely to work under temporary contracts. The benefit for companies to use such contracts is that they do not have to follow regulations that make it hard to fire full time workers. About one third of young people",
"-27.73234101384878"
],
[
"disabilities were able to find gainful employment. In the United Kingdom, 45 percent of adults with disabilities were found to live below the poverty line. Reliable data on the rate of unemployment for persons with disabilities has yet to be determined in most developing countries.\nSociologists Colin Barnes and Geof Mercer demonstrated that this exclusion of persons with disabilities from the paid labor market is a primary reason why the majority of this population experiences far greater levels of poverty and are more reliant on the financial support of others. In addition to the economic gains associated with employment, researchers have",
"-27.678805109928362"
],
[
"household containing child wage-earners became unemployed, it would be more sensible (and cheaper) to supplement the household income by a judicious amount of out-door relief than to move the family to the poorhouse. Hand-loom weavers, a group of workers now habitually in great distress, had very low earnings; not because their wages were supplemented by out-door relief, but because they were competing with power-looms; nothing would be gained by forcing them into the workhouse or to turn to some occupation for which they would not have the required physical strength. The Assistant Commissioner also noted that diet",
"-27.67645616782829"
],
[
"hours and longer weeks, such as six hour work days for six times a week, with limits on evening work and overtime, as well as flexible schedules. In order to lessen the burden of taking care of children and domestic duties as well as working in the paid sector, workplaces should consider policies that take into account the preferred work hours of caretakers. In addition, it is often the case now that many workers juggle domestic work and paid work. In order to get the most effective workers, companies should consider changing their policies in order to attract the best",
"-27.627909276168793"
],
[
"of them female members of minority groups, earn low wages and often receive no retirement or health benefits because the lack of basic labor protections.\nDomestic workers are also excluded from vacation time, sick time, and overtime, and only thirteen percent of domestic workers get health insurance provided by their employers. A report from the National Domestic Workers Alliance and affiliated groups found that nearly a quarter of nannies, caregivers, and home health workers make less than the minimum wage in the states in which they work, and nearly half – 48 percent – are paid less than needed to adequately support a",
"-27.607226917752996"
],
[
"(2017) found that due to increased economic development and urbanization, the labour-intense jobs are being replaced with more automated methods of work thus requiring lesser physical activity. The labour-intensive work are generally categorized as hard manual work which is commonly a job title that the poorer population owns. In this sense, the physical activity involved in the automated and less labour-intense job are far less compared to the jobs that require harder physical-intense work that is common among the poor population, which implies that the population working automated methods of work have a higher incidence of obesity and being overweight.",
"-27.60659565465903"
],
[
"from allowing workers to work in shifts based on their family needs or natural work rhythms, where job satisfaction and productivity can increase with greater employee engagement.",
"-27.591012572622276"
],
[
"are faced with some degree of inequity in terms of job offerings (largely as a result of being expected to care for the children), the struggles of minority women are greater. Paid employment for women also offers its own challenges because most low wage jobs don't offer affordable insurance options or child care. This leaves single mothers with the choice of accepting welfare in order to care for their children, or going to work at the risk of leaving their children on the streets. Street prostitution and drugs Women under the age to find legal work are left with very",
"-27.59097848640522"
],
[
"to low-income earners, who \nthe authors point out, are often juggling different tasks and are not consistently able to attend the trainings at the same weekly time. The authors recommend that simply offering a secondary meeting time, where the content of the missed meeting is taught, allows participants to remain involved and decreases the likelihood of participant attrition from missing sessions.\nSome believe welfare causes laziness, but many people rely on welfare to live. In fact, many welfare programs have strict limits designed to encourage unemployed individuals to return to paid employment. Time scarcity causes a deadline, causing program recipients to",
"-27.57618810486747"
],
[
"work week, and work year, and to increase vacation and leave time.\" This is why workers in countries where there are strong unions usually work fewer hours and have more generous leave policies than workers who are in countries where there are weaker unions.\nIt is critical to mention that cultural factors influence why and how much we work. As stated by Jeremy Reynolds, \"cultural norms may encourage work as an end in itself or as a means to acquiring other things, including consumer products.\" This might be why Americans are bound to work more than people in other countries. In",
"-27.553311761002988"
],
[
"takes place. People cannot find jobs because they do not have the educational background, but in yet their families cannot afford the cost of education.\nIn terms of gender and aboriginal poverty in Canada, there does tend to be a gap between aboriginal men and women when it comes to income and economical status. Among aboriginal individuals living in rural Canada, women are less likely to have employment and often have a much lower annual income. In many cases, aboriginal women are the primary caregivers for their children and the elderly in their families. Women who are able to seek employment",
"-27.54814251093194"
],
[
"the employment ladder. Because if you're taking a lot of these young kids, and you're permanently barring them from the labor market, and they never get to get on the first rung, then they never get to climb up, they never get to earn the higher amount of money\".\nDuring a January 2014 appearance on The Daily Show, correspondent Samantha Bee asked Schiff to provide an example of \"a person whose work would be worth $2 an hour.\" Schiff remarked that some \"mentally retarded\" persons are happy to find work, even at just $2 an hour. Despite the fact that mentally",
"-27.53259846311994"
],
[
"has reached a 35% to 40%, almost doubling the percentage in 1990. This is due to the rising of part-time workers, as well as seniors rehired after retirement. The irregularity thus makes many people work for multiple companies. However, the social welfare coverage for those people are much lower than the full-time regular employees, including health care, pensions and unemployment insurance. With that being said, there is a growing population, with an estimation of 300,000 people not protected by the unemployment insurance but are in an unstable employment conditions. To improve the living standards of those working multiple jobs, and",
"-27.52311175968498"
],
[
"the same time. In reality, men and especially women often undertake both paid and unpaid labor simultaneously, creating the issue of work intensity, where the person undertakes many activities at the same time in order to compensate for the time necessary to accomplish many things in one day. Household surveys often only let people write down one thing that they are doing at any given time, and do not take into consideration that they may be cooking while cleaning, or sewing while taking care of the children. Because of this, the time taken for child care and other domestic activities",
"-27.514073864222155"
],
[
"fits all solution for the very long-term unemployed by requiring them to work for their benefits.\"",
"-27.50764057773631"
],
[
"the mismatch between jobs and workers, where workers cannot attain jobs they prefer. There is also a low performance for temporary employees and seasonal workers. Other Structural Problems Furthermore, employment regulations deter youths moving from non-regular employment to regular employment, worsening labor market duality. The non-unemployed youth, especially those with lower education, do not receive assistance for job seeking. The labor market rigidities including inflexible wages, high non-wage costs and employment protection also cause youth unemployment. The high employment protection with low standardization of the education system, is a satisfied condition for high NEET rate. Also, the public sector investment",
"-27.50033470231574"
],
[
"skilled enough to do the jobs we have now. A loss in skilled and capable workers has made it harder for employers to recruit new staff. The retirement of members of the aging workforce could possibly result in the shortage of skilled labor in the future. A majority of experienced utility workers and hospital caregivers, for example, will be eligible for retirement. Social security benefits The U.S. federal social security system functions through the taxation of large numbers of young workers, in order to support smaller numbers of older dependents. A diminishing workforce, coupled with growing numbers of longer-living elderly",
"-27.47788891615346"
],
[
"of labour offering little job security, there is more and more external pressure forcing people to act in all kinds of different roles, masking themselves in the process; by this act, they also acquire more and more behavioural and semiotic flexibility, and develop more and more relational skills and connections. The necessity to work and relate in order to survive thus accomplishes the \"economic formation of society\" at the same time, even if in this society people lack much control over the social relations in which they must participate. It is just that the whole development occurs in an imbalanced,",
"-27.469351274412475"
],
[
"for family reasons, such as child-rearing, and unpaid house chores actually doesn’t have an effect on women’s salaries later in their career. Since this time off doesn’t show a significance difference, there shouldn’t be a reason for the wage gap, unless it truly is based on gender. Occupational segregation Occupational segregation refers to the way that some jobs (such as truck driver) are dominated by men, and other jobs (such as child care worker) are dominated by women. Considerable research suggests that predominantly female occupations pay less, even controlling for individual and workplace characteristics. Economists Blau and Kahn stated that",
"-27.45744617364835"
],
[
"job evaluations. This may lead workers to engage in planned quitting behaviours.\nThe degree of autonomy workers have in their jobs affects their productivity, satisfaction, and intention to quit. Research shows that the ability to make decisions and influence what happens on the job has the greatest impact on job satisfaction, particularly among young male workers. Job autonomy even trumps income's effect on job satisfaction. Alternatively, work overload significantly reduces job satisfaction among middle-aged women and men but does not significantly impact job satisfaction among young male workers. These differences between the age and gender of workers",
"-27.453349363058805"
],
[
"typically have earned enough money to be able to afford being a part of a union. Even if the African American domestic workers wanted to advance in society, it was nearly impossible because the racial structures in the United States rarely allowed them class mobility. However, domestic workers that were white such as the Irish and the Germans utilized working in middle-class homes to their advantage. Working in the middle-class homes served to Americanize, allowing the workers to identify more with their employers than women of their own class and instilled an aspiration to become middle-class status. Blacks",
"-27.44176622951636"
],
[
"more likely to have health issues. Also, these people are nearing the time when they will no longer be able to work, and may not be prepared or have the financial means to take care of themselves. As a result, policy makers must try to solve the issue of unemployment by creating more jobs. However, they also must try to create a policy that offers benefits for the older people that are unemployed because they are more likely to be unemployed longer than others. Studies One researcher decided to make an experiment to test if age discrimination actually exists. For",
"-27.441184456052724"
],
[
"less chance to hear of some job opportunity. They also conclude that that different initial wage and employment can cause different drop-outs rates from the labor market, thus, it can explain the existence of wage inequalities across social groups. Calvo-Armengol and Jackson prove that position in the network, and structure of the network affect the probability of being unemployed as well. Referral based job search The effectiveness of job searching with personal contacts is the consequence not only the individuals’ but the employers’ behavior as well. They often choose to hire acquaintances of their current employees instead of using a",
"-27.43355417792918"
],
[
"benefit, it is a requirement that the beneficiary is actively looking for work. Hidden unemployment There are also many controversies about hidden unemployment. Hidden unemployment means that people are not counted or considered as unemployed, although in reality they are unemployed. For example, young people will stay in the family home, in schooling, or in some make-work scheme because they can not find a paid job. People might also have a job, but they might be underemployed because they cannot get more working hours or they cannot get a job for which they are qualified. People might also drop out",
"-27.38269510102691"
],
[
"and Mexican) that do not have many other options to work for extremely low wages. The legal status of the worker has been shown to impact the wage received for a job. An agricultural worker with no documentation earns an average of 15% less than one with amnesty or green card. Moreover, it has been found that undocumented workers have decreased mobility in the agricultural industry because they are less able to have high-skill and high-earning jobs (jobs that are similar to their documented counterparts). These first generation immigrants may remain as farm laborers seasonally for ten years. As they",
"-27.36136904754676"
],
[
"construction . It can also be seen that in high management position the percentage of men working there is higher than that of women working in similar positions. Another reason for the Pay Gap is the caring responsibility of women. As many workplaces lack flexible schedules women with caring responsibilities towards old or sick relatives, children or disabled people are more likely to look for part-time work which allows them to be more flexible. This can also be seen when having a closer look at the statistics. According to Esther Breitenbach and Fran Wasoff (A Gender Audit of Statistics: Comparing",
"-27.359238491859287"
],
[
"whether it is part-time work, full-time work or self-employed. Of these 226 only one of them is unemployed and seven of them are full-time students. This is another factor that shows that it is unlikely for members of the village to be on job seekers allowance or on a relatively low income. The total number of economically inactive people stands at a total of 80 however 56 are retired and the remaining are either students or suffer from an illness. This could reinforce the suggestion that some members of the village are retirees who chose to live in the parish",
"-27.351877529290505"
],
[
"does not replace a majority of the income one received on the job (and one cannot receive such aid indefinitely).\nNot everyone suffers equally from unemployment. In a prospective study of 9570 individuals over four years, highly conscientious people suffered more than twice as much if they became unemployed. The authors suggested this may be due to conscientious people making different attributions about why they became unemployed, or through experiencing stronger reactions following failure. There is also possibility of reverse causality from poor health to unemployment.\nSome researchers hold that many of the low-income jobs are not really a better option",
"-27.282590169692412"
],
[
"view of their more limited participation in paid work women have weaker bargaining power in the household, more limited access to resources (food, care, health access) within the household relative to men, and are therefore less likely to survive than in other parts of the world where women participate more in market work.\nOthers still model household members as independent individual decision-makers who possibly made decisions before the household was formed.",
"-27.22801936842734"
],
[
"the people would not be improved by working shorter hours… Employing young people aids the parents\".",
"-27.226834144326858"
],
[
"under what conditions they may work. In the United States, a person must generally be at least 14 years old to seek a job, and workers face additional restrictions on their work activities until they reach age 16. Many companies refuse to hire workers younger than 18. While older workers benefit more often from higher wages than do younger workers, they face barriers in promotions and hiring. Employers also encourage early retirement or layoffs disproportionately more for older or more experienced workers.\nSome political offices have qualifications that discriminate on the basis of age as a proxy for experience,",
"-27.204708239762112"
],
[
"Their ability to work is considered qualified by the standards of their home country, but is much diminished in the new country they come to. This causes their social status to drop in their new country of living, while their level of education or training held them in a higher social circle in their country of origin. This type of status inconsistency creates the paradox of the migrants being qualified for two different social classes at the same time, but they can only use each class if they are within the boundaries of where it is relevant. Because of global",
"-27.19163253949955"
],
[
"and the large group of industrial workers called INPS. This system is split into the core group of labor market insiders receives generous benefits (such as pensions), while the irregular workers receive minimal benefits. For example, upon retirement an institutional worker would receive a pension of 89% their average net earnings, but a non-institutional worker would receive only 19%. Paradoxically, this \"economic protection\" model makes it difficult for young people to get their first job because they have never been part of the labor market. To illustrate, the unemployment benefits given to an Italian 18 year-old who has never had",
"-27.19036079500802"
],
[
"duty to make reasonable adjustments to their workplace to accommodate the needs of disabled staff. For age, belief, gender, race and sexuality there is generally no positive obligation to promote equality, and positive discrimination is generally circumscribed by the principle that merit must be regarded as the most important characteristic of a person. In the field of equal pay between men and women, the rules differ in the scope for comparators. Any dismissal because of discrimination is automatically unfair and entitles a person to claim under the Employment Rights Act 1996 section 94 no matter how long they have worked.",
"-27.16893014276866"
],
[
"are more likely to be employees than employers because they do not have the resources, skills, networks, or opportunities to either be promoted within a firm or to be owners of small or medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). In poor countries, or countries with large swaths of poverty within the population, which many predominantly Muslim nations are or have, the probability of self-employment is greater because women cannot find more established jobs.\nThere are, however, dozens of reasons why women may be employees, employers, or self-employed that reach beyond basic macroeconomic forces or social norms and conventions. According to the ILO, more than",
"-27.16788220196031"
],
[
"gainful employment. Conclusion While unemployment rates continue to be a significant problem in terms of elevated overall percentages of the general population, positive psychologists would argue that the lack of gainfully employed individuals is also a pressing concern that deserves attention. The relationships between gainful employment and quality of life and satisfaction with life suggest that job satisfaction, as its own domain of happiness, is best achieved through gainful employment and is a necessary yet insufficient component of living a fulfilled and happy enough life.",
"-27.164583631558344"
],
[
"this will lead to a situation that the employees may need to find two part-time jobs to earn their living, making them wasting more time on transportation from one job to another.\nThe Chairman of the Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce, Chow Chung-kong believes that it is so difficult to implement standard working hours that apply “across-the-board”, specifically, to accountants and barristers. In addition, he believes that standard working hours may decrease individual employees' working hours and would not increase their actual income. It may also lead to an increase of number of part-timers in the labor market.\nAccording to",
"-27.150315862207208"
],
[
"to interpret due to the various reasons of long life expectancy; thus skilled professionals, employees with secure jobs and low anxiety occupants may live a long life for variant reasons. The more positive characteristics one's job is, the more likely he or she will have a longer lifespan. Gender, country, and actual (what statistics reveal, not what people believe) danger are also notable parameters.",
"-27.12075996445492"
],
[
"of Life Survey found that countries in south-eastern Europe had the most common problems with work–life balance. In Croatia and Greece, a little over 70% of working citizens say that they are too tired to do household jobs at least several times a month because of work.\nIn Britain, legislation has been passed allowing parents of children under six to request a more flexible work schedule. Companies must approve this request as long as it does not damage the business. A 2003 Survey of graduates in the UK revealed that graduates value flexibility even more than wages.\nIn all twenty-five European Union",
"-27.083706927660387"
],
[
"have given up looking for employment. Only 41% of the population of working age have any kind of job (formal or informal). This rate is 30% points lower than that of China, and about 25% lower than that of Brazil or Indonesia. The relatively generous social grants reduces the political cost of unemployment. There is some evidence that households view paid employment and social grants as substitutes at the margin: households that lose a pension-eligible member subsequently report increased labour force participation.\nThe unemployment problem is characterised by it's lengthy duration. In the mid-1990s, nearly two-thirds of unemployed people had never",
"-27.07005717695938"
],
[
"however, because employees who work more hours also tend to earn more per hour.\"\nHowever, numerous studies indicate that variables such as hours worked account for only part of the gender pay gap and that the pay gap shrinks but does not disappear after controlling for many human capital variables known to affect pay. Moreover, Gary Becker argued in a 1985 article that the traditional division of labor in the family disadvantages women in the labor market as women devote substantially more time and effort to housework and have less time and effort available for performing market work. The OECD (2002)",
"-27.04061942140106"
],
[
"per week) for the duration of two months. After those two months the benefits amount to 70%. Part-time work is taken into account with a calculation of parts of the working hours. If this benefit is less than the minimum income, the unemployed has the possibility of supplementation through the Additional Allowances Act (Toeslagenwet) to sum up the amount. All jobs in the previous twelve months are counted in to the calculation of the benefits, if a change of work has taken place. To obtain the benefits for a continued time, the unemployed needs to be actively looking for work.",
"-27.022961972281337"
],
[
"not provide adequate benefits in contrast to their previous jobs. It could also be attributed to a mismatch between the skills employees currently have, and the skills employers in traditionally male dominated industries (such as manufacturing) are looking for.\nAccording to data from 2014 employee confidence reports, 50% of all current workers 18 and over feel confident in their ability to find a new job if necessary, and 60% are confident in the future of their employer. Job insecurity, defined as being worried about becoming unemployed, is a concern to 25% of U.S. workers. Outsourcing Overseas outsourcing (sometimes called offshoring) may",
"-26.987734397494933"
],
[
"are not only more likely to work in blue-collar or service jobs, but they tend to be concentrated in the lower-wage/skilled jobs, such as operators, fabricators, and laborers, rather than higher-paying precision production and craft jobs within those categories.\nOccupational distribution varies for women of various races as well. White and Asian women are more likely to work in managerial and professional occupations, while black, Hispanic, and American Indian Women are more likely to work in service occupations. Thus, because certain races are more likely to have lower-paying jobs, gaps in median incomes between races arise.\nA study conducted by Kenneth Couch",
"-26.97849613527069"
],
[
"high with women concentration in the low paying jobs such as forestry and retail trade. Just a small percent of women engage in highly paid employment occupations such as managers and technicians. Women have low levels of required skills to participate in meaningful employment and they also experience difficulties due to discrimination practices. \nIn the long run, women suffer worse economic conditions compared to men and the rise in the number of female-headed households worsens the situation. Again, women are the primary caregivers, and they spend a lot of money on household consumption. Therefore, they have less money to save",
"-26.974270420265384"
],
[
"Middle-class individuals in general value expanding one's horizon, partially because they are more educated and can afford greater leisure and travels. Working-class individuals take great pride in doing what they consider to be \"real work,\" and keep very close-knit kin networks that serve as a safeguard against frequent economic instability.\nWorking-class Americans as well as many of those in the middle class may also face occupation alienation. In contrast to upper-middle-class professionals who are mostly hired to conceptualize, supervise and share their thoughts, many Americans enjoy only little autonomy or creative latitude in the workplace. As a result, white collar professionals",
"-26.969558757264167"
],
[
"conserving resources and the environment—it reduces the consumption of the unemployed across the board, and only in the short term. Full employment of the unemployed workforce, all focused toward the goal of developing more environmentally efficient methods for production and consumption might provide a more significant and lasting cumulative environmental benefit and reduced resource consumption. \nSome critics of the \"culture of work\" such as anarchist Bob Black see employment as overemphasized culturally in modern countries. Such critics often propose quitting jobs when possible, working less, reassessing the cost of living to this end, creation of jobs which are \"fun\" as",
"-26.96826638642233"
],
[
"or no income alternative which makes job loss costly, and serves as a worker discipline device. Unemployed workers cannot bid for jobs by offering to work at lower wages, since if hired, it would be in the worker’s interest to shirk on the job, and he has no credible way of promising not to do so. Shapiro and Stiglitz point out that their assumption that workers are identical (e.g. there is no stigma to having been fired) is a strong one – in practice reputation can work as an additional disciplining device.\nThe shirking model does not predict (counterfactually) that the",
"-26.949592937948182"
],
[
"found that women work fewer hours because in the present circumstances the \"responsibilities for child-rearing and other unpaid household work are still unequally shared among partners.\"\nBy taking into account education, work experience, and “soft variables” such as motivation and cultural norms there seems to be one major variable that sticks out when talking about the wage gap, and that’s the time-off women take for family affairs. In the article Human Capital Models and the Gender Pay Gap, Olson brings up the point that although there’s argument that women are paid less than men because of their time-off away from work",
"-26.89482943015173"
],
[
"themselves as working class. Retired American adults are less likely to described themselves as \"working class\", regardless of the actual income or education level of the adult. Those in the working class are commonly employed in clerical, retail sales, and low-skill manual labor occupations. Low-level white-collar workers are included in this class.\nFor purposes of political science, and less scientific or journalistic political analysis, defining the working class as less well educated workers is useful. One can then meaningfully analyze the political opinions and political behavior of, say, the white working class in the United States. In the case of the",
"-26.87258942425251"
],
[
"reduces the wage of native-born men in that specific group by 3.7 percent and the wage of all native-born workers by 2.5 percent. Native workers lacking a high school diploma have experienced the largest negative impact on household income as a result of immigrant workers. They make up a modest share of the workforce, and tend to be among the poorest Americans. Temporary entry visas make it difficult for most temporary workers to switch employers once in the United States, due to the number of others looking for the same type of job. The number of immigrants overall has shifted",
"-26.865569792455062"
],
[
"on food, education, or other necessary expenses. Low-income people are also less likely to own personal vehicles and therefore more likely to depend exclusively on public transportation to get to and from work, making reliable access to transit a necessity for their economic success.",
"-26.84773822641"
],
[
"working-age people are unemployed and only 32% of the population (20 years & older) has completed secondary school (Grade 12) or higher. The average household income is R3,200 or less, indicating that many residents hold low income jobs or live on social grants. Successful graduates often move away from the township, leaving learners with few role models and little motivation to challenge local job seeking behaviours or believe that they can make something of themselves. Lack of information, networks and opportunities trap many into continued poverty and under-productivity. History SAEP (USA) was founded in 1994 by Norton Tennille as a",
"-26.842319360133843"
]
] |
16lrc4 | what is happening in Mali and what do Germany and France have to do with it? | [
"Finally somebody asking about this! I was beginning to think people were blind to this, since it could easily trigger a larger international crisis. My professor summarized it today, actually, and I will attempt to relay her ideas. The long and short of it: Islamic groups, some but not all associated with Al-Qaeda, want to establish a larger Islamic state in the western Sahara and instil Shariah law. However, many of the citizens, most of them Muslim, are not devout Muslims nor do they support such a drastic state. However, they also do not necessarily support the West, which still has remnants of colonial pretensions (see France having an Army base in Mali, it is a legacy of this older time). Many of them are armed since thy were originally part of Ghaddafi's army, and have now trucked all that high-level military equipment into northern Mali. Naturally, this does not sit will with the current government, Mali's neighbours, or the West (who oppose the Islamists for various reasons I do not comprehend as of yet, but alliances are part of it). Most recently, they took a key town smack in the centre of Mali, and, despite the UN resolution for intervention not taking place until almost half a year from now, France deemed that they absolutely had to begin military intervention since this town would open all of Southern Mali up to these Islamic rebels, especially since it has a usable airfield. it didn't hurt that France had a military base the next town over. At the moment, many UN nations have agreed to intervene, France and the United States being two of them. Canada has limited itself to training Nigerian troops who are fighting, since they refused to take an active combat role after the mess that was Afghanistan. This is controversial since the Islamic groups quite probably don't care, and see intervention as a yes/no thing. EDIT: as to Germany, I do not know.",
"I can't ELI5 this. I'm sorry, but it's international intrigue and politics. The French maintain special relationships with their former colonies (that didn't stage armed rebellions to oust them). It's understood that if you are the President of a former French-colony in Africa like the Ivory Coast and you're facing a rebel army, the Foreign Legion will assist you and possibly even the actual French Army. Fast forward to present day: The Western world is entirely fed-up with the desire in many islamic countries to instill Sharia law and rebuild some sort of Caliphate. Terrorist organizations thrive in these countries and they threaten the international rule of law while committing atrocities left and right. At the same time, the United States simply doesn't have the political will to intervene in *yet another* Muslim country, let alone Sub-Saharan Africa. It needs another war like it needs a shotgun to the head. In comes France. Its status as the former colonial overseer gives it the unique ability to intervene at the behest of the Malian government. France isn't a NATO member (they left in 1966), but it still maintains close military ties with the organization. France's NATO connections allow it to intervene with some support from the Germans (sending medical support) as well as some limited logistical support from NATO countries. The French citizenry don't seem to mind because much of the fighting is done by the French Foreign Legion, which is primarily manned by foreign applicants. There used to be rules against Frenchmen joining the Legion. **But why is Mali important?** Well, the rebels in Mali are closely aligned with Al Qaeda and are members of Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) which could develop the ability to plan large attacks if left unmolested. After some [unbelievably bad messaging by the rebels]( URL_0 ) in which they ransacked the very beginnings of West African Islam for being \"insufficiently Islamic\", the international community realized this was the African Taliban. The French have decided this is a baby worthy of abortion and are proceeding in doing so.",
"Islamic insurgents/terrorists are fighting a civil war with the legitimate government of Mali, so Mali asked for foreign military assistance, which France is providing."
] | [
[
"France–Mali relations Northern Mali conflict In response to the rise of al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb in 2012 following the collapse of Azawad as part of Northern Mali conflict, France deployed 4,000 troops and sent many military equipments in part of Operation Serval. France has been very cautious of Mali's situation, as Mali was a former colony of France and has ties with France.\nIn 2017, President Emmanuel Macron had vowed to fight every terrorist in Mali.",
"-25.184132503229193"
],
[
"action in Mali).\nGermany could take part in any European training mission to Mali to help its government prepare troops to counter the insurgents, German Chancellor Angela Merkel said on January 14. German foreign minister Guido Westerwelle ruled out the possibility of German armed forces taking part in a combat mission in Mali, but he also said Germany was prepared to help train the Mali Armed Forces.\nOn January 14, the Tuareg separatist MNLA declared it would fight alongside the French and even the Malian government to \"end terrorism in Azawad\". The spokesman also declared that the MNLA would be a more",
"-23.941619165823795"
],
[
"Mali began in January 2012 with radical Islamists (affiliated to al-Qaeda) advancing into northern Mali. The Malian government had a hard time maintaining full control over their country. The fledgling government requested support from the international community on combating the Islamic militants. In January 2013, France intervened on behalf of the Malian government's request and deployed troops into the region. They launched Operation Serval on 11 January 2013, with the hopes of dislodging the al-Qaeda affiliated groups from northern Mali. Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa This extension of Operation Enduring Freedom was titled OEF-HOA. Unlike other operations contained in",
"-23.096537360863294"
],
[
"November 2013. On January 25th 2014, a source within the Malian Security Forces reported that a French military operation in the Tombouctou Region of northern Mali resulted in the deaths of 11 Islamist fighters. Reactions In the wake of the French deployment, ECOWAS said that it had ordered its African-led International Support Mission to Mali to be deployed immediately, and the European Union said it had increased preparations for sending a military training mission, EUTM Mali.\nUN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon hoped on January 12th that the French government's decision would \"be consistent with the spirit\" of UN Security Council resolution 2085",
"-22.623561860993505"
],
[
"the former colonial power in Mali, intervened in 2013 to drive out Islamist fighters. The United Nations began taking over peacekeeping duties from French troops in northern Mali later that year, forming MINUSMA as its mission in the West African country.\nThe day before the rocket attack in Kidal, a gunman opened fire in a bar in Bamako, Mali's capital. The attack killed five, including a Belgian security official working for the European Union. The Islamist group Al-Murabitoun claimed responsibility for the attack, the first of its kind in the southern Malian city. Reactions The United Nations Security Council and Secretary-General",
"-21.765294313881896"
],
[
"Northern Mali conflict Tuareg rebellion (January–April 2012) The first attacks of the rebellion took place in Ménaka, a small town in far eastern Mali, on 16 and 17 January 2012. On 17 January, attacks in Aguelhok and Tessalit were reported. The Mali government claimed to have regained control of all three towns the next day. On 24 January, the rebels retook Aguelhok after the Malian army ran out of ammunition. The next day the Mali government once again recaptured the city. Mali launched air and land counter operations to take back the seized territory, amid protests in Bamako and Kati.",
"-21.2972019163426"
],
[
"Mali, but North Africa as well, claiming that “it is common knowledge that the crimes [France] committed in Algeria martyred more than a million Muslim persons”. It goes on to state that France is currently killing and torturing Malian Muslims, describing its policies as “terrorist” and “racist”. Perhaps the letter's most alarming statement comes in the form of a warning: “We demand that you immediately cease your military campaign in Mali or else you would be exposing yourselves to the wrath of people who love death as much as you love life”.\nWithin four days of receiving the letter, the French",
"-21.270194270764478"
],
[
"taking over activities in Africa. Germany announced sending troops to Mali and military trainers to Kurdish forces in Iraq, and has on 4 December voted in favour of deploying aircraft and a frigate in an effort to aid the French forces over Syria.\nThe attacks prompted European officials to re-evaluate their stance on EU policy toward migrants, especially in light of the ongoing European migrant crisis. Many German officials believed a higher level of scrutiny was needed, and criticised German Chancellor Angela Merkel, while the German Vice-Chancellor Sigmar Gabriel defended her.\nFrench Interior Minister Bernard Cazeneuve said that he would meet with",
"-21.231969363929238"
],
[
"and begin \"to organise free, open and democratic elections in which we will not participate\". 2 April After the junta failed to meet the ECOWAS deadline for relinquishing power, \"severe\" sanctions against Mali began. The nation's account in the Central Bank of West African States was frozen, and Mali's land borders were closed. As Mali imports most of its petroleum from Côte d'Ivoire, this was expected to cause parts of the country to run out of fuel \"within days\" as well as shutting down the country's gasoline-dependent electric grid. 3 April The UN Security Council began work on a resolution",
"-21.203788700106088"
],
[
"to take the necessary action against them.\" [sic] It also called on Mali to ask the UN to support a military intervention against the groups in Azawad.\nThe Malian government called the actions \"destructive fury,\" \"war crimes\" and threatened action through Malian and international channels. Mali's Foreign Minister Sadio Lamine Sow said from Algiers that Mali would \"do everything to recover our territory;\" while the Culture and Tourism Minister Diallo Fadima Touré called on the UN on 1 July, to \"take concrete steps to stop these crimes against the cultural heritage of my people.\" Protesters in Bamako rallied against the",
"-21.05630672298139"
],
[
"Mali to help train Mali troops. This is the first deployment of EU troops in Africa (as an EU contingent). 2012 2012 fatalities - 133. 2014 On 17 January, a Chadian MINUSMA peacekeeper was killed in an attack on a French-UN camp in Kidal.\nOn 11 June, a car bomb killed four Chadian peacekeepers in Aguelhok.\nOn 18 September, five Chadian MINUSMA peacekeepers were killed by a land mine. The Chadian government described the incident as \"discriminatory\" and said its soldiers were being used as \"shields\".\nOn 23 October, two Chadian peacekeepers were killed in an attack in Tessalit. 2017 On 5 May",
"-20.99651060043834"
],
[
"2016 Ouagadougou attacks Background Following the Libyan Civil War, neighbouring Mali has been wracked by instability, including Islamist attacks, in the Northern Mali conflict. Neighbouring countries have also been experiencing a Boko Haram insurgency.\nMore locally, the 2014 Burkinabé uprising ousted President Blaise Compaoré, while the consequent 2015 Burkinabe coup d'état, in relation to the electoral process, was eventually put down under pressure from the African Union. The recently concluded November 2015 general election then resulted in Roch Marc Christian Kaboré becoming president of Burkina Faso. Burkina Faso is part of the G5 Sahel countries formed to counter insurgent attacks. The",
"-20.908014415035723"
],
[
"Turkey and the EU's External Investment Plan\" \nGermany is trying to prevent the root causes of the migrant crisis in Africa. It created a \"Marshall Plan with Africa\" (Eckpunkte für einen Marshallplan mit Afrika). The main objectives of the plan are: \"increasing trade and development on the continent and hopefully reducing mass migration flows north across the Mediterranean\". It will concentrate on \" fair trade, increased private investment, bottom-up economic development, entrepreneurship, and job creation and employment\". The European Union offered an aid package to Mali in return for taking back her refugees. Among other ways, it is trying to",
"-20.73820769286249"
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[
"Malian justice. MNLA who claimed victory bears a heavy responsibility, but we know that the largest contingent of the group was composed primarily of people of AQIM. \"\nFrance and other world countries denounced the incident as \"absolutely atrocious and unacceptable violence\". Aftermath On 1 February, violence in the north of the country led to anti-rebellion protests which shut down Bamako, Mali's capital. Following the Bamako protests, the interior minister took the place of the defense minister. President Touré also called on the population to not attack any community after some Tuaregs' properties were attacked in the protests.",
"-20.563398720463738"
],
[
"the damage sustained.\nBy January 12, hundreds of French troops were involved in the military operation in Mali, with special focus in the Battle of Konna. The Malian army claimed that, with their help, it had retaken Konna, which it had lost a few days earlier. French airstrikes appeared to stop the rebel advance to the south which prompted the intervention and destroyed an Ansar Dine command post near Konna.\nFrance asked the U.S. to speed up its contribution by sending drones to improve surveillance over the vast area of northern Mali. The Pentagon was reported to have studied the French request.",
"-20.466933316900395"
],
[
"effective force than those of the neighboring West African nations \"because of our knowledge of the ground and the populations\".\nMathieu Guidère, a scholar of Islam and the Arab world at the University of Toulouse, said in an interview published in the newsmagazine Jeune Afrique, that without the French military intervention the state of Mali would have fallen.\nFrance's stated rationale for the operation is that to do otherwise would allow \"a terrorist state at the doorstep of France and Europe.\"\nIsraeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu praised the intervention in a phone call with French President François Hollande as \"a brave step against",
"-20.33397853327915"
],
[
"enable France to protect itself from dual citizens who might pose a risk, and an increase in military attacks against ISIL.\nOn 4 December 2015, the French government published a guide in form of a cartoon on how to survive a terrorist attack. The guide is to be posted in public places and be available online.\nIn August 2016 minister of the interior Bernard Cazeneuve stated that about 20 radicalised mosques and further than some 80 hate preachers had been expelled from France since 2012. Military On 15 November, the French Air Force launched the biggest airstrike of Opération Chammal, its bombing",
"-20.280094395959168"
],
[
"Operation Barkhane Background As part of the fallout from the Libyan Civil War, instability in northern Mali caused by a Tuareg rebellion against the central Malian government was exploited by Islamist groups who gained control over the northern half of the country. In response, France launched a military operation in January 2013 to stop the Islamist offensive from toppling the Malian government and to re-capture northern Mali. The operation, codenamed Operation Serval, ended in the complete re-capture of all Islamist held territory by the operations conclusion on the 15 July 2014. \nFollowing the end of Operation Serval, France recognised the",
"-20.269201249466278"
],
[
"Mali–Niger border after attending a cultural festival at Anderamboukané. One of these tourists was subsequently murdered. As a result of this and various other incidents a number of states including France, Britain and the US, began advising their citizens to avoid travelling far from Bamako. The number of tourists visiting Timbuktu dropped precipitously from around 6000 in 2009 to only 492 in the first four months of 2011.\nBecause of the security concerns, the Malian government moved the 2010 Festival in the Desert from Essakane to the outskirts of Timbuktu. In November 2011, gunmen attacked tourists staying at a hotel in",
"-20.244638820528053"
],
[
"in turn had been sparked by former Tuareg fighters from the Libyan Civil War. In 2012 Malian President Amadou Toumani Touré was ousted in a coup d'état over his handling of the conflict. After Ansar Dine attempted a push into the south of the country, Mali requested France to launch a military intervention in January 2013 which successfully pushed rebels out. The military intervention was followed by an ongoing Sahel-wide French-led military operation with around 4,000 French soldiers actively deployed.\nSmall pockets of armed Islamists have remained active in northern Mali, and attacks have continued against the UN peacekeeping mission MINUSMA,",
"-20.233471020135767"
],
[
"Role of France in the Rwandan genocide The role of France in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 has been a source of controversy and debate both within and beyond France and Rwanda. France actively supported the Hutu-led government of Juvénal Habyarimana against the Tutsi-dominated Rwandan Patriotic Front, which since 1990 had been engaged in a conflict intended to restore the rights of Rwandan Tutsis both within Rwanda and exiled in neighboring countries following over four decades of anti-Tutsi violence. France provided arms and military training to Habyarimana's youth militias, the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi, which were among the government's primary means",
"-20.21520408336073"
],
[
"the NATO-led coalition, enforcing UN Security Council Resolution 1973. On 11 January 2013 France begun Operation Serval to fight Islamists in Mali with African support but without NATO involvement. 2013 White Paper In May 2014, high ranking defence chiefs of the French Armed Forces threatened to resign if the defence budget received further cuts on top of those already announced in the 2013 White Paper. They warned that further cuts would leave the armed forces unable to support operations abroad. Organisation and service branches The French armed forces are divided into five service branches: National Guard (Garde nationale) Reactivated in",
"-20.156952023273334"
],
[
"negotiate a ceasefire. Mauritania denied working with Mali to quell the uprising; however President Abdel Aziz, along with Malian officials, claimed the MNLA worked with AQIM by citing the alleged massacre of soldiers. Algeria withdrew military advisors and suspended military aid to Mali at the end of January to increase pressure on the government as it also tried to mediate a resolution to the conflict.\nOn a 26 February visit to Bamako, French Foreign Minister Alain Juppé suggested the government of Mali negotiate with the MNLA; however, he was criticised for trying to legitimise a rebellion seen in the south as",
"-20.153152697486803"
],
[
"Mali–Netherlands relations Embassy The Netherlands Embassy is located on Rue 437 Hippodrome, in the capital of Bamako, Mali. The head of the mission is Embassodor Maarten Adriaan Brouwer. Mali holds an Honorary consulate in Rotterdam. Dutch Defense Minister resignation On 4 October 2017, Dutch Minister of Defense, Jeanine Hennis-Plasschaert, resigned over the deaths of 2 Dutch servicemen and gravely wounding of another in a training accident in Mali in July 2016. The Dutch Safety Board ruled that the military had been using old, defective grenades that had not been tested or stored correctly. General Middendorp also resigned his position due",
"-20.114668144786265"
],
[
"26 June 2015, ISIL militants blew up a Shiite mosque in Kuwait City killing dozens and injuring hundreds. France A campaign of Islamist attacks occurred in France, beginning with the Île-de-France attacks on 7 January 2015, between the French Government and ongoing terrorist acts committed by jihadist terror groups like AQAP and ISIL, or isolated individuals who sympathise with the jihadist movement. Since 2015 and until July 2016, eight Islamic terrorist incidents have occurred in France, including fatal attacks in Île-de-France, Saint-Quentin-Fallavier and Paris. The November 2015 attacks in Paris were motivated by ISIL as a \"retaliation\" for the French",
"-20.08368498305208"
],
[
"held and it was decided that the African Union was going to enlarge their military presence in Mali. The AU decided to do this because of increasing tensions between al-Qaeda forces and the Mali army. There have been several rebel groups that are vying for control of parts of Mali. These rebel groups include the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA), the National Front for the Liberation of Azawad (FLNA), Ganda Koy, Ganda Izo, Ansar ad-Din, and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). AU forces have been tasked with counterinsurgency missions in Mali as well as governing presidential",
"-19.902243882184848"
],
[
"2016, German opposition parties criticized Germany's defense plan with Saudi Arabia, which has been waging war in Yemen and has been condemned for massive human rights violations.\nOn March 21, 2018, Merkel criticized Turkey's invasion of northern Syria: \"Despite all justified security interests of Turkey, it's unacceptable what's happening in Afrin, where thousands and thousands of civilians are being pursued, are dying or have to flee.\"",
"-19.87986197596183"
],
[
"European Union Training Mission in Mali Relationships EUTM Mali has links with EUCAP Sahel Mali, the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali and Operation Barkhane in the north of Mali, with which EUTM shares the same goal, to help Mali to free the north of its territory. Notwithstanding, EUTM Mali’s mission is a mission of training and advice. After France and Germany, Belgium became in 2016 the leading nation of this mission.",
"-19.857442401349545"
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[
"intervention. Claims against Separatists and Islamists In May 2012, Amnesty International released a report stating that the conflict had created Mali's worst human rights situation since 1960. The organization stated that fighters with the MNLA and Ansar Dine were \"running riot\" in Mali's north, and documented instances of gang rape, extrajudicial executions, and the use of child soldiers by both Tuareg and Islamist groups.\nOn 3 April 2012, armed groups looted 2,354 tons of food from United Nations' World Food Programme's warehouses in Kidal, Gao and Timbuktu, causing the WFP to suspend its food distribution operations in northern Mali. Other targets",
"-19.82504750660155"
],
[
"Mali and spread them over the rest of the Sahel under Operation Barkhane, in an effort to curb jihadist militants. \nOn 27 February 2014, Hollande was a special guest of honor in Abuja, received by Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan in celebration of Nigeria's amalgamation in 1914, a 100-year anniversary. In July 2014, Hollande expressed support for Israel's right to defend itself during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, and told Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, \"France strongly condemns these aggressions [by Hamas].\"\nIn September 2015, Hollande warned former Eastern Bloc countries against rejecting the EU mandatory migrant quotas, saying: \"Those who don't share",
"-19.676049034460448"
],
[
"Ansar Dine. Northern Mali conflict In January 2013, a minor insurgency began when Islamist fundamentalist groups attempted to take control of all of Mali. France and Chad sent troops in support of the Malian army. The whole Northern region was captured within a month prior to the Islamists offensive against the South. The rebels' main presence centered around their headquarters in Kidal. Islamists began slowly regrouping in the Adrar des Ifoghas mountains until the French and African coalition launched an offensive to eliminate the Islamist leadership and recover foreign hostages being held by them.\nTuareg nomadic groups such as the MNLA,",
"-19.626068823272362"
],
[
"in Mali, Phillipe Verdon, who had been kidnapped in 2011.\nOn 23 March, Islamist fighters from MUJAO attacked the city of Gao, causing heavy fighting for two hours. The Malian army eventually repulsed this attack.\nOn 30 March, a suicide bomber detonated his explosives near a Malian army checkpoint in Timbuktu, allowing a group of jihadists to infiltrate by night. By 1 April, with the help of a French army detachment supported by war jets, the Malian army pushed the jihadists out of the city center.\nOn 29 April, a French paratrooper was killed by a roadside bomb in Northern Mali, the sixth",
"-19.599940412299475"
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[
"to lay the foundations for peace and security, growth and sustainable development on the African continent. That is why they will be inviting the heads of state and government primarily of African countries to join them on the second day of the summit. Together with them they will engage in a wide-ranging dialogue on Africa and global policy issues.\nThe German Chancellor also plans to hold an inclusive dialogue with civil society in the context of Germany's G7 Presidency. As part of an outreach process Angela Merkel will meet representatives of the scientific community, business and trade unions, as well as",
"-19.559390665846877"
],
[
"November 2015 Paris attacks Background France had been on high alert for terrorism since the Charlie Hebdo shooting and a series of related attacks in January by militants belonging to Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, and had increased security in anticipation of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference, scheduled to be held in Paris at the beginning of December, as well as reinstating border checks a week before the attacks.\nThroughout 2015, France witnessed smaller attacks: the February stabbing of three soldiers guarding a Jewish community centre in Nice, the June attempt to blow up a factory in Saint-Quentin Fallavier,",
"-19.55914906100952"
],
[
"of northern Mali. On 28 January 2013, French and Malian soldiers reclaimed Timbuktu with little or no resistance and reinstalled Malian governmental authorities. Five days later, French President François Hollande accompanied by his Malian counterpart Dioncounda Traoré visited the city before heading to Bamako and were welcomed by an ecstatic population.\nThe city has been attacked multiple times on several different occasions, once on 21 March 2013 when a suicide bomber detonated his explosives killing a Malian soldier, creating a fierce shoot-out at the international airport killing ten rebels. On 31 March, a group of 20 rebels infiltrated into Timbuktu as",
"-19.537291069049388"
],
[
"2017 Malian constitutional referendum Constitutional changes The amendments to the constitution would create new regions in line with a 2015 agreement with separatists in northern Mali. They would also enhance the powers of the President. Campaign The proposals to give the president greater powers sparked protests in Bamako on 2 July prior to a visit by French President Emmanuel Macron.",
"-19.46586759481579"
],
[
"Mansour bin Rashid al-Matroushi Context Following the 2012 coup in Mali and the political instability that followed, Islamist insurgents alongside Tuareg fighters began to make strategic gains. A force of 4,000 French soldiers intervened on January 11. Seven days later a cease-fire agreement was signed between Tuareg fighters and government forces; despite continuing and sporadic terrorist attacks the intervention was considered successful.\nFrance's intervention in the Mali conflict came only two years after their involvement in NATO air-strikes against Muammar Gaddafi’s government forces in Libya. Letter to French embassy On January 28th, 2013 al-Matroushi, along with 150 other activists submitted a",
"-19.404524799087085"
],
[
"In March 2012, a military coup was staged in Mali, when an alliance of Touareg and Islamist forces conquered the north, resulting in a coming to power of the Islamists. This resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Malian soldiers and the loss of control over their camps and positions. After a military intervention with help from French troops, the region was in control of the Malian army. To reinstall local authorities, the AU helped to form a caretaker government, supporting it and holding presidential elections in Mali in July 2013. In 2013, a summit for the African Union was",
"-19.34230408822941"
],
[
"rapid push to establish Sharia law would provoke armed intervention. In January 2013, France and West African nations responded to the Malian government's request for help and entered with troops in northern Mali to dislodge AQIM. \nLeading a contingent of Islamists in central Mali, Abou Zeid attacked the small town of Diabaly in January 2013.\nAt the request of the Malian government, the French launched a quick intervention in January to drive the radical Islamists from northern Mali. They entered the area with 1,200 French troops, 800 Chadian soldiers and some elements of the Malian army, fighting in the Adrar mountain",
"-19.339878844446503"
],
[
"Mali's former colonizer, which sent military aid and assistance. The aid was largely to counter the rise in terror. The United States supported France in this effort. The United Nations sent peacekeeping troops to Mali. However, the peacekeeping troops became a target. Central African Republic As of April 2019, fourteen attacks had occurred in the Central African Republic. The main target was private property. The weapon of choice is a firearm. Democratic Republic of Congo As of April 2019, one attack had occurred in the Democratic Republic of Congo. On March 26, 2016, Fulani extremists attacked a military base in",
"-19.305186316749314"
],
[
"Timbuktu, killing one of them and kidnapping three others. This was the first terrorist incident in Timbuktu itself.\nOn 1 April 2012, one day after the capture of Gao, Timbuktu was captured from the Malian military by the Tuareg rebels of the MNLA and Ansar Dine. Five days later, the MNLA declared the region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad. The declared political entity was not recognized by any regional nations or the international community and it collapsed three months later on 12 July.\nOn 28 January 2013, French and Malian government troops began retaking Timbuktu from the Islamist rebels.",
"-19.24372303194832"
],
[
"forces killed 65 Islamist fighters, while they suffered only one dead and 13 wounded. The Islamists for their part stated they killed more than 100 MNLA fighters and captured 20. Foreign intervention (January 2013) Following requests from both the Mali government and ECOWAS for foreign military intervention, on 12 October 2012 the United Nations Security Council unanimously, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, passed a French resolution approving an African-led force to assist the army of Mali in combating the Islamist militants. The resolution gave 45 days for \"detailed and actionable recommendations\" for military intervention which would be",
"-19.12718282098649"
],
[
"its future: How large is the radicalized part of the country's Muslim population, the largest in Europe? How deep is the rift between France's values of secularism, of individual, sexual and religious freedom, of freedom of the press and the freedom to shock, and a growing Muslim conservatism that rejects many of these values in the name of religion?",
"-19.049401492928155"
],
[
"in the CNRDR would get freezes on their assets and travel bans. ECOWAS and the African Union also suspended Mali. The U.S., the World Bank, and the African Development Bank suspended development aid funds in support of ECOWAS and the AU's reactions to the coup.\nAn agreement was mediated between the junta and ECOWAS negotiators on 6 April, in which both Sanogo and Touré would resign, sanctions would be lifted, the mutineers would be granted amnesty, and power would pass to National Assembly of Mali Speaker Diouncounda Traoré. Following Traoré's inauguration, he pledged to \"wage a total and relentless war\" on",
"-19.006766836042516"
],
[
"2018 Ouagadougou attacks Background In the aftermath of the 2011 Libyan Civil War, militant attacks have increased due to a large influx of weapons and fighters into the region. Neighbouring Mali faced conflict in Azawad that threatened to split the country. Since 2015, Burkina Faso has faced cross-border attacks and sporadic raids in its territory, the result of instability and unrest in neighboring countries. Two major attacks have occurred in the capital Ouagadougou in recent years: In 2016, attacks on a hotel and restaurant killed 30 people, including foreigners; and in 2017, similar attacks killed 19 people, including foreigners. Both",
"-19.00273440591991"
],
[
"level\".\nAn MNLA spokesman announced the end of the group's military operations after the capture of Douentza, which the group considered \"the frontier of Azawad\". 6 April The MNLA declared \"irrevocably\" the independence of Azawad from Mali. The African Union and the European Union condemned the declaration, the former declaring it \"null and of no value whatsoever\".\nAmnesty International described Mali as \"on the brink of a major humanitarian disaster\" following the coup and rebellion due to aid agency pull-outs, widespread looting, and widespread reports of violence against girls and women in the north.\nLater in the day, ECOWAS and the coup leaders",
"-19.000540518318303"
],
[
"2009 peace in Mali was seen as a model for a February civil society conference in Niamey. In March 2009 a dramatic split of much of the MNJ leadership resulted in the former MNJ head fleeing to Libya, who aided delivering Nigerien Armed Forces prisoners home. The new Nigerien Patriotic Front (FPN), which contained much of the MNJ's fighters and leadership, called for a negotiated peace. They, along with an earlier splinter, entered into four-party talks with the Nigerien government under Libyan auspices from March to June 2009. All sides pledged an immediate ceasefire in May 2009, while pursuing talks",
"-18.997128467513903"
],
[
"2013–14 Hamburg demonstrations The Hamburg protests were a large series of demonstrations in Hamburg, Germany, in December 2013 and January 2014. History In late December 2013, there were large demonstrations in Hamburg with a number of objectives: to advocate for refugees to be allowed to remain in the city; to protest against decisions to evict squatters from the Rote Flora building; and to protest the demolishing of a dilapidated block of flats colloquially known (due to the filling station out front) as the 'Esso houses'. Additional goals were to demand a reduction of consumerism and the provision of",
"-18.983381536381785"
],
[
"in continuing conflict in that area. On 19 February, France began a new operation (Panther) intended to subdue the region.\nBetween 8 and 10 February, MUJAO – who had been harassing government forces from the outskirts since Malian and French forces took the city on 26 January – launched the first two suicide attacks of the war in Gao, resulting in the death of the two bombers and injuring a Malian soldier and a civilian. Islamist fighters armed with AK-47s then crossed the Niger River on canoes, took over an abandoned police station and deployed snipers in nearby buildings in anticipation",
"-18.981952024507336"
],
[
"to the Unilateral Declaration of independence of Azawad saying that \"We are absolutely not recognizing this declaration\"\nStarting in early 2012 several insurgent groups in Mali started to take over the country. In January 2013 Mali asked for assistance from France to aid in ridding the country of the rebel insurgents. In December the UN authorized an African intervention with the approval of the Economic Community of West African States. France then proceeded to ask its NATO allies to get involved, with Canada joining the effort by helping with the transportation of troops with a C-17 Globemaster. This was followed by",
"-18.93681327882223"
],
[
"de facto partitioning of Mali. The Editorial Board of The Washington Post called for NATO military intervention against the Tuareg. Social media amongst the Tuareg diaspora was reported to be euphoric at the imminent \"liberation,\" while those in southern Mali were strongly against what they called \"bandits\" in the north whom they said should be \"killed.\" The Malian press was also quick to criticise the uprising. In late June, Reuters noted that in contrast to the Islamists who had \"appropriated the uprising\" from them, the Tuareg separatists were \"regarded in the West as having some legitimate political grievances\".",
"-18.90044868719997"
],
[
"the group said that the purpose of the attack was to get revenge on the countries that had intervened in Mali. The hostages reportedly included several American, Japanese, British, Romanian, Filipino and Norwegian citizens. Algeria was reportedly negotiating with the militants to try and obtain the hostages' release.\nOn 19 January 11 militants and 7 hostages were killed in a final assault to end the standoff. In addition, 16 foreign hostages were freed, including 2 Americans, 2 Germans, and 1 Portuguese. Malian northward advance On 16 January, French special forces, along with the Malian army, began fighting small and mobile groups",
"-18.899701194342924"
],
[
"protested on 5 April against the Malian government's failure to stem religious and ethnic violence. Under the growing threat of a no-confidence vote, the government of Prime Minister Soumeylou Boubèye Maïga collapsed and President Keïta accepted Maïga's resignation on 18 April.\nHeavily armed members of Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin (JNIM), the leading Islamist group in Mali, attacked an army base in west-central Mali on 22 April. The militants called it partial revenge for the Ogossagou massacre and claimed that 16 soldiers had been killed, although the Malian Defence Ministry put the death toll at 11.",
"-18.86299425526522"
],
[
"foreign exchange income.\nIn September 2007, fighting shifted to Mali, with a portion of the Tuareg groups which had come under a 2006 ceasefire returning to combat. A swift Malian military response, coupled with the diplomatic intervention of other Malian Tuaregs, led to a new, unofficial ceasefire in December 2007. In April 2008, with the help of Libya, a formal ceasefire was declared, though it was quickly followed by new, retributive attacks from both sides. Resumed diplomatic and military pressure, with the intervention of Algerian diplomacy, brought what appeared to be a final reintegration of the Malian rebel factions in July",
"-18.805959695342608"
],
[
"The shooting lasted several hours before dying out in the evening. Meanwhile, Malian troops were coming out of Timbuktu to help the French, but they crossed another group of jihadists. Three Malians were wounded from friendly fire. The French then asked the Malians to retreat to avoid further fratricide. At 1 am, the French bombarded Jihadist positions, leading them to retreat. The jihadists returned to the offensive the next morning, but after an hour of fighting, and after two failed suicide attacks, they retreated. The attack was later claimed by MOJAO, but the French claimed that AQIM participated as",
"-18.775093013129663"
],
[
"Malian military protested the Touré government's handling of the 2012 insurgency in northern Mali. The brutal massacre in Aguel Hoc (frontier with Niger) of more than 80 Malian soldiers led to unrest in the army, with soldiers and army wives accusing President Touré of mismanagement because of ammunition shortages. On 21 March, soldiers at a barracks in Kati, near Bamako, launched a revolt against the visiting defense minister, and their revolt turned into a coup d'État. A group of sergeants and corporals seized several locations in Bamako, including the presidential palace, state television headquarters, and some military barracks. They then",
"-18.765056974312756"
],
[
"French special forces were also in action against rebels that had melted into the local population. During the next few hours, the French-Malian forces assaulted the town of Gao, backed by French warplanes and helicopters. The Islamists lost a dozen fighters, while the French suffered no losses or injuries. A Malian army spokesman said on the 27 January that the \"Malian army and the French control Gao today\".\nOn the January 27th, French forces captured Timbuktu without resistance after Islamist fighters fled the city to avoid French airstrikes. In capturing Timbuktu, documents left by AQIM were found revealing the strategic organization",
"-18.732090456318474"
],
[
"2017 G20 Hamburg summit Agenda Apart from the recurring themes relating to global economic growth, international trade and financial market regulation, the G20 Hamburg summit was expected to focus on the following \"issues of global significance\": Migration, digitisation, occupation, health, Women's Economic Empowerment and development aid.\nOn 7 July terrorism, free trade and the United States' withdrawal from the Paris Agreement were on the agenda, on 8 July Africa was supposed to be a topic. Results The 30-page summary paper stayed vague in many sections. The communique of the 20 participants itself was seen as a success. The resolutions are",
"-18.717200971208513"
],
[
"and Crime and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, through the Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA); and a European Union Training Mission.\nMali has been a member of Interpol since 1969.\nBeing a former French colony, Mali has a civil law system based on the French model.",
"-18.71472279232694"
],
[
"of Bamako, in the government-held areas. They came from the Mauritanian border where they fled to avoid the airstrikes. The AQIM leader known as Abu Zeid was leading the operation. On the same day, Islamists pledged to launch attacks on French soil. Jihadists took control of Diabaly a few hours after their attacks.\nOn 15 January, the French defense minister confirmed that the Mali military had still not recaptured Konna from rebel forces, despite earlier claims that they did. Meanwhile, the Royal Canadian Air Force dispatched a C-17 transport plane to Mali in a similar role as those of the British",
"-18.714435107191093"
],
[
"violations perpetrated by the French state in the year that followed the massacre, including the following events: the arrest of comedian Dieudonné M'bala M'bala for hate speech, and of further dozens of people for \"acts insulting religious faiths, or for cheering the men who carried out the attacks\"; the criminal conviction, by France's highest court, of pro-Palestinian protesters for having advocated a boycott of Israeli products at a supermarket; the shutting down of mosques and coffee shops; and France's use of \"emergency powers\", after the November 2015 Paris attacks, to ban a rally by environmental activists in protest to the",
"-18.6264647951175"
],
[
"climate conditions and a couple of eviction attempts for two months, until it was torn down by the Municipality of Copenhagen and Danish police, on 21 December. The movement has shifted to a mobile camp tactic, and still holds GA every Wednesday and other activities throughout the week. France Some 300 protesters started occupying Paris's financial district, La Défense, on 4 November 2011. Since then, their camp has been torn down by several police forces. According to French protestors, relations with the police have varied considerably. Some police joined them for coffee and friendly discussion, but otherwise were hostile and",
"-18.60947327676695"
],
[
"Meanwhile, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom announced that his country would lend logistical support to the operation. ECOWAS troops preparing to deploy to Mali also decided to move up their arrival date to January 14 at the latest.\nAccording to Human Rights Watch, 10 civilians were killed when Malian forces fought to recapture Konna.\nOn January 13, French planes bombed rebels' positions in Gao. Air strikes hit a fuel depot and a customs house being used as a headquarters by the Islamist rebels. Dozens of Islamist fighters were killed. A Malian security source put the number of dead fighters at",
"-18.609263304038905"
],
[
"implication of the States of the region. Apprisal of the operation In December 2013, French General Vincent Desportes stated on Radio France Internationale:\nThis is a much more complicated mission than in Mali, where the French armed forces had a simple mission, or at least a clear one, destroying a perfectly-identified and identifiable ennemy. Here, we are talking of interposition between factions. Hence, we have nothing to destroy, no adversaries. The only adversary is disorder and massacres.\nFormer Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin called for an international intervention:\nLet us not err in choosing our method. We have to state the obvious truth:",
"-18.548786754137836"
],
[
"France in the Rwandan genocide is a disgrace and a historical distortion.”",
"-18.54023595061153"
],
[
"the French film \"Tuez les Tous\" (Kill Them All), created by three students of political science, the president of the parliamentary mission for information for Rwanda, former minister Paul Quilès stated that \"France asks to be pardoned by the people of Rwanda, but not by their government\".\nIn 2010, during a visit to Rwanda, French President Nicolas Sarkozy acknowledged that France made \"mistakes\" during the genocide, although, according to a BBC report, he \"stopped short of offering a full apology\".\nIn April 2016, 2017 conservative presidential candidate, Alain Juppé, who was also French foreign affairs minister during the 1994 genocide tweeted \"implicating",
"-18.520707363000838"
],
[
"Ouagadagou Declaration Background A meeting took place in Ouagadougou from 25 to 28 August bringing together six different armed groups in northern Mali. The meeting was intended to encourage dialogue to resolve participants’ differences and to present a united front during official negotiations with the Malian government in Algiers, to find an acceptable solution to all the parties to the Northern Mali conflict.\nThe meeting was facilitated and moderated by the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue (HD), chaired by High Council for Unity of Azawad (HCUA) and co-financed by the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA). Results The meeting",
"-18.50953880744055"
],
[
"by its neighbours, its assets would be frozen by the West African Economic and Monetary Union, and individuals in the CNRDR would receive freezes on their assets and travel bans. ECOWAS and the African Union also suspended Mali. The U.S., the World Bank, and the African Development Bank suspended development aid funds in support of ECOWAS and the AU's reactions to the coup.\nCôte d'Ivoire President Alassane Ouattara, who was the rotational chairman of ECOWAS, said that once the civilian government was restored an ECOWAS stand-by force of 2,000 soldiers could intervene against the rebellion. Burkina Faso's President Blaise Compaore was",
"-18.5089749537874"
],
[
"Konna Northern Mali conflict On January 2013, Konna was captured by Islamists. The attack triggered French intervention in the war, and with their aid the Malian government forces swiftly launched a counterattack to retake the town. It was initially claimed by the Malian government that it had been successful in recapturing the town. However, it was later denied by French military officials that the town had been retaken. Fighting continued and the town was confirmed to be under Malian government control three days later.",
"-18.498027480440214"
],
[
"what they called a tactical retreat. The violence in the north led to anti-rebellion protests which shut down Bamako, Mali's capital. Dozens of Malian soldiers were also killed in fighting in Aguelhok. Following the Bamako protests, the interior minister took the place of the defense minister. President Touré also called on the population to not attack any community after some Tuaregs' properties were attacked in the protests.\nOn 4 February, the rebels said that they were attacking the city of Kidal, while the Malian army said that their troops were firing heavy weapons to prevent the city from being attacked. As",
"-18.470410185167566"
],
[
"the genocide, admitting for the first time that France made \"grave errors of judgment\". Kagame reciprocated with an official visit to Paris in 2011.\nWhile speaking on the 2017 presidential elections in France, Kagame said in an interview to ‘’Jeune Afrique’’ that the possible election of candidate Alain Juppé , then French Foreign Affairs minister during the genocide and failed to win the election, would likely end all possible relations between France and Rwanda. United States, United Kingdom and the Commonwealth Since the end of the Rwandan genocide in 1994, Rwanda has enjoyed a close relationship with the English",
"-18.442198971848484"
],
[
"campaign in the north of Mali from May to July 2006, when they signed a peace deal with the Bamako government.\nMalian Tuareg former insurgents took part in a long series of peace processes, splintering, and raids between formal peace in 1995 and 2006. The peace deals which ended the 1990s Tuareg insurgency in Mali created a new self-governing region, Kidal Region, and provided opportunities for Malian Tuaregs to join the central government in Bamako and the Malian Armed Forces. Unlike the Niger ex-combatants, who appeared successfully integrated into national the Nigerien Armed Forces, small numbers of Malian Tuaregs remained restive,",
"-18.401591815403663"
],
[
"local resident counted 148 bodies around Konna.\nIn the wake of the French deployment, ECOWAS said that it had ordered troops to be deployed immediately to Mali, the UN Security Council said that the previously planned UN-led force would be deployed in the near future, and the European Union said it had increased preparations for sending military training troops into Mali. The MNLA also offered to join the offensive against the Islamists.\nOn 12 January the British government announced that it was deploying two Royal Air Force C-17 transport planes in a non-combat role to ferry primarily French but also potentially African",
"-18.374357507564127"
],
[
"Islamist militants appeared to threaten the south after seizing control of the arid north. Changes in the government of France, including Socialist François Hollande becoming president in 2012 after years of center-right governance, have done little to alter Paris' foreign policy in Africa.\nHollande also proposed French military involvement in the Syrian civil war in the wake of chemical attacks French intelligence reports linked to the forces of President Bashar al-Assad in mid-2013.\nFrance has encouraged military cooperation at an EU level, starting with the formation of the Franco-German Brigade in 1987 and Eurocorps in 1992, based in Strasbourg. In 2009 a",
"-18.327929509388923"
],
[
"use all means necessary, short of foreign occupation, to protect Libyan civilians and civilian-populated areas. On October 28, 2011, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that the NATO military mission had ended successfully. Mali conflict Starting in early 2012 several insurgent groups in Mali started to take over the country. In January 2013 Mali asked for assistance from France to aid in ridding the country of the rebel insurgents. In December, the UN authorized an African intervention with the approval of the Economic Community of West African States. France then proceeded to ask its NATO allies to get involved, with Canada",
"-18.306188771384768"
],
[
"France–South Africa relations France–South Africa relations refers to the diplomatic relations between France and South Africa. Between 1961 and 1974, France was South Africa's largest supplier of weaponry. France cut off diplomatic relations with South Africa in 1981 and restored relations in 1992 Both nations are members of the G-20 major economies and the United Nations. The two states have strong economic ties; France was South Africa's 9th largest importer as of 2015.",
"-18.289963078175788"
],
[
"being repelled by French, Malian and American troops. Four French soldiers were seriously wounded by a suicide car bomb attack against a joint French-Malian patrol in Gao on 1 July 2018. The attack, which heavily damaged a number of French VBCI's, also killed 4 civilians and seriously wounded 27 others. 2019 On 22 February, French forces backed by an armed reaper drone and a helicopter attacked a JNIM convoy killing 11 militants including senior leader Yahia Abou el Hamman in the Tombouctou Region of Mali. A militant improvised explosive device struck a French armoured vehicle carrying out an anti-terrorist",
"-18.28331883903593"
],
[
"respectively) into a single office [...] and that it should be directly chosen\" by the members of the European Parliament.\nOn 11 January 2013, Hollande authorised the execution of Operation Serval, which aimed to curtail the activities of Islamist extremists in the north of Mali. The intervention was popularly supported in Mali, as Hollande promised that his government would do all it could to \"rebuild Mali\". During his one-day visit to Bamako, Mali's capital, on 2 February 2013, he said that it was \"the most important day in [his] political life\". In 2014, Hollande took some of these troops out of",
"-18.279470826499164"
],
[
"from Timbuktu and their advance was unchecked when they entered without fighting in the towns of Diré and Goundam. A Malian military source said that as the cities were overrun the military planned to defend Niafunké. The French newspaper Libération also reported claims that the rebels controlled one third of Mali and that the Malian army was struggling to fight back. One of the three government helicopters manned by Ukrainian mercenaries had also broke down, while the two others were being kept to protect the south. Ansar Dine also claimed to have control of the Mali-Algeria border. It was reported",
"-18.25622666813433"
],
[
"to believe that low-scale fighting with those Tuareg factions who had renounced the 2006 accords might end completely. The Malian government also called on neighboring Algeria to help negotiate peace, patrol the deserted border region, and resupply its northern military bases\nOn 18 July, just two days after rebels overran a military post, a peace deal was announced, revealing that Algeria had been hosting talks between the government of Mali and the leadership of the \"Alliance démocratique du 23 mai\".\nThe Algerian ambassador to Mali, Abdelkrim Ghrieb, had negotiated the deal, between Amada Ag Bibi (a Malian Tuareg Deputy in the Malian",
"-18.251206565648317"
],
[
"the start of the 2015 edition the Ministry Of Tourism in Mali ensured the Budapest-Bamako its continued supported in exchange for two more runs to Mali. Organizers announced that the rally will return to Bamako in 2016 and 2017 if the security climate permits. The 2015 rally started amid the West Africa Ebola crises of 2014/15. Even though Mali become Ebola free just days before the rally started, the 2015 edition saw a record number of cancellations. Several members of the Mali Government welcomed the rally on February 1, 2015 in Bamako. Out of the 124 departing teams 102 arrived",
"-18.224596455460414"
],
[
"France's embassy in Cairo against French intervention in Mali. He described France's military actions as \"threatening of the return of French colonialism on Arab and Islamic peoples\" and stated that France was at war with Islam.\nIn August 2013, in the wake of the overthrow of President Morsi, Zawahiri was arrested. In April 2014 Zawahiri, with 67 others, was charged with forming a terrorist group and seeking to undermine security across Egypt. \nOn 17 March 2016, Zawahiri was released from prison.",
"-18.22377034003148"
],
[
"reforms of the public sector, described by the organizers as imbalanced and \"brutal.\" According to CGT 80,000 people participated in the protest in Paris, and 250,000 came out across the country. However, France Police said that 21,000 people participated in the Paris protests and that 35 protesters were detained for various \"offences\". Seven police officers were injured. Police fired tear gas and deployed 2000 officers to the event and the demonstrators were holding placards reading \"Stop Macron!\". Yellow Vests protests On October 2018, Macron announced that the carbon tax would rise in 2019. This was seen as a move crippling",
"-18.218645105942414"
],
[
"forces into Mali.\nOn 13 January, regional security sources announced the death in Konna of Abdel Krim nicknamed \"Kojak\", a high level leader in the Ansardine group. French defense minister Le Drian said that new airstrikes were ongoing in Mali, happened during the last night and will happen the next day as well. A resident of Léré told that airstrikes had been conducted in the area. The airstrikes were concentrated on three areas, Konna, Léré and Douentza. Two helicopters were seen attacking Islamist positions in Gao. A dozen strikes targeted the city and its outskirts. A resident reported that all Islamist",
"-18.20982481626561"
],
[
"the French initiative to safeguard the populace was occurring six weeks after it had become apparent mass killings were occurring in Rwanda. On 22 July, French Prime Minister Édouard Balladur addressed the Security Council, stating that France had a \"moral duty\" to act without delay and that \"without swift action, the survival of an entire country was at stake and the stability of a region seriously compromised.\"\nIn May 2006, the Paris Court of Appeal accepted six courtsuits deposed by victims of the genocide to magistrate Brigitte Reynaud. The charges raised against the French army during Operation Turquoise from",
"-18.192056379513815"
],
[
"it over. Ethnic tensions The conflict has strained the ethnic tolerance that Mali was once known for. The Tuaregs and Arabs who lived in Bamako and elsewhere in \"South\" Mali have been subjects of a rash of ethnic attacks by \"black Malians\" (as opposed to Mediterranean Arabs and racially mixed Tuaregs), despite many of them being hostile to Azawad separatism as well as the Islamists. In fact, many of these actually had only recently come to the \"South\", fleeing the violence in the North and ideological repression for not supporting Azawad separatism. By May, 60,000 people, mostly Tuaregs, had fled",
"-18.14407528841548"
],
[
"for sanctions against Myanmar.\n\"In Myanmar, soldiers opened fire on monks and civilians taking part in peaceful demonstrations. We strongly condemn this brutal violence.\" Also, he asked the United Nations Security Council to meet once again. \"If the Security Council does not reach an agreement, we will take our own responsibility. In that case, I am convinced that the European Union and the United States will decide on further measures, together with other benevolent countries.\"\nIn accordance, several sanctions are being considered by the Dutch government, including a possible ban on wood from Myanmar. Also, the Prime Minister remarked that these sanctions",
"-18.137446007458493"
],
[
"Sanogo also announced his intention to seek peace talks with the Tuareg insurgents. According to Mali's state television service, Sanogo also met French ambassador Christian Rouyer along with several other foreign dignitaries. 25 March The Agence France-Presse reported the streets of Bamako were calm but largely deserted due to fears of looting and a petrol (gasoline) shortage. Many businesses remained closed, with Sanogo calling for them to reopen on Tuesday, 27 March.\nIt was announced that ECOWAS heads of state were planning to hold an emergency meeting in Abidjan on the 27th, the day on which the junta had called for",
"-18.119533627992496"
],
[
"World Food Programme's warehouses in Kidal, Gao and Timbuktu, causing the WFP to suspend its operations in northern Mali. Other targets of looting included hospitals, hotels, government offices, Oxfam offices and the offices and warehouses of other unnamed aid groups. The WFP also stated that 200,000 had so far fled the fighting, predicting that the number would rise. Ansar Dine were reported to have intervened against looters. The spokesman of Mali's junta Amadou Konare claimed that \"women and girls have been kidnapped and raped by the new occupants who are laying down their own law.\" On 6 April, Amnesty International",
"-18.067531849679654"
],
[
"Bani-Bangou Recent conflict On 16 March 2008 Bani Bangou's military post was the site of a rebel attack in the Tuareg Rebellion. It was the closest attack by northern Tuareg MNJ rebels had made to the capital Niamey. Three Nigerien Armed Forces soldier were killed and one prisoner was seized. 2009 kidnapping On 22 January, four foreign tourists were reported kidnapped in Mali, north of Bani-Bangou, while travelling by auto from a festival at Anderamboukané to the Malian town of Ménaka, and on to Gao. One Briton, one German, and two Swiss citizens were reportedly kidnapped. One of their",
"-18.057978789089248"
],
[
"Turquoise. Diplomatic relations were finally reestablished in January 1995, but remained tense as Rwanda accused France of aiding the genocidaires, while France defended its interventions. In 2006, French judge Jean-Louis Bruguière released a report on the assassination of President Habyarimana which concluded that Kagame had ordered the shooting of the plane. Bruguière subsequently issued arrest warrants for nine of Kagame's close aides. Kagame denied the charges and immediately broke off diplomatic relations with France. Relations began to thaw in 2008, and diplomacy was resumed in late 2009. In 2010, Nicolas Sarkozy became the first French president to visit Rwanda since",
"-18.054299753392115"
],
[
"which U.S. ambassador to the UN, Susan Rice said that an UN official had complained that the Malian government gave up ground to the rebels \"without much of a fight.\" Juppé called for a collective response by the UNSC to the \"Islamist threat\" in the region. Media Amongst the media reactions to the uprising, Agence France-Presse was accused by Andy Morgan of Think Africa Press of uncritically accepting the government portrayal of the rebels as \"armed bandits,\" \"drug traffickers\" and \"Qaddafi mercenaries.\" The Los Angeles Times suggested that even without international recognition the gains by the rebels would be a",
"-18.05129894684069"
],
[
"Embassy of Germany, Windhoek The German Embassy in Windhoek is Germany's diplomatic mission to Namibia. It is located at Sanlam Centre, 145 Independence Avenue in Windhoek. The current German ambassador is Christian-Matthias Schlaga.",
"-18.034986109822057"
],
[
"of several other protesters. Five student protesters were reportedly killed in February. France24 suggested that Burkina Faso could be caught up in a full-scale uprising similar to that seen in several North African and Middle Eastern countries, proposing the rise of a \"Burkinabè Spring\".\nOn 22 April, a coalition of 34 Burkinabè opposition parties called for a rally on 30 April to demand President Compaoré's resignation.\nBy 27 April, farmers were protesting in Bobo-Dioulasso over low prices and merchants rioted in Koudougou over the closure of 40 shops due to unpaid rent. The house of Koudougou's mayor and its police station were",
"-18.02589162881486"
],
[
"and plan further integration, including moves toward political federation and a possible single currency. France France maintained close ties with President Habyarimana during his years in power, as part of its Françafrique policy. When the RPF launched the Rwandan Civil War in 1990, Habyarimana was immediately granted assistance from the President of France, François Mitterrand. France sent 600 paratroopers, who effectively ran the government's response to the invasion and were instrumental in regaining almost all territory the RPF had gained in the first days of the war. France maintained this military presence throughout the war, engaging Kagame's RPF forces again",
"-18.00812305882573"
],
[
"the Paris Peace Forum on 4 January 2018. First Edition 2018 The first edition of the Paris Peace Forum took place on 11–13 November 2018, and was attended by 65 Heads of States and Governments. It showcased 120 global governance projects and was attended by 6000 unique visitors over the 3 days. Among the attendees were Russian President Vladimir Putin, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and 2018 Nobel Peace Prize laureate Nadia Murad. German Chancellor Angela Merkel and UN Secretary-General António Guterres, joined President Emmanuel Macron in each making an opening remark at the beginning of the Forum. Guterres drew parallels",
"-17.994039429642726"
],
[
"that the world could learn from this tragedy. Rwandan report of 2008 On August 5, 2008, an independent Rwandan commission said France was aware of preparations for the 1994 Rwanda genocide and helped train the ethnic Hutu militia perpetrators. It accuses France of training Hutu militias responsible for the slaughter, helping plan the genocide, and participating in the killings. The report accused 33 senior French military and political officials on Tuesday of involvement in the genocide. Among those named were François Mitterrand (the president at the time), Édouard Balladur (the prime minister), Alain Juppé (the foreign minister), and his",
"-17.987896371618262"
],
[
"Dieu Mucyo, stated that the commission would now \"wait for President Kagame to declare whether the inquiry was valid.\" In July 2008, Kagame threatened to indict French nationals over the genocide if European courts did not withdraw arrest warrants issued against Rwandan officials, which by then included broader indictments against 40 Rwandan army officers by Spanish judge Fernando Andreu.\nFindings of the commission were released at Kagame's order on August 5, 2008. The report accused the French government of knowing of preparations for the genocide and helping to train the ethnic Hutu militia members; it accused 33 senior French military and",
"-17.98469145328272"
],
[
"denial. Because of this, a reported 80 Facebook posts were blocked from the French people in 2013. Germany In July 2011, authorities in Germany began to discuss the prohibition of events organized on Facebook. The decision is based on numerous cases of overcrowding by people who were not originally invited. In one instance, 1,600 \"guests\" attended the 16th birthday party for a Hamburg girl who accidentally posted the invitation for the event as public. After reports of overcrowding, more than a hundred police were deployed for crowd control. A police officer was injured and eleven participants were arrested for assault,",
"-17.978550571016967"
],
[
"2007–09 university protests in France This article is about the university strike movement in France during 2007 and 2009. Since Valérie Pécresse was appointed Minister for Higher Education and Research, the mood had been tense in the French university system. Several reform projects had led to protest movements, including that of 2009, the longest-lasting yet since 1968, still on-going after several months. It had put a heavy strain on France's political environment, even within the leading UMP party, and led to a reconsideration of the Bologna process within intellectual circles. A similar movement has simultaneously taken place in Spain. The",
"-17.969969013822265"
]
] |
31m33z | How could the 'Butterfly Effect' literally work? | [
"The butterfly wafts some pollen off a flower. The pollen gets in a herd animal's nose, causing it to sneeze. The sneeze startles the herd, causing it to panic and stampede. The stampede raises a dust cloud. The dust cloud causes a local weather change that eventually leads to a hurricane. (I forget the steps after the dust cloud.)",
"There's no literal hurricane. The name just refers to events where a small change early on can have a huge influence on the outcome of a chaotic event.",
"Easy: 1) Butterly lands on God's nose, causing him to sneeze (he's allergic to butterflies). 2) Hurricane",
"This is just a metaphor symbolizing the importance of infinitesimal paramaters (aka the flap of wings of a butterfly) in the simulation of macroscopic events (aka the hurricane).",
"[Chaos theory] ( URL_0 ) is the name of this theory, and to summarize (I'm not a mathematics pro so I don't fully understand the details of the theory or even parts of the theory but I'll try to give a general idea of the title of this particular paper), the [butterfly effect] ( URL_1 in particular), which is named after the paper with this title states that the initial conditions of an occurrence can completely change what possible occurrences there are. So according to the article: > The phrase refers to the idea that a butterfly's wings might create tiny changes in the atmosphere that may ultimately alter the path of a tornado or delay, accelerate or even prevent the occurrence of a tornado in another location. Note that the butterfly does not > power or directly create the tornado. The butterfly effect does not convey the notion—as is often misconstrued—that the flap of the butterfly's wings causes the tornado. The flap of the wings is a part of the initial conditions; one set of conditions leads to a tornado while the other set of conditions doesn't. This is pretty much what the article states for how the butterfly's wings are an initial condition and since small changes to an initial condition can widely change the outcome, a butterfly's wings can eventually lead to a hurricane on the other side of the globe.",
"it's just a descriptor for what's called *chaotic systems*, which is just a system what, while it is deterministic and obeys classical physics (ie. not quantum), is in practive unpredictable because of *sensitivity to initial conditions* (too many variables, many of which are tiny and easy to miss like the butterfly). Any seemingly small variable can influence the behaviour of the system in an unpredictable way A good example of such a system is Earth's climate – our best science and technology can only 'predict' a few days in advance and not very accurately at all"
] | [
[
"the short story \"Kamikaze Butterflies\", and an episode of the television series The Simpsons. The Butterfly Effect was also mentioned in The Amazing World Of Gumball in which a butterfly is let out of a jar which causes a series of events leading to a tornado.\nThe films The Butterfly Effect (and its sequels The Butterfly Effect 2 and The Butterfly Effect 3: Revelations) and Havana mischaracterize the butterfly effect in the typical fashion of its pop-culture understanding, asserting that the butterfly effect can be calculated with certainty, which is the opposite of its meaning in chaos theory about the unpredictability",
"-35.18553312384756"
],
[
"moves; there are as many variations on the butterfly possible as there are for the weave. The name butterfly refers to its appearance when viewed from the front: The poi appear to be flapping horizontally like a butterfly's wings. The Basic Butterfly The poi are swung in a forwards direction in phase with each other (same time). The hands are then both moved in front of the swinger so that the poi traverse a circle in front of the spinner - the left poi spinning clockwise, the right poi counter-clockwise. Their angles are very slightly offset to prevent the poi",
"-29.384552193747368"
],
[
"causation of the ball's motion. By the same token the butterfly can be seen as triggering a tornado, its cause being assumed to be seated in the atmospherical energies already present beforehand, rather than in the movements of a butterfly. Causal dynamical triangulation Causal dynamical triangulation (abbreviated as \"CDT\") invented by Renate Loll, Jan Ambjørn and Jerzy Jurkiewicz, and popularized by Fotini Markopoulou and Lee Smolin, is an approach to quantum gravity that like loop quantum gravity is background independent. This means that it does not assume any pre-existing arena (dimensional space), but rather attempts to show how the spacetime",
"-29.259642284711276"
],
[
"from colliding as they cross at the top and bottom of their respective circles. This move can also be performed in reverse/backwards. The Overhead Butterfly This is a variation of the basic butterfly where as the poi swing upwards from their lowest position the hands are moved to a position above the head. As the poi swing back downwards from their highest point the hands are moved down the opposite side of the head to complete the butterfly \"flap\". The hands are moved from the front to the back of the head alternately with each \"flap\" so that the poi",
"-29.136516215774463"
],
[
"said the song is \"hazy\" and \"low-key\". Similarly, Tom Breihan of Stereogum said: \"'Butterfly Effect' is low-key and melodic, with some sharp production from Drake collaborator Murda Beatz.\" Former President of the United States Barack Obama noted the track as one of his favorites in 2017.\n\"Butterfly Effect\" debuted at number 99 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on the week of June 17, 2017, and peaked at number 50 following the release of Astroworld. The single was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales and streaming equivalent units of 4,000,000 units in",
"-29.057484415447107"
],
[
"Butterfly Effect (Travis Scott song) Background During a performance in Portsmouth, Virginia on May 4, 2017, Scott hinted at the release of new music in a freestyle. Scott can be heard saying: \"Dropping new music in a few days. Bout to go crazy for a few days.\" The song was released alongside two other songs from Scott on SoundCloud, including \"A Man\" and \"Green & Purple\", which featured American rapper Playboi Carti. Reception Lawrence Burney of Vice magazine said: \"'Butterfly Effect' is textbook slurred Scott number, with backing vocals that sounds eerily similar to Migos' 'Slippery.'\" Madeline Roth of MTV",
"-28.916660658374894"
],
[
"beat, completely enthralled by her performance. The butterfly flies up with the dewdrop above her head, swings her hips some more, then descends back onto the flower. Pluto tries to mimic her movement by flapping his ears and making his eyes pop left and right. The butterfly then goes into a high speed ballerina spin before stopping abruptly by sticking out her leg and striking a pose.\nAt this, Pluto decides to try his hand at doing a similar dance so he spins like a tornado until he finds a beehive hanging from a nearby branch. He knocks it down and",
"-27.527849456935655"
],
[
"attrition and abdominal bobbing. Wing-warning is a rapid opening and closing of the wings and is aggressive, while wing-clapping involves a slower opening of the wings followed by a rapid closure, up to eight times in quick succession, and often follows flight; it may serve a thermo-regulatory function. Flights of attrition are engaged in by the ebony jewelwing (Calopteryx maculata) and involve males bouncing around each other while flying laterally and continuing to do so, sometimes over a considerable distance, until one insect is presumably exhausted and gives up.\nAt night, damselflies usually roost in dense vegetation, perching with the abdomen",
"-27.40594523935215"
],
[
"Young writes,\nTurn a butterfly (or any number of butterflies) loose in the performance area.\nWhen the composition is over, be sure to allow the butterfly to fly away outside.\nThe composition may be any length but if an unlimited amount of time is available, the doors and windows may be opened before the butterfly is turned loose and the composition may be considered finished when the butterfly flies away.\nYoung was inspired to write this piece after a trip to Mount Tamalpais. The piece was premiered at Berkeley, dated June 1960.\nRegarding this piece, Young claims that this performance makes clear that even a",
"-27.184421170095447"
],
[
"tempo and its metronome is ninety-two beats per minute. Lyrically, \"Butterflies\" describes the feeling of being in love. Archin K of HumboDumbo says the song talks about \"that once fell in love\". Plans to be performed on This Is It \"Butterflies\" was considered to be performed on cancelled This Is It concerts that planned to run from July 2009 to March 2010. However, this song was ultimately off the final set list. Later, members of band shared set lists for the shows. \"Butterflies\" was marked as an additional material. That set list was dated May 22, 2009 Critical response The",
"-27.159709055616986"
],
[
"into this category is flutter. At some speeds, the airflow over the control surfaces will become turbulent, and the controls will start to flutter. If the speed of the fluttering is close to a harmonic of the control's movement, the resonance could break the control off completely. This was a serious problem on the Zero and VL Myrsky. When problems with poor control at high speed were first encountered, they were addressed by designing a new style of control surface with more power. However, this introduced a new resonant mode, and a number of planes were lost before this was",
"-27.046934227604652"
],
[
"\"Shiver,\" on \"Productions & Collaborations,\" tend toward a sensually down-tempo feel. \"Butterflies\" floats with magical airiness. The title track of \"And We Danced\" rides a throbbing bass line into a keenly poetic examination of shattered relationships. Messenger's music entices with addictive allure.\"\nMessenger provided vocals for Dutch producer Ferry Corsten's 2008 album Twice in a Blue Moon on the track 'Black Velvet' and has performed it live with him on tour.\nIn 2006 The New York Times cited Julia's song 'Look Up Look Down' as one of the top 10 on the playlist for U.S. restaurants.\nMessenger has also recorded vocals for German",
"-27.005244434607448"
],
[
"Butterfly (Loona song) Composition The lyrics were written by G-High from MonoTree and Jaden Jeong, with G-High also serving as the producer.\nBillboard described \"Butterfly\" as having a \"bass-infused, synthy melody\" with a \"sense of bright airiness and groovy beat drops.\" It also highlighted the focus on the diverse vocals tones that moved between \"autotuned wails, breathy verses and coy raps\". Lyrically, the women sing about flying like the titular creature and letting dreams take flight. Commercial performance \"Butterfly\" debuted at number 6 on the US World Digital Songs Sales chart with 1,000 downloads sold. This is their second Top 10",
"-26.940664210691466"
],
[
"Butterfly Effect (Shiritsu Ebisu Chugaku song) Release details The single was released in three versions: the Limited Anime Edition, the Limited Yodel Edition, and the Regular Edition. The Limited Anime Edition includes a DVD with the music video for the title track, while the other two editions are CD-only.",
"-26.602337216667365"
],
[
"motion aftereffect. This particular motion aftereffect is also known as the waterfall illusion.\nAnother example can be seen when one looks at the center of a rotating spiral for several seconds. The spiral can exhibit outward or inward motion. When one then looks at any stationary pattern, it appears to be moving in the opposite direction. This form of the motion aftereffect is known as the spiral aftereffect. Explanation Neurons coding a particular movement reduce their responses with time of exposure to a constantly moving stimulus; this is neural adaptation. Neural adaptation also reduces the spontaneous, baseline activity of these same",
"-26.5242442995077"
],
[
"Galeotti, Menconi, and Fronzoni (2003:90) suggest \"surprising references to the butterfly effect\" in \"Great Containment\" (1.24). Davies (2003:4) compares Francis Crick's The Astonishing Hypothesis with \"Shooting Tigers\" (1.11) that uses \"optical illusions and human inattention to press the view that we pick out certain elements of reality to form our world-picture.\"\nThe Huashu has untold significance to the histories of philosophy and science. One final example mentions classical conditioning a millennium before Ivan Pavlov discovered it. Geng Xin 庚辛 \"The Geng and Xin [Families]\" (5.10) recounts how two neighbors, figuratively named after the 7th and 8th Celestial stems, used different materials",
"-26.519987146079075"
],
[
"destructive power of humans, and the way in which a small action such as killing a fly can trigger effects in distant regions.\nIt draws on Chaos theory and the Chinese proverb that the flapping wings of a butterfly can be felt across the world, and also has religious undertones.\nThe exhibition attempts the difficult task of depicting the moment of destruction and what happens as a result.\nIt starts with a car that has crashed into a huge tree, represented by an acrylic painting on one wall of the room.\nIt continues with a collage showing the tiny figures of angels and cherubs",
"-26.508112948620692"
],
[
"The Butterfly Effect Plot Growing up, Evan Treborn and his friends, Lenny and siblings Kayleigh and Tommy Miller, suffered many severe psychological traumas that frequently caused Evan to blackout. These traumas include being coerced to take part in child pornography by Kayleigh and Tommy's father, George Miller (Eric Stoltz); being nearly strangled to death by his institutionalized father, Jason Treborn (Callum Keith Rennie), who is then killed in front of him by guards; accidentally killing a mother and her infant daughter while playing with dynamite with his friends; and seeing his dog burned alive by Tommy.\nSeven years later, while entertaining",
"-26.47170089551946"
],
[
"butterfly makes sound. \"A person should listen to what he ordinarily just looks at, or look at things he would ordinarily just hear.\" #6 Instructions:\nThe performers (any number) sit on the stage watching and listening to the audience in the same way the audience usually looks at and listens to performers. If in an auditorium, the performers should be seated in rows on chairs or benches; but if in a bar, for instance, the performers might have tables on stage and be drinking as is the audience.\nYoung additionally specifies that a poster indicating the title of the piece may be",
"-26.306645600197953"
],
[
"ripple effect when they are opened, like a leaf falling onto water. These effects consume considerable processing power and are arguably merely cosmetic, but with the help of macOS’s Quartz Extreme and Core Image graphics architectures, sufficient computing power to render them in real time is available. As with Exposé, Front Row and the minimise effect, holding shift down while calling the Dashboard or opening the Dashboard menu bar will display the effect in slow motion. Comparison with Konfabulator Many people have made comparisons between Konfabulator and Apple's Dashboard, especially after Apple announced the feature while Mac OS X 10.4",
"-25.957454115443397"
],
[
"move in opposite directions. For example, while spinning in parallel, one poi head would be moving forward while the other in reverse. While in a wall plane, one head would be moving clockwise, the other counter-clockwise. Poi spinning in the same-time and same position are considered the traditional \"butterfly\" as when viewed from the front, the poi appear to meet at the top and bottom of the spin thus simulating the flapping of butterfly wings. Direction Changes Moves such as stalls and wraps can change direction of one poi or both poi.\nStall - refers to a change in the center",
"-25.768855345784687"
],
[
"followers. This is when the caterpillars appear and reveal that this is what they wanted all along. When the Crystal was broken the power of imagination was freed and now no longer can anyone take control of it. With this they shed their skins, turn into butterflies, and fly away into the sky. Reception The School Library Journal praised ArchEnemy, calling it a \"must have\" and a \"excellent and satisfying end\". AudioFile Magazine positively reviewed the audiobook version of the novel, awarding it their \"AudioFile Earphones Award\" for 2009.",
"-25.753498935431708"
],
[
"reversing the subject's subsequent reafferent signals. In this state, self-initiated movements of the fly would result in a perception that the world was also moving, rather than standing still as they would in a normal fly. After rotation of the eyes, the animal showed a reinforcement of the optokinetic response in the same direction as the moving visual input. Von Holst and Mittelstaedt interpreted their findings as evidence that corollary discharge (i.e. neural inhibition with active movement) could not have accounted for this observed change as this would have been expected to inhibit the optokinetic reaction. They concluded that an",
"-25.68688437138917"
],
[
"waving, and other smooth movements are rarely used in the dance choreography. It is said that the movements of a flying eagle was an inspiration to the choreography, such as in the beginning of the dance and in the dance bridge towards the middle of the song, where their dance forms takes shape of an eagle. Other cover versions Taiwanese boy band, Energy soon released a Chinese remake of the song several months later as \"Retreating Dark Files\" (退魔錄). Unlike the original song which was a hip hop-influenced pop single, \"Retreating Dark Files\" is more rock influenced.",
"-25.48064207889547"
],
[
"Fan effect The fan effect is a psychological phenomenon under the branch of cognitive psychology where recognition times or error rate for a particular concept increases as more information about the concept is acquired. The word \"fan\" refers to the number of associations correlated with the concept. The origin of the fan effect The fan effect first appeared in a series of experiments conducted by John R. Anderson, a cognitive psychologist, in 1974. The three experiments he conducted involved participants learning 26 sentences that paired a person with a location. Additionally, they were asked to determine whether or not",
"-25.43879212855245"
],
[
"some distinguishing features. A crowd of people, birds, insects, or leaves is a mysterious assemblage of variants of certain prototype. A riddle of nature's abhorrence of exact repetition or inability to produce it. Just as the human hand cannot repeat its own gesture, I invoke this disturbing law, switching my own immobile herds into that rhythm.\"",
"-25.421676944519277"
],
[
"Flutter (American company) History The company's first product \"Flutter App\" allowed users to control apps such as iTunes, Spotify, VLC, and QuickTime using hand gestures. The app utilizes gesture recognition technology that works with the webcam on a user's computer. Instead of requiring separate hardware, such as Microsoft’s Kinect, Flutter makes use of the built-in webcam to recognize the gestures of a person's hands between one and six feet away.\nThe program does not require expensive hardware and is not designed for large movements, such as those used when playing video games—this limits its use to navigational duties. The company plans",
"-25.381099949619966"
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[
"the same side of the body (e.g. left hand poi on left side) and twice on the opposite side. Backwards weaves, behind the back weaves, and 1¹⁄₂-beat, 2-beat, 4-beat, 5-beat, and other weaves are also possible. Butterflies Butterflies are a class of trick based around the \"basic butterfly\". The hands are held close together in front of the spinner and the poi spin in opposite directions flat to the spinner so that the poi cross at the top and bottom of their circles. This move can be done behind the head, behind the back and extended to any number of",
"-25.36025163749582"
],
[
"Praxis effect History The first known use of the effect was in the 1979 science fiction film Alien during the self-destruction of the spaceship Nostromo. It first forms a horizontal multicolored line, with an orange sphere behind or inside it. The shockwave strikes Ellen Ripley's ship a moment later. A similar effect occurs during the evolution of V'Ger in Star Trek: The Motion Picture, released later that same year.\nThe first acknowledged use of the effect was in the 1991 science fiction film Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country. The over-mined Klingon moon of Praxis (after which the effect was named)",
"-25.248879794318782"
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[
"anticipate what was going to happen. He called this technique \"aiming,\" and would act out actions himself, exaggerating them so that the animators could clearly capture the effect.\nLes Clark, one of Disney's most talented animators, and later one of Disney's Nine Old Men later said of this discovery, \"Today it may look simple to us; at the time it wasn't. It was something that hadn't been tried before or proved.\"\nBy contrast, the anticipation pose can also be omitted in cases where it might be expected. The resulting sense of anticlimax will produce a feeling of surprise in the viewer, and",
"-25.168570554698817"
],
[
"Butterfly (G-Dragon song) Music video While his two singles showcased G-Dragon dancing with a white backdrop, \"Butterfly\"'s music video heavily concentrated on computerized graphics. The singer himself was computerized for several moments throughout the music video. The girl in the video, however, was completely computerized. YG Entertainment has described the video as a \"specially crafted music video [...] scheduled to coincide with the publicity.\" The music video has drawn more than 9 million views on YouTube. Controversy G-Dragon was again accused of plagiarism with \"Butterfly\" when Sony Music stated that the song was similar to Oasis's \"She's Electric\". All",
"-25.101266023906646"
],
[
"Falling leaf A falling leaf (also called a rudder stall or oscillation stall) is an aerobatic maneuver in which an aircraft performs a wings-level stall (the airplane stops flying and starts falling) which begins to induce a spin. This spin is countered with the rudder, which begins a spin in the opposite direction that must be countered with rudder, and the process is repeated as many times as the pilot determines. During the maneuver, the plane resembles a leaf falling from the sky; first slipping to one side, stopping, and then slipping to the other direction; continuing a side-to-side motion",
"-25.07184167885862"
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[
"a football makes it curl is known as the Magnus effect. This causes a rotating ball to form a whirlpool about itself, with one side's air moving with the ball and the other side's air moving against the ball. This creates a difference in air pressure, and the ball deviates from its path as a result of this.\nThe Magnus effect is named after German physicist Heinrich Gustav Magnus, who described the effect in 1852. In 1672, Isaac Newton had described it and correctly inferred the cause after observing tennis players in his Cambridge college. Notable players Many football players are",
"-24.92864965676563"
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[
"Times gave the track a more positive review, calling the song a \"luxuriant\" ballad. Pop music critic Robert Hilburn, writing for the Los Angeles Times, described \"Butterflies\", and another song from Invincible (\"Speechless\"), as being \"as woefully generic as their titles\". A journalist of the same publication felt that track was about romantic \"jitters\".\nDarryl Frierson of University Wire felt that songs like \"Butterflies\" can set the \"mood for any romantic interlude\". Joel Rubinoff of The Record said that \"Butterflies\" was one of the \"only good songs\" from Invincible, while a writer for The Atlanta Journal cited the song as being",
"-24.9221587034408"
],
[
"Boomerang effect (psychology) Psychological reactance theory analysis Sensenig & Brehm applied Brehm's reactance theory to explain the boomerang effect. They argued that when a person thinks that his freedom to support a position on attitude issue is eliminated, the psychological reactance will be aroused and then he consequently moves his attitudinal position in a way so as to restore the lost freedom. He told college students to write an essay supporting one side of five issues and led some of them believe that their persuasive essays might influence the decision on those issues. Therefore, the people who had the impression",
"-24.84869067335967"
],
[
"Butterfly style In ice hockey, butterfly style is a technique of goaltending distinguished by the goaltender guarding the lower part of the net by dropping to the knees to block attempts to score. The butterfly style derives its name from the resemblance of the spread goal pads and hands to a butterfly's wings. The butterfly style is contrasted with stand-up style, where most shots on a goal are stopped with the goaltender on their feet. \nMany factors helped make it a de facto standard style of play today, including the popularization of the goalie mask by Jacques Plante, Vladislav Tretiak's",
"-24.834604481467977"
],
[
"Watts later said that the butterflies \"were a bit sad, there were casualties. It was like the Somme\".\nThe Stones then launched into \"I'm Yours and I'm Hers\", which, according to Philip Norman, was an ironic choice given that Marianne Faithfull and Marsha Hunt, both of whom Jagger was alleged to be having relationships with at that time, were in the audience.\nThe setlist for their performance was \"I'm Yours & I'm Hers\", \"Jumpin' Jack Flash\", \"No Expectations\", \"Mercy Mercy\", \"Stray Cat Blues\", \"I'm Free\", \"Down Home Girl\", \"Love in Vain\", \"Give Me a Little Drink\", \"Midnight Rambler\", \"(I Can't Get No)",
"-24.832338446823996"
],
[
"the Magnus effect) acts as a downward force, meaning that the ball falls earlier and faster than normal.\nIn cricketing terms, this means that the ball drops shorter, falls faster and bounces higher than might otherwise be anticipated by the batsman. These properties are summed up in cricketing terms as a \"looping\" or \"loopy\" delivery. Also, the ball travels straight on, as compared to a wrist spin or finger spin stock delivery that breaks to the left or right on impact. A batsman may easily be deceived by the ball, particularly given that the action is quite similar to the stock",
"-24.751531228335807"
],
[
"Butterflies and Hurricanes Recording There are several versions of \"Butterflies and Hurricanes\". For the original studio recording, the song's introduction, verse and choruses were harmonically driven by piano and keyboards. The single version contains both guitar and keyboard, but the interlude is slightly shorter, reducing the song from 5:01 to 4:48. The vinyl single includes a full-length version with guitars in the mix. Finally, the radio edit of the single goes further by omitting the entire piano interlude, bringing the song down to 4:10. Live The song was reworked with a more prominent electric guitar sound during the Absolution tour,",
"-24.67173089942662"
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[
"board keeps track of the number of butterflies collected. While there is no bonus awarded for this number (the final score is calculated solely on the value of the matches made during the game), the points awarded for removing butterflies from the board increase as more are collected. After each move, one or more additional butterflies will appear on the bottom row, replacing whatever gem(s) were present there before. Clearing spaces below a butterfly will drop it down the board, and clearing the space directly above a butterfly will prevent it from moving up the board on that turn. The",
"-24.616544915363193"
],
[
"Motion aftereffect The motion aftereffect (MAE) is a visual illusion experienced after viewing a moving visual stimulus for a time (tens of milliseconds to minutes) with stationary eyes, and then fixating a stationary stimulus. The stationary stimulus appears to move in the opposite direction to the original (physically moving) stimulus. The motion aftereffect is believed to be the result of motion adaptation.\nFor example, if one looks at a waterfall for about a minute and then looks at the stationary rocks at the side of the waterfall, these rocks appear to be moving upwards slightly. The illusory upwards movement is the",
"-24.538558730389923"
],
[
"Butterfly stroke Speed and ergonomics The peak speed of the butterfly is faster than that of the freestyle stroke due to the synchronous pull/push with both arms and legs, which is done quite fast. Yet since speed drops significantly during the recovery phase, it is overall slightly slower than freestyle, especially over longer distances. Another reason it is slower is because of the extremely different physical exertion it puts on the swimmer compared to the freestyle. Its name was taken from the butterfly.\nThe breaststroke, backstroke, and freestyle can all be swum easily even if the swimmer's technique is not the",
"-24.53214562544599"
],
[
"\"excited\" by geophysical mass transports on or in the Earth itself given the (slight) oblateness of the Earth's shape, which actually gives rise to an Euler-type rotational motion with a period of about 433 days for the Earth known as the Chandler wobble (after its first discoverer Seth Chandler in the late 1900s). Incidentally the Eulerian wobble is analogous to the wobbling motion of a spinning frisbee thrown not-so-perfectly. Observationally, the (excited) Chandler wobble is a major component in the Earth's polar motion. One effect of the polar motion is to perturb the otherwise steady centrifugal force felt by the",
"-24.514754656527657"
],
[
"butterfly on the wheel playgoers must find out for themselves. There will be plenty doing that.\"\nPhilip Hope-Wallace in The Guardian's issue of 30 October 1953 said of the ending, \"Justice has been done and has been seen to be done. We nod approvingly, at which moment Mrs Christie says in effect \"Oh, so you thought that did you?\" and with an unforeseen twist of the cards lets us see how wrong we were. This is satisfying, but it makes criticism almost impossible; first, one must not give away the clue and second, one must reconsider whether those witnesses who seemed",
"-24.388478289125487"
],
[
"style \"butterfly\". While the butterfly was difficult, it brought a great improvement in speed. One year later, in 1935, Jack Sieg, a swimmer also from the University of Iowa, developed a kick technique involving swimming on his side and beating his legs in unison, similar to a fish tail, and then modified the technique afterward to swim it face down. He called this style Dolphin fishtail kick. Armbruster and Sieg quickly found that combining these techniques created a very fast swimming style consisting of butterfly arms with two dolphin kicks per cycle. Richard Rhodes claims that Volney Wilson invented the",
"-24.360943029809278"
],
[
"the title \"Wings of a Butterfly\") was released as the first single from Dark Light in September 2005, charting in ten countries, including at number one in Finland, number ten in Germany and the UK, and at number 19 on the US Alternative Chart. A music video was also produced for the song. That same month, HIM embarked on European club tour to prepare for the release Dark Light. The album was released on 26 September 2005, and charted in sixteen countries, including at number one in Finland and Greece, number four in Germany and Austria, and number 18 in",
"-24.327770118048647"
],
[
"window for breathing in the butterfly. If this window is missed, swimming becomes very difficult. Optimally, a butterfly swimmer synchronizes the taking of breaths with the undulation of the body to simplify the breathing process; doing this well requires some attention to butterfly stroke technique. The breathing process begins during the underwater \"press\" portion of the stroke. As the hands and forearms move underneath the chest, the body will naturally rise toward the surface of the water. With minimum effort, the swimmer can lift the head to fully break the surface. The swimmer breathes in through the mouth. The head",
"-24.2753066757723"
],
[
"the hips are at their lowest position. In this style, the second pulse in the cycle is stronger than the first pulse, as the second pulse is more in flow with the body movement.\nAlthough butterfly is very compatible with diving, the resulting reduction in wave drag does not lead to an overall reduction of drag. In the modern style of the butterfly stroke one does only little vertical movement of the body. Start Butterfly uses the regular start for swimming. After the start a gliding phase follows under water, followed by dolphin kicks swim under water. Swimming under water reduces",
"-24.258516982226865"
],
[
"or if this was simply an \"effect\" to show when Psylocke was using her powers to the reading audience (although it was implied that it could be). This \"butterfly\" (sometimes depicted as having eyes in its wings) was also the form Psylocke usually took when manifesting her astral form, both on the astral plane, and in the physical world, although she occasionally used an illusory image of her physical body. After her transformation, Psylocke's psi-form changed accordingly.\nIn addition, Psylocke could also use her telepathy to project a focused beam of directed psionic energy called a \"psycho-blast\" that could incapacitate or",
"-24.2447979679564"
],
[
"Butterfly Fly Away Critical reception Reviewers gave the song moderately positive reviews. Warren Truit of About.com found it \"sentimental\" while Scott Mervis of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette called it \"a sweet duet\". Allmusic reviewer Heather Phares said the song was \"a treacly duet\". Stephen Thomas Erlewine, also of Allmusic, was more negative, calling it a \"syrupy, icky\" song on which Billy Ray never sounds quite right. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly wrote, \"[Miley's] delicate duet with dad Billy Ray, 'Butterfly Fly Away,' is quietly lovely.\" Billboard reviewer Ken Tucker stated that it \"is an airy and flowing song about family",
"-24.233230766920315"
],
[
"the movement of a butterfly. The song's lyrics describe a girl's feeling of wanting to fly like a butterfly to be with the person she loves.\n\"Distance\" is the group's first attempt at reggae, and features piano, guitar, and harmonica. \"Water Flower\" is a rock song with drum sounds and guitar distortion effects, and \"Mermaid\" is a pop ballad written by Source Music's group Mio, inspired by the fairy tale \"The Little Mermaid\". \"Sunshine\" is an R&B song with electronic rhythm and acoustic piano harmony, while \"Compas\" is in the house music genre. \"Click\" is a medium-tempo pop song produced by",
"-24.228684914734913"
],
[
"was used by the Akaflieg students in competitions between 1969 and 1971. It also gave them the opportunity to film and study the alarming motions of the wing when fluttering, recording their observations on film in slow motion and in the air. Two antisymmetric, odd, sine-like lateral displacement modes were observed at 90 km/h (55.9 mph; 48.6 kn). The fundamental mode was seen, at a frequency of 3.3 Hz but at 140 km/h (87.0 mph; 75.6 kn) the wing oscillated at 5.8 Hz in a second harmonic mode. During these largely vertical excursions, the wing also twisted and its overall motion excited vibrations in the rear fuselage",
"-24.223430216894485"
],
[
"the pop radio station KIIS-FM, noted the song's crossover appeal in an interview in the Los Angeles Times, declaring that among rap-rock songs, \"Butterfly\" was \"the one that completely crossed over from the rap-rock genre.\" Critical reception It was named the 34th \"Most Awesomely Bad Song Ever\" by VH1. It was also rated number 3 on Billboard's chart for one-hit wonders of the 2000s, compiled in 2009. Music video The song's music video, directed by Honey, shows the band in a fantastical forest full of butterflies. Shifty Shellshock and Epic Mazur sing praises to two women with butterfly wings. At",
"-24.202284466009587"
],
[
"are whirling around you and your arms are pulled away from your body. Why should your arms be pulled away when the stars are whirling? Why should they be dangling freely when the stars don't move?\nMach's principle says that this is not a coincidence—that there is a physical law that relates the motion of the distant stars to the local inertial frame. If you see all the stars whirling around you, Mach suggests that there is some physical law which would make it so you would feel a centrifugal force. There are a number of rival formulations of the principle.",
"-24.16290824126918"
],
[
"seems to believe that if they, figuratively speaking, simply wave their hands, no one will notice or speak up about the holes in the reasoning. This implication of misleading intent has been reinforced by the pop-culture influence of the Star Wars franchise, in which mystically powerful hand-waving is fictionally used for mind control, and some uses of the term in public discourse are explicit Star Wars references.\nActual hand-waving motions may be used either by a speaker to indicate a desire to avoid going into details, or by critics to indicate that they believe the proponent of an argument is engaging",
"-24.16138560725085"
],
[
"lift than counter-stroking; synchronised-stroking, with forewings and hindwings beating together, is used when changing direction rapidly, as it maximises thrust; and gliding, with the wings held out, is used in three situations: free gliding, for a few seconds in between bursts of powered flight; gliding in the updraft at the crest of a hill, effectively hovering by falling at the same speed as the updraft; and in certain dragonflies such as darters, when \"in cop\" with a male, the female sometimes simply glides while the male pulls the pair along by beating his wings.\nThe wings are powered directly, unlike most",
"-24.12221046583727"
],
[
"flap alternately once in front of the head then once behind.\nHighly skilled performers perform butterflies with 4 poi (two in each hand) to execute a double butterfly. In each hand, one is held out of each end of a fist. The most expert practitioners do this with 6 poi so that a third one-footed butterfly can be performed with the other foot. However impressive though this last one certainly is, the majority of poi performers consider such things to have no real use, as it is highly difficult to transition from the one-handed butterfly back into two-handed moves. Wraps Wraps",
"-24.119169358571526"
],
[
"a \"decent track\".\nA writer for The Atlanta Journal-Constitution viewed \"Butterflies\" as being \"laid-back\". Mark Anthony Neal of PopMatters wrote in his music review for Jackson's 2002 album, entitled Love Songs, that in song's such as \"Butterflies\", it shows the \"essence\" of Jackson's \"genius has been in the boy's uncanny ability to perform, even the mundane, outside of the box.\" Elliot Sylvester of The Independent felt that ballads on Invincible such as \"Speechless and \"Butterflies\" are \"almost to a formulaic fault.\" Chicago Tribune rock music critic Greg Kot said that Jackson is not \"convincing as the vulnerable ladies' man on drippy",
"-24.118011110578664"
],
[
"about 10–15 cm in front of a female, sing, flare their bright gorget and move up, down, left and right in an attempt to impress the potential mate. They spread their tail feathers while doing this and wave them side to side. During normal flight, they beat their wings constantly at a fairly regular frequency. High speed video has shown that while performing their shuttle display, the males actually stop fluttering for just a fraction of a second to tuck their wings away causing them to descend slightly before recommencing their wing beating. This makes them appear to bound in place.",
"-24.109850710214232"
],
[
"and South America and the pittas and laughingthrushes of Asia do this. An example of a bird that employs flipping is the ovenbird, a species of North American wood-warbler. It deliberately turns over leaves on the ground to search for spiders, worms, and such underneath. In other parts of the world, similar leaf-flipping behavior has been observed in unrelated birds, such as the jungle babbler of India. Some birds, such as hummingbirds, will use their wings to create a blast of air to roll leaves over. Other birds rake a foot through the leaf litter, like a chicken, for the",
"-24.056073223095154"
],
[
"Motion silencing stems from the study of change blindness which in essence is the failure to detect change in the visual field. The phenomenon has been studied extensively, by means of such methods as flicker tasks, forced saccade tasks, mudsplashes, disrupted and undisrupted scene transitions, incremental scene rotation, and videos. Research has demonstrated that people often fail to detect significant changes to images when the observer is not attending to the changing object fully, thus if attention is paid to the region where the change is occurring then change can be detected and the effect is forestalled. Even with attention",
"-24.025048871408217"
],
[
"waving of the right hand. This method is used to say \"hello\" to a group of people, likewise with implying \"goodbye\", there is a different method to say \"hello\" to an individual. Components The waving of the hand has multiple variables and styles of performing the gesture. The common waving of the hand to mean \"hello\" or \"goodbye\" is done by moving the hand side to side, but there are more than one form of waving, each form having its own meaning. Variables Waving has four variables: the open palm (is the palm curved or straight), the angle of the",
"-23.99082200281555"
],
[
"propulsion, as this is the key to easy synchronous over-water recovery and breathing.\nIn the initial position, the swimmer lies on the breast, the arms are stretched to the front, and the legs are extended to the back. Arm movement The butterfly stroke has three major parts, the pull, the push, and the recovery. These can also be further subdivided. From the initial position, the arm movement starts very similarly to the breast stroke. At the beginning the hands sink a little bit down with the palms facing outwards and slightly down at shoulder width, then the hands move out to",
"-23.942056930740364"
],
[
"useful forces on the wings. The leading edges of the wings touch, and the wings rotates around their leading edges, bringing them together in the \"clap\". The wings close, expelling air from between them, giving more useful thrust. The wings rotate around their trailing edges to begin the \"fling\", creating useful forces. The leading edges move apart, making air rush in between them and setting up new vortices, generating more force on the wings. The trailing edge vortices however cancel each other out with opposing flows. Weis-Fogh suggested that this cancellation might help the circulation of air to grow more",
"-23.816811284181313"
],
[
"if you wave your hands at the right moment, the listener may be sufficiently distracted to not notice that what you have said is bogus [i.e., incorrect]. Failing that, if a listener does object, you might try to dismiss the objection with a wave of your hand.\nThe implication that hand-waving is done with the specific intent to mislead has long been attached to the term, due to the use of literal waving of a hand – either natural-looking or showy, but never desperate – by illusionists to distract audiences and misdirect their attention from the mechanisms of the sleight-of-hand, gimmicked",
"-23.793154092272744"
],
[
"'forearm swaying side-to-side' or a \"vertical hand with a slight twist from the wrist\". The gesture is often performed, to various degrees, by different members of the British royal family, signaling anything from regality, class and control to elegance, restraint and character. Cultural interpretations In American culture, waving is a known gesture that means \"hello\" or \"goodbye\". That gesture can also be used to call the attention of someone, for example waving down a taxi, or waving at a friend from a great distance. That gesture can may be interpreted differently and have a different meaning or even be highly",
"-23.789237268443685"
],
[
"got kinda nervous. But as I got into it, I realized it was work, it was a job. I had to vocally conduct a legend.\" Harris commented on the single, \"He's showing you, I'm still the Michael Jackson that did 'Billie Jean' and 'Rock With You' because 'Butterflies' really falls along those lines.\"\nUnlike the previous single released from Invincible, a music video was not made to promote the song. Composition \"Butterflies\" is a midtempo love ballad song with groove musical influences. Vaughn Watson of the Providence Journal noted that the track is a \"velvety old-school soul ballad\" with \"elegiac horn",
"-23.735776026995154"
],
[
"motion together.\nThe feet are pressed together to avoid loss of water pressure. The feet are naturally pointing downwards, giving downwards thrust, moving up the feet and pressing down the head.\nThere is no actual stipulation in competitive butterfly rules that a swimmer make a fixed number of pulses in butterfly–the swimmer may kick as little or as much as he or she may wish. While competitive rules allow such a choice, the typical method of swimming butterfly is with two kicks.\nAs butterfly originated as a variant on breaststroke, it would be performed with a breaststroke or whip kick by some",
"-23.712546682334505"
],
[
"and the Netherlands, respectively. \"Jubilation\" was the record's second and final single, released in April 1975 by Columbia in the same physical formats as \"Guava Jelly\". On the Germany release of \"Jubilation\", it would be paired with B-side \"Crying Time\", but the Canada and United States versions featured \"Let the Good Times Roll\" instead. Commercial performance In the United States, ButterFly debuted at number 72 on the Billboard 200 chart for the week ending November 16, 1974. The following week it rose to number 52 and on January 4, 1975, it reached its peak position at number 13. The record",
"-23.704330237640534"
],
[
"one that blatantly shows its influences. In fact, the influence can even be pinned to a single song: Jeff Buckley's 'Grace.'\"\nThe music video for \"Shiver\" was directed by English film director and cinematographer Grant Gee. It features Coldplay performing in a small studio. The yellow globe featured on the Parachutes cover can be seen on top of an amplifier in the video. The music video received \"strong exposure\" on MTV.\nIn 2003, \"Shiver\" was featured on Coldplay's live album Live 2003.",
"-23.65980109886732"
],
[
"box around it with a crayon. A second butterfly also meets the same fate. Maggie finds a caterpillar and a pop-up book about the life cycle of the butterfly. Realizing that the caterpillar could also meet the fate of the first two butterflies, she tries to protect it from Gerald. The caterpillar later encases itself in a chrysalis and starts to transform. Once the newly formed butterfly emerges, Maggie tries to help it fly out of the window, but Gerald seemingly kills it by shutting the blinds on it as it attempts to pass through.",
"-23.647930758881557"
],
[
"on silk cords, and then charged by Gray bringing his rubbed tube (static electric generator) close to the boy's feet, but without touching. Gray showed that the boy's face and hands still attracted the chaff, paper and other materials. Gray certainly realised that the phenomenon of 'electric virtue' was the same as lightning (as did most experimenters), many years before Franklin \"flew his kite\" and the French experimenters Dilibard and Delor captured a charge from lightning in a Leyden Jar.\nWhen Sloane took over the Royal Society on Newton's death, Gray belatedly received the recognition denied him previously. Gray",
"-23.56230089336168"
],
[
"riffs\" and \"simple '70s-style David Ruffin soul.\" Stephen Thomas Erlewine, a writer for Allmusic noted that \"Butterflies\" had \"Bacharach-styled horns.\" Lonell Broadnax, Jr., a contributing writer to the Daily Helmsman Online felt that \"Butterflies\" is a soulful song which takes Jackson back to his \"rhythm and blues roots\". Ben Rayer of the Toronto Star felt that the song had a \"oozy slow jam\". \"Butterflies\" is written in the time signature of common time. Throughout the song Jackson's vocal range spans from E♭3 to E♭5. The track is played in the key of A♭ major. \"Butterflies\" has a moderately slowly",
"-23.55420048243832"
],
[
"effect is sometimes referred to as a parallax process.\nAn interesting variation is to have the background and foreground move in opposite directions. This creates an effect of rotation. An early example is the scene in Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs where the Evil Queen drinks her potion, and the surroundings appear to spin around her. History A predecessor to the multiplane camera was used by Lotte Reiniger for her animated feature The Adventures of Prince Achmed (1926). Berthold Bartosch, who worked with Reiniger, used a similar setup in his film L'Idee (1932). \nThe first multiplane camera, using",
"-23.510451012218255"
],
[
"jerky movement through the air scarcely flap the wings appreciably, present a charming spectacle, particularly when half a dozen or more meet and engage in a sham fight. Almost the whole morning such scenes are repeated, for only towards midday, after they have been flying over their wide domain for 2 or 3 hours, do their pinions become weary and they settle again in the shade of the branches on some large leaf, the back turned towards the dark and the eyes towards the open. One rarely finds even a single insect flying in the afternoon and then probably only",
"-23.49643911869498"
],
[
"used to explain reflexes, the spirits would flow from the ventricles of the brain, through the nerves, and to the muscles to animate the latter.\nIn 1667, Thomas Willis proposed that muscles may expand by the reaction of animal spirits with vital spirits. He hypothesized that this reaction would produce air in a manner similar to the reaction that causes an explosion, causing muscles to swell and produce movement. Physiological refutations of the theory In 1667, Jan Swammerdam, a Dutch anatomist famous for working with insects, struck the first important blow against the balloonist theory. Swammerdam, who was the",
"-23.442075496714097"
],
[
"the pendulum may seem to catch or stop, and the lights may lag or, then, race to get ahead. According to Taylor, this erratic motion reflects life's \"irregularity\".\nConceived as a work of public art, the Chronophage reminds viewers in a dramatic way of the inevitable passing of time. Taylor deliberately designed it to be \"terrifying\": \"Basically I view time as not on your side. He'll eat up every minute of your life, and as soon as one has gone he's salivating for the next.\" Others have described it as \"hypnotically beautiful and deeply disturbing\". Funding and realisation Taylor invested five",
"-23.41947226866614"
],
[
"reactions occur only on the two player (or player and CPU) modes. When a bubble is dropped, it can move to another place on the board if this causes more bubbles to pop. If this, in turn, causes more bubbles to drop, then the chain reaction can continue.",
"-23.394116237446724"
],
[
"the \"Echo\" Symphony because of the use of mimicry motif (or echo) in the cadential phrasing of the second movement. The echo effect is created by scoring the leading line for unmuted first violins and the response from muted second violins.\nThis innovation in scoring expands upon an earlier common baroque practice of cadential phrase-repetition.",
"-23.380948558828095"
],
[
"in a frog's leg being touched by a scalpel. In different experiments, he notices contractions in frogs' legs caused by lightning and a luminous discharge from a charged Leyden jar that disappeared over time and was renewed whenever a spark occurred nearby.\nJoseph Henry observes magnetised needles from lightning in the early 1840s.\nIn 1852 Samuel Alfred Varley notices a remarkable fall in the resistance of masses of metallic filings under the action of atmospheric electrical discharges.\nTowards the end of 1875, while experimenting with the telegraph, Thomas Edison noted a phenomenon that he termed \"etheric force\", announcing it to the press on",
"-23.372365695195185"
],
[
"Hand-waving Hand-waving (with various spellings) is a pejorative label for attempting to be seen as effective – in word, reasoning, or deed – while actually doing nothing effective or substantial. It is most often applied to debate techniques that involve fallacies, misdirection and the glossing over of details. It is also used academically to indicate unproven claims and skipped steps in proofs (sometimes intentionally, as in lectures and instructional materials), with some specific meanings in particular fields, including literary criticism, speculative fiction, mathematics, logic, science and engineering. \nThe term can additionally be used in work situations, when attempts are",
"-23.361964703100966"
],
[
"called \"The Butterfly Effect: East-West Percussive Parade\", as part of the \"New Vision Arts Festival\". On April 13, 2011, Sugizo released two singles, \"No More Nukes Play the Guitar\" and \"The Edge\". On June 29, he released the single \"Miranda\", followed by \"Neo Cosmoscape\" on July 27, which was remixed by System 7, \"Enola Gay\" on August 15, and \"Pray for Mother Earth\" on September 9, a song he wrote with Toshinori Kondo for Earth Day 2006. On December 14, Sugizo released two albums, Flower of Life and Tree of Life. The first is completely instrumental with psychedelic and electronica",
"-23.353576829773374"
],
[
"characterized by irregular flapping-hand movement, which appears most often with outstretched arms and wrist extension. Individuals with this condition resemble birds flapping their wings. Volitional hyperkinesia Volitional hyperkinesia refers to any type of involuntary movement described above that interrupts an intended voluntary muscular movement. These movements tend to be jolts that present suddenly during an otherwise smoothly coordinated action of skeletal muscle. Pathophysiology The causes of the majority of the above hyperkinetic movements can be traced to improper modulation of the basal ganglia by the subthalamic nucleus. In many cases, the excitatory output of the subthalamic nucleus is reduced, leading",
"-23.34627708181506"
],
[
"jumping, which is exceptionally difficult to carry out at the required height and speed to complete the move before requiring to land. The Air Wrap The poi meet one another at the strings/chains, and wrap around one another. After spinning around one another for one rotation, the poi come undone again. This technique must be done with converging planes, steady hands, and with no pull from the spinner. Flowers Flowers are a class of trick based on compound circles, where the hands are moved in large, slow circles, and the poi rotate several times for each arm rotation, creating further",
"-23.323904703647713"
],
[
"the United States through his own Blue2 label (a division of Blueplate Records). Due to the song's club success in the US (and the fact Light Years was not released there), \"Butterfly\" was included as a hidden bonus track on early pressings of Fever in the US. Reception \"Butterfly\" received generally positive reviews from music critics, many calling it an instant standout to Light Years. Digital Spy gave it a positive review, saying it would be a \"hidden gem\". He said \"'Butterfly', the album's most bangin' track and the very definition of a Shoulda Been Single.\"\nThe song received was a",
"-23.32339955243515"
],
[
"long it takes the transmitted signal to return from the target that is illuminated by this signal. When this object is not stationary, it causes a shift in frequency known as the Doppler effect. In addition to the translational motion of the entire object, an additional shift in frequency can be caused by the object vibrating or spinning. When this happens the Doppler shifted signal will become modulated. This additional Doppler effect causing the modulation of the signal is known as the micro-Doppler effect . This modulation can have a certain pattern, or signature, that will allow",
"-23.280452278035227"
],
[
"but appeared as one new color composed of all of the colors of the lines. He deducted that sight needs some time to discern a color. al-Haytam also noted that the top appeared motionless when spun extremely quick \"for none of its points remains fixed in the same spot for any perceptible time\".\nLeonardo da Vinci wrote in a notebook: \"Every body that moves rapidly seems to colour its path with the impression of its hue. The truth of this proposition is seen from experience; thus when the lightning moves among dark clouds the speed of its sinuous flight makes its",
"-23.27973208221374"
],
[
"Butterflies (Basia album) Overview The album was Basia's first studio release in nine years. The singer has described it as an album \"about love – for life, for music and for people\" and her jazziest record yet. She has also revealed that its original title was Be.Pop, after one of the songs and as a reference to subgenre of jazz music, but her record company wasn't keen on the idea. To compromise, Basia suggested Be.Pop Butterfly, but ultimately the title was changed to Butterflies. Two songs on the album contain the word 'butterfly', including \"Liang & Zhu\" which tells about",
"-23.211178133729845"
],
[
"bees invades the classroom, following the queen bee that had flown in. As the other students and even Miss Richards panic and swat at the bees, C.T. calmly collects the queen and carries it outside with the swarm following him.\nThe school year ends with the Miss Richards' class observing a caterpillar emerge from its cocoon transformed into a butterfly. Miss Richards notes that it is reborn, \"just as you and I will be born again someday, and everyone we've ever known or loved\", and that witnessing the butterfly's first flight represents \"a wonderful promise of things to come.\"",
"-23.210464001902437"
],
[
"the background, above or in front of cloud banks to generate a sense of velocity and danger. Wellman later explained, \"motion on the screen is a relative thing. A horse runs on the ground or leaps over fencers or streams. We know he is going rapidly because of his relation to the immobile ground\". Against the clouds, Wellman enabled the planes to \"dart at each other\", and to \"swoop down and disappear in the clouds\", and to give the audience the sense of the disabled planes plummeting. During the delay in the aerial shooting, Wellman extensively rehearsed the scenes for",
"-23.20533418643754"
],
[
"flies (for they tried the experiment with a snipe). You cannot conceive what that sensation of cutting the air was; the motion is as smooth as possible, too. I could either have read or written; and as it was, I stood up, and with my bonnet off 'drank the air before me.' The wind, which was strong, or perhaps the force of our own thrusting against it, absolutely weighed my eyelids down. When I closed my eyes this sensation of flying was quite delightful, and strange beyond description; yet strange as it was, I had a perfect sense of security,",
"-23.155191566504072"
],
[
"Zitterbewegung Zitterbewegung (\"trembling motion\" in German) is a predicted rapid oscillatory motion of elementary particles that obey relativistic wave equations. The existence of such motion was first proposed by Erwin Schrödinger in 1930 as a result of his analysis of the wave packet solutions of the Dirac equation for relativistic electrons in free space, in which an interference between positive and negative energy states produces what appears to be a fluctuation (up to the speed of light) of the position of an electron around the median, with an angular frequency of , or approximately 1.6×10²¹ radians per second. For",
"-23.15208622207865"
],
[
"science-fantasy epic, Dune.\nHand-waving has come to be used in role-playing games to describe actions and conversations that are quickly glossed over, rather than acted out in full according to the rules. This may be done to keep from bogging down the play of the game with time-consuming but minor details. In mathematics (and formal logic, philosophy, theoretical science) In mathematics, and theory-dominated disciplines in which mathematics plays a major role, hand-waving refers to a reliance on heuristic, as opposed to arguments which withstand the standard of mathematical rigor. In practice, it often involves the use of unrepresentative examples, unjustified assumptions,",
"-23.134958399634343"
],
[
"other indication is most generally accepted. Usage One of the earliest uses of flutter-tonguing was by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in his ballet The Nutcracker. In the opening of the final act, Tchaikovsky makes the flutes flutter-tongue to depict the cascading river of rose-oil seen as Clara and the Nutcracker are welcomed to the kingdom of Confiturembourg: he named the effect frulato, as did the flautist who first introduced him to the technique, Alexander Khimichenko.\nThe effect has since been called for in many classical compositions, where it is most often used on flutes, recorders, bassoons, trumpets, and trombones, but can be",
"-23.129171964741545"
],
[
"who really run the show. The Washington Post stated: \"We are flying blind in many aspects of preserving the environment, and that's why we are so surprised when a species like the honeybee starts to crash, or an insect we don't want, the Asian tiger mosquito or the fire ant, appears in our midst. In other words: Start thinking about the bugs.\" Pests and propaganda Human attitudes toward insects are often negative, reinforced by sensationalism in the media. This has produced a society that attempts to eliminate insects from daily life. For example, nearly 75 million pounds of broad-spectrum insecticides",
"-23.126551572799144"
],
[
"technique in which short bursts of flapping are alternated with intervals in which the wings are folded against the body. This is a flight pattern known as \"bounding\" or \"flap-bounding\" flight. When the bird's wings are folded, its trajectory is primarily ballistic, with a small amount of body lift. The flight pattern is believed to decrease the energy required by reducing the aerodynamic drag during the ballistic part of the trajectory, and to increase the efficiency of muscle use. Hovering Several bird species use hovering, with one family specialized for hovering – the hummingbirds. True hovering occurs by generating lift",
"-23.120295291184448"
],
[
"\"Shiver\", \"Yellow\", \"Trouble\", and \"Don't Panic\". \"Shiver\" served as lead single in the United Kingdom while \"Yellow\" was used in the United States. Upon the release of \"Trouble\", Coldplay abandoned their initial plan of releasing \"Don't Panic\" as the album's fourth single, after they deemed three singles were enough for an album. Despite this, however, it was released as a single in some European regions.\nSince its release, Parachutes has earned the band a large array of awards. The album won Best Album at the 2000 Q Magazine Awards, and was nominated at the 2000 Mercury Music Prize. The following year,",
"-23.094894655427197"
],
[
"the Gwoling Islands. Anything at which the fan is waved vanishes, and can only be recalled by tapping the fan in a particular pattern. The list of patterns is contained in a code book Ajandra also possesses. As an instance of the fan's power, the sorcerer relates how Prince Wangerr, grandson of the king for whom it was made, had once even fanned away a dragon he had encountered. After seeing the fan's powers demonstrated, Tsotuga purchases the fan and its code book.\nFor a month all is well; then the emperor is irked by his finance minister, Yaebu, and fans",
"-23.083213771460578"
],
[
"The Butterfly Murders Plot Butterflies have apparently become a lethal weapon. Several rivals contend for a mysterious prize, using a variety of unusual weapons.",
"-23.070976887305733"
],
[
"Induced movement Induced movement or induced motion is an illusion of visual perception in which a stationary or a moving object appears to move or to move differently because of other moving objects nearby in the visual field. It is interpreted in terms of the change in the location of an object due to the movement in the space around it. The object affected by the illusion is called the target, and the other moving objects are called the background or the context (Duncker, 1929). Induced movement with stationary target A stationary object appears to move in the opposite direction",
"-23.066881568171084"
]
] |
30k3v1 | Why does every steam game I install need to install it's own copy of directx? | [
"Running the DirectX installer is not a matter of making sure your overall DirectX install being up-to-date. Microsoft has a helper library with D3D called D3DX. You'll find binaries for this like d3dx9_43.dll in your Windows\\system32 folder. There are over 40 different versions of the D3DX library for D3D9 alone, and many more for D3D10 and 11 as well. Each game that uses the D3DX helper library is linked to a specific version. As such the game must run the correct D3D installer version that it was specifically compiled with to ensure the binaries exist. Even if a later version of the binary is already installed, that version cannot be used, and even if your DirectX install is up-to-date because you've run a more recent version of the installer that is not guaranteed to have installed all previous versions. Even worse, if a version is installed for x86 it doesn't guarantee the same version is installed for x64, so 64 bit and 32 bit games may need to run the same exact installer version but targeting different platforms when run. Furthermore, Microsoft's licensing terms prevent anyone from distributing the files directly, the only way to distribute them is to run the installer, that's also the only supported method from Microsoft to check that the correct version installed. Trying to manually check for the correct versions is extremely complicated because there are numerous files that must all be present and individual system configuration options like dll search paths complicate the situation. In addition, the dependencies and required checks may change in each new version of the D3DX runtime. The code to check correctly and repair broken installs all exists in the installer and running it is a guarantee that the correct binaries will exist when you run the game and prevents lots of bad cases where a game would fail to launch with an obscure error if a windows install was either missing the correct version or somehow corrupted in the past. Source: [Steam support knowledgebase]( URL_0 )",
"DirectX is a combination of a bunch of .dll's (little files) that do specific graphical things. Games do not need all of the files, so whenever you install a game it checks which ones you have and installs only the additional ones it needs.",
"The more important question for me is this: why can't Steam install the DirectX stuff when it's installing the rest of the game? Why does it tell me the installation is complete and when I press play, it starts installing DirectX? While installing, why can't there be a process of *\"By the way, while we are at it, I'm going to check the libraries and install any missing files. It would be mighty nice if \"Installation complete\" meant \"Installation complete\".*",
"This question always gets answered via the same copypasta from the steam forums, but I have trouble believing that's the whole story. Does nobody here remember how things used to be before Steam got popular? You'd treat DirectX like a graphics driver: one time install and updates maybe every 6 months. Can't say I ever had problems running games that way. That works even today, when I play non-Steam games I usually skip dx install and everything is fine. Maybe it's more of a failsave feature, games use the same files 95% of the time and forced installs fix the other 5%?"
] | [
[
"somewhat inaccurately referred to as \"rootkits\"), are often incompatible with certain hardware configurations and many pieces of third-party security software (such as software firewalls and anti-virus applications), a problem that does not plague Steam. Steam also allows consumers to back up their copy of Half-Life 2 as well as other games that are downloadable through Steam onto CDs or DVDs. To complement this feature many fans have created box coverings for jewel cases that can be downloaded and printed, giving birth to a wide variety of game packaging styles and designs.\nJava games for cellphones are distributed almost exclusively via the",
"-31.376730720163323"
],
[
"Steam release. The project eventually transformed into a full-fledged remake and was released in October 2014.\nThe game was also sold directly by the developers via their own DRM-free webshop, additionally to gog.com. They had to stop direct sale due to a changed EU VAT legislation in 2015.",
"-30.942619624544022"
],
[
"an open-source, free-software replacement game engine that supports playing the original and add-on Morrowind content natively (without emulation or a virtual machine) on Linux, macOS, and Windows. It supports higher-resolution graphics (installed as mods) than the original Bethesda engine, but requires a copy of the original game, in any edition, for its data files. Most third-party mods that are not dependent on any MS Windows executables and which are free of serious scripting syntax errors are also compatible with OpenMW. Since 2016, all of the quests, classes, races, and other character choices of Morrowind and its official expansions and add-ons",
"-30.93382177944295"
],
[
"in favor of Games for Windows - Live technology already available on Xbox and being ported for use on Windows PCs. DirectPlay will be supported in DirectX DLLs for the lifetime of Microsoft Windows XP, but from the autumn of 2007 the headers and libraries — vital components if developers wanted to develop new programs that utilize the technology — were absent from DirectX SDK.\nIn Windows Vista, DirectPlay has been deprecated and DirectPlay Voice and DirectPlay's NAT Helper have been removed.",
"-30.619674119137926"
],
[
"There Came an Echo Development The developer has shown interest in bringing the game to Linux and SteamOS provided there is sufficient community support to do so. It was also mentioned that the main blocker is the proprietary voice libraries currently used by the game that do not support those platforms, so another library would need to be found that would suit the functional needs of the game.",
"-30.58920211190707"
],
[
"these experts stress the matter is better done by the developers and gaming community to assure the original developer is well known, protects their game assets on release, and gets the credit for the original game.\nValve Corporation, which operates the Steam digital storefront for games on personal computers, also takes steps to remove games that are clearly copyright-infringing clones of other titles on the service, once notified of the issue.",
"-30.39520480259671"
],
[
"computers and mobile devices; users can instruct Steam to download and install games they own through this service if their Steam client is currently active and running. Product keys sold through third-party retailers can also be redeemed on Steam. For games that incorporate Steamworks, users can buy redemption codes from other vendors and redeem these in the Steam client to add the title to their libraries. Steam also offers a framework for selling and distributing downloadable content (DLC) for games.\nIn September 2013, Steam introduced the ability to share most games with family members and close friends by authorizing machines to",
"-30.389276783680543"
],
[
"solutions to all of the puzzles in the game. Digital release and open-sourcing In 2008, work began on porting the game to Linux and other operating systems, utilizing the SDL library for cross-platform compatibility.\nIn April 2014 the new version was digitally re-released on Steam and later on the DRM-free service gog.com for Linux, OS X, and Windows. Unfortunately, multiplayer support has been removed.\nIn March 2016, the Vangers source code was released under the GPLv3 license. As the art content was not released as freely redistributable freeware (or open content), the data files from the digital re-releases on gog.com and Steam",
"-30.30848639982287"
],
[
"client and providing support where possible for Steam Overlay features. The Steam interface allows for user-defined shortcuts to be added. In this way, third-party modifications and games not purchased through the Steam Store can use Steam features. Valve sponsors and distributes some modifications free-of-charge; and modifications that use Steamworks can also use VAC, Friends, the server browser, and any Steam features supported by their parent game. For most games launched from Steam, the client provides an in-game overlay that can be accessed by a keystroke. From the overlay, the user can access his or her Steam Community lists and participate",
"-30.294141130172648"
],
[
"Linux version of the game, but the company went out of business before releasing it. The OpenGL layer they wrote for the port, however, was sent out to Windows gamers through an online patch, which also makes the game far more compatible with Wine on Linux than it would have been with only Direct3D.\nThough their quality assurance did not see major Direct3D issues, players noted \"dramatic slowdowns\" immediately following the launch, and the team did not understand the \"black box\" of the Unreal engine well enough to make it do exactly what they needed. Spector characterized Deus Ex reviews into",
"-30.25897808826994"
],
[
"through the Steam client.\nA further update: was released on 12 April 2011 for the Windows version, And on 24 March 2011 for the Mac OS X version.\nA last update was released on April 19th adding controller support and providing bugfixes. Digital rights management Until the removal of digital rights management in the 2.5 update, X3: Terran Conflict used Tagès as copy prevention. For the DVD versions of the game, the DVD was required to be in the drive to start the game. For online distribution version of the game, including Steam, the number of installations was limited to 5 machines.",
"-30.20232117708656"
],
[
"available some days after, depending on the country.\nIn March 2010, Valve announced that it would be bringing the Steam content platform to Mac OS X computers; along with it, Steam will be providing native versions of existing Valve games including Left 4 Dead 2 and its predecessor. The games will support cross-platform play, allowing Mac players to play alongside PC players on the same servers, and will also be part of its Steam Play cross-compatible and Steam Cloud titles, allowing a player who has purchased the game on one platform to download and play it on the other platform for",
"-30.200401665875688"
],
[
"Steam to Steam Machines, allowing access to games that are only available for Windows or OS X. Through SteamPlay, users can play games available on SteamOS that they already own on Windows or OS X and will not need to repurchase the title. Also, games running on a Steam Machine can be streamed to a Steam Link device via a wireless LAN connection. Reception By June 2016, seven months after the official release, fewer than half a million units had been sold. In response to the sales figures, Ars Technica described the unit as dead on arrival. Valve has yet",
"-30.18818101916986"
],
[
"been licensed out for the use of other developers, such as in Human Head Studios' Prey, Raven Software's Quake 4, Splash Damage's Enemy Territory: Quake Wars, Raven Software's Wolfenstein, and Splash Damage's Brink; however id Tech 4 has not been widely licensed compared to Epic Games' Unreal Engine. On November 22, 2011, the source code of the engine was released under the GPL, but the game's artwork content still remains under the EULA. A later source code drop also included the changes made for the BFG Edition, allowing the re-release to potentially be ported to other previously unsupported platforms such",
"-29.8751500256476"
],
[
"again on their platform. The game has also since resurfaced on Steam. Pre-release Customer reception of the shareware version of Descent was very positive, with players praising the fully 3D environment and commentators noting perceived \"loyalty and goodwill\" that both Parallax and Interplay fostered. However, it also garnered player complaints about a technical bug that would recharge each robot's shields whenever the player ship was destroyed (the problem was exacerbated on the last level of the shareware, where the power reactor is replaced with a boss and the gameplay thus becomes extremely difficult). It also received complaints for lacking the",
"-29.761412905645557"
],
[
"and voiced his disinterest in buying the standalone from having to wait six months for its release, while also criticizing the cost, writing \"I might've parted with that much money for it last year, but not now. It's too late.\" Criticism of the Windows version The Windows version of Remastered was criticized by players for suffering from a number of technical issues in the multiplayer, with further dissatisfaction for the game's available settings. On Steam, it received mostly negative user reviews, with complaints including poor performance, a locked 90 frames per second, insufficient mouse support, numerous hackers, and a low",
"-29.72628336345224"
],
[
"look and new features, many of which can be found in the current iteration of the site. It also began adding games not sold directly; instead it offered links to purchase games on the Mac App Store and Amazon.com, in addition to its own purchase links.\nIn November 2016, the service was discontinued. Digital rights management While some of the games that GameAgent sells directly still use the Software Passport DRM, many of the more recent titles rely on Steam for DRM. As such, GameAgent sells Steam codes for these games; these codes are redeemable via the Steam client. Other titles",
"-29.653453862440074"
],
[
"solved, and the company's success with releasing Ys games on Steam, Xseed announced that it would be released digitally for the PC and PlayStation Portable, and will be made playable on the PlayStation Vita, which is backwards compatible with many PSP games. Xseed received help with the game's translation through another company, Carpe Fulgur, which had previously localized PC games Recettear: An Item Shop's Tale and Chantelise – A Tale of Two Sisters.\nIn December 2013, XSeed announced they were aiming for \"mid-2014\" for the game's English release. However, by June, the company revised their goal to \"by the end of",
"-29.64888065546984"
],
[
"X computers was announced on September 9, 2010 and released on September 27, 2010 through the game's official website and Steam. It features enhanced graphics and is controlled with the keyboard and mouse. The version from the official website is completely DRM free, while the Steam version is SteamPlay enabled and includes Steam Achievements. The two-player mode is missing from the PC port. Demos for both Windows and Mac OS X versions are available on the game's website.",
"-29.64448894567613"
],
[
"available to developers, allowing them to take advantage of the cross-platform Source engine, and platform and network capabilities using Steamworks. Through SteamPlay, the macOS client allows players who have purchased compatible products in the Windows version to download the Mac versions at no cost, allowing them to continue playing the game on the other platform. Some third-party games may require the user to re-purchase them to gain access to the cross-platform functionality. The Steam Cloud, along with many multiplayer PC games, also supports cross-platform play, allowing Windows, macOS, and Linux users to play with each other regardless of platform. Linux",
"-29.636544666194823"
],
[
"Some specific proprietary software products are not available in any form for Linux. As of September 2015, the Steam gaming service has 1,500 games available on Linux, compared to 2,323 games for Mac and 6,500 Windows games. Emulation and API-translation projects like Wine and CrossOver make it possible to run non-Linux-based software on Linux systems, either by emulating a proprietary operating system or by translating proprietary API calls (e.g., calls to Microsoft's Win32 or DirectX APIs) into native Linux API calls. A virtual machine can also be used to run a proprietary OS (like Microsoft Windows) on top of Linux.",
"-29.625380432233214"
],
[
"compatibility is already a feature offered through the Steamworks application programming interface (API), and according to Paradox Interactive, all of their recent games that have been designed to work with Steam under Linux will also run under SteamOS without additional modifications. Valve will not make games that are exclusive to SteamOS or Steam Machines, and has cautioned third-party developers against making games exclusive to the platform. However, Valve will not stop developers from making SteamOS-exclusive games, particularly those that are best suited for playing from the living room. Players will also be able to stream games from regular PCs running",
"-29.61704496809398"
],
[
"and shortly thereafter on Steam. In the demo version, the player is given the possibility to play two single player missions as well as six of the eight training missions, with limited access to the mission editor. There is also access to a benchmark and limited online multiplayer.\nArma 2 uses different copy protections depending on publisher as well as a in-house coded copy protection solution against tampering known as DEGRADE. If the software detects that it was pirated, the DEGRADE-system degrades features of the game, rendering it unplayable. The version downloadable from Steam is not limited by number of installs,",
"-29.609536584699526"
],
[
"applications can access the core functions of the Steamworks API, allowing them to use Steam's simplified installation and updating process, and incorporate features including cloud saving and Steam Workshop. Steam also allows game soundtracks to be purchased to be played via Steam Music or integrated with the user's other media players. Valve have also added the ability for publishers to rent and sell digital movies via the service, with initially most being video game documentaries. Following Warner Bros. Entertainment offering the Mad Max films alongside the September 2015 release of the game based on the series, Lionsgate entered into agreement",
"-29.57706312625669"
],
[
"use the tools as to release the title. McMillen said that because they were not worried about sales, they were able to work with Valve to release the game without fears of censorship or having to seek an ESRB rating. Releasing through Steam also enabled them to update the game freely, several times on its initial release, an aspect that they could not do with other consoles without significant cost to themselves. They did release without significant end-user testing, as it would have taken several hundreds of users to go through all the various combinations of items that a player",
"-29.555495497770607"
],
[
"live system and allow you to back up/copy and play your games. However, customers who purchased the game through Triton will receive a retail copy.\nPrey was released on Valve's Steam service, which allows any existing Prey owners to register their game through Steam by entering the activation code, including those who bought Prey through Triton. The game is, however, no longer available for purchase through Steam. Technology Although similar to competing services, the primary selling point of Triton was its \"dynamic streaming\" technology, which allows for games to be played before they have been completely downloaded - new content is",
"-29.484999213018455"
],
[
"tools including Wine and DXVK among others. The software allows the use of Steam supported controllers, even those not compatible with Windows. Consoles At E3 2010, Newell announced that Steamworks would arrive on the PlayStation 3 with Portal 2. It would provide automatic updates, community support, downloadable content and other unannounced features. Steamworks made its debut on consoles with Portal 2's PlayStation 3 release. Several features—including cross-platform play and instant messaging, Steam Cloud for saved games, and the ability for PS3 owners to download Portal 2 from Steam (Windows and Mac) at no extra cost—were offered. Valve's Counter-Strike: Global Offensive",
"-29.484841585916"
],
[
"then authenticate through Steam to de-encrypt the executable files to play the game. Normally this is done while connected to the Internet following the user's credential validation, but once they have logged into Steam once, a user can instruct Steam to launch in a special offline mode to be able to play their games without a network connection. Developers are not limited to Steam's CEG and may include other forms of DRM and other authentication services than Steam; for example, some games from publisher Ubisoft require the use of their UPlay gaming service, and prior to its shutdown in 2014,",
"-29.4680710726534"
],
[
"has been registered, Cap'n Hector and all of the other restrictions disappear from the game.\nThe entire series features an open-ended plug-in architecture, allowing new scenarios to be written by users. This technology is based on the Macintosh resource fork format, making it possible to develop plug-ins without using any purpose-designed editors (though several editors exist and are popular since they make the task much easier). Since Windows does not support resource forks and it is therefore impossible to preserve them when transferring files to Windows-based computers, an alternate format and a conversion system were devised for the Windows version of",
"-29.39622384204995"
],
[
"final game. They also submitted Mini Metro on Steam Greenlight, a community voting system that allows games to be released on digital distribution service Steam. Initially, they intended on releasing the final version of the game by the end of 2013, however despite the game's limited scope, development took far longer than they had expected. A graphical overhaul, issues within the game's balance, and scheduling someone to work on the game's audio contributed to its delay. In August 2014, they decided to release an in-development version of the game commercially through Steam Early Access. They felt that the early access",
"-29.383531279454473"
],
[
"some other games required Games for Windows – Live, though many of these games have since transitioned to using the Steamworks CEG approach.\nIn September 2008, Valve added support for Steam Cloud, a service that can automatically store saved game and related custom files on Valve's servers; users can access this data from any machine running the Steam client. Games must use the appropriate features of Steamworks for Steam Cloud to work. Users can disable this feature on a per-game and per-account basis. In May 2012, the service added the ability for users to manage their game libraries from remote clients, including",
"-29.264997163132648"
],
[
"Steam selling website for personal computers. The Microsoft Windows version was released on August 25, 2016, with the OS X version following on December 26, 2016. A version for Linux was announced, and released on May 31st, 2018.\nAn expansion, entitled N++ Ultimate Edition, was announced on December 5, 2016, and was reported to nearly double the size of the original game with more levels and new colour schemes. The expansion was released for free on April 21, 2017 for the Windows version of the game. It brings the level count to 4340, adds 60 new colour schemes, and adds a",
"-29.251863266181317"
],
[
"Steam. It also has the Bonus Dye for Ezio's outfit, albeit it is unlocked from the very beginning of the game and available for free at Monteriggioni.\nThe PC version of the Retail Edition or the Digital Deluxe Edition now requires a one-time online activation, after which the game, its activation key, and the Uplay Account will be bound together and the game can be played offline, even with the Uplay Launcher forced to run in Offline Mode in the Settings Menu. Even in Offline mode, users can log in into Uplay, provided they have already logged in online with a",
"-29.229191040620208"
],
[
"legitimate e-mail account when they started using the software for the first time.\nUsers already owning the Retail Edition through Steam can upgrade to the Deluxe Edition. DRM-related criticism The PC version of the game utilizes Ubisoft's Uplay platform, which includes a digital rights management (DRM) system that initially required all users to remain connected to the Internet while playing. In the initial retail version, any progress made subsequent to the last checkpoint was lost if the Internet connection was severed. Ubisoft stated that if the disconnection was temporary, the game would pause. In addition, the company argued that there were",
"-29.21521902747918"
],
[
"Osmos.\nSome titles bought on Games on Demand include Server Side Authentication. This is a Games for Windows – Live 3.0 feature that automatically ties the game to your Windows Live ID and the Gamertag associated to it. These games have no activation limits and can be re-installed multiple times. The majority of the other titles on the service use a SecuROM DRM that lets the user activate the game up to five times each month on any hardware.\nOn June 8, 2010, some games which were previously not Games for Windows titles were added for download. Microsoft had claimed that new",
"-29.209916026884457"
],
[
"parts thereof.\nThe latest version of RealPlayer that can run on Windows 9x is RealPlayer 8; but this version can be easily modified to play RealPlayer 9 and 10 files, by the manual addition of just three .dll files (codecs and plugins), from Microsoft's free distribution of RealPlayer 10, that aren't included in RealPlayer 8 Basic.\nRealNetworks has also developed the open source Helix player, however support for RealVideo in the Helix Project is limited because RealNetworks is still keeping the codecs proprietary.\nRealPlayer does not record RealVideo streams, and RealNetworks has advertised this feature to content owners such as broadcasters, film studios,",
"-29.177727344535867"
],
[
"which would have allowed Valve to provide the same feature set that it did for the PlayStation 3, but later said that cross-platform play would not be present in the final version of the game. Valve attributes the inability to use Steamworks on the Xbox 360 to limitations in the Xbox Live regulations of the ability to deliver patches and new content. Valve's Erik Johnson stated that Microsoft required new content on the console to be certified and validated before distribution, which would limit the usefulness of Steamworks' delivery approach. Mobile Valve released an official Steam client for iOS and",
"-29.171091649306618"
],
[
"of the discontinuation of Games for Windows – LIVE in favor of Xbox Live on Windows. On April 13, 2012, Microsoft Studios release Iron Brigade, and is the first Microsoft Studios title available only on Steam.\nOn August 31, 2012, Gotham City Impostors became free-to-play and dropped Games for Windows – LIVE in favor of Steamworks. On October 10, 2012, the Steam version of Toy Soldiers was updated to fully use Steamworks, although it still gives the option to use the original service. On October 16, 2012, Mark of the Ninja was the first title of Microsoft Studios to use Steamworks",
"-29.137248569983058"
],
[
"in late 2008, Valve began releasing \"Authoring Tools\" for individual games, which constitute the same programs adapted for each game's engine build. After Team Fortress 2 became free-to-play, Source SDK was effectively made open to all Steam users. When some Source games were updated to Source 2013, the older Source SDKs were phased out. The three applications mentioned below are now included in the install of each game.\nThere are three applications packaged in the Source SDK: Hammer Editor, Model Viewer, and Face Poser. Hammer Editor, the engine's official level editor, uses rendering and compiling tools included in the SDK to",
"-29.122640262008645"
],
[
"come with Windows 8.1, Steam, and additional features developed in cooperation between Alienware and Valve to allow Steam features like Big Picture Mode to interface with Alienware's hardware. Owners will be able to upgrade their units to SteamOS once it is officially released.\nOn the official release of Steam Machines in November 2015, both Falcon Northwest and Origin PC opted to not ship a SteamOS-enabled machine in 2015 due to limitations of SteamOS over Windows; Falcon Northwest have said they will still consider shipping machines with SteamOS in the future if performance improves.\nValve has negotiated deals with retail stores GameStop, EB",
"-29.11327908599378"
],
[
"The game supports cross-platform play between the PlayStation 3, Windows, and OS X versions.\nThe Steam overlay shows the player's friends on both Steam and the PlayStation Network, with achievements rewarded for both Steam and PlayStation Network Trophies. Players can unlock the game on Steam for Windows and OS X for no additional charge. The integration of Steamworks on the PlayStation 3 allows Valve to collect data about problems that arise after shipping and push appropriate updates. Valve has stated they do not plan on integrating other PlayStation 3 features, such as 3D television or PlayStation Move support. In June 2012,",
"-29.092128169722855"
],
[
"service that discontinued the game earlier in the year. GOG release Remastered DRM-free version of the game was released on the PC game distribution platform GOG.com on August 13, 2015 with a 4 day -50% launch discount. Game is sold with additional manual, design document, concept arts and team photographs. Much like Steam version it lacked full screen mode. Remastering included support for widescreen resolutions, new multiplayer matchmaking with modified multiplayer user interface, and an updated source code to offer support for modern operating systems. Initial reviews were mixed. Bugs After playing for a long period (the exact amount varies",
"-29.059426827909192"
],
[
"program dedicated to the further development of Cedega, which is a compatibility layer for running Microsoft Windows games on Linux.There are games that run on Cedega but not on Wine, and games that run on Wine but not Cedega. Users that want to play a specific game usually look for it on the games databases available on the web. Digital rights management (DRM) In a press release dated 2008-08-20, TransGaming announced that they \"will utilize Sony DADC's SecuROM digital rights management (DRM) solution for all video game titles enabled through TransGaming's Cider portability engine for Mac games.\" TransGaming's use",
"-29.051683104480617"
],
[
"purchase computer games. Once the game is bought, a software license is permanently attached to the user's Steam account, allowing them to download the software on any compatible device. Game licenses can be given to other accounts under certain conditions. Content is delivered from an international network of servers using a proprietary file transfer protocol. Steam sells its products in US and Canadian dollars, euros, pounds sterling, Brazilian reais, Russian rubles, Indonesian rupiah and Indian rupees depending on the user's location. In December 2010, the client began supporting the WebMoney payment system, which is popular in many European, Middle Eastern,",
"-29.039890639109217"
],
[
"on Steam's Early Access program on December 15, 2014. It supports up to six players at a time, who can be either existing friends or strangers and can play in public or private games. The expansion contains most, if not all, features of the single-player game, but with ongoing balance patches being made for multiplayer. The game was released out of early access on April 21, 2016. If the game is purchased, by itself, two copies are given: one for the purchaser, and one stored as a gift for a friend.\nPresently, this is an altogether separate game from Don't Starve",
"-29.00545766815776"
],
[
"based on Debian, for beta testing, and has plans to ship Steam Machines as a gaming and entertainment platform. Valve has also developed VOGL, an OpenGL debugger intended to aid video game development, as well as porting its Source game engine to desktop Linux. As a result of Valve's effort, several prominent games such as DotA 2, Team Fortress 2, Portal, Portal 2 and Left 4 Dead 2 are now natively available on desktop Linux.\nOn July 31, 2013, Nvidia released Shield as an attempt to use Android as a specialized gaming platform.\nSome Linux users play Windows games through Wine or",
"-28.994495512837602"
],
[
"to have Steam Link apps, which can be created using an SDK. A number of such apps have been created, such as apps for accessing Kodi, but no database or store for them exists as of November 2017. Games and applications Any Steam game that can run on the host computer can be streamed to the Steam Link. On Linux host it's also possible to stream a Windows game using the Proton beta (released August 2018). Non-Steam games can be played as well. Discontinuation Valve announced in November 2018 that they are no longer manufacturing the Steam Link hardware device,",
"-28.99135940958513"
],
[
"and Macintosh computers. Unlike the version for Nvidia Shield (which Nvidia promoted as being similar to Netflix), this is a separate offering in which users can rent access to a remote desktop with access to a Windows environment with GeForce GTX graphics. Users can install digital distribution clients such as Steam and Origin onto the remote desktop to download and run purchased or free-to-play games as they would locally. There has not been any confirmation of this recently, so plans may have changed, but one potential pricing structure is per-minute of play time using blocks of service credits; two price",
"-28.98271108744666"
],
[
"not approve, or is inappropriate for the game, they are requested to revert to the previous version of the file; most developers monitor source edits on IRC.\nThe copyright holder for the game is Tim Riker but maintenance is guided by Scott Wichser and Jeff Makey as project managers. The game's original author, Chris Schoeneman, is no longer involved in development. Gameplay In a game of BZFlag, players drive around tanks, viewed from a first-person view, in a server-defined world (also known as a \"map\"), which can be modified. Tanks have the ability to drive through other tanks, but cannot travel",
"-28.97079252207186"
],
[
"General Public License (AGPL), and current development uses a community-based open source model. A 13Gb archive containing all textures and effects, 3D models, animations, characters and clothing (but not music or sounds) was released under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC-BY-SA) license. The commercial ongoing game-world data (story plots, quests, maps, lore, etc.) is not available for download, so as not to disrupt the fan-base. Also, in order to combat cheating, connecting to official servers with unofficial client builds is prohibited.",
"-28.929447329661343"
],
[
"PC would use Games for Windows – Live for online play and DRM, spurring fan backlash.\nThe PC version was released on August 23, 2012. A user-created mod to circumvent the resolution cap, named DSFix, appeared shortly after release. DSFix was later extended to become an unofficial fan-made patch which additionally allowed graphical improvements, raising the framerate cap to 60, and allowing the installation of custom texture mods. On December 15, 2014, Games for Windows – Live was removed from the Steam version and replaced by Steamworks. The ability to transfer both achievements and save data was provided. In April 2016,",
"-28.915372489311267"
],
[
"Games and Game to create Steam Sections within the stores where various Steam Machines, the Steam Controller and Link, and pre-paid Steam cards will be sold. SteamOS Steam Machines, at minimum, run SteamOS, a Linux-based operating system derived from Debian that expands the current Steam client to add additional functionality such as media sharing, media services, Steam In-Home Streaming, family sharing, and parental controls. The operating system is freely available for any user to install on their own hardware, assuming it meets the system requirements. Games and applications Games will be developed to run natively on Linux and SteamOS. Linux",
"-28.912784158368595"
],
[
"by Secret Level, who had to drop Assault mode, along with many larger maps, due to the Dreamcast having insufficient memory. On December 28, 1999, Brandon Reinhart announced plans to release Linux libraries of Unreal Tournament through SourceForge. \"I've chosen the Artistic License. I feel that it allows mod developers a lot of freedom with the open code, while not putting Epic into any weird positions with the undisclosed part of the engine,\" he commented. The goal of the project was to improve the quality of the Linux port of the game as well as strengthen the mod authoring community",
"-28.905175579275237"
],
[
"is simply copied from there to the FinalBuild folder. Be careful not to delete .fst or .pak files that exist in the source directory at the time of installation because you will not be able to rebuild these.\nThe game is under mod by several projects and hosted on a GitHub repository. As of 2017 there is a project fork on github with the goal to port the source code to Linux. Plot The single-player game takes place on Carver V, a planet previously held by House Liao, but recently mostly captured by the Federated Commonwealth, who killed the local Liao",
"-28.88972310873214"
],
[
"include Retina support.\nArtRage is also available through Steam. It was part of the very first non-gaming software launch on Steam, on October 10, 2012. The Steam version does not include DRM and can be used without Steam running. Software downloads ArtRage is only sold individually as an online download. It can be bought directly from the company website, or through Steam, but is not sold on any other websites. The free demo is only available from the main site. The mobile (iPad and iPhone) versions can only be bought via the Apple app store and cannot be registered on",
"-28.860505930002546"
],
[
"following month. Through Greenlight, Steam users would choose which games were added to the service. Developers were able to submit information about their games, as well as early builds or beta versions, for consideration by users. Users would pledge support for these games, and Valve would help to make top-pledged games available on the Steam service. In response to complaints during its first week that finding games to support was made difficult by a flood of inappropriate or false submissions, Valve required developers to pay US$100 to list a game on the service to reduce illegitimate submissions. Those fees were",
"-28.86021911096759"
],
[
"how much it should embrace the players' contribution in creating new material for the game or mod-communities as part of their structure within the game. Some software companies openly accept and even encourage such communities. Others though have chosen to enclose their games in heavily policed copyright or Intellectual Property regimes(IPR) and close down sites that they see as infringing their ownership of a game. Portability issues For cross-platform games, mods written for the Windows version have not always been compatible with the Mac OS X and/or Linux ports of the game. In large part, this is due to the",
"-28.844919919152744"
],
[
"have discontinued the game since, but its community continued developing it.\nDeveloped by a team at Newerth.com with S2 Games' support, XR is the most widely used continuation of Savage. It includes all improvements contributed by the Savage Full Enhancement mod, and adds better player models, new animations, new music, an additional 500 props for map designers, a reworked GUI and better support for mods, among other features. Unlike the original Savage, XR is not open-source due to concerns about cheating, which has been a problem in the past for open-sourced versions of the game.",
"-28.84185488842195"
],
[
"downloading the game directly from the developer. In September 2014, 1.4 million accounts belonged to Australian users; this grew to 2.2 million by October 2015.\nSteam's customer service has been highly criticized, with users citing poor response times or lack of response in regards to issues such as being locked out of one's library or having a non-working game redemption key. In March 2015, Valve had been given a failing \"F\" grade from the Better Business Bureau due to a large number of complaints in Valve's handling of Steam, leading Valve's Erik Johnson to state that \"we don't feel like our",
"-28.834174499283108"
],
[
"Xbox developers. The extensions include additional managed APIs for achievements, leaderboards, and other features reserved for licensed game titles. Titles developed using XDK Extensions include winners of Microsoft's Dream.Build.Play competition among others. The most heavily publicized of these was The Dishwasher: Dead Samurai. License agreement The Microsoft XNA Framework 2.0 EULA specifically prohibits the distribution of commercial networked games that connect to Xbox Live and/or Games for Windows Live in the absence of a specific agreement signed by both the developer and Microsoft. This means that XNA Game Studio can still be used to develop commercial games and other programs",
"-28.825102261966094"
],
[
"Windows operating systems; Vista, 7, and 8 respectively.\nThe game was released on Steam on May 31, 2012. On top of the enhancements from the expansion disc, this release added a fully localized translation, proper widescreen support, Steam achievements, enhanced game pad support, and cloud save support. On January 12, 2015, Nihon Falcom announced that this version of the game had sold over 200,000 copies worldwide. The game was later released DRM-free on GOG.com and Humble Store as well.",
"-28.80798220873112"
],
[
"announced plans in October 2016 to help developers bring their games to the Steam distribution platform with an updated software development kit to make it easy to port games between their web, mobile, and the Steam platforms (Windows, macOS, and Linux), and to support data sharing between these for players. This enabled games to take advantage of microtransactions through the Steam store for titles otherwise normally free-to-play.\nIn 2016, Kongregate received Apple Editors' Choice for BattleHand and The Trail, and received Google Play Editors' Choice for Animation Throwdown and AdVenture Capitalist. BattleHand and The Trail also were voted as Best of",
"-28.788607773756667"
],
[
"Mojang parent company Microsoft had no issues with licensing and trademarking Crown and Council for release on Steam.\nPettersson originally said he planned on continuing working on the game to fix bugs and add features. An update released in January 2017 added a 99-map campaign and tweaks to the procedural generation and land-taking mechanics to improve balance. The most important change was in the calculations affecting the attack and defence of territories: the element of \"randomness\" was removed, and \"attrition\" was added, meaning that failed attacks improve the chance of future attacks succeeding. This update also added macOS and Linux versions.",
"-28.787881169235334"
],
[
"\"Get\" page.\nThey are currently limited to Win32 and Lin64 executables due to technical limitations of the developer's system. Each release comes with the full source code, however, so players can build executables for any operating system. Funding ScrumbleShip employs an alpha funding model, whereby the latest version of the game in development are available for purchase. Purchasers of the Full version of the game have access to monthly releases, and purchasers of the Deluxe version have access to bleeding edge releases. Purchasing any version of the game ensures access to the final version of the game upon its",
"-28.787582113407552"
],
[
"praise for its high-performing engine, which enables the game to run on previous-generation hardware; the minimum system requirements for CPU on Steam are stated simply as \"Anything made since 2004\" and the game supports Windows XP despite Microsoft having discontinued support for that operating system before development of AdvertCity began.\nCritics praised the \"cyber-jazz\" soundtrack's \"postrock, jazz & glitch\" qualities and praised the way it dovetails with the gameplay and \"backs your every move\" in the game.",
"-28.765006128931418"
],
[
"approximately 11 months after the creation of a working prototype. As the Xbox Live functionality had to be written from scratch, the developers opted to completely rewrite the game engine rather than do a port through emulation. As a result, although the game plays exactly the same, the code and renderer is different. The game runs at 1080p and 60 frames per second.\nWhile the original level geometry was kept, the levels received new textures, characters and weapons were recreated, and skyboxes were rebuilt. Lobb explained that \"things are large and blocky because that's what [Perfect Dark] looks like\", meaning that",
"-28.737960449419916"
],
[
"designed to misuse Steam's features for the benefit only to the developer or select few users. To help assist finding and removing these games from the service, the company added Steam Explorers atop its existing Steam Curator program, according to various YouTube personalities that have spoken out about such games in the past and with Valve directly, including Jim Sterling and TotalBiscuit. Any Steam user is able to sign up to be an Explorer, and are asked to look at under-performing games on the service as to either vouch that the game is truly original and simply lost among other",
"-28.700971529760864"
],
[
"of Steam client's features, free-of-charge to game and software developers. Steamworks provides networking and player authentication tools for both server and peer-to-peer multiplayer games, matchmaking services, support for Steam community friends and groups, Steam statistics and achievements, integrated voice communications, and Steam Cloud support, allowing games to integrate with the Steam client. The API also provides anti-cheating devices and digital copy management. Developers of software available on Steam are able to track sales of their games through the Steam store. In February 2014, Valve announced that it would begin to allow developers to set up their own sales for their",
"-28.67930815834552"
],
[
"releases, or if it is an example of a \"fake game\", at which point Valve can take action to remove the game.\nIn July 2019, the Steam Labs feature was introduced as a means of Valve to showcase experimental discovery features they have considered for including into Steam, but seek public feedback to see if it is something that users want before fully integrating that into the storefront. For example, an initial experiment released at launch was the Interactive Recommender, which uses artificial intelligence algorithms pulling data from the user's past gameplay history, comparing it to all other users, as to",
"-28.669941726955585"
],
[
"on December 13, 2013. When this beta version released, Valve suggested waiting until 2014 to use it unless the user was confident using Linux operating systems.\nIn mid-October 2015, preorders of the Steam Controller, Steam Link, and Alienware branded Steam Machines became available. The official release date for Steam Machines was on November 10, 2015. Performance In December 2013, Phoronix compared three Nvidia graphics cards on SteamOS and Windows 8.1. Overall, the Nvidia's proprietary Linux graphics driver can deliver comparable performance to that of the Windows drivers due to the largely shared code-base between the platforms.\nIn January 2014, GameSpot compared the",
"-28.649980971880723"
],
[
"retailers. Some customers who then purchased the game a second time from a local vendor experienced difficulty adding the new CD key to their accounts in order to activate their newly purchased games and also had trouble communicating with Steam's customer support team about this problem. Doug Lombardi of Valve stated, \"Some of these users have subsequently purchased a legal copy after realizing the issue and were having difficulty removing the illegitimate keys from their Steam accounts. Anyone having this problem should contact Steam Support to have the Thai key removed from their Steam account.\"\nThe German version of The Orange",
"-28.62414761679247"
],
[
"2).\nFangame developers often select and use free and open source game engines (such as OGRE, Crystal Space, DarkPlaces and Spring) to help fans create games without the cost of licensing a commercial alternative. These engines may be altered and redesigned within the terms of their open source license and often cost significantly less than commercial options, but do not always allow developers to easily create high-end visual effects without additional effort.\nIt is also possible for fans to develop original game engines from scratch using a programming language such as C++, although doing so takes much more time and technical ability",
"-28.623498664528597"
],
[
"operating systems and current PC hardware, games are pre-patched and restored by GOG.com. Whenever possible, GOG.com attempts to acquire the game's original source code, which can prove as difficult as determining the legal rights to games. From this, they can work to make the game compatible with modern and future hardware, directly apply compatibility fixes, and sometimes incorporate well-established community-made patches from a game's fan-community. They also will seek external help with some of the code issues, approaching developers that may have previously worked on the title for assistance. They may also need to reverse engineer the game's code if",
"-28.587772300525103"
],
[
"release of the Steam client on the same platform. Valve announced that all their future games will be released simultaneously for Windows and Mac. The first of Valve's games to support Linux was Team Fortress 2, the port released in October 2012 along with the closed beta of the Linux version of Steam. Both the OS X and Linux ports of the engine take advantage of OpenGL and are powered by SDL. During the process of porting, Valve rearranged most of the games released up to The Orange Box into separate, but parallel \"singleplayer\" and \"multiplayer\" branches. The game code",
"-28.574553608719725"
],
[
"the Steam store is live, with a Q4 release date, playable in VR or non-VR. On December 21st, 2018, the game released for PC.",
"-28.569987159688026"
],
[
"on 28 January 2016. Neither Topware nor Reality Pump have released any official explanation for this, however it has been speculated that allegations of \"fake\" positive reviews were what led to the game's removal from sale. As of July 2016, however, the game has been restored to the Steam Store.",
"-28.569309349071773"
],
[
"June 21, 2011, and March 19, 2014, respectively. OS X and Linux versions were added in GOG.com by Blue Moon Red Owl, the current distributor of the game on GOG.com, on May 9, 2013 and July 24, 2014. Kiss, Ltd. re-released the game on Steam on March 19, 2014 for PC only and Desura for PC, Mac and Linux.",
"-28.56091147311963"
],
[
"under an own non-commercial license. On March 25, 2014, Microsoft followed with the donation of MS-DOS variants as well as Word for Windows 1.1a under their own license. On October 21, 2014, Xerox Alto's source code and other resources followed.\nIn 2012 a group of European museums and organizations started the European Federation of Game Archives, Museums and Preservation Projects (EFGAMP) to join forces to \"Preserve Gaming Legacy\". Also in Japan video game software archival happens since several years.\nIn 2012 the MOMA started with archiving video games and explicitly tries to get the source code of them.\nThere are also some cases",
"-28.56090887368191"
],
[
"independent from the rest of Steam by Perfect World with features that are aligned with China's strict regulations on video games, featuring only games that have passed approval by the government. Valve does not plan to prevent Chinese users from accessing the global Steam platform, and will try to assure that a player's saved games for a game on the main Steam client will be useable within the Steam China version of the game. As of August 2019, the Steam China service is not yet available, but Valve and Perfect World are nearing completion for release. Users Valve reported that there",
"-28.53210258972831"
],
[
"builds upon the Steam client functionality that includes media services, live streaming across home networks, game sharing within families, and parental controls. SteamOS was officially announced in September 2013 as the first of several announcements related to the Steam Machine platform as well as their unique game controller. In May 2014, Valve announced that the company's own SteamOS-powered Steam Machine would be delayed until 2015 due to problems with the game controller. In 2015, Alienware, ZOTAC, and CyberPowerPC launched their versions of the Steam Machine. By June 2016, fewer than half a million had been sold. While the Steam Machine",
"-28.487516508866975"
],
[
"Microsoft Windows through the Steam digital distribution platform on November 5, 2015. This release, developed chiefly by Cave, is based on the Xbox 360 \"HD\" port, and includes the same Novice, Original, and Arrange modes rendered with HD graphics. Unlike the Xbox 360 version, however, where Version 1.5 mode and the arranged soundtrack were only available in limited quantities, the Steam version offers these as paid DLC available to all. Additionally, whereas the Xbox 360 port was region-locked to NTSC-J hardware, the Steam version is an international release with no region restrictions.",
"-28.472038168431027"
],
[
"PhysX middleware. 2010s: Steam, GOG, and Beyond In July 2012, game developer and content distributor Valve Software announced a port of their Source engine for Linux as well as stating their intention to release their Steam digital distribution service for Linux. The potential availability of a Linux Steam client has already attracted other developers to consider porting their titles to Linux, including previously Mac OS only porting houses such as Aspyr Media and Feral Interactive.\nIn November 2012, Unity Technologies ported their Unity engine and game creation system to Linux starting with version 4. All of the games created with the",
"-28.467679882305674"
],
[
"popup for 16 commands that can act similar to hotkeys for keyboard-and-mouse games, cloud-based controller configuration saving, and support for non-Steam games that otherwise can be played through the Steam Overlay.\nUnlike their current plans to have third-party hardware vendors manufacture Steam Machines, Valve plans to remain the sole manufacturer of the Steam Controller. Valve did clarify that they will open up specifications for third-party controllers to be developed. And in March 2016, Valve released the computer aided design geometry files for the Steam controller, to facilitate hardware modding by end users. As of December 2015, Valve is working with Flextronics robotic",
"-28.46683412467246"
],
[
"game developers through the \"Development\" tab, and technical support and client settings through the \"Support\" tab.\nDesura did not implement digital rights management, and Desura employees have commented against its use in the past, recommending that content creators ship without DRM or use a CD Key system instead. However, Desura itself was DRM-neutral, and publishers and developers could sell games that require such technologies to be used. Desura made sure users purchasing these titles are aware of the DRM it ships with and how it works. Competitors Desura competed in the same market as Valve Corporation's Steam platform. However, Scott Reismanis,",
"-28.46351161593111"
],
[
"from the original release date, the game was released on the PC game distribution platform Steam on April 18, 2014, after a successful Steam Greenlight campaign. The Steam version features updated code and patches for bugs that were long neglected in the older version. However, this version also came with its share of problems, such as fullscreen mode not being an option, and the updated code breaking user-made modifications from the older version. The former was fixed however. Steam achievements were also added, as well as a new authentication system and server browser, which replaced GameSpy, its former server browser",
"-28.455783636309206"
],
[
"XDK and so is not legally available as an executable program to non-official Microsoft game-publishers. Users are encouraged to compile their own binaries from the public CVS repository using the XDK, rather than downloading a questionable illegally released executable. XBMP's full source code is however legal 'as is' and is available on SourceForge.",
"-28.451422026962973"
],
[
"intend to publish. Once they apply, a developer must wait thirty days before publishing the game as to give Valve the ability to review the game to make sure it is \"configured correctly, matches the description provided on the store page, and doesn't contain malicious content.\"\nOn announcing its plans for Steam Direct, Valve suggested the fee would be in the range of $100–5,000, meant to encourage earnest software submissions to the service and weed out poor quality games that are treated as shovelware, improving the discovery pipeline to Steam's customers. Smaller developers raised concerns about the Direct fee harming them,",
"-28.440588663652306"
],
[
"involved in the project. The task of producing two different versions were made easier by Blitz Games' production toolchain that had built-in compatibility for Xbox and the developers able to adjust the game with appropriate hardware coding that had already been previously developed by the company. During the end of each month of the development, the builds of the games were provided to Microsoft as required of all developers. Both masters of the games are included on the discs, Oliver guesses that the Xbox and Xbox360 were able to launch the specific executable based on file name because each disc",
"-28.426620207261294"
],
[
"license. Modifications have been made to the game to allow it to run as a standalone title. The freeware release includes a walkthrough of the game's levels, as well as a patch which adds new gameplay features and fixes glitches from the original version.",
"-28.423155718133785"
],
[
"the official version. Ports for other platforms were later developed, with Mac OS X and OpenPandora versions being released. In 2016 the game's content was re-released under an open content CC BY-SA 4.0 Creative Commons license. In April 2018 some artwork with sources (.3ds render files) were released under the GPLv3 in their own repository. Development continues on GitHub (as of July 2019). Gameplay The game features 13 levels, within which, money and experience points are earned by destroying enemy aliens, pirates, or meteorites. Using this money, the player can purchase from a selection of 22 ship types, 19 weapons,",
"-28.38964327715803"
],
[
"of games on Steam only existed to \"mill\" cards for profit, with Valve labeling these asset flips as \"fake games\". In May 2017, Valve claimed that these \"fake games\" harmed Steam by feeding \"faux data\" into the storefront's algorithm, which resulted in asset flips being granted a disproportionate amount of storefront exposure relative to the number of people actually playing them. To counter this, Valve implemented a \"confidence metric\" system, wherein trading cards can only drop for games which pass a sales threshold.\nIn September 2017, Valve ended their business relationships with Silicon Echo Studios, who were implicated in an asset",
"-28.38572645711247"
],
[
"game development tools have been available for Linux, including GNU Debugger, LLDB, Valgrind, glslang and others. VOGL, a debugger for OpenGL was released on 12 March 2014. See also Game Editor, APITrace and GtkRadiant. AMD CodeXL. An open-source, cross-platform clone of Enterbrain's RPG Maker (2000, 2003, XP, VX), called OpenRPG Maker, is currently in development. Available IDEs and source code editors Numerous source code editors and IDEs are available for Linux, among which are Visual Studio Code, Sublime Text, Code::Blocks, Qt Creator, Emacs, or Vim. Multi-monitor A multi-monitor setup is supported on Linux at least by AMD Eyefinity & AMD",
"-28.383225661164033"
],
[
"clearance or rights to republish the title, locate as much of the game's original source code and adapt that to work on modern systems, or when source code is not available, reverse engine the game to either work natively or through emulation (like DOSBox) with modern hardware. GOG.com and Night Dive have successfully freed some games from IP limbo, such as System Shock 2, while identifying titles that remain difficult to republish and preserve legally due to conflicts on IP rights holders, such as No One Lives Forever.",
"-28.3638860534993"
],
[
"Xbox Live, and PlayStation Network, due to an expired contract between Marvel Studios and Activision. Activision will no longer make downloadable content, trading cards, and patches to the game. However, on July 15, 2015, Deadpool was made available for purchase on Steam for PC again. The title was made no longer available to purchase from the Steam store again on November 16, 2017, but players who purchased it while it was available are still able to download and play the game through the Steam client.",
"-28.344116541877156"
],
[
"also supports Steamworks and cross-platform features on the PlayStation 3, including using keyboard and mouse controls as an alternative to the gamepad. Valve said it \"hope[s] to expand upon this foundation with more Steam features and functionality in DLC and future content releases\". In October 2016, Valve announced plans to provide controller customization features similar to what Steam offers for the Steam controller for other third-party controllers, starting with the DualShock 4.\nThe Xbox 360 does not have support for Steamworks. Newell said that they would have liked to bring the service to the console through the game Counter-Strike: Global Offensive,",
"-28.340600432653446"
],
[
"with i5comp/i6comp. The Mac installer must be run under Mac OS X or SheepShaver as nothing can currently extract the contents of VISE. Orange of the SynCE linux suite may one day be able to do it. Currently under Linux you can use Wine to install the game and then run it in ScummVM. Reception In 2011, Adventure Gamers named The Feeble Files the 91st-best adventure game ever released.",
"-28.30715819390025"
],
[
"tool-assisted. Nevertheless, SDA does permit the use of emulators in certain cases; submissions performed on the Game Boy Player, GameTap, and Virtual Console are allowed. Virtual Machines and DOSBox are allowed in cases where an older PC game does not run properly on modern computers. Use of this software is reserved for specific circumstances and submissions must adhere to several additional rules. Due to potential emulation inaccuracies, runs that utilize an emulator may be categorized separately from those of the original release.\nNon-cosmetic modifications to a game, console, or controller are not allowed. Glitches that are triggered by interfering with the",
"-28.306273328140378"
],
[
"DOS programs that are not supported natively by the Wine Virtual DOS machine (winevdm). Commercial deployment id Software has used DOSBox to re-release vintage games such as Wolfenstein 3D and Commander Keen on Valve's Steam. In the process, it was reported they violated the program's license, the GNU GPL; the breach, which was reported as an oversight, was promptly resolved. Activision Blizzard has also used it to re-release Sierra Entertainment's DOS games. LucasArts used it to re-release Star Wars: Dark Forces for modern machines on Steam. 2K Games producer Jason Bergman stated the company used DOSBox for Steam re-releases of",
"-28.294072280543332"
],
[
"game the studio has created. Apparently, the game's lead developer is the only of Image & Form employees to finish the game.\nThe game is set before the events depicted in SteamWorld Dig and SteamWorld Heist.",
"-28.247026651108172"
],
[
"that OS X, Linux, and Xbox support would not be available at the game's initial launch. It was also revealed that Natural Selection amassed over $200,000 in pre-orders and $500,000 through angel investors.\nOn April 9, 2010 a standalone Engine Build became available which included an external map creation utility. On May 7, the Engine Build started using Steam as its primary distribution and update source.\nOn 13 July 2010, Unknown Worlds Entertainment announced that a private alpha was to be released through Steam for all Special Edition pre-order customers on 26 July 2010. It will be updated throughout the game",
"-28.225641611381434"
]
] |
3ngwkn | Why don't large dogs consider small dogs prey, but they consider cats prey? | [
"Large dogs do consider smaller dogs prey. Your dog is just socialized well/naturally has no or low prey drive.",
"Cats are more likely to run than dogs, triggering the prey instinct of the bigger dog. Small dogs are more likely to get in the bg dogs face, making the big dog think \"this guy's not food, he's not worth the trouble.\"",
"It really depends on the dog's temperament and socialization. A large dog with a strong prey drive will go after little dogs if not trained not to. I've seen it happen when a relative's big dog went after my small one, grabbing and shaking her. Luckily we were able to separate them quickly and my dog suffered only minor injuries, but the big dog was definitely going for the kill.",
"Smell is a much more important sense for a dog than the eyes. Small dogs probably smell much like big dogs and very different than cats and prey. How an animal moves is another important aspect. Small dogs move like dogs, not like prey. Even a big human can trigger the hunting instinct in a dog if you try to run directly away from the dog. Always show your side to an agressive dog, not your back.",
"I don't think they see cats as prey, either. I think they see cats as competitive predators. They aren't killing cats to eat them, they are killing cats to eliminate them.",
"When I was five, I had a dog named Mugsy. Used to eat stray cats, didn't find out until I was attacked by a cat. Bit it in half in a second, then proceeded to eat it in his dog house. Found the \"others\" behind the dog house, the heads anyway."
] | [
[
"small predators such as opossums and raccoons on bird numbers and variety.\nPerhaps the best known element of cats' hunting behavior, which is commonly misunderstood and often appals cat owners because it looks like torture, is that cats often appear to \"play\" with prey by releasing it after capture. This cat and mouse behavior is due to an instinctive imperative to ensure that the prey is weak enough to be killed without endangering the cat.\nAnother poorly understood element of cat hunting behavior is the presentation of prey to human guardians. One explanation is that cats adopt humans into their social group",
"-34.81415244487289"
],
[
"such as cats and rabbits are also reported to be used as bait for fighting dogs. Experts have said small dogs, kittens, and rabbits are more at risk of being stolen for bait than larger animals.\nNational Geographic noted that there are no statistics on how many pets are taken and used as bait by dog fighting rings each year. Patricia Wagner, head of the National Illegal Animal Fighting Task Force for the Humane Society of the United States, offered the statement \"I think every state has a problem with it, whether they know it or not.\" Dangers of training dogs",
"-34.66145834722556"
],
[
"hunting in a group or on its own. They are agile, brave and not sensitive. They are natural hunters and have a high prey drive. Despite being a hunting dog, they are obedient, playful and good with children. They cannot be trusted around small animals, but are usually okay with cats if introduced to them early on. They can be escape artists and have amazing climbing abilities, especially those with working rear dewclaws, who can climb vertical trees. They are very smart so require a lot of mental stimulation as well as physical stimulation.\nDespite being bred, raised and used as",
"-33.501694741949905"
],
[
"hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves: the African wild dog (142), the gray wolf (136), the dhole (112), and the dingo (108). The bite force at the carnassials showed a similar trend to the canines. A predator's largest prey size is strongly influenced by its biomechanical limits.\nMost canids have 42 teeth, with a dental formula of: . The bush dog has only one upper molar with two below, the dhole has two above and two below. and the bat-eared fox has three or four upper molars and four lower ones. The molar teeth are strong in most",
"-33.47390116506722"
],
[
"to their origins and breeding. This may mean that in some cases they will chase smaller animals, including other canines, as well as rabbits, squirrels, and cats. While Malamutes are, as a general rule, particularly amicable around people and can be taught to tolerate smaller pets, it is necessary to be mindful of them around smaller animals and small children.\nMalamutes are very fond of people, a trait that makes them particularly sought-after family dogs, but unreliable watchdogs as they do not tend to bark. Malamutes are nimble around furniture and smaller items, making them ideal house dogs, provided they get",
"-33.39032971509005"
],
[
"dangerous animals, including large cats.",
"-33.21888035023585"
],
[
"lead to signals of aggression, fear, dominance, friendship or territoriality being misinterpreted by the other species. Dogs have a natural instinct to chase smaller animals that flee, an instinct common among cats. Most cats flee from a dog, while others take actions such as hissing, arching their backs and swiping at the dog. After being scratched by a cat, some dogs can become fearful of cats.\nIf appropriately socialized, cats and dogs may have relationships that are not antagonistic, and dogs raised with cats may prefer the presence of cats to other dogs. Even cats and dogs that have got along",
"-33.16344437859152"
],
[
"sometimes also mistake smaller dogs for a lure, causing them to set chase. Similarly, small animals including cats may also be the subject of prey-driven behavior by some greyhounds. Prior to adoption, agencies generally screen greyhounds for their suitability around small animals especially by way of \"cat testing\" in which a dog is carefully exposed to a cat to see his or her interest level. \nSome Greyhounds have a strong prey drive, having been bred to hunt and chase. For a few Greyhounds this urge can be difficult or impossible to overcome through training. Frequently, Greyhound adoption agencies require owners",
"-33.08636245902744"
],
[
"their range.\nThe serval is vulnerable to hyaenas and wild dogs. It will seek cover to escape their view, and, if the predator is very close, immediately flee in long leaps, changing its direction frequently and with the tail raised. The serval is an efficient, though not frequent, climber; an individual was observed to have climbed a tree to a height of more than 9 metres (30 feet) to escape dogs. Like many cats, the serval is able to purr; it also has a high-pitched chirp, and can hiss, cackle, growl, grunt and meow. Hunting and diet The serval is a",
"-32.84315862010408"
],
[
"been observed to kill larger prey, such as rabbits, and opossums; relatively unusual prey include fish and even marmosets. Like many other cats, they also include a small amount of vegetation and arthropods in their diets.\nAlthough they seem to be somewhat more gregarious than many other cats, willing to tolerate the close presence of other members of their species, in the wild, they are generally encountered alone, suggesting a solitary lifestyle. Their home range is widely variable, depending on the local environment; individuals have been reported as ranging over territories from 6.8 to 100 km² (2.6 to 38.6 sq mi). Like other cats,",
"-32.77093375963159"
],
[
"and a few species of birds such as the carrion crow, Eurasian jays and food-storing magpies. Dogs are able to reach a level of object permanence that allows them to find food after it has been hidden beneath one of two cups and rotated 90°. Similarly, cats are able to understand object permanence but not to the same extent that dogs can. Cats fail to understand that if they see something go into an apparatus in one direction that it will still be there if the cat tries to enter from another direction. However, while cats did not",
"-32.75007951815496"
],
[
"owners interacting with their cats, problems can occur when the felines are exposed to dogs and strange people, with the cats possibly being too trusting and too friendly for their own good. Breeds known for these canine behaviors include the Abyssinian, Burmese, Maine Coon, Manx, and Ragdoll, though dog behavior traits can appear regardless of breed. Breeds The cultural assumption that cats are distant from people and lack affection compared to dogs has complications. Animals have individual characteristics based on their environment, particularly their past interactions with people.\nThe feline temperament is particularly malleable to a wide set of environmental factors,",
"-32.72777998720994"
],
[
"trees by their owners. Abusing the dogs that hunt poorly is a widespread practice. Yet, there are no penalties for hunters. Because greyhounds are NOT regarded as pets but as property, they are not afforded the same legal protection as pet dogs. An estimated 50,000 galgos and podencos are killed each year. For all these reasons, many associations in defense of the Galgo have appeared with the aim to save these dogs from a terrible fate, provide much needed rehabilitation, and adoptive homes, usually in the cities. Some associations will adopt them to other locations in Europe, including",
"-32.67900533619104"
],
[
"make it a difficult animal to sight, let alone study. Hunting and diet Like all cats, the jaguar is an obligate carnivore, feeding only on meat. It is an opportunistic hunter and its diet encompasses at least 87 species. Range-wide, jaguars prefer prey weighing 45–85 kg (99–187 lb) and the most significantly preferred species are capybara and giant anteater. Other commonly taken prey include wild boar, common caiman, collared peccary, nine-banded armadillo and white-nosed coati, while agouti, other carnivorans, primates, common opossum and tapir are generally avoided. Jaguars are unusually among large felids in that they do not have a preference for",
"-32.51574336395424"
],
[
"in domestic dogs can produce different formants which they can use to display their size and predict the size of others. Larger dogs are able to produce formants that appear to be much lower than smaller dogs which in contrast produce higher formants. With this information, dogs are able to judge their opponent's size relative to their own and decide on what type of action they wish to proceed with during the encounter. Larger dogs are more likely to engage in more aggressive behaviour when their conspecific is smaller than them while they are less likely to interact with their",
"-32.439871068752836"
],
[
"but it may kill another animal if it feels threatened or hungry.\nThey are very social hunting dogs that prefer an outdoor environment, and need plenty of space to run free and get lots of exercise. In addition, they need a lot of mental and physical stimulation, as this working breed is used to having a job to do. These traits tend to prevent the breed from becoming popular companion dogs.",
"-32.32130419550231"
],
[
"Dog–cat relationship Dogs and cats have a range of interactions. The natural instincts of each species lead towards antagonistic interactions, though individual animals can have non-aggressive relationships with each other, particularly under conditions where humans have socialized non-aggressive behaviors. \nThe generally aggressive interactions between the species have been noted in cultural expressions. In domestic homes where dog and cat are reared and trained properly, they tend to relate well with each other especially when their owner is taking good care of them. Range of relationships The signals and behaviors that cats and dogs use to communicate are different and can",
"-32.30160277720188"
],
[
"instead of \"monsters\". The dogs refer to cats themselves as \"sharpclaws\". In addition, there are four types of dogs: a Pack Dog, who is part of a pack; a Leashed Dog, who belongs to a human; a Lone Dog, who is a stray dog living on their own; and a Fierce Dog, which is a dog bred to fight or defend. Themes Philip has said that a main theme of Survivors is \"fitting in\", as Lucky is a Lone Dog at heart and feels out of place in his Leashed Pack. Philip says that the theme is especially relevant to",
"-32.233650913185556"
],
[
"world, dogs are more commonly feral or communally owned, with pet dogs uncommon. Most of these dogs live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing their most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively (11%). Little is known about these dogs, or the dogs in developed countries that are feral, stray or are in shelters, because the great majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes. Competitors and predators Although dogs are the most abundant and widely",
"-32.20301647047745"
],
[
"likely have driven it from its kills when they sensed an opportunity, Paramachairodus and Protictitherium meanwhile, likely were less dangerous rivals that could be driven away or fought off. Pathology The specimens of Promegantereon at Batallones indicate that high percentages of canine breaks were present in this species. This indicates that they hunted in a similar manner to modern cats, a method of hunting that was much riskier due to the lack of protruding incisors.",
"-32.20223037975666"
],
[
"base, which give cats extraordinarily detailed information about nearby air movements and objects with which they make physical contact. They enable a cat to know that it is near obstacles without it needing to see them.\nWhiskers also aid in hunting. High speed photography reveals that when a cat is unable to see its prey because it is too close to its mouth, its whiskers move so as to form a basket shape around its muzzle in order to precisely detect the prey's location. A cat whose whiskers have been damaged may bite the wrong part of its prey, indicating that",
"-32.191574927419424"
],
[
"cat-like mode of bringing down its prey, being able to bite clean cuts, and have the skeletal capacity and strength to endure piercing and holding on to its prey with its canines. Based on dental arrangements, this is the first known development of a design lending itself to this mode of predation. Nonetheless, given its sturdily designed, thick snout, enormous canines, and powerful jaw muscles, the teeth of Moschorhinus show it to have been a daunting predator.\nA feature shared with close relatives, Moschorhinus shows a reduction of the number of teeth posterior to its canines. Each maxilla is short, and",
"-32.1871412936016"
],
[
"such as dogs and cats.",
"-32.185732372512575"
],
[
"similar trend to the canines. A predator's largest prey size is strongly influenced by its biomechanical limits. Description and sexual dimorphism There is little variance among male and female canids. Canids tend to live as monogamous pairs. Wolves, dholes, coyotes, and jackals live in groups that include breeding pairs and their offspring. Wolves may live in extended family groups. To take prey larger than themselves, the African wild dog, the dhole, and the gray wolf depend on their jaws as they cannot use their forelimbs to grapple with prey. They work together as a pack consisting of an alpha pair",
"-32.178287981660105"
],
[
"dogs from their main prey.",
"-32.17811156931566"
],
[
"Cat predation on wildlife Cat predation on wildlife is the result of the natural instincts and behavior of both feral and domesticated cats to hunt small prey, including wildlife. This is sometimes seen as a desirable phenomenon, such as in the case of barn cats and other cats kept for the purposes of pest control. As an invasive species and superpredator, they do considerable ecological damage. In Australia, hunting by cats helped to drive at least 20 native mammals to extinction, and continues to threaten at least 124 more. Their introduction has caused the extinction of at least 33 endemic",
"-32.15183905145386"
],
[
"Some also develop odd eating habits and like to eat or chew on things like wool, plastic, cables, paper, string, aluminum foil, or even coal. This condition, pica, can threaten their health, depending on the amount and toxicity of the items eaten.\nCats hunt small prey, primarily birds and rodents. and are often used as a form of pest control. Cats use two hunting strategies, either stalking prey actively, or waiting in ambush until an animal comes close enough to be captured. The strategy used depends on the prey species in the area, with cats waiting in ambush outside burrows, but",
"-32.08950390829705"
],
[
"distributed terrestrial carnivores, the potential of feral and free-ranging dogs to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong association with humans. For example, a review of the studies in the competitive effects of dogs on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves. Although wolves are known to kill dogs, they tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage facing large dog groups.\nWolves kill dogs wherever they are found together. One study reported that in Wisconsin in 1999 more compensation",
"-32.04000898488448"
],
[
"individual, whereas territorial antelope species, which defend themselves by running in wide circles, are captured by cutting off their escape routes. Medium-sized prey is often killed in 2–5 minutes, whereas larger prey such as wildebeest may take half an hour to pull down. Male wild dogs usually perform the task of grabbing dangerous prey, such as warthogs, by the nose. Small prey such as rodents, hares and birds are hunted singly, with dangerous prey such as cane rats and porcupines being killed with a quick and well-placed bite to avoid injury. Small prey is eaten entirely, while large animals are",
"-32.0177694518934"
],
[
"owl taking a bobcat (Lynx rufus) as prey was also reportedly observed. In one case, a great horned owl was the likely killer of an adult female fisher (Martes pennanti), though young ones are typically taken. Occasionally, domestic carnivores are also prey. A few cases of young or small dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and several of juvenile and adult cats (Felis silvestris catus) being killed by great horned owls have been reported. The most infamous predatory association amongst relatively larger carnivores is that with skunks. Due to their poor sense of smell, great horned owls are the only predators to",
"-31.991180797456764"
],
[
"to deception and to be useless on a large scale, and can therefore only be used for getting rid of \"problem-dogs\". Animal traps are considered inhumane and inefficient on a large scale, due to the limited efficacy of baits. Based on studies, it is assumed that only young dogs that would have died anyway can be captured. Furthermore, wild dogs are capable of learning and sometimes are able to detect and avoid traps quite efficiently. In one case, a dingo bitch followed a dogger and triggered his traps one after another by carefully pushing her paw through the sand that",
"-31.949502733070403"
],
[
"unusual among mammals in having very large eye sockets and a powerful specialized jaw. Within the jaw, cats have teeth adapted for killing prey and tearing meat. When it overpowers its prey, a cat delivers a lethal neck bite with its two long canine teeth, inserting them between two of the prey's vertebrae and severing its spinal cord, causing irreversible paralysis and death. Compared to other felines, domestic cats have narrowly spaced canine teeth relative to the size of their jaw, which is an adaptation to their preferred prey of small rodents, which have small vertebrae. The premolar and first",
"-31.945192057988606"
],
[
"than breed-specific ordinances. Given many media sources reported that this study suggested that pit bull-type dogs and Rottweilers are disproportionately more dangerous than other dog breeds, the American Veterinary Medical Association whose journal published the original article released a statement detailing that this study \"cannot be used to infer any breed specific risk for dog bite fatalities\" (for lack of sufficient data on total breed ownership). In a 2014 literature review, the American Veterinary Medical Association stated that \"controlled studies have not identified this breed group as disproportionately dangerous\", and that \"it has not been demonstrated that introducing a breed-specific",
"-31.902757436175307"
],
[
"have a tendency to bolt. Their versatility has been praised, with some dogs willing to \"[be] a house-dog, a gun-dog, a rat-dog, a badger-dog, or, if needed, [to] bolt a fox...\"\nThey are also known for their intelligence and tenacity when it comes to taking on vermin. Bedlingtons are quite fond of fighting, and are prone to jealousy when around other dogs. One man stated that \"this dog was about fit to kill any other dog of his weight\" and compared him to the fighting dogs used in dog fighting. They have also been used in pit fighting.\nHowever, both the AKC",
"-31.800375496598463"
],
[
"woods of Auburn, New Hampshire. The dog became ensnared in an illegally placed conibear trap and was suffocated, despite his owner's best attempts to free him. It has been estimated by Wildlife Services, a branch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, that over the last decade, hundreds of pets have been killed by body-gripping traps, and that the agency itself has killed thousands of non-target animals in several states, from pet dogs to endangered species. The number of non-target animals killed has caused national and regional animal-protection organizations such as the Humane Society of the United States, American Society for",
"-31.791770157025894"
],
[
"other, however, they use quieter purrs or gurgles, or hiss and growl if threatened. Diet and hunting Due to their small size, black-footed cats hunt mainly small prey species such as rodents and small birds, but also prey on northern black korhaan (Afrotis afraoides) and Cape hare (Lepus capensis), the latter being heavier than itself. Insects and spiders provide less than 1% of the prey mass consumed. They occasionally scavenge lambs of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis). They are unusually active hunters, killing up to fourteen small animals in a night. Their energy requirements are very high, with about 250 g (9 oz) of",
"-31.76452790947951"
],
[
"legs, somewhat like a meerkat, by themselves or leaning on something; this behavior is often observed when the dog is curious about something. Basenjis have a strong prey drive. According to the book The Intelligence of Dogs, they are the second least trainable dog, when required to do human commands. Their real intelligence manifests, when they are required to actually \"think\".\nBasenjis are highly prey driven and will go after cats and other small animals. Health There is only one completed health survey of dog breeds, including the Basenji, that was conducted by the UK Kennel Club in 2004. The survey",
"-31.69714978177217"
],
[
"animals used to test a dog's fighting instinct; they are often mauled or killed in the process. Many of the training methods involve torturing and killing of other animals. Often \"bait\" animals are stolen pets such as puppies, kittens and rabbits, small dogs and even stock (pit bulls acquired by the dog fighting ring which appear to be passive or less dominant). Other sources for bait animals include wild or feral animals, animals obtained from a shelter, or animals obtained from \"free to good home\" ads. The snouts of bait animals are often wrapped with duct tape to prevent them",
"-31.618175626557786"
],
[
"only being badly frightened, and then suddenly being in a different room. They will not do anything or get less frightened when Raimi dispossesses them, so they can be possessed again at any time.\nAnimals also cannot be used for combat, but are vital to reach some areas. Due to their size, rats and dogs (rabbits and roaches in multiplayer) can crawl through some small holes and reach the room on the other side. Bats can fly to otherwise unreachable areas. Other animals are tools to make a human host possessable. The only exception to animals being useless for combat situations",
"-31.616537515257733"
],
[
"villages and farmyards to take dogs, and losses of dogs to wolves has led to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.\nCoyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. Leopards in particular are known to have a predilection for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of their size. Tigers in Manchuria, Indochina, Indonesia, and Malaysia are also reported to kill dogs. Striped hyenas are known to kill dogs in Turkmenistan, India, and the Caucasus. Diet Dogs have been described as carnivores or omnivores. Compared to wolves, dogs have genes involved in starch",
"-31.61325321951881"
],
[
"for a competition between wild dogs and red foxes in the Blue Mountains of New South Wales, since many overlaps occurred in the spectrum of preferred prey, but only evidence for local competition, not on a grand scale, was found.\nAlso, dingoes can live with red foxes and feral cats without reducing their numbers in areas with sufficient food resources (for example, high rabbit numbers) and hiding places. Nearly nothing is known about the relationship of wild dogs and feral cats, except both mostly live in the same areas. Although wild dogs also eat cats, whether this affects the",
"-31.59745082720474"
],
[
"of the most commonly reported behaviour issues to canine professionals. It is seen when a dog uses specific behaviour patterns so that they can control access to an item, and the patterns are flexible when people are around. If a canine places value on some resource (i.e. food, toys, etc.) they may attempt to guard it from other animals as well as people, which leads to behavioural problems if not treated. The guarding can show in many different ways from rapid ingestion of food to using the body to shield items. It manifests as aggressive behaviour",
"-31.582249903207412"
],
[
"Tobet Physical characteristics Tobets have a well-built and muscular body. And fur covered all around their body except their paws. Their average heights are 60-78cm and weights from 40-79kg. They have the squint and small eyes. Their necks are short. Their tails are snowy and always raised. Their lifespans are from 12-15 years. Tobets have shape sense of smelling and hearing to sense their predator. As a guard dog, Tobets would bark loudly to notify their owner and to scare the trespassers. Because of their weight, they are strong enough to fight their predator like wolves. After they bark, they",
"-31.576968816109"
],
[
"a predator, while small prey might prove hard to find and in any case provide less of a reward. This has led to a correlation between the size of predators and their prey. Size may also act as a refuge for large prey. For example, adult elephants are relatively safe from predation by lions, but juveniles are vulnerable. Camouflage and mimicry Members of the cat family such as the snow leopard (treeless highlands), tiger (grassy plains, reed swamps), ocelot (forest), fishing cat (waterside thickets), and lion (open plains) are camouflaged with coloration and disruptive patterns suiting their habitats.\nIn aggressive mimicry,",
"-31.541738917236216"
],
[
"other predators. In the steppe regions of Europe and Asia, village dogs constitute serious enemies of wildcats, along with the much larger Eurasian lynx, one of the rare habitual predators of healthy adult wildcats. In Tajikistan, the grey wolf (Canis lupus) is the most serious competitor, having been observed to destroy cat burrows. Birds of prey, including Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo) and saker falcon (Falco cherrug), have been recorded to kill wildcat kittens.Seton Gordon recorded an instance where a wildcat fought a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), resulting in the deaths of both combatants.\nIn Africa, wildcats are occasionally killed and eaten",
"-31.529196885156125"
],
[
"prey would have attracted any predators and scavengers in the area. The idea that a single animal would wound, release, and follow a prey animal has been counteracted more strongly. Cats rarely walk away from prey until they have eaten their fill and it would have risked being stolen by other predators. \"Bite and compress\" When the animal is wounded with a bite from a machairodont (ignoring the placement of the blood vessels, which are negligible in this hypothesis), the canines would have been inserted behind the windpipe and the premolars would have been encompassing the windpipe. This variation",
"-31.526161402987782"
],
[
"on a colony of feral cats as a food source. Over time, the coyotes killed most of the cats, and then continued to eat the cat food placed daily at the colony site by people who were maintaining the cat colony.\nCoyotes usually attack smaller-sized dogs, but they have been known to attack even large, powerful breeds such as the Rottweiler in exceptional cases. Dogs larger than coyotes, such as greyhounds, are generally able to drive them off, and have been known to kill coyotes. Smaller breeds are more likely to suffer injury or death. Uses Prior to the mid-19th century,",
"-31.48502260108944"
],
[
"restrained from hunting. If you see your cat making quick chirps, and moving their mouths extremely quickly while their eyes are set and staring at one place, they are chattering, and channeling their inner urge to hunt. Big cats do this as well. Although domesticated cats are not in the wild, they still have their innate need to hunt. Grown cats also do not meow to other grown cats. Cats meow in adult form to talk to other animals, such as dogs, and more importantly humans. Meowing to humans has been researched as that they do it to manipulate",
"-31.4724677287777"
],
[
"For the fecal samples, determining the matching tracks of foxes and feral cats was possible without including these samples in the study, but in distinguishing between the tracks left by dingoes and those of dingo hybrids or feral dogs was impossible. The study found that these canines prey on 177 species represented by 72.3% mammals (71 species), 18.8% birds (53 species), 3.3% vegetation (seeds), 1.8% reptiles (23 species), and 3.8% insects, fish, crabs, and frogs (28 species). The relative proportions of prey are much the same across Australia, apart from more birds being eaten in the north and south-east",
"-31.467580976939644"
],
[
"will confront predators by vocal intimidation, barking, and displaying very aggressive behavior. The dog may attack or fight with a predator if it is unable to drive away the predator. Livestock guardians may actively look for predators within protected territory to catch and destroy them, and there are known cases of dogs luring coyotes to a source of food in order to hunt them. History The use of dogs in protecting livestock originated over 2000 years ago, with their use being recorded as early as 150 BC in Rome. Both Aristotle's History of Animals and Virgil's Georgics mention the use",
"-31.4636835475103"
],
[
"the young animals of the larger species and all ages and sizes of the pet species (dogs and cats). Larvae and nymphs can also produce toxic reactions in the host. Fifty larvae or five nymphs can kill a 40 g rat, larger numbers of either can induce paralysis in dogs and cats. They can be quite easy to find on short-haired animals, but very difficult to find on long-haired animals like Persian cats. If you live in a tick-prone area, and your pets are allowed outdoors, it is suggested that you physically check your pets daily for ticks. Unfortunately they are",
"-31.3929351659026"
],
[
"summary destruction....\nAlthough dogs are ordinarily harmless, they preserve some of their hereditary wolfish instincts, which occasionally break forth in the destruction of sheep and other helpless animals. Others, too small to attack these animals, are simply vicious, noisy, and pestilent. As their depredations are often committed at night, it is usually impossible to identify the dog or to fix the liability upon the owner, who, moreover, is likely to be pecuniarily irresponsible [irresponsible with money]. In short, the damages are usually such as are beyond the reach of judicial process, and legislation of a drastic nature is necessary to protect",
"-31.38913527096156"
],
[
"animal would obtain.\nActual whole prey are used whenever possible, including whole rabbits, chickens, game hens and turkeys. Generally, the diet recommends 80% meat (including some 'meaty' organs such as heart), 10% bone and 10% organs (of which half is liver). Proponents of the whole prey model diet believe dogs and cats are natural carnivores and do not have any nutritional needs besides what is found in meat, bones, and organs. The supporters of the prey model also focus on feeding meats from a wide variety of animals. Some also add small amounts of vegetable matter to simulate the consumption of stomach",
"-31.383097206940874"
],
[
"weapons to tackle larger prey and the sharing of food. Humans and dogs may have evolved together.\nAmong canids, only the gray wolf has widely been known to prey on humans. Nonetheless, at least two records of coyotes killing humans have been published, and at least two other reports of golden jackals killing children. Human beings have trapped and hunted some canid species for their fur and some, especially the gray wolf, the coyote and the red fox, for sport. Canids such as the dhole are now endangered in the wild because of persecution, habitat loss, a depletion of ungulate prey",
"-31.362113720271736"
],
[
"terrestrial or riparian vertebrate unfortunate enough to encounter them. Large prey can include other species of caiman, deer, peccaries, tapirs, anacondas, giant otters, and domestic animals including pigs, cattle, horses and dogs. Although rare fatal attacks on cougars or even jaguars have been reported, very little evidence exists of such predation, and cats are likely to avoid ponds with black caimans, suggesting that adults of this species are higher in the food chain than even the jaguar. Where capybara and white-lipped peccary herds are common, they are reportedly among the most common prey item for large adults. Evidence has",
"-31.34056606370723"
],
[
"that of adults which often ignored all prey below a certain size limit.\nLarge animals taken by adult crocodiles include sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa), Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus), kangaroos, humans, orangutans (Pongo ssp.), dingos (Canis lupus dingo), tigers (Panthera tigris), and large bovines, such as banteng (Bos javanicus), water buffalo (Bubalus arnee), and gaur (Bos gaurus). However, larger animals are taken only sporadically due to the fact only large males typically attack very large prey and large ungulates and other sizeable wild mammals are only sparsely distributed in this species' range, outside of a few key areas",
"-31.32618657767307"
],
[
"cat, squirrel, deer, goat and many others combined. It is a quadrupedal animal which is an omnivore, and varies in speed depending on what genes it possesses. The creature can have a variety of looks, and can also vary in size, for example, a large creature can have more protection against colder weather then a smaller creature. It ages naturally, gets sick and eventually dies. If this happens, it will leave a skeleton on the ground that disappears after a few turns.\nthey are sometimes referred to as Niches or Nichelings by the fanbase. Bearyena This creature's aim is to kill",
"-31.272125647286884"
],
[
"its canines. This may have been focused more towards competition such as other Smilodon or potential threats such as other carnivores than on prey.\nDebate continues as to how Smilodon killed its prey. Traditionally, the most popular theory is that the cat delivered a deep stabbing bite or open-jawed stabbing thrust to the throat, generally cutting through the jugular vein and/or the trachea and thus killing the prey very quickly. Another hypothesis suggests that Smilodon targeted the belly of its prey. This is disputed, as the curvature of their prey's belly would likely have prevented the cat from getting a good",
"-31.25984252244234"
],
[
"bears, although not (so far as is known) predators of Eurasian lynx, are in some areas semi-habitual usurpers of ungulate kills by lynxes, not infrequently before the cat has had a chance to consume its kill itself.",
"-31.255321226548404"
],
[
"hundreds of dogs attempted to catch it, but the beast eluded the hunters and continued to kill.\nThe beast’s strange behaviour continued. It would sometimes kill during the day and seemed to take pleasure in savaging livestock but not feeding from them. In one instance, the creature tore lumps out of the hindquarters of a big ram and then left it alive but crippled. The creature also would allow a single pursuing hunting dog to catch up to it, only to crush the dog's foreleg with its jaws.\nDuring one hunt, the pack had pursued the beast into a small wood",
"-31.234833283815533"
],
[
"Cats & Dogs Plot At the home laboratory of Professor Charles Brody, his wife Carolyn, and son Scotty, the family's pet Bloodhound Buddy chases a cat and is captured by other cats in an ambush. Dogs and cats are revealed to be highly intelligent, tech-savvy enemies capable of speech, waging war with covert operatives while concealing their true nature from humans. After an Anatolian Shepherd dog named Butch reports Buddy's capture to his superiors, the best canine agents are dispatched to complete Buddy’s mission: to prevent cats from making all humans allergic to dogs.\nAt a local barn, a litter of",
"-31.201909108640393"
],
[
"since being relatively small, they adapt well to apartment life. They are easy to keep clean, do not harbour fleas, and having little or no hair are especially indicated as pets for people allergic to animals. They are easily trained, very loving with their human family and other pets and excellent, non-aggressive watchdogs.\nIn character they are happy, loving, playful, active pets and quick to learn house rules and all sorts of tricks. They are mistrustful of strangers and good watchdogs, but not aggressive towards humans or other household animals. Pilas will threaten and even fiercely chase intruders, both human and",
"-31.199136131241175"
],
[
"not bite a stranger or other animals unless continuously provoked, leading them to be considered very dog and animal friendly. From thousands of years of guarding sheep, they are very intelligent, calm and independent. Maintenance After thousands of years of running around sheep, the Polish Tatra Sheepdog has a good amount of energy and needs a decently large fenced yard to run around in. It is not a good apartment dog because of its size and amount of energy. They are not very active inside, but are very active outside. This is why constant walks are",
"-31.176097583957016"
],
[
"a natural guardian instinct and an inherent ability to guard livestock. An athletic dog, the Komondor is fast and powerful and will leap at a predator to drive it off or knock it down. It can be used successfully to guard sheep against wolves or bears. It is a big, strong dog breed, armored with a thick coat. The coat provides protection against wild animals, weather and vegetation. The coat looks similar to that of a sheep so it can easily blend into a flock and camouflage itself giving it an advantage when predators such as wolves attack. The",
"-31.17036906053545"
],
[
"drive, but should have strongly inhibited grab bite and kill bite stages to prevent them wounding stock. Bull Terriers such as the Staffordshire bull terrier have an amplified grab-bite as they were originally bred to bait bulls (restrain bulls by hanging onto their noses), but never needed to find or stalk the prey. Degrees Levels of prey drive often vary substantially in different dogs. Therefore, a dog with low drive does not make a successful detection or search dog, but a dog who is too high in prey drive may be unsuitable as a pet for a suburban",
"-31.141626662545605"
],
[
"year, and sometimes the pups are left unattended making them vulnerable to predators. Domestic dogs stand alone among all canids for a total lack of paternal care.\nDogs differ from wolves and most other large canid species as they generally do not regurgitate food for their young, nor the young of other dogs in the same territory. However, this difference was not observed in all domestic dogs. Regurgitating of food by the females for the young, as well as care for the young by the males, has been observed in domestic dogs, dingos and in feral or semi-feral dogs. In one",
"-31.12712606351124"
],
[
"characteristic where coyotes feed extensively on larger carcasses.\nTracks are an important factor in distinguishing coyote from dog predation. Coyote tracks tend to be more oval-shaped and compact than those of domestic dogs, and their claw marks are less prominent and the tracks tend to follow a straight line more closely than those of dogs. With the exception of sighthounds, most dogs of similar weight to coyotes have a slightly shorter stride. Coyote kills can be distinguished from wolf kills by less damage to the underlying tissues in the former. Also, coyote scat tends to be smaller than wolf scat.\nCoyotes are",
"-31.12370128632756"
],
[
"or working dogs, bred down in size for a particular kind of work or to create a pet of convenient size. In the past, very small dogs not used for hunting were kept as symbols of affluence, as watchdogs, and for the health function of attracting fleas away from their owners. Teacup dogs No major or reputable dog registry recognizes the term teacup dog, thus the toy/teacup boundary remains fuzzy. The standard size for a toy dog ranges from 4 to 7 pounds; anything smaller than the standard size of a toy dog may be the runt of a litter.",
"-31.119984183311317"
],
[
"children; they also make excellent pets for the elderly because they do not require large amounts of exercise. Contrary to popular belief, some greyhounds can live with cats and other small animals. Older dogs, whilst perhaps not as appealing as younger dogs, still make excellent pets.",
"-31.11089570162585"
],
[
"(530 lb) quite frequently. Another study claimed that some prey taken by wild dogs could weigh up to 289 kg (637 lb). One pack was recorded to occasionally prey on bat-eared foxes, rolling on the carcasses before eating them. African wild dogs rarely scavenge, but have on occasion been observed to appropriate carcasses from spotted hyenas, leopards, cheetahs and lions, as well as animals caught in snares. In East Africa, African wild dogs in packs of 17 to 43 eat 1.7 kg (3.7 lb) of meat on average each day. Enemies and competitors Lions dominate African wild dogs and are a major source of mortality",
"-31.01982283347752"
],
[
"the dogs are soon faced not only with the realities of life in the wild but with another more terrifying realization—they are being hunted by their former captors. They come to reluctantly befriend The Tod, a Geordie-accented fox, in order to obtain food in the wild - they initially hunt domestic sheep grazing on the local hills. Snitter hopes for a new home as he once had a master, but after accidentally killing a man by stepping onto the trigger of his shotgun as he climbs up onto him, Snitter loses hope. As time passes the two dogs grow thin",
"-30.993009623605758"
],
[
"of most machairodonts.\nMany modern cats show this mixture of traits. Lions are able-bodied hunters, but will steal when they are given the opportunity. Tigers and cougars bury their kills and return later to keep eating, even days later. All cats prefer killing the sick or injured, and there is a fine line between an animal so sick it cannot move and a dead animal. The abundance of Smilodon skeletons in the La Brea tar pits in California supports the hypothesis, as well. The animals caught in the pits would have been dying or dead, the kind of meal a true",
"-30.970167838939233"
],
[
"safety have so far not been supported by data and personal experience. He mentioned that there are reports of one or two unusually big dogs captured each year, but that most hybrids are close to what's considered to be the normal weight range of dingoes. In addition, Jenkins has encountered wild dingoes and hybrids and reported that \"there's something really going on in that hard-wired brain\", but also that the dogs \"tend to be curious, rather than aggressive\".\nMost attacks of wild dogs on livestock are supposedly caused by dingo-hybrids and not \"pure\" dingoes, however the effect of wild dogs on",
"-30.969516650253354"
],
[
"not have a social survival strategy, or a pack mentality and always hunt alone.\nHowever, some pet cats are poorly socialized. In particular, older cats show aggressiveness towards newly arrived kittens, which include biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial aggression.\nLife in proximity to humans and other domestic animals has led to a symbiotic social adaptation in cats, and cats may express great affection toward humans or other animals. Ethologically, the human keeper of a cat functions as a sort of surrogate for the cat's mother. Adult cats live their lives in a kind of extended",
"-30.94075546462409"
],
[
"for various mammalian predators. Red (Vulpes vulpes) and grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) occasionally capture one, though not many large adults. They are perhaps most important prey for mid-sized carnivores such as the American badger (Taxidea taxus), the coyote (Canis latrans), and the bobcat (Lynx rufus) and small supplemental prey for larger ones such as the mountain lion (Puma concolor) and the gray wolf (Canis lupus). Snakes sometimes attack them (usually young ones) and bird predators include eagles, hawks, and owls. Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) are the only avian predators large enough to regularly take full-grown white-tailed jackrabbits, though ferruginous hawks",
"-30.939944324782118"
],
[
"mammals.\" The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds states that there is no scientific evidence that cat predation \"is having any impact on bird populations UK-wide.\" Moreover, city cats have smaller ranges. In his research, Tabor found \"the average annual catch of the average London cat to be two items instead of the fourteen of a village cat.\" Tabor comments about some of the challenges of stalking birds for cats: \"From the cat's point of view not only do birds not play fair by flying and having eyes that can see beyond the back of their heads, but they",
"-30.92738746118266"
],
[
"and smaller dogs search out deer or wild boar, whilst the larger hounds are used for attacking the prey.\nOne of the most typical functions of the large Andalusian hound was that of the so-called quitaor accompanying the Spanish greyhound colleras during hare hunting. The quitaor‘s job consisted primarily of flushing out the hares from their home or hiding place and killing them; then, together with the greyhounds, retrieving them for the owner. In Andalusian farmhouses the larger hounds were used as watchdogs, and the smaller hounds were used to kill rodents.",
"-30.92453566158656"
],
[
"The skin of domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with some Inuit tribes favoring the former for use as clothing due to its greater resistance to wear and tear in harsh weather. The paws of a dog are half the size of those of a wolf, and their tails tend to curl upwards, another trait not found in wolves. The dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal. Health There are many household plants that are poisonous to dogs (and other mammals) including begonia,",
"-30.91093753266614"
],
[
"hunting allows predators to tackle a wider range of prey, but at the risk of competition for the captured food. Solitary predators have more chance of eating what they catch, at the price of increased expenditure of energy to catch it, and increased risk that the prey will escape. Ambush predators are often solitary to reduce the risk of becoming prey themselves. Of 245 terrestrial carnivores, 177 are solitary; and 35 of the 37 wild cats are solitary, including the cougar and cheetah. However, the solitary cougar does allow other cougars to share in a kill, and the coyote can",
"-30.901779671403347"
],
[
"problems or claims of extraordinary health have been documented for this breed. Temperament of individual dogs may vary, but in general dogs bred to be pack hunting dogs do not make good pets.",
"-30.84963926608907"
],
[
"a hunting dog for many years they have been described by the Ryukyu Inu Hozonkai as ideal for Therapy Dog work because of their calm, placid temperament when trained correctly, however due to their high Prey Drive they are not suitable for Disability Assistance work. Lines There are two distinct lines of Ryukyu Inu, the Yanbaru and the Yaeyama. Whilst they are the same breed of dog, there are subtle difference between the two lines. Ryukyu from the Yaeyama lines are often a lot bigger. For example, males from Yaeyama lines are often on average 49.6cm at the withers, whereas",
"-30.845326200593263"
],
[
"they are playing with. This is in contrast to when they produce a growl that accurately projects their body size when guarding food, which is necessary because it will be more dangerous if their opponent thinks they are bigger, as this may result in more injury.\nGrowling in dogs is generally seen as unfavorable, and there are various methods to deal with this behaviour including therapy, training and temperament testing. The therapy approach to fear based or aggressive growling in dogs seems to work the most favourably, having a strong emphasis on owner-dog communication and understanding, as well as a strong",
"-30.822208455763757"
],
[
"are primarily a hunting dog with a strong prey drive.",
"-30.811181237688288"
],
[
"that the breed cannot exceed 25 pounds in size at adulthood. In particular, Pit Bulls, Dobermans, Rottweilers and Bull Dogs are banned as these breeds are vicious and intimidating. In addition to odor, hygiene and damages, large pet owners have the responsibility to avoid noise, keep their pets in control and clean the waste. Unlike small pet owners, the residents need to obtain certificates signed by a licensed veterinarian or government authority, as well as a pet license before they can apply for keeping large pets. Large pet owners also need to pay a deposit of US$300 (around HK$2,300) for",
"-30.809566001291387"
],
[
"most docile of the terrier breeds; they are usually quite undemanding of their owners. However they are known for their ability to dig large holes in a short space of time. They can be trained to be good with cats but should not be trusted around smaller animals such as hamsters or rats. They are described as being \"very game\", in that they are prone to challenging other animals, including foxes, and in some cases other dogs. Health Due to the breed's elongated body, there can be back problems within the breed, specifically with intervertebral discs in the dog's back.",
"-30.80095187513507"
],
[
"found to be composed entirely of Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis). Smaller species of mammalian carnivore, such as ringtail (Bassariscus astutus), American mink (Neovison vison), black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) and various other small weasels (Mustela ssp.), are sometimes taken as prey. Prey in the form of canids, like foxes or coyotes (Canis latrans) are often juveniles presumably snatched from the mouths of dens by night. Kit and swift foxes of up to adult size may taken. Surprisingly, at least two cases of a great horned owl preying on an adult raccoon (Procyon lotor) have been reported. One instance of an",
"-30.800800428260118"
],
[
"not uncommon for these dogs to become moody or destructive if not properly stimulated and exercised, as they have a tendency to bore easily and will often create their own fun when left alone to entertain themselves.\nTheir high energy and drive make these dogs ideally suited to a number of different dog sports such as flyball or agility. Obedience classes are also recommended to potential owners, as Jack Russells can be stubborn at times and aggressive towards other animals and humans if not properly socialized. Despite their small size, these dogs are not recommended for the condominium or apartment dweller",
"-30.792943817854393"
],
[
"litter would often be kept or given as a household pet or simply kept as a village dog without a single owner.\nAt least two dogs may be placed with a flock or herd, depending on its size, the type of predators, their number, and the intensity of predation. If predators are scarce, one dog may be adequate though most operations usually require at least two dogs. Large operations (particularly range operations) and heavy predator loads will require more dogs. Both male and female LGDs have proved to be equally effective in protecting of livestock.\nThe three qualities most sought after in",
"-30.786346444074297"
],
[
"Scandinavia are harriers, with older animals being most at risk, likely because they are less timid than younger animals, and react to the presence of wolves differently. Large hunting dogs such as Swedish elkhounds are more likely to survive wolf attacks because of their better ability to defend themselves.\nAlthough the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs. In many cultures, there are strong social and emotional bonds between humans and their dogs that can be seen as family members or working team members. The loss",
"-30.720321272849105"
],
[
"include: rabbits; ferrets; pigs; rodents, such as gerbils, hamsters, chinchillas, rats, and guinea pigs; avian pets, such as parrots, passerines and Fowls; reptile pets, such as turtles, alligators, crocodiles, lizards, and snakes; aquatic pets, such as fish, freshwater and saltwater snails, amphibians like frogs and salamanders; and arthropod pets, such as tarantulas and hermit crabs. Small pets may be grouped together as pocket pets, while the equine and bovine group include the largest companion animals.\nPets provide their owners (or \"guardians\") both physical and emotional benefits. Walking a dog can provide both the human and the dog with exercise, fresh air",
"-30.689948915096465"
],
[
"course (i.e., run down) another dog, seize it by the neck and hold it immobile. Young pups do this with their littermates, trading off as to who is the prey. It is a specific hunting behavior, not a fighting or territorial domination behavior.\nBorzois can be raised very successfully to live with cats and other small animals provided they are introduced to them when they are puppies. Some, however, will possess the hunting instinct to such a degree that they find it impossible not to chase a cat that is moving quickly. The hunting instinct is triggered by movement and much",
"-30.66869439603761"
],
[
"experimenter. Domestic dogs also commit more search errors in communicative trials than in non-communicative or non-social hiding trials. However, human-encultured wolves (Canis lupus) do not show this context-dependent perseverance in searching. This common sensitivity to human communication behaviour may arise from convergent evolution.\nDogs which have been forbidden to take food are more likely to steal the food if a human observer has their back turned or eyes closed than when the human is looking at them. Dogs are also more likely to beg for food from an observer whose eyes are visible compared to an observer whose eyes are covered",
"-30.658261590870097"
],
[
"very difficult time getting out on its own if it cannot turn around.\nWith two animals underground (dog and quarry), it is essential that a flow of air be maintained to avoid asphyxiation. The tighter a dog is in the pipe, the more the air flow will be constricted. In addition, a small dog has better maneuverability and can more easily avoid being bitten. Because of this, small dogs often receive less injury underground than larger dogs, which are more likely to find themselves jammed in a den pipe, face to face with the quarry, and unable to",
"-30.646640783525072"
],
[
"smaller than the range 27–54 kg for extant wolves (Mech 1970) and is comparable with the Dingo.\nThe auditory bulla of the dog is relatively smaller and flatter than that of the wolf (Harrison 1973; Clutton-Brock, Corbet & Hill 1976; Nowak 1979; Olsen 1985; Wayne 1986), which is proposed to be due to relaxed selection under domestication as the dog no longer required the acute hearing of the wolf. However, bulla shape has been shown to facilitate increased sensitivity to specific frequencies but shape and size may not be correlated with acuity (Ewer 1973). Therefore, the observed difference could be that the",
"-30.633827302313875"
],
[
"all dependent on one another but without a complex social structure; it can be construed that Lucky is their leader (alpha). The Wild Pack has a stricter hierarchy, with the wolfdog as a leader; Alpha, Beta, and Omega are referred to by their titles, while hunters and patrol dogs are given different names to distinguish. Terminology There was a large group effort put into the terminology that the dogs used, as it was to be vastly different from the terminology that the cats used. As opposed to \"twoleg\", humans are referred to as \"longpaws\", and their vehicles are called \"loudcages\"",
"-30.612856433610432"
],
[
"some cases, wolves do not need to physically attack livestock to negatively affect it: the stress livestock experiences in being vigilant for wolves may result in miscarriages, weight loss and a decrease in meat quality. Conflicts with dogs Being the most abundant carnivores, free-ranging dogs have the greatest potential to compete with wolves. A review of the studies in the competitive effects of dogs on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves. Competition would favor the wolf, which is known to kill dogs, however wolves tend to live in pairs or in small packs",
"-30.58248062839266"
],
[
"poodle's has been estimated to translate to a Snellen rating of 20/75), their visual discrimination for moving objects is very high. Dogs have been shown to be able to discriminate between humans (e.g. identifying their human guardian) at a range of between 800 and 900 metres (2,600 and 3,000 ft); however, this range decreases to 500–600 metres (1,600–2,000 ft) if the object is stationary.\nDogs can detect a change in movement that exists in a single diopter of space within their eye. Humans, by comparison, require a change of between 10 and 20 diopters to detect movement.\nAs crepuscular hunters, dogs often rely on",
"-30.58079562772764"
],
[
"rare breed for those seeking a unique pet. Health and temperament No unusual health problems or claims of extraordinary health have been documented for this breed. Temperament of individual dogs may vary, but in general dogs bred to be pack hunting dogs do not make good pets.",
"-30.544660189014394"
],
[
"breeds, stereotypes of the dangerousness of certain breeds and assuming the safety of others simply due to their breed may result in people incorrectly interacting with dogs from both categories. Dog behavior In isolation, predatory behaviors are rarely the cause of an attack on a human. Predatory aggression is more commonly involved as a contributing factor for example in attacks by multiple dogs; a \"pack kill instinct\" may arise if multiple dogs are involved in an attack. Treatment The risk of a serious infection can be reduced by cleaning the wound and getting appropriate health care treatment.\nLocal animal control agencies",
"-30.522023976038327"
],
[
"Wakaleo vanderleuri Description Being a marsupial, it is not closely related to true cats. This dasyurid is hypothesized to have been an omnivore, eating significant amounts of meat, perhaps more like a bear in diet and habit than like an actual lion. It lacked large canine-like fangs, producing some controversy regarding just how much it actually preyed on living animals. The meat-eating hypothesis is based largely upon the morphology of its molar teeth. The species is believed to have been able to hunt by leaping from trees onto its prey.\nThe type species fossils were originally found in the Bullock Creek",
"-30.503371104277903"
]
] |
388py7 | what does the Pope actually do? | [
"The Pope is the absolute monarch of Vatican City. Within city, his word is law, and he can override everyone else within the Vatican City. Outside the city, he is the final word for the Catholic Church's official doctrine. He can speak *Ex cathedra,* (from the chair), which means he IS speaking for God, and everything he says while doing so IS God's word. Unofficially, the Pope is the face of the Church and (for lack of a better term) markets it to the world at large.",
"The pope is the leader of the Catholic Church. He is in charge of a small country, and a global population of Catholics. [For more info, click here.]( URL_0 )",
"Isn't he also the bishop of Rome? Does he do what the bishop of Los Angeles does, In Addition to his job a pope?",
"ELI5: Hyperlinks. Can someone just type out what the links say... like, in short bullet points or something? What does the Pope do?",
"He is the head of the Catholic church. This means: He is the effective \"Head-Of-State\" in the Catholic World (I.e. someone else does the day to day running but he is the figure head). However he can become \"Commander-in-Chief\" if he needs to be and says \"As the pope - I decree that all Catholics believe this\". And this boils down to WHY Catholics have a pope - to ultimately decide what the Catholic Churches teachings/beliefs are. For example with the abortion stance - the pope would have instigated a series of discussions, consulting on the advice of Scientific experts, to understand and establish when 'life' is created. The pope would then decide, based upon the advice and opinions of his subordinates and scientists, that life begins when the Sperm hits the Egg and therefore Abortion is wrong and Catholic teaching should reflect this. This is all done behind closed doors and this gives the appearance of the pope/Church just pulling ideas out their arse. But the idea is that this prevents a split in the Church and it is a unified message that as a Catholic you either accept or not - hence why Catholicism has Confirmation (The Act of Confirming that the religion your parents brought you up in - is now yours. And now that you have been taught what it means to be catholic you agree with it). However splits do happen - Protestant churches represent splits away from the Pope. e.g. King Henry became head of the Church in England so that he could conduct a divorce that the Pope was not willing to grant. Other churches broke away for a variety of different reasons, but ultimately are saying they do not agree with the authority that the Pope is given.",
"He gives a papal audience every week, he does religious duties (like most other priests), gives visits to countries (he's coming to the US this fall) and writes books, the pope is rad. in a spiritual sense, the pope is the pontifex, the bridge between the world and God.",
"Other than priesty stuff, he does pretty much what a CEO does with the catholic church being the company in this analogy.",
"CGP grey on some pope videos [Vatican City Explained]( URL_1 ) How to become [pope]( URL_0 )"
] | [
[
"the pope and Catholic bishops are the spiritual successors of the original twelve apostles, through the historically unbroken chain of consecration (see: Holy orders). The pope is the spiritual head and leader of the Roman Catholic Church who makes use of the Roman Curia to assist him in governing. He is elected by the College of Cardinals who may choose from any male member of the church but who must be ordained a bishop before taking office. Since the 15th century, a current cardinal has always been elected.\nThe New Testament contains warnings against teachings considered to be only masquerading as",
"-30.829839789890684"
],
[
"One is that the pope takes to himself the right to rule the church that belongs only to Christ. He can make laws forbidding the marriage of priests, eating or not eating meat on Friday, birth control, divorce and remarriage, even where there are not such laws in the Bible. The second is that he teaches that salvation is not by faith alone but by faith and works. \nMark Schroeder, the current president of the WELS, affirmed in 2011 that \"WELS does hold to the historic Lutheran position that the Roman Catholic papacy fits the biblical characteristics of the Antichrist\".",
"-29.46629324449168"
],
[
"office, and not to the person, while the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states that the reference is to the office, but not to the exclusion of the current office holder:\nThere are two principles that mark the papacy as the Antichrist. One is that the pope takes to himself the right to rule the church that belongs only to Christ. He can make laws forbidding the marriage of priests, eating or not eating meat on Friday, birth control, divorce and remarriage, even where there are not such laws in the Bible. The second is that he teaches that salvation is not",
"-29.288504782802192"
],
[
"granted to individuals for some significant occasion, and no particular form of words is required.\nThe Pope gives his blessing in many ways. He may use, with or without the introductory liturgical greeting, Dominus vobiscum, the formula of pontifical blessing that any other bishop may use. This was the formula used by Pope Paul VI (without Dominus vobiscum) when he gave his blessing at his first appearance on the balcony of St. Peter's Basilica following his election at the 1963 conclave, and by Pope Benedict XVI (with \"Dominus vobiscum\") after announcing on 11 February 2013 his intention to resign the papacy,",
"-29.253765435074456"
],
[
"as the rest of the cardinals wait in turn to offer their first \"obedience\" (adoratio) and to receive his blessing.\nThe Senior Cardinal Deacon announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following proclamation: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam! (\"I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!\"). He announces the new pope's Christian name along with his newly chosen regnal name.\nUntil 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the Papal coronation, which started with a procession with great pomp and circumstance from the Sistine Chapel to St. Peter's Basilica, with the newly",
"-29.214228010845545"
],
[
"the concierge at a hotel is told that he is the pope, he answers, \"The Pope? What's the Pope?\"\nWhen the Pope was toppled, there was an attempt to assassinate him, but this failed, and it was since decided not to make him a martyr to the few surviving Christians. Since then, Christianity has been eradicated, and the pope is now the last surviving Christian.\nIn the story, the Pope is flown for a formal meeting with the General, the new leader of the new world order. After many long years, it is a formal meeting, much publicized in the world press.",
"-29.200381106697023"
],
[
"Angelus Papal custom In Vatican City since Pope John XXIII, the Pope delivers an address every Sunday at noon. Pope John spoke of the Angelus \"as a summary of 'the christian epic' in three books: the divine invitation and initiative; the human response of obedience, fiat; and the result of this obedience, the Word made flesh.\"\nKnown informally as the Angelus Address (\"Regina Cœli Address\" during Eastertide), the short ritual is broadcast by public television (Rai Uno) and Eurovision Network. At the end of the Address, the Pope leads recitation of the Angelus or Regina Cœli, and concludes with a blessing",
"-29.027014699444408"
],
[
"over all bishops. ... A duly ordained pope is undoubtedly made a saint by the merits of St. Peter.\nNevertheless, in Catholic thought, the exemption of the See of Rome from all error extends only to its definitive teachings on faith and morals, not to its historical judgments. Similarly, papal sainthood does not suggest that popes are free from sin. Quite the contrary, popes frequent the sacrament of Reconciliation (confession and penance) for the forgiveness of their sins, as all other Catholics are required to do. While occupying the papal office, Pope Benedict XVI confessed his sins once a week. Protestant",
"-28.894390686547922"
],
[
"from the press and the curiosity of the outside world by reporting that the new pontiff felt the need to sequester himself in prayer and reflection before being introduced to the public, and by explaining that he will make his official appearance within a few hours. This does not happen.\nIn accordance with the laws of the Church, until the identity of the new pope is announced publicly, the ceremony of election is not over and no one in the conclave can leave the Vatican.\nThe College of Cardinals, deeply concerned by the crisis and the depression from which the new pope",
"-28.772221789433388"
],
[
"We Have a Pope (film) Plot On the death of the pope, the conclave meets in Rome. Early ballots end with black smoke, since none of the main candidates reaches the quorum. After several rounds of voting, Cardinal Melville is elected, though he had not previously been considered a frontrunner.\nAt the moment of the public announcement, with the faithful are gathered in St. Peter's Square and the cardinal proto-deacon ready to announce the name of the new pope, the newly elected pope has a panic attack and fails to appear on the balcony.\nThe spokesman of the Holy See evades questions",
"-28.70508723797684"
],
[
"Church, but represents a collaboration with the Pope: it discusses topics proposed to it and makes recommendations, but does not settle questions or issue decrees, unless the Pope grants it deliberative power in certain cases. Secretariat and Council The Synod of the Bishops has its own permanent general secretariat, composed of the General Secretary and a fifteen-member council, twelve of whom are elected by each general assembly and three are appointed by the Pope. The secretariat assists in preparing the apostolic exhortation which the Pope publishes on the basis of the recommendations of each general assembly, and it prepares the",
"-28.69920828218892"
],
[
"homily at a Mass held for Hamel's soul at the Vatican. \"He is a martyr and martyrs are beatified,\" the pope continued. Two weeks later Archbishop Lebrun announced in a homily that the Pope had formally waived the five-year waiting period needed before the start of a canonization process, and that he had decided to prepare it without delay.\nDuring Chrism Mass (on Holy Thursday, 13 April 2017), Archbishop Lebrun publicly announced the opening of the Canonization cause, with all of Rouen's clergy gathered. Archbishop Lebrun also said the Pope himself allowed a photo of Fr. Jacques to be put in",
"-28.541294947179267"
],
[
"the absence of both of these, to the senior Cardinal Bishop. If the new pope is already a bishop, as is normally the case, his election is announced immediately to the people gathered in Saint Peter's Square and he gives them his blessing.\nThe episcopal enthronement of the pope takes place in his cathedral, the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran. This ceremony was once combined with the coronation. During the Avignon papacy, the pope, being in France, could not be enthroned in his cathedral in Rome. The coronations continued, while enthronements had to await a return to Rome. When Gregory XI",
"-28.503428874682868"
],
[
"supposed to hold political office, especially high offices or compensated offices or offices that could influence the church in society, under the laws of the Catholic Church. The Pope was repeatedly interrupted during the Mass, which eventually made him angry (see the papal biography by George Weigel).\nThe Pope's visit convinced the vast majority of Nicaraguan people that the Vatican was not in tune with their problem. For instance, the day before the Pope's visit to Managua, a funeral service was held to commemorate the lives of 17 Sandinista supporters who were killed by the Contras in the same plaza that",
"-28.492735109757632"
],
[
"next assembly. Their function ceases with the start of a new general assembly. A similar function is performed by specific special councils elected by the special assemblies. Powers of the Pope The pope convokes the Synod of Bishops; ratifies the election of participants; determines the topic of discussion; distributes the material for discussion; sets the agenda; and presides either personally or through delegates.\nThe pope may also appoint participants of his own choosing, their number limited to 15% of the other delegates who participate either ex officio or as elected representatives of episcopal conferences or the Union of Superiors General.",
"-28.448353914543986"
],
[
"However, Palma later confirmed that the pontiff would not visit the country for the event and the Vatican would instead send a papal envoy to participate, saying: \"the IEC is the opportunity to give glory to God. Others are saying if the Pope comes people might come because of the Pope but not because of Jesus.\"",
"-28.437433837127173"
],
[
"(English: \"pontifical coronation\") is sometimes used for the canonical coronation of religious images by via a formal expressed decree by a reigning Pope. Ritual When a conclave elects a new pope, he assumes all of the rights and authority of the papacy immediately upon his acceptance of election; however, popes traditionally numbered their regnal years from the date of their coronation. If a newly elected pope is not a bishop, he is consecrated at once. In accordance with tradition, the right of consecration belongs to the Dean of the College of Cardinals, in his absence to the Subdean, and in",
"-28.43147985622636"
],
[
"Pope was elected on September 5, 1816, as a Delegate to the United States House of Representatives for a term of two years, serving in the 15th United States Congress from March 4, 1817 to November 30, 1818. He was a register for the United States Land Office in Edwardsville, Illinois Territory (State of Illinois from December 3, 1818) from November 30, 1818 to March 3, 1819. Notable legislation Pope was instrumental both in securing the new territory's admission as the 21st State on December 3, 1818 (the statehood resolution passed regardless of the creative counting to achieve the former",
"-28.40504112970666"
],
[
"bishops. He is solemnly conducted to the episcopal throne, and takes possession by seating himself on it. He receives the kiss of peace and listens to the reading of a passage of Holy Scripture, whereupon he pronounces an address that used to be called the sermo inthronisticus.\nIn ancient times, the letters that the pope sent to the patriarchs in token of being in communion with them in the same faith were called litterae inthronisticae or syllabai enthronistikai. Location of the ceremony The earliest papal coronations took place in St. John Lateran, the pope's cathedral. However, for hundreds of years papal",
"-28.38985551991209"
],
[
"the Secretary of State, who is a cardinal. The Cardinal Secretary of State is primarily responsible for the diplomatic and political activity of the Holy See, in some circumstances representing the Pope himself. Section for General Affairs The Section for General Affairs handles the normal operations of the Church including organizing the activities of the Roman Curia, making appointments to curial offices, publishing official communications, papal documents, handling the concerns of embassies to the Holy See, and keeping the papal seal and Fisherman's Ring. Abroad, the Section for General Affairs is responsible for organizing the activities of nuncios around the",
"-28.333593221399497"
],
[
"chosen and shortly thereafter the Vatican web site was changed to say \"Habemus Papam\" (\"We have a pope\").\nThe Cardinal Protodeacon Jean-Louis Tauran appeared at the central balcony of St. Peter's Basilica and announced the election of the new pope and his chosen name. Pope Francis appeared and asked the people to pray for him before he blessed the world, at which point the conclave concluded. Post-conclave events A half-hour later, the Twitter account @Pontifex sent out a tweet that read \"HABEMUS PAPAM FRANCISCUM\".\nAt 8:23 pm (20:23) local time, the Italian Conference of Bishops released a statement congratulating Cardinal Angelo Scola",
"-28.268502153572626"
],
[
"Pope and the office is the \"papacy.\" As a bishopric, its origin is consistent with the development of an episcopal structure in the 1st century. The papacy, however, also carries the notion of primacy: that the See of Rome is pre-eminent among all other sees. The origins of this concept are historically obscure; theologically, it is based on three ancient Christian traditions: (1) that the apostle Peter was pre-eminent among the apostles, see Primacy of Simon Peter, (2) that Peter ordained his successors for the Roman See, and (3) that the bishops are the successors of the apostles (apostolic",
"-28.15992419529357"
],
[
"Political system The government of Vatican City has a unique structure. The pope is the sovereign of the state. Legislative authority is vested in the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State, a body of cardinals appointed by the pope for five-year periods. Executive power is in the hands of the president of that commission, assisted by the general secretary and deputy general secretary. The state's foreign relations are entrusted to the Holy See's Secretariat of State and diplomatic service. Nevertheless, the pope has absolute power in the executive, legislative and judicial branches over Vatican City. He is currently the only",
"-28.144908197340555"
],
[
"Where's the Pope? History Where's the Pope? were a pioneering hardcore punk, thrash band formed in Adelaide, South Australia in 1985. The group were formed by Frank Pappagalo on vocals, Robert Stafford on bass guitar, Phil Curran on guitar and Phil Rady on drums. They became known for their energetic and chaotic live performances, and also for bringing a United States-type sound to the local punk scene. They released four albums, toured the eastern states on numerous occasions, supported international acts and played at two Big Day Out concert series, including a main stage performance in front of thousands of",
"-28.13797022419749"
],
[
"reported on Pope Benedict XVI's meetings with the world's bishops. Known as ad limina visits, they are supposed to occur every five years. Baldisseri said that it had taken the Pope more than seven years to complete the full cycle.\nIn early September 2013, Baldisseri was part of a group of 30 officials of the Roman Curia who met with Pope Francis to offer their views and concerns with respect to his proposed reorganization of the Vatican's administrative apparatus. General Secretary of the Synod of Bishops Pope Francis named Baldisseri the General Secretary of the Synod of Bishops on 21 September",
"-28.095942468709836"
],
[
"witness of the recent popes and their encyclicals, especially Pope Paul VI's Evangelii nuntiandi (On Evangelization in the Modern World), John Paul II's Redemptoris missio (The Mission of the Redeemer), and the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith's Declaration Dominus Iesus (The Lord Jesus), for which Pope Benedict XVI was primarily responsible, when he was previously Prefect of the Congregation. New bibles, catechetical materials, youth ministry programs, and young adult ministries witness to greater evangelical zeal within the Church. College campus ministry and parish ministry are focusing more of their resources on outreach (pre-evangelization and evangelization). ",
"-28.08423132673488"
],
[
"pope's behalf in the Basilica of Saint John Lateran.\nThe current postulator for this cause is Father Wiesław Śpiewak.",
"-28.062366026832024"
],
[
"Teachings of Pope John Paul II Catechism of the Catholic Church John Paul II published the Catechism of the Catholic Church, which became an international best-seller. Its purpose, according to the Pope's Apostolic Constitution Fidei Depositum was to be \"a statement of the Church's faith and of Catholic doctrine, attested to or illumined by Sacred Scripture, the Apostolic Tradition and the Church's Magisterium.\" He declared \"it to be a sure norm for teaching the faith\" to \"serve the renewal\" of the Church. Holiness and morality Right after being elected as Pope, he told the cardinals who elected him that he",
"-28.048674232326448"
],
[
"to meet the pope accompanied by the Pontifical North American College rector Charles O'Hearn. Benedict XV took Wilson by the hand and led him into the study for their meeting, with the pope later presenting Wilson with a gift: a mosaic of Saint Peter. The interpreter had to be present for the meeting, since the pope was speaking in French, and Wilson only spoke English. The presidential party was presented to the pope, and after presenting his personal physician Admiral Grayson (telling the pope that he \"is the man who keeps me well\"), the pope said: \"Apparently, he has done",
"-28.015443026852154"
],
[
"(art. 144)\". Structure The Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace has a President who is assisted by a Secretary and an Under-Secretary, all named by the Pope for a period of five years. A staff of lay persons, religious and priests of different nationalities works with them in carrying out the programmes and activities of the Council.\nThe Pope also appoints about forty Members and Consultors who serve in a personal capacity for a period of five years. Coming from different parts of the world, the Members meet in Rome at regular intervals for a Plenary Assembly during which each one,",
"-28.00444670545403"
],
[
"Peter's was the first time two popes were present, as Pontiff Emeritus Benedict attended at Pope Francis' invitation.\nThe church held that by passing through these doors, the faithful can earn indulgences after fulfilling the usual conditions of prayer for the pope's intentions, confession, and detachment from sin, and communion. During Lent of that year, special 24-hour penance services were to be celebrated, and during the year, special qualified and experienced priests called 'Missionaries of Mercy' were to be available in every diocese to forgive even sins normally reserved to the Holy See's Apostolic Penitentiary.\nIn the bull, Pope Francis stated about",
"-28.003105842071818"
],
[
"Habemus papam Format The format for the announcement when a cardinal is elected pope is:\nAnnuntio vobis gaudium magnum;\n\nhabemus Papam:\n\nEminentissimum ac Reverendissimum Dominum,\n\nDominum [first name]\n\nSanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Cardinalem [surname]\n\nqui sibi nomen imposuit [papal name].\nIn English, it can be translated as:\nI announce to you a great joy;\n\nwe have a pope:\n\nThe most eminent and reverend lord,\n\nLord [first name]\n\nCardinal of the Holy Roman Church [surname]\n\nwho takes to himself the name [papal name].\nIn the Habemus papam announcement given by Cardinal Jorge Arturo Medina Estévez on 19 April 2005, upon the election of Pope Benedict XVI, the announcement was preceded by an identical greeting in several",
"-28.00221274548676"
],
[
"world. In communion with the worldwide college of bishops, the Pope has all legitimate juridical and teaching authority over the whole Church. This authority given by Christ to St. Peter and the apostles is transmitted from one generation to the next by the power of the Holy Spirit, through the laying on of hands from the Apostles to the bishops, in unbroken succession. Eastern Orthodox Church The conciliar idea of episcopal government continues in the Eastern Orthodox Church. In Eastern Orthodoxy, all autocephalous primates are seen as collectively gathering around Christ, with other archbishops and bishops gathering around them,",
"-27.98977050364192"
],
[
"Pope Benedict XVI and Islam During his papal tenure, Pope Benedict XVI focused on building on the outreach of his predecessors towards Islam, particularly on the efforts of Pope John Paul II, who experts say established trust and opened opportunities for dialogue with Muslims. One of the important milestones in the Pope's efforts included a religious and peaceful initiative called A Common Word. This was provoked by an ill-conceived 2006 lecture he delivered at a university in Regensburg, Germany, which prompted Muslim leaders to gather and make overtures to their Christian and Jewish counterparts. Later on, Pope Benedict pursued",
"-27.95006276704953"
],
[
"earth, to whom is honor and glory, world without end.\nFollowing his coronation, the pope imparted the solemn papal blessing Urbi et Orbi. Taking possession of the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome The last act of the inauguration of a new pope is still the formal taking possession (possessio) of his cathedra as Bishop of Rome in the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran. This is the final ceremony mentioned in Pope John Paul II's Apostolic Constitution on the vacancy of the Apostolic See and the election of the Roman Pontiff. The pope is enthroned in the same manner as other",
"-27.944140863895882"
],
[
"Orbi blessing to thousands of pilgrims gathered in St. Peter's Square. Before blessing the crowd, he asked those in St. Peter's Square to pray for his predecessor, \"the bishop emeritus of Rome\" Pope Benedict XVI, and for himself as the new \"bishop of Rome\".\nPope Francis held his papal inauguration on 19 March 2013 in St. Peter's Square in the Vatican. He celebrated Mass in the presence of various political and religious leaders from around the world. In his homily Pope Francis focused on the Solemnity of Saint Joseph, the liturgical day on which the Mass was celebrated. Name At his",
"-27.943930704088416"
],
[
"of the Catechumens while he says, \"The grace of the Holy Spirit through my humble ministry descend upon you copiously.\"\nThe Pope then descends to the Altar of St. Maurice (and 1312--kisses the Emperor 'after the manner of a deacon'). The Pope then give the Emperor a ring with the words, \"Receive this ring the visible witness of holy faith...\" and then the short prayer, \"God with whom is all power...\" (a much shorter version of the prayer said at the anointing). The Pope girds the sword on the Emperor with the words, \"Receive this sword with the blessing of God...\"",
"-27.927254680544138"
],
[
"Pope's name taps deep into the roots of European culture and probably was intended to refer to Saint Benedict of Nursia, the 6th-century founder of the Benedictine Order, which preserved Christian civilization and writing through the Dark Ages.\"\nReverend Navone said the new pope, who has written a book about Europe, was determined to restore Christian doctrine in a continent where congregations are abandoning the church en masse, even if it means a smaller and purer church.\nThe new pope, who warned about the \"dictatorship of relativism\" in a homily before entering the conclave, \"is going to clarify the meaning of Christianity",
"-27.9250052619318"
],
[
"people. The Pope was presented with several symbolic gifts during the service, including a pipe banner with the Pope's coat of arms, a piece of Caithness glass, a firkin of whisky and a Scotland football shirt. He told worshippers \"as believers, we are constantly exposed to pressures by modern society which would compel us to conform to the standards of this secular age, substitute new proprieties, restrict our aspirations at risk of compromising our Christian conscience.\"\nThe Welsh leg of the trip took place on 2 June with the Pope's arrival in Cardiff. After he was awarded the Freedom of Cardiff,",
"-27.90256506364676"
],
[
"exercise of the papal magisterial power that was so marked a feature of the years between the first and second Vatican Councils. The pope's primary purpose was to obtain confirmation of the position he had taken in his Syllabus of Errors (1864), condemning a wide range of positions associated with rationalism, liberalism, and materialism, and to define the doctrine concerning the church. In the three sessions, there was discussion and approval of only two constitutions: Dei Filius, the Dogmatic Constitution On The Catholic Faith\nand Pastor Aeternus, the First Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ, dealing with the primacy and",
"-27.87316176883178"
],
[
"active ministry based on the results of an investigation that he had started while head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, before his election as Pope in April 2005. Maciel was ordered \"to conduct a reserved life of prayer and penance, renouncing every public ministry.\" As pope, Benedict defrocked at least 400 priests.\nIn July 2007, Pope Benedict issued the motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, allowing priests to celebrate the Traditional Latin Mass without first having to receive permission from their local ordinary.The Priestly Society of Saint Pius X, which was consulted by Pope Benedict during the process, said",
"-27.86537615270936"
],
[
"the death of a pope to the announcement of his successor's election, of the cardinals and the departments of the Roman curia; with the funeral arrangements for the dead pope; and with the place, time and manner of voting of the meeting of the cardinal electors, a meeting known as a conclave. This word is derived from Latin com- (together) and clavis (key) and refers to the locking away of the participants from outside influences, a measure that was introduced first as a means instead of forcing them to reach a decision.\nLike all bishops, the pope has the option of",
"-27.85326970004826"
],
[
"pope to travel to the United Kingdom, in 1982, where he met Queen Elizabeth II, the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. While in Britain he also visited Canterbury Cathedral and knelt in prayer with Robert Runcie, the Archbishop of Canterbury, at the spot where Thomas à Becket had been killed, as well as holding several large-scale open air masses, including one at Wembley Stadium, which was attended by some 80,000 people.\nHe travelled to Haiti in 1983, where he spoke in Creole to thousands of impoverished Catholics gathered to greet him at the airport. His message, \"things must change in",
"-27.85003230739676"
],
[
"its moderator send a letter to Pope Benedict XVI in order to express its greetings and support for upholding the historic teaching and faith of the Church.",
"-27.838289235020056"
],
[
"their faith and oppose with the same firmness as so many brave generations before them. The Pope concludes by requesting world-wide public prayers for the persecuted and, embracing all, offers his Apostolic Blessing.",
"-27.832092329801526"
],
[
"the Pope, \"Your Holiness, we are a Christian Nation, as the US Supreme Court decided more than half a century ago\" and re-appointed Myron C. Taylor as a representative to the Holy See. Vatican relations with America were cordial and largely free of conflict. Joseph P. Kennedy, father of John F. Kennedy, attended the Papal coronation as representative of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. William Henry O'Connell of Boston was the first Cardinal invited by the new Pope after his election. Cardinal George Mundelein of Chicago was his second guest. In 1936, then Cardinal Pacelli was the first Pope to ever",
"-27.81779458188248"
],
[
"his absence, the cardinals kill time by playing games, ranging from cards to an international volleyball tournament organized by Brezzi.\nThe spokesman makes everyone believe that the Pope is in his quarters in prayer, and eventually the cardinals find Melville and give him another chance to announce his acceptance. Melville comes out onto the balcony claiming \"I am not the leader you need\", asks the crowd to pray \"for what he is about to do\", and then retreats back into St. Peter's Basilica. Production We Have a Pope was announced in May 2009 as a co-production between Sacher Film, Rai",
"-27.80031676152754"
],
[
"world will simply ignore it. Instead, he is stunned as the Pope instead announces that he is creating an Order of Christ Crucified to spread the Faith in the face of persecution.\nMeanwhile, President Felsenburgh has instructed the Parliaments of Europe to institute weekly Humanist ceremonies, inspired by the rituals of Freemasonry, in all the cathedrals and churches which are not in Catholic hands. Attendance is to be optional except for the four annual festivals of Maternity, Life, Sustenance, and Paternity. Those who refuse to attend are threatened with dire consequences.\nAs Oliver Brand, now Minister of Public Worship, plans the upcoming",
"-27.794592515652766"
],
[
"Pope John Paul II's visit to the United Kingdom The visit of Pope John Paul II to the United Kingdom in 1982 was the first visit there by a reigning Pope. The Pope arrived in the UK on Friday 28 May, and during his time there visited nine cities, delivering 16 major addresses. Among significant events were a meeting with Queen Elizabeth II, the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, a joint service alongside the then-Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Runcie at Canterbury Cathedral, meeting with and addressing the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland at The Mound, and",
"-27.79314805744434"
],
[
"acknowledging the presence of the observer-delegates from other denominations. After Mass, Pope John Paul II gave his inaugural address to open the synod. In the address, the pope presented a spiritual theme, but did not deliver specific instructions, appearing to give the bishops flexibility in choosing the synod's direction. He encouraged them to forge new \"vistas\" for the Church's mission. The pope said:\n''In this time of ours, when from various sides the primacy of man is set up in opposition to the primacy of God, the Council in a convincing manner makes aware that the 'kingdom of man' can find",
"-27.770152910554316"
],
[
"Pope Benedict XVI as a backdrop, a plot unfolds to destroy \"the longest continuous government in the world — the Papacy\". It becomes apparent that the real purpose behind Uriarte's actions was to murder the Conservative faction of the Church and open a path for more Liberal-minded clergy to take control of the Church. Uriarte's plot is unknowingly foiled by Ramsay's uncle, a conservative priest from England. Reception Award-winning novelist Ron Hansen wrote: \"Piers Paul Read has managed to combine sheer storytelling power with great learning and insight about the inner workings of the Church to fashion an entertainment of",
"-27.755453530611703"
],
[
"8 December 2018 with Cardinal Giovanni Angelo Becciu presiding over the celebration on the pope's behalf.",
"-27.752238278160803"
],
[
"John Lateran which is the mother church of all churches in communion with the Catholic Church. However, St. Peter's is certainly the Pope's principal church in terms of use because most Papal liturgies and ceremonies take place there due to its size, proximity to the Papal residence, and location within the Vatican City proper. The \"Chair of Saint Peter\", or cathedra, an ancient chair sometimes presumed to have been used by St. Peter himself, but which was a gift from Charles the Bald and used by many popes, symbolises the continuing line of apostolic succession from St. Peter to the",
"-27.75192129223433"
],
[
"visitors at the White House. April 16 (Washington) The Pope was formally received at the White House on April 16. Over 9,000 people gathered on the South Lawn of the White House, including thousands of members of the public who got free tickets in a lottery-type drawing, and another 4,000 without tickets to the ceremony lined the streets around the White House to see his motorcade. The crowd sang \"Happy Birthday\" to the Pope, who turned 81 years old that day. The Pope addressed the crowd in English, saying he had \"great respect for this vast pluralistic society\" and ended",
"-27.741402418003418"
],
[
"Peter, the choir singing, \"Blessed be the Lord God of Israel\" .\nAt the Silver Door of the Basilica the Cardinal Bishop of Albano says the prayer, \"God in whose hands are the hearts of kings.\" As the Pope enters the Basilica the responsory \"Peter, do you love me?\" is sung. At the Rota porfiretica the Pope puts several questions to the Emperor about his faith and duty and then he retires to vest for the Mass. The Cardinal Bishop of Porto says the prayer, \"Unerring God, Author of the World.\" The Emperor goes to the Chapel of St. Gregory where",
"-27.736354388045243"
],
[
"assist bishops and priests in a variety of ministerial roles. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, whose jurisdiction is called the Holy See. In parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both. Additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services. Canon law Canon law (Latin: jus canonicum) is the system of laws and legal",
"-27.73227072082227"
],
[
"Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the Apostle Saint Peter (see Apostolic succession). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ubi Papa, ibi Curia, wherever the pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop",
"-27.717351811850676"
],
[
"Pope Benedict XVI's visit to the United States Pope Benedict XVI's visit to the United States took place from April 15, 2008 to April 20, 2008. It was his first and only visit to the United States. It was officially titled the \"Apostolic Visit to the United States of America and to the Seat of the United Nations\". It was the sixth official papal visit to the United States since the U.S. established full diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 1984. In addition to his 1979 visit, Pope John Paul II visited the United States in 1987, 1993, 1995,",
"-27.647133598220535"
],
[
"When he became Pope Pius XII, he made a radio address to the pilgrims in Luján on the occasion of the First Marian Congress in Argentina in 1947. \nIn 1982, during the Falklands War, John Paul II became the first pope to visit Our Lady of Luján. During this visit the Pope celebrated an outdoor Mass in the square of the Basilica of Our Lady of Luján and bestowed upon her the Golden Rose. Both in his homily of June 11 and his Angelus back in Rome reflecting on the trip, he commented on Our Lady's never failing maternal",
"-27.628714186925208"
],
[
"and the prayer, \"God whose providence...\" and then crowns the Emperor with the words, \"Receive the Crown of royal excellence...\" The Pope gives the Emperor the Scepter with the words, \"Receive the Scepter of royal power, the rod of royal rectitude, the staff of virtue,...\" and the prayer, \"Lord, fount of all honor...\"\nThe Pope returns to the Altar of St. Peter and the Gloria in excelsis is sung and the Pope says the collect, \"God of all kings...\" (In the 1312 and later coronations this is said after the collect for the feastday and after these collects the Laudes Imperiale",
"-27.613127231306862"
],
[
"the right to participate in future conclaves. On October 2008, the Pope accepted his resignation as archbishop.",
"-27.597848519828403"
],
[
"Pope John Paul II gave him the title Chaplain of His Holiness. He replaced Josef Clemens as Ratzinger's personal secretary in 2003, when Clemens became secretary of the Pontifical Council for the Laity. When Ratzinger was elected pope in 2005, Gänswein was appointed Principal Private Secretary to His Holiness. A year later Pope Benedict XVI gave him the title Prelate of His Holiness.\nIn an interview in July 2006, he described the Pope's typical day: \"The Pope's day begins with Mass at 7am, followed by morning prayer and a period of contemplation. Afterwards we eat breakfast together, and my day then",
"-27.597074670332404"
],
[
"Pope Benedict said, \"I wish to express my sincere thanks for the fidelity, the commitment and competence with which you exercised that [Divine Worship secretary] office.\" Pope Benedict also expressed that \"we have reason to be encouraged by the good you will be able to perform among the peoples of your land.\"\nArchbishop Ranjith was among 34 metropolitan archbishops to receive his pallium from Pope Benedict on the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul on 29 June 2009. The Archbishop was greeted with warmth and solemnity upon his arrival in Sri Lanka on 31 July 2009. Upon his arrival he was",
"-27.578679534286493"
],
[
"Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Patriarch of the Latin Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the Vatican City State, Servant of the servants of God. Offices and titles \"Pope\" is a pronominal honorific, not an office or a title, meaning \"Father\" (the common honorific for all clergy). The honorific \"pope\" was from the early 3rd century used for any bishop in the West, and is known in Greek as far back as Homer's Odyssey (6:57). In the East, \"pope\" is still a common form of address for clergy in the Bulgarian Orthodox",
"-27.512413927193847"
],
[
"the Papal Household by Pope John Paul II. He has remained in this position under the pontificates of Pope Benedict XVI and Pope Francis. In this capacity, he provides meditations to the Pope and other high-ranking officials each Friday during Lent and Advent, and is \"the only person allowed to preach to the Pope.\"\nCantalamessa, a frequent speaker, is a member of the Catholic Delegation for the Dialogue with the Pentecostal Churches. He currently hosts a weekly program on Radiotelevisione Italiana.\nPope Francis, who had hoped to make a visit in person, and the Bishops of the United States (through the United",
"-27.481928442488424"
],
[
"presence of the pope, first at the offertory and again before the Pater noster in a short ceremony called the praegustatio. Communion After giving the kiss of peace to the assistant priest and assistant deacons, the Pope went to the throne, and there received Communion, standing.\nThe master of ceremonies placed a twelve-rayed asterisk on the paten, to cover the Host. The cardinal deacon elevated the paten to the height of his forehead so that it was seen by the people and the pope. He then placed the paten in the hands of the subdeacon, which had been covered with a",
"-27.477114457578864"
],
[
"from Portugal wrote to Pope Pius XI, asking him to consecrate the world to the Immaculate Heart of Mary. At that time Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli (later Pope Pius XII) was the secretary of the state of the Vatican, and later he performed the consecration of the world.\nOn 25 March 1984 Pope John Paul II fulfilled this request again, when he made the solemn act of consecration of the world, and implicitly of Russia, to the Immaculate Heart of Mary before the miraculous statue of Our Lady of Fátima brought to Saint Peter's Square in the Vatican for the occasion. Sister",
"-27.394748765829718"
],
[
"in Panama, finding the 19,500 volunteers of the Journey, the Pope made a speech with which he concluded his visit to the country. Three of these young people made a brief address to the Pope, expressing their experiences of volunteering and participating in WYD. Archbishop Mendieta also presented a brief message, thanking the Pope for his example and assuring the prayers of the Pontiff. \"Count on the prayer of this youth,\" he said. After the speech the Pope also took leave of the authorities, and after, embarked back to Rome.",
"-27.38123468850972"
],
[
"the pontifical throne, the members of the prelatical colleges, etc. Vestments Before the beginning of the ceremony, the pope was vested in the falda (a particular papal vestment which forms a long skirt extending beneath the hem of the alb), amice, alb, cincture, pectoral cross, stole, and a very long cope known as the \"mantum\" (or \"papal mantle\"). Finally, the papal tiara was placed on his head. The Mass The Mass proceeded according to the order of a solemn pontifical high Mass with the following differences:\nAt the Confiteor, the cardinal bishop stood to the right of the pope, the",
"-27.375032385476516"
],
[
"of Italy and is empowered to appoint the president of the Italian Bishops' Conference.\nThe Church of Rome is also the principal church of the Province of Rome, so the bishop of Rome is Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman province.\nAs a bishop, the pope is referred to as a Vicar of Christ. This title was common to all bishops from the fourth through twelfth centuries, reserved to the bishop of Rome from the twelfth through early twentieth centuries, and restored to all bishops at the Second Vatican Council.\nThe pope resides in Vatican City, an independent state within the city of",
"-27.276858918212383"
],
[
"Considered a Blairite, Pope is a signatory of the Henry Jackson Society. He was a member of the backbench committee on Northern Ireland from 1997 to 2001.\nIn April 2000, as a whip, Pope inadvertently approved a Liberal Democrat clause in the government's utilities bill, committing the government to meet 10% of electricity requirements from green sources by 2010. Pope said: “We were doing a series of government amendments. I realised I'd shouted aye too many times. I'm not overjoyed about it.” The error led the government to instruct its MPs to vote against the clause.\nIn July 2003, Pope admitted leaking",
"-27.25547062966507"
],
[
"tool to spread the “joyful message of salvation”. 3. A Change of Mentality and Pastoral Renewal The pope states that the Church uses communication to help spread religious values and principles and allow for ecumenical and inter-religious dialogue. Pope John Paul II suggests that those in the Church community who “work in the media should be encouraged with pastoral prudence and wisdom” so that they will be able to work professionally as part of the mass media. With the development of mass media, the Church is impelled “towards a sort of pastoral and cultural revision”. Pastors have the responsibility to",
"-27.243141649392783"
],
[
"Eoin \"the Pope\" O'Mahony Eoin \"the Pope\" O'Mahony (22 March 1905 – 15 February 1970) was an Irish barrister, local councillor, and genealogist. He was well known as a \"wit, raconteur, [and] fighter for hopeless causes\".\nHe was born in County Cork and attended Presentation Brothers College, Cork and Clongowes Wood College. The most common story of how he gained the nickname \"the Pope\" is when asked at school what he wanted to be when he grew up. A skilled student debater, he was auditor of both the University College Cork Philosophical Society and the Trinity College Dublin Historical Society; his",
"-27.228660635300912"
],
[
"Pope \"full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered,\" a power that it attributes also to the entire body of the bishops united with the pope. The power that it attributes to the pope's primatial authority has limitations that are official, legal, dogmatic, and practical.\nIn the Ravenna Document, issued in 2007, representatives of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church jointly stated that both East and West accept the fact of the Bishop of Rome's primacy at the universal level, but that differences of understanding exist about how the",
"-27.217412821017206"
],
[
"in God. The Pope expresses his hope that many may be able to read his letter and find some comfort in it. May they continue on the path of faith, and receive divine strength in their difficulties. Because God is the centre of the issue, no one should take this easily, or lose courage. The saints, who make up the glory of Romania, will assist together with the blessed Virgin Mary. She will obtain from her son the graces which her children truly need. The Pope and the whole Catholic world will pray",
"-27.205764576385263"
],
[
"Vatican Council's document Lumen gentium, states: \"The pope, Bishop of Rome and Peter's successor, 'is the perpetual and visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful.'\" Communion with the bishop of Rome has become such a significant identifier of Catholic identity that at times the Catholic Church has been known in its entirety as \"Roman Catholic,\" though this is inaccurate in Catholic theology (ecclesiology).\nThree other of the pope's offices stem directly from his office as bishop of the Church of Rome. As the Latin Church owes its identity and",
"-27.198930383950938"
],
[
"be head of the church. It states that the pope is an Antichrist who \"exalteth himself, in the Church, against Christ and all that is called God.\"\nChapter 26 presents Reformed teaching on the communion of saints. This is the spiritual union that Christians have with Christ and with one another that allows them to share in the grace, suffering, death, resurrection, and glory of Christ. Sacraments Chapter 27 summarizes Reformed sacramental theology. It states that sacraments were established by God as \"signs and seals\" of the covenant of grace to represent Christ and his benefits, to visibly differentiate members of",
"-27.19705541525036"
],
[
"of thousands of people in St. Peter's Square. During his homily, Pope Benedict said that John of Ávila was a \"profound expert on the sacred Scriptures, he was gifted with an ardent missionary spirit. He knew how to penetrate in a uniquely profound way the mysteries of the redemption worked by Christ for humanity. A man of God, he united constant prayer to apostolic action. He dedicated himself to preaching and to the more frequent practice of the sacraments, concentrating his commitment on improving the formation of candidates for the priesthood, of religious and of lay people, with a view",
"-27.191397704562405"
],
[
"of the preceding five centuries. He named many cardinals, consecrated or co-consecrated many bishops, and ordained many priests. A stated goal of his papacy was to transform and reposition the Catholic Church, and \"to place his Church at the heart of a new religious alliance that would bring together Jews, Muslims and Christians in a great [religious] armada\". On 19 December 2009, John Paul II was proclaimed venerable by his successor Benedict XVI; he was beatified on 1 May 2011 and canonised, together with John XXIII, on 27 April 2014, Divine Mercy Sunday. Background In September 1955, the first high school",
"-27.16868520893331"
],
[
"Olivia Pope Characterization Pope is loosely based on Judy Smith, who served as George H. W. Bush's Deputy Press Secretary and represented Monica Lewinsky during the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal. On Scandal, she is a revered fixer who helped United States President Fitzgerald Grant (played by Tony Goldwyn) win office. Pope is a former lawyer and White House aide. Pope \"thinks fast and effectively\". Among her secrets is her affair with President Grant. Some of her employees have law degrees, but do not serve as lawyers. Instead, they are \"gladiators in suits\" who mollify or avert a wide array of crises.\nThe role",
"-27.168431330035673"
],
[
"Nuncio (equivalent to ambassador) of the Holy See to the U.S. Archbishop Laghi had been Pope John Paul II's apostolic delegate to the Catholic Church in the United States since 1980. Relations between President Ronald Reagan and Pope John Paul II were close especially because of their shared anti-communism and keen interest in forcing the Soviets out of Poland.\nAlso, the two men forged a common bond over having survived assassination attempts just six weeks apart in the spring of 1981.\nFollowing the September 11 attacks and the beginning of the US war on terrorism from 2001, the Vatican has been",
"-27.16365725369542"
],
[
"History of the papacy Early Christianity Catholics and the Orthodox recognize the pope as the successor to Saint Peter, and recognize him as the first bishop of Rome. Official declarations of the Church speak of the popes as holding within the college of the bishops a position analogous to that held by Peter within the \"college\" of the Apostles, namely Prince of the Apostles, of which the college of the Bishops, a distinct entity, is viewed by some to be the successor.\nMany deny that Peter and those claimed to be his immediate successors had universally-recognized supreme authority over all the",
"-27.16155559400795"
],
[
"of state of Vatican City since the 1860s, functions dependent on his primordial function as bishop of the diocese of Rome. The term \"Holy See\" refers not to the Vatican state but to the Pope's spiritual and pastoral governance, largely exercised through the Roman Curia. His official title with regard to Vatican City is Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City.\nPope Francis, born Jorge Mario Bergoglio in Buenos Aires, Argentina, was elected on 13 March 2013. His principal subordinate government official for Vatican City as well as the country's head of government is the President of the Pontifical Commission",
"-27.106314973032568"
],
[
"departure from traditional Catholic doctrine, which identifies the papacy with the bishop of Rome. Catholic teaching also holds that personal revelations are not binding on the Church as a whole.\nIn his capacity as pope, Domínguez called the Catholic Church a false church and declared Pope John Paul II excommunicated. Gregory XVII canonized Franco, Escrivá, and Columbus; and declared Paul VI a martyr or saint with Palmarian Catholic faith. Peter II Domínguez died in March 2005, according to Palmarian sources, supposedly experiencing a vision during an Easter Liturgy. His successor as pope immediately declared Domínguez to be Pope Saint Gregory XVII",
"-27.099710392685665"
],
[
"assessment. The Congregation's recommendations, including any doubts, questions or minority opinions, are sent to the pope. He usually approves the congregation’s decision, but may choose to send it back for further discussion and evaluation. The prefect then meets with the pope every Saturday and presents the recommendations of the congregation. A few days later, the pope informs the congregation of his decision. The congregation then notifies the nuncio, who in turn contacts the candidate and asks if he will accept the appointment. Congregation of Bishops (since 1965) In 1965, the head of the congregation took the title prefect, while the",
"-27.080089154464076"
],
[
"Pope Pius XI, and dinner with Cardinal Pacelli, who was to succeed to the papacy in 1939. Myron Charles Taylor served Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman from 1939 to 1950.\nPresidents Nixon, Ford, Carter, and Reagan also appointed personal envoys to the Pope. Also, all of these presidents, in addition to Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and all later presidents, along with the first ladies clad in black dresses and veils, have sought the papal blessing, typically during the first few months of their administrations, and usually traveling to the Vatican to do so.\nOn October 20, 1951, President",
"-27.07301718130475"
],
[
"Rahner insists that a Pope's statements depend essentially on his knowledge of what the living tradition maintains. There is no question of revelation but of preservation from error in the exercise of this oversight. This living tradition was gathered from communication with all the Bishops in the two instances where the Pope defined dogmas apart from a Council, the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption. 21st century relations with other Christian denominations In the document Responses to some questions regarding certain aspects of the doctrine on the Church of 29 June 2007 the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith reiterated",
"-27.06836228154134"
],
[
"the cardinal electors who participated in the conclaves of August and October 1978, which selected Popes John Paul I and John Paul II respectively. Before entering the August conclave, he noted that the Church \"has no political support in many places\" and called for a pope who could \"change people through warmth.\" In 1981, John Paul II sent him as a special papal envoy to the celebration in Drogheda, Ireland of the third centennial of Saint Oliver Plunkett's martyrdom. He called for a halt to the deportation of Salvadoran civil war refugees in 1983. Later life and death After fifteen",
"-27.06291886526742"
],
[
"as an orphan in the abbey. The pope's determination to speak at the synagogue stems from his conviction that the Catholic Church has many offenses to confess to the Jews. Paul VII ignores Allon's admonition to cancel the appointment at the synagogue and instead suggests that Allon personally accompany him within the pope's security team.\nSurprisingly, the pope's speech at the synagogue proves uneventful. But at the very same time Cassagrande secretly renounces his role in the pope's assassination and instead hires Lange to kill its instigator, Marco Brindisi. Cassagrande then commits suicide. Allon arrives a few seconds late at the",
"-27.062797547347145"
],
[
"The Dean asks next, \"By what name shall you be called?\" The new pope announces the regnal name he has chosen. If the Dean himself is elected pope, the Vice Dean performs this task.\nThe new pope is led through the \"Door of Tears\" to a dressing room where three sets of white papal vestments (immantatio) await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the \"Fisherman's Ring\" by the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, whom he first either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope assumes a place of honor",
"-27.058240113197826"
],
[
"the pope - he organized the assistance to the Romans in the Trastevere area who had been stricken with the plague. He oversaw the care of the mothers and their children and the funerals of the deceased in this work. He nursed the sick, buried to dead, and comforted those frightened and in mourning.\nOn 9 July 1657 the pope appointed him as Bishop of Bergamo and he received his episcopal consecration as such on 29 July 1657 from Marcantonio Bragadin. But before he accepted the post he decided to celebrate a Mass to discern the will of God when he",
"-27.026931523287203"
],
[
"Will Pope Personality Pope commands the authority of his team, and the department detectives generally respect him. Closing cases and convicting criminals is his first priority, even if it means he has to take the heat from his superiors. He always defends his team and is more than willing to take the blame for them.\nPope can be something of a chameleon, often playing both sides of the fence to get what he wants. Unlike Brenda, he plays along with law enforcement politics in order to keep the department running smoothly.\nAlthough he can be overly controlling, he has a soft spot",
"-27.00735689108842"
],
[
"the opening ceremony of the first session of the Second Vatican Council. The bishops took their seats on elevated platforms facing the pope, amidst choirs singing liturgical music. In his homily, Pope John Paul II encouraged the bishops to revive the Spirit of Vatican II, saying:\n\"We start the synod process in this eucharistic celebration with the same willingness to listen to the Holy Spirit, with the same love for the Church, with the same gratitude to Divine Providence that were present in the council Fathers twenty years ago. During the next two weeks all the members of the synod, among",
"-26.99875509157573"
],
[
"\"let us go to the Heart of Jesus through the Heart of Mary\". The pope's rationale for consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary relied on many different, yet mutually complementary arguments, as to why one can approach Jesus and achieve a special unity with him based on the intimate union of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary.\nIn 1986, when addressing the participants in the 1986 International Theological Symposium on the Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary, Pope John Paul II stated:\n \nOur act of consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary refers ultimately to the Heart of",
"-26.997582765528932"
],
[
"of the Pope, Robertson claims that Pope Benedict XVI is guilty of protecting pedophiles because the church swore the victims to secrecy and moved perpetrators in Catholic sex abuse cases to other positions where they had access to children while knowing the perpetrators were likely to reoffend. This, Robertson believes, constitutes the crime of assisting underage sex and when he was still Cardinal Ratzinger, the retired pope approved this policy up to November 2002. In Robertson's opinion, the Vatican is not a sovereign state and the pope is not immune to prosecution. Since Benedict XVI retired, Robertson stated in July",
"-26.9829185989729"
],
[
"task of the papacy is the preservation of the doctrine handed down by Jesus Christ.\" This means preserving the Church's doctrine, as on abortion and artificial contraception, where he does not respond to specific misinterpretations of his words but uses later opportunities to clarify his orthodoxy.\nFrancis has criticized those homilies \"which should be kerygmatic but end up speaking about everything that has a connection with sex, ... whether or not to participate in a demonstration against a draft law in favor of the use of condoms.\" He adds: \"We end up forgetting the treasure of Jesus alive, the treasure of",
"-26.97116668531089"
],
[
"at the Vatican \"by the end of March.\" The Pope also announced the formation of a Council for the Economy to set policy guidelines for the secretariat and analyze its work. The council comprises eight cardinals or bishops and seven lay persons \"with strong professional financial experience,\" chosen so that the body represents the global church. These members were named on 8 March. The council was headed by a Cardinal Reinhard Marx as coordinator. On 5 June 2015, Pope Francis appointed Libero Milone as Auditor General.\nA meeting of the Council for the Economy was held in September 2014 to discuss",
"-26.95713389586308"
],
[
"the behalf of Pope Benedict XVI.",
"-26.940550871688174"
],
[
"reference to the 7th century Roman Pope Vitalian in an Old English translation of Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. Position within the Church The Catholic Church teaches that the pastoral office, the office of shepherding the Church, that was held by the apostles, as a group or \"college\" with Saint Peter as their head, is now held by their successors, the bishops, with the bishop of Rome (the pope) as their head. Thus, is derived another title by which the pope is known, that of \"Supreme Pontiff\".\nThe Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as leader of the Church,",
"-26.933898773626424"
],
[
"absolute fidelity to the Pope; to sustain and assist the religious, spiritual, charitable and social works and rights of the Catholic Church and the Christians in the Holy Land, particularly of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which receives some 10 million dollars annually in donations from members of the order. Other activities around the world are connected to their original functions.\nRegional activities include participation in local processions and religious ceremonies, such as during Holy Week.\nIn France, the French Revolution resulted in a ban on conserving relics and all other sacred symbols linked to the monarchy, though pieces judged to be",
"-26.929007698710848"
]
] |
4xvu4n | Why is it that as we get older, we are able to handle eating hotter foods | [
"I'm not sure I accept the premise. Children in cultures where spicy food is common, think nothing of it. My nephews had no problem eating hot peppers when they were very young because it was just a normal part of their diet. It's a sort of acquired taste/tolerance and it's \"easier\" to acquire that at the very malleable young age. If you don't acquire it when you're very young, then it's a much slower process and might not happen until you're much older.",
"Its not about age, its about how accustomed you are to eating spicy foods. As you eat spicy foods more often you build a sort of tolerance to it, so that you can handle eating slightly spicier foods. When you are a child, you don't have that tolerance because you haven't had a chance to develop it yet.",
"The top comment here was about hotness in terms of spiciness, but I think op is just talking about the temperature of foods. So I'll speak in terms of that. Over our life time, you're bound to burn and cut your mouth and especially your tongue. When you damage these areas and they do their thing and heal, scar tissue is left behind. Scar tissue is tougher and less pliable than the original tissue. So it only makes sense that as you age and inevitably damage your mouth, it \"toughens up\" and become less sensitive.",
"I'm not really sure this is true. In my experience older ladies and gents normally slow down on the spicy stuff a bit. But, if it is, I would argue it's something like how senior citizens go nose deaf. Ever wonder why they have so much cologne/perfume on? It's because they do. Their senses are not as sharp as younger personnel.",
"This probably isn't the only reason, but one likely contributor is that the number of active taste buds a typical person has naturally deteriorates with age, much like our vision and hearing tend to deteriorate with age. So children on average experience tastes more sharply than adults, which is probably one major reason they prefer blander foods.",
"I'm honestly under the impression that as we grow older we understand more and more how much life can suck. And we enjoy the pain of hotter/spicier foods because at least then we feel something.",
"It's not about age, but exposure and tolerance. my parents forwent the customary child discipline (wooden spoons, belts, grounding, etc) and instead rubbed my gums and tongue with hot sauce. hoo boy. but by adolescence i *loved* spicy food. and as i get older i want more and more spice as long as it still has flavour and isn't just pure heat for the sake of making someone puke. A deeply flavorful authentic Indian curry is one of my favorite dishes. get some thai chillis in there, a bit of mango habenero sauce, mmm.",
"While it is true that eating more spicy food will let you get used to the level of heat and try hotter food later, as you age the taste receptors in your tongue become less sensitive. This is part of the reason why you see some old people eat their food while it's scalding hot, or they add a lot more salt and sugar to things; their palate is not as sensitive as it was before and they need more \"flavoring\" to get the same sensation. The same thing happens when people frequently ingest really hot (as in temperature) foods or smoke often. The repeated damage (as slight as it might be perceived) will take its toll and those people will need to use more seasoning to get the same flavor. It's essentially the same process, but it happens at an earlier age.",
"Maybe because you begin to wait less and less, as you get older. After having a kid, i either eat my food fast while it's still hot, or eat gross cold food. Same with coffee, i've notice my heat tolerance is getting higher, i've also learned how to sip it (kind of a slurp), so that i can drink it as soon as it's ready. Wait! Are you talking about temp or spiciness?",
"I don't know where you got this from exactly. Most old people I know are deathly afraid of anything remotely related to being spicy and avoid it like it's poison. Meanwhile all of my friends (in our 20s) will demolish the spiciest burritos we can find and drink ghost pepper sauce in a heartbeat.",
"The brain learns to tune out unimportant pain with time. You get a scrape as a kid and it seems like the end of the world. You get one as an adult and you may wince, but then you move on with your day. Spicy foods are similar.",
"Says who? As I get older I can handle spice less and less(except curry for some reason). I hotsnake more often than not with spicy food now, and usually with worse and worse digestive pain. It's terrible."
] | [
[
"in food properly, their health is effected drastically and their food preferences are limited greatly (to soft or liquids only).\nDeclines in physical health can cause deterioration in diet due to difficulties in preparing and eating food as a result of conditions like arthritis.\nAt the 2010 \"Providing Healthy and Safe Foods As We Age\" conference sponsored by the Institute of Medicine, Dr. Katherine Tucker noted that the elderly are less active and have lower metabolism with a consequent lower need to eat. Also, they tend to have existing diseases and/or take medications that interfere with nutrient absorption. With changing",
"-33.18579707916797"
],
[
"with age, certain foods might not be seen as appetizing. For example, a study done by Dr. Phyllis B. Grzegorcyzk says that as we age, our sense for tasting salty foods goes away slowly. When elderly people in care homes eat often frozen meals that contain large amounts of salt, they will not enjoy it. This could lead to depression, anxiety, or thoughts of suicide. By biological sex: elderly male and female Not only are there differences in food preferences between ages, but in biological sex as well. In a study conducted by the Elderly Nutrition Program (ENP), they",
"-32.845163015066646"
],
[
"An individual's surroundings and health can affect what foods they choose and prefer to eat. By age: younger and older adults As people get older, their bodies change. This includes their taste buds, their needs of certain vitamins and nutrients, and their desire for different types of food. In a study by the Monell Chemical Senses Center, fifty young-adults and forty-eight elderly subjects participated in the study. Young subjects ranged from eighteen to thirty-five years of age and elderly subjects were sixty-five years of age or older. There were more females than males in the study, but there were approximately",
"-32.34060274643707"
],
[
"older people are happier due to an improved level of emotional intelligence. As for less educated people, findings about relational goods being more widely consumed within that demographic supports statistical evidence that shows that less educated people aren't necessarily less happy. This is an economical issue as choice and happiness are often correlated. While education significantly improves choice in material goods, the traditional yardstick for happiness, it does less to improve your options in relational goods, and may in fact reduce your options as more educated people tend to work longer hours, thus leaving\nless time for relationships.",
"-31.83281024666212"
],
[
"Engineering, and Medicine recommends that older adults improve their diet by consuming more fish, low-fat dairy products, and whole grains (such as fortified breakfast cereals). Older adults can also improve their diet by snacking on nuts and legumes as well as ensuring that they include fruit and vegetables at the center of their diet.",
"-31.32406013560103"
],
[
"period for lowering later food neophobia in children during the weaning process. The variety of solid foods first exposed to children can lower later food refusal. Some researchers believe that even the food variety of a nursing mother and the consequent variety of flavors in her breastmilk can lead to greater acceptance of novel food items later on in life. Food neophobia does tend to naturally decrease as people age.",
"-30.93429439229658"
],
[
"have time to cook dinner?\" There are many reasons why someone may put off to school until their children are older, such as not wanting to leave them in the hand of a baby sitter constantly at such a young age. However, once the children get older the parent pursuing an education, may start missing school events that they would have normally attended. The guilt of having to leave a child while attending to educational matters is less when the child is old enough to be able to ask questions about where their parent is and comprehend the response. Even",
"-30.26220127689885"
],
[
"on healthy food choices is much stronger for senior diners than for non-senior diners.\nOther research has found that adults regardless of age will tend to increase fruit and vegetable consumption following a diagnosis of breast, prostate or colorectal cancer. By social environment and conditioning The environment can greatly impact food preferences of older adults. Those around 75-years old and older tend to have limited mobility due to health conditions and rely on others for food shopping and preparation.\nHomebound seniors tend to receive one meal per day (several fresh and frozen meals may be included in a single delivery) by",
"-29.976470276653345"
],
[
"ability to live independently, and their risk for developing costly chronic illnesses. An aging adult’s nutritional well-being can be affected by multiple socio-environmental factors, including access to healthy and affordable foods, congregate meal sites, and nutritious selections at restaurants. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American Society for Nutrition, and the Society for Nutrition Education have identified an older adult's access to a balanced diet to be critical for the prevention of disease and promotion of nutritional wellness so that quality of life and independence can be maintained throughout the aging process and excessive health care costs can be reduced\".",
"-29.857178377409582"
],
[
"better to eat wheaten bread, roast meat, and few vegetables; whereas in summer it is appropriate to eat barley cake, barley meat and softer foods,” (qtd. in Wilkins et al., p. 346). Food and Diet in the Hippocratic Aphorisms Food and diet feature prominently in the aphorisms of the Hippocratic Corpus. For example, in one aphorism in the first section, Hippocrates states, “Things which are growing have the greatest natural warmth and, accordingly, need most nourishment. Failing this the body becomes exhausted. Old men have little warmth and they need little food which produces warmth; too much only extinguishes the warmth",
"-29.622295818397106"
],
[
"their food intake. He asserts that this trio of elements in restaurant and processed foods conditions us to eat more in a manner that changes our brain circuitry and that children may develop a pattern of overeating and obesity that they might retain for life. He stresses that this outcome of lifelong obesity is not genetic but environmental and avoidable.",
"-28.93151837964433"
],
[
"meals, because if they do not eat at around the same time on the next days, they may suffer extra severe hunger pangs. Older people may feel less violent stomach contractions when they get hungry, but still suffer the secondary effects resulting from low food intake: these include weakness, irritability and decreased concentration. Prolonged lack of adequate nutrition also causes increased susceptibility to disease and reduced ability for the body to self heal. Pre world war II Throughout history, the need to aid those suffering from hunger has been commonly, though not universally, recognized. The philosopher Simone Weil wrote",
"-28.927123814763036"
],
[
"of common sense—not touching a hot stove—and those that are based on culturally-relative standards (codes of etiquette, not dating until a certain age), a delineation that younger children do not make. This can lead to a period of questioning authority in all domains. Wisdom Wisdom, or the capacity for insight and judgment that is developed through experience, increases between the ages of fourteen and twenty-five, then levels off. Thus, it is during the adolescence-adulthood transition that individuals acquire the type of wisdom that is associated with age. Wisdom is not the same as intelligence: adolescents do not improve substantially on",
"-28.550441577848687"
],
[
"of more sedentary lifestyles and convenience foods. People are sitting more throughout their days, whether it be in their cars during rush hour or in their cubicles during their full-time jobs. Less physical activity in general means fewer calories burned throughout the day. Human diets have changed considerably over the 10,000 years since the advent of agriculture, with more processed foods in their diets that lack nutritional value and lead them to consume more sodium, sugar, and fat. These high calorie, nutrient-deficient foods cause people to consume more calories than they burn. Fast food combined with decreased physical activity means",
"-28.382747990544885"
],
[
"even the rice as well, what can we do all foods these days are modern, younger generations don't want to learn always rely on their elderlies.",
"-28.324146839178866"
],
[
"Aging (food) Drying Drying of foods by leaving them in a low-humidity environment has been used as a food preservation technique for millennia. Air-dried meat such as jerky may have been some of the first preserved foods ever eaten by man. Drying also concentrates flavors in foods by removing water from them. Fermentation Foods may be aged to allow fermentation to occur, such as in the making of alcoholic beverages, in cheesemaking, in pickling, such as kimchi, and in meat or fish products such as fermented sausage or surströmming. Culturing Besides fermentation, microbial food cultures can act on food products",
"-28.059057633276097"
],
[
"as the study participants who had a childhood with hunger tend to be the healthiest of their era.",
"-28.046663847228047"
],
[
"digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.\nVitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class of dietary material, fiber (i.e., nondigestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear. For all age groups, males need to consume higher amounts of macronutrients than females. In general, intakes increase with age until the second or third decade of life.\nMolecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose)",
"-27.926386103237746"
],
[
"by partaking of dinner, but not to excess - for being filled to excess, even with bread on its own, gives rise to dissipation - rather, everyone receives a meal according to the varying condition of their bodies or their age. They do not serve dishes of different flavours, nor richer types of food, but feeding on bread and herbs seasoned with salt, they quench their burning thirst with a temperate kind of drink. Then, for either the sick, those advanced in age, or likewise those tired by a long journey, they provide some other pleasures of tastier food, for",
"-27.851686554979096"
],
[
"aging, and may contribute to malnutrition. Sadness or depression can play a role, causing changes in appetite, digestion, energy level, weight, and well-being. A study on the relationship between malnutrition and other conditions in the elderly found that malnutrition in the elderly can result from gastrointestinal and endocrine system disorders, loss of taste and smell, decreased appetite and inadequate dietary intake. Poor dental health, ill-fitting dentures, or chewing and swallowing problems can make eating difficult. As a result of these factors, malnutrition is seen to develop more easily in the elderly.\nRates of malnutrition tend to increase with age with less",
"-27.752222888400865"
],
[
"they tend to choose the sweetened beverages. This has major health implications for children, as nutrition is essential for proper development. Studies have shown sugar sweetened beverages displace important nutrients such as iron and calcium which result in deficiency-related conditions. For example, iron deficiency can result in nerve impulse delay. Children who do not consume the appropriate amount of calcium into their daily diets have lower calcium consumption as they get older. In contrast, as they get older, their intake of sugary beverages increases. Many children grow to have a level of intolerance to milk and",
"-27.712155466841068"
],
[
"equal proportions of males and females in the two age groups.\nThe study observed that younger females had stronger cravings for sweets than elderly females. They related this difference in preference with the younger female test subject's menstrual cycles and the fact that elderly women no longer go through menopause. Also the study determined that \"ninety-one percent of the cycle-associated cravings were said to occur in the second half of the cycle (between ovulation and the start of menstruation)\".\nThese physical changes can explain why someone of an older age might not be getting the nutrition they need. As taste buds change",
"-27.671107522754028"
],
[
"experience' by targeting 32-year-olds due to being a 'magical age'. Food Differences within a particular industry can also occur in terms of appropriate aspirational ages. An Integrated Approach to New Food Product Development recognises the aspirational age as '1–3 years older than the calendar age of the child'. This would depend on the product and who the manufacturer aims to target. If the business desires a wider target audience, the target age should be 'acceptable to the youngest age in the target'. The article recognises the aspirational age as the 'safe' choice as consumers would not 'reject a product that",
"-27.638931107183453"
],
[
"power abroad to defend their interests. A more cautious climate could also herald slower economic growth, less entrepreneurship and reduced productivity in mature democracies. \nIt is also possible that ageing leads to lower inflation as elderly people are both inflation averse and politically powerful. However, some argue that older people in the developed world have much higher productivity, human capital and better health than their counterparts in developing countries, so the economic effects of population aging will be largely mitigated. Other branches of political demography Other areas in political demography address the political impact of skewed sex ratios (typically caused",
"-27.6366884263698"
],
[
"individuals total daily energy intake (aged between 2–16 years old). \nWith no more than 20% being recommended daily, it is visibly clear that adults may not be allowing their children to develop an intrinsic motivation for healthy foods, ‘rewarding’ them with energy dense snacks such as potato chips, muffins, lollies, and popcorn from the theatre. A large popcorn at Hoyts', Australia's largest cinema chain, contains more than 700 calories, and is the most popular item on their menu. According to the Australian Dietary Guidelines 2013 a child aged between 4–8 years old should consume 1 ½ serves of fruit and",
"-27.628007271676324"
],
[
"Advanced glycation end-product Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are proteins or lipids that become glycated as a result of exposure to sugars. They can be a factor in aging and in the development or worsening of many degenerative diseases, such as diabetes, atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Dietary sources Animal-derived foods that are high in fat and protein are generally AGE-rich and are prone to further AGE formation during cooking. However, only low molecular weight AGEs are absorbed through diet, and vegetarians have been found to have higher concentrations of overall AGEs compared to non-vegetarians. Therefore it is",
"-27.625711693253834"
],
[
"and social policies The economic effects of an aging population are considerable. Older people have higher accumulated savings per head than younger people, but spend less on consumer goods. Depending on the age ranges at which the changes occur, an aging population may thus result in lower interest rates and the economic benefits of lower inflation. Because elderly people are more inflation averse, countries with more elderly tend to exhibit lower inflation rates . Some economists (Japan) see advantages in such changes, notably the opportunity to progress automation and technological development without causing unemployment. They emphasize a shift from GDP",
"-27.585832722485065"
],
[
"dietary compliance of the older adults to the programs, the nutritional services require a strategic meal plan that solicits and incorporates older adults' food preferences\". Influences on food preference There are multiple parts of an elderly person's life that can affect their preferences in foods. Aspects like the environment, mental & physical health, and lifestyle choices are all contributing to the way a person decides on what foods they happen to like or dislike.\nAn article about Influences On Cognitive Function In Older Adults (Neuropsychology, November 2014) states that \"the nutritional status of older adults relates to their quality of life,",
"-27.433210500283167"
],
[
"ability to manage their medications, systemic conditions, and oral hygiene. As the severity of the impairment increases, the elderly become much more susceptible to develop dental caries, periodontal disease and oral infection, primarily because of the reduced capability to maintain good oral health at home.\nThe elderly usually develop a decrease in appetite, leading to a lower intake of vitamins and minerals. However, many nutrients are recommended at the same amounts as younger people. Another reason why inadequate nutrition levels are more prominent with elders is if their dental status is poor, with missing teeth or ill fitting dentures, it can",
"-27.42137211188674"
],
[
"consuming foods and drinks in accordance with their temperament is very important in keeping mental health.\nIf someone with warm Mizaj keeps eating food stuff with warming characteristics particularly during warm seasons it is not very unlikely for them to lose their temper. So in order to remain healthy, both physically and mentally, one should firstly reconsider and reform his or her lifestyle and diet and then seek professional help or study more deeply about the situation. Exercise, lack of movement Moderate exercise would increase the heart rate and breathing (respiratory) rate, excrete sweat from the sweat glands which then evaporates",
"-27.242512896598782"
],
[
"Food choice of older adults Science of food preferences There is a lot of work and scientific research that goes into examining the variables that cause the elderly to change food preferences. An example of these studies would be an experiment that the Elderly Nutrition Program (ENP) was executing. To improve the quality of meal programs, the ENP explored how food preferences varied depending on biological sex and ethnic groups. A total of 2,024 participants in the ENP aged 60 years or older were interviewed. A majority of the participants were female, served by congregate meal programs, or meals served",
"-27.172892096830765"
],
[
"old memories, memories stored before the damage, are not lost. Also high cortisol levels can be tied to the deterioration of the hippocampus and decline of memory that many older adults start to experience with age.\nChronic stress also shifts learning, forming a preference for habit based learning, and decreased task flexibility and spatial working memory, probably through alterations of the dopaminergic systems. Stress may also increase reward associated with food, leading to weight gain and further changes in eating habits. Stress may contribute to various disorders, such as fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, depression, and functional somatic syndromes. Eustress Selye published",
"-27.171485022321576"
],
[
"outside the home in restaurants or institutions rising from 25% in 1950 to 46% in 1990. This is caused by factors such as the growing numbers of older people, who are often unable or unwilling to cook their meals at home and the growing number of single-parent households. It is also caused by the convenience that restaurants can afford people; the growth of restaurant popularity is also correlated with the growing length of the work day in the US, as well as the growing number of single parent households. Eating in restaurants has also become more popular with the",
"-27.16795258736238"
],
[
"development and puberty.\nAnother reason for high levels of exposure in young children are due to aging consumer products age, small particles of material become dust particles in the air and land on surfaces around the home, including the floor. Young children crawling and playing on the floor frequently bring their hands to their mouths, ingesting about twice as much house dust as adults per day in the United States. Children also have a higher food intake per kilogram of bodyweight compared to adults. Young children are also exposed to flame retardants through their clothing, car seats and toys. The introduction",
"-27.0659273074707"
],
[
"aspects of aging, saying, \"Nobody learns a valuable lesson about how getting old is just a natural part of life.\"",
"-27.027787805331172"
],
[
"of inactivity within older adults that may have significant ramifications on their health and well-being.\nWith attention to these hypotheses, research shows play and activity tend to decline with age which may result in negative outcomes such as social isolation, depression, and mobility issues. American studies found that only 24% of seniors took part in regular physical activity and only 42% use the internet for entertainment purposes. In comparison to other age groups, the elderly are more likely to experience a variety of barriers, such as difficulty with environmental hazards and accessibility related issues, that may hinder their abilities to execute",
"-26.97707154233649"
],
[
"liters of soda per year, as well as 40% more carbohydrates, 30% more fat, and 40% more food than the body needs. The greater availability of fast food and junk food in combination with a low activity lifestyle has contributed to the obesity trend. Other factors include the impact of technology and a high consumption of rice and bread. Many families with a moderate income are limited in the foods they are able to afford, resulting in a higher incidence of obese children. However, childhood obesity is not a concern because it is believed that these children will outgrow their",
"-26.97259484397364"
],
[
"of fire and hence cooking occurred. At this time, the largest reductions in tooth size in the entirety of human evolution occurred, indicating that softer foods became prevalent in the diet. Also at this time was a narrowing of the pelvis indicating a smaller gut and also there is evidence that there was a loss of the ability to climb which Wrangham argues indicates the control of fire, since sleeping on the ground needs fire to ward off predators. The proposed increases in brain size from food processing will have led to a greater mental capacity for further cultural innovation",
"-26.970579447639466"
],
[
"older people and the potential of research into the mechanisms of ageing to alleviate them. As one newspaper put it:\nAge Action Year will also see the provision of a foundation for co-ordinated research into ageing itself. This opens up exciting possibilities for everyone, because if we are to make old age a time of interest and healthy activity we have to know how to make people fit into later years, how to make the best use of available resources and how to gear our living throughout our lives so that we know how to make the best of our",
"-26.937073544650048"
],
[
"unclear whether dietary AGEs contribute to disease and aging, or whether only endogenous AGEs (those produced in the body) matter. This does not free diet from potentially negatively influencing AGE, but potentially implies that dietary AGE may deserve less attention than other aspects of diet that lead to elevated blood sugar levels and formation of AGEs. Effects AGEs affect nearly every type of cell and molecule in the body and are thought to be one factor in aging and some age-related chronic diseases. They are also believed to play a causative role in the vascular complications of diabetes mellitus.\nAGEs arise",
"-26.818308671441628"
],
[
"stress in aging in model organisms such as Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans, the evidence in mammals is less clear. Indeed, a 2009 review of experiments in mice concluded that almost all manipulations of antioxidant systems had no effect on aging. Food preservatives Antioxidants are used as food additives to help guard against food deterioration. Exposure to oxygen and sunlight are the two main factors in the oxidation of food, so food is preserved by keeping in the dark and sealing it in containers or even coating it in wax, as with cucumbers. However, as oxygen is also important for",
"-26.797051061410457"
],
[
"sun, applying sunblock, avoiding smoking tobacco and also ensure that your mind is at peace thus free from stress which is known to cause skin aging.\nIn order to preserve a healthy young skin there are the various things that we have to put into consideration that help to ensure this goal is achieved. Things such as taking in vitamin C and A provide a very good boost to the production of collagen in the body. In order to maintain a healthy skin you need to nurture and protect the collagen that is existing in the body by consuming healthy foods",
"-26.707346781666274"
],
[
"aging hippies, still caught up in some kind of hipster lifestyle and trying to hang on to their youth by doing the same things that they did in their twenties. There are a lot of those people around, but I have a different way of looking at life these days: My version of growing older is not getting depressed or being in denial about it, but instead it’s 'Hey, we’ve survived!'\"",
"-26.68704391153733"
],
[
"as well as 40% more carbohydrates, 30% more fat, and 40% more food than the body needs. The greater availability of fast food and junk food in combination with a low activity lifestyle has contributed to the obesity trend. Other factors include the impact of technology and a high consumption of rice and bread. Many families with a moderate income are limited in the foods they are able to afford, resulting in a higher incidence of obese children. However, childhood obesity is not a concern because it is believed that these children will outgrow their fatness as they age. The",
"-26.611634344415506"
],
[
"their friendships as they age, and even as the overall number of friends tends to decline. This satisfaction is associated with an increased ability to accomplish activities of daily living, as well as a reduced decline in cognitive abilities, decreased instances of hospitalization, and better outcomes related to rehabilitation. The overall number of reported friends in later life may be mediated by increased lucidity, better speech and vision, and marital status.\nAs on review phrased it:\nResearch within the past four decades has now consistently found that older adults reporting the highest levels of happiness and general well being also report strong,",
"-26.60462212544371"
],
[
"the 19th and 20th centuries. In the event that obesity continues to grow in newer generations, a decrease in well being and life span in the future generations may continue to degenerate. According to Olshansky, obesity diminishes \"the length of life of people who are severely obese by an estimated 5 to 20 years.\" History shows that the number of years lost will continue to grow because the likelihood of obesity in new generations is higher. Children and teens are now experiencing obesity at younger ages. They are eating less healthy and are becoming less active, possibly resulting in",
"-26.60142982902471"
],
[
"older people from sharing wisdom and experiences with younger people and leading old people to have restricted sets of friendships and neighbors. In some elderly people age-segregated housing can contribute to low morale and feelings of uselessness and rejection.",
"-26.574244440649636"
],
[
"on society’s ability to support the needs of this growing crowd including their dental needs.\nOlder people have become a major focus for the oral health industry. Due to the increasing number and proportion of elderly people, age related dental problems have become more common. This is largely due to success in dental treatment and prevention of gum disease and caries at a young age, thereby leading to people retaining more of their own natural teeth. As they get older, the retained teeth are at risk of developing and accumulating oral diseases that are more extensive and severe. Geriatrics as a",
"-26.552843300058157"
],
[
"concerns of older people. In his book Healthy Aging, Weil looks at the process of growing older from a physical, social, and cross-cultural perspective, and in his book Why our Health Matters is focused on health care reform.\nOf his books, several have appeared on various bestseller lists, both as hardbacks and as paperbacks (many appearing so in the 1990s), some of them being Spontaneous Healing (1995; on the NYT list), Eight Weeks to Optimum Health (1997; on the PW and NYT lists), Eating Well for Optimum Health (2000; PW, NYT), The Healthy Kitchen (2002, with chef Rosie Daley; NYT), ",
"-26.547044262697455"
],
[
"activity. The age-related decline in immune function is also related to decreasing vitamin D levels in the elderly. As people age, two things happen that negatively affect their vitamin D levels. First, they stay indoors more due to decreased activity levels. This means that they get less sun and therefore produce less cholecalciferol via UVB radiation. Second, as a person ages the skin becomes less adept at producing vitamin D. Sleep and rest The immune system is affected by sleep and rest, and sleep deprivation is detrimental to immune function. Complex feedback loops involving cytokines, such as interleukin-1 and tumor",
"-26.53524069677951"
],
[
"Academic, Rowman & Littlefield, Berg, Earthscan, Routledge, Prospect, and Equinox Publishing. Food insecurity and health outcomes In America, almost 50 million people are considered food insecure. This is because they do not have the means to buy healthy food, therefore, lead an unhealthy lifestyle. At least 1.4 times more children who are food insecure are likely to have asthma, compared to food-secure children. And older Americans who are food-insecure will tend to have limitations in their daily activities. When a household is lacking the means (money) to buy proper food, their health ultimately suffers. Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly",
"-26.52730408199568"
],
[
"young as early childhood and continues into adult years. The problem of negative body-image worsens as females go through puberty; girls in adolescence frequently report being dissatisfied with their weight and fear future weight gain. According to the National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders (ANAD), the age of the onset of eating disorders is getting younger. Girls as young as elementary-school age report body dissatisfaction and dieting in order to look like magazine models. Across cultures There have been many ideas over time and across different cultures of what the feminine beauty \"ideal\" is for a woman's body",
"-26.517764080956113"
],
[
"worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things.",
"-26.498998282972025"
],
[
"20s or 30s and enrolls in college, where he or she performs particularly well and subsequently establishes a professional career. Adults A late blooming adult is a person who does not discover their talents and abilities until later than normally expected. In certain cases retirement may lead to this discovery.\nAlthough there is a common perception that intellectual development peaks in a young adult and then slowly declines with increasing age, this may be simplistic. Although the ability to form new memories and concepts may indeed diminish, the older person has the advantage of accumulated knowledge, associations between concepts, and mental",
"-26.475939509487944"
],
[
"affect elderly eating habits. For instance, length of widowhood may affect nutrition. Depression in elders is also associated with a risk of malnutrition. By lifestyle choices Elderly people can make different lifestyle choices in eating healthy. Dietary choices are often a result of personal beliefs and preferences. \nA survey based on self-reporting found that many rural community-dwelling elderly Iowans adopted eating habits that provided inadequate levels of some key nutrients and most did not take supplements to correct the deficiencies. In contrast, a restaurant study found that the impact of a lifestyle of health and sustainability",
"-26.423507162253372"
],
[
"food security for developing countries, the ongoing trend of eating in a more Western fashion has caused increased rates of adverse health and childhood obesity. Biopsychosocial forces The desires for these new diets and lifestyles are very understandable from a biological and psychosocial perspective. For example, humans have an innate preference for sweets dating back to hunter-gatherer populations. These sweets signaled a good source of energy for hunter-gatherers that were not food secure. This same concept also relates to human predisposition for energy-dense fatty foods. These foods were needed to sustain long journeys and provided a safety net for times",
"-26.402951879412285"
],
[
"of obesity increased 1.6 times for every additional soft drink consumed per day.\nCalorie-dense, prepared snacks are available in many locations frequented by children. As childhood obesity has become more prevalent, snack vending machines in school settings have been reduced by law in a small number of localities. Some research suggests that the increase in availability of junk foods in schools can account for about one-fifth of the increase in average BMI among adolescents over the last decade. Eating at fast food restaurants is very common among young people with 75% of 7th to 12th grade students consuming fast",
"-26.338444130669814"
],
[
"are also no longer appealing to the increasingly technology-oriented youth, who prefer video games. Also, the kids meal toys of Wendy's and Chick-Fil-A are no longer appealing to ages 8–12.\nKids' meals have evolved in response to critics, offering healthier selections and greater variety. In 2011, nineteen food chains participating in the Kids Live Well initiative—including Burger King, Denny's, IHOP, Chili's, Friendly's, Chevy's, and El Pollo Loco—pledged to \"offer at least one children's meal that has fewer than 600 calories, no soft drinks and at least two items from the following food groups: fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins or low-fat",
"-26.31444488399029"
],
[
"long periods of breastfeeding add an additional nutritional burden. Educating children According to the FAO, women are often responsible for preparing food and have the chance to educate their children about beneficial food and health habits, giving mothers another chance to improve the nutrition of their children. Elderly Malnutrition and being underweight are more common in the elderly than in adults of other ages. If elderly people are healthy and active, the aging process alone does not usually cause malnutrition. However, changes in body composition, organ functions, adequate energy intake and ability to eat or access food are associated with",
"-26.25771331445867"
],
[
"the food and decrease their consumption. Eating less during a meal is usually interpreted as reaching satiety or \"getting full\", but experiments suggest that habituation also plays an important role. Many experiments with animals and humans have shown that providing variety in a meal increases the amount that is consumed in a meal, most likely because habituation is stimulus specific and because variety may introduce dishabituation effects. Food variety also slows the rate of habituation in children and may be an important contributing factor to the recent increases in obesity.\nWe also find that habituation is found in our",
"-26.248005302681122"
],
[
"age in a large proportion of those who lead healthy lifestyles and remain intellectually active. Health care demand With age inevitable biological changes occur that increase the risk of illness and disability. UNFPA states that,\n\"A life-cycle approach to health care – one that starts early, continues through the reproductive years and lasts into old age – is essential for the physical and emotional well-being of older persons, and, indeed, all people. Public policies and programmes should additionally address the needs of older impoverished people who cannot afford health care.\"\nMany societies in Western Europe and Japan have ageing populations. While the",
"-26.18562711533741"
],
[
"dietary requirements, one study developed a modified food pyramid for adults over 70. Mental health The impact of certain diseases can also impact the quality of the food in the elderly population, especially those that are in care facilities. More often than not, when some has Alzheimer's disease they do not receive the care that is needed, and a decline in one's mental health is seen. It is a proven fact that those who make connections with others live longer. When a person falls victim to such a disease that limits mental capability, they could die earlier than they would",
"-26.16421758807337"
],
[
"experience. Heat can accentuate some flavors and decrease others by varying the density and fase equilibrium of a substance. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example are soft drinks. In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season. Starchiness A 2016 study suggested that humans can taste starch (specifically, a glucose oligomer)",
"-26.09425382677"
],
[
"to adopt a regimen of health; to practice moderate exercise; and to take just enough food and drink to restore our strength.” Cicero also highlights the restrictions aging has forced upon mankind for centuries; restrictions that we are now trying to overcome with today's technology. “Old age,” it seems, “disqualifies us from taking an active part in the great scenes of business. But in what scenes? let me ask. If in those which require the strength and vivacity of youth, I readily admit the charge.” Although aging has always been perceived as a paradox that plagues humanity, the idea",
"-26.056054614804452"
],
[
"has the opposite effect on children's eating habits. In this article, researchers found that limiting or prohibiting a child's access to foods high in fat, sugar, and energy led to the desire to overeat these \"forbidden\" foods. It creates a sense of anxiety within the child which can lead into them feeling insecure lowering their self-esteem. Children and adults eating in this type of environment also tend to use technology, like being on their phones or watching television, at the table distracting each other from engaging in conversation. Not only was there less communication going on but they also",
"-25.994028198270826"
],
[
"high cholesterol, and depression. Many fast foods tend to be high in saturated fat, sugar, salt and calories.\nThe traditional family dinner is increasingly being replaced by the consumption of takeaway fast food. As a result, the time invested on food preparation is getting lower, with an average couple in the United States spending 47 minutes and 19 seconds per day on food preparation in 2013. History The concept of ready-cooked food for sale is closely connected with urban developments. Homes in emerging cities often lacked adequate space or proper food preparation accouterments. Additionally, procuring cooking fuel could cost as much",
"-25.97736169761629"
],
[
"is a key factor in an older person's well being, especially since this facility may be the last place an older person resides in. Therefore, being open minded about residents' sexual life would be very beneficial to older people. Legal and ethical issues One of the main reasons residential homes do not care to facilitate intimate relationships is because employees may have a hard time distinguishing a desired sexual partnership from an undesired one. The residential care faces possible issues if a resident is being taken advantage of especially if they are incapable physically or mentally to protect them self.",
"-25.97437396402529"
],
[
"stunted, and 18% are underweight. Food intake reductions can affect the growth of cytokines, glucocorticoids, and insulin. When levels of food intake are low for a long period, our bodies begin to draw on tissues such as muscle, adipose and bones, significantly affecting our body formation and growth. Health and productivity One third of child deaths in Peru can be attributed to undernutrition, often because the existing state exacerbates disease. In response to infectious diseases, the body's immune system activates, requiring increased energy consumption. Individuals who are undernourished fail to consume the minimum amount of calories necessary for baseline",
"-25.964903748037273"
],
[
"it is best to teach the child productive ways to handle these emotions. It is much easier to teach a child how to control their emotions while they are young rather than allowing them to develop a habit that is hard to break when they are older. In adulthood The things that drive people mad with envy change throughout their lifetime. Studies have shown that the younger the person, the more likely they are to be envious of others. Adults under the age of 30 are more likely to experience envy compared to those 30 years and older. However, what",
"-25.959964023088105"
],
[
"be consumed. It has been proposed that humans have used fire to prepare and cook food since the time of Homo erectus. Around ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture, which substantially altered their diet. This change in diet may also have altered human biology; with the spread of dairy farming providing a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest lactose in some adults. Agriculture led to increased populations, the development of cities, and because of increased population density, the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and the",
"-25.954941738164052"
],
[
"as soon as our ancestors started using fire to cook their food, probably by spit-roasting over live flame or coals. Big starchy roots and other slower-cooking foods, however, cooked better when they were buried in hot ashes, and sometimes covered with hot stones, and/or more hot ash. Large quantities might be cooked in an earth oven: a hole in the ground, pre-heated with a large fire, and further warmed by the addition of hot rocks.\nMany such practices continue today, as well as showing up in the archeological record, but masonry ovens like the ones we know now only appear with",
"-25.946463682630565"
],
[
"they are to underestimate the need to lose weight. Early malnutrition Malnutrition in early life is believed to play a role in the rising rates of obesity in the developing world. Endocrine\nchanges that occur during periods of malnutrition may promote the storage of fat once more calories become available. Number of children In the United States the number of children a person has had is related to their risk of obesity. A woman's risk of obesity increases by 7% per child, while a man's risk increases by 4% per child. This could be partly explained by the fact",
"-25.937359646573896"
],
[
"drunk, or smoked anything in at least the previous fifteen to twenty minutes, as the temperature of the food, drink, or smoke can dramatically affect the reading.\nTemperature is increased after eating or drinking anything with calories. Caloric restriction, as for a weight-loss diet, decreases overall body temperature. Drinking alcohol decreases the amount of daily change, slightly lowering daytime temperatures and noticeably raising nighttime temperatures.\nExercise raises body temperatures. In adults, a noticeable increase usually requires strenuous exercise or exercise sustained over a significant time. Children develop higher temperatures with milder activities, like playing.\nPsychological factors also influence body",
"-25.937156499465345"
],
[
"be improved by evaluating physical facets like hormone balance. Female hormones, in particular, can alter cravings and even self-perception of one's body. Additionally, emotional eating can be exacerbated by social pressure to be thin. The focus on thinness and dieting in our culture can make young girls, especially, vulnerable to falling into food restriction and subsequent emotional eating behavior.\nEmotional eating disorder predisposes individuals to more serious eating disorders and physiological complications. Therefore, combatting disordered eating before such progression takes place has become the focus of many clinical psychologists.",
"-25.926966571918456"
],
[
"a costly maternal endeavor. Low appetite in early age is followed by a sudden onset of appetite and feeding behaviors around age 2. In traditional subsistence communities, this corresponds with the age that children would be weaned from breastmilk and offered supplementary solid foods. It is likely that these weaning foods were less directly costly to the mother than breastfeeding, either because gathering these food items were less energetically costly for her to gather, or she could rely on social partners to assist her in gathering the food. Therefore, Prader-Willi allows us to see the roles of normally invisible",
"-25.925527180661447"
],
[
"and patients. A number of health problems become more prevalent as people get older. These include mental health problems as well as physical health problems, especially dementia.\nIt has been estimated that population ageing only explains 0.2 percentage points of the annual growth rate in medical spending of 4.3% since 1970. In addition, certain reforms to the Medicare system in the United States decreased elderly spending on home health care by 12.5% per year between 1996 and 2000. Self-perception of ageing The beauty standards are constantly evolving over decades due to increased perception of esthetics. Because of that, the cosmeceutical industry",
"-25.899966674347525"
],
[
"among older women may be because sexual intercourse can become uncomfortable.\nOther factors for low SDD in older individuals may be illness. The effects on sexual ability and partaking in sexual intercourse can be influenced by illnesses such as arthritis, cardiovascular disease and diabetes, where these are co-morbid with age.\nAttitudes towards an individual's self and towards their sexual partner can too affect sexual behaviour and sexual desire. A negative view of sex in older men and women are common attitudes held. With regards to \"attitudes\" in culture, sex appeal factors in America tend to be placed on youthful appearances such as",
"-25.870613207232964"
],
[
"and properties of natural foods and recipes would be a book most useful to society.\"\nAt an 1889 congress, Favre recommended that young girls be given instruction in preparing foods for infants, adults, those in their declining years, and the old. By keeping food fresh and clean and following hygienic methods, they could use without danger the immense resources of nature.\nHe said, \"there is an abyss between the greed of the Romans, who had to vomit before they could enjoy fresh gorging; the gluttonous gastronomy whose effects are indigestion, disorders and gout; and culinary science, which aims to achieve health through",
"-25.836425713496283"
],
[
"and the Dietary Reference Intake recommendations. Unhealthy meals and malnutrition Unhealthy school lunches contribute to malnutrition in both the short term and the long term. In many cases, unhealthy adult eating patterns can be traced back to unhealthy school lunches, because children learn eating habits from social settings such as school. A 2010 study of 1,003 middle-school students in Michigan found that those who ate school lunches were significantly more likely to be obese than those who did not.\nPromoting healthy eating in schools may reduce adolescent obesity by as much as 25 percent. One such effort is the Berkeley Food",
"-25.82993193967559"
],
[
"food preferences and childhood experiences (like a mother's cooking). Physiological responses Comfort food are usually chosen because of previous experiences of happiness linked with it. For example, chocolate is held as a popular comfort food as it is follows the pleasurable sweetness and the positive association with gifts/rewards.\nThe time of day also play a role in consuming comfort foods. Most people tend to eat simply because \"it's lunch time\" and only 20% of the time is due to actual hunger Thermal comfort Thermal comfort is a satisfaction of the ambient air temperature and humidity. Psychologists devised a study to determine",
"-25.826338831160683"
],
[
"peers to develop eating disorders (such as anorexia nervosa). Nearly half of all American high school girls' diets are to lose weight. In addition, girls may have to deal with sexual advances from older boys before they are emotionally and mentally mature. In addition to having earlier sexual experiences and more unwanted pregnancies than late maturing girls, early maturing girls are more exposed to alcohol and drug abuse. Those who have had such experiences tend to perform not as well in school as their \"inexperienced\" peers.\nGirls have usually reached full physical development around ages 15–17, while boys usually complete puberty",
"-25.81502947921399"
],
[
"fast foods, or other unhealthy alternatives to be consumed often for their ease of acquisition and generally low price.This leads to long-term epidemiological problems in which children who become obese maintain their obesity into their adult lives, suffering from associated ailments such as heart disease, high blood pressure, increased risk for several types of cancer, type 2 diabetes, stroke, infertility, arthritis, breathing difficulties and/or depression. Social class system Social reproduction is the passing on of social inequality across generations. The upper class has many advantages; having money provides the ability to have even more resources to get ahead. The opposite",
"-25.789765800851455"
],
[
"all be improved through Tai Chi, yoga, and water aerobics. Diets containing foods with calcium, fiber, and potassium are especially important for good health while eliminating foods with high sodium or fat content. A well-balanced diet can increase resistance to disease and improve management of chronic health problems thus making nutrition an important factor for health and well-being in adulthood. \nMental stimulation and optimism are vital to health and well-being in late adulthood. Adults who participate in intellectually stimulating activities every day are more likely to maintain their cognitive faculties and are less likely to show a decline in memory",
"-25.784400185308186"
],
[
"found that older adults faced more dispositional barriers such as low self-confidence and too late for being learners. Also, younger adults and women were more experienced with situational barriers such as cost and child care arrangements. Among the less educated, one's low-confidence regarding the learning ability could be the main deterrent. Benefits Adult education can have many benefits ranging from better health and personal well-being to greater social inclusion. It can also support the function of democratic systems and provide greater opportunities for finding new or better employment. Adult education has been shown to have a positive impact on the",
"-25.741868531229557"
],
[
"are at a higher risk for obesity. In one study, two groups of children were told to focus on different prompts to eat: either external cues, such as the amount of food on their plate, or internal cues like hunger and satiety. The children who relied on internal cues were more likely to eat when they were hungry and stop when they were full. In contrast, the children who responded to external cues were more likely to ignore or overlook internal cues that indicated that they were full. Children who grow accustomed to relying on external hunger cues and thus",
"-25.720531542770914"
],
[
"they have. For this reason, fevers are not so acute in old people for then the body is cold”. Another aphorism says, “It is better to be full of drink than full of food”. And finally, an aphorism that generally sums up treatment of disease in Hippocratic times states, “Disease which results from over-eating is cured by fasting; disease following fasting, by a surfeit. So with other things; cures may be effected by opposites,”. This concept of treating diseases opposite to the way it manifests in the individual is concept that is carried over into Roman medicine. Gout in Ancient",
"-25.673129010829143"
],
[
"hotter than 100 °C (212 °F). Cookware used in a microwave oven is often much cooler than the food because the cookware is transparent to microwaves; the microwaves heat the food directly and the cookware is indirectly heated by the food. Food and cookware from a conventional oven, on the other hand, are the same temperature as the rest of the oven; a typical cooking temperature is 180 °C (356 °F). That means that conventional stoves and ovens can cause more serious burns.\nThe lower temperature of cooking (the boiling point of water) is a significant safety benefit compared to baking in the oven",
"-25.656519074866083"
],
[
"children. We can conclude that boys at a younger age develop fundamental motor skills quicker than girls will. In other studies it has been seen that having a higher motor proficiency leads to kids being more active, and in most cases more athletic. This can lead to some issues in childhood development such as issues with weight, and increasing the public health epidemic of childhood obesity. Adolescence and adulthood Between the ages of 7 and 12 there is an increase in running speed and are able to skip. Jumping is also acquired better and there is an increase in throwing",
"-25.644820499554044"
],
[
"to organ, bone, muscle and body development. The most common cause of poor development being an undernourished and inadequate diet, due to lack of dietary knowledge.\nIt is suggested that children between the ages of 4-13 should be eating 4-5 serves (75g) of vegetables a day. Vegetables are ‘nutrient dense’ and a good source of essential vitamins, antioxidants as well as fiber. 1-2 serves of fruit (150g) should also be consumed daily as it is essential in preventing early onset vitamin deficiencies. 1-2.5 serves of lean meats and poultry, such as fish, chicken, lamb, beef as well as legumes",
"-25.61815108684823"
],
[
"cultures approach aging, frailty, and death. For some, a veneration of youth marks aging as a shameful process and likely contributes to ageism in the U.S. and other Westernized countries. However, an increasingly globalized world requires a review of theoretical frameworks and research agendas to better understand cross-cultural differences in aging attitudes (Löckenhoff et al., 2015). Courses of action A report of the APA Committee on Aging (APA, 2009) offered overarching recommendations for fostering multicultural competencies in working with older adults. Clinicians, researchers, and others in organizations that interface with older adults are called upon to recognize and dispel ageism,",
"-25.589367473032326"
],
[
"preparing and cooking \"natural\" unprocessed foods. The increase in free time allows people much more choice in life style than previously allowed. In many families the adults are working away from home and therefore there is little time for the preparation of food based on fresh ingredients. The food industry offers products that fulfill many different needs: e.g. fully prepared ready meals that can be heated up in the microwave oven within a few minutes.\nModern food processing also improves the quality of life for people with allergies, diabetics, and other people who cannot consume some common food elements. Food",
"-25.585554044126184"
],
[
"available, and the neurological system that once helped people recognize the survival advantages of essential eating has now become disadvantageous as it promotes overeating. This has become especially dangerous after the rise of processed foods, as the popularity of foods that have unnaturally high levels of sugar and fat has significantly increased. Non-human examples Evolutionary mismatch can occur any time an organism is exposed to an environment that does not resemble the typical environment the organism adapted in. Due to human influences, such as global warming and habitat destruction, the environment is changing very rapidly for many organisms, leading to",
"-25.58479152765358"
],
[
"bottles while his sisters are drinking milk. This allows children to observe, listen and learn so that they can be able to meaningfully contribute to these endeavors as they get older.\nAs the children become older, they are able to take on more responsibilities. Also, as their skills become more advanced, children are able to take initiative in different tasks. In Guadalajara, Mexico, children around nine to ten-years old were reported regularly to take the initiative and contribute to family household works and activities like cleaning the house. This initiation allows children to be more involved in their community. For example,",
"-25.569758030964294"
],
[
"this theory, declines in working memory are described as the result of limiting the amount of information an individual can simultaneously keep active, so that a higher degree of integration and manipulation of information is not possible because the products of earlier memory processing are forgotten before the subsequent products.\nAnother theory that is being examined to explain age related declines in working memory is that there is a limit in attentional resources seen as we age. This means that older individuals are less capable of dividing their attention between two tasks, and thus tasks with higher attentional demands are more",
"-25.523071195580997"
],
[
"years old are, for health concerns, not allowed in the heated areas. Children are most often required to be accompanied by an adult since peace and quietness is expected in the sauna area. Also children are more vulnerable to hypothermia and hyperthermia because of their smaller body proportions and to assure their safety in the cold bath and hot rooms a supervising adult is expected to be present at all times when using these. Pre-elementary school children may have not yet gotten their swimming certificates and require for that reason supervision when using the pools.\nSome saunas allow for health concerns",
"-25.512194073337014"
],
[
"family. From this point of view an elder should optimize his or her health in order to benefit his or her own life as much as enrich the collectivity. Critics condemn the normativity of this model as \"successfully\" ageing in which elders have to stay active and be involved in activities recognized as beneficial without taking into account their heterogeneous life courses.",
"-25.51186290023179"
],
[
"because of their recent entry to the work force or because they are still completing their education. Typically, once they enter the labour force or take a part-time job while in school, they start at entry level positions with low level wages. Furthermore, because of their lack of prior work experience, they can also often be forced to take marginal jobs, where they can be taken advantage of by their employers. As a result, many older people have to face obstacles in their lives. Inequalities in health Health inequalities can be defined as differences in health status or in the",
"-25.510506706516026"
],
[
"as oral health problems. Food and education Food and school are two interconnected topics. Children spend a large part of their day in school, so the food that is served in and around school greatly influences eating habits. Fast food in particular has proven to affect school children's health. Fast food marketing targets children. In the United States, more than 13 million children and adolescents are obese. Obesity prevalence was 13.9% among 2- to 5-year-olds, 18.4% among 6- to 11-year-olds, and 20.6% among 12- to 19-year-olds. The close proximity of fast food restaurants to schools has been speculated be one",
"-25.509217744940543"
],
[
"circumstances of older people have emphasized the combined role of macroeconomic policies and individual behavior in providing economic security, while also stressing the problematic nature of achieving economic security in old age without accessible and adequately financed health care and long-term care.",
"-25.49627998334472"
],
[
"changes in living conditions when it comes to dining.\nIn addition, some college students consume a lot of alcoholic beverages. The vitamins and minerals consumed from alcohol and from food consumed with alcohol have a good chance of being unabsorbed. People who drink large amounts of alcohol have a good chance of becoming malnourished or losing an unhealthy amount of weight because of the absorption blocking qualities of alcohol. Unhealthy foods with alcohol According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism's research, people who tend to drink the largest amount of alcohol have the poorest eating habits compared",
"-25.494336529722204"
]
] |
6gj2ma | Could someone medically unable to feel pain have surgery done without anaethesia? | [
"Nah b/c what if they start to crash and need to be intubated. They will still freak out whether it hurts or not",
"no. people who can't feel pain can usually still feel pressure and vibration (they are different nerve fiber types), which are incredibly uncomfortable sensations during surgery. also the reasons listed by others.",
"Some limited, non-invasive surgery sure. However, general anaesthesia is not a pain killer, it is a consciousness killer. General anaesthetics have an extreme depressing effect on the central nervous system, heart, and other organs. Most are also powerful muscle relaxants. Different general anaesthetics can be used to alter heart rate, heart rhythm, and contraction strength in order to suit the patient's health and the operation that is being performed. General anaesthetics also block muscular reflexes and other autonamous responses that may complicate surgery.",
"Anyone could have surgery done without anesthesia. It would just be a disaster because they wouldn't be able to stay still."
] | [
[
"pain; however, they may be considered for those with persistent sciatic pain. Epidural corticosteroid injections provide a slight and questionable short-term improvement in those with sciatica but are of no long term benefit. There are also concerns of potential side effects. Surgery Surgery may be useful in those with a herniated disc that is causing significant pain radiating into the leg, significant leg weakness, bladder problems, or loss of bowel control. It may also be useful in those with spinal stenosis. In the absence of these issues, there is no clear evidence of a benefit from surgery.\nDiscectomy (the partial removal",
"-33.544298040613285"
],
[
"Carotid endarterectomy Complications For people to benefit from revascularization, the surgeon's complication rate (30 day stroke and death) must remain ≤3% for asymptomatic and ≤6% of symptomatic people. Other surgical complications include hemorrhage of the wound bed, which is potentially life-threatening, as swelling of the neck due to hematoma could compress the trachea. Rarely, the hypoglossal nerve can be damaged during surgery. This is likely to result in fasciculations developing on the tongue and paralysis of the affected side: on sticking it out, the person's tongue will deviate toward the affected side.\nAnother rare but potentially serious complication is hyperperfusion syndrome",
"-32.91214414656861"
],
[
"to reimburse surgeons and hospitals for what can be considered a procedure which seems to create the risks of surgery with questionable or no demonstrable benefit. However this is still a widely adopted treatment for a range of conditions associated with osteoarthritis, including labral tears, femoroacetabular impingement, osteochondritis dissecans.\nA 2017 meta-analysis confirmed that there is only a very small and usually unimportant reduction in pain and improvement in function at 3 months (e.g. an average pain reduction of approximately 5 on a scale from 0 to 100). A separate review found that most people would consider a reduction in pain",
"-32.64067604020238"
],
[
"of approximately 12 on the same 0 to 100 scale important—suggesting that for most people, the pain reduction at 3 months is not important. Arthroscopy did not reduce pain or improve function or quality of life at one year. There are important adverse effects. Meniscal tears One of the primary reasons for performing arthroscopies is to repair or trim a painful and torn or damaged meniscus. The technical terms for the surgery is arthroscopic partial meniscectomy (APM). Arthroscopic surgery, however, does not appear to result in benefits to adults when performed for knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis who",
"-32.55302393465536"
],
[
"is used during endodontic surgery to achieve anaesthesia and haemostasis. Assuming no contraindications, the anaesthetic of choice is two-percent lidocaine with 1:100,000 adrenaline. Mild bleeding is common, and can be controlled by digital compression or ligation of the vessel.\nInfection of the surgical site, which may cause secondary haemorrhaging, cellulitis or abscess, can result from poor surgical technique, poor oral hygiene, or smoking. Prevention of infection is promoted by advising the patient to maintain oral hygiene and the use of an antiseptic mouthwash, such as chlorhexidine, immediately before and after surgery. In the event of systemic involvement or with immunocompromised patients,",
"-32.36017984233331"
],
[
"problems the doctors need to be aware of. Patients should be taught the effects of the surgery, such as regular activity may be altered. There is a possibility that pain, numbness, or tingling in the chest and arm could continue long after the surgery has been done. It is recommended that patients see their surgeon 7–14 days after the surgery, during this time the doctor will explain the results and talk about further treatment if needed such as radiation and chemotherapy. The doctor might refer the patient to a plastic surgeon if she showed interest in breast reconstruction surgery. Trends",
"-32.041695736552356"
],
[
"reported they received pain medication on time, although 33% had to ask for it; and 16% had to wait for medication.” Unlike children, adults seem to have less fear of the surgery itself, but rather fear of the effects of surgery.\nMilano and Kornfeld in 1980 said “Any operation is a destructive invasion of the body and therefore frightens many patients”. Some operations seem to invoke more fear from patients than others. Aged persons who require cataract surgery often fear the procedure, even though success is very likely. The fear of going blind because of the surgery is more apparent in",
"-31.954488750759083"
],
[
"surgery. When they are used, it is inappropriate, and the person recovering from surgery is at significantly increased risk of developing contact dermatitis.",
"-31.909214149600302"
],
[
"efficiency, and a patient controls the stimulation by passing a magnet over the unit.\nSome degree of facial numbness is expected after most of these surgical procedures, and neuralgia might return despite the procedure's initial success. Depending on the procedure, other surgical risks include hearing loss, balance problems, infection, and stroke. These surgeries include rhizotomy (where select nerve fibers are destroyed to block pain) and Microvascular decompression (where the surgeon moves the vessels that are compressing the nerve away from it and places a soft cushion between the nerve and the vessels).\nMarijuana: The American Medical Association stated in Report 3",
"-31.75611406582175"
],
[
"enough to cause potentially deadly stroke. Drugs such as nifedipine and captopril can be used to manage an episode if it occurs, and epidural anesthesia helps although it is not very reliable in women with SCI. Anesthesia is used for labor and delivery even for women without sensation, who may only experience contractions as abdominal discomfort, increased spasticity, and episodes of autonomic dysreflexia. Reduced sensation in the pelvic area means women with SCI usually have less painful delivery; in fact, they may fail to realize when they go into labor. If there are deformities in the pelvis or spine",
"-31.73948196621859"
],
[
"used to evaluate potentially beneficial effects of localized hypothermia, with and without concomitant glucocorticoids. Surgery Surgery is currently used to provide stability to the injured spinal column or to relieve pressure from the spinal cord. How soon after injury to perform decompressive surgery is a controversial topic, and it has been difficult to prove that earlier surgery provides better outcomes in human trials. Some argue that early surgery might further deprive an already injured spinal cord of oxygen, but most studies show no difference in outcomes between early (within three days) and late surgery (after five days),",
"-31.592950734790065"
],
[
"incision. This new method of surgery decreased the need for an extended hospital stay and made the surgery ambulatory. Patients who undergo cataract surgery hardly complain of pain or even discomfort during the procedure. However patients who have topical anesthesia, rather than peribulbar block anesthesia, may experience some discomfort.\nAccording to surveys of members of the American Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery, approximately 2.85 million cataract procedures were performed in the United States during 2004 and 2.79 million in 2005.\nIn India, modern surgery with intraocular lens insertion in government- and NGO-sponsored Eye Surgical camps has replaced older surgical procedures. In",
"-31.561681536055403"
],
[
"surgical complications due to the disease. Three basic surgical problems arise due to EDS: the strength of the tissues is decreased, which makes the tissue less suitable for surgery; the fragility of the blood vessels can cause problems during surgery; and wound healing is often delayed or incomplete. If considering surgical intervention, seeking care from a surgeon with extensive knowledge and experience in treating people with EDS and joint hypermobility issues would be prudent.\nLocal anesthetics, arterial catheters, and central venous catheters cause a higher risk of bruise formation in people with EDS. People with EDS also show a resistance",
"-31.55911831262347"
],
[
"If done properly, this procedure may deceive patients and observers. However, some \"psychic surgery\" procedures do not rely solely on the \"sleight of hand\" described, as at least one Brazilian \"surgeon\" also cuts his victims' skin with an unsterilized scalpel to heighten the illusion.\nJohn Taylor has written there is no real case for psychic surgery as the explanation of fraud is highly likely in all the operations. The practitioners use sleight of hand techniques to produce blood or blood-like fluids, animal tissue or substitutes, and/or various foreign objects from folds of skin of the patient as part of a",
"-31.551370465109358"
],
[
"is potential reaction to anaesthetic. The surgery can be performed arthroscopically and, consequently, on an outpatient basis. Patients often have to use crutches for a few days following surgery up to a few weeks for more involved procedures.\nThere are numerous case reports in which surgery has relieved GTPS, but its effectiveness is not documented in clinical trials.",
"-31.501743839515257"
],
[
"sinus massage as a diagnostic and therapeutic examination tool. In studies of thousands of uses on elderly patients, there were no complications of death or bradycardic events requiring treatment or resuscitation, even though this age group is more likely to be symptomatic from carotid sinus stimulation. A carotid massage can also possibly dislodge a thrombus, or some plaque. This could lead to any number of life-threatening effects, including stroke. In martial arts and self defense Stimulation of the carotid sinus via a slap or a strike, to induce (usually temporary, but sometimes lethal) loss of consciousness is a theatrical",
"-31.412764351960504"
],
[
"this condition includes intra-thoracic nerve blocks/opiates and epidurals, although results vary from person to person and are dependent on numerous factors. A recent Cochrane review concluded that there is moderate-quality evidence that regional anaesthesia may reduce the risk of developing persistent postoperative pain after three to 18 months after thoracotomy. VATS Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) is a less invasive alternative to thoracotomy in selected cases, much like laparoscopic surgery. Like laparoscopic surgery, its applications are rapidly expanding. Robotic surgery is a new but rapidly growing alternative that uses advanced technology with proven advantages. Post-thoracotomy pain Thoracic epidural analgesia or paravertebral",
"-31.38141142189852"
],
[
"Arthroscopy was pioneered in the early 1950s by Dr. Masaki Watanabe of Japan to perform minimally invasive cartilage surgery and reconstructions of torn ligaments. Arthroscopy allows patients to recover from the surgery in a matter of days, rather than the weeks to months required by conventional, 'open' surgery. It is a very popular technique. Knee arthroscopy is one of the most common operations performed by orthopedic surgeons today and is often combined with meniscectomy or chondroplasty. The majority of upper extremity outpatient orthopedic procedures are now performed arthroscopically. Arthroplasty Arthroplasty is an orthopedic surgery where the articular surface of",
"-31.320684598744265"
],
[
"analgesia may note unexpected benefits. One example is in the event that the epidural catheter is unintentionally placed into a blood vessel. This requires removal of the catheter and its replacement. With the traditional technique of epidural placement, the patient continues in pain without relief. If the CSE technique has been used, the intrathecal injection of fentanyl results in 60 to 90 minutes of good pain relief. This creates a more pleasant environment in which to replace the errant catheter with a properly sited one. Insertion technique Combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia is a highly specialised technique",
"-31.225343566022275"
],
[
"after surgery, pain returns at greater intensity.\nCordotomy involves cutting nerve fibers that run up the front/side (anterolateral) quadrant of the spinal cord, carrying heat and pain signals to the brain.\nPancoast tumor pain has been effectively treated with dorsal root entry zone lesioning (destruction of a region of the spinal cord where peripheral pain signals cross to spinal cord fibers); this is major surgery that carries the risk of significant neurological side effects.\nCingulotomy involves cutting nerve fibers in the brain. It reduces the unpleasantness of pain (without affecting its intensity), but may have cognitive side effects. Hypophysectomy Hypophysectomy is the destruction",
"-31.216028062219266"
],
[
"considered as making 250 separate contributions to medical science.\nAs a surgeon, Broca wrote a detailed review on recently discovered use of chloroform as anesthesia, as well as on his own experiences of using novel pain managing methods during surgery, such as hypnosis and carbon dioxide as a local anesthetics. Broca used hypnosis during surgical removal of an abscess and received mixed results, as the patient felt pain at the beginning which then went away, and she could not remember anything afterwards. Because, of inconsistent results reported by other doctors, Broca did not repeat in using hypnosis as an anesthetic. Because",
"-31.196542861325725"
],
[
"studies but a general lack of scientific evidence for most treatments. There was only one study of sufficient quality and relevance comparing the effect of surgery and non-surgery. Cohort studies indicate that surgery is effective in decreasing pain. Most complications occurred in cases of low intestinal anastomosis, while risk of fistula occurred in cases of combined abdominal or vaginal surgery, and urinary tract problems were common in intestinal surgery. The evidence was found to be insufficient regarding surgical intervention.\nThe advantages of surgery are demonstrated efficacy for pain control, it is more effective for infertility than medicinal intervention, it provides a",
"-31.09168038909411"
],
[
"and pain signals to the brain. \nPancoast tumor pain has been effectively treated with dorsal root entry zone (DREZ) lesioning – damaging a region of the spinal cord where peripheral pain signals cross to spinal cord fibers. This is major surgery, carrying the risk of significant neurological side effects.\nCingulotomy involves cutting the fibers that carry signals directly from the cingulate gyrus to the entorhinal cortex in the brain. It reduces the unpleasantness of pain (without affecting its intensity), but may have cognitive side effects. Intrathecal infusion Delivery of an opioid such as morphine, hydromorphone, fentanyl, sufentanyl or meperidine directly into the",
"-31.001536997879157"
],
[
"surgery.\nThe procedure does come with significant risks and complications—in one retrospective study of patients who received percutaneous cholecystostomy for acute cholecystitis, 44% developed choledocholithiasis (one or more stones stuck in the common bile duct), 27% had tube dislodgment, and 23% developed postoperative abscess.\nFor some people, drainage with cholecystostomy is enough and they don't need to have the gallbladder removed later. For others, percutaneous cholecystostomy allows them to improve enough in the short term that they can get surgery at a later time. There is no clear evidence one way or another to indicate that surgical removal after cholecystostomy is best",
"-30.99136560523766"
],
[
"80% physicians, 66% neurologists, 63% ear, nose and throat surgeons, 31% orthopedic and maxillofacial surgeons, 23% psychiatrists, 14% neurosurgeons and 6% ophthalmologists and dermatologists. In this study, the individuals had been subjected to a wide variety of different treatments, from surgery, antidepressants, analgesics and physical therapies. None of the persons reported that surgery was beneficial, and in many cases the pain was worsened by surgery. The article sited as the source of this information was withdrawn from publication, saying the information was out of date and not meeting Cochrane methodological standards.\nIt has been suggested that the onset of chronic facial",
"-30.941152969753603"
],
[
"always necessary. However the treatment of other problems caused by this condition, such as ovarian cysts, chocolate cysts, fertility, pelvic pain, adhesions, dyspareunia may need to be addressed depending on the case.\nSimilar to endometriosis, cases of endosalpingiosis that cause significant amounts of pain can be treated with excision surgery by a specialist, though this is not a cure. Removal of the tissues, cysts, and adhesions can help to greatly reduce symptoms. Some surgeons believe add-back therapy with progesterone to also be helpful in reducing symptoms. Taking progesterone continuously keeps a woman at a specific time in her menstrual cycle. This",
"-30.915906937867476"
],
[
"of MS patients. The episodes of pain occur paroxysmally (suddenly) and the patients describe it as trigger area on the face, so sensitive that touching or even air currents can bring an episode of pain. Usually it is successfully treated with anticonvulsants such as \ncarbamazepine, \nor phenytoin\nalthough others such as gabapentin can be used. \nWhen drugs are not effective, surgery may be recommended. Glycerol rhizotomy (surgical injection of glycerol into a nerve) has been studied \nalthough the beneficial effects and risks in MS patients of the procedures that relieve pressure on the nerve are still under discussion. Lhermitte's sign Lhermitte's",
"-30.864858069980983"
],
[
"procedure can be as high as 90%.\nThe procedure has been known to be unsuccessful in rare cases, where the pain remained constant even after surgery. In such cases, alternative treatments like oral medicines or more surgeries may be considered, depending on the severity of the persisting pain. Recovery The recovery period is about 6–12 weeks, depending on the amount of vulvar tissues removed. Post-surgery, the patient might need further physical and possible mental therapy to avoid scarring and lead a regular sexual life. Epidemiology In a study done in 2006, it was discovered that 93% of patients who had undergone",
"-30.76157913202769"
],
[
"surgery The most common serious complications of surgery are loss of urinary control and impotence. Reported rates of both complications vary widely depending on how they are assessed, by whom, and how long after surgery, as well as the setting (e.g., academic series vs. community-based or population-based data). Although penile sensation and the ability to achieve orgasm usually remain intact, erection and ejaculation are often impaired. Medications such as sildenafil (Viagra), tadalafil (Cialis), or vardenafil (Levitra) may restore some degree of potency. For most men with organ-confined disease, a more limited \"nerve-sparing\" technique may help reduce urinary incontinence and impotence.\nPostoperative",
"-30.745295923232334"
],
[
"therapy is poor. Surgery is normally recommended only after medication has proved ineffective, or if side effects of medication are intolerable. While there may be pain relief after surgery, there is also a considerable risk of side effects, such as facial numbness after the procedure. Microvascular decompression appears to result in the longest pain relief. Percutaneous radiofrequency thermorhizotomy may also be effective as may stereotactic radiosurgery; however the effectiveness decreases with time.\nSurgical procedures can be separated into non-destructive and destructive: Support Psychological and social support has found to play a key role in the management of chronic illnesses and chronic",
"-30.70127777347807"
],
[
"options. It can be carried out under local anesthetic (and for this reason is cheaper than arthroscopy, although it may also carried out under general anesthetic) and has minimal complications. Although it has been suggested that arthrocentesis decreases pain, increases maximal incisal opening and has prolonged effects, when the procedure was investigated by a systematic review, the impact on pain was comparable to arthroscopy and the results are unstable. The review concluded by suggesting that arthrocentesis only be used for TMD within well designed randomized controlled trial (i.e. for the purposes of further research and not for routine management). Arthrocentesis",
"-30.678391450070194"
],
[
"a patient's tissues or closure of a previously sustained wound. Other procedures that do not necessarily fall under this rubric, such as angioplasty or endoscopy, may be considered surgery if they involve \"common\" surgical procedure or settings, such as use of a sterile environment, anesthesia, antiseptic conditions, typical surgical instruments, and suturing or stapling. All forms of surgery are considered invasive procedures; so-called \"noninvasive surgery\" usually refers to an excision that does not penetrate the structure being excised (e.g. laser ablation of the cornea) or to a radiosurgical procedure (e.g. irradiation of a tumor). Location Inpatient surgery is",
"-30.665288782678545"
],
[
"sometimes be symptomatic of serious conditions, such as a transient ischemic attack, or autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis or lupus erythematosus. Exposure to fluoroquinolones can also cause paresthesia. Stroke survivors and those with traumatic brain injury (TBI) may experience paresthesia from damage to the central nervous system.\nThe varicella zoster virus disease (shingles) can attack nerves causing numbness instead of pain commonly associated with shingles. Acroparesthesia Acroparesthesia is severe pain in the extremities, and may be caused by Fabry disease, a type of sphingolipidosis.\nIt can also be a sign of hypocalcemia. Dentistry Paresthesia or \"persistent anesthesia\" is a",
"-30.645515223266557"
],
[
"weeks after the initial injury and onset of symptoms. An MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) or X-Ray may also be done by a doctor. Treatment In many cases recovery happens spontaneously and no treatment is needed. This spontaneous recovery can occur because distance between the injury location and the deltoid muscle is small. Spontaneous recovery may take as long as 12 months.\nIn order to combat pain and inflammation of nerves, medication may be prescribed.\nSurgery is an option, but it has mixed results within the literature and is usually avoided because only about half of people who undergo surgery see any positive",
"-30.632620103730005"
],
[
"wound-healing, undercorrection, overcorrection — do occur, and might require a revision surgery. An over-aggressive resection might damage the nerves, causing painful neuromas. Performing a flap-technique labiaplasty occasionally presents a greater risk for necrosis of the labia minora tissues. Criticism Labiaplasty is a controversial subject. Critics argue that a woman's decision to undergo the procedure stems from an unhealthy self-image induced by their comparison of themselves to the prepubescent-like images of women they see in commercials or pornography.\nIn Australia, the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners has issued guidelines on referring patients with dissatisfaction with their genitals to specialists. A change",
"-30.54029383236775"
],
[
"be surgically repaired, but surgery has complications. Time needed for recovery after treatment is reduced if hernias are operated on laparoscopically. However, open surgery can be done sometimes without general anesthesia. \nUncomplicated hernias are principally repaired by pushing back, or \"reducing\", the herniated tissue, and then mending the weakness in muscle tissue (an operation called herniorrhaphy). If complications have occurred, the surgeon will check the viability of the herniated organ and remove part of it if necessary.\nMuscle reinforcement techniques often involve synthetic materials (a mesh prosthesis). The mesh is placed either over the defect (anterior repair) or under the defect",
"-30.539932518528076"
],
[
"significantly bothered by the pain, the tumor is treated symptomatically with anti-inflammatories. If this therapy fails or the location of the tumor could lead to growth disturbances, scoliosis, or osteoarthritis, surgical or percutaneous ablation may be considered. If surgery is preferred, the individual may be referred to a podiatrist or an orthopedic surgeon to perform the procedure. Post-surgery therapy and strengthening may be needed, depending on the tumor location and health of the individual. While shown to be effective, surgical resection has many potential complications, including difficult intraoperative identification of the tumor, local recurrence from incomplete resection, and resection of",
"-30.535200248705223"
],
[
"of congenital malformations of the upper extremities, and peripheral nerve problems (such as brachial plexus injuries or carpal tunnel syndrome). Hand surgery is an important part of training in plastic surgery, as well as microsurgery, which is necessary to replant an amputated extremity. The hand surgery field is also practiced by orthopedic surgeons and general surgeons. Scar tissue formation after surgery can be problematic on the delicate hand, causing loss of dexterity and digit function if severe enough. There have been cases of surgery to women's hands in order to correct perceived flaws to create the perfect engagement ring photo.",
"-30.518732682117843"
],
[
"potential for complications, including disturbing portions of the plaque leading to a stroke or heart attack during or after surgery. Small risks of bleeding and infection exist as well. Percutaneous treatments of carotid stenosis In this type of procedure, a narrowed blood vessel is expanded via angioplasty or stenting. A thin angiography catheter is inserted in a large groin blood vessel and advanced to the stenosis. Percutaneous treatment is less invasive than endarterectomy, usually requiring only local anesthesia. Endarterectomy is still considered safer though, as percutaneous treatments can lead to accidental dislodging of plaque or even arterial rupturing. Carotid angioplasty",
"-30.39807733608177"
],
[
"effective. There have been no high quality studies looking at surgery as a treatment. While improvement has been noted in 60% to 90%, those who were treated without surgery improved in 40 to 80% of cases. Epidemiology The percentage of women affected is not entirely clear, but estimates range as high as 16%. Many other conditions that are not truly vulvodynia (diagnosis is made by ruling out other causes of vulvar pain) could be confused with it. Vulvar pain is a quite frequent complaint in women's health clinics. Vulvodynia is a new term in the medical literature.",
"-30.39744150507613"
],
[
"2% of people suffer from body dysmorphic disorder in the United States, 15% of patients seeing a dermatologist and cosmetic surgeons have the disorder. Half of the patients with the disorder who have cosmetic surgery performed are not pleased with the aesthetic outcome. BDD can lead to suicide in some of its sufferers. While many with BDD seek cosmetic surgery, the procedures do not treat BDD, and can ultimately worsen the problem. The psychological root of the problem is usually unidentified; therefore causing the treatment to be even more difficult. Some say that the fixation or obsession with correction of",
"-30.390878307633102"
],
[
"active illness or infection should delay surgery until recovery.\nRobotic-assisted or laparoscopic surgery is contraindicated for individuals with severe heart and lung disease. During this method of surgery the positioning and abdominal insufflation places extra strain on the chest wall impairing lung function and the ability to oxygenate the blood.\nA partial cystectomy is contraindicated in a form of bladder cancer called carcinoma in situ (CIS). Other contraindications for partial cystectomy include severely diminished bladder capacity or cancer in very close proximity to the bladder trigone, where the urethra and ureters connect to the bladder. Risks and complications Radical cystectomy",
"-30.341934128373396"
],
[
"is not known which approach is safer or more effective.\nThe procedure is usually done under general anesthesia. Risks of the procedures include mastoiditis, otitis media (acute or with effusion), shifting of the implanted device requiring a second procedure, damage to the facial nerve, damage to the chorda tympani, and wound infections.\nThe rate of complications is about 12% for minor complications and 3% for major complications; major complications include infections, facial paralysis, and device failure. To avoid the risk of bacterial meningitis, which while low is about thirty times as high compared to people who don't undergo CI procedures, the FDA",
"-30.332539931114297"
],
[
"different from the analgesia (pain relief) used in labor and vaginal delivery. The pain that is experienced because of surgery is greater than that of labor and therefore requires a more intense nerve block.\nGeneral anesthesia may be necessary because of specific risks to mother or child. Patients with heavy, uncontrolled bleeding may not tolerate the hemodynamic effects of regional anesthesia. General anesthesia is also preferred in very urgent cases, such as severe fetal distress, when there is no time to perform a regional anesthesia. Prevention of complications Postpartum infection is one of the main causes of maternal death and may",
"-30.31884414438173"
],
[
"the treatment of choice, if this is considered to be safe.\nSurgery results in stabilization or modest improvement in symptoms for most patients. Delay in treatment may result in irreversible spinal cord injury. Recurrence of syringomyelia after surgery may make additional operations necessary; these may not be completely successful over the long term.\nIn some patients it may also be necessary to drain the syrinx, which can be accomplished using a catheter, drainage tubes, and valves. This system is also known as a shunt. Shunts are used in both the communicating and noncommunicating forms of the disorder. First, the surgeon must locate",
"-30.300871920986538"
],
[
"may need surgery to remove clotted blood or repair skull fractures, for which cutting a hole in the skull may be necessary. Medicines used for traumatic injuries are diuretics, anti-seizure or coma-inducing drugs. Diuretics reduce the fluid in tissues lowering the pressure on the brain. In the first week after a traumatic brain injury, a person may have a risk of seizures, which anti-seizure drugs help prevent. Coma-inducing drugs may be used during surgery to reduce impairments and restore blood flow.\nIn the case of brain damage from traumatic brain injury, dexamethasone and/or Mannitol may be used. Chronic Various professions may",
"-30.274887201514503"
],
[
"laparoscopy, type of anesthesia (general or local), appropriateness of bilateral repair, etc. Laparoscopy is most commonly used for non-emergency cases, however, a minimally invasive open repair may have a lower incidence of post-operative nausea and mesh associated pain. During surgery conducted under local anaesthesia, the patient will be asked to cough and strain during the procedure to help in demonstrating that the repair is without tension and sound.\nConstipation after hernia repair results in strain to evacuate the bowel causing pain, and fear that the sutures may rupture. Opioid analgesia makes constipation worse. Promoting an easy bowel motion is important post-operatively.\nSurgical",
"-30.27237857581349"
],
[
"a strong recommendation against arthroscopy for osteoarthritis on the basis that there is high quality evidence that there is no lasting benefit and less than 15% of people have a small short-term benefit. There are rare but serious adverse effects that can occur, including venous thromboembolism, infections, and nerve damage The BMJ Rapid Recommendation includes infographics and shared decision making tools to facilitate a conversation between doctors and patients about the risks and benefits of arthroscopic surgery.\nTwo major trials of arthroscopic surgery for osteoarthritis of the knee found no benefit for these surgeries. Many medical insurance providers are now reluctant",
"-30.267305020592175"
],
[
"months. Botox injections cause scarring in the sphincter which may increase the difficulty of later Heller myotomy. This therapy is recommended only for patients who cannot risk surgery, such as elderly people in poor health. Pneumatic dilatation has a better long term effectiveness than botox. Pneumatic dilatation In balloon (pneumatic) dilation or dilatation, the muscle fibers are stretched and slightly torn by forceful inflation of a balloon placed inside the lower esophageal sphincter. There is always a small risk of a perforation which requires immediate surgical repair. Pneumatic dilatation causes some scarring which may increase the difficulty of Heller myotomy",
"-30.237001573332236"
],
[
"life. In patients with fractured cervical spine it is not possible to perform this laser surgery because proper positioning of the patient would not be possible. Similarly in cases of severe ankylosing spondylitis, due to complete fusion and rigidity of the spine, movements are not possible which again hampers the proper positioning of the patient. Complications Circulatory and respiratory disorders may arise due to general anesthesia. Injury to teeth, laceration of palate, hematoma and laceration of tongue or lips may occur during introduction of the laryngoscopes. During the cordotomy, larynx might get injured and bleeding can occur. As a",
"-30.2310948894592"
],
[
"used when other methods do not produce results.\nThe exception is when paralysis is observed; in those cases, surgery should be performed as soon as possible to avoid irreversible paralysis of muscles.\nA new method of treating herniated discs is the direct cause of any root is termonukleoplastic, the treatment consisting in introducing into the annulus fibrous of a special catheter tip heating. Warming up for a few minutes end to 65 °C results in the destruction of pain-sensitive nerve endings within the fibrous ring, reducing the volume of disk space and alleviate inflammation associated chronic irritation.",
"-30.222962920553982"
],
[
"hernias that have had episodes of threatening incarceration, preventive surgical treatment can be considered. The surgery is performed under anaesthesia, while the surgeon identifies the edges of the defect and bring them together permanently using either suture or mesh. Small umbilical hernias are often successfully repaired with suture, while larger hernias may require a suitable mesh, although some surgeons advocate mesh treatment for most hernias. The most common complications for both techniques are superficial wound infections, recurrence of the hernia and some people experience pain from the surgical site.",
"-30.219853403104935"
],
[
"reduce pain and decrease kyphotic angle significantly during an inpatient treatment program. Surgery Scheuermann's disease can be successfully corrected with surgical procedures, almost all of which include spinal fusion and hardware instrumentation, i.e., rods, pedicle screws, etc. While many patients are typically interested in getting surgery for their correction, it is important to realize the surgery aims to reduce pain, and not cosmetic defect. As always, surgical intervention should be used as a last resort once conservative treatment fails or the patient's health is in imminent danger as any surgical procedure is not without risk; however, the chances of complication",
"-30.206948542501777"
],
[
"and less potent, spending thousands of dollars in the meantime for a partial cure. Lateral sphincterotomy is the Gold Standard for curing this affliction.\nCombination of medical therapies may offer up to 98% cure rates. Surgery Surgical procedures are generally reserved for people with anal fissure who have tried medical therapy for at least one to three months and have not healed. It is not the first option in treatment.\nThe main concern with surgery is the development of anal incontinence. Anal incontinence can include inability to control gas, mild fecal soiling, or loss of solid stool. Some degree of incontinence can",
"-30.16622673870006"
],
[
"that patients report sharp pain upon administration of interligamentary aesthetic. However the use of a high-pressure syringe and ultra fine needle provide both chemical anaesthesia (by action of anaesthetic agent) and mechanical anaesthesia (by pressure from deposition). Interligamentary anaesthetic may be complicated by poor operator technique where rapid injection and excessive volume is used; this could lead to sensitivity to biting and percussion.\nResearch has shown that the rate of onset of anaesthesia in the patients was between 15-20 second; this provides an advantage compared to that of inferior alveolar dental block. Other advantages include a decrease in overall trauma in",
"-30.156140281702392"
],
[
"interventions to alter the pain symptoms of the affected patients, and in addition to the normal risks of surgery, such as bleeding and infection, sympathectomy has several specific risks, such as adverse changes in how nerves function. Amputation No randomized study in medical literature has studied the response with amputation of patients who have failed the above-mentioned therapies and who continue to be miserable. Nonetheless, on average, about half of the patients will have resolution of their pain, while half will develop phantom limb pain and/or pain at the amputation site. As in any other chronic pain syndrome, the",
"-30.146093641145853"
],
[
"desired outcome. Techniques and Post-Operative Management/Healing Gingivectomy can be performed by various techniques. Surgical gingivectomy To reduce post-operative pain for the patient, the surgery should be as atraumatic as the surgeon can make it. If the procedure has been carried out carefully, the patient's post-operative pain is minimised. Pain may be experienced initially following the procedure, but this should subside within a few days and can be appropriately controlled with drugs to alleviate the pain. The patient should also be advised to avoid using the area where the surgery was performed when chewing during the initial healing stage. Adequate plaque",
"-30.125793625949882"
],
[
"currently its possible to remove hernias without doing much damage to the body, for example, by doing laparoscopy or a robot-assisted surgery. Awards Dr. Novitsky is a recipient of the 2013 Bassini Award and was named Best Doctor by Cleveland Magazine three years in a row between 2015 and 2017. He also was a recipient of Patients’ Choice Award from 2008 to 2010 and then again from 2012 to 2016.",
"-30.105920861125924"
],
[
"but rarely are discontinued completely. Tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline, and sodium channel blockers, mainly carbamazepine, are often used to relieve chronic pain, and recently have been used in an attempt to reduce phantom pains. Pain relief may also be achieved through use of opioids, ketamine, calcitonin, and lidocaine. Deep-brain stimulation Deep brain stimulation is a surgical technique used to alleviate patients from phantom limb pain. Prior to surgery, patients undergo functional brain imaging techniques such as PET scans and functional MRI to determine an appropriate trajectory of where pain is originating. Surgery is then carried out under local anesthetic,",
"-30.100130278508004"
],
[
"bleeding risk.\nIn primary prevention however, antiplatelet drugs did not reduce the risk of ischemic stroke but increased the risk of major bleeding. Further studies are needed to investigate a possible protective effect of aspirin against ischemic stroke in women. Surgery Carotid endarterectomy or carotid angioplasty can be used to remove atherosclerotic narrowing of the carotid artery. There is evidence supporting this procedure in selected cases. Endarterectomy for a significant stenosis has been shown to be useful in preventing further strokes in those who have already had one. Carotid artery stenting has not been shown to be equally useful. People are",
"-30.09483288845513"
],
[
"Consequently, they currently do not provide coverage for prolotherapy procedures. Medicare reviewers in 1999 determined at that time that practitioners had not provided \"any scientific evidence on which to base a [different] coverage decision,\" and so retained Medicare's current coverage policy to not cover prolotherapy injections for chronic low back pain, but expressed willingness to reconsider if presented with results of \"further studies on the benefits of prolotherapy.\" History The concept of creating irritation or injury to stimulate healing has been recorded as early as Roman times when hot needles were poked into the shoulders of injured gladiators. Prolotherapy use",
"-30.091557591047604"
],
[
"absorbed medication.\nLocal infiltration anaesthesia, the infiltration of anaesthetic agent directly into the skin and subcutaneous tissue where the painful procedure is to be undertaken, may be effectively used to reduce pain after a procedure under general anaesthesia. To reduce the pain of the initial injection, a topical anaesthetic ointment may be applied. Examples of these local anaesthetics that are used on neonates are ropivacane and bupivacane. Neonates are able to safely get these injections because they are born with enzymes that are able to thoroughly digest these chemicals without it damaging their liver too much.\nRegional anaesthesia requires the injection of",
"-30.087050831229135"
],
[
"devices, and artificial discs, through the retractor.\nRobot-assisted surgery is another technique that is used occasionally in minimally invasive spine surgery.\nWhen the procedure is done the tube is removed, and the wound is stitched, stapled, or glued shut. Risks and benefits Risks include damage to nerves or muscles, leaking spinal fluid, and risks that accompany any surgical procedure, such as infection or a failure to resolve the condition that prompted the surgery.\nClaims are made that the larger style of MISS has better outcomes than open surgery with respect to fewer complications and shorter hospital stays, but data supporting those claims is",
"-30.069383901689434"
],
[
"were hemorrhages, perforation of abdominal viscera, and pulmonary embolism.\"\nIn many U.S. states, physicians are not required to have training to perform this cosmetic surgery procedure. History Jeffrey Klein and Patrick Lillis, dermatologic surgeons, invented the tumescent technique. The technique was developed in the 1980s, before it came to market in the 1990s. The technique was introduced to Australia in the early 1990s, with Daniel Lanzer named as one of the first to use the procedure in the country.",
"-30.063920060521923"
],
[
"to subluxations and joint pain, often requires surgical intervention in people with EDS. Instability of almost all joints can happen, but appears most often in the lower and upper extremities, with the wrist, fingers, shoulder, knee, hip, and ankle being most common.\nCommon surgical procedures are joint debridement, tendon replacements, capsulorrhaphy, and arthroplasty. After surgery, the degree of stabilization, pain reduction, and people's satisfaction can improve, but surgery does not guarantee an optimal result: affected peoples and surgeons report being dissatisfied with the results. Consensus is that conservative treatment is more effective than surgery, particularly since people have extra risks of",
"-29.972277440218022"
],
[
"retethering and spinal cord injury as possible surgical complications. However, its complexity and limited “track record” presently keeps vertebral osteotomies reserved as an option for patients who have failed in preventing retethering after detethering procedure(s).\nOther treatment is symptomatic and supportive. Medications such as NSAIDs, opiates, synthetic opiates, COX-2 inhibitors, and off-label applications of tricyclic antidepressants combined with anti-seizure compounds have yet to prove they are of value in treatment of this affliction's pain manifestations. There is anecdotal evidence that TENS units may benefit some patients.\nTreatment may be needed in adults who, while previously asymptomatic, begin to experience pain,",
"-29.969748984614853"
],
[
"ptosis, cataract surgery, fitting of artificial eyes, laser and retinal surgery, and others.\nENT: Tympanoplasty, mastoidectomy and ossiculoplasty\nMaxillofacial: Cleft lip and palate repairs, facial reconstruction for fractures and traumatic defects, corrections of deformities caused by severe infections such as noma, removal of head and neck tumors, and others.\nPlastic Surgery: Treatment of unhealed burn wounds with skin grafts and flaps, release of burn contractures, congenital deformities such as syndactyly, and a wide variety of other procedures to decrease disability and improve appearance and function.\nAnesthesia: Local, regional,spinal and general anesthesia, endoscopic intubation, pediatric and adult anesthesia.\nOther: CSC performs other specialised procedures such as",
"-29.966164082637988"
],
[
"the incision in one of the minuscule folds of skin that cover the Adam's apple.\nThe surgery is usually outpatient unless it is combined with other surgeries that require hospital stays. Particular care must be taken by the surgeon to not remove too much cartilage, as doing so can reduce the structure of the trachea and cause breathing difficulties.\nMost surgeons who specialize in sex reassignment surgery offer the procedure, and some general plastic surgeons will as well. It is one of the more common surgeries performed on trans women, along with genital reconstruction.\nDue to the proximity of the vocal folds, there",
"-29.955354576202808"
],
[
"and spinal manipulations. Insurers in the US and UK that cover other chiropractic techniques exclude KST from coverage because they consider it to be \"experimental and investigational\". Medicine-assisted manipulation, such as manipulation under anesthesia, involves sedation or local anesthetic and is done by a team that includes an anesthesiologist; a 2008 systematic review did not find enough evidence to make recommendations about its use for chronic low back pain.\nMany other procedures are used by chiropractors for treating the spine, other joints and tissues, and general health issues. The following procedures were received by more than one-third of patients of licensed",
"-29.94500195022738"
],
[
"A specially trained physical therapist can provide direct, hands on evaluation of the muscles, both externally and internally. Surgery Surgery is rarely used for IC/BPS. Surgical intervention is very unpredictable, and is considered a treatment of last resort for severe refractory cases of interstitial cystitis. Some people who opt for surgical intervention continue to experience pain after surgery. Typical surgical interventions for refractory cases of IC/BPS include: bladder augmentation, urinary diversion, transurethral fulguration and resection of ulcers, and bladder removal (cystectomy).\nNeuromodulation can be successful in treating IC/BPS symptoms, including pain. One electronic pain-killing option is TENS. Percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation",
"-29.936698688252363"
],
[
"using local anesthesia through a small incision. t-RFA uses a small steerable device that is placed into the vertebra, navigated by a physician to the targeted tumor. The physician can then deliver the energy to heat and destroy metastatic spinal tumor cells. The procedure minimizes damage to surrounding tissue and vital structures and has been shown to provide pain relief in a single treatment. Efficacy A 2013 study published in the Journal of NeuroInterventional Surgery showed that t-RFA was an effective method of pain relief with low morbidity. Patients in the study also reduced their requirements of pain relieving drugs",
"-29.925490481196903"
],
[
"19th century, the physiologic stress from surgery caused significant complications and many deaths from shock. The faster the surgery was, the lower the rate of complications (leading to reports of very quick amputations). The advent of anesthesia allowed more complicated and life-saving surgery to be completed, decreased the physiologic stress of the surgery, but added an element of risk. It was two years after the introduction of ether anesthetics that the first death directly related to the use of anesthesia was reported.\nMorbidity can be major (myocardial infarction, pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, kidney failure/chronic kidney disease, postoperative cognitive dysfunction",
"-29.89633330963261"
],
[
"need to proceed to surgery.\nExamples of surgical procedures that are used in TMD, some more commonly than others, include arthrocentesis, arthroscopy, meniscectomy, disc repositioning, condylotomy or joint replacement. Invasive surgical procedures in TMD may cause symptoms to worsen. Meniscectomy, also termed discectomy refers to surgical removal of the articular disc. This is rarely carried out in TMD, it may have some benefits for pain, but dysfunction may persist and overall it leads to degeneration or remodeling of the TMJ. Acupuncture Acupuncture is sometimes used for TMD. There is limited evidence that acupuncture is an effective symptomatic treatment for TMD. A",
"-29.86841722688405"
],
[
"recovery time and the healing of the wound. Just like other surgeries, cosmetic surgery may require incisions to be made to the skin, in one or more places of the body. These wounds will be required to heal post operation, therefore leaving the patient at risk of poor wound healing which may be due to numerous causes such as infection requiring antibiotics. Medical conditions Medical conditions can impact on the level of risk involved with cosmetic surgery as there can be underlying effects caused by different medications. For example, blood thinning medication can cause excessive bleeding due to the bloods",
"-29.857285075442633"
],
[
"so is generally only used for specific situations (such as severe stroke or a massive pulmonary embolism). Surgery Arterial thrombosis may require surgery if it causes acute limb ischemia. Endovascular treatment Mechanical clot retrieval and catheter-guided thrombolysis are used in certain situations. Antiplatelet agents Arterial thrombosis is platelet-rich, and inhibition of platelet aggregation with antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin may reduce the risk of recurrence or progression. Targeting ischemia/reperfusion injury With reperfusion comes ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury (IRI), which paradoxically causes cell death in reperfused tissue and contributes significantly to post-reperfusion mortality and morbidity. For example, in a feline model of",
"-29.85267856779683"
],
[
"cystoscopy it is not unusual for the patient to be given a general anesthetic, as these can be more uncomfortable, particularly for men. A physician, nurse, or technician will clean the area around the urethral opening and apply a local anesthetic. The local anesthetic is applied direct from a tube or needleless syringe into the urinary tract. Often, skin preparation is performed with chlorhexidine.\nPatients receiving a ureteroscopy may receive a spinal or general anaesthetic.\nThe physician will gently insert the tip of the cystoscope into the urethra and slowly glide it up into the bladder. The procedure is more painful",
"-29.832930950826267"
],
[
"the surgery recommended it for vulvar pain. Only 11% of women continued to have issues in their sex lives post-surgery.",
"-29.82172926500789"
],
[
"the surgeon is recommended within the week after surgery. She is advised to return to the surgeon's consultation room should she develop hematoma, an accumulation of blood outside the pertinent (venous and arterial) vascular system. Depending on her progress, the woman can resume physically unstrenuous work three to four days after surgery. To allow the wounds to heal, she is instructed not to use tampons, not to wear tight clothes (e.g. thong underwear), and to abstain from sexual intercourse for four weeks after surgery.\nMedical complications to a labiaplasty procedure are uncommon, yet occasional complications — bleeding, infection, labial asymmetry, poor",
"-29.806350283331994"
],
[
"it is too difficult to be tested empirically, especially when testing painless phantom sensations. Management Various methods have been used to treat phantom limb pain. Doctors may prescribe medications to reduce the pain. Some antidepressants or antiepileptics have been shown to have a beneficial effect on reducing phantom limb pain. Often physical methods such as light massage, electrical stimulation, and hot and cold therapy have been used with variable results.\nThere are many different treatment options for phantom limb pain that are actively being researched. Most treatments do not take into account the mechanisms underlying phantom pains, and are therefore ineffective.",
"-29.765167195524555"
],
[
"medical conditions. This helps to break down the stigma of leprosy. Historically, people have been very fearful of contracting leprosy, believing it to be highly contagious when this is not the case.\nReconstructive surgery: Leprosy attacks the nerves, and if not treated quickly people can lose sensation in their hands and feet leading to injury and disability. The Leprosy Mission provides reconstructive surgery for leprosy-affected people, restoring movement to hands and feet. Dr Paul Brand pioneered tendon transfer surgery which is still used by TLM doctors today. Training and education Leprosy is found predominantly in developing countries and areas where poverty",
"-29.757330960885156"
],
[
"of severe chronic pain where no other treatments have been successful, and for other conditions such as involuntary twitching and excessive blushing or sweating.\nA brief \"rehearsal\" local anesthetic nerve block is usually performed before the actual neurectomy to determine efficacy and detect side effects. The patient is typically under general anesthetic during the neurectomy, which is performed by a neurosurgeon.",
"-29.752348931957386"
],
[
"in the diagnosis. Because of the potential for abuse, clinicians have been warned about the possibility of theft and advised against prescribing topical anesthetics for therapeutic purposes.\nSome patients who suffer from eye pain, which is often considerably strong neuropathic pain caused by the irritation of the nerves within the cornea and/or conjunctiva, try to illegally obtain oxybuprocaine or other eye anesthetics (for example by stealing them at their ophthalmologist or optometrist, by forging medical prescriptions or by trying to order it via an online pharmacy) and use the substance to numb their eye pain, often ending up with irreversible corneal",
"-29.713478615185522"
],
[
"Non-invasive procedure A medical procedure is defined as non-invasive when no break in the skin is created and there is no contact with the mucosa, or skin break, or internal body cavity beyond a natural or artificial body orifice. For example, deep palpation and percussion are non-invasive but a rectal examination is invasive. Likewise, examination of the ear-drum or inside the nose or a wound dressing change all fall outside the definition of non-invasive procedure. There are many non-invasive procedures, ranging from simple observation, to specialised forms of surgery, such as radiosurgery. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy is a non-invasive treatment",
"-29.705914695805404"
],
[
"denervation atrophy of the affected muscles, its role in the evaluation of pronator teres syndrome is unclear.\nIf the EMG or the MRI are abnormal for the pronator teres muscle and the flexor carpi radialis, this implies that the problem is at or proximal to the elbow, as the takeoff of the nerves to these muscles occurs proximal to the elbow. Treatment Injection of corticosteroids into the pronator teres muscle may produce relief of symptoms.\nMassage therapy can also provide relief for individuals experiencing this condition.\nSurgical decompression can provide benefit in selected cases.",
"-29.671980667335447"
],
[
"surgeons\", as survival rates rose to about 90%, infection rates following the procedure were low and evidence was found showing that some individuals survived the surgery on multiple occasions. Incan surgeons learned to avoid areas of the head that would cause injury, using a scraping method on the skull that would cause less trauma. They also likely used medicinal herbs of the time, such as coca and alcohol for pain while balsam and saponin would be employed for antibiotic purposes. \nAn ancient Egyptian treatise concerning trauma surgery, the Edwin Smith papyrus, contains descriptions and suggests treatments for various injuries, including",
"-29.63649937120499"
],
[
"of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids, antimalarial drugs and physiotherapy. Surgery is also a possibility, with osteotomy or stabilization with Kirschner intramedullary wire. Tendon relocation, however, has been shown to only work in 30% of cases. The condition is named after the French 19th century physician Sigismond Jaccoud.",
"-29.595606818096712"
],
[
"Preemptive analgesia Preemptive analgesia is an antinociceptive treatment that prevents the sensing of a change of state in nociceptors which would otherwise register as pain. The idea was formulated at the beginning of the 20th century on the basis of clinical observations.\nIt was suggested that the use of regional blocks in addition to general anesthesia would prevent the sensation of pain during the surgery, thereby preventing the formation of scars caused by changes in the central nervous system during surgery. The idea was brought back with a series of animal studies in the early 1980s. Despite controversy that mainly",
"-29.58802702673711"
],
[
"hernias are now delaying hernia surgery due to the risk of post-herniorrhaphy pain syndrome. The elasticised pants used by athletes also provide useful support for the smaller hernia. Surgical Surgical correction of inguinal hernias is called a hernia repair. It is not recommended in minimally symptomatic hernias, for which watchful waiting is advised, due to the risk of post herniorraphy pain syndrome. Surgery is commonly performed as outpatient surgery. There are various surgical strategies which may be considered in the planning of inguinal hernia repair. These include the consideration of mesh use (e.g. synthetic or biologic), open repair, use of",
"-29.58541618373056"
],
[
"usually recommended due to their counter action to prolotherapy-induced inflammation, but are occasionally used in patients with pain refractory to other methods of pain control. Theoretical adverse events of prolotherapy injection include lightheadedness, allergic reactions to the agent used, bruising, infection, or nerve damage. Allergic reactions to sodium morrhuate are rare. Rare cases of back pain, neck pain, spinal cord irritation, pneumothorax, and disc injury have been reported at a rate comparable to that of other spinal injection procedures. Technique Prolotherapy involves the injection of an irritant solution into a joint space, weakened ligament, or tendon insertion to relieve pain.",
"-29.5755661171861"
],
[
"the incidence is 0.2% in general surgery, about 0.4% during caesarean section, between 1 and 2% during cardiac surgery and between 10% and 40% for anesthesia of the traumatized. The majority of these do not feel pain although around one third did, in a range of experience from a sore throat due to the endotracheal tube, to traumatic pain at the incision site. The incidence is halved in the absence of neuro-muscular blockade.\nThe quoted incidences are controversial as many cases of \"awareness\" are open to interpretation.\nThe incidence of anesthesia awareness is higher and has more serious sequelae when muscle relaxants",
"-29.564025787782157"
],
[
"surgery in any form, especially that involving the head or face, it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries that such surgery became common.\nUp until the use of anesthesia became established, surgeries involving healthy tissues involved great pain. Infection from surgery was reduced by the introduction of sterile techniques and disinfectants. The invention and use of antibiotics, beginning with sulfonamide and penicillin, was another step in making elective surgery possible.\nIn 1793, François Chopart performed operative procedure on a lip using a flap from the neck. In 1814, Joseph Carpue successfully performed operative procedure on a British military officer who",
"-29.561924387987574"
],
[
"lack of squeamishness displayed by the Barast. Rather than using anesthesia for surgery, this technology uses direct neural blocks to cut off signals from any body part being operated on while the operation is performed in full view of the doctor and the patient being operated on. The Barast do not find this disturbing in the least, which one Gliksin theorizes is because, as they are still a civilization completely composed of active hunters, they have been exposed to such scenes since childhood. Religion The Barasts have no religion and no concept of religion. This is not due to a",
"-29.53803142182005"
],
[
"Surgical anastomosis A surgical anastomosis is a surgical technique used to make a new connection between two body structures that carry fluid, such as blood vessels or bowel. For example, an arterial anastomosis is used in vascular bypass and a colonic anastomosis is used to restore colonic continuity after the resection of colon cancer.\nA surgical anastomosis can be created using suture sewn by hand, mechanical staplers and biological glues, depending on the circumstances. While an anastomosis may be end-to-end, equally it could be performed side-to-side or end-to-side depending on the circumstances of the required reconstruction or bypass. The term",
"-29.5322002459543"
],
[
"permanent symptomatic relief for most patients, and effectively treats any external component of the hemorrhoids. However, the wounds created by the surgery are usually associated with considerable post-operative pain which necessitates a prolonged recovery period. This can put a stress on a general practitioner’s resources, may alienate the patient and delays the patient’s return to a full, normal lifestyle and the workplace. Because of this, surgeons will generally reserve formal excision for the most severe cases of prolapse, or for patients who have failed to respond to conventional treatments. Stapled transanal rectal resection (STARR) Obstructed defecation syndrome (ODS) can",
"-29.52796153674717"
],
[
"by about half.\nFor people with stenosis but no symptoms, the interventional recommendations are less clear. Such patients have a historical risk of stroke of about 1–2% per year. Carotid endarterectomy has a surgical risk of stroke or death of about 2–4% in most institutions. In the large Asymptomatic Carotid Surgery Trial (ACST) endarterectomy reduced major stroke and death by about half, even after surgical death and stroke was taken into account. According to the Cochrane Collaboration the absolute benefit of surgery is small. For intervention using stents, there is insufficient evidence to support stenting rather than open surgery, and several",
"-29.527820276038256"
],
[
"is usually performed only under local anaesthetic, is called labiaplasty.\nThe aesthetic, sensational, and functional results of vaginoplasty vary greatly. Surgeons vary considerably in their techniques and skills, patients' skin varies in elasticity and healing ability (which is affected by age, nutrition, physical activity and smoking), any previous surgery in the area can impact results, and surgery can be complicated by problems such as infections, blood loss, or nerve damage.\nSupporters of colovaginoplasty state that this method is better than use of skin grafts for the reason that colon is already mucosal, whereas skin is not. Lubrication is needed when having sex",
"-29.52490596618736"
],
[
"that it produces complete akinesia, controlled intraocular pressure and safe operating environment. It is the safest option for bilateral surgery. The complications of general anaesthesia are laryngospasm, hypotension, hypercarbia, respiratory depression and cardiac arrhythmia.",
"-29.51724296069733"
],
[
"to unrecognized CMC or pantrapezial disease and radial sensory nerve injury. Complications The most common complication after surgery is pain persisting in the thumb. Over long term, there is pain relief, but on short term, patients experience pain from the surgery itself. The main complaint is a burning sensation or hypersensitivity over the incision. \nSome patients develop a complex regional pain syndrome. This is a syndrome of chronic pain with changes of temperature and colour of the skin.\nOther general complications include radial nerve damage and postoperative wound infection.\nAfter arthrodesis, non-union, in which fusion of the trapezium bone with the metacarpal",
"-29.513409340463113"
],
[
"as a deterrent to surgery. However, for people with sclerosis in the mesial temporal lobe (in the inner aspect of the temporal lobe), who comprise about one third of people with intractable PTE, surgery is likely to have good outcome. When there are multiple epileptic foci or the focus cannot be localized, and drug therapy is not effective, vagus nerve stimulation is another option for treating PTE.\nPeople with PTE have follow-up visits, in which health care providers monitor neurological and neuropsychological function and assess the efficacy and side effects of medications. As with sufferers of other types of",
"-29.484057195433707"
],
[
"will require some form of local anesthesia. Pre-treatment might include the application of an anesthetic cream under occlusion for 45 to 90 minutes or cooling by ice or cold air prior to the laser treatment session. A better method is complete anesthesia which can be administered locally by injections of 1% to 2% lidocaine with epinephrine.\nA technique which helps to reduce the pain sensation felt by patients has been described by MJ Murphy He used a standard microscope glass slide pressed against the tattooed skin and fired the laser through the glass. This technique may represent a simplest and effective",
"-29.46854716394955"
]
] |
1te3ub | Sam Harris' argument that we do not truly have free will. | [
"The underlying question here is an important one: If 'Free Will' is real, then how do you (scientifically) describe the universe in such a way that it makes sense? With almost every other phenomenon we experience, we can justify it and attribute it to the natural laws around us. But not so with Free Will. And so you have to ask... \"if there is no evidence for it, why do I automatically assume it must be real?\" *Everything* you perceive is as a direct result of external stimuli. So even your innermost thoughts have an outward cause, and that cause is ultimately out of your control. Even something as simple as \"do I eat the chocolate now, or wait until after dinner?\" will be decided by a million other factors, such as subtle gene influences, the way your personality has been shaped over the years, your metabolism, the time of day, the weather, maybe some \"fat joke\" comments someone made about you, etc. He comes up with a very simple experiment to try and demonstrate this: * Think of *one* person you know, and concentrate on their name. Now, explain why you chose *that* specific person, rather than the dozens and dozens of other people you know. Most people want to say \"Well... I just chose them!\" but neuro-physiologically, we know that's not true. That memory is *manufactured* by your brain, and you are merely the recipient of it. I'm not a philosopher myself, so it's difficult for me to talk authoritatively about it. But it's an extremely interesting and compelling argument.",
"Everything we can explain, we explain through cause and effect, like a series of complex \"If x, then y\" statements. Let's start simple, and build from there. \"If I release a ball in mid-air, then it will fall to the ground\". Because we have an extremely good approximation for the laws of motion, we can calculate the speed at which the ball will fall, how it will accelerate, how long it takes to fall and how high it might bounce, if we are supplied will all the relevant data. That ball has no choice in the matter. Once set in motion under certain parameters, it will not deviate from its fate. Taking this one step further, if you imagine a snooker table with the balls set up. If I hit the cue ball at an object ball, I can largely predict what will happen, depending on the angle I strike the object ball, its distance to the cushions, etc. Again, once I hit the cue ball, there is only one way in which things will play out. The balls, again, have no free will and no say in the matter. However, in this case I do not have all the data I need to calculate exactly what will happen. I don't know exactly how much force I'm using on the ball, I don't know the exact spin and angle, and I don't know what small unevenness there may be on the table and cushions. But even though I can't predict what will happen, the result is already defined because of the conditions that are present. So even in situations where we can't predict the outcome with a simple (or even complicated) cause and effect statement, events are still only ever going to turn out in one set way. Call this fate. In the case of free will, we can't explain what's going on, and we feel like we are in control, but there's not enough evidence to suggest that it operates differently to everything else we know about the universe. When all we are is a bag of water and proteins and electrical signals that interact with each other in extraordinarily complex ways, it's difficult to map out exactly what's going on, but we have no reason to believe that fundamentally it differs to snooker balls striking each other. But at the end of the day it doesn't really matter. When I'm reading a book, I know that it ends a certain way. Each character has a destiny. No character has actual free will, since the author has predetermined what they'll do or say. But it's still incredibly exciting.",
"I really don't understand what people mean when they claim that having \"free will\" is important to them. What do they mean be free will? The concept is so dated - it goes back to when Descartes was convinced that the soul could commandf the body through the pineal gland. Well, for those who don't believe in souls, it's ridiculous to think this way. Every activity in my brain has a physical cause. \"I\" am a physical being. My brain and my body is me. So saying that the configuration of my brain and inputs to it determine my choices is equivalent to saying that I and my experiences determine my choices. What else would you want?",
"Nobody could explain it more clearly or more eloquently than Harris himself. I recommend watching [this 12-minute clip]( URL_1 ) of Harris explaining his basic view. The video is actually a response from his last AMA, I think. [The book he wrote on the subject]( URL_0 ) is cheap, short, and accessible.",
"I just want to note that this view is not the view held by the majority of philosophers. Most professional, academic philosophers believe that there is free will AND believe that our actions are caused our physical makeup, environment, and situation. Here's a crude version of the view: Being free isn't being uncaused. It's being caused in certain ways. It is doing something BECAUSE you desire to do it. If someone puts a gun to your head and makes you eat a sandwich, you aren't freely eating that sandwich. But ff you eat it just because you are hungry and want to eat it, then you freely ate it. Of course, what you want isn't magically free of the casual order, but so what? Choosing, desiring, and so on aren't being magically free of the causal order, but freedom isn't magical. It's a pretty mundane kind of thing metaphyically speaking, even if it isn't so mundane morally (e.g., when people want to do something wrong and do it). Harris has a less than stellar reputation among philosophers.",
"Simply put, it's the truth. We don't have free will. We are a product of our genetic makeup and our environment. Since there is no part of us which is free from these influencing factors, there is no part of us which is free to do anything other than what we're aware of, capable of, or inclined to do given our circumstance.",
"How can Sam Harris argue we don't truly have free will and that, at the same time, [Israel is morally superior]( URL_0 )? If we have no free will then morality doesn't exist, which means there's no such thing as justice, which means if Richard Dawkins punches him in the face, then he shouldn't blame him or sue.",
"From an ethical point of view, what is the consequence of having no “Free will”? If the society or the law were to take this view, how should it treat its heroes and villains (since the individuals don’t have any say in their acts)? What would be the future of a society which does not believe in “Free will”? Will its people be ethical or corrupt (compared to a society that does believe in \"Free Will\")? I am somehow convinced that there is no “Free will” – pardon my English.",
"Me: \"I have free will. I could get up and start dancing on top of this table in the middle of this restaurant right now.\" Sam: \"But you won't.\"",
"The difference between free will and a perfect illusion of free will is not significant enough to worry about.",
"The fact that we are unable to control our emotions. We're driven by incentives, knowingly and unknowingly.",
"Because your brain can be observed to make decisions before your conscious mind is aware of it, and your brain is subject to physical laws, genetic predispositions, habits from upbringing and outside stimulation, he believes you don't actually make conscious decisions, but rather our conscious minds observe our brain's reactions.",
"Read \"Behaviourism\", \"Operant Conditioning\" and B.F.Skinner. Then take any one attribute of your own character and try to trace it to its very origins. I can guarantee you that this experiment will illuminate you like nothing else.",
"There is a lot of debate about free will, but at the end of the day, it doesn't really matter. :x",
"LOVE TO BUT I CHOSE NOT TO READ IT",
"The question of free will versus pre-determination is an ancient one, and one that I have personally devoted a large portion of my life understanding. After years of pondering the implications of the various schools of thought, I was able to prove through a series of thought experiments and mathematical formula that both states exist at the same time and in harmony with each other. While I can not explain Sam Harris theory in the manner you have requested, I can provide you with an accurate description of free will based on the physical universe without the problem of human perception tainting the process. Imagine an ancient alien race from another universe, a universe that ended it's natural life long before our universe came into being. This alien raced was advanced enough to survive the end of their universe and became transcendent beings that went on to colonize hundreds of thousands of universes. One of this races favorite past times is recording and logging the birth of a new universe. Imagine now that they record the birth of our universe in all its detail. They have defined every single element that makes up our universe, and have a complete database of it. Using this gathered data, they would be able to create a model of our universe that they could manipulate to their own end. Using the models to create a series of simulations and given enough processing power the alien race could then map out every single possible eventuality of our universe. Here's the kicker. See while they may be able to map out every single possible eventuality, they will not know which eventuality is reality until it actually happens. With nearly all the processes of the universe, the actual outcome of the reality is random happenstance. This is where the math comes in, which I am not going to get into right now, but there are several avenues of conventional mathematics you can explore that describe the random nature of our universe if you desire more information Now comes the introduction of life into the mix, and by extension free will. Life forms have the very unique privilege of being able determine the outcome of the reality around them. Understand that this alien races wouldn't just have your current life defined. Your entire life, everything you have ever done, everything you could have ever done, everything you could potentially do, has been predetermined by the physical nature of the universe. Thanks to free will however, we as living beings have the unique privilege of getting to choose which of our potential eventualities come to pass. Of course it's not quite that simple. We are not accounting for outside influence which effect the decision making processes. For our general understanding of the fundamental concepts however it's not necessary to get into that much detail. Before I end my lecture I will propose an experiment that anyone can try at home. Go to an area with some space and stand still. Now you are going to make one quarter turn in a direction of your choice. Random chance would suggest that there is a 50-50 chance you will turn left or right. For the purpose of this basic experiment we will ignore outside factors. Now make another quarter turn in the direction of your choice. Continue to make quarter turns in whatever direction you choose. As you make turns the odds of the direction of your turns will change depending on the direction you turned in previous turns. Random chance would keep your turn rate at 50-50, and most processes in the universe work in such a manner. In fact, if you have a friend counting for you, and you made 500 quarter turns while they logged the directions of your turn, and you did not keep track of your turns, then it would stand to reason that you would keep a balanced ratio of turns. While doing this you may find that the results are not balanced for you. If this is the case you may wish to consider outside factors such left handed vs right handed. Once you have defined the contributing factors and accounted for the effect they have on your ratio of turns you will see that your turns are still consistent with the random nature of the universe. Now lets bring free will into the mix. Turn 10 times in a row in a single direction. What are the odds of that happening naturally? Now do it 100 times in a row. In doing so you will become, in your own living room, an exceptional force in the universe. The odds of such an occurrence happening naturally are staggering. Eventually, if you were to turn in the same direction long enough, you would reach a point where the odds are no random process in the lifetime of the universe would naturally turn that way. Free will however makes such a process almost commonplace. Tldr - free will and pre-determination exist in harmony. If you think you have no free will turn around in a circle a hundred times in a row.",
"Sam's biggest mistake is in NOT clarifying his point; that demonstrating vulnerabilities in free will, as he has done, doesn't necessarily leave us with determinism. Instead of \"pick a city or movie... now why did you choose that?\" Sam should just go \"choose to feel a strong emotion, like your first kiss.\" You can't just will emotions. Emotions heavily influence cognition. Congnition precedes behavoir. Behavior is the movement of your body. Thus, if you can't perfectly control your emotions, you can't perfectly control your body, but you can control it to a large extent. In this world you are not FREE. You are CONSTRAINED. I believe you retain a degree of control. Determinism means there is only one future for all of us: the future was determined at the beginning of time and we are simply bystanders watching it unfold. I disagree. I see us as being able to shape the future, not perfectly, and within many limits. On the first day of existence, I don't believe it was preordained that one day a race of men would become self aware on Earth and invent Cheese Whiz. If determinism is true, then Cheese Whiz was always destined to be. I think man made Cheese Whiz because he chose to. Why we like cheese is a result of evolution selecting tongues that find cheese to be desirable. We didn't choose to like cheese, but we did choose to satisfy that need creatively. Creativity is an act of free will. In American, you are not free to do whatever you want. Yet you aren't a slave. You can set goals, within limits, and achieve some of them in time. I think our brains work this way. We exert will over our bodies, despite the bodies needs and limits. We don't have free will. We have constrained will.",
"*Compatibilism* is the view that free will is compatible with determinism. Sam Harris is an *incompatibilist*, meaning he believes that free will and determinism are not compatible. The two sides don't actually disagree about what happens, their disagreement comes from using different definitions of \"free will.\" The compatibilist definition of free will is that you are the cause of your actions (as opposed to someone else). So even is the electrical impulses in your brain are fully determined, they're still you, so you have free will. Sam Harris's definition of free will is the sensation we have that there are multiple ways we can act in the future, and at any point in the past, we could have acted differently than we did. Whether or not we call it free will, it's true that that sensation is an illusion. Sam harris argues that his definition of free will is the better one, because he claims that it it what normal people (i.e. people that don't talk about free will for a living) mean when they talk about \"free will.\" Why would you chose a definition of free will that doesn't imply that there are multiple ways you can act.",
"Even If free will is an illusion, we're all under the same illusion. No one has the capacity to put all the variables of reality together in order to determine one's actions, so it's a moot point. So long as we're all on an even playing field such as we are now, the practical aspect of free will is perfectly intact and well. Influencing isn't controlling, and so long as that's all we're capable of, free will, for all intents and purposes, does exist. Obviously the reality is we're in a relatively discrete closed system (planet earth), so the system should be map-able and predictable. So the idea of true free will is a pretty silly notion. Although I do wonder how Sam Harris would respond to a quantum idea of human will. What if our decision making processes involve quantum superpositions? That might be a very strong argument for free will. We only think there isn't free will because we're constantly measuring so we only see discrete states.",
"I think the illusion of chocie is a result of how the human brain predicts the future we see a ball rolling down next to us. we think \"That ball will roll to the bottom of the hill unless I stop it\", and then we stop the ball and then think \"*I changed the future*\" No you did not change the future. Your original view of the future, that the ball would roll down the hill, was false. It was NOT going to roll down the hill because in the future you stop it. Instead of accepting the fact that our prediction of the future was wrong, we say that we changed the future \"changing the future\" is an obvious paradox. free will cannot exist.",
"Another viewpoint on this is determinism where in theory there are a finite number of atoms that composes your brain. Because it is finite, it is possible to predict every position of every atom that literally determines what you do, what you think, etc. So if you can predict the position or how these atoms act would you not be able to completely predict what someone will do in the future? In the same respect, because there is a finite combination of atoms in the brain (although massively large) then it must be limited. If something is limited can it be considered \"free will\"? It is like saying you are completely free to do anything you want, but you must stay in this room.",
"It is fundamentally materialism. Everything is a physical cause and effect. If their is no soul or non-physical piece to life, than we are just the domino effect of matter. Consciousness gives us the illusion of free will but are ultimately bound by the past; our brain makes decisions based on it's experience and it is all probability. Personally i think this is bullshit. We make choices, we are something beyond a biological robot. I'm not religious, in fact I base this on the study of neurology and psychology, but a freewill is essential to all creativity, experience, and consciousness itself.",
"I think there are 2 main issues. 1 - it's very hard to get an exact definition of free will. 2 - if all the choices we make are actually explained by natural phenomena, then the term free will doesn't actually mean anything. As in - lets take 2 different terms. Light and dark. Dark is actually an absence of light. So now we can describe everything as light. EVERYTHING is light! Now the term light doesn't mean anything. Same with the term free will. If nothing has free will - then the term doesn't mean anything.",
"This has always been the least... Useful philosophical theory for me. It's strange because, if we do have free will, why do we wonder about not having it? And, if we don't have free will, then a) why do some of us think we have free will and b) who \"sits there and controls us\"? Sounds a lot like some form of \"God\" to me, and as you may know, philosophy outlaws religion, in most philosophers eyes. They are sorta... Counterarguments. And this, my fellow philosophers, is why I believe in free will.",
"Also free will is a state of choosing what you want to do. You can not choose your parents, skin color, and economic class. So it's not really free will but a state of mind. From birth you are faced with a limited amount of decisions that you can actually make. Your social interactions are limited to whoever is around you. With free will your life would be able bend around what you want not influenced by outside thoughts.",
"More interesting to me are the legal ramifications. Whether deterministic or random, without free will, how can we assign blame? Your honor, this collection of deterministicly and/or randomly acting particles acted with malice and intent--or, more accurately, the universe caused these events to happen--either way, we should remove this particular collection of particles from society.",
"Idk Sam Harris, but as a psych major at a behaviorist university, I often hear that if we knew all of the forces that act on a leaf, we could determine exactly where it would fall. It's a radical behaviorist perspective, but it makes sense.",
"My definition of free will: your brain cannot be influenced directly- ie mindcontrol or what have you. But in hospitals we have probes doctors can use on a brain to say, raise ones arms. this isnt free will b/c someone can directly control your brain.",
"We respond to stimuli according to our conditioning like any beast. We only call it making a choice. It was decided whether we would go left or right at the fork in the road long before we got there.",
"I look at all of these answers and remember something I once read. Trying to understand these types of things is like a blind man explaining what the color green feels and looks like.",
"“History. Language. Passion. Custom. All these things determine what men say, think, and do. These are the hidden puppet-strings from which all men hang.” ― R. Scott Bakker, The Darkness That Comes Before",
"And if this mysterious \"God\" did control us, it couldn't possibly know what will happen to us, and our experiences, which can make changes in our supposed \"set out unfree life path\".",
"You have two crayons a red and a blue, you like blue, but your friend say use the red, so you go ahead and grab a green!",
"There are lots of comments here already, but [here's]( URL_0 ) a good video from Waking Life that I hope you'll watch.",
"Free will is an illusion that sentient beings can chose to accept as reality and therefore actually becomes reality.",
"Sam Harris is not a philosopher and you shouldn't pay him any mind.",
"what about zizek/freud theories that we manufacture our own desires?",
"The notion of 'free will' is an artifact of consciousness."
] | [
[
"attributed to both Aristotle (fourth century BCE) and Epictetus (1st century CE); \"it was the fact that nothing hindered us from doing or choosing something that made us have control over them\". According to Susanne Bobzien, the notion of incompatibilist free will is perhaps first identified in the works of Alexander of Aphrodisias (third century CE); \"what makes us have control over things is the fact that we are causally undetermined in our decision and thus can freely decide between doing/choosing or not doing/choosing them\".\nThe term \"free will\" (liberum arbitrium) was introduced by Christian philosophy (4th century CE). It has",
"-32.948610360501334"
],
[
"Free will is an \"appetitive power\", that is, not a cognitive power of intellect (the term \"appetite\" from Aquinas's definition \"includes all forms of internal inclination\"). He states that judgment \"concludes and terminates counsel. Now counsel is terminated, first, by the judgment of reason; secondly, by the acceptation of the appetite [that is, the free-will].\"\nA compatibilist interpretation of Aquinas's view is defended thus: \"Free-will is the cause of its own movement, because by his free-will man moves himself to act. But it does not of necessity belong to liberty that what is free should be the first cause of itself,",
"-32.857889816645184"
],
[
"lack of free will was that the will was not \"free\" because it was heavily influenced by the law of cause and effect – \"The will is not free, it is a phenomenon bound by cause and effect, but there is something behind the will which is free.\" Vivekananda never said things were absolutely determined and placed emphasis on the power of conscious choice to alter one's past karma: \"It is the coward and the fool who says this is his fate. But it is the strong man who stands up and says I will make my own fate.\" Buddhist philosophy",
"-32.079861488135066"
],
[
"will that suggests that metaphysically free will does not exist. This, he thinks, is intuitive; \"trains of thought...convey the apparent reality of choices, freely made. But from a deeper perspective...thoughts simply arise (what else could they do?)\". He adds \"The illusion of free will is itself an illusion\". The implications of free will's non-existence may be a working determinism, and Harris warns us not to confuse this with fatalism.\n\nOne implication of a determined will, Harris says, is that it becomes unreasonable to punish people out of retribution—only behaviour modification and the deterrence of others still seem to be potentially valid",
"-31.79634167063341"
],
[
"Free Will (book) Summary Harris says the idea of free will \"cannot be mapped on to any conceivable reality\" and is incoherent. According to Harris, science \"reveals you to be a biochemical puppet.\" People's thoughts and intentions, Harris says, \"emerge from background causes of which we are unaware and over which we exert no conscious control.\" Every choice we make is made as a result of preceding causes. These choices we make are determined by those causes, and are therefore not really choices at all. Harris also draws a distinction between conscious and unconscious reactions to the world. Even without",
"-31.523084429070877"
],
[
"of no other fully determining causes—such as brain modules, group pressures, or upbringing. And that is why we can be held morally responsible. Ravven argues that this view is false and also that it is a cultural belief particular to the Western world. She traces the belief in free will to a theological myth and notion of human nature, and exposes the origins of the idea of free will in the Christian theology of the Latin West originating in the Church Father St. Augustine. She describes how that theology became secularized so that many today are unaware than free will",
"-31.294998566620052"
],
[
"and the Myth of Free Will, Ravven challenges the idea of free will. Attributing free will to human beings means that human beings have the capacity to rise above both nature and nurture and even current situation to be good people and choose to act ethically. This capacity to choose our actions—to rise above our genetic inheritance whatever it might be, above our upbringing no matter how terrible it was, and above our present situation despite its social pressures—is what is meant by \"free will.\" We do moral acts for moral reasons, for no other fully determining reasons, and out",
"-31.163737298338674"
],
[
"sensation of having free will and being able to select among possible behaviors has strong survival value. People who lose the feeling that they can plan alternative behaviors and execute their choice of possible behaviors tend to become fatalistic and stop struggling for survival. According to Dennett, belief in free will is a necessary condition for having free will. When we are planning for the future and thinking about possible actions to take in the future, we are utilizing considerable amounts of biologically expensive resources (brain power). Evolution has designed us to feel strongly that all of our effort of",
"-31.132191390293883"
],
[
"agree that in terms of the Catholic Church's view of predestination, that God does indeed know how we will act. The two also agree that the term free will can be defined as the ability for humans to make decisions about their actions. Antonio's main argument is that if God knows what we are going to do and he has created us, that God can not hold us accountable for our sins.\nValla attempts to counter Antonio through numerous historical examples where he argues that God's foreknowledge of our action does not affect the morality of the decision at hand. He",
"-31.127011389197833"
],
[
"what \"free will\" even means and consequently find different types of constraints to be relevant to the issue. Classical compatibilists considered free will nothing more than freedom of action, considering one free of will simply if, had one counterfactually wanted to do otherwise, one could have done otherwise without physical impediment. Contemporary compatibilists instead identify free will as a psychological capacity, such as to direct one's behavior in a way responsive to reason, and there are still further different conceptions of free will, each with their own concerns, sharing only the common feature of not finding the possibility of determinism",
"-31.086148921516724"
],
[
"have their beginning from covetousness, ambition, lust, or other appetites to the thing propounded; but also those that have their beginning from aversion, or fear of those consequences that follow the omission, are voluntary actions.\nConcerning \"free will\", most early modern philosophers, including Hobbes, Spinoza, Locke and Hume believed that the term was frequently used in a wrong or illogical sense, and that the philosophical problems concerning any difference between \"will\" and \"free will\" are due to verbal confusion (because all will is free):\na FREEMAN, is he, that in those things, which by his strength and wit he is able to",
"-30.967074199055787"
],
[
"free will, consciousness has an important role to play in the choices we make. Harris argues that this realization about the human mind does not undermine morality or diminish the importance of social and political freedom, but it can and should change the way we think about some of the most important questions in life. Reception The book has been the subject of criticism.\nThe author uses the Libet argument, which has been challenged by Adrian G. Guggisberg and Annaïs Mottaz. A study by Aaron Schurger and colleagues published in PNAS challenged assumptions about the causal nature of the readiness potential",
"-30.950323573779315"
],
[
"that we choose freely when we make a choice. This does not mean that we can control the effects of our actions.\nSome Indeterminists would argue we have no free will either. If, with respect to human behaviour, a so-called 'cause' results in an indeterminate number of possible, so-called 'effects', that does not mean the person had the free-thinking independent will to choose that 'effect'. More likely, it was the indeterminate consequence of his chance genetics, chance experiences and chance circumstances relevant at the time of the 'cause'.\nIn Kant's philosophy, this calls for an act of faith, the faith free agent",
"-30.917767117673066"
],
[
"acting under their own free will under certain circumstances without bringing in metaphysics. Similarly, political liberty is a non-metaphysical concept. Likewise, some compatibilists define free will as freedom to act according to one's determined motives without hindrance from other individuals. So for example Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics, and the Stoic Chrysippus.\nIn contrast, the incompatibilist positions are concerned with a sort of \"metaphysically free will\", which compatibilists claim has never been coherently defined. Compatibilists argue that determinism does not matter; though they disagree among themselves about what, in turn, does matter. To be a compatibilist, one need not endorse any",
"-30.89037276589079"
],
[
"caprices?\" For him, free will or liberty is \"only the power of acting, what is this power? It is the effect of the constitution and present state of our organs.\" Free will as a psychological state Compatibilism often regards the agent free as virtue of their reason. Some explanations of free will focus on the internal causality of the mind with respect to higher-order brain processing – the interaction between conscious and unconscious brain activity. Likewise, some modern compatibilists in psychology have tried to revive traditionally accepted struggles of free will with the formation of character. Compatibilist free will has also",
"-30.807683762861416"
],
[
"Free will Free will is the ability to choose between different possible courses of action unimpeded.\nFree will is closely linked to the concepts of moral responsibility, praise, guilt, sin, and other judgements which apply only to actions that are freely chosen. It is also connected with the concepts of advice, persuasion, deliberation, and prohibition. Traditionally, only actions that are freely willed are seen as deserving credit or blame. There are numerous different concerns about threats to the possibility of free will, varying by how exactly it is conceived, which is a matter of some debate.\nSome conceive free will to be",
"-30.76330679914099"
],
[
"a threat to the possibility of free will. Western philosophy The underlying questions are whether we have control over our actions, and if so, what sort of control, and to what extent. These questions predate the early Greek stoics (for example, Chrysippus), and some modern philosophers lament the lack of progress over all these centuries.\nOn one hand, humans have a strong sense of freedom, which leads us to believe that we have free will. On the other hand, an intuitive feeling of free will could be mistaken.\nIt is difficult to reconcile the intuitive evidence that conscious decisions are causally effective",
"-30.714285290247062"
],
[
"particular conception of free will, but only deny that determinism is at odds with free will.\nAlthough there are various impediments to exercising one's choices, free will does not imply freedom of action. Freedom of choice (freedom to select one's will) is logically separate from freedom to implement that choice (freedom to enact one's will), although not all writers observe this distinction. Nonetheless, some philosophers have defined free will as the absence of various impediments. Some \"modern compatibilists\", such as Harry Frankfurt and Daniel Dennett, argue free will is simply freely choosing to do what constraints allow one to do. In",
"-30.6896218292095"
],
[
"While he believed in free will on \"ethical grounds\", he did not believe that there was evidence for it on scientific grounds, nor did his own introspections support it. Ultimately he believed that the problem of free will was a metaphysical issue and, therefore, could not be settled by science. Moreover, he did not accept incompatibilism as formulated below; he did not believe that the indeterminism of human actions was a prerequisite of moral responsibility. In his work Pragmatism, he wrote that \"instinct and utility between them can safely be trusted to carry on the social business of punishment and",
"-30.479783825381674"
],
[
"makes the feeling of freedom of will an epiphenomenon, which is highly unlikely from the evolutionary point of view given its biological cost. He also says: \"All rational activity presupposes free will\".\nSecond, Searle believes we can rationally do things that don't result from our own desires. It is widely believed that one cannot derive an \"ought\" from an \"is\", i.e. that facts about how the world is can never tell you what you should do ('Hume's Law'). By contrast, in so far as a fact is understood as relating to an institution (marriage, promises, commitments, etc.), which is to be",
"-30.365157385356724"
],
[
"and is not contingent on faith. Science and morality In The Moral Landscape, Harris argues that science answers moral problems and can aid human well-being. Free will Harris says the idea of free will \"cannot be mapped on to any conceivable reality\" and is incoherent. Harris writes in Free Will that neuroscience \"reveals you to be a biochemical puppet.\" Social and political views Harris describes himself as a liberal, and states that he supports raising taxes on the very wealthy, the decriminalizing of drugs and legalizing of same-sex marriage. He was critical of the Bush administration's war in Iraq, fiscal",
"-30.192775422590785"
],
[
"cast doubt on free will. Harris argues: \"Thoughts simply arise in the brain. What else could they do? The truth about us is even stranger than we may suppose: The illusion of free will is itself an illusion\". Neuroscientist Walter Jackson Freeman III, nevertheless, talks about the power of even unconscious systems and actions to change the world according to our intentions. He writes: \"our intentional actions continually flow into the world, changing the world and the relations of our bodies to it. This dynamic system is the self in each of us, it is the agency in charge, not",
"-30.140418629191117"
],
[
"offers a good example of the worry about free will in the Hindu tradition.\nTherefore we see at once that there cannot be any such thing as free-will; the very words are a contradiction, because will is what we know, and everything that we know is within our universe, and everything within our universe is moulded by conditions of time, space and causality. ... To acquire freedom we have to get beyond the limitations of this universe; it cannot be found here.\nHowever, the preceding quote has often been misinterpreted as Vivekananda implying that everything is predetermined. What Vivekananda actually meant by",
"-30.13988540184073"
],
[
"those kinds of free will are not worth wanting. Other types of \"free will\" are pivotal to people's sense of responsibility and purpose (see also \"believing in free will\"), and many of these types are actually compatible with modern science.\nThe other studies described below have only just begun to shed light on the role that consciousness plays in actions, and it is too early to draw very strong conclusions about certain kinds of \"free will\". It is worth noting that such experiments so far have dealt only with free-will decisions made in short time frames (seconds) and may not have",
"-30.076674951647874"
],
[
"free choice, he must not only have inner free will, but also an environment in which a choice between obedience and disobedience exists. God thus created the world such that both good and evil can operate freely, this is the meaning of the rabbinic maxim, \"All is in the hands of Heaven except the fear of Heaven\".\nAccording to Maimonides,\nFree will is granted to every man. If he desires to incline towards the good way and be righteous, he has the power to do so; and if he desires to incline towards the unrighteous way and be a wicked man, he",
"-30.067784528713673"
],
[
"Free will in theology Free will in theology is an important part of the debate on free will in general. Religions vary greatly in their response to the standard argument against free will and thus might appeal to any number of responses to the paradox of free will, the claim that omniscience and free will are incompatible. Overview The theological doctrine of divine foreknowledge is often alleged to be in conflict with free will, particularly in Calvinistic circles: if God knows exactly what will happen (right down to every choice a person makes), it would seem that the",
"-29.97445437585702"
],
[
"traditionally meant (until the Enlightenment proposed its own meanings) lack of necessity in human will, so that \"the will is free\" meant \"the will does not have to be such as it is\". This requirement was universally embraced by both incompatibilists and compatibilists. Scientific approaches Science has contributed to the free will problem in at least three ways. First, physics has addressed the question of whether nature is deterministic, which is viewed as crucial by incompatibilists (compatibilists, however, view it as irrelevant). Second, although free will can be defined in various ways, all of them involve aspects of the way",
"-29.912706237577368"
],
[
"view on free will. In Freedom of the Will (1754), Edwards attempted to show that human freedom was consistent with human depravity.\nAccording to Edwards, \"the will is as the greatest apparent good is.\" Once the mind discerns what action results in the greatest benefit to the self, the will is activated and a choice is made. The will is free, and freedom is, for Edwards, the power of the individual to do as he or she pleases. What pleases a person is determined by the character or orientation of their soul (the combination of tastes, biases and values). Edwards called",
"-29.89675660867215"
],
[
"to give it. So when we speak freely, it is not the liberty of voice, or pronunciation, but of the man, whom no law hath obliged to speak otherwise than he did. Lastly, from the use of the word free-will, no liberty can be inferred of the will, desire, or inclination, but the liberty of the man; which consisteth in this, that he finds no stop, in doing what he has the will, desire, or inclination to do..\"\nSpinoza argues that seemingly \"free\" actions aren't actually free, or that the entire concept is a chimera because \"internal\" beliefs are necessarily caused",
"-29.876899458529806"
],
[
"and philosophical views.\nHis thesis on the free will was particularly controversial. Singer declined to speak of a free will. This he expressed publicly in an article published in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung in 2004, whose subtitling he made in the slightly modified formulation „Brain structures determine us: We should stop talking about free will“ as the main title of the reprinting of an extensive scientific contribution to the discussion \"Brain as a Subject? (Part I)\" in the German Journal of Philosophy. Singer argues that the natural scientific causal model, according to which the world is to be viewed as a",
"-29.80491650829208"
],
[
"the freedom of will is thus the question whether something depends on another thing (a state, an event), i.e. is in some way determined by it, or does not depend on anything (then we call it a chance). Or, in other words, whether something can be predicted: whether it is certain (given the presence or absence of the sufficient cause) or not. Cf. Luther's argument: for him everything is a necessity because the Creator knows it already. Power of will In Beyond Good and Evil Nietzsche criticizes the concept of free will both negatively and positively. He calls it a",
"-29.74930692219641"
],
[
"will is no free will at all. To the Calvinist . . . [Arminian] free will is a myth; it simply cannot exist.\" Calvinist View Calvinism argues that God cannot provide humanity with free will; to do so is to compromise the Sovereignty of God, at least in the exercise of faith or salvation. “We say that he [man] is free, but his freedom is within limits, and those limits are defined by the sovereignty of God.” “Only God has free will in the sense of ultimate self-determination.” The sovereignty of God was \"Calvin’s most central doctrine. It means that",
"-29.68740394629276"
],
[
"of how to assign responsibility for actions if they are caused entirely by past events.\nCompatibilists maintain that mental reality is not of itself causally effective. Classical compatibilists have addressed the dilemma of free will by arguing that free will holds as long as we are not externally constrained or coerced. Modern compatibilists make a distinction between freedom of will and freedom of action, that is, separating freedom of choice from the freedom to enact it. Given that humans all experience a sense of free will, some modern compatibilists think it is necessary to accommodate this intuition. Compatibilists often associate freedom",
"-29.669299010187387"
],
[
"point in the work Antonio is simply expressing his frustrations with his inability to understand free will as the Church defines it.\nValla's character Lorenzo addresses Antonio's questions about free will by explaining that the free will of humans' lies in their decision to live good or bad lives morally. He argues that God has given each person certain characteristics, and that we are free to decide how we use those attributes. Lorenzo speaks about how the differences amongst our characteristics are things that God knows, and that we can not know about all of the things we don't have, and",
"-29.620340774672513"
],
[
"in contrast to most recent literature in the field, well-exemplified by The Oxford Handbook of Free Will, edited by Robert Kane, whose contributors without exception take positions supporting voluntarism or maintaining agnostic reservations.\nHaughness contends that freedom of willing is no more than a faith, which he calls “voluntarism“. He claims that, despite having little empirical basis except in unexamined intuition, free will has been accommodated and, indeed, vigorously defended by philosophers in large part because its abandonment is emotively an extremely repellent notion, suggesting loss of personal autonomy to nearly all who contemplate it. Equally intolerable to many is the",
"-29.584485342667904"
],
[
"animals lack free will. Common defenses Jewish philosophy stresses that free will is a product of the intrinsic human soul, using the word neshama (from the Hebrew root n.sh.m. or .נ.ש.מ meaning \"breath\"), but the ability to make a free choice is through Yechida (from Hebrew word \"yachid\", יחיד, singular), the part of the soul that is united with God, the only being that is not hindered by or dependent on cause and effect (thus, freedom of will does not belong to the realm of the physical reality, and inability of natural philosophy to account for it is expected).\nIn Islam,",
"-29.513318355428055"
],
[
"will.” —Ephesians 1:5\nThe exact meaning of these verses has been debated by Christian theologians throughout history. Judaism Maimonides reasoned that human beings have free will (at least in the context of choosing to do good or evil). Without free will, the demands of the prophets would have been meaningless, there would be no need for the Torah, and justice could not be administered. In Maimonides's view, human free will is granted by God as part of the universe's design. Islam In Islam the theological issue is not usually how to reconcile free will with God's foreknowledge, but with",
"-29.46496014209697"
],
[
"a bearing on our decision to accept or reject Him. No matter how much we would like to pretend otherwise, the decision to have faith in Christ is not as much \"free will\" as it is the enormously personal culmination of all the circumstances of our lives, and therefore enormously influenced by the myriad external, uncontrollable factors that have shaped our hearts and minds. Mortalist objections Mortalists object that, in their view, the Bible does not teach torment of souls, either in Hades, nor at the Last Day in Gehenna.",
"-29.373015410616063"
],
[
"folly resulting from extravagant pride of man; and calls the idea a crass stupidity. The latter probably relates to ordinary-man's visions about a god who (after the ellapse of eternal waiting) creates the world and then waits and observes (being, however, still \"beyond time\"): and then he is surprised and subdued by what one does. (This vision is brought up by Nietzsche in The Antichrist.)\nNext, he argues that free will generally represents an error of causa sui:\nThe desire for \"freedom of will\" in the superlative, metaphysical sense, such as still holds sway, unfortunately, in the minds of the half-educated, the",
"-29.370121068437584"
],
[
"other words, a coerced agent's choices can still be free if such coercion coincides with the agent's personal intentions and desires. Free will as lack of physical restraint Most \"classical compatibilists\", such as Thomas Hobbes, claim that a person is acting on the person's own will only when it is the desire of that person to do the act, and also possible for the person to be able to do otherwise, if the person had decided to. Hobbes sometimes attributes such compatibilist freedom to each individual and not to some abstract notion of will, asserting, for example, that \"no liberty",
"-29.35059663750144"
],
[
"of what they consider right and wrong as any other external factors do. Our definitions of free-will are contingent upon how much we let them affect our actions.",
"-29.346336606671684"
],
[
"sense when dealing with these expectations, and not with some unknown and unknowable future.\nAccording to Dennett, because individuals have the ability to act differently from what anyone expects, free will can exist. Incompatibilists claim the problem with this idea is that we may be mere \"automata responding in predictable ways to stimuli in our environment\". Therefore, all of our actions are controlled by forces outside ourselves, or by random chance. More sophisticated analyses of compatibilist free will have been offered, as have other critiques.\nIn the philosophy of decision theory, a fundamental question is: From the standpoint of statistical outcomes, to",
"-29.340150346804876"
],
[
"Daniel Dennett or Alfred Mele consider the language used by researchers. They explain that \"free will\" means many different things to different people (e.g. some notions of free will are dualistic, some not). Dennett insists that many important and common conceptions of \"free will\" are compatible with the emerging evidence from neuroscience. Overview The neuroscience of free will encompasses two main fields of study: volition and agency. Volition, the study of voluntary actions, is difficult to define. If we consider human actions as lying along a spectrum of our involvement in initiating the actions, then reflexes would be on one",
"-29.269248773518484"
],
[
"the free will problem. In the thirty-odd years since then, a lot has been published about Epicurus on freedom and determinism. But it has only rarely been questioned whether Epicurus, in one way or another, found himself face to face with some version of the free will problem.\nBobzien thinks Epicurus did not have a model of what she calls \"two-sided freedom,\" because she believes that Epicurus\n\"assumed....a gap in the causal chain immediately before, or simultaneously with, the decision or choice, a gap which allows the coming into being of a spontaneous motion. In this way every human decision or choice",
"-29.25511551409727"
],
[
"necessarily generalize to other actions such as thinking, or even other motor actions in different situations. Indeed, the human act of planning has implications for free will, and so this ability must also be explained by any theories of unconscious decision making. Philosopher Alfred Mele also doubts the conclusions of these studies. He explains that simply because a movement may have been initiated before our \"conscious self\" has become aware of it does not mean that our consciousness does not still get to approve, modify, and perhaps cancel (called vetoing) the action. Unconsciously cancelling actions The possibility that human \"free",
"-29.209373017945836"
],
[
"question our naive sense of freedom of will to use such powers arbitrarily, or with violence, this process being more severe the more rigorously the goal of our self was to obtain control.\nIn other words, the welcoming of the Other, to Levinas, was the very essence of conscience properly conceived; it encouraged our ego to accept the fallibility of assuming things about other people, that selfish freedom of will \"does not have the last word\" and that realising this has a transcendent purpose: \"I am not alone ... in conscience I have an experience that is not commensurate with any a",
"-29.17209402633307"
],
[
"our movements; though, since subjects were able to prevent intended movement at the last moment, we do have the ability to veto these actions (\"free won't\").\nThese studies have provoked widespread debate.\nKornhuber and Deecke have shown that we have free will also for the initiation of our movements and actions, not absolute freedom though, which would mean freedom from nature which is impossible but relative freedom—freedom in \"degrees of freedom.\" According to Kornhuber and Deecke one can take efforts to increase one's degree of freedom through self-improvement, but one can also lose degrees of freedom through self-mismanagement, see below under \"further",
"-29.160108987634885"
],
[
"also has the power to do so. Give no place in your minds to that which is asserted by many of the ignorant: namely that the Holy One, blessed be He, decrees that a man from his birth should be either righteous or wicked. Since the power of doing good or evil is in our own hands, and since all the wicked deeds which we have committed have been committed with our full consciousness, it befits us to turn in penitence and to forsake our evil deed. The paradox of free will In rabbinic literature, there is much discussion as",
"-29.157692781707738"
],
[
"or wills, and is thus not at all a freedom of will. The metaphysics of the Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools strongly suggest a belief in determinism, but do not seem to make explicit claims about determinism or free will.\nA quotation from Swami Vivekananda, a Vedantist, offers a good example of the worry about free will in the Hindu tradition.\nTherefore, we see at once that there cannot be any such thing as free-will; the very words are a contradiction, because will is what we know, and everything that we know is within our universe, and everything within our universe is moulded",
"-29.037501153856283"
],
[
"they do not preclude freedom unless we fail to recognise them. Steiner argues that outer freedom is attained by permeating our deeds with moral imagination.” “Moral” in this case refers to action that is willed, while “imagination” refers to the mental capacity to envision conditions that do not already hold. Both of these functions are necessarily conditions for freedom. Steiner aims to show that these two aspects of inner and outer freedom are integral to one another, and that true freedom is only achieved when they are united. Free will as a pragmatically useful concept William James' views were ambivalent.",
"-29.02066323471081"
],
[
"Therefore, free will is involved with both, the initiation of the action and for the control of the action.\nThe views of Kornhuber and Deecke upon the SMA and CMA were confirmed in the meantime by Ross Cunnington and his team: The limbic system is always involved in the early planning for action – the matching with the inner needs, the emotional basic state, and our respective mood – has been postulated by Kornhuber and Deecke for quite some time and has been confirmed recently by the Cunnington group. Kornhuber and Deecke have shown that freedom is given, a",
"-28.997287349433464"
],
[
"paper submitted to The Journal of Ethics entitled \"How to Think about the Problem of Free Will,\" Van Inwagen worries that the concept \"free will\" may be incoherent. He says \"There are seemingly unanswerable arguments that (if they are indeed unanswerable) demonstrate that free will is incompatible with determinism. And there are seemingly unanswerable arguments that ... demonstrate that free will is incompatible with indeterminism. But if free will is incompatible both with determinism and indeterminism, the concept 'free will' is incoherent, and the thing free will does not exist.\"\nIn his book Material Beings, Van Inwagen argues that all material",
"-28.970556284562917"
],
[
"favour of libertarian free will, by making arguments based on generative processes (emergence). Other proponents of emergentist or generative philosophy, cognitive sciences and evolutionary psychology, argue that a certain form of determinism (not necessarily causal) is true. They suggest instead that an illusion of free will is experienced due to the generation of infinite behaviour from the interaction of finite-deterministic set of rules and parameters. Thus the unpredictability of the emerging behaviour from deterministic processes leads to a perception of free will, even though free will as an ontological entity does not exist. Certain experiments looking at the neuroscience of",
"-28.900151550013106"
],
[
"who therefore forms the fundamental principle both in the existence of things and the correctness of thought. As a corollary, he affirms that \"everything that is, is rightly\". De Libertate Arbitrii elaborates Anselm's reasoning on correctness with regard to free will. He does not consider this a capacity to 'sin but a capacity to do good for its own sake (as opposed to owing to coercion or for self-interest). God and the good angels therefore have free will despite being incapable of sinning; similarly, the non-coercive aspect of free will enabled man and the rebel angels to sin, despite this",
"-28.89311951457057"
],
[
"scientists are getting the science right, but misrepresenting modern philosophers. This is mainly because \"free will\" can mean many things: it is unclear what someone means when they say \"free will does not exist\". Mele and Glannon say that the available research is more evidence against any dualistic notions of free will – but that is an \"easy target for neuroscientists to knock down\". Mele says that most discussions of free will are now had in materialistic terms. In these cases, \"free will\" means something more like \"not coerced\" or that \"the person could have done otherwise at the last moment\".",
"-28.852151185506955"
],
[
"is not appropriate to identify freedom with indetermination. A free act is one where the agent could have done otherwise if it had chosen otherwise. In this sense a person can be free even though determinism is true. The most important compatibilist in the history of the philosophy was David Hume. More recently, this position is defended, for example, by Daniel Dennett.\nOn the other hand, there are also many incompatibilists who reject the argument because they believe that the will is free in a stronger sense called libertarianism. These philosophers affirm the course of the world is either a) not",
"-28.84455380545114"
],
[
"is present in most if not almost all religions. Criticism Critics of compatibilism often focus on the definition(s) of free will: incompatibilists may agree that the compatibilists are showing something to be compatible with determinism, but they think that this something ought not to be called \"free will\". Incompatibilists might accept the \"freedom to act\" as a necessary criterion for free will, but doubt that it is sufficient. Basically, they demand more of \"free will\". The incompatibilists believe free will refers to genuine (e.g., absolute, ultimate) alternate possibilities for beliefs, desires, or actions, rather than merely counterfactual ones.\nCompatibilism is sometimes",
"-28.83125941210892"
],
[
"are not free. So if our will is not determined by anything, we are not free. Self The philosophy of mind also has important consequences for the concept of \"self\". If by \"self\" or \"I\" one refers to an essential, immutable nucleus of the person, some modern philosophers of mind, such as Daniel Dennett believe that no such thing exists. According to Dennett and other contemporaries, the self is considered an illusion. The idea of a self as an immutable essential nucleus derives from the idea of an immaterial soul. Such an idea is unacceptable to modern philosophers with physicalist",
"-28.809663508669473"
],
[
"do, is not hindered to do what he has a will to. But when the words free, and liberty, are applied to any thing but bodies, they are abused; for that which is not subject to motion, is not subject to impediment: and therefore, when it is said, for example, the way is free, no liberty of the way is signified, but of those that walk in it without stop. And when we say a gift is free, there is not meant any liberty of the gift, but of the giver, that was not bound by any law or covenant",
"-28.80813991765899"
],
[
"Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose who believe there is something special about the physical brain that a computer version could not duplicate.\nAnother issue is that of free will, the degree to which people are responsible for their own choices. Free will relates to determinism, if everything is strictly determined by prior state, then some would say that no one can have free will. Kurzweil holds a pragmatic belief in free will because he feels society needs it to function. He also suggests that quantum mechanics may provide \"a continual source of uncertainty at the most basic level of reality\" such",
"-28.780431534949457"
],
[
"had freedom to act according to their own motivation. That is, the agent was not coerced or restrained. Arthur Schopenhauer famously said, \"Man can do what he wills but he cannot will what he wills.\"\nIn other words, although an agent may often be free to act according to a motive, the nature of that motive is determined. Also note that this definition of free will does not rely on the truth or falsity of causal determinism. This view also makes free will close to autonomy, the ability to live according to one's own rules, as opposed to being submitted to",
"-28.74304082793242"
],
[
"had no precise term for \"free will\" as did Latin (liberum arbitrium or libera voluntas). The discussion was in terms of responsibility, what \"depends on us\" (in Greek ἐφ ἡμῖν).\nAlexander believed that Aristotle was not a strict determinist like the Stoics, and Alexander himself argued that some events do not have pre-determined causes. In particular, man is responsible for self-caused decisions, and can choose to do or not to do something, as Chrysippus argued. However, Alexander denied the foreknowledge of events that was part of the Stoic identification of God and Nature.\nR. W. Sharples described Alexander's De Fato as perhaps",
"-28.71004548345809"
],
[
"Free will theorem The free will theorem of John H. Conway and Simon B. Kochen states that if we have a free will in the sense that our choices are not a function of the past, then, subject to certain assumptions, so must some elementary particles. Conway and Kochen's paper was published in Foundations of Physics in 2006. In 2009 they published a stronger version of the theorem in the Notices of the AMS. Later Kochen elaborated some details. The theorem The free will theorem states:\nGiven the axioms, if the two experimenters in question are free to make choices about",
"-28.698626907204698"
],
[
"free will would be rendered non-existent. This is a view that is loosely based on the kabbalistic concept of nahama d'kissufa (bread of shame)- the idea that greater satisfaction is achieved when one becomes deserving of a blessing rather than when it is given as a gift. Kabbalah teaches that this is one of the reasons God created man with free will and with obligations, and that in order to maintain that free will, God reduces the extent to which he manifests himself in the world (tzimtzum). Harold Kushner, William Kaufman and Milton Steinberg Harold Kushner, William E. Kaufman",
"-28.697778091882356"
],
[
"free will of man. Many earlier movements such as Waldensians and others likewise held this viewpoint. Denominations today representing this view include Old Order Mennonites, Amish, and Conservative Mennonites. Calvinism John Calvin ascribed \"free will\" to all people in the sense that they act \"voluntarily, and not by compulsion.\" He elaborated his position by allowing \"that man has choice and that it is self-determined\" and that his actions stem from \"his own voluntary choosing.\"\nThe free will that Calvin ascribed to all people is what Mortimer Adler calls the \"natural freedom\" of the will. This freedom to will what one desires",
"-28.681525064042944"
],
[
"of the will\". He then argues that, according to these definitions, not only are the two compatible, but liberty requires necessity. For if our actions were not necessitated in the above sense, they would \"have so little in connexion with motives, inclinations and circumstances, that one does not follow with a certain degree of uniformity from the other\". But if our actions are not thus connected to the will, then our actions can never be free: they would be matters of \"chance; which is universally allowed to have no existence\". Australian philosopher John Passmore writes that confusion has arisen because",
"-28.676249633921543"
],
[
"form of close examination of definitions and ambiguities in the concepts designated by \"free\", \"freedom\", \"will\", \"choice\" and so forth. Defining 'free will' often revolves around the meaning of phrases like \"ability to do otherwise\" or \"alternative possibilities\". This emphasis upon words has led some philosophers to claim the problem is merely verbal and thus a pseudo-problem. In response, others point out the complexity of decision making and the importance of nuances in the terminology. History of free will The problem of free will has been identified in ancient Greek philosophical literature. The notion of compatibilist free will has been",
"-28.6585395699949"
],
[
"The existence of these types of free will is debatable. Mele agrees, however, that science will continue to reveal critical details about what goes on in the brain during decision making.\nThis issue may be controversial for good reason: There is evidence to suggest that people normally associate a belief in free will with their ability to affect their lives. Philosopher Daniel Dennett, author of Elbow Room and a supporter of deterministic free will, believes that scientists risk making a serious mistake. He says that there are types of free will that are incompatible with modern science, but he says that",
"-28.623516811756417"
],
[
"is much discussion as to the apparent contradiction between God's omniscience and free will. The representative view is that \"Everything is foreseen; yet free will is given\" (Rabbi Akiva, Pirkei Avoth 3:15). Based on this understanding, the problem is formally described as a paradox, perhaps beyond our understanding.\nHasdai Crescas resolved this dialectical tension by taking the position that free will doesn't exist. All of a person's actions are predetermined by the moment of their birth, and thus their judgment in the eyes of God (so to speak) is effectively preordained. In this scheme this is not a result of God's",
"-28.53476014532498"
],
[
"is inherent in all people.\nCalvin held this kind of inherent/natural free will in disesteem because unless people acquire the freedom to live as they ought by being transformed, they will desire and voluntarily choose to sin. \"Man is said to have free will,\" wrote Calvin, \"because he acts voluntarily, and not by compulsion. This is perfectly true: but why should so small a matter have been dignified with so proud a title?\" The glitch in this inherent/natural freedom of the will is that although all people have the \"faculty of willing,\" by nature they are unavoidably (and yet voluntarily without",
"-28.533898129721706"
],
[
"an entity. There can be no absolute, unconditioned freedom of the will, since all events in the natural world, including human actions and choices, are determined in accord with the natural laws of the universe, which are inescapable. However, an action can still be free in the sense that it is not constrained or otherwise subject to external forces.\nHuman beings are thus an integral part of nature. Spinoza explains seemingly irregular human behaviour as really \"natural\" and rational and motivated by this principle of the conatus. In the process, he replaces the notion of free will with the conatus, a",
"-28.531166556931566"
],
[
"people make decisions and initiate actions, which have been studied extensively by neuroscientists. Some of the experimental observations are widely viewed as implying that free will does not exist or is an illusion (but many philosophers see this as a misunderstanding). Third, psychologists have studied the beliefs that the majority of ordinary people hold about free will and its role in assigning moral responsibility. Quantum physics Early scientific thought often portrayed the universe as deterministic – for example in the thought of Democritus or the Cārvākans – and some thinkers claimed that the simple process of gathering sufficient information would allow them",
"-28.495682290231343"
],
[
"a finger motion, before a person becomes conscious of willing) are largely irrelevant to free will, because free will is rooted in imaginative deliberation and choosing, not picking among arbitrary and meaningless alternatives. Libet's picking paradigm also misses the fundamental importance of willpower in realizing envisioned future paths or future selves, where, for example, a person can envision numerous possible flying machines, but then must also have the determination and perseverance to build that machine, and thereby transform the world, as the Wright brothers did. Similarly, he has dismissed Wegner's claims that there is no free will with the statement",
"-28.488376338613307"
],
[
"will, according to the conditional analysis, even if determinism is true. Critics point out that compatibilists are making a circular argument here: An agent is free if an agent is free. The incompatibilists believe free will refers to genuine (e.g., absolute, ultimate) alternate possibilities for beliefs, desires, or actions, rather than merely counterfactual ones. Frankfurt's objection From the PAP definition \"a person is morally responsible for what he has done only if he could have done otherwise\", Frankfurt infers that a person is not morally responsible for what he has done if he could not have done otherwise – a",
"-28.487604082532926"
],
[
"choice\" as the translation and provided a rationale. Luther used \"free choice\" (or \"free-will\") to denote the fact that humans act \"spontaneously\" and with \"a desirous willingness.\" He also allowed \"Free-will\" as that \"power\" by which humans \"can be caught by the Spirit\" of God. However, he deplored the use of the term \"Free-will\" because it is too \"grand, copious, and full.\" Therefore, Luther held that the inborn faculty of \"willingness\" should be \"called by some other term.\"\nAlthough our wills are a function of and are in bondage to our inherited sinful desires, Luther insisted that we sin \"voluntarily.\" Voluntarily",
"-28.477142934832955"
],
[
"can only mean a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will; that is, if we choose to remain at rest, we may; if we choose to move, we also may. Now this hypothetical liberty is universally allowed to belong to every one who is not a prisoner and in chains. Here, then, is no subject of dispute. Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau added a new type of will to those discussed by philosophers, which he called the \"General will\" (volonté générale). This concept developed from Rousseau's considerations on the social contract theory of Hobbes, and describes",
"-28.463990709598875"
],
[
"heaven of innocence, the heaven of hazard, the heaven of wantonness. Free will as a psychological error Nietzsche's critique of free will has essentially two aspects: one is philosophical (fatalistic), and the other is psychological. Fatalism lets Nietzsche theoretically prove the error of moral doctrines, which – most generally speaking – would require that a sinner changed his destiny (for instance by changing the laws of nature, influencing chances which lie completely beyond the extent of his influence), which is by definition impossible. But such theory would not be convincing enough if at the same time the impression of control",
"-28.439467944677745"
],
[
"in works such as Philosophical Necessity that humans have no free will. Reception Philosophical Necessity influenced the 19th-century utilitarians John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer, who were drawn to its determinism. \nThe philosopher A. Spir believed that the work had so clearly refuted the notion of free will, that it is unnecessary to discuss the issue anymore. In a similar fashion, Arthur Schopenhauer commented that \"no writer has presented the necessity of acts of will so thoroughly and convincingly as Priestley ... If anyone is not convinced by this supremely clearly and accessibly written book, his understanding must really be",
"-28.431092740269378"
],
[
"does that foreknowledge preclude human free will because it would be impossible to freely make a choice contrary to the future God foreknows? One position is that \"Those who argue in this manner make the mistake of thinking that because God possesses knowledge about a specific matter, then he has influenced it. That does not follow at all. Just because God can foresee which choice you will make, it does not mean you couldn’t still freely choose the other option.\" Sovereignty and Salvation This difficulty which arises when considering a sovereign God's knowledge of future events has been most divisive",
"-28.391429998038802"
],
[
"questions about free will remains a topic of active debate.\nThe term 'enactivism' is close in meaning to 'enaction', defined as \"the manner in which a subject of perception creatively matches its actions to the requirements of its situation\". The introduction of the term enaction in this context is attributed to Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch, who proposed the name to \"emphasize the growing conviction that cognition is not the representation of a pre-given world by a pre-given mind but is rather the enactment of a world and a mind on the basis of a history of the",
"-28.371438034577295"
],
[
"not being a necessary element of free will itself. In De Casu Diaboli, Anselm further considers the case of the fallen angels, which serves to discuss the case of rational agents in general. The teacher argues that there are two forms of good—justice (justicia) and benefit (commodum)—and two forms of evil: injustice and harm (incommodum). All rational beings seek benefit and shun harm on their own account but independent choice permits them to abandon bounds imposed by justice. Some angels chose their own happiness in preference to justice and were punished by God for their injustice with less happiness. The",
"-28.357078862260096"
],
[
"will of God, and instead tend to believe in the concept of free will. John Calvin was a proponent of the theory of predestination in which God allegedly determines everything that happens, whether good or bad. Christian deists believe that it is never God's will for anyone to be sick or injured. In that bad things occur as a result of prior interactions that resulted in a specified outcome. These bad things may be caused by interfering with naturalistic processes that result in negative consequences to carbon-based life, or by human interaction on the surface of the Earth that leads",
"-28.336153184995055"
],
[
"was not removed, as well as the ever renewed attempts at associating it with the \"freedom of will\" and building a philosophy out of that. Thus a psychological critique is needed.\nIf one agrees that the \"freedom of will\" denotes the power of will which rules but is not itself ruled, then it would at bottom be enough to prove that it is not will what governs human behaviour in order to abolish the very term, to prove that \"it is not there\". And Nietzsche went on to this. For Nietzsche the term \"will\" is psychologically strictly connected with the term",
"-28.330586559372023"
],
[
"done otherwise; it requires only that certain of our choices and actions be undetermined (and thus that we could have done otherwise), namely SFAs. These form our character or nature; they inform our future choices, reasons and motivations in action. If a person has had the opportunity to make a character-forming decision (SFA), he is responsible for the actions that are a result of his character. Mark Balaguer Mark Balaguer, in his book Free Will as an Open Scientific Problem argues similarly to Kane. He believes that, conceptually, free will requires indeterminism, and the question of whether",
"-28.313358224229887"
],
[
"of free will—\"the sustaining of a thought because I choose to when I might have other thoughts\"—need be the definition of an illusion. At any rate, I will assume for the present—until next year—that it is no illusion. My first act of free will shall be to believe in free will.\nIn 1884 James set the terms for all future discussions of determinism and compatibilism in the free will debates with his lecture to Harvard Divinity School students published as \"The Dilemma of Determinism\". In this talk he defined the common terms hard determinism and soft determinism (now more commonly called",
"-28.291330025196658"
],
[
"rationality, like Bertrand Russell in Free Thought and Official Propaganda and Alfred Henry Lloyd with The Will to Doubt. Both argued that one must always adhere to fallibilism, recognizing of all human knowledge that \"None of our beliefs are quite true; all have at least a penumbra of vagueness and error\", and that the only means of progressing ever-closer to the truth is to never assume certainty, but always examine all sides and try to reach a conclusion objectively. Free will In his search for truth and assorted principles of psychology, William James developed his two-stage model of free will.",
"-28.273656552657485"
],
[
"as neither for one thing to be cause of another need it be the first cause. God, therefore, is the first cause, Who moves causes both natural and voluntary. And just as by moving natural causes He does not prevent their acts being natural, so by moving voluntary causes He does not deprive their actions of being voluntary: but rather is He the cause of this very thing in them; for He operates in each thing according to its own nature.\" Free will as a pseudo-problem Historically, most of the philosophical effort invested in resolving the dilemma has taken the",
"-28.251227229106007"
],
[
"Freedom Free will In philosophical discourse, freedom is discussed in the context of free will and self-determination, balanced by moral responsibility.\nAdvocates of free will regard freedom of thought as innate to the human mind, while opponents regard the mind as thinking only the thoughts that a purely deterministic brain happens to be engaged in at the time. Personal and social freedom or liberty In political discourse, political freedom is often associated with liberty and autonomy in the sense of \"giving oneself their own laws\", and with having rights and the civil liberties with which to exercise them without undue interference",
"-28.224956404301338"
],
[
"people by preparing them for potential negative outcomes in the future and trained them to recognize their own potential outcomes behind their actions.\nRachlin also has a different viewpoint on the subject of Free Will than most other people. He writes, “the meaning of free will lies not in what may or may not be going on in people’s heads or elsewhere in their bodies, but rather in how the term free will is actually used by the community to describe and to guide overt behavior” (Rachlin 2007). In other words, society’s definitions and expectations are what guide us in terms",
"-28.199033687116753"
],
[
"biology and environment. Some authors, however, are more determinist in their views. As one author writes: \"Free will may exist (it may simply be beyond our current science), but one thing seems clear: if free will does exist, it has little room in which to operate. It can at best be a small factor riding on top of vast neural networks shaped by genes and environment. In fact, free will may end up being so small that we eventually think about bad decision-making in the same way we think about any physical process, such as diabetes or lung disease.\" Legal",
"-28.173530144267716"
],
[
"to the apparent contradiction between God's omniscience and free will. The representative view is that \"Everything is foreseen; yet free will is given\". Based on this understanding, the problem is formally described as a paradox, beyond our understanding.\nThe Holy One, Blessed Be He, knows everything that will happen before it has happened. So does He know whether a particular person will be righteous or wicked, or not? If He does know, then it will be impossible for that person not to be righteous. If He knows that he will be righteous but that it is possible for him to be",
"-28.170379556482658"
],
[
"desire to bear the entire and ultimate responsibility for one's actions oneself, and to absolve God, the world, ancestors, chance, and society therefrom, involves nothing less than to be precisely this causa sui, and, with more than Munchausen daring, to pull oneself up into existence by the hair, out of the slough of nothingness.\nFinally, he suggests that the only real thing about will is whether it is strong (i.e. hard to break) or weak:\nThe \"non-free will\" is mythology; in real life it is only a question of strong and weak will.\nNothing is (or can be) fully resistant to stimula, for",
"-28.162896797803114"
],
[
"universally embrace the idea of free will, but generally do not view free will as existing apart from or in contradiction to grace. According to the Roman Catholic Church \"To God, all moments of time are present in their immediacy. When therefore he establishes his eternal plan of \"predestination\", he includes in it each person's free response to his grace.\" The Council of Trent declared that \"the free will of man, moved and excited by God, can by its consent co-operate with God, Who excites and invites its action; and that it can thereby dispose and prepare itself to obtain",
"-28.10559129633475"
],
[
"among those who specialize in philosophy (59%). Belief in libertarianism amounted to 14%, while a lack of belief in free will equaled 12%. More than half of surveyed people were US Americans. Among evolutionary biologists 79 percent of evolutionary biologists said that they believe in free-will according to a survey conducted in 2007, only 14 percent chose no free will, and 7 percent did not answer the question. Effects of the belief itself Baumeister and colleagues found that provoking disbelief in free will seems to cause various negative effects. The authors concluded, in their paper, that it is belief in",
"-28.030273678945377"
],
[
"and the truth of free will. This creates the four possible positions in the figure. Compatibilism refers to the view that free will is, in some sense, compatible with determinism. The three incompatibilist positions, on the other hand, deny this possibility. The hard incompatibilists hold that both determinism and free will do not exist, the libertarianists that determinism does not hold, and free will might exist, and the hard determinists that determinism does hold and free will does not exist.\nThe Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza was a determinist thinker, and argued that human freedom can be achieved through knowledge of the",
"-28.026617227937095"
],
[
"responsibility. Both determinism and indeterminism are threats to such freedom. To abandon these notions of freedom would be to abandon moral responsibility. On the one side, we have our intuitions; on the other, the scientific facts. The \"new\" problem is how to resolve this conflict. Free will as \"moral imagination\" Rudolf Steiner, who collaborated in a complete edition of Arthur Schopenhauer's work, wrote The Philosophy of Freedom, which focuses on the problem of free will. Steiner (1861–1925) initially divides this into the two aspects of freedom: freedom of thought and freedom of action. The controllable and uncontrollable aspects of decision",
"-28.022483166932943"
],
[
"his freedom, will make. Isaiah Horowitz takes the view that God cannot know which moral choices people will make, but that, nevertheless, this does not impair his perfection.\nIn line with this thinking, the teaching from Pirkei Avoth above, is then to be read as: \"Everything is observed (while - and no matter where - it happens), and (since the actor is unaware of being observed) free will is given \". Kabbalistic thought The existence of free will, and the paradox above (as addressed by either approach), is closely linked to the concept of Tzimtzum. Tzimtzum entails the idea that God",
"-28.0023862713133"
],
[
"free will. Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, considered the freedom of human will is to work toward individual salvation and constrictions occur due to the work of passion that a person holds. Augustine calls will as “the mother and guardian of all virtues”. \nUnder the influence of Bacon and Descartes, Thomas Hobbes made one of the first attempts to systematically analyze ethical and political matters in a modern way. He defined will in his Leviathan Chapter VI, in words which explicitly criticize the medieval scholastic definitions:\nIn deliberation, the last appetite, or aversion, immediately adhering to the action, or to the omission",
"-27.959163014151272"
],
[
"choice.\"\nThe relationship between free will and the Sovereignty of God is relevant not only in the Calvinist-Arminian debate (see below #Implications_on_Calvinist-Arminian_Debate) but also in the philosophical Theodicy. If God is perfect and good, how could He create beings that are evil? If God did not embed free will into humanity, it is difficult to reconcile God’s omnipotence and God's omnibenevolence with a seemingly imperfect creation that includes evil. As stated by Alvin Plantinga, Theodicy is the \"answer to the question of why God permits evil\". Plantinga argues that human free will explains the existence of evil without threatening the existence",
"-27.894915311597288"
],
[
"with no expectation of material benefit for themselves in the future. Some advocates of enlightened self-interest might argue that pure altruism promotes inefficiency as well.\nD'Souza and Adams argue that though altruism generally comes from good intentions, the outcomes of altruism might not always be good for humanity from the consequentialist standpoint. They claim that without high objectivity, consideration for the global community, and sound knowledge of the probable consequences of the altruistic act, the act is unenlightened. Rational selfishness Rational selfishness is a more individualistic form of enlightened self-interest. It is a term generally related to Ayn Rand's Objectivist",
"-27.88592949771555"
]
] |
mki8b | The hate of Nickleback | [
"The hate bandwagon, as far as I can tell, started with a series of Youtube videos that combined their songs into one larger song, proving that literally all of their songs are the same. The choruses lined up, the drumming was the same in every single song, etc. This proved that they were working from a formula to make the most palatable radio music they could, and in the process, churned out terribly bland and uninteresting music that was repeated millions of times.",
"[This]( URL_1 ) and [this]( URL_0 ) are why Canadians hate them. And that's very good reason.",
"I don't think that people would hate Nickleback if they were more obscure. It seems to me the main reason why people don't like them is because they feel their popularity is wholly undeserved. It's not that they're especially *bad*, it's just that some people don't think they make very meaningful music. I don't care for Nickleback, but I don't particularly hate them either. I don't think that they're deserving of such a strong emotional response.",
"Prepare your down votes: I commend Nickleback. People dismiss them as repetitive and formulaic but anyone who has heard more then the radio hits (should) think otherwise. Some of their songs can get heavy (not in a Black Dahlia Murder or Devin Townsend way- but in a groove kind of way). Their production value is consistently amazing and they sound great live. Look, if we were gonna shit on bands for rewriting and repackaging their old songs- then we would've bitched at AC/DC- a band who openly admits that they rewrite their own material. TL;DR: Give NB a break- stop hating because they're on the radio.",
"Most likely due to the fact that musically they are seen by many as not very innovating, and have been known to stick to the \"pop-music\" formula for all of their songs (such as the pop-music song structure, common chord progressions and identical song dynamics). Think of it similarly to the huge uproar in the video game community about Modern Warfare 3 being largely similar to the previous Call of Duty titles. I spend a lot of time on websites aimed at musicians, such as Ultimate Guitar, and I've heard things in the community about Nickelback being \"bland\", \"commercial rock\", and in the [review of the newest album]( URL_0 ) on the front page of the site at the moment, \"formulaic and with repetitive lyrical themes\". (The review and the majority of comments on the page are actually quite positive, despite being critical as well.) EDIT: The hate bandwagon also probably plays a large factor into it, but most of the blatant hatred I've seen comes from the ignorant music elitists, and as one comment on the review facetiously says, \"Cue the hate from the metal heads.\"",
"My Survey of Latin American Cultures teacher decided to explain his hate for Nickelback a few weeks ago. We were discussing the importance of cultural identification in society, and he made the point that Nickelback fulfills nothing that is culturally significant for the typical American. In other words, they're generic and don't appeal to the interests of individuals but instead to the masses. Furthermore, this Canadian group is playing the half-time show at this Thursday's Lions-Packers game in Detroit... O___O",
"Hey guys, it's not all bad news: [Nickelback’s 7 million records sold fund other Roadrunner bands we like, such as Killswitch Engage, Machine Head, Opeth, Megadeth, Dream Theater, Biffy Clyro, Life of Agony, Trivium, Soufly.]( URL_0 )",
"For me lyrical content is what makes me kinda dislike Nickleback. It feels misogynistic and demeaning at time. [\"Something In Your Mouth\"]( URL_1 ), [\"S.E.X.\"]( URL_0 ) and [\"Animals\"]( URL_2 )) being the songs that really stand out in my head. The truth is there are some songs by other bands that I objectively think are just as offensive, but like. I think it has to do more with the image I hold of the band, and the respect I have for their originality and musical talent. Sir Psycho Sexy by The Red Hot Chili Peppers is a good example of a song I like despite the fact that if it was done by another band I could very much not like it.",
"In Canada we have \"Canadian Content Laws\" where some percentage of our music has to be by Canadian artists. So every time you heard nickelback on the radio? We heard them 12 times. I remember enjoying a few of their songs at first but after the 3rd time in an hour that \"How You Remind Me\" started playing I was ready to punch each and every member of that band in the face.",
"Hey look at that. I asked the same question just a minute ago. On Justin Beiber, I never heard him so I couldn't make a judgement. I assumed it was some kiddy teenager pop stuff.",
"There isn't much good reason. There is reason to not like them, because, in fact, a lot of their stuff does sound the same. But is that really reason to actively hate them? No. It's incredibly easy to avoid a band that you don't like. I don't like JB. Do I make it a point to talk shit about him every chance I get? No, because that would be retarded. People just hate for the purpose of hating.",
"Nickelback has been hated for a very long time. Almost ten years ago I knew someone who worked at a major rock radio station when a new Nickleback album came out and of course they're supposed to be playing the single multiple times every hour. The day after it came out they had a meeting because nobody would play the single, not even once. Nobody liked them.",
"Every rational person should contemplate how much of their distaste for something is attributed to the bandwagon effect, as opposed to their own opinions. For every act like Nickelback, Creed, Justin Bieber, and Rebecca Black, I can find 100 musically equal acts that are generally liked by people.",
"Not to repeat what others have said but due to the way radio stations operate, they tend to play Nickelback a LOT. Everyone has heard their singles so many times and it gets very tiring very fast.",
"considering nickelback hatred was popular probably before bieber was even born, i'd say this so-called \"bieber effect\" is not responsible.",
"[All Of Nickelback's Greatest Hits Played At Once]( URL_0 )."
] | [
[
"a terrible person. The lyrics not only allow the audience to understand that the Grinch is a bad person, but they use words such as \"foul\" and \"nasty\" [?to attribute with the Grinch].\nYou're a foul one, Mr. Grinch, You're a nasty wasty skunk, Your heart is full of unwashed socks, your soul is full of gunk, Mr. Grinch. The three words that best describe you are as follows, and I quote, \"Stink, stank, stunk!\n— quoted in Popular culture Another example of bdelygmia in popular culture is found in the movie \"National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation\". When Clark Griswold finds out he will",
"-27.97153874480864"
],
[
"Whacky Concept The strip is about a fictional schoolboy called Whacky who is regularly being whacked (slang for \"beating\" or \"thrashing\") - later issues used the tag-line \"He's always getting whacked\" to emphasise the point. Most of the strips were school based and involved Whacky getting into trouble with his sadistic teacher Mr Thwackery - while these situations would typically involve lateness, talking in class etc., many times his teacher would find any excuse for regularly punishing him (even if Whacky is not at fault), which he often noticeably revelled in. His punishments were mostly the traditional \"six of the",
"-27.807021140113648"
],
[
"into a meek, weaker personality, prone to comical fits of rage that are mostly subdued by the realization of its impotence. His frustration at Gladstone's luck is comically enhanced: in the Italian comics, Donald is chronically unlucky, unable to do or get anything right, with Gladstone taking advantage of his superiority or taking genuine pity of his unlucky cousin and trying several plans to grant him some better luck, always failing.\nHowever the constant search for an outlet to vent his frustration, led the Italian rendition of Donald Duck to seek his catharsis in several ways: in the sixties, vexed by",
"-27.61127783224947"
],
[
"Moochie of the Little League (1959) and Moochie of Pop Warner Football (1960), both for the Disney anthology series. Character actor Russ Conway played his father.\nIn each iteration, Moochie likes to hang out with the older \"guys\" (big brother Wilby in The Shaggy Dog, the title characters in Spin and Marty), and hates being treated like the little kid he is. His determination to emulate elder peers despite adult warnings (swimming, helping Wilby, even switch-hitting) frequently gets him in trouble, but Moochie's bravado always returns soon afterward. Film writer Donald Liebenson has called Corcoran's character \"part All-American boy and part",
"-27.41466364945518"
],
[
"very funny (albeit with some excruciating puns) but also because it works properly as a whodunit. Although I was wrong to say Spratt is untroubled. As a conflation of three nursery rhyme Jacks, he has several 'issues' to deal with, including the need for a fat-free diet and a strong compulsion to kill giants.\" Guttridge concluded his review saying simply, \"Comic genius\".\nReviewing the audiobook edition, read by Simon Prebble, Publishers Weekly found that, \"Despite its many virtues, this is probably Fforde's weakest novel, lacking the literary sophistication of the Thursday Next books. But Prebble's performance easily makes this Fforde's best",
"-27.306077524641296"
],
[
"father and Sirius bully a school-aged Snape through Snape's memory. Lupin doesn't participate in the bullying and gives several small indications that he disapproves of his friends' behaviour, but does nothing to stop them despite being a prefect. When Harry confronts Lupin about the scene he witnessed in the Pensieve, Lupin expresses regret at never having had the courage to tell his friends when they were \"out of order\". He adds, however, that his friends outgrew it and became better people, and that Snape also never passed up a chance to curse them when the opportunity presented itself. Later,",
"-27.281923835318594"
],
[
"editor, stated 'I never saw him as a bully because the characters of the softies were so dreadful, they had no redeeming features either.' He went on to explain that 'if Dennis was bullying them, then there was a punishment. There was never a script out of DC Thomson where a bully succeeded – there was always a punishment – however horrible Dennis was with his water pistol, be sure that round the corner there was an elephant with a trunkful of water for him. He's changed over the years, but he's not changed ... He is essentially out for",
"-27.254922241001623"
],
[
"P. is related to British and American humour, with a strong touch of craziness and absurdity. However, he is less marked by total nonsense than, for instance, Lewis Carroll. Often his starting point is a plain Copenhagen jargon, combined with a Danish down-to-earth homespun philosophy and all kinds of cosy fun and comedy; the \"little\" man's unimpressed comments on a crazy world.\nThough normally loved by most of his countrymen, Storm P. has also been criticised for being too toothless, cosy and petit bourgeois. In spite of his social background and interest of poor milieus, he very seldom shows deeper social",
"-27.138777594103885"
],
[
"is endlessly mocked also — often countering by threatening to thump Jimmy! It's Alfie who Jimmy refers to in his catchphrase, Don't some mothers 'ave 'em!? Mr Higginbottom is also mocked whenever he appears: among other things, his house is said to be a rat-infested dump. But Jimmy treads carefully in this, because the bad-tempered Higginbottom is known for his hair-trigger temper. Higginbottom's son, the much-maligned Ozzie, is a fat kid who Jimmy calls his best friend... while frequently thrashing him, mocking him, and involving him in his wild schemes.\nThe one person who escapes Jimmy's ready wit is his mother.",
"-26.937501776963472"
],
[
"and then doing that back to them. He’s a person who’s constantly abused, and to finally reach a part of himself where he just can’t take it anymore and starts doing it to other people — and it’s out of anger and exhaustion, and then realizing that when you start taking control of situations like that, you can gain power that way — it’ll be something that he can start to enjoy.\" \"[The Penguin] and I could not have more different trajectories,\" Smith tells Yahoo TV. Cobblepot is \"a very sadistic bully\" from the beginning. Ed, by contrast, is \"way,",
"-26.934145101811737"
],
[
"Henry and Ribsy Plot Like most of the Henry Huggins books, the incidents in this book follow an ongoing plot line. In this case, Henry wants to go on a salmon-fishing trip with his father. However, Ribsy has been causing all manner of trouble for the family. For example, Ribsy tries to prevent the garbage man from taking away the trash because Ribsy thinks it belongs to Henry. Henry's father says that Henry can only come on the trip if he can keep Ribsy out of trouble for a month. Henry is able to do this,",
"-26.88014258595649"
],
[
"to consistently show anger towards Uncle Ruckus, as others are usually confused by his beliefs and non-sequitur statements. Ruckus often views himself as a white man and often aspires to be white. This is due to the claim by his mother, stating that he was adopted by herself and Ruckus' father, Mr. Ruckus. In a later episode of the third season, we meet his mother, father, and two brothers; while his mother continues to strongly insist that he is adopted, his father says otherwise. Mr. Ruckus tells Uncle that he is truly black, and that his mother loves white folks",
"-26.757264659376233"
],
[
"Boys,\" took a tongue in cheek approach. Here, two friends complain about their rowdy reputations in town, each bemoaning various drunk-and-disorderly incidents they had been accused of. While each freely admit they indeed were responsible for such actions as fighting in taverns, stealing a municipal vehicle and rolling the truck over in the mayor's yard, physical violence against the boss and a brother-in-law (the latter for a failed football bet), and so forth, \"... other than that, we ain't nothin', just good ol' boys\" – meaning, that despite their reputations, they are not really that bad and that their actions",
"-26.67652598220957"
],
[
"in 2011 for his behavior during a 2003 interview, calling it \"one of the things I'm ashamed of\" and classified his actions as \"bullying\". Nardwuar accepted the apology via Twitter.\nNardwuar's unorthodox approach often ends up in bizarre scenarios. Some of his subjects recognize Nardwuar's eccentric style and successfully manage to reverse the scenario on him, especially Iggy Pop, David Cross, Steel Panther, Mudhoney, \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, Lil B and Eric Andre. Some interpret his hijinks as intentionally disrespectful, including Nas and pornographer Al Goldstein. Henry Rollins found Nardwuar to be disingenuous, saying \"I like the character that you're playing.",
"-26.660184288281016"
],
[
"drunkard hating Ernie just for being another man's son, Rottenwood eventually turns out to be the arch-villain of the game, having sworn revenge against the Sorcerer University after being kicked out for cheating, and his attitude towards Ernie is a result of a prophecy he had once heard stating that young Eaglebeak would foil his plans.\nThere is much more to Joey Rottenwood than meets the eye. In spite of his superficially bad temper and a tendency to drink too much he appears to have almost infinite patience. Planning his revenge took him 30 years, not to mention the fact he",
"-26.54503645796649"
],
[
"from his belief that people who cannot control their emotions are weak.\nLike some other prominent members of Slytherin house, Snape is shown to be a clever and cunning wizard. He is intelligent and has a keen, analytical mind. In an interview, Rowling adds that Snape is immensely brave, and when asked if she considers Snape a hero, replied: \"Yes, I do; though a very flawed hero. An anti-hero, perhaps. He is not a particularly likeable man in many ways. He remains rather cruel, a bully, riddled with bitterness and insecurity—and yet he loved, and showed loyalty to that love and,",
"-26.522466351365438"
],
[
"a permanent resident since.\nSince this, Pooty and Ragamuffin's 'buddy-hate' relationship has only begun to increase. At times, they lend each other a hand when they need one, (such as when they worked together to hide the Bloody Birthday clowns in issue #6 Volume 2, or when Ragamuffin helped Pooty pull a splinter out of his ass in Issue #8 Volume 2), but they also can betray each other in small ways at the same time, and weakly argue like an old married couple. (Like when Pooty asked to take a picture with Ragamuffin, and made him look coempletely ridiculous by",
"-26.401103571115527"
],
[
"The Pooch Plot Cheerful vagrant Stymie tries to get back in the good graces of the gang after stealing their pies. When a mean dogcatcher (Budd Fine) tries to round up Pete the Pup because Stymie let the gang's dogs loose, Stymie comes to the rescue, earning the undying devotion of the kids and the animosity of the dogcatcher, who vengefully bundles Petey off to the pound after the kids bother the dog catcher with Stymie biting him, Spanky throwing a rock at him two times, one in the head, one in the neck with the dog catcher yelling",
"-26.34699499249109"
],
[
"Good Bad Boys Plot Slicker steals an orange from a fruit stand, and Alfalfa is wrongfully accused and punished for it. An angry Alfalfa decides to get even with his parents by embarking upon a life of crime. To that end, he enlists the other kids as his \"mob.\" Hoping to deflect his pals from this drastic action, Spanky decides to teach the gang a lesson. He tricks the kids into thinking they have burglarizing a house, when in fact they are merely helping their neighbor Mrs. Wilson clean out her junk.\nThings take an unexpected turn when a real-life fugitive",
"-26.27397816622397"
],
[
"time. It serves as a salutary warning that even the coolest kids can become boring grown-ups.\" Character traits Dennis is an uncontrollable schoolboy who takes pride in causing chaos and mayhem to those around him due to his intolerance for rules and order. Such traits have caused some artists and writers to consider him a villain. In such strips, Dennis would often prove himself to be quite selfish and greedy, often disregarding his friends in favour for treasures. His misbehaviour stems from what The Beano explains as an attempt to add excitement to an otherwise dull day. Often equipped with",
"-26.223803577420767"
],
[
"Lou and Nick offered some \"fantastic action\". A reporter for the official Home and Away magazine commented that Ryan was \"gorgeous, but wicked\". MacDougall revealed that during his time on Home and Away he used to be fearful of walking down the streets, in case viewers thought he was \"a complete bastard\" like Ryan. A columnist from Shout said that MacDougall is \"best known as Ryan the rascal in Home and Away\".",
"-26.20709291298408"
],
[
"Jagoff Jagoff or jag-off is an American English derogatory slang term from Pittsburghese meaning a person who is stupid or inept. It is most prominent in the Pittsburgh area. The Dictionary of American Regional English defines the term as a \"general term of disparagement\". It is an archetypical Pittsburgh word, conjuring feelings of delight among Pittsburgh expatriates.\nAccording to Barbara Johnstone, professor of English and linguistics at Carnegie Mellon University, the term has its roots in the northern British Isles, an area that supplied many immigrants to Pittsburgh. It is derived from the verb \"to jag\". which means \"to prick or",
"-26.20142845362716"
],
[
"Super Grover character, means that Grover can be very self-conscious and timid. He is often a source of slapstick humor and often accidentally injures himself.\nEarly in the series, Grover would often greet Kermit the Frog by running up to him and yelling, \"Hey, froggy babeee!\" and then giving him a hard slap on the back, which knocked him over.\nGlobal Grover is a more recent series of segments, in which Grover hosts a trip to a foreign country to learn about their culture and customs.\nIn 2010, Grover starred in a parody of an Old Spice Commercial called \"Smell Like a Monster\"",
"-26.186374460463412"
],
[
"personality traits, mostly being cowardly and perpetually hungry. Yet their friends (Fred, Daphne, and Velma) encourage them to go after the costumed villains, usually with \"Scooby Snacks\". The biscuit-like dog treat or cookie snack is usually shaped like a bone or, in later versions of the cartoons, Scooby's dog tag. However, Scooby's inherent loyalty and courage do often force him to take a more heroic stance even without any prodding. Scooby is also extremely ticklish, and this is seen in many of the television series and movies.\nScooby has a speech impediment and tends to pronounce most words as if they",
"-26.179138630337548"
],
[
"Snipp, Snapp, Snurr Snipp, Snapp, Snurr is the name of fictional triplets depicted in a series of children's books by author/illustrator Maj Lindman (1886-1972).\nThe triplets, all boys with blond hair, live in Sweden and have light-hearted misadventures. The series of books was created in the 1920s in Sweden and then printed in English in the United States from the 1930s. Lindman also started a series of books featuring three sisters, Flicka, Ricka, Dicka, with similar themes. A 1936 New York Times review of the book Snipp Snapp Snurr and the Yellow Sled cited the Snipp, Snapp, Snurr series as",
"-26.104465856216848"
],
[
"Stachel is a deeply troubled alcoholic with a penchant for lying. Obsessed with earning the last of the new Fokker D.VIIs, he kills Willi to obtain it. In the novel Heidemann exhibits an immediate favouritism toward the newcomer, and credits Stachel with his first victories while Kettering, the squadron adjutant, refuses to comply until Heidemann orders him to do so.\nAt the end of the novel, Heidemann reveals that he has been secretly boosting Stachel's achievements as part of an experiment in publicity management. Stachel earns his Blue Max not from 20 victories, but by destroying three aircraft and capturing one",
"-26.06361058818402"
],
[
"stated that the left side of Larry Fine's face was noticeably coarser than the other side, which he attributed to Moe's slaps.\nAs a result of his whiny persona and lack of true slapstick punishment against him (the cornerstone of Stooge humor), Joe has been less popular with contemporary Stooge aficionados, so much so, that \"Stooge-a-Polooza\" TV host Rich Koz has even apologized on the air before showing Besser shorts; during the show's tenure he received more than a few letters from viewers expressing their outrage over his airing them. Besser does have his defenders, however. Columbia historians Edward Watz and",
"-26.05195064212603"
],
[
"the second one was in the Darkwing Duck / Ducktales crossover called \"Dangerous Currency\" from 2011.\nMoby has a quick temper and he can be really rude sometimes, not showing any remorse when he acts this way. He also shows a male chauvinist behavior in some stories. Moby is a disaster as a whaler, but a good sailor in general. He makes a living out of carrying cargo, especially for Scrooge McDuck. He also fights pirates and other villains, including the Beagle Boys, Mad Madam Mim, Emil Eagle, The Big Bad Wolf, and Captain Hook. There isn't any comic story where",
"-26.047729048063047"
],
[
"I Hate Fridays collection Characters The main characters, the ones who write the stories, are listed first. All other characters are listed by their first appearance in the books. Peter Karlos The first character introduced in the book. He is shown to be completely arrogant and holds a very high opinion of himself, believing himself to be more intelligent than all of his peers in the 4th grade. As the story progresses, it is shown Peter does not have any friends because of how much better he thought he was than everyone else. This then causes Peter to feel very",
"-26.016777079639724"
],
[
"Berts bravader, Bert states that liking her is not without social risk (something Bert is always very keenly aware of), since most guys in his class consider her being a wimpish type for having good grades, fine manners and ironed clothes.\nShe also appears in the Bert comics, where she has a quicker temper, and two cousins, one is named Lovisa from Gothenburg who Bert doesn't know when she arrives by train making Bert confused, and another cousin named Antonia Ridderfjell. Klas \"Klimpen\" Svensson Klimpen is a stereotypical tough guy, who fights, and no one wants to be a friend with.",
"-25.99604498975532"
],
[
"Cartman's Silly Hate Crime 2000 Plot The third grade girls, led by Lizzy, challenge the boys to a sled race down Phil Collins Hill. After the boys accept the challenge, Cartman gets into an argument with Token, because he keeps reminding him about his \"fat ass\". Cartman threatens to throw a rock at Token's face if he ever calls him fat again. Kyle then calls Cartman a fatass instead, causing him to throw the rock at Token, giving him a black eye in the process, much to Kyle's shock. Because Token is African-American, the FBI and the entire media overreacts",
"-25.968764254823327"
],
[
"Eric Cartman (usually nicknamed by his surname only) is loud, obnoxious, and amoral, often portrayed as an antagonist. His anti-Semitic attitude has resulted in a progressive rivalry with Kyle, although the deeper reason is the strong clash between Kyle's strong morality and Cartman's complete lack of such. Kenny, who comes from a poor family, wears his parka hood so tightly that it covers most of his face and muffles his speech. During the show's first five seasons, Kenny would die in nearly every episode before returning in the next with little-to-no definitive explanation given. He was written out of the",
"-25.960351697634906"
],
[
"Misfits (Kinks song) Lyrics The lyrics of \"Misfits\" detail the many so-called \"losers\" and \"failures\" who are \"lost without a crowd yet [they] go [their] own way.\" It goes on to say that \"You're a misfit, afraid of yourself, so you run away and hide\" and that \"you've been a misfit all your life.\" The lyrics, however, embrace these misfits, with lyrics such as \"misfits are everywhere\" and \"why don't you join the crowd and come inside.\" \"Yes it's true what they say, every dog has his day,\" Davies sings, suggesting that these misfits will have their time. Release and",
"-25.927545804530382"
],
[
"of Lenore's crazier ideas and is oddly enough the occasional voice of reason in the comic. Still, as shown in the later comics, Ragamuffin is loyal to Lenore, often joining her plans in the flash-animated cartoons. He is often infuriated by her dimwitted behavior, but he goes along with her in the end. One example is in issue #13, when Lenore says that he is her little kid (or \"baby\", as she calls him) and, after many protests, he gives up and lets her put a baby bottle into his mouth. In contrast to the brutal, savage nature of his",
"-25.83746686737868"
],
[
". or care, probably because he's truly focused on one girl that doesn't seem to be interested. He is a JERK in a lot of people's eyes, but that's really not his true nature. He is an important person as well because in the story there is something strange about him, that not only doesn't seem right, but something that not many know about, but what is his big secret? And why does he always act so strange around so many people?\nWon-Jun Kang\nWon-Jun is a quiet boy. He is also popular with girls but no one ever approaches him because",
"-25.79968677611032"
],
[
"explains why more stories center around her than the good-natured Suske. Just like Lambik Wiske is one of the most popular characters in the franchise because readers can relate to her human personality flaws more. Relation with Suske Suske and Wiske are best friends, despite quarreling once in a while. One of the recurring storylines is Wiske's jealousy whenever Suske receives attention from other young, attractive females. Schanulleke Wiske has a little doll, Schanulleke, whom she carries along with her wherever she goes. She adores her doll so much that she is heartbroken whenever it is lost or someone threatens",
"-25.779542952077463"
],
[
"book on his blog No Sacred Cows, where he wrote, \"...the remarkable thing about Spoilt Rotten is that Dalrymple never lets his anger obscure his compassion. Throughout the book you get a powerful sense that his outrage is rooted in a commitment to social justice. Yes, he believes members of the underclass should be weaned off the nanny state and forced to take responsibility for themselves, but he also believes it is left-wing intellectuals who have reduced them to a state of helpless infantalism, mainly through the promotion of the cult of sentimentality. He is not a Christian, but believes",
"-25.76070261611312"
],
[
"of Hoochie's tutor, and the result of this tutelage can be seen in Hoochie's skills in narrating the story.\nKarl always acts kind and polite, taken to call people by their surname when possible. When he is angered however, as his name suggests, he becomes extremely sharp-tongued. Family Born between the previous Viscount and a maidservant of his castle, Karl is the younger half-brother of the current Viscount of Heltant. He left Heltant as a boy and roamed in many places, then came back as a grown man. He declined his half-brother's offer to take him into the castle as a",
"-25.727227175491862"
],
[
"Snape, where you're not really sure if he's a good guy or a bad guy, that gives you a latent tension... I think the coolest thing you can do with an audience is deny them a little bit of information.\" Despite being less than kind, the character quickly gained popularity within fandom to a level that surprised Rowling herself. Joyce Millman suggests in her essay \"To Sir with Love\" in the book Mapping the World of Harry Potter, that Snape is derived from a tradition of Byronic heroes such as Wuthering Heights' Heathcliff.\nJenny Sawyer from The Christian Science Monitor commented",
"-25.71794842235977"
],
[
"Opel Manta. Just about every sentence they speak is mindlessly punctuated by the expletive 'kut' ('cunt', in Dutch this word doesn't carry the same severity as it does in English, although it is nevertheless considered rude). Although most of the characters work, none of them appear particularly adept in their jobs. \nVisually, the group displays a terrible understanding of fashion-sense and have dated hairstyles.\nDespite their antisocial and immature mentality, the group rarely exhibits any serious malicious intent in their actions; much of the humor in the series is derived from the absurdity of the characters' lack of intelligence or even",
"-25.716993390000425"
],
[
"that whenever Lenore gets really upset or angry, she can be very violent and often takes her anger out on whoever made her angry even if it is one of her friends. This results in most of her friends (except for Mr. Gosh) being very fearful of her. She can also be spiteful. All of this results in Lenore being an enigma due to her at times thinking that she is doing good with a meaning to do good and at other times wanting to do something more along the lines of being evil.\nThe comic also featured various one-time side",
"-25.689932735811453"
],
[
"Similarly, Brigid Delaney has said that being a good bloke really \"means drinking a lot. It means conforming to the norms of a place and not pushing back. It means protecting your mates and isolating those who take offence or complain.\" Similarly, the notion of the good bloke was attacked in the press when Australian rules footballer Bachar Houli, was given a reduced suspension for striking another player in the Australian Football League on the grounds that he was a good bloke. Eventually, this penalty was overturned on appeal. The so-called 'good bloke defence' was criticised by many, including AFL",
"-25.681277697260157"
],
[
"of many 1990s cartoons, and is based on the existent gap between the central characters, with I.R. Baboon being the center of most running jokes, which are mostly about his stupidity and big red butt, though some episodes show I.M. Weasel or the Red Guy also taking this role. Butt jokes are also more frequent when the Red Guy is around and parodies of popular culture and other shows and crossovers also take place in some episodes. Despite all the comedic style, important and meaningful messages about friendship, social differences and general lessons for life are given to children through",
"-25.671032877377"
],
[
"to extreme embarrassment caused by his family or other people (or even himself) or an unfortunate coincidence. Milhouse describes their social standing as \"Three and a half. We get beat up, but we get an explanation.\" While Bart and the bullies have been adversaries at times, with Bart once declaring war on Nelson, the school bullies actually like Bart for his ways and hang out with him at times, especially Nelson who eventually becomes close friends with him.\nBart is one of the biggest fans of children's television host Krusty the Clown. He once declared, \"I've based my whole life on",
"-25.655682407377753"
],
[
"from Bridgeton, Glasgow, a tight working-class area whose inhabitants had a reputation as \"wee bullies\", with this becoming transposed as the Bully Wee.\nAlternatively, it is also claimed that it comes from around 1900 when a group of French supporters paid a visit to Barrowfield and, upon the scoring of a disputed goal, were heard to remark \"But il'y, oui?\" or \"Their goal, yes\". Supporters listened to this unfamiliar phrase as \"Bully Wee\", and the name stuck.\nFinally the third theory, and the one accepted by the club as the most plausible, links the term to the old Victorian idiom \"bully\"",
"-25.62389071972575"
],
[
"as a high school substitute teacher and is also a zone pastor of Living Bread Church. Bullying Behavior According to the Southern Poverty Law Center, Nieves is \"something of a bully. In August 2010, after winning the Senate primary, he pulled a gun on a man who worked for his opponent’s campaign.\" \nIn April 2013 an article in Gawker covered an exchange of emails with one of his constituents. This was also reported in the Huffington post in the same month. In the exchange Nieves insulted the constituent's appearance and suggested that if he typed slower the constituent may find",
"-25.623083656304516"
],
[
"many reluctant readers who might otherwise enjoy it\". Publishers Weekly criticized the book's ending, saying it \"fulfilled desires rather than real life\" but that \"readers will likely take delight in seeing the good guys and the bad guys get exactly what they deserve\". Controversy Haters received some controversy at Aliso Niguel High when it was revealed that one of the characters in the book (a teacher accused of wanting to sleep with his students) and an educator at school had nearly identical names. Valdes-Rodriguez responded, stating that the similarity between the names of the character and the teacher was purely",
"-25.609226337692235"
],
[
"drawing and writing things to make fun of him in the background, or when Ragamuffin 'agreed' to tell Lenore how her parents actually left her and were killed by Taxidermy, but instead gave the wheel to Pooty by saying, \"Lenore, Pooty has something to tell you. And if he doesn't, it means he hates you a lot.\")\nIt is also said by Lenore herself that she had always suspected there was a hinted romance going on between them, but never said anything. Mr. Gosh Mr. Gosh appears to be a human-sized sock puppet man with buttons as eyes, but he is",
"-25.536055378208403"
],
[
"pundits, fans and Scholes himself. In addition, the potential for malicious intent in some of his tackles has been raised; it has been suggested that he has escaped greater censure due to the admiration that many have for the rest of his game.\nScholes has been criticised for his disciplinary record, amassing the fifth-most yellow cards in Premier League history with 97, and also receiving four red cards. He has also been booked 32 times in the Champions League, surpassed only by Sergio Ramos. Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger criticised Scholes' tackling, stating, \"For me he was not a fair player. There's",
"-25.488903397141257"
],
[
"but himself, using the catchphrase \"Now I do not believe you wanted to do that, did you?\" The Old Gits An obnoxious pair of old men who take great delight in persecuting younger people – although they do branch out by being cruel to other groups of people, so as not to discriminate. However, in the case of one of their more famous sketches, Alf Git finds his childhood sweetheart, showing that he once had a kinder side. The Palace of Righteous Justice A superhero team who are forced to encounter everyday problems such as opening a bank account. Their",
"-25.469086030003382"
],
[
"world.\" Eric Henderson in Slant stated \"what stuck with me is the furious dignity it accords the main tracksuit-wearing prisoner, and the amount of anger it allows him to deliver....I recognized within him and the band of rock-throwing dissidents that pelt the armored bus a sense of kinship relevant to anyone who occupies a minority class.\" While he felt that \"the clip is but a metaphor, and not entirely successfully so, when the pitbull-faced, tenement-snatched redhead boy is slammed against an iron fence and still dares to glare into the eyes of his attackers, I want to be",
"-25.457166589738335"
],
[
"Rickles himself for being such an engaging personality. One critic compared Rickles and his sense of humor favorably to the racist comments of Michael Richards and the anti-Semitic statements of Mel Gibson writing: \n\"While Rickles seems to mock ethnicity, body type, weight, age and all the other stuff that we're not supposed to make fun of, he's actually defusing all of those things. And once they're deflated by humor, they lose, at least for a moment, their potency. What becomes clear in Landis' film is that Rickles is really a softie, a guy who loves humanity and life. The",
"-25.440483595157275"
],
[
"widely known for his punchline, \"Somebody gonna get a hurt real bad.\" It ends a joke he tells about his childhood with a traditional Indian father, who used corporal punishment on his sons. Another punchline he uses is \"Be a man! Do the right thing!\", which relates to a story of a Chinese man trying to get him to pay more for an item at a shop.\nWhen interviewer Larry King asked Peters, \"Is there such a thing as too taboo?\", Peters replied, \"I don't talk about religion because I think people are a little weird about religion, especially nowadays, and",
"-25.430637340192334"
],
[
"Dawkins quoted his book, The God Delusion in The Irish Times: “The God of the Old Testament is arguably the most unpleasant character in all fiction: jealous and proud of it; a petty, unjust, unforgiving control-freak; a vindictive, bloodthirsty ethnic cleanser; a misogynistic, homophobic, racist, infanticidal, genocidal, filicidal, pestilential, megalomaniacal, sadomasochistic, capriciously malevolent bully.” Dawkins added that he would be in Ireland on 12 June 2017 and challenged the Irish police to arrest him. Dawkins added in Twitter: “The Irish blasphemy law must go. An embarrassment to the civilised world, it encourages the uncivilised one.” Feminism and women's",
"-25.41575307050516"
],
[
"wielding a kitchen knife, repeating \"Eat-Em-Up, Eat-Em-Up\". The Little Rascals themselves fend off the Wild Man in their usual mischievous ways. Stymie is almost done in until Dorothy cracks the ruffian over the head with a vase. The Kid from Borneo is countervailed by the Rascals, but at the expense of the destruction of some of the house by the mistaken Uncle George.\nThen, the mother arrives and asks Spanky where Uncle George is. She is directed upstairs and goes to an upstairs bedroom where she finds the Wild Man from Borneo lying in bed with the covers pulled over him,",
"-25.41049802681664"
],
[
"reason to belittle and menace him. Instead of being camp and frilly, he was quite rude and obnoxious especially towards Dennis and his friends. However, Dennis seemed to be more of a bully than an anti-hero in this age.\nIn 2007, Dennis was featured on the front page of a new magazine BeanoMAX and was the coverstar until 2008 where he was replaced by Max, an exclusive character. Another landmark issue was met in 2008 where The Beano turned 70. As a celebration, Dennis was seen on the cover sharing a cake with Wallace and Gromit, whose creator was featured heavily",
"-25.407548391842283"
],
[
"The Screwy Truant Summary The cartoon centers around an adolescent version of Screwy Squirrel, who skips school to go fishing, which causes truant officer Meathead Dog to go around attempting to arrest Screwy, with various failures. At the end, Screwy reveals that he wasn't in school because he had measles. Cameo Red Riding Hood and \"Wolfie\" (from Swing Shift Cinderella) make a cameo appearance. In the middle of the cartoon, the two interrupt one of Screwy's antics with the wolf chasing Red across the screen, only for Screwy to interrupt by showing the title of the cartoon, saying he",
"-25.398784393182723"
],
[
"Dick Dastardly Wacky Races In Wacky Races, Dastardly was one of the drivers who competed in each episode for first place, in a long and hazard-filled cross-country road rally. As his name implies, Dastardly aimed to win solely through cheating and trickery. His race car, numbered double-zero and named \"The Mean Machine\", featured all sorts of devious traps for him to use against his opponents. As Wacky Races is inspired by the film The Great Race, so was Dastardly derived from the film's chief villain, Professor Fate, played by Jack Lemmon. Dastardly in this series wore old-fashioned racer's gear — a",
"-25.37148458206866"
],
[
"were obnoxious and because of the phony attempt to add a little pseudo-hip philosophy with a Bruce Willis character.\" Siskel added \"I think you gotta hold Rob Reiner's feet to the fire here. I mean, he's the guy in charge, he's saying this is entertainment, it's deplorable. There isn't a gag that works. You couldn't write worse jokes if I told you to write worse jokes. The ethnic stereotyping is appalling, it's embarrassing, you feel unclean as you're sitting there. It's junk. First class junk!\" and finished his statement with \"Any subject could be done well, this is just trash,",
"-25.349132520525018"
],
[
"he was responsible for Huckabee's success, insulting their rivals in the process. This resulted in a three-part comedic battle between the three faux-pundits, with all three appearing on each other's shows on the same night. The feud ended on Late Night with Conan O'Brien with a tongue-in-cheek \"all-out brawl\" between the three talk-show hosts.\nReaction to the \"feud\" by both the public and the media was mostly positive. TV Squad's Annie Wu wrote: \"With the three hosts appearing on each other's shows all on one night, it was special appearances galore. It became a clash of the Titans, a battle of",
"-25.34553850298107"
],
[
"According to Lysenko, this was due to the fact that Lytkin was very jealous of classmates from richer families. The unsociation of the teenager resulted in his classmates bullying him; Lysenko said at the trial that there would be no conflict if Lytkin had learned to fight back, but instead he answered \"die for nothing\", because of which for 5 years Lytkin's school name was \"Jimbo\" (referring to the character Jimbo Jones from the American animated series The Simpsons, a grim and cruel teenager).\nTogether with Anoufriev, Nikita organized a musical group in which he was the composer. The band was",
"-25.31580432186456"
],
[
"plural, occurs 58 times in Baum's text.) Valdi is a supremely successful brigand, until he encounters the Americans' pride, courage, and resourcefulness; conversely, the Americans' frank and generous kindness leaves them open to victimization.\nThe patriotic self-satisfaction turns ugly only once, when Patsy \"gleefully\" tells her Uncle John after his rescue, \"Did you think your nieces would let you be robbed by a bunch of dagoes?\" (Perhaps momentary high spirits can excuse the normally better-behaved girl).\nThe Americans are so formidable in part because they are so heavily armed. Beth carries her \"pet revolver\" and Uncle John has two in his trunks;",
"-25.294066381029552"
],
[
"paying poor black residents such as Chef.\nToken eventually decides he does not want to live with lions anymore (because they only play practical jokes) and leaves the lair. However, he finds the boys and discovers that the poor kids in town who made fun of him being rich didn't dislike him. They tell him that they only picked on him because they all pick on each other on a regular basis. They decide to stop ripping on him for his money, and instead mock him for his reaction to the previous insults as being a \"pussy\".\nEventually, the townsfolk dress as",
"-25.223871955589857"
],
[
"that “the Oatmeal wants to sue funnyjunk and shut it down! He thinks we're nothing more than dirty content thieves...Contact Oatmeal anyway you can!\" and provided links to The Oatmeal's e-mail and Facebook page. This triggered spamming by FunnyJunk users and a flame war with The Oatmeal readers. Carreon v. Inman et al On June 15, 2012, Carreon filed a pro se lawsuit Carreon v. Inman et al in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California in Oakland against Inman, Indiegogo Inc., the American Cancer Society, the National Wildlife Federation and a hundred anonymous Internet users",
"-25.218498653382994"
],
[
"\"The humor likewise combines the innocence of slapstick with sharp satire of American popular culture. ... At one point, tired of being asked how he types with boxing gloves on, Strong Bad attaches fake fingers: a shrimp, a lit birthday candle, and an action-figure toy.\" Johnny Dee, a reviewer from The Guardian of the United Kingdom, described the humor of Strong Bad. He wrote: \"Like South Park and Modern Toss, Strong Bad isn't exactly beautiful to look at but he's relentlessly funny,\" and added, \"Strong Bad is an animated Mexican wrestler ... and the undoubted star of surreal cartoon site Homestar Runner.\"",
"-25.20114789307263"
],
[
"short scuffle with Larry, as Billy blames his brother for the burn on his back. After streaking and robbing a convenience store, Billy and Doug are playing when he causes an almighty crash with a bowling ball and a moving car, actually killing Doug's father by accident. Just a few days after the incident, Larry's incessant harassment causes Billy to fight against his older brother, and when Gloria breaks up the scuffle and discovers a gauze on Billy's back (after Billy knocked the TV dinner and injured himself, and on the newspapers regarding the robbery that Billy was wearing the",
"-25.16494383344252"
],
[
"kicked him in the shins out of frustration. Marcie often calls him \"Charles\". Interactions with Sally Brown Charlie Brown is frequently bothered by his younger sister Sally, who often complains about different sorts of things. He is often forced to do her homework, and he either willingly agrees or scolds her for it. They are rather kind to each other, but Charlie Brown is frequently disrespected by Sally. He has also occasionally firmly put his foot down on any of her truly unacceptable behavior, such as lying about taking a crayon from school or reading his letters.",
"-25.137239238305483"
],
[
"eloquence and reason. He seems the depositary of the vengeance of his race; and though the long habit of brooding over daily insults and injuries has crusted over his temper with inveterate misanthropy, and hardened him against the contempt of mankind, this adds but little to the triumphant pretensions of his enemies. There is a strong, quick, and deep sense of justice mixed up with the gall and bitterness of his resentment. [...] The desire of revenge is almost inseparable from the sense of wrong; and we can hardly help sympathising with the proud spirit, hid beneath his \"Jewish gaberdine\",",
"-25.122250429471023"
],
[
"to be dragged away by Scooby. Related to this, one of Scrappy's catchphrases was, \"Lemme at 'em! Lemme at 'em! I'll splat 'em! I'll rock 'em and sock 'em!\" Another of Scrappy-Doo's catchphrases is, \"Ta dadada ta daaa! Puppy power!\". He is also quite strong, capable of smashing down solid rock walls and carrying both Scooby and Shaggy over his head seemingly without effort. Later episodes showed he had an adventurous streak and was oblivious to his two caretakers not sharing such a trait. He was almost always happy and rarely sad, fitting with the show's light-hearted tone. As time",
"-25.120679605170153"
],
[
"he can improve his image. He's a murdering, soul-less asshole.\"\nA common source of confusion regarding the Top Ten List is why the #1 entry is usually seen as the least funny. This even inspired the Late Show to run a pre-taped bit in 1998, humorously exploring the apparent mystery, and to mention it again on December 29, 1999, when the list \"Top Ten Phrases That Were Not Spoken This Millennium,\" included the #1 entry of, \"Why is the number one always so damn funny?\" Writer Bill Scheft confirmed this in a 2007 interview on Costas on the Radio, stating",
"-25.076658361940645"
],
[
"The Muckers The Muckers are a football hooligan firm linked to the football club Blackpool F.C.. They take their name from the word mucker, a colloquialism meaning good friend.\nAlthough Blackpool are a relatively small club, there is a long history of hooliganism, which had all but disappeared until recent times. Part of the reasons given for this history of violence is that a feature of Blackpool life is fighting, especially as in the summer months groups of young men would visit the resort, giving the locals ample opportunity to fight whenever they wanted. Benny, one of the leaders of another",
"-25.066509495714854"
],
[
"were rude and lazy.\nMcGruder has often attacked black conservative commentator Larry Elder in the comic strip as well as the television series. In response, Elder published an opinion piece in which he created the \"McGruder\", an award for statements made by black public figures that Elder considers \"dumb\", \"vulgar\", and/or \"offensive\".",
"-25.058972630591597"
],
[
"did not understand how the epithet \"Jap\" could be offensive.\nDuring the same season, a former Oakland Athletics executive assistant, Sharon Jones, is quoted in The New York Times as having overheard Schott state: \"I would never hire another nigger. I'd rather have a trained monkey working for me than a nigger,\" before the start of an owners' conference call.\nOn May 5, 1996, Schott aroused ire when she made statements favorable of Adolf Hitler, saying he \"was good in the beginning, but went too far.\" Later in the month, Schott was quoted in Sports Illustrated as speaking in a \"cartoonish Japanese",
"-25.056703099791775"
],
[
"that he knew something they didn't.\nRickman himself refrained from talking about Snape, asking readers to wait and \"see what unfolds\" in the course of the novels; however, he did say Snape is a complicated person, very rigid and full of himself; in an interview he went further, saying: \"Snape isn't one who enjoys jokes and I strongly fear that his sense of humour is extremely limited... But in his defence, I will add that he didn't have an easy adolescence, particularly during his studies at Hogwarts.\" He also said Snape is a fascinating character, and that he takes immense pleasure",
"-25.051047886983724"
],
[
"become inquisitive of his status. Nickname In recent times, his nickname has become Asad \"Hard\" Badie.",
"-25.042917600658257"
],
[
"he gave me a half-mocking, half-friendly grin. In the end, we went as hard as we could to try to get rid of him and teach the little brat a lesson, because by now he was getting a bit too cocky for our tastes. But whatever we did, he still hung on. After about an hour, we came into a village called Ploegsteert, at which point he came alongside with real arrogance and said 'OK, I'm back home now, so 'bye. By the way, I'm Frank Vandenbroucke.' Neither of us had ever met a kid like him.\"\nIn 1991, when he",
"-25.04010709337308"
],
[
"writer despite his father's disapproval. Later, Gordie and Vern are nearly run over by a train while walking across a train bridge, but Gordie saves both their lives by throwing himself and Vern off the bridge at the last second.\nThat evening, Gordie tells the fictional story of David \"Lard-Ass\" Hogan, an obese boy who is constantly bullied. Seeking revenge, Lard-Ass enters a pie-eating contest and deliberately vomits, inducing mass vomiting (a \"barf-o-rama\") among contestants and the audience. During the night, Chris tells Gordie that he hates being associated with his family's reputation. Chris admits to Gordie that he stole milk",
"-25.00780647015199"
],
[
"Ole and Lena Ole and Lena (also Sven and Ole) are central characters in jokes by Scandinavian Americans, particularly in the Upper Midwest region of the U.S., such as Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota and North Dakota, where Scandinavian immigrant traditions are common. Format Ole and Lena jokes can be long and drawn-out stories, or as short as two or three sentences. Lena is typically portrayed as the smarter of the two, often explaining where Ole went wrong in his misadventures. Another common character is Sven, who usually shows up in jokes along with Ole, making Sven and",
"-24.985003053356195"
],
[
"with Roo), Max Burkholder (My Friends Tigger and Pooh), and Wyatt Hall (Winnie the Pooh).\nIn the cartoons, Roo is the smallest of the regularly appearing characters. He has brown fur and wears a light blue shirt. He often expresses thoughts and feelings that make him seem wiser than his years. In fact, on occasion Roo seems even wiser than many of the older characters.\nHe also states that he's got a mother (Kanga) when he tries to comfort Tigger in The Tigger Movie. Some people think that he puts himself on a purple scarf Piglet has accidentally left in Piglet's Big",
"-24.982361526126624"
],
[
"shows were more combative with the audience, and made Gadsby feel victimised, so to get the audience more on her side she added more jokes and relieved more tension throughout the show's run. Content Gadsby uses the piece to deconstruct the nature of comedy and asks the \"straight white male\" to undergo the same tension that marginalized people go through every day. She does this by explaining her experience as a lesbian and gender non-conforming woman. She explains that some are brought up to hate themselves, while others are brought up with the licence to hate others. Her realisation is",
"-24.971514920092886"
],
[
"credibility problems\". Strauss identified the theme as anti-greed but said the writing is \"simultaneously prosaic and murky\", causing Jones to miss his mark. Wilmington wrote that the leprechaun's cries for his gold reflects the filmmakers' cynical desire for box office success. Sight & Sound described Leprechaun as a film which seems to have no concept of a target audience, stating, \"Jones wants this to be a lively romp for older kids in the mould of Time Bandits...but also wants to corner the lucrative horror market.\" The review concluded, \"Unsuitable for adults or kids, this is ultimately for",
"-24.958748322504107"
],
[
"angular with more rounded, spaghetti-like limbs. Bagge's use of highly exaggerated, less naturalistic facial expressions to make the characters express strong emotions increased over this period, until it became a trademark of Hate. When he was angry Buddy would be drawn with jagged, fang-like teeth, a large gaping mouth and huge bulging eyes, with steam rising from his head. \nWhen he moved back to Jersey, Buddy stopped wearing his trademark flannel shirt and could be seen in a variety of plain single color shirts, most usually a bright yellow shirt.\nIn 2004, for Hate Annual #5, Bagge started drawing Buddy",
"-24.95700183272129"
],
[
"several times: finding Gnipper's long-lost sisters when the puppy had been poisoned, helping Rasher win a pig race, and trying to save Dennis's favourite tree by chaining himself to it, thus changing his relationship with Dennis from enemies to, if not outright friends, civil rivals. A likely reason for this is increased public awareness of bullying and the increasing unacceptability of a comic featuring a bully/victim relationship that stars the bully as protagonist. Depictions over time In early years (1950s-60s), Walter was a prim boy but nevertheless brash, snooty, and often sneaky in his attempts to embarrass or otherwise hinder",
"-24.94517774338601"
],
[
"barkeeper is intended to act in full awareness of how fantastic his words can be; he is expanding on what he has seen in the papers, turning it into a pointed story for the entertainment and edification of Hennessy, and himself. Dooley's apparent misrenderings of the literary quotations Hogan has supposedly regaled him with are, most frequently, too pointed to be mere muddling from the uneducated mind, for example alluding to Gray's Elegy in stating, while discussing high-society gossip, \"No one wants to hear what Hogan calls, 'The short and simple scandals of the poor'.\" Although Mr. Dooley claims not",
"-24.94133025064366"
],
[
"gets the job of voicing Poochie, who is introduced in the cartoon, \"The Beagle Has Landed\". A product of marketing department thinking, Poochie was near-universally despised, and was killed off in his second appearance, despite Homer's objections. The episode was both a reference to TV shows which added new characters purportedly to reinvigorate the show, and a commentary on the growing complaints of fans of The Simpsons. The original idea for the episode was that Poochie would be obnoxious because he was so rich, rather than because he was so cool. Poochie would later make brief speaking cameo appearances in",
"-24.92971202870831"
],
[
"this type of humor was crass, and often shied away from it. However, White felt this was the trademark of the Stooges' mayhem. Nothing was too crass or exaggerated to be taken seriously.",
"-24.922762385802343"
],
[
"elderly rival called Grace Holloway who's both actively trying to kill you and previously gave him a bloody nose by kicking him out of his own hotel, he makes a point of reminding you that her beef with you at least is based on a misunderstanding rather than malice, and goes so far as to non-sarcastically call you a bigger man than him if you spare her.\" \nCobbett also highlights the emotion displayed by Sinclair during the course of the game in relation to some of the more ideologically fixated characters of the previous installment. He adds \"ruthless as he",
"-24.89763227061485"
],
[
"moralists.\nDuring the 1884 campaign, they were often portrayed as \"fence-sitters\", with part of their body on the side of the Democrats and the other on the side of the Republicans. Their \"mug\" on one side of the fence, and their \"wump\" [comic mispronunciation of \"rump\"] on the other. Angry Republicans like Roscoe Conkling sometimes hinted they were homosexual, calling them \"man milliners\".\nThe epithet \"goody-goody\" from the 1890s goo-goo, a corruption of \"good government\", was used in a similar derogatory manner. Whereas \"mugwump\" has become an obscure and almost forgotten political moniker, \"goo-goo\" was revived, especially in Chicago, by the political",
"-24.893440455722157"
],
[
"Uglier Than They Used ta Be Critical reception Calling the band \"a scourge but now a saviour of heavy rock,\" before Chris Ayers of Exclaim! wrote that \"Ugly Kid Joe prove that their catchy hooks and solid vocals are cool to like again on Uglier Than They Used Ta Be.\"",
"-24.870817529590568"
],
[
"accident. In popular culture Corrigan's \"error\" caught the imagination of the depressed American public and inspired many jokes. The nickname \"'Wrong Way' Corrigan\" passed into common use (sometimes confused with the memory of 1929's \"Wrong Way\" Riegels football incident) and is still mentioned (or used as satire) when someone has the reputation for taking the wrong direction. For example: Corrigan was directly referenced in the 1938 Three Stooges short Flat Foot Stooges. Curly states, \"Hey, we're doing a Corrigan!\" after realizing they are heading in the wrong direction to get to the fire they need to extinguish. In the 1938",
"-24.86523933277931"
],
[
"in Twickenham.\n\nHe has resented his \"bad boy\" jibes after the knife incident that lead to his departure from Millwall. Speaking to the York Press in 2011, he said:\n\"People mistake me for something I’m not because of one incident when I was 15. That was a very long time ago and I’ve never been in trouble like that since. I’ve had a few arguments with players but no big issues. People don’t know what happened back then at Millwall but don’t seem to want to let it go. They should ask me if they want to find out the truth. I",
"-24.858714853937272"
],
[
"sent Turpin a letter asking for an explanation—one of the rituals in the code of honor to which Southern gentlemen adhered. Turpin became enraged and declared that on their next meeting, he would \"eat him up raw!\" Mosby decided he had to meet Turpin despite the risk; to run away would be dishonorable.\nOn March 29 the two met, Mosby having brought with him a small pepper-box pistol in the hope of dissuading Turpin from an attack. When the two met and Mosby said, \"I hear you have been making assertions ...\" Turpin put his head down and charged. At that",
"-24.846713556951727"
],
[
"witty\". Conversely, Paul Kincaid considers it to be \"the single worst story in (Shatterday)\", stating that it is proof that \"Ellison can't do comedy\", and that the humor in \"Cissalda\" is \"broad, crude (not in the sense of being rude but in the sense of being unsophisticated), repetitive and not at all funny,\" while Gwyneth Jones describes it as \"a one-liner (...) long past its best by date.\"",
"-24.843441533830628"
],
[
"served as a member of the Progressive Conservative caucus from 1973 to 1979. Hurlburt famously received his nickname, \"The Hurler\", in 1975 after a particularly animated session of parliament, during which a heated argument erupted between Hurlburt and a fellow representatives . The argument culminated in Hurlburt picking up his colleague and tossing him to the parliamentary floor. After this event Hurlburt was dubbed 'The Hurler' by the press, and the nickname stuck, with Hurlburt still referred by it to this day. Mr. Hurlburt was involved in a famous court case (1972–75) as to how he obtained his ranch.",
"-24.84106606412388"
],
[
"the backyard. He hates Buckles and Arden, and he always insults them and calls them rude names, like \"slobber face\" (Buckles) and \"beak brain\" (Arden).\nThere are several stories involving Scrappy in the series. A couple of examples are him getting in a fight with another squirrel: a black one. One occasional story is where Scrappy broke into Paul and Jill's attic and realized he was lost. Irene The love interest of Buckles' life who is a fire hydrant. Paperboy A younger newspaper deliverer who often threw rolled-up newspapers at Buckles. Recurring jokes There is meta-humor in this strip; for example,",
"-24.825830928690266"
],
[
"\"Lupin was gay, and he described my character like a 'gay junkie'.\"\nCatholic fantasy author Regina Doman wrote an essay titled \"In Defense of Dumbledore\", in which she argued that the books actually support Catholic teaching on homosexuality because Dumbledore's relationship with the dark wizard Grindelwald leads to obviously terrible results, as he becomes interested in dark magic himself, neglects his responsibilities towards his younger sister and ultimately causes her death.\nThe South Florida Sun-Sentinel's book reviewer Chauncey Mabe says that it was wrong for Rowling to disclose Dumbledore's sexual orientation. Mabe was clear that this was not due to Dumbledore's being",
"-24.820034117212344"
],
[
"For the \"1936\" segments on the website, Strong Bad is sometimes referred to as Sir Strong Bad, Uncle Strong Bad, or Old-Timey Strong Bad. He appears in black and white and has hair and a handlebar mustache. His face is less detailed and he has no visible mouth but his mustache moves when he talks. Another version is \"Strong Badman\", which is basically a tall, muscular, comic book version of Strong Bad, named Strong Badman, often calling out his unseen partner \"L'il Stiny\" (which was Strong Bad making fun of the name of the writer of the email \"superhero name\").",
"-24.80589511674725"
],
[
"up with six older brothers toughened her up. Ginny is not afraid to stand up to anybody, friends and enemies alike. Notably, she stands up to Draco Malfoy on their first meeting in Flourish and Blotts when he insults Harry in Chamber of Secrets. She even stands up to Hermione, her close friend in defence of Harry's use of the Sectumsempra curse. When describing Ginny, J.K. Rowling notes she is \"tough, not in an unpleasant way, but gutsy\", also describing her as \"warm and compassionate\". Ginny was very popular during her time at Hogwarts, and drew attraction by numerous boys.",
"-24.80267635016935"
],
[
"Tracey to the extent that she will invent something to stop this annoyance. The antagonists are the McConnolly brothers, who go to Tracey's school. They often are rivals of McBean though lacking much intelligence and often are either culprits or annoy Tracey and Shamus is some manner. Jim McConnolly is the leader, and is characterized by his blue beanie and high collared sweater, only his nose, ears and long blonde hair showing. His sneakers have an extreme odour, even powerful enough to use as a weapon or tool to gain food or other items from fellow schoolchildren. Jake McConnolly is",
"-24.796190589288017"
],
[
"of bullying by the townsfolk. However, Ah Q has a high opinion of himself and looks down on others regardless of their income or status. \nThe chapter also gives the readers more in-depth imagery on Ah Q’s (unfortunate) physical appearance. Specifically, the ringworm scar on his scalp that turns red when he is angry. This scar is a factor in him being ridiculed by the people around him. Ah Q’s response differed based on his opponents. He would usually physically or verbally retaliate against the weak, but resorts to denial or self-belittlement against those better than him, and achieves some",
"-24.793569188186666"
]
] |
1bbaqs | How and why is sushi safe to eat? | [
"Not all the bacteria present in the fish are harmful to humans. Some are, but not all. Even the harmful ones aren't always bad. Our bodies are constantly killing bad cells. Any parasites or bacteria are generally put to the death quite quickly by our bodies defenses. If a fish shows any telltale signs of being unhealthy, then these fish are not used for sushi. If a fish looks real good, it's cut up and shipped to a restaurant or market. We have figured out VERY well how to tell if a fish is not healthy. We also know exactly how to make things even healthier by caring for it properly. Sushi fish is treated VERY well, and cared for as if a tiny baby. If a person does not treat the fish properly, it can get contaminated from almost anywere. If someone touches it without gloves, drops something on it, or lets it sit out too long, the bacteria could start to grow. If the bacteria is given time to sit and multiply on a tasty piece of fish, it'll start growing into a colony. One bacteria is easy to kill, but millions are much harder. Sushi is expensive because of the work that humans put into making it perfectly safe to eat. Often, not always, fish is put into a special freezer that won't harm the fish's taste but will kill the tiny parasites that are harmful for humans.",
"The type of fish used in real sushi is \"sushi grade\". it's been cut and prepared since the fish was caught to be used for sushi, so it's kept cleaner/safer throughout the whole process.",
"Sushi covers a very broad variety of foods.. What I think you are asking is why/how is it safe to eat raw fish.. The answer is, it is not exactly safe. All providers will warn you that you are \"eating raw meat at your own risk\" The reason that Sashimi (sushi) grade fish is safer to eat raw is because Sashimi grade fish is flash frozen to a very low temperature moments after it is caught, all done right there on the ship as fish loses its quality fairly rapidly. It is usually frozen using dry ice or something to that effect to bring it's temperature low enough to eliminate any possible parasites. Parasites are not commonly found in salt-water fish, so they pose very little risk.. While most fresh-water fish are very commonly host to some parasite or another..",
"In Japan they eat raw chicken at some high end sushi restaurants.. All because how clean the are raised and prepped, pretty crazy..",
"Raw fish isn't unsafe to eat until it's placed in conditions that permit it to spoil."
] | [
[
" Japanese people would eat fish in every one of their meals. In traditional Japanese cuisine, oil and fat are usually avoided within the cooking process, because Japanese people were trying to keep a healthy lifestyle.\nPreserving fish became a sensation; sushi was originated as means of preserving fish by fermenting it in boiled rice. Fish that are salted and then placed in rice are preserved by lactic acid fermentation, which helps prevent proliferation of the bacteria that bring about putrefaction. During the 15th century, advancement and development helped shorten the fermentation of sushi to about one to two weeks. Sushi",
"-29.01877665449865"
],
[
"staple in Japanese restaurants worldwide.\nDespite common misconceptions, onigiri is not a form of sushi and should not be confused with the type of sushi called nigirizushi or simply nigiri. Onigiri is made with plain rice (sometimes lightly salted), while sushi is made of rice with vinegar, sugar and salt. Onigiri makes rice portable and easy to eat as well as preserving it, while sushi originated as a way of preserving fish. History In Murasaki Shikibu's 11th-century diary Murasaki Shikibu Nikki, she writes of people eating rice balls. At that time, onigiri were called tonjiki and often consumed at outdoor picnic",
"-27.73949521582108"
],
[
"by boiling, burning, preserving in salt or vinegar, or freezing overnight. Even Japanese people never eat raw salmon or ikura (salmon roe), and even if they seem raw, these foods are not raw but are frozen overnight to prevent infections from parasites, particularly anisakis.\nBelow are some life cycles of fish parasites that can infect humans:",
"-26.882394704094622"
],
[
"be used as a delicacy that is served as sushi. However, not to be confused, there is a Japanese Suzuki, and a Chinese Suzuki, both out of different species, but in the same genus. The Japanese Suzuki is more appreciated as a rinsed sashimi as it is more favored than other fish used for sashimi because of the clean white flesh of the fish. The name Suzuki refers to type of Asian seabass that is used for sushi. However, the fish mainly depends on chopped trash fish, which deteriorates quickly and could result in the spread of diseases. The fish",
"-26.704598844982684"
],
[
"or quiches. Hijiki seaweed may be mixed with rice for sushi but is not used as a wrap to prepare sushi.\nIn Korea, the seaweed is called tot (톳) and eaten as namul (seasoned vegetable side dish) or cooked with bap (rice). Nutrition Hijiki contains dietary fiber and minerals such as iron, calcium, and magnesium. Dietary fiber is good for the intestine and iron helps to prevent anemia. The ratio of calcium to magnesium in hijiki is 2 to 1. Arsenic health risk Several government food safety agencies advise consumers to avoid consumption of hijiki seaweed. Test results have indicated that",
"-26.666471858974546"
],
[
"it would be able to stored for longer times due to the preservative nature of salt. \nIn Japan salt is even considered sacred as they believe salt is cleansing and is often a defining flavour of Japanese dishes. It plays a major role in the making of dried fish and in the pickling of vegetables. Turkey is also another important meat which old villages utilised the salt crust to not only to hold in all the juices but also so that the crust could be sealed and marked preventing tampering. Chicken baked in a salt crust is",
"-26.380196056328714"
],
[
"Odori ebi Odori ebi (踊り海老/躍り海老, \"dancing shrimp\") is a sushi delicacy of Japan, and a form of sashimi. The sushi contains baby shrimp (Pandalus borealis or Marsupenaeus japonicus) that are still alive and able to move their legs and antennae while being eaten. The meal is prepared quickly to keep the shrimp alive, and when it is eaten the shrimp are usually dunked into sake so as to intoxicate the shrimp, then into a special dipping sauce, and finally quickly chewed to kill it.\nThe shrimp can be served either whole or shelled with the head removed; the head",
"-26.179554151953198"
],
[
"size of the container they wish to buy, and then is free to fill it with their choice of food. It is common to combine several options in one container, and some outlets charge by weight rather than by item. In large cities, these restaurants may offer free delivery for purchases over a minimum amount.\nSushi has seen rapidly rising popularity recently in the Western world. A form of fast food created in Japan (where bentō is the Japanese variety of fast food), sushi is normally cold sticky rice flavored with a sweet rice vinegar and served with some topping (often",
"-25.942588618258014"
],
[
"rice — and other whole grains for sushi, is also a Bun Lai innovation, which today is emulated throughout the world of sushi.\nChef Bun Lai created the first menu dedicated to the idea of using invasive species at Miya's in 2005, during which time half the menus invasive species offerings were conceptual because invasive species were not yet commercially available. The menu featured locally caught invasive species such as Asian shore crabs and European green crabs. The invasive species menu was created in order to take pressure off of popular over-fished species by utilizing ones, instead, that are abundant but",
"-25.543005090978113"
],
[
"History of sushi The history of sushi began with Paddy Fields in Asia, where fish was fermented with rice vinegar, salt and rice, after which the rice was discarded. The dish is today known as narezushi, and was introduced to Japan around the Yayoi period. In the Muromachi period, people began to eat the rice as well as the fish. During the Edo period, vinegar rather than fermented rice began to be used. In pre-modern times and modern times, it has become a form of food strongly associated with Japanese culture. Early history The earliest form of sushi, a dish",
"-25.435053751803935"
],
[
"lime, lemon, or other citrus juices. The intestines are bitter, but many people choose not to gut the fish, as many say its bitterness, balanced by the condiments, is part of the enjoyment. Salt-grilled saury is also served in Korea, where it is known as kkongchi gui (꽁치구이).\nSanma sashimi is becoming increasingly available but is not common. Although rarely used for sushi, sanma-zushi is a regional delicacy along parts of the Kii Peninsula, especially along the coast of southern Mie Prefecture. It is prepared by pickling the saury in salt and vinegar (depending on the region, bitter orange or citron",
"-25.418973423540592"
],
[
"using both chopsticks and spoon. The noodles and toppings on ramen should be eaten with chopsticks while the soup should be drunk with a spoon. Sushi Sushi is one of the most famous dishes of Japan, which comes with many different varieties, and therefore there is a certain dining etiquette to follow. It is allowed to eat sushi with bare hands, however, sashimi is eaten with chopsticks. When shoyu (lit. soy sauce) is served together with nigiri-sushi (lit. sushi with a fish topping), pick up the sushi and dip the part of the fish topping into the shoyu, not the",
"-25.07459581882722"
],
[
"worship. In China, red peach symbolizes longevity and luck, it reflects people's aspiration when they pray. Ingredients Main ingredients include rice flour, glutinous rice, mushroom, tiniest shrimps, peanut, garlic, pork, etc. Additional ingredients can include MSG, pepper, oil, salt, etc. Nutritional value Glutinous rice is the main filling of Tao Kuish, which fully contains proteins, fat, saccharides, starch, Ca, F, Fe, vitamin B1, vitamin B2. Traditional Chinese medical science think it can invigorate spleen-stomach and replenish Qi, and it do help to your spleen and stomach. What is more, glutinous rice can remission frequency of urination. Kuish mould Tao kuish",
"-24.824163181183394"
],
[
" roasting a chicken in a crust of salt; and serving fish on a bed of salt. The index of one authoritative Chinese cookbook lists nine recipes with \"salt\" in the title.\nIn recent years, Chinese cooks have become concerned about the health risks of sodium. The Hong Kong food authority Pearl Kong Chen admonishes that traditionally Chinese people ate large amounts of plain rice, with no soy sauce or salt added and only small amounts of meat or vegetables seasoned with salt or soy sauce. In recent times, she warns, the proportion of meat and vegetables has increased, along with",
"-24.783095528604463"
],
[
"Sushirrito Sushirrito is a fast casual restaurant chain that started in San Francisco in January 2011. The main distinction is the titular \"sushirrito\", a blend of traditional sushi with the form of a burrito, with the intent of portability. As of December 2017, it has 8 locations in the San Francisco Bay Area. Food Sushirrito does not offer customizability in its food. Soy sauce and wasabi are also not offered.\nIn the San Francisco Bay area, Sushirrito receives its fish from Royal Hawaiian Seafood, which sources its fish based on the Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Seafood Watch’s sustainability criteria and research.",
"-24.782864222070202"
],
[
"dairy products, such as milk and yogurt. A protein called casein occurs in dairy products which binds to the capsaicin, effectively making it less available to \"burn\" the mouth, and the milk fat helps keep it in suspension. Rice is also useful for mitigating the impact, especially when it is included with a mouthful of the hot food. These foods are typically included in the cuisine of cultures that specialise in the use of chilis. Mechanical stimulation of the mouth by chewing food will also partially mask the pain sensation.",
"-24.638316445227247"
],
[
"though its preparation is complex due to its taste being entirely \"tasteless and bland\". In the Suiyuan shidan, the Chinese Qing Dynasty manual of gastronomy, it is in fact stated: \"As an ingredient, sea cucumbers have little to no taste, are full of sand, and are remarkably fishy in smell. For these reasons, it is also the most difficult ingredient to prepare well.\"(海參，無味之物，沙多氣腥，最難討好。) Much of the preparation of sea cucumber goes into cleaning and boiling it, then stewing it in meat broths and extracts to infuse each sea cucumber with flavour.\nChinese folk belief attributes male sexual health and aphrodisiac",
"-24.595697025302798"
],
[
"Sushi Saito Description Sushi Saito, owned by chef Takashi Saito, is located at First Floor Ark Hills south Tower, 1-4-5 Roppongi, Minato-ku, Tokyo. It moved to its current location in February 2014. The restaurant seats eight people. Because of the limited seating and popularity of the restaurant, reservations have been described as essential. Reception Kelly Wetherille for CNN Travel, described Sushi Saito as a \"hidden gem\". She said that \"tender, flavorful seafood and perfectly seasoned rice are worth every penny\". Fodor's travel guide described the food there as being \"the freshest sushi available in the world\". Chef Joël Robuchon,",
"-24.591256463172613"
],
[
"bodies, because saltwater fish have the ability to excrete salt. The Japanese Ministry of the Environment would closely monitor freshwater fish as radioactive caesium might remain for much longer periods in their bodies. According to Japanese regulations, food is considered safe for consumption up to a maximum of 100 Bq/kg.\nIn August 2012, the Health ministry found that caesium levels had dropped to undetectable levels in most cultivated vegetables from the affected area, while food sourced from forests, rivers or lakes in the Tohoku and northern Kanto regions are showing excessive contamination.\nIn a 'murasoi'-fish (or rock-fish Sebastes pachycephalus) caught in January",
"-24.53137161268387"
],
[
"at special occasions such as weddings and the Chinese New Year (as part of the vegetarian dish called Buddha's delight). In Chinese culture, they are believed to have health benefits; some also consider them to have aphrodisiac qualities. Japanese cooks add ginkgo seeds (called ginnan) to dishes such as chawanmushi, and cooked seeds are often eaten along with other dishes.\nWhen eaten in large quantities or over a long period, the gametophyte (meat) of the seed can cause poisoning by 4'-O-methylpyridoxine (MPN). MPN is heat-stable and not destroyed by cooking. Studies have demonstrated the convulsions caused by MPN can be prevented",
"-24.526200021326076"
],
[
"9th and 10th century \"鮨\" and \"鮓\" are read as \"sushi\". This \"sushi\" was similar to today's narezushi.\nFor almost the next 800 years, until the early 19th century, sushi slowly changed and the Japanese cuisine changed as well. The Japanese started eating three meals a day, rice was boiled instead of steamed, and of large importance, was the development of rice vinegar. While sushi continued to be produced by fermentation of fish with rice, the addition of rice vinegar greatly reduced the time of fermentation and the rice used began to be eaten along with the fish. In the Muromochi",
"-24.343137364950962"
],
[
"seafood): this may possibly be beneficial for those inland consumers whose diet may be iodine-deficient and who do not have access to iodized salt. Due to the high salt content which goes into the preparation, ngapi, like all salt-rich foods, should be consumed in moderation in patients with salt-sensitive hypertension.",
"-24.24323114717845"
],
[
"Oblaat Description Many types of dagashi Japanese candy are wrapped in oblaat, which is an edible, thin cellophane made of rice starch. It has no taste nor odor, and is transparent. It is useful to preserve gelatinous sweets by absorbing humidity. Etymology The name comes from the Dutch word \"oblaat\". History Oblaat was introduced to Japan by Dutch pharmaceutical companies in the late 19th century to wrap bad tasting medicine so that it could be swallowed without tasting any bitter powder. Dagashi isn’t wrapped in oblaat because it tastes bad; it’s wrapped in oblaat to keep the pieces of candy",
"-24.15098264021799"
],
[
"fresh green perilla (shiso) leaves. The standard Japanese folk remedy for colds and flus is okayu (rice congee) with umeboshi. Another usage of umeboshi is in \"Ume chazuke\", a dish of rice with poured in green tea topped with umeboshi.\nUmeboshi were esteemed by the samurai to combat battle fatigue, a function of their salt and citric acid content, among other factors. Salt, citric acid, and polyphenols also contribute to their antimicrobial activity, so they are a natural preservative for foods and help prevent food poisoning and other bacterial stomach problems.\nUmeboshi is used as a cooking accent to enhance flavor and",
"-24.09921503154328"
],
[
"take steps to ensure that its goji products are not marketed as \"unheated\" or \"raw\", and made a contribution to an educational organization.",
"-24.032578307727817"
],
[
"a hot or cold towel or a plastic-wrapped wet napkin (o-shibori). This is for cleaning hands before eating (and not after). It is rude to use them to wash the face or any part of the body other than the hands, though some Japanese men use their o-shibori to wipe their faces in less formal places. Accept o-shibori with both hands when handed the towel by a server. When finished, fold or roll up the oshibori and place it on the table. It is impolite to use o-shibori towels to wipe any spills on the table. Bowls The rice or",
"-23.97263941494748"
],
[
"10 species have commercial value. In 2013, the Chinese government cracked down on the purchasing of sea cucumbers by officials as their expensive price tag could be seen as a sign of opulence.\nIn Japan, sea cucumber is also eaten raw, as sashimi or sunomono, and its intestine is also eaten as konowata, which is salted and fermented food (a variety of shiokara).\nThe dried ovary of sea cucumber is also eaten, which is called konoko (このこ) or kuchiko (くちこ).\nSea cucumbers are considered non-kosher in Jewish dietary law. Culinary use Both a fresh form and a dried form are used for cooking,",
"-23.964950312976725"
],
[
"Sushi Seki Menu Among its offerings are butter fish, tuna tofu, young yellowtail with jalapeño, and pickled toro. It offers omakase. In addition to sushi, with modern sushi being its specialty, the restaurant offers a wide array of sake. The food is served by a knowledgeable staff. Reviews In 2013, Zagat's gave it a food rating of 28, which was third-best on the Upper East Side and 10th-best in New York City.",
"-23.944842216340476"
],
[
"salt. Airlines utilize more glycol and sugar rather than salt based solutions for de-icing. Food industry and agriculture Many microorganisms cannot live in an overly salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. For this reason salt is used to preserve some foods, such as bacon, fish, or cabbage.\nSalt is added to food, either by the food producer or by the consumer, as a flavor enhancer, preservative, binder, fermentation-control additive, texture-control agent and color developer. The salt consumption in the food industry is subdivided, in descending order of consumption, into other food processing, meat packers, canning, baking,",
"-23.778934263042174"
],
[
"Ninja diet The Ninja diet was a form of military rations historically consumed by ninjas. The types of rations consumed included Suikatsugan (水渇丸)(water thirst), Hyorogan (兵糧丸) , Kikatsugan (飢渇丸) (starving circle), Hoshi-ii (or Hoshii),and Katayaki (かたやき).\nHoshi-ii is boiled and dried rice.\nHyorogan was made of glutinous rice, ordinary rice, lotus seed, Chinese yam, cinnamon, adlay, Asian ginseng and sugar. Other source say that Hyorogan was made from wheat powder, saké, sticky rice and carrots.\nSuikatsugan pills were made with pickled plum (umeboshi), buckwheat flour, and yams.",
"-23.77603963459842"
],
[
"The Sushi Economy The Sushi Economy by Sasha Issenberg is a nonfiction book about sushi and globalization. The Sushi Economy uses the booming business, culture, and cuisine of raw fish to examine how the integration of local economies through trade works in practice. The book takes the form of a global travelogue ranging from Atlantic bluefin tuna fishermen in Gloucester, Massachusetts, to Japan's Tsukiji fish market in Tokyo, to tuna pirates in the Mediterranean, to an Austin, Texas sushi bar, to the global restaurant empire of Nobu Matsuhisa and the tuna ranchers of Port Lincoln, South Australia . The book",
"-23.77501129976008"
],
[
"be found in 1 or 2 cho. This means that there were nearly 2 sushi restaurants for every soba restaurant.\nThese early nigirizushi were not identical to today's varieties. Fish meat was marinated in soy sauce or vinegar or heavily salted so there was no need to dip into soy sauce. Some fish was cooked before it was put onto a sushi. This was partly out of necessity as there were no refrigerators. Each piece was also larger, almost the size of two pieces of today's sushi.\nThe advent of modern refrigeration allowed sushi made of raw fish to reach more consumers",
"-23.742187267984264"
],
[
"called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oily inner layer which is heated to produce oil. It is also used as a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and takuan.\nRaw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages, such as amazake, horchata, rice milk, and rice wine. Rice does not contain gluten, so is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet. Rice may also be made into various types of noodles. Raw, wild, or brown rice may also",
"-23.734877908194903"
],
[
"every last grain of rice. (See also mottainai as Buddhist philosophy.) It is impolite to pick out certain ingredients and leave the rest. One should chew with the mouth closed.\nIt is acceptable to lift soup and rice bowls to the mouth so one does not spill food. Miso soup is drunk directly from its (small) bowl; larger soups and those with chunky ingredients may come with a spoon. Of course hashi (\"chopsticks\") are always provided. Noodles from hot soup are often blown on (once lifted from the soup) to cool them before eating; and it is appropriate to slurp certain",
"-23.62598474835977"
],
[
"special local version of sushi, which is made in a square mold. What is unique about this sushi is that it is prepared in large amounts, generally enough to feed about 150 people. There are also many \"sushi-go-rounds\" where sushi makes its way around the restaurant for patrons to pick and choose from via a moving belt.\nIwakuni is famous for fresh lotus roots which many people enjoy. These are cooked in different ways such as sautéed or simmered.\nIwakuni Chagayu is a tea-flavored rice porridge originally created about 400 years ago by Hiroie Kikkawa as an inexpensive means of providing food",
"-23.624338852474466"
],
[
"is ‘And even salt fish and pak choi will taste really really good’. As salted fish is the symbolic dish of the poor, this line make the allusion that with love even a simple and humble life is enough. Film The wildly popular Hong Kong blockbuster, Shaolin Soccer references salted fish in the line, \n\"If we don’t have any dreams in life, we will look like a salted fish\". \nThis line became so popular in Hong Kong, it has been mistaken for a traditional Chinese saying, even being cited in publications as such. Health concerns and cancer warning Extensive research",
"-23.599329999182373"
],
[
"Clean eating Clean eating is a way of life based on the belief that eating whole foods in their most natural state and avoiding processed foods such as refined sugar offers certain health benefits. Variations on the clean eating diet may also exclude gluten, grains, and dairy products and advocate the consumption of raw food.\nThe idea of \"clean eating\" has been criticized as lacking in scientific evidence and potentially posing health risks.\nThe clean eating concept has been associated in the media with Ella Mills, Natasha Corrett, and the Hemsley sisters; although by 2016 Mills and the Hemsley sisters had distanced",
"-23.556845767743653"
],
[
"is not very welcoming in Japan, as maintaining some silence while eating a meal is importantly valued, hence avoid forcing unnecessary conversations when eating with someone. Ramen When eating ramen or similar types, it is acceptable to make slurping sounds as it is the way to express appreciation for the meal and to strengthen the flavour of ramen. Noodles are cooled and hence enhances the flavour during the slurping process. However, making eating sounds of munching and burping are not very favourable as it may displease people around. The general Japanese ramen etiquette postulates that ramen should be eaten by",
"-23.502869991760235"
],
[
"and the dish became unique to Japanese culture. It was the first time that rice was not being used for fermentation. Rice was now mixed with vinegar, with fish, vegetables and dried food stuff added. This type of sushi is still very popular today. Each region utilizes local flavors to produce a variety of sushi that has been passed down for many generations.\nToday's style of nigirizushi (握り寿司), consisting of an oblong mound of rice with a slice of fish draped over it, became popular in Edo (contemporary Tokyo) in the 1820s or 1830s. One common story of nigirizushi's origins is",
"-23.481740964954952"
],
[
"part of rice. Having rice to absorb shoyu too much would change the original taste of the nigiri-sushi, and trying to dip rice into the shoyu may also cause the whole sushi to fall apart, consequently dropping rice on to the shoyu plate. An appearance of rice floating around on the shoyu plate is not considered as a taboo in Japanese culture; however, it may leave a bad impression by doing so. In a case when shoyu has to be poured into a bowl, pour only a tiny amount since pouring a large portion may waste an unnecessary amount of",
"-23.421753137459746"
],
[
"high society resulted in the serving of sushi at social functions. Popularity of Japanese food peaked ca. 1905 when it was being served at Japanese-themed social gatherings across the United States, including in mid-western cities such as Minneapolis, Minnesota, St. Louis, Missouri and Bismarck, North Dakota. According to Miller, the earliest published mention of sushi eaten by an American, in America, was an 18 August 1904 article in the Los Angeles Herald about a luncheon served in Santa Monica by the socialite Fern Dell Higgins.\nSeveral years later, a wave of anti-Japanese nativism sentiments and restrictions on Japanese immigration, starting with",
"-23.357636626111344"
],
[
"(called akajiso), or flavoured with katsuobushi, kombu or even sweetened with honey. Because these flavored varieties end up at 3% to 15% salt content, they usually contain a natural or artificial preservative to extend shelf life. Natural preservatives include vinegar, alcohol, and vitamin B1. Consumption Umeboshi are usually eaten in small quantities with rice, for added flavor. It is also a common ingredient in onigiri, rice balls wrapped with nori, and they may also be used in makizushi. Makizushi made with umeboshi may be made with either pitted umeboshi or umeboshi paste (which is cheaper), often in conjunction with slivered",
"-23.351491878915112"
],
[
"package has been used.\nIn Japanese restaurants, customers are given a rolled hand towel called oshibori. It is considered rude to use the towel to wipe the face or neck; however, some people, usually men, do this at more informal restaurants. Nonwoven towelettes are replacing the cloth oshibori.\nIn any situation, an uncertain diner can observe what others are doing; and for non-Japanese people to ask how to do something properly is generally received with appreciation for the acknowledgment of cultural differences and expression of interest in learning Japanese ways.\nWhen using toothpicks, it is good etiquette to cover one's mouth with the",
"-23.350357791176066"
],
[
"ingredient in rice cakes, teas, soups, and pancakes. \nKnown as a blood cleanser, it is believed to have different medicinal properties depending on the region it is collected in. In some regions, mugwort thins the blood, while in another region, it is claimed to have hallucinogenic properties, causing some to pass out from direct skin contact (dermal absorption) with the active chemicals. For this reason, some Koreans also wear a silk sleeve when picking mugwort plants.\nIts primary use, however, is in moxibustion. Mugwort is burned on pressure points of the body, much like acupuncture. Allergen Mugwort pollen is one of",
"-23.26568830339238"
],
[
"escolar for tuna Escolar is commonly substituted for tuna in sushi restaurants. Escolar, which is much less expensive than tuna, is a fish with a diet high in wax esters. Since these wax esters are not digestible, these wax esters have a laxative effect in humans. The laxative effect is not merely an inconvenience, but can be very serious. Although not affecting all people, the wax esters are indigestible in humans and to those susceptible can cause constipation, followed by severe oily diarrhea (keriorrhoea), rapid loose bowel movements, with onset 30 minutes to 36 hours after",
"-23.23339624449727"
],
[
"shampoos, hair conditioners and fabric softeners.\nSAS can be used as fire extinguishing agent, because it is not flammable.\nIn the cosmetic industry it is used as an emulsifier to mix oily and water-soluble compounds for toothpaste or moisturising products. Health SAS can produce irritating vapors when heated, consisting of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and others. As all detergents it can irritate skin and eyes. If swallowed, it will cause nausea or vomiting with an LD₅₀ of 0.5 to 5 g/kg. Ecosystems SAS is toxic for freshwater fish with an aquatic toxicity of 6-7 ppm/fish/min. It does not concentrate in",
"-23.209506010925907"
],
[
"presentation. They may also be served as a complement of a drink with shochu and hot water.\nUmeboshi are often eaten as snacks; in the United States and Australia, many Japanese grocery stores stock them. Eating umeboshi in Japan is the equivalent of the English expression \"an apple a day\". Children's candy shops sometimes carry karikari ume, or prepackaged, crunchy pickled ume, and dried umeboshi. Health This Japanese style traditional condiment is believed to be a digestive aid, prevention of nausea, and for systemic toxicity, including hangovers. Green ume extract is used as a tonic in Japan. The citric acid is",
"-23.15034931176342"
],
[
"low-salt soups were greater when the soup contained umami, whereas low-salt soups without umami were less pleasant. Another study demonstrated that using fish sauce as a source of umami could reduce the need for salt by 10–25% to flavor such foods as chicken broth, tomato sauce, or coconut curry while maintaining overall taste intensity.\nSome population groups, such as the elderly, may benefit from umami taste because their taste and smell sensitivity is impaired by age and medication. The loss of taste and smell can contribute to poor nutrition, increasing their risk of disease. Some evidence exists to show umami not",
"-23.10699156811461"
],
[
"As a Muslim majority country, Indonesians expected that Japanese food served there are halal according to Islamic dietary law, which means no pork and alcohol allowed. Japanese restaurants in Indonesia often offer a set menu which include rice served with an array of Japanese favourites in a single setting. A set menu might include a choice of yakiniku or sukiyaki, including a sample of sushi, tempura, gyoza and miso soup. Quite authentic Japanese style izakaya and ramen shops can be found in Little Tokyo (Melawai) area in Blok M, South Jakarta, serving both Japanese expats and local clienteles. Today, Japanese",
"-23.088430153671652"
],
[
"and easier to eat. Consumption Kalamay is a popular pasalubong (the Filipino tradition of a homecoming gift). They are often eaten alone, directly from the packaging. Kalamay is also used in a variety of traditional Filipino dishes as a sweetener, including the suman and the bukayo. It can also be added to beverages like coffee, milk, or hot chocolate.\nBiko and sinukmani are similar dishes which use whole glutinous rice grains. The preparation is the same except that the glutinous rice is first cooked whole and not ground into a paste, and then is smothered with the latík. In some",
"-22.989010095596313"
],
[
"a hot or cold towel is served depending on the season. As for the dining etiquette, use the provided Oshibori to clean both hands, before starting a meal. It is only used to wipe out hands and therefore it should not be used to wipe face or used for other purposes, as it is considered impolite. Drinking When it comes to drinking alcoholic beverages in Japan, there are several points to keep in mind. The person who first pours the alcoholic drink in the glasses of others, the person should be holding the bottle of the alcoholic drink with both",
"-22.98068401950877"
],
[
"The various Mizaj of the day and night are the reasons behind mood swings and pain or discomfort varying during the day and night. Flavors Flavors have temperaments and accordingly would cause warmness, coldness, dryness and wetness in the body. One can simply decide the Mizaj of a food item or a drink by tasting them to a great extent.\nTasteless food items, also called watery, are cold and wet. Every insipid food item such as lettuce, dairy products such as yoghurt, or doogh (a yogurt-based beverage) and citrus fruits which are not too much sour or sweet are cold and",
"-22.937292085960507"
],
[
"added to it, a necessary nutrient that promotes thyroid function. Some canned foods, notably soups or packaged broths, tend to be high in salt as a means of preserving the food longer. Historically salt has long been used as a meat preservative as salt promotes water excretion. Similarly, dried foods also promote food safety. Bitter Bitterness is a sensation often considered unpleasant characterized by having a sharp, pungent taste. Unsweetened dark chocolate, caffeine, lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter. Umami Umami, the Japanese word for delicious, is the least known in Western popular culture",
"-22.92852414236404"
],
[
"Tataki in San Francisco, which featured sustainable seafood. \nSince then, a growing number of sushi restaurants have adopted sustainability as a guiding principle and have come together to form what they refer to as the \"sustainable sushi movement.\" These individuals espouse the use of only environmentally responsible seafood products as a means of preserving the art of sushi and the health of the world's oceans. Currently, there are upwards of 25 sustainable sushi restaurants in the United States. The gravity of the movement has been acknowledged by many media outlets around the world, including TIME Magazine, which recognized the restaurants",
"-22.92282664286904"
],
[
"Japanese short grain rice, which is sticky and round, is preferred, rather than the medium grain variety used in Indian dishes. It is usually eaten with a spoon, as opposed to chopsticks, because of the liquid nature of the curry, and is usually served garnished with vegetables pickled in vinegar such as fukujinzuke or rakkyo.",
"-22.906288917845814"
],
[
"cultures the dishes have been adapted to fit the palate of the local populace. In 1970s sushi travelled from Japan to Canada and the United States, it was modified to suit the American palate, and re-entered the Japanese market as \"American Sushi\". An example of this phenomenon is the California roll, which was created in North America in the 1970s, rose in popularity across the United States through the 1980s, and thus sparked Japanese food's – more precisely, sushi's – global popularity.\nIn 2014, Japanese Restaurant Organization has selected potential countries where Japanese food is becoming increasingly popular, and conducted research concerning the",
"-22.875348164030584"
],
[
"food for humans is eaten raw in salads and cooked in soups. It is high in protein, soluble dietary fiber, and a variety of vitamins and minerals, especially iron. However, contamination with toxic heavy metals at certain sites where it can be collected makes it dangerous for human consumption. Aquarium trade Sea lettuce species are commonly found in the saltwater aquarium trade, where the plants are valued for their high nutrient uptake and edibility. Many reef aquarium keepers use sea lettuce species in refugia or grow it as a food source for herbivorous fish. Sea lettuce is very easy to",
"-22.867700480652275"
],
[
"and the soup with seaweed helps to accelerate the recovery time of mothers. Other than seaweed soup, Korean women also eat a variety of exotic, traditional dishes, such as a pig bone soup, ray soup, and dried cod soup. Keep one's body warm To keep their body warm, Korean mothers avoid cold temperatures and cold foods such as ice cream and cold water. Staying indoors and refraining from outdoor activities is perceived as one of the effective ways to keep the mother's body warm. Even exposure to a cold breeze caused by the shutting of doors is a taboo in",
"-22.858950239387923"
],
[
"of waste generated from paper towels. Hand dryers and taps are sometimes installed with motion-sensors as an additional resource-saving measure. Cultural aspects In Japan, cleanliness is very important, and some Japanese words for 'clean' can be used to describe beauty. The word kirei (きれい, 綺麗) can be defined as \"pretty, beautiful; clean; pure; orderly.\" This may explain the success of the high-tech toilet with a built-in bidet. There is also a large market for deodorants and air fresheners that add a pleasant scent to the area.\nIn the often crowded living conditions of Japanese cities and with the lack of rooms",
"-22.846599392709322"
],
[
"aojiru is famously unpleasant, so much so that drinking a glass of the liquid is a common punishment on Japanese TV game shows. However, new formulations of aojiru have attempted to minimize the bitter taste of the original.\nAojiru is a rich source of certain vitamins and minerals, and care should therefore be taken when undergoing certain treatments or if on certain medication. The high levels of potassium, phosphorus, and vitamin A are said to worsen the health of patients on dialysis, while the high levels of vitamin K could decrease the effectiveness of medication taken for circulatory problems.",
"-22.84612371044932"
],
[
"a flavor with food manufacturers trying to improve the taste of low sodium offerings. Chefs create \"umami bombs,\" which are dishes made of several umami ingredients like fish sauce. Umami may account for the long-term formulation and popularity of ketchup. The United States Food and Drug Administration has designated the umami enhancer monosodium glutamate (MSG) as a safe ingredient. While some people identify themselves as sensitive to MSG, a study commissioned by the FDA was only able to identify transient, mild symptoms in a few of the subjects, and only when the MSG was consumed in unrealistically large quantities.",
"-22.79805978637887"
],
[
"various ingredients such as sashimi, nori (edible seaweed) and vegetables, rolls them up and then slices the rolls into separate pieces. Some roll machines are adjustable to change settings for roll length and thickness. Sushi restaurants and food service operations may use sushi machines to reduce labor costs. Sushi prepared with electric sushi machines may be priced lower at retail stores and outlets compared to that prepared solely by humans. Some sushi machines are manually operated and function without the use of electricity. Manufacturers An electric-powered sushi machine manufactured by Suzumo named Sushibot can produce up to 3,600 mounds of",
"-22.784397549694404"
],
[
"is one of the “five flavors” of Chinese herbology and Chinese cuisine which Chinese see as the basis of good food. Salt is not generally sprinkled on a dish at the last moment or at the table, as is often the case in western cooking, but is more often one of the ingredients.\n The ancient Chinese found that salt, because it inhibits bacteria, was useful both in preserving foods and in controlling fermentation; without salt, the yeasts and sugars produced by vegetable decay would rot and turn to alcohol. From early times, pickles, sauces, and special dishes featured salt",
"-22.782796678628074"
],
[
"Etiquette in Japan Bathing Bathing is an important part of the daily routine in Japan, where bath tubs are for relaxing, not cleaning the body. Therefore, the body must be cleaned and scrubbed before entering the bathtub or ofuro. This is done in the same room as the tub, while seated on a small stool and using a hand-held shower. Soap, a wash cloth, and shampoo are provided; and the bather is expected to wash and rinse thoroughly twice before stepping into the ofuro. It is very important that no soap residue be transferred to the ofuro because the heated",
"-22.779340905690333"
],
[
"women could not be sushi chefs.",
"-22.777017232961953"
],
[
"Miya's, Bamboo, and Tataki as pioneers in the sushi sustainability. Background on Environmental Sustainability Sustainable sushi raises questions about the sources of the fish used—whether ingredients were caught or raised. It also raises questions about the vulnerability of the species (longevity and reproductive capability) and whether humans are overfishing the stock. Many of the current methods used to fish leads to overfishing and the unintentional killing of fish and other marine life. Industrial pollution from power plants, waste incinerators and mining operations has led to the increasing levels of mercury found in marine life today. \nIrresponsible fishing practices if",
"-22.769341492588865"
],
[
"cleanliness, eating nutritious foods, and peace of mind and heart. Eating beneficial Sanhujori foods To facilitate recovery after childbirth, many Korean mothers consume the specific type of Korean traditional cuisines, which is commonly called \"Sanhujori foods.\" Common characteristics of Sanhujori foods are summarized as being soft, warm, and refreshing while cuisines with spicy flavors are perceived to be bad for the postpartum period. Among a variety of Sanhujori cuisines, seaweed soup is most widely consumed by Korean mothers. Researchers demonstrated that seaweed contains a great deal of omega-3 fatty acids, i.e., polyunsaturated fatty acids found in certain seeds and fish,",
"-22.761739067849703"
],
[
"the fish and the rice because covering wasabi until served preserves its flavor.\nFresh wasabi leaves can be eaten raw, having the spicy flavor of wasabi stems, but a common side effect is diarrhea.\nLegumes (peanuts, soybeans, or peas) may be roasted or fried, then coated with wasabi powder mixed with sugar, salt, or oil and eaten as a crunchy snack. In Japan, it's called \"wasabi-mame\" (lit. wasabi bean). Surrogates Wasabi favours growing conditions that restrict its wide cultivation (among other things, it is quite intolerant of direct sunlight, requires an air temperature between 8°C (46°F) and 20 °C (70°F), and prefers",
"-22.75823366153054"
],
[
"Akumaki How it is made A skin of bamboo soaked in lye overnight is used to wrap glutinous rice soaked in the same way. Akumaki is a rice cake but it is not sticky and it does not easily dry out. How it is eaten Akumaki has no taste. It is typically eaten with blended sugar and toasted soybean flour (kinako), with a little salt or soaked in honey. If it is eaten with nothing, it tastes bitter. However, if it is eaten with a lot of sugar and kinako, it takes on a somewhat unusual flavor. It is sometimes",
"-22.65923598408699"
],
[
"to support the claim is inconclusive. Honey is generally considered ineffective for the treatment of allergic conjunctivitis.\nAlthough the majority of calories in honey is from fructose, honey does not cause increased weight gain and fructose by itself is not an independent factor for weight gain. Health hazards Honey is generally safe when taken in typical food amounts, but it may have various, potential adverse effects or interactions in combination with excessive consumption, existing disease conditions, or drugs. Included among these are mild reactions to high intake, such as anxiety, insomnia, or hyperactivity in about 10% of children, according to one",
"-22.658885814249516"
],
[
"nuts, seeds, and popcorn. When to wash Handwashing prevents spreading infection. Washing before and after handling food, after using the bathroom, changing diapers, or handling pets.",
"-22.657513318830752"
],
[
"Cantonese salted fish Cantonese Salted Fish (simplified Chinese: 广东咸鱼; traditional Chinese: 廣東鹹魚; Cantonese Yale: Gwong2 Dung1 Haam4 Yu2; piyin: Guǎngdōngxiányú; also known as \"Salted-fish, Chinese style\") is a traditional Chinese food originating from Guangdong province. It is a fish preserved or cured with salt, and was a staple food in Southern China. It historically earned the nickname of the \"poor man's food\", as its extreme saltiness is useful in adding variety to the simpler rice-based dinners. The \"poor man's food\" has become ironically true, as it is on the list of Group 1 known carcinogens, but was suspected and studied",
"-22.652546890407393"
],
[
"materials are indeed foodstuffs, but because it is not distributed as food, and because it is a health hazard to consume and is not particularly appetizing, it is generally not eaten.\nKatanuki was once a regular good carried in carts by tekiya (peddlers) on ennichi (auspicious Shinto days when festivals are often held), but at present, this is becoming less common. A long time ago, it was a side-show at picture story shows (駄菓子屋).\nAside from carts, the molds are sometimes sold at small candy stores, though this is rare.",
"-22.64427473122487"
],
[
"salt (with a larger grain size compared to kitchen salt) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavours in fermented foods.\nCommonly used seasonings include gochugaru (chili powder), scallions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (salted seafood) Jeotgal can be replaced with raw seafood in colder Northern parts of the Korean peninsula. If used, milder saeu-jeot (salted shrimp) or jogi-jeot (salted croaker) is preferred and the amount of jeotgal is also reduced in Northern and Central regions. In Southern Korea, on the other hand, generous amount of stronger myeolchi-jeot (salted anchovies) and galchi-jeot",
"-22.637362148307147"
],
[
"than ever before. The late 20th century saw sushi gaining in popularity all over the world. Funazushi Funazushi is a rare type of narezushi prepared near Lake Biwa, Shiga Prefecture. Eighteen generations of the Kitamura family have been preparing the dish at Kitashina since 1619.\nFresh funa are scaled and gutted through their gills keeping the body (and always the roe) of the fish intact. The fish are then packed with salt and aged for a year before being repacked annually in rice for up to four years. The resulting fermented dish may be served sliced thin or used as an",
"-22.627799780741952"
],
[
"Cucumber is sometimes eaten to cool the mouth with particularly spicy dishes. They often feature as a garnish, especially with one-dish meals. The plain rice, sticky rice or the khanom chin (Thai rice noodles) served alongside a spicy Thai curry or stir fry, tends to counteract the spiciness.\nWhen time is limited or when eating alone, single dishes, such as fried rice or noodle soups, are quick and filling. An alternative is to have one or smaller helpings of curry, stir fries and other dishes served together on one plate with a portion of rice. This style of serving food is",
"-22.61602688790299"
],
[
"may be applied.\nThe peeled whole tubers are briefly soaked in a vinegar-water solution, to neutralize irritant oxalate crystals found in their skin, and to prevent discoloration. The raw vegetable is starchy and bland, mucilaginous when cut or grated, and may be eaten plain as a side dish, or added to noodles, etc. Japanese cuisine In Japanese cuisine, both the Chinese yam cultivars and the Japanese yam (often wild foraged) are used interchangeably in dishes. The difference is that the nagaimo tends to be more watery, while the native Japanese yam is more viscous.\nThe tororo is the mucilaginous purée made by",
"-22.59170993929729"
],
[
"A characteristic of traditional Japanese food is the sparing use of red meat, oils and fats, and dairy products. Use of ingredients such as soy sauce, miso, and umeboshi tends to result in dishes with high salt content, though there are low-sodium versions of these available. Meat consumption As Japan is an island nation surrounded by an ocean, its people have always taken advantage of the abundant seafood supply. It is the opinion of some food scholars that the Japanese diet always relied mainly on \"grains with vegetables or seaweeds as main, with poultry secondary, and red meat in slight",
"-22.57453726150561"
],
[
" The term is now also used more broadly to refer to pickles in general. Tsukemono types Takuan (daikon), umeboshi (ume plum), turnip, cucumber, and Chinese cabbage are among the favorites to be eaten with rice as an accompaniment to a meal.\nBeni shōga (red ginger pickled in umeboshi brine) is used as a garnish on okonomiyaki, takoyaki and yakisoba.\nGari (thinly sliced young ginger that has been marinated in a solution of sugar and vinegar) is used between dishes of sushi to cleanse the palate.\nRakkyōzuke (a type of onion) is often served with Japanese curry. Rakkyōzuke has a very mild",
"-22.56446450209478"
],
[
"but rather is taken as a signal to the host that one wishes to be served another helping. Conversely, finishing one's meal completely, especially the rice, indicates that one is satisfied and therefore does not wish to be served any more. Children are especially encouraged to eat every last grain of rice. (See also mottainai as Buddhist philosophy.) It is impolite to pick out certain ingredients and leave the rest. One should chew with the mouth closed.\nIt is acceptable to lift soup and rice bowls to the mouth so one does not spill food. Miso soup is drunk directly from",
"-22.55749041622039"
],
[
"foods, especially ramen or soba noodles. However, slurping is not practiced universally, and Western-style noodles (pasta) should not be slurped.\nIt is uncommon for Japanese people to eat or drink while walking in public, and this is just one point of etiquette where it is wise to err on the side of conservatism. Drink vending machines in Japan generally have a recycling bin for used bottles and cans, so one can consume the drink there; and in summer months one may see groups drinking near a vending machine. Some consider it rude to eat in public, but this is not a",
"-22.556571512133814"
],
[
"in disease and ability of adapt. So it was used in invigoratant to human since long times ago, because of its good nature of a medicine. Nutrition and health Yuhwang ori has been eaten in folk remedies since very long times ago. Yuhwang can keep the body warm, and make bones stronger. However, Yuhwang is hard to be used in medicine, because of its toxicity. To people, eating Yuhwang ori can prevent stroke, high blood-pressure, anemia and so on. Yuhwang ori can lower cholesterol rate in our body and can be a great medicine for stroke and circulatory system disease.",
"-22.519325842673425"
],
[
"prevent clumping.\nIodine, an element essential for human health, is present only in small amounts in sea salt. Iodised salt is table salt mixed with a minute amount of various salts of the element iodine.\nStudies have found some microplastic contamination in sea salt from the US, Europe and China. Sea salt has also been shown to be contaminated by fungi that can cause food spoilage as well as some that may be mycotoxigenic.\nIn traditional Korean cuisine, jugyeom (죽염, 竹鹽), which means \"bamboo salt\", is prepared by roasting salt at temperatures between 800 and 2000 °C in a bamboo container plugged",
"-22.503515575197525"
],
[
"This is potentially dangerous since it increases the risk of spoiling and of ingesting harmful microorganisms.\nAlthough balut is globally recognized as a Filipino food, it is being consumed less and less in the Philippines. This is partly due to increasingly Western tastes, but also because balut is often associated with poverty. Incubation and storage Balut is considered to be a street food, and as with many street foods, balut should be eaten as soon as it is prepared. Sources suggest that at most, the shelf-life of a cooked balut is one day, but can be kept in the refrigerator",
"-22.49081475130515"
],
[
"the lap. Itadakimasu is preceded by complimenting the appearance of food. The Japanese attach as much importance to the aesthetic arrangement of the food as its actual taste. Before touching the food, it is polite to compliment the host on his artistry. It is also a polite custom to wait for the eldest guest at the table to start eating before the other diners start. Another customary and important etiquette is to say go-chisō-sama deshita (\"It was a feast\") to the host after the meal and the restaurant staff when leaving. Hot towels Before eating, most dining places provide either",
"-22.48828944694833"
],
[
"your ingredients, your structure. Simple. [Other] Japanese restaurants ... mix in some other style of food and call it influence, right? I don't like that. ... In Japanese sushi restaurants, a lot of sushi chefs talk too much. This fish from there, This very expensive. Same thing, start singing. And a lot have that fish case in front of them, cannot see what chef do. I'm not going to hide anything, right?\n— Describing his cooking style, The New York Times\nIn 2004, Takayama opened his eponymous restaurant, Masa, in New York City. Located in recently constructed Time Warner Center, it had a",
"-22.472921525943093"
],
[
"China produces about a third of this amount. Culinary uses Nori is commonly used as a wrap for sushi and onigiri. It is also a garnish or flavoring in noodle preparations and soups. It is most typically toasted prior to consumption (yaki-nori). A common secondary product is toasted and flavored nori (ajitsuke-nori), in which a flavoring mixture (variable, but typically soy sauce, sugar, sake, mirin, and seasonings) is applied in combination with the toasting process. It is also eaten by making it into a soy sauce-flavored paste, nori no tsukudani (海苔の佃煮). Nori is sometimes also used as a form",
"-22.46210443228938"
],
[
"to 3 years. Uses This is a highly prized fish commercially, made into funazushi, where whole fish are salted and fermented in beds of cooked rice. An authentic funazushi traditionally must use the \"round crucian carp\", and for this reason it has been dubbed sushi-buna meaning \"the crucian carp for sushi\". The dish, a type of narezushi, is a local delicacy of Shiga Prefecture, and known for its pungent odor.\nThis species is said to make superior funazushi that is tender down to the bones, in contrast to imitations made by using gengoro-buna (Carassius cuvieri) as a substitute. The ginbuna (Carassius",
"-22.44945017946884"
],
[
"rice. The vegetables and the pearl sago are cooked in a mixture of water, coconut milk and landang, and sweetened by muscovado or brown sugar. Cultural significance A popular afternoon snack, it is best served when hot. Others serve it chilled or even frozen, eating the dessert much like ice cream. Among the Visayan people, the soup is also widely cooked and eaten for the Holy Week, especially during Good Friday when observant Catholics fast and avoid meat.",
"-22.421278329391498"
],
[
"Torshi Recipes Torshi is made with garlic, chili peppers, celery, cauliflower, carrots, beets, shallots, cabbage, aubergines (eggplant) and other vegetables, and dried aromatic herbs pickled in vinegar or brandy, salt, and different spice mixtures, which usually include whole black peppercorns, ginger, etc. Persian-style torshi includes more vinegar, while Turkish style turşu includes more salt as an antibacterial agent.\nTorshi liteh is made with eggplants and herbs (parsley, coriander, mint, tarragon, basil). Eggplants are baked in the oven, put in a glass jar with herbs and vinegar, and stored in a cool, dry place for two to three months.\nTsarska turshiya is made",
"-22.40676583093591"
],
[
"was the cause. In 1884, Takaki observed that beriberi was common among low-ranking crew who were often provided free rice and thus ate little else, but not among crews of Western navies, nor among Japanese officers who consumed a more varied diet.\nIn 1897, Christiaan Eijkman, a Dutch physician and pathologist, demonstrated that beriberi is caused by poor diet, and discovered that feeding unpolished rice (instead of the polished variety) to chickens helped to prevent beriberi. The following year, Sir Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained \"accessory factors\"—in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and salt—that were necessary for the functions",
"-22.394566991715692"
],
[
"because of its absolute cleanliness in every particular. No dark corners here to breed filth and contamination everything is just as clean and as sanitary as it appears to be!",
"-22.394560046261176"
],
[
"themselves from the phrase and said they never used it. Criticism The idea of clean eating has been criticized as lacking scientific evidence for its claims, and in extreme cases posing health risks by cutting whole food groups out of the diet. It has also been claimed that processed foods have been modified to prevent diseases and therefore have some health benefits (in the form of food safety) over a clean eating diet. Additional criticisms have said various diseases are linked to clean eating, such as osteoporosis and \"orthorexia nervosa\". Other health risks associated with this diet include",
"-22.366191555047408"
],
[
"consumption of salt; Avoid mouldy cereals (grains) or pulses (legumes). It has been found that high levels of salt content can increase the risk of stomach cancer. According to the report, “Most people in the United States currently consume more than 2,400 mg.” Although most foods have a high salt content they may not taste “salty” to the consumer, further increasing the risk of stomach cancer. It is recommended that sodium levels in canned goods be checked before purchase. Sodium levels should also be checked in cereals and frozen meals.\nDietary supplements: Aim to meet nutritional needs through diet alone\nBreastfeeding (Special",
"-22.35473613627255"
],
[
"said to have an effect on the direction the family goes in, so there are some families that treat them hospitably and offer them meals every day. They are said to like azuki meshi, so there are families that offer some azuki meshi every day, and if it is not eaten, it is said to be an omen for the family's decline. Zashiki-warashi generally work the same way as having kitsune or having inugami, but the difference between them and zashiki-warashi is that for a zashiki-warashi is never considered a nuisance, and in fact they are even protected as gods,",
"-22.351909806777257"
],
[
"Effectiveness Neither the U.S. Food and Drug Administration nor the United States Department of Agriculture recommend washing fruits and vegetables in anything other than cold water. To date there is little evidence that vegetable washes are effective at reducing the presence of harmful microorganisms, though their application in removing simple dirt and wax is not contested.",
"-22.348224050248973"
],
[
"Master Cleanse Master Cleanse is a modified juice fast that permits no food, substituting tea and lemonade made with maple syrup and cayenne pepper. The diet was developed by Stanley Burroughs, who initially marketed it in the 1940s, and revived it his 1976 book The Master Cleanser. Proponents claim that the diet tones, reduces and cleanses the body, allowing the body to heal itself. There is no evidence that the diet removes any toxins or that it achieves anything beyond temporary weight loss, followed by rapidly regaining the lost weight.\nThough unlikely to be harmful over the short term, Master",
"-22.33368310367223"
],
[
"as pets can eat frozen fare such as bloodworm or artemia and flake. It cannot eat dried food, however, because its stomach would swell up. It is recommended to feed it frozen food for a healthy diet. Characteristics Periophthalmus barbarus and mudskippers generally are able to tolerate high concentrations of toxic substances produced by industrial waste, including cyanide, in their environments. They are also able to survive in a variety of environments, including waters with different temperatures and salinity levels.",
"-22.325848592678085"
],
[
"conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use. Edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, salt is present in many processed foods.\nSodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption may increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension, in children and adults. Such health effects of salt have long been studied. Accordingly, numerous world health associations and",
"-22.27955693603144"
],
[
"use your hashi to take more food from serving dishes, use the top ends to do so in order to avoid 'contaminating' the food on the tray. At the end of the meal, it is good manners to return single-use chopsticks part way into their original paper wrapper; this covers the soiled sticks while indicating that the package has been used.\nIn Japanese restaurants, customers are given a rolled hand towel called oshibori. It is considered rude to use the towel to wipe the face or neck; however, some people, usually men, do this at more informal restaurants. Nonwoven towelettes are",
"-22.265870056289486"
]
] |
2fc04t | Everyday girls/women have photos "leaked" onto the internet without their consent. Why does it become an FBI concern when the woman happens to be an actress? | [
"If a girl sends you nudes and you share, its a copyright issue. If you break into someones account and steal them, you have committed a federal offense.",
"The FBI routinely investigates these types of hacking cases, even when the victims are not famous. You just don't hear about it on the news unless a celebrity is involved. The FBI tends to focus their resources on big time hackers who are targeting multiple people, which this guy definitely is. EDIT: A lot of people are asking for sources. Unfortunately, I'm having trouble finding them because any Google search just turns up news about this specific incident. Here is one example I know off the top of my head. URL_0 ",
"I'm less concerned about this and more concerned that it seems perfectly fine for paparazzi to take photos of celeb mothers breastfeeding, or celebs on private beaches/property and violate these womens privacy, for massive profits, and these shots are put in magazines and on the net. Now all of a sudden people want to treat this situation like is phenomenally worse, and I don't see it. Either we fix the culture at the roots, or we pass this off as \"shit happens\" the same way we pass off 500000x zoom as a minor inconvenience.",
"I had a friend who thought they were dating someone online who was their age. It was back in the 90's so the internet wasn't what it is today. Anyways, they chatted and talked on the phone for years. He sent her pictures of \"himself\" on a pretty regular basis. Turns out it was his son. This 50+ year old guy was pretending to be his son to get girls to send him naked pictures of themselves. She had broken up with him after repeatedly trying to see him now that she could afford the flight, so he started threatening to post her nude photos on the internet. She called the police. The police called the FBI and charged him with trafficking pictures of underage women. Since they were in different states this was considered a federal crime so the FBI moved in. He was arrested and labeled a sex predator. His son found out he had been doing this for years with his pictures and his whole family fell apart. So, the FBI isn't only interested in celebrity photos those just get the most attention.",
"It's not at the behest of the women depicted in the photos; the action to alert the FBI was taken by Apple. They are most likely the owners of that content, therefore, the victim.",
"I guess if someone they know puts them online it is not a leak. If someone 'hacked' into a public or private server to get these images, that is when it can become a FBI issue. And since these are photos of high profile women, the photos and damages are worth a lot more, so it becomes a higher priority.",
"* Don't post just to express an opinion or argue a point of view.",
"Throwaway for obvious reasons. The victim in question needs to be aware that the photos have been posted without their consent before a complaint can be made to the authorities. While Jennifer Lawrence found out what happened to her due to it being all over the international news, many women aren't in the habit of trawling amateur porn sites looking for themselves. I was once, ahem, perusing red-tube when a side-bar ad gave me more than a little dose of deja vu - an ex-girlfriend from many years ago was featured on one of those ex-revenge sites. As delicately as I could I arranged for the information to be passed on by mutual friends - not really an easy topic to bring up directly with an old flame. Turns out she had no idea she was on there, and was seriously shocked and traumatized by the news. Some shit-bag she had dated after we broke up had posted pics of her, and since she never visited porn sites, she was completely unaware that her nude pics were all over the internet. I don't know how the whole thing panned out, but I know it was deeply unpleasant for her. TLDR; the countless women who have nudes posted of them on a daily basis often don't know that it is happening as they don't go trawling through the dingy corners of the internet where you might see such things.",
"To clarify, I dont think the FBI is actually pursuing this because of the pictures. They're pursuing it because of the private account breaches of people worth millions of dollars. Most people have credit/debit cards tied to their apple accounts and the people who brute forced the passwords now have a foothold into getting that information as well. I doubt the FBI even cares about the nude pictures. *see edit below* In other news, there's alot of people in here calling the hackers 'geniuses'. Running a brute force script on a login system that has no lockouts (which was Apples mistake that has since been patched) takes little to no talent at all. Any 4chan neckbeard can google that script in seconds. I could write it from scratch in about 15 minutes. *edit: forgot about that gymnast being underage thing. They may be looking into that specifically in her case, but if what she said was true and she was making child pornography with someone then that girl has alot more problems to deal with than this*",
"1. They aren't entitled to more justice. The FBI investigates cases similar to this every single day for women that you've never heard of. You're making the mistake of thinking that since you don't hear about it, that it must not happen. You are literally making the mistake yourself, that you have accused the FBI of making, for the same reason. That's some wild shit. 2. Publicity moves mountains. A lot of people who are victimized never speak up or seek action when things like this happen. The high profile nature of the case means that the follow up action is also high profile. See statement 1. 3. Anyone can have photos stolen from their phone/ cloud storage. Not just \"girls/women\". Quit being sexist and driving stereotypes that men can't be victimized.",
"The FBI is involved because this case involves multiple states, possibly countries, thus making it a federal issue.",
"Did you just completely ignore the fact that someone hacked into accounts to steal that data? Perhaps the real newsworthy part of the story makes a difference. Also, did you consider that they do try to do something and it just doesn't get a lot of publicity because that's not big new?",
"Because it's a federal crime. This wasn't a leak. Stop calling it a \"leak\" . This was theft, plain and simple. They broke into accounts and stole property and then released it to the public.",
"It's not that nudes were posted, it's that a massive security breach happened and not just the celebrities but thousands of people's information on the cloud was hacked into. posting celebrity nudes wasn't probably the least bad thing that hacker could've done with that kind of power.",
"The FBI takes these types of crimes seriously, celeb or not celeb. It's just that there's no media attention involved when it happens to a non-celeb. Just because the media doesn't talk about the FBI getting involved in every case doesn't mean the FBI only gets involved in celebrity cases.",
"Justice is blind but likes the smell of money.",
"ELI5 is a passive-aggressive way to ask this question",
"You're just simply wrong. No they are not getting special treatment because they're celebrities. If someone hacks into your personal things and posts nudes of you online and you call the police, the FBI will get involved if they have to. You're making a massive assumption that the FBI aren't involved in other people's cases which they most definitely are. Just because it isn't all over the news doesn't meant it doesn't happen.",
"Take into account that this case isn't *just* about a bunch of nudie pics. This is not a case of someone breaking into a few actresses' phones, it's a case of someone breaking into an online storage cloud. So this is less like somebody walking off with a photo album, and more like somebody *completely cleaning out a bank,* and then sharing out the pictures they found in a few of the safe deposit boxes.",
"I do hope people learn something about computer security from this. It is terrible that Jennifer Lawrence has had her personal space violated like this, but as she is as actress mainly famed for her physical attractiveness and tendency to wear tight clothing, hopefully her career will recover from the world knowing what her nipples look like. What is a much greater concern is how just how insecure most people's computers are and how much damage publically acessible nudes will do to the average woman (or man). The fact is, anybody with a semi-professional knowledge of computers and enough determination can crack open a home pc like a walnut. Back in the stone age before the Internet, people used to worry about taking nudie pics because of the statistically insignificant worry of \"what if I got burgled?\". Considering how easy hacking a computer is compared to robbing a house, it is absolutely insane how it seems the norm these days for people to keep intimate shots floating around their hard drives. TLDR; Jennifer Lawrence was treated awfully, but her career will recover. Hopefully normal folks will think twice about keeping images of their genitals anywhere with an Internet connection EDIT - Spelling, as helpfully pointed out below.",
"if you have heard of the old site \"[ URL_1 ]( URL_0 )\". \"gary jones\" the guy that hacked all the pics for that site is gonna be doing at least 5 years in federal prison.",
"Well I'll just be blunt: because society thinks celebrities are more important (though most are quick to deny it).",
"What if Snowden leaked this from his NSA file stash? /adjusts foil hat",
"It is a high profile case where catching the criminal would result in a lot of publicity and act as deterrent for other people who would consider hacking. The FBI could use a lot of resources to catch some random guy who stole and leaked pictures of his ex, but nobody would care about that case except for the two parties involved. It won't deter other cases because nobody would hear about that arrest. I know people want things to be \"fair\", but that is not how the world works. The authorities have to be pragmatic, they cannot catch every criminal that exists. They can only try their best to deter future crime with the threat that criminals may get caught and end up facing severe sentencing. For example, a lot of people on /r/thefappening are scrubbing their hard drives when a thread warned that some of the leaks contained pictures of the celebs when they were under 18, meaning they had child porn on their computer. There is very little chance of the FBI actually catching you, but because child pornography is widely known as a crime that has severe punishment, people are afraid to commit it. Catching the hackers of these celebs will be a high profile win that moves hacking crimes a little closer to this direction. TL;DR: JLaw is the Mockingjay and catching the criminal that hacked her and delivering strict punishment will set precedent for future hacking crimes and serve as warning/deterrent to potential future hackers. You are not the Mockingjay, what happens with you doesn't affect the rest of society, so the FBI is less likely to expend their resources on your if you have your nudies stolen. Don't put nudies on the cloud.",
"In this instance an individual or group of individuals planned and carried out a successful hacking attempt, illegally obtained items as a result of said hacking attempt, and sold said items. These photographs also included child pornography. Compare that to an angry boyfriend leaking nudes of his ex-gf - still despicable, but an entirely different set of actions. It is also a very loud and visible case - they need a loud and visible response to be seen as taking effective action.",
"If you are making millions, you are an actual citizen of the US, where you can actually get stalkers to have prison time, you don't get in trouble for petty things like DUIs, abuse or even murder, and if anyone does anything you don't like, you can get the FBI to take care of it.",
"Everyone needs to face that these people are our fucking gods. No one gives a shit about the average Joe any more but we will suck all of the dicks to watch some girl who can fake an emotion and have a fucking camera pointed at them.",
"Because they're rich, famous, have expensive and powerful lawyers, and society cares more about Sally McCelebrity than Mary MacNobody. Life is unfair and our celebrity culture is fucking stupid broken.",
"In case you had not noticed, we treat good looking people, rich people, and powerful people different than the rest of the riff-raff. This is a fact.",
"The explanation for a five year old? Because we are little people and they are big people. The little people don't matter compared to the big people.",
"because this Op 4Chan guy is dangerous and could strike at any time",
"Celebrities are more important than everyday girls/women. [read with sarcasm font]",
"P. R. I. V. I. L. E. G. E.",
"the FBI and a few other agencies have the redundant ability to look into cyber crimes, which involve hacking and unauthorized access this has nothing to do with copyright violations and consent issues related to photos and using someone's likeness FBI and other agencies look into these things if there is enough public interest to make them move. Also, celebrities have agencies and legal teams, thus can prompt corporations and federal agencies to be proactive this is tied to wealth but is more related to the power of a group of people (union/corporation), than an individual learn to oligarch",
"$$$$$MONEY$$$$$ These actors and such make alot of people money, a lot of powerful people. They also have ties to powerful people.. That's how I see it. It's like when a cop is shot, ALL the cops come out for 'justice' in looking for the suspect, but when it's a 'regular person' you just have a number of cops looking for the man but not as intensely.",
"Because rich people are more important than us. Same reason everyone wanted to see JLaw's nudes and not your next door neighbor's.",
"Because the nobles cant let the peasants think they can get away with it.",
"It's because only the rich get justice and fair treatment in this country.",
"How dare you compare our rich and famous to mere mortals, fool?!",
"Because the morlocks like us that live underneath the privileged don't matter",
"A lot of people are talking about money and things like \"upper class\", and while that might have something to do with it there are plenty of other reasons to pay special attention to this case. First of all, and perhaps most importantly, this was a highly organized leak. Most cases of leaked nude pictures are from ex-partners or the occasional stole phone. While that's horrible for the person who's victimized, this **is** different. The leaks were probably obtained by a substantial hacking operation. Public figures were targeted and the pictures sold on the online black market (also known by the now popularized term \"deep web\"). This wasn't a case of someone forgetting to put their album on photobucket as private, this is looking more and more like an organized group of people making their way into very specific people's cloud storage accounts. Obviously these people need to be stopped before they illegally access and leak more pictures, since it's clear they have the capacity to do so. The fact that these pictures were sold, not just posted online, makes it a lot worse. The crime is also worsened by the fact that these people were public figures. The pictures got massive attention, spread to millions of people and ruined the actresses carers. The economical fallout for these people are probably in the range of millions of dollars (might be hard to get a role in the next Disney movie if your sex tapes are available online). Financial loss (not financial resources) makes a difference when it comes to our justice system, and rightly so. Also, as this is a highly publicized leak it adds pressure on the FBI to actually act, as people will be demanding these hackers be held responsible. If not it will damage the credibility of the FBI and the government. So we have these factors to explain it: - Massive leak - Highly organized - Profit-driven hacking - Hacking into a system were millions of people store sensitive material (call them dumb, but that's how it is) - Massive fallout and economical loss for the victims - Big pressure on the justice system to find and punish those responsible due to massive attention and outrage over the leaks. The FBI does, as some people have pointed out in this thread, also investigate cases were ordinary people's pictures are leaked online. Those cases and investigations just don't get the same attention. Just because this is the first time you've heard about the FBI doing an investigation doesn't mean its the first time its happening. To all the people complaing, I ask you this: Would you have thought higher of the FBI if they failed to investigate this? Should actresses not be protected by the law because they have money? Should the gravity of the situation not matter when deciding how much resources to spend on an investigation? Because this is a grave situation, far worse for the victims because of their careers.",
"Quite simply, the FBI is only charged with investigating federal offenses, and hacking is a federal offense, whereas posting naked photos of a woman without her consent is generally only going to be a state offense. == Federal Offense == Congress passed the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) in 1986 to criminalize hacking. The relevant portion of the CFAA makes it illegal for someone to \"intentionally access[] a computer without authorization or exceed[] authorized access, and thereby obtain[] . . . information from any protected computer.\" [18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(2)]. The Act defines a \"protected computer\" as any computer that is used in or affects interstate commerce (because under the Commerce Clause in the Constitution, Congress only has the power to regulate interstate (not intrastate) commerce). But basically any computer that conducts functions over the internet meets this definition. So the tldr; version is that it is a federal crime to gain unauthorized access to nearly any computer system. The punishment includes a sentence of up to 10 years in prison. [§ 1030(c)]. == State Offenses == There are two general types of state laws that a woman could use if naked pictures are posted of her online without her consent. **(1) Voyeurism statutes.** Voyeurism statutes prohibit recording or taking photographs of someone without their consent. These statutes include a boyfriend who captures stills when having \"phone sex\" with his girlfriend over Skype (without her knowledge) and later posts them on the internet. **(2) Revenge porn statutes.** Revenge porn statutes prohibit posting sexually explicit photographs of people without their consent. These statutes were designed to stop the phenomenon of ex-boyfriends getting \"revenge\" by posting naked photos of their ex-girlfriends on the internet. Many of these statutes would cover any non-consensual posting of sexually explicit photos. Some only cover posting naked photos with the \"intent to harass.\" [ URL_0 ] tldr; If it is illegal at all, posting naked photos of someone - without her consent - is going to be a state law issue, which the FBI does not have jurisdiction to investigate. In contrast, the current leak raises issues of whether iCloud or another major computer system was hacked, and hacking was made a federal offense in 1986, so the FBI has gotten involved. They are investigating the hacking, not the posting of the nude photos. Sidenote: Many revenge porn statutes do not limit themselves to the original poster. If you repost naked pictures of JLaw, depending on your state, you are potentially breaking the law (since her publicist has made clear that JLaw did not consent to the posting of these photos).",
"More often than not they use the term \" hacking \" they being various porn sites and authorities etc.. and in reality the majority of cases are women that sent nude pictures to a boyfriend/girlfriend at some point that person then put those pictures on the internet. The second you give some one else some thing like this its no longer your property and the other individual can do what ever they want with it, its not right but it is a fact. Many cases are also people that sell or trade in old phones with out wiping them etc.. Im not saying true hacking events like this don't exist because they do, how ever compared to the other two examples I listed \" real hacking \" is almost never the case. people just say it is because they're embarassed etc.. Now to give you an answer. Authorities get involved with cases that have \" high profile individuals \" simply because they have money any one can say other wise but it's bullshit lol. And finally this was an event that was carried out by a person who breached a specific cloud storage by hacking it so this is an actual federal offense that they have to investigate it wasn't an angry ex that \" leaked \" the photos!",
"As someone who used to commit computer crimes and have had friends who have been arrested/raided the issue is press and politics, if you make the news it looks bad for the FBI if they don't pursue you. Money is another big factor, it's all about who you piss off, 2 rules which I used to follow which apply here are, 1) Do not attack people who have money or a position of power, they can make your life hell 2) Do not make the news, when a crime is reported all over the news, it becomes the fbi's problem, merely reporting an intrusion (unless you are a fortune 500 company, they do not care) It also depends how secure you are, that goes digitally and socially, don't talk about your crimes, posting Anonymously on 4chan and using tor is actually pretty secure in a digital sense, the issue becomes people like to brag and thats how they get fucked. It's fucked up and it pisses me off but thats how things work, the world revolves around money and power, I'm not saying not all crimes are pursued but I'm pretty sure a bunch of cybercrime offices are getting pressure by their superiors and this will be pursued.",
"It supposed to be an FBI problem every time it happens... as that's the way the federal law is written. The problem is that it is impossible for the FBI to thoroughly investigate *every* violation of this federal law (or every other federal criminal statute, for that matter); instead, they investigate high-profile violations to make it seem like they're doing something. It's akin to how the Prohibition agents dealt with violations of the Volstead Act; alcohol was sold *everywhere*, generally in the open, but they only had the ability to go after the high-profile cases. Is it unfair and arbitrary? Yes, it most definitely is. The problem isn't necessarily with the FBI's choice on how to use their finite resources, however; it's Congress's fault for passing an obscene number of (vaguely-written) criminal statutes that result in arbitrary enforcement. Should these matters be a federal matter if the feds don't have the resources to investigate violations? That's a debate to have. In fact, we should be having a debate about a vast number of federal criminal statutes...",
"i am going to guess that most of the time, the photo is not acquired through hacking. so the FBI is probably looking into the hacking case, not the boobie case. if one hacker got your credit card number and one hacker got ashley judds boobs, and the FBI only investigated Ashley's boobs, then the case could be made that rich ppl are getting preferential treatment. ( and i have no doubt they do) but really, its about the hacking needed to get to the pics. and to the guy that thinks that the FBI could better spend their time on the ISIS beheadings, plz stop. the FBI is domestic. if the beheading was in AZ, then you would have something.",
"Because somewhere along the line someone decided that Jennifer Lawrence was america's little darling sweetheart. I can't stand her personally, nude or clothed, but that's neither here nor there. This means she is more important than your average soccer-mom next door who had a topless photo leaked. Also, it doesn't hurt that she is: * young * attractive * thin * white * female America always goes above and beyond and will go the extra mile for a woman with these qualities. Think of that girl who went missing in Aruba for example.",
"Because these people have A) money, B) the attention of the media and C) the attention of the public (however short a span that is). It's the magic trio! It gets shit done. If you are... * A high ranking government official * Wealthy * Some sort of celebrity or the other... Then you not only get a permanent \"get out of jail free\" card, but the government will treat any \"grievance\" you may have as if it's affecting their very own family. Welcome to America. Take a number.",
"To answer your question: it's a basic example of a class system at work. Celebrities are members of the upper-class, and as such, the authorities help them first. We do live in a prejudiced society, one that favors the rich and (sometimes) famous much, much more than the average civilian. Sucks, but it's just how things are in this country, and many others, for a very long time.",
"Normally most leaked or hacked pics on those sites were just pics she sent to bf or he took of her then when they broke up he uploaded them as revenge. The few that are genuinely hacked are investigated but don't hit the papers as A. People don't care for non celebs B. If no one knows her pics are up less chance of replication.",
"What makes the whole thing different as well is that usually when someones nudes are leaked the world doesn't know who this person is. I think a nude pic of a celebrity that is leaked is the same as leaking nude pics of a girl and posting her facebook page, CV and pictures of her family to accompany the nude pics.",
"Well they would look pretty bad if they didn't. I mean it is an opportunity for them to get some brownie points if they caught the guy. It is a good PR move for them. As others have said here, they do get involved in other peoples issues, this is also an opportunity to get some public recognition.",
"I see your point but in this case it doesn't work. Another amateur nude puc of a random girl is posted online? Who cares? Nude pics of celebeities and 95% of the internet wants to see it. It's a lot more damaging.",
"Because in the real world, $ talks. It's not so much that she's an actress, it's that she's valuable. Most valuable female actor at the moment. Argue all you want, but it's the truth. We don't live in a fair world.",
"the big thing to know here is no hacking happened and allowing the news to call it hacking is an insult to hackers and an insult to my inteligence. Just because it happened on a computer doesn't mean it was hacking...",
"Because nude pictures of celebrities are more high profile than that of say, your cousin Ashley. Leaking both are equally immoral and total dereliction of privacy, but nonetheless the FBI doesn't have the resources to give a whoop.",
"It's not necessarily because they're celebrities. Rather it's because they have money and influence. That just happens to overlap a lot with celebrity status. Unfortunately, money and power grease the wheels of our justice system.",
"I wonder why people think it's a travesty that this occurred and when Donald Sterling was taped illegally it was ok because it was a racist rant.",
"My guess is that it is investigated if it is brought to their attention, it just doesn't make the news like it does with well known figures.",
"Because the photos were -stolen- from Apple Servers? Joe Blow angrily posting his ex's nudes on the internet isn't the same as intellectual grand scale property theft.",
"Those girls don't have a massive network of connected lawyers and producers who stake their money on the girl's comfort.",
"Because you are plebian, and do not have wealth or power. Democracy is an illusion for plebes.",
"Because celebrities are better than you and me. - (say it in a Ricky Gervais voice)",
"Regular people's nudes don't end up plastered on the front page of every social networking site.",
"Because people with money are important. People without money are shit and should stfu.",
"To set a high profile example (and sometimes establish precedence for future cases).",
"Ever heard the term, \"***the squeaky wheel gets the grease***\"?",
"Because they have money. ELI5'ed it for you.",
"I had this issue a year back with iCloud. For months I was battling with a hacker trying to get into my accounts, after changing passwords I finally decided to delete all my email and facebook accounts. I had my iCloud enabled since I thought it would be beneficial to not have to constantly be plugging my phone into my computer. I never understood why this hacker was so set on hacking me, I'm not famous nor do I have any interesting pics on my phone unless they liked pictures of my dogs. Finally one day without any notification that my account had been compromised from apple I came home from a late night shift and when I logged into facebook and saw that an image of myself had been posted using my account, the image was pretty much harmless it was a picture I had sent to my mom asking her opinion of a dress I was going to buy, but what it said made me sick. They had posted the image with a caption similar to \"look at my perky tits in this dress\" it was just a shock to see my privacy invaded that way. The worst part was that they had to have gotten the image through my iCloud. The image in question was only on my phone in an imessage between my mother and I and I had deleted it right after sending it to her, the image then pops up on my facebook months later. I proceeded to call apple and ask what could be done and the man on the phone blames me! He tells me that I need to be more careful about what I post online (I never posted this image anywhere online) and that if I don't want people to see certain images I should't take them. I was totally thrown off guard he was denying that my account with them had anything to do with it. Since then I have kept my iCloud off and don't use photo stream. TL;DR iCloud was hacked, apple refused to take any responsibility, never trusted apple products again, then a bunch of celebs get hacked and the issue is finally being discussed",
"Celebrities have very little privacy in this world and when nudes are released they could lose all of it completely. Nudes from celebrities are also spread on a larger scale to millions, it's not like a picture circulating a school which someone can escape from by moving away. People lack empathy for celebrities and many people felt they were entitled to those nudes and seeing as many of those celebrities were role models to younger people, it doesn't send a good message to younger generations that you can expect to have your privacy violated. It is unjust - no nudes should be shared without consent at all and if they are they should all be investigated, however just because celebrity nudes are investigated ore thoroughly does not mean that they should be investigated less to make it equal, it just means that cases that aren't investigated should be investigated more to make it equal. No one is 'entitled' to more justice, it just happened that this situation highlighted issues with services which were meant to be secure and the photos reached millions.",
"The FBI does not like to be involved in \"small potatoes\" crime. You can argue if this is right, wrong or indifferent, but it's the way it goes. I've spoken with agents after a number of hacking attempts, and they want to quantify the damages, below about $5000 and they will not call you back, below about $50000 and you'll get a lackluster response. I don't know how you value the damages of a leaked photo, but I imagine they value a leaked photo of Jane Nobody at about $0.50, while celebrities can easily document what they are paid for photo shoots, offered for playboy, and so on to substantiate that their leaked photos did \"hundreds of thousands of dollars of damage\". Plus what other folks said, celebrities have connections and can make a ruckus in the press, and they do investigate many non-celebrity crimes you just don't hear about them.",
"Our culture tends to shame women who have sexual adjency. When a regular person's privacy is violated, the underlying subtext is that she got what she deserved and she shouldn't have been doing that in the first place. If a famous woman's pictures are leaked, in addition to the shaming, our culture also percieves this as a theft due to the potential economic loss. Basically the public woman's body has been turned into a commodity of sorts. And so that violation of privacy is percieved of as a theft. Both of these attitudes are misguided and sad, in my opinion, but i see both floating around the last couple of days.",
"Partially that. Partially also because, as a celebrity, they get a lot more media coverage than an average person, so the FBI gets more heat for a celebrity (that has the media on their side) compared to an average person. The bigger issue is this: there were dozens upon dozens of hacked celebrities. This implies that there was either one genius hacker, or a ring of them, and they're accessing information that they should not be able to access to. The FBI is concerned because this \"celebrity nudes leak\" exposed that this ring of people/one genius exists and they have to track them down.",
"USUALLY, the FBI is concerned if the crime committed across state lines. Guessing someone's password (or if you have downloaded the numerous other databases leaked onto the net with First & Last Names, Addresses, Emails and Passwords, unhashing the password) is not considered a federal crime (this is actually a misdemeanor from my studies during Journalism). As someone stated earlier, this is a big copyright issue and breach of privacy. The FBI must step in because the women in question are 1. Famous, 2. Not all in California, 3. Rich, 4. Friends of friends of their bosses.",
"I imagine part of it is that a celebrity's pictures will spread posts of \"Famous Actress Naked Pictures!\" and news will quickly get back to them, whereas pictures of unknown girls can be put up where they will be viewed but not noteworthy among all the other naked pictures and often assumed to be put up by the subject herself, as often happens. Since word likely won't get back to these girls, often the perpetrator himself will be the only one aware that a crime was committed.",
"I think the simplest answer is because of the profile of the victim. Since more people can identify the person, it becomes more obvious if the FBI is doing their job or not for everyone. So much like if you were a cake maker and a huge celebrity wanted a cake, youd make it the best damned cake you ever made because the profile of the client warrants more notice for you. If you flub the order, guess who isnt looking so hot ever again.",
"another big part is that its true what a lot of people say, celebs in this country are our version of royalty. You know that M1-5 would be on it like white on rice if nudes of princess Kate were leaked. So there's that. Also, Jennifer Lawrence is a huge, money making franchise now. If her name goes down in flames, hundreds of millions of dollars are at stake. Who knows already how many moms will boycott the next hunger games movie over these photos.",
"It SHOULD be a legal concern no matter who it happens to. But the fact that so many people important to the film industry are involved, it becomes somewhat of a financial concern. Not to mention the scale of it. There're quite a lot of people involved, so it becomes much easier to rationalize the use of resources than having everyone investigate something every other week. I'm not saying it's right, I'm just saying that's how it is.",
"I think a lot of it has to do with the difference between 'hacking' and 'I left facebook open on the work PC'. Most regular women who end up with their homemade pornography on the internet don't get 'hacked'. They made a stupid mistake giving someone the chance to invade their privacy. These actresses used good security, which was hacked by a very clever motivated individual. The FBI should get involved on behalf of the actresses.",
"I feel that the /u/blalien could be correct, but I feel like there is more to it than that. A highly publicized person like Jennifer Lawrence or Kate Upton being hacked can be used as leverage to push for less internet privacy. We (hopefully) all know that the government has been pushing for that for a while now, and using something like this leak could potentially be used as more ammunition for their cause.",
"I'm more concerned with the fact that people still think their data is even remotely safe (ha, a pun) while not under their direct control. The cloud isn't, and will never be, safe to store personal data. Simply because it can be intercepted by anyone, and once they have it, no amount of encryption will protect it from time and ingenuity. Seriously, don't put your nudes on anything you don't explicitly control.",
"First off it doesn't just affect women. I have multiple pictures of my dick all across the web. If you have seen a side bar ad on like pornhub/xvideo you have seen my dick. My dick is in those \"grow your dick 6 inches in 3 weeks!!\". Its sometimes the bigger dick and sometimes the smaller dick. I know this sounds crazy but it actually happened to me. Its fucked up.",
"Heres what my question is....Why are all these female celebrities keeping nude photos of themselves on their phones? You'd think they'd be a LITTLE smarter about things that could hurt/damage their rep. I know they have the ”right” or ”freedom” to do it but celebrities aren't like normal people. Their lives are under a microscope and the public eye everyday until they are no longer relevent, famous or dead.",
"Also, it's the backlash. Just pretend the gov't is lazy, and doesn't want to do work/pay people for one little nudie. But throw in the widespread criticism that would come with not helping the famous....and you are kissing your job goodbye. That is the power of viral videos and tweets and whatnot; if the gov't knows a lot of people are watching and they act.",
"It's safe to say that if you demonstrate a certain level of sophistication of cryptographic internet hacking know-how the FBI will investigate you. Every time somebody finds a vulnerability or does something amazing they probably want to catalogue it. Phone hacking is not that easy and if you can hack a celebrities phone I bet you can attack a political figure heads phone.",
"what I'm more interesting in, is how such court cases can send you to 10 years in jail, while it seems to be quite easy to steal those pics. I mean it's just a leak. Does the FBI really investigates for all photo leaks like this one, even if it's not a celebrity ? Does it then investigates only because it's celebrities ?",
"Because the average females nude pics are worthless. Jennifer Lawrence nude pics can be bought at a high price by TMZ, The Enquirer...etc, so that makes these celebs a target to lots of crazy people. See Brittney Spears of a couple of years ago when dozens of papparazzi chased her around LA, breaking driving laws and endangering the public.",
"It's not about being an actress, it's about socio-economic status.. which in the US is highly connected with race. Rich white people. If you're rich and white, then the police are pretty much your personal dogs.. just waiting to be set off their leash as soon as you point your pampered finger at a swarthy guilty-till-proven-innocent 'suspect.'",
"the same reason why you would go to jail for a hit and run but people like Halley Berry and Ray Lewis get off without an issue. also if i steal nudes of you and post them no one cares. when it becomes a national story the FBI has no choice but to 'look into it'.",
"Because we arent famous and our privacy is not as important as it is to the gods of hollywood. What kills me is that their naked bodies arent gonna be any different than any other persons on the planet...Like OMG!! Jennifer Lawrence has tits and a vag, was everyone aware of this??",
"Most of the time, photos are \"leaked\" by a jilted lover. This was a hack, which is a crime. The owner of the photos, say for example Justin Verlander, has implied consent from his GF to own those photos. Some hacker stealing them is the crime. I could be wrong, though.",
"I think this became a big deal not only because they were celebrities, but because it was a bunch of people at one time. As well as there is now child porn among the leaked photos since one of the pictures was when one of the actresses was underage.",
"It is wrong of you to think that the FBI is only covering this case because of celebrities. Celebrities are all subject to much more harassment than the general population. Just because you don't know about FBI investigations doesn't mean it isn't happening.",
"It's probably as it's a federal cyber-crime; Hundreds of Apple accounts cracked involving victims across the world. The FBI investigate this shit all the time but it doesn't make the news as most victims aren't famous and aren't on Redditors laminated fap-list.",
"because of the hacking. when other people have photos put on line it's because of an angry ex or something. In that case, someone who was given or sent the photo put it up, which is very different from hacking.",
"A man hacked into a information database, and released personal information to whoever paid. The fact that what was sold was naked photos is merely a detail, except the fact that one of the pictures was of a minor.",
"I'm more concerned about the state of humanity when surreptitiously acquired pictures of nude famous people is a main headline while other citizens of the world are being slaughtered and beheaded. I guess justice comes in all sizes.",
"I am going to have to ask my criminal justice teacher this question. He was a cop for 10 years then was hired into the FBI. He will have some interesting things to say on the subject.",
"Money.... it's not privacy that is the motivating factor for anyone but the individual actors. The actors are products and the people that own that product are very jealous of their cash cow.",
"My 2 cents. High profile ppl can afford the legal guys needed to bring maximum punishment. The FBI isn't going to get involved if they know you can't afford to prosecute.",
"Personally I think America has got some totally fucked up sex psychology. If we were cool and reasonable about sex, people wouldn't steal nude photos because people almost wouldn't care.",
"Crimes against the rich are investigated way more thoroughly (duh). When the rich commit crimes they are punished way less harshly. Cash Rules Everything Around You.",
"Right back at ya - girls & women have their pictures leaked every day, why is it only a Fappening when it's a bunch of celebrities?",
"Because you live in a world where how much the system works for you is directly proportionate to how much currency you have managed to acquire.",
"It's a massive amount of famous girls/women and via a decent investigation the FBI might be useful and promote awareness about this kind of crime.",
"This isn't really an ELI5 question. It seems as if you've already formed an opinion about this and looking to vent on the subject.",
"In this case, there is extortion and black-market trading of the photos going on. This makes it legally more serious than the average leak.",
"I also doubt that the FBI is really trying very hard to catch this guy. They have a lot more important shit to do.",
"The FBI is white knighting. They erroneously think if they catch the hacker, then Jlaw will reward them by allowing them to bukkake her.",
"was going to say money, then thought about deeper ramifications inherent in stardom. but nah, it's MONEY. Bagels. Sheckels. Cashish. Benjamins. Dolla Bills, y'all.",
"I actually seriously thought about this, the explanation I arrived at is that nobody created a subreddit revolving around the other victims.",
"I know this ELI5 is intended more of a protest than as an actual question, but yes, OP, you are not wrong.",
"the FBI wants to see the pictures, too. Snow said the NSA contractors would pass around pilfered nude pix all the time....",
"It's important to go for high profile cases to send a message, especially as there isn't enough time to after every case!",
"You are not rich nor famous therefore you don't matter in the USA anymore. The oligarchy does not care about your concerns.",
"Because they are famous they hold on to nudity as their trump card when their 15 minutes start to fade",
"Do these famous people happen to all have the same agent? This all smells like a publicity stunt to me.",
"Its probably some politician in high ranks that has been caught delivering the pole of love to one of them.",
"Society gives celebrities more status and clout than a normal citizen. They're trying to save face with the public.",
"It involved money changing hands on the deep web. Essentially, someone paid a hacker to steal the photos.",
"Regular Janes have been suing also for having their pics leaked, especially on revenge porn sites, and winning.",
" > If it's illegal for anybody to post nude photos of another person without their consent It's not.",
"Because in the governments eyes, their precious information feed, aka Apple, was the real victim here.",
"In the US, all people are equal. Some, however, are more equal than others.",
"Why do we only care about privacy when it involves the rich and famous?",
"They're not investigating because of the photos, they're investigating because of the security breach.",
"Everyday girls don't have the $$$ to go after the person like this",
"[I don't think that word means what you think it means]( URL_0 )",
"Because they're rich and that's who the laws are made to protect.",
"If anyone's gonna hack into peoples phones its gonna be me-FBI",
"Because you don't matter and they do. Welcome to the world.",
"Because publicity affects response. Don't tell me you didn't notice this.",
"Fucking thank you!! For getting this to the front page",
"Justice only for the rich & /or famous in America.",
"Everyday girl can't pay. Plus the FBI agents are fanbois.",
"First step- Be money. Second step- Don't not be money?",
"All branches of the US government serve the powerful.",
"the simple answer: she's rich and most women aren't.",
"Because 'Muricuh. That's all you need to know.",
"WAIT. They allow naked photos on the internet?",
"Actresses have more influence/funds, thus they're \"worth\" more."
] | [
[
"images (the NCA could not confirm whether the BBC was actually being investigated). Milner later stated to the BBC that the investigation had exposed flaws in its image moderation process that have since been addressed, and that all of the reported content was removed from the service. Objectification of women In July 2017, GMA News reported that \"a number\" of secret Facebook groups that had been engaging in illegal activity of sharing \"obscene\" photos of women had been exposed, with the Philippine National Bureau of Investigation warning group members of the possibility of being liable for violating child pornography and",
"-34.57464508374687"
],
[
"expert Nik Cubrilovic, in addition to the photographs, other personal information such as text messages, calendars, address books, phone call logs and any other data stored on their phones and backed up to the service were also likely stolen.\nOn September 20, 2014, a second batch of similar private photos of additional celebrities was leaked by hackers. On September 26, 2014, a third batch was also leaked, which was dubbed as \"The Fappening 3\". Reaction Actress Lena Dunham pleaded on Twitter for people not to view the pictures, saying doing so \"violat[es] these women over and over again. It's not okay.\"",
"-32.831963123520836"
],
[
"was a subject of some controversy in July 2007 when compromising photos from her private Facebook account were mailed to the pageant board by a group calling itself \"The Committee to Save Miss America.\" These photos were later released to the media and the issue received national attention. In an interview on NBC's Today Show, Amy Polumbo said the photos show no nudity, pornography or underage drinking. In a later interview on The Today Show, the photos were released and were received by the public as anything but scandalous. Her attorney has denied the rumors that the incident was a",
"-32.562348997729714"
],
[
"year, she was one of the victims of the iCloud leaks of celebrity photos when dozens of self-photographed nude pictures of her were leaked online. Lawrence emphasized that the images were never meant to go public; she called the leak a \"sex crime\" and a \"sexual violation\". She added that viewers of the images should be ashamed of their part in a sexual offense. The actress later stated that her pictures were intended for Hoult, and that unlike other victims of the hack, she did not plan to sue Apple Inc.\nIn September 2016, she began dating director Darren Aronofsky, whom",
"-32.386364898702595"
],
[
"Times interviewed a woman who prefers to conceal her real identity while working as a camgirl. She revealed that she had been cyber-stalked by a heavy tipper who started making threats and demands about what outfits she should wear. A short while later she found out that her real name and address had been posted on the Internet along with her cam name. When she complained to the police, they said that they could do nothing, because \"putting real information on the Internet is not illegal.\" She later found out that the same individual had also threatened and outed several",
"-31.67339767224621"
],
[
"sexually-explicit photos of their girlfriends to their friends. This is a new risk associated with new media, as prior to cell phones and email, it would be difficult to quickly distribute photos to acquaintances; with sexting, one can forward a photo in a matter of seconds.\nStudies have shown that sex crimes using digital media against minors reflect the same kind of victimization that happens offline. Family members, acquaintances and intimate partners make up the mass majority of perpetrators for digital media sex crimes. Research by the Internet Watch Foundation in 2012, estimated that 88% of self-made explicit images are \"stolen\"",
"-31.57977021491388"
],
[
"the photos appear \"nude, bruised, bloodied or in a broken state with open wounds, a state of dismemberment or decapitation.\"\n\"We have to walk the line between open record laws and the constitutional provisions that allow women to be able to be photographed nude or in pornography when they knowingly and willingly offer their bodies for dissemination,\" Chambers stated. \"Meredith isn't in a position to give that kind of permission to have her exploited in that kind of venue...we're not only protecting future victims of crime, we're protecting the integrity of what happened to Meredith.\"\nHustler's response was through an email that",
"-31.508344909605512"
],
[
"ask the FBI or U.S. Capitol Police to investigate the incident but said he had retained a private security firm to look into this matter because he felt it was a prank, not a crime. Several bloggers accused Wolfe and Breitbart of planting the photo and message as part of a scheme to defame Weiner.\nEvidence later revealed that a group of self-described conservatives had been monitoring Weiner's communications with women for at least three months. Two false identities of underage girls had been created by unknown parties to solicit communication with Weiner and the women he was contacting.",
"-31.44842607754981"
],
[
"civil action against organizations that publish photos of nude celebrities without a model release, and this restricts the availability of such photos through the print media. On the Internet, the difficulty of identifying offenders and applying court sanction makes circulation of such photographs much less risky. Such photographs circulate through many online photo distribution channels such as Usenet and Internet forums, and commercial operators, often in countries beyond the reach of courts, also offer such photos for commercial gain. Copyright restrictions are often ignored.\nIn some cases, when the depicted person is young and the photo is an actual photo,",
"-31.280685333069414"
],
[
"McKayla Maroney initially denied the images' authenticity on Twitter, then later confirmed that the photos were legitimate while also stating she was underage at the time they were taken. Victoria Justice denied that the photos were authentic but later stated on Twitter that she was pursuing legal actions and found the leak to be a massive invasion of not just her privacy, but of the privacy of all the celebrities affected by the leak. Reports in October indicated that Nick Hogan was the first male star to be directly targeted by hackers; however, Hogan denied the pictures' authenticity.\nAccording to security",
"-31.222995714177614"
],
[
"by celebrities against Google and Yahoo! in which the plaintiffs demand the removal of certain search results, and require removal of links to photographs. One case, brought by artist Virginia da Cunha, involved photographs which had originally been taken with her permission and uploaded with her permission, however she alleged that the search results improperly associated her photographs with pornography. De Cunha's case achieved initial success resulting in Argentina search engines not showing images of the particular celebrity, however this decision is on appeal.\nVirginia Simari, the judge in favour of De Cunha, stated that people have the right to control",
"-31.202850985806435"
],
[
"\"fake nude pics\" of celebrities. In July 2013, an OS X-specific ransomware Trojan surfaced, which displays a web page that accuses the user of downloading pornography. Unlike its Windows-based counterparts, it does not block the entire computer, but simply exploits the behaviour of the web browser itself to frustrate attempts to close the page through normal means.\nIn July 2013, a 21-year-old man from Virginia, whose computer coincidentally did contain pornographic photographs of underage girls with whom he had conducted sexualized communications, turned himself in to police after receiving and being deceived by FBI MoneyPak Ransomware accusing him of possessing child",
"-31.202344344055746"
],
[
"alleged that the materials published were false and done with malicious intent.\nThe actress was also named in the Nityananda sex scandal in March 2010 and went on to file a petition with the Chennai police commissioner requesting that the video be removed from the Internet.",
"-31.096767822047696"
],
[
"on their individual experiences. Plea bargain On February 11, prosecutors informed victims that of all the women appearing in the recordings seized from Freundel's home and office, only 152 could be positively identified from headshots submitted to the police department via email in the preceding weeks. Since evidence collection was conducted passively, with the Metropolitan Police accepting reports rather than seeking them out, many more women who had been recorded did not submit photographs to be considered for purposes of prosecution (or, in the case of students, mistakenly submitted them instead to campus police). Moreover, an untold number of recordings",
"-31.07430072175339"
],
[
"ICloud leaks of celebrity photos On August 31, 2014, a collection of almost 500 private pictures of various celebrities, mostly women, and with many containing nudity, were posted on the imageboard 4chan, and later disseminated by other users on websites and social networks such as Imgur and Reddit. The images were initially believed to have been obtained via a breach of Apple's cloud services suite iCloud, or a security issue in the iCloud API which allowed them to make unlimited attempts at guessing victims' passwords. However, access was later revealed to have been gained via spear phishing attacks.\nThe event, which",
"-30.942440555867506"
],
[
"that they carry celebrity endorsement.\"\nFour women were arrested over the 2013 Memorial Day weekend in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina for indecent exposure when they wore thong bikinis that exposed their buttocks. In June 2013, the British watchdog agency Advertising Standards Authority banned a commercial that showed men in an office fantasizing about their colleague, played by Pamela Anderson, in a bikini for degrading women.",
"-30.913879525056473"
],
[
"were leaked, several affected celebrities issued statements to either confirm or deny the photos' authenticity. Celebrities who have confirmed the photos' authenticity include Jennifer Lawrence (confirmed by her publicist), Kate Upton and her husband Justin Verlander (confirmed by Upton's lawyer), Mary Elizabeth Winstead (confirmed on Twitter), Jessica Brown Findlay (confirmed by spokesman), Kaley Cuoco (confirmed via Instagram), and Kirsten Dunst, who also criticized the iCloud service. Jill Scott confirmed on Twitter that one of the leaked photos was of her while stating that another was fake.\nCelebrities who have denied the photos' authenticity include Ariana Grande and Yvonne Strahovski. Olympic gymnast",
"-30.680324534885585"
],
[
"a naked photo of his ex-girlfriend on her employer's Facebook page.\nCasey Meyering, the operator of revenge porn website WinByState, was arrested in Oklahoma in 2014 and extradited to Napa County. Meyering's website invited users to submit nude photos of ex-girlfriends and other women, with the photos categorized by state. He would then make the women featured on his website pay $250 to have their photos taken down. There were about 400 images of California women on the website, including at least one in Napa Valley, where California Attorney General Kamala Harris had filed the case. After originally pleading not guilty,",
"-30.570698135808925"
],
[
"a policy of removing photos which they believe violate the terms and conditions of the website. Images have been removed from user pages on topics such as breastfeeding, nudes in art, apparent breasts, naked mannequins, kisses between persons of the same sex and family photos.\nIn September 2016, Norwegian author Tom Egeland published Nick Ut's iconic napalm girl photo on his Facebook page. He was banned for publishing \"a picture of a nude child\". A few weeks later, the newspaper Aftenposten published an open letter to Zuckerberg after the banning of \"Napalm Girl\", a Pulitzer Prize-winning documentary photograph from the Vietnam",
"-30.552786809159443"
],
[
"as their fee. However, unlike news organizations, they will seldom question the facts you submit and will not independently verify their accuracy or truthfulness. Actress Kirstie Alley publicly offered to pay any tabloids for the names of people who leak personal information about celebrities to reporters: \"Those sleazeballs who write this crap are so slimy they'll gladly inform on their informants for money,\" she said.\nThe timing of stories has sometimes become an issue, as when the scandal affecting Clinton's campaign manager, Dick Morris, was published shortly before the presidential election, which severely damaged Clinton's chance of winning. Or when Republican",
"-30.48018109239638"
],
[
"continues to take shots and even participates in live video chats with the gentlemen of the site. Too late, Mia realizes that she is working for a pornography site and goes to a group called webwatch to uncover the operation. However, since the agency isn't doing anything illegal, the police can't do anything.\nMia is disgusted and even though she has earned over 30,000 dollars, she quits. Her boss, however, still has full legal rights to her photos and tells her he will keep the website up, as she is the site's most popular \"model.\" He does offer, though, to take",
"-30.34710857574828"
],
[
"from them. Some men sent them money for a plane ticket and never heard from them again. Scammers contact their victims directly through their email. This contact is unsolicited, meaning this person will contact a person without previous contact. Scammers will send emails of photos of pretty young women. These photos will be revealing and sexy as the correspondence goes. Usually to enable a personal meeting they need a visa to travel and purchase ticket money is needed. History Many men turn to mail-order bride services. Before the internet, men traveled overseas to meet woman in the sex trade. The",
"-30.30076662998181"
],
[
"the legal definition of extortion because the photos are public record.\nCriticisms of the industry appeared online as early as 2009. Private attempts to block industry On October 5, 2013, David Segal, a reporter at the New York Times, published an article critical of the mugshot publishing industry. Prior to publication and seemingly in response to this criticism, Google took steps to lower mugshot sites rankings in their search algorithms so that such pictures no longer appear in the first page of search results when a person is searched by name. According to the New York Times article, payment processors such",
"-30.28457665356109"
],
[
"or false. She was later spotted at the New York office of Project Veritas, an organization that targets and attempts to entrap the mainstream news media and left-leaning groups. Also, Post reporters discovered a GoFundMe page on which someone with the same name as the woman stated, \"I've accepted a job to work in the conservative media movement to combat the lies and deceipt (sic) of the liberal MSM.\" The Post concluded, and reported, that the woman had been part of an undercover sting operation intended to discredit the paper by getting it to publish a false report. Becky Gray",
"-30.216910076211207"
],
[
"underage photos of Liz Lee which had been circulating prior to this incident, would be permanently banned from the site and could be prosecuted for distributing child pornography. On September 7, citing copyright issues, Reddit banned its \"TheFappening\" subreddit, also saying the workload of dealing with them had become too much. Reddit banned another subreddit named \"Fappening\" on the same day. Content and affected celebrities The original release contained photos and videos of more than 100 individuals that were allegedly obtained from file storage on hacked iCloud accounts, including some the leakers claimed were A-list celebrities. Shortly after the photos",
"-30.174480745597975"
],
[
"the legitimacy of leaked documents is common journalism practice, as is protecting third parties who may be harmed incidentally by the leak being published. However, professional media outlets who receive documents or recordings from confidential sources do not, as a practice, share the unfiltered primary evidence with a federal agency for review or verification, as it is known that metadata and unique identifiers may be revealed that were not obvious to the journalist, and the source exposed.\nThe evidence chain led to the arrest of Winner, a young Air Force veteran who was working in Georgia for Pluribus International Corporation, an",
"-30.132468524039723"
],
[
"MyEx.com. He obtained the photos illegally through his work as a computer consultant. His specific crime appeared to be the stealing of the photos—as well as stalking the women—rather than the revenge porn per se. In addition, civil lawsuits have been filed in connection with specific alleged postings on MyEx.com. An ex-wife of former \nNew York Giants player Jeff Roehl alleged that the former NFL star posted her nude photos on MyEx.com. Job loss has also resulted from postings on MyEx.com. MyEx.com, along with Google and Yahoo, has also been sued for copyright infringement",
"-30.1042841449962"
],
[
"in an insecure context, or in a newsroom, face risks of physical assault, sexual harassment, sexual assault, rape and even murder. Women journalists are vulnerable to attacks not only from those attempting to silence their coverage, but also from sources, colleagues and others. A 2014 global survey of nearly 1,000 journalists, initiated by the International News Safety Institute (INSI) in partnership with the International Women's Media Foundation (IWMF) and with the support of UNESCO, found that nearly two-thirds of women who took part in the survey had experienced intimidation, threats or abuse in the workplace.\nIn the period from 2012 through",
"-29.97555578208994"
],
[
"unreported scandal, or the perspective of a particular group that may fear retribution for expressing certain opinions in the press. The downside is that the condition of anonymity may make it difficult or impossible for the reporter to verify the source's statements. Sometimes news sources hide their identities from the public because their statements would otherwise quickly be discredited. Thus, statements attributed to anonymous sources may carry more weight with the public than they might if they were attributed.\nThe Washington press has been criticized in recent years for excessive use of anonymous sources, in particular to report information that is",
"-29.85639310022816"
],
[
"allowing TV coverage, the courts had the right to prevent disclosure of the woman's name but did not. The courts later admonished the press for releasing her name.\nThe three college students who drove Araujo to the hospital testified as to her state of terror when they encountered her. Four defendants were convicted of aggravated rape; the two other men were acquitted. The most any of the men served was 6½ years. Issues of media coverage This case added to the debate of whether rape victims had a right to privacy because of the nature of the crime. The prosecutor said",
"-29.832541144249262"
],
[
"definition, wanting it to only refer to Google searches, and the Council removed it in order to avoid a legal confrontation. They also accused Google of trying to \"control the Swedish language\". Leaked celebrity content On August 31, 2014, almost 200 private pictures of various celebrities, containing nudity and explicit content, were made public on certain websites. Google was criticized for linking to such content after some of them became popular enough to reach the front page of some search results. Shortly after, Google removed most search results that linked users directly to such content from the incident. Australia In",
"-29.826538045017514"
],
[
"2011 British privacy injunctions controversy The British privacy injunctions controversy began in early 2011, when London-based tabloid newspapers published stories about anonymous celebrities that were intended to flout what are commonly (but not formally) known in English law as super-injunctions, where the claimant could not be named, and carefully omitting details that could not legally be published. In April and May 2011, users of non-UK hosted websites, including the social media website Twitter, began posting material connecting various British celebrities with injunctions relating to a variety of potentially scandalous activities. Details of the alleged activities by those who had",
"-29.738618354545906"
],
[
"activist Sadiki Kambon held a press conference to reveal photos purportedly showing U.S. soldiers raping Iraqi women. The Boston Globe \"questioned the legitimacy of the photos, which were then proven to be bogus.\" Turner was subjected to wide criticism from conservative media and was censured by six members of the City Council. Turner was unrepentant, noting that he had urged the media to confirm the photos’ authenticity before disseminating them. Public corruption conviction On August 3, 2007, Turner was videotaped by FBI informant Ronald Wilburn, accepting $1,000 cash from Wilburn in Turner's district office in exchange for pushing for",
"-29.733750455810878"
],
[
"of journalists in detention or captivity. Many of these crimes are not reported as a result of powerful cultural and professional stigmas.\" Threats Women journalists, whether they are working in an insecure context, or in a newsroom, face risks of physical assault, sexual harassment, sexual assault, rape and even murder. They are vulnerable to attacks not only from those attempting to silence their coverage, but also from sources, colleagues and others. A 2014 global survey of nearly a thousand journalists, initiated by the International News Safety Institute (INSI) in partnership with the International Women's Media Foundation (IWMF) and with the",
"-29.66709570569219"
],
[
"and Aqours members.\nIn 2017, Suwa's agency Amuleto prohibited the reproducing of her photos from various official sources. This is most likely to prevent any more impostor incidents, which she had mentioned a few days before.",
"-29.595639915234642"
],
[
"to have her photos legally removed from these web sites established by past boyfriends and business partners. Moran stated that she \"maintained contact with many of the people that promoted my website. There was a forum they'd use to promote the site where they would post comments and I would [tell them to] take my website down. Eventually they just blocked me.\"\nIn 2010, Moran appeared in the documentary After Porn Ends, which is an exploration into the personal side of the six billion dollar a year pornography industry. Other participants included Asia Carrera, Nina Hartley, Mary Carey, Houston, Randy West,",
"-29.449142740588286"
],
[
"account of Canadian photographer Petra Collins after she posted a photo of herself in which a very small area of pubic hair was visible above the top of her bikini bottom. Collins claimed that the account deletion was unfounded because it did not break any of Instagram's terms and conditions. Audra Schroeder of The Daily Dot further wrote that \"Instagram's terms of use state users can't post \"pornographic or sexually suggestive photos,\" but who actually gets to decide that? You can indeed find more sexually suggestive photos on the site than Collins', where women show the side of \"femininity\" the",
"-29.37905805639457"
],
[
"the company would send them letters threatening that their details were to be exposed unless they paid money to the company.\nA variety of security researchers and internet privacy activists debated the media ethics of journalists reporting on the specifics of the data, such as the names of users revealed to be members. A number of commentators compared the hack to the loss of privacy during the 2014 celebrity photo hack.\nClinical psychologists argued that dealing with an affair in a particularly public way increases the hurt for spouses and children. Carolyn Gregoire argued that \"Social media has created an aggressive culture",
"-29.346488449460594"
],
[
"with her. Maybe she was wearing a short skirt? Maybe she was walking home too late? Or maybe she was drunk? In the end, a woman is guilty simply because she was born a woman.\nHer post was widely shared, and soon afterwards women in Russia and Ukraine began posting their own stories of sexual harassment and assault. Many said it was the first time they had spoken of the incidents. By August 2016, almost 200,000 women and men had expressed support or shared their stories on social media using her hashtag. In 2018, she published a book by the same",
"-29.34509714145679"
],
[
"refusing to disclose information about the missing women. The committee explained that the attorneys would have violated their ethical obligations to keep their client's confidential information secret if they had disclosed the details to authorities.\nThe ethics opinion emphasized that the attorney-client privilege is necessary to ensure clients disclose all possible pertinent information to their lawyers. It further explained that disclosure of all possibly pertinent information allows attorneys to craft the strongest defense and protect their clients' rights to the fullest extent. Aftermath Although both lawyers were ultimately absolved of wrongdoing, the fallout took a toll on Armani and Belge. Belge",
"-29.290733472502325"
],
[
"if ever by the general public. Amateur photography, which includes nude photography, which has previously been produced for personal enjoyment, is increasingly being more widely disseminated through the internet, at times without the knowledge and consent of the subject of the photograph, and to their subsequent embarrassment. Also, the use of secret photography to capture images of an unsuspecting person (undressed or not, and whether for personal use, or intended for posting on the Internet) creates additional personal privacy issues.\nSome people are made anxious by being nude or being in the presence of nude people; if this begins to interfere",
"-29.25359210325405"
],
[
"afterwards as a mistake, and we wouldn’t repeat that mistake today.\"\nThere are other incidents of questionable photo manipulation in journalism. One such incident arose in early 2005 after Martha Stewart was released from prison. Newsweek used a photograph of Stewart's face on the body of a much slimmer woman for their cover, suggesting that Stewart had lost weight while in prison. Speaking about the incident in an interview, Lynn Staley, assistant managing editor at Newsweek said, \"The piece that we commissioned was intended to show Martha as she would be, not necessarily as she is.\" Staley also explained that",
"-29.247164107480785"
],
[
"Penthouse. Williams believed that the private photographs had been destroyed; she stated that she never signed a release permitting publication or use of the photos in a public format. In contrast, Hugh Hefner the publisher of Playboy, was also given the opportunity to publish these photos but turned it down stating: \"The single victim in all of this was the young woman herself, whose right to make this decision was taken away from her. If she wanted to make this kind of statement, that would be her business, but the statement wasn't made by her.\"\nThe black-and-white photos dated back to",
"-29.235337318939855"
],
[
"sites may expose more female members in particular to stalking, fraud, and sexual violence by online predators. A less malicious form of misrepresentation is that members may lie about their height, weight, age, or marital status in an attempt to market or brand themselves in a particular way. Users may also carefully manipulate profiles as a form of impression management. Online daters have raised concerns about ghosting, the practice of ceasing all communication with a person without explaining why. Ghosting appears to be becoming more common. Various explanations have been suggested, but social media is often blamed, as are dating",
"-29.161827233619988"
],
[
"of actors and directors alike. Most prominently, actor Kevin Spacey, comedian Louis C.K., and filmmaker Brett Ratner had projects canceled following at least six allegations apiece. Over two hundred women accused filmmaker James Toback of sexual harassment. In journalism, allegations led to the expelling of editors, publishers, executives, and hosts. In other industries, celebrity chef John Besh and other executives in finance and public relations were removed. As of November 25, 2017, the Los Angeles Police Department was investigating twenty-eight sex crime cases involving media figures.\nTime magazine dubbed the \"Silence Breakers\" behind the #MeToo movement Time Person of the Year",
"-29.14941215410363"
],
[
"United States Armed Forces nude photo scandal Incident In a closed Facebook group called \"Marines United,\" which consisted of 30,000 active duty and retired members of the United States Armed Forces and British Royal Marines, hundreds of photos of female servicemembers from every branch of the military were distributed. The page included links to Dropbox and Google Drive with even more images. After the Facebook group was shutdown, members of the original group were redirected to other groups. In a post on the original group page, a member wrote, \"It would be hilarious if one of these FBI or (Naval",
"-29.145821870712098"
],
[
"of possession of child pornography was used where evidence was found, but the lesser charge of incitement was used in those cases where a user's details were on the Landslide database but no images were found on the suspect's computer or in their home. Because of the number of names on the FBI list, the scale of the investigation in the UK was overwhelming to the police, who appealed to the government for emergency funding for the case. Reportedly, several million pounds were spent in the investigations, and complaints mounted that other investigations were put at risk because of the",
"-29.102825584821403"
],
[
"nude media of celebrities may fall under the purvue of child pornography laws, a legal regime with harsh penalties for distribution. When such photos are faked or doctored, the media is classified as simulated child pornography. History There has likely been interest in nude images of celebrities for as long as artistic nude imagery and pornography has existed. One of the more famous examples is Playboy's inaugural December 1953 issue that featured photos of Marilyn Monroe from a 1949 photo session as its first Playmate of the Month. The commercialization, promotion, and organized supply of nude celebrity images can be",
"-28.985988802975044"
],
[
"but harmful to women in general as they promote viewing women as sex objects. Actor and avid selfie poster James Franco wrote an op-ed for The New York Times defending this frequent use of selfies on his Instagram page. Franco defends the self-portrait stating they should not be seen as an egocentric act, but instead a journalistic moment as the selfie \"quickly and easily shows, not tells, how you're feeling, where you are, what you're doing\" in a way that a text communication might fail to convey.\nA selfie orchestrated during the 86th Academy Awards by host Ellen DeGeneres was, at",
"-28.964584118686616"
],
[
"send me their photos without hijab, so I created a page called My Stealthy Freedom. (...) If I were in Iran this website wouldn't exist. From far away those voiceless women can express themselves for the first time in more than 30 years.\n— M. Alinejad\nIn a few days, the page had received over 100,000 likes, in early 2015 it jumped up to 760,000 followers, and by the end of 2016 it reached over 968,000 likes. \nIn an interview with BBC in 2014, Alinejad insisted that women who have sent their photos are not women activists, but just ordinary women talking from",
"-28.913674869108945"
],
[
"which a series of court rulings struck down most legal restrictions on pornography. Penthouse has also, over the years, featured a number of authorized and unauthorized photos of celebrities such as Madonna and Vanessa Lynn Williams. In both cases, the photos were taken earlier in their careers and sold to Penthouse only after Madonna and Williams became famous. In Williams's case, this led to her forced resignation as Miss America 1984. The September 1984 issue in which Williams was first featured also included a layout with pornographic actress Traci Lords, who was only 15 when the photo shoot was done",
"-28.91056935384404"
],
[
"without the consent of the originator. Some countries have revenge porn laws that prevent the publication of sexual images without consent of parties in the image. While there are many possible legal avenues for prosecution of people who knowingly breach the confidence of those sending sexual messages, in practice, nude images can be widely propagated without the consent of the originator.\nSome young people blackmail their sexual partners and former partners by threatening to release private images of them. In a study conducted by Drouin et al. analyzing sexting behaviours among young adults, it was found that men would show the",
"-28.874902188195847"
],
[
"the submitter's ability to be anonymous. Around 400 false rape accusations were made by men's rights activists against members of the college, feminists and fictional people. Technology In April 2014, it was made apparent that moderators of r/technology, a subreddit with 5 million subscribers, were using automatic filters to remove submissions that contained certain keywords, such as \"Aaron Swartz\", \"Tesla\", \"Comcast\", \"NSA\", and \"Snowden\". This ultimately led to community protests, claims of censorship from users, and r/technology losing its default subreddit status. The_Donald The subreddit r/The_Donald, which is intended for subscribers who support Donald Trump, was originally created for his",
"-28.84856036741985"
],
[
"computer network and/or internet access unless specifically approved by Pretrial Services\"\nOn August 24, 2017, the government informed U.S. Magistrate Judge Pitman that they had discovered \"a series of images\" on Schulte's cell phone that depicted \"a female who the defendant knows and who at a time stayed with the defendant is passed out on the floor of the defendant's bathroom. In those pictures, her underwear appears to be removed, and then she is sexually assaulted by a pair of hands.\" They found the pictures to be \"extremely troubling, not just because of their content but because it shows the defendant",
"-28.820751275576185"
],
[
"networks like Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter etc. and used those profiles to contact nearly 300 people, most of them security specialists, military personnel, staff at intelligence agencies and defense contractors. Her pictures were taken from a pornography-related website in order to attract more attention.\nDespite the fake profile and no other real-life information, Sage was offered consulting work with notable companies Google and Lockheed Martin. She also received dinner invitations from several male contacts.\nNot everyone was fooled by Sage's profiles, and Ryan admitted that his cover was already blown on the second day, when several of those Sage tried to befriend attempted",
"-28.78798774909228"
],
[
"bin Laden's compound on May 2, 2011, due to its policy of not running photographs with women because of modesty laws.\nThe newspaper subsequently apologized for altering the image in breach of the terms of its release, and explained that the editor who made the change had not seen the White House conditions for publication, which stipulated that the photo \"may not be manipulated in any way\". The newspaper said it has a \"long standing editorial policy\" of not publishing women's images. It explained that its readers \"believe that women should be appreciated for who they are and what they do,",
"-28.774548207438784"
],
[
"live after this?’” She said they were ashamed and angry but feared \"wearing a scarlet letter as a sex crime victim\", and thus feared being identified. Kang said that the sex video investigation was seen by some people as a means to avert attention away from the larger corruption scandal with its multiple allegations, but she perceived it as a serious social issue that needed reporting on.\nAt the end of March 2019, Seungri told the director of SBS's investigative program, Unanswered Questions, in a text message, that the lawyer whistleblower and journalist were responsible for all the criminal allegations against",
"-28.76672034263902"
],
[
"Celebrity sex tape A celebrity sex tape is typically an amateur pornographic video recording involving one or more famous people which has, intentionally or unintentionally, been made available publicly. Such videos have often been released without the consent of their subjects and have damaged celebrities' careers. In 1988, for example, a sex tape caused significant damage to Rob Lowe's career.\nThe surfacing of sex tapes has become so common that some are \"leaked\" as a marketing tool to advance or establish a media career. A celebrity can fight the release in court to maintain deniability while still enjoying the career benefits.",
"-28.743906578514725"
],
[
"MyEx.com Concept MyEx.com provides an opportunity for former lovers to upload pornographic photos of their ex-lovers acquired during the course of the relationship. Photos are generally posted with the full names of the person pictured nude and without that person's consent. Sexual comments about the subjects of the photos are solicited from visitors to the site. The site makes its money through what has been described by opponents of the site as a form of blackmail—requiring subjects wishing to remove their photos pay a fee for doing so. As of January 9th of 2018, MyEx.com was shutdown by",
"-28.676110817723384"
],
[
"making the comments. Other women only share their first name or a fake name, and typically describe the story without naming the perpetrator for fear of reprisal. Sexual harassment was first defined in Afghanistan in 2016, though there has been little effort made to enforce laws against it. Rod Nordland and Fatima Faizi of The New York Times reported that a colonel in the Afghan Air Force was secretly and clearly videotaped sexually assaulting a subordinate in November 2017, and the video quickly went viral, but despite an alleged investigation, the colonel has not been formally accused of misconduct. The",
"-28.669371564988978"
],
[
"on the internet by numerous online mug shot publishing sites.\nSome organizations attempt to respond to this privacy-related concern. For example, the 2005 Wikimania conference required that photographers have the prior permission of the people in their pictures, albeit this made it impossible for photographers to practice candid photography and doing the same in a public place would violate the photographers' free speech rights. Some people wore a \"no photos\" tag to indicate they would prefer not to have their photo taken .\nThe Harvard Law Review published a short piece called \"In The Face of Danger: Facial Recognition and Privacy Law\",",
"-28.635303503018804"
],
[
"give additional information.\nThe \"vast majority\" of the women in the photos remain unidentified, and are all viewed as possible rape and/or murder victims. Police are encouraging that the photos be distributed nationwide, as Bradford spent time in Michigan, Florida, Texas, Oregon, Illinois, Kansas and Louisiana, and faced criminal charges in several of those states. In 1978 he faced criminal charges for sexually assaulting his wife in Michigan, and in 1980 was accused of sexual assault in Valparaiso, Florida.",
"-28.611502256710082"
],
[
"writers and actors. Later, she began stealing actual letters and autographed papers of famous persons from libraries and archives, replacing them with forged copies she had made. She and a male accomplice sold forged works and stolen originals. (The accomplice, Jack Hock, a short time earlier had been released from prison for the armed robbery of a taxicab driver). This continued for over a year until two undercover FBI agents questioned Israel on a Manhattan sidewalk outside a delicatessen from which they saw her exit, according to her memoir.\nIt is unclear how her forgeries were detected, but in her memoir",
"-28.5790701310616"
],
[
"photos of the girls wearing them. The clients are men who use the items for sexual arousal or stimulation.\nSchoolgirls once openly participated in the sale of their used garments, either through burusera shops or using mobile phone sites to sell directly to clients. Legal restrictions In August 1994, a burusera shop manager who made a schoolgirl sell her used underwear was arrested by the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department on suspicion of violation of article 34 of the Child Welfare Act and article 175 of the Criminal Code. The police alleged violations of the Secondhand Articles Dealer Act which bans the",
"-28.55751811823575"
],
[
"cleared of a scandal in 2013, but had new allegations of raping women and appearing in sex videos with them, and the second one was the 2009 suicide of rookie actress Jang Ja-yeon, whose suicide note said she was forced to have sex with as many as thirty men by her entertainment agency. The handling of those cases had been criticized for nonimpartiality due to the involvement of high-profile figures. He said, \"The current leadership of the prosecution and police should stake the fate of their organizations with responsibility on uncovering the truth and becoming a law enforcement agency that",
"-28.53649375634268"
],
[
"as well as academics. Sexual assault allegations In December 2018, a Ronald Reagan high school teacher, Kenneth Chu, was arrested after police found out that he was using multiple fake social media accounts on Snapchat to chat with recent graduates from the school. It was brought to their attention after a 16 year old girl showed text messages between her and Chu to her parents. Chu asked the girl if she wanted to \"sneak off and fool around\", and sent naked photos of himself to the girl, threatening her with suspension if she did not send him photos of her",
"-28.528314706520177"
],
[
"charities\". Reporting on the Trump Access Hollywood video On October 7, 2016, Fahrenthold broke news of a 2005 Access Hollywood video recording Donald Trump making what Politico characterized as \"lewd comments about groping women\"; among other remarks, Trump said that his celebrity allowed him to \"grab them by the pussy\" without consequence. An unnamed source called Fahrenthold at 11 that morning and informed him of the tape's existence; at 4 that afternoon, Fahrenthold published the tape and a reported story on it in The Washington Post. The newspaper said it became \"the most concurrently viewed article in the history of",
"-28.491870406840462"
],
[
"pornography. She was subsequently appointed by the Prime Minister, David Cameron, as an adviser on preventing the sexualisation and commercialisation of children.\nPerry argued for blocks on pornography for all internet users unless they opt out of it, citing the need to protect children. In July 2013, hackers placed pornographic images on Perry's own website. Perry accused political blogger Paul Staines – known for his Guido Fawkes blog – of sponsoring the attack, while Staines threatened to sue her for libel if the claim was not removed. After Internet filters started to be rolled out, news agencies reported that a wide",
"-28.48511826968752"
],
[
"agency is known for censoring and altering news images. In 2011, when Sarah Shourd was released from an Iranian prison, Mashregh News blurred the areas of her breasts and arms in photos of her.\nIn January, 2012, Mashregh News broke the story of the six-month prison sentence given to women's rights activist Faezeh Hashemi Rafsanjani, a former parliamentarian and daughter of former centrist president Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani. She was also banned from politics for five years.\nIn 2012, Mashregh News published a report accusing the United States and the United Kingdom of collaborating with Zionists and Hollywood to promote homosexuality, as",
"-28.45605277782306"
],
[
"Women in media Safety of women journalists Safety of journalists is the ability for journalists and media professionals to receive, produce and share information without facing physical or moral threats. Women journalists also face increasing dangers such as sexual assault, \"whether in the form of a targeted sexual violation, often in reprisal for their work; mob-related sexual violence aimed against journalists covering public events; or the sexual abuse of journalists in detention or captivity. Many of these crimes are not reported as a result of powerful cultural and professional stigmas.\" Threats on women journalists Women journalists, whether they are working",
"-28.452373829612043"
],
[
"On August 21, 2014, an editor using an IP address linked to the U.S. House of Representatives edited the page on the Netflix original series Orange Is the New Black to describe actress Laverne Cox as a \"real man pretending to be a woman.\" Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture On December 9 and 10, 2014, an anonymous user using an IP address registered to the U.S. Senate edited the article on the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, removing a sentence characterizing the CIA's \"enhanced interrogation techniques\" as \"torture.\" Kavanaugh hearings In September 2018, an anonymous editor",
"-28.443055136711337"
],
[
"Secret photography Laws and ethics There are various personal privacy laws in different countries which also impact on the secret photography of individuals, and on the publication of any resulting pictures. France for instance, has very strict laws against publication of such images, while the British tabloid press will publish a variety of secret photography. Examples of the British situation include the publication of photos of Princess Diana secretly taken in a gym, and the publication of secretly taken photos of Naomi Campbell which led to a major court case.\nNews gathering organisations and media trade unions issue ethical guidelines to",
"-28.42700627190061"
],
[
"video footage of celebrities on his blog. He was named as a defendant in a lawsuit filed by attorneys for Irish actor Colin Farrell on July 18, 2005, after posting a link to Farrell's sex tape with then-girlfriend Nicole Narain on his site and on February 20, 2007, a lawsuit filed against him by Universal City Studios Productions LLP for posting a topless image of actress Jennifer Aniston that was allegedly \"misappropriated and illegally copied\" from unreleased footage from her 2006 motion picture The Break-Up.\nBloggers, journalists, news agencies and photographers alike have charged that Hilton posts paparazzi photographs and other",
"-28.400258101755753"
],
[
"have told news organizations that Foley arranged sexual liaisons with them but only after they turned 18 and 21 respectively. On October 19, anonymous law enforcement sources said that FBI interviews with at least 40 former pages involved in the case had not found evidence of any sex crimes by Mark Foley. The FBI identified a pattern where Foley began courting the pages at age 16 or 17 but waited until they turned 18 to have sex.\nIn the state of Florida, the age of consent on the internet and in person is 18. If Foley broke the law in Florida, and is convicted,",
"-28.38721162339334"
],
[
"for legal reasons), either by the selection of models with a certain anatomy or by photoshopping the images. In practice, this means smoothing out irregularities and \"digitally shortening\" the labia minora.\nA whole generation of young women who have grown up with ready access to the Internet are learning about their bodies and sexuality through this medium...Often the first and only way girls get to have a good look at other girls' naked genitals is through pornography, [which gives] a false view of what real women look like.\n— Madeleine Davies\nSeveral feminist groups, such as the Large Labia Project or Courageous Cunts try",
"-28.385666690999642"
],
[
"because \"the Internet never forgets.\" Multiple archival services store the content of most websites on a periodic basis, and that content can be retrieved at any time in the future. Discrimination Mugshot publication sites are often pulled up during routine searches online for things as innocent as employment or housing. Even if you have had your record sealed, expunged or reduced, and even if the mugshot publishing site has removed the offending photos, they can still be located. One company in Utah was recently outed in a leaked internal document for hiring \"White Hat Hackers\" to dig through internet archives",
"-28.374292262247764"
],
[
"communications.\nWomen journalists need to be able to rely on secure digital communications to ensure that they are not at increased risk in conflict zones, or when working on dangerous stories, such as those about corruption and crime. The ability to covertly intercept and analyze journalistic communications with sources increases the physical risk to both women journalists and their sources in such contexts. Encrypted communications and other defensive measures are therefore of great importance to ensure that their movements are not tracked and the identity of the source remains confidential.\nJournalists and sources using the Internet or mobile apps to communicate face",
"-28.355049918900477"
],
[
"to stem the spread of the photographs. Ten people were arrested in connection with the distribution of the photographs. A computer technician was convicted of three counts of obtaining access to a computer with dishonest intent, and received a custodial sentence of eight and a half months.\nThe police crackdown raised questions over violations of the privacy and free speech rights of Internet users. The manner in which actors, their management, and the police handled the situation, in turn, made those arrested into heroes for some Internet users.\nChen admitted being the author and copyright owner of most of the photographs, and",
"-28.341403961065225"
],
[
"isolated incident: \"It's a story we see every day as girls around the world risk their lives to pursue their ambitions.\"\nWomen's allegations of assault or harassment at the hands of prominent men – including Bill Cosby in the United States and Jian Ghomeshi in Canada – added to the debate about the abuse of women by men in power, and the difficulty of reporting it and being believed. Scotland Yard's Operation Yewtree in the UK, an investigation triggered by the Jimmy Savile sexual abuse scandal, led to convictions for the sexual assault of women or girls against Max Clifford, Rolf Harris and",
"-28.325775366974995"
],
[
"sexual behaviour of various celebrities, omitting details which it was barred from reporting, while the injunctions were in effect. The stories variously included Helen Wood, the prostitute who had previously attained notoriety for allegedly having sex with Premiership footballer Wayne Rooney and an unnamed married actor; Imogen Thomas, former Big Brother contestant and Miss Wales winner and Ryan Giggs, who was later named in the USA and on Twitter as the married footballer; and around thirty other injunctions which had been granted in the preceding year.\nThis was followed by many supportive editorials in other newspapers, decrying the injunctions limiting of",
"-28.28680761614305"
],
[
"to make sure that those who are unstable don't have access to weapons of that nature.\"\nOn February 9, 2011, Lee was found to have been soliciting at least one woman on Craigslist. Claiming to be a 39-year-old divorced lobbyist but using his real name, he used a Google Gmail account to send a woman a shirtless photo taken with his BlackBerry phone. The woman searched his name, discovered he was a married congressman, and turned over her email correspondence to the New York news blog Gawker. After confirming the facts, Gawker published its exposé on February 9, 2011.\nLee resigned from",
"-28.266615482862107"
],
[
"In contrast, a celebrity may take the route of openly releasing the tape and benefit directly from royalties as well as indirectly from the publicity. The current public acceptance of celebrities with sex tapes is speculated by Joe Levy, executive editor of Rolling Stone, to be due to the easy availability of pornography, as well as couples more commonly making their own tapes due to the prevalence of video cameras.\nIn recent years there have also been occasions where celebrities have made a pornographic video for the explicit purpose of being sold as such. Famous celebrity sex tapes The following is",
"-28.21140687346633"
],
[
"postings are largely considered to be fake, since further investigation determined that they were taken from a pornographic film.\nAyling and Green both wrote memoirs of the events. The British media, in particular, were quick to suspect the kidnapping was publicity stunt, although it later became clear from Ayling's testimony that she was not involved. Ayling has also been criticised in the media for leveraging the event for the benefit of her career.",
"-28.19347456016112"
],
[
"Imagery of nude celebrities Overview There has been a commercial demand for images of nude celebrities for many decades. Playboy magazine was known for offering celebrities large amounts of money to appear nude in its magazine, and more downmarket pornographic magazines search far and wide for nude pictures of celebrities taken unaware — for example, when they are bathing topless or nude at what the subject thought was a secluded beach, or taken before the individual was well known. Paparazzi-produced photos are in high demand among sensational magazines and press.\nIn some countries, privacy law and personality rights can lead to",
"-28.189418913098052"
],
[
"or embarrass their sender. Celebrities such as Miley Cyrus, Vanessa Hudgens, and Adrienne Bailon have been victims of such abuses of sexting. A 2008 survey by The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy and CosmoGirl.com suggested a trend of sexting and other seductive online content being readily shared between teens. One in five teen girls surveyed (22 percent)—and 11 percent of teen girls aged 13–16 years old—say they have electronically sent, or posted online, nude or semi-nude images of themselves. One-third (33 percent) of teen boys and one-quarter (25 percent) of teen girls say they were shown private",
"-28.156737598590553"
],
[
"for a reopening of the case, concerned that evidence about a pornography ring involving young girls and high-ranking politicians was being suppressed.\nIn August 2006 a fresh investigation into the case was begun, on order of the High Court of Jammu and Kashmir.",
"-28.150903062021825"
],
[
"turn was criticized by foreign media outlets. Censoring of women The newspaper censors images of women in both their print and online edition by blurring all skin. In some cases, women in the shot are completely blurred out. Targeting of journalists In July 2012, over 200 prominent people signed a criminal complaint against Yeni Akit over its attacks on Armenian-origin journalist Ali Bayramoğlu.\nIn August, the newspaper accused Cengiz Çandar and Hasan Cemal of supporting the PKK.\nIn December 2012, Yeni Akit published a list of 60 journalists it claimed were \"terrorists and criminals\". Support of al-Qaeda Following his death in May",
"-28.145573047397193"
],
[
"cell-phone users. As a result, people are often not aware that the photos they publish on the Internet have been geotagged. Many celebrities reportedly gave away their home location without knowing it. According to the study, a significant number of for-sale advertisements on Craigslist, that were otherwise anonymized, contained geotags, thereby revealing the location of high-valued goods—sometimes in combination with clear hints to the absence of the offerer at certain times. Publishing photos and other media tagged with exact geolocation on the Internet allows random people to track an individual's location and correlate it with other information. Therefore, criminals could",
"-28.126418055122485"
],
[
"secret dating is the risk of being scammed. Given that the relationship is private, the people involved will keep details of the relationship to themselves. If the other party is fraudulent, it may take some time detect. If it is open, women tend to share details of their relationship with others. Majority of private dating take place on the internet.",
"-28.11862210149411"
],
[
"on October 7, Canadian writer Kelly Oxford posted on Twitter, \"Women: tweet me your first assaults. they aren't just stats.\" Within hours, the tweet had gone viral, receiving thousands of responses, many of them relating to stories of sexual assaults on women. Over 30 million people viewed or replied to Oxford's tweet within a week. Response of athletes and coaches Numerous professional athletes and coaches rejected Trump's claim that what he said on the tape was \"locker room talk\", saying that such comments were not normal or acceptable. Los Angeles Clippers head coach Doc Rivers said, \"[If Trump's comments are",
"-28.112973012728617"
],
[
"policy, r/Coontown was banned in August 2015. TheFappening In August 2014, Reddit users began sharing a large number of naked pictures of celebrities stolen, using phishing, from their private Apple iCloud accounts. A subreddit, r/TheFappening, was created as a hub to share and discuss these stolen photos; the situation was called CelebGate by the media. The subreddit contained most of the images. Victims of \"The Fappening\" included high-profile names such as Jennifer Lawrence and Kate Upton. Some of the images may have constituted child pornography, as the photos of Liz Lee and McKayla Maroney from the leak were claimed to",
"-28.110534420018666"
],
[
"that superimposed famous female actresses onto pornographic videos, made using FakeApp, without the consent of the actresses. Such actresses included Emma Watson and Daisy Ridley. After the subreddit was given notoriety from the press, videos from the subreddit were banned from Gfycat and Discord. On 7 February 2018, the day after Pornhub banned the videos, the subreddit was banned as well. FatPeopleHate On 10 June 2015, Reddit banned five subreddits, citing an anti-harassment policy. The largest of the banned subreddits, r/fatpeoplehate, had an estimated 151,000 subscribers at the time of its banning. The other three subreddits were r/hamplanethatred, r/neofag,",
"-28.10117725050077"
],
[
"gravitate towards a service to conduct these otherwise anonymous affairs. They were seemingly doing it already,\" Biderman told BusinessWeek. \"I was much less confident that women would behave that way.\" Biderman's concern was confirmed in the data breach of 2015 which revealed that less than 1% of the female users were ever active on the site, the 5 million accounts held by women \"show so little activity that they might as well not be there\".\nIn the summer of 2015, the Ashley Madison website was hacked and sensitive information of millions users was released publicly. Biderman was accused by the hackers",
"-28.052630143240094"
],
[
"is regarded as a state secret.\nGoogle's chief legal officer said, \"The vast majority of these requests are valid and the information needed is for legitimate criminal investigations or for the removal of child pornography\".\nMarch 20, 2019 the U.S Supreme Court risked an 8.5 million settlement which Google formed to fix a lawsuit with the claims of invading their privacy. Google Chrome In 2008, Consumer Watchdog produced a video showing how Google Chrome records what a user types into the web address field and sends that information to Google servers to populate search suggestions. The video includes discussion regarding the potential",
"-28.036982152541896"
],
[
"counsel about whether it is advisable to publish certain information, or about court proceedings that may attempt to learn confidential information. Senior editors are in the loop to prevent reporters from fabricating non-existent anonymous sources and to provide a second opinion about how to use the information obtained, how to or how not to identify sources, and whether other options should be pursued.\nThe use of anonymous sources has always been controversial. Some news outlets insist that anonymous sources are the only way to obtain certain information, while others prohibit the use of unnamed sources at all times. News organizations may",
"-28.03165484627243"
],
[
"she found the evidence to be fabricated. So she told her boss, Ha Jae-kwan (Jung Jae-young) she is not going to do the write up. Her boss did the write up and post the scandalous article on their website. Later, from Seon-woo's (Bae Sung-woo) her ex-mentor suggestion she do a write up exposing the fabricated evidence used against the actor. The company refuses to use the write up. So, Ra-hee's colleagues assisted by posting the write up in the internet using public computers. This results in the arrest and prosecution of the film studio manager Jang (Jin Kyung) for corruption.",
"-28.02383610670222"
],
[
"to attacks of a sexual nature such as, sexual harassment, sexual assault, or even rape. Such attacks can come from those attempting to silence their coverage but also from sources, colleagues and others. A 2014 global survey of nearly 1,000 women journalists, initiated by the International News Safety Institute (INSI) in partnership with the International Women's Media Foundation (IWMF) and with the support of UNESCO, found that nearly two-thirds of women who took part in the survey had experienced intimidation, threats or abuse in the workplace.\nIn the period from 2012 through 2016, UNESCO's Director-General denounced the killing of 38 women",
"-27.981072686670814"
],
[
"figures. While Molly Ivins, a syndicated columnist, said that \"anyone with a pecuniary or political motive for destroying someone else’s reputation was suspect, especially \"charges made by sources with an ax to grind.\" And as another editorial stated, \"One other reason the mainline media jumped into the adultery story with no evidence beyond the tales of a paid-for informant is that 'sex sells.' And it is an easy sell.\" It adds: \nFolks who wouldn't sit still for a one-minute explanation of Clinton's education policy are glued to the tube for a 10-minute interview on alleged adultery... And once a story",
"-27.978865878823854"
],
[
"of the children tested claimed they had sent a sexually explicit text message in the past six months. Another five percent admitted to sending sexually explicit text messages and nude or semi-nude photos. Legal issues Sexting is generally legal if all parties are over the age of majority and images are sent with their consent and knowledge; however, any type of sexual message that both parties have not consented to can constitute sexual harassment.\nSexting that involves minors under the age of consent sending an explicit photograph of themselves to a romantic partner of the same age can be illegal in",
"-27.94560904870741"
],
[
"as Flickr and social networking sites such as MySpace have also been used to share amateur pornographic photographs – usually nudes but also hardcore photos. A more private and easy to control method of sharing photos is through Yahoo or Google Groups which have access restricted to group members.\nThe general public has become more aware in recent years of the potential dangers to teenagers or children, who may be unaware of the consequences, using their camera phones to make videos and images which are then shared amongst their friends, as in sexting). Images initially meant to be shared between couples",
"-27.943197809858248"
]
] |
kscdh | What exactly is time? | [
"**Like You Are 5:** You are *always* moving through Time at approximately the speed of light. When you speed up, you begin to move through time less slowly. This is why it is technically possible to time-travel (though we can only go into the future at this point). Therefore, Time is our relative experience of moving through the fourth dimension. We can alter it by going faster and faster. If you were theoretically to accelerate yourself to 99.99% the speed of light, you would experience time-travel, where a few seconds go by for you, and perhaps tens to hundreds of years go by in the 'outside' world. **Like You Are 12:** When people call time \"the fourth dimension\", they are being technically correct. Basically, try to imagine the following in your head. If I wanted to, using some coordinate system, find a specific moment in space and time, I could write it as so: (X,Y,Z,T) where X,Y,Z are the dimensions you are familar with (height, width, depth). It is important to note that our distinction of X,Y,Z are completely arbitrary and based solely on our perception of the world. For the sake of this next part, just imagine that moving from place to place is simply moving in some direction (let's just say X). Time is the fourth dimension, as stated above. Essentially, what makes time 'time' is the fact that at this very moment, you and I are both moving through the 'time' dimension at *the speed of light*. Now when I move in the X-axis dimension (which again is an arbitrary direction), I am taking some of my speed away from Time, and giving it to the movement in the X-axis. If you want a visual, imagine a compass in your head where the needle is pointing straight ahead. In this image, you are sitting still, but still flying through time at the speed of light in the Time direction. When you start to move in any other direction (e.g. our spacial dimensions), you start to take some of your speed away from the Time direction, and give it to the spacial direction. Visually, this would look like the needle on the compass creeping left/right away from being perfectly straight. If I am on the space station moving 5 km/s, I am moving a tiny fraction of the speed of light. In the above compass scenario, my compass needle is slightly to the left/right. Thus, I am moving more slowly through time. This is why you have probably heard of something along the lines of time-travel and astronauts. Astronauts who spend a sufficient amount of time on the space station come back to Earth having aged ever so slightly less (I am talking microseconds less here). This is, again, because they were moving in the spacial dimensions at a fraction the speed of light. Thus, in the Time direction, they moved ever so much more slowly. Our perception of time stems from this phenomenon, which now that you have reached the end, I am proud to say that you now understand the bare-bones basics of Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity.",
"Hoboy. In my metaphysics class (and no, that doesn't mean metaphysics like astrology and shit - it means \"relevant to the works written by Aristotle after the Physics\") we spent about a month on this. Basically there are two perspectives in the philosophical literature, called the A theory and the B theory. The A theory states that \"time is a thing that goes\", that there is such thing as \"now\" and objectively the universe moves from one \"now\" to the next. Special relativity and other evidence from physics suggests that this can't be true. So, instead there is the B theory, which is more akin to \"time is a thing that *is*\", or a dimension along which to exist just like space. In the B theory it's hard to understand why the present moment is special, or more real than other moments. I think we are only capable of experiencing each point along the time dimension as \"now\", so even if all times are effectively simultaneous, we still perceive them in a linear fashion. I wrote a five page paper on this...it's buried within the depths of my deceased computer, back in my natal home, where I am not. I wish I had some way of calling it back up, but I guess I don't. Edit: I found a copy buried in my emails! Let me know if you happen to be interested. It's not a very good paper, but it's an introduction to some very cool ideas.",
"Oh boy. There are a few ways you can think about what time is. Simply, time is the change from one event to another. There is a concept called the \"arrow of time\". I find this idea helpful when thinking about what time is. Basically, time flows in the direction of disorder. What I mean is, let's say you build a house. A nice, orderly, clean and crisp house. Eventually, over many years, that house will slowly decay and crumble and at some point, collapse into rubble. It went from an ordered state to a more disordered state. That's the direction time flows in. If time didn't pass, that house would never collapse (one could argue that it would never have been built, but...meh). I may edit this later. I found this question a little tougher to describe as I began typing. Just think of it using the \"change from one event to another\" definition.",
"This thing all things devours. Birds, beasts, trees, flowers. Gnaws iron, bites steel. Grinds hard stones to meal. Slays kings, runs town. And beats high mountains down.",
"Time is simply what prevents everything from happening at once."
] | [
[
"but whether or not time itself is \"felt\", as a sensation, or is a judgment, is a matter of debate.\nIn Philosophy, time was questioned throughout the centuries; what time is and if it is real or not. Ancient Greek philosophers asked if time was linear or cyclical and if time was endless or finite. These philosophers had different ways of explaining time; for instance, ancient Indian philosophers had something called the Wheel of Time. It is believed that there was repeating ages over the lifespan of the universe. This led to beliefs like cycles of rebirth and reincarnation. The Greek",
"-29.382606153347297"
],
[
"it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian time.\nThe opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of \"container\" that events and objects \"move through\", nor to any entity that \"flows\", but that it is instead part of a fundamental intellectual structure (together with space and number) within which humans sequence and compare events. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant, holds that time is neither an event nor a thing, and thus is not itself measurable nor can it be travelled.\nFurthermore, it may be that there is a subjective component to time,",
"-29.302579648392566"
],
[
"sense of time as a series of self-contained moments, and substitutes an existence that can feel like an endless, intrusive buzz.\"",
"-28.797202819929225"
],
[
"of time, asking, \"What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not.\" He begins to define time by what it is not rather than what it is,\nan approach similar to that taken in other negative definitions. However, Augustine ends up calling time a \"distention\" of the mind (Confessions 11.26) by which we simultaneously grasp the past in memory, the present by attention, and the future by expectation.\nIsaac Newton believed in absolute space and absolute time; Leibniz believed that time and space are relational.\nThe differences between",
"-28.796667260307004"
],
[
"his own definition of time as \"the measure of being\", thus distinguishing between space and time, and reclassifying time as a metaphysical concept rather than a physical one. The scholar Y. Tzvi Langermann writes:\nDissatisfied with the regnant approach, which treated time as an accident of the cosmos, al-Baghdadi drew the conclusion that time is an entity whose conception (ma'qul al-zaman) is a priori and almost as general as that of being, encompassing the sensible and the non-sensible, that which moves and that which is at rest. Our idea of time results not from abstraction, stripping accidents from perceived objects, but",
"-28.54561392380856"
],
[
"and time are forms of my sensibility and whatever exists in them is a real appearance that I experience. These appearances are connected in space and time according to universal laws of experience. Anything that cannot be experienced in space or time is nothing to us and does not exist for us.\nII. The Cosmological Ideas (wrongly use Reason beyond experience)\n §50. The Cosmological Idea is cosmological because it is concerned with sensually experienced objects and it is an Idea because the ultimate condition which it seeks can never be experienced. Because its objects can be sensed, the Cosmological Idea wouldn't",
"-28.245749280467862"
],
[
"exists\" and argues in his 12th-century Guide for the Perplexed (2:13) that \"time itself is part of creation\" and that therefore, \"when God is described as existing before the creation of the universe, the notion of time should not be understood in its normal sense\". The 15th-century Jewish philosopher Joseph Albo argued similarly in his Ikkarim that there are two types of time: \"Measured time which depends on motion, and time in the abstract\", the second of which has no origin and is \"the infinite space of time before the universe was created\". Albo argued that \"although it is difficult",
"-28.09938405349385"
],
[
"also The flow of time).\nThese arguments often center on what it means for something to be unreal. Modern physicists generally believe that time is as real as space – though others, such as Julian Barbour in his book The End of Time, argue that quantum equations of the universe take their true form when expressed in the timeless realm containing every possible now or momentary configuration of the universe, called 'platonia' by Barbour.\nA modern philosophical theory called presentism views the past and the future as human-mind interpretations of movement instead of real parts of time (or \"dimensions\") which coexist with the",
"-28.07823164400179"
],
[
"is \"Time precedes existence\". In contrast to the views of Newton, of Einstein, and of quantum physics, which offer a symmetric view of time (as discussed above), Prigogine points out that statistical and thermodynamic physics can explain irreversible phenomena, as well as the arrow of time and the Big Bang.",
"-27.902540665119886"
],
[
"use ever since. Conceptions of time Galileo, Newton, and most people up until the 20th century thought that time was the same for everyone everywhere. This is the basis for timelines, where time is a parameter. The modern understanding of time is based on Einstein's theory of relativity, in which rates of time run differently depending on relative motion, and space and time are merged into spacetime, where we live on a world line rather than a timeline. In this view time is a coordinate. According to the prevailing cosmological model of the Big Bang theory time itself began as",
"-27.89701224397868"
],
[
"Victor Kanke Theories In his doctoral dissertation (1985), Kanke developed the concept of time forms, according to which the nature of time is always determined by the specifics of the processes in which it is inherent. Time is a measure of the process from its inception to its new state. It is a common mistake to give physical time universal features. But it is an adequate quantitative measure of solely physical processes.\nIn 1996-2011, Kanke developed the theory of conceptual transitions. According to this theory, philosophy in its modern form is divided into two parts, namely, substantial and metascientific philosophy. Substantial",
"-27.857395183877088"
],
[
"true and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature flows equably without regard to anything external, and by another name is called duration: relative, apparent and common time, is some sensible and external (whether accurate or unequable) measure of duration by the means of motion, which is commonly used instead of true time ...\nAccording to Newton, absolute time exists independently of any perceiver and progresses at a consistent pace throughout the universe. Unlike relative time, Newton believed absolute time was imperceptible and could only be understood mathematically. According to Newton, humans are only capable of perceiving relative time,",
"-27.797945002734195"
],
[
"Epoch (computing) In computing, an epoch is a date and time from which a computer measures system time. Most computer systems determine time as a number representing the seconds removed from particular arbitrary date and time. For instance, Unix and POSIX measure time as the number of seconds that have passed since 1 January 1970 00:00:00 UT, a point in time known as the Unix epoch. The NT time epoch on Windows NT and later refers to the Windows NT system time in (10^-7)s intervals from 0h 1 January 1601.\nComputing epochs are nearly always specified as midnight Universal Time on",
"-27.758119966922095"
],
[
"of time. It is sometimes referred to as the \"block time\" or \"block universe\" theory due to its description of space-time as an unchanging four-dimensional \"block\", as opposed to the view of the world as a three-dimensional space modulated by the passage of time. The present In classical philosophy, time is divided into three distinct regions; the \"past\", the \"present\", and the \"future\". Using that representational model, the past is generally seen as being immutably fixed, and the future as at least partly undefined. As time passes, the moment that was once the present becomes part of the past; and",
"-27.757387157995254"
],
[
"Time in physics The unit of measurement of time: the second In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of time is the second (symbol: ). It is a SI base unit, and it has been defined since 1967 as \"the duration of 9, 192, 631, 770 [cycles] of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom\". This definition is based on the operation of a caesium atomic clock. These clocks became practical for use as primary reference standards after about 1955 and have been in",
"-27.742396248620935"
],
[
"extent of and distances between objects, and temporal measurements are used to quantify the durations of and between events. Time was designated by Kant as the purest possible schema of a pure concept or category.\nHenri Bergson believed that time was neither a real homogeneous medium nor a mental construct, but possesses what he referred to as Duration. Duration, in Bergson's view, was creativity and memory as an essential component of reality.\nAccording to Martin Heidegger we do not exist inside time, we are time. Hence, the relationship to the past is a present awareness of having been, which allows the past",
"-27.716086003289092"
],
[
"Conversely, Cordova notes that NAP views space as being a concept that connects everything to our global environment and time as an endless continuous motion. The universe is considered as infinite and unbound; being in constant motion with no beginning or end and is balanced and stable despite occasional \"temporary sadness.\" Similarly, time does not belong to an absolute and bounded category in NAP, it is not a self-existing thing independent of human acknowledgement. Time is not even another dimension - it is nothing more than a human construct. Instead, it is, \"merely a measure of motion ... the sun,",
"-27.501246867839654"
],
[
"are not things as they are apart from their appearance. They are known only through sensuous intuition. The form of external sensible intuition is space. Time is the form of internal sense. Time and space are mere forms of our sense intuition and are not qualities of things in themselves apart from our sensuous intuition.\nRemark I. Pure mathematics, including pure geometry, has objective reality when it refers to objects of sense. Pure mathematical propositions are not creations of imagination. They are necessarily valid of space and all of its phenomenal objects because a priori mathematical space is the",
"-27.224247703008587"
],
[
"also sometimes used informally to denote minutes of time. History One of the earliest known uses of the minute (and the second) is found in John of Sacrobosco's Computus (ca. 1235), where he used them when discussing the length of the tropical year. No earlier records for the origin of the minute as ¹⁄₆₀ of the hour and the second ¹⁄₆₀ of the minute have ever been found. Another motivation that has been suggested for the emergence of these fine divisions of time was the construction of \"precision\" timepieces (mechanical and water clocks). \nHistorically, the word \"minute\" comes from",
"-27.175484168168623"
],
[
"well as common sense tell us something about time and our concept of time. He notes that science and logic and the canonical logic of science do not have any temporal reference. When a scientist proposes a law of nature or a scientific generalisation the scientist proposes a statement that holds regardless of temporal reference to a certain time or to the fact that a certain time is now. Similarly, in logic, arguments are presented without temporal reference. They are intended to be timeless. In common sense talk we readily say that we have a future and have a past.",
"-27.109569325853954"
],
[
"System time In computer science and computer programming, system time represents a computer system's notion of the passage of time. In this sense, time also includes the passing of days on the calendar.\nSystem time is measured by a system clock, which is typically implemented as a simple count of the number of ticks that have transpired since some arbitrary starting date, called the epoch. For example, Unix and POSIX-compliant systems encode system time (\"Unix time\") as the number of seconds elapsed since the start of the Unix epoch at 1 January 1970 00:00:00 UT, with exceptions for leap seconds.",
"-27.026395336375572"
],
[
"physical being in a unified physics, Wheeler says, is time. In a 1986 eulogy to the mathematician Hermann Weyl, Wheeler proclaimed: \"Time, among all concepts in the world of physics, puts up the greatest resistance to being dethroned from ideal continuum to the world of the discrete, of information, of bits. ... Of all obstacles to a thoroughly penetrating account of existence, none looms up more dismayingly than 'time.' Explain time? Not without explaining existence. Explain existence? Not without explaining time. To uncover the deep and hidden connection between time and existence ... is a task for the future.\" Digital",
"-27.020569070475176"
],
[
"is the time between two events as measured by an observer using that observer's own method of assigning a time to an event. In the special case of an inertial observer in special relativity, the time is measured using the observer's clock and the observer's definition of simultaneity.\nThe concept of proper time was introduced by Hermann Minkowski in 1908, and is a feature of Minkowski diagrams. Mathematical formalism The formal definition of proper time involves describing the path through spacetime that represents a clock, observer, or test particle, and the metric structure of that spacetime. Proper time is the pseudo-Riemannian",
"-26.947491282015108"
],
[
"poses the following questions: What then are time and space? Are they real existences? Or, are they merely relations or determinations of things, such, however, as would equally belong to these things in themselves, though they should never become objects of intuition; or, are they such as belong only to the form of intuition, and consequently to the subjective constitution of the mind, without which these predicates of time and space could not be attached to any object? The answer that space and time are real existences belongs to Newton. The answer that space and time are relations or determinations",
"-26.663983067817753"
],
[
"in \"The Unreality of Time\" (1908), in which events are ordered via a tensed A-series or a tenseless B-series. It is popularly assumed that the A theory represents time like an A-series, while the B theory represents time like a B-series. The terms A and B theory are sometimes used as synonyms to the terms presentism and eternalism, but arguably presentism does not represent time being like an A-series since it denies that there is a future and past in which events can be located.\nEvents (or \"times\"), McTaggart observed, may be characterized in two distinct, but related, ways. On the",
"-26.614624972717138"
],
[
"They are in fact the elements of motion and in their reality are inseparable from the universe of motion; they are elements in a continuum.\n— Space, Time and Deity [1920] Vol. I, p. 325\n Time makes Space distinct and Space makes Time distinct... Space or Time, may be regarded as supplying the element of diversity to the element of identity supplied by the other.\n— Space, Time and Deity [1920] Vol. I, p. 195\nAlexander absolutizes spacetime, and even speaks of it as a \"stuff\" of which things are made. At the same time he also says that spacetime can be called \"Motions\" –",
"-26.57676414627349"
],
[
"Specious present The specious present is the time duration wherein one's perceptions are considered to be in the present. Time perception studies the sense of time, which differs from other senses since time cannot be directly perceived but must be reconstructed by the brain.",
"-26.538826844422147"
],
[
"world and the reality of time establishes history as the site of decisive action through the propositions that there is only one real world, not multiple or simultaneous universes, and that time really exists in the world, not as a simulacrum through which we must experience the world.\nThese two concepts of infinity and reality lie at the heart of Unger's program calling for metaphysical and institutional revolutions. From the concept of the self as infinite but constrained, Unger argues that we must continually transform our environment to better express ourselves. This can only be done in a singular world within",
"-26.48381066476577"
],
[
"McTaggart reaches is that reality is not temporal at all. The phenomenological analysis: the A- and B-series To frame his argument, McTaggart initially offers a phenomenological analysis of how time appears to us in experience. Time appears, he says, in the form of events standing in temporal positions, of which there are two kinds. On the one hand events are earlier than and later than each other, and on the other hand they are future, present, and past, and continually changing their position in terms of futurity, presentness, and pastness. The two kinds of temporal positions each represent events in",
"-26.43573558225762"
],
[
"Bergson's term \"duration\" refers to a more individual, subjective experience of time, as opposed to mathematical, objectively measurable \"clock time.\" In Creative Evolution, Bergson suggests that the experience of time as \"duration\" can best be understood through intuition.\nHarvard philosopher William James intended to write the introduction to the English translation of the book, but died in 1910 prior to its completion.",
"-26.370563259522896"
],
[
"from relativity.\n— David Mermin, It’s About Time",
"-26.322193702391814"
],
[
"symbol for time appears often in the first, once in the second, and not at all in the third. Also, a symbol for motion or speed appeared only in the first and third equations. They seem to relate the same truth about nature, in terms of time as well as without time.\nThe equations themselves are not given, and can only be pieced together in part from the text of the story.",
"-26.31251926650293"
],
[
"from the successive addition of units in time. Pure mechanics uses time to construct motion. Space and time are pure a priori intuitions. They are the mere forms of our sensations and exist in us prior to all of our intuitions of objects. Space and time are a priori knowledge of a sensed object as it appears to an observer.\n§ 11. The problem of a priori intuition is solved. The pure a priori intuition of space and time is the basis of empirical a posteriori intuition. Synthetic a priori mathematical knowledge refers to empirically sensed objects. A priori intuition relates",
"-26.310198116931133"
],
[
"time is not composed of indivisible moments any more than any other magnitude is composed of indivisibles.\n— Aristotle, Physics VI:9, 239b5\nIn reference to Zeno's paradox of the arrow in flight, Alfred North Whitehead writes that \"an infinite number of acts of becoming may take place in a finite time if each subsequent act is smaller in a convergent series\":\nThe argument, so far as it is valid, elicits a contradiction from the two premises: (i) that in a becoming something (res vera) becomes, and (ii) that every act of becoming is divisible into earlier and later sections which are themselves acts of",
"-26.269418485404458"
],
[
"Time constant In physics and engineering, the time constant, usually denoted by the Greek letter τ (tau), is the parameter characterizing the response to a step input of a first-order, linear time-invariant (LTI) system. The time constant is the main characteristic unit of a first-order LTI system.\nIn the time domain, the usual choice to explore the time response is through the step response to a step input, or the impulse response to a Dirac delta function input. In the frequency domain (for example, looking at the Fourier transform of the step response, or using an input that is a simple",
"-26.267888563801534"
],
[
"found in erogenous zones of the body). Time Chronoception refers to how the passage of time is perceived and experienced. Although the sense of time is not associated with a specific sensory system, the work of psychologists and neuroscientists indicates that human brains do have a system governing the perception of time, composed of a highly distributed system involving the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia. One particular component, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, is responsible for the circadian (or daily) rhythm, while other cell clusters appear to be capable of shorter-range (ultradian) timekeeping.\nOne or more dopaminergic pathways in the central nervous",
"-26.20393661747221"
],
[
"Spacetime Definitions Non-relativistic classical mechanics treats time as a universal quantity of measurement which is uniform throughout space and which is separate from space. Classical mechanics assumes that time has a constant rate of passage that is independent of the state of motion of an observer, or indeed of anything external. Furthermore, it assumes that space is Euclidean, which is to say, it assumes that space follows the geometry of common sense.\nIn the context of special relativity, time cannot be separated from the three dimensions of space, because the observed rate at which time passes for an object depends on",
"-26.174217947816942"
],
[
"philosophers believe that the universe was infinite, and was an illusion to humans. Plato believed that time was made by the Creator at the same instant as the heavens. He also says that time is a period of motion of the heavenly bodies. Aristotle believed that time correlated to movement, that time did not exist on its own but was relative to motion of objects. he also believed that time was related to the motion of celestial bodies; the reason that humans can tell time was because of orbital periods and therefore there was a duration on time.\nThe Vedas, the",
"-26.111284042242914"
],
[
"are able to remember the past and project into the future – we have a kind of random access to our representation of temporal existence; we can, in our thoughts, step out of (ecstasis) sequential time.\nModern philosophers asked: is time real or unreal, is time happening all at once or a duration, If time tensed or tenseless, and is there a future to be? There is a theory called the tenseless or B-theory; this theory says that any tensed terminology can be replaced with tenseless terminology. For example, \"we will win the game\" can be replaced with \"we do win the",
"-26.087751502323954"
],
[
"Instant An instant is an infinitesimal moment in time, a moment whose passage is instantaneous.\nThe continuous nature of time and its infinite divisibility was addressed by Aristotle in his Physics, where he wrote on Zeno's paradoxes. The philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell was still seeking to define the exact nature of an instant thousands of years later.\nIn physics, a theoretical lower-bound unit of time called the Planck time has been proposed, that being the time required for light to travel a distance of 1 Planck length. The Planck time is theorized to be the smallest time measurement that will ever be",
"-26.0439285467437"
],
[
"is said to be infinite. Some of it is past, some present, and some future. But the whole of time is present, as we say that the year is present on a larger compass. Also, the whole of time is said to belong, though none of its parts belong exactly.",
"-25.944743376690894"
],
[
"time do not depend upon physical events, but are a backdrop or stage setting within which physical phenomena occur. Thus, every object has an absolute state of motion relative to absolute space, so that an object must be either in a state of absolute rest, or moving at some absolute speed. To support his views, Newton provided some empirical examples: according to Newton, a solitary rotating sphere can be inferred to rotate about its axis relative to absolute space by observing the bulging of its equator, and a solitary pair of spheres tied by a rope can be inferred to",
"-25.87407322623767"
],
[
" (Quoted from ljod.is)\n Time is like the water,\n and the water is cold and deep\n like my own consciousness.\n And time is like a picture,\n which is painted of water,\n half of it by me.\n And time and the water\n flow trackless to extinction\n into my own consciousness.\n (Translation by Marshall Brement)\nThe second stanza here may be regarded as an object lesson in the difficulty of translation, and perhaps of translating the work of",
"-25.769210467406083"
],
[
"consisting of repeating ages that happen to every being of the Universe between birth and extinction.\nIn general, the Islamic and Judeo-Christian world-view regards time as linear\nand directional,\nbeginning with the act of creation by God. The traditional Christian view sees time ending, teleologically,\nwith the eschatological end of the present order of things, the \"end time\".\nIn the Old Testament book Ecclesiastes, traditionally ascribed to Solomon (970–928 BC), time (as the Hebrew word עידן, זמן 'iddan(age, as in \"Ice age\") zĕman(time) is often translated) was traditionally regarded as a medium for the passage of predestined events. (Another word, زمان\" זמן\" zamān, meant time",
"-25.652857726403454"
],
[
"cause of food, and then celebrates Time as Brahman. Food, states the sixth Prapathaka, is the source of the world, Time is the origin of food, and Sun is the origin of Time. It symbolically maps the Time and Timeless as changing reality and the unchanging Brahman, respectively.\nThere is a motley collection of ideas in the discussion of Kala (Time), within the sixth Prapathaka of the Upanishad. For example, in section 6.14, it sets out to prove Time exists, acknowledges the difficulty in proving Time exists by Pramana (epistemology in Indian philosophy), then inserts a theory of inductive inference for",
"-25.596465055365115"
],
[
"and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without relation to anything external, and by another name is called duration.\" This definition is basic to all classical physics.\nEinstein had the genius to question it, and found that it was incomplete. Instead, each \"observer\" necessarily makes use of his or her own scale of time, and for two observers in relative motion, their time-scales will differ. This induces a related effect on position measurements. Space and time become intertwined concepts, fundamentally dependent on the observer. Each observer presides over his or her own space-time framework or coordinate",
"-25.500373687929823"
],
[
"and subjective. Time as \"unreal\" In 5th century BC Greece, Antiphon the Sophist, in a fragment preserved from his chief work On Truth, held that: \"Time is not a reality (hypostasis), but a concept (noêma) or a measure (metron).\"Parmenides went further, maintaining that time, motion, and change were illusions, leading to the paradoxes of his follower Zeno.\nTime as an illusion is also a common theme in Buddhist thought.\nJ.M.E. McTaggart's 1908 The Unreality of Time argues that, since every event has the characteristic of being both present and not present (i.e., future or past), that time is a self-contradictory idea (see",
"-25.49550224049017"
],
[
"“I left on the sixth day.” What is crucial in their perception of time is whether an event can be warranted to have occurred, or to be occurring, or to be expected to occur. Hopi grammatical categories signify view of the world as an ongoing process, where time is not divided into fixed segments so that certain things recur, e.g. minutes, evenings, or days. The linguistic structure of SAE languages, on the other hand, gives its speakers more fixed, objectified and measurable understanding of time and space, where they distinguish between countable and uncountable objects and view time as a",
"-25.482960930356057"
],
[
"said that time is \"the short duration of which we are immediately and incessantly sensible\". Other early presentist philosophers include the Indian Buddhist tradition. Fyodor Shcherbatskoy, a leading scholar of the modern era on Buddhist philosophy, has written extensively on Buddhist presentism: \"Everything past is unreal, everything future is unreal, everything imagined, absent, mental... is unreal. Ultimately, real is only the present moment of physical efficiency [i.e., causation].\"\nAccording to J. M. E. McTaggart's \"The Unreality of Time\", there are two ways of referring to events: the 'A Series' (or 'tensed time': yesterday, today, tomorrow) and the 'B Series' (or 'untensed",
"-25.4781616073451"
],
[
"space) to comprehend sense experience.\nWith Kant, neither space nor time are conceived as substances, but rather both are elements of a systematic mental framework that necessarily structures the experiences of any rational agent, or observing subject. Kant thought of time as a fundamental part of an abstract conceptual framework, together with space and number, within which we sequence events, quantify their duration, and compare the motions of objects. In this view, time does not refer to any kind of entity that \"flows,\" that objects \"move through,\" or that is a \"container\" for events. Spatial measurements are used to quantify the",
"-25.448651561222505"
],
[
"from moment to moment as illumination that is alive in the individual self\". When time, being, self, and illumination come together and work dynamically in one's life, time and being are unified (2007: 85). Furthermore, self is time. The \"self arrays itself and forms the entire universe.\" One should perceive each particular thing in the universe as a moment of time. Neither things nor moments hinder one another (2007: 93).",
"-25.405659438110888"
],
[
"explained since the discourse on time is connected to the ideas within St. Augustine's Confessions. As such, there is an emphasis on the present moment as being the only time period that really matters, because the past cannot be changed and the future is unknown. The poem emphasizes that memory must be abandoned to understand the current world, and humans must realize that the universe is based on order. The poem also describes that although consciousness cannot be bound within time, humans cannot actually escape from time on their own. The scene beneath London is filled with the time-bound people",
"-25.379503112460952"
],
[
"the time. Day and night, and month and year are not time or parts of time, but the former are light and dark, the latter the circuit of the moon and sun, while time is the quantity in which these are.\" \nHe was critical of Aristotle's concept of place as a surrounding surface, preferring to see it as the space which a thing occupies. He also rejected the existence of Aristotle's fifth element.\nHe emphasized the role of pneuma, ('breath' or 'spirit') in the functioning of the soul; soul-activities were explained by pneuma extending throughout the body from the 'ruling part'",
"-25.372551537351683"
],
[
"Discrete time and continuous time In mathematics and, in particular, mathematical dynamics, discrete time and continuous time are two alternative frameworks within which to model variables that evolve over time. Continuous time In contrast, continuous time views variables as having a particular value for potentially only an infinitesimally short amount of time. Between any two points in time there are an infinite number of other points in time. The variable \"time\" ranges over the entire real number line, or depending on the context, over some subset of it such as the non-negative reals. Thus time is viewed as a continuous",
"-25.368820671661524"
],
[
"other produce a mathematical concept of time that works sufficiently well for describing the everyday phenomena of most people's experience. In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered problems with the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behavior of electricity and magnetism. Einstein resolved these problems by invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to the result that observers in motion relative to one another measure different elapsed times for the same event. Spacetime Time has historically been closely related with space, the two together",
"-25.32840410596691"
],
[
"controls worldly events; the only entity independent of time is Time itself, and that is Akal, the Timeless One. That is how God is both Time and Timeless in Guru Gobind Singh’s bani. The temporal aspect of Time is the immanent aspect, the presence of Spiritual Essence in each worldly occurrence. It is the ‘personality’ of the Supreme, the chit or consciousness of sat-chit-anand. The other, transcendent aspect, is the Eternal, the Beyond, the Inexpressible, the Fathomless, Nirguna Brahman, assigned the name Akal, the Timeless One or the One-beyond-Time.\nAkal is not a fast substance, but the",
"-25.32263860612875"
],
[
"Proper time In relativity, proper time along a timelike world line is defined as the time as measured by a clock following that line. It is thus independent of coordinates, and is a Lorentz scalar. The proper time interval between two events on a world line is the change in proper time. This interval is the quantity of interest, since proper time itself is fixed only up to an arbitrary additive constant, namely the setting of the clock at some event along the world line. The proper time interval between two events depends not only on the events but also",
"-25.3039155441802"
],
[
"Atom (time) An Atom of time or \"a-tom\" (“indivisible” in Greek), refers to the smallest possible unit of time. History One of the earliest occurrences of the word “atom” to mean the smallest possible unit of measuring time is found in the Greek text of the New Testament in Paul's 1 Corinthians 15:52. The text compares the length of time of the “atom” to the time needed for “the twinkling of an eye.” The text reads: “en atomo, en repe ophthamou” – the word \"atom\" is usually translated \"a moment\" - “In a moment, in the twinkling of an eye”.",
"-25.271888645744184"
],
[
"time as a priori intuitions entails that space and time are transcendentally ideal. It is undeniable from Kant's point of view that in Transcendental Philosophy, the difference of things as they appear and things as they are is a major philosophical discovery. Others see the argument as based upon the question of whether synthetic a priori judgments are possible. Kant is taken to argue that the only way synthetic a priori judgments, such as those made in geometry, are possible is if space is transcendentally ideal.\nIn Section I (Of Space) of Transcendental Aesthetic in the Critique of Pure Reason Kant",
"-25.256975370517466"
],
[
"in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1853. Modern usage Aspect is often confused with the closely related concept of tense, because they both convey information about time. While tense relates the time of referent to some other time, commonly the speech event, aspect conveys other temporal information, such as duration, completion, or frequency, as it relates to the time of action. Thus tense refers to temporally when while aspect refers to temporally how. Aspect can be said to describe the texture of the time in which a situation occurs, such as a single point of time, a continuous range",
"-25.23320318921469"
],
[
"time to time? And what is it that we can do about changing the culture around this?\"",
"-25.20986404258292"
],
[
"with familiar low energy physics and establishing it has the correct semi-classical limit. The problem of time All canonical theories of general relativity have to deal with the problem of time. In quantum gravity, the problem of time is a conceptual conflict between general relativity and quantum mechanics. In canonical general relativity, time is just another coordinate as a result of general covariance. In quantum field theories, especially in the Hamiltonian formulation, the formulation is split between three dimensions of space, and one dimension of time. Roughly speaking, the problem of time is that there is none in general relativity.",
"-25.20205860651322"
],
[
"that it can serve this function as a ground for objects? Are space and time entities themselves, of some form, or must they exist prior to other entities? How exactly can they be defined? For example, if time is defined as a \"rate of change\" then must there always be something changing in order for time to exist? Causality Classical philosophy recognized a number of causes, including teleological future causes. In special relativity and quantum field theory the notions of space, time and causality become tangled together, with temporal orders of causations becoming dependent on who is",
"-25.18504608189687"
],
[
"physics that represents time as a \"flowing tube\" that spirals along in twists and the twists are themselves wrapped into coils. This model can be imagined by thinking of a telephone cord wrapped around a cylinder. Time travel is possible by leaving your current point in the tube and travelling either to a neighboring twist or any coil. Coils allowed time travellers to travel into the past by great leaps, to predefined years. The farther in the past the coil, the greater the gap. The first few coils closest to present day are separated by thousands of years, coils farther",
"-25.172307489672676"
],
[
"social time; and cultural time. A number of classification systems exist in the literature of time. However, such systems are not applied to human interaction directly.\nChronemics can be defined as \"the interrelated observations and theories of man's use of time\" – the way in which one perceives and values time, structures time, and reacts to time frames communication. Time perception plays a large role in the nonverbal communication process. Time perceptions include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyle, daily agendas, speed of speech, movements, and how long people are willing to listen.\nTime can",
"-25.136483235750347"
],
[
"time is a function of how they perceive themselves and life, more broadly. By changing their perceptions, they can willfully effect desirable change in all areas of their lives. A full biographical entry can be found in Springer’s Encyclopedia of Individual Differences.",
"-25.13215197471436"
],
[
"Time is set in a fictional post-apocalyptic world, with a medieval society. In the world, a system of magic, known as the One Power, is divided into a male half (saidin) and a female half (saidar). 3,000 years before the series, the world was a high tech utopia. When humanity tried to find a magic that both men and women could use, they encountered the Dark One, a Satan-like being able to corrupt human nature and the natural world. A war between the \"Light\" and the \"Shadow\" (the Dark One and his followers) ends with the Dark One being imprisoned",
"-25.103636721993098"
],
[
"the laws of thermodynamics (we perceive time as flowing in the direction of increasing entropy).\nThe best-known treatment of time as a dimension is Poincaré and Einstein's special relativity (and extended to general relativity), which treats perceived space and time as components of a four-dimensional manifold, known as spacetime, and in the special, flat case as Minkowski space. Additional dimensions In physics, three dimensions of space and one of time is the accepted norm. However, there are theories that attempt to unify the four fundamental forces by introducing extra dimensions. Most notably, superstring theory requires 10 spacetime dimensions, and originates from",
"-25.098292933951598"
],
[
"work. By the time that time clocks became commonplace, public, synchronized clock time was considered a fact of life. Uniform, synchronized, public clock time did not exist until the nineteenth century.\nWhen one speaks about the intellectual history of time, one essentially is stating that changes have occurred in the way humans experience and measure time. Our conceived abstract notions of time have presumably developed in accordance with our art, our science, and our social infrastructure. (See also horology.) Towards time-keeping The units of time first developed by humans would likely have been days and months (moons). ",
"-25.089090198191116"
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[
"time scale, and many physicists expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in principle. Tentative physical theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum gravity. Time travel Time travel is the concept of moving backwards or forwards to different points in time, in a manner analogous to moving through space, and different from the normal \"flow\" of time to an earthbound observer. In this view, all points in time (including future times) \"persist\" in some way. Time travel has been a plot device in fiction",
"-25.019159322429914"
],
[
"for millions of years. They are appropriate for standards and scientific use. Dynamical systems See dynamical systems and chaos theory, dissipative structures\nOne could say that time is a parameterization of a dynamical system that allows the geometry of the system to be manifested and operated on. It has been asserted that time is an implicit consequence of chaos (i.e. nonlinearity/irreversibility): the characteristic time, or rate of information entropy production, of a system. Mandelbrot introduces intrinsic time in his book Multifractals and 1/f noise. Technology for timekeeping standards The primary time standard in the U.S. is currently NIST-F1, a laser-cooled",
"-24.990629653490032"
],
[
"of John Cage, it has become possible to see time as having its own structure: not as something imposed on it from the outside by music, but something which is already present, which exists alongside the music.\"",
"-24.98082115231955"
],
[
"epithets relating to ‘time’. Besides Kal and Akal, Guru ji uses Maha Kal (macro-time) and Sarb-Kal (all-time) to indicate a Being above and beyond the eventful times of the universe. For him, Kal itself is a dimension of Akal, the only difference being the process that characterizes temporal events, and the eternality of Akal. Every occurrence or event has a beginning and an end, each event is a link in the ongoing process of Time. The cosmic drama or the wondrous show of the world is all a creation of Time. \nThe power of Time",
"-24.976365613751113"
],
[
"Time series A time series is a series of data points indexed (or listed or graphed) in time order. Most commonly, a time series is a sequence taken at successive equally spaced points in time. Thus it is a sequence of discrete-time data. Examples of time series are heights of ocean tides, counts of sunspots, and the daily closing value of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.\nTime series are very frequently plotted via line charts. Time series are used in statistics, signal processing, pattern recognition, econometrics, mathematical finance, weather forecasting, earthquake prediction, electroencephalography, control engineering, astronomy, communications engineering, and largely",
"-24.949643808067776"
],
[
"that time only exists within the created universe because only in space is time discernible through motion and change. His meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her 1966 study The Art of Memory argues that a brief passage of the Confessions, 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large amounts",
"-24.94597703999898"
],
[
"challenge our acting as if time were real but not too real—we act as if it is somewhat real otherwise there would be no causal relations, but not so real that laws change. Unger holds that time is so real that laws of nature are also subject to its force and they too must change. There are no eternal laws upon which change occurs, rather time precedes structure. This position gives the universe a history and makes time non-emergent, global, irreversible, and continuous.\nBringing these two thesis together, Unger theorizes that laws of nature develop together with the phenomenon they explain.",
"-24.9219914523419"
],
[
"motion. The anti-realists believed that time is merely a convenient intellectual concept for humans to understand events. This means that time was useless unless there were objects that it could interact with, this was called relational time. René Descartes, John Locke, and David Hume said that your mind needs to acknowledge time, in order to understand what time is. Immanuel Kant believed that we can not know what something is unless we experience it first hand.\nImmanuel Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori intuition that allows us (together with the other a priori intuition,",
"-24.877619338600198"
],
[
"time is the same thing as a physical body at another time. With humans, over time our bodies age and grow, losing and gaining matter, and over sufficient years will not consist of most of the matter they once consisted of. It is thus problematic to ground persistence of personal identity over time in the continuous existence of our bodies. Nevertheless, this approach has its supporters which define humans as a biological organism and asserts the proposition that a psychological relation is not necessary for personal continuity. This personal identity ontology assumes the relational theory of life-sustaining processes instead of",
"-24.85969837293669"
],
[
"is used to describe the world in the regimes where the quantum properties of the gravitational field cannot be disregarded. This is because the quantum fluctuation of spacetime itself makes the notion of time unsuitable for writing physical laws in the conventional form of evolution laws in time.\nThis position led him to face the following problem: if time is not part of the fundamental theory of the world, then how does time emerge? In 1993, in collaboration with Alain Connes, Rovelli proposed a solution to this problem called the thermal time hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, time emerges",
"-24.853003161479137"
],
[
"for that is concerned with the determination of the direction which a moving body may take... Ākāśa (space) Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points. Kāla (time) Kāla is a real entity according to Jainism and is said to be the cause of continuity and succession. Champat Rai Jain in his book \"The Key of Knowledge wrote:\n...As a substance which assists other things in performing their ‘temporal’ gyrations, Time can be conceived only in the form of",
"-24.847779197152704"
],
[
"merging into spacetime in Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. According to these theories, the concept of time depends on the spatial reference frame of the observer, and the human perception as well as the measurement by instruments such as clocks are different for observers in relative motion. For example, if a spaceship carrying a clock flies through space at (very nearly) the speed of light, its crew does not notice a change in the speed of time on board their vessel because everything traveling at the same speed slows down at the same rate (including the clock, the crew's",
"-24.836894169158768"
],
[
"with the observed facts, regarded time and space a priori as a certain class of 'coordinates' merely expressing relationships of an event to the measuring instruments. On the basis of a constant speed of light, both time and space become relative concepts, fundamentally dependent of the observer.\nThe developments of quantum formulation early this century has also led physicists to question the Newtonian concepts of physical objects, such as 'particle' and 'wave', which are basic ideas in all of classical physics. Subsequently, Heisenberg in his pioneering paper developed a conceptual framework that in a way retained all the classical concepts,",
"-24.816621936275624"
],
[
"The End of Time (book) The End of Time: The Next Revolution in Our Understanding of the Universe, also sold with the alternate subtitle The Next Revolution in Physics, is a 1999 popular science book in which the author Julian Barbour argues that time exists merely as an illusion. Autobiography The book begins by describing how Barbour's view of time evolved. After taking physics in graduate school, Barbour went to Cologne for Ph.D work on Einstein's theory of gravity. However he became preoccupied with the idea proposed by Ernst Mach that time is nothing but change. A remark by Paul",
"-24.72200782096479"
],
[
"purpose implies an inclination or tendency to steer events toward some state that does not yet exist. This, in turn, implies a privileged direction, which we may call \"time\". It may be one direction of causality, the direction of increasing entropy, or some other emergent property of a world. These are not identical, but one must exist in order to progress toward a goal.\nIn general, God's time would not be related to our time. God might be able to operate within our time without being constrained to do so. However, God could then step outside this game for any purpose.",
"-24.711143069071113"
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[
"an illusion. McTaggart argued that the description of events as existing in absolute time is self-contradictory, because the events have to have properties about being in the past and in the future, which are incompatible with each other. McTaggart viewed this as a contradiction in the concept of time itself, and concluded that reality is non-temporal. He called this concept the B-theory of time.\nDirck Vorenkamp, a professor of religious studies, argued in his paper \"B-Series Temporal Order in Dogen's Theory of Time\" that the Zen Buddhist teacher Dōgen presented views on time that contained all the main elements of McTaggart's",
"-24.703896488266764"
],
[
"Time and fate deities Time and fate deities are personifications of time, often in the sense of human lifetime and human fate, in polytheistic religions. \nIn monotheism, Time can still be personified, like Father Time.",
"-24.69152576909255"
],
[
"significance seems to go beyond the tautology that David Chalmers is David Chalmers. (See also Caspar Hare's egocentric presentism and Benj Hellie's vertiginous question.) Similarly, in the philosophy of time, what date and time it is now might be considered a candidate for a further fact, in the sense that a being that knows everything about the full four-dimensional block of spacetime would still not know what time it is now. (See also the A-theory and the B-theory of time.)\nA final type of fact that Chalmers considers is that of negative facts. For example, consider the following statement: there",
"-24.613681801594794"
],
[
"Tomorrow (time) Philosophy The use of terms such as tomorrow, now and future are part an a-series view which is part of the presentism philosophy of time. Learning and language For a young child, \"tomorrow\" is \"an undefined, infinite time of the idea that time is just an infinite and arbitrary definition of an yet unidentified of what we like to call time, yet the child slowly learns the meaning of tomorrow.\" The concept of \"tomorrow\" is rarely understood by 3-year-old children, but 4 year olds understand the idea.",
"-24.611940903072536"
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[
"primitive, that is not reduced to something else, and in favor of the thesis that the passage and direction of time are fundamental. This theory essentially defines a clear direction of the arrow of time and underlies therefore an asymmetric time, contradicting the quantum mechanics idea of time's symmetry and other theories that deny the existence of time, as championed by physicist Julian Barbour.\nI believe that it is a fundamental, irreducible fact about the spatio-temporal structure of the world that time passes. [...] The passage of time is an intrinsic asymmetry in the temporal structure of the world, an asymmetry",
"-24.561882462778158"
],
[
"Enquiry concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge as well as in Process and Reality. Time in this view is relative to an inertial reference frame, different reference frames defining different versions of time.\nThe actual entity, the occasion of experience, is logically atomic in the sense that it cannot be cut and separated into two other occasions of experience. This kind of logical atomicity is perfectly compatible with indefinitely many spatiotemporal overlaps of occasions of experience. One can explain this atomicity by saying that an occasion of experience has an internal causal structure that could not be reproduced in each of",
"-24.526433706167154"
],
[
"Philosophical presentism Overview Augustine of Hippo proposed that the present is analogous to a knife edge placed exactly between the perceived past and the imaginary future and does not include the concept of time. Proponents claim this should be self-evident because, if the present is extended, it must have separate parts – but these must be simultaneous if they are truly a part of the present. According to early philosophers, time cannot be simultaneously past and present and hence not extended. Contrary to Saint Augustine, some philosophers propose that conscious experience is extended in time. For instance, William James",
"-24.522700325993355"
],
[
"Yāma Etymology Yāma is a Sanskrit technical term referring to a measurement of time, similar to a \"watch\" in English. A 24-hour day is divided into eight three-hour \"watches\", which makes a yāma equal to 1/4 of a day or night.\nAn equivalent unit of time is a prahar, which is synonymous with the modern pahar.\nA Chinese text referred to as the Sse-kiau-tsih reads that the gods of this world distinguish time by the opening and shutting of flowers.\nThere are several Chinese translations of the name Yāma, including but not limited to 焰摩天, 夜摩天 唱樂天, 時分天 and 炎魔. Descriptions Yāma is",
"-24.51562909092172"
],
[
"Thus God's time must be aligned with our time if human activities are relevant to God's purpose. (In a relativistic universe, presumably this means—at any point in spacetime—time measured from t=0 at the Big Bang or end of inflation.)\nA God existing outside of any sort of time could not create anything because creation substitutes one thing for another, or for nothing. Creation requires a creator that existed, by definition, prior to the thing created. Omniscience vs. indeterminacy or free will Another pair of alleged incompatible properties is omniscience and either indeterminacy or free will. Omniscience concerning the past and present",
"-24.49467097374145"
],
[
"punishment. Time discipline Time discipline, as it pertains to sociology and anthropology, is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others.\nThompson authored Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism, published in 1967, which posits that reliance on clock-time is a result of the European Industrial Revolution and that neither industrial capitalism nor the creation of the modern state would have been possible without the imposition of synchronic forms of time and work discipline.",
"-24.47452478269406"
],
[
"an eternity, never beginning nor stopping. Nunc stans, Latin for \"abiding now,\" is the belief that time itself doesn't exist, and that any distinctions between now, before and the future have either fallen away or don't exist.",
"-24.46779368049465"
],
[
"from a mental representation based on an innate idea. Al-Baghdadi stops short of offering a precise definition of time, stating only that 'were it to be said that time is the measure of being (miqdar al-wujud), that would be better than saying [as Aristotle does] that it is the measure of motion'. His reclassification of time as a subject for metaphysics rather than for physics represents a major conceptual shift, not a mere formalistic correction. It also breaks the traditional linkage between time and space. Concerning space, al-Baghdadi held unconventional views as well, but he did not remove its investigation",
"-24.448520096339053"
],
[
"European mechanistic devices of marking time (clocks, watches, calendars), they depended on the cycles of nature: sunrise to sunset, winter to summer. Their stories and histories are not marked by decades and centuries, but remain close in, as they circle around the constant rhythms of the natural world.\nWithin the last decades our time scale has expanded from unimaginably small (nanoseconds) to unimaginably large (deep time). In comparison, our working concept of time as {past : present : future} looks almost quaint. How do we map \"tradition\" into this multiplicity of time scales? Folklore studies has already acknowledged this in the study of",
"-24.446200958118425"
],
[
"of the universe by virtue of Space-Time, and because the mind apprehends space, time and motion through a unity of sense and mind experience, there is a form of knowing that is intuitive (participative) - sense and reason are outgrowths from it.\nIn being conscious of its own space and time, the mind is conscious of the space and time of external things and vice versa. This is a direct consequence of the continuity of Space-Time in virtue of which any point-instant is connected sooner or later, directly or indirectly, with every other...\nThe mind therefore does not apprehend the space of",
"-24.392527858843096"
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[
"describes simply as \"motion\", the stuff and matter that make up our material world:\nSpace-Time, the universe in its primordial form, is the stuff out of which all existents are made. It is Space-Time with the characters which we have found it to reveal to experience. But it has no 'quality' save that of being spatio-temporal or motion.\n— Space, Time and Deity [1920] Vol. I, p. 342\nMotion is not a succession of point-instants, but rather a point-instant is the limiting case of a motion.\n— Space, Time and Deity [1920] Vol. I, p. 321\nPoint-instants are real but their separateness from one another is conceptual.",
"-24.38609129847464"
],
[
"2007: 85)\n\nSometimes standing on top of the highest peak,\n\nSometimes moving along the bottom of the deepest ocean. (tr. Nishijima and Cross 2008: 143)\nDōgen's Uji commentary on the poem begins by explaining that, \"The 'time being' means time, just as it is, is being, and being is all time.\", which shows the \"unusual significance\" he gives to the word uji \"being-time.\" (Waddell and Abe 2001: 48) Interpretations Many authors have researched and discussed Dōgen's theories of temporality. In English, there are two books (Heine 1985 and Stambaugh 1990) and numerous articles on uji (有時, \"being-time; time-being; etc.\"). According to the traditional",
"-24.382751963683404"
]
] |
2pz851 | how was the first prpgramming language invented? What was the name of the language? | [
"It depends when you start calling it a programming language. At first it was all programmed using \"machine code\" by putting just numbers. CPU was designed to distinguish some of them as \"operation codes\". For example when CPU read number 123 it knew it should read 2 more bytes and then add them. This was a bit difficult for programmers to write and read, and prone to mistakes so programmers started using mnemonics and software that would then translate them into machine code. Eg instead of putting an operation code 123 you would put \"ADD\" word. This was then called assembly language. It was still working on CPU level, but the code was more readable and easier to write. Later people realised that some operations are used frequently and always looks the same, so they included them in the translation software / in the compiler. You would just put a certain keyword in the source code and it would be replaced by appropriate assembly code during compilation.",
"Theoretically, the first programming language predates modern computers and was made by [Ada Lovelace]( URL_0 ) in 1842 when she described the first algorithm for a machine.",
"A few possible answers. The very first programming language used to write programs for computers was Assembly. It's incredibly \"low-level,\" meaning that it is not very different from the resulting \"machine code\" that the computer can read and run. A language called Short Code came about in the late 40s that was similar, but made some things easier. However, it wasn't \"compiled,\" but \"interpreted.\" Basically, instead of turning it into machine code once and always having it be in that form afterward, it was read and translated every time the code was run -- making it incredibly slow. The first proper \"high-level\" language (meaning it's further away from machine code and easier for us to understand) was called Autocode. Basically, it was a fair bit easier to write than Assembly, and when you finished writing it it would be \"compiled\" and the result was the program in machine code form. This gave access to both easier writing like what Short Code offered and fast execution like what Assembly offered.",
"The first \"programming languages\" were just manuals. Imagine a calculator - you program it by typing it the right sequence of numbers and signs and if you do it right it will tell you the answer to your program. Just like the microwave makes your food just right when you give it the right input. Of course a computer is a bit more complicated and the resulting programming language is called machine code. But programming on that basic level is really hard. Soon people thought about how to make programming easier and the result are our \"modern\" programming languages. The important difference is, that computers don't understand the programming language. You need a translator, the compiler. It basically takes your easy understandable programming language and translates it into machine code. Probably the first commonly used Programming language was Assembly language, it is very rudimentary and close to the machine code. Nowadays it's rarely used, usually only for applications that take too much time if not programmed perfectly on machine level."
] | [
[
"the reign of Taejong of Joseon. The map was made by combining Chinese, Korean and Japanese maps.\nHangul, the first and only featural alphabet in current use for a national language, was promulgated by Sejong in 1444. 16th-19th century The scientific and technological advance in the late Joseon Dynasty was less progressed than the early Joseon period.\n16th-century court physician, Heo Jun wrote a number of medical texts, his most significant achievement being Dongeui Bogam, which is often noted as the defining text of Traditional Korean medicine. The work spread to its East Asian neighbors, China and Japan, where it is still",
"-27.973855225674924"
],
[
"closely related to Jingpho, although its speakers identify themselves as Naga. Orthography The Jingpho writing system is a Latin-based alphabet consisting of 23 letters, and very little use of diacritical marks, originally created by American Baptist missionaries in the late 19th century. It is considered one of the simplest writing systems of the Tibeto-Burman languages, as other languages utilise their own alphabets, such as abugidas or syllabary.\nOla Hanson, one of the first people to establish an alphabet, arrived in Myanmar in 1890, learned the language and wrote the first Kachin–English dictionary. In 1965, the alphabet was reformed. Today, the Burmese",
"-27.71457560721319"
],
[
"next constructed language he came to work with, Naffarin, would be his own creation.\nTolkien learned Esperanto some time before 1909. Around 10 June 1909 he composed \"The Book of the Foxrook\", a sixteen-page notebook, where the \"earliest example of one of his invented alphabets\" appears. Short texts in this notebook are written in Esperanto.\nIn 1911, while they were at King Edward's School, Tolkien and three friends, Rob Gilson, Geoffrey Bache Smith and Christopher Wiseman, formed a semi-secret society they called the T.C.B.S. The initials stood for Tea Club and Barrovian Society, alluding to their fondness for drinking tea in Barrow's",
"-27.49585792515427"
],
[
"gugyeol (\"oral embellishment\") to Chinese texts to allow them to be read in Korean word order with Korean glosses.\nMany of the gugyeol characters were abbreviated, and some of them are identical in form and value to symbols in the Japanese katakana syllabary, though the historical relationship between the two is not yet clear.\nAn even more subtle method of annotation known as gakpil (角筆 \"stylus\") was discovered in 2000, consisting of dots and lines made with a stylus.\nAll formal writing, including the official annals of the Korean dynasties and almost all government documents, was done in Chinese until the late 19th",
"-27.176847242983058"
],
[
"Taylor shorthand The system of geometric shorthand published in Britain by Samuel Taylor in 1786, under the title An essay intended to establish a standard for an universal system of Stenography, or Short-hand writing, was the first shorthand system to be used across the English-speaking world. Taylor shorthand uses an alphabet of 19 letters of simplified shape. His book was translated and published in France by Théodore-Pierre Bertin in 1792 under the title Système universel et complet de Stenographie ou Manière abrégée d'écrire applicable à tous les idiomes.",
"-27.03496344864834"
],
[
"Malayalam WordNet History The first WordNet to be created was the Princeton English WordNet. WordNet was created in the Cognitive Science Laboratory of Princeton University under the direction of professor G. A. Miller starting in 1985 . It was followed by EuroWordNet for European languages, based on Princeton WordNet. Hindi WordNet was the first Indian language WordNet to be created. It was developed by the Natural Language Processing group at the Center for Indian Language Technology. It was followed by IndoWordNet which was developed for 18 Indian Languages under the guidance of Dr. Pushpak Bhattacharya, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay.",
"-26.917249102014466"
],
[
"creation of Hangul, the Korean alphabet, in 1443. Before that, Korean literati had used the Hanja writing system—traditional Chinese characters with Korean pronunciation and meaning—and a written language known as Hanmun, which was basically Classical Chinese, for official court documents. Everyday written use of Hanja and Hanmun ended gradually in the latter half of the 20th century. Six martyred ministers After King Sejong's death, his son Munjong continued his legacy but died of illness in 1452, two years after becoming king. Munjong's son Danjong then became king at the age of 12, but his uncle Sejo deposed him and took",
"-26.748862001055386"
],
[
"than 2,000 years ago, which was when Tungusic was spreading up north from its homeland in the middle reaches of the Amur River. Jurchen-Manchu language The earliest written attestation of the language family is in the Jurchen language, which was spoken by the rulers of the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). The Jurchens invented a Jurchen script to write their language based on the Khitan scripts. During this time, several stelae were put up in Manchuria and Korea. One of these, among the most important extant texts in Jurchen, is the inscription on the back of \"the Jin Victory Memorial Stele\" (Da",
"-26.69399514561519"
],
[
"the other hand, since Hokkien was never standardized, different people began to use various separate methods to solve the issue of Hokkien-specific words, where such words would eventually be written using either a Latin-based script, phonetically using bopomofo, or through the use of a Chinese character chosen phonetically with no relation to the original word via meaning.\nVarieties of Hokkien are spoken in Southern Fujian in mainland China, Taiwan, Chinese communities in Malaysia, Singapore, and other Chinese expatriate communities. Initially there was no effort by the government of the Republic of China on Taiwan, nor other governments, to create a standardized",
"-26.459633704682346"
],
[
"Wanguo Quantu of 1602, six recopied, rice-paper versions survive.\nIt is thought that, during their time in Zhaoqing, Ricci and Ruggieri compiled a Portuguese-Chinese dictionary, the first in any European language, for which they developed a system for transcribing Chinese words in the Latin alphabet. The manuscript was misplaced in the Jesuit Archives in Rome, rediscovered only in 1934, and published only in 2001.\nThere is now a memorial plaque in Zhaoqing to commemorate Ricci's six-year stay there, as well as a \"Ricci Memorial Centre\" in a building dating from the 1860s.\nExpelled from Zhaoqing in 1589, Ricci obtained permission to relocate to",
"-26.30325269831519"
],
[
"This was a groundbreaking work by virtue of its content and its innovative printing technology, as it was the first time anywhere, including India, that the ancient form of Sanskrit was linotyped. Tyberg, in collaboration with Geoffrey Baborka, chief linotype operator at the Theosophical University Press, transformed a modern Sanskrit keyboard into a keyboard for the ancient form of the Devanagari alphabet, composed of dozens of matrices. Tyberg's view of Sanskrit's importance was quoted by the Los Angeles Times: \"Not only are the languages used on the European and American continents deficient in words dealing with spirit, but many of",
"-26.292282330687158"
],
[
"Lingo (programming language) History Lingo was invented by John H. Thompson at MacroMind in 1989, and first released with Director 2.2. Jeff Tanner developed and tested Lingo for Director 2.2 and 3.0, created custom XObjects for various media device producers, language extension examples using XFactory including the XFactory application programming interface (API), and wrote the initial tutorials on how to use Lingo. Dave Shields tested and documented Object-based Lingo for Director 3.13 and 4.0. He ran build scripts to create weekly releases for testing, originated the Macromedia KnowledgeBase, created examples of how to write Lingo XTRA plug-ins in C++, and",
"-26.288435575552285"
],
[
"the aforementioned rules further, and these have remained in use until today. In addition, the rules for spacing were separately laid out in the \"Standard Spacing Rules in Writing Korean\" (조선말 띄여쓰기규범; Josŏnmal Ttŭiyŏssŭgigyubŏm) in 2000 but have since been superseded by \"Rules for Spacing in Writing Korean\" (띄여쓰기규정; Ttŭiyŏssŭgigyujŏng), issued in 2003.\nSouth Korea continued to use the Hangeul Matchumbeop Tong-iran as defined in 1933, until its amendment \"Korean Orthography\" (Korean: 한글 맞춤법; RR: Hangeul Matchumbeop), together with \"Standard Language Regulations\" (Korean: 표준어 규정; RR: Pyojuneo Gyujeong), were issued in 1988, which remain in use today.\nAs with the Korean phonology article, this article uses",
"-26.262581541162945"
],
[
"Boshiamy method Boshiamy (Chinese: 嘸蝦米, sometimes written 無蝦米, a Mandarin approximation of the Taiwanese phrase 無甚物 (Pe̍h-ōe-jī: bô-siáⁿ-mi̍h), meaning \"It's nothing!\") is a Chinese character input method editor (IME). It was invented by Liu Chung-tz'u (劉重次).\nBoshiamy uses about 300 radicals represented by 26 letters to build characters. Radicals are mapped to letters by their shapes, sounds or meanings.\nBoshiamy has become one of the fastest input methods by shortening codes of many characters. Speeds exceeding 200 characters per minute have been achieved in typing contests. Boshiamy was originally designed to input traditional Chinese characters, but now it also supports simplified Chinese",
"-26.223821950610727"
],
[
"Memex would also be able to create 'trails' of linked and branching sets of pages, combining pages from the published microfilm library with personal annotations or additions captured on a microfilm recorder. Bush's vision was based on extensions of 1945 technology—microfilm recording and retrieval in this case. However, the modern story of hypertext starts with the Memex because \"As We May Think\" directly influenced and inspired the two American men generally credited with the invention of hypertext, Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart. The invention of hypertext Starting in 1963, Ted Nelson developed a model for creating and using linked content",
"-26.162112519756192"
],
[
"Korean alphabet. Linear Korean There was a minor and unsuccessful movement in the early twentieth century to abolish syllabic blocks and write the letters individually and in a row, in the fashion of writing Latin alphabet as in English and other European languages, instead of the standard convention of 모아쓰기 (moa-sseugi 'assembled writing'). For example, ㅎㅏㄴㄱㅡㄹ would be written for 한글 (Hangeul). It is called 풀어쓰기 (pureo-sseugi 'unassembled writing').\nAvant-garde typographer Ahn Sangsu made a font for the \"Hangul Dada\" exposition that exploded the syllable blocks; but while it strings out the letters horizontally, it retains the distinctive vertical position each",
"-26.14135649317177"
],
[
"a manuscript for a series of plays published during the Ming dynasty in 1566, is one of the earliest known works. This form of the language is now largely extinct. However, literary readings of the numbers are used in certain contexts such as reciting telephone numbers (see Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters). Spread of Hokkien to Taiwan During Yuan dynasty, Quanzhou, Fujian province became a major international port for trade with the outside world. From that period onwards, due to political and economic reasons, many people from Hokkien-speaking regions (southern Fujian) started to emigrate overseas. This included the",
"-26.063441207559663"
],
[
"about 1000 words, the vocabulary of a three-year-old. About ten years later the same group of scientists developed a system that could analyze not only individual words but entire word sequences enabled by a Hidden Markov Model. Thus, the earliest virtual assistants, which applied speech recognition software were automated attendant and medical digital dictation software. In the 1990s digital speech recognition technology became a feature of the personal computer with Microsoft, IBM, Philips and Lernout & Hauspie fighting for customers. Much later the market launch of the first smartphone IBM Simon in 1994 laid the foundation for smart virtual assistants",
"-26.034585603745654"
],
[
"known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of Damascus, Hamath and Arpad.\nThere are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop",
"-25.974727464432362"
],
[
"Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.\nCharles de La Fin published a book in 1692 describing an alphabetic system where pointing to a body part represented",
"-25.91425337921828"
],
[
"vocabulary into an existing grammar.\nThe purpose of Lingua Ignota is unknown, and it is not known who, besides its creator, was familiar with it. In the 19th century some believed that Hildegard intended her language to be an ideal, universal language. However, nowadays it is generally assumed that Lingua Ignota was devised as a secret language; like Hildegard's \"unheard music\", she would have attributed it to divine inspiration. Inasmuch as the language was constructed by Hildegard, it may be considered one of the earliest known constructed languages.\nIn a letter to Hildegard, her friend and provost Wolmarus, fearing that Hildegard",
"-25.887053245329298"
],
[
"which was published under various titles including The penns dexterity compleated (1669). Another notable English shorthand system creator of the 17th century was William Mason (fl. 1672–1709) who published Arts Advancement in 1682.\nModern-looking geometric shorthand was introduced with John Byrom's New Universal Shorthand of 1720. Samuel Taylor published a similar system in 1786, the first English shorthand system to be used all over the English-speaking world. Thomas Gurney published Brachygraphy in the mid-18th century. In 1834 in Germany, Franz Xaver Gabelsberger published his Gabelsberger shorthand. Gabelsberger based his shorthand on the shapes used in German cursive handwriting rather than on",
"-25.879249442368746"
],
[
"have discovered an ancient language he called \"Mantong\", a sort of Proto-Human language that was the source of all Earthly languages. In Mantong, each sound had a hidden meaning, and by applying this formula to any word in any language, one could decode a secret meaning to any word, name or phrase. Editor Ray Palmer applied the Mantong formula to several words, and said he realized Shaver was onto something.\nAccording to Palmer (in his autobiography The Secret World), Palmer wrote back to Shaver, asking how he had learned of Mantong. Shaver responded with an approximately 10,000-word document entitled \"A Warning",
"-25.877395139017608"
],
[
"and publishing.\nWord processing was one of the earliest applications for the personal computer in office productivity, and was the most widely used application on personal computers until the World Wide Web rose to prominence in the mid-1990s.\nAlthough the early word processors evolved to use tag-based markup for document formatting, most modern word processors take advantage of a graphical user interface providing some form of what-you-see-is-what-you-get (\"WYSIWYG\") editing. Most are powerful systems consisting of one or more programs that can produce a combination of images, graphics and text, the latter handled with type-setting capability. Typical features of a modern word processor",
"-25.83216951205395"
],
[
"produced the first SMART Brailler machine, with added text to speech function and allowed digital capture of data entered.\nIn 1960 Robert Mann, a teacher in MIT, wrote DOTSYS, a software that allowed automatic braille translation, and another group created an embossing device called \"M.I.T. Braillemboss.\". The Mitre Corporation team of Robert Gildea, Jonathan Millen, Reid Gerhart and Joseph Sullivan (now president of Duxbury Systems) developed DOTSYS III, the first braille translator written in a portable programming language. DOTSYS III was developed for the Atlanta Public Schools as a public domain program. Braille translators allowed the automatic creation of braille text",
"-25.823621376999654"
],
[
"Charles Goldfarb Charles F. Goldfarb is known as the father of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and grandfather of HTML and the World Wide Web. He co-invented the concept of markup languages.\nIn 1969 Charles Goldfarb, leading a small team at IBM, developed the first markup language, called Generalized Markup Language, or GML. Goldfarb coined the term GML, an initialism for the three researchers, Charles Goldfarb, Ed Mosher and Ray Lorie who worked on the project.\nIn 1974, he designed SGML and subsequently wrote the first SGML parser, ARCSGML. Goldfarb went on working to turn SGML into the ISO 8879 standard, and",
"-25.806391255697235"
],
[
"making the orthography more morphophonemic. The double-consonant ㅆ was written alone (without a vowel) when it occurred between nouns, and the nominative particle -가 was introduced after vowels, replacing -이.\nJu Si-gyeong, the linguist who had coined the term Hangul to replace Eonmun or \"Vulgar Script\" in 1912, established the Korean Language Research Society (later renamed the Hangul Society), which further reformed orthography with Standardized System of Hangul in 1933. The principal change was to make the Korean alphabet as morphophonemically practical given the existing letters. A system for transliterating foreign orthographies was published in 1940.\nHowever, Japan banned the Korean language",
"-25.80580952722812"
],
[
"subject in London over a period of thirty years while he developed his stenographical systems. Shelton knew the stenography of John Willis and took over its geometrical basic principle for his own shorthand. He published several books about shorthand which he sold from his house. Shelton's shorthand Shelton invented a new stenographical system and published it in 1626 in the book Short-Writing (in later editions since 1635 called \"Tachygraphy\", Ancient Greek for \"speedy writing\"). In Shelton's shorthand system every consonant was expressed by an easy symbol which sometimes still resembled the alphabetical letter.\nThe vowels were designated by the height of",
"-25.75700462493114"
],
[
"is disputed, although he and other scholars were sent on trips to consult with a Ming Chinese phoneticist several times, presumably because one of the first uses the new alphabet was put to was to transcribe the sounds of hanja, or Sino-Korean characters. In 1447, Seong achieved the highest score on the higher literary examination.\nIn 1455, Prince Suyang (one of Sejong's sons) forced the young King Danjong, his nephew, to abdicate, taking the throne instead as King Sejo. Following secret orders from his father Seong Seung, Seong Sammun along with Bak Jungrim, Bak Paengnyeon and others plotted to assassinate the",
"-25.754498195485212"
],
[
"227-228).\nMedhurst's preface (1842: iii) says his purpose was to compile a \"commodious, uniform, and comprehensive Dictionary\" for English students of the Chinese language, comprising the 47,035 head characters in the (1716) Kangxi Dictionary (\"Imperial Dictionary of Kang-he\"), with the exception of those that supposedly have \"either no sound or no meaning attached to them\". Medhurst initially intended to compile a complete English-Chinese dictionary, but he found that the available materials were insufficient, and it was necessary for him to first create a Chinese-English dictionary, after which the work would be \"comparatively easy to reverse the whole\", and then add further",
"-25.710404963698238"
],
[
"and progress in the field, new epigraphical findings, evidence being added and new words being recorded continuously. Nevertheless, a real breakthrough for the understanding of the Lydian language has not occurred yet.\nPresently available texts begin around the mid-7th century and extend until the 2nd century BC, which leads one scholar to conclude, \"Lydians wrote early, but [in the light of the available sources, it seems] they did not write much.\" Religion A number of Lydian religious concepts may well go back to the Early Bronze Age and even Late Stone Age, such as the vegetation goddess Kore, the snake and",
"-25.67467251844937"
],
[
"Descartes proposed a universal language, with equivalent ideas in different tongues sharing one symbol.\nIn the mid-1930s the first patents for \"translating machines\" were applied for by Georges Artsrouni, for an automatic bilingual dictionary using paper tape. Russian Peter Troyanskii submitted a more detailed proposal that included both the bilingual dictionary and a method for dealing with grammatical roles between languages, based on the grammatical system of Esperanto. This system was separated into three stages: stage one consisted of a native-speaking editor in the source language to organize the words into their logical forms and to exercise the syntactic functions; stage",
"-25.636772724159528"
],
[
"a monograph on Japanese orthography in 1952, and in 1954 he was invited by Syngman Rhee, President of South Korea, to give his ideas on the orthographic reform of the Korean script, which were published in 1954 in various Korean newspapers. In 1954 he devised the Yale romanization system for transliterating Korean, which is extensively used by linguists. During this period he also made important contributions on Chinese, producing a monograph on the phonemes of Ancient Chinese in 1953, and an important article on Mandarin phonology in 1957.\nDuring the 1960s Martin extended his linguistic talents to studies of the Dagur",
"-25.631544983014464"
],
[
"something to differentiate their product from others. An agreement was made with MicroPro to develop a version of WordStar that supported both English and Hebrew input. The concept was revolutionary, as Hebrew is written right-to-left and all word processors of the time assumed left-to-right. WordStar, as developed by Elbit, was the first word processor that offered bi-directional input and mixed alphabets.\nElbit acquired rights to the source code and a development team in Elbit, Haifa, worked on the project. For several years Hebrew-English WordStar was the de facto WYSIWYG word processor leader until, inevitably, it was ousted by younger competitors. Legacy",
"-25.616884316434152"
],
[
"banks, business companies, etc. and started a computer training institute in 1988.\nThapa was the first person to develop Nepali (Devanagari) font on Apple IIe and Apple Macintosh computers. UNESCO nominated Thapa to participate in the Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AIT, Bangkok) 1992 and the Asia Pacific Regional Seminar on Information Technology and Newspaper Publishing in Madras (from 11–14 April 1995) in recognition to the font development done by him. He also developed Limbu (Srijunga) Script and Rai (Wambule Script) in 1994. He is mentioned in the history section in a book called History, Culture and Customs of Sikkim",
"-25.598584294435568"
],
[
"Ramram Basu Ramram Basu (c. 1751 – 7 August 1813) was a notable early scholar and translator of the Bengali language (Bangla), and credited with writing the first original work of Bengali prose written by a Bengali.\nRamram Basu initially joined as the munshi (scribe) for William Chambers, Persian\ninterpreter at the Supreme Court in Kolkata. Then he worked as the munshi and Bengali teacher for Dr. John Thomas, a Christian missionary from England at Debhata in Khulna. Subsequently, he worked from 1793 to 1796 for noted scholar William Carey (1761–1834) at Madnabati in Dinajpur. In 1800 he joined Carey's",
"-25.59099691355368"
],
[
"ROFL, and others into spoken language in magnitude to the revolution of Johannes Gutenberg's invention of movable type in the 15th century—states that this is \"a brand new variety of language evolving\", invented by young people within five years, that \"extend[s] the range of the language, the expressiveness [and] the richness of the language\". However Geoffrey K. Pullum argues that even if interjections such as LOL and ROFL were to become very common in spoken English, their \"total effect on language\" would be \"utterly trivial\".",
"-25.58161114039831"
],
[
"Goldberg was one of seven programmers that developed Smalltalk in the 1970s, and wrote the majority of the language's documentation. It was one of the first object-oriented programming languages the base of the current graphic user interface, that has its roots in the 1968 The Mother of All Demos by Douglas Engelbart. Smalltalk was used by Apple to launch Apple Lisa in 1983, the first personal computer with a GUI, and a year later its Macintosh. Windows 1.0, based on the same principles, was launched a few months later in 1985.\nIn the late 1970s, women such as Paulson and Sue",
"-25.579307497362606"
],
[
"Chinese input methods for computers History Chinese input methods predate the computer. One of the early attempts was an electro-mechanical Chinese typewriter Ming kwai (Chinese: 明快; pinyin: míngkuài; Wade–Giles: ming-k'uai) which was invented by Lin Yutang, a prominent Chinese writer, in the 1940s. It assigned thirty base shapes or strokes to different keys and adopted a new way of categorizing Chinese characters. But the typewriter was not produced commercially and Lin soon found himself deeply in debt.\nBefore the 1980s, Chinese publishers hired teams of workers and selected a few thousand type pieces from an enormous Chinese character set. Chinese",
"-25.568980488576926"
],
[
"from Jiahu may indicate that this tradition, or a related one, has much deeper roots in ancient Chinese culture than previously considered. Since the earliest pictograms were not intended to visually represent anything, and resulted from the random cracks appearing in overheated tortoise shells, it appears that the creation of the early Chinese written language was very random. End of the village: a flood Based on the archaeological evidence, a severe flood from the nearby rivers submerged most or all of the Jiahu settlement under a few feet of water sometime around 5700 BC. The inhabitants evacuated. It is not",
"-25.55093719251454"
],
[
"standard called GenCode for the publishing industry and later was the first chair of the International Organization for Standardization committee that created SGML, the first standard descriptive markup language. Book designer Stanley Rice published speculation along similar lines in 1970.\nBrian Reid, in his 1980 dissertation at Carnegie Mellon University, developed the theory and a working implementation of descriptive markup in actual use. However, IBM researcher Charles Goldfarb is more commonly seen today as the \"father\" of markup languages. Goldfarb hit upon the basic idea while working on a primitive document management system intended for law firms in 1969, and helped",
"-25.529122539097443"
],
[
"Samuel Taylor (stenographer) Samuel Taylor (1748/49 – 1811) was the British inventor of a widely used system of stenography.\nHe began working on his own method of stenography in 1773, based on earlier efforts. In 1786, he published An Essay Intended to Establish a Standard for an Universal System of Stenography, or Short Hand Writing..., the first shorthand system to be used all over the English-speaking world. His stenographic method consisted in cutting out the superfluous consonants as well as the vowels in polysyllabic words. It used an alphabet composed of 19 letters of simplified shapes.\nHe taught stenography at Oxford as",
"-25.518455955490936"
],
[
"the author of the first orthography of the Croatian language, which was intended for students of the gymnasium. In 1639 he published a language discussion Nauk za piisati dobro latinskiema slovima rieci yezika slovinskoga koyiemse Dubrovcani, i sva Dalmatia kakko vlasctitiem svoyiem yezikom sluzci, where he proposed a simple and consistent consonant writing system: double letters only write voices ć, đ, lj, nj, š and ž, but also the complicated use of accent marks. His letter suggestions did not survive in practice.",
"-25.495304391042737"
],
[
"of the native language. Various systems were used, beginning with ad hoc approaches and gradually becoming codified in the Idu script and the hyangchal system used for poetry, and in a later phase, gugyeol.\nAdditional information about the language is drawn from various proper nouns recorded in Korean and Chinese records, and from etymological studies of the Korean pronunciations of Chinese characters, which are believed to have been first adapted into Korean in the late Three Kingdoms period.",
"-25.478287323145196"
],
[
"words in Cantonese garnished with Tamil, and finish with Mandarin Chinese or some fashionable Japanese words. During Parameswara's time, when two groups of traders without a shared language met, they would try many possible languages in order to best understand each other, and the result would be a pidgin or Rojak.\nIn the early 16th century, Portuguese visitor Tome Pires found in Malacca\nMoors from Cairo, Mecca, Aden, Abyssinians, men of Kilwa, Malindi, Ormuz, Parsis, Rumi [Turks living abroad], Turks, Turkomans, Christian Armenians, Gujaratis, men of Chaul, Dabhol, Goa, of the kingdom of Deccan, Malabars and Klings, merchants from Orissa, Ceylon, Bengal,",
"-25.442601905262563"
],
[
"few words. Later, Marc Okrand proceeded to flesh out the sparse vocabulary into a real language, complete with grammar rules and phonology, and went so far as to publish The Klingon Dictionary (1985, revised edition 1992); the Klingon Language Institute was created soon thereafter. Okrand's Klingon language was used to write the Klingon dialogues heard in several Star Trek movies and episodes. Okrand has developed the language in an important way in two audio-courses: Conversational Klingon (1992) and Power Klingon (1993), and in two books: The Klingon Way (1996) and Klingon for the Galactic Traveller (1997). Despite these facts,",
"-25.409314407152124"
],
[
"parts of the empire actively traded with each other. Lubugu, a grandson of Ambagyan, and a scholar named Tulyubu developed a Grand Alphabet based on the Chinese hieroglyphics in 920. Later, Tela, a son of Ambagyan, developed a Minor Alphabet based on the Uyghur script. A printing technology developed in the Liao territory. The Khitan language was widely studied abroad.\nA Tungusic people, the Jurchen, ancestors of the Manchu, formed an alliance with the Song dynasty and reduced the Liao dynasty to vassal status in a seven-year war (1115–1122). The Jurchen leader proclaimed himself the founder of a new era, the",
"-25.393645216943696"
],
[
"by Medhurst. Through personal communication and letters and articles printed in The Chinese Repository a consensus was arrived at for the new version of POJ, although Williams' suggestions were largely not followed.\nThe first major work to represent this new orthography was Elihu Doty's Anglo-Chinese Manual with Romanized Colloquial in the Amoy Dialect, published in 1853. The manual can therefore be regarded as the first presentation of a pre-modern POJ, a significant step onwards from Medhurst's orthography and different from today's system in only a few details. From this point on various authors adjusted some of the consonants and vowels, but",
"-25.355274613015354"
],
[
"Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese William H. Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese is an alphabetic notation recording phonological information from medieval sources, rather than a reconstruction. It was introduced by Baxter as a reference point for his reconstruction of Old Chinese phonology. Baxter's notation There have been many attempts to reconstruct the sounds or phonemes of the Qieyun system, conventionally called Early Middle Chinese, yielding a series of alphabetic transcriptions. Each of these is disputed to some extent, and many scholars doubt that the system corresponds to any single form of speech. The custom in Chinese scholarship is to neutrally",
"-25.352805359871127"
],
[
"Ugaritic, Moabite, South Arabian and Phoenician alphabets. Origins and development Historically, the practice of using matres lectionis seems to have originated when /aj/ and /aw/ diphthongs, written with the yod י and the waw ו consonant letters respectively, monophthongized to simple long vowels /eː/ and /oː/. This epiphenomenal association between consonant letters and vowel sounds was then seized upon and used in words without historic diphthongs.\nIn general terms, it is observable that early Phoenician texts have very few matres lectionis, and that during most of the 1st millennium BCE, Hebrew and Aramaic were quicker to develop matres lectionis than",
"-25.35181728657335"
],
[
"are common in modern orthography of languages using alphabetic scripts, but these are (excepting isolated precedents) a relatively modern development (see also history of writing).\nIn English orthography, compound expressions may contain spaces. For example, ice cream, air raid shelter and get up each are generally considered to consist of more than one word (as each of the components are free forms, with the possible exception of get).\nNot all languages delimit words expressly. Mandarin Chinese is a very analytic language (with few inflectional affixes), making it unnecessary to delimit words orthographically. However, there are many multiple-morpheme compounds in Mandarin, as well",
"-25.35144933045376"
],
[
"Writing systems of Formosan languages History The Sinckan Manuscripts are one of the earliest written materials of several Formosan languages, including Siraya. This writing system was developed by Dutch missionaries in the period of Dutch ruling (1624–1662).\nAfter 1947, with the need for translation of Bible, Latin scripts for Bunun, Paiwan, Taroko, Atayal, and Amis were created. Currently, all 16 Formosan languages are written with similar systems. The Pe̍h-ōe-jī of Taiwanese Hokkien and Pha̍k-fa-sṳ of Taiwanese Hakka were also created with by the western missionaries.",
"-25.307547088930733"
],
[
"Language The idea of using markup language, in which meta-information about the document and its formatting were contained within the document itself, first saw widespread use in a program called RUNOFF; Scribe contained the first robust implementation of declarative markup language.\nIn Scribe, markup was introduced with an @ sign, followed either by a Begin-End block or by a direct token invocation:\n @Heading(The Beginning)\n @Begin(Quotation)\n Let's start at the very beginning, a very good place to start\n @End(Quotation)\nIt was also possible to pass parameters:\n @MakeSection(tag=beginning, title=\"The Beginning\")\nTypically, large documents were composed of",
"-25.287340354407206"
],
[
"af Prof. Knud Leems Lappiske grammatica in 1832. Rask felt that the orthography should be based on the principle of a single grapheme for each sound, i.e. it should be a phonemic orthography. All of the orthographies that have been used for Northern Sámi trace their roots back to Rask's system. Following in the tradition of Rask meant that diacritics were used with some consonants (č, đ, ŋ, š, ŧ and ž), which caused data-processing problems before Unicode was introduced. Both Stockfleth and Jens Andreas Friis went on to publish grammar books and dictionaries for Sámi. The Stockfleth orthography Inspired",
"-25.281731033843243"
],
[
"years later in 1522, the world's first Malay-European dictionary was compiled by Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian companion of Ferdinand Magellan. This was subsequently followed by many other European traders, adventurers, explorers and scholars who invented their own Rumi spelling systems. Among notable Rumi spelling systems that existed before the 20th century were the orthographies of Cornelis de Houtman (1595), Davidis Haex (1631), Thomas Bowrey (1701), J.Howison (1800), William Marsden (1812), Claudius Thomsen (1820), John Crawfurd (1848), Straits Settlements (1878), Frank Swettenham (1881), and William Edward Maxwell (1882). All these systems were mainly developed by using the method of transliteration from",
"-25.27540941175539"
],
[
"Yu Pufan Yu Pufan (Chinese: 虞浦帆; 1923 – 27 June 2019) was a Chinese computer pioneer. He invented the earliest dot matrix printing method for Chinese characters in 1962 and developed then China's fastest computer in 1964, which was used in the explosion of China's first nuclear bomb. He served as Vice President of East China Institute of Computer Technology. Biography Yu was born in 1923 in Ningbo, Zhejiang, Republic of China. He graduated from the Department of Physics of the University of Shanghai in 1945.\nIn December 1959, Yu developed Type-103, the first vacuum tube computer in Shanghai. In August",
"-25.25778384314617"
],
[
"a modified form of English developed in the 17th century for use as a trade language or lingua franca between the English and the Chinese. Chinese Pidgin started in Guangzhou, China, after the English established their first trading port there in 1664. Pidgin English was developed by the English and adapted by the Chinese for business purposes. The term \"pidgin\" itself is believed by some etymologists to be a corruption of the pronunciation of the English word \"business\" by the Chinese. Chinese Pidgin continued in use until about the end of the 19th century, when Pidgin came to be",
"-25.236301005250425"
],
[
"this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people. His intention was to establish a cultural identity for Korea through its unique script.\nKing Sejong created the Korean alphabet (which numbered 28 letters at its introduction, of which four letters have become obsolete), with the explicit goal being that Koreans from all classes would read and write. Each consonant letter is based on a simplified diagram of the patterns made by the human speech organs (the mouth, tongue and teeth) when producing the sound related to the character, while vowels were formed",
"-25.182979451608844"
],
[
"tool and the first word processor ever designed and developed specifically for children, was created by Jim and Jack Pejsa, who also developed Movie Creator (licensed by Spinnaker to Fisher Price Corp.) an 8 track video and 3 track music production and editing workshop for children. Alphabet Zoo was produced by Dale Disharoon, a teacher from Chico, California.\nBy early 1984 InfoWorld estimated that Spinnaker was the world's 16th-largest microcomputer-software company, with $10 million in 1983 sales. During the 1983–1988 time frame, Spinnaker consistently led the best seller charts for educational software. with Snooper Troops making the top ten list of",
"-25.169318785629002"
],
[
"Hunminjeongeum (Hangul, Korean alphabet), which was inscribed to the UNESCO Memory of the World Register in 1997. Hangul was created by Sejong the Great in 1443 and proclaimed in 1446. Before the creation of Hangul, people in Korea (known as Joseon at the time) primarily wrote using Classical Chinese alongside native phonetic writing systems that predate Hangul by hundreds of years, including idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil. However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of characters needed to be learned, there was much difficulty in learning how to write using Chinese",
"-25.1673648027936"
],
[
"pressing two keys based upon the 33 basic stroke formations, which Lin called \"letters of the Chinese Alphabet\" (Sorrel 2009).\nLin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage was the first major Chinese‐English dictionary to be produced by a fully bilingual Chinese instead of by Western missionaries (Durdin 1972: 37). In the history of Chinese lexicography, missionaries dominated the first century of Chinese‐English dictionaries, from Morrison's A Dictionary of the Chinese Language (1815-1823) to Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary (1931, 1943) (Durdin 1972: 37) .\nIn the period between Mathews' and Lin's dictionaries, both the Chinese and English vocabularies underwent radical changes in terminology for",
"-25.146815616521053"
],
[
"strongly suggests that the Eskayan language was created in the period after Spanish contact had been established. Evidence of this includes the presence of \"native\" terms (i.e., not borrowed or calqued) for post-contact cultural categories such as \"pope\" and \"aeroplane\". Further, the language makes semantic distinctions that are made in Spanish and English but not in Visayan (such as between \"moon\" and \"month\"). It is highly plausible that Eskayan vocabulary was created by taking parallel Spanish-English-Visayan wordlists from textbooks, and replacing the Visayan layer with Eskayan. Finally, the Eskayan script bears strong similarities to 19th-century Copperplate handwriting.\nIndigenous constructed languages",
"-25.107783942483366"
],
[
"another Japanese company, NEC Corporation, announced the development of a translation system that could be loaded in mobile phones. This mobile translation system could recognize 50,000 Japanese words and 30,000 English words, and could be used for simple translations when travelling. However, it was not until January 2009 that NEC Corporation officially demonstrated their product.\nTechnological advances within the miniaturization of computing and communication devices have made possible the usage of mobile telephones in language learning. Among the early projects were the Spanish study programs which included vocabulary practice, quizzes, and word and phrase translations. Soon after, projects were developed using",
"-25.104237742722034"
],
[
"and 16th centuries to compose his oeuvre in Assamese and Brajavali the language of the Bhakti poets; and before him, Madhava Kandali used it to write the Assamese Ramayana in the 14th century. It was also used by the later Ahom kings to write the Buranjis, the Ahom chronicles, in the Assamese language. There is a rich legacy of East sub-continental literature written in this script, which is still occasionally used to write Sanskrit today.\nClusters of consonants are represented by different and sometimes quite irregular characters; thus, learning to read the script is complicated by the sheer size of the",
"-25.088699638843536"
],
[
"Chinese Pidgin English History English first arrived in China in the 1630s, when English traders arrived in South China. Chinese Pidgin English was spoken first in the areas of Macao and Guangzhou (City of Canton), later spreading north to Shanghai by the 1830s. \"Yangjing Bang English\" in Chinese (洋涇浜, or 洋泾浜) derives from the name of a former creek in Shanghai near the Bund where local workers communicated with English-speaking foreigners in pidgin (broken English); (Yangjing Bang has since been filled in and is now the eastern part of Yan'an Road, the main east-west artery of central Shanghai).\nHistorically, it was",
"-25.049727974808775"
],
[
"without effort on their part.\" The initial words spoken into the phonograph were Edison's recital of \"Mary Had a Little Lamb\", the first instance of recorded verse. In 1878, a demonstration at the Royal Institution in Britain included \"Hey Diddle Diddle, the Cat and the Fiddle\" and a line of Tennyson's poetry thus establishing from the very beginning of the technology its association with spoken literature. Beginnings to 1970 Many short, spoken word recordings were sold on cylinder in the late 1800s and early 1900s, however the round cylinders were limited to about 4 minutes each making books impractical; flat",
"-25.048014097847044"
],
[
"into Microsoft Windows) to display computer fonts. \nPangrams exist in practically every alphabet-based language. An example from German is Victor jagt zwölf Boxkämpfer quer über den großen Sylter Deich (\"Victor chases twelve boxers across the Great Levee of Sylt\"), which contains all letters, including every umlaut (ä, ö, ü) plus the ß. It has been used since before 1800.\nIn a sense, the pangram is the opposite of the lipogram, in which the aim is to omit one or more letters. Other scripts Logographic scripts, or writing systems such as Chinese that do not use an alphabet but are composed",
"-25.03240764827933"
],
[
"Linguee Linguee is a web service that provides an online dictionary for a number of language pairs. Unlike similar services, such as LEO, Linguee incorporates a search engine that provides access to large amounts of bilingual sentence pairs found online. As a translation aid, Linguee therefore differs from machine translation services like Babelfish and is more similar in function to a translation memory. Technology Linguee uses specialized webcrawlers to search the Internet for appropriate bilingual texts and to divide them into parallel sentences. The paired sentences identified undergo automatic quality evaluation by a human-trained machine learning algorithm that estimates the",
"-25.027461196063086"
],
[
"Tang Dynasty. These later evolved into the Song style (宋体字) which used thick vertical strokes and thin horizontal strokes in wood block printing.\nThe glyphs found in CJK fonts are designed to fit within a square. This allows for regular vertical, horizontal, right-to-left and left-to-right orientations. CJK fonts can also include an extended set of monospaced Latin characters. This commonly results in complex, sometimes contradictory rules and conventions for mixing languages in type. Mincho With CJK typefaces, Mincho style tends to be something like Serifs for the end of stems, and in fact includes Serifed glyphs for Extended Latin and Cyrillic",
"-25.022176077356562"
],
[
"letter, the null initial ㅇ, was invented by Sejong. The rest of the letters were derived internally from these six, essentially as described in the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye. However, the five borrowed consonants were not the graphically simplest letters considered basic by the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye, but instead the consonants basic to Chinese phonology: ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅈ, and ㄹ.\nThe Hunmin Jeong-eum states that King Sejong adapted the 古篆 (gojeon, \"Gǔ Seal Script\") in creating the Korean alphabet. The 古篆 has never been identified. The primary meaning of 古 gǔ is \"old\" (\"Old Seal Script\"), frustrating philologists because the Korean",
"-25.018952571001137"
],
[
"as serve as a method to emphasize native words (similar to how italics are used in Romance languages). Korean In times past, until the 15th century, in Korea, Literary Chinese was the dominant form of written communication prior to the creation of hangul, the Korean alphabet. Much of the vocabulary, especially in the realms of science and sociology, comes directly from Chinese, comparable to Latin or Greek root words in European languages. However, due to the lack of tones in Modern Standard Korean, as the words were imported from Chinese, many dissimilar characters and syllables took on identical pronunciations,",
"-25.010349952848628"
],
[
"on a global scale soon after. Sterotyper Hall invented several other tools used for Braille communication, most notably a stereotyper used to make typeset plates for printing Braille books. He unveiled this device at the Chicago World Fair. Other inventions include an apparatus for skimming milk and co-invention of the stereo typewriter. A Jacksonville gunmaker named Gustav A. Sieber often helped Hull with the engineering of his inventions. Chicago World Fair He also co-founded the stereo typewriter which produced copies faster and cheaper, a derivative of the inventions by Rasmus Malling-Hansen, in 1893.\nAt the Chicago World Fair, Hall was displaying",
"-24.987119122757576"
],
[
"Zonal constructed language Pan-Slavic languages Most numerous within this category by far are Pan-Slavic languages. The oldest known example is Ruski jezik (1665) by the Croatian priest Juraj Križanić, who is often regarded as the first recorded Pan-Slavist. Other notable examples of early Pan-Slavic language projects are Universalis Lingua Slavica by Ján Herkeľ (1826), Uzajemni Pravopis Slavjanski by the Slovene Matija Majar (1865), Neuslawisch by the Czech Ignac Hošek (1907) and Slavina by the Czech Josef Konečný (1912). \nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, all projects were characterized by a heavily naturalistic grammar, based directly or indirectly on Old",
"-24.982656204723753"
],
[
"writing by using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing were gradually replaced around 2700–2500 BC by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only for logograms, but developed to include phonetic elements by the 29th century BC. About 2600 BC, cuneiform began to represent syllables of the Sumerian language. Finally, cuneiform writing became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. From the 26th century BC, this script was adapted to the Akkadian language, and from there to others, such as Hurrian and Hittite. Scripts similar in",
"-24.972590176796075"
],
[
"in The Phonogram, an academic journal, and he became the first person to use phonograph for foreign language instruction. It soon became a second leg of his business, as on-site learning was paired with development of self-learning correspondence courses and production of related aid materials. They consisted of two types. One was own textbooks; they contained excerpts from literary works, though also phrases tailored for daily usage. Another one was recordings. Initially phonograph-intended cylinders were used; first branded by Cortina, after 1896 they were made by Edison's National Phonographic Company. In 1908 he registered the trademark of Cortinaphone, selling own",
"-24.968326204085315"
],
[
"in which the Mon-Khmer hill tribes of the region joined together to resist French and Lao rule, Ong Kommandam, a speaker of the closely related Alak language, invented a complicated script called Khom that was used for a time to write Jru'.\nRecently, linguist Pascale Jacq, with the help of native speakers, has devised an orthography based on the Lao script in an attempt to provide Jru' speakers a standardized method with which to write their language. Jacq's orthography is currently being used to compile a Jru'-Lao-English-French dictionary.",
"-24.961262276716297"
],
[
"this introduction, other languages have made use of it, namely Ceylon, Kotlin, TypeScript and Facebook Flow.",
"-24.955132661474636"
],
[
"a spoken rather than written language, and there is a lack of standardisation. However, a number of attempts have been made at developing an orthography for the language. Early attempts either attempted to enforce English spelling onto the Norfuk words, or used diacritical marks to represent sounds distinct to the language.\nAlice Buffett, a Norfolk Island parliamentarian and Australian-trained linguist, developed a codified grammar and orthography for the language in the 1980s, assisted by Dr Donald Laycock, an Australian National University academic. Their book, Speak Norfuk Today, was published in 1988. This orthography has won the endorsement of",
"-24.93208161223447"
],
[
"The latter models in particular were popular with both professionals and consumers.\nIn the 1970s and 1980s word processing, a method for \"typing\" documents using a keyboard linked to a computer and a video screen, was developed. Early machines were dedicated exclusively to this function and a notable Canadian contribution, the Superplus IV, produced by AES Data in Montreal in 1981, became widely popular. However, the rise of the personal computer and the invention of PC-compatible word processing software, such as WordPerfect in 1982 and Microsoft Word in 1983, made stand-alone word processors obsolete. Spreadsheet software also became popular for accounting",
"-24.91132132592611"
],
[
"Dongguk Jeongun The Dongguk Jeongun (Standard Rhymes of the Eastern States) is a Korean dictionary of rhymes which sets out a standard practice for pronouncing Chinese characters in Korean. It was compiled between 1446 and 1448 under the instructions of Sejong the Great, and serves as a companion volume to his Hunminjeongeum.\nIt was one of the first printed books in Korea, using both woodblock printing and metal type printing. Woodblocks were used for the larger characters (whose calligraphy is attributed to Prince Jinyang) and metal for the smaller text.\nAn extant original version of the book is held at the Museum",
"-24.898457915056497"
],
[
"Ewellic alphabet The Ewellic script (pronounced yoo-WELL-ik) was invented by Doug Ewell in 1980 as a way to represent the pronunciation of English and other languages without the precision of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).",
"-24.883159800199792"
],
[
"which make up the word. Online Online orthography aids provide language learners with a step-by-step process on learning how to write characters. These are especially useful for learners of languages with logographic writing systems, such as Chinese or Japanese, in which the ordering of strokes for characters are important. Alternatively, tools like Skritter provide an interactive way of learning via a system similar to writing tablets albeit on computers, at the same time providing feedback on stroke ordering and progress.\nHandwriting recognition is supported on certain programs, which help language learners in learning the orthography of the target language. Practice of",
"-24.875338399549946"
],
[
"and prepare them for publication. A prominent example of the LRC using computers to prepare texts for print publication is the book by Winfred P. Lehmann, A Gothic Etymological Dictionary (Leiden: Brill, 1986). The final print-ready version was produced with the aid of a laser printer (exotic new technology, in those days) using, for the various languages included in the entries, approximately 500 special characters—many of them designed at the Center. This was the first major etymological dictionary for Indo-European languages to be produced with the aid of computers.\nCurrent LRC projects have concentrated on transcribing early Indo-European texts, developing language",
"-24.870266984100454"
],
[
"Yerkish History The language was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld and used by Duane Rumbaugh and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh of Georgia State University while working with primates at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. Primates were taught to communicate by means of a lexigram board, a computerized array of keys labeled with lexigrams. Von Glasersfeld coined the term \"lexigram\" in 1971, created the first 120 of them, and designed the grammar that regulated their combination. This artificial language was called Yerkish in honor of Robert M. Yerkes, the founder of the laboratory within which the",
"-24.857713783079816"
],
[
"Synergistic Software Synergistic Software was a video game developer based in Seattle. Founded in 1978, the company published some of the earliest available games and applications for the Apple II family of computers. They continued developing games for various platforms into the late 1990s. History Synergistic was founded in 1978 by Robert Clardy and Ann Dickens Clardy. One of the earliest successful third-party software developers for the Apple II platform, they are most well known for their Dungeons & Dragons-inspired Dungeon Campaign / Wilderness Campaign game, which was later expanded and repackaged as Odyssey: The Compleat Apventure. Dungeon Campaign /",
"-24.847186349710682"
],
[
"however, that the addition of dots and circles to Manchu script began before their supposed introduction by Dahai.\nDahai also added the tulergi hergen (\"foreign/outer letters\"): ten graphemes to facilitate Manchu to be used to write Chinese, Sanskrit, and Tibetan loanwords. Previously, these non-Manchu sounds did not have corresponding letters in Manchu.\nSounds that were transliterated included the aspirated sounds k' (Chinese pinyin: k, ᠺ), k (g, ᡬ), x (h, ᡭ); ts' (c, ᡮ); ts (ci, ᡮ᠊ᡟ); sy (si, ᠰ᠊ᡟ); dz (z, ᡯ); c'y (chi, ᡱᡟ); j'y (zhi, ᡷᡟ); and ž (r, ᡰ). 19th century – present By the middle of the",
"-24.836455722688697"
],
[
"that personal computers and word processing software soon became serious competition for the dedicated machines. Word processing became the most popular use for personal computers, and unlike the spreadsheet (dominated by Lotus 1-2-3) and database (dBase) markets, WordPerfect, XyWrite, Microsoft Word, pfs:Write, and dozens of other word processing software brands competed in the 1980s; PC Magazine reviewed 57 different programs in one January 1986 issue. Development of higher-resolution monitors allowed them to provide limited WYSIWYG—What You See Is What You Get, to the extent that typographical features like bold and italics, indentation, justification and margins were approximated on screen.\nThe mid-to-late",
"-24.824062563537154"
],
[
"and by 1977 it was in use throughout China, particularly in the government and party, and in education. Although in 1987 the government continued to endorse the goal of universalizing putonghua, hundreds of regional and local dialects continued to be spoken, complicating interregional communication.\nA second language reform required the simplification of ideographs because ideographs with fewer strokes are easier to learn. In 1964 the Committee for Reforming the Chinese Written Language released an official list of 2,238 simplified characters most basic to the language. Simplification made literacy easier, although some people (especially in Hong Kong which is still using traditional",
"-24.821383018104825"
],
[
"with the North Indic script Siddham.\nThe calligraphy of modern Mon script follows that of modern Burmese. Burmese calligraphy originally followed a square format but the cursive format took hold in the 17th century when popular writing led to the wider use of palm leaves and folded paper known as parabaiks. The script has undergone considerable modification to suit the evolving phonology of the Burmese language, but additional letters and diacritics have been added to adapt it to other languages; the Shan and Karen alphabets, for example, require additional tone markers.",
"-24.811308664269745"
],
[
"three oral texts were used to teach children by rote memorization the written characters of their language and the basics of Confucian thought.\nThe Thousand Character Classic, a Chinese poem originating in the 6th century, was used for more than a millennium as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children. The poem is composed of 250 phrases of four characters each, thus containing exactly one thousand unique characters, and was sung in the same way that children learning the Latin alphabet may use the \"alphabet song\".\nLater, children also learn the Hundred Family Surnames, a rhyming poem in lines of eight",
"-24.811283465882298"
],
[
"of letters which cannot occur together in one word.\nArabic cryptography was further advanced in Morocco between the 16th and 19th centuries, when a cryptographic hash function called the \"Hisab al-Jommal calculation\" was used to encrypt Arabic words and messages. Its earliest use was by Moroccan sultan Ahmad al-Mansur in the 16th century. In the 18th century, this function was used by several Moroccean poets to write a signature using the earliest known digital signature algorithm. Medieval Europe In early medieval England between the years 800-1100, substitution ciphers were frequently used by scribes as a playful and clever way encipher notes,",
"-24.79325170686934"
],
[
"Miꞌkmaq hieroglyphic writing Classification Scholars have debated whether the earliest known Miꞌkmaq \"hieroglyphs\" from the 17th century qualified fully as a writing system, rather than as a pictographic mnemonic device. In the 17th century, French missionary Chrétien Le Clercq adapted the Míkmaq characters as a logographic system for pedagogical purposes.\nIn 1978, Ives Goddard and William Fitzhugh of the Department of Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution, contended that the pre-missionary system was purely mnemonic, as it could not be used to write new compositions. Schmidt and Marshall argued in 1995 that the missionary system of the 17th century was able to",
"-24.77457225928083"
],
[
"time. The first metal movable type book was the Sangjeong Gogeum Yemun that was printed in 1234. Technology in Korea took a big step in Goryeo and strong relation with the Song dynasty contributed to this. In the dynasty, Korean ceramics and paper, which come down to now, started to be manufactured.\nDuring the late Goryeo Dynasty, Goryeo was at the cutting edge of shipboard artillery. In 1356 early experiments were carried out with gunpowder weapons that shot wood or metal projectiles. In 1373 experiments with incendiary arrows and \"fire tubes\" possibly an early form of the Hwacha were developed and",
"-24.738238611258566"
],
[
"and creative collaboration\". Many trace the transformation of old rhetoric into digital rhetoric through the classical rhetorical canons. Shift from print to digital Dennis Baron states, \"The first writing technology was writing itself.\" While previous writing technologies involved pencils and hieroglyphics, the evolution of communication technology now allows for online and immediate rhetorical conversations. The evolution of communicative technologies started with the chisel, then the book, the quill, the Greek alphabet, and the pencil, onto more modern technology such as the computer. The origins of modern computing are to be found in the techno-military context of World War II. Just",
"-24.737549373763613"
],
[
"forgotten. \nWord spacing was later used by Irish and Anglo-Saxon scribes. The creation of the Carolingian minuscule by Alcuin of York, where it originated and then spread to the rest of world, including modern Arabic and Hebrew. Indeed, the actions of these Irish and Anglo-Saxon scribes marked the dramatic shift for reading between antiquity and the modern period. Spacing would become standard in Renaissance Italy and France, and then Byzantium by the end of the 16th century; then entering into the Slavic languages in Cyrillic in the 17th century, and only in modern times entering modern Sanskrit. Traditionally, all CJK",
"-24.719925036886707"
],
[
"phonetic input method that supports the Eten Layout, in July 2004. A month later, Cangjie support was also added, overcoming the perceived challenges of OS X.\nPrior to these advancements, the focus of large OS producers, such as Apple, did not generally include input method support for minority languages. As a repercussion of the developments surrounding Chewing and VanillaInput, the design of new Chinese input methods was opened for further exploration. Yet, regarding the writing of an IM, many parts (libraries, for example) were still not \"open\" source.\nIn October 2004, lukhnos, gugod, zonble and b6s began to develop a new IM",
"-24.71365355887974"
],
[
"speak of a unified Zan language today.\nThe oldest surviving texts in Mingrelian date from the 19th century, and are mainly ethnographical literature. The earliest linguistic studies of Mingrelian include a phonetic analysis by Aleksandre Tsagareli (1880), and grammars by Ioseb Kipshidze (1914) and Shalva Beridze (1920). From 1930 to 1938 several newspapers were published in Mingrelian, such as Kazakhishi Gazeti, Komuna, Samargalosh Chai, Narazenish Chai, and Samargalosh Tutumi. More recently, there has been some revival of the language, with the publication of dictionaries—Mingrelian–Georgian by Otar Kajaia, and Mingrelian-German by Otar Kajaia and Heinz Fähnrich—and poetry books by Lasha Gakharia, Edem",
"-24.69828056031838"
],
[
"چيني). Historian Ahmad Y. al-Hassan argues – contra the general notion – that the Chinese technology passed through Arabic alchemy and chemistry before the 13th century. Gunpowder arrived in India by the mid-14th century, but could have been introduced by the Mongols perhaps as early as the mid-13th century. Printing press The first known movable type system was invented in China around 1040 AD by Pi Sheng (990–1051) (spelled Bi Sheng in the Pinyin system). Pi Sheng's type was made of baked clay, as described by the Chinese scholar Shen Kuo (1031–1095). The world's first metal-based movable type printing press was invented",
"-24.680663692066446"
],
[
"the first modern, practical orthography for the language.\nHe published his dictionary and grammar of the Tsimshian language (now known as Sm'algyax) in 1978 and 1979 respectively. They were reissued in a single volume in 1995 by the Sealaska Heritage Foundation.\nIn the early 1990s he participated with Susan Marsden, Marie-Lucie Tarpent, Vonnie Hutchingson, and several Tsimshian language instructors in devising an updated Sm'algyax orthography in conjunction with producing the Teachings of Our Grandfathers book series for School District no. 52 of Prince Rupert, British Columbia.\nHe was a retired professor of linguistics at the University of Oklahoma in Norman, Oklahoma.\nHe was",
"-24.679719880368793"
],
[
"invented by him in 405 AD, was first introduced for teaching purposes.\nFor 35 years until his death in 440, Mashtots recruited teams of monks to translate the religious, scientific and literary masterpieces of the ancient world into this new alphabet. Much of their work was conducted in the monastery at Amaras …\" \nThe description of St. Mesrob Mashtots' journey to Artsakh and the neighboring province of Utik is a focal point of several chapters of the \"History of Aghvank\" (Armenian: Պատմություն Աղվանից) written in the 7th century by one of Artsakh's most prominent natives—Armenian historian Movses Kaghankatvatsi (Armenian: Մովսես Կաղանկատվացի).\nAnother temple",
"-24.677383730188012"
]
] |
3kwr7e | Why does chemotherapy work if it's basically just pumping poison into your body? Why don't we often die from that poison? | [
"Well it's not 'just pumping poison into your body.' It is a variety of treatments tailored to more specifically target certain types of cells. For instance, many target cells that undergo extremely rapid division, because this is a fairly common feature of cancer cells. This does indeed damage healthy parts of the body, for instance hair follicle cells divide rapidly, and hence you get the characteristic hair loss.",
"Its poison that kills the cancer before it kills you. So basically youll get sick but youll live but the cancer will die. You can survive poison. Granted this is an over simplification but its the basic gist.",
"One of the big differences between cancer cells and healthy cells is how fast they replicate. To grow so fast, cancer cells need a lot more \"fuel\" than an average cell does. We can use this fact to slightly \"poison\" the fuel. It's not enough to kill a regular cell that uses the fuel slowly (although it'll make them sick) but it'll kill anything that uses a ton of it fast. Think alcohol... If you drink it slowly, you'll just feel a little woozy and disoriented. But if you chug it and chug it and chug it, you might end up in the hospital or dead with alcohol poisoning. This is also the reason why Chemo is especially effective against aggressive cancers that replicate quickly, like Lymphoma or Testicular, but not so much against slow cancers like Skin Cancer or Lung Cancer"
] | [
[
"current usage, the term \"chemotherapy\" usually refers to cytotoxic drugs which affect rapidly dividing cells in general, in contrast with targeted therapy (see below). Chemotherapy drugs interfere with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific to cancer cells, although some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally can. Hence, chemotherapy has the potential to harm healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have",
"-32.44205393080483"
],
[
"chemotherapy drugs used to fight cancer, are using multiple active ingredient treatments.\nNature provides the most powerful cure-all drug, said Swerdlow. It has been scientifically proven to lower risks of heart disease, reduce chances of developing cancer, and prevent strokes (the three leading causes of death in the United States) all without side effects. This miracle drug is simply eating fruits and vegetables every day. To Heal A Nation (with Jan Scruggs) Howard K. Smith's introduction to this book begins with the impact of the Vietnam War as an \"inflamed wound\" on the body of American society:\nHistorians regard the civil war",
"-32.26342774151999"
],
[
"to 1990, including anthracyclines and epipodophyllotoxins — both of which inhibited the action of topoisomerase II, an enzyme crucial for DNA synthesis. Supportive care during chemotherapy As is obvious from their origins, the above cancer chemotherapies are essentially poisons. Patients receiving these agents experienced severe side-effects that limited the doses which could be administered, and hence limited the beneficial effects. Clinical investigators realized that the ability to manage these toxicities was crucial to the success of cancer chemotherapy.\nSeveral examples are noteworthy. Many chemotherapeutic agents cause profound suppression of the bone marrow. This is reversible, but takes time to recover. Support",
"-31.689030381401608"
],
[
"prescription to treat their pain causing them to be in severe discomfort via vomiting. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is a big cause of emesis, and often can cause severe and frequent emetic responses. This is because chemotherapy agents circulating in the blood activate the CTZ in such a way as to cause emesis. Patients receiving chemotherapy are often prescribed antiemetic medications.",
"-31.682286965165986"
],
[
"Low-dose chemotherapy Forms of low-dose chemotherapy The following forms of low-dose chemotherapy have been proposed. They are not always widely available treatments at hospitals. Oral low-dose chemotherapy Patients are given chemotherapy drugs orally very frequently. This approach can be very effective for some cancers and can minimize side effects for some people. More patients are using oral chemotherapy than ever before. Low-dose chemotherapy and antiangiogenesis Adam Dicker, an associate professor at Jefferson Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia, supports that chemotherapy is often used in the highest possible doses. They are rethinking chemotherapy because of the antiangiogenic effects",
"-31.57106237341941"
],
[
"albendazole and/or mebendazole) for up to two years after surgery is the only sure way to completely cure the disease. However, in inoperable cases, chemotherapy by itself can also be used. In treatment using just chemotherapy, one could use either mebendazole in three doses or albendazole in two doses. Since chemotherapy on its own is not guaranteed to completely rid the patient of disease, patients are often kept on the drugs for extended periods of times (i.e. more than 6 months, years). In addition to surgery and chemotherapy, liver transplants are being looked into as a form of treatment for",
"-30.88902177417185"
],
[
"effects of the injected anti-cancer agents, which are of a high cytotoxicity potential. A widely used solution is to use enzymes which are able to convert a relatively non-toxic prodrug precursor into the active drug form(s). Clostridial-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (CDEPT) is one of the possible approaches.\nSolid tumors, in contrast to normal tissues, grow rapidly. As a result, the cancerous tissues may suffer from inadequate blood and oxygen supply. Therefore, clostridia can grow in tumor and destroy it specifically. (Originally, Parker and co-workers showed that the injection of Clostridium histolyticum spores to the transplanted sarcomas of mice results in significant",
"-30.854510213874164"
],
[
"a high replacement rate (e.g. intestinal lining). These cells usually repair themselves after chemotherapy.\nBecause some drugs work better together than alone, two or more drugs are often given at the same time. This is called \"combination chemotherapy\"; most chemotherapy regimens are given in a combination.\nThe treatment of some leukaemias and lymphomas requires the use of high-dose chemotherapy, and total body irradiation (TBI). This treatment ablates the bone marrow, and hence the body's ability to recover and repopulate the blood. For this reason, bone marrow, or peripheral blood stem cell harvesting is carried out before the ablative part of the therapy,",
"-30.64317783410661"
],
[
"major complication with the current methods of treating cancer with chemotherapy is that treatment is not optimized to specifically target cancer cells and the widespread distribution of chemotherapeutic drugs throughout the body can cause harmful side effects such as naseua, hair loss, and cardiotoxicity. Since many of the characteristics of AuNPs allow them to target cancer cells specifically and accumulate within tumor cells, these molecules can act as tumor-targeting drug delivery systems. Once within the tumor microenvironment, these complexes dissociate and release the chemotherapeutic, allowing the drug to take effect and eventually cause apoptosis.\nGold nanoparticles have their advantages in drug",
"-30.55685027592699"
],
[
"with a \"cytoreductive agent\" (hydroxyurea, also known as hydroxycarbamide).\nThe tendency of some practitioners to avoid chemotherapy if possible, especially in young patients, is a result of research indicating possible increased risk of transformation to acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). While hydroxyurea is considered safer in this aspect, there is still some debate about its long-term safety.\nIn the past, injection of radioactive isotopes (principally phosphorus-32) was used as another means to suppress the bone marrow. Such treatment is now avoided due to a high rate of AML transformation.\nOther therapies include interferon injections, and in cases where secondary thrombocytosis (high platelet count) is",
"-30.52948531729635"
],
[
"Extravasation (intravenous) Medications Complications related to extravasation are possible with any medication.\nSince Vesicants are blistering agents, extravasation may lead to irreversible tissue injury.\nExtravasation is particularly serious during chemotherapy, since chemotherapy medications are highly toxic. Examples of vesicant medicinal drugs List of vesicant and irritant medications:",
"-30.458594476920553"
],
[
"DNA and inhibition of the cellular machinery involved in cell division. One theory as to why these drugs kill cancer cells is that they induce a programmed form of cell death known as apoptosis.\nAs chemotherapy affects cell division, tumors with high growth rates (such as acute myelogenous leukemia and the aggressive lymphomas, including Hodgkin's disease) are more sensitive to chemotherapy, as a larger proportion of the targeted cells are undergoing cell division at any time. Malignancies with slower growth rates, such as indolent lymphomas, tend to respond to chemotherapy much more modestly. Heterogeneic tumours may also display varying sensitivities",
"-30.427219501696527"
],
[
"to chemotherapy agents, depending on the subclonal populations within the tumor.\nCells from the immune system also make crucial contributions to the antitumor effects of chemotherapy. For example, the chemotherapeutic drugs oxaliplatin and cyclophosphamide can cause tumor cells to die in a way that is detectable by the immune system (called immunogenic cell death), which mobilizes immune cells with antitumor functions. Chemotherapeutic drugs that cause cancer immunogenic tumor cell death can make unresponsive tumors sensitive to immune checkpoint therapy. Other uses Some chemotherapy drugs are used in diseases other than cancer, such as in autoimmune disorders, and noncancerous plasma cell dyscrasia.",
"-30.426410563464742"
],
[
"also cause DNA damage, which can be repaired by enzymes in the cell that carry out DNA repair. Upregulation of these genes can overcome the DNA damage and prevent the induction of apoptosis. Mutations in genes that produce drug target proteins, such as tubulin, can occur which prevent the drugs from binding to the protein, leading to resistance to these types of drugs. Drugs used in chemotherapy can induce cell stress, which can kill a cancer cell; however, under certain conditions, cells stress can induce changes in gene expression that enables resistance to several types of drugs. Cytotoxics and targeted",
"-30.29183663765434"
],
[
"risk is hypoglycemia.\nThe use of lower than normal doses of chemotherapy can cause drug resistance, which could make future treatment at standard, proven doses ineffective. For some cancers, especially breast and colon cancers, insulin may promote tumor growth. Mechanism of action Two main ideas about how it might work have been proposed. The first idea is that insulin makes cells more permeable, so that the chemotherapy drugs are absorbed faster into cells. The other idea is that insulin might cause the cells to start dividing, which makes them more susceptible to destruction of many cytotoxic chemotherapy drugs.",
"-30.172134367225226"
],
[
"of the nerve signals that cause nausea and vomiting. During the first 24 hours after chemotherapy, the most effective approach appears to be blocking the 5-HT₃ nerve signal. Approved 5-HT₃ inhibitors include dolasetron (Anzemet), granisetron (Kytril, Sancuso), and ondansetron (Zofran). Their antiemetic effect due to blockade of 5HT3 receptor on vagal afferent in the gut. in addition they also block 5-HT3 receptors in CTZ and STN. The newest 5-HT₃ inhibitor, palonosetron (Aloxi), also prevents delayed nausea and vomiting, which can occur during the 2–5 days after treatment. Since some patients have trouble swallowing pills, these drugs are often",
"-30.154088355368003"
],
[
"leukemia, as well as in human leukemia and lymphoma, where drug access is less of an issue.\nBecause only a fraction of the cells die with each treatment, repeated doses must be administered to continue to reduce the size of the tumor. Current chemotherapy regimens apply drug treatment in cycles, with the frequency and duration of treatments limited by toxicity to the patient. The goal is to reduce the tumor population to zero with successive fractional kills. For example, assuming a 99% kill per cycle of chemotherapy, a tumor of 10¹¹ cells would be reduced to less than one cell with",
"-30.143461652114638"
],
[
"a common cytotoxic drug used in this manner, and is often used in conjunction with total body irradiation. Chemotherapeutic drugs may be used at high doses to permanently remove the recipient's bone marrow cells (myeloablative conditioning) or at lower doses that will prevent permanent bone marrow loss (non-myeloablative and reduced intensity conditioning). When used in non-cancer setting, the treatment is still called \"chemotherapy\", and is often done in the same treatment centers used for people with cancer. Occupational exposure and safe handling In the 1970s, antineoplastic (chemotherapy) drugs were identified as hazardous, and the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP)",
"-30.028289428562857"
],
[
"Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) is a common side-effect of many cancer treatments. Nausea and vomiting are two of the most feared cancer treatment-related side effects for cancer patients and their families. In 1983, Coates et al. found that patients receiving chemotherapy ranked nausea and vomiting as the first and second most severe side effects, respectively. Up to 20% of patients receiving highly emetogenic agents in this era postponed, or even refused, potentially curative treatments. Since the 1990s, several novel classes of antiemetics have been developed and commercialized, becoming a nearly universal standard in chemotherapy",
"-29.97247863227676"
],
[
"the tumor is not completely removed during surgery or if the cancer is stage IV; it can extend progression-free survival but has not been shown to extend overall survival. Chemotherapy is curative in approximately 20% of advanced ovarian cancers; it is more often curative with malignant germ cell tumors than epithelial tumors.\nChemotherapy in ovarian cancer typically consists of platins, a group of platinum-based drugs, combined with non-platins. Common therapies can include paclitaxel, cisplatin, topotecan, doxorubicin, epirubicin, and gemcitabine. Carboplatin is typically given in combination with either paclitaxel or docetaxel; the typical combination is carboplatin with paclitaxel. Carboplatin is superior to",
"-29.969416107845973"
],
[
"in the body. If the cancer metastasizes to other tissues or organs it usually dramatically increases a patient's likelihood of death. Some cancers—such as some forms of leukemia, a cancer of the blood, or malignancies in the brain—can kill without spreading at all.\nOnce a cancer has metastasized it may still be treated with radiosurgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, biological therapy, hormone therapy, surgery, or a combination of these interventions (\"multimodal therapy\"). The choice of treatment depends on many factors, including the type of primary cancer, the size and location of the metastases, the patient's age and general health, and the types",
"-29.670749488665024"
],
[
"has been done within the \"Toxicology in the 21st century\" project. In cancer Chemotherapy as a treatment of cancer often relies on the ability of cytotoxic agents to kill or damage cells which are reproducing; this preferentially targets rapidly dividing cancer cells.",
"-29.57633561817056"
],
[
"as other cancer types.\nThe efficacy of chemotherapy depends on the type of cancer and the stage. In combination with surgery, chemotherapy has proven useful in cancer types including breast cancer, colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, osteogenic sarcoma, testicular cancer, ovarian cancer and certain lung cancers. Chemotherapy is curative for some cancers, such as some leukemias, ineffective in some brain tumors, and needless in others, such as most non-melanoma skin cancers. The effectiveness of chemotherapy is often limited by its toxicity to other tissues in the body. Even when chemotherapy does not provide a permanent cure, it may be useful to reduce",
"-29.567606044234708"
],
[
"extracorporeal form of treatment because the blood is pumped through a device outside the patient's body.\nIts major uses include removing drugs or poisons from the blood in emergency situations, removing waste products from the blood in patients with kidney failure, and as a supportive treatment for patients before and after liver transplantation.",
"-29.52709486306412"
],
[
"liver tests. Toxic effects can develop from antibiotics. Natural products Examples include many amanita mushrooms (particularly the destroying angels), and aflatoxins. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which occur in some plants, can be toxic. Green tea extract is a growing cause of liver failure due to its inclusion in more products. Industrial toxin Examples include arsenic, carbon tetrachloride, and vinyl chloride. Alternative remedies Examples include: Ackee fruit, Bajiaolian, Camphor, Copaltra, Cycasin, Garcinia, Kava leaves, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, Horse chestnut leaves, Valerian, Comfrey. Chinese herbal remedies: Jin Bu Huan, Ma-huang, Shou Wu Pian, Bai Xian Pi. Diagnosis This remains a challenge in clinical practice",
"-29.406691558047896"
],
[
"that itself may in turn eventually prove fatal. Drugs taken orally may also be vomited back out before being absorbed. Considering the very high doses needed, vomiting or losing consciousness before taking enough of the active agent is often a major problem for people attempting this.\nAnalgesic overdose attempts are among the most common, due to easy availability of over-the-counter substances. Overdose may also take place when mixing medications in a cocktail with one another, or with alcohol or illegal drugs. This method may leave confusion over whether the death was a suicide or accidental, especially when alcohol or other judgment-impairing",
"-29.40473203068541"
],
[
"as a result of chemotherapy, may require systemic prevention or treatment with oral or intravenous administered anti-fungals. However there is strong evidence that drugs that are absorbed or partially absorbed from the GI tract can prevent candidiasis more effectively than drugs that are not absorbed in the same way.\nIf candidiasis is secondary to corticosteroid or antibiotic use, then use may be stopped, although this is not always a feasible option. Candidiasis secondary to the use of inhaled steroids may be treated by rinsing out the mouth with water after taking the steroid. Use of a spacer device to reduce",
"-29.386109278762888"
],
[
"as oral ingestion or intravascular injection, the medication is distributed throughout the body through the systemic blood circulation. For most therapeutic agents, only a small portion of the medication reaches the organ to be affected, such as in chemotherapy where roughly 99% of the drugs administered do not reach the tumor site. Targeted drug delivery seeks to concentrate the medication in the tissues of interest while reducing the relative concentration of the medication in the remaining tissues. For example, by avoiding the host's defense mechanisms and inhibiting non-specific distribution in the liver and spleen, a system can reach the intended",
"-29.377987030893564"
],
[
"Chemotherapy is not usually used as primary treatment but may be used in advanced cases with spread to the bones, liver or lungs. It may also be given at a lower dose together with radiation therapy.\nWomen with vulvar cancer should have routine follow-up and exams with their oncologist, often every 3 months for the first 2–3 years after treatment. They should not have routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because it is unlikely to detect a recurrence or improve survival and is associated with",
"-29.37675577831942"
],
[
"in allogenic BMTs, the source is a donor.) However, some people still develop diseases because of this interference with bone marrow.\nAlthough people receiving chemotherapy are encouraged to wash their hands, avoid sick people, and take other infection-reducing steps, about 85% of infections are due to naturally occurring microorganisms in the person's own gastrointestinal tract (including oral cavity) and skin. This may manifest as systemic infections, such as sepsis, or as localized outbreaks, such as Herpes simplex, shingles, or other members of the Herpesviridea. The risk of illness and death can be reduced by taking common antibiotics such as quinolones or",
"-29.375912932067877"
],
[
"Surgery is not always possible – for example the patient may have other medical conditions that prevent it, or the cancer may have spread around the body and doctors may not be able to remove it. There is currently no evidence that body-wide medical therapy after surgery where there is no known residual disease, that is, adjuvant therapy, helps to improve survival in kidney cancer. If the cancer cannot be treated with surgery other techniques such as freezing the tumour or treating it with high temperatures may be used. However these are not yet used as standard treatments for kidney",
"-29.356092840462225"
],
[
"had some human testing.\nSymptomatic and supportive treatments are available for ricin poisoning. Existing treatments emphasize minimizing the effects of the poison. Possible treatments include intravenous fluids or electrolytes, airway management, assisted ventilation, or giving medications to remedy seizures and low blood pressure. If the ricin has been ingested recently, the stomach can be flushed by ingesting activated charcoal or by performing gastric lavage. Survivors often develop long-term organ damage. Ricin causes severe diarrhea and vomiting, and victims can die of circulatory shock or organ failure; inhaled ricin can cause fatal pulmonary edema or respiratory failure. Death typically occurs",
"-29.348507730202982"
],
[
"Chemotherapy regimen A chemotherapy regimen is a regimen for chemotherapy, defining the drugs to be used, their dosage, the frequency and duration of treatments, and other considerations. In modern oncology, many regimens combine several chemotherapy drugs in combination chemotherapy. The majority of drugs used in cancer chemotherapy are cytostatic, many via cytotoxicity.\nA fundamental philosophy of medical oncology, including combination chemotherapy, is that different drugs work through different mechanisms, and that the results of using multiple drugs will be synergistic to some extent. Because they have different dose-limiting adverse effects, they can be given together at full doses in chemotherapy regimens.\nThe",
"-29.344363508047536"
],
[
"is any doubt about the diagnosis, potential treatments should not be initiated as they can be toxic. Radiotherapy Radiotherapy is used mostly for focal type of NM due to the nature of damage and success rate associated with the treatment. Radiotherapy targets and tumor and destroys the collective tissues of cancerous cells. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is injected directly into the cerebrospinal fluid, either by lumbar puncture (“spinal tap”) or through a surgically implanted device called an Ommaya. Intrathecal Therapy is preferred since intravenous chemotherapy do not penetrate the BBB. The most common chemicals used are liposomal cytarabine (DepoCyte) and intrathecal methotrexate",
"-29.249885264667682"
],
[
"radioactive dose, and is therefore well-suited for treatment of liver tumors. Due to the local deposition, SIRT is regarded as a type of locoregional therapy (LRT).\nThe liver has a dual blood supply system; it receives blood from both the hepatic artery and the portal vein. The healthy liver tissue is mainly perfused by the portal vein, while most liver malignancies derive their blood supply from the hepatic artery. Therefore, locoregional therapies such as transarterial chemoembolization or radioembolization, can selectively be administered in the arteries that are supplying the tumors and will preferentially lead to deposition of the particles in the",
"-29.182455438945908"
],
[
"remains controversial, due to the possibility of complications from the surgery itself and the fact that it may delay chemotherapy the data so far is mostly positive, with improved survival rates being seen in those treated with this approach. Chemotherapy The use of chemotherapy to treat stomach cancer has no firmly established standard of care. Unfortunately, stomach cancer has not been particularly sensitive to these drugs, and chemotherapy, if used, has usually served to palliatively reduce the size of the tumor, relieve symptoms of the disease and increase survival time. Some drugs used in stomach cancer treatment have included: 5-FU",
"-29.118697552738013"
],
[
"of the family will develop it. The immune system also attacks cancer cells, which is why we need to give chemotherapy on the right day... The concept is sensational. If you can treat people at the right time it could dramatically improve their chance of a successful outcome. The research is still in its early stages, however if we are proved right this method of treatment could be applied to all cancers and in fact all diseases.\" Quinn, 7 March 2010.\nHowever, in 2014, Dr Mutsa Madondo et al. (in a team that included Professor Quinn) were unable to replicate the",
"-29.07316275971243"
],
[
"diagnosed with incurable, stage 4 cancer, more than two-thirds of people with lung cancer and more than four-fifths of people with colorectal cancer still believed that chemotherapy was likely to cure their cancer.\nThe blood–brain barrier poses an obstacle to delivery of chemotherapy to the brain. This is because the brain has an extensive system in place to protect it from harmful chemicals. Drug transporters can pump out drugs from the brain and brain's blood vessel cells into the cerebrospinal fluid and blood circulation. These transporters pump out most chemotherapy drugs, which reduces their efficacy for treatment of brain tumors. Only",
"-29.056695161852986"
],
[
"cells) and deposited material (such as type I collagen and hyaluronic acid). This creates a tumor microenvironment that is short of blood vessels (hypovascular) and so of oxygen (tumor hypoxia). It is thought that this prevents many chemotherapy drugs from reaching the tumor, as one factor making the cancer especially hard to treat. Exocrine cancers Pancreatic cancer is usually staged following a CT scan. The most widely used cancer staging system for pancreatic cancer is the one formulated by the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) together with the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC). The AJCC-UICC",
"-29.007603389385622"
],
[
"thereby protecting undamaged hepatic tissue. In patients developing liver failure, a liver transplant is often the only option to prevent death. Liver transplants have become a well-established option in amatoxin poisoning. This is a complicated issue, however, as transplants themselves may have significant complications and mortality; patients require long-term immunosuppression to maintain the transplant. Evidence suggests that, although survival rates have improved with modern medical treatment, in patients with moderate to severe poisoning up to half of those who did recover suffered permanent liver damage. However, a follow-up study has shown that most survivors recover completely without any sequelae if",
"-28.98898797129368"
],
[
"a result, these tumors become difficult to treatment by conventional methods such as chemotherapy. This has spurred the search for new drug delivery platforms that can target BCSCs and the niche in which these cells reside. A breakdown of this biological framework and structure would provide an alternate means by which to treat this aggressive disease.",
"-28.96068001401727"
],
[
"of the tumor mass. Cancer cells that are left over after a surgery are typically rapidly dividing cells, leaving them the most vulnerable to chemotherapy. Standard chemotherapy regimens are usually administered every 3 weeks to allow normal cells time to recover. This practice has led scientists to the hypothesis that the recurrence of cancer after surgery and chemo may be due to the rapidly diving cells outpacing the rate of chemotherapy administration. DDC tries to circumvent this issue by giving chemotherapy every 2 weeks. To lessen the side effects of chemotherapy that can be exacerbated with more closely administered chemotherapy",
"-28.934363783424487"
],
[
"treatment of the cancer usually leads to resolution of the symptoms. Treatment usually consists of chemotherapy, with radiation therapy in those with limited disease. Immunosuppression Some evidence supports the use of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG). Immune suppression tends to be less effective than in other autoimmune diseases. Prednisolone (a glucocorticoid or steroid) suppresses the immune response, and the steroid-sparing agent azathioprine may replace it once therapeutic effect has been achieved. IVIG may be used with a degree of effectiveness. Plasma exchange (or plasmapheresis), the removal of plasma proteins such as antibodies and replacement with normal plasma, may provide improvement in acute",
"-28.92034051057999"
],
[
"as poisons are toxic only indirectly, by toxication. An example is \"wood alcohol\" or methanol, which is not poisonous itself, but is chemically converted to toxic formaldehyde and formic acid in the liver. Many drug molecules are made toxic in the liver, and the genetic variability of certain liver enzymes makes the toxicity of many compounds differ between individuals.\nExposure to radioactive substances can produce radiation poisoning, an unrelated phenomenon.\nTwo common cases of acute natural poisoning are theobromine poisoning of dogs and cats, and mushroom poisoning in humans. Dogs and cats are not natural herbivores, but a chemical defense developed by",
"-28.90857540804427"
],
[
"cancer because it inhibits the production of the active form of THF from the inactive dihydrofolate (DHF). However, methotrexate can be toxic, producing side effects such as inflammation in the digestive tract that make eating normally more difficult. Bone marrow depression (inducing leukopenia and thrombocytopenia) and acute kidney and liver failure have been reported.\nFolinic acid, under the drug name leucovorin, a form of folate (formyl-THF), can help \"rescue\" or reverse the toxic effects of methotrexate. Folic acid supplements have little established role in cancer chemotherapy. The supplement of folinic acid in people undergoing methotrexate treatment is to give cells dividing",
"-28.88726978249906"
],
[
"additional medications (diuretics) may be administered to help the kidney produce urine.\nImmunosuppressant drugs are used to suppress the immune system from rejecting the donor kidney. These medicines must be taken for the rest of the recipient's life. The most common medication regimen today is a mixture of tacrolimus, mycophenolate, and prednisolone. Some recipients may instead take ciclosporin, sirolimus, or azathioprine. The risk of early rejection of the transplanted kidney is increased if corticosteroids are avoided or withdrawn after the transplantation. Ciclosporin, considered a breakthrough immunosuppressive when first discovered in the 1980s, ironically causes nephrotoxicity and can result in iatrogenic damage",
"-28.87332526606042"
],
[
"daily doses of prednisone, etoposide, procarbazine, and cyclophosphamide, taken orally, has proven effective for relapsed patients. According to John Leonard, PEP-C may have anti-angiogenetic properties, something that he and his colleagues are testing through an ongoing drug trial.\nAnother approach involves using very high doses of chemotherapy, sometimes combined with total body irradiation (TBI), in an attempt to destroy all evidence of the disease. The downside to this is the destruction of the patient's entire immune system as well, requiring rescue by transplantation of a new immune system (hematopoietic stem cell transplantation), using either autologous stem cell transplantation, or those from",
"-28.83912347022124"
],
[
"preventing tumor growth but has not proven to be fully successful, for tumor cells cut off from the blood supply can eventually develop “reactive resistance” to hypoxia. These resistant cancer cells could be killed by chemotherapeutic drugs, but once the vasculature to the tumor has been cut off, there is no way for chemotherapy to be delivered. Nanotechnology offers a way to deliver chemotherapeutic drugs and anti-angiogenic drugs in the same vehicle so that as the blood supply is shut off, chemotherapy is present to prevent any hypoxia-resistant cells from proliferating. Technology Labs at MIT are in the",
"-28.79484273809794"
],
[
"of that drug in the bloodstream of one person may be 10 times higher or lower compared to that of the other person. This variability is typical with many chemotherapy drugs dosed by BSA, and, as shown below, was demonstrated in a study of 14 common chemotherapy drugs.\nThe result of this pharmacokinetic variability among people, is that many people do not receive the right dose to achieve optimal treatment effectiveness with minimized toxic side effects. Some people are overdosed while others are underdosed. For example, in a randomized clinical trial, investigators found 85% of metastatic colorectal cancer patients treated with",
"-28.79158959016786"
],
[
"RNA (snRNA). Without mRNA, essential protein synthesis and hence cell metabolism stop and the cell dies. The liver is the principal organ affected, as it is the first organ encountered after absorption by the gastrointestinal tract, though other organs, especially the kidneys, are susceptible to the toxins.\nThe phallotoxins consist of at least seven compounds, all of which have seven similar peptide rings. Although they are highly toxic to liver cells, phallotoxins have since been found to have little input into the destroying angel's toxicity as they are not absorbed through the gut. Furthermore, one phallotoxin, phalloidin, is also found in",
"-28.750030647730455"
],
[
"cancer, where it has largely replaced the practice of surgical castration.\nChemical castration involves the administration of antiandrogen drugs, such as cyproterone acetate, flutamide, or gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists.",
"-28.738850531401113"
],
[
"chemotherapy refers to the use of chemotherapy after apparently curative surgery to improve the outcome. In NSCLC, samples are taken of nearby lymph nodes during surgery to assist staging. If stage II or III disease is confirmed, adjuvant chemotherapy (including or not including postoperative radiotherapy) improves survival by 4% at five years. The combination of vinorelbine and cisplatin is more effective than older regimens. Adjuvant chemotherapy for people with stage IB cancer is controversial, as clinical trials have not clearly demonstrated a survival benefit. Chemotherapy before surgery in NSCLC that can be removed surgically may improve outcomes.\nChemotherapy may be combined",
"-28.71965976242791"
],
[
"B, high doses of hepatitis B immunoglubins are administrated in liver transplant patients.\nLiver transplantation is unique in that the risk of chronic rejection also decreases over time, although the great majority of recipients need to take immunosuppressive medication for the rest of their lives. It is possible to be slowly taken off anti rejection medication but only in certain cases. It is theorized that the liver may play a yet-unknown role in the maturation of certain cells pertaining to the immune system. There is at least one study by Thomas E. Starzl's team at the University of Pittsburgh which",
"-28.7172722354735"
],
[
"may choose chemotherapy drugs when treating a patient with neurofibrosarcoma, usually in conjunction with surgery. Patients taking chemotherapy must be prepared for the side effects that come with any other chemotherapy treatment, such as; hair loss, lethargy, weakness, etc. Prognosis Patient response to treatment will vary based on age, health, and the tolerance to medications and therapies.\nMetastasis occurs in about 39% of patients, most commonly to the lung. Features associated with poor prognosis include a large primary tumor (over 5 cm across), high grade disease, co-existent neurofibromatosis, and the presence of metastases.\nIt is a rare tumor type, with a relatively",
"-28.70276198827196"
],
[
"Metastasis suppressor A metastasis suppressor is a protein that acts to slow or prevent metastases (secondary tumors) from spreading in the body of an organism with cancer. Metastasis is one of the most lethal cancer processes. This process is responsible for about ninety percent of human cancer deaths. Proteins that act to slow or prevent metastases are different from those that act to suppress tumor growth. Genes for about a dozen such proteins are known in humans and other animals. Background The treatment of cancer usually aims to destroy and/or stop the growth of the primary tumor. Major improvements in",
"-28.673102582179126"
],
[
"are used to treat some cases of non-melanoma skin cancer.\nIf the cancer has central nervous system involvement, or with meningeal disease, intrathecal chemotherapy may be administered. Adverse effects Chemotherapeutic techniques have a range of side-effects that depend on the type of medications used. The most common medications affect mainly the fast-dividing cells of the body, such as blood cells and the cells lining the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Chemotherapy-related toxicities can occur acutely after administration, within hours or days, or chronically, from weeks to years. Immunosuppression and myelosuppression Virtually all chemotherapeutic regimens can cause depression of the immune system, often",
"-28.590470249473583"
],
[
"it quickly may require a higher dose. Some drugs, such as codeine, will not be effective in people without the requisite enzymes to activate them.\nPeople who are poor metabolizers of a drug may overdose while taking less than the recommended dose.",
"-28.58925472557894"
],
[
"DNA damage caused by the co-administered chemotherapy. Tumor cells relying on this residual DNA repair mechanism are unable to repair the damage and hence are not able to survive and proliferate, whereas normal cells can repair the damage with the functioning homologous recombination mechanism.\nMany other drugs for use against other residual DNA repair mechanisms commonly found in cancer are currently under investigation. However, synthetic lethality therapeutic approaches have been questioned due to emerging evidence of acquired resistance, achieved through rewiring of DNA damage response pathways and reversion of previously-inhibited defects. Epigenetic DNA repair defects in cancer Classically, cancer has been",
"-28.566493623598944"
],
[
"the donor and recipient. As a result, the immune system detects the new tissue as \"foreign\", and attempts to remove it by attacking it with white blood cells, resulting in the death of the donated tissue, immunosuppressants are given as an attempt to prevent this rejection; the side-effect is that the body becomes more vulnerable to infections and malignancy. Non-deliberate immunosuppression Non-deliberate immunosuppression can occur in, for example, ataxia-telangiectasia, complement deficiencies, many types of cancer, and certain chronic infections such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The unwanted effect in non-deliberate immunosuppression is immunodeficiency that results in increased susceptibility",
"-28.52305724233156"
],
[
"the chemicals, which are very toxic to the liver. Common foodstuffs contaminated with the toxins are cereals, peanuts, and other vegetables. Contamination of food is common in Africa, South-East Asia, and China. Concurrent HBV infection and aflatoxin exposure increases the risk for liver cancer to over three times that seen in HBV infected individuals without aflatoxin exposure. The mechanism by which aflatoxins cause cancer is through mutations and epigenetic alterations. Aflatoxins induce a spectrum of mutations including a very frequent mutation in the p53 tumor suppressor gene. Mutation in p53, presumably in conjunction with other aflatoxin-induced mutations and",
"-28.515128987666685"
],
[
"of problems.\nThe injection of talc from crushed pills has been associated with pulmonary talcosis in intravenous drug users. Harm reduction Harm reduction is a public health approach that serves as an alternative to abstinence-only guidance. While it does not condone the use of illicit or illegal drugs, it does seek to reduce the harms, risks and dangers associated with illicit drug use, both for the person using illicit drugs and the wider community. Injection drug users that re-use drug delivery components put themselves and others at risk for diseases such as HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C, as well as",
"-28.51507396128727"
],
[
"saliva into the airways, predisposing for aspiration pneumonia. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy Chemotherapy depends on the tumor type, but tends to be cisplatin-based (or carboplatin or oxaliplatin) every three weeks with fluorouracil (5-FU) either continuously or every three weeks. In more recent studies, addition of epirubicin was better than other comparable regimens in advanced nonresectable cancer. Chemotherapy may be given after surgery (adjuvant, i.e. to reduce risk of recurrence), before surgery (neoadjuvant) or if surgery is not possible; in this case, cisplatin and 5-FU are used. Ongoing trials compare various combinations of chemotherapy; the phase II/III REAL-2 trial – for example",
"-28.445166646211874"
],
[
"The enzyme has also been studied in the past as a possible tumor suppressing agent for the previously described reasons, in that it deprives tumor cells of an essential amino acid and kills them, but this treatment has not been utilized.",
"-28.419221689138794"
],
[
"radiotherapy or chemotherapy begin, making those therapies more effective. It may also be used in the case of slow-growing tumors to shift tumor cells from phase of cell cycle to replicative pool.\nIn other types of cancer where debulking is not curative, it is sometimes done with palliative intent to relieve mass effect. For example, tumors whose bulk presses on the lungs or esophagus can impair breathing or swallowing, in which case debulking can improve quality of life and extend survival regardless of not curing the cancer.\nDebulking procedures are usually long and often complicated, taking several hours or more to perform,",
"-28.403012664668495"
],
[
"can lead to low concentration of the active agent in the blood and small amount delivery to the tumor. Low serum level of a drug can be also caused by rapid metabolism and excretion associated with affinity to intestinal or/and liver cytochrome P450. Another reason is the instability and degradation of the drugs in gastro-intestinal environment. Serious problem is also variability between patients what causes different bioavailability after administration equal dose of a drug and different tolerance to effect of chemotherapy agents. The second problem is particularly important in treatment elderly people. Their body is weaker and need to",
"-28.385961968677293"
],
[
"to be metabolized safely. Without early administration of the antidote, fulminant liver failure follows, often in combination with kidney failure, and death generally occurs within several days. Mechanism and antidote NAPQI becomes toxic when GSH is depleted by an overdose of acetaminophen, Glutathione is an essential antidote to overdose. Glutathione conjugates to NAPQI and helps to detoxify it. In this capacity, it protects cellular protein thiol groups, which would otherwise become covalently modified; when all GSH has been spent, NAPQI begins to react with the cellular proteins, killing the cells in the process. The preferred treatment for an overdose",
"-28.38586106772709"
],
[
"treatment of hepatoblastoma. In some cases surgery can offer a cure. Chemotherapy may be used before and after surgery and transplant.\nChemotherapy, including cisplatin, vincristine, cyclophosphamide, and doxorubicin are used for the systemic treatment of hepatoblastoma. Out of these drugs, cisplatin seems to be the most effective. Epidemiology Globally, as of 2010, liver cancer resulted in 754,000 deaths, up from 460,000 in 1990, making it the third leading cause of cancer death after lung and stomach. In 2012, it represented 7% of cancer diagnoses in men, the 5th most diagnosed cancer that year. Of these deaths 340,000 were secondary to hepatitis",
"-28.36347144425963"
],
[
"surgery. This is called \"neoadjuvant chemotherapy\", and is common when a tumor cannot be completely removed or optimally debulked via surgery. Though it has not been shown to increase survival, it can reduce the risk of complications after surgery. If a unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy or other surgery is performed, additional chemotherapy, called \"adjuvant chemotherapy\", can be given. Adjuvant chemotherapy is used in stage 1 cancer typically if the tumor is of a high histologic grade (grade 3) or the highest substage (stage 1c), provided the cancer has been optimally staged during surgery. Bevacizumab may be used as an adjuvant chemotherapy if",
"-28.35488289181376"
],
[
"(MTX).\nThe downside of diagnosis, which is performed via spinal tap is that while it is highly accurate and reliable, it can also report false-negative results. Chemotherapy is delivered intrathecally as it is hard for drugs to make it into the central nervous system. Intrathecal chemotherapy can only penetrate a few millimeters. If the tumor is any thicker, radiation is given to shrink it down.\nThe treatment is done to reduce pressure on the brain caused by any cerebrospinal fluid buildup and to reduce the number of cancer cells causing the pressure. For the best care, patients should see a physician who",
"-28.354558644103236"
],
[
"methionine, and valine without causing an attack. Surgical A more extreme treatment includes kidney or liver transplant from a donor without the condition. The foreign organs will produce a functional version of the defective enzymes and digest the methylmalonic acid, however all of the disadvantages of organ transplantation are of course applicable in this situation. There is evidence to suggest that the central nervous system may metabolize methylmalonic-CoA in a system isolated from the rest of the body. If this is the case, transplantation may not reverse the neurological effects of methylmalonic acid previous to the transplant or prevent further",
"-28.24538221966941"
],
[
"process of splitting TBI into multiple smaller doses resulted in lower toxicity and better outcomes than delivering a single, large dose. The time interval between fractions allows other normal tissues some time to repair some of the damage caused. However, the dosing is still high enough that the ultimate result is the destruction of both the patient's bone marrow (allowing donor marrow to engraft) and any residual cancer cells. Non-myeloablative bone marrow transplantation uses lower doses of total body irradiation, typically about 2 Gy, which do not destroy the host bone marrow but do suppress the host immune system sufficiently to",
"-28.24184651186806"
],
[
"that in cytotoxic poisoning (such as chemotherapy) or in acute radiation syndrome (though deuterium is not radioactive), and is due to deuterium's action in generally inhibiting cell division. It is more toxic to malignant cells than normal cells but the concentrations needed are too high for regular use. As in chemotherapy, deuterium-poisoned mammals die of a failure of bone marrow (bleeding and infection) and intestinal-barrier functions (diarrhea and fluid loss).\nDespite the problems of plants and animals in living with too much deuterium, prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria, which do not have the mitotic problems induced by deuterium, may be grown",
"-28.19065298849455"
],
[
"effective because ovarian cancer mainly spreads inside the peritoneal cavity, and higher doses of the drugs can reach the tumors this way.\nChemotherapy can cause anemia; intravenous iron has been found to be more effective than oral iron supplements in reducing the need for blood transfusions. Typical cycles of treatment involve one treatment every 3 weeks, repeated for 6 weeks or more. Fewer than 6 weeks (cycles) of treatment is less effective than 6 weeks or more. Germ-cell malignancies are treated differently than other ovarian cancers — a regimen of bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin (BEP) is used with 5 days of chemotherapy",
"-28.186392765608616"
],
[
"These have a lower infection risk, are much less prone to phlebitis or extravasation, and eliminate the need for repeated insertion of peripheral cannulae.\nIsolated limb perfusion (often used in melanoma), or isolated infusion of chemotherapy into the liver or the lung have been used to treat some tumors. The main purpose of these approaches is to deliver a very high dose of chemotherapy to tumor sites without causing overwhelming systemic damage. These approaches can help control solitary or limited metastases, but they are by definition not systemic, and, therefore, do not treat distributed metastases or micrometastases.\nTopical chemotherapies, such as 5-fluorouracil,",
"-28.161050396320206"
],
[
"removal of the tumors or remove and replace the liver via transplantation, but these therapies can only be carried out in very few patients. Other treatments include chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Radiofrequency ablation and ethanol injection are also used to remove small tumors.\nAs a result of poor liver function, metastases, or both, only 10% to 20% of patients undergo surgery. In patients having surgery, the 5-year survival rate is only 25% to 50%. Several chemotherapeutic agents have been evaluated for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Doxorubicin (trade name Adriamycin; also known as hydroxydaunorubicin), the most widely used agent in HCC, has",
"-28.143014546047198"
],
[
"cancers can metastasize. Most cancer deaths are due to cancer that has metastasized.\nMetastasis is common in the late stages of cancer and it can occur via the blood or the lymphatic system or both. The typical steps in metastasis are local invasion, intravasation into the blood or lymph, circulation through the body, extravasation into the new tissue, proliferation and angiogenesis. Different types of cancers tend to metastasize to particular organs, but overall the most common places for metastases to occur are the lungs, liver, brain and the bones. Diagnosis Most cancers are initially recognized either because of the appearance of",
"-28.13417370431125"
],
[
"expect long lives after completion of chemotherapy. Supportive care Supportive care refers to efforts to prevent or treat side effects of ABVD chemotherapy, and to help people get through the chemotherapy with the least possible discomfort. Antiemetics Significant advances in antiemetic, or anti-nausea, medications have been made in the beginning of the 21st century. Patients will often receive a combination of 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists (e.g. ondansetron), corticosteroids, and benzodiazepines before chemotherapy to prevent nausea. These medicines are also effective after nausea develops, as are phenothiazines. Each person's sensitivity to nausea and vomiting varies. Overall, while patients often experience some mild",
"-28.117901984311175"
],
[
"The damage inflicted upon the tumor cells, however, makes them more susceptible to the chemo or radiation. This approach has already proven effective against prostate and bladder cancers. The application of suicide gene therapy is being expanded to several other forms of cancer as well. Cancer patients often experience depressed immune systems, so they can suffer some side effects of the use of a virus as a delivery agent.",
"-28.08380322123412"
],
[
"by utilizing other pathways to survive. By blocking several pathways at once, it is thought that the tumor is less able to compensate, and a greater anti-tumor response is often observed. Utilizing ribociclib in combination with other agents has been shown to reduce the development of resistance to these agents. In other words, cancer’s development of drug resistance can be mitigated with the addition of ribociclib to the therapeutic regime. Pharmacokinetics The percentage of ribociclib absorbed in the gut has not been determined. Highest blood plasma levels are reached after one to four hours; and after repeated dosage, steady state",
"-28.072978145210072"
],
[
"that died from infectious diseases. Certain poisons, such as potassium cyanide or strychnine, may also delay putrefaction, while chronic alcoholism will speed it.\nExternal injuries: Antemortem or postmortem injuries can speed putrefaction as injured areas can be more susceptible to invasion by bacteria. Embalming Embalming is the process of preserving human remains by delaying decomposition. This is acquired through the use of embalming fluid, which is a mixture of formaldehyde, methanol, and various other solvents. The most common reasons to briefly preserve the body are for viewing purposes at a funeral and for medical or religious practices. Research Body farms subject",
"-28.040640269755386"
],
[
"Due to these side effects and its red color, doxorubicin has earned the nickname \"red devil\" or \"red death.\"\nChemotherapy can cause reactivation of hepatitis B, and doxorubicin-containing regimens are no exception.\nDoxorubicin and several chemotherapeutic drugs (including cyclophosphamide) cause dyspigmentation. Other groups of drugs that cause this problem include antimalarials, amiodarone, heavy metals (but not iron), tetracyclines, and antipsychotics. Biosynthesis Doxorubicin (DXR) is a 14-hydroxylated version of daunorubicin, the immediate precursor of DXR in its biosynthetic pathway. Daunorubicin is more abundantly found as a natural product because it is produced by a number of different wild type strains of Streptomyces. In",
"-28.032593334857665"
],
[
"healthy cells. This foreign enzyme is inserted into the tumor cells where it releases a prodrug, which is a small molecule harmless to healthy cells, but destructive to cancerous cells. The modified suicide gene converts the non-toxic prodrug into a cytotoxic substance. The second method of suicide gene therapy is called virus-directed enzyme-prodrug therapy. This uses a virus, such as herpes simplex or cold virus, as the carrier, or vector, to deliver the modified genes to the cancer cells. Suicide gene therapy is not necessarily expected to completely eliminate the need for chemotherapy and radiation treatment for all cancerous tumors.",
"-28.016155464501935"
],
[
"with less complete surgery. By removing metastases, many cells that are resistant to chemotherapy are removed, and any clumps of cells that have died are also removed. This allows chemotherapy to better reach the remaining cancer cells, which are more likely to be fast-growing and therefore chemosensitive.\nInterval debulking surgery is another protocol used, where neoadjuvant chemotherapy is given, debulking surgery is performed, and chemotherapy is finished after debulking. Though no definitive studies have been completed, it is shown to be approximately equivalent to primary debulking surgery in terms of survival, and shows slightly lower morbidity.\nThere are several different surgical procedures",
"-28.014430089504458"
],
[
"by killing cells that divide rapidly, a critical property of most cancer cells.\nTargeted therapy is a form of chemotherapy that targets specific molecular differences between cancer and normal cells. The first targeted therapies blocked the estrogen receptor molecule, inhibiting the growth of breast cancer. Another common example is the class of Bcr-Abl inhibitors, which are used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Currently, targeted therapies exist for many of the most common cancer types, including bladder cancer, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, kidney cancer, leukemia, liver cancer, lung cancer, lymphoma, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, skin cancer, and thyroid cancer as well",
"-27.995375528174918"
],
[
"Alcoholic hepatitis can vary from asymptomatic hepatomegaly (enlarged liver) to symptoms of acute or chronic hepatitis to liver failure. Toxic and drug-induced hepatitis Many chemical agents, including medications, industrial toxins, and herbal and dietary supplements, can cause hepatitis. The spectrum of drug-induced liver injury varies from acute hepatitis to chronic hepatitis to acute liver failure. Toxins and medications can cause liver injury through a variety of mechanisms, including direct cell damage, disruption of cell metabolism, and causing structural changes. Some drugs such as paracetamol exhibit predictable dose-dependent liver damage while others such as isoniazid cause idiosyncratic and unpredictable reactions that",
"-27.9506730606372"
],
[
"much of the therapeutic action of the parent drug. Sometimes, however, metabolites may produce toxic effects and patients must be monitored carefully to ensure they do not build up in the body. This is an issue with some well-known drugs such as pethidine (meperidine) and dextropropoxyphene. Prodrugs Sometimes drugs are formulated in an inactive form that is designed to break down inside the body to form the active drug. These are called prodrugs. The reasons for this type of formulation may be because the drug is more stable during manufacture and storage as the prodrug form, or because the prodrug",
"-27.907864859735128"
],
[
"the antibiotics (bacterial death releases proinflammatory mediators that can cause a response which is harmful), thus reducing hearing loss and neurological damage. Cancer People with cancer undergoing chemotherapy are often given dexamethasone to counteract certain side effects of their antitumor treatments. Dexamethasone can increase the antiemetic effect of 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists, such as ondansetron. The exact mechanism of this interaction is not well-defined, but it has been theorized that this effect may be due to, among many other causes, inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, anti-inflammatory effects, immunosuppressive effects, decreased release of endogenous opioids, or a combination of the aforementioned.\nIn brain tumors",
"-27.907556666086748"
],
[
"poisoning occurred in 1989 to 1990, with a mortality of 0.40%. It is estimated that 150 to 200 deaths and 15 to 20 liver transplants occur as a result of poisoning each year in England and Wales. Paracetamol overdose results in more calls to poison control centers in the US than overdose of any other pharmacological substance, accounting for more than 100,000 calls, as well as 56,000 emergency room visits, 2,600 hospitalizations, and 458 deaths due to acute liver failure per year. A study of cases of acute liver failure between November 2000 and October 2004 by the Centers for",
"-27.894574292527977"
],
[
"chemotherapy with platins is ineffective in people with these mutations. Side effects of chemotherapy are common. These include hair loss, low neutrophil levels in the blood, and gastrointestinal problems.\nIn cases where surgery is not indicated, palliative chemotherapy is an option; higher-dose chemotherapy is associated with longer survival. Palliative chemotherapy, particularly using capecitabine and gemcitabine, is also often used to treat recurrent endometrial cancer. Radiotherapy Adjuvant radiotherapy is commonly used in early-stage (stage I or II) endometrial cancer. It can be delivered through vaginal brachytherapy (VBT), which is becoming the preferred route due to its reduced toxicity, or external beam radiotherapy",
"-27.88529444098822"
],
[
"programs in the US. Each of these private programs accepts bodies from certain surrounding areas. Most programs also have guidelines for bodies they will and will not accept. Generally, programs will not accept bodies that are positive for Hepatitis (A, B, and C), HIV/AIDS, history of illegal drug use, or fall within an extreme category for their BMI. The embalming process adds even more weight to a donor's body, so if they have a high BMI the programs may not take them because they cannot handle the weight of the donor after embalming. If a donor has a specific disease",
"-27.872514202157618"
],
[
"acute Hepatitis B symptoms, and those that do experience lethargy, nausea, upper abdominal pain, muscle aches, or a darkening of urine will need to connect these symptoms to a possible infection to seek care and limit spreading of the virus.\nOf all the ways to ingest drugs, injection carries the most risks by far as it bypasses the body's natural filtering mechanisms against viruses, bacteria, and foreign objects. There will always be much less risk of overdose, disease, infections, and health problems with alternatives to injecting, such as smoking, insufflation (snorting or nasal ingestion), or swallowing.\nDrug injection is also commonly a",
"-27.868884677736787"
],
[
"themselves, but while to many this may seem like a sign of recovery, most of the time it is simply a herald of the final onset of symptoms, which include kidney and liver failure due to amatoxins. At this point, drastic measures like liver transplants need to be taken, or the victim would most likely die.",
"-27.86467711464502"
],
[
"shortage in oxygen supply in vital tissues.\nApart from being a potent toxic compound, it may also be used in therapeutic ways. Both oleandrin and oleandrigenin, as well as their relatives, may be able to inhibit proliferation of tumor cells and stimulate their apoptosis as a result of the high concentration of intracellular calcium. In addition, it inhibits excretion of fibroblast growth factor 2 through membrane interaction and through inhibition of the Na,K-ATPase pump. However, there are no results from clinical testing on humans that support any use as a cancer treatment. Symptoms Symptoms of oleandrin poisoning can cause both gastrointestinal",
"-27.855118916246283"
],
[
"virus that preferentially infects and kills cancer cells. As the infected cancer cells are destroyed by oncolysis, they release new infectious virus particles or virions to help destroy the remaining tumour. Oncolytic viruses are thought not only to cause direct destruction of the tumour cells, but also to stimulate host anti-tumour immune responses for long-term immunotherapy.\nThe potential of viruses as anti-cancer agents was first realized in the early twentieth century, although coordinated research efforts did not begin until the 1960s. A number of viruses including adenovirus, reovirus, measles, herpes simplex, Newcastle disease virus and vaccinia have now been clinically tested",
"-27.85116116849531"
],
[
"The toxin inhibits the enzyme RNA polymerase II, thereby interfering with DNA transcription, which suppresses RNA production and protein synthesis. This causes cellular necrosis, especially in cells which are initially exposed and have rapid rates of protein synthesis. This process results in severe acute liver dysfunction and, ultimately, liver failure. Amatoxins are not broken down by boiling, freezing, or drying. Roughly 0.2 to 0.4 milligrams of α-amanitin is present in 1 gram of A. bisporigera; the lethal dose in humans is less than 0.1 mg/kg body weight. One mature fruit body can contain 10–12 mg of α-amanitin, enough for a lethal dose. The α-amanitin concentration",
"-27.848781817709096"
],
[
"This type of rejection is a typical response to xenotransplants. Chronic rejection Chronic rejection is not yet fully understood, but it is known that it is associated with alloantibody and cytokine production. Endothelium of the blood vessels is being damaged, therefore the graft is not sufficiently supplied with blood and is replaced with fibrous tissue (fibrosis). It takes two months at least to reject the graft in this way. B-lymphocytes Humoral (antibody-mediated) type of rejection is caused by recipient's B-lymphocytes which produce alloantibodies against donor MHC class I and II molecules. These alloantibodies can activate the complement – this leads",
"-27.82873923081206"
],
[
"fold increased in prohibitin. Increased levels of prohibitin in conjugation with a paratotic stimulus can result in cell death that is unable to be inhibited by caspase inhibitors. Cancers Many anti-cancer substances have been shown to cause paraptosis in a large range of human cancer cells. This includes several compounds derived from natural sources as well as metal complexes. The use of naturally derived compounds to treat cancer can provide a way to avoid many of the harmful side effects of traditional chemotherapy. Paraptosis is also an area of interest for Cancer Research as a way to treat apoptosis",
"-27.822518174885772"
],
[
"chemotherapy followed by allogeniec bone marrow transplantation. These people in relapse may also receive blinatumomab, as it has shown to increase remission rates and overall survival rates, without increased toxic effects.\nLow dose palliative radiation may also help reduce the burden of tumor inside or outside the central nervous system and alleviate some symptoms.\nRecently, there has also been evidence and approval of use for dasatinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor. It has shown efficacy in cases of people with Ph1-positive and imatinib-resistant ALL, but more research needs to be done on long term survival and time to relapse. Epidemiology ALL affected about",
"-27.79891522161779"
],
[
"to severe hepatitis or caused by direct toxic renal damage) and coagulopathy may appear during this stage. Life-threatening complications include increased intracranial pressure, intracranial hemorrhage, sepsis, pancreatitis, acute renal failure, and cardiac arrest. Death generally occurs six to sixteen days after the poisoning. Treatment Consumption of A. ocreata is a medical emergency that requires hospitalization. There are four main categories of therapy for poisoning: preliminary medical care, supportive measures, specific treatments, and liver transplantation.\nPreliminary care consists of gastric decontamination with either activated carbon or gastric lavage. However, due to the delay between ingestion and the first symptoms of poisoning, it",
"-27.76077399495989"
],
[
"living things produce substances to protect them from getting eaten, so the term \"poison\" is usually only used for substances which are poisonous to humans, while substances that mainly are poisonous to a common pathogen to the organism and humans are considered antibiotics. Bacteria are for example a common adversary for Penicillium chrysogenum mold and humans, and since the mold's poison only targets bacteria humans may use it for getting rid of bacteria in their bodies. Human antimicrobial peptides which are toxic to viruses, fungi, bacteria and cancerous cells are considered a part of the immune system.\nIn nuclear physics, a",
"-27.74895027751336"
]
] |
4mm5vy | If heat is one of the most abundant energy sources, how come we don't have an efficient way of harnessing it yet? | [
"Nuclear energy is basically just generating heat to create steam to turn a turbine generator",
" > How come we don't have something like windmills and solar panels for heat that is significant enough to power an entire house? A steam turbine could be called a \"windmill for heat\". Unfortunately the efficiency on steam turbines (or all engines in general) depend on the temperature difference: you have to have a heat source and a heat sink. The heat sink is typically at ambient temperature, so the temperature of the hot side limits the overall efficiency. But we don't have abundant heat *at very high temperatures*. We have areas where the ground is hot (we use those in geothermal power plants), and we can build arrays of mirrors to concentrate sunlight (you can imagine that this is not cheap to build and does not work at night). Other than that we have to burn fossil fuel or split atoms to create concentrated heat.",
"Thermal systems need a heat sink and a heat source. Basically heat flows from hot to cold. For a Carnot engine, which is basically any type of heat engine the efficiency is based on the absolute temperature of the hot (source) compared to the cold (sink), In most situations the source and the sink are too close together to generate any USEABLE power. You can generate small voltages from temperature differences, but it is not usable. generally it only enough to determine the temperature difference between the two. Power plants that generate power from heat, say an steam electric plant will have a temperature difference in the 550F-600F range between the hot and cold.",
"Energy conversion is inefficient in general. Everything we use needs to be converted into electrical for most purposes. Heat is pretty useless by itself, hard to store and transfer. Can lose a lot of it into the air and other mediums. A lot of energy is lost when converting from light / heat / mechanical into electrical. Thats just the laws of thermodynamics. And probably technology limits"
] | [
[
"underlined that developing of the improved energy systems is necessary to increase the energy efficiency while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The most effective way to reduce energy demand is to use energy more efficiently. Therefore, waste heat recovery is becoming popular in recent years since it improves energy efficiency. About 26% of industrial energy is still wasted as hot gas or fluid in many countries. However, during last two decades there has been remarkable attention to recover waste heat from various industries and to optimize the units which are used to absorb heat from waste gases. Thus, these attempts enhance",
"-32.101456413278356"
],
[
"cannot convert anywhere near all the heat produced from the fuel it burns into organized forms of energy such as electricity. Therefore, heat engines always produce a surplus of low-temperature waste heat, called \"secondary heat\" or \"low-grade heat\". Modern plants are limited to efficiencies of about 33–63% at most, so 37–67% of the energy is exhausted as waste heat. In the past this energy was usually wasted to the environment. Cogeneration systems, built in recent years in cold-climate countries, utilize the waste heat produced by large power plants for heating by piping hot water from the plant into buildings in",
"-31.334747465676628"
],
[
"energy conservation and energy efficiency measures. Energy efficiency can reduce energy consumption while providing the same level of energy \"services\".\nRenewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides, plant growth, and geothermal heat, as the International Energy Agency explains:\nRenewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.\nAnti-nuclear groups also favour the use of",
"-31.04026834713295"
],
[
"electric space heating is almost 100% because almost all purchased energy is converted to building heat (the only exception being fan noise and indication lights which demand very little electricity and virtually none at all when compared to the extremely large energy draw of the heating itself). However, if a power plant supplying electricity is included, the overall efficiency drops drastically. For example, a fossil-fuel power station may only deliver 3 units of electrical energy for every 10 units of fuel energy released. Even though the electric heater is 100% efficient, the amount of fuel needed to produce the heat",
"-30.611538810422644"
],
[
"cannot be produced. They must be available to society to enable the production of energy carriers.\nConversion efficiency varies. For thermal energy, electricity and mechanical energy production is limited by Carnot's theorem, and generates a lot of waste heat. Other non-thermal conversions can be more efficient. For example, while wind turbines do not capture all of the wind's energy, they have a high conversion efficiency and generate very little waste heat since wind energy is low entropy. In principle solar photovoltaic conversions could be very efficient, but current conversion can only be done well for narrow ranges of wavelength, whereas solar",
"-30.508110969807603"
],
[
"The waste heat cannot be converted into mechanical energy without an even cooler cooling system. However, it may be used in cogeneration plants to heat buildings, produce hot water, or to heat materials on an industrial scale, such as in some oil refineries, plants, and chemical synthesis plants.\nTypical thermal efficiency for utility-scale electrical generators is around 37% for coal and oil-fired plants, and 56 – 60% (LEV) for combined-cycle gas-fired plants. Plants designed to achieve peak efficiency while operating at capacity will be less efficient when operating off-design (i.e. temperatures too low.)\nPractical fossil fuels stations operating as heat engines cannot",
"-30.474285281961784"
],
[
"by-product. When used primarily for heating, micro-CHP systems may generate more electricity than is instantaneously being demanded in circumstances of fluctuating electrical demand.\nThe heat engine version is a small scale example of cogeneration schemes which have been used with large electric power plants. The purpose of cogeneration is to utilize more of the energy in the fuel. The reason for using such systems is that heat engines, such as steam power plants which generate the electric power needed for modern life by burning fuel, are not very efficient. Due to Carnot's theorem, a heat engine cannot be 100% efficient; it",
"-30.39466828829609"
],
[
"an engine, whereby the piping and other components need not be designed for extreme temperatures and pressures, reducing cost and complexity. Electrical efficiency suffers, but it is presumed that such a system would be utilizing waste heat or a heat source such as a wood stove or gas boiler that would exist anyway for purposes of space heating.\nThe future of combined heat and power, particularly for homes and small businesses, will continue to be affected by the price of fuel, including natural gas. As fuel prices continue to climb, this will make the economics more favorable for energy conservation measures,",
"-30.372076021507382"
],
[
"source of energy. A disadvantage to using renewable energy includes the source's unstable market, with uncertain profitability from the competition of fossil fuels. The energy source therefore is not in a likely position to gain much support from the state and private sector. Renewable sources are being encouraged to address the issues and challenges that arise from greenhouse gas inflictions. Most renewable energy technologies are generated from sunlight, which creates solar energy (power). This solar energy is the most efficient renewable resource on the planet, predominantly generating electricity but also sourcing power for the purposes of heating and water purification.",
"-30.371467139106244"
],
[
"short of disastrous for us to discover a source of clean, cheap, abundant energy because of what we would do with it. We ought to be looking for energy sources that are adequate for our needs, but that won't give us the excesses of concentrated energy with which we could do mischief to the earth or to each other.\n— Amory Lovins, 1977.\nLet's face it. We don't want safe nuclear power plants. We want NO nuclear power plants.\n— Spokesman for the Government Accountability Project, 1985.\n... we also thought that as you provide societies with more energy it enables them to do more environmental",
"-30.08234738674946"
],
[
"is more than if the fuel were burned in a furnace or boiler at the building being heated. If the same fuel could be used for space heating by a consumer, it would be more efficient overall to burn the fuel at the end user's building. On the other hand, replacing electric heating with fossil fuel burning heaters, isn't necessary good as it removes the ability to have renewable electric heating, this can be achieved by sourcing the electricity from a renewable source.\nVariations between countries generating electrical power affect concerns about efficiency and the environment. In France 10% is generated",
"-30.046605872455984"
],
[
"to very high levels (80% and 100% respectively by 2050) of renewable energy for all energy uses there will be increasing periods of excess production of renewable electrical energy. Storage of this energy as potential electrical energy (e.g. pumped hydro) is very costly and reduces total round-trip efficiency. However, storing it as heat in district heating systems, for use in buildings where there is demand, is significantly less costly. Whilst the quality of the electrical energy is degraded, high voltage grid MW sized heat pumps would maximise efficiency whilst not wasting excess renewable electricity. Such coupling of the electricity sector",
"-29.89916592463851"
],
[
"heating projects depend heavily for their success on energy efficiency; in the case of solar heating to cut reliance on the requirement supplementary heating, in the case of wood fuel heating to cut the cost of wood purchased and volume stored, and in the case of heat pumps to reduce the size and investment in heat pump, heat sink and electricity costs.\nTwo main types of improvement can be made to a building's energy efficiency: Waste-water heat recovery It is possible to recover significant amounts of heat from waste hot water via hot water heat recycling. Major consumption of hot water",
"-29.71423326758668"
],
[
"energy is the energy that can be replenished easily. For years we have been using sources such as wood, sun, water, etc. for means for producing energy. Energy that can be produced by natural objects like sun, wind, etc. is considered to be renewable. Technologies that have been in usage include wind power, hydropower, solar energy, geothermal energy, and biomass/bioenergy. Water purification Water purification: The whole idea/concept of having dirt/germ/pollution free water flowing throughout the environment. Many other phenomena lead from this concept of purification of water. Water pollution is the main enemy of this concept, and various campaigns and",
"-29.711457073746715"
],
[
"energy is in the form of heat that is released to the environment through coolant, fins etc. If we could somehow recover the waste heat we can improve the engine’s performance. It has been found that even if 6% of the entirely wasted heat is recovered it can increase the engine efficiency greatly.\nMany methods have been devised in order to extract waste heat out of an engine exhaust and use it further to extract some useful work, decreasing the exhaust pollutants at the same time. Use of the Rankine Cycle, turbocharging and thermoelectric generation can be very useful as a",
"-29.5491715113385"
],
[
"Renewable heat Renewable heat is an application of renewable energy and it refers to the renewable generation of heat, rather than electrical power (e.g. replacing a fossil fuel boiler using concentrating solar thermal to feed radiators). Renewable heat technologies include renewable biofuels, solar heating, geothermal heating, heat pumps and heat exchangers to recover lost heat. Significant attention is also applied to insulation.\nMany colder countries consume more energy for heating than electrical power. For example, in 2005 the United Kingdom consumed 354 TWh of electric power, but had a heat requirement of 907 TWh, the majority of which (81%) was met using gas.",
"-29.390010441304184"
],
[
"the supply side, and often offer significant economic benefits.\nA sustainable energy economy requires commitments to both renewables and efficiency. Renewable energy and energy efficiency are said to be the \"twin pillars\" of sustainable energy policy. The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy has explained that both resources must be developed in order to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions:\nEfficiency is essential to slowing the energy demand growth so that rising clean energy supplies can make deep cuts in fossil fuel use. If energy use grows too fast, renewable energy development will chase a receding target. Likewise, unless clean energy",
"-29.316024339655996"
],
[
"be used directly and locally, for example in greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating. The efficiency of the system does not affect operational costs as it would for a coal or other fossil fuel plant, but it does factor into the viability of the station. In order to produce more energy than the pumps consume, electricity generation requires high-temperature geothermal fields and specialized heat cycles. Because geothermal power does not rely on variable sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar, its capacity factor can be quite large – up to 96% has been demonstrated. However the global average",
"-29.282046919863205"
],
[
"an energy efficient technology. Reducing energy use reduces emissions. According to the International Energy Agency, improved energy efficiency in buildings, industrial processes and transportation could reduce the world's energy needs in 2050 by one third, and help control global emissions of greenhouse gases.\nEnergy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy. In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources",
"-29.195406635291874"
],
[
"\"waste heat\" may exceed the local heat demand. In such cases, if it is not desirable to reduce the power production, the excess waste heat must be disposed of (e.g. cooling towers or sea cooling) without being used. A way to avoid excess waste heat is to reduce the fuel input to the CHP plant, reducing both the heat and power output to balance the heat demand. In doing this, the power production is limited by the heat demand.\nIn a traditional power plant delivering electricity to consumers, about 34.4% of the heat content of the primary heat energy source, such",
"-29.190121588180773"
],
[
"ensuring an efficient environmental protection but also at ensuring security of energy supply\".\nRenewable resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits. Threats The modern world relies on a vast energy supply to fuel everything from transportation to communication, to security and health delivery systems. Perhaps most alarmingly, peak oil expert Michael Ruppert has claimed that for every calorie",
"-29.183293920359574"
],
[
"the need to produce more oil.\nGeothermal can potentially lead to other sources of fuel, if companies would take the heat from the inner core of the earth to heat up water sources we could essentially use the steam creating from the heated water to power machines, this option is one of the cleanest and efficient options. Hydro-electric which has been incorporated into many of the dams around the world, produces a lot of energy, and is very easy to produce the energy as the dams control the water that is allowed through seams which power turbines located inside of",
"-29.06102301660576"
],
[
"renewables is their abundance and relatively widespread occurrence, the fundamental challenge, especially for electricity supply, is applying them to meet demand given their variable and diffuse nature. This means either that there must be reliable duplicate sources of electricity beyond the normal system reserve, or some means of electricity storage.\" \"Relatively few places have scope for pumped storage dams close to where the power is needed, and overall efficiency is less than 80%. Means of storing large amounts of electricity as such in giant batteries or by other means have not been developed.\"\nAccording to Benjamin K. Sovacool, most studies critiquing",
"-29.021925179520622"
],
[
"technologies compared to low carbon sources, such as electricity which is produced from renewable energy. Nonetheless, improving energy efficiency is a key tool for reducing carbon dioxide emissions and most low carbon sources (which includes renewable energy and carbon capture storage). Renewable Energy (RE) Renewable energy is generated from natural resources, such as sunlight, wind, and rain. Renewable technologies function from resources that vary from solar power, wind power, to hydroelectricity and are constantly renewed. Renewable energy technologies have an advantage over conventional energy systems, as they have a much lower impact on the environment and are considered a clean",
"-28.955543893040158"
],
[
"global warming and other ecological as well as economic concerns. Renewable energy use has grown much faster than anyone anticipated. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. Also, Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow have developed a series of \"stabilization wedges\" that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while",
"-28.91364418748708"
],
[
"30% to 40% of the chemical fuel energy as heat. \nAs a consequence, even a limited recovery of this energy would represent a significant contribution in terms of overall system efficiency improvement.",
"-28.83091974000854"
],
[
"waste heat. Conversion of energy Machines converting energy contained in fuels to mechanical work or electric energy produce heat as a by-product. Disposal Low temperature heat contains very little capacity to do work (Exergy), so the heat is qualified as waste heat and rejected to the environment. Economically most convenient is the rejection of such heat to water from a sea, lake or river. If sufficient cooling water is not available, the plant has to be equipped with a cooling tower to reject the waste heat into the atmosphere.\nIn some cases it is possible to use waste heat, for instance",
"-28.82799051713664"
],
[
"is complementary to the use of alternative energy sources, when phasing-out fossil fuels. Renewable energy Renewable energy is energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. As of 2014, 19% of global final energy consumption comes from renewable resources, with 9% of all energy from traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, 1% from biofuels, 4% from hydroelectricity and 4% from biomass, geothermal or solar heat. Popular renewables (wind, solar, geothermal and biomass for power) accounted for another 1.4% and are growing rapidly. While renewable energy supplies are growing and",
"-28.74498244507413"
],
[
"using energy more efficiently. Examples of conservation without efficiency improvements are heating a room less in winter, using the car less, air-drying your clothes instead of using the dryer, or enabling energy saving modes on a computer. As with other definitions, the boundary between efficient energy use and energy conservation can be fuzzy, but both are important in environmental and economic terms. This is especially the case when actions are directed at the saving of fossil fuels. Energy conservation is a challenge requiring policy programmes, technological development and behavior change to go hand in hand. Many energy intermediary organisations, for",
"-28.736465332563967"
],
[
"(producing several hundred megawatts of electrical output) with steam reheat, economizer etc. will achieve efficiency in the mid 40% range, with the most efficient units approaching 50% thermal efficiency.\nIt is also possible to capture the waste heat using cogeneration in which the waste heat is used for heating a lower boiling point working fluid or as a heat source for district heating via saturated low-pressure steam.",
"-28.72611007404703"
],
[
"Combined heat and power Combined heat and power systems are very useful systems in which wood waste, such as wood chips, is used to generate power, and heat is created as a byproduct of the power generation system. They have a very high cost because of the high pressure operation. Because of this high pressure operation, the need for a highly trained operator is mandatory, and will raise the cost of operation. Another drawback is that while they produce electricity they will produce heat, and if producing heat is not desirable for certain parts of the year, the addition of",
"-28.645351444138214"
],
[
"energy use, sometimes simply called \"energy efficiency\", is the goal of efforts to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services. For example, insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable temperature. Installing LED lighting, fluorescent lighting, or natural skylight windows reduces the amount of energy required to attain the same level of illumination compared to using traditional incandescent light bulbs. Compact fluorescent lamps use only 33% of the energy and may last 6 to 10 times longer than incandescent lights. LED lamps use only about",
"-28.623191765276715"
],
[
"affordable and competitive in the global market, particularly when combined with a phasing out of fossil fuel subsidies. Renewable energy and energy efficiency Recent advances in technology and policy will allow renewable energy and energy efficiency to play major roles in displacing fossil fuels, meeting global energy demand while reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Renewable energy technologies are being rapidly commercialized and, in conjunction with efficiency gains, can achieve far greater emissions reductions than either could independently.\nRenewable energy is energy that comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). In 2015,",
"-28.62039590900531"
],
[
"as little as 35% of that used by resistive heating.\nWhere the primary source of electrical energy is hydroelectric, nuclear, or wind, transferring electricity via the grid can be convenient, since the resource may be too distant for direct heating applications (with the notable exception of solar thermal energy). Industrial electric heating Electric heating is widely used in industry.\nAdvantages of electric heating methods over other forms include precision control of temperature and distribution of heat energy, combustion not used to develop heat, and the ability to attain temperatures not readily achievable with chemical combustion. Electric heat can be accurately applied at",
"-28.557024045847356"
],
[
"renewable energy, such as hydro, wind power, solar power, geothermal energy and biofuel. According to the International Energy Agency renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to world energy security and provide opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. Fossil fuels are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy. According to Lester R. Brown:\n...the transition from coal, oil, and gas to wind, solar, and geothermal energy is well under way. In the old economy, energy was produced by burning something — oil, coal, or natural gas — leading to the carbon emissions that",
"-28.547811100492254"
],
[
"grows too fast, renewable energy development will chase a receding target. Likewise, unless clean energy supplies come online rapidly, slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total emissions; reducing the carbon content of energy sources is also needed.\nThe IEA has stated that renewable energy and energy efficiency policies are complementary tools for the development of a sustainable energy future, and should be developed together instead of being developed in isolation.",
"-28.485472196014598"
],
[
"waste heat given off by the engine is used to supply a secondary heating application. This can be virtually anything that uses low temperature heat. It is often a pre-existing energy use, such as commercial space heating, residential water heating, or an industrial process.\nThermal power stations on the electric grid use fuel to produce electricity. However, there are large quantities of waste heat produced which often go unused. In other situations, high-grade fuel is burned at high temperature for a low temperature application. According to the second law of thermodynamics, a heat engine can generate power from this temperature difference.",
"-28.440307190729072"
],
[
"Energy Autonomy Synopsis In the book Scheer discusses that for the past two hundred years industrial civilization has relied predominantly upon fossil fuels, which are abundant and cheap but also have adverse social and environmental effects. Scheer argues that it would be more beneficial if they transition to renewable energy and distributed, decentralized energy generation, as this is a model that has already been proven to be successful. Much progress with renewable energy commercialization has already been made in Europe where the renewable energy industry is a multi-billion Euro industry with high growth rates. Reception Critical reception has been mostly",
"-28.377785536751617"
],
[
"through the use of insulation, high-efficiency appliances (particularly hot water heaters and furnaces), double- or triple-glazed gas-filled windows, external window shades, and building orientation and siting. Renewable heat sources such as shallow geothermal and passive solar energy reduce the amount of greenhouse gasses emitted. In addition to designing buildings which are more energy-efficient to heat, it is possible to design buildings that are more energy-efficient to cool by using lighter-coloured, more reflective materials in the development of urban areas (e.g. by painting roofs white) and planting trees. This saves energy because it cools buildings and reduces the urban heat island",
"-28.35514176718425"
],
[
"being used in attempts to reduce and mitigate the effects of global warming. Renewable Energy refers to technologies that has been designed to be eco-friendly and efficient for the well-being of the Earth. They are generally regarded as infinite energy sources, which means they will never run out, unlike fossil fuels such as oil and coal, which are finite sources of energy. They additionally release no green house gases such as carbon dioxide, which is harmful for the planet as it depletes the ozone layer. Examples of renewable energy can be seen by wind turbines, solar energy such as solar",
"-28.321557645103894"
],
[
"and wages, and the development of new technologies. While such elements of complexity are usually thought to facilitate economic growth, in fact they can do so only when subsidized by energy.\" (italics ours).\nThis is the central argument Tainter makes: the energy economy always subsidizes the product economy and service economy, and any intermediates such as commodity markets. Without looking at energy costs at every trophic level, and the transfer between, which appears to be decreasing as more technology is applied, there is simply no way to discover what is and is not \"efficient\".\n\"With subsidies of inexpensive fossil fuels, for a",
"-28.311014794715447"
],
[
"within their facilities. When electricity is generated, the heat that is produced as a by-product can be captured and used for process steam, heating or other industrial purposes. Conventional electricity generation is about 30% efficient, whereas combined heat and power (also called co-generation) converts up to 90 percent of the fuel into usable energy.\nAdvanced boilers and furnaces can operate at higher temperatures while burning less fuel. These technologies are more efficient and produce fewer pollutants.\nOver 45 percent of the fuel used by US manufacturers is burnt to make steam. The typical industrial facility can reduce this energy usage 20 percent",
"-28.296687329537235"
],
[
"not technological or economic\". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.\nSimilarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that \"sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs … Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic",
"-28.295228460687213"
],
[
"the renewable energy industry begins to generate a larger fraction of overall energy consumption.\nOff grid electrical use was a niche market in the twentieth century, but in the twenty-first century, it has expanded. Portable devices are in use all over the world. Solar panels are now a common sight in the rural settings worldwide. Access to electricity is now a question of economics and financial viability, and not solely on technical aspects. Powering transportation without burning fuel, however, remains in development. Mechanical storage Energy can be stored in water pumped to a higher elevation using pumped storage methods or by",
"-28.207352115539834"
],
[
"efficient because higher-temperature heat contains more Gibbs free energy than the low-temperature heat produced in current fossil-fuel plants and water-cooled nuclear reactors.",
"-28.205465008271858"
],
[
"of 282,482 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2012.\nRenewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.\nWhile many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development. United Nations'",
"-28.190830059229484"
],
[
"more energy efficient: think of the positive impact on CO\n2 emissions of telecommuting and ecommerce for example. Computers are helping us design more energy efficient products. But there is little doubt that, while other industries strive to become more energy efficient, computers and networks themselves risk becoming the “energy hogs” of the future, unless something is done.\nPowering the over 1 billion personal computers, the millions of corporate data centers, the over 4 billion fixed and mobile telephones and telecommunications networks around the world requires approximately 1.4 Petawatt-hr a year (1.4×10¹⁵ W-hr) of electricity, approximately 8% of the global electrical energy",
"-28.159701640193816"
],
[
"of switching the demand side from fossil fuels to electricity for heating, will depend on the price of fuels vs electricity and the relative prices of the equipment. The EIA Annual Energy Outlook 2014 suggests that domestic gas prices will rise faster than electricity prices which will encourage electrification in the coming decades.\nElectrifying heating loads may also provide a flexible resource that can participate in demand response. Since thermostatically controlled loads have inherent energy storage, electrification of heating could provide a valuable resource to integrate variable renewable resources into the grid.\nAlternatives to electrification, include decarbonizing pipeline gas through power to",
"-28.03580511614564"
],
[
"water and is also a rapidly growing energy source. Advancements in the technology and modifications to photovoltaics cells provide a more in depth untouched method for creating and producing solar power. Researchers have found a potential way to use the photogalvanic effect to transform sunlight into electric energy.\nThe availability, potential, and feasibility of primary renewable energy resources must be analyzed early in the planning process as part of a comprehensive energy plan. The plan must justify energy demand and supply and assess the actual costs and benefits to the local, regional, and global environments. Responsible energy use is fundamental to",
"-28.03575345579884"
],
[
"done very energy-efficient.\nThe tasks are decentralized energy supply and storage, decentralized effluent disposal and recycling/ reprocessing and drinking water supply. Energy production Life on our planet is a permanent energy flow between living things and the environment. Most of the currently used energy resources, such as oil, coal, natural gas and uranium are non-renewable. The supply of them buried in the earth is limited and we are using them up at a rapid pace.\nRenewable energy resources such as Solar energy, wind energy, small hydroelectricity (e.g. Swimming hydroelectric power plant), geothermal energy and biomass fuels are becoming increasingly attractive. Solar, Photovoltaics,",
"-28.013118873386702"
],
[
"biogas. \nRenewable energy generation on site, in addition to increased energy efficiency, has already allowed at least twelve plants worldwide not only to achieve energy neutrality but also to produce more energy than they need. Energy efficiency programs and renewable energy generation have proven successful in diminishing the dependence of the wastewater sector from the energy grid, reducing treatment costs and the environmental impact associated with the grid connection. Advantages of on-site renewable energy generation The production and recovery of energy of site offers numerous advantages contributing to operation and management cost reduction of the treatment processes, source of revenue,",
"-28.001877621165477"
],
[
"an energy efficiency of 98%.\nThis means that for many of the fuels we use, the maximum efficiency that can be achieved is >90%, however we are restricted to the Carnot efficiency in many situations as a heat engine is being used. Regarding Carnot heat engine A common misconception is that the exergy efficiency compares a given cycle to a Carnot heat engine. This is incorrect because a Carnot engine is the most efficient heat engine possible, but not the most efficient device for creating work. Fuel cells, for instance, can theoretically reach much higher efficiencies than a Carnot engine. Second",
"-27.966364925086964"
],
[
"efficiency can simultaneously ameliorate greenhouse warming, reduce acid rain and air pollution, save money, and avoid the problems of nuclear power. Given the urgency of abating global warming, Lovins stated that we cannot afford to invest in nuclear power when those same dollars put into efficiency would displace far more carbon dioxide.\nIn \"Nuclear Power: Climate Fix or Folly,\" published in 2010, Lovins argued that expanded nuclear power \"... does not represent a cost-effective solution to global warming and that investors would shun it were it not for generous government subsidies lubricated by intensive lobbying efforts.\" Randall Forsberg Randall Forsberg (née Watson,",
"-27.964818078966346"
],
[
"cost of failure. Potentially these individual energy source \"are renewable: they harness the energy of sun, wind, water, or farm and forestry wastes, rather than that of depletable fuels\". Central message Amory B. and L. Hunter Lovins reiterated the main message of Brittle Power in \"Terrorism and Brittle Technology\", Chapter 3 in Albert H. Teich's book Technology and the Future (2003):\nThe foundation of a secure energy system is to need less energy in the first place, then to get it from sources that are inherently invulnerable because they're diverse, dispersed, renewable, and mainly local. They're secure not because they're American",
"-27.933998992783017"
],
[
"in Europe in 2050 and make handling high shares of renewable energy easier. Using surplus renewable energy in heat pumps is regarded as the most effective household means to reduce global warming and fossil fuel depletion.\nWith significant amounts of fossil fuel used in electricity production, demands on the electrical grid also generate greenhouse gases. Without a high share of low-carbon electricity, a domestic heat pump will produce more carbon emissions than using natural gas. Sinks and negative emissions A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period, such",
"-27.90527106661466"
],
[
"close to it. Overall efficiency is reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances. This requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and inefficient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along a comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss.\nA car engine becomes a CHP plant in winter when the reject heat is useful for warming the interior of the vehicle. The example illustrates the point that deployment of CHP depends on heat uses in the vicinity of the heat engine.\nThermally enhanced oil recovery (TEOR) plants often produce a substantial amount of excess electricity.",
"-27.8925476053264"
],
[
"the infrastructure required to deliver large quantities of electrical energy to the point of use. This may be somewhat offset by in-plant (on-site) efficiency gains in using less energy overall to achieve the same result.\nDesign of an industrial heating system starts with assessment of the temperature required, the amount of heat required, and the feasible modes of transferring heat energy. In addition to conduction, convection and radiation, electrical heating methods can use electric and magnetic fields to heat material.\nMethods of electric heating include resistance heating, electric arc heating, induction heating, and dielectric heating. In some processes (for example, arc welding),",
"-27.864312088815495"
],
[
" Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Economics and viability Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper, through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition. A 2011 IEA report said: \"A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support,\" and added that \"cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue.\" As of 2011,",
"-27.82388555892976"
],
[
"widely known and used renewable energy source. An increase in technology has allowed solar power to be used in a wide variety of applications. Two types of solar panels generate heat into electricity. Thermal solar panels reduce or eliminate the consumption of gas and diesel, and reduce CO₂ emissions. Photovoltaic panels convert solar radiation into an electric current which can power any appliance. This is a more complex technology and is generally more expensive to manufacture than thermal panels.\nBiomass is the energy source created from organic materials generated through a forced or spontaneous biological process.\nGeothermal energy is obtained by harnessing",
"-27.781564721255563"
],
[
"Renewable thermal energy History of Renewable Thermal Systems Solar energy has been in use for centuries for heating dwellings and to produce hot water before low cost natural gas was discovered. It gained attention during and after the oil embargo of 1973 as engineers investigated ways to produce thermal energy from a renewable source instead of fossil fuels. \nThe history of utilizing the ground as a heat source is more recent and has gained prominence in recent years especially in rural areas where natural gas heating may not be available. The outer crust of the Earth is a Thermal",
"-27.75687140376249"
],
[
"order to make energy transformation more efficient, it is desirable to avoid thermal conversion. For example, the efficiency of nuclear reactors, where the kinetic energy of the nuclei is first converted to thermal energy and then to electrical energy, lies at around 35%. By direct conversion of kinetic energy to electric energy, effected by eliminating the intermediate thermal energy transformation, the efficiency of the energy transformation process can be dramatically improved. Release of energy from gravitational potential A direct transformation of energy occurs when hydrogen produced in the Big Bang collects into structures such as planets, in a process during",
"-27.744272630501655"
],
[
"energy efficiency represents a profitable global market and American companies have at their disposal the technical innovations to lead the way. Not only should they \"upgrade their plants and office buildings, but they should encourage the formation of negawatt markets\". Lovins sees negawatt markets as a win-win solution to many environmental problems. Because it is \"now generally cheaper to save fuel than to burn it, global warming, acid rain, and urban smog can be reduced not at a cost but at a profit\".\nLovins explains that many companies are already enjoying the financial and other rewards that come from saving electricity.",
"-27.697441455937224"
],
[
"all U.S. electricity production. More efficient power supply designs could cut that usage in half\".\nSince wasted electrical energy is released as heat, an inefficient power supply is hot to the touch, as is one that wastes power without an electrical load. This waste heat is itself a problem in warm weather, since it may require additional air conditioning to prevent overheating, and even to remove the unwanted heat from large supplies. Universal power adapters External power adapters can fail, and can become separated from the product they are intended to power. Consequently, there is a market for replacement adapters. The",
"-27.684681108454242"
],
[
"ecologically, including the use of solar, wind, and other renewable technologies, which have experienced double digit market growth globally in the last decade.\nA large section of the scientific community believe that one of the real solutions to avoiding dangerous climate change lies in renewable energy and energy efficiency that can start protecting the climate today. Technically accessible renewable energy sources such as wind, wave, and solar, are capable of providing six times more energy than the world currently consumes. As coal is one of the highest emitters of greenhouse gases, closing coal power stations is one of the most powerful",
"-27.663324341949192"
],
[
"through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared.\nIn 2011, a report by the International Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world's energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change. The",
"-27.628636194043793"
],
[
"the excess electricity (as heat demand is the defining factor on utilization) is used to drive a heat pump. As heat demand increases, more electricity is generated to drive the heat pump, with the waste heat also heating the heating fluid. Distributed generation Most industrial countries generate the majority of their electrical power needs in large centralized facilities with capacity for large electrical power output. These plants benefit from economy of scale, but may need to transmit electricity across long distances causing transmission losses. Cogeneration or trigeneration production is subject to limitations in the local demand, and thus may sometimes",
"-27.625062047853135"
],
[
"fuel resources leads to global warming and climate change. However, little change is being made in many parts of the world. If the peak oil theory proves true, more explorations of viable alternative energy sources, could be more friendly to the environment.\nRapidly advancing technologies can achieve a transition of energy generation, water and waste management, and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology. Biodiesel The environmental impact of biodiesel includes energy use, greenhouse gas emissions and some other kinds of pollution. A joint life cycle analysis by the US",
"-27.545784293761244"
],
[
"exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs … Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand.\" .\nCritics of the \"100% renewable energy\" approach include Vaclav Smil and James E. Hansen. Smil and Hansen are concerned about the variable output of solar and wind power, but Amory Lovins argues that the electricity grid can",
"-27.539036506786942"
],
[
"as biomass, coal, solar thermal, natural gas, petroleum or uranium, reaches the consumer, although the efficiency can be 20% for very old plants and 45% for newer gas plants. In contrast, a CHP system converts 15%–42% of the primary heat to electricity, and most of the remaining heat is captured for hot water or space heating. In total, over 90% of the heat from the primary energy source (LHV based) can be used when heat production does not exceed the thermal demand.\nCHP systems are able to increase the total energy utilization of primary energy sources, such as fuel and concentrated",
"-27.506665989814792"
],
[
"Renewable energy commercialization Rationale for renewables Climate change, pollution, and energy insecurity are significant problems, and addressing them requires major changes to energy infrastructures. Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to world energy security, reduce dependency on fossil fuels, and provide opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. Climate-disrupting fossil fuels are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy:\n...the transition from coal, oil, and gas to wind, solar, and geothermal energy is well under way. In the old economy, energy was produced by burning something — oil, coal, or natural gas —",
"-27.490492819342762"
],
[
"to a home or business' hot water applications displaces the electricity or gas otherwise burned to create that heat, which further reduces overall energy bills. Retail outlets like fast food chains, coffee bars, and health clubs gain operational savings from hot water heating.\nSince it is in general not possible for a fuel cell to produce at all times exactly the needed amount of both electricity and heat, home fuel cells are typically not standalone installations. Instead they may rely on the grid when the electricity production is above or below what is needed. Additionally, a home fuel cell may be",
"-27.477763137430884"
],
[
"who currently uses modern energy should increase as the developing world governments take actions to reduce social costs and to increase social benefits by gradually spreading modern energy to their people in rural areas.\nHowever, the developing world governments have been experiencing difficulties in promoting the distributions of modern energy like electricity. In order to build energy infrastructure that generate and deliver electricity to each household, astronomical amount of money are first invested. And lack of high technologies needed for modern energy development have kept the developing countries from accessing modern energy. Such circumstances are huge hurdles; as a result, it",
"-27.45668731160913"
],
[
"In recent decades, energy consumption for building has increased and many efforts are being done to investigate alternative energy sources for supplying heating and cooling demands of building. One of the best alternate ways is the use of ground energy, which is clean, green and sustainable. This energy can be utilized through GSHP system, which is well established in most of the European countries for space heating applications. GSHP systems contain two main parts, GHEs and heat pump.\nIn these systems, heat source is soil which stored huge amount of energy inside. When fluid/water stars flowing inside pipelines heat is transferred",
"-27.456428433921246"
],
[
"limits and new treatment requirements might further increase the already significant energy demand of these facilities.\nPopulation growth and climate change are increasing the energy needs of wastewater facilities. Because fossil fuels are still the most diffused source of energy, providing more than half of the global energy needs, the wastewater sector is still highly dependent on fossil fuel-based energy sources. Electricity, for example, is sourced from the electricity grid while gas and diesel are generally used on-site for heating and to run backup generators. High consumption of fossil-fuel energy makes the wastewater sector an indirect contributor to greenhouse gas emissions",
"-27.434808650054038"
],
[
"heat.\nFor a given power supply, efficiency varies depending on how much power is being delivered. Supplies are typically most efficient at between half and three quarters load, much less efficient at low load, and somewhat less efficient at maximum load. Older ATX power supplies were typically 60% to 75% efficient. To qualify for 80 Plus, a power supply must achieve at least 80% efficiency at three specified loads (20%, 50% and 100% of maximum rated power). However, 80 Plus supplies may still be less than 80% efficient at lower loads. For instance, an 80 Plus, 520 watt supply could still be 70% or",
"-27.43261535577767"
],
[
"the cooler external air or from the ground. In heating mode, heat pumps are three to four times more efficient in their use of electric power than simple electrical resistance heaters.\nIt has been concluded that heat pumps are the single technology that could reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of households better than every other technology that is available on the market. With a market share of 30% and (potentially) clean electricity, heat pumps could reduce global CO\n2 emissions by 8% annually. Using ground source heat pumps could reduce around 60% of the primary energy demand and 90% of CO\n2 emissions",
"-27.422414005326573"
],
[
"by human needs. Examples are hydroelectric power or wind power, when the natural phenomena that are the primary source of energy are ongoing and not depleted by human demands. Non-renewable resources are those that are significantly depleted by human usage and that will not recover their potential significantly during human lifetimes. An example of a non-renewable energy source is coal, which does not form naturally at a rate that would support human use. Fossil fuels Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are",
"-27.417621323053027"
],
[
"these funds effectively.\nEnergy-efficient appliances are another method for households to decrease energy use. Low-income households have trouble realizing this gain energy efficiency. Energy-efficient appliances require a large up-front investment, and savings will not be realized for many years. Local grantees have the option to use Weatherization funds to support appliance purchases. However, unlike weatherization programs, the gains in household budgets are often not worth the investment. A 2010 study examined the households' purchasing habits in regard to high-efficiency appliances. Using household-level data, this study determines that homeowners are significantly more likely to own energy",
"-27.401765465474455"
],
[
"Biomass heating system Benefits of biomass heating The use of biomass in heating systems is beneficial because it uses agricultural, forest, urban and industrial residues and waste to produce heat and/or electricity with less effect on the environment than fossil fuels. This type of energy production has a limited long-term effect on the environment because the carbon in biomass is part of the natural carbon cycle; while the carbon in fossil fuels is not, and permanently adds carbon to the environment when burned for fuel (carbon footprint). Historically, before the use of fossil fuels in significant quantities, biomass in the",
"-27.337885099463165"
],
[
"electricity estimated at twice the amount that today's solar cells can harvest. This new technology can also potentially lower the cost of solar energy because it allows for a reduction in expensive semiconducting silicon. Energy loss is also potentially reduced with a shorter distance of the solar energy transportation across smaller Nano flakes. Environment Nano flake technology can also help keep the environment cleaner as the sun as the source it produces clean pure sustainable energy that can be converted into electricity. While fossil fuel is the primary energy source for electricity, using solar energy obtained from Nano flakes will",
"-27.332588995574042"
],
[
"and growth, with energy security a prerequisite economic growth, making it arguably the most important driver for energy policy. Scaling up renewable energy as part of a low emission development strategy can diversify a country's energy mixes and reduces dependence on imports. In the process of decarbonizing heat and transport through electrification, potential changes to electricity peak demand need to be anticipated whilst switching to alternative technologies such as heat pumps for electric vehicles.\nInstalling local renewable capacities can also lower geopolitical risks and exposure to fuel price volatility, and improve the balance of trade for importing countries (noting that only",
"-27.325519850623095"
],
[
"when the fuel cell's waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%. This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third energy efficient. Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20–40% on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems. Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution (other than CO\n2) for every 1,000 kW·h produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants",
"-27.322508639888838"
],
[
"with the heating sector (Power-to-X) is regarded as a key factor for energy systems with high shares of renewable energy, because it allows storage to be used mainly in form of cheap heat storage. Therefore the usage of rather expensive electricity storage can be minimized, as the heat sector balances the variable production of renewable energy sources with flexible loads and heat storage. Stockholm at present has about 660 MW of heat pumps connected to its district heating system. Cold district heating Heat pumps can also be used at the consumer-side instead of a substation, especially in so called cold",
"-27.32113081595162"
],
[
"energy is possible, the key components that need to be improved are the solar collector. An ideal solar collector will absorb the concentrated solar radiation, convert that incident solar radiation into heat and transfer the heat to the heat transfer fluid. Higher the heat transfer to fluid, higher is the outlet temperature and higher temp lead to improved conversion efficiency in the power cycle.\nnanoparticles have several orders of magnitude higher heat transfer coefficient when transferring heat immediately to the surrounding fluid. This is simply due to the small size of nanoparticle. Mechanism for enhanced thermal conductivity of nanofluids Keblinski et",
"-27.312422908406006"
],
[
"fuels in three main areas: power generation, hot water/ space heating, and transport fuels. In 2011, the share of renewables in electricity generation worldwide grew for the fourth year in a row to 20.2%. Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19% to supply global energy consumption. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from burning biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% as electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass thermal power plants.\nRenewable energy use has grown much faster than anyone anticipated. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has said that there are",
"-27.311444382881746"
],
[
"systems contain pumps and compressors, which may consume energy from a polluting source. This parasitic load is normally a fraction of the heat output, so it is always less polluting than electric heating. However, if the electricity is produced by burning fossil fuels, then the net emissions of geothermal heating may be comparable to directly burning the fuel for heat. For example, a geothermal heat pump powered by electricity from a combined cycle natural gas plant would produce about as much pollution as a natural gas condensing furnace of the same size. Therefore, the environmental value of direct geothermal heating",
"-27.28229239807115"
],
[
"Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, plant growth, and geothermal heat, as the International Energy Agency explains:\nRenewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.\nClimate change concerns and the need to reduce carbon emissions are driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries. Low-carbon renewable energy replaces conventional fossil",
"-27.262450530426577"
],
[
"also was quite certain that the maximum efficiency attainable did not depend upon the exact nature of the working fluid. He stated this for emphasis as a general proposition:\nThe motive power of heat is independent of the agents employed to realize it; its quantity is fixed solely by the temperatures of the bodies between which is effected, finally, the transfer of caloric.\n— Carnot 1890, p. 68\nFor his \"motive power of heat\", we would today say \"the efficiency of a reversible heat engine\", and rather than \"transfer of caloric\" we would say \"the reversible transfer of entropy ∆S\" or \"the reversible transfer",
"-27.230536521645263"
],
[
"in his congressional Global Warming Testimony on March 21, 2007.\nElectranet advocates predict that just like data on the internet, energy itself, including what is necessary for electric cars, will continue to be more economical as more people get onto the smart grid and supply power, and as more and more efficient technologies are developed for gathering the abundant energy around us. It is reasonable to imagine a day when there is no actual cost for driving, per mile, for energy, because of the abundance of energy coming from the Electranet.",
"-27.211234014481306"
],
[
"that total world energy was in the form of electricity. Most of the other 82% was used for heat and transportation.\nRecently there has been a large increase in international agreements and national Energy Action Plans, such as the EU 2009 Renewable Energy Directive, to increase the use of renewable energy due to the growing concerns about pollution from energy sources that come from fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas. One such initiative was the United Nations Development Programme's World Energy Assessment in 2000 that highlighted many challenges humanity would have to overcome in order to shift from",
"-27.209669602656504"
],
[
"to looking at just the energy that is used for heating and cooling. Due to this, there could be other factors that change the energy consumption of a house, and it might be incorrect to state that the thermostat is responsible for all energy savings in a house. For example, it is possible that other new energy efficient practices/appliances are partially responsible for the savings in addition to the thermostat.\nAnother discrepancy to consider is the population of people involved in the study. Some studies, such as the MyEnergy study, involve people who signed up for an energy analysis program. These",
"-27.20185678312555"
],
[
"use of renewable energy and greater recycling in order to prevent future drops in availability of energy and raw materials, and reduce ecological damage. Solar energy in particular is often emphasized, as the cost of solar panels continues to drop (and could drop far more with automated production by self-replicating machines), and advocates point out the total solar power striking the Earth's surface annually exceeds our civilization's current annual power usage by a factor of thousands.\nAdvocates also sometimes argue that the energy and raw materials available could be greatly expanded if we looked to resources beyond the Earth. For example,",
"-27.189033577946248"
],
[
"energy has become a significant factor in the performance of economy of societies, management of energy resources has become very crucial. Energy management involves utilizing the available energy resources more effectively; that is, with minimum incremental costs. Many times it is possible to save expenditure on energy without incorporating fresh technology by simple management techniques. Most often energy management is the practice of using energy more efficiently by eliminating energy wastage or to balance justifiable energy demand with appropriate energy supply. The process couples energy awareness with energy conservation. Government The United Nations developed the International Standard Industrial Classification, which",
"-27.18522363959346"
],
[
"process, the air must be substantially re-heated prior to expansion in the turbine to power a generator. This reheating can be accomplished with a natural gas fired burner for utility grade storage or with a heated metal mass. As recovery is often most needed when renewable sources are quiescent, fuel must be burned to make up for the wasted heat. This degrades the efficiency of the storage-recovery cycle; and while this approach is relatively simple, the burning of fuel adds to the cost of the recovered electrical energy and compromises the ecological benefits associated with most renewable energy sources. Nevertheless,",
"-27.174945906968787"
],
[
"to store surplus summer heat in thermal banks with ground-source heat pumps to extract it for space heating in winter. This reduces the \"Lift\" needed and doubles the CoP of the heat pump because the pump starts with warmth from the thermal bank in place of cold from the ground. Resistive electrical heating Renewable electricity can be generated by hydropower, solar, wind, geothermal and by burning biomass. In a few countries where renewable electricity is inexpensive, resistance heating is common. In countries like Denmark where electricity is expensive, it is not permitted to install electric heating as the main heat",
"-27.173439296049764"
],
[
"are meant to reduce any vulnerability of available technologies and the need for adaptation at all with scientific technologies including energy efficiency improvements, and production of renewable energy (RE), nuclear power/energy (NE), and carbon capture storage (CCS). Energy Efficiency Improvements Energy efficiency is a concept used to define the focus of tackling climate change by creating energy efficient technologies and products (they are meant to use less energy to provide the same service). Energy efficiency is an important tool for climate adaptation because it preserves and extends resources in the long-run. It also minimizes the costs for the state in",
"-27.172165131836664"
],
[
"Energy storage Recent history In the twentieth century grid, electrical power was largely generated by burning fossil fuel. When less power was required, less fuel was burned. Concerns with air pollution, energy imports, and global warming have spawned the growth of renewable energy such as solar and wind power. Wind power is uncontrolled and may be generating at a time when no additional power is needed. Solar power varies with cloud cover and at best is only available during daylight hours, while demand often peaks after sunset (see duck curve). Interest in storing power from these intermittent sources grows as",
"-27.119011561997468"
],
[
"which is upgraded to a quality similar to natural gas. By upgrading the quality to that of natural gas, it becomes possible to distribute the gas to customers via the existing gas grid. According to the Energy research Centre of the Netherlands, renewable natural gas is 'cheaper than alternatives where biomass is used in a combined heat and power plant or local combustion plant'. Energy unit costs are lowered through 'favourable scale and operating hours', and end-user capital costs eliminated through distribution via the existing gas grid. Energy efficiency Renewable heat goes hand in hand with energy efficiency. Indeed, renewable",
"-27.081212296325248"
],
[
"products. Even mild design efforts can greatly increase the sustainable content of manufactured items. Energy sector Sustainable technology in the energy sector is based on utilizing renewable sources of energy such as solar, wind, hydro, bioenergy, geothermal, and hydrogen. Wind energy is the world's fastest growing energy source; it has been in use for centuries in Europe and more recently in the United States and other nations. Wind energy is captured through the use of wind turbines that generate and transfer electricity for utilities, homeowners and remote villages. Solar power can be harnessed through photovoltaics, concentrating solar, or solar hot",
"-27.08064146072138"
],
[
"combined with a traditional furnace that produces only heat. For example, the German company Viessmann produces a home fuel cell with an electric power of 0.75 kW and a thermal power of 1 kW, integrated with a traditional 19 kW heat producing furnace, using the grid for electricity need below and above the fuel cell production. Environmental impact Because the home fuel cell generates electricity and heat that are both used on site, theoretical efficiency approaches 100%. This is in contrast to traditional or fuel cell non-domestic electricity production with both a transmission loss and useless heat, requiring extra energy consumption for the",
"-27.073739559855312"
]
] |
188lf8 | Mars' atmosphere is 95% carbon dioxide. Could we plant trees to help convert it to oxygen and try to make it a habitable planet? | [
"Unlikely. Mars has temperatures between -20 and -120C, gets orders of magnitude less sunshine than Earth, and there isn't even that much CO2, because although the atmosphere is mostly CO2, the surface pressure is around 0.3% that of Earth. If you're comparing partial pressures of CO2, Earth and Mars have about the same at surface level - but on Earth, it's a trace gas, whereas on Mars it's the overwhelming majority of the entire atmosphere. Now, it would probably be possible to genetically engineer some single-cell plants or algae that could live off water ice (plenty of that on Mars) and CO2 and produce oxygen, but trees? I don't think so.",
"Mars lacks a magnetosphere, which poses challenges for mitigating solar radiation and retaining atmosphere. It is believed that fields detected on the planet are remnants of a magnetosphere that collapsed early in the planet's history.",
"No trees would be able to grow there in its present condition. It's far too cold and they wouldn't have sufficient water or nutrients to grow and survive.",
"The short answer is yes. There are many obstacles to overcome that make the idea not very feasible, but to answer your \"could we\" question - yes we could. It starts by building factories that produce greenhouse gases, like we've done on Earth. Probably gases like Nitrous Oxide, which have a greenhouse warming effect 300 times greater than CO2, Methane (23x stronger than CO2), and Ammonia. Issues with the magnetosphere can be solved with new technology in materials, protecting organisms from radiation. The main problem is that all equipment has to be brough from Earth, or using things already on Mars, which is extremely expensive. Further reading: URL_0 ",
"The answer has already pretty much een answered by ZankerH, but I'd like to add that \"Red mars\" would probably be a fun read for you.",
"95% of nothing is still nothing. Mars' atmosphere at the surface of Mars is a lab grade vaccuum (meaning that when science labs want to create a vaccuum, ie the absence of any gas, they strive to achieve the amount of gas in Mars' atmosphere at the surface).",
"Even if Mars atmosphere was turned into 100% oxygen we wouldn't be able to breathe it because it is very thin, thinner than air on top of the highest Earth's mountains. It's however enough to make dust storms and create complications during landing. The first problem to overcome is to increase the pressure by melting ice caps of frozen CO2 through global warming. That way people will be able to survive there without pressure suits (IIRC there is enough CO2 to create pressure similar to that you'll find on Mount Everest). We would still require oxygen tanks though.",
"Its more practical to install pools of photosynthesizing microbes. But I dont know how efficient that setup will be considering the amount of sunlight mars gets (I'm not a planetary scientist but a biologist)",
"This subreddit is good for the question, but you might also consider asking in the /r/askscience subreddit.",
"In 2023 they plan to put people on Mars, but not make the entire planet inhabitable. URL_0 ",
"Yes plants do love CO2 but there's more to their survival than CO2 and sunlight. Dirt is surprisingly complex and is very important for plant life. The soil of earth has millions of microbes and small life forms that help play a roll in making it a good environment for plants to grow in. There are many different elements required bust some of the important ones include Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Potassium. Not only do these elements have to be there they have to be in the right form. On earth almost all of the nitrogen in the soil is from some microbes called nitrogen fixing bacteria. These little guys take all the elemental N2 in the atmosphere and change it into other compounds of nitrogen (most commonly ammonia and nitrates). Plants are adapted to absorb these. In addition to just the chemical composition there are other factors such as the pH level of the soil. The soil sampled by the pheonix lander in 2008 tested the soil and found the pH to be 8.3 which is quite basic (bad). As many plants are very sensitive to soil pH. But there are some plants that can grow in that pH level, it just considerably reduces your options.",
"All this talk about atmosphere and pressures...**plants need oxygen too.** So no, we cannot plant trees to convert CO2. Expanded answer: Plants consume CO2 when they are making glucose but when they have to break it down for energy they need O2. They still respirate very similar to how an animal does. Without O2 they can still do glycolysis and get energy (resulting in alcohol fermentation, humans do this as well and result in lactate fermentation) but in order to survive they need O2 to oxidatively phosphorylate the glucose because glycolysis doesn't produce enough energy (ATP) to sustain life!",
"If this is a topic you're really interested in, you should check out the mars trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson. The middle book, Green Mars, especially deals with terraforming. They're novels, but the science involved was meticulously researched. Classic hard sci fi.",
"Nope. Mars has a dead core. Meaning no electromagnetic field to ward away all the harmful DNA ripping radiation. Plus, the temperature extremes & the weak atmosphere would kill any planet we have.",
"No. It's too cold and there's not enough light. You might possibly be able to get engineered extremophile bacteria or algae to do photosynthesis for you, but it still won't be very effective.",
"Air pressure, surface temperatures and lack of shielding from from radiation are a too big problem. Nothing would get done fast, too much evaporation and fire."
] | [
[
"at the atmospheres of Solar System planets. He discovered water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars, and derived the abundance of carbon dioxide in Mars' atmosphere, from which he and his collaborators inferred that Mars has an atmosphere very much more tenuous than Earth's.",
"-31.31867389506442"
],
[
"in contact with the Martian atmosphere, particularly given the lack of evidence for carbonate deposits. An additional complication is that the ~25% lower brightness of the young Sun would have required an ancient atmosphere with a significant greenhouse effect to raise surface temperatures to sustain liquid water. Higher CO₂ content alone would have been insufficient, as CO₂ precipitates at partial pressures exceeding 1.5 atm (1,500 hPa), reducing its effectiveness as a greenhouse gas. Middle to late Noachean era (4.1 Ga to 3.8 Ga) During the middle to late Noachean era, Mars underwent potential formation of a secondary atmosphere by outgassing dominated by",
"-30.842794454194518"
],
[
"planet Mars. Such a finding, along with previous discoveries that water may have been present on ancient Mars, further supports the possible early habitability of Gale Crater on Mars.\nHydrogen is present as water (H₂O) ice and in hydrated minerals. Carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere and sometimes as dry ice at the poles. An unknown amount of carbon is also stored in carbonates. Molecular nitrogen (N₂) makes up 2.7 percent of the atmosphere. As far as we know, organic compounds are absent except for a trace of methane detected in the atmosphere. On 16 December 2014, NASA",
"-30.6145308532723"
],
[
"per second, reaching 70 m/s or more in the upper troposphere. The stratosphere and mesosphere extend from 65 km to 95 km in height. The thermosphere and exosphere begin at around 95 kilometres, eventually reaching the limit of the atmosphere at about 220 to 250 km.\nThe air pressure at Venus' surface is about 92 times that of the Earth. The enormous amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere creates a strong greenhouse effect, raising the surface temperature to around 470 °C, hotter than that of any other planet in the Solar System. Mars The Martian atmosphere is very thin and composed mainly of carbon dioxide, with",
"-30.36492894366438"
],
[
"temperature increase. This would depend upon the carbon cycle and the rate of volcanism at that time throughout pre-Noachian and Noachian, which is not well known. Volatile outgassing is thought to have occurred during these periods.\nOne way to ascertain whether Mars possessed a thick CO₂-rich atmosphere is to look at carbonate deposits. A primary sink for carbon in the Earth atmosphere is the carbonate-silicate cycle. It is however hard for CO₂ to build up in the Martian atmosphere in this way because it would likely condense out before reaching partial pressures necessary to produce a sufficient greenhouse effect.\nAn alternative possible",
"-29.639127699862"
],
[
"climate and atmospheric conditions on Mars but also about its past. The Noachian-era Martian atmosphere had long been theorized to be carbon dioxide–rich. Recent spectral observations of deposits of clay minerals on Mars and modeling of clay mineral formation conditions have found that there is little to no carbonate present in clay of that era. Clay formation in a carbon dioxide–rich environment is always accompanied by carbonate formation, although the carbonate may later be dissolved by volcanic acidity.\nThe discovery of water-formed minerals on Mars including hematite and jarosite, by the Opportunity rover and goethite by the Spirit rover, has led",
"-29.23016464995453"
],
[
"atmosphere to warm the climate should have left extensive deposits of carbonate rocks, which have not been found. Problems also exist with sustaining such an atmosphere for long enough to allow the valleys to form, as the unweathered basalts so prevalent on Mars should form extremely effective carbon sinks, especially if the surface is wet, and continuing impacts from space in Mars' early history should quickly strip any atmosphere away.\nSolutions to this apparent contradiction may include exotic mechanisms that do not require a sustained CO₂-H₂O greenhouse, such as episodic heating due to volcanism or impacts. Other possibilities (other than misinterpretation",
"-29.025132432521787"
],
[
"of Earth (101.3 kPa). The scale height of the atmosphere is about 10.8 km (35,000 ft), which is higher than Earth's, 6 km (20,000 ft), because the surface gravity of Mars is only about 38% of Earth's, an effect offset by both the lower temperature and 50% higher average molecular weight of the atmosphere of Mars.\nThe atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen along with traces of oxygen and water. The atmosphere is quite dusty, containing particulates about 1.5 µm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface. It may take",
"-28.793798274920846"
],
[
"by various complex factors, resulting in quite different outcomes.\nThe atmospheres of the planets Venus and Mars are primarily composed of carbon dioxide, with small quantities of nitrogen, argon, oxygen and traces of other gases.\nThe composition of Earth's atmosphere is largely governed by the by-products of the life that it sustains. Dry air from Earth's atmosphere contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen, helium, and other \"noble\" gases (by volume), but generally a variable amount of water vapor is also present, on average about 1% at sea level.\nThe low temperatures and higher gravity of",
"-28.649569776614953"
],
[
"as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants. Contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon and remain valuable carbon sinks, helping to maintain the carbon balance of Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved CO\n2 in the upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of CO\n2 from the atmosphere. Toxicity Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about 30 km (19 mi) altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (410 ppm), depending on the location.\nCO\n2 is an",
"-28.61601345161762"
],
[
"atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life.\nThe lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a challenge: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, poor insulation against bombardment of the solar wind and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimes to a gaseous state). Mars is nearly, or",
"-28.59954393345106"
],
[
"has had a major influence on Mars' climate. Erupting volcanoes give off great amounts of gas, mainly water vapor and CO₂. Enough gas may have been released by volcanoes to have made the earlier Martian atmosphere thicker than Earth's. The volcanoes could also have emitted enough H₂O to cover the whole Martian surface to a depth of 120 m (390 ft). Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that raises a planet's temperature: it traps heat by absorbing infrared radiation. Thus, Tharsis volcanoes, by giving off CO₂, could have made Mars more Earth-like in the past. Mars may have once had a much",
"-28.501877529604826"
],
[
"low as 10 kPa to achieve normal plant growth.\nMartian soil contains a majority of the minerals needed for plant growth except for reactive nitrogen, which is a product of mineralization of organic matter. Since there is a lack of organic matter on the surface of mars, there is a lack of this component. Reactive nitrogen is a required constituent of soil used for plant growth, and it is possible that nitrogen fixing species, such as bacteria, could aide in the lack of reactive nitrogen series. However, a 2014 study suggested that plants were able to germinate and survive a",
"-28.474032758094836"
],
[
"occur on a lesser scale on Mars, facilitated by the thin atmosphere, including carbon dioxide (and possibly carbon), water, sulphur, methane, oxygen, ozone, and nitrogen cycles. Many studies point to significantly more active chemical cycles on Mars in the past, however the faint young Sun paradox has proved problematic in determining chemical cycles involved in early climate models of the planet. Jupiter Jupiter, like all the gas giants, has an atmospheric methane cycle. Recent studies indicate a hydrological cycle of water-ammonia vastly different to the type operating on terrestrial planets like Earth and also a cycle of hydrogen sulfide.\nSignificant chemical",
"-28.19212940936086"
],
[
"The precipitation vaporized before reaching the ground, a phenomenon called virga. Low atmospheric pressure The Martian atmosphere is composed mainly of carbon dioxide and has a mean surface pressure of about 600 pascals (Pa), much lower than the Earth's 101,000 Pa. One effect of this is that Mars' atmosphere can react much more quickly to a given energy input than that of Earth's atmosphere. As a consequence, Mars is subject to strong thermal tides produced by solar heating rather than a gravitational influence. These tides can be significant, being up to 10% of the total atmospheric pressure (typically about 50 Pa). Earth's atmosphere",
"-27.97784551222867"
],
[
"explanation posits intermittent bursts of powerful greenhouse gases, like methane. Carbon dioxide alone, even at a pressure far higher than the current one, cannot explain temperatures required for presence of liquid water on early Mars. Venus Venus's atmosphere is composed of 96% carbon dioxide, and during this time, billions of years ago, when the Sun was 25 to 30% dimmer Venus's surface temperature could have been much cooler, and its climate could have resembled current Earth's, complete a hydrological cycle – before it experienced a runaway greenhouse effect.",
"-27.977580588369165"
],
[
"proposed for use as a fuel on Mars. Carbon monoxide/oxygen engines have been suggested for early surface transportation use as both carbon monoxide and oxygen can be straightforwardly produced from the atmosphere of Mars by zirconia electrolysis, without using any Martian water resources to obtain hydrogen, which would be needed to make methane or any hydrogen-based fuel. Likewise, blast furnace gas collected at the top of blast furnace, still contains some 10% to 30% of carbon monoxide, and is used as fuel on Cowper stoves and on Siemens-Martin furnaces on open hearth steelmaking.",
"-27.814230160292936"
],
[
"carbon has spent time in the form of carbonate. By contrast, only 0.002% of carbon exists in the biosphere. Feedbacks Changes to the surface of the planet, such as an absence of volcanoes or higher sea levels, which would reduce the amount of land surface exposed to weathering can change the rates at which different processes in this cycle take place. Over tens to hundreds of millions of years, carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere may vary due to natural perturbations in the cycle but even more generally, it serves as a critical negative feedback loop between carbon dioxide levels",
"-27.680075906711863"
],
[
"atomic oxygen in the atmosphere of Mars, which has not been found since the Viking and Mariner mission in the 1970s.\nSimilar to stratospheric ozone in Earth's atmosphere, the ozone present in the Martian atmosphere can be destroyed by catalytic cycles involving odd hydrogen species:\nH + O\n3 ⟶ OH + O\n2\nO + OH ⟶ H + O\n2\nNet: O + O\n3 ⟶ 2O\n2\nSince water is an important source of these old hydrogen species, higher abundance of ozone is usually observed in the regions with lower water vapor content. Measurements showed that the total column of ozone can reach 2–30 µm-atm around the poles in winter and spring, where",
"-27.675662663357798"
],
[
"described in the work and, Zubrin suggests, are probably best deployed in tandem: orbital mirrors to heat the surface; factories on the surface to pump halocarbons into the atmosphere; and the seeding of bacteria which can metabolize water, nitrogen and carbon to produce ammonia and methane (these would aid in global warming). While the work of warming Mars is on-going, true colonization can begin.\nThe Case for Mars acknowledges that any Martian colony will be partially Earth-dependent for centuries. However, it suggests that Mars may be a profitable place for two reasons. First, it may contain concentrated supplies of metals of",
"-27.65434572356753"
],
[
"industry would begin using indigenous resources: the manufacture of plastics, ceramics and glass could be easily achieved.\nThe longer-term work of terraforming Mars requires an initial phase of global warming to release atmosphere from the Martian regolith and to create a water-cycle. Three methods of global warming are described by Zubrin, who suggests they are best deployed in tandem: orbital mirrors to heat the surface; factories on the ground to pump halocarbons into the atmosphere; and the seeding of bacteria that can metabolize water, nitrogen and carbon to produce ammonia and methane (these gases would aid in global warming). While the",
"-27.46949194482295"
],
[
"in the soil on Mars increases the toxicity of perchlorates. The high level of perchlorates found on Mars (0.05 wt %) is concentrated enough that it would be toxic for humans and crops, and could be used for rocket fuel. Studies indicate that low concentrations of aqueous perchlorates inhibit the height, weight, chlorophyll content and oxidizing power of plants. One plant, E. crassipes, seems to have a high tolerance to perchlorates and might be an ideal plant for growing on Mars. Perchlorates can accumulate in the tissue of plants if grown in a contaminated medium. Since even trace",
"-27.395476435762248"
],
[
"resembles fluvial channels despite seemingly insufficient incoming solar radiation, some have suggested that a cycle similar to Earth's carbonate-silicate cycle could have existed – similar to a retreat from Snowball Earth periods. It has been shown using modeling studies that gaseous CO₂ and H₂O acting as greenhouse gases could not have kept Mars warm during its early history when the sun was fainter because CO₂ would condense out into clouds. Even though CO₂ clouds do not reflect in the same way that water clouds do on Earth, which means it could not have had much of a carbonate-silicate cycle in",
"-27.225284099244163"
],
[
"optical illusion, and the atmosphere was found to be too thin to support an Earth-like environment.\nYellow clouds on Mars have been observed since the 1870s, which Eugène M. Antoniadi suggested were windblown sand or dust. During the 1920s, the range of Martian surface temperature was measured; it ranged from −85 to 7 °C (−121 to 45 °F). The planetary atmosphere was found to be arid with only trace amounts of oxygen and water. In 1947, Gerard Kuiper showed that the thin Martian atmosphere contained extensive carbon dioxide; roughly double the quantity found in Earth's atmosphere. The first standard nomenclature for Mars albedo",
"-27.11907499539666"
],
[
"the average concentration of CO₂ stable in the modern Martian atmosphere.\nCO₂ ice clouds can form in winter polar regions and very high altitude (>50 km) in tropical regions, where the air temperature is lower than the frost point of CO₂. Nitrogen N₂ is the second most abundant gas in the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean volume ratio of 2.6%. Various measurements showed that the Martian atmosphere is enriched in ¹⁵N. The enrichment of heavy isotope of nitrogen is possibly caused by mass-selective escape processes. Argon Argon is the third most abundant gas in the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean",
"-27.069312571024057"
],
[
"atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars (roughly 0.6% of that of Earth). Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes, such as Olympus Mons, and rift valleys, such as Valles Marineris, shows geological activity that may have persisted until as recently as 2 million years ago. Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust) in its soil. Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be either captured asteroids, or ejected debris from a massive impact early in Mars's history. Ceres Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid, a protoplanet, and a dwarf planet.",
"-27.06416560632897"
],
[
"lowland landing site, while the MER Spirit rover identified outcrops rich in magnesium-iron carbonate (16–34 wt%) in the Columbia Hills of Gusev crater. Later CRISM analyses identified carbonates in the rim of Huygens crater which suggested that there could be extensive deposits of buried carbonates on Mars. However, a study by CRISM scientists estimated that all of the carbonate rock on Mars holds less that the present Martian atmosphere worth of carbon dioxide. They determined that if a dense ancient Martian atmosphere did exist, it is probably not trapped in the crust. Crustal composition Understanding the composition of Mars' crust",
"-27.01774154190207"
],
[
"Mangrove forests move carbon dioxide \"from the atmosphere into long-term storage\" in greater quantities than other forests, making them \"among the planet's best carbon scrubbers\" according to a NASA-led study.",
"-26.937128988298355"
],
[
"Mars habitat A Mars habitat is a place that humans can live in on Mars. Mars habitats must contend with surface conditions that include almost no oxygen in the air, extreme cold, low pressure, and high radiation. Alternatively, the habitat may be placed underground, which helps solve some problems but creates new difficulties.\nOne challenge is the extreme cost of building materials for Mars, which by the 2010s was estimated be about US$2 million per brick to the surface of Mars. While the gravity on Mars is lower than that on Earth, there is increased solar radiation, temperature cycles, and the",
"-26.90579903568141"
],
[
"CO₂ to the photosynthesising plants, to which must be added the CO₂ respired by aboveground plant tissues. Root-respired CO₂ can be accumulated overnight within hollow stems of plants, to be further used for photosynthesis during the day. Within the soil, CO₂ concentration is 10 to 100 times that of atmospheric levels but may rise to toxic levels if the soil porosity is low or if diffusion is impeded by flooding. Nitrogen Nitrogen is the most critical element obtained by plants from the soil, to the exception of moist tropical forests where phosphorus is the limiting soil nutrient, and nitrogen deficiency",
"-26.845342228887603"
],
[
"1943, Walter Adams and Theodore Dunham at the Mount Wilson Observatory tried to identify oxygen and water vapor in the Martian atmosphere, with generally negative results. The only component of the Martian atmosphere known for certain was carbon dioxide (CO₂) identified spectroscopically by Gerard Kuiper in 1947. Water vapor was not unequivocally detected on Mars until 1963.\nThe composition of the polar caps, assumed to be water ice since the time of Cassini (1666), was questioned by a few scientists in the late 1800s who favored CO₂ ice, because of the planet's overall low temperature and apparent lack of appreciable water.",
"-26.833671914304432"
],
[
"surface of the planet from charged particles and cosmic rays, and helping to ensure the atmosphere is not stripped over time by solar winds. Atmosphere A terrestrial planet of the right size is needed to retain an atmosphere, like Earth and Venus. On Earth, once the giant impact of Theia thinned Earth's atmosphere, other events were needed to make the atmosphere capable of sustaining life. The Late Heavy Bombardment reseeded Earth with water lost after the impact of Theia. The development of an ozone layer formed protection from ultraviolet (UV) sunlight. Nitrogen and carbon dioxide are needed in a correct",
"-26.80809787468752"
],
[
"in mountains of diamonds and silicon carbides. The surface would contain frozen or liquid hydrocarbons (e.g. tar and methane) and carbon monoxide. A weather cycle is theoretically possible on carbon planets with an atmosphere, provided that the average surface temperature is below 77 °C.\nHowever, carbon planets will probably be devoid of water, which cannot form because any oxygen delivered by comets or asteroids will react with the carbon on the surface. The atmosphere on a relatively cool carbon planet would consist primarily of carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide with a significant amount of carbon smog. Composition Carbon planets are predicted to",
"-26.783739005284133"
],
[
"large-scale controlled experiment to\ninvestigate the possibility of growing plants in Mars and moon soil simulants. The results show that plants are able to\ngerminate and grow on both Martian and moon soil simulant for a period of 50 days without any addition of nutrients.\nGrowth and flowering on Mars regolith simulant was much better than on moon regolith simulant and even slightly better\nthan on our control nutrient poor river soil. Reflexed stonecrop (a wild plant); the crops tomato, wheat, and cress; and the\ngreen manure species field mustard performed particularly well. The latter three flowered, and cress and field mustard also\nproduced seeds. The",
"-26.64704661691212"
],
[
"the formation of an aerobic environment. In addition to oxygen production, Chroococcidiopsis could aid in the formation of soil on the Martian surface. On Earth, soil is formed from the decomposition of organic matter. On Mars, because no organic matter is present, the organic material from the microbes themselves would provide the necessary organic matter. The soil and oxygen produced by these organisms could one day provide the conditions necessary for humans to grow food on Mars, possibly allowing for permanent human civilizations on the planet. On a shorter time scale, cyanobacteria such as Chroococcidiopsis could be used in closed",
"-26.634249661437934"
],
[
"planet.\nAnother main inter-Martian trade good during early colonization could be manure. Assuming that life doesn't exist on Mars, the soil is going to be very poor for growing plants, so manure and other fertilizers will be valued highly in any Martian civilization until the planet changes enough chemically to support growing vegetation on its own.\nSolar power is a candidate for power for a Martian colony. Solar insolation (the amount of solar radiation that reaches Mars) is about 42% of that on Earth, since Mars is about 52% farther from the Sun and insolation falls off as the square of distance.",
"-26.605853846587706"
],
[
"preliminary data revealed that Mars soil contains perchlorate, and thus may not be as life-friendly as thought earlier. The pH and salinity level were viewed as benign from the standpoint of biology. The analysers also indicated the presence of bound water and CO₂. A recent analysis of Martian meteorite EETA79001 found 0.6 ppm ClO₄⁻, 1.4 ppm ClO₃⁻, and 16 ppm NO₃⁻, most likely of Martian origin. The ClO₃⁻ suggests presence of other highly oxidizing oxychlorines such as ClO₂⁻ or ClO, produced both by UV oxidation of Cl and X-ray radiolysis of ClO₄⁻. Thus only highly refractory and/or well-protected (sub-surface) organics",
"-26.596766807488166"
],
[
"pay for permits for the right to emit certain pollutants (i.e. CO2).\nRainforests are widely believed by laymen to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen, although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net oxygen to the atmosphere and deforestation has only a minor effect on atmospheric oxygen levels. However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO₂, which contributes to global warming. Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere. Soil Due to surface plant litter, forests that are",
"-26.54057065170491"
],
[
"from the observation in the Keeling curve that the CO₂ level in the atmosphere undergoes annual variation of approximately 5 ppm (parts per million), which is attributed to the seasonal change of vegetation and difference in land mass between the northern and southern hemisphere. However, the CO₂ sequestered by the plants will be returned to the atmosphere when the plants died. Thus, it is proposed to plant crops with C4 photosynthesis, given its rapid growth and high carbon capture rate, and then to process the biomass for applications such as biochar that will be stored in the soil permanently. Carbon-neutral",
"-26.405967649887316"
],
[
"climate science. At a December 2017 meeting of the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), he stated to E & E News reporter Zack Colman: \"I think the whole premise that carbon dioxide is a pollutant is flawed,\" said Tennessee state Sen. Frank Niceley (R). \"It's not a pollutant, it's just as natural as oxygen. The trees and plants depend on CO2 just the same way we depend on oxygen.\"",
"-26.405141142051434"
],
[
"some nitrogen and argon. The average surface pressure on Mars is 0.6-0.9 kPa, compared to about 101 kPa for Earth. This results in a much lower atmospheric thermal inertia, and as a consequence Mars is subject to strong thermal tides that can change total atmospheric pressure by up to 10%. The thin atmosphere also increases the variability of the planet's temperature. Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of approximately −140 °C (−220 °F) during the polar winters to highs of up to 20 °C (70 °F) in summers.\nBetween the Viking and Mars Global Surveyor missions, Mars saw \"Much colder (10-20 K) global atmospheric temperatures",
"-26.397374823267455"
],
[
"of carbon dioxide over a given area of the surface is double that on the Earth. However, because he overestimated the surface pressure on Mars, Kuiper concluded erroneously that the ice caps could not be composed of frozen carbon dioxide. In 1948, American meteorologist Seymour L. Hess determined that the formation of the thin Martian clouds would only require 4 mm (0.16 in) of water precipitation and a vapor pressure of 0.1 kPa (1.0 mbar).\nThe first standard nomenclature for Martian albedo features was introduced by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) when in 1960 they adopted 128 names from the 1929 map of Antoniadi named",
"-26.392777174449293"
],
[
"from a time period during which Mars is suspected to have supported liquid water.\nIn October 2011 it was reported that isotopic analysis indicated that the carbonates in ALH84001 were precipitated at a temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) with water and carbon dioxide from the Martian atmosphere. The carbonate carbon and oxygen isotope ratios imply deposition of the carbonates from a gradually evaporating subsurface water body, probably a shallow aquifer meters or tens of meters below the surface.",
"-26.36976014060201"
],
[
"accounting for just 3% of Earth's land surfaces. Carbon stored within mires equates to over half the amount of carbon found in the atmosphere. Mires interact with the atmosphere primarily through the exchange of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The sequestration of carbon dioxide takes place at the surface via the process of photosynthesis, while losses of carbon dioxide occur through living peat tissue via respiration. In their natural state, mires are a slight atmospheric carbon dioxide sink through the photosynthesis of peat vegetation, which outweighs their release of greenhouse gases. In addition, most mires are generally net emitters",
"-26.29955975789926"
],
[
"years ago Venus's atmosphere was much more like Earth's than it is now, and that there may have been substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface, but after a period of 600 million to several billion years, a runaway greenhouse effect was caused by the evaporation of that original water, which generated a critical level of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere. Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any Earth-like life that may have formed before this event, there is speculation on the possibility that life exists in the upper cloud layers of Venus,",
"-26.22154193775532"
],
[
"compared with the economic benefits of logging and clearance which, through soil degradation and organic decomposition returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that about 90% of the carbon stored in land vegetation is locked up in trees and that they sequester about 50% more carbon than is present in the atmosphere. Changes in land use currently contribute about 20% of total global carbon emissions (heavily logged Indonesia and Brazil are a major source of emissions). Climate change can be mitigated by sequestering carbon in reafforestation schemes, plantations and timber products. Also",
"-26.209050382458372"
],
[
"in this approach: if this lens were built and global warming were avoided, there would be less incentive to reduce greenhouse gases, and humans might continue to produce too much carbon dioxide until it caused some other environmental catastrophe, such as a chemical change in ocean water that could be disastrous to ocean life.\nBenford serves on the board of directors and the steering committee of the Mars Society.\nHe has advocated human cryopreservation, for example by signing an open letter to support research into cryonics, being a member of Alcor, and by being an advisor to a UK cryonics and cryopreservation",
"-26.188837576948572"
],
[
"via clearing of carbon-rich habitats is to increase CO₂ emissions for decades or centuries relative to fossil fuel use.\nRegarding this concern, previous studies conducted in Brazil have shown there are 355 million ha of arable land in Brazil, of which only 72 million ha are in use. Sugarcane is only taking 2% of arable land available, of which ethanol production represented 55% in 2008. Embrapa estimates that there is enough agricultural land available to increase at least 30 times the existing sugarcane plantation without endangering sensitive ecosystems or taking land destined for food crops. Most future growth is expected to",
"-26.188483011181233"
],
[
"Earth. Mars has an atmosphere, though its surface pressure is less than 1% of Earth's. Its surface gravity is about 38% of Earth's. Although a human expedition to Mars has not yet taken place, there has been significant work on Martian habitat design. Martian architecture usually falls into one of two categories: architecture imported from Earth fully assembled and architecture making use of local resources. Von Braun and other early proposals Wernher von Braun was the first to come up with a technically comprehensive proposal for a manned Mars expedition. Rather than a minimal",
"-26.11697946746426"
],
[
"as a possible way to settle Mars. The project began with eight people living inside in an attempt to be a self-contained settlement, raising food and recycling air and water. After the environment was sealed in 1991, noxious gases built up, and while some of the 4,000 species thrived, the water and crops failed in 1994. \nIn April 1994 Bass obtained a court order to \"formally oust the key managers of the Biosphere and seize the premises,\" and he dissolved Space Biospheres Ventures, a partnership, which the Los Angeles Times called a \"volatile blend of New Age idealism and corporate",
"-25.99549349777226"
],
[
"more than 90 kg of lipid per hectare per day in outdoor cultures. I, depending on sun light conditions. Carbon dioxide aeration Algae play an important role in earth's carbon cycle. Algae generate large deposits of carbonate minerals and organic compounds that are resistant to microbial breakdown, thereby contributing to the reduction of CO₂ level in the atmosphere, making the earth more habitable for other organisms. The CO₂ concentration also has an effect on algae growth and lipid content. In Nannochloropsis oculata, the effect of CO₂ concentration on biomass production and lipid accumulation was investigated. The results showed that the lipid",
"-25.98705345101189"
],
[
"related cleaning and surface preparation techniques. In Earth's atmosphere Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere is a trace gas, currently (mid 2018) having a global average concentration of 409 parts per million by volume (or 622 parts per million by mass). Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide fluctuate slightly with the seasons, falling during the Northern Hemisphere spring and summer as plants consume the gas and rising during northern autumn and winter as plants go dormant or die and decay. Concentrations also vary on a regional basis, most strongly near the ground with much smaller variations aloft. In urban areas concentrations are",
"-25.973706787699484"
],
[
"to decrease atmospheric CO₂ concentrations from about 15 to three times present levels. Carbon in the form of plant matter would be produced on prodigious scales, and given the right conditions, could be stored and buried, eventually producing vast coal measures (e.g. in China) which locked the carbon out of the atmosphere and into the lithosphere. This reduction in atmospheric CO\n2 would have caused global cooling and resulted in at least one period of late Devonian glaciation (and subsequent sea level fall), probably fluctuating in intensity alongside the 40ka Milankovic cycle. The continued drawdown of organic carbon eventually pulled the",
"-25.953075862067635"
],
[
"of greenhouse gasses, and that biodiesel produced from oil palms grown on this land may not result in a net reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. However, research by Malaysia's Tropical Peat Research Unit has found that oil palm plantations developed on peatland produce lower carbon dioxide emissions than forest peat swamp. However, it has been suggested that this research unit was commissioned by politicians who have interests in the palm oil industry.\nIn 2011, eight of Malaysia's Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) plantations were certified under the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification System (ISCC), becoming part of Asia's first ISCC certified",
"-25.946910473605385"
],
[
"in operation. A 1990 study of the Curuá-Una Dam, also in Brazil, found that it pollutes 3.5 times more in carbon dioxide equivalent than an oil power plant generating an equal amount of electricity would; not in the form of the CO2 atmospheric pollution associated with fossil fuel burning, but as the more dangerous methane emissions. Furthermore, the forest will be cleared before flooding of the area, so the CO2 and methane emissions calculated for the flooding of the forested area will be significantly undercut. In addition, a study on the Brazilian Tucuruí dam showed that the actual greenhouse gas",
"-25.910811466204905"
],
[
"or plantations act as sinks for CO₂, for these reasons wood economy fights greenhouse effect. The amount of CO₂ absorbed depends on the type of trees, lands and the climate of the place where trees naturally grow or are planted. Moreover, by night plants do not photosynthesize, and produce CO₂, eliminated the successive day. Paradoxically in summer oxygen created by photosynthesis in forests near to cities and urban parks, interacts with urban air pollution (from cars, etc.) and is transformed by solar beams in ozone (molecule of three oxygen atoms), that while in high atmosphere constitutes a filter against ultraviolet",
"-25.90792767133098"
],
[
"for rocket fuel. Iron has also been suggested as a building material for 3D printed Mars habitats.\nIn the 2010s the idea of using in-situ water to build an ice for protection from radiation and temperature, etc. appeared in designs.\nA material processing plant would use Mars resources to reduce reliance on Earth provided material.\nThe planned Mars 2020 mission includes Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE) which would convert Mars carbon dioxide into oxygen.\nTo convert the whole of Mars into a habitat, increased would air could come from vaporizing materials in the planet. In time lichen and moss might be established, and then",
"-25.82743032593862"
],
[
"carbon dioxide emissions in two main ways. First, trees that are destroyed release carbon dioxide when they decompose which increases the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Second, fewer trees are healthy and able to pull greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere. Research done by Kurz and his team show that if a solution is not found by 2020 the beetles will have killed enough forest to equal five years of carbon dioxide emissions from all the automobiles in Canada. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Kurz contributed to to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports including",
"-25.79349567236204"
],
[
"present. Although the average Martian surface atmospheric pressure is less than one percent of Earth's, the much lower gravity of Mars increases the atmosphere's scale height; in other words, Mars's atmosphere is expansive and does not drop off in density with height as sharply as Earth's.\nThe composition of Olympus Mons is approximately 44% silicates, 17.5% iron oxides (which give the planet its red coloration) 7% aluminum, 6% magnesium, 6% calcium, and particularly high proportions of sulfur oxide with 7%. These results point to the surface being largely composed of basalts and other mafic rocks, which would have erupted as low",
"-25.773645833412957"
],
[
"that ancient atmosphere. If a thick atmosphere ever existed, it was either blown into space by solar wind or impacts, or reacted with silicate rocks to become trapped as carbonates in Mars' crust. One of the goals that drove CRISM's design was to find carbonates, to try to solve this question about what happened to Mars' atmosphere. And one of CRISM's most important discoveries was the identification of carbonate bedrock in Nili Fossae in 2008. Soon thereafter, landed missions to Mars started identifying carbonates on the surface; the Phoenix Mars lander found between 3–5 wt% calcite (CaCO3) at its northern",
"-25.761883031656907"
],
[
"work of terraforming Mars is on-going, robust settlement of Mars would continue.\nZubrin, in his 1996 book (revised 2011) The Case for Mars, acknowledges any Martian colony will be partially Earth-dependent for centuries. However, Zubrin suggests Mars may be profitable for two reasons. First, it may contain concentrated supplies of metals equal to or of greater value than silver, which have not been subjected to millennia of human scavenging; it is suggested such ores may be sold on Earth for profit. Secondly, the concentration of deuterium—an extremely expensive but essential fuel for the as-yet non-existent nuclear fusion power industry—is five times",
"-25.73881572688697"
],
[
"Division of Physical Sciences at the American Museum of Natural History. However Martian soil has since been found to be toxic to both plant and animal life, although it is believed that microbial organisms have the potential to live on Mars. In one scene, the glass face shield on Watney's helmet cracks; as oxygen momentarily drops below the critical level, he quickly patches the helmet with duct tape and avoids suffocation. According to Shara, \"As long as the pressure on the inside is around 30%, you could hold it together before your eyes blow out or you had an embolism.\"\nWhile",
"-25.708724311552942"
],
[
"of Mars water\", \"as well as the current north-south asymmetry of the seasonal ice cap albedos.\" The atmosphere of Mars is currently \"a nonlinear pump of water into the northern hemisphere of Mars.\"",
"-25.644719705222087"
],
[
"Curiosity on the way to Glenelg, was a mugearite and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks.\nOn December 9, 2013, NASA reported that Mars once had a large freshwater lake inside Gale Crater, that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found",
"-25.640739547961857"
],
[
"(Poaceae) use the C₄ photosynthetic pathway, as do many species in the herbaceous family Amaranthaceae.\nWhen the levels of carbon dioxide fall to the limit where photosynthesis is barely sustainable, the proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is expected to oscillate up and down. This will allow land vegetation to flourish each time the level of carbon dioxide rises due to tectonic activity and respiration from animal life. However, the long-term trend is for the plant life on land to die off altogether as most of the remaining carbon in the atmosphere becomes sequestered in the Earth. Some microbes are",
"-25.635619548327668"
],
[
"less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out. Other considerations A planet cannot have a hydrosphere—a key ingredient for the formation of carbon-based life—unless there is a source for water within its stellar system. The origin of water on Earth is still not completely understood; possible sources",
"-25.615655363420956"
],
[
"single pulse, from methane hydrates (based on carbon amount estimates for the PETM, with ~2000 GtC), and concluded it would increase atmospheric temperatures by more than 6 °C within 80 years. Further, carbon stored in the land biosphere would decrease by less than 25%, suggesting a critical situation for ecosystems and farming, especially in the tropics.",
"-25.592274680675473"
],
[
"Carbon Free Album (Compact Disc).\nThe musician Txai Brasil released his first album which is the first in Brazil to have its carbon emissions neutralized by reforesting 1 ha of riparian area in the State of São Paulo - Brazil. \nThe production, distribution and usage of the 3.000 copies caused an emission of 5.4 tonnes of CO₂ equivalent to the atmosphere which will be absorbed by the reforestation of the riparian area.",
"-25.566583456355147"
],
[
"Mars experience approximately 1/3 the gravity that earth plants do. However, so long as plants are provided with directional light, those grown in low gravity environments still experienced normal growth. Normal growth is classified as opposite root and shoot growth direction. This being said many plants grown in a space flight environment have been significantly smaller than those grown on earth's surface and grew at a slower rate.\nIn addition to varying effects of gravity, unless protected, plants grown on the surface of Mars will be exposed to much higher levels of radiation than on Earth. Exposure to high levels of",
"-25.552185278735124"
],
[
"been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting, by the Curiosity rover at Gale, an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times, before the lakebed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost.\nOn October 8, 2015, NASA confirmed that lakes and streams existed",
"-25.54020910023246"
],
[
"of local and regional scale geologic conditions on Mars that were favorable to analogs of terrestrial biological activity over geologically significant intervals.\nAs of 2012, the absence of more extensive carbonate deposits on Mars was thought by some scientists to be due to global dominance of low pH aqueous environments.\nEven the least soluble carbonate, siderite (FeCO₃), precipitates only at a pH greater than 5.\nEvidence for significant quantities of carbonate deposits on the surface began to increase in 2008 when the TEGA and WCL experiments on the 2007 Phoenix Mars lander found between 3–5wt% calcite (CaCO3) and an alkaline soil. In 2010",
"-25.48741865968077"
],
[
"H₂O-based images of the South polar cap. No definitive answer has been rendered with respect to Martian CO₂ clathrate formation.\nThe decomposition of CO₂ hydrate is believed to play a significant role in the terraforming processes on Mars, and many of the observed surface features are partly attributed to it. For instance, Musselwhite et al. (2001) argued that the Martian gullies had been formed not by liquid water but by liquid CO₂, since the present Martian climate does not allow liquid water existence on the surface in general. This is especially true in the southern hemisphere, where most of the gully",
"-25.487121441808995"
],
[
"in the aftermath of the Mt Saint Helen's eruption included Asteraceae and Epilobium, and especially Lupinus lepidus for its (symbiotic) ability to fix its own nitrogen. (see also Category:Nitrogen-fixing crops, Rhizobia, Nitrogen fixation) In-site resources In situ resource utilization involves using materials encountered on Mars to produce materials needed. One idea for supporting a Mars habitat is to extract subterranean water, which with sufficient power could then be split into hydrogen and oxygen, with the intention of mixing the oxygen with nitrogen and argon for breathable air. The hydrogen can be combined with carbon dioxide to make plastics or methane",
"-25.480978951130965"
],
[
"the atmosphere, although small amounts of carbon leave the terrestrial biosphere and enter the oceans as dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Movement of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere Most carbon in the terrestrial biosphere is stored in forests: they hold 86% of the planet's terrestrial above-ground carbon and forest soils also hold 73% of the planet's soil carbon. Carbon stored inside plants can be transferred into other organisms during plant consumption. When animals eat plants, for example, the organic carbon stored in the plants is converted into other forms and utilized inside the animals. The same is true for bacteria and",
"-25.419468437787145"
],
[
"away, so temperatures near the equator can get up to 21 °C (70 °F) during a summer day, and then drop down to −73 °C (−99 °F) at night. Subsurface conditions on Mars are dramatically more benign than those on the surface, which lead researchers to believe that if life did (or does) exist on Mars, it would most likely be found in these more hospitable environments. Life forms would not only be protected from the high surface temperatures and ultraviolet radiation, but also from wind storms and regolith dust. Martian lava tubes could possibly trap volatiles such as water which is considered essential",
"-25.410016839581658"
],
[
"the rocks, named \"Cumberland\", analyzed by the Curiosity rover. Human colonization of Mars Some of the main reasons for colonizing Mars include economic interests, long-term scientific research best carried out by humans as opposed to robotic probes, and sheer curiosity. Surface conditions and the presence of water on Mars make it arguably the most hospitable of the planets in the Solar System, other than Earth. Human colonization of Mars would require in situ resource utilization (ISRU); A NASA report states that \"applicable frontier technologies include robotics, machine intelligence, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, 3-D printing/additive manufacturing, and autonomy. These technologies combined with",
"-25.40772603041114"
],
[
"of volcanic rock in Mars' crust. Modern climates To understand Mars' ancient climate, and whether it might have created environments habitable for life, first we need to understand Mars' climate today. Each mission to Mars has made new advances in understanding its climate. Mars has seasonal variations in the abundances of water vapor, water ice clouds and hazes, and atmospheric dust. During southern summer, when Mars is closest to the Sun (at perihelion), solar heating can raise massive dust storms. Regional dust storms - ones having a 1000-kilometer scale - show surprising repeatability Mars-year to Mars-year. Once every decade or",
"-25.383881855610525"
],
[
"sites, so its authors also support the hypotheses of either short-lived atmospheric water vapour deliquesence, or dry granular flows. They conclude that liquid water on today's Mars may be limited to traces of dissolved moisture from the atmosphere and thin films, which are challenging environments for life as we know it. Habitability assessments Since the Viking landers that searched for current microbial life in 1976, NASA has pursued a \"follow the water\" strategy on Mars. However, liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as we know it because habitability is a function of a multitude of",
"-25.374839855823666"
],
[
"nitrogen and other trace elements, including compounds based on hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, carbon, and oxygen. The atmosphere of Venus is much hotter and denser than that of Earth, though shallower. As greenhouse gases warm a lower atmosphere, they cool the upper atmosphere, leading to compact thermospheres. By some definitions, Venus has no stratosphere.\nThe troposphere begins at the surface and extends up to an altitude of 65 kilometres (an altitude at which the mesosphere has already been reached on Earth). At the top of the troposphere, temperature and pressure reach Earth-like levels. Winds at the surface are a few metres",
"-25.369872294948436"
],
[
"or to human interferences, may progressively modify these habitats and cause overpopulation or extinction of indigenous species.\nThe biosphere, for its part, and in particular continental vegetation, which constitutes over 99% of the total biomass, has played a critical role in establishing and maintaining the chemical composition of the Earth's atmosphere, especially during the early evolution of the planet (See History of Earth for more details on this topic). Currently, the terrestrial vegetation exchanges some 60 billion tons of carbon with the atmosphere on an annual basis (through processes of carbon fixation and carbon respiration), thereby playing a critical role in",
"-25.363904795493"
],
[
"Climate of Mars The climate of the planet Mars has been a topic of scientific curiosity for centuries, in part because it is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope.\nAlthough Mars is smaller than the Earth, 11% of Earth's mass, and 50% farther from the Sun than the Earth, its climate has important similarities, such as the presence of polar ice caps, seasonal changes and observable weather patterns. It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists. While Mars' climate has similarities to Earth's, including periodic ice",
"-25.349121447296056"
],
[
"similar to that seen on Venus. However, due to the planet being 60% bigger than Earth, it is likely to have an estimated mass of 5 M⊕, which could allow it to hold on to any oceans it may have for a longer period, preventing Kepler-452b from succumbing to runaway greenhouse effect for another 500 million years. This in turn would be accompanied with the carbonate–silicate cycle being \"buffered\" extending its lifetime due to increased volcanic activity on Kepler-452b. This could allow any potential life on the surface to inhabit the planet for another 500–900 million years before the",
"-25.34770218702033"
],
[
"Carbon tax CO2 and global warming Carbon dioxide is one of several heat-trapping greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by humans (anthropogenic GHGs) and the scientific consensus is that human-induced greenhouse gas emissions are the primary cause of global warming, and that carbon dioxide is the most important of the anthropogenic GHGs. Worldwide, 27 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide are produced by human activity annually. The physical effect of CO\n2 in the atmosphere can be measured as a change in the Earth-atmosphere system's energy balance – the radiative forcing of CO\n2. Carbon taxes are one of the policies available to governments to",
"-25.346240297309123"
],
[
"by the growth of small phytoplankton is almost as much as land plants from the atmosphere. While humans are technically part of the biosphere, they are often treated as a separate components of Earth's climate system, the anthroposphere, because of human's large impact on the planet. Energy and general circulation The climate system receives energy from the Sun, and to a far lesser extent from the Earth's core, as well as tidal energy from the Moon. The Earth gives off energy to outer space in two forms: it directly reflects a part of the radiation of the Sun and it",
"-25.300097876111977"
],
[
"to 18%.\nIn the European Union, a Single European Sky has been proposed for the last 15 years so that there are no overlapping airspace restrictions between countries in the EU and so reduce emissions. As yet, the Single European Sky is still only a plan but progress has been made. If the Single European Sky had been created 15 years ago, 12 million tons of CO₂ could have been saved. Biofuels Biofuels are fuels derived from biomass material such as plants and waste. Plant derived biofuels offer large savings in CO₂ emissions as they absorb Carbon Dioxide and release it",
"-25.28978604185977"
],
[
"on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air composition, temperature, and atmospheric pressure vary with altitude, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.\nThe atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15×10¹⁸ kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used",
"-25.284884416905697"
],
[
"the water released by the volcanoes could have been enough to cover all of Mars to a depth of 120 meters. The greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide raises the temperature of a planet by trapping heat in the form of infrared radiation. The volcanic eruptions on Tharsis could have made Mars more Earth-like in the past. Mars may have once had a much thicker and warmer atmosphere. Oceans and/or lakes may have been present. Fossa The Tharsis quadrangle is also home to large troughs (long narrow depressions) called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. Fossae in this area",
"-25.2717085062759"
],
[
"total greenhouse-gas emissions were from deforestation in 2007. It is estimated that avoided deforestation reduces CO₂ emissions at a rate of 1 tonne of CO₂ per $1–5 in opportunity costs from lost agriculture. Reforestation could save at least another 1 GtCO₂/year, at an estimated cost of $5–15/tCO₂. Afforestation is where there was previously no forest – such plantations are estimated to have to be prohibitively massive to reduce emissions by itself.\nTransferring rights over land from public domain to its indigenous inhabitants, who have had a stake for millennia in preserving the forests that they depend on, is argued to be a cost",
"-25.259579183970345"
],
[
"was lowered to 1/10 of Earth's air pressure at the surface, the plants had a higher rate of evaporation from its leaves. This triggered the plant to think there was drought, despite it having a steady supply of water. An example of a crop NASA tested growing at lower pressure is lettuce, and in another test green beans were grown at a standard air pressure, but in low Earth orbit inside the International Space Station.\nThe DLR found that some lichen and bacteria could survive in simulated Martian conditions, including air composition, pressure, and solar radiation spectrum. The Earth organisms survived",
"-25.24361124378629"
],
[
"loss, yet the most carbon stored from mangroves. Therefore, it is suggested that if the correct policy is implemented, countries like Indonesia can make considerable contributions to global carbon fluxes.\nThe UN estimate deforestation and forest degradation to make up 17% of global carbon emissions, which makes it the second most polluting sector, following the energy industry. The cost of this globally is estimated to total $42 billion. Therefore, in recent years, there has been more focus on the importance of mangroves, with initiatives being developed to use reforestation as a mitigation tool for climate change. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and",
"-25.1863852168608"
],
[
"of Greenwich in London and his colleagues investigates the long-run equilibrium relationship among international tourism, energy consumption, and carbon dioxide emissions (CO\n2), and the direction of causality among these variables. The authors report evidence that international tourism is a catalyst for energy consumption and for an increase in the level of carbon dioxide emissions in Cyprus. Solar The Cypriot target of solar power including both photovoltaics and concentrated solar power is combined 7% of electricity by 2020, which will be one of the top ones in the European Union markets. Respective target is in Spain 8%, Germany 7%, Greece 5%,",
"-25.116940876381705"
],
[
"on Mars. Although geologic sources of methane such as serpentinization are possible, the lack of current volcanism, hydrothermal activity or hotspots are not favorable for geologic methane.\nLiving microorganisms, such as methanogens, are another possible source, but no evidence for the presence of such organisms has been found on Mars, until June 2019 as methane was detected by the Curiosity rover. Methanogens do not require oxygen or organic nutrients, are non-photosynthetic, use hydrogen as their energy source and carbon dioxide (CO₂) as their carbon source, so they could exist in subsurface environments on Mars. If microscopic Martian life is producing the",
"-25.116201843018644"
],
[
"the early 20th century, Venus was often thought to be similar to Earth in terms of habitability, but observations since the beginning of the Space Age have revealed that Venus's surface is inhospitable to Earth-like life. However, between an altitude of 50 and 65 kilometers, the pressure and temperature are Earth-like, and it has been speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere. Furthermore, Venus likely had liquid water on its surface for at least a few million years after its formation. Mars Life on Mars has been long speculated. Liquid water",
"-25.096744720969582"
],
[
"the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Additionally, land use is of critical importance for biodiversity. Climatic impacts of land-use, land-use change, and forestry Land-use change can be a factor in CO₂ (carbon dioxide) atmospheric concentration, and is thus a contributor to global climate change. IPCC estimates that land-use change (e.g. conversion of forest into agricultural land) contributes a net 1.6 ± 0.8 Gt carbon per year to the atmosphere. For comparison, the major source of CO₂, namely emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production amount to 6.3 ± 0.6 Gt carbon per year.\nThis decision sets out the",
"-25.063253860997065"
],
[
"Atmospheric carbon cycle The atmosphere is one of the Earth's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle, holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon. Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect. The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide (CO\n2). Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere (approximately 0.04% on a molar basis), it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect. Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons",
"-25.05177883701981"
],
[
"two centuries. Increases in atmospheric CO₂ concentration affect how plants photosynthesise, resulting in increases in plant water use efficiency, enhanced photosynthetic capacity and increased growth. Increased CO₂ has been implicated in ‘vegetation thickening’ which affects plant community structure and function. Depending on environment, there are differential responses to elevated atmospheric CO₂ between major ‘functional types’ of plant, such as C₃ and C₄ plants, or more or less woody species; which has the potential among other things to alter competition between these groups. Increased CO₂ can also lead to increased Carbon : Nitrogen ratios in the leaves of plants or in",
"-24.95694383152295"
],
[
"the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. But recent calculations suggest that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding peatland emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions with a range from 6% to 17%. Deforestation causes carbon dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide accrues, it produces a layer in the atmosphere that traps radiation",
"-24.900379684666405"
],
[
"gas emissions could be as much as 800 per cent higher. And if the land used to grow the palms was cleared from ancient peatlands, the emissions increase over using fossil fuels could rise to 2000 per cent. The report authors found that use of residues and waste was usually more beneficial for the environment than growing crops especially for fuel, as using waste products required no additional land and provided economic benefits.",
"-24.874563146790024"
],
[
"Society (Incorporated) v Auckland Regional Council and Contact Energy', the Environment Court agreed that the predicted annual emissions of 1.2 million tonnes of carbon dioxide would contribute to climate change via the greenhouse effect. The Environment Court agreed with the scientific consensus on anthropogenic climate change and concluded that the proposed CO₂ emissions would be an \"adverse effect of some consequence\" under the RMA. However the court declined to grant the relief requested by EDS. That was to impose conditions requiring the complete offsetting of the carbon dioxide emissions by planting new forests. The court cited its concerns over its",
"-24.86162126851559"
],
[
"can be produced by artificial photosynthesis. The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon-based fuels (such as methanol) from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons, though use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen. Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 – the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel-cell electric power plants and the pure water by-product going directly into the municipal water system. Another",
"-24.858700050666812"
]
] |
2bqb5a | Are there any actual laws against false advertisement? | [
"Yes. In the US at least there are laws against false advertisement. However, it should be noted that there are all sorts of loopholes which can be abused. A statement must be verifiably false in order to be a problem, so vague statements like \"120% more refreshing\" or things of that nature aren't actually illegal.",
"If an ad makes a specific claim, it must be verifiably true or the company can get fined or, more likely, sued for damages. To get around this, claims are usually made in particular ways that avoid saying anything. Have you seen that commercial for HEAD ON, APPLY DIRECTLY TO FOREHEAD? The ad was kind of brilliant because it associated the product with having a helpful effect, but NEVER ACTUALLY SAID IT. The product was just wax. But, if you provide elaborate instructions for using a thing, then in another place talk about something, the consumer will make a connection but legally one was never made. If I say, \"take this pill it will cure your cold\" that would get me in trouble. If I say, \"Take this pill with a glass of water. You can use it when you have a cold\" I can get away with it because while the two ideas appear in the same place, I haven't claimed any curative properties. That is why products like Emergen-C can get away with marketing their products while having zero actual effect.",
"Yes, but they have to be blatantly false (like \"Eating FuckPops™ will cure cancer!\").",
"Yes. In 1997, Papa John's was sued by Pizza Hut. Pizza Hut claimed that better ingredients, contrary to Papa John's slogan, did not constitute better pizza. Pizza Hut was successful in their lawsuit, but Papa John's appealed and won. The court still agreed that better ingredients did not necessarily make a better pizza, but Pizza Hut failed to demonstrate a violation of the Lanham Act - they couldn't prove that Papa John's false slogan led to increased sales. **TL;DR: Usually, the claim of false advertisement must be backed up by evidence proving that the lies led to increased sales**",
"Making untrue claims for profit is a form of fraud, what it is an advertisement or not.",
"New York State General Business Law 350: \"False advertising in the conduct of any business, trade or commerce or in the furnishing of any service in this state is hereby declared unlawful.\" and 350-a: \"The term \"false advertising\" means advertising, including labeling, of a commodity, or of the kind, character, terms or conditions of any employment opportunity if such advertising is misleading in a material respect. In determining whether any advertising is misleading, there shall be taken into account (among other things) not only representations made by statement, word, design, device, sound or any combination thereof, but also the extent to which the advertising fails to reveal facts material in the light of such representations with respect to the commodity or employment to which the advertising relates under the conditions prescribed in said advertisement, or under such conditions as are customary or usual.\""
] | [
[
"the same terms today.\nFirstly, misleading advertising is a criminal offence. Under the Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations (secondary legislation, passed under the European Communities Act 1972), regulation 5 states that a commercial practice is misleading...\n\"if it contains false information and is therefore untruthful... or if it or its overall presentation in any way deceives or is likely to deceive the average consumer... even if the information is factually correct\"\n…in relation to a long list of actions and omissions by sellers. Misleading practices are unfair (r 3) and unfair practices are prohibited (r 4). They are also criminal offences",
"-27.248610737733543"
],
[
"mere “personal solicitations are not advertising.”\nTo determine whether advertising is misleading, California's courts evaluate the advertisement's entire impression, including words, images, format and product packaging. Courts have held that advertising is misleading if “members of the public are likely to be deceived.” However, because of Proposition 64, the plaintiff now has to show that they were actually misled by the advertising and suffered an injury as a result. To further complicate matters, the courts are split on whether “omissions of material facts” that mislead or confuse the public violate the UCL. To prove a violation",
"-24.86372960987501"
],
[
"Act 2001 making such advertising an offence. Newspaper advertising has been used since advertising in newspapers is not in itself illegal. However, a newspaper which carries advertising for illegal establishments and activities such as brothels or venues where sexual services are offered illegally may be liable to prosecution for money laundering offences under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002. This is the case even if such places are advertised under the guise of massage parlours and saunas. Some police forces have local policies in place for enforcement against prostitution services advertised in the local press. The Newspaper Society's guidelines suggest",
"-24.151912148372503"
],
[
"raise awareness of problems with pharmaceutical advertising. Impact Since the settlement in 2004, whistleblowers and the federal government have prosecuted numerous off-label promotion cases under the False Claims Act using this case as a precedent.\nSubsequent research reported that the wrongful promotion of the drug was planned by integrating it into Continuing medical education, supporting consultants and members of medical advisory boards to recommend the use to institutions, and paying people to write about the drug in any positive context including in academic literature, letters to the editor, and managing the STEPS trial as a seeding trial.\nLitigation around the marketing of",
"-24.07624454726465"
],
[
"sponsored advertisement. Additionally, it prohibits those with a material connection from misleading readers into thinking they are a regular consumer. The United Kingdom has the Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations, which prohibits \"Falsely representing oneself as a consumer.\" They allow for up to two years in prison and unlimited fines for breaches. Additionally, the advertising industry in the UK has adopted many voluntary policies, such as the Code of Non-Broadcast Advertising, Sale, Promotion and Direct Marketing. A trade association, the Advertising Standards Authority, investigates complaints of breaches. The policy requires that marketing professionals not mislead their audience, including by",
"-23.50252357777208"
],
[
"exposed many of the false claims made about patent medicines, pointing out that in some cases these medicines were damaging the health of the people using them. The series had a huge impact and led to the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. In 1911, the Supreme Court ruled that the prohibition of falsifications referred only to the ingredients of the medicine. This meant that companies were again free to make false claims about their products. Adams returned to the attack, and in another series of articles in Collier's Weekly, Adams exposed the misleading advertising that",
"-22.870560929412022"
],
[
"The case was a notable exception and dealt with a conflict between widespread First Amendment rights with the public's right of privacy and advanced a theory of the \"captive audience.\" Brandeis delivered the opinion of the Court to advance privacy interests:\nAdvertisements of this sort are constantly before the eyes of observers on the streets and in street cars to be seen without the exercise of choice or volition on their part. Other forms of advertising are ordinarily seen as a matter of choice on the part of the observer. The young people as well as the adults have the message",
"-22.264623863984525"
],
[
"Invitation to treat Case law Generally, advertisements are not offers but invitations to treat, so the person advertising is not compelled to sell. In Partridge v Crittenden [1968] 1 WLR 1204, a defendant who was charged with \"offering for sale protected birds\"—bramblefinch cocks and hens that he had advertised for sale in a newspaper—was not offering to sell them. Lord Parker CJ said it did not make business sense for advertisements to be offers, as the person making the advertisement may find himself in a situation where he would be contractually obliged to sell more goods than he actually owned.\nIn",
"-22.226498286181595"
],
[
"political messages, commercial advertisements and special events. An increasing number of posters do not advertise anything at all and instead feature artwork, inspirational or positive messages, and religious messages.\nIt is an advertising tactic mostly used by small businesses promoting concerts and political activist groups, but there have been occasions where international companies subcontracted local advertising agencies for flyposting jobs in order not to get caught in illegal behavior, as a form of guerrilla marketing. In 2004, Sony Music and BMG were threatened with anti-social behaviour orders by Camden Borough Council for illegal flyposting. Legislation In most countries it is illegal",
"-22.17562013035058"
],
[
"or misleading advertisements designed to injure the competitor. Consumer Council may have the authority to publish information with a perspective to amending false or misleading advertisements, while the Association of Accredited Advertising Agencies of Hong Kong have the authority to take action against members who organize advertisements that are inaccurate. Argentina In Argentina, there is no specific statute dealing with comparative advertising (so it is not forbidden), but there are clear jurisprudential rules based on unfair competition law. If in some manner an advertisement is proven to be unfair or exceeds ethical standards by hiding the truth or",
"-21.980897159781307"
],
[
"protective Lanham Act, which states that one could incur liability when the message of the comparative advertisement is untrue or uncertain, but has the intention to deceive consumers through the implied message conveyed. Hong Kong The law in Hong Kong regarding comparative advertising is the law that existed in the UK prior to the enactment of the UK Act 1994. Hong Kong has no legislation exclusively intended at limiting false or misleading advertisements. Still, the Trade Descriptions Ordinance (Cap 362) bans the use of false trade descriptions in advertisements. The tort of trade libel also exists to deal with false",
"-21.928567885886878"
],
[
"(FTC) with truth-in-advertising laws, and additionally enables private litigation through various statutes, most significantly the Lanham Act (trademark and unfair competition).\nThe goal is prevention rather than punishment, reflecting the purpose of civil law in setting things right rather than that of criminal law. The typical sanction is to order the advertiser to stop its illegal acts, or to include disclosure of additional information that serves to avoid the chance of deception. Corrective advertising may be mandated, but there are no fines or prison time except for the infrequent instances when an advertiser refuses to stop despite being ordered to do",
"-21.83101551135769"
],
[
"as Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council (1976) and Florida Bar v. Went For It (1995).\nVoluntary disclaimers, however, have been used since the beginning of advertising. They lead to more persuasive advertising, and they provide useful information to consumers. Experimental studies suggest that mandatory disclaimers do not help buyers and may lead them to make inferior decisions.",
"-21.82557164976606"
],
[
"Section 17500 only prohibits advertising, but section 17200 also forbids “fraudulent business acts or practices” unconnected with advertising. Another major distinction is that section 17500 requires that the advertiser knew or should have known that the advertising was false or misleading. Section 17200 is a strict liability statute that has no such requirement. In addition, section 17500 carries criminal penalties, whereas only civil remedies are available for section 17200 violations.\nPlaintiffs suing under Sections 17200 or 17500 often also assert violations of the California Consumers Legal Remedies Act (CLRA), set forth in Cal. Civ. Code § 1750 et",
"-21.758484632824548"
],
[
"illegal form of false advertising and can be looked at as a humorous way to grab and attract the attention of the consumer. Puffing may be able to be used as a defense against charges of deceptive advertising when it is formatted as an opinion rather than a fact.\nIt can also be used as a defense for misleading or deceptive advertising. One example are claims like ‘Top Quality’ can have regulatory and legal consequences and can be looked at as illegal misrepresentation, if not supported through the products capabilities. Manipulation of terms Many terms have imprecise meanings. Depending on the",
"-21.690832559943374"
],
[
"such a threat become very real when there is only one dominant or very few large advertisers. The influence of advertisers is not only in regard to news or information on their own products or services but expands to articles or shows not directly linked to them. In order to secure their advertising revenues the media have to create the best possible 'advertising environment'.\nAnother problem considered censorship by critics is the refusal of media to accept advertisements that are not in their interest. A striking example of this is the refusal of TV stations to broadcast ads by Adbusters. Groups",
"-21.51010771115034"
],
[
"Surrogate advertising History The origin of surrogate advertising can be traced to Britain, where housewives started protesting against liquor advertisements which provoked their husbands. The protest rose to a level where liquor advertising had to be banned and brand owners seeing no way out decided to promote fruit juices and soda under the brand name; the concept later emerged as surrogate advertisements. Surrogate advertising in India India has held a strong stance on the ban of advertising tobacco and liquor products since 1995. The ban was enforced after extensive research from the Indian Ministry of Health found that cigarettes and",
"-21.464673249050975"
],
[
"Thus in practice to avoid committing this offence a prostitute who works in private must work alone. Advertising Advertising for the services of prostitutes has traditionally been expressed in euphemistic language, partly as an attempt to avoid prosecution and partly as an expression of British cultural values. Prostitutes have advertised in specialist contact magazines for decades despite a common law offence of \"conspiracy to corrupt public morals\" which was created in 1962 to prohibit such advertising. Adverts for prostitutes have also been placed in public telephone boxes (where they are known as tart cards) despite the Criminal Justice and Police",
"-21.42047462199116"
],
[
"for things outside a goods' seller's control (such as a customer switching price tags or product recall) and where it would be illegal to carry out the transaction without supervision such as potentially dangerous goods.\nMany jurisdictions have since enacted legislation in consumer protection or fair trading that make advertisements/store price tickets with a product in stock a legally binding offer and/or a trading standards offence for the retailer to refuse to carry out the advertised transaction (bait advertising or misleading/deceptive conduct).",
"-21.31369921588339"
],
[
"example, if it is a matter of credit, there are a series of measures relating to advertising. Without exception, sellers must clearly state the prices they will charge for credit. Some things given as \"guarantees\" must also be divulged to the consumer up-front. In general, advertising must be honest. Advertising to children less than thirteen years of age is forbidden.\nSome traders, notably itinerant traders (\"hawker\"s and \"busker\"s), may be excluded from these rules, if they have a permit issued by the Office de la protection du consommateur (the Office). The law gives authority to the Office that in certain circumstances",
"-20.946192162286025"
],
[
"due to their regular exposure to the materials. It also meant that prosecutors often had to prove that purchasers were unaware of the obscene nature of material on sale prior to purchase, as those who actively sought out such material were deemed unlikely to be corrupted by it. Secondly, the offer of such materials for sale was not held to be publication, since it was merely an invitation to buy, not an actual purchase. Thirdly, the courts held in Straker v DPP [1963] 1 QB 926 that negatives for photographs could not be forfeited if it was not intended to",
"-20.858882666565478"
],
[
"have force of law and are not enforced by state bar associations. Individual state bar associations continue to restrict and regulate advertisements. For example, New York print ads are only allowed to contain the address and phone number and only print specialties unless the firm is licensed in that specialty.\nCourt cases that have been filed challenging advertisements typically involve advertising that is absurd to crude but more often than not the advertiser wins as courts uphold the lawyer’s right of free speech. For example, a case in Florida is being reviewed by the Supreme Court of Florida in which lawyers",
"-20.846200851985486"
],
[
"consistently restricted advertising on broadcast media which are aimed at political ends, both party political advertising and political advocacy by non-partisan groups. These restrictions have been justified on the basis that the ban offers a level playing field in which money interests cannot gain an unfair advantage in the political discourse of a Member State. The broadcast media has been singled out due to its historical reach and influence.\nOutright bans on advertising engaged in political advocacy have been referred to the European Court of Human Rights which has held that such restrictions may be a breach of Article 10 of",
"-20.837915705284104"
],
[
"illustrate what was meant by \"advertising purposes\", the court quoted earlier precedents that held to qualify for advertising purposes a given person's name must appear \"in a publication which, taken in its entirety, was distributed for use in, or as part of, an advertisement or solicitation for patronage of a particular product or service\". Given the factual circumstance of the case, the court dismissed Pearlberg's claims under the New York's Civil Rights Law.\n6. Intentional interference with prospective economic advantage\nSVA claimed that false job postings by Kuprewicz had unduly interfered with its \"hiring and recruiting activities\" as well as \"with the",
"-20.825677726621507"
],
[
"a deceptive trade practice, which would potentially subject you and your newspaper to civil liability. Further, you have used our trademarks—Harris and Triggerfish—without permission.\" and \"Lastly, you may have committed a felony under 18 USC 2512(1)(c)(i). This criminal statute prohibits the placement in a newspaper or magazine of an advertisement for an electronic product that is primarily useful for the purpose of surreptitiously intercepting",
"-20.791990575031377"
],
[
"on its behalf to offer a fictitious job opportunity. This type of fraud is generally conducted through the internet. Advertising fraud Any advertising or promotion that misrepresents the nature, characteristics, qualities or geographic origin of goods, services or commercial activities that lures victims into a situation where, out of desperation or lack of knowledge, they are tricked into committing a crime or become a victim of a crime such as identity theft, embezzlement or similar types of frauds. Mystery shopper The victim applies to be a mystery shopper. They are asked to test a money wiring service such as Western",
"-20.77149139321409"
],
[
"advertisement of tobacco products on radio and on television was prohibited. Four years later, the advertisement of tobacco products was only allowed in certain publications that were intended for tobacco merchants and producers, and packaging of tobacco products was required to adhere to certain images and to contain at least two warnings against the dangers of smoking tobacco. By 2005, it was entirely prohibited to smoke in schools and smoking in hospitals, restaurants, correctional facilities, workplaces, casinos, hotels, and other public spaces was prohibited unless within a designated smoking area. As of 2010, it is illegal to sell any smokeless",
"-20.728914419887587"
],
[
"advertising, or online scams can also be regarded as violations. Anthropologist Barend Terwiel reports that among Thai Buddhists, the fourth precept also is seen to be broken when people insinuate, exaggerate, or speak abusively or deceitfully. In Norse paganism In Gestaþáttr, one of the sections within the Eddaic poem Hávamál, Odin states that it is advisable, when dealing with \"a false foe who lies\", to tell lies also.",
"-20.720502859097905"
],
[
"legislation such as the Advertisements (Hire-Purchase) Act 1967 limited the definition of advertisement to visual advertisements and excluded oral communications and radio broadcasts, which are included by the Act. The test of whether an oral communication counts as an \"advertisement\" is whether or not the communication is made for drawing attention to the advertiser's business or for answering a specific enquiry without promoting the business. In R. v Delmayne [1970] 2 QB 170 the High Court of Justice decided that even replying to an enquiry can amount to an advertisement if framed in such a way that it is calculated",
"-20.649672620929778"
],
[
"the First Amendment. But that did not mean that states were powerless to regulate lawyer advertising at all. The Court reiterated that states were still permitted to ban \"false, deceptive, or misleading\" advertising by lawyers; to regulate the manner in which lawyers may solicit business in person; to require warnings and disclaimers on lawyer advertising in order to assure that the public is not misled; and impose other reasonable restrictions on the time, place, and manner of lawyer advertising. Dissent In his dissent, Justice Powell pointed out that a lawyer's primary task, even in a \"routine\" divorce case,",
"-20.621576778125018"
],
[
"that not all commercial advertising is as protected as other types of commercial advertising.\nStevens, in Part VI, which was joined by Justice Kennedy, Justice Ginsburg, and Justice Thomas, rejected the Court's reasoning in Posadas.",
"-20.61315219505923"
],
[
"an illegal ad is released. With the ability to fine or close down a company and jail people involved, many companies self-regulate to avoid problems. The process of creating an advertisement is generally comparable to more western structure, with agencies working with clients and market researches to create the advertisement. The Advertising Business Group (ABG), formed by members including Google and Facebook, self-regulate to avoid violations of the UAE's rules. The ABG is the largest group in the area and in the future plans to focus on how to advertise in other markets in the UAE. \nAdvertising in the UAE",
"-20.569772539427504"
],
[
"Sedition Act (Singapore) Common law Sedition, which is committed when spoken or written words are published with seditious intent, was a criminal offence under English common law. It emerged in an era where political violence threatened the stability of governments. The Star Chamber, in the case of De Libellis Famosis (1572), defined seditious libel (that is, sedition in a printed form) as the criticism of public persons or the government, and established it as a crime. The crime of sedition was premised on the need to maintain respect for the government and its agents, for criticism of public persons or",
"-20.45731793215964"
],
[
"advertising, moreover, are ineffective means of reducing lawyer overhead and of maintaining the quality of legal services provided. Finally, there was no reason to believe that allowing lawyers to advertise would result in a tidal wave of disingenuous claims for the state bar to investigate and prosecute, as Justice Powell feared would happen. \"For every attorney who overreaches through advertising, there will be thousands of others who will be candid and honest and straightforward.\"\nHaving disposed of the arguments against allowing lawyer advertising, the Court ruled that Arizona's total ban on lawyer advertising violated the free speech guarantee of",
"-20.3742329327506"
],
[
"they have just viewed a commercial. The dangers to consumers are tangible, critics argue, and consumers require added sophistication to address them. \"Deceptive marketing harms consumers’ health, welfare and financial resources, reduces people’s privacy and self-esteem, and ultimately undermines trust in society. Individual consumers must try to protect themselves from marketers’ misleading communications by acquiring personal marketplace deception-protection skills that go beyond reliance on legal or regulatory protections,\" wrote the authors of \"Deception In The Marketplace: The Psychology of Deceptive Persuasion and Consumer Self-Protection.\" Where children are concerned, many parents believe the idea of explicit advertainment is unfair because the",
"-20.31044419540558"
],
[
"of which served ends unrelated to consumer protection.\". He nonetheless noted, however, that the Court has at the same time recognized that states may regulate commercial advertising to a greater degree than non-commercial advertising.\n\nWhile Stevens essentially reaffirmed the principle that states have a wider latitude to regulate commercial speech, he stated that Rhode Island had gone too far. Specifically, he stated that the Court has, in the past, been wary of the \"dangers\" of outright content-based bans on commercial speech. He further stated: \n[B]ans that target truthful, nonmisleading commercial messages rarely protect consumers from such harms. ",
"-20.279010559548624"
],
[
"use of positive inducements for corrupt aims, extortion and blackmail centre around the use of threats. This can be the threat of violence or false imprisonment as well as exposure of an individual's secrets or prior crimes.\nThis includes such behavior as an influential person threatening to go to the media if they do not receive speedy medical treatment (at the expense of other patients), threatening a public official with exposure of their secrets if they do not vote in a particular manner, or demanding money in exchange for continued secrecy. Influence peddling Influence peddling is the illegal practice of using",
"-20.277073749224655"
],
[
"to attract business.\nPart IV only applies to \"public\" advertising published to promote a business — as such circulars given to employees advertising such terms would not be considered \"advertisements\". Advertisements are not regulated by the Act if the advertiser is not involved in a consumer credit business, consumer hire business or a business in which he provides credit to individuals.\nUnder Part IV, the Secretary of State can make regulations limiting the form and content of advertisements covered by the Act. The regulations can also specifically include certain terms or facts, and failing to follow them constitutes an offence. The intent",
"-20.239415313117206"
],
[
"government's behalf. A First Amendment lawyer, Floyd Abrams, represented the tobacco companies in the case, contending that requiring graphic warning labels on a lawful product cannot withstand constitutional scrutiny. The Association of National Advertisers and the American Advertising Federation also filed a brief in the suit, arguing that the labels infringe on commercial free speech and could lead to further government intrusion if left unchallenged.\nOn 29 February 2012, U.S. District Judge Richard Leon ruled that the labels violate the right to free speech in the First Amendment. However, the following month the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 6th",
"-20.226532508735545"
],
[
"that the First Amendment precluded liability for a media defendant for publication of illegally obtained communications that the media defendant itself did nothing illegal to obtain, if the topic involves a public controversy. Due to the suit's procedural position, the Court accepted that intercepting information that was ultimately broadcast by the defendant was initially illegal (in violation of ECPA), but nonetheless gave the radio station a pass because it did nothing itself illegal to obtain the information.\nNor could the government have prevented the publication of the classified information by obtaining an injunction. In the Pentagon Papers case, (New York Times",
"-20.223427692078985"
],
[
"was first established in Ford v Quebec (AG), where the Court struck down a Quebec law requiring all signs to be exclusively in French. This was soon followed by Irwin Toy, where the Court found that Quebec law prohibiting advertising to children to violate section 2(b) but was saved under section 1.\nThe Supreme Court has also found that restrictions on advertising by professionals to be protected. As well, even communications for the purpose of prostitution was found to be protected as commercial expression. Picketing Protesting by labour groups and trade unions have long been recognized as a protected form of",
"-20.18204479315318"
],
[
"restriction of the advertising of tobacco and liquor until its eventual complete ban in 1995. However, the increase in population saw the sales of tobacco and liquor increase at an exponential rate. Therefore, companies were forced to seek alternative means of advertising, which lead the eventual creation of surrogate advertising in India.\nSome of the first evidence of surrogate advertising was seen by the Indian tobacco Company ‘Azad Bidi’, who sponsored an international cricket match in India. In India, extensive surveys resulted in similar findings which showed that liquor ads had direct influence on consumers' purchasing behavior. Soon afterwards, the Cable",
"-20.154298678417035"
],
[
"to drug-related crimes There is a low chance of law punishing fraud among illicit drug traders, however it is likely that informal social control among drug traders reduces the likelihood of fraud between illegal trade partners. For instance, getting robbed or losing a business contact may not justify dealer's increased profits for a short-term from fraudulent behavior. Legal status Selling counterfeit illicit drugs is illegal even if the substances used to make the imitation drug are not illegal on themselves. It is illegal to distribute or sell counterfeit fake drugs in many U.S. states including Nevada, Ohio, Illinois, Florida, Michigan",
"-20.1506639609579"
],
[
"in December 2012, the United States Second Circuit Court found that promotion of off-label uses by a company sales representative was considered to be protected speech per the First Amendment. In addition, The Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997 created an exception to the prohibition of off-label marketing, allowing manufacturers to provide medical practitioners with publications on off-label uses of a drug, in response to an unsolicited request. In 2004, the federal government and whistleblower David Franklin reached a $430 million settlement in Franklin v. Parke-Davis to resolve claims that Warner-Lambert engaged in off-label promotion of Neurontin",
"-20.05562248852584"
],
[
"methods in their battle to entice customers into completing transactions with them. This opened ways for illegitimate actors to gain revenues by stretching the limits used with methods for collecting personal information and for propagating commercial advertisements. Buying such services allowed for some e-commerce companies to get an advantage over their competitors, e.g. by using advertisements based on unsolicited commercial messages (also known as spam) (Jacobsson 2004). Commercially motivated adverse software The use of questionable techniques, such as Spam, were not as destructive as the more traditional malicious techniques, e.g. computer viruses or trojan horses. Compared to such malicious techniques",
"-20.008735620358493"
],
[
"under the False Claims Act, brought by a whistleblower. The claims include allegations company officials paid kickbacks to doctors to prescribe certain drugs, including Paxil, Wellbutrin and Advair.\nIn 2013, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals Inc., a pharmaceutical company acquired by Pfizer, Inc. in 2009, paid $490.9 million to resolve its criminal and civil liability arising from the unlawful marketing of its drug Rapamune for uses that were not FDA-approved and potentially harmful. The case, U.S. ex rel. Sandler and Paris v. Wyeth Pharmaceuticals and Pfizer, Inc. was brought by multiple whistleblowers and culminated in one of the largest False Claims Act recoveries for",
"-19.877106077503413"
],
[
"allegedly false statements made about light cigarettes are preempted under the federal statute that concerns tobacco labeling. In a 5-4 decision, the court held that state-law claims sounding in fraud against tobacco companies are not preempted by the express preemption provision of the federal labeling statute.\nAdditionally, in Jones v. Harris, a 9-0 decision reached in 2010, Frederick persuaded the court to a unanimous decision in favor of investors, reversing a circuit court decision by Judge Frank Easterbrook. The plaintiffs had sued over exorbitant fees charged by mutual fund investment advisers. Speculated possible federal service Frederick was part of the",
"-19.86585627320892"
],
[
"by scholars, who have considered that this places unjustified limits on advertising acts that are otherwise fully legal, such as copying that does not infringe intellectual property rights. United Kingdom In the UK, most of the use of competitor's registered trademark in a comparative advertisement was an infringement of the registration up till the end of 1994. However, the laws on comparative advertising were harmonized in 2000. The current rules on comparative advertising are regulated by a series of EU Directives. The Business Protection from Misleading Marketing Regulations 2008 implements provisions of Directive (EC) 2006/114 in the UK.\nOne of the",
"-19.858444429468364"
],
[
"this is not to say that it is illegal, but just that either state governments or the federal government may make them illegal. There are federal criminal law statutory prohibitions covering all the common-law exceptions other than defamation, of which there is civil law liability, as well as terrorist threats, making false statements in \"matters within the jurisdiction\" of the federal government, spreading false and misleading information relating to death or injury of members of the US Military, speech related to information decreed to be related to national security such as military and classified information, false advertising, perjury, privileged communications,",
"-19.847318919652025"
],
[
"Counterfeit illegal drug selling Types of counterfeited illicit drugs Some fake drugs consist of substances from relatively harmless sources, such as grocery store goods like flour, oregano or allergy pills. Even despite the substances' harmlessness, legal penalties for the crime of selling them can include time in jail.\nCertain fake drugs include other controlled drugs, or they may include synthetic drugs with similar properties. Uncertainty of an identity of the substance may increase the risk of an overdose.\nA related, yet distinct, problem is the trade of counterfeit medications with pills including substances such as fentanyl which can be used recreationally. Relation",
"-19.81078308535507"
],
[
"man\" arguments. Filing of false lien notices According to The New York Times, cases involving so-called sovereign citizens pose \"a challenge to law enforcement officers and court officials\" in connection with the filing of false notices of liens—a tactic sometimes called \"paper terrorism\". Anyone can file a notice of lien against property such as real estate, vehicles, or other assets of another under the Uniform Commercial Code and other laws. In most states of the United States, the validity of liens is not investigated or inquired into at the time of filing. Notices of liens (whether legally valid or not)",
"-19.770854346745182"
],
[
"upheld such restrictions as an incentive for artists in the 'speech marketplace'. Commercial speech Commercial speech occupies a unique role as a free speech exception. While there is no complete exception, legal advocates recognize it as having \"diminished protection\". For example, false advertising can be punished and misleading advertising may be prohibited. Commercial advertising may be restricted in ways that other speech can't if a substantial governmental interest is advanced, and that restriction supports that interest as well as not being overly broad. This doctrine of limited protection for advertisements is due to a balancing inherent in the policy explanations",
"-19.728983920853352"
],
[
"it is nearly impossible for most consumers to spot a fake since telling the difference requires a higher than average level of technical knowledge. Counterfeit phones cause financial losses for owners and distributors of legitimate devices, and a loss of tax income for governments. In addition, counterfeit phones are poorly made, can generate high radiation, and contain harmful levels of dangerous elements such as lead. Media Compact Discs, videotapes and DVDs, computer software and other media that are easily copied can be counterfeited and sold through vendors at street markets, night markets, mail order, and numerous Internet sources, including",
"-19.726280430419138"
],
[
"including their name and contact information. They were also allowed to print business cards and use professional letterhead, but otherwise advertising was strictly prohibited. The Chicago Bar Association believed that \"The most worthy and effective advertisement possible...is the establishment of a well-merited reputation for professional capacity and fidelity to trust\". Concerns In the Bates v. State Bar of Arizona case, the Arizona State Bar argued against advertising by law firms because they believed that advertising would place too much burden on the legal system. They believed that the advertising may be too effective and dangerously increase litigation. They also believed",
"-19.721164891147055"
],
[
"of free speech, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Bates and O'steen, stating that Arizona's ban of advertising \"inhibit[ed] the free flow of information and ke[pt] the public in ignorance\". The Supreme Court therefore removed the ban on advertising. However, they still allowed the State Bar to \"regulate\" advertising in order to make certain that the information presented was true and did not mislead others or make false claims. State bar associations across the country quickly began to lift their bans on advertising. Advertising boom After the U.S. Supreme Court decision, law firm advertising activity increased significantly. Initially the",
"-19.71588237537071"
],
[
"brought by those advertisements on the society and also the deceiving ads that are aired and published by the corporations. Cosmetic and health industry are the ones which exploited the highest and created reasons of concern. Regulation There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples include restrictions for advertising alcohol, tobacco or gambling imposed in many countries, as well as the bans around advertising to children, which exist in parts of Europe. Advertising regulation focuses heavily on the veracity of the claims and as such, there are",
"-19.63611797153135"
],
[
"when it can be shown that the defendant would be likely to attempt to conceal or transfer the materials.\nThe Trademark Counterfeiting Act of 1984 made it illegal for anyone to intentionally traffic or attempt to traffic goods or services knowingly using a counterfeit mark, which is defined as \na spurious mark and spurious designations (1) used in connection with trafficking in goods or services (2) identical with, or substantially indistinguishable from, a mark registered for those goods and services on the United States Patent and Trademark Office's Principal Register (whether or not the defendant knew the mark was registered) and",
"-19.61000867607072"
],
[
"their consent is a common practice in mobile Internet business\". On January 11, 2018, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology asked Toutiao to \"abide by the laws and regulations, and only collect necessary personal information legally in a justified manner\". Fraudulent advertisements On March 29, 2018, CCTV-2 reported that Toutiao showed advertisements violating the Advertising Law for dubious or counterfeit products, targeting cities where regulations aren't as tight. One company, Tong Ren Tang was forced to delist its genuine products by the CFDA on December 29, 2017 due to the complaints filed by those who bought the advertised counterfeits. Tong",
"-19.592516717500985"
],
[
"treated with contempt. Dissents A dissenting opinion was submitted by Justice Harlan, joined by Justice McKenna, agreeing with the Sixth Circuit that advertising posters \"would not be promotive of the useful arts within the meaning of the constitutional provision\", and were therefore not \"fine art\" for the Constitution permitted protection.",
"-19.57180545196752"
],
[
"almost that existed, in order to prevent fraud, that the right of making a surcharge should be vested in somebody's hands, we can hardly doubt that the censors had this power. It is moreover expressly stated that on one occasion they made an extravagant surcharge on articles of luxury; and even if they did not enter in their books the property of a person at a higher value than he returned it, they accomplished the same end by compelling him to pay a tax upon the property at a higher rate than others. The tax was usually one per thousand",
"-19.56603668362368"
],
[
"of these regulations is to ensure that no advertisement contains misleading information, that advertisements provide the reader with a \"reasonable picture\" of the terms and conditions and that the reader is aware that the availability and terms of credit may be affected by factors such as the age and employment of the applicant. Canvassing The Crowther Committee recommended that doorstep canvassing for loans should be completely prohibited. The original provisions in the bill were indeed extremely stringent, and caused potential problems for other businesses, but were significantly amended and now only affect the canvassing they were intended to prevent. Canvassing",
"-19.561608467251062"
],
[
"the European Convention on Human Rights. but the Court has held that restrictions on political advertising can be justified in certain circumstances, provided they were proportionate to the public interest they aimed to protect. Certain Member States including the United Kingdom, Ireland and Switzerland have repeatedly refused to remove their blanket bans. An attempted television ad campaign by the Association against Industrial Animal Production (VGT) which drew a comparison between battery farming and the Holocaust was persistently refused in line with Swiss law, and was the subject of two ECtHR cases, the second case resulting from the persistent refusal by",
"-19.500743238662835"
],
[
"various objects, and compares these crimes with the unauthorized duplication and distribution of copyrighted materials, such as films.\nDespite public perception, the music used in the advert was not pirated. In popular culture The advertisement has been parodied in Internet memes, including those using the phrase \"You wouldn't download a car.\" The IT Crowd episode \"Moss and the German\" spoofed this advertisement near the start of the episode.\nThe Greens-European Free Alliance, in association with Rafilm, released their own version of the film to oppose the media industry and government views on existing copyright laws, as well as to educate the public",
"-19.493852000683546"
],
[
"misuse include forcing customers to agree to pay royalties on unpatented products or to pay royalties on an expired patent. This type of patent misuse can take place without a violation of antitrust laws. But it violates such policies of US patent law as the monopoly of a patent is confined to what its claims cover and once a patent expires the public has an unlimited right to practice the formerly claimed subject matter.\nPatent misuse may also occur when the patentee's conduct is a violation of antitrust laws. For example, a company buying all the patents in a given field",
"-19.489122699655127"
],
[
"state. Victims of theft in London, facilitated by the circulation of newspapers, took advantage of advertising to recover their stolen goods. They offered a reward “with no questions asked”. Since prosecutors usually resorted to the legal system, they had to pay for the proceedings at the Old Bailey; though the offender was convicted, they often lost their goods forever. For this reason, prosecutors decided to bypass the legal system, recovering their good by resorting to advertising. Thief-takers were the perfect intermediates between victims and offenders and received a portion of the reward offered. Jonathan Wild, a prominent figure of the",
"-19.431989584001713"
],
[
"surrogate advertisements According to the inferences drawn from several surveys and interviews, 42 out of 50 people can understand the actual liquor or tobacco product being advertised.\nSurrogate advertisements do impact a consumer's buying decision as well. They also inform consumers about the leading liquor brands and thus promote sales. Current scenario With government now enforcing ban on surrogate advertisements, companies are turning to event sponsorship, event organising, corporate films and more and more innovative integrated marketing communications strategies, though surrogate advertising is still a common practice.",
"-19.31269722050638"
],
[
"definition of unfair competition, the plaintiff must show that (1) the defendant engaged in unfair, deceptive, untrue or misleading advertising and (2) the plaintiff suffered injury in fact and lost money or property. California courts have interpreted “advertising” to include almost any statement made in connection with the sale of goods or services. For example, Chern v. Bank of America held that a loan officer's statement over the phone about interest rates was “advertising.” Conversely, Bank of the West v. Superior Court implied that advertising might require “widespread promotional activities directed to the public-at-large” and that",
"-19.30739838082809"
],
[
"often difficult to separate the fraudulent advertisements from the credible opportunities. These printed advertisements are rarely vetted. Consequences Dr. Gilly McKenzie, a leading expert in the U.N. on Trafficking and Organized Crime, stated in 2010 study: \"Once a girl is forced into the life of sexual bondage, she has little means of getting out. Fear is the most effective motivator the traffickers use. The girls are imprisoned and kept under guard. They are given little food and water. Often they are raped by their captors, and then given over to clients. Physical abuse, beatings, and verbal abuse are used",
"-19.286556177365128"
],
[
"used for comparison, which is sometimes done as opposed to comparing the product to an actual competitor. (In some countries, Germany or Norway for example, it is illegal to make disparaging comments about a competitor's product in an advertisement, even if the statements are proven to be true.)\nA parody advertisement can be one in which the advertisement appears to actually be a real ad for the false product, but then the advertisement is somehow exposed to be a parody and if it is an actual advertisement the actual brand becomes clear. If it is simply a parody it may",
"-19.186419405566994"
],
[
"such as copyright, trademarks, and trade names. Counterfeiters illegally copy trademarks, which manufacturers have built up based on marketing investments and the recognized quality of their products, in order to fool consumers. Any product that is protected by intellectual property rights is a target for counterfeiters. Piotr Stryszowski, a senior economist at OECD, notes that it is not only the scale of counterfeiting that is alarming, but its rapidly growing scope, which means that now any product with a logo can become a target.\nIn many cases, different types of infringements overlap: unauthorized music copying mostly infringes copyright as well as",
"-19.127397784614004"
],
[
"Mandatory disclaimer Mandatory disclaimers are government-mandated messages that describe what a product is not or does not do that sellers must include in their advertising.\nIn the United States, mandatory messages first appeared after the passage of the Federal Caustic Poisons Act (FCPA) of 1927, a law that ordered sellers of poisons to provide warning labels on their bottles. Prior to the passage of the FCPA, some sellers would use unusually shaped or colored bottles to signify the presence of a dangerous substance. After the Act, manufacturers mostly used plain bottles and displayed warning labels on them.\nThe agency responsible for enforcing",
"-19.118816475966014"
],
[
"third-party standing did not exist.\nSecond, the defendant did not show that the claims it was accused of infringing were licensed to and used by the purchasers of patented equipment. The patent claims in that case had been drafted so that one set of claims covered sending Internet stories to smartphones and a different set covered receiving stories. The defendant was accused of infringing the first set, but the smartphone purchasers and the licensed smartphone manufacturers who sold to them used the second set. The court said that the defendant had not shown that the licensed claims embodied substantially the same",
"-19.080752109643072"
],
[
"the UK, billboards are controlled as adverts as part of the planning system. To display an illegal advert (that is, without planning permission) is a criminal offence with a fine of up to £2500 per offence (per poster). All of the large UK outdoor advertisers such as CBS Outdoor, JCDecaux, Clear Channel, Titan and Primesight have numerous convictions for such crimes.\nIn São Paulo, a city of twelve million in Brazil, Billboards and advertising on vehicles have been banned since January 2007. It also restricted the dimensions of advertising on shop fronts.\nIn British Columbia, a province of Canada, billboards are restricted",
"-19.072749395738356"
],
[
"trademarks; fake toys infringe design protection. Counterfeiting therefore involves the related issues of copying packaging, labeling, or any other significant features of the goods.\nAmong the leading industries that have been seriously affected by counterfeiting are software, music recordings, motion pictures, luxury goods and fashion clothes, sportswear, perfumes, toys, aircraft components, spare parts and car accessories, and pharmaceuticals. Counterfeit pharmaceuticals are the most profitable sector of illegally copied goods, with lost revenues up to $217 billion per year. Fraudulent drugs are known to harm or kill millions around the world, thereby damaging the brand names and sales of major pharmaceutical manufacturers.\nSince",
"-19.063055343111046"
],
[
"Bates and In re R.M.J. were aimed towards preventing deceptive advertising. The Supreme Court of Ohio also stated that In re R.M.J. suggested that states could regulate non-deceptive advertising to serve a narrow state interest; in this case, requiring disclosure of contingent-fee arrangements was deemed necessary by the state to assure potential clients would not misled. Supreme Court Zauderer petitioned to the Supreme Court on several issued raised by the case, which accepted the case and heard oral arguments on January 7, 1985. The Court issued its decision on May 25, 1985. While the Court reversed some of the disciplinary",
"-19.054259692667983"
],
[
"Laws of Massachusetts, which states that it is illegal to display a \"hoax device\" with the motive to cause citizens to feel threatened, unsafe, and concerned. Both were held at the State Police South Boston barracks overnight and were released on $2,500 bail from the Charlestown Division of Boston Municipal Court the following morning. Reactions The Boston Globe stated that the \"marketing gambit exposes a wide generation gap,\" quoting one 29-year-old blogger as writing \"Repeat after me, authorities. L-E-D. Not I-E-D. Get it?\" The Globe's Brainiac blog was quick to credit bloggers such as Todd Vanderlin and Brian Stuart",
"-19.034271376556717"
],
[
"even conduct that may have anticompetitive effects.\" Thus:\nWhile proof of an antitrust violation shows that the patentee has committed wrongful conduct having anticompetitive effects, that does not establish misuse of the patent in suit unless the conduct in question restricts the use of that patent and does so in one of the specific ways that have been held to be outside the otherwise broad scope of the patent grant.\nJudge Bryson then turned to the 1988 amendment of 35 U.S.C. § 271(d), which states that it is not misuse (i) to refuse to license a patent or (ii) to tie a license",
"-19.016287888865918"
],
[
"R v Forlee In R v Forlee, the accused was charged with contravening a statutory provision which forbade the purchase of opium. The prohibition was taken over from an earlier Act, in which the purchase of opium was expressly declared a crime. In the new Act, which replaced the previous one, the criminal sanction (the provisions declaring the purchase to be a crime) was omitted. The court remarked as follows:\nIf this omission were intentional, then the Legislature considered either that the common law provided a penalty or that no penalty should be imposed at all. The latter conclusion is negatived",
"-19.006509096187074"
],
[
"the bureau's own efforts to dissuade chemical companies from selling it and requiring that those who did sell only to buyers with a valid manufacturer's license, constituted entrapment as a matter of law. Issue In Sorrells v. United States, 287 U.S. 435 (1932), the case where it had first recognized entrapment as a valid defense, and Sherman v. United States, 356 U.S. 369 (1958), another entrapment case involving an undercover drug investigation, the Court had chosen to ground entrapment in the question of whether it could be established that the defendant had a \"predisposition\" to commit the crime absent government",
"-19.00103139784187"
],
[
"violations, state law violation of right of publicity laws, unfair competition, false and misleading advertising, and Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) claims, because the defendants provided services to websites that posted stolen images from P10's magazine and website. In favor of CCBill and CWIE, based on the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), the district court found that CCBill and CWIE qualified for certain statutory safe harbors from copyright infringement liability, and they are also immune from liability for state law unfair competition and false advertising claims under the Communications Decency Act (CDA). In favor of P10, the",
"-18.956253035539703"
],
[
"prison in 2003 for having his name used on bongs for sale via the internet.\nThe American drug paraphernalia laws can also apply to many items that have more legitimate uses than for illegal drugs. Small mirrors and other glass products (such as Pyrex test tubes and \"glass crack pipes\"), lighters, rolled up currency, razor blades, aluminum/tin foil, credit cards, and spoons have all been used to prosecute people under paraphernalia laws, whether or not they contain residue of illegal drugs. While United States federal statute defines paraphernalia with the concept of primary use, in practice this can be interpreted to",
"-18.954424087313782"
],
[
"the crime of larceny because neither time nor services may be taken or carried away, and that the unauthorized use of the computer could not be the subject of larceny, because \"Nowhere in Code §§ 18.1-100[…] do we find the word 'use'.\"\nOn the subject of the \"stolen\" items, the Commonwealth argued that the printouts and the computer cards had as much market value as scrap paper: \"The cost of producing the print-outs is not the proper criterion of value for the purpose here. Where there is no market value of an article that has been stolen, the better rule",
"-18.921140925842337"
],
[
"plaintiffs also argued that to force broadcasters to give portions of \"free time\" to the represented political parties and members of parliament had the effect of taking away their right to charge money for broadcasting advertisements. They suggested that taking away their advertising time and in effect giving it to the legislators constituted an acquisition of property by the Commonwealth, which according to section 51(xxxi) of the Constitution, has to be done \"on just terms.\"\nThe Commonwealth argued that the laws made no unjust acquisition of property, since broadcasting licences were not immune to being modified by the Parliament. They said",
"-18.885038586100563"
],
[
"restrictions (such as the required listing of side effects), or outright prohibitions on product claims advertising, as neither of them are focused on promoting the drug itself. Sometimes, a campaign may mix both of these ads, with one ad discussing the condition, and another, similarly-styled ad, mentioning the product but not the condition, seeking to have the viewer infer the association between the ads. Brazil In 2008 a new resolution from ANVISA (Control Agency for Sanitary Vigilance), Resolution 96 from December 17 was released, with focus on medication advertisements. It allows direct-to-consumer advertising of non-prescription medication, with restrictions on the",
"-18.874616475601215"
],
[
"Law label Popular culture The wording of the warnings printed on some law labels has caused a common misconception in the USA that removing such a label under any circumstance is a crime, prohibiting consumers from removing labels from items they have purchased. Especially contributing to this confusion was that originally the wording on such labels did not contain the phrase \"except by consumer\".",
"-18.856180446688086"
],
[
"to believe drugs were hidden in a student's underwear in order to justify a strip search. In contrast, Thomas said, \"It is a mistake for judges to assume the responsibility for deciding which school rules are important enough to allow for invasive searches and which rules are not\" and that \"reasonable suspicion that Redding was in possession of drugs in violation of these policies, therefore, justified a search extending to any area where small pills could be concealed.\" Thomas said, \"[t]here can be no doubt that a parent would have had the authority to conduct the search.\" Sixth Amendment In",
"-18.841896747093415"
],
[
"not have these attributes then it is possibly a fake. Website blocking In October 2014 the first blocking order against trademark infringing consumer goods was passed against the major UK ISPs by Richemont, Cartier International and Montblanc to block several domains selling trademark infringing products.",
"-18.836667142400984"
],
[
"industry with most new addicts.\nAnother method of evading restrictions is to sell less-regulated nicotine products instead of the ones for which advertising is more regulated. For instance, while TV ads of cigarettes are banned in the United States, similar TV ads of e-cigarettes are not.\nThe most effective media are usually banned first, meaning advertisers need to spend more money to addict the same number of people. Comprehensive bans can make it impossible to effectively substitute other forms of advertising, leading to actual falls in consumption. However, skillful use of allowed media can increase advertising exposure; the exposure of U.S. children",
"-18.82938837329857"
],
[
"the state and Islam. This can be seen in the rules set by the UAE National Media Council, which regulates media companies, stating that advertisements cannot “blaspheme” Islamic beliefs or “offend the economic system of the State.\" Educational companies cannot disparage other companies in a way that “discredit or unfairly attack” another company. Depictions of alcohol or drug use is illegal in ads along with racism or other offensive ideas. Statements and claims made in advertisements must be accurate. Regulatory bodies can also ask for sentences to be reworded to prevent confusion.\nMuch of the enforcement of these regulations come after",
"-18.82718584453687"
],
[
"include an implication; for instance, a photograph of a particular politician accompanying a headline reading \"Corrupt Politicians\" could be held as an allegation that that politician was personally corrupt. Once it is shown that a statement was published, and that it has a defamatory meaning, that statement is presumed to be false unless the defendant is able to raise a defence to his defamatory act.\nUnder English law, because companies are legal persons they can sue on the basis of libel the same as natural persons. Cases supporting this principle go as far back as the 19th century, such as South",
"-18.792784746561665"
],
[
"This makes it difficult for brand owners to even determine if a site is selling counterfeits without making costly purchases from the site. Criminal networks are involved with counterfeiting—which leads to hundreds of sites selling the same products on various servers. Making it an arduous task for the brand owner to stop them without working with authorities to take down the counterfeit rings.\nBuyers often know they were victimized from online sales, as over a third (34%) said they were victimized two or three times, and 11% said they had bought fake goods three to five times. While many online sellers",
"-18.79052123450674"
],
[
"of advertisements (BCRA §201 and §311). The case did not involve the federal ban on direct contributions from corporations or unions to candidate campaigns or political parties, which remain illegal in races for federal office. Background Section 203 of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (known as BCRA or McCain–Feingold Act) modified the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, 2 U.S.C. § 441b to prohibit corporations and unions from using their general treasury to fund \"electioneering communications\" (broadcast advertisements mentioning a candidate in any context) within 30 days before a primary or 60 days before a general election. During the",
"-18.787494516087463"
],
[
"The period after nicotine advertising restrictions were brought in is characterised by ingenious circumvention of progressively stricter regulations. The industry continued to dispute medical research: denying, for instance, that nicotine was addictive, while deliberately spiking their cigarettes with additional nicotine to make them more addictive.\nAdvertising restrictions typically shift advertising spending to unrestricted media. Banned on television, ads move to print; banned in all conventional media, ads shift to sponsorships; banned as in-store advertising and packaging, advertising shifts to shill (undisclosed) marketing reps, sponsored online content, viral marketing, and other stealth marketing techniques.\nAnother method of evading restrictions is to sell less-regulated",
"-18.766166006331332"
],
[
"the users may influence the user subconsciously. Fraud on the advertiser There are numerous ways that advertisers can be overcharged for their advertising. For example, click fraud occurs when a publisher or third parties click (manually or through automated means) on a CPC ad with no legitimate buying intent. For example, click fraud can occur when a competitor clicks on ads to deplete its rival's advertising budget, or when publishers attempt to manufacture revenue.\nClick fraud is especially associated with pornography sites. In 2011, certain scamming porn websites launched dozens of hidden pages on each visitor's computer, forcing the visitor's computer",
"-18.700397041626275"
],
[
"Willful blindness Precedent in the United States In United States v. Jewell, the court held that proof of willful ignorance satisfied the requirement of knowledge as to criminal possession and importation of drugs. In a number of cases in the United States of America, persons transporting packages containing illegal drugs have asserted that they never asked what the contents of the packages were and so lacked the requisite intent to break the law. Such defenses have not succeeded, as courts have been quick to determine that the defendant should have known what was in the package and exercised criminal recklessness",
"-18.685186149261426"
],
[
"marketing messages were initially explicit, but over the decades, they became more implicit and indirect. Explicitly claiming something that the consumer knows to be untrue tend to make them distrust and reject the message, so the effectiveness of explicit claims dropped as evidence of the harms of cigarettes became more widely known. Explicit claims also have the disadvantage that they remind smokers of the health harms of the product.\nImplicit claims include slogans with connotations of health and vitality, such as \"Alive with pleasure\", and imagery (of instance, images of athletic, healthy people, the presence of healthy children, healthy natural environments,",
"-18.670269107213244"
],
[
"to show that a conspiracy is plausible (and not merely conceivable or possible). This protects defendants from bearing the costs of antitrust \"fishing expeditions\"; however it deprives plaintiffs of perhaps their only tool to acquire evidence (discovery). Manipulation of market Second, courts have employed more sophisticated and principled definitions of markets. Market definition is necessary, in rule of reason cases, for the plaintiff to prove a conspiracy is harmful. It is also necessary for the plaintiff to establish the market relationship between conspirators to prove their conduct is within the per se rule.\nIn early cases, it was easier for plaintiffs",
"-18.65166766132461"
],
[
"since those definitions specifically deal with taking something that does not belong to the perpetrator(s). Instead, embezzlement is, more generically, an act of deceitfully secreting assets by one or more persons that have been entrusted with such assets. The person(s) entrusted with such assets may or may not have an ownership stake in such assets.\nIn the case where it is a form of theft, distinguishing between embezzlement and larceny can be tricky. Making the distinction is particularly difficult when dealing with misappropriations of property by employees. To prove embezzlement, the state must show that the employee had possession of the",
"-18.64042472525034"
],
[
"the mail, transport across state lines, import, or export drug paraphernalia as defined. Possession is usually illegal under State law. The law gives specific guidance on determining what constitutes drug paraphernalia. Many states have also enacted their own laws prohibiting drug paraphernalia. In the 1982 case Hoffman Estates v. The Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc., the US Supreme Court found a municipal ordinance requiring licensing for paraphernalia sales to have sufficiently distinguished marketing for illegal use to be constitutional. Government crackdowns have resulted in the arrest of sellers of recreational drug paraphernalia, such as actor Tommy Chong, who spent time in",
"-18.612495459150523"
],
[
"anxieties and can appear to be ‘creepy’. An individual who is skeptical about privacy concerns will avoid such ads. This is because users think that the personally identifiable information is used in order for these ads to show up and also suspect their data being shared with third party or advertisers. Users are okay with behavior tracking if they have faith in the internet company that permitted the ad. Though such ads have been found to be useful, users do not always prefer their behaviors be used to personalize ads. It also has a positive impact if it also includes",
"-18.59905674503898"
]
] |
6ov6vq | What's the science behind waking up in the middle of the night after only a few hours of sleep feeling rested, only to get a full eight and wake up tired? | [
"Sleep stages. There are 5 different sleep stages; * the 'on-ramp', you know when you're at the back of a boring class / lecture and your head starts nodding, literally 'falling asleep' as it feels like you've fallen if you catch yourself. * stage 2, your brain waves start to slow down (iirc waking, your brain has a 'frequency' of ~20 cycles per second, as this slows you become more relaxed and eventually fall asleep) * stage 3, this is 'deep sleep', usually the period where people experience erratic sleep behaviour such as sleepwalking, wetting the bed etc * stage 4, now your brain is pretty much only producing delta waves, frequency of around 1-4 cycles per second... so slooooow! If you are woken from this stage, you will feel VERY groggy and disoriented * and stage 5, the stage we all know so well... REM sleep! AFAIK, it's the 15 mins of REM sleep per hour which 'refresh' you. If you don't get REM time, you will not feel like you've slept properly. This is why we feel so ughhhhhh after drinking, because alcohol interrupts this important stage. Hangover = dehydration multiplied by being horribly sleep deprived. On that note, my hangover cure? Get up, drink a pint of water, have something nourishing, then go back to sleep for a couple of hours.",
"With an alarm you are interrupting a sleep cycle. Waking up naturally will be more refreshing because you come out of the end of a cycle. If you wake up at 8 hours naturally without an alarm and you'll be just as refreshed as your 1am wake up.",
"Your sleep cycles are roughly 90 minutes in length. If you set your clock for a time that will be at one of the 90 minute increments from when you actually go t sleep, it will be much easier to get started on your day. For example, if you need to get up at 7:00 am, and can get to sleep by 12:30 am, you are better off setting your alarm for 6:30 because the alarm will go off as you are emerging out of your fourth 90 minutes sleep cycle of the night. By 7:00, you would be fairly deep into your fifth sleep cycle and woule feel tired and groggy.",
"As the other posts said, it is about when you wake up during your cycle of sleep. If you want to time when you wake up or when to go to sleep based on the sleep cycle you can use URL_0 to calculate it. It helps you wake up feeling more awake and refreshed instead of tired and groggy.",
"Yup. Look into getting a sleep sensing alarm- I use one on my iPhone called Sleep Cycle that purports to be able to detect where you are in your sleep cycles and wake you up closest to your natural waking point, within half an hour of your alarm (set alarm for 6am, it will wake you up between 5:30-6 depending on where it thinks you are closest to already waking). Has two sensing modes, movement based (need to have it on the bed with you) and a newer audio based one (need to have it pointed at you on a nightstand next to the bed). Both modes defiantly seem to work much more pleasantly than a traditional alarm clock- it also has some \"gentle\" wake up noises (I do birdsong. Not startling, but loud enough and unusual enough that for me, it wakes me up, especially when I'm close to being awake) The only trick is that our typical REM sleep cycles are about 3 hours from almost awake to deep sleep, so depending on when you go to sleep, that half hour waking window may still have you in pretty deep sleep, so it's best to try and get yourself to sleep in a time frame that syncs up with when you need to wake up.",
"Having done quite a bit of reading for my own benefit I think I can provide a bit more information. If you break down sleep to 4 categories, each is a deeper stage of sleep and being woken up in stages 3 or 4 can leave you feeling disorientated and groggy as your body has essentially shut down parts that are unnecessary for recovery during sleep. Bonus info, sleep trackers have a feature that wakes you in the lightest stage of your sleep before your target time, leaving you as refreshed as possible.",
"For men, testosterone levels are naturally at their highest levels in the morning. Men with low T tend to consistently feel tired when they wake up, no matter how much sleep they get.",
"When one sleeps, his body goes through various cycles. Waking up during/after certain cycles will leave one refreshed, yet during others, one feels tired. Just depends during which cycle one wakes up."
] | [
[
"a chronic sleep debt. By the fourth week, the subjects slept an average of eight hours a night – but across two separate blocks, not unbroken. First, subjects tended to lie awake for one to two hours and then fall quickly asleep. Onset of sleep was linked to a spike in the hormone melatonin. Melatonin secretion by the brain's pineal gland is triggered by darkness. After an average of three to five hours of sleep, the subjects would awaken and spend an hour or two in quiet wakefulness before a second three- to five-hour sleep period. It was thus suggested that",
"-31.14601922393922"
],
[
" A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The",
"-30.97825959866168"
],
[
"Waking up early Waking up early is a productivity method - rising early and consistently so as to be able to accomplish more during the day. This method has been recommended since antiquity and is now recommended by a number of personal development gurus. The philosopher Aristotle said, \"It is well to be up before daybreak, for such habits contribute to health, wealth, and wisdom.\" Commentary Within the context of religious observances, spiritual writers have called this practice \"the heroic minute\", referring to the sacrifice which this entails.\nBenjamin Franklin is quoted to have said: \"Early to bed and early to",
"-30.692282332805917"
],
[
"influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep",
"-30.45254909216601"
],
[
"Wake therapy Wake therapy is a form of sleep deprivation used as a treatment for depression. The subject stays awake all night, or is woken at 1AM and stays awake all morning, and the next full day. While sleepy, patients find that their depression vanishes, until they sleep again. Combining this with bright light therapy make the beneficial effects last longer than one day. Partial sleep deprivation in the second half of the night may be as effective as an all-night sleep deprivation session.\nWake therapy is a therapy that falls under chronotherapeutics. Chronotherapy (treatment scheduling) is a process to",
"-30.340418031293666"
],
[
"awake time in the first ninety-minute sleep cycle, 8% in the second, 10% in the third, 12% in the fourth, and 13–14% in the fifth. Most of this awake time occurred shortly after REM sleep.\nToday, many humans wake up with an alarm clock; however, people can also reliably wake themselves up at a specific time with no need for an alarm. Many sleep quite differently on workdays versus days off, a pattern which can lead to chronic circadian desynchronization. Many people regularly look at television and other screens before going to bed, a factor which may exacerbate disruption of the",
"-30.22810475411825"
],
[
"the sleep-wake cycle several hours later during the adolescent years. This same shift to a delayed phase in the release of melatonin during puberty has also been seen in other mammals.\nThe shifted circadian rhythms associated with puberty make it difficult, if not impossible, for many teenagers—who may have to rise at 5 or 6 a.m. to get ready and commute to school in time for 7 a.m. school bells—to get sufficient sleep on school nights. Even discounting for the distractions of homework and extracurricular demands and electronics, most adolescents find it difficult to fall asleep before about 11 p.m. or",
"-29.989536373119336"
],
[
"the end of a REM phase or sometimes in the middle of REM. Internal circadian indicators, along with successful reduction of homeostatic sleep need, typically bring about awakening and the end of the sleep cycle. Awakening involves heightened electrical activation in the brain, beginning with the thalamus and spreading throughout the cortex.\nDuring a night's sleep, a small amount of time is usually spent in a waking state. As measured by electroencephalography, young females are awake for 0–1% of the larger sleeping period; young males are awake for 0–2%. In adults, wakefulness increases, especially in later cycles. One study found 3%",
"-29.930056524113752"
],
[
"writers. Superimposed on this basic rhythm is a secondary one of light sleep in the early afternoon.\nThe brain exhibits high levels of the pituitary hormone prolactin during the period of nighttime wakefulness, which may contribute to the feeling of peace that many people associate with it.\nThe modern assumption that consolidated sleep with no awakenings is the normal and correct way for human adults to sleep, may lead people to consult their doctors fearing they have maintenance insomnia or other sleep disorders. If Ekirch's hypothesis is correct, their concerns might best be addressed by reassurance that their sleep conforms to historically",
"-29.868163797844318"
],
[
"Wakefulness Wakefulness is a daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness in which an individual is conscious and engages in coherent cognitive and behavioral responses to the external world. Being awake is the opposite of the state of being asleep in which most external inputs to the brain are excluded from neural processing. Effects upon the brain The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\nAnother effect of wakefulness is the reduction of",
"-29.75593011028832"
],
[
"for an unusually low sleep latency and potential sleep deprivation, the authors point to a technique developed by Nathaniel Kleitman, the \"father of sleep research.\" The subject reclines in a quiet, darkened room and drapes a hand holding a spoon over the edge of the bed or chair, placing a plate on the floor beneath the spoon. After checking the time, the subject tries to relax and fall asleep. When sleep is attained, the spoon will fall and strike the plate, awakening the subject, who then checks to see how much time has passed. The number of minutes passed is",
"-29.633940319676185"
],
[
"an earthshaking epiphany, but conceiving and developing an objective measure of sleepiness was perhaps one of the most important advances in sleep science,\" Dement and coauthor Christopher Vaughn write of the discovery.\nWhen they initially developed the MSLT, Dement and others put subjects in a quiet, dark room with a bed and asked them to lie down, close their eyes and relax. They noted the number of minutes, ranging from 0 to 20, that it took a subject to fall asleep. If a volunteer was still awake after 20 minutes, the experiment was ended and the subject given a maximal alertness/minimal",
"-29.553696636168752"
],
[
"quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time",
"-29.546192970345146"
],
[
"whatever time in the morning he woke; believing that his waking was to be taken as evidence that he had obtained all the rest from sleep that he required. The habit thus formed very much disturbed the last months of his life, when disease prevented work and made an increasing demand for rest. The sleep and rest would not come nor stay for his call. He accomplished a great deal in the way of work with the microscope – an amount which many not half as much occupied by professional work would think it impossible to do. He occupied many",
"-29.502557847474236"
],
[
"sleep time of fourteen hours.\nThough sleep is a primarily biological process, it can be treated as a behavior. This means that it can be altered and managed through practice and can be learned by the child. Healthy sleep habits can be established during the first four months to lay a foundation for healthy sleep. These habits typically include sleeping in a crib (instead of a car seat, stroller, or swing), being put down to sleep drowsy but awake, and avoiding negative sleep associations, such as nursing to sleep or using a pacifier to fall asleep, which may be hard to",
"-29.433164310372376"
],
[
"significant effects on the energy balance the next morning, including reduced energy expenditure, enhanced hedonic stimulus processing in the brain underlying the drive to consume food, and overeating that goes beyond satiety. Further recent studies have shown that a reduction of sleep duration to four hours for two consecutive nights has been shown to decrease circulating leptin levels and to increase ghrelin levels, as well as self-reported hunger. Similar endocrine alterations have been shown to occur even after a single night of sleep restriction.\nIn a balanced order, nine healthy normal-weight men spent three nights in a sleep laboratory separated by",
"-29.42314693251683"
],
[
"one at night. Frequently I'd have to do both. A few times I worked so hard that I actually threw up from the exertion. But I was young then. I didn't get tired easily. And I never complained about the working conditions. I thought that's just how it was supposed to be. Now I know that's wrong. But at the time I had no clue. Whatever they'd give me, I'd do. And as soon as I was done working I could just fall asleep. They'd say, 'Go to sleep', and I'd go right to sleep.\nThe hard work of the cast",
"-29.378754338487852"
],
[
"asked not to wake up an hour early but 3–4 hours early, while waking up \"normally\" may already be an unrecognized challenge imposed by the environment.\nThe bias toward early morning can also adversely affect adolescents in particular. Teenagers tend to require at least 9 full hours of sleep each night, and changes to the endocrine system during puberty shift the natural wake time later in the morning. Enforcing early start times despite this can have negative effects on mood, academic performance, and social skills.",
"-29.3010843078373"
],
[
"down to sleep will continue to detect that they are lying down hours later when they awaken.",
"-29.290157524490496"
],
[
"from the circadian clock, this tells the body it needs to sleep. A person who regularly awakens at an early hour will generally not be able to sleep much later than his or her normal waking time, even if moderately sleep-deprived. The timing is correct when the following two circadian markers occur after the middle of the sleep episode and before awakening: maximum concentration of the hormone melatonin, and minimum core body temperature. Ideal duration Human sleep needs vary by age and amongst individuals; sleep is considered to be adequate when there is no daytime sleepiness or dysfunction. Moreover,",
"-29.260724339517765"
],
[
"relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher",
"-29.24710331959068"
],
[
"go to sleep or stay awake as it likes but it is staying in the bed until morning (remember Proust at the opening of Swann’s Way?), we sit there with it, reading to it and singing to it and distracting it with swirling night lights until it decides it feels like going to sleep, all the while thinking to ourselves, Go the fuck to sleep, kid.\"\nAccording to Mark Rotella, an editor at Publishers Weekly (and father of two), this is one of the books \"that are less earnest about raising your child. They help parents step back and laugh at",
"-29.230276035697898"
],
[
"rhythm sleep disorders. Naps The siesta habit has recently been associated with a 37% lower coronary mortality, possibly due to reduced cardiovascular stress mediated by daytime sleep. Short naps at mid-day and mild evening exercise were found to be effective for improved sleep, cognitive tasks, and mental health in elderly people.\nMany people experience a temporary drop in alertness in the early afternoon, commonly known as the \"post-lunch dip\". While a large meal can make a person feel sleepy, the post-lunch dip is mostly an effect of the circadian clock. People naturally feel most sleepy at two times of the day",
"-29.155712616513483"
],
[
"Sleep inertia Sleep inertia is a physiological state of impaired cognitive and sensory-motor performance that is present immediately after awakening. It persists during the transition of sleep to wakefulness, where an individual will experience feelings of drowsiness, disorientation and a decline in motor dexterity. Impairment from sleep inertia may take several hours to dissipate. In the majority of cases, morning sleep inertia is experienced for 15 to 30 minutes after waking.\nSleep inertia is of concern when decision-making abilities, safety-critical tasks and the ability to operate efficiently are important soon after awakening. In these situations, it poses an occupational hazard due",
"-29.127075571715977"
],
[
"non-REM stage 2. (The decision of how to mark the periods makes a difference for research purposes because of the unavoidable inclusion or exclusion of the night's first NREM or its final REM phase if directly preceding awakening.)\nA 7–8-hour sleep probably includes five cycles, the middle two of which tend to be longer. REM takes up more of the cycle as the night goes on. Awakening Unprovoked awakening occurs most commonly during or after a period of REM sleep, as body temperature is rising. Continuation during wakefulness Ernest Hartmann found in 1968 that humans seem to continue a roughly 90-minute",
"-29.03423263557488"
],
[
"was even more pronounced on the second day of extended wakefulness. Duration The wake maintenance zone generally lasts 2 to 3 hours, during which one is less inclined to fall asleep. While potentially useful for completing urgent tasks, it may have a potentially unwanted side-effect of keeping one awake for several hours after the task has been completed. The hypervigilance and stimulation brought on by a second wind can cause fatigue, which, in the case of infants, can be literally painful. Thus, an infant may begin crying when sleep habits are disrupted.\n\nOne can avoid \"getting a second wind\" by practicing",
"-28.94019427720923"
],
[
"very difficult as it seemed a shock to the system. The work she had been assigned usually took until after 10 pm, so she had only 6 hours of sleep. Her body demanded more than this, and many times she had to succumb or have a nap during the day. After waking up, Wolfe spent 20 minutes or so in her Asana and after that, she imagined the yellow square of the tattwas for another 20 minutes, with varying results. Following that came visualisation exercises and then breakfast. This same regimen was repeated after dinner about 7.30 pm, starting around",
"-28.929867500279215"
],
[
"Dawn phenomenon The dawn phenomenon, sometimes called the dawn effect, is an early-morning (usually between 2 a.m. and 8 a.m.) increase in blood sugar (glucose) which occurs to some extent in all humans, more relevant to people with diabetes. It is different from chronic Somogyi rebound in that dawn phenomenon is not associated with nocturnal hypoglycemia. It is thought to occur due to temporal elevation in serum cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine associated with transition from sleeping to wakefulness.\nThe dawn phenomenon is a normal physiological response and does not require medication adjustment in most diabetics. In most of the cases, there",
"-28.89429758611368"
],
[
"as the body attempts to reset its internal sleep clock. Bright light therapy, which is often used to help early morning wakers reset their natural sleep cycle, can also be used with sleep restriction therapy to reinforce a new wake schedule. Although applying this technique with consistency is difficult, it can have a positive effect on insomnia in motivated patients.\nParadoxical intention is a cognitive reframing technique where the insomniac, instead of attempting to fall asleep at night, makes every effort to stay awake (i.e. essentially stops trying to fall asleep). One theory that may explain the effectiveness of this method",
"-28.809542802919168"
],
[
"time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep. Genetics Heritability estimates of insomnia vary between 38% in males to 59% in females. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 3 genomic loci and 7 genes that influence the risk of",
"-28.608166037709452"
],
[
"wakefulness, and sometimes occurs between periods of deeper sleep and periods of REM. The muscles are active, and the eyes roll slowly, opening and closing moderately. The brain transitions from alpha waves having a frequency of 8–13 Hz (common in the awake state) to theta waves having a frequency of 4–7 Hz. Sudden twitches and hypnic jerks, also known as positive myoclonus, may be associated with the onset of sleep during N1. Some people may also experience hypnagogic hallucinations during this stage. During Non-REM1, humans lose some muscle tone and most conscious awareness of the external environment. NREM 2 NREM Stage 2",
"-28.56700034019741"
],
[
"every night, a phase lasting about 90 minutes. This is when most dreaming occurs. Overall, REM sleep usually accounts for up to two hours of sleep time and most people can remember their dreams only if woken directly from REM sleep.\nIt is known from laboratory studies of brain waves that, just before entering REM sleep and while in it, powerful electrical signals pass through the brain. On electroencephalogram recordings, these appear as spikes and are known as PGO spikes, after the initials of names of the structures of the brain they pass through. These same spikes occur during waking, when",
"-28.552211076695585"
],
[
"a night's sleep. The first REM episode occurs about 70 minutes after falling asleep. Cycles of about 90 minutes each follow, with each cycle including a larger proportion of REM sleep. (The increased REM sleep later in the night is connected with the circadian rhythm and occurs even in people who didn't sleep in the first part of the night.)\nIn the weeks after a human baby is born, as its nervous system matures, neural patterns in sleep begin to show a rhythm of REM and non-REM sleep. (In faster-developing mammals this process occurs in utero.) Infants spend more time in",
"-28.535920362337492"
],
[
"for sleep could be to restore signal strength in synapses that are activated while awake to a \"baseline\" level, weakening unnecessary connections that to better facilitate learning and memory functions again the next day; this means the brain is forgetting some of the things we learn each day. Endocrine function The secretion of many hormones is affected by sleep-wake cycles. For example, melatonin, a hormonal timekeeper, is considered a strongly circadian hormone, whose secretion increases at dim light and peaks during nocturnal sleep, diminishing with bright light to the eyes. In some organisms melatonin secretion depends on sleep, but in",
"-28.531911018304527"
],
[
"I Am Not Going to Get Up Today! Plot A boy decides to sleep in one day, extolling his deep pillow and warm bed. He boasts that his family, police, neighbours, news media and the U.S. Marines could do nothing to rouse him, even with variety of noisemakers. In the end, his family realize he is serious and give his breakfast egg (which he earlier suggested giving back to the hen) to the lone responding policeman, who gladly and immediately eats it on the bedroom floor.",
"-28.466188459467958"
],
[
"that controls the sleep-wake cycle of the circadian rhythm. Reducing the amount of melatonin produced makes it harder to fall and stay asleep. In a 2011 poll conducted by the National Sleep Foundation, it reported that approximately 90% of Americans used technology in the hour before bed. The poll noted that young adults and teenagers were more likely to use cell phones, computers, and video game consoles. Additionally, the authors of the poll found that technology use was connected to sleep patterns. 22% of participants reported going to sleep with cell phone ringers on in their bedroom and 10% reported",
"-28.42087075699237"
],
[
"the morning has been proven to be effective. A prolongation of slow-wave sleep increases glymphatic clearance of metabolic waste products, which can lead to improvements of sleep disorders. Furthermore, studies showed ameliorated sleep pattern due to acupuncture of patients with TBI. Sleep apnea due to TBI can be treated through positive airway pressure, which helps with the development of a regular breathing pattern during sleep and prevents waking up. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia also have been shown to effectively improve sleep in TBI patients. It aims to improve sleep habits and behaviors by identifying and changing the thoughts and",
"-28.35281773423776"
],
[
"takes place mostly during slow-wave sleep, during which body temperature, heart rate, and brain oxygen consumption decrease. The brain, especially, requires sleep for restoration, whereas in the rest of the body these processes can take place during quiescent waking. In both cases, the reduced rate of metabolism enables countervailing restorative processes.\nWhile awake, metabolism generates reactive oxygen species, which are damaging to cells. During sleep, metabolic rates decrease and reactive oxygen species generation is reduced allowing restorative processes to take over. The sleeping brain has been shown to remove metabolic waste products at a faster rate than during an awake state.",
"-28.338096801977372"
],
[
"difficult stages to be awakened. Every part of the body is now relaxed, breathing, blood pressure and body temperature are reduced. The National Sleep Foundation discusses the different stages of NREM sleep and their importance. They describe REM sleep as \"A unique state, in which dreams usually occur. The brain is awake and body paralyzed.\" This unique stage is usually when the person is in the deepest stage of sleep and dreams. The figure of 90 minutes for the average length of a sleep cycle was popularized by Nathaniel Kleitman around 1963. Other sources give 90–110 minutes or 80–120 minutes.\nIn",
"-28.318792421661783"
],
[
"but we'll stay woke up longer.\")\nLead Belly uses the phrase near the end of the recording of his 1938 song, \"Scottsboro Boys\", while explaining about the namesake incident, saying \"I advise everybody to be a little careful when they go along through there, stay woke, keep their eyes open\". Erykah Badu and modern activist usage The first modern use of the term woke appears in the song \"Master Teacher\" from the album New Amerykah Part One (4th World War) (2008) by soul singer Erykah Badu. Throughout the song, Badu sings the phrase: \"I stay woke.\" Although the phrase did not",
"-28.30661388603039"
],
[
"is referred to as Process S. The balance between sleeping and waking is regulated by a process called homeostasis. Induced or perceived lack of sleep is called sleep deprivation.\nProcess S is driven by the depletion of glycogen and accumulation of adenosine in the forebrain that disinhibits the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus, allowing for inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system.\nSleep deprivation tends to cause slower brain waves in the frontal cortex, shortened attention span, higher anxiety, impaired memory, and a grouchy mood. Conversely, a well-rested organism tends to have improved memory and mood. Neurophysiological and functional imaging studies have demonstrated that",
"-28.224701343031484"
],
[
"of normal human sleep, experimenters started depriving test subjects of only REM sleep, to test its unique importance. Every time a subject's electroencephalogram and eye movements indicated the beginning of REM sleep, the experimenter would thoroughly wake them for several minutes. As this “dream deprivation” continued, tendency to initiate REM increased, and the subjects were woken up more and more times each night. The subjects became irritable, anxious, and hungry, and several left the study early. After five nights, the remaining subjects were allowed to sleep undisturbed, and showed a significant increase in percentage of sleep devoted to REM: from",
"-28.211149169655982"
],
[
"when the brain is unperturbed, such as during sleep, it is in essence rehearsing the perturbations of the day. Recent studies have confirmed that off wave states, such as slow-wave sleep, play a part in consolidation as well as REM sleep. There have even been studies done implying that sleep can lead to insight or creativity. Jan Born, from the University of Lubeck, showed subjects a number series with a hidden rule. She allowed one group to sleep for three hours, while the other group stayed awake. The awake group showed no progress, while most of the group that was",
"-28.18055358644051"
],
[
"he have stayed in bed?\" \nJames Thurber, in his book Fables for our Time, ended the Fable of the Shrike: \"Early to rise and early to bed, makes a Shrike healthy, and wealthy, and dead\". Criticisms Such recommendations may cast individuals with different natural sleep patterns as lazy or unmotivated when it is a much different matter for a person with a longer or delayed sleep cycle to get up earlier in the morning than for a person with an advanced sleep cycle. In effect, the person accustomed to a later wake time is being",
"-28.169008557568304"
],
[
"restlessness. Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime, requiring effort to metabolize it all, and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime. Lastly, limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions due to urinations. Sleep environment Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time",
"-28.138776896812487"
],
[
"brain. Humans often maneuver to create a thermally friendly environment—for example, by curling up into a ball if cold. Reflexes remain fairly active.\nREM sleep is considered closer to wakefulness and is characterized by rapid eye movement and muscle atonia. NREM is considered to be deep sleep (the deepest part of NREM is called slow wave sleep), and is characterized by lack of prominent eye movement or muscle paralysis. Especially during non-REM sleep, the brain uses significantly less energy during sleep than it does in waking. In areas with reduced activity, the brain restores its supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the",
"-28.133563396404497"
],
[
"to go to bed early in the evening and wake earlier in the morning than younger adults. Furthermore, the elderly often wake several times throughout the night and have difficulty falling asleep. They are prone to taking numerous naps during the day. Furthermore, constant lighting in assisted living facilities has been demonstrated to impair sleep ability.\nIn persons with Alzheimer's Disease, sleep disturbances are much more frequent and tend to be more severe. These patients exhibit intermittent sleep throughout the 24-hour day, instead of consolidated sleep at night and wakefulness during the day.\nPoor sleep is one of the largest",
"-28.102056617687822"
],
[
"resulting insomnia and sleep deprivation can cause exhaustion, changes in mood, sleepiness, impaired productivity, fatigue, increased risk of accidents, and cognitive dysfunction. 25% of falls that older individuals experience happen during the night, of which 25% occur while waking up to void.\nA quality of life test for people who experience nocturia was published in 2004. The pilot study was conducted only on men. Prevalence Studies show that 5-15% of people who are 20–50 years old, 20-30% of people who are 50–70 years old, and 10-50% of people 70+ years old, urinate at least twice a night. Nocturia becomes more",
"-28.081935795315076"
],
[
"partner or parent who led patients to seek medical attention. Sleep Because of the abnormal writhing movements, often patients’ sleep patterns are disrupted. This may be due to RMD’s comorbidity with sleep apnea, which has been observed in some patients\n. Many find that their sleep is not refreshing and are tired or stressed the following day, despite getting a full nights rest. However, other patients report that their sleep patterns are infrequently interrupted due to RMD episodes and do not report being excessively sleepy during the next day as scored on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Thus, as can be seen,",
"-28.074517493485473"
],
[
"and anxiety, which may make sleep more difficult and of inferior quality. This is the well-known first night effect. Complete adaptation to the sleep laboratory may take four days or longer, which is longer than the duration of most laboratory studies. Also, the content of dreams at the laboratory has been observed to be different from dreams at home. Similarly, the laboratory environment may alter the content of dreams recalled from spontaneous awakenings at the end of a night's sleep, as indicated by high frequency of laboratory references in morning spontaneous awakenings in REM and NREM dream reports).",
"-28.048197844516835"
],
[
"During eight hours' sleep, Van Cauter, Leproult, and Plat found that the men with a high percentage of slow-wave sleep (SWS) (average 24%) also had high growth hormone secretion, while subjects with a low percentage of SWS (average 9%) had low growth hormone secretion. Memory processing It has been widely accepted that sleep must support the formation of long-term memory, and generally increasing previous learning and experiences recalls. However, its benefit seems to depend on the phase of sleep and the type of memory. For example, declarative and procedural memory recall tasks applied over early and late nocturnal sleep, as",
"-28.014485519612208"
],
[
"Sleep state misperception Symptoms and diagnosis This sleep disorder frequently applies when patients report not feeling tired despite their subjective perception of not having slept. Generally, they may describe experiencing several years of no sleep, short sleep, or non-restorative sleep. Otherwise, patients appear healthy, both psychiatrically and medically. (That this condition is often asymptomatic could explain why it is relatively unreported.)\nHowever, upon clinical observation, it is found that patients may severely overestimate the time they took to fall asleep—often reporting having slept half the amount of time indicated by polysomnogram or electroencephalography (EEG), which may record normal sleep. Observing such",
"-27.981328275593114"
],
[
"limit stimulating activity such as watching television, using a computer or being around bright lights. Relaxation training Relaxation training is a collection of practices that can help people to relax throughout the day and particularly close to bedtime. It is useful for insomnia patients with difficulty falling asleep. However it is unclear whether or not it is useful for those who tend to wake up in the middle of the night or very early in the morning. Techniques include hypnosis, guided imagery and meditation. Paradoxical Intention Paradoxical Intention is a treatment method which involves around telling the patient to",
"-27.978737039258704"
],
[
"about 12 hours apart—for example, at 2:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. At those two times, the body clock is activated. At about 2 p.m. (14:00), it overrides the homeostatic buildup of sleep debt, allowing several more hours of wakefulness. At about 2 a.m. (02:00), with the daily sleep debt paid off, it is activated again to ensure a few more hours of sleep. Genetics It is hypothesized that a considerable amount of sleep-related behavior, such as when and how long a person needs to sleep, is regulated by genetics. Researchers have discovered some evidence that seems to support this assumption. Monozygotic (identical)",
"-27.969751745520625"
],
[
"normal environmental temperatures, exercise, light exposure, noise, hunger, and overeating all result in an increase in wakefulness. On the contrary, sexual activity and some foods such as carbohydrates and dairy products promote sleep. Careers in the field In the past, physiological psychologists received a good portion of their training in psychology departments of major universities. Currently, physiological psychologists are also being trained in behavioral neuroscience or biological psychology programs that are affiliated with psychology departments, or in interdisciplinary neuroscience programs. Most physiological psychologists receive PhDs in neuroscience or a related subject and either teach and carry out research at",
"-27.895440277527086"
],
[
"which do not occur in any other modes of sleeping or waking. The body abruptly loses muscle tone, a state known as REM atonia.\nProfessor Nathaniel Kleitman and his student Eugene Aserinsky defined rapid eye movement and linked it to dreams in 1953. REM sleep was further described by researchers including William Dement and Michel Jouvet. Many experiments have involved awakening test subjects whenever they begin to enter the REM phase, thereby producing a state known as REM deprivation. Subjects allowed to sleep normally again usually experience a modest REM rebound. Techniques of neurosurgery, chemical injection, electroencephalography, positron emission tomography, and",
"-27.89247949339915"
],
[
"sleep. During this phase, body temperature and heart rate fall, and the brain uses less energy. REM sleep, also known as paradoxical sleep, represents a smaller portion of total sleep time. It is the main occasion for dreams (or nightmares), and is associated with desynchronized and fast brain waves, eye movements, loss of muscle tone, and suspension of homeostasis.\nThe sleep cycle of alternate NREM and REM sleep takes an average of 90 minutes, occurring 4–6 times in a good night's sleep. The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) divides NREM into three stages: N1, N2, and N3, the last of",
"-27.88460704793397"
],
[
"Seth Roberts Self-experimentation In the early 1980s, Roberts suffered from insomnia. Through self-experimentation, he set out to solve this problem by varying aspects of his lifestyle, like exercise and calcium intake. After many failures to see an improvement in his sleep, he eventually discovered that delaying breakfast, seeing faces in the morning light, and standing solved this problem. When Roberts discovered a trend or solution, he typically looked backwards evolutionarily for an explanation. Roberts would later apply this method to solving problems in health, sleep, and mood, among other things.\nThe generalized validity of Robert's conclusions have been questioned by scientists",
"-27.866942954064143"
],
[
"a state of relaxation that shifts an individual's internal clock towards the sleep cycle. This is said to have an effect on children and adults with various cases of sleep disorders. Music is most effective before bed once the brain has been conditioned to it, helping to achieve sleep much faster. Melatonin In addressing sleep disorders and possible solutions, there is often a lot of buzz surrounding melatonin. Research suggests that melatonin is useful in helping people to fall asleep faster (decreased sleep latency), to stay asleep longer, and to experience improved sleep quality. In order to test this, a",
"-27.856513764098054"
],
[
"the cortex via the hypothalamus. During NREM sleep this system is inhibited by GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area and parafacial zone, as well as other sleep-promoting neurons in distinct brain regions. Sleep function The need and function of sleep are among the least clearly understood areas in sleep research. When asked, after 50 years of research, what he knew about the reason people sleep, William C. Dement, founder of Stanford University's Sleep Research Center, answered, \"As far as I know, the only reason we need to sleep that is really, really solid is because we get sleepy.\" It",
"-27.84172430205217"
],
[
"up to 7 days, he deprived the participants of REM sleep by waking them each time they started to enter the stage. He monitored this with small electrodes attached to their scalp and temples. As the study went on, he noticed that the more he deprived the men of REM sleep, the more often he had to wake them. Afterwards, they showed more REM sleep than usual, later named REM rebound.\nThe neurobehavioral basis for these has been studied only recently. Sleep deprivation has been strongly correlated with increased probability of accidents and industrial errors. Many studies have shown the slowing",
"-27.813542832271196"
],
[
"awakenings in at least a few nights per week due to their cell phones' ringers. Among those with the cell phone ringers on, being awakened by their cell phone was correlated to difficulty sustaining sleep.\nAccording to the article, \"Interrupted Sleep: College Students Sleeping with Technology\" by Elizabeth B. Dowdell and Brianne Q. Clayton, sleep-deprived college students performed significantly worse than peers who had adequate sleep on the cognitive task work and that the sleep-deprived students were not aware of the extent to which sleep deprivation negatively affects their ability to complete cognitive tasks. Insufficient sleep while in college may be",
"-27.795586960673972"
],
[
"after REM sleep ends.\nDuring a night of sleep, humans usually experience about four or five periods of REM sleep; they are shorter (~15 min) at the beginning of the night and longer (~25 min) toward the end. Many animals and some people tend to wake, or experience a period of very light sleep, for a short time immediately after a bout of REM. The relative amount of REM sleep varies considerably with age. A newborn baby spends more than 80% of total sleep time in REM.\nREM sleep typically occupies 20–25% of total sleep in adult humans: about 90–120 minutes of",
"-27.79211818809563"
],
[
"Sleep inversion Sleep inversion or sleep-wake inversion is a reversal of sleeping tendencies. Individuals experiencing sleep-wake inversion exchange diurnal habits for nocturnal habits, meaning they are active at night and sleep during the day. Sleep-wake inversion, when involuntary, can be a sign of a serious disorder. Symptoms Individuals with the delayed sleep phase type of the disorder exhibit habitually late sleep hours and an inability to change their sleeping schedule consistently. They often show sleepiness during the desired wake period of their days. Their actual phase of sleep is normal. Once they fall asleep, they stay asleep for a",
"-27.77730513921233"
],
[
"open my eyes, listen – Is it here or isn't? No sign of it. Perhaps it's asleep. Perhaps it will leave me alone today. Carefully, very carefully, I get out of bed. All is quiet. I go to the kitchen, start breakfast. Not a sound. TV – Good Morning America –, David What's-his-name, a guy I can't stand. I eat and watch the guests. Slowly the food fills my stomach and gives me strength. Now a quick excursion to the bathroom, and out for my morning walk – and here she is, my faithful depression: \"Did you think you could",
"-27.77499493781943"
],
[
"wake up earlier or sleep later.\nThis chronotype questionnaire is important because it delves into the social aspects of circadian rhythms. By testing behavior rather than directly testing genetic factors, the MCTQ may offer new information regarding how the effects of external factors, including geographic location, seasons, obesity, social jet lag, or shift work, may relate to genetic predispositions of circadian rhythms. Internal time Roenneberg released a book in March 2012 titled Internal Time: Chronotypes, Social Jet Lag, and Why You're So Tired where he explains the concepts behind circadian rhythm to the masses. One of the major points in his",
"-27.725318550074007"
],
[
"immediate attempt to quickly enter REM stages and long-term effects on motor coordination and habitual motor habits, eventually leading to the death of the animal. It has also been shown that homeothermic animals might require sleep to maintain body weight and temperature. Waking The waking consciousness is the awareness of the world, our bodies, and ourselves. This includes humans experiencing the awareness of being aware of ourselves, an intrinsic ability to humans. It's the ability to look in a mirror and know that you are looking at yourself, and not just another human being. Being awake allows the distinction",
"-27.674699729221174"
],
[
"Horne, a sleep researcher at Loughborough University, has suggested that REM in modern humans compensates for the reduced need for wakeful food foraging.\nOther theories are that REM sleep warms the brain, stimulates and stabilizes the neural circuits that have not been activated during waking, or creates internal stimulation to aid development of the CNS; while some argue that REM lacks any purpose, and simply results from random brain activation. Discovery and further research Recognition of different types of sleep can be seen in the literature of ancient India and Rome. Observers have long noticed that sleeping dogs twitch and",
"-27.64677917191875"
],
[
"spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to",
"-27.613266823726008"
],
[
"They also took about two hours to fall asleep. Buckminster Fuller In order to gain more time awake in the day, Buckminster Fuller reportedly advocated a regimen consisting of 30-minute naps every six hours. The short article about Fuller's nap schedule in Time in 1943, which also refers to such a schedule as \"intermittent sleeping\", says that he maintained it for two years, and further notes \"he had to quit because his schedule conflicted with that of his business associates, who insisted on sleeping like other men.\" Criticism Piotr Woźniak considers the theory behind severe reduction of total sleep time",
"-27.602259988987498"
],
[
"hour naps two to three times a day, with the third nap dropped by about nine months. By one year of age, the amount of sleep that most infants get nightly approximates to that of adults. Good sleep conditions Many parents try to understand, once the baby is asleep, how to keep them sleeping through the night. It is thought that it is important to have structure in the way a child is put to sleep so that he or she can establish good sleeping patterns. Dr Sylvia Bell of Johns Hopkins University reported: by the end of the first",
"-27.590972640900873"
],
[
"Sleep Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body, characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, reduced muscle activity and inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and reduced interactions with surroundings. It is distinguished from wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, but more reactive than coma or disorders of consciousness, with sleep displaying very different and active brain patterns.\nSleep occurs in repeating periods, in which the body alternates between two distinct modes: REM sleep and non-REM sleep. Although REM stands for \"rapid eye movement\", this mode of sleep",
"-27.550990417352295"
],
[
"sleep propensity.\nIn average, the latency in healthy adults decreases by a few minutes after a night without sleep, and the latency from sleep onset to slow-wave sleep is halved. Sleep latency is generally measured with the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT). In contrast, the maintenance of wakefulness test (MWT) also uses sleep latency, but this time as a measure of the capacity of the participants to stay awake (when asked to) instead of falling asleep. On sleep-wake cycle Research studying sleep deprivation show its impact on mood, cognitive and motor functioning, due to dysregulation of the sleep-wake cycle and augmented",
"-27.541664498887258"
],
[
"that previous day's mood. Theory and research on incubation, long recognized as a part of the creative process, suggest such cross-day effects. Thus, if positive mood on a particular day increases the number and scope of available thoughts, those additional thoughts may incubate overnight, increasing the probability of creative thoughts the following day.\nRecent advances in neuroscience provide intriguing evidence of the mechanisms underlying incubation effects, particularly those that occur during sleep. This research reveals that people's experiences while awake can be consolidated into memory and result in enhanced performance the next day without any additional practice or engagement in the",
"-27.5314872902527"
],
[
"awake, too much time is spent sleeping, or a combination of both. Uninterruptible sleep An uninterruptible sleep state is a sleep state that won't handle a signal right away. It will wake only as a result of a waited-upon resource becoming available or after a time-out occurs during that wait (if specified when put to sleep). It is mostly used by device drivers waiting for disk or network IO (input/output).\nWhen the process is sleeping uninterruptibly, signals accumulated during the sleep will be noticed when the process returns from the system call or trap.\nIn Unix-like systems the command 'ps -l' uses",
"-27.52747087751777"
],
[
"second and third episodes increasing to 15–20 minutes. Dreams at the end of the night may last typically 15 minutes, although these may be experienced as several distinct stories due to momentary arousals interrupting sleep as the night ends.\nDream reports can normally be made 50% of the time when an awakening occurs prior to the end of the first REM period. This rate of retrieval is increased to about 99% when awakenings occur during the last REM period of the night. This increase in the ability to recall appears to be related to intensification across the night in the vividness",
"-27.51698958320776"
],
[
"could not get much sleep afterwards on account of the noise of the people, bands, etc., etc. Got up at seven, feeling strong and well; the Park presented a curious spectacle, crowds of people up Constitution Hill, soldiers, Bands, etc.\nAt ten I got into the State Coach with the Duchess of Sutherland and Lord Albemarle and we began our Progress. It was a fine day, and the crowds of people exceeded what I have ever seen; many as there were \nthe day I went to the City, it was nothing, nothing to the multitudes, the millions of my loyal subjects,",
"-27.48481269716285"
],
[
"9 p.m. whereas the other half learned the list at 9 p.m. and were tested the following day at 9 a.m. after a night's sleep. Participants who had slept performed better at recalling the list than those who stayed awake. At the same time, those who slept were also more likely to experience false memories, i.e., they recalled words that were related in meaning to the items on the list but were not actually present. Such findings suggest that a creative synthesis of information may occur during sleep.\nIn other work, Payne and her colleagues examined the effect of sleep on",
"-27.47802392457379"
],
[
"such environmental modifications include using the bed for sleep or sex only, not for activities such as reading or watching television; waking up at the same time every morning, including on weekends; going to bed only when sleepy and when there is a high likelihood that sleep will occur; leaving the bed and beginning an activity in another location if sleep does not result in a reasonably brief period of time after getting into bed (commonly ~20 min); reducing the subjective effort and energy expended trying to fall asleep; avoiding exposure to bright light during nighttime hours, and eliminating daytime",
"-27.409029479124"
],
[
"indicating long term potentiation.\nMoreover, observations include the importance of napping: improved performance in some kinds of tasks after a 1-hour afternoon nap; studies of performance of shift workers, showing that an equal number of hours of sleep in the day is not the same as in the night. Current research studies look at the molecular and physiological basis of memory consolidation during sleep. These, along with studies of genes that may play a role in this phenomenon, together promise to give a more complete picture of the role of sleep in memory. Renormalizing the synaptic strength Sleep can also serve",
"-27.28656540910015"
],
[
"cycle, one experiences reduced attentiveness. During the high points, it is difficult to sleep soundly. The cycle is anchored in part by ambient lighting (darkness causes a person's body to release the hormone melatonin, which induces sleep), and by a person's imposed pattern of regular sleeping and waking times. The influence of the day-night cycle is never fully displaced (standard artificial lighting is not strong enough to inhibit the release of melatonin), and the performance of night shift workers usually suffers. Circadian rhythms are persistent, and can only be shifted by one to two hours forward or backward per day. Changing",
"-27.261433574834427"
],
[
"the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace. Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after",
"-27.24254898977233"
],
[
"sleepiness rating. When scientists deprived subjects of sleep, they found sleep latency levels could drop below 1, i.e., subjects could fall asleep in less than a minute. The amount of sleep loss was directly linked to changes in sleep latency scores.\nThe studies eventually led Dement and Carskadon to conclude that \"the brain keeps an exact accounting of how much sleep it is owed\". Not getting enough sleep during any given period of time leads to a phenomenon called sleep debt, which lowers sleep latency scores and makes sleep-deprived individuals fall asleep more quickly. Home testing of sleep latency For home-testing",
"-27.20738898246782"
],
[
"the sleep onset latency at that particular hour on that particular day.\nDement advises against doing these evaluations at night when sleep onset latency can naturally be lower, particularly in older people. Instead, he suggests testing sleep onset latency during the day, ideally at 10:00 a.m., 12:30 p.m. and 3:00 p.m. A sleep onset latency of 0 to 5 minutes indicates severe sleep deprivation, 5 to 10 minutes is \"troublesome,\" 10 to 15 minutes indicates a mild but \"manageable\" degree of sleep debt, and 15 to 20 minutes is indicative of \"little or no\" sleep debt. Biomarkers of sleepiness Contemporary sleep researchers, including Paul",
"-27.20508810443789"
],
[
"an individual's sleep-wake pattern is based on a period of time of slightly more than 24 hours, their circadian rhythm can become progressively delayed.\nSleep inversion may be a symptom of elevated blood ammonia levels. Diagnosis In order to diagnose circadian rhythm sleep disorder, patients are often asked for records of their sleep and wake times in order to determine if a diagnosis is warranted. Interviews and direct observation in a sleep lab may also be utilized. A diagnosis requires a pattern of sleep disruption caused by a mismatch between a person's circadian sleep-wake pattern and the pattern required by that",
"-27.20438719249796"
],
[
"was tested after staying awake all night, and one group was tested after staying awake all day. Those that slept performed twice as well on the insight problems than those who stayed awake. In the brain Differences in brain activation in the left and right hemisphere seem to be indicative of insight versus non-insight solutions. Using RAT’s that were either presented to the left or right visual field, it was shown that participants having solved the problem with insight were more likely to have been shown the RAT on the left visual field, indicating right hemisphere processing. This provides evidence",
"-27.1922831221018"
],
[
"hypersomnia or excessive sleepiness should only go to bed to sleep or for sexual activity. All other activities such as eating or watching television should be done elsewhere. For those patients, it is also important to go to bed only when they feel tired, than trying to fall asleep for hours. In that case, they probably should get out of bed and read or watch television until they get sleepy. Epidemiology Hypersomnia affects approximately 5% - 10% of the general population, \"with a higher prevalence for men due to the sleep apnea syndromes\".",
"-27.18761706590567"
],
[
"reports of dreamers upon waking, have all been used to study this phase of sleep. Electrical activity in the brain REM sleep is \"paradoxical\" because of its similarities to wakefulness. Although the body is paralyzed, the brain acts somewhat awake, with cerebral neurons firing with the same overall intensity as in wakefulness. Electroencephalography during REM deep sleep reveal fast, low amplitude, desynchronized neural oscillation (brainwaves) that resemble the pattern seen during wakefulness which differ from the slow δ (delta) waves pattern of NREM deep sleep. An important element of this contrast is the θ (theta) rhythm in the hippocampus that",
"-27.180045148706995"
],
[
"his journal of September 24, 1891, and is the subject of a letter to The Lady magazine of October 29, 1891: \nAny one who has tried, as I have often done, the process of getting out of bed at 2 a.m. in a winter night, lighting a candle, and recording some happy thought which would probably be otherwise forgotten, will agree with me it entails much discomfort. All I have now to do, if I wake and think of something I wish to record, is to draw from under the pillow a small memorandum book containing my Nyctograph, write a",
"-27.171036611733143"
],
[
"a sharp decrease in the temperature of the extremities may independently reverse sleep inertia symptoms. Noise is thought to increase attentiveness upon awakening. A drop in temperature of the extremities may prevent heat loss, facilitating the return of core body temperature to homeostatic daytime levels.",
"-27.14331348548876"
],
[
"naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions",
"-27.130990003148327"
],
[
"the demands of society. It is often due to a psychosocial stressor (an event in a person's environment that causes stress or discomfort), especially for adolescents. The delayed sleep-wake cycle leads to chronic sleep deprivation and habitually late sleeping hours. Individuals with this type often have difficulty changing their sleeping patterns to an earlier and more socially acceptable time. Their actual sleep, once it begins, is normal. It is the timing of their sleeping and waking that is persistently delayed.\nThe jet lag type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is characterized by disruptions arising from a mismatch between a person's circadian",
"-27.11180541163776"
],
[
"Media interest in Before I Go to Sleep was considerable and Watson himself was the subject of a profile in the Sunday Times before its UK publication, and The Wall Street Journal before its US publication. Watson has been profiled by Bookseller+Publisher, and interviewed by Kirsty Lang on BBC Radio 4's Front Row. He has also been interviewed by Simon Mayo, when Before I Go to Sleep was chosen as Mayo's bookclub book of the month.",
"-27.10760194058821"
],
[
"REM sleep in several mammals (the rat, the hedgehog, the rabbit, and the rhesus monkey) is followed by a brief awakening. This does not occur for either cats or humans, although humans are more likely to wake from REM sleep than from NREM sleep. Snyder hypothesized that REM sleep activates an animal periodically, to scan the environment for possible predators. This hypothesis does not explain the muscle paralysis of REM sleep; however, a logical analysis might suggest that the muscle paralysis exists to prevent the animal from fully waking up unnecessarily, and allowing it to return easily to deeper sleep.\nJim",
"-27.07575116143562"
],
[
"for cellular excitation via calcium influx and thus favors LTP. What else may be involved The circadian rhythm taking hold is responsible for the feeling of fatigue. Our body naturally starts to shut down, around the time that the sun starts to take its dip into the horizon. The primary chemical for this happening is melatonin, so it would seem natural to wonder if melatonin has some effect on learning and memory formation as well. Every animal that sleeps also exhibits some bodily concentration of melatonin. When studying the effects of sleepiness on fish, it was found that any significant",
"-27.069802429454285"
],
[
"up several times throughout the night, punctuating their sleep with periods of wakefulness, perhaps lasting several hours.\nThe boundaries between sleeping and waking are blurred in these societies. Some observers believe that nighttime sleep in these societies is most often split into two main periods, the first characterized primarily by deep sleep and the second by REM sleep.\nSome societies display a fragmented sleep pattern in which people sleep at all times of the day and night for shorter periods. In many nomadic or hunter-gatherer societies, people will sleep on and off throughout the day or night depending on what is happening.",
"-27.051990417327033"
],
[
"Most REM sleep occurs just above stage I of sleep, and experiences different mental abilities than during NREM sleep. The thought process is non-logical and often bizarre, sensation and perception is vivid but created internally by the brain, and the body's movements are inhibited. Most REM stages last 10–15 minutes, and the average human will go through 4–6 of these stages during sleep each night. Subsequent REM stages increase in duration, so the last REM stage before awakening is the longest and most vivid. During REM sleep the brain shows increased states of minimal inhibition, which degrades in our ability",
"-27.049768651166232"
],
[
"circadian cycle. Scientific studies on sleep have shown that sleep stage at awakening is an important factor in amplifying sleep inertia. Timing Sleep timing is controlled by the circadian clock (Process C), sleep–wake homeostasis (Process S), and to some extent by individual will. Circadian clock Sleep timing depends greatly on hormonal signals from the circadian clock, or Process C, a complex neurochemical system which uses signals from an organism's environment to recreate an internal day–night rhythm. Process C counteracts the homeostatic drive for sleep during the day (in diurnal animals) and augments it at night. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a",
"-26.99559484224301"
],
[
"(an average of 2.8 ± 2 words) compared to having a normal night of sleep (4.7 ± 4 words). These results reinforce the role of sleep on declarative memory formation. This has been further confirmed by observations of low metabolic activity in the prefrontal cortex and temporal and parietal lobes for the temporal learning and verbal learning tasks respectively. Data analysis has also shown that the neural assemblies during SWS correlated significantly more with templates than during waking hours or REM sleep. Also, post-learning, post-SWS reverberations lasted 48 hours, much longer than the duration of novel object learning (1 hour),",
"-26.991199295851402"
],
[
"Cortisol awakening response The cortisol awakening response (CAR) is an increase between 38% and 75% in cortisol levels peaking 30–45 minutes after awakening in the morning in some people. This rise is superimposed upon the late-night rise in cortisol which occurs before awakening. While its purpose is uncertain, it may be linked to the hippocampus' preparation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) in order to face anticipated stress Description Shortly after awakening, a sharp 38–75% (average 50%) increase occurs in the blood level of cortisol in about 77% of healthy people of all ages. The average level of salivary cortisol upon waking",
"-26.98111442894151"
]
] |
8btzne | Why were olde time punishments for relatively minor crimes so severe? Was death for crimes such as stealing not considered to be a tad harsh? | [
"Your question is very general over a myraid of cultures and societies, but, in general, people had much less than they have today, and the things they had, they relied on to stay alive or directly provide for their families. They didn't have WalMarts, Amazon, motor vehicles, and the internet, etc. You couldn't just go get another one... in a couple days or maybe even a couple months... so if you lost something to theft, for example, it was a really big deal... (not that it still isn't a big deal, but you get my point)",
"Not just harsh, but often public punishments. Hangings and floggings and such were carried out in public, for everyone to see. It's meant to have a deterrent effect. You see someone getting tied to a post and flogged in a public square for stealing, and you think twice about ever committing an act of theft yourself. Also physical punishment or execution is less expensive than having to feed and house someone in a prison for years.",
"It’s partly for much the same reason parents used to beat naughty children but now don’t (so much). It’s very hard to punish someone who has nothing and whose life is miserable anyway. It is much easier to punish people who have a lot to lose. So nowadays a parent can confiscate a child’s Xbox (or whatever). But a few hundred years ago their options were more limited. Similarly life today isn’t so bad for most people, so a wider range of effective punishments is available. Note, for instance, that imprisonment with a guaranteed roof over your head and guaranteed meals, is a punishment for most people today, but would have represented an improvement in most peasants’ lives!",
"crazy how all of these comments are defending it. The main thing was, human life wasn't worth much. Especially the life of the poorest and lowest class, if we're talking about medieval Europe for example they were the surfs, just a bunch of fucking peasants who were labor and nothing else. Don't forget that the \"nobles\" are usually just descendants of war lords who conquered the area, usually conquering the serfs who lived on that land as well, they were basically property and the relationship was always one of conquest and domination. Things are not quite as bad now, but I wouldn't say the situation has fundamentally changed. The poorest still don't have enough to survive and are viewed as labor (or if they're homeless absolutely useless). Our punishment system still ravages poor communities, breaking up families and making it very difficult for the primary wage earners to provide for their family. So the situation moderates with hard fought for improvements, but it only moderates to the point where people will accept it, never an inch more. The relationship between the ruling class and the people has rarely been anything other than antagonistic, with that historic view democracy seems a clever tactic to ally ourselves with that rule, especially considering [your vote doesn't influence policy unless you're in the top 10%]( URL_0 ).",
"They basically didn't have jails or prisons. Even large areas would have holding cells or dungeons for only 15 or 20 people. And the state didn't want to pay for jailers either. The goal was swift punishment. So chop off a hand, flog someone, put them in the stocks for day or two - have the punishment, get it over with. But in addition to administration, it was also about the power structure. Stealing from who? It was generally poor people stealing from nobles. Servants stealing from the rich (or robbers). It was very much part and parcel of enforcing the power dynamics, so that someone starving who is thinking about attacking the rich knows it means his ass.",
"They were to deter people from committing the same crime, and to permanently mark you as a criminal (if you lived) so that you can be watched and ostracized by the public. The world was also a lot harsher then. Food was scarce for just about everyone (even the wealthy) until about 200 years ago so stealing food means that you can kill someone else via starvation. Stealing a cow means you have prevented a family from getting milk, stealing a horse means you have prevented someone from travel which can be a death sentence in many places, etc. Theft was not something minor when resources are scarce.",
"Prisons are luxury only rich countries can afford, and in the past, no country was rich enough. Punishment tended to be quick and often permanent. The lucky would get a flogging, branding, or mutilation. The rest would be executed or exiled, which usually amounted to the same thing. Also, punishment isn't just about the seriousness of the crime, it is about deterrent. Horse theft was often a capital offense, not because it was as serious as a murder, but because it was easy to get away with. Without the threat of harsh punishment, certain crimes would occur so often society could not function. Finally, in many feudal societies, local nobles had the right and obligation to dispense justice in their domains. There weren't elected politicians representing the people, it was one person's opinion whether something was harsh or not."
] | [
[
"one of the crimes that drew the death penalty; it was defined as the theft of goods worth more than 12 pence, about one-twentieth of the weekly wage for a skilled worker at the time. As the 18th century proceeded, jurors often deliberately under-assessed the value of stolen goods, in order to avoid a mandatory death sentence.\nAs the 17th century drew to a close, lawmakers sought a less harsh punishment that might still deter potential offenders; penal transportation with a term of indentured servitude became the more common punishment. This trend was continued by the Transportation Act 1717 (16 Geo. 3",
"-29.64374137285631"
],
[
"this phenomenon led to executions being carried out inside prisons, away from public view.\nIn England in the 18th century, when there was no police force, Parliament drastically increased the number of capital offences to more than 200. These were mainly property offences, for example cutting down a cherry tree in an orchard. In 1820, there were 160, including crimes such as shoplifting, petty theft or stealing cattle. The severity of the so-called Bloody Code was often tempered by juries who refused to convict, or judges, in the case of petty theft, who arbitrarily set the value stolen at below the",
"-28.348997954977676"
],
[
"neighbors could be punished along with the offender. These harsh methods, and liberal use of the death penalty, continued throughout the Edo period and into the early Meiji period, but due to the influence of Confucianism, offenses against masters and elders were increasingly punished much more harshly than offenses against those of lower rank. Torture was used to extract confessions. In 1871, as the result of a major reform of the penal code, the number of crimes punishable by death was decreased and excessively cruel torture and flogging were abolished. In 1873, another revision resulted in a further reduction in",
"-28.263057305535767"
],
[
"some of the punishments and justice could be gruesome. The magnitude of criminal penalties often was based on the identity and gender of both the person committing the crime and the victim. The Code issues justice following the three classes of Babylonian society: property owners, freed men, and slaves.\nPunishments for someone assaulting someone from a lower class were far lighter than if they had assaulted someone of equal or higher status. For example, if a doctor killed a rich patient, he would have his hands cut off, but if he killed a slave, only financial restitution was required. Women could",
"-27.485419554021064"
],
[
"public execution and torture became more widespread both in Europe and in the United States. Particularly under the Bloody Code, with few sentencing alternatives, imposition of the death penalty for petty crimes, such as theft, was proving increasingly unpopular with the public; many jurors were refusing to convict defendants of petty crimes when they knew the defendants would be sentenced to death. Rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard",
"-27.43768976489082"
],
[
"and criminal offences. Sometimes civil disputes were allowed to drag on until time offered the solution. Crimes such as theft, adultery and forgery were considered serious offences. In most cases the punishment was in the order of the offender having to maintain a perpetual lamp at a temple. Even murder was punished with a fine. In one instance a man had stabbed an army commander. Rajendra Chola II ordered the culprit to endow 96 sheep for a lamp at a neighbouring temple.\nCapital punishment was uncommon even in the cases of first-degree murder. Only one solitary instance of capital punishment is",
"-26.935933855022085"
],
[
"Minor crimes were investigated by senior officers and disciplined with military sanctions if found guilty. Punishment was often eight to fifteen days in the dungeon. In more severe cases of minor crimes, such as stealing from a fellow soldier, the convicted man was forced to \"run the gauntlet\" which entailed running between two rows of soldiers who would proceed to strike the soldier in the back with the butt-end of their muskets before he was forced to renew his oath to the French flag in front of his fellow military brethren.\nMilitary officers were also subject to both military and civilian",
"-26.922615816081816"
],
[
"proportionality. In this respect, they differ from many previous systems of punishment, for example, England's Bloody Code, under which the penalty of theft had been the same regardless of the value stolen, giving rise to the English expression \"It is as well to be hanged for a sheep or a lamb\". Subsequent development of the ideas of Beccaria made non-lethal punishment more acceptable. Consequently, convicted prisoners had to be re-integrated into society when their punishment was complete.\nPenologists have consequently evolved occupational and psychological education programs for offenders detained in prison, and a range of community service and probation orders which",
"-26.883910202072002"
],
[
"by the nobles themselves or their appointed officials.\nA criminal first had to compensate the victim for the material losses (the stolen object was usually not returned to the victim, but transferred to the court). The code devoted special attention to this issue. Then criminal was subject to the actual punishment. There were four types of punishments: the stolen object was confiscated for the benefit of the court; if the object was not available, it was replaced by other compensation of equal value; flogging and putting into stocks; hanging. The death sentence was limited to repeated offenders, thefts of cows and",
"-26.715477844758425"
],
[
"as branding, eye gouging, or execution, but for minor crimes they were sent to the Tuchthuis, the local workhouse. Coornhert wrote the first treatise on criminals and pleaded for more humane treatment. The latter 17th century saw some reforms and a restriction in public executions, which came to be seen as barbaric.\nAfter 1755, keeping the prisoners upstairs significantly improved their living conditions, but it also saw a change in the purpose of their stay, as they had no contact anymore with the outside world. Before this change, prisoners were only held until sentencing, and their stay in jail was relatively",
"-26.657136598136276"
],
[
"undesirables, so harsher measures were enacted. Repeat offenders were to be punished by having ears cut off, and, on the third offense, to have the tongue \"bored through with a hot iron\". By 1658 the punishment for the third offense had been raised to death, \"except they do then and there plainly and publicly renounce their said cursed opinions and devilish tenets.\" In October 1658 the death penalty was enacted for the second offense in Massachusetts. One year later, three Quakers were arrested and sentenced to death under this law. Two of them, Marmaduke Stephenson and William Robinson, were hanged,",
"-26.63988660648465"
],
[
"kinds.\nCommon wisdom in the England of the 1500s attributed property crime to idleness. \"Idleness\" had been a status crime since Parliament enacted the Statute of Laborers in the mid-fourteenth century. By 1530, English subjects convicted of leading a \"Rogishe or Vagabonds Trade or Lyfe\" were subject to whipping and mutilation, and recidivists could face the death penalty.\nIn 1557, many in England perceived that vagrancy was on the rise. That same year, the City of London reopened the Bridewell as a warehouse for vagrants arrested within the city limits. By order of any two of the Bridewell's governors, a person could",
"-26.597450575209223"
],
[
"a mere poor commoner. The death sentence could be pronounced for a variety of crimes including mere theft; depending on the crime and the social class of the victim, death could be by decapitation with a sword (for nobles), hanging (for most of the secondary crimes by commoners), the breaking wheel (for some heinous crimes by commoners), and even burning at the stake (for heresy, or advocacy of atheism). Some crimes, such as regicide, exacted even more horrific punishment. With the spread of enlightenment ideas throughout France, most forms of judicial torture had fallen out of favor, and while they",
"-26.463329895748757"
],
[
"it may have been punishable by exile. However, academic David D Phillips says that these categories \"do not correspond to the common-law categories of murder and manslaughter either in their original significance or in their present definitions\", because under Athenian law intentional homicide would include both murder and voluntary manslaughter.\nAnglo-Saxon law recognised particular degrees of homicide, with the worst being forsteall (killing by ambush). Murdra was a separate type of aggravated (secret) homicide under Anglo-Saxon law; William the Conqueror defined it narrowly as a fine that would be charged on a hundred following the slaying of a foreigner (originally a",
"-26.433891950407997"
],
[
"to pay, if anything, depending on who was slain. The primary form of state-administered punishment during ancient times and the Middle Ages was banishment or exile. Though a prison, Le Stinche, existed as early as the 14th century in Florence, incarceration was not widely used until the 19th century. Rather, it was used to detain prisoners before trial or for imprisoning people without judicial process.\nThe Anglo-Saxon system of maintaining public order was a private system of tithings, since the Norman conquest led by a constable, which was based on a social obligation for the good conduct of the others; more",
"-26.392232889527804"
],
[
"public punishments. Apart from public shaming, and sending criminals to the stocks; caning, flogging, branding, and even banishment became the most popular forms of punishment in New France. Crimes such as rape, abortion and counterfeiting were some of the most heavily punished offenses and crimes that were committed at night, especially thefts, were generally dealt with more harshly. The court and/or the attorney-general was tasked with devising an appropriate punishment for an offender. The severity of the punishment hinged on the social status of the accused, the severity of the crime, the probability of being guilty and the amount of",
"-26.389202492777258"
],
[
"had become redundant and obsolete, because not long afterwards criminal punishment had become 'humane'. However, this 'humaneness' had its own rationale. According to Foucault, the very notion of the criminal had become political within the confines of political economy, the western legal system had been transformed from one of cruelty to one of repeating one's crimes over and over again, therefore producing the 'rational' professional criminal; criminals were punished differently (and less dramatically, rather ironically). The professional criminal had now been tied to the general specifics of the judiciary, giving the rather false impression that the working population were susceptible",
"-26.28302272610017"
],
[
"reason why this crime was considered worse than an ordinary murder; medieval and post-medieval society rested on a framework in which each person had his or her appointed place and such murders were seen as threatening this framework. Many people had somebody subordinate to them and feared the consequences if the murder of superiors was not punished harshly. Penalty The punishment for a man convicted of petty treason was to be drawn to the place of execution and hanged, but not quartered as in the case of high treason. The punishment for a woman was to be burned at the",
"-26.265580699720886"
],
[
"Bloody Code Capital punishment and transportation In 1688 there were 50 offences on the statute book punishable by death, but that number had almost quadrupled by 1776, and it reached 220 by the end of the century. Most of the new laws introduced during that period were concerned with the defence of property, which some commentators have interpreted as a form of class suppression of the poor by the rich. George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax, expressed a contemporary view when he said that \"Men are not hanged for stealing horses, but that horses may not be stolen\". Grand larceny was",
"-26.26250014390098"
],
[
"a child aged 7–14 years of age\" and \"blacking the face or using a disguise whilst committing a crime\". Many of these offences had been introduced to protect the property of the wealthy classes that emerged during the first half of the 18th century, a notable example being the Black Act of 1723, which created 50 capital offences for various acts of theft and poaching. Crimes eligible for the death penalty included shoplifting and stealing sheep, cattle, and horses, and before abolition of the death penalty for theft in 1832, \"English law was notorious for prescribing the death penalty for",
"-26.243860360002145"
],
[
"punishment for engaging in bestiality from capital punishment to a sentence of hard labor ranging from about eight months to six years, which was further reduced with about one third if the penalty was served in solitude. On June 25, 1869, Iceland adopted a new penal code that replaced a 13th-century law mandating death by burning for \"intercourse which is against nature\" (bestiality) to a punishment of work in a house of correction.\nOn May 15, 1871, the German Empire enacted Paragraph 175 into the “Reichs-Criminal Code” (RStGB) which outlawed zoophilia and punished it by imprisonment. In 1878, the penal code",
"-26.167984701751266"
],
[
"more regulated in the following century. In the era of the cabinet wars between 1648 and 1789 the opponents tried to spare the civilian population. Plundering was often a kind of confiscation, as the people got the opportunity to redeem their property from the looters. Excesses against civilians and destructions of buildings became rare or at least less brutal. Nevertheless, less brutal is a relative term. Ebringen has been sacked quite often in the century after the Thirty Years' War, mostly by French mercenaries, but also by Austrian troops. Local political system In the Holy Roman Empire the respective rights",
"-26.023443818441592"
],
[
"states have legislation which lists the most common offences and fix their penalties, but do not always exhaustively define the elements of the offence. For example, in New South Wales, section 117 of the Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) states:\n117. Punishment for larceny\nWhosoever commitindictable offence by this Act made punishable like larceny, shall, except in the cases hereinafter otherwise provided for, be liable to imprisonment for five years.\nThis section states that larceny (i.e. stealing) is an indictable offence and that the punishment is imprisonment for five years. But neither this section nor the remainder of the Act defines larceny. The offence",
"-25.96334318164736"
],
[
"a vast range of offences as slight as the theft of goods valued at twelve pence.\"\nWhilst executions for murder, burglary and robbery were common, the death sentences for minor offenders were often not carried out. A sentence of death could be commuted or respited (permanently postponed) for reasons such as benefit of clergy, official pardons, pregnancy of the offender or performance of military or naval duty. Between 1770 and 1830, an estimated 35,000 death sentences were handed down in England and Wales, of which 7,000 executions were carried out. Last executions England and in the United Kingdom: on 13 August",
"-25.957158283272292"
],
[
"the contrary, the level of violence among medieval populations were exceeded only by the force applied by emerging states in their attempts to maintain control and suppress it. Deciding guilt in an offender was more important than the nature of the offense. Once the guilt was announced, the question was not so much whether an execution should take place but how dramatic it should be. There were not many punishments besides exile and execution.\nIn the Islamic system of hadd, applied 1400 years ago, the punishment for crimes was public and aimed at general social deterrence. Impact of alcohol and drugs",
"-25.809531548060477"
],
[
"differently than adult criminals, and there was little distinction in the way penalties were imposed. Children were liable to the same harsh penalties as adults, such as flogging, imprisonment and even death. The Judicial Commission of New South Wales cites an example of one English judge who, after condemning a 10-year-old boy to death, described the boy as “a proper subject for capital punishment”. The commission also noted that on one day in 1815, five children aged between eight and 12 years were hanged for petty larceny in England.\nVictoria in the early 1900s was making progress towards a more enlightened",
"-25.760598622378893"
],
[
"The Roots of Evil Overview Cruel punishments have an inevitable tendency to produce cruelty...\n— Sir Samuel Romilly 1813\nWith this conclusion, Hibbert traces the development and decline of cruel punishments, the guillotine in France and the modern prison in England, which still used hanging when the book was first published. The chapter Causes and Cures contains the salient point that \"There seems, indeed, no surer way of keeping a boy [or girl] from a life of crime than providing him with a happy and worthwhile childhood in a family which loves him and which he loves\", and suggests that while \"a crime",
"-25.730652409081813"
],
[
"prohibited the practice in 1602. Offenders would receive capital punishment. The only known incident where a very large number of people were indiscriminately killed in the Edo period was the 1696 Yoshiwara spree killing (吉原百人斬り), where a wealthy lord had a psychotic fit and murdered dozens of prostitutes with a katana. He was treated by authorities as a spree killer and sentenced to death. Later, a kabuki play was made about the incident.",
"-25.665837740758434"
],
[
"punishment. This was because even within the category of \"Class A\" murders, there were some offenders who were not as morally culpable as the others, since the offence could have occurred in the heat of the moment. To deny the offender a chance to show the court that it would be disproportionate and inappropriate to impose the death penalty on him would thus be to deny his basic humanity.\nThe second case was the United States Supreme Court decision Woodson v. North Carolina (1976). The Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits cruel and unusual punishment, and the Court proceeded",
"-25.644899589242414"
],
[
"gores a slave, the ox owner must pay the servant's master a 30 shekel fine.\nThe murder of slaves by owners was prohibited in the Law covenant. The Covenant Code clearly institutes the death penalty for beating a free man to death; in contrast, beating a slave to death was to be avenged only if the slave does not survive for one or two days after the beating. Abraham ben Nathan of Lunel, a 12th-century Provençal scholar, Targum, and Maimonides argue that avenged implies the death penalty, but more recent scholars view it as probably describing a lesser punishment. A number",
"-25.629123596125282"
],
[
"regulated and any deviation from the established standard punished. In Tallinn, for example, if one cursed a brother member, he had to pay a fine of 1 mark; the fine was 2 marks if he hit him on the face or the ear, and 3 marks if he hit him again. There were stiffer fines for offenses carried out in public. Missing ceremonial meals, festivities, and church services were also penalized. Many of the fines had to be paid in wax which was a valuable commodity during the Middle Ages; wax was used for lighting up their own halls and",
"-25.56890935578849"
],
[
"guilty of felonies could be subjected to different types of punishments depending on the case. Hanging was the most common penalty for the majority of crimes but during the 18th century it was scaled down, and new punishments were practised. Theft by footpads was often categorized as a violent felony. The penalty for violent robbery was hanging on the gallows, but judges occasionally condemned those convicted of egregious crimes to hanging in chains near the scene of the offence. Until 1783, when the procession to Tyburn (the place in which hangings took place) was abolished, executions were carried out in",
"-25.46767095196992"
],
[
"the Old Bailey. Prosecuting was expensive and took considerable time, yet it did not ensure the return of the stolen goods to the victim. Consequently, victims started to pay private individuals to conduct investigation and provide evidence for conviction. Likewise public authorities begun to offer rewards to people actively involved in the conviction of felons or the betrayal accomplices. Those men implicated in the catching of thieves for financial purposes were called thief-takers. Newspapers and crime literature A notable fact that contributed to mark the perception of crime in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is the booming interest for crime",
"-25.398715101782273"
],
[
"penalty the perjurer sought to bring upon another.\nThe death penalty was freely rendered for theft and other crimes in this section of the Code: for theft involving entering a palace or temple treasury, for illegal purchase from a minor or slave, for selling stolen goods or receiving the same, for common theft in the open (in lieu of multiple-fold restoration) or receiving the same, for false claim to goods, for kidnapping, for assisting or harbouring fugitive slaves, for detaining or appropriating the same, for brigandage, for fraudulent sale of drink, for not reporting criminal conspiracy in one's tavern, for delegation",
"-25.360572822217364"
],
[
"death penalty was fairly rare; only one sex-related crime resulted in execution, a 1642 incidence of bestiality by Thomas Granger. Edward Bumpus was sentenced to death for \"striking and abusing his parents\" in 1679, but his sentence was commuted to a severe whipping by reason of insanity. Perhaps the most notable use of the death penalty was in the execution of the Native Americans convicted of the murder of John Sassamon; this helped lead to King Philip's War. Though nominally a capital crime, adultery was usually dealt with by public humiliation only. Convicted adulterers were often forced to wear the",
"-25.324838131142315"
],
[
"revolts against the monarchy had almost universally resulted in an automatic death sentence, and was perhaps due to society's changing views of the death penalty. By the late 1890s, capital punishment for murder was virtually never carried out, but substituted with 10 to 15 years imprisonment with hard labor, although it still was carried out for treason (for example, Alexander Ulyanov was hanged in 1887). However, in 1910, capital punishment was reintroduced and expanded, although still very seldom used. Russian Republic The death penalty was officially outlawed on March 12, 1917 following the February Revolution and the establishment of the",
"-25.290022735047387"
],
[
"On Crimes and Punishments suggested that the death penalty should be abolished and replaced with a lifetime of enslavement for the worst criminals; Jefferson likely included the clause due to his agreement with Beccaria. Beccaria, while attempting to reduce \"legal barbarism\" of the 1700s, considered forced labor one of the few harsh punishments acceptable; for example, he advocated slave labor as a just punishment for robbery, so that the thief's labor could be used to pay recompense to their victims and to society. Penal \"hard labor\" has ancient origins, and was adopted early in American history (as in Europe) often",
"-25.26254359408631"
],
[
"of inheritances, and military misconduct. For example, in the case for adultery, there were different punishments according to the levels of adultery and the status of those involved.\nAdulterers were stoned, burned, or hanged if they had committed murder because of their extramarital affair. The Mapa Quinatzin depicts the hanging of a robber for stealing or breaking into a house. In cases of military misconduct, for example those soldiers who did not follow orders or killed captives, the condemned were hanged or beheaded. Nobles, too, were not immune to such punishments. Sons who stole from their father’s property were suffocated. Drunkards,",
"-25.23290190647822"
],
[
"many cases, these types of murders resulted in a royal pardon. Petty crime was common; men did not have pockets in their clothing, but instead carried purses around their necks or on their belts. Thieves cut them loose and ran away.\nHeresy and sorcery were considered especially serious crimes; witches and heretics were usually burned, and the king sometimes attended the executions to display his role as defender of the Christian faith. Others were decapitated or hanged. Beginning in about 1314, a large gibet was built on a hill outside of Paris, near the modern Parc des Buttes Chaumont, where the",
"-25.218822380993515"
],
[
"by the nature of the punishment that may be imposed, not the punishment that is actually imposed; however, crimes punishable by death must be tried upon indictments. The historical origin of \"infamous crime\" comes from the infamia, a punishment under Roman law by which a citizen was deprived of his citizenship. In United States v. Moreland, 258 U.S. 433 (1922), the Supreme Court held that incarceration in a prison or penitentiary, as opposed to a correction or reformation house, attaches infamy to a crime. In Mackin v. United States, 117 U.S. 348 (1886), the Supreme Court judged that \"'Infamous",
"-25.17839538329281"
],
[
"Capital punishment History Execution of criminals and dissidents has been used by nearly all societies since the beginning of civilizations on Earth. Until the nineteenth century, without developed prison systems, there was frequently no workable alternative to ensure deterrence and incapacitation of criminals. In pre-modern times the executions themselves often involved torture with cruel and painful methods, such as the breaking wheel, keelhauling, sawing, hanging, drawing, and quartering, brazen bull, burning at the stake, flaying, slow slicing, boiling alive, impalement, mazzatello, blowing from a gun, schwedentrunk, blood eagle, and scaphism.\nThe use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded",
"-25.16687330568675"
],
[
"Evil customs Abolition The abolition of the evil or bad customs took a long time and this could primarily be attributed to the way that it formed part of the identity of the serfs, serving as an essential element in the definition of their servile bond and legal status as subordinate to the lords. Before the series of peasant revolts that stemmed from the ius malectrandi, there were already attempts on the part of the royal courts to eliminate this system of servitude. For instance, Maria de Luna, queen of Aragon-Catalonia began raising the issue some time in the fifteenth",
"-25.115427831187844"
],
[
"many cases, as the age of an offender increases the likelihood of re-offending decreases, as the elderly are less capable of coping with a criminal lifestyle and grow tired of being punished. However, as a criminal ages the type of crime can evolve, with crimes such as embezzlement, fraud, gambling and drunkenness either being unlimited by age or peaking when a criminal is of the age of 50 or above.",
"-25.088179225334898"
],
[
"women. In addition, much of the blame and punishment for crimes was attributed to those in the lowest rank in society.\nWhipping was the most commonly used form of punishment, especially in the south with slaves. Other frequently used punishments included branding, cutting off ears, and placing people in the pillory. These punishments were sometimes harsher, depending on the crimes committed. In the American colonies, executions were less common than in England. However, when such a method was used, it was most often a public hanging. Usually capital offenses, such as murder or rape, or repeated serious offenses constituted a need",
"-25.07369568728609"
],
[
"on prisoners before their sentences even began. Guards, whose incomes partially depended on extorting their wards, charged the prisoners for food, bedding, and to be released from their shackles. To earn additional money, guards blackmailed and tortured prisoners. Among the most notorious Keepers in the Middle Ages were the 14th-century gaolers Edmund Lorimer, who was infamous for charging inmates four times the legal limit for the removal of irons, and Hugh De Croydon, who was eventually convicted of blackmailing prisoners in his care.\nIndeed, the list of things that prison guards were not allowed to do serve as a better indication",
"-25.060677423665766"
],
[
"hard to separate them; and to this usage the interpretations of the law do now conform.\"\nThe death penalty for felony could be avoided by pleading benefit of clergy, which gradually evolved to exempt everybody (whether clergy or not) from that punishment for a first offense, except for high treason and offenses expressly excluded by statute. During the 19th century criminal law reform incrementally reduced the number of capital offenses to five (see Capital punishment in the United Kingdom), and forfeiture for felony was abolished by the Forfeiture Act 1870. Consequently, the distinction between felony and misdemeanor became increasingly arbitrary. The",
"-25.05325909363455"
],
[
"judgment of the presiding official as to the relative \"worth\" (dignitas) of the defendant: an honestior could pay a fine when convicted of a crime for which an humilior might receive a scourging.\nExecution, which had been an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic even in a capital case, could be quick and relatively painless for the Imperial citizen considered \"more honourable\", while those deemed inferior might suffer the kinds of torture and prolonged death previously reserved for slaves, such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts as a spectacle in the arena. In the early Empire, those",
"-25.031356850871816"
],
[
"from all over the Laws and the articles of the other four were roughly ordered one after the other:\n1. Theft and related offences,\n2. False distraint,\n3. Sexual offences,\n4. Bodily injuries,\n5. Damages caused by a goring ox and comparable cases.\nThe majority of these offences were penalized with pecuniary fines (an amount of silver), but some serious offences such as burglary, murder, and sexual offences were penalized with death. It seems that the capital punishment was avoidable (in contrast to the Code of Hammurabi), because of the standard formulation: “It is a case of life … he shall die”.",
"-25.00174880103441"
],
[
"of the Kingdom of Hungary criminalized bestiality with a maximum of one year in prison. Sweden, in 1864, and Grand Duchy of Finland, on December 19, 1889, adopted new penal codes replacing and a 1734 penal code, which applied to both countries and criminalized bestiality with being burnt at the stake. The 1864 Swedish law punished \"fornication with animals\" (bestiality) with two years hard labor, while the 1889 Finished law punished bestiality with imprisonment for two years. 20th-Century On June 28, 1935, Nazi Germany enacted legislation that created a separate category in Paragraph 175 for \"fornication with animals\" and penalized",
"-24.99756424408406"
],
[
"drawn and quartered while Anne Rogers was burnt alive. Evidence supplied by an informant led to the arrest of the last of the English Coiners \"King\" David Hartley, who was executed by hanging in 1770. The extreme forms of punishment were meted out for acts of treason against state or Crown, rather than simple crime.\n \nIn the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, Irish immigrants to London were particularly associated with the spending (uttering) of counterfeit money, while locals were more likely to participate in the safer and more profitable forms of currency crime, which could take place behind locked",
"-24.973786503775045"
],
[
"under the reign of Henry's son Edward VI, something that the historian Owen Davies believed was due to those in power changing their opinion on the law: they believed that either the death penalty was too harsh for such crimes or that the practice of the cunning craft was a moral issue that was better for the Church to deal with in ecclesiastic courts rather than a problem that had to be sorted out by the state.\nFor the following few decades, the magical practices of the cunning folk remained legal, despite opposition from certain religious authorities. It was a time",
"-24.952855815412477"
],
[
"until 1776, as an alternative to the death penalty, which could be imposed for many offenses including pilfering. When they ran out of prisons in 1776 they used old sailing vessels which came to be called hulks as places of temporary confinement.\nThe most notable reformer was John Howard who, having visited several hundred prisons across England and Europe, beginning when he was high sheriff of Bedfordshire, published The State of the Prisons in 1777. He was particularly appalled to discover prisoners who had been acquitted but were still confined because they couldn't pay the jailer's fees. He proposed that each",
"-24.952700136287604"
],
[
"which often resulted in the abuse of power. Capital punishment was the main measure of dealing with offenders in the criminal justice system. Under feudalism, authorities frequently used the death penalty against political rivals. However, after the Meiji Restoration, as Western culture was introduced, the government established new laws reflecting a gradually modernizing Japanese society. In 1907, criminal law and prison law were passed in an effort to bring Japan into line with Western countries. However, the rights of offenders did not become a main issue in the criminal justice system until the post-war period.\nBased on the new Constitution, Criminal",
"-24.895596715323336"
],
[
"to ancient Greek and Roman traditions: disenfranchisement was commonly imposed as part of the punishment on those convicted of \"infamous\" crimes, as part of their \"civil death\", whereby these persons would lose all rights and claim to property. Most medieval common law jurisdictions developed punishments that provided for some form of exclusion from the community for felons, ranging from execution on sight to exclusion from community processes.\nMost democracies give convicted criminals the same voting rights as other citizens. Significant exceptions include the United States and the United Kingdom. United States Many states intentionally retract the franchise from convicted felons, but",
"-24.73372154896788"
],
[
"and hangings had decreased significantly, as well as the readiness for the retrieval of the stolen goods. Despite the increasing unpopularity of thief-takers, whether it was for the dubious methods of Wild, or the scandal generated by the criminal gang of MacDaniel, rewards continued to be paid to stimulate thief-taking, thus validating those figures involved in active policing. Thief-takers were essential to the authorities for an effective and efficient law enforcement. By force of the adverse circumstances, it was an arduous task for the public authority to detect, apprehend and prosecute felons all alone.\nIn 1751 the novelist Henry Fielding wrote",
"-24.727552282827673"
],
[
"did possess dungeons, but the purpose of these facilities were for the confinement of hostages and political prisoners, people who may have committed no crime. Up to the 17th century the most common punishments for criminal offences were fines, corporal punishment and executions. The earliest forms of prisons, which began appearing in the early modern period, were created for the purposes of holding those awaiting trial and to house debtors. From the Tudor period magistrates were given powers by the state to establish correction houses for the punishment of those committing petty crimes and a way to amend the ways",
"-24.714643019309733"
],
[
"extreme of crimes—a single act of murder does not attract capital punishment without additional aggravating circumstances such as rape or robbery. In the 1956 debate, Japanese serial killer Genzo Kurita, who engaged in rape and necrophilia, was cited by the Diet as an example of a murderer whose crimes were atrocious enough to merit death. However, it is more the rarity of extreme crimes in Japanese society rather than an unwillingness of the authorities to carry out executions that has caused so few executions to take place.\nSince executions resumed in 1993, a rise in street crime during the 1990s, the",
"-24.71292492048815"
],
[
"of age-old hatreds as well as because of a savage and barbarous was of life, worse than bestial and hardly to be believed unless actually seen. Often these people, having becoming reconciled, establish peace. Then after a month break their treaties. And then the latter stipulation becomes worse than the first … The man who is the more accomplished in the business of plunder enjoys the greater honour and distinction among them … What does a kingdom amount to whose justice consists merely in piracy? In Ireland no punishment is meted out to culprits, murderers, robbers, the impure",
"-24.645351740357"
],
[
"French Penal Code of 1810 Crimes against the state The crimes against the state included treason, espionage, sedition and insurrection, and were severely punished, up to death with forfeiture of the convict's estate, or transportation. Crimes against the person Aggravated murder, this is to say, premeditated, committed during the commission of a crime or against legitimate ascendants were to be punished by death, along with kidnapping by torture, death threats or under the guise of a civil servants. Contraventions (Violations) Violations were punished by fine and, at most, five days in prison. Délits (misdemeanors) Misdemeanors were punished by up to",
"-24.629716427531093"
],
[
"offences (one recorded execution indicates the crime being the theft of a pig; another, a cow). An 1853 account by Henry Bleby described how three or four simultaneous executions were commonly observed; bodies would be allowed to pile up until workhouse negroes carted the bodies away at night and bury them in mass graves outside town. The brutality of the plantocracy during the revolt is thought to have accelerated the process of emancipation, with initial measures beginning in 1833. Emancipation Because of the loss of property and life in the 1831 Baptist War rebellion, the British Parliament held two inquiries.",
"-24.617010279966053"
],
[
"propaganda denouncing the \"traditional thief\" that had grown in popularity in Russian culture, punishments in the prisons intensified for anyone that identified as a legitimate thief, including beatings and torture. As a response to this persecution, the thieves' laws were intensified and the punishment for prisoners wearing unearned tattoos increased from removal to rape and murder.\nBy the 1970s, the intensification of the thieves' laws had resulted in reprisals against the legitimate thieves, orchestrated by prison authorities who would often throw a legitimate thief into cells with prisoners they had punished or raped. To reduce tensions, criminal leaders outlawed rites of",
"-24.607152542215772"
],
[
"criminal law: life imprisonment for a special severity of guilt and preventative detention. Unlike the case of Annegret, in the case of Hildegard the court found it impossible to have been killed for sexual reasons; Reinstrom had killed out of murder lust or for satisfaction of his sexual urges, but to be regarded as proven, the killing was made out at least out of greed and to cover a criminal offence.",
"-24.600447005184833"
],
[
"public as a deterrent to crime. Different factors determined if the prisoner was condemned to death or given a lesser punishment. Evidence, the nature of the offence, and the offender's conduct contributed to his or her punishment. Penal transportation and imprisonment were instituted as alternative punishments which were often perceived as a condition of pardon and mercy granted by the king. Literature and culture One of the most remarkable literary portrayals of the illicit side of society is Defoe's Colonel Jack (1722), a novel which has the shades of crime fiction. Following the theme of Moll Flanders, it shares many",
"-24.59620662033558"
],
[
"was its harshness in penal law, and he sought to reform the penal system to make it more merciful—but the key beneficiaries of his changes turned out to be the nobles, as it quickly became clear that the mercy was being dealt out in an unequal manner. Nobles who committed crimes often received simple rebukes, while there were no meaningful reductions in penalties for commoners. This led to massive corruption and extravagant living by the nobles, while the poor went without government assistance. For example, in 267, when several high level officials were found to have worked in conjunction with",
"-24.581365960999392"
],
[
"to reform-minded thinkers and politicians.\nIn the first half of the 19th century, capital punishment came to be regarded as inappropriate for many crimes that it had previously been carried out for, and by the mid-19th century, imprisonment had replaced the death penalty for the most serious offenses except for murder.\nThe first state prison in England was the Millbank Prison, established in 1816 with a capacity for just under 1000 inmates. By 1824, 54 prisons had adopted the disciplinary system advocated by the SIPD. By the 1840s, penal transportation to Australia and the use of hulks was on the decline, and",
"-24.565047859825427"
],
[
"Henry VIII, it accumulated a number of judicial interpretations, and, backed with these interpretations, it was not unconstitutionally vague.)\nPenalties for this offense varied greatly over time and between jurisdictions. Crime against nature remained punishable by death or life imprisonment both in the UK and in many U.S. states well into the 19th century. Liberalization of sexual morals led to reduction of penalties or decriminalization of the offense during the second half of the 20th century, so that, by 2003, it was no longer a punishable offense in 36 out of 50 U.S. states, and was only punishable by a fine",
"-24.56229701124539"
],
[
"crimes, such as rape and murder, became transportable offences in the 1830s, but since they were also punishable by death, comparatively few convicts were transported for such crimes. Common Crimes in the colony were drunkenness, assault, and disorderly prostitution. bushranging and absconding were also common, while the murder rate was low. The rate of conviction for less serious offenses gradually declined. Execution was used as punishment, though the rate of execution was low. New South Wales crime statistics The NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research (BOCSAR) is the main source of NSW crime statistics. In 2017 BOCSAR reported an",
"-24.545871364534833"
],
[
"in the criminal world. Many convicts had fought in penal units, in contravention of the thieves' code that no thief should serve in the military or cooperate with authorities in any way. Many legitimate thieves found themselves demoted to frayer (outsider), muzhik (peasant), or suka (traitor, a bitch). This was part of a power struggle; with limited resources in prison, outlawing the \"bitches\" (suki) allowed the legitimate thieves to take more for themselves.\nTattoos were modified and new designs appeared to distinguish between the two groups. The dagger piercing a heart was modified, adding an arrow: this tattoo indicated a legitimate",
"-24.536713929410325"
],
[
"there was a rise in street robberies. As such, the punishment for drawing out a dagger was 15 days in Newgate; injuring someone meant 40 days in the prison.\nUpon their arrival in Newgate, prisoners were chained and led to the appropriate dungeon for their crime. Those who had been sentenced to death stayed in a cellar beneath the keeper’s house, essentially an open sewer lined with chains and shackles to encourage submission. Otherwise, common debtors were sent to the \"stone hall\" whereas common felons were taken to the \"stone hold\". The dungeons were dirty and unlit, so depraved that physicians",
"-24.502566885203123"
],
[
"accused by their critics of using sorcery to attract new members, and so wanted to heavily distance themselves from such practices. Locating property and criminals The cunning folk were also commonly employed to locate missing or stolen property and uncover the perpetrator: this was of particular importance throughout the Early Modern period, when peoples' possessions were far more valued than in later centuries as they were expensive to replace, particularly for the poor. There are recorded cases where the cunning folk would also promise to ensure that the stolen property was returned, and in some of these they did prove",
"-24.501016722642817"
],
[
"would be sentenced to a fine. This practice derived from the wealth of the populace being in the form of livestock which ranged over large areas, meaning that the theft of animals could only be prevented through fear of the harsh punishment that would result.\nHorse theft was harshly punished in the French Bordeaux region in the 15th–18th centuries. Punishments ranged from whipping to a lifetime sentence of service on a galley ship. This latter punishment was also given to perpetrators of incest, homicide and poisoning, showing the severity with which horse theft was viewed by the judiciary. For the rural",
"-24.466447658312973"
],
[
"Criminal Law Consolidation Acts 1861 greatly reduced the number of capital offences.\nA definition of the term appears in early editions of Ebenezer Cobham Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable.\nThe number of offences for which death was nominally the sentence and the sentence of death recorded were criticized at the time of usage both for being capriciously cruel and for uncertainty of actual punishment: \nIf all the persons, who receive sentence of death at the Old Bailey, were actually to pass into the hands of the executioner, the feelings of the people would not tolerate the repeated exhibitions of the wholesale",
"-24.452107016542868"
],
[
"actively in bringing serious criminals to the justice. This behaviour induced several people to start making their living by dedicating to thief catching as a specialized profession.\nSeveral thief-takers were previous criminals who faced the danger of being sentenced to death, but could rescue themselves thanks to the possibility of being pardoned for being instrumental in convicting other defendants, that is to say, for betraying their fellow criminals in trial. Prosecuted felons who managed to save their lives found in collaborating with constables and magistrates a suitable business for them, and a safer option than continuing to risk death penalty for",
"-24.406268320628442"
],
[
"criminal on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely \"according to the judge's caprice\". Maimonides's concern was maintaining popular respect for law, and he saw errors of commission as much more threatening than errors of omission.\nThe Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad, such as Al-Mu'tadid, were often cruel in their punishments. Modern era In the last several centuries, with the emergence of modern nation states, justice came to be increasingly associated with the concept of natural and legal rights. The period saw an increase in standing police",
"-24.382277160155354"
],
[
"systems, legal historians consider it a forced result of the state's weakness, that is, of the internal affairs apparatus which wasn't able to conduct proper investigations and produce evidence.\nEspecially harsh provision were for the crime of betrayal against the state, called nevera (unfaithfulness). The complete assets of the person sentenced for betrayal would be transferred to the ruler, as the entire family had to pay for the crimes. In the case of the military betrayal, the punishment was death. Agriculture and diet In one of the oldest Slavic settlement in the region, near Pančevo, archaeologists discovered that the main food",
"-24.37600609526271"
],
[
"in 1860, the death sentences were to be executed in public, by shooting, while the executed body was to be buried immediately at the place of execution. The Code included sixteen capital offenses: various forms of murder and robbery leading to death, as well as treason. In 1863, however, the death penalty was re-introduced for theft and certain other crimes. The death penalty for theft was finally abolished only in 1902. In 1905, executions in Belgrade ceased to be public (the offenders were shot furtively in places not frequented by public), but they remained public (until",
"-24.37543858587742"
],
[
"extracted from the prisoners during beatings.\nSometimes, the guards would hold a mock trial and beat the accused. One such was found dead the morning after the \"trial\". An unknown number of prisoners were beaten to death. According to one survivor, two prisoners in the same room died due to beatings and were left to lie there for 20 hours with the other prisoners. Other prisoners also speak of prisoners being beaten or tortured to death. According to the U.S. Department of State's declassified materials, at least 18 prisoners were tortured to death. Another survivor claims that people were killed, but",
"-24.36367830459494"
],
[
"in a time when many crimes carried the death penalty (the so-called Bloody Code). In 1784 a pair of women were arrested for stealing fans worth 15 shillings, meaning a conviction would result in the death penalty; Garrow convinced the jury to convict the women of stealing 4 shillings worth of fans, therefore changing the sentence to twelve months of hard labour. Prosecution Garrow soon developed a large practice, working criminal trials at the Old Bailey and outside London as both defence counsel and prosecutor. By 1799, a book recorded that the number of cases he had at the Court",
"-24.323221727303462"
],
[
"within society to the point where even minor crimes are punished by death, in order to ensure the supply of new organs to an aging population. Niven originally developed this theme in his novel A Gift From Earth, first published in 1968 and also set in his Known Space universe. In A Gift From Earth, the descendants of colonists from an interstellar colonization mission are preyed upon by the descendants of the crew, who enact laws that make even the most minor offences carry the death penalty to allow their organs to be \"harvested\" and stored in \"organ banks\" for",
"-24.29110139166005"
],
[
"while providing a mechanism for transition back to normal life. The Criminal Justice Administration Act of 1914 required courts to allow a reasonable time before imprisonment was ordered for people who did not pay their fines. Previously tens of thousands of prisoners had been sentenced solely for that reason. The Borstal system after 1908 was organized to reclaim young offenders, and the Children Act of 1908 prohibited imprisonment under age 14, and strictly limited that of ages 14 to 16. The principal reformer was Sir Evelyn Ruggles-Brise, the chair of the Prison Commission. Prostitution Prostitution had been a factor in",
"-24.271231511840597"
],
[
"(...) The Italian enlightenment philosopher Cesare Beccaria, in his book On Crimes and Punishments, put forward the idea that the punishment should fit the crime and that the criteria should be whether it keeps people from committing crimes, and the Death Penalty does not do that.\"",
"-24.263659716001712"
],
[
"suggests that there still is some sense of inappropriateness in killing a slave, even one owned by the killer.\nPunishment of slaves would have been swift and harsh. Demosthenes viewed punishment for slaves as acceptable in the form of physical harm or injuries for all that they may have done wrong, stating \"the body of a slave is made responsible for all his misdeeds, whereas corporal punishment is the last penalty to inflict on a free man.\" This was spoken about in legal proceedings, suggesting that it would have been a widely accepted way of treating slaves. Modern views Slavery in",
"-24.253087254357524"
],
[
"currency from coiners and clippers; on the other side, a period of poor harvests contributed to deepen people's bad conditions and the issues of public security that poverty originates.\nIn this period property was the most valuable thing to people: for this reason, what affected citizens the most were property crimes. Theft was the most perpetrated crime, and the most tried at the Old Bailey: it was mainly caused by hunger and poverty, but also by the aspiration to social mobility. Common petty crimes such as shoplifting or theft by servants became more and more frequent, later culminating with the pressure",
"-24.24624741266598"
],
[
"Twelve Tables made it punishable with death to communicate with the enemy or to betray a citizen to the enemy. Other kinds of perduellio were punished by \"interdiction of fire and water\" (aquae et ignis interdictio), in other words, banishment. The crime was tried before a special tribunal (quaestio) by two officials (duumviri perduellionis), which was perhaps the earliest permanent criminal court existing at Rome.\nAt a later period, the name of perduellio gave place to that of laesa maiestas, deminuta or minuta maiestas, or simply maiestas. The lex Iulia maiestatis, to which the date of 48 B.C. has been conjecturally",
"-24.24155987985432"
],
[
"is. Cross-cultural research have a found a high agreement regarding how relatively harmful different crimes are perceived to be. On the other hand, evolutionary novel factors that may be rational to consider from a deterrent perspective, such as how difficult it is for the modern police to detect the crime, do not seem to affect people's perceptions of appropriate punishments.\nOnce a crime's severity has been judged, there is a choice regarding how to respond. In some cases in the ancestral environment there may have been benefits from future interactions with the offender which some forms of punishment may have prevented",
"-24.22373315016739"
],
[
"of the so-called \"Bloody Code,\" a set of English criminal laws that contained over two hundred capital crimes. During the code's existence, crimes punishable by execution included not just murder but also rape, petty theft, forgery, and sodomy. The Code was abolished in 1831, and public executions were abolished in 1868.\nGatrell's book, writes Cornwell, combines scholarship with \"a fine, controlled anger against capital punishment.\" In several places, Cornwell arouses a similar anger in the reader. First, there is the opening scene in which an execution by hanging is rendered in graphic detail. The victims include a teenaged maidservant accused",
"-24.21142552862875"
],
[
"victim. One reason societies have administered punishments is to diminish the perceived need for retaliatory \"street justice\", blood feud, and vigilantism. Restoration For minor offenses, punishment may take the form of the offender \"righting the wrong\", or making restitution to the victim. Community service or compensation orders are examples of this sort of penalty. In models of restorative justice, victims take an active role in a process with their offenders who are encouraged to take responsibility for their actions, \"to repair the harm they've done – by apologizing, returning stolen money, or community service.\" The restorative justice approach",
"-24.18955638466832"
],
[
"or other in the hidden solitudes, unless their crimes are made public by the profession of their crimes to insult divine majesty and to show scorn to our age. Not the thousand terrors of laws already promulgated nor the penalty of exile pronounced upon them deter these men, whereby, if they cannot reform, at least they might learn to abstain from their mass of their crimes and the multitude of their sacrifices. But their insane audacity transgresses continually; our patience is exhausted by their wicked behavior so that if we desired to forget them, we could not disregard them. Final",
"-24.1653607590124"
],
[
"punishment is also forbidden by several human rights treaties to which the state is a party. Early history Early Irish law discouraged capital punishment. Murder was usually punished with two types of fine: a fixed éraic and a variable Log nEnech; a murderer was only killed if he and his relatives could not pay the fine. The Senchas Már's description of the execution of the murderer of Saint Patrick's charioteer Odran has been interpreted as a failed attempt to replace pagan restorative justice with Christian retributive justice.\nAfter the Norman conquest of Ireland, English law provided the model for Irish",
"-24.14021263178438"
],
[
"because it threatened the safety of the state. Hanging, drawing and quartering was the usual punishment until the 19th century. The last treason trial was that of William Joyce, \"Lord Haw-Haw\", who was executed by hanging in 1946.\nSince the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 became law, the maximum sentence for treason in the UK has been life imprisonment. History: England and Wales In England, there was no clear common law definition of treason; it was for the king and his judges to determine if an offence constituted treason. Thus, the process became open to abuse, and decisions were often arbitrary.",
"-24.127553427242674"
],
[
"criminologists object to said conclusion, citing that while most people do not know the exact severity of punishment such as whether the sentence for murder is 40 years or life, most people still know the rough outlines such as the punishments for armed robbery or forcible rape being more severe than the punishments for driving too fast or misparking a car. These criminologists therefore argue that lack of deterring effect of increasing the sentences for already severely punished crimes say nothing about the significance of the existence of punishment as a deterring factor.\nSome criminologists argue that increasing the sentences for",
"-24.11857971567224"
],
[
"deviation from Christian orthodoxy was considered extreme. However, only the civil sphere could exercise capital punishment and prisoners were “relaxed,” that is, released to civil authorities. Often criminals served sentences of hard labor in textile workshops (obrajes), presidio service on the frontier, and as sailors on royal ships. Royal pardons to ordinary criminals were often accorded on the celebration of a royal marriage, coronation, or birth.\nElite Spanish men had access to special corporate protections (fueros) and had exemptions by virtue of their membership in a particular group. One important privilege was their being judged by the court of their corporation.",
"-24.083611901383847"
],
[
"Death recorded In British courts until 1861 many crimes were punishable by death, but by the 19th century most such sentences for less serious crimes were pardoned. From 1823, a sentence of death recorded meant that the judge was abstaining from voicing a sentence of capital punishment in cases where the judge foresaw that a royal pardon would be forthcoming if he delivered a spoken death sentence (only a spoken sentence was valid). It was, in other words, a death sentence in name only, with no actual effect in law. It could be applied to any felony not",
"-24.0481450909283"
],
[
"and wills; special exemptions from the jurisdiction of the hundreds and special privileges as to levying fines were conferred. In process of time the rights originating in royal grants of privilege overbalanced, as it were, folk-right in many respects, and became themselves the starting-point of a new legal system—the feudal one. Criminal justice Anglo-Saxon England did not have a professional standing law enforcement body analogous to modern police. In general, if a crime was committed then there was a victim, and it was up to the victim – or the victim's family – to seek justice. However, after the tenth",
"-24.041501217288896"
],
[
" Such outlaws, when captured, were often dealt with in an extra-legal manner by groups of vigilantes known as vigilance committees. A notable example is the Harpe brothers, who were active during the late 18th century.",
"-24.02990783372661"
],
[
"is only a crime when a law ... makes it so\", pointing out that by the nineteenth century nine of the ten laws which Hebraic law punished with stoning \"had ceased to be offences in civilized European societies\". Although \"Drink and drugs and speed and sex are exciting, and so is crime and in cities the opportunity for crime are extensive and the rewards are high, the chances of escape are greater and most of the police are overworked and some of them may be corruptible.\" While it is suggested that to change crime requires changing society, the last sentence",
"-24.01946559114731"
],
[
"as for espionage and armed rebellion. The Rocco Code (1930, in force from July 1, 1931) added more crimes to the list of those punishable with the death penalty, and reintroduced capital punishment for some common crimes. It was used sparsely, however; until the outbreak of war in 1940, a total of nine executions were carried out, allegedly not for political offenses, followed by another 17 until Italy's surrender in July 1943 (compared to almost 80,000 legal executions in Nazi Germany, including courts martial).\nThe last people executed for civil crimes were three Sicilian robbers, also convicted of murder, who battered",
"-24.016604775446467"
],
[
"in an adage that dates back to at least the 17th century, \"might as well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb\": until 1820, the English law prescribed hanging for stealing anything worth more than one shilling, whether that was a low-value lamb or a whole flock of sheep.\nIn the Kids for cash scandal, judge Mark Ciavarella, who promoted a platform of zero tolerance, received kickbacks for constructing a private prison that housed juvenile offenders, and then proceeded to fill the prison by sentencing children to extended stays in juvenile detention for offenses as minimal as mocking a principal",
"-24.013408697210252"
],
[
"slaves from livestock. \"Though in general regarded as property, slaves in some instances were recognized as persons. As a person, the New England slave had a right to life. Although a master might reasonably and moderately correct and chastise his servant or slave, the deliberate murder of his bondsman was a capital crime.\" There are very few instances in which a slave owner was charged with the murder of a slave. Greene argues that the economics of slavery disincentivizes slave owners from murdering their slaves as the primary cause for the rarity of a slave owner murdering a slave.",
"-24.001798608340323"
],
[
"directly or through sorcery. In some cases the condemned could be denied mortuary rites. The first executions carried out under European law in Australia took place in Western Australia in 1629, when Dutch authorities hanged the mutineers of the Batavia.\nCapital punishment had been part of the legal system of Australia since British settlement. During the 19th century, crimes that could carry a death sentence included burglary, sheep stealing, forgery, sexual assaults, murder and manslaughter, and there is one reported case of someone being executed for \"being illegally at large\". During the 19th century, these crimes saw about 80",
"-23.98513014463242"
]
] |
1ircew | Why are some animals' flesh (beef, salmon, etc.) fine to eat raw, whilst others (chicken, pork, etc.) cause food poisoning? | [
"First, there are no meats that are 100% safe to eat raw. There is always a risk of bacterial contamination/poisoning, especially if the meat is not cleaned properly. Second, in some places, people DO eat raw chicken...and horse, for that matter. See here from Japan: URL_0 Now, to your question. * Saltwater helps kills bacteria, making fish less susceptible to contaminants than meat from land-based animals * Sushi restaurants still take precautions. A required step involves freezing fish at temperatures of -4 degrees Fahrenheit (-20 degrees Celsius) for seven days, or frozen at -31 degrees Fahrenheit (-35 degrees Celsius) for 15 hours, which kills any parasites (since these thrive in warm temperatures). * Salmonella on chicken rarely enters the meat itself, but rather thrives on the skin. Chicken sashimi (toriwasa), is often braised or seared on the outside before being chilled as above both to kill lingering bacteria and improve the texture. tl;dr: people do eat those meats raw, but not much in the US Edit: after more research, I have learned that raw chicken is rarely eaten in the US not only out of custom but also because our manufacturing process leads to high salmonella contamination (compared to chicken abroad)...",
"Former parasitologist here. Please respect Diphyllobothrium latum, or the fish tapeworm. It can live in your intestines for 20 years and reach a length of 30 feet. That is something any 5 year old can appreciate. URL_0 ",
"You can eat them all raw if they aren't infected, chicken just gets infected more.",
"Here in Germany we eat minced raw pork. It's called Mett and the best thing ever: URL_0 ",
"Part of it is also that beef, lamb, and other 'red' meats are very dense compared to chicken, pork, and 'white' meats, and thus bacteria are only able to reside on the surface of things like steak. Since chicken is less dense, the bacteria and parasites are able to find their way inside the actual meat, which is why you're supposed to cook poultry to \"an internal temperature of 165F,\" higher than other kinds of meat. This is also why it's ok to have steak still red on the inside, but since ground hamburger mixes up the \"outside\" and the \"inside,\" it's suggested you cook them a bit more thoroughly. In practice, it's not a huge deal however.",
"It has to do with the conditions and history of said animals. Industrial chicken coops are REALLY disgusting places, and the antibiotics are really the only thing keeping them alive. I believe these chemicals are the reason we're cautioned (speculation) but it's the unnatural living conditions that we force them into that really makes it necessary. Pigs are pretty similar, except it more focuses on genetic engineering over the last few decades that drive that. Look up trichinosis and see if you want to fuck with that. ALL WHOLE MEAT IS SAFER THEN COMPARABLE GROUND MEAT. It does have to do with penetration of bacteria. Salt water doesn't kill bacteria, at least not the kind that reside in salt water fish. We eat fish raw because they are generally wild, and you still shouldn't eat a lot of types of fish raw. The ones that generally aren't have higher levels of parasites, which tends to be fish that are popular but are bottom feeders (Cod, Catfish, Halibut). Look at the eyes of a fish. If they are clean and clear you will probably be OK. But if you want to be safe just cook the damn thing. All raw products have bacteria, virtually EVERYTHING has bacteria, it's a matter of whether or not it will hurt you. If you're older than 12 and younger than 60 and have a reasonably strong immune system, you will probably not die. Consider yourself lucky that you live in a time when all of your food can be made safe (for now, we'll see in the long run). TL;DR Bacteria/Americans are pussies.",
"muscle in healthy beef is sterile so you can eat it by just searing the outsideor like the french just eat it raw in steak tartar. in alot of chicken there is salmonella and or camplobacter in the gut and this gets transferred to the outside during peocessing a chicken is alot smaller than a cow so the amount of bacteria is greater. camplobacter is a pretty amazing bacteria its infective dose is just 2 cells whereas other pathogenic bacteria infective doses are of the order of 100s to 1000s per ml finally fish while cows and chickens and pigs have a number of types of bacteria living in their gut and on their skin that cause food poisoning the bacteria on a fish depend on the waters it lives in and on the boat that caught it so clean water = clean fish less chance of it having bad bacteria on it and evenless of a chance that it contains bad bacteria in sufficient quantity to cause illness",
"Maybe a bit late, but here's what i know: So i had a case of anxiety, concerning food poisoning, and became completely obsessive about how food was cooked by anyone who would prepare it for me. Fish can be eaten raw, although it have to be frozen for at least 24 hours first. there can be natural parasites in fish, which dies when they freeze. thus making it safe to eat. Pork also have parasites, and in order for them to die it needs to be cooked too a temperature of 75 degrees celsius in the middle. in Beef however there are no parasites, but there may be bacteria on the outside of the meat so the outside have to be heated, of course fresh meat is used in dishes as beef tartare, which reduces risks. if the cow was suffering from mad-cow disease however, eating the red meat might get you sick as well. (wouldn't be food poisoning but something worse) Hope that answered parts of the question.",
"I worked as a butcher in a shop that people brought their own pigs and cows and id say about 1/70 animals had worms and these were animals the people were going to eat themselves. Not the dying old animals farmers take to plants for a few bucks. Dont do it.",
"I apologize if someone has already said this but pork muscle is where the tapeworm can be found in its cyst stage. If humans eat improperly cooked pork, they may ingest a viable cyst. Said cyst then begins the next stage of its life cycle in the abdominal tract where they feed off of our nutrients and reproduce. This is one of the wonders of nature that I point out when one of my students asks me, \"why do we have to know all this shit if we're not going to be a stupid scientist?\" Edit: sorry, forgot what subreddit this is? EILI5: If you eat pork that's not cooked enough, you could get a tapeworm and that sucks.",
"I think it's not that the meat itself that's bad, it's the contamination it suffers while being processed. It (or at least used to be) is not allowed to sell hamburgers here that aren't well done because of contamination being distributed throughout the meat while grinding, but rare steaks are OK, because the contamination is limited to the surface, which get killed because the surface reaches high heat.",
"While it's true that early humans didn't know how to make fire, it's been a very long time since the power of fire was harnessed, and cooking became commonplace. Humans are great omnivores, though so we're good at making do with what we can."
] | [
[
"is undetermined whether raw food was the cause. The FDA recommends cleaning and disinfecting all surfaces that come in contact with raw meat, as well as thorough hand washing to reduce the risk of infection. Veterinary position Veterinary associations such as the American Veterinary Medical Association, British Veterinary Association and Canadian Veterinary Medical Association have warned of the animal and public health risk that could arise from feeding raw meat to pets and have stated that there is no scientific evidence to support the claimed benefits of raw feeding.\nVeterinary associations often organize debates and panel to further the understanding of",
"-35.00355604023207"
],
[
"Raw meat Raw meat generally refers to any type of uncooked muscle tissue of an animal used for food. In the meat production industry, the term ‘meat’ refers specifically to mammalian flesh, while the words ‘poultry’ and ‘seafood’ are used to differentiate between the tissue of birds and aquatic creatures. Raw meat diseases Every year in the United States, 6.5 million to 33 million cases of illness are diagnosed due to microbial pathogens, with about 9,000 deaths occurring annually as well. According to a multi-state study published in the America Journal of Preventative Medicine, the annual cost of disease",
"-34.61760919140579"
],
[
"chili powder, lime juice, and fish sauce are added, along with shredded coriander leaves, spring onions and mint leaves. Health risks of consuming raw larb The risks from eating raw meat include contracting trichinosis, caused by an infectious worm, along with fatal bacterial or potentially rabies infection.\nThe consumption of raw larb and lu made with raw pork has led to several cases of human Streptococcus suis infections in Thailand, some of them with a deadly result.\nThe consumption of raw freshwater fish can lead to an infection by Opisthorchis viverrini (Southeast Asian liver fluke), a parasitical flatworm that can live for",
"-34.43796233039939"
],
[
"fed as compared to commercial food fed. However, the researchers suggested that that may be caused by increased opportunistic preying and infected live preys may be the source of contamination.\nThere are some myths associated with raw pet food, like that it is more likely to contain salmonella than meat found in grocery stores. Human grade raw pet food (meaning all ingredients are human edible) is produced under USDA inspection and is no more likely to contain bacteria like salmonella than the meat consumed by humans found in local grocery stores. Zoonotic risk A possible risk of raw feeding is that",
"-33.48378895533824"
],
[
"and seafood. Other unsafe practices such as drinking unpasteurized milk or untreated water can increase odds of infection. Because T. gondii is typically transmitted through cysts that reside in the tissues of infected animals, meat that is not properly prepared can present an increased risk of infection. Freezing meat for several days at subzero temperatures (0 °F or −18 °C) before cooking eliminates tissue cysts, which can rarely survive these temperatures. During cooking, whole cuts of red meat should be cooked to an internal temperature of 145 °F (63 °C). Medium rare meat is generally cooked between 130 and 140 °F (55 and 60 °C),",
"-33.12151035730494"
],
[
"survey in 1999 found that out of 19,356 adults interviewed: 19% did not wash hands or cutting boards after handling raw meat, 20% ate pink hamburgers often, 50% ate undercooked eggs on a regular basis, 8% had raw oysters habitually, and 1% drank unpasteurized milk. These behaviors increase the risk of acquiring Salmonellas, Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio gastroenteritis, and Escherichia coli. Current U.S. meat regulations/programs There are many federal laws and programs in place to attempt to lower the rates of food borne infection. They cover a wide variety of issues, including regulation of meat production (with specific quality standards) and",
"-32.702706246229354"
],
[
"meat. This is why, for example, it is typically safe for humans to consume steak that is cooked \"rare\" in such a way that the interior of the cut remains red in colour - the searing of the exterior of the meat is enough to kill any bacteria on the surface. However, when meat is ground, bacterial contamination from the surface can be distributed throughout the meat. If ground beef is not well cooked all the way through, there is a significant chance that enough pathogenic bacteria will survive to cause illness. Moreover, the warming will speed the reproduction of",
"-32.70261251923512"
],
[
"Sources on contaminated meat put humans at direct risk by handling the meat or ingesting it before it is completely cooked. Food preservation methods can help eliminate, decrease, or prevent the growth of bacteria. Evidence for the transfer of macrolide-resistant microorganisms from animals to humans has been scant, and most evidence shows that pathogens of concern in human populations originated in humans and are maintained there, with rare cases of transference to humans. Research into alternatives Increasing concern due to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has led researchers to look for alternatives to using antibiotics in livestock.\nProbiotics, cultures of a",
"-32.65277301837341"
],
[
"and products made from raw milk, and raw eggs.\nStudies have associated raw food dieting with loss of body weight and low bone mass.\nOne review stated that \"Many raw foods are toxic and only become safe after they have been cooked. Some raw foods contain substances that destroy vitamins, interfere with digestive enzymes or damage the walls of the intestine. Raw meat can be contaminated with bacteria which would be destroyed by cooking; raw fish can contain substances that interfere with vitamin B1 (anti-thiaminases)\" Role of cooking in human evolution Richard Wrangham, professor of biological anthropology at Harvard University, proposes",
"-32.4947695179726"
],
[
"of human infection caused by direct or indirect exposure to bacterial pathogens in raw meat and animal stools. A small study investigated the levels of Salmonella in the stool of 10 dogs that ate a raw diet. It was found that 80% of the raw diets tested positive for Salmonella and 30% of the stool samples from dogs fed raw food contained Salmonella. None of the control dogs fed a commercial feed contained Salmonella. The authors of the study concluded that dogs on a raw food diet may be a source of environmental contamination, although they caution about the generalizability of their results due to the",
"-32.47873211478873"
],
[
"is dangerous to dogs or humans that eat it. However, it also is claimed that the meat is only dangerous to eat if it is raw or incompletely cooked, and that it may be eaten with relative safety if thoroughly cooked. If this is correct, it is not clear why cooking should have such an effect, and accordingly readers should be cautious in relying on such claims.\nPollinators such as honey bees visit the plants avidly during the flowering season, without recorded ill effects from the nectar or pollen. Status Currently the IUCN Red List lists only two species of Tylecodon",
"-32.310036552196834"
],
[
"and poultry are the most common foods harboring these pathogens. There is evidence that a large proportion of resistant E. coli isolates causing bloodstream infections in people are from livestock produced as food.\nWhen manure from antibiotic-fed swine is used as fertilizer elsewhere, the manure may be contaminated with bacteria which can infect humans.\nStudies have also shown that direct contact with livestock can lead to the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria from animals to humans.\nSampling of retail meats such as turkey, chicken, pork and beef consistently show high levels of Enterobacteriaceae. Rates of resistant bacteria in these meats are high as well.",
"-32.125641896622255"
],
[
"some parts of the world because of the danger of contamination by bacteria and parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii and Taenia saginata. Bacteria When basic hygienic rules are followed and fresh meat is used, the risk of bacterial infection is low. Even when these provisions are met, it is nonetheless not recommended for people who have a weakened immune system or a chronic illness, as these individuals are at a greater risk of infection from E. coli and/or Salmonella. Parasites Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that may be found in raw or undercooked meat. A multicentre case-control study found inadequately",
"-32.08839299308602"
],
[
"allowances. Food safety While the intense heat used in manufacturing pet food or cooking meat destroys any potential bacteria, raw meats may contain bacteria that can be unsafe for both dogs and cats. The United States government reported that in 2006, 16.3% of all chickens were contaminated with Salmonella. A study on 25 commercial raw diets for dogs and cats detected Salmonella in 20% and Escherichia coli in 64% of the diets. However, the E. coli strain that can cause severe illness O157:H7 was not tested.. An example of the severity of E. coli O157:H7 infections can be seen in",
"-32.007716641179286"
],
[
"for fishmeal and liver oil; the meat is said to be of good quality, but the flesh is considered to be mildly poisonous when consumed. When captured, it is very active and quick to bite, but it does not pose a substantial threat to people due to its small size. It has occasionally been kept in captivity in Japan. Conservation status Some concern exists that populations of this slow-reproducing species may be declining in areas of sustained deepwater fishing, and it has been assessed as Near Threatened by the World Conservation Union. In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of",
"-31.91226265692967"
],
[
"animals even though they cause harm to humans. Humans should obtain animal meat by a swift slaughter and avoid cutting lengthwise. In Islamic slaughter, the spinal cord cannot be broken. Removing wool from animals is prohibited because it causes them vulnerability. Avoiding punishment of animals Muslims cannot use any equipment that damages the animal, (ie., beating them in a circus show, forcing them to carry heavy loads, or running at extreme speeds in races) even to train them. Exposure to sound is also regulated. Providing foodstuffs Muslims are obliged to provide food and water for any animal they see, even",
"-31.857636561617255"
],
[
"meats are the major sources of Taenia (pork, beef and venison), Trichinella (pork and bear), Diphyllobothrium (fish), Clonorchis (fish), and Paragonimus (crustaceans). Schistosomes and nematodes such as hookworms (Ancylostoma and Necator) and Strongyloides can penetrate the skin directly. Finally, Wuchereria, Onchocerca, and Dracunculus are transmitted by mosquitoes and flies. In the developing world, the use of contaminated water is a major risk factor for infection. Infection can also take place through the practice of geophagy, which is not uncommon in parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Soil is eaten, for example, by children or pregnant women to counteract a real or perceived",
"-31.84845264957403"
],
[
"Meat spoilage The spoilage of meat occurs, if the meat is untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous, or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper hygiene is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate food safety, food preservation and food storage procedures are applied.",
"-31.803451871579455"
],
[
"Infection The organisms spoiling meat may infect the animal either while still alive (\"endogenous disease\") or may contaminate the meat after its slaughter (\"exogenous\ndisease\"). There are numerous diseases that humans may contract from endogenously infected meat, such as anthrax, bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis, listeriosis, trichinosis or taeniasis.\nInfected meat, however, should be eliminated through systematic meat inspection in production, and consequently, consumers will more often encounter meat exogenously spoiled by bacteria or fungi after the death of the animal. One source of infectious organisms is bacteraemia, the presence of bacteria in the blood of slaughtered animals. The large intestine of animals",
"-31.695663765072823"
],
[
"There are many disease-carrying pathogens found in raw meats, and they differ according to the source, whether it be mammalian, poultry or seafood. Some disease-carrying pathogens found in beef are Salmonellas, Escherichia coli, Shigella, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes. Different varieties of Salmonellas are often found in contaminated poultry. Seafood itself can also contain a wide variety of pathogens. The most common pathogen in raw oysters is Vibrio gastroenteritis, while Salmonella, Plesiomonsas shielloides, and staphylococcus are found in contaminated raw shrimp, and Vibrio cholerae has been found in raw crabmeat. Many of the symptoms that result from these diseases involve",
"-31.669186495768372"
],
[
"meat, beef, carabao, pork, and chicken. Unlike fish kinilaw, meat kilawin are not eaten raw but are cooked by boiling or grilling or both. They are usually done rare to medium rare, though in some cases the meat are fully cooked. Meat-based kilawin are also traditionally eaten with papaít (literally \"bittering agent\"), usually the bile extracted from the gall bladder or by squishing the chewed grass in an animal's stomach.\nIngredients used in seafood and meat kinilaw must be fresh and properly cleaned, as there are health hazards involved with consuming raw seafood and partly cooked meat.\nOther ingredients that can be",
"-31.622048362041824"
],
[
"small number of dogs studied.\nIn addition to raw food diets, commercial dog food may also contain Salmonella contamination. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention released a general warning about Salmonella contamination of commercial dry dog food and treats.\nAs a result of the potential animal and human health risks, some agencies assert that the risks inherent in raw feeding outweigh the purported benefits. Despite such concerns, there is no known incidence of humans being infected with Salmonella by cats and dogs fed a raw diet. There have been isolated cases of humans contracting Salmonella from household pets, but it",
"-31.401533319905866"
],
[
"meat may not be completely cooked. This often occurs due to the type of cooking method: hanging the meat over an open fire. Improper preparation of any infected animal may be fatal. HIV Results of research on wild chimpanzees in Cameroon indicate that they are naturally infected with the simian foamy virus and constitute a reservoir of HIV-1, a precursor of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans. There are several distinct strains of HIV, indicating that this cross-species transfer has occurred several times. Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) which is present in modern day chimpanzees, is reportedly derived from older",
"-31.368932712764945"
],
[
"pigs and eat undercooked pork. However humans can also act as secondary hosts, which is a more pathological, harmful stage triggered by oral contamination. High prevalences are reported among many places with poorer than average water hygiene or even mildly contaminated water especially with a pork-eating heritage such as Mexico, Latin America, West Africa, Russia, India, Manchuria, and Southeast Asia. In Europe it remains most endemic in pockets of Slavic countries and among global travellers taking inadequate precautions in eating pork especially.\nThe secondary host form, human cysticercosis, predominates in areas where poor hygiene allows for mild faecal contamination of food,",
"-31.265632874390576"
],
[
"tended to prevent such concerns from influencing consumer behavior.\nPeople in many cultures do not like to be reminded of the connection between animals and meat, and tend to \"de-animalize\" meat when necessary to reduce feelings of guilt or of disgust. Meat in Western countries is often packaged and served so as to minimize its resemblance to live animals, without eyes, faces, or tails, and the market share of such products has increased in recent decades; however, meat in many other cultures is sold with these body parts.\nSome authors have suggested that the use of non-animal words such as \"sirloin\" and",
"-31.25144552969141"
],
[
"used to measure the internal temperature of cooked meat. The meat is not safe until cooking is completed.\nTo help prevent Trichinella infection in animal populations, pigs or wild animals should be prevented from eating uncooked meat, scraps, or carcasses of any animals, including rats, which may be infected with Trichinella, in order to break the oral ingestion cycle of infection.",
"-31.199561643064953"
],
[
"Ethics of eating meat The question of whether it is right to eat animal flesh is among the most prominent topics in food ethics. People choose not to eat meat for various reasons such as concern for animal welfare, the environmental impact of meat production (environmental vegetarianism), and health considerations. Some argue that slaughtering animals solely because people enjoy the taste of meat is morally wrong or unjustifiable. Vegans often abstain from other animal products for similar reasons.\nEthical vegetarians and ethical vegans may also object to the practices underlying the production of meat, or cite concerns about animal welfare, animal",
"-31.147202541233128"
],
[
"sheep, cows and goats. Furthermore, butchering an ungulate carcass with the skin intact and unsterilized considerably raises the risks for induction of fecal coliform bacteria such as E. coli or Salmonella into the meat and is thus banned in the UK by law. This risk is heightened because the smokies are generally produced in covert (and often grossly unsanitary) butchering facilities and handled without proper sanitary procedures. Furthermore, the goats and sheep used are traditionally old, worn-out or lame animals bought inexpensively from milk and wool farms and are not intended for human consumption.\nSince the process of producing a smokie",
"-31.098075861320467"
],
[
"fish is permitted on some fast days when other meat is forbidden, but stricter fast days also prohibit fish with spines, while permitting invertebrate seafood such as shrimp and oysters, considering them \"fish without blood.\"\nSome Buddhists and Hindus (Brahmins of West Bengal, Odisha and Saraswat Brahmins of the Konkan) abjure meat that is not fish. Muslim (halal) practice also treats fish differently from other animal foods, as it can be eaten. Taboos on eating fish Among the Somali people, most clans have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do",
"-30.8724017116474"
],
[
"can be fatal if stung in the abdomen. There is also a risk associated with eating meat from the sea animal that has not been prepared correctly. Shigella may be acquired from eating meat from a cownose ray that has been contaminated with the bacteria. This bacteria causes shigellosis, and can result in dysentery. Symptoms can include diarrhea, pain, fever, and possible dehydration. Predators The cownose ray sits fairly high up on the food chain, and as a result only has a few natural predators. These predators include; cobia, bull sharks, and sandbar sharks, as well as humans. Commercial",
"-30.847566771466518"
],
[
"in almost 50% of the raw diets. E. coli was also found in the commercial dry and wet dog foods, but in lesser amounts. This study determined that bacterial contamination is more common in raw meat diets than commercial dry or canned foods.\nThere has been a reported case where two cats fed a raw diet developed salmonellosis and died as a result. Most dogs that carry Salmonella are asymptomatic.\nProliferation of bacteria in any meat can be reduced by following proper food safety practices such as defrosting meat in the refrigerator or by cooking raw meat, both of which reduce",
"-30.843933329742867"
],
[
"as domestic meat. Canada does allow Cargill's citric acid-produced Finely Textured Meat (FTM) to be \"used in the preparation of ground meat\" and \"identified as ground meat\" under certain conditions.\nLean finely textured beef and Finely Textured Meat is banned for human consumption in the European Union (EU). Public perception The nature of the product and the manner in which it is processed led to concerns that it might be a risk to human health, despite the fact that there have been no reported cases of foodborne illnesses due to consumption of the product. Among consumers, media reporting significantly reduced its",
"-30.797225524205714"
],
[
"the risk of pathogens.\nRaw meats may also contain harmful parasites. As with bacteria, these parasites are destroyed during the heat processing of cooking meat or manufacturing pet foods. Some raw diet recipes call for freezing meat before serving it, which greatly reduces (but does not necessarily eliminate) extant parasites. According to a former European Union directive, freezing fish at -20 °C (-4 °F) for 24 hours kills parasites. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends freezing at -35 °C (-31 °F) for 15 hours, or at -20 °C (-4 °F) for 7 days. The most common parasites in fish are roundworms from the family Anisakidae",
"-30.650923990120646"
],
[
"Meat Market by the Ravenmaster. Recently, other foods have been introduced to their diet, such as chicks, lamb, mice and pig hearts, as well as peanuts, dog biscuits soaked in blood and fish in hope that this tactic would reduce the amount of scavenging from the garbage bins.",
"-30.648451448825654"
],
[
"and instead are simply fed meat, they will become seriously ill and unreleasable into the wild.",
"-30.556690423431064"
],
[
"controversy and debate have arisen over the ethics of eating animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to cultural taboo, such as cats, dogs, horses or rabbits. Others support meat eating for scientific, nutritional and cultural reasons, including religious ones. Some meat eaters abstain from the meat of animals reared in particular ways, such as factory farms, or avoid certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Some people follow vegetarian or vegan diets not because of moral concerns involving the raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns",
"-30.535907732730266"
],
[
"to a high enough temperature to kill all growth, but meat can be re-contaminated during any step of the food production process, especially if workers handle both raw and cooked products. The risk of disease from a ready-to-eat (RTE) product such as chicken nuggets is significantly higher due to the fact that many consumers do not re-cook them, believing them to be safe. E. coli, Salmonella and Shigella have all been found in RTE products. A study of working practices in shops selling raw meats (including butcher’s shops, supermarkets and general stores) published in the Journal of Hygiene, found pathogens",
"-30.51073775542318"
],
[
"the production of cultured meat because it does not have a nervous system and therefore cannot feel pain. Reactions of vegetarians to cultured meat vary: some feel the cultured meat presented to the public in August 2013 was not vegetarian as fetal calf serum was used in the growth medium. However, since then lab grown meat has been grown under a medium that doesn't involve fetal serum. American philosopher Carlo Alvaro argues that the question of the morality of eating in vitro meat has been discussed only in terms of convenience. Alvaro proposes a virtue-oriented approach that may",
"-30.352864221320488"
],
[
"get more than enough protein in their diets without eating meat, the belief that meat is required persists.\nBuilding on Joy's work, psychologists conducted a series of studies in the United States and Australia, published in 2015, that found the great majority of meat-eaters' stated justifications for consuming meat were based on the \"Four Ns\" – \"natural, normal, necessary, and nice\". The arguments were that humans are omnivores (natural), that most people eat meat (normal), that vegetarian diets are lacking in nutrients (necessary), and that meat tastes good (nice).\nMeat-eaters who endorsed these arguments more strongly reported less guilt about their dietary habits.",
"-30.33678333181888"
],
[
"flesh to cure epilepsy, eyes are used in love potions, and the meat is reported to cure asthma and stomach problems. It is also killed as a crop pest. Severe habitat loss and degradation over large areas of its range have caused large population declines, even though the species is more adaptable to anthropogenic habitats than other primates in the region. The resulting fragmentation has restricted species dispersal as it depends on continuous canopy cover to move from tree to tree.",
"-30.268927475088276"
],
[
" Considerable epinephrine secretion in the final days before slaughter can adversely affect meat quality (by causing glycogenolysis, removing the substrate for normal post-slaughter acidification of meat) and result in meat becoming more susceptible to colonization by spoilage bacteria. Because of such issues, low-stress handling is essential in sheep management. Avoiding poisoning is also important; common poisons are pesticide sprays, inorganic fertilizer, motor oil, as well as radiator coolant containing ethylene glycol.\nCommon forms of preventive medication for sheep are vaccinations and treatments for parasites. Both external and internal parasites are the most prevalent malady in sheep, and",
"-30.193802714173216"
],
[
"as eggs, dairy, meat, fresh vegetables and fruits. E. coli has also been found in beef, lamb, lettuce, sprouts, fruit juices, vegetables, raw milk, and water. Possible reasons for the increase are the globalization of the food market, improper handling, and leakage. Safety precautions Food can be contaminated at any step of production or cooking, especially those that occur at home before consumption. According to a study published in the Journal of Food Safety on consumer attitudes and awareness of disease, most outbreaks of food borne illnesses result from “contaminated raw foods, cross-contamination, insufficient cooking, inadequate cooling or a lapse",
"-30.142303458225797"
],
[
"rights, environmental ethics, and religious reasons. In response, some proponents of meat-eating have adduced various scientific, nutritional, cultural, and religious arguments in support of the practice. Some meat-eaters only object to rearing animals in certain ways, such as in factory farms, or killing them with cruelty; others avoid only certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Overview of the argument against meat eating Peter Singer—Princeton University and University of Melbourne professor and pioneer of the animal liberation movement—has long argued that, if it is possible to survive and be healthy without eating meat, fish, dairy, or eggs, one ought",
"-30.097553539671935"
],
[
"excludes all mammal flesh, which is considered red meat. The United States Department of Agriculture classifies meats as red if the myoglobin level is higher than 65%. This categorization is controversial as some types of fish, such as tuna, are red when raw and turn white when cooked; similarly, certain types of poultry that are sometimes grouped as white meat are actually red when raw, such as duck and goose. Poultry Within poultry, there are two types of meats—white and dark. The different colours are based on the different locations and uses of the muscles. White meat can be found",
"-30.08649340411648"
],
[
"vegetables, and whole grains which are good sources of protein. The risks associated with vegetarianism, that is to say the problems vegetarians face, can generally be lessened by a careful diet. These problems that many associate with vegetarianism, such as anaemia, are in fact not due to the vegetarian diet alone, but more so to the fact that the subject in question has failed to supplement their body with the nutrition they require. When cutting out meats, some vegetarians fail to intake any other kinds of protein. To intake protein is very important during pregnancy as one of the cause",
"-30.08293016877724"
],
[
"raw meat they consumed. This high fat content provides valuable energy and prevents protein poisoning, which historically was sometimes a problem in late winter when game animals grew lean through winter starvation. It has been suggested that because the fats of the Inuit's wild-caught game are largely monounsaturated and rich in omega-3 fatty acids, the diet does not pose the same health risks as a typical Western high-fat diet. However, actual evidence has shown that Inuit have a similar prevalence of coronary artery disease as non-Inuit populations and they have excessive mortality due to cerebrovascular strokes, with twice the risk",
"-30.07900001719827"
],
[
"or bird flu. Safety-related product recalls can impact demand for meat.\nPeople may reduce or eliminate meat from their diets for perceived health benefits. Health considerations may motivate both meat-eaters and vegetarians. Meatless diets in adolescents can be a way to conceal eating disorders, although vegetarianism does not necessarily increase the risk of disordered eating.\nResearch suggests consumers tend to prefer meats whose origin lies in their own country over imported products, partly due to the fact that domestic meats are perceived to be of higher quality.\nThis effect may also reflect consumers' ethnocentrism or patriotism. The importance of meat's country of origin",
"-30.075997272040695"
],
[
"or undercooked pork infected with the larvae of a species of roundworm Trichinella spiralis, commonly called the trichina worm. Infection was once very common, but is now rare in the developed world. From 2002 to 2007, an annual average of 11 cases per year were reported in the United States; the majority were from consuming wild game or the source was unknown. The number of cases has decreased because of legislation prohibiting the feeding of raw meat garbage to hogs, increased commercial and home freezing of pork, and the public awareness of the danger of eating raw or undercooked pork",
"-29.991826967831003"
],
[
"only to the great economic value of cattle but also to the fact that they are links in numerous social relationships.\" All their raw materials come from cattle, including for drums, rugs, clothing, spears, shields, containers, and leather goods. Even daily essentials like toothpaste and mouthwash are created from the cattle's dung and urine. The dung is chopped into pieces and left out to harden, then used for containers, toothpaste, or even to protect the cattle themselves by burning it to produce more smoke, keeping insects away to prevent disease.\nThe Nuer people never eat cattle just because they want to.",
"-29.974906963994727"
],
[
"Cook Inlet reported increased instances of a condition known as \"mushy halibut syndrome\". The meat of affected fish has a \"jelly-like\" consistency. When cooked it does not flake in the normal manner of halibut but rather falls apart. The meat is still perfectly safe to eat but the appearance and consistency are considered unappetizing. The exact cause of the condition is unknown but may be related to a change in diet.",
"-29.955696434466518"
],
[
"by raw fish is rare in the developed world (fewer than 40 cases per year in the U.S.), and involves mainly three kinds of parasites: Clonorchis sinensis (a trematode/fluke), Anisakis (a nematode/roundworm) and Diphyllobothrium (a cestode/tapeworm). Infection by the fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum is seen in countries where people eat raw or undercooked fish, such as some countries in Asia, Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, Africa, and North and South America. Infection risk of anisakis is particularly higher in fishes which may live in a river such as salmon (shake) in Salmonidae, mackerel (saba). Such parasite infections can generally be avoided",
"-29.91197033590288"
],
[
"shied away from the practice because of how similar monkeys look to humans. United States While not part of traditional American cuisine, the consumption of monkey meat in the United States has become increasingly prevalent, predominantly due to the influx of African immigrants who see monkey meat and other bushmeats as \"home comfort\". A 2007 report by The New York Times documented several instances of monkey meat being secretly imported into the United States under the guise of other meats. It is illegal to import bushmeat into the United States. Monkey meat found in the country's border entries will be",
"-29.88330710237642"
],
[
"use it for food. Any animal that dies of natural causes is eaten.” Many times it may not even just be cattle that they consume, it could be any animal they have scavenged upon that has died because of natural causes. There are a few other food sources that are available for the Nuer to consume. The Nuer diet primarily consists of fish and millet. “Their staple crop is millet.\" Millet is formally consumed as porridge or beer. The Nuer turn to this staple product in seasons of rainfall when they move their cattle up to higher ground. They might",
"-29.800121362977734"
],
[
"Food and drink prohibitions Some people do not eat various specific foods and beverages in conformity with various religious, cultural, legal or other societal prohibitions. Many of these prohibitions constitute taboos. Many food taboos and other prohibitions forbid the meat of a particular animal, including mammals, rodents, reptiles, amphibians, fish, molluscs, crustaceans and insects, which may relate to a disgust response being more often associated with meats than plant-based foods. Some prohibitions are specific to a particular part or excretion of an animal, while others forgo the consumption of plants or fungi.\nSome food prohibitions can be defined as rules, codified",
"-29.799753214989323"
],
[
"meat from animals torn by beasts, and animals that die from natural causes. To comply with this Talmudic injunction against eating diseased animals, Orthodox Jews usually require that the corpses of freshly slaughtered animals be thoroughly inspected. There are 70 different traditional checks for irregularities and growths; for example, there are checks to ensure that the lungs have absolutely no scars, which might have been caused by an inflammation. If these checks are passed, the meat is then termed glatt (גלאַט), the Yiddish word meaning smooth.\nCompromises in countries with animal cruelty laws that prohibit such practices involve stunning the",
"-29.774288972650538"
],
[
"cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, cats, domestic rabbits, chickens, domestic pigeons and domestic ducks, or other animals which have an owner and are mammals, birds or reptiles as protected, meaning that fish are not protected. The penalty for killing or injuring an animal in this category is a fine or imprisonment up to one year; abandonment and cruelty by neglect are punishable with fines.\nFarm animals besides fish are protected by the anti-cruelty and duty of care provisions. Slaughter is to minimize pain and distress (though appropriate methods are not specified and stunning is not required). There",
"-29.76307485596044"
],
[
"about the specific treatment and practices involved in the processing of animals for food. Others still avoid meat because meat production is claimed to place a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plant protein. Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to the act of killing in general, and opposition to certain agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat. Dairy and eggs One of the main differences between a vegan and a typical vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter",
"-29.68193987326231"
],
[
"muscles for sustained flight (such as geese and ducks) have dark meat throughout their bodies. Pork Because of nutritional concerns, it can be preferable for meat producers to have their products considered white meat. The United States National Pork Board has marketed their product as \"Pork. The Other White Meat\". \nIn Israel, where Jewish dietary laws which forbid the consumption of pork are popularly practiced, \"white meat\" is the accepted euphemism for pork. Health effects The health effects that correlate with white meat consumption have been studied as compared to red meat and vegetarian diets. There is a decreased incidence",
"-29.670277745026397"
],
[
"vegetarianism is unknown, most meals are eaten without meat due to its high price.\nFish are plentiful along the River Congo, its tributaries, and various lakes; and are baked, boiled or fried for immediate consumption; or smoked or salted when preserved. Markets often sell ready-to-eat peppered fish baked in banana leaves. Goat is the most widely consumed meat. Mwambe is a common way of cooking chicken with peanut sauce. Edible insects such as grasshoppers and caterpillars are eaten; they tend to have a nutty flavour.\nSauces to mix with the ingredients above can be made with tomatoes, onions, and the local aromatic",
"-29.643863503762987"
],
[
"livestock including poultry may have impacts on human and environmental health. Legislation on antibiotic use in farm animals is being introduced across the globe. History In 1910 in the United States, a meat shortage resulted in protests and boycotts. After this and other shortages, the public demanded government research into stabilization of food supplies. Since the 1900s, livestock production on United States farms has had to rear larger quantities of animals over a short period of time to meet new consumer demands. It was discovered in the 1940’s that feeding subtherapeutic levels of antibiotics improved feed efficiency and accelerated animal",
"-29.6409806269221"
],
[
"to be discarded or sanitized after each use. But epidermis-eating fish are too expensive to throw away\". The procedure is legal in Quebec, with a few clinics in Montreal. The animal rights organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) denounces the practice, citing callous methods of international transportation and suggesting that the fish are deliberately starved between treatments to force them to eat an abnormal food.",
"-29.63835492823273"
],
[
"meat can be prepared in a variety of ways, including stewing, baking, grilling, barbecuing, canning, and frying; it can be minced, curried, or made into sausage. Because of its low fat content, the meat can toughen at high temperatures if cooked without additional moisture. One of the most popular goats farmed for meat is the South African Boer, introduced into the United States in the early 1990s. The New Zealand Kiko is also considered a meat breed, as is the myotonic or \"fainting goat\". Milk, butter and cheese Goats produce about 2% of the world's total annual milk supply.",
"-29.60273796180263"
],
[
"systems), uncooked meat from the animals in question can contain the disease. The significance of parasitic infections with respect to health and productivity in pigs under organic outdoor systems remains to be documented. Such diseases do pose risk in pasture systems. Since there are generally fewer population numbers, risk of transmission to other animals is lower, yet exposure to feces and cross-contamination from other animals is a possibility. Providing proper nutrition is necessary to avoid weak immune systems and provide greater resistance of pathogens—utilizing proper forages, grasses, and mineral availability are necessary. For instance, good quality forage can replace up",
"-29.585047792745172"
],
[
"raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk.\nThe Belgian or Dutch dish filet américain is also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich. Kibbeh nayyeh is a similar Lebanese and Syrian dish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat",
"-29.58018547849497"
],
[
"Raw animal food diets Foods included in raw animal food diets include any food that can be eaten raw, so including raw, unprocessed meats/organ-meats/raw eggs, raw dairy, and aged, raw animal foods such as century eggs, fermenting meat/fish/shellfish/dairy(such as kefir), as well as, to a lesser extent, nuts/sprouts/plants/fruits, but generally not raw grains, raw beans, raw soy etc., because of digestibility and toxicity issues and also because paleolists tend to reject neolithic or domesticated foods. Raw foods on such diets have not been heated at temperatures above 104 °F (40 °C). “Raw Animal Foodists” believe that foods cooked above",
"-29.555568537733052"
],
[
"meat is a cause of cancer, claiming that although the studies mentioned in the report show some correlation between consumption of processed meat and increased incidence of colorectal cancer, they do not demonstrate a causal relationship.",
"-29.53050318174064"
],
[
"and dogs that have eaten the suspect pet foods....\"\nIn the United States, five potential vectors of impact on the human food supply have been identified. The first, which has already been acknowledged to have occurred by FDA and U.S. Department of Agriculture officials, is via contaminated ingredients imported for use in pet foods and sold for use as salvage in animal feed which has been fed to some number of hogs and chickens, the meat from which has been processed and sold to some number of consumers: \"There is very low risk to human health\" in such cases involving pork",
"-29.504184547899058"
],
[
"treated as a staple food, but to a diminishing extent over the period, to be replaced by cereals and the potato. Meats No parts of animals were wasted; blood was used in soups, for blood sausages, tripe was an ingredient in stews, soups or pies, and even cuts that clearly reminded of the live creature were readily consumed. Calf's head could be served as a separate dish, and eating eyes, tongue or cheeks was not seen as problematic; in some regions they were even considered to be delicacies.\nEuropean consumption of meat remained exceptional by world standards, and during the period",
"-29.46729262455483"
],
[
"and halal meat. Imported from France and Germany, this meat is available in the country at comparable prices. In 2003, a popular initiative to protect animal rights and prohibit the import of meat from animals bled without stunning was filed; in December 2005, however, the sponsors withdrew their initiative before it had been submitted to a national vote after Parliament adopted a revision of the Law on the Protection of Animals.\"\nThe Swiss Federation of Jewish Communities (SIG), founded in 1904, regards the 1893 ban on unstunned slaughter as antisemitic.\nThere was a backlash against a proposal to lift the ban in",
"-29.450502689389396"
],
[
"to another can break the law and cause the introduction of fish and parasites alien to the ecosystem. Eating raw fish Though not a health concern in thoroughly cooked fish, parasites are a concern when human consumers eat raw or lightly preserved fish such as sashimi, sushi, ceviche, and gravlax. The popularity of such raw fish dishes makes it important for consumers to be aware of this risk. Raw fish should be frozen to an internal temperature of −20 °C (−4 °F) for at least 7 days to kill parasites. It is important to be aware that home freezers may not",
"-29.418332395958714"
],
[
"over their plate of meat in order to purify it before it is consumed. This is said to create a favorable interconnection between the consumer and the animal, assisting it to attain a finer rebirth.",
"-29.390676343697123"
],
[
"decay, and society's attitude towards meat. Chef Fergus Henderson explained this meat attitude as \"People often don't want meat to look like meat. They want it to be neatly wrapped in plastic from a supermarket.\" People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) condemned the dress, releasing a statement that said \"wearing a dress made from cuts of dead cows is offensive enough to bring comment, but someone should whisper in her ear that more people are upset by butchery than are impressed by it.\" The Vegetarian Society also condemned the dress, releasing a statement that said \"No matter how",
"-29.378100036701653"
],
[
"are a feature. Their most important economic benefit to humans may be the control of coypu and muskrats.\nAlligator meat is also consumed by humans. In 2010, the Archbishop of New Orleans ruled that for purposes of Catholic church discipline in relation to abstention from meat, the flesh of the alligator is characterised as fish.",
"-29.31767493037114"
],
[
"that are used for meat. The taste difference is usually attributed to low concentrations of the iron-containing protein myoglobin, a high concentration being more typical of vertebrates and tissues adapted for slow, sustained exertion. Myoglobin-rich meat is contrariwise often called red meat.",
"-29.31764196815493"
],
[
"generally considered desirable, caused by the Maillard reaction. Meat can be cooked at a high temperature for a short time to brown just the surface, before or after being cooked at low temperature, thus obtaining the benefits of both methods. Bacteria Bacteria are typically killed at temperatures of around 68 °C (154 °F). Most harmful bacteria live on the surface of pieces of meat which have not been ground or shredded before cooking. As a result, for unprocessed steaks or chops of red meat it is usually safe merely to bring the surface temperature of the meat to this temperature and",
"-29.2532758632442"
],
[
"a result, meat on the bone can be better value for money. However, relative value can be hard to judge as the bone part of the product is inedible. Various portions may contain a greater or lesser proportion of bone. Ease of handling The presence of bones may make meat products more bulky, irregular in shape, and difficult to pack. Bones may make preparation and carving more difficult. However, bones can sometimes be used as handles to make the meat easier to eat. Import restrictions Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a contagious disease affecting cloven-hoofed animals. Because FMD rarely infects humans",
"-29.243672204378527"
],
[
"the food produced is unnatural. For instance, confining animals into small areas requires the use of large quantities of antibiotics to prevent the spread of disease. There are debates over whether the use of antibiotics in meat production is harmful to humans. Basic structure of CAFO regulations under the CWA The command-and-control permitting structure of the Clean Water Act (CWA) provides the basis for nearly all regulation of CAFOs in the United States. Generally speaking, the CWA prohibits the discharge of pollution to the \"waters of the United States\" from any \"point source\", unless the discharge is authorized by a",
"-29.23725193203427"
],
[
"and products.\nDr. David Acheson, assistant FDA commissioner for food protection, announced on 3 May that the FDA had begun to investigate domestic food manufacturers who use protein products to ensure that no contaminated product is being used in foods intended for human use, noting that it has no evidence of this occurring, \"but it's prudent to look.\" FDA/USDA acknowledge contaminated food supply On 28 April 2007, the USDA and the FDA, in a joint press release acknowledged that pork from hogs fed contaminated feed had entered the human food supply, stating: \"Based on information currently available, FDA and USDA believe",
"-29.20509105687961"
],
[
"dry fermented salami made with pork meat after the couple was hospitalized for bloody diarrhea. There was also an outbreak of E. coli O157 in 1994 with 17 cases all occurring from the consumption of pre-sliced salami that was processed by one company. A research investigation of the factory where the salami was processed found that all processing techniques and production methods complied with all regulations, and there was no evidence of contamination after processing.\nPreservation of any meat products is important. Some fungi can create undesirable color and flavor in the contaminated meat and produce toxins. Some fungi that are",
"-29.2042098097736"
],
[
"is considered a disease risk today, though this is mainly associated with feeding meat to pigs, which is banned in many countries. Hogs were also fed \"slops\" made from middlings or corn meal stirred with milk and water. \nHistorically, hogs were also allowed to forage in gardens and orchards after the harvest was over. Such foraging can cause erosion and runoff, but the small scale of these operations prevented this from occurring.",
"-29.190770721696026"
],
[
"Bear meat should be thoroughly cooked as it can carry a parasitic infection known as trichinella and is potentially lethal to humans. It is the single biggest vector of trichinosis in North America. Flavor is extremely variable and dependent on the age and diet of the bear. The best meat apparently comes from two-year-old bears which eat more berries than fish. Fat Bear fat has historically been used as cooking oil by both American settlers and Native Americans. Bear fat can also be used as lamp fuel, with 40–50 grams being sufficient to last up to an hour. Some Native",
"-29.177999524690676"
],
[
"raw material Due to the fact that pigs can eat unused food originally meant for humans, and due to high availability of such food in many industrialized countries, pork and other products from pigs have become securely sourced and low-priced commodities. This makes pig products very popular as raw material in many industrially produced products. Religious restrictions Eating of pork is prohibited by orthodox Jewish dietary laws and Islamic dietary laws, and is also avoided by mainstream Seventh-day Adventists, Rastafarians, and members of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. There is also a theory that pork was taboo in Scotland",
"-29.17605053567968"
],
[
"Raw feeding Raw feeding is the practice of feeding domestic dogs, cats and other animals a diet consisting primarily of uncooked meat, edible bones, and organs. The ingredients used to formulate raw diets can vary. Some pet owners choose to make home-made raw diets to feed their animals but commercial raw food diets are also available.\nThe practice of feeding raw diets has raised some concerns due to the risk of food borne illnesses, zoonosis and nutritional imbalances. People who feed their dogs raw food do so for a multitude of reasons, including but not limited to: culture, beliefs surrounding health, nutrition and what is perceived to be",
"-29.169216877315193"
],
[
"to ensuring compliance with religious requirements. It held that an exemption from laws that conflicted with this was therefore mandated:\nIt is true that the consumption of imported meat makes such renunciation [of meat-eating] dispensable; however, due to the fact that in this case, personal contact with the butcher and the confidence that goes with such contact do not exist, the consumption of imported meat is fraught with the insecurity whether the meat really complies with the commandments of Islam....Under these circumstances, an exemption from the mandatory stunning of warm-blooded animals before their blood is drained cannot be precluded if the",
"-29.13094646508398"
],
[
"Animal sourced materials include both animal manures and residues from the slaughter of animals. Manures are derived from milk-producing dairy animals, egg-producing poultry, and animals raised for meat and hide production. When any animal is butchered, only about 40% to 60% of the live animal is converted to market product, with the remaining 40% to 60% classed as by-products. These by-products of animal slaughter, mostly inedible -- blood, bone, feathers, hides, hoofs, horns, -- can be refined into agricultural fertilizers including bloodmeal, bone meal fish meal, and feather meal.\nChicken litter, which consists of chicken manure mixed with sawdust, is an",
"-29.096939826500602"
],
[
"states that humans can become infected via eating fresh water fish. For example, a popular dish serving fermented fresh water fish is popular among the women of Siam, which may explain their higher incidence of the infection. In order to avoid or kill the infective larva living in fish muscle, one must boil the fish first for a minimum of five minutes, placed in a solution of vinegar and 4% acetic acid for a period of 5.5 hours, or just to avoid raw or undercooked fish, always being sure to cook fresh water fish thoroughly Treatment of gnathostomiasis Laboratory testing",
"-29.080737291602418"
],
[
"food for humans is eaten raw in salads and cooked in soups. It is high in protein, soluble dietary fiber, and a variety of vitamins and minerals, especially iron. However, contamination with toxic heavy metals at certain sites where it can be collected makes it dangerous for human consumption. Aquarium trade Sea lettuce species are commonly found in the saltwater aquarium trade, where the plants are valued for their high nutrient uptake and edibility. Many reef aquarium keepers use sea lettuce species in refugia or grow it as a food source for herbivorous fish. Sea lettuce is very easy to",
"-29.06766630007769"
],
[
"do not survive a thorough cooking of the meat, but several of their toxins and microbial spores do. The microbes may also infect the person eating the meat, although against this the microflora of the human gut is normally an effective barrier. Testing The presence of infectious agents can be detected with a number of tests during the production and processing of meat, but testing by itself is not sufficient to ensure adequate food safety. The industry-standard Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) system provides for a comprehensive quality management framework as a part of which such tests can be",
"-29.049902667320566"
],
[
"for illnesses, by the average Westerner. Added to all this, a great many things that are eaten contain residues of pesticides, detergents, and so forth. The strain of the human body trying to cope with such toxic matter that you consume every day of your life is considerable and in addition, there are the natural toxins and acids that the body produces during its own daily work which weaken the metabolism and make it a prey to ill health when it need not be.\" \nSome common foods are considered poisonous: \"There are a number of vegetables that contain poison and",
"-29.039206774683407"
],
[
"to food animals will kill most bacteria, but resistant bacteria can survive. When food animals are slaughtered and processed, resistant germs in the animal gut can contaminate the meat or other animal products.\nResistant germs from the animal gut can also get into the environment, like water and soil, from animal manure. If animal manure or water containing resistant germs are used on fruits, vegetables, or other produce as fertilizer or irrigation, then this can spread resistant germs.",
"-29.026423547707964"
],
[
"meat citing the negative effects of meat consumption on human health, the contribution of meat industry to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change, and the stressful and inhumane conditions under which animals are reared and slaughtered in factory farms.\nAg-gag laws criminalizing the gathering of evidence on animal suffering in the meat industry are adopted to try to slow the growth of humanitarian concerns that could reduce demand for meat and increase support for meat taxes, but they are being countered by a growing movement to install compulsory CCTV in slaughterhouses.\nThe Danish Council on Ethics has called for a tax on",
"-29.02615618892014"
],
[
"tissue monitoring can prevent infection of meat cultures from the outset, and any potential infection can be detected before shipment to consumers.\nIn addition to the prevention and lack of diseases, and lack of the use of antibiotics or any other chemical substances, cultured meat can also leverage numerous biotechnology advancements, including increased nutrient fortification, individually-customized cellular and molecular compositions, and optimal nutritional profiles, all making it much healthier than livestock-sourced meat. Artificiality Although cultured meat is real meat consisting of genuine animal muscle cells, fat and support cells, as well as blood vessels, that are the same in traditional meat,",
"-29.01909080047335"
],
[
"amount of available essential nutrient in a dog's food.\nDue to the fact that raw diets do not exposure the meat to any high temperatures, the chance of the maillard reaction happening is greatly decreased. This means that the amino groups of the amino acids in the meat will be unbound and nutritionally available to the dog for use. However, the risk assumed by not cooking or processing meat is an increased chance of bacterial infections to the pet or the owner handling the food. Types There are various differences in opinion within the raw feeding community. Issues include whether dogs",
"-29.018340518901823"
],
[
"as pets can eat frozen fare such as bloodworm or artemia and flake. It cannot eat dried food, however, because its stomach would swell up. It is recommended to feed it frozen food for a healthy diet. Characteristics Periophthalmus barbarus and mudskippers generally are able to tolerate high concentrations of toxic substances produced by industrial waste, including cyanide, in their environments. They are also able to survive in a variety of environments, including waters with different temperatures and salinity levels.",
"-29.0107871160144"
],
[
"may have detrimental effects on welfare, deliberately-imposed adverse physical, physiological and behavioural states, toe-clipping or other methods of invasive marking and handling procedures which may cause injury). Culinary It has been claimed that frogs killed for eating are \"...sliced through the belly while they are still fully conscious and they can take up to an hour to die.\" Legislation In the UK, the legislation protecting animals during scientific research, the \"Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986\", protects amphibians from the moment they become capable of independent feeding. The legislation protecting animals in most other circumstances in the UK is \"The",
"-29.010704511601944"
],
[
"many health problems due to both local and international trade. In order to give the impression that the primates are tame and appropriate pets for children, to protect people from their potentially toxic bite, or to deceive buyers into thinking the animal is a baby, animal dealers either pull the front teeth with pliers or wire cutters or cut them off with nail cutters. This results in severe bleeding, which sometimes causes shock or death. Dental infection is common and is fatal in 90% of cases. Without their teeth, the animals can no longer fend for themselves in the",
"-28.975539038539864"
],
[
"be part of the normal gut flora for many mammals (including humans), has many strains. Strain E. coli 0157:H7 can cause foodborne illness. A study found that grass-fed animals have as much as eighty percent less E. coli in their guts than their grain-fed counterparts, though this reduction can be achieved by switching an animal to grass only a few days prior to slaughter. Also, the amount of E. coli they do have is much less likely to survive our first-line defense against infection: stomach acid. This is because feeding grain to cattle makes their normally pH-neutral digestive tract abnormally",
"-28.97374590160325"
],
[
"Some cultures consume blood, sometimes in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare.\nSome cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical, or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans do not consume any foods that are or contain ingredients from an animal source. Adulterated food Adulteration is a legal term meaning that a food product fails to meet the legal standards.",
"-28.968533078877954"
],
[
"some consumers may find the high-tech production process distasteful (see appeal to nature). Cultured meat has been described as fake or \"Frankenmeat\". Clean meat can be produced without the artificial hormones, antibiotics, steroids, medicine, and GMOs commonly used in factory farmed meat and seafood.\nIf a cultured meat product is different in appearance, taste, smell, texture, or other factors, it may not be commercially competitive with conventionally produced meat. The lack of bone and cardiovascular system may be a disadvantage for dishes where these parts make appreciable culinary contributions. However, the lack of bones and/or blood may make many traditional meat",
"-28.949214162668795"
],
[
"for food; people find their meat to have a mild but tasty flavor. Because of their long lifespans and older sexual maturity age, factors affecting their reproduction is an issue in preserving them. Overfishing is a large issue for this fish, especially when the fish have not reached sexual maturity due to the female not reaching sexual maturity until about six years of age.",
"-28.944200820929836"
]
] |
2gkeb8 | Why do we use gas, electricity, and chemical injections for executions when a noose and firing squads are proven effective and **WAY** cheaper? | [
"firing squads and nooses are actually not all that guaranteed. If the hanging is not done right, the convict will not die instantly and will instead suffocate to death. Firing squads are similar in that you could perhaps only graze the heart/other vital organs and not kill the person.",
"Execution must be humane for both the convict and the executioner. Modern execution methods are designed to reduce suffering and to preserve the dignity and sanity of anyone in attendance, whether they're involved with the proceeding or not. For example, back in the day, firing *squads* were intended to obscure responsibility for the execution. No one man pulling the trigger could say for certain that he made the kill shot. However, it was likely physically painful for the convict, as well as ugly to witness.",
"Or one of those cattle guns which shoot out a slug directly into the cow's brain for instant death.",
"The electric chair is being phased out in favour of the lethal injection, same with the gas chamber. It all comes down to what is viewed as being too cruel, or painful, or bizarre. \"Cruel and unusual punishment\" as they call it. As said in another comment, the noose is easily botched and causes a slow and painful death if done wrong. The firing squad can also go wrong. Usually a group of executioners are gathered and most of them are given a blank round, so nobody knows who actually shot the fatal bullet. So there are usually not many bullets being fired at the detainee, and bullets don't have a 100% kill rate either. The electric chair and the gas chamber both cause a fairly drawn out death, again deemed as cruel and unusual. The injection has a good success rate and causes a quick and seemingly painless death as the detainee is put to sleep first and then the lethal dose is administered. Since it's intravenous, it gets to work straight away and they're dead pretty quick. Tl;dr - Gas, Electric, Firing squad, Noose are not all 100% effective and cause pain and suffering. For some reason causing pain and suffering to somebody who rightfully deserves it is not right.",
"Death from a death penalty is supposed to be \"Humane.\" Gas and lethal injection are supposed to knock the person out and make them not feel anything as they die. The kicker is that they don't really KNOW if the person feels pain using these methods because they haven't found anybody willing to test it out ;)",
"I don't know the specifics of it, but I'm pretty sure that CO poisoning is painless, so is N poisoning, I don't see the problem, other than seeming slightly, I don't know... [gas execution chambers seem familiar, don't they?]( URL_0 )",
"I'm sorry if I'm breaking the rules by being slightly off topic, but I would like to commend the commenters in this thread for conducting this discussion in a mostly civil manner, even though it's a touchy subject. Many of the topics that usually divide people into conservative vs liberal quickly degenerate into angry name calling on this site.",
"I honestly think one of the main reasons is that using a method which isn't horrific to look at, and we can tell ourselves isn't cruel, makes it easier to justify continuing to execute people in the first place.",
"assuming you believe in the death penalty, it is done just to complicate things! just put the person to sleep like in an operating room, once asleep who the F cares how you kill them!",
"I think I heard they also try to do it in such a way as to preserve the organs for donation, if possible?"
] | [
[
"unhappy with Dr Munro's treatment of their babies.\nAmnesty International has objected to its use in lethal injections on the grounds that it \"may mask the condemned prisoner's suffering during the execution,\" thereby leading observers to conclude that lethal injection is painless, or less cruel than other forms of execution. Export limitations The United Kingdom bans the export of pancuronium bromide to the United States due to its use in lethal injections. Uses in crime Pancuronium was used in Efren Saldivar's killing spree. It was also used by the Skin Hunters to kill patients in the Polish city of Łódź. Pavulon",
"-30.0414736722596"
],
[
"Supreme People's Court ordered the discontinuation of firing squads by the following year under the conclusion that injections were more humane to the prisoner. It has been suggested that the switch is also in response to executions being horrifying to the public. Lethal injections are less expensive than firing squads, with a single dose costing 300 yuan compared to 700 yuan for a shooting execution. Procedure in Vietnamese executions Like China, executions in Vietnam were also mainly by means of shooting. The use of lethal injection method was approved by the government in June 2010, adopted in 2011 and only",
"-29.384016051888466"
],
[
"allowing for execution by firing squad if the drugs they use are unavailable. Several other states are also exploring a return to the firing squad.\nJustice Sonia Sotomayor argued in Arthur v. Dunn: \"In addition to being near instant, death by shooting may also be comparatively painless ... And historically, the firing squad has yielded significantly fewer botched executions.\"",
"-29.236449227493722"
],
[
"was formerly used in Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina and Oregon. Six states, Arizona, California, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri and Wyoming, authorize lethal gas if lethal injection cannot be administered, the condemned committed their crime before a certain date, or the condemned chooses to die in the gas chamber. In October 2010, Governor of New York David Paterson signed a bill rendering gas chambers illegal for use by humane societies and other animal shelters. Using hydrogen cyanide As implemented in the United States, the gas chamber is considered to be the most dangerous, most complicated, and most expensive method of",
"-28.991630213713506"
],
[
"arrested for murder and robbery. Between 2013 and 2016, 429 prisoners were executed by this method in the country. Conventional lethal injection protocol Typically, three drugs are used in lethal injection. Pancuronium bromide (Pavulon) is used to cause muscle paralysis and respiratory arrest, potassium chloride to stop the heart, and sodium thiopental to induce unconsciousness. Constitutionality in the United States In 2006, the Supreme Court ruled in Hill v. McDonough that death-row inmates in the United States could challenge the constitutionality of states' lethal injection procedures through a federal civil rights lawsuit. Since then, numerous death-row inmates have brought such",
"-28.709945491573308"
],
[
"propofol used in lethal injections, concerning cruel and unusual punishment, the state Supreme Court temporarily halted the further use of the death penalty until the case had been ultimately decided. With Missouri law allowing for the use of other forms of the death penalty in cases where lethal injection is not available, Koster has advocated the use of gas chambers to execute Missouri prisoners.\nIn 2012, after Koster's staff of 56 moved to a portion of the Broadway Building in Jefferson City, a $3.2 million request was made for \"repairs, replacements and improvements\" on two floors, \"to include interior demolition, construction",
"-28.45639272770495"
],
[
"made unconstitutional. At the same time, Wyoming and Utah were considering the use of execution by firing squad in addition to other existing execution methods.\nIn 2016, Pfizer joined over 20 American and European pharmaceutical manufacturers that had previously blocked the sale of their drugs for use in lethal injections, effectively closing the open market for FDA-approved manufacturers for any potential lethal execution drug. In the execution of Carey Dean Moore on August 14, 2018, the State of Nebraska used a novel drug cocktail comprising diazepam, fentanyl, cisatracurium, and potassium chloride, over the strong objections of the German pharmaceutical company Fresenius",
"-27.86485588562209"
],
[
"to the primary execution method of lethal injection. In March 2018, Attorney General Michael J. Hunter and Corrections Director Joe M. Allbaugh announced that Oklahoma would start using inert gas asphyxiation as the primary method of execution. Oklahoma Department of Corrections has had difficulty obtaining the drugs used to perform lethal injections. Prison rodeo Starting in 1940, except for a handful of years during World War II and during the 1970s inmate uprising, OSP held a prison rodeo until 2009. A two-day event was held in August, or on Labor Day weekend (accounts differ), the rodeo was a joint venture",
"-27.65352921326121"
],
[
"execute prisoners by lethal injection. A very large dose is given to ensure rapid loss of consciousness. Although death usually occurs within ten minutes of the beginning of the injection process, some have been known to take longer. The use of sodium thiopental in execution protocols was challenged in court after a study in the medical journal The Lancet reported autopsies of executed inmates showed the level of thiopental in their bloodstream was insufficient to cause unconsciousness.\nOn December 8, 2009, Ohio became the first state to use a single dose of sodium thiopental for its capital execution, following the failed",
"-27.453745502236416"
],
[
"time and the 1978 adoption of lethal injection as a second option. In 2009 the firing squad option was removed, Idaho having never executed an inmate by that method. This left lethal injection as the sole execution method.",
"-27.368122848623898"
],
[
"in the late 1970s, inmates have been able to choose if their execution will be carried out by lethal injection or hanging. If the inmate makes no decision, lethal injection is the default method. Washington was the last state with an active gallows (Delaware dismantled theirs in 2003).\nAccording to the Revised Code of Washington § 10.95.180, executions in Washington:\n...shall be inflicted by intravenous injection of a substance or substances in a lethal quantity sufficient to cause death and until the defendant is dead, or, at the election of the defendant, by hanging by the neck until the defendant is dead.\nMitchell",
"-27.192277800008014"
],
[
"to nerve gas poisoning. Usually treatment of poisoning includes the use of atropine, which can slow down the action of the poison, giving more time to apply the oxime.",
"-27.08465761897969"
],
[
"Act 1971 (United Kingdom) and its French, Canadian, Australian, Italian, Czech, Croatian, Slovenian, Swedish, Polish, Spanish, Greek, Russian, and other laws similarly control it, as do virtually all other countries. Use in executions In 2009, Ohio approved the use of an intramuscular injection of 500 mg of hydromorphone and a supratherapeutic dose of midazolam as a backup means of carrying out executions when a suitable vein cannot be found for intravenous injection.\nHydromorphone and midazolam was injected intravenously to execute double-murderer Joseph Wood in Arizona on 24 July 2014. Wood was heavily sedated (surgical anesthesia) within four minutes from start but took",
"-27.02408802502032"
],
[
"of serenity and a painless death, rather than actually providing it. More specifically, opponents object to the use of pancuronium bromide, arguing that its use in lethal injection serves no useful purpose since the inmate is physically restrained. Therefore, the default function of pancuronium bromide would be to suppress the autonomic nervous system, specifically to stop breathing. Research In 2005, University of Miami researchers, in cooperation with the attorney representing death-row inmates from Virginia, published a research letter in the medical journal The Lancet. The article presented protocol information from Texas, Virginia, and North and South Carolina, which showed that",
"-26.987482007833023"
],
[
"Bullet trap A bullet trap is a device to stop and collect bullets or other projectiles fired at a shooting range to prevent overpenetrations and stray shots. The bullet trap may also provide means to recycle bullet materials and/or prevent release of toxic heavy metals (such as lead dust from fragmented bullets) from the shooting range. Bullet traps typically use friction, impact or gradual deceleration to stop bullets. Some bullet traps include a negative-pressure system to filter dust from air within the impact zone and/or capture area.\nWhen used specifically for air guns, it is called a pellet",
"-26.970320583321154"
],
[
"Execution by firing squad Military significance The method is often the supreme punishment or disciplinary means employed by military courts for crimes such as cowardice, desertion, espionage, murder, mutiny, or treason.\nIf the condemned prisoner is an ex-officer who is acknowledged to have shown bravery in their past career, they may be accorded the privilege of giving the order to fire. An example of this is Marshal of France Michel Ney. Blank cartridge In some cases, one or more members of the firing squad may be issued a weapon containing a blank cartridge. No member of the firing squad is told",
"-26.801861425919924"
],
[
"firing squad in the South African Republic on 27 February 1902 for war crimes during the Second Boer War. United Arab Emirates In the United Arab Emirates, firing squad is the preferred method of execution. United Kingdom Execution by firing squad in the United Kingdom was limited to times of war, armed insurrection and in the military, although it is now outlawed in all circumstances, along with all other forms of capital punishment.\nThe Tower of London was used during both World Wars for executions.\nDuring World War I, 11 captured German spies were shot between 1914-1916, nine on the Tower's rifle",
"-26.72254320999491"
],
[
"from any further intervention, ruling that the lower court decisions caused \"abusive delays\" and were \"attempts to manipulate the judicial process\".\nThe available methods were expanded to two in January 1993, with lethal gas as the standard but with lethal injection offered as a choice for the inmate. David Mason, the first inmate to have this choice, made no selection, so was executed by the lethal gas default in August 1993. Following a legal challenge and Ninth Circuit appeal court decision in 1996, lethal gas was suspended, with lethal injection becoming the only method. Serial killer William Bonin was the first",
"-26.64451768017898"
],
[
"Mike Hunter and Corrections Director Joe M. Allbaugh announced a switch to nitrogen gas as the primary method of execution. Livestock Gas chambers have also been used for animal euthanasia, using carbon monoxide as the lethal agent. Sometimes a box filled with anesthetic gas is used to anesthetize small animals for surgery or euthanasia.",
"-26.623386944571394"
],
[
"late 20th century, most states had switched to methods considered to be more humane, such as lethal injection. California's gas chamber at San Quentin State Prison was converted to an execution chamber for lethal injection.\nAs of 2010, the last person to be executed in the gas chamber was German national Walter LaGrand, sentenced to death before 1992, who was executed in Arizona on March 3, 1999. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit had ruled that he could not be executed by gas chamber, but the decision was overturned by the United States Supreme Court. The gas chamber",
"-26.37873939180281"
],
[
"the use of thiopental in lethal injection. \"Hospira manufactures this product because it improves or saves lives, and the company markets it solely for use as indicated on the product labeling. The drug is not indicated for capital punishment and Hospira does not support its use in this procedure.\" On January 21, 2011, the company announced that it would stop production of sodium thiopental from its plant in Italy because Italian authorities couldn't guarantee that exported quantities of the drug would not be used in executions. Italy was the only viable place where the company could produce sodium thiopental, leaving",
"-26.307029560091905"
],
[
"execution, poison has been ingested, as the ancient Athenians did (see Socrates), inhaled, as with carbon monoxide or hydrogen cyanide (see gas chamber), or injected (see lethal injection). Poison's lethal effect can be combined with its allegedly magical powers; an example is the Chinese gu poison. Poison was also employed in gunpowder warfare. For example, the 14th-century Chinese text of the Huolongjing written by Jiao Yu outlined the use of a poisonous gunpowder mixture to fill cast iron grenade bombs.\nWhile arsenic is a naturally occurring environmental poison, its artificial concentrate was once nicknamed inheritance powder. In Medieval Europe, it was",
"-26.299232388846576"
],
[
"on the gun to control the dart velocity by varying the amount of gas pressure used to propel it. Military and police use Tranquillizer darts are not generally included in military or police less-than-lethal arsenals because no drug is yet known that would be quickly and reliably effective on humans without the risks of side effects or an overdose. This means that effective use requires an estimate of the weight of the target to be able to determine how many darts (if any) can be used. Shooting too few would result in partial effects only, while too many can kill",
"-26.292899972671876"
],
[
"Activated charcoal (medication) Poison ingestion Activated charcoal is used to treat many types of oral poisonings such as phenobarbital and carbamazepine. It is not effective for a number of poisonings including: strong acids or bases, iron, lithium, arsenic, methanol, ethanol or ethylene glycol.\nNo randomized controlled trials have shown activated charcoal improves outcomes and routine use is not recommended. In a study of acute poisonings from agricultural pesticides and yellow oleander seeds, the administration of activated carbon did not affect survival rates. Gastrointestinal tract-related issues Charcoal biscuits were sold in England starting in the early 19th century, originally as remedy",
"-26.16982473376629"
],
[
"desirable not solely for incapacitation, but also so the bullet will not exit the target. An expanding bullet will stop in the target and \"dump\" all its energy there, rather than overpenetrating and possibly endangering people behind the target. Since all handgun rounds are marginal at best, the one with the most energy and which expends all that energy in a target is the one that is most effective.",
"-25.998389569562278"
],
[
"Lethal injection History Lethal injection gained popularity in the late 20th century as a form of execution intended to supplant other methods, notably electrocution, gas inhalation, hanging and firing squad, that were considered to be less humane. It is now the most common form of execution in the United States. Conception Lethal injection was first proposed on January 17, 1888, by Julius Mount Bleyer, a New York doctor who praised it as being cheaper than hanging. Bleyer's idea was never used, due to a series of botched executions and the eventual rise of public disapproval in electrocutions. Nazi Germany developed",
"-25.975320025521796"
],
[
"Supreme Court of the United States heard oral arguments in Baze v. Rees, a case challenging the three-drug cocktail used for many executions by lethal injection. The respondent's lawyer, Roy T. Englert, Jr., criticized DPIC's botched executions list, on the grounds that a majority of the executions on it “did not involve the infliction of pain, but were only delayed by technical problems\", such as difficulty in finding a suitable vein. However, the list also contains cases of prisoners catching on fire in electric chair executions, a prisoner moaning and banging his head against a steel pole in a gas",
"-25.88886192420614"
],
[
"to Department of Defense policy, non-lethal weapons \"are explicitly designed and primarily employed so as to incapacitate personnel or material, while minimizing fatalities, permanent injury to personnel, and undesired damage to property and the environment.\" ADS has applications for crowd control and perimeter defense, and filling \"the gap between shouting and shooting.\" Other crowd control methods – including pepper spray, tear gas, water cannons, slippery foam and rubber bullets – carry implicit dangers of temporary or permanent injury or accidental death, and often leave residue or residual material. Combinations of acoustic and optical system platforms with ADS can be used",
"-25.87450298643671"
],
[
"together with other items under the EU Torture Regulation. Since then, pentobarbital followed thiopental in the European Union's ban. Complications of executions and cessation of supply of lethal injection drugs By early 2014, a number of botched executions involving lethal injection, and a rising shortage of suitable drugs, had some U.S. states reconsidering lethal injection as a form of execution. Tennessee, which had previously offered inmates a choice between lethal injection and the electric chair, passed a law in May 2014 which gave the state the option to use the electric chair if lethal injection drugs are either unavailable or",
"-25.74581110230065"
],
[
"that release poisons as an unavoidable part of their extraction and refining has always required sacrifice zones.\"",
"-25.74197254869796"
],
[
"explosives. However, they also produce toxic gases and care is needed to ensure good ventilation to remove those gases, like carbon monoxide, as well as choice of the explosive itself to minimise their emission.",
"-25.72510246851016"
],
[
"in 1997 concluded on non-lethal weapons: \"Determining the target effects on personnel is the greatest challenge to the testing community,\" primarily because \"the potential of injury and death severely limits human tests.\" However, \"directed energy weapons that target the central nervous system and cause neurophysiological disorders\" may violate the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons of 1980. And weapons that go beyond non-lethal intentions and cause \"superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering\" could violate the Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1977.\" Safety and evaluation of the physical and psychological effects of the long-term or repetitive uses of the",
"-25.71609829764202"
],
[
"Heckler v. Chaney Background Respondents had been convicted in Oklahoma and Texas criminal courts and sentenced to death. The procedure to be used was lethal injection. They applied first to the FDA, stating that while the drugs to be involved in the lethal injection had been approved, the manner in which they were going to be used had not, in violation of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act's prohibition against \"misbranding\". They also argued that the Act's procedures for \"new drugs\" should be applicable, given that these drugs were being utilized for a new and un-tested purpose. More simply, they",
"-25.69019766349811"
],
[
"manufactures rocuronium bromide, which is approved by the state of Alabama for use in executions by lethal injection. European manufacturers refuse to sell drugs which can be used for executions to the United States, except to distributors or users who sign legally binding agreements that the drug will not be used for executions down the delivery chain.\nIn September 2014, the London-based human rights organization Reprieve told Mylan that they were the only FDA-approved manufacturer of rocuronium bromide without legal controls in place to prevent its use in executions, and there was \"a very real risk that Mylan may soon become",
"-25.670631023909664"
],
[
"the Commissioner's designee, without prescription, for carrying out the provisions of this section, notwithstanding any other provision of law\" (excerpt from Title 11, Chapter 42, § 4209). State law allows for the dispensing of the drugs/chemicals for lethal injection to the state's department of corrections without a prescription. Opposition Opponents of lethal injection have voiced concerns that abuse, misuse and even criminal conduct is possible when there is not a proper chain of command and authority for the acquisition of death-inducing drugs. Awareness Opponents of lethal injection believe that it is not actually painless as practiced in the United States.",
"-25.65313499784679"
],
[
"2015, Governor Mary Fallin of Oklahoma signed a bill allowing nitrogen asphyxiation as an alternative execution method. Three years later, in March 2018, Oklahoma announced that, due to the difficulty in procuring lethal injection drugs, nitrogen gas would be its primary method of carrying out executions. In March 2018, Alabama became the third state (along with Oklahoma and Mississippi), to authorize the use of nitrogen asphyxiation as a method of execution.\nThe case Bucklew v. Precythe, decided 1 April 2019, ruled that a Missouri death row inmate could not avoid death by lethal injection and choose inert gas asphyxiation using",
"-25.507224366243463"
],
[
"of consciousness among inmates to the lack of training and monitoring in the process, but carefully make no recommendations on how to alter the protocol or how to improve the process. Indeed, the authors conclude, \"because participation of doctors in protocol design or execution is ethically prohibited, adequate anesthesia cannot be certain. Therefore, to prevent unnecessary cruelty and suffering, cessation and public review of lethal injections is warranted.\"\nPaid expert consultants on both sides of the lethal-injection debate have found opportunity to criticize the 2005 Lancet article. Subsequent to the initial publication in the Lancet, three letters to the editor and",
"-25.468083888594265"
],
[
"Amendment; it also determined the proper legal standard by which lethal-injection challenges in general should be judged, all in an effort to bring some uniformity to how these claims are handled by the lower courts. Although uncertainty over whether executions in the United States would be put on hold during the period in which the United States Supreme Court considers the constitutionality of lethal injection initially arose after the court agreed to hear Baze, no executions took place during the period between when the court agreed to hear the case and when its ruling was announced, with the exception of",
"-25.267263081594137"
],
[
"prisoners to show the challenged method of execution poses a demonstrated risk of severe pain, emphasizing the burden of proof was on the prisoners, not the state. Although midazolam is not recommended or approved by the Food and Drug Administration as an anesthetic, the Court explained that a constitutionally adequate method of execution does not need to meet the medical standard of care.\nThe Court credited the testimony of Dr. Roswell Lee Evans, Oklahoma's expert witness, that there is \"a virtual certainty\" prisoners will feel no pain during lethal injection, rejecting the prisoners' \"speculative evidence\" of midazolam's ceiling effect. Finally,",
"-25.214508712175302"
],
[
"the capability of adsorbing many large molecules and has for a long time been known for its ability to remove toxic substances from the blood in accidental poisoning or overdose. However, perfusion through direct charcoal administration is toxic as it leads to embolisms and damage of blood cells followed by removal by platelets. Artificial cells allow toxins to diffuse into the cell while keeping the dangerous cargo within their ultrathin membrane.\nArtificial cell hemoperfusion has been proposed as a less costly and more efficient detoxifying option than hemodialysis, in which blood filtering takes place only through size separation by a",
"-25.165563866188677"
],
[
"of lethal injection as a mode of execution, while refusing to release details of the new chemical concoctions used in these executions following chemical company Hospira's decision to stop producing sodium thiopental, which had previously been widely used. Fallin pushed strongly for the execution of convicted murderer Clayton Lockett to proceed in spite of the lack of tested drugs to use for lethal injection. When the Oklahoma State Supreme Court granted a stay of execution, Fallin immediately overruled it, leading some political commentators to raise the possibility of a constitutional crisis surrounding the separation of powers. At the same time,",
"-25.088958940439625"
],
[
"or permanent nerve damage, chronic pain, paralysis and/or parasthesia. The lethal setting must be intentionally set immediately before use.\nOrgan Replacement: Almost any organ can be replaced using synthetic replacements, although some people, due to religious reasons or intolerance to synthetics, turn to human donors, usually cadavers. There is a small traffic in black-market organs, but synthetics limit this.\nPatrol Stunner: Patrol officers do not carry weapons with an explicit \"lethal\" setting, but maximum power hits at close proximity to throat or brain can be lethal, but usually only with multiple hits and deliberate intent. Close hits at high power can cause",
"-25.084889179561287"
],
[
"without using live ammunition. Specifically, it can be used to ensure the magazine is feeding ammunition properly up the feed ramp and into the chamber of the firearm. Dry Fire Practice Snap Caps are used for general dry-firing practice. There is some debate as to if dry firing a handgun may cause damage to the firing pin in a modern firearm. Using a snap cap or dummy round eliminates any potential risk of doing so if the snap cap has a solid primer cup. Some snap caps that are sold are missing the primer cup and thus do not address",
"-25.05767342017498"
],
[
"control is a non-lethal method of population management that is usually viewed as the most humane treatment, and its use is supported by the RSPCA. While it appears as though these treatments are effective in the breeding season immediately following injection, the lasting effects are debated. Because it is costly and difficult to treat animals repeatedly, this method, despite being ideal, is not widely implemented.\nShooting by trained marksmen is considered to be the most practical method of control due to its effectiveness. The NSW Department of Primary Industries believe shooting is the preferred method of population control as it does",
"-25.046732315560803"
],
[
"were arguing that the FDA had not certified that the drugs were \"safe and effective\" for human executions, and thus should be barred for being distributed via interstate commerce.",
"-25.027492612367496"
],
[
"an option for execution are the U.S. states of Alabama, Florida, South Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. Arkansas and Oklahoma laws provide for its use should lethal injection ever be held to be unconstitutional. Inmates in the other states must select either it or lethal injection. In Kentucky, only inmates sentenced before a certain date can choose to be executed by electric chair. Electrocution is also authorized in Kentucky in the event that lethal injection is found unconstitutional by a court. Tennessee was among the states that provided inmates with a choice of the electric chair or lethal injection; in",
"-25.015715119079687"
],
[
"to disguise that mass murder was taking place. Despite the lethal effects of carbon monoxide, this was seen as unsuitable for use in the East due to the cost of transporting the carbon monoxide in cylinders.\nEach extermination camp operated differently, yet each had designs for quick and efficient industrialized killing. While Höss was away on an official journey in late August 1941 his deputy, Karl Fritzsch, tested out an idea. At Auschwitz clothes infested with lice were treated with crystallised prussic acid. The crystals were made to order by the IG Farben chemicals company for which the brand name was",
"-24.95784885433386"
],
[
"from three months to less than 18 years of age. This was the first application of a paediatric-use marketing authorisation. Use in executions The drug has been introduced for use in executions by lethal injection in certain jurisdictions in the United States in combination with other drugs. It was introduced to replace pentobarbital after the latter's manufacturer disallowed that drug's use for executions.\nMidazolam has been used as part of a three-drug cocktail, with vecuronium bromide and potassium chloride in Florida and Oklahoma prisons. Midazolam has also been used along with hydromorphone in a two-drug protocol in Ohio and Arizona.",
"-24.928116229999432"
],
[
"Criminal Code, the government introduced capital punishment by way of lethal injection, deprivation of oxygen (\"medical\" asphyxiation), firing squad and electrocution in addition to the pre-existing option of hanging. With the addition of four alternate methods of execution, the Commission was requested to report on the best method of execution and the most appropriate for PNG to utilise. The Commission travelled to countries with experience in capital punishment: United States, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Singapore \"in order to provide advice to the government on what methods of execution should be adopted.\"\nFollowing the report by the Commission, the PNG Cabinet endorsed",
"-24.911250376608223"
],
[
"and unreliable method of execution compared with hanging, the mechanical guillotine was adopted; it was also regarded as a more humane way to take the life of the condemned than earlier messy ways of execution. The device was first used on Nicolas Jacques Pelletier on 25 April 1792. Guillotine usage then spread to other countries such as Germany (where it had been used since before the revolution), Italy, Sweden (used in a single execution), and French colonies in Africa, French Guiana and French Indochina. Penal Code of 1791 On October 6, 1791, the Penal Code of 1791 was enacted,",
"-24.875578559556743"
],
[
"lethal gas was Gee Jon, on February 8, 1924. An unsuccessful attempt to pump poison gas directly into his cell at Nevada State Prison led to the development of the first makeshift gas chamber to carry out Gee's death sentence.\nOn December 3, 1948, Miran Thompson and Sam Shockley were executed in the gas chamber at San Quentin State Prison for their role in the Battle of Alcatraz.\nIn 1957, Burton Abbott was executed as the governor of California, Goodwin J. Knight, was on the telephone to stay the execution. Since the restoration of the death penalty in the United States in",
"-24.780488029122353"
],
[
"using a three drugs cocktail.\nIn Glossip v. Gross, No. 14-7955, 576 U.S. ___ (2015) the Court upheld the use of lethal injections using the drug midazolam. Evolving standards of decency In Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86 (1958), Chief Justice Earl Warren said: \"The [Eighth] Amendment must draw its meaning from the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society.\" Subsequently, the Court has looked to societal developments, as well as looking to its own independent judgment, in determining what are those \"evolving standards of decency\".\nOriginalists like Justice Antonin Scalia argue that societies may rot instead",
"-24.76961315056542"
],
[
"\"non-lethal\" or \"less-lethal\" ammunition for the purpose of suppressing riots. Less-lethal launchers may be special purpose firearms designed for riot control use, or standard firearms, usually shotguns and grenade launchers, adapted to riot control use with appropriate ammunition. The ammunition is most commonly found in 12 gauge (.729 inches) shotguns and 37mm and 40 mm (1.46 and 1.57 inches) grenade launchers.\nIn the United States, the term riot gun more commonly refers to a riot shotgun. Electroshock weapons Electroshock weapons are incapacitant weapons used for subduing a person by administering electric shock aimed at disrupting superficial muscle functions. One type is a",
"-24.712976831389824"
],
[
"Gas chamber A gas chamber is an apparatus for killing humans or other animals with gas, consisting of a sealed chamber into which a poisonous or asphyxiant gas is introduced. The most commonly used poisonous agent is hydrogen cyanide; carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide have also been used. Gas chambers were used as a method of execution for condemned prisoners in the United States beginning in the 1920s and continue to be a legal execution method in three states. During the Holocaust, large-scale gas chambers designed for mass killing were used by Nazi Germany as part of their genocide program.",
"-24.614658101629175"
],
[
"on the state level.\nTypically, most states do not require that physicians administer the drugs for lethal injection, but most states do require doctors, nurses or paramedics to prepare the substances before their application and to attest the inmate's death after it.\nSome states specifically detail that participation in a lethal injection is not to be considered practicing medicine. For example, Delaware law reads \"the administration of the required lethal substance or substances required by this section shall not be construed to be the practice of medicine and any pharmacist or pharmaceutical supplier is authorized to dispense drugs to the Commissioner or",
"-24.605596712091938"
],
[
"to a non-lead ammunition as an alternative, then burning the carcass is the next best option. Though burying the carcass is better than leaving it out in the open, the carcass can easily be dug up by rodents and other mammals and then it would also be exposed to raptors again. Hunters should also realize how lead will be in the meat they hunt for food if they use lead ammunition, which isn’t safe for human consumption either.",
"-24.579205902991816"
],
[
"for example, offers a number of less lethal varieties of ammunition for use in the riot control role, and for door breaching with #9 birdshot, shotgun slugs, and specialized breaching rounds. Less-lethal options also include the use of grenade launching cups, special launching cartridges and a less-lethal grenade.\nThere are a number of experimental rounds currently under development and consideration by the US military, including explosive rounds and stand-off breaching rounds, which could further improve the range and flexibility of the combat shotgun. Method of operation There are two primary modes of operation for combat shotguns, the pump action, and various",
"-24.555719884039718"
],
[
"symbol of the death penalty in the United States, its use is in decline due to the rise of lethal injection, which is widely believed to be a more humane method of execution. While some states still maintain electrocution as a method of execution, today it is only maintained as a secondary method that may be chosen over lethal injection at the request of the prisoner, except in Tennessee, where it may be used without input from the prisoner if the drugs for lethal injection are not available. As of 2014, electrocution is an optional form of execution in the",
"-24.54733609550749"
],
[
"over-the-counter drug to treat diarrhea, indigestion, and flatulence. However, activated charcoal shows no effect of intestinal gas and diarrhea, and is, ordinarily, medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents such as alkalis and strong acids, iron, boric acid, lithium, petroleum products, or alcohol. Activated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body.\nIt is particularly ineffective against poisonings of strong acids or alkali, cyanide, iron, lithium, arsenic, methanol, ethanol or ethylene glycol.\nIncorrect application (e.g. into the lungs) results in pulmonary aspiration, which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated.",
"-24.543966427765554"
],
[
"the courts, so from 2006 through 2010, only two inmates were executed. Bucklew and other convicts with death sentences across the country attempted to legally challenge states' refusal to use other protocols besides lethal injection through the courts, arguing that this was a violation of their Eighth Amendment rights. This ultimately resulted in Baze v. Rees, decided by the Supreme Court in 2008, where it was determined that lethal injection by drugs was constitutional and did not violate the Eighth Amendment. Further, Baze established a test for future challenges to methods of execution under the Eighth Amendment, in that inmates",
"-24.537723712157458"
],
[
"Antidote Mechanical approaches Ingested poisons are frequently treated by the oral administration of activated charcoal, which absorbs the poison and flushes it from the digestive tract, thereby removing a large part of the toxin. \nPoisons which are injected into the body (such as those from bites or stings from venomous animals) are usually treated by the use of a constriction band which limits the flow of lymph and/or blood to the area, thus slowing the circulation of the poison around the body. This should not be confused with the use of a tourniquet which cuts off blood flow completely",
"-24.487114980700426"
],
[
"one lethal injection in Texas hours after the court made its announcement.\nOn April 16, 2008, the Supreme Court rejected Baze v. Rees, thereby upholding Kentucky's method of lethal injection in a majority 7–2 decision. Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and David Souter dissented. Several states immediately indicated plans to proceed with executions.\nThe U.S. Supreme Court also upheld a modified lethal injection protocol in the 2015 case Glossip v. Gross. By the time of that case, Oklahoma had altered its execution protocol to use midazolam instead of thiopental or penobarbital; the latter two drugs had become unavailable for executions due to",
"-24.399076247093035"
],
[
"a \"hang-fire\"). One method of quickly clearing a jammed semi-automatic weapon is tap rack bang.\nFirearms may also fire unintentionally for several reasons, including dropping the weapon or when a firearm receives any hard mechanical shocks. Similarly, unintentional firing may occur due to faulty triggers, or excessive heat buildup in the chamber which leads to the propellant cooking off. To prevent accidental firing when firearms are dropped or jarred, experts often suggest using modern firearm designs that have safety features such as a transfer bar or a firing pin block which prevent the firing pin from striking the primer unless",
"-24.396457276088768"
],
[
"Weapons. What is prohibited is the use of incendiary weapons against targets in close proximity to civilians or civilian property. The protocol specifically excludes weapons whose incendiary effect is secondary, such as smoke and tracer rounds. The United States is among the nations that are parties to the convention but have not signed Protocol III.\nThe March–April 2005 online Field Artillery magazine has confirmed the use of WP (white phosphorus) in so-called \"shake 'n bake\" attacks: \"WP proved to be an effective and versatile munition. We used it for screening missions at two breeches and, later in the fight, as a",
"-24.395872222696198"
],
[
"in Washington and other independent think tanks around the world called for a concerted effort to develop weapons that were more life-conserving, environmentally friendly, and fiscally responsible than weapons available at that time. The U.S. Congress and other governments agreed and began an organized development of non-lethal weapons to provide a range of options between talking and shooting.\nRecognizing the need to limit the escalation of force, research and development of a range of non-lethal weapons has since been undertaken internationally by governments and weapons manufacturers to fill the need for such weapons. Some non-lethal weapons may provide more effective riot",
"-24.368162152299192"
],
[
"target shooting with primed cases can also be purchased; these are generally reusable if a proper bullet trap is used, but are prone to ricochet. With wax bullets, a simple sheet of plywood is sufficient to stop the bullet—upon impact the wax deforms and sticks to the wood, where it can later be scraped off and reused. The cost per round of wax bullets is low as primers can be purchased for under US$ 2.00 per 100 in case lots and as the wax itself can be reused. Reloading is very quick, and requires minimal equipment: a decapper tool to",
"-24.326932181356824"
],
[
"components of these devices are being used in a manner not intended by their manufacturer, and because the method of producing the explosion is limited only by the science and imagination of the perpetrator, it is not possible to follow a step-by-step guide to detect and disarm a device that an individual has only recently developed. As such, explosive ordnance disposal (IEDD) operators must be able to fall back on their extensive knowledge of the first principles of explosives and ammunition, to try and deduce what the perpetrator has done, and only then to render it safe and dispose of",
"-24.322064528765623"
],
[
"been developed, mostly related to safety mechanisms. As these technologies have been developed, governments have attempted to make them commonplace to ensure sharps waste safety. In 2000, the Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act was passed, along with the 2001 Bloodborne Pathogens Standard.\nSafety syringes help reduce occurrences of accidental needlesticks. One of the most recent developments has been the auto-disable injection device. These injection devices automatically disable after a single use. This can be done by retracting the needle back into the syringe or rendering the syringe plunger inoperable. With the injection device now inoperable, it cannot be reused. Shielding the",
"-24.316407102975063"
],
[
"a target is virtually certain to be incapacitated; individual fragments can still cause injuries as far as 230 meters away.\nAn alternative technique is to release the lever before throwing the grenade, which allows the fuze to burn partially and decrease the time to detonation after throwing; this is referred to as cooking. A shorter delay is useful to reduce the ability of the enemy to take cover, throw or kick the grenade away and can also be used to allow a fragmentation grenade to explode into the air over defensive positions. This technique is inherently dangerous, due to shorter delay",
"-24.313173845643178"
],
[
"from gas became less common. However, often those who were exposed were often unable to seek employment once they were discharged from the army due to the gases effects. Following the Armistice the use of gas was viewed with horror, bringing about the Geneva Protocol. However, it is important to note that while the Protocol prevented signatories using gas for offensive purposes, it did not prevent a nation from manufacturing or importing chemical weapons for retaliatory purposes.\nThe Geneva Protocol was drawn up and signed at the conference for the supervision of the international trade in arms and ammunition, which was",
"-24.305454535286117"
],
[
"are essential to optimize weapon delivery and reduce the risk of injuring friendly forces. Dispersion Dispersion is placing the chemical agent upon or adjacent to a target immediately before dissemination, so that the material is most efficiently used. Dispersion is the simplest technique of delivering an agent to its target. The most common techniques are munitions, bombs, projectiles, spray tanks and warheads.\nWorld War I saw the earliest implementation of this technique. The actual first chemical ammunition was the French 26 mm cartouche suffocante rifle grenade, fired from a flare carbine. It contained 35g of the tear-producer ethyl bromoacetate, and was",
"-24.249602762898576"
],
[
"be shot. Residents who are aware of the trap use a different door or open the door halfway and disconnect the tripwire. To reduce fatalities by using this trap, non-lethal calibers are often used, or the spring gun is fitted to fire less lethal ammunition.\nFor example, in the United States, most spring-guns are loaded with non-lethal caliber or shot to avoid liability arising from the use of deadly force in protection of a property interest. Posting clear and unmistakable warning signs as well as making entry to spring-gun guarded premises difficult for innocent persons, such as high walls, fences",
"-24.236750273004873"
],
[
"hanging, firing squad and lethal injection as appropriate execution methods. One of these three methods would likely be used if an offence punishable by death is committed and a sentence of capital punishment is imposed. Exceptions There are three situations in which a sentence of capital punishment may be adjusted or denied; individuals under 18 years of age at the time the offence was committed; pregnant women; and mentally ill persons. Under 18 years of age If a person under the age of 18 commits a criminal offence that is punishable by death, they will not be executed. PNG has",
"-24.2268849813845"
],
[
"agreed that most intermediate handgun calibers will perform similarly, since their wounding principles are the same. A list of many handgun calibers can be found at List of handgun cartridges. One-shot stops The only scientifically proven and biologically possible way to guarantee instant incapacitation is through destruction of the central nervous system or brain. This will usually cease all motor-related and voluntary actions. If the central nervous system is not damaged or destroyed, there will be no immediate incapacitation. To allow room for error, since a central nervous system hit is very unlikely, most people use expanding ammunition. This will",
"-24.194536291004624"
],
[
"the head than to a firing squad. United Kingdom No British citizen has ever been executed for a civilian crime by shooting. A Royal Commission on Capital Punishment considered shooting as a possible alternative to hanging, although the findings published in 1953 concluded shooting was not sufficiently effective a means of execution to justify a switch to the method from hanging. United States Since 1608, about 142 men have been judicially shot in the United States and its English-speaking predecessor territories, excluding executions related to the American Civil War.",
"-24.17565670935437"
],
[
"targets that are farther away, the shooter again maximizes the likelihood of a kill, and maximizes the amount of edible meat. This also guarantees a swift and humane kill as the target would be hit with enough shot to kill quickly instead of only wounding the animal.\nFor older shotguns having only one fixed choke, intended primarily for equally likely use against rabbits, squirrels, quail, doves, and pheasant, an often-chosen choke is the improved cylinder, in a 28 inches (710 mm) barrel, making the shotgun suitable for use as a general all-round hunting shotgun, without having excess weight. Shotguns having fixed",
"-24.159803409973392"
],
[
"1994 stated unequivocally in conclusion (in its executive summary) that the rules that allowed the second shot to have taken place did not satisfy constitutional standards for legal use of deadly force. The 1996 report of the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology and Government Information, Arlen Specter [R-PA], Chair, concurred, with Senator Dianne Feinstein [D-CA] dissenting. The RRTF report also found the lack of a request to surrender \"inexcusable\", since Harris and the two Weavers were not an imminent threat (reported as running for cover without returning fire).\nThe task force also specifically blamed Horiuchi for firing through",
"-24.158722890657373"
],
[
"there also have been advancements in tear smoke munitions which have made it possible to increase the use of these munitions as compared to other weapons used in crowd control. Since the summer of 2018, CRPF have been using chili bombs and soft-nosed tear gas shells. Plastic bullets Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory under the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) developed plastic bullets as an alternative to pellet guns for crowd control in Jammu and Kashmir. According to the director of the laboratory, plastic bullets are 500 times less lethal than pellets. The plastic bullets can be fired from the same",
"-24.151459252258064"
],
[
"and states that the weapon is in compliance with Amended Protocol II of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. According to the manufacturer, the weapons produces 0.0% 'hazardous duds' by ensuring that in case the munition was not functioning upon impact, it would attempt to self-destruct in 20 seconds. If this was not possible, self-deactivation would occur after 10 minutes.\nCritics argue that studies based on the Israeli-made M-85, a different type of cluster munition, have indicated that items of unexploded ordnance, whether or not they are armed, remain a serious hazard to civilian populations. However, this type of hazard",
"-24.12904268388229"
],
[
"However, in finding the firing squad to be a constitutional means of execution, the Court also held that old English methods of execution such as disembowelment, beheading, and burning violated the Eighth Amendment's prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment. Court's Decision A legislative act of Utah, passed March 6, 1862, states that a person convicted of a capital offense “shall suffer death by being shot, hanged, or beheaded,” decided by the court, or “he shall have his option as to the manner of his execution.” The Penal Code of 1876 then goes to state any person convicted of murder in",
"-24.11568866838934"
],
[
"respectively, in survivors of acute poisoning and may be substantially higher in fatal cases. Treatment For a single exposure by ingestion, gastric decontamination by emesis or gastric lavage may be beneficial soon after exposure. Administration of activated charcoal has not been proven effective. Chelation therapies to remove cadmium are not effective, so the most important action is to prevent additional exposure.",
"-24.07903292577248"
],
[
"Lethal Injection Secrecy Act The Lethal Injection Secrecy Act is a statute in the US state of Georgia that was signed by the state's governor, Nathan Deal, and went into effect that July. The law makes the identities of people who prescribe drugs used in lethal injections, as well as those of the companies that produce and supply them, state secrets. It also makes the identities of prison staff who carry out executions a state secret. It has been called the strictest law of its kind in the country. Legal challenges In July 2013, the law was challenged by the",
"-24.078186134516727"
],
[
"Crime in Arizona Capital punishment laws Capital punishment is applied in Arizona. In most circumstances, the method used is lethal injection. Inmates sentenced to death for murders committed prior to November 23, 1992 may choose lethal gas.",
"-24.07002840327914"
],
[
"also have the opportunity to shoot at barrels of fuel with pyrotechnic charges attached, which explode when struck by bullets. The objective for these shooters is to destroy everything down range. The presence of many rare and powerful fully automatic weapons also draws many visitors, with firearms ranging from submachine guns to .50 BMG heavy machine guns and M134 Miniguns.\nThe main event of the Machine Gun Shoot is the \"Night shoot\" where, after dark, gasoline-filled metal drums and explosives are set up in and around the targets, and tracer ammunition is used.\nAlthough reserving a lane for the machine gun shoot",
"-24.063056511116315"
],
[
"amounts of powder is dangerous due to the potential of fire occurring from accidental ignition. A manual from a South African powder manufacturer Rheinmetall Denel Munition (previously Somchem) is available for reloaders with adequate information and guidelines. Atypical handloading Berdan primers, with their off-center flash holes and lack of self-contained anvil, are more difficult to work with than the easily removed Boxer primers. The primers may be punctured and pried out from the rear, or extracted with hydraulic pressure. Primers must be selected carefully, as there are more sizes of Berdan primers than the standard large and small pistol, large",
"-24.031662800873164"
],
[
" used by civilians and police, which is due largely to the reduced risk of bystanders being hit by over-penetrating or ricocheted bullets, and the increased speed of incapacitation.\nIn many jurisdictions, even ones such as the United Kingdom, where expanding ammunition is generally prohibited, it is illegal to hunt certain types of game with ammunition that does not expand. United States The United States is one of few major powers that did not agree to IV-3 of the Hague Convention of 1899, and thus is able to use this kind of ammunition in warfare, but the United States ratified the",
"-24.021128708147444"
],
[
"can be painlessly accomplished, without risk of consciousness, by the injection of a single large dose of a barbiturate. By this reasoning, the use of any other chemicals is entirely superfluous and only serves to unnecessarily increase the risk of pain during the execution. Another possibility would be I.V administration of a powerful and fast-acting opioid, such as sufentanyl, which would ensure comfort while killing via respiratory depression.\nWhen sodium pentobarbital, a barbiturate used often in single drug animal euthanasia, is administered in an overdose, it causes rapid unconsciousness followed by paralysis of the diaphragm. This drug may also kill via",
"-24.005365782009903"
],
[
"human being is not involved in making the actual decision to attack and potentially kill humans, as is the case with fire-and-forget missiles in common use since the 1960s. Whereas some guided munitions may lock-on after launch or may be sensor fuzed, their flight time is typically limited and a human launches them at an area where enemy activity is strongly suspected, as is the case with modern fire-and-forget missiles and airstrike planning. An autonomous loitering munition, on the other hand, may be launched at an area where enemy activity is only probable, and loiter searching autonomously for targets for",
"-23.993713945732452"
],
[
"Render safe procedure The render safe procedure (RSP) is the portion of the explosive ordnance disposal procedures involving the application of special explosive ordnance disposal procedures, methods and tools to provide the interruption of functions or separation of essential components of unexploded ordnance (including improvised explosive devices) to prevent an unacceptable detonation. Ordnance detonations may be broadly categorized as a high order detonation or a low order detonation. A high order detonation is generally an ordnance detonation that results in an explosive ordnance producing a designed/intended explosive yield. A low order detonation is generally a controlled ordnance detonation or a",
"-23.983955140400212"
],
[
"employed Molotov cocktails made with \"one part liquid laundry detergent, two parts gas\" while clearing houses \"when contact is made in a house and the enemy must be burned out\". The tactic \"was developed in response to the enemy's tactics\" of guerrilla warfare and particularly martyrdom tactics which often resulted in U.S. Marine casualties. The cocktail was a less expedient alternative to white phosphorus mortar rounds or propane tanks detonated with C4 (nicknamed the \"House Guest\")- all of which proved effective at burning out engaged enemy combatants.\nMolotov cocktails were also used by protesters and civilian militia in Ukraine during violent",
"-23.968518608948216"
],
[
"making detonators for improvised explosive devices.",
"-23.966268530066372"
],
[
"unsuccessful appeal for commutation on Mircovich's behalf with the Board of Pardons.\nThe \"shooting machine\" was designed to be loaded with two lethal rounds and a blank cartridge, each connected to a coiled spring mechanism. The device could be fired by cutting three strings, only one of which would fire the rifles. This design would prevent the three randomly selected prison guards from knowing who would be responsible for triggering the lethal shot. On the morning of May 14, the three guards entered the firing area and then the 12 invited witnesses were admitted to a designated enclosed space in the",
"-23.960704725584947"
],
[
"Wednesday morning, hours before it was scheduled to proceed, in response to a challenge by New Jersey-based pharmaceutical firm Alvogen that it does not want its product midazolam used in executions; Pfizer and Sandoz also objected to the use of their drugs (fentanyl and cisatracurium besilate, respectively) but did not join Alvogen's lawsuit.\nA court hearing regarding Alvogen's case was scheduled for September 10, 2018, in which Alvogen sought to prevent the use of midazolam in any lethal injection execution. Alvogen asserted that the Nevada Department of Corrections fraudulently obtained one of its sedatives to be used in the execution, and",
"-23.936589861257744"
],
[
"potassium chloride, such as in the execution of prisoners in parts of the United States, quickly stops the heart by eliminating the cell potential necessary for muscle contraction.\nMost biocides, including pesticides, are created to act as acute poisons to target organisms, although acute or less observable chronic poisoning can also occur in non-target organisms (secondary poisoning), including the humans who apply the biocides and other beneficial organisms. For example, the herbicide 2,4-D imitates the action of a plant hormone, which makes its lethal toxicity specific to plants. Indeed, 2,4-D is not a poison, but classified as \"harmful\" (EU).\nMany substances regarded",
"-23.86640584503766"
],
[
"that safe injection sites would be well utilized by the very individuals who could benefit most from them.\nAs of 2018, legislation in the US did not allow for the opening of safe injection sites; there were no government-sponsored sites but several efforts were underway to try to create them.\nCritics of safe injection sites cite enabling drug users and even exacerbation of drug use as reasons for denying these programs. However, data as of 2014 suggested that safe injection sites could reduce overdoses while not increasing the number of drug users. Needle exchange programs The CDC defines needle exchange programs (NEP),",
"-23.850281412596814"
],
[
"as on a firework) until the advent of more reliable systems such as the primer or igniter that is used in most modern ammunitions.\nThe fuze of a weapon can be used to alter how the ammunition works. For example, a common artillery shell fuze can be set to 'point detonation' (detonation when it hits the target), delay (detonate after it has hit and penetrated the target), time-delay (explode a specified time after firing or impact) and proximity (explode above or next to a target without hitting it, such as for airburst effects or anti-aircraft shells). These allow a single ammunition",
"-23.835489718563622"
],
[
"of war and poison gas, but rearmament picked up rapidly in the 1930s. The munitions makers responded nimbly to the rapidly shifting strategic and economic landscape. The main purchasers of munitions from the big three companies were Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey-- and, to a lesser extent, in Poland, Finland, the Baltic States, and the Soviet Union, Criminalizing poison gas Realistic critics understood that war could not really be outlawed, but its worst excesses might be banned. Poison gas became the focus of a worldwide crusade in the 1920s. Poison gas did not win battles, and the generals did",
"-23.83407993806759"
],
[
"in humans, inert gas asphyxia with gases including helium, nitrogen, methane and argon has been used as a suicide method. Inert gas asphyxia has been advocated by proponents of euthanasia, using a gas-retaining plastic hood device colloquially referred to as a suicide bag.\nNitrogen asphyxiation has been suggested by a number of lawmakers and other advocates as a more humane way to carry out capital punishment. In April 2015, the Oklahoma Governor Mary Fallin signed a bill authorizing nitrogen asphyxiation as an alternative execution method in cases where the state's preferred method of lethal injection was not available as an option.",
"-23.82993699699"
],
[
"to the present day. Such weapons are improvised from available fuel containers combined with standard explosive charges or hand grenades and are triggered electrically or by lengths of detonating cord. In some designs, detonating cord is used to rupture the container immediately before triggering the propelling charge. In order to guarantee ignition, the improvised devices frequently feature two explosive charges, one to throw and the other to ignite the fuel. Weapons of this sort were widely used in the Korean and Vietnam Wars as well as other conflicts.",
"-23.80383483879268"
],
[
"execution of convicted murderer Michael Morales because of a lawsuit against the lethal injection protocol. It was argued that if the three-drug lethal injection procedure were administered incorrectly, it could lead to suffering for the condemned, potentially constituting cruel and unusual punishment. The issue arose from an injunction made by the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals which held that an execution could only be carried out by a medical technician legally authorized to administer intravenous medications. The case led to a de facto moratorium of capital punishment in California as the state was unable to obtain the services of",
"-23.801954156311695"
]
] |
2s0qha | Why don't we inhale close to (or all of) our lung's capacity worth of air when we breathe naturally? | [
"Life has this tendency to want to do the thing that takes the least amount of energy(for the same result). It takes a lot of work to fill your lungs to capacity, and it isn't like all the air gets used by your lungs in either case.",
"Did anyone else switch to \"manual breathing\" while reading this question?",
"Your body only takes in oxygen at a certain rate so why spend the energy breathing full breaths just to breath most of it out again",
"because your ancestors needed the extra capacity to run from predators. When you work out you use a much larger greater share of your lungs."
] | [
[
"able to exhale in total (FEV). This ratio, the FEV1/FEV ratio, is important to distinguish whether a lung disease is restrictive or obstructive. Another test is that of the lung's diffusing capacity – this is a measure of the transfer of gas from air to the blood in the lung capillaries. Birds The lungs of birds are relatively small, but are connected to 8 or 9 air sacs that extend through much of the body, and are in turn connected to air spaces within the bones. On inhalation, air travels through the trachea of a bird into the air",
"-31.318667771789478"
],
[
"40-50%. Efficiency of mouth-to-patient insufflation Normal atmospheric air contains approximately 21% oxygen when inhaled. After gaseous exchange has taken place in the lungs, with waste products (notably carbon dioxide) moved from the bloodstream to the lungs, the air being exhaled by humans normally contains around 17% oxygen. This means that the human body utilises only around 19% of the oxygen inhaled, leaving over 80% of the oxygen available in the exhalatory breath.\nThis means that there is more than enough residual oxygen to be used in the lungs of the patient, which then enters the blood. Oxygen The efficiency",
"-31.162264157028403"
],
[
"patient inhales, the valve closes and blocks air from entering that lung compartment. Thus, an implanted endobronchial valve typically helps a lung compartment to empty itself of air. This has been shown to be beneficial in the treatment of emphysema, where lungs lose their elasticity and thus cannot contract sufficiently to exhale air, leading to air trapping and hyperinflation. When one or more diseased portions of an emphysematous lung are made to deflate and collapse, other healthier portions of the lung have more room in the chest cavity to inhale and exhale, pressure is removed from the diaphragm, and even",
"-30.965959884691983"
],
[
"than shorter people. Smokers have a lower capacity than nonsmokers. Thinner persons tend to have a larger capacity. Lung capacity can be increased by physical training as much as 40% but the effect may be modified by exposure to air pollution.\nOther lung function tests include spirometry, measuring the amount (volume) and flow of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. The maximum volume of breath that can be exhaled is called the vital capacity. In particular, how much a person is able to exhale in one second (called forced expiratory volume (FEV1)) as a proportion of how much they are",
"-30.78619242136483"
],
[
"a human body immediately, disabling a persons breathing capability. High doses of these gases can also contribute to heightened levels of allergic reactions, irritations, bronchitis and even pneumonia. Yet, even if large amounts of these gases are not ingested at once, small doses of these gases can lead to numerous long term detriments as well. Continuous small doses of these gases can lead to the deterioration of one's lungs and even contribute to future heart diseases. Emissions regulatory efforts in California In response to the emissions effects, California has taken the initiative to put in place multiple programs and organizations",
"-30.251973069040105"
],
[
"airways leading to the lungs and then spreads into the lungs. This begins as a mild tickle on inhalation and progresses to frequent coughing. If breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen continues, a mild burning on inhalation along with uncontrollable coughing and occasional shortness of breath is experienced. There is generally a reduction in the amount of air that the lungs can hold (vital capacity) and changes in expiratory function and lung elasticity. When the exposure to oxygen above 0.5 bar (50 kPa) is intermittent, it permits the lungs to recover and delays the onset of toxicity. Toxicity of contaminants in the",
"-30.24288580333814"
],
[
"below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\nThe automatic rhythmical breathing in and out, can be interrupted by coughing, sneezing (forms of very forceful exhalation), by the expression of a wide range of emotions (laughing, sighing, crying out in pain, exasperated intakes of breath) and by such voluntary acts as speech, singing, whistling and the playing of wind instruments. All",
"-30.192309902748093"
],
[
"sensitive organ such as lungs increases the risk of cancer. If the smoker also breathes in the asbestos fibers which commonly occur in urban and industrial environments, the risk of cancer is greatly increased.",
"-29.98931111767888"
],
[
"Lung volumes Weight of breath The mass of one breath is approximately a gram (0.5-5 g). A litre of air weighs about 1.2 g \n(1.2 kg/cm³). A half litre ordinary tidal breath weighs 0.6 g; a maximal 4.8 litre breath (average vital capacity for males) weighs approximately 5.8 g. Increasing lung capacity Lung capacity can be expanded through flexibility exercises such as yoga, breathing exercises, and physical activity. A greater lung capacity is sought by people such as athletes, freedivers, singers, and wind-instrument players. A stronger and larger lung capacity allows more air to be inhaled into the lungs. In using",
"-29.614894662212464"
],
[
"of a lung condition; wheezing for example is commonly associated with asthma and COPD. Lung function testing Lung function testing is carried out by evaluating a person's capacity to inhale and exhale in different circumstances. The volume of air inhaled and exhaled by a person at rest is the tidal volume (normally 500-750mL); the inspiratory reserve volume and expiratory reserve volume are the additional amounts a person is able to forcibly inhale and exhale respectively. The summed total of forced inspiration and expiration is a person's vital capacity. Not all air is expelled from the lungs even after a forced",
"-29.58503113151528"
],
[
"Furthermore, the human body is adapted to 21 percent oxygen, and the blood exiting the lungs already has about 97 percent of the oxygen that it could carry bound to hemoglobin. Having a higher oxygen fraction in the lungs serves no purpose, and may actually be detrimental.\nThe medical profession warns that individuals with respiratory diseases such as asthma and emphysema should not inhale too much oxygen.\nHigher than normal oxygen partial pressure can also indirectly cause carbon dioxide narcosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).\nThe FDA warns that in some situations, droplets of flavoring oil can be inhaled, which",
"-29.452978395289392"
],
[
"Inhalation Inhalation (also known as inspiration) happens when air or other gases enter the lungs. Inhalation of air Inhalation of air, as part of the cycle of breathing, is a vital process for all human life. As such, it happens automatically (though there are exceptions in some disease states) and does not need conscious control or effort. However, breathing can be consciously controlled or interrupted (within limits).\nBreathing allows oxygen (which humans and a lot of other species need for survival) to enter the lungs, from where it can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Other substances – accidental Examples of accidental",
"-28.96918153297156"
],
[
"and total lung capacity are generally decreased in restrictive lung disease. Prognosis Hypoxia caused by pulmonary fibrosis can lead to pulmonary hypertension, which, in turn, can lead to heart failure of the right ventricle. Hypoxia can be prevented with oxygen supplementation.\nPulmonary fibrosis may also result in an increased risk for pulmonary emboli, which can be prevented by anticoagulants.",
"-28.954979378089774"
],
[
"mesenchymal cells line the lungs. Function Most of the respiratory tract exists merely as a piping system for air to travel in the lungs, and alveoli are the only part of the lung that exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with the blood. Respiration Respiration is the rhythmical process of breathing, in which air is drawn into the alveoli of the lungs via inhalation and subsequently expelled via exhalation. When a human being inhales, air travels down the trachea, through the bronchial tubes, and into the lungs. The entire tract is protected by the rib cage, spine, and sternum. In",
"-28.746610119531397"
],
[
"breath out; the remainder of the air is called the residual volume. Together these terms are referred to as lung volumes.\nPulmonary plethysmographs are used to measure functional residual capacity. Functional residual capacity cannot be measured by tests that rely on breathing out, as a person is only able to breathe a maximum of 80% of their total functional capacity. The total lung capacity depends on the person's age, height, weight, and sex, and normally ranges between 4 and 6 litres. Females tend to have a 20–25% lower capacity than males. Tall people tend to have a larger total lung capacity",
"-28.683940490329405"
],
[
"airway. Preserving life To save a person's life, you need to have an open airway so it makes a clear passage where air can go through the mouth or nose through the pharynx and down into the lungs, without obstruction. Conscious people will maintain their own airway automatically, but those who are unconscious (with a GCS of less than 8) may be unable to maintain a patent airway, as the part of the brain which automatically controls breathing in normal situations may not be functioning.\nIf the patient was breathing, a first aider would normally then place them in the recovery",
"-28.490270107868128"
],
[
"of the body exist. The ability to move air in and out of the body freely and to obtain the needed quantity of air can be seriously affected by the body alignment of the various parts of the breathing mechanism. A sunken chest position will limit the capacity of the lungs, and a tense abdominal wall will inhibit the downward travel of the diaphragm. Good body alignment allows the breathing mechanism to fulfill its basic function efficiently without any undue expenditure of energy. Good body alignment also makes it easier to initiate phonation and to tune the resonators as proper",
"-28.399343856493942"
],
[
"into the lungs occurs via the respiratory airways (Fig. 2). In health these airways (starting at the nose or mouth, and ending in the microscopic dead-end sacs called alveoli) are always open, though the diameters of the various sections can be changed by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The alveolar air pressure is therefore always close to atmospheric air pressure (about 100 kPa at sea level) at rest, with the pressure gradients that cause air to move in and out of the lungs during breathing rarely exceeding 2–3 kPa.\nDuring exhalation the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax. This returns the chest and",
"-28.30726297298679"
],
[
"abdomen to a position determined by their anatomical elasticity. This is the \"resting mid-position\" of the thorax and abdomen (Fig. 7) when the lungs contain their functional residual capacity of air (the light blue area in the right hand illustration of Fig. 7), which in the adult human has a volume of about 2.5–3.0 liters (Fig. 3). Resting exhalation lasts about twice as long as inhalation because the diaphragm relaxes passively more gently than it contracts actively during inhalation.\nThe volume of air that moves in or out (at the nose or mouth) during a single breathing cycle is called the tidal volume. In a",
"-28.25533410575008"
],
[
"easily, and airflow in and out of the lung is impaired by excessive tissue in the head and neck area. Hence, people with obesity need to expend more energy to breathe effectively. These factors together lead to sleep-disordered breathing and inadequate removal of carbon dioxide from the circulation and hence hypercapnia; given that carbon dioxide in aqueous solution combines with water to form an acid (CO₂[g] + H₂O[l] + excess H₂O[l] --> H₂CO₃[aq]), this causes acidosis (increased acidity of the blood). Under normal circumstances, central chemoreceptors in the brain stem detect the acidity, and respond by increasing the respiratory rate;",
"-28.063363200300955"
],
[
"Because of their size, they inhale more air per kilogram of body weight than adults. Their elevated metabolic rate and young defense systems make them more susceptible to air pollution.\nSeniors are also at a higher risk because of the weakening of the heart, lungs and immune system and increased likelihood of health problems such as heart and lung disease.\nExposure to air pollutants can cause a range of symptoms. People with lung or heart disease may experience increased frequency and/or severity of symptoms, and increased medication requirements. It is recommended that those susceptive should take greater precautions. Lifestyle Environment Canada recommends",
"-27.983400697587058"
],
[
"develop difficulty breathing. If enough of the lungs are involved, it may not be possible for a person to breathe without support. Non-invasive machines such as a bilevel positive airway pressure machine may be used. Otherwise, placement of a breathing tube into the mouth may be necessary and a ventilator may be used to help the person breathe. Prognosis Eosinophilic pneumonia due to cancer or parasitic infection carries a prognosis related to the underlying illness. Acute and chronic eosinophilic pneumonia, however, have very little associated mortality as long as intensive care is available and treatment with corticosteroids is given. Chronic",
"-27.923648499767296"
],
[
"with poor survival (e.g., 50%), and significantly increased care costs of up to $30,000 per day. Lung volutrauma, which can still be achieved through \"careful\" delivery of large, slow breaths, can also lead to a \"popped\" or collapsed lung (called a pneumothorax), with at least one published report describing \"a patient in whom a sudden tension pneumothorax developed during ventilation with a bag-valve device.\" Additionally, there is at least one report of manual resuscitator use where the lungs were accidentally over-inflated to the point where \"the heart contained a large volume of air,\" and the \"aorta and pulmonary",
"-27.907452089479193"
],
[
"level required to sustain consciousness, and when it is insufficient to keep the heart functioning, cardiac arrest will occur. For the majority of people, an alveolar oxygen tension of less than 30 millimetres of mercury (40 mbar) or 4% by volume at atmospheric pressure is not sufficient to support consciousness.\nThe urge to breathe in normal humans is mainly controlled by blood carbon dioxide concentration and the acidity that it causes. A rise in carbon dioxide concentration caused by the inability to inhale fresh gas will cause a strong reflex to breathe, accompanied by increasing distress as the level rises, culminating in",
"-27.863386474346044"
],
[
"not strong enough to operate against the higher pressure. The pressure difference across the tissues in the lungs, between the blood capillaries and air spaces would increase the risk of pulmonary edema.\nSnorkels constitute respiratory dead space. When the user takes in a fresh breath, some of the previously exhaled air which remains in the snorkel is inhaled again, reducing the amount of fresh air in the inhaled volume, and increasing the risk of a buildup of carbon dioxide in the blood, which can result in hypercapnia. The greater the volume of the tube, and the smaller the tidal volume of",
"-27.822764812066453"
],
[
"stomach, this is called aspiration. This can lead to airway obstruction, inflammation of lung tissue, and aspiration pneumonia; and in the long term, atelectasis and bronchiectasis. One reason aspiration can occur is because of failure of the esophagus to close completely.\nShould food or liquid enter the airway due to the epiglottis failing to close properly, throat clearing or the cough reflex may occur to protect the respiratory system and expel material from the airway. Where there is impairment in laryngeal vestibule sensation, silent aspiration (entry of material to the airway that does not result in a cough reflex) may occur.",
"-27.65072585530288"
],
[
"determinations of Blood to the Head\". 'Statics' made some important contributions to the understanding of lung volume. Julius was the first to describe that we do not inhale and exhale the full capacity of the lungs when we breathe, instead leaving air in the lungs when we have 'fully' exhaled, and being able to further inhale after we have taken a breath. Indeed, in Dr. David Zuck's 1991 article \"Julius Jeffreys and the Physiology of Lung Volumes\" he concluded that Julius was the first physician to describe all of the aspects of lung volumes except the 'dead space' (inhaled air",
"-27.580462062265724"
],
[
"staying in the atmosphere and the locations of infection in the respiratory tract Young children who are exposed to air pollution are extremely vulnerable. One reason they are more vulnerable is because the average breathing pattern for an adult is 16 to 20 breaths per minute, while a 1-year-old child has a faster breathing pattern which is 20 to 40 breaths per minute. Therefore, children will be inhaling more pollutants than adults. Prenatal Exposure and links to asthma Prenatal exposures to air pollution have influenced respiratory health starts in utero. Mothers who were exposed to PM2.5 weekly during gestation,",
"-27.32003759008512"
],
[
"reason kids get lower priority for lungs is that adult lungs rarely fit, so you have to use only a part of one. Using only a lobe from an adult cadaver donor negatively impacts the chance of survival.\"\nSimilarly, Stuart Sweet of the lung transplant program at St. Louis Children's Hospital contended, \"the issue here is really about how we designed this system to try to make it fair for everyone waiting for lungs. There are ways of working through this that don't involve breaking the rules.\" The New England Journal of Medicine This controversy came to a head on July",
"-27.279988668626174"
],
[
"panic and desperate struggle for air. However, if the supplied breathing gas is free of carbon dioxide, the blood carbon dioxide levels will remain low while breathing occurs, and there will be no distress or urge to increase breathing rate, as the sensitivity in normal people to blood oxygen level as a breathing stimulus is very low.\nThe effect of contamination of the inert gas by air or other source of oxygen is to reduce the effects of oxygen loss and the person exposed may feel weak, tired and confused, but without a strong urge to breathe or the associated respiratory",
"-27.26151393027976"
],
[
"lungs - they do not breathe in and out like mammals. Alveolar dead space Alveolar dead space is sum of the volumes of those alveoli which have little or no blood flowing through their adjacent pulmonary capillaries, i.e., alveoli that are ventilated but not perfused, and where, as a result, no gas exchange can occur. Alveolar dead space is negligible in healthy individuals, but can increase dramatically in some lung diseases due to ventilation-perfusion mismatch. Anatomic dead space A different maneuver is employed in measuring anatomic dead space: the test subject breathes all the way out, inhales deeply from a",
"-27.257324365671593"
],
[
"strenuous or labored inhalation is sometimes called clavicular breathing, seen especially during asthma attacks and in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\nDuring heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling the lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig. 8). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig. 8). The end-exhalatory lung volume is now well",
"-27.217514801537618"
],
[
"air flows directly into the lungs. These anatomical changes lead, among others, to changes in voice production, breathing, and olfaction. The nasal functions of regulating the temperature, humidifying, and filtering of the inhaled air are lost. The lack of these functions impairs the lower airways and the activity of the cilia, which leads to pulmonary problems such as tracheobronchial mucus, excessive sputum production, crusting, which can also cause fatigue and shortness of breath. To at least partially reduce these restrictions and compensate the nasal functions, an HME cassette can be attached over the tracheostoma to provide a means for conditioning,",
"-27.208142965915613"
],
[
"in the lung capillaries, , changes appreciably during ordinary activities such as exercise. Simply breathing in brings some additional blood into the lung because of the negative intrathoracic pressure required for inspiration. At the extreme, inspiring against a closed glottis, the Müller's maneuver, pulls blood into the chest. The opposite is also true, as exhaling increases the pressure within the thorax and so tends to push blood out; the Valsalva maneuver is an exhalation against a closed airway which can move blood out of the lung. So breathing hard during exercise will bring extra blood into the",
"-27.150236545072403"
],
[
"disease has spread from the bone into the chest cavity. The breathing problems may be misdiagnosed as asthma, because the damage done to the lungs can cause the same types of changes to lung function testing as seen in asthma. Extension of the lesions into the chest may lead to the development of chylous pleural and pericardial effusions. Chyle is rich in protein and white blood cells that are important in fighting infection. The loss of chyle into the chest can have serious consequences, including infection, malnutrition, and respiratory distress and failure. These complications or their symptoms, such as difficulty",
"-27.114579919318203"
],
[
"cross-current gas exchanger. This arrangement allows for more oxygen to be extracted compared to mammalian concurrent gas exchange; as oxygen diffuses down its concentration gradient and the air gradually becomes more deoxygenated, the pulmonary arteries are still able to extract oxygen. Birds also have a high capacity for oxygen delivery to the tissues because they have larger hearts and cardiac stroke volume compared to mammals of similar body size. Additionally, they have increased vascularization in their flight muscle due to increased branching of the capillaries and small muscle fibres (which increases surface-area-to-volume ratio). These two features facilitate oxygen diffusion from",
"-27.10687968302227"
],
[
"children than in adults. Breathing at altitude Atmospheric pressure decreases with the height above sea level (altitude) and since the alveoli are open to the outside air through the open airways, the pressure in the lungs also decreases at the same rate with altitude. At altitude, a pressure differential is still required to drive air into and out of the lungs as it is at sea level. The mechanism for breathing at altitude is essentially identical to breathing at sea level but with the following differences:\nThe atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially with altitude, roughly halving with every 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) rise",
"-27.100944188190624"
],
[
"fully is essential to feeling and being alive. Regulating the breath is also the first and most fundamental somatic pattern for coping with the Basic Fault. When an infant experiences the stress of a need not being met, it reduces its breathing to reduce the intensity of the stress it feels. Reduced breathing also makes it impossible to feel fully alive and present. We must breathe fully to experience our Core Self. In IBP, breathing fully is the most important tool for attaining and sustaining mental and physical health. Sustaining constancy series SCS is a breathing exercise that aims to",
"-27.08640760718845"
],
[
"transport of metabolites between the organism and the external environment.\nIn animals with lungs, physiological respiration involves respiratory cycles of inhaled and exhaled breaths. Inhalation (breathing in) is usually an active movement. The contraction of the diaphragm muscle cause a pressure variation, which is equal to the pressures caused by elastic, resistive and inertial components of the respiratory system. In contrast, exhalation (breathing out) is usually a passive process. Breathing in brings air into the lungs where the process of gas exchange takes place between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries\nThe process of",
"-27.074643269879743"
],
[
"effects. Asthma As air pollution increases, symptoms of asthma worsen. Asthma's etiology is poorly understood and currently has no cure. There are many environmental factors that attribute to asthma. The main sources of environmental pollution are the burning of fossil fuels in the combustion engines, dust generated by traffic on road surfaces, and biomass used for cooking and heating. In urban areas, there are high concentrations of particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and other volatile organic compounds and can make breathing more difficult. The health effects of particulate matters with different diameters are related to the length of those particles",
"-27.04733442737779"
],
[
"air. To do so, one has to first exhale normally, without forcing, then hold one’s breath. This is called the exhale-hold technique.\nThe scientific studies have shown that only hypoventilation at low lung volume could lead to both a significant decrease in oxygen (O₂) concentrations in the body and an increase in carbon dioxide concentrations (CO₂), which are indispensable for the method to be effective. History The first known form of hypoventilation occurred in the 1950s during training of the runners of Eastern Europe and former USSR. One of the most famous athletes to have used this method is Emil Zátopek,",
"-26.91157577976992"
],
[
"Respiratory system Mechanics of breathing In mammals, inhalation at rest is primarily due to the contraction of the diaphragm. This is an upwardly domed sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. When it contracts the sheet flattens, (i.e. moves downwards as shown in Fig. 7) increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. The contracting diaphragm pushes the abdominal organs downwards. But because the pelvic floor prevents the lowermost abdominal organs moving in that direction, the pliable abdominal contents cause the belly to bulge outwards to the front and sides, because the relaxed abdominal muscles do",
"-26.886117916670628"
],
[
"Air is trapped in the chest cavity outside the lungs (pneumothorax) in about 70% of TBI. Especially strong evidence that TBI has occurred is failure of a pneumothorax to resolve even when a chest tube is placed to rid the chest cavity of the air; it shows that air is continually leaking into the chest cavity from the site of the tear. Air can also be trapped in the mediastinum, the center of the chest cavity (pneumomediastinum). If air escapes from a penetrating injury to the neck, a definite diagnosis of TBI can be made. Hamman's sign, a sound of",
"-26.880704535054974"
],
[
"is brought about by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation, (in the same way as at rest), but, in addition, the abdominal muscles, instead of being passive, now contract strongly causing the rib cage to be pulled downwards (front and sides). This not only decreases the size of the rib cage but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax. The end-exhalatory lung volume is now less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human, there is",
"-26.867921942161047"
],
[
"in low-oxygen environments that result from inert gas exposure; however, the experience is still less aversive than CO₂ exposure. Physiology A typical human breathes between 12 and 20 times per minute at a rate primarily influenced by carbon dioxide concentration, and thus pH, in the blood. With each breath, a volume of about 0.6 litres is exchanged from an active lung volume (tidal volume + functional residual capacity) of about 3 litres. Normal Earth's atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, carbon dioxide, and other gases. After just two or three breaths of nitrogen, the oxygen concentration",
"-26.86646948638372"
],
[
"methane, nitrogen, argon, helium, butane and propane. Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone, these compose 79% of Earth's atmosphere. Risk management The risk of breathing asphyxiant gases is frequently underestimated leading to fatalities, typically from breathing helium in domestic circumstances and nitrogen in industrial environments.\nThe term asphyxiation is often mistakenly associated with the strong desire to breathe that occurs if breathing is prevented. This desire is stimulated from increasing levels of carbon dioxide. However, asphyxiant gases may displace carbon dioxide along with oxygen, preventing the victim from feeling short of breath. In addition the gases may",
"-26.850340987293748"
],
[
"lungs, limiting airflow and causing shortness of breath. Due to the limitation of airflow the VRI breathing pattern differs from that of a healthy individual. The patterns show asynchrony between lungs; with peaks in vibration energy difference. Because of this asynchrony, the contours of the lung periphery are not smooth, but have a \"bumpy-lumpy\" or \"disco\" appearance. The vibration energy graph displays an inconsistent pattern and it is difficult to delineate inspiration from expiration. When comparing the right to the left lung the energy graphs peak at different times, and differs at the intensity level. Conclusion Studies have shown",
"-26.77805717474257"
],
[
"Vital capacity Vital capacity (VC) is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after a maximum inhalation. It is equal to the sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume.\nA person's vital capacity can be measured by a wet or regular spirometer. In combination with other physiological measurements, the vital capacity can help make a diagnosis of underlying lung disease. Furthermore, the vital capacity is used to determine the severity of respiratory muscle involvement in neuromuscular disease, and can guide treatment decisions in Guillain–Barré syndrome and myasthenic crisis.\nA normal adult has a",
"-26.65064004465239"
],
[
"such as cats, dogs, and adult humans, have the ability to breathe indefinitely through either the oral or nasal cavity.",
"-26.570962014084216"
],
[
"of infection. Other individuals with A–T have difficulty with taking deep breaths and may have an ineffective cough, making it difficult to clear oral and bronchial secretions. This can lead to prolonged respiratory symptoms following common viral respiratory illnesses. Techniques that allow clearance of mucus can be helpful in some individuals during respiratory illnesses. Some people will develop swallowing problems as they age, increasing their risk of aspiration pneumonia. Recurrent injury to the lungs caused by chronic infections or aspiration may cause lung fibrosis and scarring. This process may be enhanced by inadequate tissue repair in ATM-deficient cells. A small",
"-26.536923734471202"
],
[
"and awareness practices.\nIn his writing and teaching about breathing, Lewis maintains that many people habitually hyperventilate — by which he means taking rapid shallow breaths from the top of the chest instead of breathing more naturally with the entire abdomen and back — and this reduces carbon dioxide levels in the blood too rapidly and thus causes an oxygen shortage in the brain and body. The result of lower oxygen he claims is, among other things, anxiety, tension, or irritability. There is disagreement about the benefits of increased oxygen blood levels. According to Dr. Mary Purucker, a pulmonary specialist in",
"-26.523907911556307"
],
[
"air embolism When an endotracheal tube (ET) is placed, one of the key advantages is that a direct air-tight passageway is provided from the output of the manual resuscitator to the lungs, thus eliminating the possibilities of inadvertent stomach inflation or lung injuries from gastric acid aspiration. However this places the lungs at increased risk from separate lung injury patterns caused by accidental forced over-inflation (called volutrauma and/or barotrauma). Sponge-like lung tissue is delicate, and over-stretching can lead to adult respiratory distress syndrome – a condition that requires prolonged mechanical ventilator support in the ICU and is associated",
"-26.47916653804714"
],
[
"always still at least one liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\nDiaphragmatic breathing causes the abdomen to rhythmically bulge out and fall back. It is, therefore, often referred to as \"abdominal breathing\". These terms are often used interchangeably because they describe the same action.\nWhen the accessory muscles of inhalation are activated, especially during labored breathing, the clavicles are pulled upwards, as explained above. This external manifestation of the use of the accessory muscles of inhalation is sometimes referred to as clavicular breathing, seen especially during asthma attacks and in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lower",
"-26.465308631421067"
],
[
"affect blood pH, consider the effects of ventilation on PCO2 in the lungs. If one were to hold his or her breath (or breathe very slowly, as in the case of respiratory depression), the blood would continue delivering carbon dioxide to the alveoli in the lungs, and the amount of carbon dioxide in the lungs would increase. On the other hand, if one were to hyperventilate, then fresh air would be drawn into the lungs and carbon dioxide would rapidly be blown out. In the first case, because carbon dioxide is accumulating in the lungs, alveolar PCO2 would become very",
"-26.401085511548445"
],
[
"methods to delay or change the development of the symptoms. Slow rates of compression or adding stops to the compression have been found to prevent large initial decrements in performance, while the inclusion of other gases in the helium–oxygen mixture, such as nitrogen or hydrogen suppresses the neurological effects. Oxygen toxicity The result of breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen is hyperoxia, an excess of oxygen in body tissues. The body is affected in different ways depending on the type of exposure. Central nervous system toxicity is caused by short exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen at greater",
"-26.318842667504214"
],
[
"breath is directed at its underlying cause. Extra oxygen is effective in those with hypoxia; however, this has no effect in those with normal blood oxygen saturations. Physiotherapy and Pulmonary Rehabilitation Individuals can benefit from a variety of physical therapy interventions. Persons with neurological/neuromuscular abnormalities may have breathing difficulties due to weak or paralyzed intercostal, abdominal and/or other muscles needed for ventilation. Some physical therapy interventions for this population include active assisted cough techniques, volume augmentation such as breath stacking, education about body position and ventilation patterns and movement strategies to facilitate breathing. Pulmonary rehabilitation may alleviate symptoms in",
"-26.308839423931204"
],
[
"the person inhales the aerosolized medication by breathing in and out. The exhaled breath exits the device through the valves rather than entering the chamber. Some spacers are equipped with a whistle, which sounds if the person is inhaling too quickly.\nSpacers slow down the speed of the aerosol coming from the inhaler, meaning that less of the asthma drug impacts on the back of the mouth and somewhat more may get into the lungs. In the case of corticosteroids, less residue in the mouth reduces the risk of developing oral candidiasis, a yeast infection. Rinsing the mouth after application of",
"-26.285258285235614"
],
[
"of artificial respiration can be greatly increased by the simultaneous use of oxygen therapy. The amount of oxygen available to the patient in mouth-to-mouth is around 16%. If this is done through a pocket mask with an oxygen flow, this increases to 40% oxygen. If either a bag valve mask or a mechanical ventilator is used with an oxygen supply, this rises to 99% oxygen. The greater the oxygen concentration, the more efficient the gaseous exchange will be in the lungs.",
"-26.27608406856598"
],
[
"lungs become consolidated. The shunt fraction is the percentage of blood put out by the heart that is not completely oxygenated.\nIn pathological conditions such as pulmonary contusion, the shunt fraction is significantly greater and even breathing 100% oxygen does not fully oxygenate the blood. Anatomical shunt If every alveolus was perfectly ventilated and all blood from the right ventricle were to pass though fully functional pulmonary capillaries, and there was unimpeded diffusion across the alveolar and capillary membrane, there would be a theoretical maximum blood gas exchange, and the alveolar PO₂ and arterial PO₂ would be the same. The",
"-26.232273724104743"
],
[
"bodies, which causes an increase in the breathing depth and rate (hyperpnea). However, hyperpnea also causes the adverse effect of respiratory alkalosis, inhibiting the respiratory center from enhancing the respiratory rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary or renal disease.\nIn addition, at high altitude, the heart beats faster; the stroke volume is slightly decreased; and non-essential bodily functions are suppressed, resulting in a decline in food digestion efficiency (as the body suppresses the digestive system in favor of increasing its cardiopulmonary reserves).\nFull acclimatization requires",
"-26.217786642024294"
],
[
"with lungs consists of repetitive cycles of inhalation and exhalation through a highly branched system of tubes or airways which lead from the nose to the alveoli. The number of respiratory cycles per minute is the breathing or respiratory rate, and is one of the four primary vital signs of life. Under normal conditions the breathing depth and rate is automatically, and unconsciously, controlled by several homeostatic mechanisms which keep the partial pressures of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the arterial blood constant. Keeping the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood unchanged under a wide variety",
"-26.210642381338403"
],
[
"lungs.",
"-26.20215718372492"
],
[
"small doses (called the tidal volume), by breathing in (inhalation) and out (exhalation) through the respiratory airways, a set of relatively narrow and moderately long tubes which start at the nose or mouth and end in the alveoli of the lungs in the chest. Air moves in and out through the same set of tubes, in which the flow is in one direction during inhalation, and in the opposite direction during exhalation.\nDuring each inhalation, at rest, approximately 500 ml of fresh air flows in through the nose. Its is warmed and moistened as it flows through the nose and pharynx. By",
"-26.170429073506966"
],
[
"related. The Lung and its paired organ are associated with the element of metal and the emotion of grief. The peak time for the Lungs is from 3-5am. Dominating qi and controlling respiration Dominating qi has two aspects: dominating the qi of respiration and dominating the qi of the entire body. Dominating the qi of respiration means the lung is a respiratory organ through which the qi of the exterior and the qi from the interior are able to mingle. Via the lung, the body inhales clear qi from the natural environment and exhales waste qi from the interior of",
"-26.146251745369227"
],
[
"This triggers the first breath, within about 10 seconds after delivery. Before birth, the lungs are filled with fetal lung fluid. After the first breath, the fluid is quickly absorbed into the body or exhaled. The resistance in the lung's blood vessels decreases giving an increased surface area for gas exchange, and the lungs begin to breathe spontaneously. This accompanies other changes which result in an increased amount of blood entering the lung tissues.\nAt birth the lungs are very undeveloped with only around one sixth of the alveoli of the adult lung present. The alveoli",
"-26.10711325358716"
],
[
"ventilation alone may be sufficient, as the heart may be basically healthy, but hypoxic. The airway-breathing-circulation sequence should be followed, not starting with compressions, as the basic problem is lack of oxygen. Five initial breaths are recommended, as the initial ventilation may be difficult because of water in the airways which can interfere with effective alveolar inflation. Thereafter a sequence of two breaths and 30 chest compressions is recommended, repeated until vital signs are re-established, the rescuers are unable to continue, or advanced life support is available.\nAttempts to actively expel water from the airway by abdominal thrusts or positioning head",
"-26.10309188129031"
],
[
"the lungs in a process known as pulmonary edema. During an eclamptic seizure, it is possible for a person to vomit the contents of the stomach and to inhale some of this material in a process known as aspiration. If aspiration occurs, the woman may experience difficulty breathing immediately or could develop an infection in the lungs later, called aspiration pneumonia. It is also possible that during a seizure breathing will stop temporarily or become inefficient, and the amount of oxygen reaching the woman's body and brain will be decreased (in a state known as hypoxia). If it becomes difficult",
"-26.09897525380802"
],
[
"in the lungs (which has a substantially different composition from that of the ambient air), the partial pressures of the arterial blood gases also do not change with each breath. The tissues are therefore not exposed to swings in oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions in the blood during the breathing cycle, and the peripheral and central chemoreceptors do not need to \"choose\" the point in the breathing cycle at which the blood gases need to be measured, and responded to. Thus the homeostatic control of the breathing rate simply depends on the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in",
"-26.053221858019242"
],
[
"regulates the amount of air that can be taken into the body in each breath. The dorsal respiratory group has rhythmic bursts of activity that are constant in duration and interval. When a faster rate of breathing is needed the pneumotaxic center signals the dorsal respiratory group to speed up. When longer breaths are needed the bursts of activity are elongated. All the information that the body uses to help respiration happens in the pneumotaxic center. If this was damaged or in any way harmed it would make breathing almost impossible. \nOne study on this subject",
"-26.02342248777859"
],
[
"insufficient oxygen saturation often seen in well trained athletes such as marathoner's. Not all inspired air and its components make it into the pulmonary system due to the human body's anatomical dead space, which, in terms of exercise, is a source of oxygen wasted. Running economy Despite being one of the most salient predictors of marathon performance, a large VO2Max is only one of the factors that may effect performance in a marathon. A marathoner's running economy is their sub maximal requirement for oxygen at specific speeds. This concept of running economy helps to explain different marathon",
"-26.019714151130756"
],
[
"Pneumatosis Lungs Pulmonary emphysema, more usually called emphysema, is characterised by air-filled cavities or spaces, (pneumatoses) in the lung, that can vary in size and may be very large. The spaces are caused by the breakdown of the walls of the alveoli and they replace the spongy lung parenchyma. This reduces the total alveolar surface available for gas exchange leading to a reduction in oxygen supply for the blood. Emphysema usually affects the middle aged or older population. This is because the disease takes time to develop with the effects of smoking, and other risk factors. Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is",
"-26.017897290352266"
],
[
"the lungs cannot expand, the pressure in the lungs never drops and no air is pulled into the bronchi. Respiration is not possible. The affected lung, which has a great deal of elastic tissue, shrivels in what is referred to as a collapsed lung. Treatment Treatment for this condition is the same as for hemothorax and pneumothorax independently: by tube thoracostomy, the insertion of a chest drain through an incision made between the ribs, into the intercostal space. A chest tube must be inserted to drain blood and air from the pleural space so it can return",
"-26.01097807415499"
],
[
"discontinued after some babies were blinded by the oxygen content being too high.\nBreathing pure O\n₂ in space applications, such as in some modern space suits, or in early spacecraft such as Apollo, causes no damage due to the low total pressures used. In the case of spacesuits, the O\n₂ partial pressure in the breathing gas is, in general, about 30 kPa (1.4 times normal), and the resulting O\n₂ partial pressure in the astronaut's arterial blood is only marginally more than normal sea-level O\n₂ partial pressure.\nOxygen toxicity to the lungs and central nervous system can also occur in deep scuba diving and",
"-25.987693727220176"
],
[
"in blood pressure. Generally, the recommended breathing technique is to inhale when lowering the weight (the eccentric portion) and exhale when lifting the weight (the concentric portion). However, the reverse, inhaling when lifting and exhaling when lowering, may also be recommended. Some researchers state that there is little difference between the two techniques in terms of their influence on heart rate and blood pressure. It may also be recommended that a weight lifter simply breathes in a manner which feels appropriate.\nDeep breathing may be specifically recommended for the lifting of heavy weights because it helps to generate intra-abdominal pressure which",
"-25.983733075205237"
],
[
"the effort required during inhalation to overcome the hydrostatic pressure on the chest. Hydrostatic pressure on the surface of the body due to head out immersion in water causes negative pressure breathing which shifts blood into the intrathoracic circulation.\nLung volume decreases in the upright position due to cranial displacement of the abdomen due to hydrostatic pressure, and resistance to air flow in the airways increases significantly because of the decrease in lung volume.\nHydrostatic pressure differences between the interior of the lung and the breathing gas delivery, increased breathing gas density due to ambient pressure, and increased flow resistance due to",
"-25.97406202601269"
],
[
"to the lungs and then spreads into the lungs (tracheobronchial tree). The symptoms appear in the upper chest region (substernal and carinal regions). This begins as a mild tickle on inhalation and progresses to frequent coughing. If breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen continues, patients experience a mild burning on inhalation along with uncontrollable coughing and occasional shortness of breath (dyspnoea). Physical findings related to pulmonary toxicity have included bubbling sounds heard through a stethoscope (bubbling rales), fever, and increased blood flow to the lining of the nose (hyperaemia of the nasal mucosa). X-rays of the lungs show little change",
"-25.938176778145134"
],
[
"Contrary to popular belief, amniotic fluid has not been conclusively shown to be inhaled and exhaled by the fetus. In fact, studies from the 1970s show that in a healthy fetus, there is no inward flow of amniotic fluid into the airway. Instead, lung development occurs as a result of the production of fetal lung fluid which expands the lungs. It also prevents the fetus from mechanical jerks and shocks. The fetus, which develops within a fluid-filled amniotic sac, relies on the placenta for respiratory gas exchange rather than the lungs. While not involved in fetal oxygenation, fetal breathing movements",
"-25.924252472410444"
],
[
"lung capacity as well as chest and abdominal strength. It is regarded as potentially hazardous because of the risk of harm to the eyes and the possibility of the contained air rushing back into the lungs and causing damage or, reportedly, death. Former world record holder Brian Jackson has claimed that he knows of at least five deaths resulting from the practice, although this is unconfirmed. Georgian athlete Jemal Tkeshelashvili has demonstrated two variations on the traditional method: blowing the bottle up with his nose, and blowing one up while somebody sits on top of it. Records There are three",
"-25.922781751549337"
],
[
"in the lungs would be low enough for some oxygen already in the bloodstream to exchange back to the lungs and be eliminated by exhalation.\nUnconsciousness in cases of accidental asphyxia can occur within 1 minute. Loss of consciousness results from critical hypoxia, when arterial oxygen saturation is less than 60%. \"At oxygen concentrations [in air] of 4 to 6%, there is loss of consciousness in 40 seconds and death within a few minutes\". At an altitude over 43,000 ft (13,000 m), where the ambient oxygen concentration is equivalent to a concentration of 3.6% at sea level, an average individual can perform flying",
"-25.898631019023014"
],
[
"of the shallow breaths is dead space, and does not allow oxygen to get into the blood.",
"-25.861722894071136"
],
[
"ruptured eardrums, bleeding sinuses, exploding tooth cavities, and the lung injuries described above. This is the reason why divers follow a procedure of not holding their breath during ascent. By breathing continuously, they keep the airways open and avoid pressure differences between their lungs and ambient pressure. Arterial gas embolism (AGE) Arterial gas embolism (AGE) is a complication of lung barotrauma of ascent. It occurs when breathing gas is introduced to the circulation on the arterial side via lung over-pressure trauma. AGE can present in similar ways to arterial blockages seen in other medical situations. Affected people may suffer strokes,",
"-25.858983136422466"
],
[
"breathing through the nose, which causes the issue of not enough oxygen if the predator is exhausted since panting through the mouth is much more efficient than breathing through the nose for most predators. If the predator is too tired, it may resort to another method of killing or withhold from finishing the prey off until it catches its breath.",
"-25.850890365079977"
],
[
"edema and increase oxygenation. Ventilation can reopen collapsed alveoli, but it is harmful for them to be repeatedly opened, and positive pressure ventilation can also damage the lung by overinflating it. Intubation is normally reserved for when respiratory problems occur, but most significant contusions do require intubation, and it may be done early in anticipation of this need. People with pulmonary contusion who are especially likely to need ventilation include those with prior severe lung disease or kidney problems; the elderly; those with a lowered level of consciousness; those with low blood oxygen or high carbon dioxide levels; and",
"-25.849408522975864"
],
[
"lung disease in both developing and developed countries affecting about 5% of the population. Other symptoms include wheezing, tightness in the chest, and a non productive cough.\nInhaled corticosteroids are the preferred treatment for children, however these drugs can reduce the growth rate. Acute symptoms are treated with short-acting bronchodilators. Pneumothorax Pneumothorax presents typically with pleuritic chest pain of acute onset and shortness of breath not improved with oxygen. Physical findings may include absent breath sounds on one side of the chest, jugular venous distension, and tracheal deviation. Pneumonia The symptoms of pneumonia are fever, productive cough, shortness of breath, and",
"-25.815974002704024"
],
[
"expiration a fine air jet is expired probably to clear the upper larynx from food remnants or liquid. The clinical significance of this finding is that patients with a baseline of compromised lung function will, over a period of time, develop respiratory distress as a meal progresses.\nSubsequently, false vocal fold adduction, adduction of the aryepiglottic folds and retroversion of the epiglottis take place. The aryepiglotticus (recurrent laryngeal nerve of vagus) contracts, causing the arytenoids to appose each other (closes the laryngeal aditus by bringing the aryepiglottic folds together), and draws the epiglottis down to bring its lower half into contact",
"-25.8024623937672"
],
[
"like the lung have numerous internal branchings that increase the surface area; in the case of the lung, the large surface supports gas exchange, bringing oxygen into the blood and releasing carbon dioxide from the blood. Similarly, the small intestine has a finely wrinkled internal surface, allowing the body to absorb nutrients efficiently.\nCells can achieve a high surface area to volume ratio with an elaborately convoluted surface, like the microvilli lining the small intestine.\nIncreased surface area can also lead to biological problems. More contact with the environment through the surface of a cell or an organ (relative to its volume)",
"-25.732601915275154"
],
[
"expand against the air pressure inside the pleural space. An easy to understand example is a traumatic pneumothorax, where air enters the pleural space from outside the body, as occurs with puncture to the chest wall. Similarly, a scuba diver ascending while holding their breath with their lungs fully inflated can cause air sacs (alveoli) to burst and leak high pressure air into the pleural space. Lung examination As part of a physical examination in response to respiratory symptoms of shortness of breath, and cough, a lung examination may be carried out. This exam includes palpation and auscultation. The areas",
"-25.728810213971883"
],
[
"that they did not inhale, relative mortality (likelihood of death) risk was still highly elevated for oral, esophageal, and laryngeal cancers.\nDanger of mortality increases proportionally to use, with smokers of one to two cigars per day showing a 2% increase in death rate, compared to non-smokers. The precise statistical health risks to those who smoke less than daily is not established.\nThe depth of inhalation of cigar smoke into the lungs appears to be an important determinant of lung cancer risk:\n\nWhen cigar smokers don't inhale or smoke few cigars per day, the risks are only slightly above those of never smokers.",
"-25.713464460568503"
],
[
"Therapeutic oxygen and positive-pressure ventilation, while potentially life-saving, can damage the lung. Diagnosis The diagnosis is made by the clinical picture and the chest X-ray, which demonstrates decreased lung volumes (bell-shaped chest), absence of the thymus (after about six hours), a small (0.5–1 mm), discrete, uniform infiltrate (sometimes described as a \"ground glass\" appearance or \"diffuse airspace and interstitial opacities\") that involves all lobes of the lung and air-bronchograms (i.e. the infiltrate will outline the larger airways passages, which remain air-filled). In severe cases, this becomes exaggerated until the cardiac borders become indiscernable (a 'white-out' appearance). Prevention Giving the baby's mother",
"-25.705295166233554"
],
[
"the expansion of the airways - alveoli, by means of hydrodynamic pressure and by also supplying proline which is a critical amino acid for lung development. Alveoli are the small sacs in the lungs that exchange oxygen with the blood. If the alveoli, and thereby the lungs, are underdeveloped at the time of birth the infant will not be able to breathe air properly and will go into respiratory distress shortly after birth due to pulmonary hypoplasia (underdeveloped lungs). This is the primary cause of death to Potter sequence infants secondary to renal failure. The fetal urine also serves to",
"-25.69983827706892"
],
[
"Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnoea Mechanisms PND is caused in part by the depression of the respiratory center during sleep, which may reduce arterial oxygen tension, particularly in patients with interstitial lung disease and reduced pulmonary compliance.\nSimilar to orthopnea, in the horizontal position there is redistribution of blood volume from the lower extremities to the lungs. In normal individuals this has little effect on lungs, but in patients in whom the additional volume cannot be pumped out by the left ventricle due to left ventricular weakness, there is a significant reduction in lung capacity which results in shortness of breath. Additionally, in",
"-25.642879612743855"
],
[
"is also a common cause of chest pain. It is generally felt when deep breaths are taken or during a cough. Atelectasis Another non cardiac cause of chest pain is atelectasis. It is a condition that suffered when a portion of the lung collapses from being airless. When bronchial tubes are blocked, this condition develops and causes patients to feel shortness of breath. The most common cause of atelectasis is when a bronchi that extends from the windpipe is blocked and traps air. The blockage may be caused by something inside the bronchus, such as a plug of mucus, a",
"-25.613704235409386"
],
[
"are over ten times that of mainstream smoke. Social effects A non-smoker who is inhaling sidestream or second-hand smoke has a 30% greater risk of getting lung cancer at some point in their lives. Exposure to second hand or sidestream smoke has been associated with people who have not smoked before.\nThe US Environmental Protection Agency estimates sidestream smoke causes approximately 3,000 lung cancer deaths and 62,000 deaths from heart disease in non-smokers every year in the United States. Children A child's exposure to contaminants in the air can have detrimental health effects including heightened risk of respiratory tract infections, increased",
"-25.608539362438023"
],
[
"Oxygen given at a high flow rate may accelerate resorption as much as fourfold. Aspiration In a large PSP (>50%), or in a PSP associated with breathlessness, some guidelines recommend that reducing the size by aspiration is equally effective as the insertion of a chest tube. This involves the administration of local anesthetic and inserting a needle connected to a three-way tap; up to 2.5 liters of air (in adults) are removed. If there has been significant reduction in the size of the pneumothorax on subsequent X-ray, the remainder of the treatment can be conservative. This approach has been shown to",
"-25.60808859093231"
],
[
"up the breathing spaces of the body. His techniques employ a mix of mindfulness and awareness practices, movements, postures, touch, and sound, with a stated emphasis on learning how to exhale fully and effortlessly. He writes in his articles and books that when the exhalation is full and natural, the inhalation usually takes place spontaneously in the most appropriate way for the demands of the moment.\nLewis claims that most people are unaware of their breathing until they have some kind of major problem. This lack of breathing awareness, he believes, is a manifestation of a larger issue: a general lack",
"-25.583296008306206"
],
[
"pliable lung (one with low elastic recoil) and can be thought of as a grocery bag – this is the case often seen in emphysema. Compliance is highest at moderate lung volumes, and much lower at volumes which are very low or very high. The compliance of the lungs demonstrate lung hysteresis; that is, the compliance is different on inspiration and expiration for identical volumes.",
"-25.553593477699906"
],
[
"vital capacity between 3 and 5 litres. A human's vital capacity depends on age, sex, height, mass, and possibly ethnicity. However, the dependence on ethnicity is poorly understood or defined, as it was first established by studying black slaves in the 19th century and may be the result of conflation with environmental factors.\nLung volumes and lung capacities refer to the volume of air associated with different phases of the respiratory cycle. Lung volumes are directly measured, whereas lung capacities are inferred from volumes. Role in Diagnosis The vital capacity can be used to help differentiate causes of lung disease. In restrictive",
"-25.54291193530662"
],
[
"from the chamber. During treatment patients breathe 100% oxygen most of the time to maximise the effectiveness of their treatment, but have periodic \"air breaks\" during which they breathe chamber air (21% oxygen) to reduce the risk of oxygen toxicity. The exhaled treatment gas must be removed from the chamber to prevent the buildup of oxygen, which could present a fire risk. Attendants may also breathe oxygen some of the time to reduce their risk of decompression sickness when they leave the chamber. The pressure inside the chamber is increased by opening valves allowing high-pressure air to enter from storage",
"-25.539050545987266"
],
[
"within the lung tissue. An indication of more severe damage to the lung than pulmonary contusion, a hematoma also takes longer to clear. Unlike contusions, hematomas do not usually interfere with gas exchange in the lung, but they do increase the risk of infection and abscess formation.",
"-25.529697689024033"
],
[
"allowing a greater quantity of air to move in and out. Endurance training typically results in an increase in tidal volume. Respiratory muscles Muscles involved in respiration, including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, increase in strength and endurance. This results in an improved ability to breathe in more air, for longer amounts of time with less fatigue. Aerobic training typically improves the endurance of respiratory muscles, whereas anaerobic training tends to increase the size and strength of respiratory muscles. Lung capillaries Exercise increases the vascularization of the lungs. This allows the more blood flow in and out of the lungs.",
"-25.48441141956937"
]
] |
506fe2 | What is a lawyer supposed to do when defending a person who is obviously guilty of a crime? | [
"They're supposed to vigorously defend their client, to the best of their ability. Even the worst person in the world deserves an advocate who will work to make sure they're treated fairly, no matter the circumstance. Justice is blind, after all. Of course, that doesn't mean that the lawyer will always try to *win* the case. In a lot of cases, the best defense for a client is to fight for a plea deal: in that case, the client is admitting guilt, but for a lesser crime, or in the hopes of a more lenient punishment.",
"One of the important roles of the defense attorney in an obvious situation that goes to trial is to ensure that the prosecution follows all the rules we as society have placed on the government to limit it; because we, as a society, delegate the government exceedingly powerful means collecting information and punishment. If the government can't prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, without cheating, the client shouldn't be punished because there's a risk that a government that could cheat the rules could use them to punish innocent people as well. It's the defense attorney's job to protect society from the government by forcing the government to show it's work every single time.",
"If it really is \"obvious\" then the lawyer will likely liaise with authorities to negotiate a deal, or recommend a guilty plea and try to avoid the maximum sentence. Nevertheless, criminal defense attorneys don't exist solely to prove the innocence of their clients. They are there to ensure their client receives a fair and just trial. The prosecution has incredible resources, unlimited legal knowledge and experience, and will do anything to collect evidence, prove guilt, and sentence their client, so the *only way* for a fair trial to occur is if the defendant has a representative who will do the same for them.",
"I think about it a little differently. I think of a defense lawyer as a person who makes sure that the prosecutor is doing their job. In order to convict someone of a crime, the prosecutor has to convince 12 jurors that this person did it beyond a reasonable doubt. If there were not defense lawyers then the prosecutor could press charges on anyone. So, a defense lawyer may not see himself as someone who defends the guilty, but perhaps as someone to make sure the innocent stay out of prison. Even if they think or know their client is guilty, it doesn't matter. They have a legal obligation to find holes in the prosecutor's charges. Perhaps they didn't get a search warrant properly (as an example). And perhaps because of this, they found the killer's weapon in his house with his fingerprints on it along with a video with his confession and him killing the victim. Well, we all now know that he's probably the killer. But you can't just go around searching people's houses all willy-nilly. So, now the defense lawyer might be able to have this evidence thrown out. The prosecutor and/or police may have done a crappy job of getting a search warrant, but by the defense lawyer holding them accountable, we can feel a little safer that no one can just come search our houses without one.",
"I'm a criminal defense attorney. Even if the evidence against your client is strong that still leaves a few options. You can often attack the evidence pre trial and keep it away from the jury. In the past, I've run my trial theory past some of the non-attorney office staff and they'll ask a question which I'll answer \"you won't get to hear anything about that\". It can frustrate them, because they think it's important to guilt or innocence but keeping damaging information out of evidence is a big part of my role as an attorney. They'll have to decide without that information, if they can't, I win. If evidence is based on science, you can sometimes attack the validity of that science. Experts can be expensive, and juries sometimes think the defense expert will say anything because he's being paid, but if used properly they can be very effective. If there is any question as to the constitutionality of how the evidence against a client was obtained, you can always try to have it suppressed. A successful suppression motion can acquit the guiltiest of clients. Witness identifications can be flawed, there's a lot of good science out as to that, you can't convict him if you're not sure he's the guy. Ultimately, however, if your client is \"obviously guilty\" the real work for the attorney is often plea negotiation and sentencing. Your job as an attorney is to zealously pursue the best outcome your client can achieve. In many cases that means spending less time in jail instead of being found not guilty.",
"What makes it \"obvious\"? Even if it's a so-called \"obvious\" case, individuals still have the right to have the correct procedures followed, have the right to be treated properly, etc. etc. You don't just get to throw out all proceedings because someone looks \"obviously\" guilty. The lawyer is supposed to do what they are always supposed to do. Use their judgement to determine what the best course of action is for the defendant and help them reach that goal. If it was truly 'obvious' that might involve making a plea deal to avoid all the court costs, or striking some other form of bargain like testifying against accomplices or something. If it goes to court, then the lawyer's job is to defend the client by pointing out anything they can that appears incorrect / faulty in the prosecution's case or how that defendant was handled by the police etc.",
"Henry Rothblatt, once F.Lee Bailey's partner, once famously said to a newspaper that 90% of America's lawyers are incompetent. The next day the Bar Association president called him demanding he retract his statement. Henry called the newspaper and said to the editor \"I was wrong, please retract the 90% and replace it with 95%\". I once stopped a guy on a middle-of-the-night drug and alcohol fueled rampage with a gun after fighting with him for 17 minutes while the cops waited up the street. I interviewed 30 lawyers to take my manslaughter case, brought by an inexperienced ladder-climbing prosecutor, and only found 2 CRIMINAL DEFENSE attorneys I would trust. (Do NOT use a 'jack of all trades' attorney for a criminal case). Your lawyer has the obligation to defend you vigorously but also to know enough to make every single objection that they can. If the judge gets mad or threatens them, that's how you'll know they are doing their job. It's important to make those objections in case an appeal is necessary. In my case it was not. It was a bad case to begin with and that prosecutor ended up back in traffic court after a completely embarrassing loss. If you're in real trouble, first rule, never talk; that's what your 5th amendment is for. Go to jail, take the preliminary lumps you have to take, but don't talk. That's what I did and my lawyer said it made things much easier because the police and prosecutors had no words to twist. By not talking only one story emerges in the end. Secondly, in response to 'slash', to the prosecutor I was \"obviously\" guilty. To the jury I was obviously innocent.",
"I'm a lawyer! 1. Ensure that the police & prosecutor follow all lawful procedures -- just because someone did the crime doesn't mean they're guilty. 2. Ensure that the Defendant has a right to a fair trial. If every attorney ditched a client because they were \"obviously\" guilty, they wouldn't have an attorney! 3. You may be able to negotiate a favorable plea deal or otherwise reduce their sentence. It may be a foregone conclusion that he will be found guilty, but you still have the sentencing ballgame to play!",
"To put it simply: I police the police. The majority of police are fair and civic minded people that are doing a difficult, demanding, and dangerous job. The police are the government in its most literal sense. However, people have a fundamental (Constitutional) right to be free of unwarranted governmental actions. Defense attorneys prevent the police for kicking in your front door and arresting you simply because they feel like it. Defense attorneys prevent the police from beating a confession out of you. Defense attorneys prevent the police from planting a bug in your house or tapping your phone (en masse) and then sifting through the tapes later to find crimes. The police are no different than any other people in that the police try to accomplish their jobs in the simplest and quickest way possible. Consider the power wielded by a person with a badge, a gun and zero oversight. How can you protect the innocent in that world? Our system has checks and balances for a reason. Those checks and balances apply at all levels of government action. These checks and balances protect the average/innocent person too. Every officer has had a bad beat. Every officer has crossed a line and learned a lesson the hard way that they can't do what they did and win a conviction. The most effective way to teach this lesson to the police is by allowing a guilty person to go free. Good police teach each other these lessons and honestly try to avoid repeating them.",
"I prosecuted a case today of a guy who shoplifted a bunch of food and toiletries from a local grocery store. The evidence of his guilt was overwhelming. The defense attorney chose to have his client plead guilty, and instead focused his argument to the jury on mitigating the punishment as much as possible. The Defendant had a long list of prior petty crimes, and I made the case that he wasn't getting the message and needed to be given a jail sentence to learn that enough was enough. The defense attorney successfully made the jury sympathize with the Defendant based on his life experience, and got them to give him only a fine. The fine was more than 1200% of the value of what he stole, but he kept his client out of jail. Sometimes the most important thing a defense lawyer can do is humanize his client.",
"Prosecutors also tend to use the spaghetti method when filing charges (throw everything at him and see what sticks) since they are allowed to enter in multiple contradicting charges. A defense attorney is supposed to ensure that a client only gets convicted of the ones that he/she actually did and can be proved.",
"They are supposed to ensure that the laws are applied to their client fairly. They are not necessarily supposed to do everything and anything to get their client off the hook.",
"In the American legal system, all people are presumed innocent until proven guilty, regardless of the weight of evidence. Even the worst person is entitled to a lawyer who will defend them to the best of their abilities, otherwise how can an innocent person expect the same treatment? Of course, if the weight of evidence is really that severe, defending someone to the \"best of their abilities\" will usually mean pleading guilty."
] | [
[
"often is for a criminal charge that has not been levied or verified by an attorney or judge. Criminal defense lawyers also deal with the substantive issues of the crimes with which his or her clients are charged. Criminal defense lawyers may also help clients before charges have been filed by a prosecuting attorney. This is done when someone believes he or she is being investigated, or is arrested.\nThe accused may hire a criminal defense lawyer to help with counsel and representation dealing with police or other investigators, perform his or her own investigation, and at times present exculpatory evidence",
"-28.57422263672197"
],
[
"innocence a defendant is to enjoy at trial, disregards harm that may result to a client other than being convicted, and potentially allow a defense lawyer to shirk duties to a client the lawyer knows to be guilty.",
"-28.000254942744505"
],
[
"accused has not already retained himself a lawyer. In practice, however, usually the court appoints the lawyer which the accused had already chosen for his mandatory representation. Necessary defence means that the accused is charged with a felony that is punishable by a minimum sentence of one year’s imprisonment, is tried before a higher court, already is detained on remand or otherwise not considered able to defend himself. The entitlement of an accused to have counsel assigned to him in cases of mandatory legal representation is irrespective of indigence. The court-assigned defence lawyer is entitled to claim his fees from",
"-27.997483212762745"
],
[
"may seek to avoid criminal or civil liability by claiming that he acted in self-defence. This requires the jury to determine whether the defendant believed that force was necessary to defend him or herself, his or her property, or to prevent a crime, and that the force used was reasonable. While there is no duty to retreat from an attacker and failure to do so is not conclusive evidence that a person did not act in self-defence, it may still be considered by the jury as a relevant factor when assessing the merits of a self-defence claim. The common law",
"-27.714099399367115"
],
[
"defender at the state's cost to defend those who can not afford a chosen lawyer. The defence counsel's participation is required by the Criminal Procedure Act. Usually a private lawyer is appointed, one for each defendant, and conflict of interest between contradicting suspects is avoided, e.g. the same lawyer may not represent two accused whose evidence is mutually contradictory. If convicted, the defendant is in principle liable for the fee, but is rarely pursued.",
"-27.56836461185594"
],
[
"put in custody, charged, or declared a suspect. According to the 2001 Code of Criminal Procedure, defense lawyers can participate in investigations with the consent of the prosecutor, meet privately with a client, collect evidence independently of the prosecutor, identify defense witnesses, present expert witnesses, be present for all court procedures, access to the prosecutions evidence after the investigation, and to file appeals regarding court procedures.\nFor serious and specific crimes, the accused have the option of a jury trial consisting of 12 jurors. The crimes that may be tried by a jury are murder, kidnapping, rape with aggravating circumstances, child",
"-27.248537571023917"
],
[
"defense attorneys. He is also not above his own prejudices, which sometimes cause him to (inadvertently) overlook overwhelming evidence. Two such instances are when he falsely assumed that his fiancée's murder was targeted rather than random (despite all evidence to the contrary) and again later when he is too quick to believe a woman's unlikely self-defense explanation for murder simply because she too is a state prosecutor; in the latter case, he even goes so far as to conspire with the defense team to minimize the defendant's sentence, although he later reverses his position when he finally realizes she's",
"-27.223354315327015"
],
[
"public prosecutor, but in some jurisdictions, private prosecutions are allowed.\nCriminal defendants are often taken into custody by police and brought before a court under an arrest warrant. Criminal defendants are usually obliged to post bail before being released from custody. For serious cases, such as murder, bail is often refused. Defendants must be present at every stage of the proceedings against them. (There is an exception for very minor cases such as traffic offenses in jurisdictions which treat them as crimes.)\nIf more than one person is accused, the people may be referred as \"co-defendant\" or \"co-conspiritor\" in British and Common-Law",
"-26.863282223799615"
],
[
"criminal cases. More recently the American Bar Association and the National Legal Aid and Defender Association have set minimum training requirements, caseload levels, and experience requirements for defenders. There is often controversy whether caseloads set upon public defenders give them enough time to sufficiently defend their clients. Some criticize the mindset in which public defense lawyers encourage their clients to simply plead guilty. Some defenders say this is intended to lessen their own workload, while others would say it is intended to obtain a lighter sentence by negotiating a plea bargain as compared with going to trial and perhaps having",
"-26.622368023170566"
],
[
"quality of the defense in a case where the accused has a public defender. The competence of the defense attorney \"is a better predictor of whether or not someone will be sentenced to death than the facts of the crime\".\nIn 2015, the Justice Department and the FBI formally acknowledged that nearly every examiner in an FBI forensic squad overstated forensic hair matches for two decades before the year 2000. 26 out of 28 forensic examiners overstated evidence of forensic hair matches in 268 trials reviewed, and 95% of the overstatements favored the prosecution. Those cases involve 32 cases in which",
"-26.599751401518006"
],
[
"their clients into pleading guilty to a lesser offense. As a result, people who might have been acquitted because of lack of evidence, but also who are in fact truly innocent, will often plead guilty to the charge. Why? In a word, fear. And the more numerous and serious the charges, studies have shown, the greater the fear. That explains why prosecutors sometimes seem to file every charge imaginable against defendants.\nThis tactic is prohibited in some other countries—for example in the United Kingdom the prosecutor's code states:\nProsecutors should never go ahead with more charges than are necessary just to encourage",
"-26.564743777154945"
],
[
"major purposes are to discover facts, punish criminals, acquit the innocent, safeguard human rights, and to ensure the proper execution of the state's penalty power. When public prosecutors initiate public prosecutions on behalf of the state, or when victims file private prosecutions, the Criminal Division proceeds with open and fair trials in accordance with the principle of \"no crime and punishment without law,\" and facts decided by evidence. In cases where the minimum punishment is not less than three years of imprisonment or the accused is financially unable to retain a lawyer, the court offers public defenders to protect the",
"-26.50309173793721"
],
[
"position. Also, a distrustful client might hide a relevant fact he thinks is incriminating, but that a skilled lawyer could turn to the client's advantage (for example, by raising affirmative defenses like self-defense)\nHowever, most jurisdictions have exceptions for situations where the lawyer has reason to believe that the client may kill or seriously injure someone, may cause substantial injury to the financial interest or property of another, or is using (or seeking to use) the lawyer's services to perpetrate a crime or fraud.\nIn such situations the lawyer has the discretion, but not the obligation, to disclose information designed to prevent",
"-26.480506988533307"
],
[
"be far from congruent with those of their principals. Moreover, prosecutors and defense attorneys often view each other as colleagues and generally wish to maintain good relations with one another. A defense attorney often receives a flat fee or in any event will not receive enough additional money if he goes to trial to cover the costs of doing so; this can create an incentive to plea bargain, even at the expense of the defense attorney's client's interests.\nOn the other hand, the prosecutor may wish to maintain a high conviction rate and avoid losing high-profile trials; thus, settling a case",
"-26.358132761961315"
],
[
" Further, they often do not have the budget to fully investigate the facts of a case through either staff or private investigators. They often must rely solely on police reports for such information. In some jurisdictions, clients do not meet their attorneys until they are in court. Typically, public defenders will meet briefly with clients in holding facilities or jails. The defense attorney defends his or her client by seeking less punishment. Huemann (1977) indicates that many defense attorneys feel pressured to keep up with their caseloads. This pressure can manifest in the",
"-26.304737250207836"
],
[
"any conviction where the defendant was fairly tried and clearly proven to be guilty upon any error of the trial court which did not deprive the defendant of a constitutional right. Courts are not established as an arena in which contending counsel may use the processes of the law as a game of skill, but their sole purpose is to enforce justice, punish criminals, and suppress vice, and it is their duty to disregard all errors which do not involve substantial rights and result in material injury to the defendant. This is the fundamental principle upon which all of the",
"-26.266642169328406"
],
[
"court may refuse to permit a defense witness to testify. For example, if a defense lawyer fails to notify the prosecution of the identity of a witness to gain a tactical advantage, that witness may be precluded from testifying. Assistance of counsel A criminal defendant has the right to be assisted by counsel.\nIn Powell v. Alabama, 287 U.S. 45 (1932), the Supreme Court ruled that \"in a capital case, where the defendant is unable to employ counsel, and is incapable adequately of making his own defense because of ignorance, feeble mindedness, illiteracy, or the like, it is the duty of",
"-26.242470448458334"
],
[
"Criminal defense lawyer United States In the United States, criminal defense lawyers deal with the issues surrounding an arrest , a criminal investigation, criminal charges, sentencing, appeals, and post-trial issues. Often an attorney will specialize in a niche within criminal defense, such as drug defense or DUI defense. They could work for the local, state, or federal government or they could work for private law firms. \nAn arrest simply means a police officer, federal agent, or judge believes probable cause exists that a person committed a crime. Since an arrest is usually made by law enforcement, the arrest",
"-26.223166531941388"
],
[
"legal actions may refuse to cooperate with a counsel by not volunteering information and refusing to testify. Prosecutors may try to break their united front by offering incentives such as immunity from prosecution. Another tactic of stonewalling is providing the jurors with misleading information or purposefully withholding certain pieces of information that can be self incriminating. When witnesses practice the stonewalling practice they are usually in an agreement with other witnesses to do the same in order for the tactic to be effective.",
"-26.21510917088017"
],
[
"unprovable, cast so much doubt as to the guilt of his client that his client was acquitted. However the innocent man was unable to live with the accusation and killed himself. Kris initially holds that a barrister should defend her client with whatever means available and that it is up to the judge and jury to decide guilt. However, as they encounter wealthy individuals who attempt to use the law to escape justice she comes to accept that in addition to possible fame and renumeration a barrister should have a conscience. As they come to understand each other they become",
"-26.18589965288993"
],
[
"proceedings against him. Without it, though he be not guilty, he faces the danger of conviction because he does not know how to establish his innocence.\nJustice Black's opinion showed a similar argument that that of the Court's from Powell v. Alabama, the guiding hand of counsel can prevent an innocent man from being imprisoned falsely. From this point on, all defendants on trial for criminal charges were guaranteed the right to a lawyer, no matter what their financial situation looks like. The Court's decision in this case overturned the previous understanding of legal counsel set by the Court in Betts",
"-26.147635281457042"
],
[
"if the prosecution should be stopped because it does not meet the requirements of the Code for Crown Prosecutors, or there are important reasons why the prosecution should be pursued by the CPS. Defence Defendants are entitled to represent themselves, and usually do so in minor cases such as road traffic offences, when they may not even have to attend. However, defendants may be represented by a solicitor or, less commonly, a barrister. In most magistrates' courts there will be a duty solicitor available to advise and possibly to represent any defendant who does not have his/her own solicitor. Proceedings",
"-26.141355802872567"
],
[
"The Accusing Finger Premise An attorney is proud of sending many people to jail, some of whom were innocent. His wife is killed, and due to circumstantial evidence, he is sent to jail and finds himself with many of the people he prosecuted.",
"-26.0908813563874"
],
[
"hardest lesson he learned as a trial lawyer: \n[...] you should try your case, not fight opposing counsel. Cordiality to opposing counsel usually makes it easier to try your case. Sometimes opposing counsel won't allow you to be cordial, but whenever you can you should try your case with an air of collegial professionalism.\n and a lesson that he would like to pass on to new trial lawyers:\n You have a job to do as a prosecutor, and sometimes the people and incidents you deal with aren't very pretty. But you should never lose sight of the fact that a",
"-25.84458000396262"
],
[
"other illegally obtained evidence could result in evidence being inadmissible at trial. Accordingly, a criminal defense lawyer often spends a considerable amount of time reviewing all documentation to determine if the case can be won on constitutional grounds due to illegal conduct by the government.\nIf there are no constitutional violations, much of the work of a criminal defense attorney then turns to trial preparation. Any proposed settlement agreement must be compared to the best judgment about the outcome after trial. A criminal defense lawyer will usually discuss potential plea bargains with the prosecuting attorney, as an alternative to exercising",
"-25.83751900207426"
],
[
"to stand trial and for competency to represent oneself out of a concern for the fairness of the trial process. Criminal trials \"must not only be fair, they must appear fair to all who observe them.\" \"No trial can be fair that leaves the defense to a man who is insane, unaided by counsel, and who by reason of his mental condition stands hopeless and alone before the court.\" For these reasons, the Constitution allows trial courts to \"take realistic account of the particular defendant's mental capacities by asking whether a defendant who seeks to conduct his",
"-25.820497834427442"
],
[
"having to get over the emotion and frustration of having to defend the guilty. Issues over the feeling of defending the guilty is something that people view differently.\nDisagreement in the federal appellate courts has arisen over the issue of whether a defendant's sentence may be increased because they lied in order to become eligible for a court-appointed attorney.",
"-25.817163438012358"
],
[
"that negates potential charges by the prosecutor. Criminal defense lawyers in the United States who are employed by governmental entities such as counties, state governments, and the federal government are often referred to as public defenders or court-appointed attorneys.\nA considerable aspect of this work requires the US criminal defense lawyer to have a clear understanding of the United States Constitution. Specifically, the Fourth Amendment protects against unlawful searches and seizures, while the Fifth and Sixth Amendments govern the right to remain silent so one does not become a witness against himself. All of the Amendments to the United States Constitution",
"-25.757433879072778"
],
[
"serious, prosecutors often can still bluff defense attorneys and their clients into pleading guilty to a lesser offense.\nAs a result, people who might have been acquitted because of lack of evidence, but also who are in fact truly innocent, will often plead guilty to the charge. Why? In a word, fear. And the more numerous and serious the charges, studies have shown, the greater the fear. That explains why prosecutors sometimes seem to file every charge imaginable against defendants.\nThe theoretical work based on the prisoner's dilemma is one reason why, in many countries, plea bargaining is forbidden. Often, precisely the",
"-25.74397197063081"
],
[
"Defense (legal) Strategies The defense in a homicide case may attempt to present evidence of the victim's character, to try to prove that the victim had a history of violence or of making threats of violence that suggest a violent character. The goal of presenting character evidence about the victim may be to make more plausible a claim of self-defense, or in the hope of accomplishing jury nullification in which a jury acquits a guilty defendant despite its belief that the defendant committed a criminal act. Costs Litigation is expensive and often may last for months or years. Parties",
"-25.719545196276158"
],
[
"offence to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. It establishes that the burden of proof of guilt in criminal cases is carried by the prosecutor, who must prove the accused's guilt beyond reasonable doubt. It is widely-acknowledged common law that the prosecution must prove guilt even when an affirmative defence is argued. A provision requiring an accused person to disprove the existence of a presumed fact, that fact being an important element of the offence in question (e.g. the presumption of supply) generally violates the presumption of innocence in section 25(c). Section 5 Section 5 provides that",
"-25.69926895122262"
],
[
"the defendant is not guilty or that (s)he is legally obligated to show the defense. In the latter case, this would be a violation of the 5th amendment to the United States Constitution. Also Rule 3.8 of the ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct requires prosecutors to \"make timely disclosure to the defense of all evidence or information that tends to negate the guilt of the accused or mitigates the offense.\" (This is not for all states.) This can result in a mistrial in the latter case and/or the dismissal of the prosecutor. United States Law In the United States,",
"-25.66886633244576"
],
[
"than the highest Eloquence of a Person speaking in a cause not their own.\nThis changed as more and more prosecutions became, for reasons of public policy, funded by the Crown, who employed professional counsel. An innate sense of fair-play prevailed therefore, permitting defence counsel to be present, albeit at the defendant’s own expense. Penurious defendants were obviously at a significant disadvantage. In the United States The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides:\nIn all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right…to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.\nThe assistance of counsel clause includes, as relevant here, five",
"-25.579993905092124"
],
[
"to either the bench or the jury. Prosecutors generally suggest advisory sentencing guidelines, but the sentence remains at the court's discretion to decide, to increase or reduce as it sees fit. In addition, prosecutors have several administrative duties.\nProsecutors are considered magistrates under French law, as in most civil law countries. While the defense and the plaintiff are both represented by common lawyers, who sit (on chairs) on the courtroom floor, the prosecutor sits on a platform as the judge does, although he doesn't participate in deliberation. Judges and prosecutors are trained at the same school, and regard one other as",
"-25.48356836277526"
],
[
"might be said that it is a lawyer's manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.\nBy contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give a statement, this statement is not subject to cross-examination by the prosecutor and not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain his side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition. However, this is mainly because it is not the prosecutor but the judges who question the defendant.",
"-25.454419888556004"
],
[
"judges. Any lawyer can make a judge look bad. But a good lawyer playing by the rules, playing it straight makes a good case, and the judge is merely incidental, truly an impartial arbiter. A judge should just be there with a knowledge of the law and leave the lawyering to the lawyers.\" Memorial A memorial to Judge Mazzone on Deer Island in Boston Harbor (pictured above), near the Deer Island Waste Water Treatment Plant was dedicated on October 19, 2007.",
"-25.34742266596095"
],
[
"guilty or innocent of a crime, if the defence can persuade a jury that reasonable doubt exists over the credibility of a confession then the jury is likely to disregard the confession. If the defence can show that the confession was made under such duress that most people would make such a confession, then the jury is likely to question the confession's credibility. Usually the more duress that can be shown to have been used by law enforcement by the defence, the less weight most juries will place on confessions. In Britain partly to protect the individual against police brutality",
"-25.342764693079516"
],
[
"a defendant to plead guilty to a few. In the same way, they should never go ahead with a more serious charge just to encourage a defendant to plead guilty to a less serious one.\nalthough it adds that in some kinds of complex cases such as major fraud trials:\nThe over-riding duty of the prosecutor is ... to see that justice is done. The procedures must command public and judicial confidence. Many defendants in serious and complex fraud cases are represented by solicitors experienced in commercial litigation, including negotiation. This means that the defendant is usually protected from being put under",
"-25.31469273532275"
],
[
"writing: “You spend a lot of time as a criminal lawyer puzzling people together, making sense of their motives and figuring out how their lives’ circumstances led them down the wrong roads, or in some cases why nothing led to where they are but their own questionable selves. Watching trials also had a profound effect on how I perceived the nature of narrative authority in writing, and on my assumptions about truth itself. As a defense lawyer in any case, you have to view a crime from many perspectives – the defendant's, the victim's, the prosecutor's, the jurors’.",
"-25.312491376018443"
],
[
"puts herself through law school in order to defend her brother after a wrongful murder conviction.",
"-25.296442820195807"
],
[
"have the burden of proving that he or she acted in self-defense.\nInstead, the defendant in a criminal case only has a burden of production on the issue of self-defense. This means that a defendant who wishes to invoke the doctrine only needs to \"generate the issue\" by introducing some evidence that he or she acted in self-defense. If the defendant satisfies that burden of production and thus generates the issue, then it is the prosecution that has the burden of proving that the defendant did not act in self-defense. In other words, once the defendant satisfies his",
"-25.269236527150497"
],
[
"or prisoners, defendant or defendants, shall be defended by counsel, but not otherwise, it shall be the duty of the presiding judge, at the close of the case for the prosecution, to ask the counsel for each prisoner or defendant so defended by counsel whether he or they intend to adduce evidence; and in the event of none of them thereupon announcing his intention to adduce evidence, the counsel for the prosecution shall be allowed to address the jury a second time in support of his case, for the purpose of summing up the evidence against such prisoner or prisoners,",
"-25.196466932888143"
],
[
"those principles, and stated that a homicide, other than felony murder, is justified on the ground of self-defense if the following criteria are satisfied:\n(1) The accused must have had reasonable grounds to believe himself in apparent imminent or immediate danger of death or serious bodily harm from his assailant or potential assailant;\n(2) The accused must have in fact believed himself in this danger;\n(3) The accused claiming the right of self defense must not have been the aggressor or provoked the conflict;\n(4) The force used must have not been unreasonable and excessive, that is, the force must not have been more",
"-25.171735248703044"
],
[
"often used to describe a lawyer who is appointed by a court to represent a defendant who cannot afford to hire an attorney. More correctly, a public defender is a lawyer who works for a public defender's office, a government-funded agency that provides legal representation to indigent defendants. The court appoints the public defender's office to represent the defendant, and the office assigns a lawyer to the defendant's case. In the federal criminal court system and some states and counties, representation is through a publicly funded public defender office.\nOther courts may appoint private lawyers who have agreed to represent indigent",
"-25.101810951127845"
],
[
"at trial is qualified by the trial court's interest in preserving courtroom decorum and promoting the orderly presentation of evidence, questioning of witnesses, and advancement of legal argument. For the Court, it was \"common sense\" that a defendant's mental illness might impair his ability to accomplish these tasks—tasks that any lawyer must if he is to press his client's case effectively. \"A right of self-representation at trial will not affirm the dignity of a defendant who lacks the mental capacity to conduct his defense without the assistance of counsel.\" \nMoreover, the Court separated the standards for competency",
"-25.10150170509587"
],
[
"the intended view of the argument.\nInoculation and procatalepsis are both present in certain courtroom situations, as described in the Encyclopedia of Communication Theory. An attorney may set up their defense by disclaiming the negative views or classifications of the accused as untrue: \"The prosecutor will call Ms. Jones evil, a bad mother, and a poor member of society, but these labels are not true. I will prove to you their inaccuracy.\" When the prosecutor asserts an attack on Ms. Jones' character, the jury is already prepared and expecting to hear it and they may question or even discount these accusations.",
"-25.093894715108945"
],
[
"role of private prosecutors, often employed by prosecution associations, in serving the needs of crime victims in England. Radical libertarian theory holds that public prosecutors should not exist, but that crimes should instead be treated as civil torts. Murray Rothbard writes, \"In a libertarian world, there would be no crimes against an ill-defined 'society,' and therefore no such person as a 'district attorney' who decides on a charge and then presses those charges against an alleged criminal.\"",
"-25.079311504756333"
],
[
"crime is mind-numbing in the extreme.\" He said he understood that the standard needed to be high to avoid endless appeals, but that courts were too unwilling to rehear cases after the conviction. He also said that he did not necessarily think that the agreement of an attorney general and prosecutors should automatically lead to an exoneration, but that \nIf there's good enough reason for everybody to agree, then you'd think your chances of getting over the legal hurdles would be pretty good. He added, \"It needs to be a high bar, but the process by which it's handled and",
"-25.06999541784171"
],
[
"potentially strengthen the story constructed by the lawyer, the opposite may occur where wh-questions are targeted to allow for elaboration (Olsson, Luchjenborers, 2013).\nLawyers employs specific tactics for both themselves and their witnesses to come off as more or less truthful to the jury and the people of the courtroom. For example, the lawyer may refer to the witness by their first name or a nickname to humanize the witness, or they may speak using slang in order to create less social distance between himself and the courtroom. The lawyer may also avoid using slang, and instead use complicated law terminology",
"-25.06551651567861"
],
[
"belief of immediate danger. If an injury was done by a defendant in justifiable self-defense, he can neither be punished criminally nor held responsible for damages in a civil action. ... One who seeks to justify an assault on the ground that he acted in self-defense must show that he used no more force than the exigency reasonably demanded. The belief of a defendant in an action for assault that the plaintiff intended to do him bodily harm cannot support a plea of self-defense unless it was such a belief as a person of average prudence would",
"-25.051432328647934"
],
[
"of low-value criminal damage, may be tried either summarily (by magistrates) or by judge and jury in the Crown Court. If the magistrates consider that an either way offence is too serious for them to deal with, they may \"decline jurisdiction\" which means that the defendant will have to appear in the Crown Court. Conversely, even if the magistrates accept jurisdiction, an adult defendant has a right to compel a jury trial. Defendants under eighteen years of age do not have this right and will be tried in a youth court (similar to a magistrates' court) unless the case is",
"-25.048076783423312"
],
[
"failing to disclose all prior convictions and arrests, his sentence may be increased for obstruction of justice and failure to accept responsibility, even if the undisclosed information has no effect on his criminal history score. Since some defendants may not remember all such prior history, some defense attorneys conduct their own investigations. Some courts have ruled that a defendant waives his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination when he pleads guilty. It remains to be seen exactly how this applies to presentence investigation interviews, but it appears likely that a defendant who refuses to talk about his criminal history will jeopardize",
"-25.04715596162714"
],
[
"it, but that before the defendant relinquishes his right to counsel the trial judge must ensure that the defendant understands the \"dangers and disadvantages\" of representing himself. With the decision in Godinez v. Moran, 509 U.S. 389 (1993), the Court held that a defendant may plead guilty (and thereby waive both his right to counsel and his right to represent himself) if he is competent to stand trial. Until Edwards, however, it remained an open question whether a criminal defendant could be simultaneously competent to stand trial and yet not competent to represent himself. The Court answered that",
"-25.034628796092875"
],
[
"law was scheduled to take effect in 2009.\nThe defendant is presumed innocent. The Constitution provides defendants with the right not to be compelled to testify against themselves as well as to free and private access to counsel; however, the Government contended that the right to consult with attorneys is not absolute and can be restricted if such restriction is compatible with the spirit of the Constitution. Access sometimes was abridged in practice; for example, the law allows prosecutors to control access to counsel before indictment, and there were allegations of coerced confessions. Defendants are protected from the retroactive application of",
"-25.025275175255956"
],
[
"defence counsel are not allowed to obtain a victim's medical, psychiatric or therapeutic records . The prohibition was found to be constitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada even though it limited the accused ability to provide a full answer and defence; see R. v Mills.\nAn accused may hire a private investigator to investigate and harass a victim. For example, according to the complaint in the civil lawsuit against Penn State University, Nate Parker hired a private investigator to investigate and harass an 18-year-old student. The student alleged she was raped by Parker and another student.",
"-25.01038583792979"
],
[
"There is no presumption of innocence; there is trial by jury; trials are open. Defendants have the right to an attorney, and are provided with one if they cannot afford to pay. This and other rights are generally respected in practice, but defendants' right to see government evidence is not. In rural villages, chiefs or elders are empowered to try minor cases. \nA young British human-rights volunteer in Togo describes attending a trial at which he was pressed into service as a translator. Rights of persons in prison Prison guards beat inmates, also routinely and with impunity. Prisons",
"-24.99195604736451"
],
[
"defendant, and severity of the impact of the actions (if guilty) on the plaintiff or victim. Lawyers must be held to rather specific ethical codes, e.g. rules of civil procedure, to ensure that their tactics do not cause an undue burden on larger society, e.g. freeing defendants who have admitted that they are not only guilty but intend to offend again. Lawyers differ on whether the process should be seen as strictly adversarial, in order to ensure they retain the trust of clients and the overall process retains the trust of society, or whether the ethics of the larger society",
"-24.939085777965374"
],
[
"law was challenged on the grounds that it hampers a defendant's ability to present a defence. The law was found to be constitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada: see R v Darrach. Victim representation In Canadian criminal proceedings, the Crown prosecutor does not act on behalf of the victim and is not the victim's lawyer.\n29. Who represents the victim during the trial? Should I get a lawyer to ensure that my rights are met during the trial?\n\nCrown counsel is not and can never function as the victim's lawyer. Although the Crown appears to be representing the interests of",
"-24.870884447154822"
],
[
"counsel and to call defense witnesses in the federal and some provincial courts that have an accusatory system of criminal justice. If needed, a public defender is provided at public expense when defendants face serious criminal charges. During the investigative stage, defendants can submit questions in writing to the investigating judge. A panel of judges decides guilt or innocence. Federal and provincial courts continued the transition to trials with oral arguments in criminal cases, replacing the old system of written submissions. Although the 1994 constitution provides for trial by jury, implementing legislation had not been passed by year's end. In",
"-24.85330598888686"
],
[
"in cases concerning criminality. The prosecutor decides on whether to bring charges in a case, and he or she appears in court. In all criminal cases, the prosecutors make decisions concerning arrests and charges on behalf of the public, and are the only public officials who can make such decisions - there is a possibility, rarely used, for private individuals to present a private prosecution (enskilt åtal) as well. (The exception is cases concerning crimes against the freedom of the press, for which the Chancellor of Justice acts as prosecutor.) In court, the prosecutor is not necessarily in an adversarial",
"-24.839054381052847"
],
[
"I think the guilt must be individualized, therefore, I’m not a lawyer myself, but I’d like to see some lawyers work to make sure we identify all the possibilities or looked for all the possibilities for setting up a special tribunal that can go after of those perpetrators of terrible crimes. I don’t think one can think of something more discrediting than a peacekeeper acting sexual abuse -- this is something which is really shameful and terribly destroys the UN image. I think this is one of the first tasks, and it’s a moral task, that we need to get",
"-24.817467894172296"
],
[
"his felony status to act as a defense to criminal liability. Under the Model Penal Code, a mistake of criminal law, like one's felony status, is not normally allowed as a defense. Instead the court treated Bray's mistake about his felony status, a grading element in the statute under which he was charged, as a mistake of fact that was an appropriate defense.",
"-24.812681179784704"
],
[
"innocence or guilt, there is a separate trial (after one is convicted) that determines the punishment(s) for the criminal charges committed. Rights when facing criminal charges In the United States, people facing criminal charges in any situation are given rights by the Constitution. These rights include things like the right to remain silent, habeas corpus, and the right to an attorney. It is important for someone who faces criminal charges to know their rights so they can take the proper action to exercise their rights. Among those rights are a criminal suspect's Miranda Rights which are read to a suspect",
"-24.790208954480477"
],
[
"juries, because they entail arguing both that the defendant did and did not commit the crime alleged. An English perspective Much of U.S. criminal law is derived from the English common law, whose standard analysis is that (with the exception of strict liability offenses) a crime is made up of two parts: (i) the guilty act (actus reus) (ii) and the guilty intention (mens rea). A court examines the issues in sequence since there is little point in establishing intent if the accused did not commit the act. The court will convict only if the actus and the",
"-24.785069407123956"
],
[
"Standby counsel Standby counsel or advisory counsel refers to a lawyer who assists a client who has invoked his right to self-representation. If the client becomes disruptive or otherwise unable to conduct his own defense, the judge may order the standby counsel to take over the defense. Standby counsel also remains available during the trial for consultation. Standby counsel was ruled to be not a violation of the defendant right to self-representation in McKaskle v. Wiggins, 465 U.S. 168 (1984).\nJack Kevorkian had standby counsel in his fifth trial.",
"-24.772837106705992"
],
[
"7 in 1948 and 3 in 1977 before total abolition in 1988. Stand by The prosecution and judge, but not the defence, have the right to prevent a juror from serving by asking them to \"stand by\". However, prosecutors are instructed to invoke this right sparingly as the quality of the jury is primarily the responsibility of the court officer. The right should only be invoked in cases of national security or terrorism, in which case the personal authority of the Attorney General is needed, or where a juror is \"obviously unsuitable\", and the defence agree. Challenge to the array",
"-24.743019505534903"
],
[
"is in the interest of both suspects to confess and testify against the other suspect, irrespective of the innocence of the accused. Arguably, the worst case is when only one party is guilty: here, the innocent one has no incentive to confess, while the guilty one has a strong incentive to confess and give testimony (including false testimony) against the innocent.\nA 2009 study by the European Association of Law and Economics observed that innocent defendants are consistently more likely than guilty defendants to reject otherwise-favorable pleas proposals, even when theoretically disadvantageous to do so, because of perceived unfairness, and would",
"-24.738945068937028"
],
[
"the course of justice.\nSection 51 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 includes the offences of intimidating a witness and taking revenge on a witness. By prosecutors A current source of controversy is the lack of penalties for prosecutors who commit witness tampering or other forms of prosecutorial misconduct. In the United States, prosecutors have full immunity from civil liability regardless of how egregious their actions may be. However, prosecutors do not have immunity from criminal proceedings and can be professionally censured, but studies demonstrate that this rarely happens.\nIn March 2003, the U.S. Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals,",
"-24.713065564166754"
],
[
"represented by an attorney, and if the accused cannot afford a private attorney, one is assigned to them from the Public Defense, a unit of the Ministry of Justice. Prosecutions are handled by the State Attorney's Office, which consists of a central bureau and eight regional offices.\nEven if the suspect confesses to his or her crime and pleads guilty at their court arraignment, they will still receive a trial to determine the penalty to be imposed upon them. Following a verdict, the defense or prosecution has the right to appeal to a higher court. Israeli law also provides for the",
"-24.701367905421648"
],
[
"voluntarily. Thus, the Miranda right to counsel is not offense specific, for once a suspect has invoked the protections of Miranda, the police may not approach him again at all.\nA criminal defendant may give up either or both of these rights, of course, but the standards for doing so are quite different. \"One might be quite willing to speak to the police without counsel present concerning many matters, but not the matter under prosecution. It can be said, perhaps, that is it likely that one who has asked for counsel's assistance in defending against a prosecution would want counsel present",
"-24.687435600964818"
],
[
"threat, and there is no defense if \"a sober person of reasonable firmness, sharing the characteristics of the accused\" would have responded differently. Age, pregnancy, physical disability, mental illness, sexuality have been considered, although basic intelligence has been rejected as a criterion. \nThe accused must not have foregone some safe avenue of escape. The duress must have been an order to do something specific, so that one cannot be threatened with harm to repay money and then choose to rob a bank to repay it. If one puts themselves in a position where they could be threatened, duress may not",
"-24.675572286592796"
],
[
"lawyer jokes that treat ‘lawyer’ and ‘liar’ as synonymous, lawyers have a duty to not mislead or misrepresent.” The article concludes:\n“Those who criticise the Church in relation to redress are obviously free to do so … But those criticisms should be based on facts, not just for fair treatment of the Church, but because it does survivors no favours if – even when significant progress on redress is made, as happened this week – they are told by those supposed to be their ‘advocates’ that once again they should be disappointed.”",
"-24.65443614315882"
],
[
"Australia Council, Deakin University, and the University of Tasmania. As a lawyer, Littlemore has spoken publicly about how he feels it is a professional challenge to knowingly get the guilty acquitted at trial. In an interview in October 1995 on Channel 7 when asked by host Andrew Denton if he could defend \"someone who you yourself believe not to be innocent\", Littlemore's response was \"Well, they're the best cases. I mean, you really feel you've done something when you get the guilty off. Anyone can get an innocent person off. I mean, they shouldn't be on trial. But the guilty",
"-24.643768778449157"
],
[
"States Bill of Rights. The Amendment says that \"In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right ... to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence\". However, that did not necessarily mean that counsel had to be provided by the state.\nIn the case of Powell v. Alabama in 1932, the US Supreme Court held that the court must provide counsel to defendants in capital trials, with capital punishment being a possible sentence, if the defendants were too poor to afford their own counsel. In Johnson v. Zerbst (1938), the Supreme Court expanded that principle to cover all federal trials,",
"-24.615635548929276"
],
[
"defendant due process. This varies a great deal from federal law, which generally has stricter guidelines for waiving the right to counsel. An analogous area of criminal law is the circumstances under which a criminal defendant can waive the right to trial. Under federal law, the defendant can only waive his or her right to trial if it is clear that the defendant understands the \"charges, the consequences of the various pleas, and the availability of counsel\". State laws on the subject are often not as strict, making it easier for prosecutors to obtain a defendant's waiver of the right",
"-24.61198758469982"
],
[
"are guaranteed to the criminal accused against the states via the Fourteenth Amendment. Thus, a criminal defense lawyer must understand each of these rights. Initial work on any criminal case involves review of the charges and the claimed facts, and analysis of constitutional violations, the prima facie burden of the prosecution, defenses, and affirmative defenses; as well as potential sentence and sentencing issues. Early stages of a criminal case may involve a grand jury or preliminary hearing to determine if there exists probable cause for the case to continue. A violation of the Fourth or Fifth Amendment, or",
"-24.57103187829489"
],
[
"it is to use every legitimate means to bring about a just one.\n \nProsecutors in some jurisdictions have the discretion to not pursue criminal charges, even when there is probable cause, if they determine that there is no reasonable likelihood of conviction. Prosecutors may dismiss charges in this situation by seeking a voluntary dismissal or nolle prosequi. \nIn Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the Commonwealth. In California, Colorado, Illinois, Michigan, and New York, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the People. In the remaining states, criminal prosecutions are",
"-24.566384437843226"
],
[
"a criminal act—notitia criminis—or receive a bill of complaint. They can direct investigations or conduct them through orders and directives given to (judicial) police detectives, who can make their own parallel investigations in coordination with the Prosecutor. If enough evidence has been gathered in order to proceed, the prosecution is compulsory and it must move from preliminary investigations to initiate trial proceedings. At trial, the prosecuting attorney has to handle the prosecution but is prohibited from withholding exculpatory evidence, for they have to promote justice, which means that they have the duty of not only trying criminal cases, but, to",
"-24.564292666155666"
],
[
"use. For example, whether a witness's statement should be barred because it was hearsay is an extremely complicated issue that no layman could readily confront, and such a situation only arose in the middle of a trial.\nAs a second point, Fortas presented during oral argument that it was widely accepted in the legal community, that the first thing any reputable lawyer does when he is accused of a crime is to hire an attorney. In providing an example, Fortas presented the justices with the fact that when Clarence Darrow, who was widely known as the greatest criminal attorney in the",
"-24.550657866042457"
],
[
"whether the proceeding is labeled as civil, criminal, or administrative, if a defendant faces a loss of liberty, she or he is entitled to appointed counsel if indigent. Anne Pasqua, et al. v. Hon. Gerald J. Council, et al., 186 N.J. 127 (2006) (March 2006). Application to state offenses Until 1963, the right to counsel only applied to criminal defendants accused of federal crimes. However, in Gideon v. Wainwright, the Supreme Court held that the right to counsel also applied to state criminal defendants.",
"-24.545964858902153"
],
[
"self-defense, \"the jury should be instructed that the burden is also the State's to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that defendant knew he could have retreated with complete safety, and that if a reasonable doubt upon that question should exist, the issue of retreat must be resolved in defendant's favor.\"\nUpon finding a duty to retreat in New Jersey and explaining the underlying principles, the Court held that the duty arises in cases involving homicides, assault with intent to kill, and atrocious assault and battery—the charge at issue in Abbott.\nAfter this discussion of the law, the Court held that the jury",
"-24.52411713078618"
],
[
"and that everything such person says may be used against that person in a criminal proceedings. Witnesses, victims and persons whose property rights has been affected by criminal proceedings has a right not to incriminate oneself and his or her relatives and not to give any information that is directly or indirectly self-incriminating or may incriminate such persons` relatives. Refusal to testify or answer all or any questions on the basis of right against self-incrimination cannot be used against such person in any way or be used as evidence of guilt. No judge, prosecutor, investigator or any other public body",
"-24.51297413604334"
],
[
"Protection of Property and Persons Act, gave Jones immunity for the killing of her boyfriend. The law protects the actions of a person who uses deadly force and \"who is not engaged in an unlawful activity and who is attacked in another place where he has a right to be\"; prosecutors had argued that the phrase \"another place\" should not include a home in which the attacker resided, but Nicholson disagreed, stating in his ruling that prosecutors' reading of the law would create a \"nonsensical result\" in which a person could defend him- or herself against an intimate partner's attack",
"-24.491553112398833"
],
[
"he can only give his client half of a defense. This, of necessity, involves telling his attorney everything remotely connected with the crime.\"\nThe prosecution appealed. The appeals court confirmed that the claims should be dismissed, but expressed concern about a limitless attorney-client privilege. It noted that attorneys must protect their clients, but must also \"observe basic human standards of decency.\" Ethics complaints One of the victims' parents filed ethics complaints against Armani and Belge with New York State Bar Association disciplinary officials. \nThe New York State Bar Association Committee on Professional Ethics found that the attorneys acted ethically by",
"-24.464876428915886"
],
[
"I shall never, under any pretext, pervert the law nor promote injustice because of kinship, relationship, friendship, envy, hatred or fear, or for the sake of gifts or presents or other reasons, nor shall I find an innocent person guilty or a guilty person innocent. Furthermore, I shall not, before pronouncing a judgment or thereafter, reveal to the parties or to anyone else anything about the deliberations that the Court has held behind closed doors. All of this I wish to and shall fulfil faithfully, honestly and as an earnest judge, without deceit and intrigue, so help me God, in",
"-24.45831821410684"
],
[
"criminal cases, will also decide on any civil damages sought by a victim who is a civil party to the case. However, any civil action will only be heard after the accused is sentenced. Regarding the courts of assizes, only the three judges will decide on a civil action without the jury. The civil parties may first make their demands, and the defense may then argue there is no cause for damages or the damages sought by the civil parties are too high. The defense may not contest the facts for which the convict has been sentenced. The court will",
"-24.440625061295577"
],
[
"with no promise of the ultimate outcome concerning guilt or punishment. We must trust the accused to make such an important decision for himself. The military provides an accused facing court-martial with a qualified defense attorney. Together, they are in the best position to properly weigh the impact his decision, and the resulting conviction, will have upon himself and his family,\" writes Walburn. He emphasizes that when allowing these pleas, \"trial counsel should establish as strong a factual basis as possible\", in order to minimize the possible negative outcomes to \"the public's perception of the administration of justice within the",
"-24.433367511432152"
],
[
"without their consent, and they have the power to halt prosecutions generally. Criminal prosecutions are the responsibility of the Crown Prosecution Service, headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions. The Attorney General may appeal cases to the higher courts where, although the particular case is settled, there may be a point of law of public importance at issue.\nThe Attorney General has public interest functions, being, for example, the trustee of default where a sole trustee has died, and can also take cases to the Supreme Court where points of general legal importance need to be settled.\nThe Attorney General's deputy is",
"-24.40008891680918"
],
[
"these laws, it is clear that the accused has the very basic right to defense him/herself, seek legal advice and judicial remedies when the accused is facing any criminal charges, apprehension and imprisonment. However, there is one condition: the accused must know what charges he is facing before s/he can take any action. Hence, the prosecutor and the court must inform the accused all the information and ensure that the accused knows and understands the charges against him/her. This principle is further recognised under Section 11(2)(a) of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance:\n(2) In the determination of any",
"-24.39882244777982"
],
[
"individual realizes that instead of going up against a man whom he believes to be guilty, he has to go up against a strong corporation composed of the medical men of the country, with a fund at their disposal to fight such cases, I think he will feel that an injustice is being done. There was also concern about recruiting physicians to support a plaintiff's case in court.\nConsistent Core Values Dr Powell often reiterated the value: Our organization does not consist in the fights we have put up or in the open success we have had but rather in the",
"-24.39145967818331"
],
[
"acquitted the offence of which the accused is so acquitted must be specified along with a direction that the accused be set at liberty. Compensation and costs The functions of a civil court may be performed by a criminal court by virtue of Section 357, 358 and 359. This has been done to provide just, speedy and less expensive redress to the victim. The court is empowered to levy a fine from the offender. Such fine may, wholly or in part, be used for the purpose of compensating the victim as per the amendment of 2009. A new section 357A",
"-24.390794231556356"
],
[
"the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.\nNo one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.\nArticle 12 \nNo one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence,",
"-24.378442365908995"
],
[
"did the defense lawyer would usually simply answer questions about how the trial would proceed and refrain from any legal advice. In at least one documented case (the trial of the \"White Rose\" conspirators), the defense lawyer assigned to Sophie Scholl chastised her the day before the trial, stating that she would pay for her crimes.\nThe People's Court proceedings began when the accused were led to a prisoner's dock under armed police escort. The presiding judge would read the charges and then call the accused forward for \"examination\". Although the court had a prosecutor, it was usually the judge who",
"-24.35282073749113"
],
[
"might claim self-defense or duress in order to present evidence about an abusive relationship that nonetheless did not present an imminent mortal danger to the defendant.\nAn entrapment defense opens the door to presenting evidence about the behavior of police and informants.\nIt is reversible error for a trial court to refuse a jury instruction on a theory of defense after a defendant makes a threshold showing as to each element of the defense.",
"-24.32636586256558"
],
[
"in court alone as he was too poor to afford counsel, whereupon the following conversation took place:\nThe COURT: Mr. Gideon, I am sorry, but I cannot appoint counsel to represent you in this case. Under the laws of the State of Florida, the only time the court can appoint counsel to represent a defendant is when that person is charged with a capital offense. I am sorry, but I will have to deny your request to appoint counsel to defend you in this case.\nGIDEON: The United States Supreme Court says I am entitled to be represented",
"-24.32057942089159"
],
[
"dismiss the witness's own charges in exchange for her testimony; must not destroy potentially useful evidence in bad faith; and must not use false testimony to secure a conviction. Failure to follow these rules may result in a finding of prosecutorial misconduct, although a 2013 investigation found that actual discipline for prosecutorial misconduct was lacking.\n\nProsecutors are also tasked with seeking justice in their prosecutions. \"The United States Attorney,\" explained the U.S. Supreme Court, \nis the representative not of an ordinary party to a controversy, but of a sovereignty whose obligation to govern impartially is as compelling as its obligation to",
"-24.301918824901804"
],
[
"[Y]ou have to wonder if you're a juror sitting on this case, why was this prosecution brought in the first place? ... I mean, there are just huge, huge holes in the prosecution's case.\" Criminal defense attorney Diana Tennis agreed, saying in part: \"[W]e have a rule of law, we have a very high burden in criminal cases for a reason, no matter what the color of any party and in the USA you don't get convicted typically on evidence that is not better than this.\"\nAttorney and former Court TV anchor Jami Floyd told BET, \"It is clear that George",
"-24.284511028788984"
],
[
"reasonable individual would feel free to leave. Minor crimes and infractions When there exists probable cause to believe that a person has committed a minor crime, such as petty theft, driving on a suspended license, or disturbing the peace, law enforcement agents typically issue the individual a citation but do not otherwise detain them. The person must then appear in court on the date provided on the citation. Prior to the court date, the prosecution will decide whether to file formal criminal charges against the individual. When the accused appears in court, they will be advised if formal criminal",
"-24.272245856001973"
],
[
"to public uses, without his own consent, or that of his legal representatives: Nor can any man who is conscientiously scrupulous of bearing arms, be justly compelled thereto, if he will pay such equivalent, nor are the people bound by any laws, but such as they have in like manner assented to, for their common good.\nIX. That in all prosecutions for criminal offenses, a man hath a right to be heard by himself and his council [counsel], to demand the cause and nature of his accusation, to be confronted with the witnesses, to call for evidence in his favour, and",
"-24.269063597079366"
],
[
"character that one would be willing to rely and act upon it without hesitation in the most important of one's own affairs. However, it does not mean an absolute certainty. The standard that must be met by the prosecution's evidence in a criminal prosecution is that no other logical explanation can be derived from the facts except that the defendant committed the crime, thereby overcoming the presumption that a person is innocent unless and until proven guilty.\nIf the trier of fact has no doubt as to the defendant's guilt, or if their only doubts are unreasonable doubts, then the prosecutor",
"-24.24548485520063"
]
] |
jatvv | The history of Canada | [
"Technically, we are 'constitutionally independent', but we are not a republic. Technically, we are a 'Dominion'. This means we are self-governing and can make up our own minds regarding national and international issues and how we involve ourselves. Prior to this, we basically had to do whatever the crown told us. (ie. Go to War.) It also often made Canadians second-class citizens in the eyes of the English (ie. 'from the Colonies'). Currently, our Head of State is the Queen (or Reigning Monarch), represented by a Governor-General, and his/her Lieutenant (Pronounced 'Leftenant') Governors, one for each Province/Territory. The GG's role is... nominal at best, but is maintained for the sake of show and tradition. In reality we are government by Federal Provincial and Municipal (where there are some) governments. The head of the Federal Government is the Prime Minister, who is elected from within whichever party has the most seats (not always the majority of seats, though presently, the current government is made up of a Conservative Majority). The provincial governments are similar, with both federal and provincial govts. made up of multiple parties which generally boil down to: Liberals, Conservatives, NDP (Moderates... ish), Greens, and Bloc Quebecois (think ethno-centrists whose platform is largely based on separation of Quebec and Canada). Provincial heads of government are 'Premiers'. Municipal governments are based on towns, counties or both, depending on how the province is broken down. Federal law trumps Provincial which trumps Municipal. We elect our government by party, not leader (though its often pretty clear who the leader is going to be), and seem to do it very frequently. That said, we are still a commonwealth country and enjoy certain benefits and relationships as a result. As for the broader history of Canada, its a rich tapestry woven from many different cultures, though predominantly the Scottish, English and French (see Quebecois and Acadian, for a start), as well as, obviously, many, many Native ethnicities. Much of Canada was opened up by the fur trade, and the associated industries that sprang off them. Wiki The North West Company and/or the Hudson's Bay Company (they eventually merged) - The HBC is the world's oldest corporation, and at one time basically owned the majority of Canada. Their industry essentially recruited natives to provide animal furs in exchange (often at outrageous and exploitative rates) for Western and/or manufactured goods like linen, knives, axes, tools, guns, sugar, flour, etc. Western explorers also pushed back the boundaries of the frontier by exploring Canada via waterways; travelling in the native fashion with canoes and portaging where they could not. Eventually this was fleshed out completely by the railroad, which ultimately spanned Canada East to West, and opened up additional resources, such as timber, Gold (and other minerals) and linked the two sides of Canada. Traditionally, this railroad and its many, many assets were owned by Canada Pacific Railway, which, like the HBC, is now, sadly, a shadow of its former glory, though that glory can still be seen in the hotels they erected along the way, such as Chateau Lac Louise in Alberta, the Chateau Laurier in Ottawa, and a few others I dont remember. In terms of military history, Canada has an excellent war museum, in Ottawa, which is worth visiting and sums it up nicely. In brief, Canadian warfare has (chronologically) included a variety of conflicts with the natives, the French - who had originally colonized much of Canada but were essentially kicked out by the British, especially at such battles as the Plains of Abraham and Louisbourg. Many of the French were exiled back to France (despite being multiple-generation 'Canadians'.) others were resettled, giving rise to pocket communities like the Acadians in Nova Scotia. Canadians also fought in a variety of other international wars, including in Russia during the revolution there (though IIRC they didnt do too much), the Boer War in South Africa, WW1 and WW2. In WW1 they accomplished incredible things at terrible costs; more Canadians died in WWI than WWII. For highlights, look up Vimy Ridge (an entrenched fortification held by the Germans that had held off (and slaughtered) everyone else for years, that the Canadians essentially took in a day, by using their heads), Passchendaele and many, many others. In WWII Canadians fought alongside the British from the outset, in Africa, and later in Italy, France and Holland - which they later liberated. Most Americans have heard of the Normandy landings; what most dont know is that the landings took place on five separate beachheads. The Americans took one two(Omaha and Utah) the British, with the Free French, took two (Sword and Gold), and the Canadians took the Fifth (Juno) and most heavily defended. We also burned down the White House once. **edit1 - adding more detail**",
"Canada was initially settled by France and later Britain invaded and they took that shit but the French population stayed and kept their delicious poutine. Later some of the Southern British colonies rebelled against the King but the Northern colonies chose not to. A hundred years after that Southern rebellion the Northern colonies were granted their independence peacefully because we're cool like that.",
"Oh, hey! Fur! About 300 years later... Oh, hey! Fur! Canada.",
"My own recollection of the history is quite sporadic, so I'll just mention some of the things that are mildly interesting/stand out. We spent a lot of time in history class talking about the difficulties of settling in the provinces and suchlike. * In the early days, when we were a french colony, the King of France wanted his colonies to flourish, so he sent over lowborn girls named the filles du roi (\"king's daughters) to marry colonials and create families. * [Samuel de Champlain]( URL_0 ) is known as the \"Father of New France\" and is the founder of Quebec City. * The Coureurs-du-bois (Runners of the woods) were French trappers who fueled the fur trade. They learned the languages of the Aboriginals, often married them, and spent their lives in the woods trapping game and taking it back to outposts to be sold. * Jesuit Priests from France came over to convert the Aboriginals to Christianity. * Agriculture under French rule was pretty much Feudal; A \"seigneur\", or lord got the majority of your crops as payment for letting you farm the land. * [Louis Riel]( URL_2 ) is something of a folk hero for the Metis People, and was hanged for treason. The Metis are Part French, part Aboriginal, likely descendants of the runners of the woods as mentioned previously (The french and the aboriginals had a better relationship with each other than the brits, although this might be a matter of discussion) * Britain and France eventually squared off against one another over Canada in the [Seven Years' war]( URL_1 ). The General for the British side was General James Wolfe. The General for the French side was the Marquis de Montcalm. They both lost their lives in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The British won. * In the war of 1812, we sided with the British against the Americans. This is the war in which we burned down the white house, which later had to be rebuilt. Anyone care to tell me which side the french fought on? * Nowadays, the desire to separate from Canada has subsided in Quebec, as evinced by the fact that the Bloc Quebecois won a pitiful one seat in the last election. Although rumour has it that some right wing nutjobs in Alberta are also looking to separate... * When we talk about the different provinces and territories, we like to separate them into broad groups. Like the Prairie provinces are made up of the three central provinces: Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Then you have the Maritimes, which are New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. You have the three Territories, which are the North West Territories, the Yukon (where the gold rush happened) and Nunavut (a newly formed territory, the primary purpose being to give those regions more political representation. I think that's the reason, feel free to correct me on that). Ontario and Quebec are big enough to merit being on their own. And British Columbia is the pothead province, apparently. Does anyone know how the french revolution affected Candadian governance, if at all? Or had the governance of the country passed to Britain by then?"
] | [
[
"Canadian Centenary Series The Canadian Centenary Series is a nineteen-volume history of Canada published between 1963 and 1987 as an extended Canadian Centennial project. The collection resulted from the initiative of two of Canada's leading 20th century historians, W. L. Morton and D. G. Creighton. Morton served as the initial executive editor, and Creighton served as the advisory editor. The editors approached leading Canadian historians to write the individual volumes. The series was published by the Canadian publishing house, McClelland & Stewart.\nOne of the volumes, Canada 1922–1939: Decades of Discord by John Herd Thompson and Alan Seager, was short-listed",
"-33.417011180426925"
],
[
"anniversary of confederation approaching, Moore published Three Weeks in Quebec City: The Meeting that Made Canada, a closely detailed account of the Quebec Conference of 1864. At Quebec the essence of the Canadian constitution—and Canadian nationhood—was negotiated and laid out in 72 Resolutions. These became the basis of the British North America Act 1867 and remain central to Canada's constitution. Three Weeks ranges from the parties, dinners, and flirtations surrounding the conference to close analysis of the constitutional decisions made, the reasons for them, and who drove them. During 2017 Moore visited universities across the country to deliver his Canada",
"-32.03333821479464"
],
[
"Saskatchewanian historian. It was published in both English and French.\nUpper Canada: The Formative Years 1784-1841, by Gerald M. Craig, was the first to be published.\nLower Canada, 1791-1840: Social Change and Nationalism, by Fernand Ouellet.\nThe Atlantic Provinces: The Emergence of Colonial Society, 1712-1857, by William Stewart MacNutt.\nThe Union of the Canadas: The Growth of Canadian Institutions, 1841-1857 by J. M. S. Careless.\nThe Fur Trade and the Northwest to 1857, the only one written by an non-Canadian. Edwin Ernest Rich was an English historian who specialized in the economic history of the British Empire.\nThe Critical Years: The Union",
"-31.620185230713105"
],
[
"The Council of Canadians History The Council of Canadians was founded in 1985 in the lead up to the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement and North American Free Trade Agreement. The Council later expanded its focus to include campaigns on health care, water, public pensions, corporate influence, and energy.\nThe Council was created by Mel Hurtig. The founding members included Maude Barlow, Margaret Atwood, David Suzuki, Farley Mowat, Pierre Berton, Margaret Laurence, several politicians and other prominent Canadians. \nIn 2012, $202,000 was transferred from the Council of Canadians to the Maude Barlow Social Justice Fund Account.\nThe Council publishes a magazine called",
"-31.496855437551858"
],
[
"C. Newman defined the modern \"Canadian Establishment\" in his 1975 book The Canadian Establishment. It catalogued the richest individuals and families living in Canada at the time. All of the specific people he identified were prominent business leaders, especially in the media and in public transit. Newman reports that several of these old families have maintained their importance into the 21st century.\nAccording to Anglo-American journalist Peter Brimelow, Newman's establishment was overshadowed by a new class. His book The Patriot Game \"makes a swinging attack on the political, bureaucratic, and academic establishment whose entire well-being rests on the promotion of Canadian",
"-31.1977646171581"
],
[
"The Tenth Decade Premise The series presented Canada's political history between 1957 and 1967, or the tenth decade since the nation's Confederation. John Diefenbaker of the Progressive Conservative party became Prime Minister in the 1957 election. He was defeated by Lester B. Pearson and his Liberal party in 1963. The series concentrated on the lives and careers of both Diefenbaker and Pearson, supported by interview and archival footage.\nThe music score was composed by Larry Crosley and performed by several orchestras which were not credited in the series, including the Toronto Symphony Orchestra. Scheduling This hour-long series was broadcast on Wednesdays",
"-31.192400409956463"
],
[
"in office was Canada’s Golden Age and without the exception of Borden every leader who came after Macdonald had allowed Canada to deteriorate. Thus for Creighton, Canadian history after 1891 was for the most part the story of missed opportunities, thwarted ambition, and hopes scattered as the dream that was Canada was slowly allowed to unravel.\nThrough Creighton normally tried to maintain a formal and cold pose, he was well known for his outspoken and passionate nature. His eruptions of rage led his publisher John Gray to call him \"the terrible-tempered Mr. Bang\". Creighton often engaged in feuds with historians whose",
"-31.1751440174412"
],
[
"Ian McKay (historian) Ian McKay (born 1953) \"is one of Canada's most prolific and well-respected historians\" and Chair of the L.R. Wilson Institute for Canadian History at McMaster University. He was formerly a professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, where he taught from 1988-2015. During his time at Queen's, he supervised or co-supervised over 33 doctoral theses and 49 master's theses and cognate essays. His primary interests are Canadian cultural and political history, the economic and social history of Atlantic Canada, historical memory and tourism, and the history of liberalism, both in its Canadian and transnational aspects.",
"-30.922668814804638"
],
[
"of British North America, 1857-1873 by William Lewis Morton, the first executive editor of the series.\nThe Opening of the Canadian North, 1870-1914 by Morris Zaslow. It was originally planned as a single volume covering the century from 1867 to 1967, but grew too large for one volume and was split into two.\nCanada 1874-1896: Arduous Destiny by Peter Busby Waite, a Nova Scotian historian who specialized in the Confederation period. Waite replaced J.T. Saywell, who was originally planned to be the author of this volume.\nCanada, 1896-1921: A Nation Transformed by Robert Craig Brown and Ramsay Cook. It",
"-30.85809707082808"
],
[
"cession of Canada to Great Britain is Quand Georges trois pris l'Canada written by an anonymous author in 1763.\nThe Quebec Gazette newspaper was founded in Quebec City by William Brown on June 21, 1764. The bilingual paper was published in both the French language and the English language and over the years survived to be the oldest newspaper still publishing in North America.\nThe literary trends of Europe and the rest of America slowly penetrated the cities, primarily Quebec City and Montreal. The writings of the Enlightenment and those produced at the time of the American and French revolutions were dominant",
"-30.84323395427782"
],
[
"the first corporations to operate in what is now Canada. Staples thesis Harold Innis (1894–1952), based in the history department at the University of Toronto, and William Archibald Mackintosh (1895–1970), based in the economics department at Queen's University developed the Staples thesis. They argued that the Canadian Economy (beyond the level of subsistence farming) was primarily based on exports of a series of staples—fish, fur, timber, wheat—that shipped to Britain and the British Empire. Industrialization came much later. The thesis explains Canadian economic development as a lateral, east-west conception of trade. Innis argued that Canada developed as it did because",
"-30.82391418501811"
],
[
"Canadian literature French-Canadian literature In 1802, the Lower Canada legislative library was founded, being one of the first in Occident, the first in the Canadas. For comparison, the library of the British House of Commons was founded sixteen years later. The library had some rare titles about geography, natural science and letters. All books it contained were moved to the Canadian parliament in Montreal when the two Canadas, lower and upper, were united. On April 25, 1849, a dramatic event occurred: the Canadian parliament was burned by furious people along with thousands of French Canadian books and a few hundred",
"-30.79362708935514"
],
[
"Canadian Federalism, won the John W. Dafoe Prize for \"distinguished writing on Canada and/or Canada’s place in the world.\" He also interpreted Canadian, British and European history for thousands of high-school students across Ontario through close to a dozen textbooks with his friend John Ricker. Legacy The John T. Saywell Prize for Canadian Legal History was endowed by his family and friends and is given bi-annually by the Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History to the best new book in Canadian legal history. He was Director of the Graduate Program in History at York from 1987 to 1998; its Ph.D.",
"-30.76854224136332"
],
[
"Canada including Histoire économique et sociale du Québec, 1760–1850, published 1966, Le Bas-Canada, 1791–1840, and Louis Joseph Papineau, un être divisé, published 1960.",
"-30.762871948070824"
],
[
"working on The Black History Project: Canada - an initiative she has started to update Canadian history to include its impact and involvement with regards to Black Canadian history and the Underground Railroad.",
"-30.67375569482101"
],
[
"Early attempts In the middle of the 19th century, Canada went through big events in its history. After a series of rebellions, the British government by the Act of Union in 1840 united the Lower and Upper Canada into the United Province of Canada. After eight years Canada achieved a responsible government. \nBritish ideas of cooperatives flowed into Canada and the first attempts of establishing new marketing cooperatives occurred around the 1840s. However, most of them were unstable and failed. The first recorded consumer cooperative was organized at Stellarton, Nova Scotia, in 1864. In the same year there are records",
"-30.65919713000767"
],
[
"Canada's History in 2010. He has also written for Canadian Geographic, the National Post, the New York Times, and other periodicals, and he frequently contributes essays on politics, history and culture to the Literary Review of Canada. He has made many radio documentaries on historical subjects for CBC Radio's “Ideas.”. Moore has been nominated for three National Magazine Awards Parliamentary democracy After the publication of 1867: How the Fathers Made a Deal in 1997, Moore began publishing political commentaries on parliamentary democracy in Canada. His common theme has been the lack of accountability in Canadian political leadership. Moore relates",
"-30.640677241870435"
],
[
"Canadian Historical Review History The Canadian Historical Review was founded at the University of Toronto in 1920 as a continuation of a previous journal, the Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada, itself founded by George Wrong, in 1897. The initiative to digitize the CHR's holdings includes material from this previous journal, and papers from as early as 1897 are available to subscribers online as a result.\nThe Canadian Historical Review's entries have changed as history and historiography itself have progressed. Marlene Shore's The Contested Past: Reading Canada's History – Selections from the Canadian Historical Review, tracks these changes, tracing major",
"-30.6248520888621"
],
[
"of European contact to today. It examines early relations, the Métis, the clash of Christianity and Aboriginal beliefs, intergovernmental relations, the introduction of a wage economy, and post-World War II political and legal affirmation and civil rights. It also features a ten-minute video about sustaining Aboriginal culture, and introduces visitors to Native art. Canadian History Hall The Canadian History Hall is a permanent gallery dedicated to Canadian history that encompasses both the third and fourth floors of the museum, formerly home to the Canada Hall and the Canadian Personalities Hall and meant to be more comprehensive, inclusive and engaging than",
"-30.465149312629364"
],
[
"The Canadian Encyclopedia The Canadian Encyclopedia (abbreviated as TCE) is a source of information on Canada published by Historica Canada of Toronto. Articles appear in English and French. It is available online, at no cost. The Canadian Encyclopedia includes 14,000 articles in each language on numerous subjects including history, popular culture, events, people, places, politics, arts, First Nations, sports and science.\nThe website also provides access to the Encyclopedia of Music in Canada, the Canadian Encyclopedia Junior Edition, Maclean's magazine articles, and Timelines of Canadian History. History Canada had been without a national encyclopedia since the 1957 edition of Encyclopedia Canadiana.",
"-30.35831641498953"
],
[
"Canadian Historical Association History The Canadian Historical Association was founded in 1922 by Lawrence Burpee.\nIn 1922, Burpee presented a new constitution for the Historic Landmarks Association, it was adopted and the organization changed its name and objectives. Burpee's model for the Canadian Historical Association was based on the American Historical Association.\nThe first Canadian Historical Association Executive and Council included George Wrong, Chester Martin, Arthur Doughty, Pierre-Georges Roy and James Kenny, Lawrence Burpee, William Douw Lighthall and Frederic William Howay. Marius Barbeau, the anthropologist, was its founding Secretary.\nLighthall nominated Burpee for the presidency of the Canadian Historical Association. Burpee was president",
"-30.331250078652374"
],
[
"Canada's resources.\nDougall's newspaper presented a variety of information. In the December 15, 1845 edition the lead article was entitled, \"The History of the Reformation in the Sixteenth Century\" by Dr. Merle D’Augbigne. This was followed by articles entitled, \"Sabbath School Teaching\" (a sermon); \"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation,\" ( a reprint from the Edinburgh Witness of the ‘Infidel’ work). Some of the articles were of general interest such as \"The Fruit Trees of America,\" (An extract from the book by A. J. Downing mostly about 'The Apple.' The Witness also reported the news, sometimes with extensive commentary while",
"-30.25211163748827"
],
[
"Canada in 2007. Major works Her first major work was The Rebels of Hastings, referring to Hastings County, the region in southeastern Ontario which contains Belleville. This book was published by the University of Toronto Press in 1992; ISBN 978-080-2059864.\nHer second major work was published posthumously, in 2017. This book, entitled The Accidental Prime Minister: The Biography of Sir Mackenzie Bowell (ISBN 978-1-926529-09-7), is the first major biography of Sir Mackenzie Bowell, who served as Canada's fifth prime minister, from 1894 to 1896, as part of a 50-year parliamentary career. She had completed the work in 2007, but could not find a",
"-30.207413070485927"
],
[
"Royal Society of Canada History In the late 1870s, the Governor General of Canada, the Marquis of Lorne, determined that Canada required a cultural institution to promote national scientific research and development. Since that time, succeeding Governors General have remained involved with the affairs of the Society. In 1882, the Royal Society of Canada was founded with the personal patronage of the Marquis of Lorne. A year later, in 1883, the Society was incorporated by a statute of the Parliament of Canada.\nFrom its founding until the early 1900s, the structure of the RSC imitated the model of the Royal Society",
"-30.190640364045976"
],
[
"Ken McGoogan Ken McGoogan is the Canadian author of fifteen books, including Flight of the Highlanders, Dead Reckoning, 50 Canadians Who Changed the World, How the Scots Invented Canada, and four biographical narratives focusing on northern exploration and published internationally: Fatal Passage (John Rae), Ancient Mariner (Samuel Hearne), Lady Franklin's Revenge (Jane Franklin), and Race to the Polar Sea (Elisha Kent Kane).\nBorn in Montreal (1947) and raised in a francophone town, McGoogan has traveled widely, both in Canada and abroad. After attending Sir George Williams University, he earned a bachelor's degree in journalism at Ryerson and a master's degree in",
"-30.10353470550035"
],
[
"The People of New France The People of New France (Brève histoire des peuples de la Nouvelle-France in French) is a book of Canadian history during the 17th and 18th Centuries written by Allan Greer and published by the University of Toronto Press in 1997 and by Boréal in 1998 for the French version, as part of the Themes in Canadian History series. Unlike works of history that focus on the political histories of government officials and the clergy, Greer focuses on the day-to-day reality of living in French colonial Canada. One 2007 review of the book describes the",
"-30.043725198775064"
],
[
"books and found that while the Winnipeg General Strike went without mention, the books contained two chapters on Abraham Lincoln. The report also looked at Canadian children's general knowledge of their government and most could not identify the Canadian head of state (Queen Elizabeth II) and the basis for Canada's law and founding (the British North America Act 1867).\nIn 1969 Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau said he felt that: \"Living next to you [the United States] is in some ways like sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly or temperate the beast, one is affected by every twitch and grunt.\"\nBy",
"-29.97548230260145"
],
[
"the \"grand old man of journalism.\" Canadian history One of his contributions to a popular understanding of Canadian history was his regular series of articles reviewing events that occurred on particular dates in Canada's story. Through these articles, he was said to have done more than any other individual to make Canadians \"history conscious\" through his care to provide an authentic and accurate portrayal of events. The series first began with the Toronto Mail and Empire newspaper with a daily feature entitled \"Do You Know?\" This series was eventually syndicated and quoted across the continent. The Montreal Gazette remarked, \"Day",
"-29.973090724335634"
],
[
"for publishing a book that asserted that people native to North America, \"agreed to move to different areas to make room for the new settlements.\" Once the controversy gained popular attention Popular Book Company Canada announced that they would immediately recall all of the books and work with First Nations to improve, \"understanding how best to write about this part of Canada’s history so that our materials are accurate.\"",
"-29.962504610564793"
],
[
"published an edited collection of letters between her grandfather and his sons George and Thomas.\nThey described life in Toronto and London and the battles of the War of 1812.\nThe work celebrated the achievements of Canada in an effort to build national pride, and was well received.\nA sketch of her life published by the Women's Canadian Historical Society in 1914 said, \"The resultant volume ... revealed her sense of historical perspective, her easy mastery of detail, and her possession of a literary style that was at once limpid, nervous and strong\".\nMatilda Edgar and Sarah Anne Curzon founded the Canadian Women's Historical",
"-29.95422324712854"
],
[
"150 lecture \"A Living Tree? Canada's Constitution 150 Years Ago -- and Today.\" Historical consultant As a historian in private practice, Moore often undertakes commissioned research and writing for organizations, institutions, and companies on historical matters. He has worked with or advised the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, the National Film Board, Parks Canada, the Royal Ontario Museum, the Canadian War Museum, the Historica-Dominion Institute, and many filmmakers, educational institutions, and publishers. Journalism and essays Since 1991 Moore's column \"Christopher Moore\" on Canadian historical issues, personalities, and controversies has appeared in every issue of Canada's leading historical magazine, The Beaver, renamed",
"-29.86044611799298"
],
[
"include stories about immigration from all points of entry from the early beginnings of Canada (including First Nations) and concentrating on all immigration from 1867 to the present. Pier 21 is collecting family histories that go back to 1867 and is eager to begin collecting stories from those that arrived after 1971. These stories will be among the raw materials used to create future exhibits.\nOral historians conduct oral history interviews onsite and occasionally in different centres across Canada. These interviews are vital to the Museum's collection and its ongoing commitment to preserving and sharing stories of all Canadians.\nThe image collection",
"-29.84784625057364"
],
[
"professor (1955 - 1960) and finally Thomas McCulloch Professor of History from 1960 until his retirement. He is currently a professor emeritus and lives in Halifax.\nWaite is an elegant writer, known especially for his analysis of the events leading to Confederation and the subsequent 30 years from 1867 to 1896. His Arduous Destiny, a history of Canada from 1874 to 1896, was part of The Canadian Centenary Series, a multi-volume project which was commissioned for the centenary of Canadian Confederation in 1967.\nHe has published biographies of three Conservative Canadian Prime Ministers (Macdonald, Thompson, Bennett). His 1985 biography of Sir John",
"-29.819682290486526"
],
[
"Reluctant Nation Premise This series was produced as a Canadian Centennial project, featuring dramatic portrayals of historical Canadian leaders who are interviewed in the format of contemporary television journalism. This public affairs style highlighted concerns which faced the early Canadian Confederation such as dealings with the United States and Europe, dealings among Canadian provinces and the role of francophones in the new nation.\nJohn Saywell of York University was a series consultant. Scheduling This half-hour series was broadcast on Thursdays at 10:30 p.m. (Eastern time) from 15 September to 20 October 1966.",
"-29.783918588305824"
],
[
"Constitutional History, moving to Toronto with his family (including daughter Dora who would later become a major figure in Canada's theatre). After 1892, he spent most of his life in Toronto, leaving only for short trips.\nIn 1893, James Mavor was a founding member of the Toronto Chapter of the Alpha Delta Phi Literary Society.\nAt the start, he caused turmoil when he stated Canada could not serve as the only source of wheat for the British Empire as general ideology of the Empire observed it. To avoid further misunderstanding, he took the economy of Russia as his major scientific specialization. As",
"-29.737115826341324"
],
[
"Canadian Forum The Canadian Forum was a left-wing literary, cultural and political publication and Canada's longest running continually published political magazine (1920–2000). History and profile Canadian Forum was founded on 14 May 1920 at the University of Toronto as a forum for political and cultural ideas. Its first directors were G. E. Jackson, chairman, Barker Fairley, literary editor, C. B. Sissons, political editor, Peter Sandiford, business manager and Huntly Gordon, press editor.\nThroughout its publishing run it was Canadian nationalist and progressive in outlook.\nThe magazine was published on a monthly basis. As a cultural and literary publication it published the artistic",
"-29.701993127702735"
],
[
"provinces and territories. She oversaw the restoration of the ceiling in the House of Commons, and carved a 120-foot long frieze depicting the history of Canada until World War I, which was carved on site between 1962 and 1974.\nAlthough Milne was required to work within a Gothic Revival framework, she worked to incorporate elements of Canadian history that went beyond stereotypical symbols like maple leaves or beavers. As Sandra Alfoldy explains: \"In Milne's realistic approach to Canada's history, bored monarchs and exhausted explorers are bound in with the social injustices behind the founding of the country.\" She points to",
"-29.693853172007948"
],
[
"historian's moral duty to interpret the past for society's present needs, Wrong viewed Canadian history in terms of the country's British and French origins, and the American presence. As a teacher, administrator, writer and a moving force in the early days of the Canadian Historical Association, he helped to provide an intellectual base for a developing Canadian nationality. In 1896-97 he founded the Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada (since 1920 the Canadian Historical Review) and in 1905 he co-founded the Champlain Society. He wrote numerous monographs and texts on Canadian history, the best being A Canadian Manor and",
"-29.62129358133825"
],
[
"Canada operated for twenty years, in spite of losses during the War of 1812.\".\nIn Saint John, New Brunswick in 1883, following the efforts of Colonel James Domville in procuring a collection of materials to replace the many private collections lost in the Great Fire of Saint John, New Brunswick the first free, tax-supported public library was established. Guelph, Ontario and Toronto, Ontario opened public libraries that same year as well. Due to Canada's size and diversity, the development of the modern Canadian public library was more of a slow evolution than a quick transition as each of the provinces' specific",
"-29.602101508760825"
],
[
"Canadian places and institutions, named the former Ottawa City Hall, now a federal office building, the John G. Diefenbaker Building. It also gave Diefenbaker's name to a human rights award and an icebreaking vessel. Harper often invoked Diefenbaker's northern vision in his speeches.\nConservative Senator Marjory LeBreton worked in Diefenbaker's office during his second time as Opposition Leader, and has said of him, \"He brought a lot of firsts to Canada, but a lot of it has been air-brushed from history by those who followed.\" Historian Michael Bliss, who published a survey of the Canadian Prime Ministers, wrote of Diefenbaker:\nFrom the",
"-29.575257867923938"
],
[
"not attempt to place Canadian history into a preconceived framework of ideas. Instead, he sought to bring the role of 'class' and 'nation', and persons and personalities, into the forefront of discussion instead of allowing them \"to disappear behind a cloud of economic factors.\" For Ryerson, the complexities and contradictions of Canadian history can be best analysed through the lens of class conflict rather than idealistic theses of most bourgeois historians. Throughout these two volumes, Ryerson emphasised the state of subjugation inherent within both French and English colonial administrators. This two volume work, Ryerson explained modestly, was intended as \"a",
"-29.561297865817323"
],
[
"Co-ordinator is Michael Dove. Along with Huron University College and King's University College, Western will implement Canada's first Public History minor in Canada in 2017-18. Alumni Alumni work in many government agencies such as Parks Canada, Library and Archives Canada, the Department of Canadian Heritage, in national, provincial, and local museums and archives, at universities, as independent historical consultants, in popular historical publishing, and in media companies. Public History in Canada Other early graduate programs include the program at the University of Waterloo (on hiatus since 2005), the now-defunct program at Simon Fraser University, and more recent programs at",
"-29.496781729074428"
],
[
"the British Empire.\nAs Inspector General, Galt reformed the Province of Canada's banking system trade policies. He was the main architect of the Cayley-Galt Tariff, which protected colonial businesses and caused consternation in both Britain and the United States.\nJuly 1, 1867, Canada East and West, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia became the first provinces in British North America to form the Dominion of Canada. Galt served as the first Minister of Finance in the new confederation. As minister of Finance, he reversed many of his earlier policies, promoting trade within the British Empire. Following a strong disagreement with Macdonald and Cartier",
"-29.46151256049052"
],
[
"of the Canadian West comes from George Stanley’s remarkable work, The Birth of Western Canada. Considering that it was one of the earliest works by an academically trained historian in this country, it has stood the test of time remarkably well. No other work of Canadian history published before the Second World War is as regularly read by historians, students and the general public…. [This] subject will always be identified with his name.\" In 2015, a Supreme Court of Canada decision on language rights cited The Birth of Western Canada.\nSerge Bernier, Director of the Directorate of History and Heritage of",
"-29.459055555867963"
],
[
"Canadian Magazine The Canadian Magazine of Politics, Science, Art and Literature was the premiere monthly literary journal of Anglophone Canada for three decades. History and profile Edited first by James Gordon Mowat then by John Alexander Cooper, the first issue was printed in 1893. Its president was James Colebrooke Patterson, concurrently federal Minister of Militia and Defence, while one of its vice-presidents was Thomas Ballantyne, then Speaker of the Ontario legislature. It was meant to compete with the American offerings of Scribner's and Harper's, and was similarly priced, but focused on \"cultivating Canadian patriotism and Canadian interests.\" In",
"-29.425461884471588"
],
[
"the mainstream of Canadian culture. Historians change their perspective Since the 1980s, historians have sharply revised their approach to Canadian history. Political history had been the dominant mode. The flagship Canadian Historical Review was heavily weighted toward political history, giving priority to macro themes such as elite politicians and statesmen, public institutions, and national issues. By 2000, however, the same journal gave two-thirds of its space to social history. Furthermore, micro topics with a narrow geographical and chronological focus have largely replaced wide-lens macro themes. Glassford argues that:\nThe Big Questions are now seen to be societally based, and emanate from",
"-29.419720658042934"
],
[
"John G. Reid John G. Reid is a Canadian historian. The principal focus of his work is on the history of early modern northeastern North America (focusing especially on imperial-aboriginal issues in Acadia/Nova Scotia and northern New England), the history of Atlantic Canada, and the history of higher education. According to historian Geoffrey Plank, \"No active historian studying the 17th and 18th century Maritime region has produced a richer or more varied body of scholarship than John G. Reid.\" He was also an expert witness in a number of court cases, including the Mi’kmaw and Wulstukwiuk treaty",
"-29.37893548439024"
],
[
"as The Parliament of Women. In 1988 she won the John A. Macdonald Prize (awarded to the best book in Canadian history) for her study of the lives of women in Canada between the wars, entitled The New Day Recalled. In 1993–94 she served as president of the Canadian Historical Association. She was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 2001 and in July 2012 the RSC awarded her the J.B. Tyrrell Historical Medal \"for outstanding work in the history of Canada\". In June 2018, Rideau Hall announced Strong-Boag's upcoming appointment as a member",
"-29.372324238414876"
],
[
"Christopher Moore (Canadian historian) Christopher Hugh Moore (born 1950 in Stoke-on-Trent, United Kingdom) is an author, journalist, and blogger about Canadian history. A freelance writer since 1978, Moore is unusual among professionally trained Canadian historians in that he supports himself by writing for general audiences. He is a longtime columnist for Canada's History magazine (formerly The Beaver) and the author of many books. He has twice won the Governor General's Literary Awards.\nMoore immigrated to Canada with his family in 1954, was raised in Nelson and Vancouver, British Columbia, and did undergraduate studies at the University of British Columbia. He",
"-29.341316216086852"
],
[
"Literary Review of Canada History The LRC was founded in 1991 in Toronto by Patrice Dutil and published for the first time in December 1991. In late 1996, after publishing 55 issues, he sold the magazine to Carleton University Press. In 1998, the magazine was sold to partners David Berlin, Denis Deneau and later partner and managing editor Helen Walsh. Berlin left in 2001, the same year Mark Lovewell joined as partner and eventually co-publisher. Deneau left in early 2003. Bronwyn Drainie was hired in 2003 and held the position until 2016. The magazine's editor in chief from July 2016",
"-29.33310056180926"
],
[
"A Short History of Indians in Canada A Short History of Indians in Canada is a collection of short stories by Thomas King, published by HarperCollins in 2005. Although the majority of the stories deal with issues surrounding First Nations people, the topics and styles are quite diverse.\nThe book won the McNally Robinson Aboriginal Book of the Year Award in 2006.",
"-29.323333888489287"
],
[
"A Long View of Canadian History Premise The series concerns Canadian history and consists of a discussion between historian Donald Creighton and political scientist Paul Fox, both professors at the University of Toronto. Two hours of film were recorded from their five-and-a-half-hour conversation, which in turn was edited to fit two half-hour episodes which aired at 10:30 p.m. (Eastern) on 16 and 30 June 1959.\nCBC's Publication Branch published the text of this conversation in book form that year.",
"-29.316969572391827"
],
[
"McGill Institute for the Study of Canada History MISC was established in 1994 with support from the Bronfman family and McGill University with Desmond Morris as Founding Director. Mandate According to its website, MISC's mission is to \"promote a better understanding of Canada through the study of our heritage; develop a clearer understanding of Canada's social, political and economic future; identify and explore the benefits that a pluralistic society offers; [and] support the study of Canada across the country and internationally.\" Key people The Founding Director was Desmond Morton, who served from MISC's creation in 1994 until 2001. Past Directors",
"-29.30663481715601"
],
[
"John Herd Thompson and Stephen J. Randall in their book Canada and the United States (2002) states that there is anecdotal evidence that it still flourishes, and that it continues to nourish the Canadian sense of identity.\nMargaret Atwood is a leading Canadian author. In her dystopian novel The Handmaid's Tale (1986) all the horrible developments take place in the United States near Boston, while Canada is portrayed as the only hope for an escape. This reflects her status of being \"in the vanguard of Canadian anti-Americanism of the 1960s and 1970s.\" Critics have seen Gilead (the U.S.) as a repressive",
"-29.305089163128287"
],
[
"Clearings (1853). However, both women wrote until their deaths, placing them in the country for more than 50 years and certainly well past Confederation. Moreover, their books often dealt with survival and the rugged Canadian environment; these themes re-appear in other Canadian works, including Margaret Atwood's Survival. Moodie and Parr Traill's sister, Agnes Strickland, remained in England and wrote elegant royal biographies, creating a stark contrast between Canadian and English literatures.\nHowever, one of the earliest \"Canadian\" writers virtually always included in Canadian literary anthologies is Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796–1865), who died just two years before Canada's official birth. He is",
"-29.302324853197206"
],
[
"McDonald/McWilliams Medal, awarded by the Manitoba Historical Society for the best book of the year on Manitoba history. First Nations, Second Thoughts Flanagan later published the controversial First Nations, Second Thoughts, which critiqued the report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. The book received the Donner Prize for the best book of the year on Canadian public policy in 2000, and the Donald Smiley Prize from the Canadian Political Science Association for the best book on Canadian government and politics.\nIn his 2002 review, Yale D. Belanger, compared Alan Cairn's publication entitled Citizens Plus with Flanagan's First Nations? Second",
"-29.296255090011982"
],
[
"allied with the Clear Grits. This resulted in the shortest-lived government in Canadian history, falling in less than a day. Clear Grits The Clear Grits were the inheritors of William Lyon Mackenzie's Reform movement of the 1830s. Their support was concentrated among southwestern Canada West farmers, who were frustrated and disillusioned by the 1849 Reform government of Robert Baldwin and Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine's lack of democratic enthusiasm. The Clear Grits advocated universal male suffrage, representation by population, democratic institutions, reductions in government expenditure, abolition of the Clergy reserves, voluntarism, and free trade with the United States. Their platform was",
"-29.24664209439652"
],
[
"persuaded him to write about Canada, the country he knew best. She told him that \"Nobody's going to understand Canada until she evolves a literature of her own, and you're the fellow to start bringing Canadian novels up to date.\" Until then there had been no real tradition of Canadian literature, and MacLennan set out to define Canada for Canadians through a national novel.\nBarometer Rising, his novel about the social class structure of Nova Scotia and the Halifax Explosion of 1917, was published in 1941. Later novels His most famous novel, Two Solitudes, a literary allegory for the tensions between",
"-29.202492748387158"
],
[
"in a material world, are conditioned by it, work upon it.\" Ryerson's approach to history is that of a man who sees the struggles and ideas of people as the driving force behind history. He did not believe they operate within a vacuum but within a given social system. Ryerson recognised the interplay of freedom and necessity within the development of history \"as it is in the best Marxist historical writing.\"\nFollowing on the tradition of viewing his writings as a mode of class consciousness, The Founding of Canada was written very much as a popular Marxist introduction to Canadian History.",
"-29.160335636290256"
],
[
"Ontario Historical Society The Ontario Historical Society is a non-profit organization centred on the preservation of Ontario’s history. It is governed by an all-volunteer board of directors, and its members include individuals as well as historical institutions from across the province of Ontario. It also publishes Ontario History, a scholarly, peer-reviewed journal. From 1899 to 1947, the journal was called Papers and Records. The Ontario Historical Society headquarters are located at the John McKenzie House in the Willowdale neighbourhood of Toronto, Ontario. History The Ontario Historical Society, originally called the Pioneer and Historical Association of Ontario, was established on September",
"-29.111650614067912"
],
[
"teaching and writing of the first generation of professional historians dealt with Canadian political history, or more exactly constitutional history. Donald Wright says:\nNeither sophisticated nor particularly interesting, English-Canadian historical writing was what it was: traditional, political, constitutional, at times sentimental, and too focused on the story of self-government, its development over time, and its ultimate achievement.... If it wasn't dry-as-dust constitutional history, it was after-dinner expressions of loyalty to Great Britain, heroic accounts of great men, and patriotic renderings of the Plains of Abraham and General Wolfe or of Queenston Heights and General Brock. The Conquest The Conquest of New",
"-29.108658347977325"
],
[
"of Atlantic Canadian history, or the labour movement, or the history of the fisheries, this is an important book. Yet few books on those subjects stand as large as The Education of Everett Richardson. That's because this book's ultimate strength is in Cameron's storytelling skills. His writing is taut, tense, and blunt, perfectly reflecting the powder-keg feel of the times.\"",
"-29.08463443841174"
],
[
"University of Ottawa and Queen's University. She was awarded the UBC Medal for Canadian Biography in 2002 and the Pierre Berton Prize for distinguished achievement in popularizing and promoting Canadian history in 2003. She has won or been nominated for most of the major non-fiction awards in Canada. In 2004 she served on the jury for the prestigious Scotiabank Giller Prize. In 2007, she was made a Member of the Order of Canada.\nIn 2004, Gray appeared on the CBC Television series The Greatest Canadian advocating for Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada's first Prime Minister. Personal life Gray lives in New",
"-29.03380576823838"
],
[
"4, 1888 largely through the efforts of Reverend Henry Scadding. It initially operated as a federation of local groups and was primarily concerned with the promotion of British-Canadian nationalism through the study of history. Reorganized in 1898 and incorporated with an expanded mandate the following year, the Society became increasingly involved in the movement to preserve archival records and historic sites. It also assumed more scholarly pursuits, including a publication program, in addition to encouraging and coordinating the activities of local historical associations and museums. Today the Society continues to preserve, interpret and publicize Ontario's heritage. Affiliated Societies The Ontario",
"-29.00597184302751"
],
[
"of Canada.\nThe company published many non-fiction works, and its textbooks and readers were common in Canadian schools. The \"Canadian Portraits Series\" introduced younger readers to Canadian authors. William Kilbourn's biography of William Lyon Mackenzie, The Firebrand, was received well among critics. The Shape of Scandal, by journalist and civil servant Richard Gwyn, was one of the company's best selling books of the 1960s. Bruce Hutchison's The Fraser (1950), a work on British Columbia's Fraser River, was part of Rinehart and Company's popular Rivers of America series. Hilda Neatby's So Little for the Mind caused public debate about Canada's",
"-28.99004399345722"
],
[
"Canadian Living History and profile The magazine was created by Clem Compton-Smith and his business partner, Margaret Smeeth, in 1975, with the financial backing of Labatt's. They and a tiny staff operated out of the manse of a church in Mississauga, Ontario. Canadian Living began as a half-million circulation title sold exclusively through supermarkets; the gimmick was a split run that enabled the magazine to devote a full page in each issue to each supermarket chain that carried it. The first issue appeared in December, 1975, and sold for 25 cents. The cover showed a male and a",
"-28.97258688963484"
],
[
"Harold Innis and the cod fishery Harold Adams Innis (November 5, 1894 – November 8, 1952) was a professor of political economy at the University of Toronto and the author of seminal works on Canadian economic history and on media and communication theory. He helped develop the staples thesis which holds that Canada's culture, political history and economy have been decisively influenced by the exploitation and export of a series of staples such as fur, fish, wood, wheat, mined metals and fossil fuels. Innis's communications writings explore the role of media in shaping the culture and development of civilizations.\nAfter the",
"-28.96817072016711"
],
[
"Canadian anthologies from 1837 to the present. It lists approximately 2000 anthologies and is the departure point for any comprehensive commentary on anthology formation in Canada.\nMaking It Real: The Canonization of English-Canadian Literature (1995)\nEight wide-ranging essays are brought together in this study of the origins and development of Canadian literary canons. Lecker explores many of the myths surrounding the teaching, studying, publishing, and promotion of Canadian literature. He focuses on the work of Northrop Frye, Frank Davey, and the New Canadian Library series.\nAn Other I: The Fictions of Clark Blaise (1988)\nAn Other I is a study of the fiction of",
"-28.957829915219918"
],
[
"and industrial development in Canada. \nA remarkable economic explosion soon followed with the Saint-Maurice Forge (the oldest operating steel mill in North America when it finally closed down in 1883), beginning to produce on a larger scale and shipbuilding flowering into an export industry. Canadian local prosperity followed naturally from all this, and the volume of trade increased by 40% in a decade, while exports doubled. \nAs the king's money flowed in, Hocquart’s web of patronage and influence increased apace, much to the detriment of his partner in government, the (military) Governor-General, Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois, who",
"-28.948163270193618"
],
[
"Canada on June 10, 1985.\nIn his many commentaries on constitutional issues, especially the reserve powers of the Crown, Forsey was a conspicuous supporter of the action of the Governor-General of Australia, Sir John Kerr, in dismissing the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam, in the 1975 constitutional crisis because his government was unable to obtain supply (approval to spend money) from the parliament and refused to call a general election.\nIn retirement Forsey published a study of the labour movement in 1982, Trade Unions in Canada, 1812–1902. His publication How Canadians Govern Themselves is perhaps his most enduring legacy, being a simple yet",
"-28.9456985896104"
],
[
"Canadian identity and civil space. In this study, Lecker shows us the poem’s importance to Canada’s literary canon, by emphasizing Lee's new vision of Canada.\nDr. Delicious: Memoirs of a Life in CanLit (2006)\nLecker's tragicomic memoir, Dr. Delicious, reviews his career as a publisher and editor of Canadian literature and criticism. The book is an irreverent history of an explosive era in Canadian literature, a glimpse into the mind of a preoccupied professor, and a unique record of the generation that made Canadian literature what it is today.\nEnglish-Canadian Literary Anthologies: An Enumerative Bibliography (1997)\nEnglish-Canadian Literary Anthologies is first detailed bibliography of",
"-28.944017997564515"
],
[
"Canada's history. The Chair of Ukrainian Studies Foundation at the University of Toronto decided to mark the Centennial by establishing in 1991 the Canada-Ukraine Parliamentary Program for undergraduate university students from Ukraine. Model Ukraine Conferences A cycle of conferences has been prepared by the CUPP to discuss and formulate a model for Ukraine's governance and future development as envisioned by young people who are eager to contribute to the future of the country. To this end four Conferences have been planned, to date.\nWashington Model Ukraine Conference was held at George Washington University, February 2010. The conference focused on",
"-28.937308617518283"
],
[
"by working through them. Canada In 1847 he was appointed Governor General of Canada by the Prime Minister Earl Grey. Under Lord Elgin, the first real attempts began at establishing responsible government in Canada. Lord Elgin became the first Governor General to distance himself from the affairs of the legislature. Since then, the Governor-General has had a largely symbolic role with regards to the political affairs of the country. As Governor-General, he wrestled with the costs of receiving high levels of immigration in the Canadas, a major issue in the constant debate about immigration during the 19th century.\nIn 1849 the",
"-28.907267962429614"
],
[
"records, letters and diaries, Taylor reconstructed the background of founder William Cooper from Burlington, New Jersey, and the economic, political and social history related to the land speculation, founding and settlement of Cooperstown, New York, after the American Revolutionary War.\nTaylor is among a generation of historians committed to the revival of narrative history, incorporating many historical methods (political, social, cultural, and environmental, among others) to understand humans' experiences of the past.\nTaylor's The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution (2006) explored the history of the borders between Canada and the United States in the aftermath",
"-28.89945750622428"
],
[
"were drawn from each province of Canada, and included two future provincial premiers, a future Supreme Court of Canada justice, two future provincial chief justices, and a future Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations. The Committee presented its report to the CBA at the next annual meeting, in 1978. The Committee made wide-ranging recommendations for constitutional change, including a completely new constitution, abolishing the monarchy, changing the Senate, entrenching language rights and a bill of rights, and changing the balance of powers between the federal government and the provinces. Documentaries He appeared in Red Reign: The Bloody Harvest of",
"-28.842427290219348"
],
[
"The Canadian Statesman History The Canadian Statesman was started by Reverend John M. Climie, a Scotchman and avid Son of Temperance.The earliest version of the Statesman is as The Messenger, a paper started by James E. McMillan and Alexander Begg as early as 1851. Both gentleman disposed of their interests in the paper in the mid to late 1850s, and Reverend Climie passed it on to his son William.\nThe paper historically served the communities of Manvers, Cavan, Cadus, Burketon, Maple Grove, Starkville, Wesleyville, Zion (Hope Township), Port Hope, Clarke, Kirby, Nestleton Station, Leskard, Haydon, Pontypool, Bethany, Hampton, Cartwright, Courtice, Newcastle,",
"-28.84198438396561"
],
[
"to appear. Chair of L.R. Wilson Institute for Canadian History In September 2015, McMaster University announced that Dr. Ian McKay would be joining their Department of History as the L.R. Wilson Chair for Canadian history. McMaster's Dean of Humanities, Ken Cruikshank, stated: \"Dr. McKay is the perfect scholar to lead the L. R. Wilson Institute for Canadian History as we approach the 150th anniversary of Confederation in 2017.\" Dr. McKay already has a vision for the Institute, and has recently spoken about the need for historians to contribute to public discourse, and for Canadian historians engaging in",
"-28.813124258827884"
],
[
"for the 1985 Governor General's Award for English-language non-fiction. Structure of the series In their general preface to each volume, Morton and Creighton explain that their goal is to have a series of volumes, covering the history of the regional communities which have made up the Canadian nation in its first century. As the general editors of the series, Morton and Creighton planned the general outline and the format. Each volume would be written by a specialist in that particular aspect of Canadian history, but using a common character and common method. Each volume would take a",
"-28.793099554954097"
],
[
"region. History The organization was founded in 1983 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada and while it has expanded the reach of its work to other parts of Canada, it maintains its base in Montreal. It was co-founded by Fo Niemi, who has maintained the title of executive director since the organization's creation. Mission statement The organization's motto is \"United for Diversity and Racial Equality.\" Its mandate, broadly speaking, is \"to promote racial harmony and equality in Canada\".\nThe organization is actively engaged in promoting equality and multicultural representation in Canada through various activities. As such, the CRARR has a strong commitment to",
"-28.77825024613412"
],
[
"first distinctly Canadian school of writers.\" Canonization Like Thomson and the Group of Seven, the Confederation Poets became the new country's canon. This canon-building began even in their lifetimes.\nIn 1883 Roberts's friend Edmund Collins published his biography, The Life and Times of Sir John A. MacDonald, which devoted a lengthy chapter to \"Thought and Literature in Canada,.\" Collins lost no time in dethroning what had been English Canada's top poets, the 'three Charleses': Charles Heavysege, Charles Sangster, and Charles Mair. \"Collins allots Heavysege only one paragraph, dismisses Sangster’s verse as 'not worth a brass farthing,' and ignores Mair completely.\" In",
"-28.744999060989358"
],
[
"Foundation The Champlain Society was created following a lecture to the Canadian Club in Toronto in March 1905 on \"History and Patriotism\" given by Charles W. Colby, chair of the Department of History at McGill University. Colby had hailed the various societies in the United Kingdom and the United States dedicated to reprinting key documents of history and argued that Canada should have such an organization.\nThe speech prompted Sir Edmund Walker (1848–1924), liberal thinker, philanthropist and president of the Canadian Bank of Commerce, into action. He contacted George Wrong, head of the University of Toronto's Department of History, and Dr.",
"-28.741450933506712"
],
[
"the actors involved. Dirk Hoerder, in From the Study of Canada to Canadian Studies: To Know Our Many Selves Changing Across Space and Time(2005), traces the history of Canadian studies from the early nineteenth century to modern times in an analysis written from a post-national and \"transcultural\" point of view. In 2006, Professor Li Wei analyses the movement for a Chinese readership in \"The Canadianization Movement and Its Influence on the Higher Education System of Canada.\" Ryan Edwardson comments on the movement in the context of the Massey Report, multiculturalism, and many other related cultural policies in Canadian",
"-28.625488182879053"
],
[
"Royal Canadian Institute History The organization was formed in Toronto as the Canadian Institute on June 20, 1849, by Sir Sandford Fleming and Kivas Tully. It was conceived of originally as an organization for surveyors, civil engineers, and architects practising in and about Toronto, Ontario. It quickly became more general in its scientific interests.\nA royal charter was granted on November 4, 1851, in which the objects of the organization are declared to be \"the encouragement and general advancement of the physical sciences, the arts and the manufactures\". It is now the oldest scientific society in Canada. Presidents Notable past presidents",
"-28.622987026552437"
],
[
"Parliament Interpretive Centre The Parliament Interpretive Centre was an Ontario Heritage Trust museum in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It was located at the site of the Upper Canada parliament buildings at Front Street and Berkeley Street.\nThe museum opened in February 2012. Much of the museum's displays focused on the War of 1812, and the burning of the Upper Canada legislature during the brief American occupation of York. The museum remained open throughout 2012, 2013, 2014, and into mid-2015 -- 200 years after the War of 1812, which ran from 1812-1815.\nThe building is currently rented to a car dealership, although the",
"-28.60554140934255"
],
[
"appointment as Governor General in 1935. Legacy Along with Wilfrid Laurier, King was the only other Canadian Prime Minister to be in office during the reigns of three Canadian Monarchs.\nKing was ranked as the greatest Canadian Prime Minister by a survey of Canadian historians.\nHe was named a Person of National Historic Significance in 1968.\nHe is portrayed by Dan Beirne in Matthew Rankin's 2019 film The Twentieth Century.",
"-28.59467276185751"
],
[
"Dana Lee were semi-finalists. In 2006, Greg Inwood, professor in the department of Politics and Public Administration, was awarded the prestigious Donald Smiley Prize for his book Continentalizing Canada: The Politics and Legacy of the Macdonald Royal Commission. Criminal justice history and international relations professor Peter Vronsky published Serial Killers: The Method and Madness of Monsters (2004), a bestselling history of serial homicide, and more recently a controversial history of Canada's first modern battle, Ridgeway: The American Fenian Invasion and the 1866 Battle That Made Canada (2011).",
"-28.59135860305105"
],
[
"John Semple Galbraith John Semple Galbraith (November 10, 1916 – 2003) was a British Empire historian concentrating on Canada (The Hudson's Bay Company) and South and East Africa. He served as chancellor of the University of California San Diego, from 1964 to 1968.\nHe was a native of Glasgow; his family immigrated to the United States in 1926. He received a BA from Miami University in Ohio in 1938, and Ph.D. in 1943 at the University of Iowa, working under his dissertation advisor, C. W. de Kiewiet. He served as an Army historical officer for the Third Air Force until 1946,",
"-28.553600509258104"
],
[
"nineteenth-century Canadian history at Queen's University, with special interest in the history of print, liberalism, British imperialism and state-civil society relations.\nThe Editorial Board comprises Harold Bérubé from Université de Sherbrooke, Jarvis Brownlie from the University of Manitoba, Kevin Brushett from the Royal Military College of Canada, Jordan Stanger-Ross from the University of Victoria and Shirley Tillotson from Dalhousie University. The Book Review Editor is Donald Wright, from the University of New Brunswick. Canadian Historical Review Prize Each year CHR awards a prize to their choice for best article of the year, known as the Canadian Historical Review Prize. The most",
"-28.547778718086192"
],
[
"was supervised by Ramsay Cook, was a social history of Canadian business, an analysis of the \"thoughts and dreams\" of businessmen in Canada during the National Policy years. It was published under the title A Living Profit. In 1978 he published a major biography of Sir Joseph Flavelle, \"A Canadian Millionaire\", and in 1987 the first history of business in Canada, \"Northern Enterprise.\"\nIn 1982, he began a mid-career transition to medical history with his book \"The Discovery of Insulin\". He has published biographies of two Canadians, the discoverer of insulin Sir Frederick Banting and the famous physician Sir William Osler.",
"-28.534732070635073"
],
[
"in one of the most dramatic four way splits in Canadian History.\nIn 1957 Farthing was appointed a Judge of the District Court of Southern Alberta.",
"-28.50499857030809"
],
[
"Question of Responsible Government (Copp Clark, 1973), a collection of papers related to the 1926 constitutional crisis that involved then Prime Minister W. L. Mackenzie King and Governor-General Lord Byng and the posthumously published Old Man Ontario: Leslie M. Frost (University of Toronto Press, 1991), a biography of former Premier of Ontario Leslie Frost. In addition to his full biography of Meighen, Graham also contributed a chapter called \"Some political ideas of Arthur Meighen\"' to a volume of essays edited by Marcel Hamelin, The political ideas of the prime ministers of Canada (Ottawa, 1969, pp. 107–20) and a booklet, Arthur Meighen,",
"-28.501928102807142"
],
[
"Wilfrid Laurier Memorial Overview The Sir Wilfrid Laurier Memorial was constructed in 1953 by Joseph-Émile Brunet on the southern side of Dorchester Square, facing towards the United States. Wilfrid Laurier was a proponent of an early free-trade agreement with the United States and wanted to develop a more continental economic orientation. Also, as Canada's first French Canadian Prime Minister, he faces off against the tribute to Sir John A. Macdonald, across the street in what is now Place du Canada. Macdonald is enshrined in a stone baldachin emblazoned with copper reliefs of the various agricultural and industrial trades. Laurier stands",
"-28.498987141181715"
],
[
"the National Bank of Canada.\nIn 2005, Cartier's Bref récit et succincte narration de la navigation faite en MDXXXV et MDXXXVI was named one of the 100 most important books in Canadian history by the Literary Review of Canada.\nCanadian rock band The Tragically Hip reference Jacques Cartier in their 1992 song \"Looking for a Place to Happen\". The song deals with the subject of European encroachment in the New World and the eventual annexation of indigenous lands in North America.",
"-28.496028384193778"
],
[
"\"[t]he fur trade in general and the Hudson's Bay Company in particular exercised a profound influence on the sculpting of the Canadian soul.\"\nThe Crown has historically been an intangible but significant symbol for many English Canadians. Loyalty to Great Britain created the initial fracture lines between the populations of the Thirteen Colonies and the populations of Nova Scotia and Quebec at the time of the American Revolution and forced the flight of the Loyalists after the end of the war. As such English Canada developed in the nineteenth century along lines that continued to emphasize this historical attachment, evident in",
"-28.482408294570632"
],
[
"Canada during the War of 1812. His history of Halifax, Warden of the North, remains influential. Historical preservation and restoration Raddall worked with the Queens County Historical Society, the Historic Sites Advisory Council of Nova Scotia, and the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. He played a role in preserving the diary of Simeon Perkins, an early colonial document published in three volumes (the fourth has yet to be published) between 1948 and 1978 by the Champlain Society, and edited by Harold Innis, D. C. Harvey and C. B. Ferguson. Raddall helped to restore and preserve Perkins House Museum,",
"-28.467303612851538"
],
[
"that would \"re-write Canadian history\" had been held by British descendants of Steele, and were returned to Canada via a C$1.8MM purchase by the University of Alberta. Fictional references Hector Adair, a character in the novel Spirit-of-Iron (1923), written by Steele's son, Harwood Steele, is thought to have been modelled on the famous Mountie. The novel includes a foreword in which the author writes: \"Hector Adair is intended to represent the ideal Mounted Police officer in particular and the British officer generally. He is not to be identified with any historical figure connected with the Force.\"\nPlayers meet Sam Steele in",
"-28.46384078124538"
],
[
"the two-hundredth anniversary of loyalist settlement in Canada, mixes biographies of prominent and obscure individuals with a broad narrative of the loyalist experience. It received the Secretary of State's Prize for Excellence in Canadian Studies in 1985.\n1867: How the Fathers Made A Deal, was born in the national debate over the Meech Lake Accord and Charlottetown Accord constitutional reform proposals. It was \"the first detailed examination of Canadian confederation in a generation.\" It combines Moore's characteristic biographical focus with a new emphasis on political over social history. Moore argues that the constitutional processes of the 1860s compare well against the",
"-28.45611907367129"
],
[
"graphics) despite such competition. Magazines The first Canadian periodicals were established in Nova Scotia by people from New England. The first Canadian magazine was called Nova Scotia Magazine and Comprehensive Review of Literature, Politics, and News. It was edited by William Cochran and printed by John Howe. Publication began in 1789 and lasted three years. This magazine dealt mostly with affairs concerning the British public, despite its being published at a time of colonization in Canada. After this first publication, most magazines over the next fifty years in Canada only lasted a few years, often only a few months. The",
"-28.371569068638564"
],
[
"during the difficult years after the First World War and in the Great Depression. \nOn June 22, 2019, as part of the Government of Canada's 'Hometown Heroes' programme, Hose was commemorated at Heavenly Rest Catholic Cemetery in Windsor, in a ceremony which referred to him as the \"father\" of Canada's naval reserve. In the presence of Terry Leahey, Hose's grandson, Vice-Admiral Art McDonald, the commander of the Royal Canadian Navy, spoke of the role he played in Canada's naval history.",
"-28.342200949839025"
],
[
"Toronto Life History Established in 1966, Toronto Life was purchased by Michael de Pencier in 1972 and held until 2002, when it was sold to St. Joseph Media. The publisher also owns the tourism magazine Where Canada (published in several large cities), Fashion, Wish, Wedding Bells, and several smaller magazines. The current editor-in-chief is Sarah Fulford, succeeded long-time editor John Macfarlane (1992-2007) in January 2008. \nIn 2015, Jennifer Pan’s Revenge: The inside story of a golden child, the killers she hired, and the parents she wanted dead, by Karen K. Ho brought the previously relatively obscure Jennifer Pan murder case",
"-28.32020019646734"
]
] |
3ji34o | How does the rear view mirror work after flipping it up at night? | [
"The front surface of the mirror is glass, which is only slightly reflective and mostly transparent, while the back surface of the mirror is smooth metal which is highly reflective. The glass surface and metal surface are titled with respect to each other. Usually, you are looking at the strong reflection from the metal surface. When you adjust the mirror at night, you align the mirror so that you are now looking at the weak reflection from the glass surface and not the strong reflection from the metal. You need a weaker reflection at night because you need your eyes adjusted to low-light levels to see the streets, but the headlamps of the car behind you are very bright and will destroy your visual night-adaptation if you see a strong reflection of them. Glass always reflects a little bit of the light. If you look very closely at any standard metal-glass mirror, you will see two images slightly offset: the strong reflection from the metal and the weak reflection from the front surface of the glass.",
"You can flip it up??? I'll be damned.",
"It's not just one mirror piece but a mirror behind an angled glass piece, when you flip it up the mirror points at the darker ceiling and the glass projects the image behind your car onto the mirror for viewing.",
"As others have mentioned, when it's \"down\" the reflection that you're seeing is from the silvery metal coating in the back of the mirror. This provides a normal reflection like you'd see looking in to, say, your bathroom mirror. When it's flipped \"up\", that silvery mirror part is facing upward, and the reflection you're seeing is the reflection from the glass that's in front of that silvery part. It's similar to seeing your reflection in a window at night.",
"What are we talking about? What do you mean by \"flipping it up\"? Are we talking about the mirror in the middle of the windshield?"
] | [
[
"of view to reach the camera.\nIn the case of a CCD camera, the flip mirror system works to let the viewer see exactly what the camera will see. In this setup, the flip mirror is used as an accessory that helps to aim and focus. The device is inserted into the telescope drawtube just before the CCD camera. Operated through a small lever, the mirror can direct the light at right angles into a viewing piece when actuated \"up\" or free the light from the telescope to pass into the CCD camera when it is flipped \"down\".\nThere are instances when",
"-43.2567737068166"
],
[
"off the reticle entirely when the mirror is pointed away from the target. To address this, the center of the reticle is painted with a 50% transmission pattern, so when the image crosses it the output becomes fixed. But because the mirror moves, this period is brief, and the normal interrupted scanning starts as the mirror begins to point toward the target again. The seeker can tell when the image is in this region because it occurs directly opposite the point when the image falls off the seeker entirely and the signal disappears. By examining the signal when it is",
"-40.072998876232305"
],
[
"is swung up in front of the film gate using the stop down lever on the right-hand camera front, reading the light projected from the camera lens after passing through the semitransparent mirror. Very few alternative locations inside the camera were available for picking up light rays from the camera lens. The Topcon RE Super has its meter cell placed directly behind the reflex mirror into which a pattern of slits are cut to let the light though, while the Asahi Pentax Spotmatic has a pair of cells located either side of the finder window reading light off the focusing",
"-39.74103314924287"
],
[
"the late 1980s that they began to catch on in popularity.\nCurrent systems usually use photosensors mounted in the rear-view mirror to detect light and dim the mirror by means of electrochromism. This electrochromic feature has also been incorporated into side-view mirrors allowing them to dim and reduce glare as well. Trucks and buses On trucks and buses the load often blocks rearward vision out the backlight. In the U.S. virtually all trucks and buses have a side view mirror on each side, often mounted on the doors and viewed out the side windows, which are used for rear vision. These",
"-39.38722091773525"
],
[
"Mirror lock-up Reducing vibration Normal operation in an SLR camera involves flipping the mirror up out of the light-path just before the shutter opens, and then returning it when the shutter closes (although very early SLR's required the shutter to be cocked for the mirror to return). This causes vibration of the camera, particularly when the mirror slaps into the top of the mirror box. This vibration quickly dies away so the most motion blur is actually seen with short shutter times that capture multiple 'swings' of the vibration (shutter speeds of 1/2 to 1/60 second are often affected by",
"-38.60628491535317"
],
[
"mirrors are available. They attach to the main rear-view mirror and are independently adjustable to view the back seat. This is useful to enable adults to monitor children in the back seat. Automatic dimming In the 1940s, American inventor Jacob Rabinow developed a light-sensitive automatic mechanism for the wedge-type day/night mirror. Several Chrysler Corporation cars offered these automatic mirrors as optional equipment as early as 1959, but few customers ordered them for their cars and the item was soon withdrawn from the option lists. Several automakers began offering rear-view mirrors with automatic dimming again in 1983, and it was in",
"-38.510404132306576"
],
[
"light source which shines into its photosensors; the centre sensor turns on both motors to propel the robot forward, the left- and right-side sensors turn on only the opposite side's motor to effectively make the machine turn towards the light source. When turning or moving forward, the robot's \"eyes\" are fully alight, when it is stationary, they are just dimly lit.\nConditional reflexes are emulated by the Ladybird's ability to associate the \"go\" signal represented by the light source with a certain sound frequency (usually emitted by a nearby flute). If the front photosensor and the microphone both receives the right",
"-38.10135527397506"
],
[
"Instant return mirror In photography, the single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is provided with a mirror to redirect light from the picture taking lens to the viewfinder prior to releasing the shutter for composing and focusing an image. When the shutter is released, the mirror swings up and away allowing the exposure of the photographic medium and instantly returns after the exposure. No SLR camera before 1954 had this feature, although the mirror on some early SLR cameras was entirely operated by the force exerted on the shutter release and only returned when the finger pressure was released. The Asahiflex II,",
"-37.98491886307602"
],
[
"side effect, the color balance is slightly altered in normal daylight photography.\nIt is extremely difficult to focus an extremely dim image with a reflex viewfinder; locking the mirror up and opening the shutter (live view) was introduced in the 20Da to address this issue. When used the camera provides a live image of the center of the field of view to allow focusing on a bright star. Live view for this application requires a lens which supports fully mechanical focus in manual mode, and is not suitable for normal daytime use.\nReviews report that image noise in the 20Da is",
"-37.81282485066913"
],
[
"not a separate feature, but operated as part of the self timer (notably the Nikon FE line of cameras).\nNote that when the mirror is in the up and locked position, the subject is no longer visible through the viewfinder. Therefore, the photographer must compose the photograph prior to activating mirror lock-up and keep the camera from moving. Use of a tripod helps prevent movement of the camera during this operation.\nCombined with a remote or cable release, this greatly reduces the potential for vibration of the camera. Lenses requiring mirror lock-up Some lenses are designed such that they extend into the",
"-37.69030712317908"
],
[
"at a multiple of the frame rate of the TV. Besides vibrations of the eyes, the effect can be produced by observing wheels via a vibrating mirror. Rear-view mirrors in vibrating cars can produce the effect. Truly continuous illumination The first to observe the wagon-wheel effect under truly continuous illumination (such as from the sun) was Schouten (1967). He distinguished three forms of subjective stroboscopy which he called alpha, beta, and gamma: Alpha stroboscopy occurs at 8–12 cycles per second; the wheel appears to become stationary, although \"some sectors [spokes] look as though they are performing a hurdle race over the",
"-37.58953719877172"
],
[
"reversed left-to-right horizontally. This causes image reversal, the view in the eyepiece is flipped left-right. The major advantage to mirror diagonals is that they cost less to produce to a high degree of optical accuracy compared to a prism and that they do not introduce any color errors to the image. The major disadvantage of mirror diagonals is that unless the reflective coating is properly applied they can scatter light rendering lower image contrast compared to a 90-degree prism. Also they deteriorate with age as the reflective surface oxidizes. The newer Dielectric mirrors have largely solved the deterioration problem, and",
"-37.52250545169227"
],
[
"Mirror System) is a system where the rear view mirrors have a section on the outer corner with a blind spot mirror, allowing the rider to spot vehicles in the blind spot area.",
"-37.39232105461997"
],
[
"seated position. Remote adjustment may be mechanical by means of bowden cables, or may be electric by means of geared motors. The mirror glass may also be electrically heated and may include electrochromic dimming to reduce glare to the driver from the headlamps of following vehicles. Increasingly, the side mirror incorporates the vehicle's turn signal repeaters. There is evidence to suggest mirror-mounted repeaters may be more effective than repeaters mounted in the previously predominant fender side location. Optional side mirror In the 1940s many roads were unpaved and had two lanes, one in each direction. Drivers had to be aware",
"-36.92727104021469"
],
[
"Rear-view mirror History Among the rear-view mirror's early uses is a mention by Dorothy Levitt in her 1909 book The Woman and the Car which noted that women should \"carry a little hand-mirror in a convenient place when driving\" so they may \"hold the mirror aloft from time to time in order to see behind while driving in traffic\". However, earlier use is described in 1906, in a trade magazine noting mirrors for showing what is coming behind now popular on closed bodied automobiles, and to likely be widely adopted in a short time. The same year, a Mr.",
"-36.88046101107284"
],
[
"what is behind to be checked continuously without turning round. Rear-view mirrors almost never come with a new bicycle and require an additional purchase. Aircraft In 1956, the Civil Aeronautical Administration proposed a rear-view mirror mounted right above the pilot to keep an eye when private aircraft are landing or taxiing on the runway to prevent collisions. Fighter aircraft usually have one or more rear-view mirrors mounted on the front canopy frame to watch out for chasing aircraft. Computer monitors Some computer monitors are fitted with rear-view mirrors to see if anyone is positioned behind the user where they",
"-36.58102550878539"
],
[
"Wing mirror A side-view mirror (often called side mirror), also known as the wing mirror , is a mirror found on the exterior of motor vehicles for the purposes of helping the driver see areas behind and to the sides of the vehicle, outside the driver's peripheral vision(in the 'blind spot')\nAlmost all modern cars mount their side mirrors on the doors—normally at the A-pillar—rather than the wings (the portion of the body above the wheel well)\nThe side mirror is equipped for manual or remote vertical and horizontal adjustment so as to provide adequate coverage to drivers of differing height and",
"-36.53118341437221"
],
[
"weatherproof devices. Automatic interior mirror Gentex first introduced a rear-view mirror that automatically adjusted to glare conditions in 1982. Interior Gentex introduced an automatic dimming mirror based on electrochromism in 1987. The reduction of glare eliminates the temporary blind spot caused by the Troxler effect after the glare source leaves the field of view.\nThese mirrors have forward- and rearward-facing sensors to measure the ambient light level and glare of approaching vehicles, respectively. An electrochromic gel is placed between two pieces of glass, which allows the mirror to dim in proportion to the glare level. Exterior In 1991, exterior",
"-36.52737054391764"
],
[
"\"Padunkle\" upon spotting a car without headlights turned on at night, awarding the spotter double points. Padunkle is also known as a rear light being out.",
"-36.45393786268687"
],
[
"camera's flash. In outdoor daytime shots, the Sun often serves as the key light. In this case, of course, the photographer cannot set the light in the exact position he or she wants, so instead arranges the shot to best capture the sunlight, perhaps after waiting for the sun to position itself just right.\nThe fill light also shines on the subject, but from a side angle relative to the key and is often placed at a lower position than the key (about at the level of the subject's face). It balances the key by illuminating shaded surfaces, and lessening or",
"-36.28059904510155"
],
[
"to another position and back to initial position. By default, the reflex mirror is set 45 degree from horizontal, blocks the light to the sensor and reflects light from the lens to penta-mirror/prism at the DSLR camera and after some reflections arrives at the viewfinder. The reflex mirror is pulled out horizontally below the penta-mirror/prism when shutter release is fully pressed, so the viewfinder will be dark and the light/image can directly strike the sensor at the time of exposure (speed setting).\nAutofocus is accomplished using sensors in the mirror box. Some DSLRs have a \"live view\" mode that allows",
"-36.28028426397941"
],
[
"the frame. Rolling the aircraft caused the gyro to rotate in the same direction, which was geared to cause the opposite motion in the reflector. As the sights worked by reflecting light off the reflector in the centre, motion of the mirror would result in twice the motion of the aim point. To address this, the gyro was attached through levers with a 2-to-1 reduction.\nThe reflector sight mechanism was mounted in front of the gyro, slightly to the left. A metal flap protected the half-mirror from damage when the sight was stowed. The flap was rotated rearward during use, covering",
"-36.24994244945265"
],
[
"with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road,. This may be achieved by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded. Some varieties of the projector-type headlamp can be fully adjusted to produce a proper LHT or RHT beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly. Some vehicles adjust the headlamps automatically when the car's GPS detects that the",
"-36.206538048689254"
],
[
"Flipped image Photography Many large format cameras present the image of the scene being photographed as a flipped image through their viewfinders. Some photographers regard this as a beneficial feature, as the unfamiliarity of the format allows them to compose the elements of the picture properly without being distracted by the actual contents of the scene. The technique is meant to bypass or override the brain's visual processing which normally sees what is expected rather than what is there.\nFlipping is occasionally used as a trompe l'oeil effect in scenes which incorporate reflections in a body of water. The image",
"-36.15297933734837"
],
[
"more convenient flip handled method and the center posts that held the film spools lost their angled profile for a more controversial straighter angle that improved film feed accuracy, but caused some difficulty in speed of spool placement during film reloading and also to prompted some to seek services to custom grind the posts.\nIn 1976, to address the issue of induced camera vibrations caused by the 6x7's large mirror swing and suddenly stopping, a mirror release mechanism was introduced. By sliding upwards the mirror-up switch on the right hand side of the mirror housing, it allowed a bypass of the",
"-36.136921059689485"
],
[
"mounted on a pivot, allowing for positioning. Focusing the camera is performed by rotating a ring around the lens. It comes with two LED lights on the front. A blue light turns on when the PS2 is on, indicating that it is ready to be used, while the red light flashes when there is insufficient light in the room. There is also a microphone built in. A second, newer model of the EyeToy provides similar features, but sports a smaller size and silver casing. Cameo EyeToy: Cameo is a system for allowing players to include their own images as avatars",
"-36.11613278664299"
],
[
"camera to take a picture of each position in turn. FocusTrack can aid in this process by controlling the lighting console, turning each light on in each position as required; it can then import the photographs to give a complete record of the work of the automated lights during the show.\nThe information can be displayed in a variety of ways according to circumstance, for example showing all of the uses of one light if it was replaced and the replacement needs to be checked, or all of the lights used in each cue state that might need their focuses corrected",
"-36.055328846443444"
],
[
"Tilt (camera) Tilting is a cinematographic technique in which the camera stays in a fixed position but rotates up/down in a vertical plane. Tilting the camera results in a motion similar to someone raising or lowering their head to look up or down. It is distinguished from panning in which the camera is horizontally pivoted left or right. Pan and tilt can be used simultaneously. In some situations the lens itself may be tilted with respect to the fixed camera body in order to generate greater depth of focus. \nThe camera's tilt will change the position of the horizon, changing",
"-36.033828028594144"
],
[
"as common as they once were, dim-dip functionality was fitted on many new cars well into the 1990s. Side marker lights and reflectors In the United States, amber front and red rear side marker lamps and retroreflectors are required. The law initially required lights or retroreflectors on vehicles manufactured after 1 January 1968. This was amended to require lights and retroreflectors on vehicles manufactured after 1 January 1970. These side-facing devices make the vehicle's presence, position and direction of travel clearly visible from oblique angles. The lights are wired so as to illuminate whenever the vehicles' parking and taillamps are",
"-36.02501415886218"
],
[
"is placed behind the front light. When the mariner sees the lights vertically in line, he is on the range line. If the front light appears left of the rear light, the observer is to the right of the range line; if the front appears to the right of the rear, the observer is left of the range line.",
"-35.9876191552612"
],
[
"the ring on the lens. Practically, the device is not necessary as the operator can directly turn the ring on the lens. However, this would place the hand in an awkward position perpendicular to the camera rather than parallel, and turning beyond a certain distance (such as 360 degrees) would be impossible. Sometimes, such a \"focus pull\" would even be difficult with a follow focus, so an L-shaped metal rod called a speed crank can be attached in the provided square hole at the center of the wheel. Thus, the hand merely has to spin the rod, which turns the",
"-35.95482022006763"
],
[
"passed the centerline the mirror would automatically flip, transferring the sight \"seamlessly\" to the lower periscope. The guns would aim wherever the periscope was aimed, automatically transferring between upper and lower turrets as required, and computing for parallax and other factors. While novel and theoretically effective, a great deal of time and trouble was spent trying to get the system to work effectively, which delayed production, and it was difficult to keep maintained in the field even once production started. Pacific The Douglas company began delivering the production model A-26B to the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) on 10",
"-35.937477416940965"
],
[
"close-up photography, using rotation sensors to compensate for changes in pointing direction becomes insufficient. Moving, rather than tilting, the camera up/down or left/right by a fraction of a millimeter becomes noticeable if you are trying to resolve millimeter-size details on the object. Linear accelerometers in the camera, coupled with information such as the lens focal length and focused distance, can feed a secondary correction into the drive that moves the sensor or optics, to compensate for linear as well as rotational shake. In biological eyes In many animals, including human beings, the inner ear functions as the biological analogue of",
"-35.926330884714844"
],
[
"an accelerometer in camera image stabilization systems, to stabilize the image by moving the eyes. When a rotation of the head is detected, an inhibitory signal is sent to the extraocular muscles on one side and an excitatory signal to the muscles on the other side. The result is a compensatory movement of the eyes. Typically eye movements lag the head movements by less than 10 ms.",
"-35.91052173846401"
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[
"simply rotating the watch winds the watch automatically. The interior of an automatic watch houses a swiveling metal or brass \"plate\" that swivels on its axis when the watch is shaken horizontally.",
"-35.80452987461467"
],
[
"(This requires a true optical effect, since simply playing the film in reverse when exposing it onto a new negative causes it to come out upside down.)\nThe second is an in-camera effect, achieved either by running the camera itself backwards or by turning the camera upside down. Most cameras are directly capable of running the film backwards (spooling from bottom to top rather than from top to bottom) and those that cannot can mostly be adapted into doing so by the simple expedient of rewiring the electric motor, switching its polarity (for DC motors) or changing over any two of",
"-35.80095606755458"
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[
"manner as performing eyepiece projection with a telescope, one fashioned with a front and rear aperture (font lens and rear eyepiece) along with a projection screen behind the eyepiece, or more rudimentary, the projecting of the Sun's image upon a small screen plate such as that done with a mariner's back staff. The rear, or second aperture (pass hole) having the function of working as a blacken attenuator so that any reflecting, annulus shaped sunlight off the metal aperture is not too bright, the Sun's image (light) passing through the second hole and similar in task though void of a",
"-35.709143163170666"
],
[
"(such as in low light or while using low-speed film) is not easy.\nMost SLR cameras permit upright and laterally correct viewing through use of a roof pentaprism situated in the optical path between the reflex mirror and viewfinder. Light, which comes both horizontally and vertically inverted after passing through the lens, is reflected upwards by the reflex mirror, into the pentaprism where it is reflected several times to correct the inversions caused by the lens, and align the image with the viewfinder. When the shutter is released, the mirror moves out of the light path, and the light shines directly",
"-35.62269970413763"
],
[
"as the number of times the wheel rotates per second is factor of 24 and 12, the wheel will appear to be stationary.\nIf the wheel rotates a little more slowly than two revolutions per second, the position of the spokes is seen to fall a little further behind in each successive frame and therefore, the wheel will seem to be turning backwards. Unwanted effects in common lighting Stroboscopic effect is one of the particular temporal light artefacts . In common lighting applications, stroboscopic effect is an unwanted effect which may become visible if a person is looking at a moving",
"-35.58447745325975"
],
[
"The cockpit was inspired by the Chevrolet Corvette. Functionality Instead of traditional side mirrors, rearview cameras emerge from the side windows while a front-facing camera shows real-time video that is overlaid on the GPS navigation.",
"-35.54919466309366"
],
[
"cameras, the shift mechanism allows shifts along only one axis, and the tilt mechanism allows tilts about only one axis; however, the rotation of the mechanisms allows the orientations of the axes to be changed, providing, in effect, combined tilt and swing, and combined rise/fall and lateral shift. The tilt and shift functions cannot be independently rotated. The lens is supplied with these functions at 90° to each other (e.g., providing tilt and lateral shift); they can be changed to work in the same directions (e.g., providing tilt and rise/fall) by removing four screws, rotating the front of",
"-35.51082700822735"
],
[
"through three pairs of giant green picture/mirror frames. After going up another hill, you glide past a 2-D large snake on the wall before turning left into a small brake run with walls on the left and right of the cars. Upon exiting this brake run, your ride vehicle is able to freely spin 360°. Taking a dive to the right, you then experience an 85° high-banked turn. Then, you turn around and go through multiple short s-bend track parts until you turn right into yet another break run with 2-D \"fire\" rings going around the track. Following the brake",
"-35.50520971342485"
],
[
"box, which the observer pushes when the sun is lined up in the sights. This fixes the compass card, from which the magnetic azimuth or amplitude can be read.\nThe sights may consist of two vanes, one with a narrow slit and the other with a wider slit bisected by a thread. The observer looks towards the sun, seen through a dark glass, lining up the thread and the narrow slit on the center of the sun. Another arrangement has a vertical bar on one vane and a slit bisected by a thread on the other. \nThe instrument is aligned",
"-35.48743125042529"
],
[
"beams, flashed alternately) are known as a wig-wag. Additional white lights may be placed strategically around the vehicle to illuminate the area around it when it is dark, almost always at the rear for loading and unloading stretchers and often at the sides as well. In areas very far North or South where there are times of year with long periods of darkness, additional driving lights at the front are often fitted as well to increase visibility for the driver.\nIn order to increase safety, it is best practice to have 360° coverage with the active warnings, improving the chance of",
"-35.44204438799352"
],
[
"inner set swivelled with the steering wheel. This allowed the driver to see \"around\" turns, especially valuable on twisting roads driven at high speed at night. The directional headlamps were linked to the wheels by cable.\nBehind each glass cover lens, the inboard high-beam headlamp swivels by up to 80° as the driver steers, throwing the beam along the driver's intended path rather than uselessly across the curved road. The outboard low-beam headlamps are self-leveling in response to pitching caused by acceleration and braking.\nHowever, this feature was not allowed in the US at the time (see World Forum for Harmonization of",
"-35.41100796293176"
],
[
"slid up/down the mast to the correct latitude. The user then sighted the Sun through the pair of sighting holes at either end of the \"ship's deck\". The plumb line then marked what hour of the day it was. Nodus-based sundials Another type of sundial follows the motion of a single point of light or shadow, which may be called the nodus. For example, the sundial may follow the sharp tip of a gnomon's shadow, e.g., the shadow-tip of a vertical obelisk (e.g., the Solarium Augusti) or the tip of the horizontal marker in a shepherd's dial. ",
"-35.275596977444366"
],
[
"to flash with the turn signals, but this is not mandatory. Mercedes-Benz introduced the side turn signal repeaters integrated into the side view mirror in 1998, starting with its facelifted E-Class (W210). Since then, many automakers have been incorporating side turn signal devices into the mirror housings rather than mounting them on the vehicle's fenders. Some evidence suggests these mirror-mounted turn signals may be more effective than fender-mounted items. Electrical connection and switching Turn signals are required to blink on and off, or \"flash\", at a steady rate of between 60 and 120 blinks per minute (1–2 Hz). International UN Regulations",
"-35.26953426547698"
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[
"shadow moves from left to down to right, i.e., counterclockwise. This effect is caused by the plane of the dial having been rotated through the plane of the motion of the sun and thus the shadow is observed from the other side of the dial's plane and is observed as moving in the opposite direction. Some clocks were constructed to mimic this. The best-known surviving example is the astronomical clock in the Münster Cathedral, whose hands move counterclockwise.\nOccasionally, clocks whose hands revolve counterclockwise are nowadays sold as a novelty. Historically, some Jewish clocks were built that way, for example in",
"-35.219592631518026"
],
[
"degree rotation. The camera head and light were mounted in an open-framework cage about 25 cm long, rotated on a horizontal axis by the servo. Despite taking care, motor gears were frequently stripped when the cage hit obstacles and the servo had to be replaced regularly! The light source needed to pan with the camera, so had to be small enough to fit in the cage. A 12 V 50 W quartz-halogen lamp with 5 cm diameter integral dichroic reflector was fitted, powered from a small switch-mode PSU. Although the lighting power had been reduced, it still required a high voltage supply down the",
"-35.20526711968705"
],
[
"Power side-view mirror Operation Usually, a single control is used to control both left and right side mirrors. A mirror is selected by a switch or a knob. The mirror selector usually has a neutral position with none mirrors selected, to prevent accidental changes of the view. The position of the selected mirror is adjusted by a joystick, a four-way knob, or other type of position control. In luxury designs, power mirror settings may be memorized together with settings of power seats.",
"-35.19870555821035"
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[
"they were lowered looking vertically down, and notes made of the depth and heading of any interesting features. The camera was then hauled to the surface and re-rigged to look horizontally at the interesting items found earlier. A remote tilt mechanism was needed as it would halve the time and effort.\nTo indicate heading, MineCams 1 and 2 used an ordinary spherical fluid-mounted car compass on an aluminium arm about 30 cm from the camera. A supplementary lens (from an old pair of spectacles) glued to the acrylic window brought the compass into focus at the corner of the frame. MineCam 3",
"-35.12214853690239"
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[
"only of traffic on their side and directly behind them (rear view). Due to this, most passenger vehicles with an internal rear-view mirror until the late 1960s had the passenger-side mirror only as an optional addition, as it was considered a luxury. Planar, convex, aspheric In the U.S. and Canada, the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 111 and the Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 111 require the driver side mirror to provide \"unit magnification\", i.e., an undistorted 1:1 reflection achieved with a flat mirror. However, unit magnification limits the field of view that can",
"-35.11181952678453"
],
[
"Upside down goggles Upside down goggles, also known as \"invertoscope\" by Russian researchers, are an optical instrument that inverts the image received by the retinas upside down. It is used to study human visual perception, particularly psychological process of building a visual image in the brain. Objects viewed through the device appear upside down and mirrored. They are constructed using sets of optical right-angle prisms, Dove prisms, or a mirror plus right-angle prisms with unequal catetus. Purpose Upside down goggles can be used to demonstrate human adaptation to inverted vision, and as a method of preventing motion sickness. Hubert Dolezal",
"-35.04265023005428"
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[
"of image stabilizer corrects only for pitch and yaw axis rotations, and cannot correct for rotation around the optical axis. Some lenses have a secondary mode that counteracts vertical-only camera shake. This mode is useful when using a panning technique. Some such lenses activate it automatically; others use a switch on the lens. \nTo compensate for camera shake in shooting video while walking, Panasonic introduced Power Hybrid OIS+ with five-axis correction: axis rotation, horizontal rotation, vertical rotation, and horizontal and vertical motion.\nSome Nikon VR-enabled lenses offer an \"active\" mode for shooting from a moving vehicle, such as",
"-35.02668756758794"
],
[
"side of the rear-view mirror, that use human-like stereoscopic vision to judge distances and generally keep tabs on the driver. The system helps maintain a safe distance on the highway, warns the driver during unintended lane departure, emits a wake up call should everyone else pull away from the traffic lights, and keeps an eye out for pedestrians. SI-Cruise has been integrated into the EyeSight feature as a driver safety aid. Diesel The Subaru EE series flat-4 diesel engine was offered in both Legacy and Outback models in Europe exclusively. These diesel models were introduced at the Geneva Motor Show",
"-35.002741217496805"
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[
"along the axis is to set the first ball on a fine-thread screw as well. By appropriate adjustment of all three screws, the mirror can be tilted in either direction without translation. The screws can by driven by a motor under computer control to make this seem to the operator like simple rotation about a virtual pivot point in the center of the mirror surface. The translation can instead be eliminated mechanically by using a gimbal mount, which uses two rings that each pivot about a line running through the center of the mirror. This gives kinematically-correct two-axis rotation about",
"-34.93815945991082"
],
[
"instrument to allow one to observe a bright object. The shade pivots to allow it to move out of the way for stellar observations.\nObserving through the telescope, the navigator would sight one object directly ahead. The second object would be seen by reflection in the horizon mirror. The light in the horizon mirror is reflected from the index mirror. By moving the index arm, the index mirror can be made to reveal any object up to 90° from the direct line of sight. When both objects are in the same view, aligning them together allows",
"-34.913317772210576"
],
[
"consumer and prosumer camcorders) are not \"true\" manual focus lenses—meaning that turning the ring does not directly adjust the elements inside the lens, but rather actuates the internal camera electronics that predict how the focus should go depending on how fast or far the ring was turned. These lenses make precise and repeatable focus pulls difficult, and use of a follow focus impractical. They are sometimes called \"servo\" focus lenses or \"focus by wire\" cameras.",
"-34.90390523840324"
],
[
"side mirrors of a vehicle, activated by the driver on one side of the vehicle at a time to advertise intent to turn or change lanes towards that side.\nElectric turn-signal lights date from as early as 1907. The modern flashing turn signal was patented in 1938 and later most major automobile manufacturers offered this feature. As of 2013 most countries require turn signals on all new vehicles that are driven on public roadways. Alternative systems of hand signals were used earlier, and remain common for bicycles. Hand signals are also sometimes used when regular vehicle lights are malfunctioning or for",
"-34.8957387751434"
],
[
"the picture taking lens to the viewfinder prior to releasing the shutter for composing and focusing an image. When the shutter is released, the mirror swings up and away allowing the exposure of the photographic medium and instantly returns after the exposure. No SLR camera before 1954 had this feature, although the mirror on some early SLR cameras was entirely operated by the force exerted on the shutter release and only returned when the finger pressure was released. The Asahiflex II, released by Japanese company Asahi (Pentax) in 1954, was the world's first SLR camera with an instant return mirror.",
"-34.87447051669005"
],
[
"to ensure that they are visible at all relevant angles, do not dazzle those who view them, and are suitably conspicuous in conditions ranging from full darkness to full direct sunlight. Side turn signals In most countries, cars must be equipped with side-mounted turn signal repeaters to make the turn indication visible laterally (i.e. to the sides of the vehicle) rather than just to the front and rear of the vehicle. These are permitted, but not required in the United States. As an alternative in both the United States and Canada, the front amber side marker lights may be wired",
"-34.83986139210174"
],
[
"systems may focus correctly even in total darkness when necessary. Some cameras and external flash units have a special low-level illumination mode (usually orange/red light) which can be activated during auto-focus operation to allow the camera to focus. Trap focus A method variously referred to as trap focus, focus trap, or catch-in-focus uses autofocus to take a shot when a subject moves into the focal plane (at the relevant focal point); this can be used to get a focused shot of a rapidly moving object, particularly in sports or wildlife photography, or alternatively to set a \"trap\" so that a",
"-34.83740843375563"
],
[
"Then, shifting to reverse automatically activates the backup camera system, and the car's rear view appears on dash navigation/camera display. The driver's selection of the parallel park guidance button on the navigation/camera touchscreen causes a grid to appear (with green or red lines, a flag symbol representing the corner of the parking spot, and adjustment arrows).\nThe driver is responsible for checking to see if the representative box on the screen correctly identifies the parking space; if the space is large enough to park, the box will be green in color; if the box is incorrectly placed, or lined in red,",
"-34.79820252896752"
],
[
"recommended to use upside down goggles for \"nausea adaptation\" for space travel.\nThey can also be used to train spatial abilities and possibly cognitive functions. Effect Under normal circumstances, an inverted image is formed on the retina of the eye. With the help of upside down goggles, the image on the retina of the observer's eyes is turned back (straightened) and thus the space around the observer looks upside down. History George M. Stratton designed first upside down goggles for psychological experiment. His device used short-focus lenses. Stratton used a one-tubus, monocular device because this also reverses left and right and",
"-34.79348390860105"
],
[
"Pentaprism In cameras A variant of this prism is the roof pentaprism which is commonly used in the viewfinder of single-lens reflex cameras. The camera lens renders an image that is both vertically and laterally reversed, and the reflex mirror re-inverts it leaving an image laterally reversed. In this case, the image needs to be reflected left-to-right as the prism transmits the image formed on the camera's focusing screen. This lateral inversion is done by replacing one of the reflective faces of a normal pentaprism with a \"roof\" section, with two additional surfaces angled towards each other and meeting at",
"-34.774723003807594"
],
[
"the watch's wheels to advance by a fixed amount, moving the hands forward. As the escape wheel turns, its tooth pushes against the lever, which gives the balance wheel a brief push, keeping it swinging back and forth. Keyless work A separate set of gears called the keyless work winds the mainspring when the crown is rotated, and when the crown is pulled out a short distance allow the hands to be turned to set the watch. The stem attached to the crown has a gear called the clutch or castle wheel, with two rings of teeth that project axially",
"-34.73270171733748"
],
[
"convenience. A visor mounted mirror was among popular dealer-added accessories that provided high profit margins with the sales staff receiving extra incentives to sell them. In some cases, a flip up or sliding cover over the mirror automatically turns on vanity lights, which can be adjusted with a dimmer control (see image).\nVisors are also available as an option or as a standard item from manufacturers with a built in remote garage door control, often referred to as a universal garage door opener.\nAftermarket exterior sun visors are available for trucks as cab visors.",
"-34.71142253023572"
],
[
"made partially retroreflective by depositing a layer of tiny refractive spheres on it or by creating small pyramid like structures. In both cases internal reflection causes the light to be reflected back to where it originated. This is used to make traffic signs and automobile license plates reflect light mostly back in the direction from which it came. In this application perfect retroreflection is not desired, since the light would then be directed back into the headlights of an oncoming car rather than to the driver's eyes. Multiple reflections When light reflects off a mirror, one image appears. Two mirrors",
"-34.709215922048315"
],
[
"the wagon-wheel effect under continuous illumination while humming. The humming vibrates the eyes in their sockets, effectively creating stroboscopic conditions within the eye. By humming at a frequency of a multiple of the rotation frequency, he was able to stop the rotation. By humming at slightly higher and lower frequencies, he was able to make the rotation reverse slowly and to make the rotation go slowly in the direction of rotation. A similar stroboscopic effect is now commonly observed by people eating crunchy foods, such as carrots, while watching TV: the image appears to shimmer. The crunching vibrates the eyes",
"-34.69693334528711"
],
[
"standard left or right from its normal position is called lens shift, or simply shift. This movement is similar to rise and fall, but moves the image horizontally rather than vertically. One use for shift is to remove the image of the camera from the final image when photographing a reflective surface. Tilt The axis of the lens is normally perpendicular to the film (or sensor). Changing the angle between axis and film by tilting the lens standard backwards or forwards is called lens tilt, or just tilt. Tilt is especially useful in landscape photography. By using the Scheimpflug principle,",
"-34.69506340875523"
],
[
"up/down, left/right pairs. By comparing the height of the blips, their operators could see which antenna was closer to the target, and turn the light in that direction to track it.\nIn 1941, an engineer at BTH, L.C. Ludbrook, began development of a lock-follow system for the SLC. This used simple electronics that were fed the paired signals and output a current whose magnitude depended on the amount of difference between the two. This signal was then sent into amplidynes that amplified the signal and drove motors that turned the light. Only a single operator was needed; they selected a target",
"-34.68526666931575"
],
[
"and lights are mounted in a swiveling head attached to a cylindrical body. The camera head can pan and tilt remotely. Integrated into the camera head are lighting devices, typically LEDs, for illuminating the pipeline. The camera is connected to display equipment via a long cable wound upon a winch. Some companies, such as Rausch Electronics USA, incorporate a series of lasers in the camera to accurately measure the pipe diameter and other data. Using a camera tractor A run to be inspected will either start from an access pipe leading at an angle down to the sewer and",
"-34.684519253263716"
],
[
"guider, which uses a prism to divert some of the light originally headed towards the eyepiece.\nThe device has a CCD or CMOS sensor that regularly takes short exposures of an area of sky near the object. After each image is captured, a computer measures the apparent motion of one or more stars within the imaged area and issues the appropriate corrections to the telescope's computerized mount.\nSome computer controlled telescope mounts have an autoguiding port that connects directly to the autoguider (usually referred to as an ST-4 port, which works with analog signals).\nAn autoguider need not be an independent unit; some",
"-34.67314257677208"
],
[
"examining the scene behind a vehicle, particularly a tall or bluff-tailed one, more effectively than a rear-view mirror alone.\nMulti-focal Fresnel lenses are also used as a part of retina identification cameras, where they provide multiple in- and out-of-focus images of a fixation target inside the camera. For virtually all users, at least one of the images will be in focus, thus allowing correct eye alignment.\nFresnel lenses have also been used in the field of popular entertainment. The British rock artist Peter Gabriel made use of them in his early solo live performances to magnify the size of his head, in",
"-34.66124544409104"
],
[
"a weather-proof backing that became an industry standard. Each mirror was angled to the anticipated focal length to the central tower. Each moment of each year, each mirror had to be in a position to split the vectors between the mirror and the sun and the mirror and the target. This required a large volume of calculations, special computers and gearing mechanisms which Northrup designed. Team leader, Floyd Blake remembers, \"Lynn climbed a ladder in front of the heliostats to take a picture of the sun reflected in them, then went up in a helicopter to be sure the heliostats",
"-34.64426224777708"
],
[
"could be distinguished from the ground return.\nSince the altitude of the beacon was known, on the ground, the angular display was not needed. Instead, a switch was flipped by a small cam on the scanner as it passed the 12 and 6 o'clock positions in its rotation pattern, causing the receiver output to be inverted. The angular scanning was turned off and the time base re-positioned at the bottom of the screen. Received signals caused the time base to move to the left or right depending on where the dish was pointed at the time the signal was received.\nSwitching the",
"-34.55718261707807"
],
[
"S was introduced, the image from the taking lens was split in two (in a prism): one beam was sent to the film and the other beam to the viewfinder. On the Beaulieu cameras, however, no light was wasted (reflex system) -- either all of it was directed at the film, or while the shutter was closed and the film was advanced, the light hit the mirror on the shutter which directed it into the viewfinder. This meant that the image in the viewfinder flickered while filming, as the mirror shutter (located at 45°) moved up and down. Beaulieu cameras",
"-34.55002336006146"
],
[
"the Sun so that the shadow falls directly down the scale. Its end displays the time. Ring dials In a ring dial (also known as an Aquitaine or a perforated ring dial), the ring is hung vertically and oriented sideways towards the sun. A beam of light passes through a small hole in the ring and falls on hour-curves that are inscribed on the inside of the ring. To adjust for the equation of time, the hole is usually on a loose ring within the ring so that the hole can be adjusted to reflect the current month. Card",
"-34.53249198735284"
],
[
"light, such as from a car's headlights, to enter. The rear surface of the tile takes the form of an array of angled micro-prisms or spherical beads.\nThe light striking the rear, inside surface of the prisms or beads, does so at an angle greater than the critical angle thus it undergoes total internal reflection. Due to the orientation of the other inside surfaces, any light internally reflecting is directed back out the front of the reflector in the direction it came from. This alerts the person close to the light source, e.g. the driver of the vehicle, to the presence",
"-34.51260887136232"
],
[
"wheel. If it is necessary for the operator to stand a short distance from the camera, e.g., if the camera is inconveniently high, a short flexible cable called a \"focus whip\" can be used.\nThe stationary white disk surrounding the wheel is used by the focus puller to jot down marks, and take care of the focus according to the marks he/she took during rehearsals. A focus puller often uses a tape to correctly measure the distance from the lens to the subject, allowing for accurate marking of the disk.\nSome autofocus lenses with a focus ring (such as those on most",
"-34.50659856139282"
],
[
"observer's line of sight. When a neutral density filter (a darkened lens—typically gray) is placed in front of, say, the right eye, the pendulum seems to take on an elliptical orbit, appearing closer as it swings toward the right and farther as it swings toward the left, so that if it were to theoretically be viewed from above, it would appear to be revolving counterclockwise. Conversely, if the left eye is covered, the pendulum would appear to be revolving clockwise-from-top, appearing closer as it swings toward the left and farther as it swings toward the right.\nA similar effect can be",
"-34.474037372383464"
],
[
"another camera mounted on the passenger side of the vehicle's side mirror helps eliminate blind spots on the side at low speeds, such as when in parking lots or on off-road adventures.\nThe QX also features the updated Infiniti hard drive based navigation system with an eight-inch VGA display. Infiniti keyless SmartAccess with an \"Intelligent Remote\" key is standard along with 8 airbags including knee airbags for driver and front passenger as well as second-row side torso airbags, the Adaptive Front-lighting System (AFS) is standard, while the Pre-Collision System (PCS),Vehicle Dynamic Control (Electronic stability control) systems and lane departure warning system",
"-34.47132852359209"
],
[
"motorcycles have rear-view mirrors. Off road cycles do not. Prior to the 1960s, most motorcycles, even roadsters, were not fitted with rear-view mirrors. Rear-view mirrors are increasingly standard factory-fit features on road bikes, with 47 US states requiring them by law. Turn signal indicators Not all motorcycles have turn signal indicators, or \"blinkers.\" Off road cycles do not. Prior to the 1970s, most motorcycles, even roadsters, were not fitted with turn signal indicators. Turn signal indicators are an increasing standard factory-fit feature on new road bikes, with 20 US states requiring them by law. Headlights On most new motorcycles, the",
"-34.46653241565218"
],
[
"spot. The vehicle rear has to be facing the reverse parking spot, allowing the backup camera to 'see' the parking area. Shifting to reverse automatically activates the backup camera system, and the driver selects the reverse park guidance button on the navigation/camera touchscreen (the grid appears with green or red lines, a flag symbol representing the corner of the parking spot, and adjustment arrows; reverse parking adds rotation selection). After checking the parking space and engaging the reverse park procedure, the same exact parking process occurs as the car reverse parks into the spot.\nThe system is set up so that",
"-34.41703479291755"
],
[
"wig-wag lighting, this involves adding a device to alternately flash the high-beam headlights, or, in some countries, the rear fog lights. It can also involve drilling out other lights on the vehicle to add ‘hideaway’ or ‘corner strobes’. Interior mounted A variety of emergency lights may be used in the interior of a vehicle, generally on the dashboard, visor area, or rear deck. Uses range from discreet or temporary lighting for unmarked vehicles and volunteer responders, to additional rear lighting on fully marked vehicles, to a ‘slick-top’ configuration not unlike a full lightbar set.\nInterior lighting is available in",
"-34.412790823604155"
],
[
"periscopes located at the top of the sloping glacis plate. During night operations the center periscope is switched for the TVN-28 night vision device, which gives the driver a clear vision up to 60 meters. The driver also has a small hatch that opens upwards and, while it can't be used for the driver to leave the vehicle, it can be opened in relatively safe areas for extra vision. When in combat the hatch is closed and the driver can use a vision block for a limited vision. Under the driver's seat is an emergency hatch which can be used",
"-34.388451384962536"
],
[
"the focusing knobs will cause the other to rotate in the same direction.",
"-34.38414452705911"
],
[
"I accidentally stuck my hand momentarily in front of the camera's lens. Of course the screen went all dark, but when I removed my hand, the previous pattern did not just pop right back onto the screen, as expected. Instead I saw a different pattern on the screen, but this pattern, unlike anything I'd seen before, was not stationary.",
"-34.346869700195384"
],
[
"space and automatically steer the vehicle into the space (hands free) while the driver controls the accelerator, gearshift and brakes. The system will visually and audibly instruct the driver to park the vehicle. Active Park Assist system uses sensors on the front and rear of the vehicle to guide the vehicle into a parking space. Rear-view camera system – uses an exterior camera embedded in the rear of the vehicle that sends images to a video display in the rearview mirror or the navigation system screen to help enhance visibility directly behind the vehicle when it is in reverse.\nNo cosmetic",
"-34.33380383843905"
],
[
"four cameras to provide a real-time visual display of the surrounding environment. The \"Side View+\" feature automatically displays live video images of the vehicle's rear blind spot to reduce the chance of an accident during lane changes. The \"Night Vision+\" high-sensitivity night vision camera system helps illuminate the road and traffic conditions at night beyond the range of the headlamps. \"LDWS+\" constantly reads the road surface for lane markers and dividers and gives audible and visual warnings when the vehicle veers too close to the lane markings. Overall, the SUV is equipped with 23 advanced ECUs and 8 video cameras",
"-34.32080204485101"
],
[
"as light as other camera designs—such as rangefinder cameras, autofocus compact cameras and digital cameras with electronic viewfinders (EVF)—owing to the mirror box and pentaprism/pentamirror. The mirror box also prevents lenses with deeply recessed rear elements from being mounted close to the film or sensor unless the camera has a mirror lockup feature; this means that simple designs for wide angle lenses cannot be used. Instead, larger and more complex retrofocus designs are required.\nThe SLR mirror 'blacks-out' the viewfinder image during the exposure. In addition, the movement of the reflex mirror takes time, limiting the maximum shooting speed. The mirror",
"-34.31150629222975"
],
[
"the headlamps still gives the night-time effect of four individual units. Prior to its world debut, a teaser video previewing the car's multibeam LED headlamps was released in January 2015. Drift Mode Introduced in the Mercedes-AMG E 63 S 4MATIC+, drift mode allows the car to completely cut the front axle from its all-wheel-drive 4MATIC system and transfer all 604 hp (612 PS; 450 kW) and 627 lb⋅ft (850 N⋅m) of torque to the rear axle of the car. This allows the driver to engage in easier drifts due to the nature of the rear wheel drive function. To enable drift mode, the driver must",
"-34.306858477852074"
],
[
"6.43 degrees, a shutter, several optical filters, and iris-system mounted along an axis inclined approximately 16 degrees from the central axis of Surveyor 1. The camera was mounted under a mirror that could be moved in azimuth and elevation. The rotation of the mirror in the azimuth direction, while providing azimuth coverage capability results in an image rotation proportional to the angular azimuth position of the mirror. This is because the image plane and scanning raster of the vidicon are stationary with respect to the mirror azimuth axis. The mirror drive mechanism consisting of stepper motors provided a step size",
"-34.302961153851356"
],
[
"stars, to the arc of the planet.\nA tilting Point-of-view shot expresses either attention or head motion. Attention might convey a potential love interest with \"elevator eyes\" or concern with sizing up an opponent. Head motion could show a nodding \"yes\". Combining tilt with camera position could show a face plant or tipping over backwards. \nMinor tilting is used for reframing to maintain headroom.\nExtreme tilting would follow the subject past the zenith or nadir to a full 180 degrees, starting or ending with an inverted view of the world.\nThe Dutch angle, also known as Dutch tilt, is a head tilt to",
"-34.27886460314039"
],
[
"as helicopter rotors, aircraft propellers and car commercials. In these recorded media, the effect is a result of temporal aliasing. It can also commonly be seen when a rotating wheel is illuminated by flickering light. These forms of the effect are known as stroboscopic effects: the original smooth rotation of the wheel is visible only intermittently. A version of the wagon-wheel effect can also be seen under continuous illumination. Under stroboscopic conditions Stroboscopic conditions ensure that the visibility of a rotating wheel is broken into a series of brief episodes in which its motion is either absent (in the case",
"-34.27226529744803"
],
[
"most view cameras, the shift mechanism allows shifts along only one axis, and the tilt mechanism allows tilts about only one axis; however, the rotation of the mechanisms allows the orientations of the axes to be changed, providing, in effect, combined tilt and swing, and combined rise/fall and lateral shift. \nIn addition to optical improvements, the TS-E 24 mm f/3.5L II also introduces a new barrel design, allowing the tilt and the shift to be rotated independently of each other without removing screws on the lens body, as was required on the original version.\nCanon announced the second version of this lens",
"-34.254390463698655"
],
[
"crew shook the car to give the impression that it was moving, though it never actually was. Other crew members would move lights around the set to simulate street lights or headlights of other cars. Behind the car, two lights on a wheeled stand were placed to give the impression that there was a car behind it. This technique is called \"poor man's process\", because it is cheaper than other ways of achieving the effect. The show had previously experimented with this technique in the season one episode \"The Stake Out\".\nSome scenes in the episode were cut prior to broadcast.",
"-34.232492914190516"
],
[
"The top part contained a glass prism that was attached to the camera's focusing screen. There were also knobs on top of the housing for adjusting the exposure and aperture settings. On the bottom, left-hand side of the housing was the focusing knob, and on the right-hand side, the winding handle and a frame counter. There was also a filter turret. A special flash bulb could be attached for flash photography, in which case a battery pack had to be installed inside the housing. Of course, a viewfinder frame could also be screwed onto the housing.\nAlthough there were many imitators,",
"-34.22828271856997"
],
[
"sky.\nEGP's flashes are visible in binoculars if the observer is on the nighttime side of the planet, and the satellite is in sunlight while its orbital trajectory takes it above the observer's horizon. These conditions are often met in the hours after sunset, and the hours before sunrise. When EGP enters the Earth's shadow, the stream of flashes abruptly ceases.",
"-34.19316998300201"
],
[
"leans into a turn. The leaning is intended to counter the effect of centrifugal force on the occupants and is available only on rear-wheel drive models. Lighting Like the W222 sedan, the C217 coupé includes full-LED lighting on the exterior (including full-LED headlamps with Intelligent Light System and Adaptive Highbeam Assist PLUS) and interior of the vehicle. Optional headlight features include 47 Swarovski crystals in each headlamp: 30 crystals for the turn signals and 17 for the daytime running lights. S 500/S 550 The C217 S-Class coupé launched with the S 500 model, known as the S 550 in",
"-34.16929626540514"
]
] |
3moexi | How are old films and photograph's, that are old, grainy and captured on film, restored to 1080p HD? | [
"Film is better than 1080p. Not necessarily how it was shown on a television or projector, but the film itself is higher resolution than 1080p, and even 4k. This is why it can be reformatted for our current standards. Long live film.",
"Several steps actually. As others have noted, good film has been better than 4k for quite some time. Modern Super 35 (that's a size measurement) is about 7k in resolution, the 65mm that is used by people like Tarantino is about 14k. For these a scan of the film is all that necessary. For those that don't have the resolution they actually scale it up. They rely on the fact that most people sit too far away from their TV to even properly tell 720p, so upscaling everything to 1080p just gives them advertising rights to say that it is in Full HD. For special films they actually go through and can basically rebuild everything. Really what they are doing is building visual effects that look identical. This was used extensively in the 4k work on Taxi Driver. For this they focus almost exclusively on the places that are in focus, since that is where you will be looking. It is only the major artifacts in the background that are redone. This is simply to save a lot of money. The basic work is very quick and inexpensive, a full movie can be done for under $5000. The more in depth ones cost far more, the Taxi Driver 4k was alleged to cost roughly $100,000. Edit: It occurred to me that you may want an explanation of how the film scanning works. Start with the sensor from a DSLR camera (we will change this later). Now if we can lay the film precisely on top of the camera sensor, the sensor will see the film and we get the image. The problem is that sensors are actually very rough microscopically and touching then destroys them. We need something to protect the sensor. On top of the sensor we place a very precise lens system. Film glides over glass very well, and now we don't touch the sensor. So we precisely align a single frame of the movie on the lens over the sensor. Shine a very precise amount of light through and we capture the image perfectly. For modern celluloid this can be done at 18 frames per second, for highest quality, if speed is important 48 frames per second are possible. For old fragile celluloid the speed is slowed way down, with very old films I have heard of speeds as low as 1 frame every 5 seconds. So that's the basic, and is how the \"cheap\" ones work, cheap here is $20,000. However with some changes we can greatly improve quality. The first, most common, change is to replace the sensor. Instead of a Bayer pattern sensor, like a DSLR has, we use a prism with 3 sensors a sensor each for red, green, and blue. Now we get a full resolution image for each color. This is probably the most widespread method. However, if we sacrifice some speed, and use the latest LEDs, we can reduce cost, and maintain quality. Remember in our first setup we used a color sensor. Instead use a black and white sensor. Black and white sensors are the sharpest, most accurate, most reliable sensors available. Now we get a black and white image. But if we shine just a carefully controlled red LED through the film we will get just the reds information. We do the same for green and blue. Now we have three images for a single frame, one each for red, green, and blue. This is basically the next generation technology for film scanning. It offers greater control, the highest quality, and is the cheapest price. Once all the individual frames are scanned. Then the scan goes through color correction where a skilled technician carefully adjust dozens of parameters to deliver the correct color for the film. This colorist job is standard across both digital and film capture.",
"On actual film, the particles make greater than what 4K is now. Granted, they are particles and not pixels but the are so sharp that the displays that show them have to \"dumb down\" or reduce the clarity because nothing yet has been able to totally show that clarity. That's why movies always showed \"this has been formatted to fit this screen\"",
"**tl;dr**: Film is worse than you think, but that's OK: movies don't *have* to have good quality in the individual frames. Digital encoding helps. There are other ways to fix up movies and photos with digital image processing, but a five-year-old doesn't need to know them. The simplest answer is that you just take a high resolution digital image of each frame of film or old photograph, and then scale it down to the pixel resolution you want. The other answers here are pretty good, miss some important things about film. Photographic film *can* have very high resolution, but generally doesn't. In any case, film resolution is quite different from pixel resolution. Film works by being covered in a random pattern of tiny light-sensitive crystals. Those crystals get \"activated\" by light. Later, you \"develop\" the film. The main part of developing is bathe the film in certain chemicals that turn the crystals dark. The \"activated\" crystals turn dark faster than plain old \"unactivated\" ones, so if you bathe the film in the chemicals just the right amount of time, then an image will appear. There are other chemicals to wash away all the leftover non-darkened crystals, which makes the image permanent. The deal is that *each crystal on the film develops all at once, or not at all*. That is, if enough light hits a particular crystal to turn it dark, that whole tiny crystal turns dark during development. Black-and-white film has one kind of crystal, color film has three different kinds that respond to the three primary colors. So there's a trade, in film, between *sharpness* and *greyscale*. At very small scales, developed black-and-white film looks like a bunch of black specks sitting on a piece of plastic. At larger scales, you can see an image with different shades of grey. The grey level is decided by how many black specks there are in each little bit of film inside the grey area. The sharper the details you look for, the less clear the grey is and the more grainy the image appears. Movie film is particularly bad for grain. That is because the film is exposed for a short amount of time in (often) low light conditions, so movie makers use a sensitive film. Individual frames of a movie from, say, the 1970s (like \"2001: A Space Odyssey\"), stored at 1080p, often have a *lot* of visible film grain. But in a movie that's not so important: the frames flit by so fast, your eye sort of averages out the grain from nearby frames, and the movie looks great at 1080p even though each individual frame may have enough grain to really only look smooth and good at 240p or similarly low resolution. MPEG-encoding movies helps get rid of film grain, too! MPEG format uses *differences* between frames and stores the information as a combination of cross-fading and bulk motion of the image. Since MPEG is a *lossy* compression scheme, the encoding throws away a lot of \"non-essential\" information in each frame. The non-essential information is small, faint features that are completely different frame to frame -- which is a good way to describe film grain. So MPEG encoding actually helps clean up film grain and make the movie look \"cleaner\" even at 1080p."
] | [
[
"capture in full resolution.\nOf course, having an intermediate digital stage, followed by forming a new film master by lasering the digital results onto new film stock does represent an extra generation. So would an intermediate film master that was restored frame-by-frame by hand. The choice of film vs. digital restoration will be driven by the amount, if any, of restoration required, the taste and skill set of the restorer, and the economics of film restoration vs. digital restoration. Digital as archival medium Digital scanners as of 2014 can capture images as large as 65mm in full resolution. That is the",
"-36.11778896758915"
],
[
"working on the set during production, taking pictures for potential publicity use. The high-quality photographic paper prints that resulted — some produced in quantity for display use by theaters, others in smaller numbers for distribution to newspapers and magazines — have preserved imagery from many otherwise lost films. In some cases, such as London After Midnight, the surviving coverage is so extensive that an entire lost film can be reconstructed scene by scene in the form of still photographs. Stills have been used to stand in for missing footage when making new preservation prints of partially lost films; one example",
"-36.1151622478792"
],
[
"reliably store a motion picture for as long as a hundred years or more (something that film—properly stored and handled—does very well). The short history of digital storage media has been one of innovation and, therefore, of obsolescence. Archived digital content must be periodically removed from obsolete physical media to up-to-date media. The expense of digital image capture is not necessarily less than the capture of images onto film; indeed, it is sometimes greater.",
"-35.6038510883227"
],
[
"for theatrical exhibition.\nIn traditional photochemical restorations, image polarity considerations must be observed when recombining surviving materials and the final, lowest generation restoration master may be either a duplicate negative or a fine grain master positive.\nPreservation elements, such as fine-grain master positives and duplicate printing negatives, are generated from this restoration master element to make both duplication masters and access projection prints available for future generations. Film as archival medium Film preservationists would prefer that the film images, whether restored through photochemical or digital processes, be eventually transferred to other film stock, because no digital media exists that has proven truly",
"-35.10315935825929"
],
[
"recording technology like VHS, so once broadcast, the films faded from view and have only been seen occasionally since. Recently they have been re-mastered and edited, with a commentary by the cameraman Antony Barrington-Brown and Tim Slessor, and interviews with Nigel Newbery, Pat Murphy, Adrian Cowell and Sir David Attenborough. The DVD also has an 'extra' about the making of the original films and the rescuing of the footage.",
"-34.925994021468796"
],
[
"by Michael Gordon, and performed by his orchestra. The footage used was from old newsreel & archive film, and was obtained by Morrison from several sources, such as the Fox Movietone Newsfilm Archives at the University of South Carolina, and the archives of the Museum of Modern Art. Preservation through careful storage The \"preservation\" of film usually refers to physical storage of the film in a climate-controlled vault, and sometimes to the actual repair and copying of the film element. Preservation is different from \"restoration\", as restoration is the act of returning the film to a version most faithful",
"-34.83930761960801"
],
[
"prints, German and British archivists restored the film during 1998 and 1999 including reinstating the original tinted image by using the Desmet method. Availability The film is screened fairly often on Turner Classic Movies. Before shuttering in November of 2018, the film was available to stream through the subscription-based FilmStruck. Filmstruck's follow up service, Criterion Channel, a service from the Criterion Collection, now streams it in Region 1. English-market DVDs are available, distributed by Milestone Films and available in NTSC R1 (from Image) and PAL R2 (from the BFI). Both versions of the DVD are identical. They feature both an",
"-34.70823025889695"
],
[
"film originally shot in Cinerama to remain unrestored. The cost of a full digital scan and restoration of the best surviving elements has been estimated by film preservationist Robert A. Harris at between $1 million to $2 million.\nMGM/UA Home Video released the film on VHS and LaserDisc in the U.S. in 1989 and 1992, respectively, and on LaserDisc in Japan in 1997. Since then, other than a bootleg Italian DVD from a low quality source, there have been no further releases on home video.",
"-34.59282029303722"
],
[
"or other physically generated artefacts. Provincial cinemas that would have received old prints can give consumers the same cinematographic experience (all other things being equal) as those attending the premiere. Cons A number of high-profile film directors, including Christopher Nolan, Paul Thomas Anderson, David O. Russell and Quentin Tarantino have publicly criticized digital cinema and advocated the use of film and film prints. Most famously, Tarantino has suggested he may retire because, though he can still shoot on film, because of the rapid conversion to digital, he cannot project from 35 mm prints in the majority of American cinemas. Steven Spielberg",
"-34.55346120422473"
],
[
"as soon as possible. Without immediate restoration followed by a change to proper long-term storage, the environmental factors that caused the early signs of damage will continue, leading eventually to irreparable damage and permanent loss of the film’s content. Nitrate and safety negatives that need to be handled but are in good condition should still generally be digitized. The digital image can then be used as an access copy while the original remains in cold storage. A wide array of digital systems are available for capturing and storing photographic images, and an institution should have a digital preservation policy in",
"-34.40090137836523"
],
[
"cost of creating the scene using miniatures. Preservation status This is a lost film with no archive holdings.",
"-34.130917420843616"
],
[
"modern film technology was used to create a color print instead of the original Technicolor Process 2, which involved cementing together two film strips base to base, the resulting image quality is better than the original prints appeared. Availability The restored version is available as one of the titles included in the 4-DVD box-set Treasures from American Film Archives, 50 Preserved Films.",
"-33.92549503553528"
],
[
" The movie is produced in 1.375 format, and then the resulting image is simply cropped in post-production (or perhaps in the theater's projector) to fit the desired aspect ratio of 1.85:1 or 1.66:1 or whatever is desired. Besides costing less, the main advantage of the matte technique is that it leaves the studio with \"real\" footage (the areas that are cropped for the theatrical release) which can be used in preference to pan-and-scan when producing 4:3 DVD releases, for example.\nThe anamorphic encoding on DVD is related to the anamorphic filming technique (like CinemaScope) only by name. For",
"-33.88774435117375"
],
[
"restored to as close to the original version as possible, by reinstating edited footage and using computer technology to repair damaged footage. However, at that point, approximately a quarter of the original film footage was considered lost, according to the Kino Video DVD release of the restored film. On July 1, 2008, Berlin film experts announced that a copy of the film had been discovered in the archives of the film museum Museo del Cine in Buenos Aires, Argentina, which contained almost all of the scenes still missing from the 2002 restoration. The film now has been restored very close",
"-33.78440199617762"
],
[
"has not yet been determined. Thus, while digital techniques in film restoration are undoubtedly on the rise, they are still far from becoming standard.",
"-33.75258832477266"
],
[
"high quality transfer from a newly discovered 35mm print, which the studio calls \"pristine,\" and also restored the scenes which were cut from the original DVD release.",
"-33.70807503227843"
],
[
"and some newer footage to give some resemblance of a story. Compilation films with new footage A special kind of compilation films are movies where old footage is simply filmed again, but on a higher budget. A famous example is the first Monty Python movie And Now For Something Completely Different (1973), where most of the scenes are recreations of the most popular sketches from the first two seasons of the TV series Monty Python's Flying Circus. So although the footage is new, the content is mostly not. Examples Examples of compilation films include the Ghost in the Shell: Stand",
"-33.65256949351169"
],
[
"films, often restoring them to pristine condition. In many cases, original footage that had been excised—or censored by the Production Code in the U.S.—from the original negative, has been reinstated. In addition to the preservation, restoration, and presentation of classic cinema, the foundation teaches young people about film language and history through The Story of Movies, an educational program claimed to be \"used by over 100,000 educators nationwide\".\nIn the age of digital television, high definition television and DVD, film preservation and restoration has taken on commercial as well as historical importance, since audiences demand the highest possible picture quality from",
"-33.639888491947204"
],
[
"only available via numerous low quality, budget reissues on VHS and DVD. In 2016, work was completed on a \"New 4K digital restoration, undertaken by Universal Pictures in partnership with The Film Foundation and in consultation with filmmakers Martin Scorsese and Steven Spielberg\". This restoration was issued on Blu-ray and DVD in November 2016 by the Criterion Collection in the US, and in June 2017 by Arrow Video in the UK.",
"-33.63656123209512"
],
[
"a print. It is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive (see below).\n\nA digitally restored edition was released on DVD by International Historic Films in 2012.",
"-33.59092628606595"
],
[
"it for direct sale to the public on DVD(s), as different from a documentary being made and released first on television or on a cinema screen (a.k.a. theatrical release) and subsequently on DVD for public consumption.\nThis form of documentary release is becoming more popular and accepted as costs and difficulty with finding TV or theatrical release slots increases. It is also commonly used for more 'specialist' documentaries, which might not have general interest to a wider TV audience. Examples are military, cultural arts, transport, sports, etc.. Compilation films Compilation films were pioneered in 1927 by Esfir Schub with The Fall",
"-33.57805864329566"
],
[
"least two minutes of footage. This version has been broadcast on television and cable. The film has been released on DVD by the Warner Archive Collection. \nThe Library of Congress has long held a copy of the surviving version of this film.",
"-33.572904924163595"
],
[
"surviving prints of the film are 16mm \"show-at-home\" prints distributed by Universal in the 1920s and 1930s for home-movie purposes, and no original 35mm negatives or prints survive. Most video editions (including public domain releases) of the film are derived from 16mm duplicate prints that were distributed by Blackhawk Films in the 1960s and 1970s. A DVD release of a newly restored print of the film was released by Image Entertainment on October 9, 2007. A Blu-ray release of a newly restored print of the film was released by Flicker Alley on March 18, 2014.",
"-33.5695581428954"
],
[
"the visual effects used in the film were handled by Cinevideo Arts Philippines. Digital compositing was handled by Video Post. Restoration As part of the projects of the ABS-CBN Film Archives, the movie is one of the classic Filipino films that were digitally restored and remastered in HD. A special screening of the restored HD version of the film was held last April 6, 2016 at the UP Cine Adarna.",
"-33.56198033771943"
],
[
"the films are available to screen on the BBC Film Network. Archive The UK Film Council takes delivery of a Digibeta copy of each film for preservation in its national archive in Sheffield and DVD copies are stored by the Edinburgh International Film Festival as part of the Film UK Guide to British Film archive.",
"-33.53362156575895"
],
[
"stations then mastered back on film, see film out and digital intermediate. Scanned film frames may also be used in digital film restoration. The film may also be projected directly on a digital projector in the theater. The data film files may be converted to SDTV (NTSC or PAL) video TV systems.",
"-33.43058149208082"
],
[
"need for additional filming. This can include still images as well as archival film. The concept of archival footage can be extended to include the photography of historical material from archives which are used to illustrate to a documentary film and is also the main reason why archive footage is especially important to historical documentary filmmaking. Re-enactment Re-enactments are also often used in documentaries. They are artificial scenes of an event which has been reconstructed and acted out on film based on information of the event. Reconstructions generally provide factual information and give the viewer a sense of realism as",
"-33.41855815629242"
],
[
"film website Brenton Film, many home media releases of the film consisted of \"poor quality DVDs with different edits, scores, running speeds and usually in definitely unoriginal black and white\".\nOne of the earliest high-quality home versions was film preservationist David Shepard's 1992 transfer of a 16mm print for VHS and laserdisc release via Image Entertainment. A short documentary, The Making of The Birth of a Nation, newly produced and narrated by Shepard, was also included. Both were released on DVD by Image in 1998 and the UK's Eureka Entertainment in 2000.\nIn the UK, Photoplay Productions restored the Museum of Modern",
"-33.41466186312027"
],
[
"and a 27-by-40-inch (69 by 102 cm) reproduction film poster.\nIn 2011, Warner Home Video released a 50th anniversary edition on Blu-ray Disc and DVD, making it the first home release where the film is present on its original aspect ratio. For this release, the film was completely restored frame by frame from an 8K scan of the original 65mm negative. The restoration cost $1 million, and was one of the highest resolution restorations ever made by Warner Bros. A new musical soundtrack-only option and six new featurettes (one of which was an hour long) were also included. Ban in China The",
"-33.37541490711237"
],
[
"but which was lost during the telerecording process. For the pre-filmed scenes, most of the high-quality original 35 mm film inserts still existed, as they had been spliced into the 1959–60 compilation repeat version in place of the lower-quality telerecorded versions of the same sequences. As this compilation also survived in the BBC archives, these film sequences were able to be digitally remastered and inserted into the newly restored episodic version for the DVD release. The compilation used a separate magnetic soundtrack, and although the original had decayed a safety copy had survived. This yielded better sound quality than the optical",
"-33.357676059240475"
],
[
"entire collection has been re-photographed.” The events that began over a century ago with the moving image at the Library of Congress continue to unfold.\nIn 2004, Kinetta built a new digital scanner specifically for the Library's Paper Print Collection. Used with digital restoration software, and a special Kinetta 35mm B&W Film Recorder, films are scanned from the paper prints at 2K resolution, digitally restored, and output to 35mm B&W film. The resulting restorations are significantly better than the photochemical versions in many aspects. Films restored using this system include two Chaplin shorts.",
"-33.33435623528203"
],
[
"for use, when the image is sent in a digital format. Copies of images are also used in case any images are damaged, notable due to vinegar syndrome. \nThe most popular images from the Archive include Colin Firth in Pride and Prejudice, Michael Parkinson interviewing Muhammad Ali, Martin Bashir interviewing Diana, Princess of Wales and a picture of Delia Derbyshire at work in the Radiophonic workshop at the BBC. Archive Treasure Hunt At the turn of the millennium, the BBC launched the BBC Archive Treasure Hunt, a public appeal to recover pre-1980s lost BBC radio and television productions. Original material,",
"-33.31871652288828"
],
[
"or aesthetically significant\" by the United States Library of Congress, and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. - thus setting the stage for its restoration. DVD release The film is in the public domain now, and can be purchased at many online outlets. A newly remastered version (with commentary and extras) was released on DVD by The Criterion Collection in 2006.",
"-33.30816037731711"
],
[
"a digital audio and video restoration and remastering process in 1080p full high-definition pixel resolution in either 4:3 or 16:9 aspect ratios. As of 2015, ABS-CBN Film Archives, in partnership with Central Digital Lab, Inc., has digitized, restored, and remastered over 130 films which includes classics such as Himala, Oro, Plata, Mata, and Ganito Kami Noon, Paano Kayo Ngayon?. The film processed are made available on wide array of platforms which include free-to-air and cable television, pay per view, DVDs, and limited theatrical screenings. Competition Since its inception from 1953 until 1960, ABS (Alto Broadcasting System) and CBN (Chronicle Broadcasting",
"-33.30266227627726"
],
[
"It is one of the very few films of its genre ever to be released on DVD or any other home format. The film is in the public domain and as such has appeared on several websites, including the Internet Archive.",
"-33.27827651111875"
],
[
"to create a documentary.\nA new 35 mm archival print was created by the Academy Film Archive and was mastered in 4K resolution by IndieCollect with support from the Roger & Chaz Ebert Foundation. The digitally remastered version of the film screened at the 2018 New Orleans Film Festival on October 22, 2018 after having been unseen for 36 years. It also screened at Ebertfest in April 2019.",
"-33.02537285111612"
],
[
"reveal clues about how, when, and where it was made.\nPhotograph preservation is distinguished from digital or optical restoration, which is concerned with creating and editing a digital copy of the original image rather than treating the original photographic material. Photograph preservation does not normally include moving image materials, which by their nature require a very different approach. Film preservation concerns itself with these materials. Overview of Photographs and Photographic Processes Physical photographs usually consist of three components: the final image material (e.g. silver, platinum, dyes, or pigments), the transparent binder layer (e.g. albumen, collodion, or gelatin) in which the final",
"-33.0063437668141"
],
[
"Classic Images History and profile Classic Images, which has readers around the world, was first known as The 8mm Collector (issues 1-15) and later as Classic Film Collector (issues 16-60). The magazine under the name Classic Film Collector was published quarterly in Indiana, Pennsylvania. At first the magazine focused heavily on reviews and information on silent films available on the then flourishing 8mm film home movie market, the performers and filmmakers of the silent period, and leaders and trends in the current home movie industry. Over the years Classic Images has become an increasingly important source of information on collectible",
"-32.99875034869183"
],
[
"film preservation, the term \"digital preservation\" highlights the use of digital technology for the transfer of films from 8mm to 70mm in size to digital carriers, as well as all practices for ensuring the longevity and access to digitized or digitally born film materials. On purely technical and practical terms, digital film preservation stands for a domain specific subset of digital curation practices. Extensive technical literature on the subject can be found at the online library of the Presto Centre Project.\nThe aesthetic and ethical implications of the use of digital technology for film preservation are major subjects of debate. For",
"-32.95323806494707"
],
[
"compilation film by definition shows archive or stock footage shown before, while the short segments in an anthology film are new material.",
"-32.91340965847485"
],
[
"clips and stills were from the correct location and time period of each story. This technique was used to match the music with the landscapes that had inspired it. All the archival film footage and stills were scanned at the highest possible resolution, and extensive restoration work was undertaken on hundreds of rare and damaged photographic stills. Producer Allison McGourty explained that \"it was really to do justice to the people themselves and the families, because for example when we found photos of Mississippi John Hurt or [the Tejano musician] Lydia Mendoza you want the public now to see them",
"-32.912272129091434"
],
[
"film has been released on videotape in 1989 and 1996, and in DVD format in 2005 and 2008.",
"-32.909369130095"
],
[
"to use wide screen and the paper archive shows he rented 'Camera-scope' lenses from Adelphi Films in the mid 1950s. A project to restore and digitise the surviving films was started in 1999 by The Baim Collection Limited. After fifteen years work over eighty of the surviving one-hundred and thirty titles have been restored. More than seventy films are thought lost http://www.baimfilms.com/lost.asp .\nA selection of more than ninety-eight of the films are available for review by researchers and producers on-line via Vimeo.\nEight titles may be found from time-to-time as part of the programming on Sky Arts in HD:",
"-32.848274062620476"
],
[
"was issued on videocassette in a cropped 4 x 3 Pan and Scan transfer in 1997, appearing on DVD in a Korean subtitled version. Warner Archive have been intending to release a restored 2.35:1 wide screen DVD transfer of the film for some time, but their plans have been delayed due to technical problems with the original film elements.",
"-32.828818795853294"
],
[
"can now access high-definition content at home. These factors have resulted in digital projection becoming an increasingly attractive prospect for theater owners, and the pace of adoption has been rapidly increasing.\nSince some theaters currently don't have digital projection systems, even if a movie is shot and post-produced digitally, it must be transferred to film if a large theatrical release is planned. Typically, a film recorder will be used to print digital image data to film, to create a 35 mm internegative. After that the duplication process is identical to that of a traditional negative from a film camera. Resolution Unlike a",
"-32.7689712845895"
],
[
"used three 70 mm cameras for filming; two cameras manufactured by Panavision and one specialty time-lapse camera designed by Fricke. While the scenes were captured on 65 mm negative film, they were output to Digital Cinema Package (DCP), a digital output. Magidson described the process, \"We're doing a combination of what we think is the best of both technologies, the best way to image capture and then the best way to output. Once we get into the digital environment, we're able to refine the imagery, we're able to save shots that we'd have to otherwise trash really for various reasons.\" Where",
"-32.685205037822016"
],
[
"due to the Warner Archive release being \"Single-layered and significantly softer. It also has some brightness boosting.\" The review also states that \"There are no extras, not even the trailer that is available on [the] Exposure disc\". The Exposure Cinema release is open-matte, while the Warner Archive release is in Superscope. WAC announced that they would release a new 1080p HD remaster of the film on Blu-ray in March 2018.",
"-32.62906223296886"
],
[
"The film was released on VHS and DVD through Paramount Home Video on December 19, 2000. On April 24, 2018, a remastered version of the film was released on DVD and Blu-Ray via The Criterion Collection, featuring new interviews, a behind-the-scenes documentary, an essay, among other features.",
"-32.62372283509467"
],
[
"over an hour of footage, the producers Klaw and Erlanger abandoned the project during post-production, leaving the film to be without a title and locked away by the Biograph Film Studio. Screenings of restored footage In 2014, the film was deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. Screenings of the restored footage took place in October 2014 at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, and on June 1, 2015, at the San Francisco Silent Film Festival. A screening of the film is scheduled for May",
"-32.59574172226712"
],
[
"of the film was not available for viewing, though a 16 millimeter version was available. This version had been printed (poorly) on two-color Cinecolor stock which did not accurately reproduce the colors of the original film. The smaller film stock also resulted in a grainier, inferior image.\nIn the 1980s the UCLA Film and Television Archive restored the film, under the supervision of archivist Robert Gitt. Rouben Mamoulian appeared at the premiere of the restored print at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences theatre in Beverly Hills.",
"-32.587314907694235"
],
[
"the building was being renovated in 1955 when they were donated to the Queensland Museum. The films were sent in 1982 to the National Film and Sound Archive where they were copied to modern 35mm stock for preservation.\nThe films are unique due to being the first known films taken by any government agency anywhere in the world. They are the largest surviving collection of Australian colonial films and include the first films taken of Brisbane and some of the earliest footage taken of Sydney. They were the first films to be taken by a Queenslander and are",
"-32.56619084486738"
],
[
"Found film Development of old films Several photo lab services specialize in development of old outdated films. The self-processing by photo enthusiasts is common but not recommended since the latent image is not recoverable most of the time without special procedures such as use of high-contrast active developer at the very low temperatures (as low as 0 °C/32 °F). The two popular standard developers used to process outdated films are Kodak HC-110 and Kodak D-19. The old color film is often processed as black and white since color dyes usually decompose faster than silver-based layer.",
"-32.50131397251971"
],
[
"and were surplus to Technicolor's operations. These converted Three-Strip VistaVision cameras thereafter became the standard Technirama cameras, which were subsequently supplemented by a few Paramount hand-held VistaVision cameras fitted with anamorphic optics. The logistical advantage of using 35mm film, end-to-end, should not be underestimated.\nA few 8-perf titles have been preserved on 65mm film, but most have been preserved on 35mm film or are considered unprintable.\nThe color was enhanced through the use of a special development process that was used to good effect in films such as The Vikings (1958) and The Music Man (1962). However, fewer than 40 films",
"-32.50041864335071"
],
[
"by the film's cinematographer, Giuseppe Rotunno. New preservation film elements were created using a 4K digital scan of the film, done with the cooperation of the Cineteca di Bologna, L'Immagine Ritrovata, The Film Foundation, Gucci, Pathé, Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, Twentieth Century Fox, and Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia-Cineteca Nazionale.\nThis restoration premiered at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival to great fanfare.",
"-32.479284792992985"
],
[
"and its archives were sold to physique photographer Dennis Bell.\nUnder Bell's reins, Athletic Model Guild continues to operate. The legacy material from Mizer's archives that was once feared lost to time is being organized and digitally remastered. This new material is branded under AMG Film Classica. New DVD releases contain full-length films, as well as never-before-seen film clips and behind the scenes footage as extras.",
"-32.43023850186728"
],
[
"in Britain are not funded by advertising there was no need to cut scenes to fit within a timeslot and the film was screened in the full 174-minute version without breaks.\nThe film has been released on VHS, LaserDisc, and DVD numerous times. The first DVD version was released on August 29, 2000 to commemorate the 35th anniversary of the film's release. The film is often included in box sets with other Rodgers & Hammerstein film adaptations. A 40th anniversary DVD, with \"making of\" documentaries and special features, was released on November 15, 2005. The film made its debut issue on",
"-32.378876557340845"
],
[
"long term. History Telecine tools to electronically capture film images are nearly as old as broadcast television, but the resulting images were widely considered unsuitable for exposing back onto film for theatrical distribution. Film scanners and recorders with quality sufficient to produce images that could be inter-cut with regular film began appearing in the 1970s, with significant improvements in the late 1980s and early 1990s. During this time, digitally processing an entire feature-length film was impractical because the scanners and recorders were extremely slow and the image files were too large compared to computing power available. Instead, individual shots or",
"-32.37747121677967"
],
[
"and Blu-ray release in the UK by ITV DVD as well as screenings at festivals around the world. The digitally restored print has subsequently been released in America by Criterion on DVD & Blu-ray. Digital restoration In 2006, digital restoration of the film was undertaken by Warner Bros. Motion Picture Imaging. The digital copies were restored frame-by-frame at Prasad Corporation to remove dirt, tears, scratches and other flaws. The film was restored to its original look.",
"-32.36429418127227"
],
[
"preservation of film usually involves storing the original negatives (if they have survived) and prints in climate-controlled facilities. The vast majority of films were not stored in this manner, which resulted in the widespread decay of film stocks.\nThe problem of film decay is not limited to films made on cellulose nitrate. Film industry researchers and specialists have found that color films (those made in the processes which replaced Technicolor) are also decaying at an increasingly rapid rate. A number of well-known films only exist as copies of original film productions or exhibition elements because the originals have decomposed beyond use.",
"-32.34203321870882"
],
[
"the creator Gordon Murray, found some original footage in an attic. He then approached the BBC to see if it could track down the missing 40‐year‐old original footage, which was eventually traced to the BBC broadcast archive (now in Perivale, west London) but it soon became very clear that its age meant that restoration would be a difficult and delicate task. Murray and Mollett enlisted the expertise of BBC Studios and Post Production, which cleaned, scanned and digitally restored the film footage frame by frame.",
"-32.314342111658334"
],
[
"made an \"emergency copy\", which was then reconstructed on behalf of the Filmarchiv Austria (Austrian Film Archive) by the company HS-ART Digital Service of Graz using the \"DIAMANT\" software developed by Joanneum Research; faded parts were then re-coloured. In October 2008, the film was made available on a portable medium for the first time as part of the DVD series Der österreichische Film.\nIn 2015, a copy of the whole film in excellent condition was found in a flea-market in Paris. The Austrian Film Archive organised a crowd-funding campaign to save the film to which more than 700 people contributed",
"-32.25491089641582"
],
[
"2012 in North America). In a released statement, the company stated: \"The film's soundtrack album will be reissued on CD on the same date. The film has been restored in 4K digital resolution for the first time – all done by hand, frame by frame.\" The delicate restoration was supervised by Paul Rutan Jr and his team which included Chris Dusendschon, Rayan Raghuram and Randy Walker. No automated software was used to clean-up the film's repaired and digitised photo-chemical elements. The work was done by hand, a single frame at a time by forty to sixty trained digital artists over",
"-32.24169332830934"
],
[
"re-alignment pass, left and right color restoration and matching, and clean-up of scratches and other damages to the film surface. This is very challenging post-production work, and can potentially be very expensive. Fortunately, the 3-D Film Archive already has a great track record from its previous restoration projects, and by teaming up with 3-D SPACE and maintaining this work \"in house\" costs will be kept at a manageable level. We are confident that we will be able to produce both a 3-D blu-ray master and a digital cinema package (DCP) that will look fantastic.\"",
"-32.235480573319364"
],
[
"state of decay that produced irreversible injuries in the image, and contained about a sixth part of the full footage. From that footage, restored in 1993, 93 meters were saved.\nIn 1996, following a projection held into the Spanish Film Archive of a series of films archived at the Czech Film Archive, the Valencia Film Archive contacted with Národní Filmový Archiv and got on loan their copy so they could complete the nitrate footage as close as possible to the original length.\nThat copy was repaired with nitrate material from diverse origin, and there were fingerprint and loss of emulsion problems. It",
"-32.23440969089279"
],
[
"merging the two activities.\nAs part of the document the Film Archive set out its vision for a combined archive. The Film Archive wanted to \"bring the audio facilities up to the quality established over the last decade for the film and video operation.\" Within the new archive there would be a staff of over 60 specialists, and there would be an increase in money spent annually on audio archiving, from the current $884,000 to $1.5 million.\nThe new archive would put an emphasise on preservation and public accessibility: \"Users will be able to access key sounds and images from the last",
"-32.22716075257631"
],
[
"has become common.\nIn order to utilize digital intermediate workflow with film, the camera negative must first be processed and then scanned to a digital format. Some filmmakers have years of experience achieving their artistic vision using the techniques available in a traditional photochemical workflow, and prefer that finishing/editing process.\nDigitally shot movies can be printed, transferred or archived on film. Large scale digital productions are often archived on film, as it provides a safer medium for storage, benefiting insurance and storage costs. As long as the negative does not completely degrade, it will always be possible to recover the images from",
"-32.16567446751287"
],
[
"to Moura the intention was to make a DVD completely different from the market, putting everything that a disk has capacity. The images were taken in high definition, which allowed them to reach the disc with quality seven times higher than normal DVDs.\nThe user can enjoy three screen formats: full screen (Pan and scan), with Letterboxing, and Widescreen. The options are available not only to the movie but also to all the extras. The director of the DVD, Brent Hieat, said some scenes have already been recorded for multi-angle viewing. \"By the way, the whole movie can be seen like",
"-32.15957962797256"
],
[
"well as the additional option of an \"open-matte\" release, where the film footage that was never visible in theaters (due to use of the matte technique in post-production or in the theatrical projectors) is \"restored\" to the purely non-widescreen DVD release. Laserdisc During the 1990s, a handful of Laserdiscs were released with anamorphic transfers. 4 were released in the USA as promotional items with Toshiba 16:9 TV sets (Unforgiven, Free Willy, The Fugitive, Grumpy Old Men), 12 were released commercially in Japan (marketed as SQUEEZE LD) as derived products from the MUSE/Hi-Vision releases. 3 were commercially released in Germany PAL+",
"-32.128922976204194"
],
[
"R5 release is generally comparable to a DVD Screener release, except without the added scrolling text and black and white scenes that serve to distinguish screeners from commercial DVD releases. R5 quality can be somewhat better than transfers produced by movie bootleggers because the transfer is performed using professional-grade film scanning equipment.",
"-32.11984149424825"
],
[
"DVD on the market. Only a movie only rip was available. The new rip included things such as the white rabbit.\nNowadays releases are in DVD5 or DVD9 size, have a menu available and are encoded with CCE. BD-R The scene requires BD-R releases to fit on a 25 GB single-layer Blu-ray Disc. Hence not all released movies are 1:1 copies of the retail Blu-rays, although those releases exist and are tagged COMPLETE.BLURAY. Music video The current Music video Council standard is version 6.0. X264 must be used in an mkv container in combination with an MP2, MP3, AC3, or DTS",
"-32.11190674154204"
],
[
"century.\nBlack-and-white photographic films using silver halide emulsions are the only film types that have proven to last for archival storage. The determining factors for longevity include the film base type, proper processing (develop, stop, fix and wash) and proper storage. Early films were coated onto a nitrate base material which was prone to combustion if stored in uncontrolled temperatures. Nitrate film was replaced with acetate-base films. These Cellulose acetate films were later discovered to outgass acids (also referred to as vinegar syndrome). Acetate films were replaced in the early 1980s by polyester film base materials which have been determined to",
"-32.092158797662705"
],
[
"on October 24, 2014 at the Museum of Modern Art, in the Roy and Niuta Titus Theatre lobby galleries. The full 60 minutes of restored footage was premiered on November 8, 2014, in the Museum of Modern Art's annual \"To Save and Project\" festival dedicated to film preservation.\nOn June 1, 2015, the film was shown with live piano accompaniment by Donald Sosin at the San Francisco Silent Film Festival. National Film Registry In 2014, the film was deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. In their press",
"-32.08274707122473"
],
[
"research was done to see if digital cameras could be used, but it was determined that technology wasn't adequate at the time to make digital filming economically viable.\nPrincipal photography took place in New Zealand while post-production elements including visual effects and music were all edited and integrated together in Los Angeles. Ian Bohen played Young Hercules in the pilot movie and was offered the part, but opted not to move to New Zealand where the series would shoot principal photography. Early on in the series, special visual effects were conceived by Richard Taylor's Weta Workshop, the then little known visual",
"-32.06509565998567"
],
[
"way to go before it reaches television standards\", but was \"a noble effort\" that would \"please fans of the film\". DVD and Blu-ray The film has seen multiple DVD releases since the availability of the format. In the autumn of 2001, Republic issued the movie twice, once in August, and again with different packaging in September of that same year. On October 31, 2006, Paramount released a newly remastered \"60th Anniversary Edition\". On November 13, 2007, Paramount released a two-disc \"special edition\" DVD of the film that contained both the original theatrical black-and-white version, and a new, third colorized version,",
"-32.042143891361775"
],
[
"them were scattered across various locations in the UK and US. The text catalogue is essential as it identifies what footage is held in each film can and without it, the archive has been virtually inaccessible since the day the films were first produced. Twenty-thousand film cans containing 3,500 hours of international news footage have been lying dormant for decades deep underground in the Central London bunker. AP Archive assembled a team of archival researchers to create a coherent online text database. The films themselves are being cleaned and restored by Éclair Laboratoires of Paris, and then transferred onto high",
"-32.034054413670674"
],
[
"owner can be assured of a good showing at the box office. Pros The digital formation of sets and locations, especially in the time of growing film series and sequels, is that virtual sets, once computer generated and stored, can be easily revived for future films.\nConsidering digital film images are documented as data files on hard disk or flash memory, varying systems of edits can be executed with the alteration of a few settings on the editing console with the structure being composed virtually in the computer's memory. A broad choice of effects can be sampled simply and rapidly, without",
"-32.0338164716959"
],
[
"legal guardian Eleanor Brown Gates, the novelist wife of the screenwriter Henry Leyford Gates. She won $5,000. Film restoration (2009) A restored and edited 24-minute segment of the historic motion picture (originally composed of 9 reels, i.e. approximately 90 minutes) was released in 2009 by the Armenian Genocide Resource Center of Northern California. It is based on a rare surviving reel of film edited in Soviet Armenia. It includes a music score, an introduction, 125 subtitles, and a slideshow of several black-white production stills. The DVD is distributed by Heritage Publishing, Richmond, California, and is copyrighted by Richard Kloian.",
"-32.01006545103155"
],
[
"documents and blueprints. Through HABS/HAER/HALS, buildings and sites of historic significance are recorded with large format cameras and black and white film and using techniques that document the key features of the historic resource with special care not to distort the angles and views. This rectified photography can be accomplished with large format cameras by keeping the film, lens and subject perfectly parallel. Smaller format cameras need to be tilted to view high or low subjects, but the same subjects can be captured by shifting the lens element of a large format camera up or down to keep the film,",
"-31.996115962858312"
],
[
"Television Archive, and a few art-house theaters have recently screened the restoration (which features the original titles).\nOn October 21, 2012, the Turner Classic Movies channel debuted the film, transferred from an original 35mm Technicolor release print owned by the Museum of Modern Art Department of Film, for the first time on television in a special hosted by Robert Osborne and Jerry Beck dedicated to rare animated films, including Gulliver's Travels, Lotte Reiniger's The Adventures of Prince Achmed, the UPA cartoons and the silent cartoons of 1907 to 1932 of the New York Studios.\nMr. Bug Goes to Town was planned to",
"-31.97322659555357"
],
[
"Films the following month; it was released on 21 August of that year. Murali B. V., coordinator of Sai Ganesh Films (which helped restore and digitise the film's original prints), told The New Indian Express that it took nine months to clean and restore the original 35 mm film (with monaural sound) for digitisation. A reviewer for The Times of India criticised the digitised version, noting that the colour \"seemed to have been leached [from] the frames\" and the sound system was \"a bit contemporary.\" Despite its technical issues, however, \"the film still retains its dramatic force\". Likewise, film critic",
"-31.966245656949468"
],
[
"formats, continue in production. Most other subminiature cameras are still usable if film can be obtained, particularly if the photographer is prepared to do the processing.",
"-31.952666307734034"
],
[
"film on DVD on July 13, 2010, in its Film Noir Classic Collection, Vol. 5.",
"-31.94535157608334"
],
[
"fair uses of DVD movies, such as commenting on their content, quoting excerpts from their screenplays, and even recording portions of the video images and sounds on film or tape by pointing a camera, a camcorder, or a microphone at a monitor as it displays the DVD movie. The fact that the resulting copy will not be as perfect or as manipulable as a digital copy obtained by having direct access to the DVD movie in its digital form, provides no basis for a claim of unconstitutional limitation of fair use.\" Reception and subsequent developments Both the district and appellate",
"-31.937695361149963"
],
[
"film on videocassette and laserdisc. To this day, the film has never been released on a region 1 DVD and as of March 4, 2018, MGM has no current plans to release the film onto DVD.",
"-31.92090950056445"
],
[
"film in the later one, which he also scored. Preservation status In April 1934, Riefenstahl was visiting Great Britain to speak at major universities to discuss her propaganda film techniques. It is during this visit that at least one copy of this film is known to have been duplicated. It was found after being in storage for over 60 years, and is the only known surviving print. In the home video editions most commonly available, the opening credits appear to have been shot off a screen projection, but the remainder of the footage appears to be a direct copy of",
"-31.912448211340234"
],
[
"35mm print of the film was discovered to survive in an Italian archive. Restoration work of the film started in 2012 and was completed in 2014, funded by Warner Bros. and The Vitaphone Project.\nThe U.S. premiere of the restoration was hosted by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art's Bing Theater on September 6, 2014.\nThis same restoration was released on DVD-R by the Warner Archive Collection on October 28, 2014 and subsequently screened at New York's Film Forum on November 9, 2014, as well as being shown on Turner Classic Movies.",
"-31.911445948295295"
],
[
"activities, or to supplement content in natural history documentaries. Budgets may not be sufficient to keep a production crew on site for long term projects, and stock footage allows the producer to pick the moments in time that are most important to the story or to give context to historical events.\nSeveral films that would otherwise be completely lost have surviving footage due to the film being used as a stock footage. For example, The Cat Creeps has some scenes preserved in the movie Boo, and scenes from Queen of the Night Clubs are preserved as stock footage in Winner Take",
"-31.886159760819282"
],
[
"six decades. Warner Bros. sold rights to its pre-1950 film library to Associated Artists Productions. It was not until around 1990 that the film became available for archival and revival screenings. However, the film survives only in black and white except for a 2¹⁄₂-minute color segment from the \"Wild Rose\" musical number, which was discovered in the 1990s and inserted into the print currently in circulation. Sepia-toned black-and-white footage is inserted to replace individual frames which are missing in the color fragment.",
"-31.87824157459545"
],
[
"before the era of DVD. Today it is out of print, and no longer for sale anywhere. However, the movie is available through YouTube.",
"-31.85635226627346"
],
[
"produced by Legend Films using the latest colorization technology. On November 3, 2009, Paramount re-released the previous DVD set as a \"Collector's Edition\" and debuted a Blu-ray edition, also containing both versions of the film. Restoration In 2017, the film was restored in 4K resolution, available via streaming services and DCP. Ultra HD Blu-ray On October 29, 2019, the film will be released on Ultra HD Blu-ray featuring a new Dolby Vision transfer with the original black-and-white version also containing the colourized version on Blu-ray. Adaptations in other media The film was twice adapted for radio in 1947, first on",
"-31.854814123071264"
],
[
"Films on Blu-Ray in the United States. The programme was scanned in 2K from a broadcast print for this release, including extras such as an audio commentary with Director Mick Jackson and interviews with actress Karen Meagher, Director Of Photography Andrew Dunn, Production Designer Christopher Robilliard and film writer Stephen Thrower. This is also the first home video release in which the extract from the Alpine Symphony remains intact.\nOn 9 April 2018, Simply Media released a Special Edition DVD in the UK, featuring a different 2K scan, restored and remastered from the original BBC 16mm CRI prints, which Severin",
"-31.844617449489306"
],
[
"only in heavily truncated edits that lacked nearly a quarter of the original length. But over the years, various elements of footage have been rediscovered. This was the case even though cinematographer Karl Freund followed the usual practice of the time of securing three printable takes of each shot, to create three camera negatives which could be edited for striking prints. Two of these negatives were destroyed when Paramount reedited the film for the US market and the UK market. UFA itself cut the third negative for the August 1927 release. East German version (1972) Between 1968 and 1972, the",
"-31.83325633140339"
],
[
"and re-released with a sychronised score composed by John Reynders, which included various sound effects. This version ran for 86 minutes and is available from several budget DVD labels.\nIn 2017, the film was restored in HD to close to its original running time, at 127 minutes. Reynder's 1929 score was repurposed for this version, but as it was considerably shorter, over 120 music edits were made in order for it to fit. The restored version has been released in the UK on Blu-ray and DVD by Network Distributing.",
"-31.83300475263968"
],
[
"recordings can be very grainy, dirty and scratched. The appearance of these film artefacts on the processed programme would break the illusion that the viewer is watching a videotape recording. Therefore, to maintain the VidFIRE effect it is imperative the image be as clean and stable as possible. The best available copy of the film-recorded programme should be used, preferably the original camera negative. Before processing, the film should be cleaned, digitally noise-reduced, and repaired.\nA further, self-imposed limitation is that VidFIRE is used only to process material that originally was produced using video cameras. There is no technical reason why",
"-31.82857586425962"
],
[
"process. This allowed for the film's DVD release to retain its original 2.35:1 widescreen format. The DVD was released on April 20, 1999, alongside a VHS release which was presented in a standard 1.33:1 \"fullscreen\" format. The film's fullscreen transfer was performed by entirely \"reframing\" the film shot by shot; more than half of the film's footage was modified by Pixar animators to fit within the film's aspect ratio. Several characters and objects were moved closer together to avoid being cut out of frame. The film's VHS release was the best-selling VHS in the United Kingdom, with 1.76 million units sold",
"-31.82060557533987"
],
[
"are available on-line.\nClips and excerpts from the Baim Collection are often used as illustrative footage in feature films and television documentaries seen on BBC One, BBC Two and BBC Four and by producers of programmes screened by ITV and Channel Four Television in the UK.\nThe Baim Collection continues to search for lost prints and negatives of over one hundred missing titles produced by Harold Baim. Many of the missing films were produced between 1945 and 1957, the earlier ones most probably on nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate) film stock which is unstable and liable to spontaneously combust. Surviving films from this",
"-31.81657049828209"
],
[
"print of the film was found in 2009 in the New Zealand Film Archive and underwent restoration. Four out the original seven reels had survived. A video of the preserved film is available for viewing on the website of the National Film Preservation Foundation.",
"-31.80510663666064"
],
[
"film degradation is important, the preservationist's main goal is to preserve the image, as the film itself often decays rapidly and beyond repair (see: Film Preservation). Film preservation falls into several categories: conservation, which is the \"protection of the original film artifact\"; duplication, which is the \"making of a surrogate copy\"; and restoration, which is the attempt to \"reconstruct a specific version of a film\", which will include piecing together footage from all known sources. Film restoration will involve the use of duplicates, not the originals. Duplication of an original to a new and stable film stock (a continuing process,",
"-31.799447046942078"
],
[
"$84 million in gross sales.\nIn response to Warner Brothers, Sony and MGM/UA issuing manufactured-on-demand lines of no-frills DVD-R editions of older films in May 2012, TCFHE began releasing its Cinema Archives series. By November 2012, the archive series had released 100 movies.\nFox Home Entertainment started the early window policy, where the digital version is release through digital retailers two or three weeks before the discs, and was launched with Prometheus in September 2012. This also started Fox's Digital HD program where customers could download or stream 600 Fox films on connected devices at less than $15/film through multiple major platforms.",
"-31.799312796596496"
],
[
"DVD. The original production negative has been restored and transferred to video at 6K resolution, one of the first films transferred at such a high rate, however according to a Warner press release, no new footage has been found. The restoration \"has meticulously preserved and restored Ronald Haver's 176-minute version of A Star Is Born to its original luster, bringing back the brilliant, saturated colors and crisp picture.\"",
"-31.798386968672276"
]
] |
2147sd | Why do we still have car lighters instead of regular electricity plugs | [
"Household electricity is AC, your car's electrical system is DC. It takes addition equipment to convert it to DC, and you lose some efficiency in the process. Also, a car battery only produces about 500 watts, which is not enough for some high power uses. Your car's electrical wiring and fuses are not designed to deliver more power than that. So it is better to have low power DC devices that use one plug, and higher power AC devices that use a different plug.",
"Although most of the answers are true, or have an element of truth, they all seem to answer the question, \"why would it be hard to switch to household plugs in automobiles instead of the cigarette adapter we currently use.\" The real reason we still have the 12 V sockets is that a plug isn't just a set of matching connectors, *it represents a standard*. Your household socket is shaped differently than your car's accessory socket because they support different types of power delivery, and the *products* that use them *expect* a specific type of power delivery. Have you ever tried to plug something in at home and the plug will only insert one way, while other items seem to work either way? That's because your home socket is shaped so that products that need to can guarantee that they are connected in a certain way. Likewise, you can't plug your coffee maker into your dashboard because the coffee maker expects a certain voltage, power delivery mechanism, and minimum available amperage--none of which is commonly available in a car. Without serious effort or amazing oversight, you will never be able to plug your vacuum cleaner into a socket that cannot provide the power to run it, and you will never be able to plug your car charger into a socket that would overload your phone.",
"The plug like in your house provides alternating current at 120 volts (give or take). The cigarette lighter plug provides direct current at 12 volts; they're incompatible. The cigarette lighter socket is a pretty standard way of supplying the kind of power your car needs anyway; without having an inverter, a car can't provide the kind of power you're used to in the house.",
"There is a big legacy install base of 12V auto connectors. Plus, having a regular plug means you need an inverter...many cars have this now but it's still cost/weight/power draw so it's not ubiquitous.",
"My car also has set of USB plugs, good enough for the iDevices to stay charged.",
"People do still smoke you know? Have you ever tried to light a cigarette, keep a Bic lit with the windows down, steer with your knee, work the clutch and shift at the same time?",
"the car lighter outlet size is a hold over from older days, its wider size is so you can light a cigar now as for power, that depends on your car, its 12 volts, so the amp rating and fuse will limit your total power, but using a standard of 15 amps: 15a x 12v = 180 watts 180 watts is more than enough to power most portable electronics, including light to medium duty laptops so why don't cars come with an AC110 port? some do, but the fact is that the cigar lighter has been standard for 60+ years, if they dropped it in favor of a AC outlet you would have two problems: 1 tons of devices designed to use the cigar lighter would no longer work 2 people are dumb, that number i pulled about the wattage 95% of people would ignore and would try to put a powerstrip with a TV, microwave, couple laptops and probably a toaster in their car this would result in the fuse blowing, and people complaining, except for a few sneaky fucks who would put a bigger fuse in, say a 30 or 45 amp fuse, but then they would sue after their car caught fire while watching honey boo boo and making hot pockets while stuck in traffic",
"I cant believe nobody has mentioned that small electronics like phones, laptops, and nav systems and whatnot all need DC power to run. At home, the little brick or plug that goes into the wall converts high voltage AC into DC power they can use. You car already has low voltage DC. Go unplug your iphone charger and read it. It will read Input 120v ac, output 5v DC. It WANTS DC power and its a hell of a lot easier to start with 12v DC. Circuit boards want nothing to do with a household outlet. Converting up and back down is stupid and has limited uses.",
"My 2012 grand Cherokee has a power outlet, plus I believe 4 USB ports and an AC outlet.",
"I use a USB adaptor in my vans cigarette lighter socket,is that what you meant?",
"Regular 110V AC isn't standard on cars and trucks because people would install hairdryers, plasma TVs, space heaters and and in the south, plasma rifles and Gatling guns. There's a lotta suckers that need a taste of the plasma rifle. Keep the Gatling warm and primed,. in case they don't catch a hint. Then play it all back on the 90\" TV installed into the roof. The things that need to run in a car all work with the cigarette lighter, and as no one uses it for cigarettes anymore, even if they smoke, that plug is free. 110V AC was a good standard 60 years ago because step up or step down in voltage can efficiently be accomplished through transformers. Solid state made that unnecessary and power wasting. Communication and information devices are simpler to build with 12V power.",
"Eventually the lighter outlet type plug might get phased out in favor of USB plugs, but USB doesn't support 12V. A lot of what decides what sort of plug is used is based on keeping people from plugging the wrong thing into an outlet that will fry the device.",
"ELI5 within an ELI5: If cigarette lighters don't provide enough current to act as a typical electricity plug, why am I able to use one of these to run my laptop on road trips? URL_0 ",
"Because people are dumb and would plug things in that aren't supposed to. It's supposed to be idiot proof.",
"Im pretty sure the Volkswagon Amorok has a 240v outlet as an optional extra in Australia.",
"My mom's jeep has both, and it's from 2006."
] | [
[
"a customer-maintained gas lamp, and some homeowners still use such devices. However, the high cost of natural gas lighting at least partly explains why a large number of older gas lamps have been converted to electricity. Solar-rechargeable battery-powered gas light controllers can be easily retrofitted into existing gas lamps to keep the lights off during daylight hours and cut energy consumption and green-house gas carbon emissions by 50%.",
"-34.79818507763116"
],
[
"The electric cars offered low pollution and a soundless ride, unlike their gasoline counterparts. The greatest downside of electric cars was the range. The typical electric car could reach around 20 miles before requiring a recharge. Manufacturers could not increase the number of batteries, due to the bulkiness of the batteries at the time. Without an incentive to purchase the electric automobiles, gas automobiles was the most viable option at the time.\nElectric cars use batteries to store electricity which is used to power electric motors. The battery delivers the power to the motor, which is either AC or DC. The",
"-32.272788781980125"
],
[
"by the circuitry of the battery charger itself. On the other hand, the short circuit current of the lead-acid batteries installed in vehicles is sufficiently great, that a short circuit could result in a fire or explosion. The priority is therefore given to avoiding short circuits of the vehicle battery, rather than of the charger. Car lighter sockets and plugs The car power outlet is also called a cigarette lighter receptacle, or cigar lighter receptacle, since it was originally designed as a lighter for cigars—hence its rather large size. Nowadays, it is used to power automotive accessories such as",
"-31.383706571605217"
],
[
"arc lighter Arc lighters use a spark to create a plasma conduit between electrodes, which is then maintained by a lower voltage. The arc is then applied to a flammable substance to cause ignition. Automobile lighter Some vehicles are equipped with an electric lighter located on the dashboard or in the well between the front seats. Its electric heating element becomes hot in seconds upon activation. The car lighter was claimed to have been invented by Alexander Kucala, a tavern owner and inventor, on the south side of Chicago in the early 1930s called the AL Lighter. Match lighter Not",
"-31.293753726102295"
],
[
"most gasoline-powered vehicles remain as 12 volt systems. Diesel-powered vehicles, including mobile construction equipment and heavy trucks use 24 volt electrical systems, as do many military vehicles. Research is ongoing into adopting a 42-volt electrical system standard for automotive electricity, but the entire electrical system will have to be redesigned and new components manufactured to work with the higher voltage. The main advantage of higher voltage is that electrical components can be made with less metal, saving weight and cost, and improving energy efficiency.\nMost modern systems, such as power windows, power seats, and power door locks, are electrically",
"-30.902367535113626"
],
[
"cars; the effect is especially pronounced in city driving. Plug-in hybrids also have increased battery capacity, which makes it possible to drive for limited distances without burning any gasoline; in this case, energy efficiency is dictated by whatever process (such as coal-burning, hydroelectric, or renewable source) created the power. Plug-ins can typically drive for around 40 miles (64 km) purely on electricity without recharging; if the battery runs low, a gas engine kicks in allowing for extended range. Finally, all-electric cars are also growing in popularity; the Tesla Model S sedan is the only high-performance all-electric car currently on the market.",
"-30.823367052817048"
],
[
"when a much lighter-duty system would be suitable for city driving. Electric motors offer all the advantages of engines, and more so, but their \"fuel\" (batteries) are only suitable for short and infrequent service.\nIf one was able to design cars for specific purposes, they can be tuned for much greater efficiency. The vast majority of car trips are short and low-speed; cars designed for this role can be far more efficient than the generalist vehicles generally used. However, the low ownership of specific-purpose vehicles, like motorcycles, is a good indication of the basic problem: people don't want to have to",
"-30.559673820538592"
],
[
"around a liquid fuel, not a gaseous fuel. Current vehicles are not designed to use hydrogen fuel, which would require existing cars to be retrofitted and future cars to be redesigned.\nAnother option being considered is battery powered electric vehicles. Though they do not directly consume fossil fuels, they do rely on an external source to provide the necessary electricity, and the most widely used fuel for electricity generation is coal. As with hydrogen cars, current cars would need to be retrofitted and future cars would need to be redesigned with electric drive trains. Currently there is no large-scale recharging network",
"-30.38910317070986"
],
[
"three cars due to the Volt's 35 mi (56 km) driving range on electricity. The previous operating costs do not include maintenance, depreciation or other costs.\nAll-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.\nThe Edison Electric Institute (EEI) conducted an analysis that demonstrated that between January 1976 and February 2012 the",
"-30.337156822381075"
],
[
"sell addons for cigarette lighter receptacles to power or recharge devices made to draw power from automobiles, though USB is already available for charging devices like cell phones and portable media players.\nDrive bay-compatible computer case accessories that do not connect to the motherboard or power supply at all are also common, such as small storage drawers or even cup holders.",
"-29.91634652632638"
],
[
"cigarette lighter (12V outlet), making it easy to plug/unplug and deliver obvious driver privacy.",
"-29.729268441005843"
],
[
"be the correct type; plugs for turbo engines are not compatible with plugs for standard engines. The plugs should be tightened a quarter-turn past a snug fit to avoid over-tightening. Glow plugs, like all incandescent objects, are extremely hot, and glow plugs should never be removed when hot. Likewise, care must be taken when fueling because a hot glow plug can ignite fuel. Overheating of the battery can also be dangerous and only well-made connectors should be used.",
"-29.701801035371318"
],
[
"electric cars, DC motors are often used. In some cases, universal motors are used, and then AC or DC may be employed. In recent production vehicles, various motor types have been implemented, for instance: Induction motors within Tesla Motor vehicles and permanent magnet machines in the Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Bolt. Vehicle types It is generally possible to equip any kind of vehicle with an electric powertrain. Plug-in electric vehicle A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the Rechargeable",
"-29.700187252910837"
],
[
"some applications. During extensive power failures (or for remote use), supplemental recharging may be provided from an automobile's 12-volt electrical system or from a modest solar-powered charger. Solar-powered lanterns have become popular in developing countries, where they provide a safer and cheaper alternative to kerosene lamps. Battery powered lanterns Various battery types are used in portable light sources. They are more convenient, safer, and produce less heat than combustion lights. LEDs Lanterns utilizing LEDs are popular as they are more energy-efficient and rugged than other types, and prices of LEDs suitable for lighting have dropped.",
"-29.684393383849965"
],
[
"models. Some models are dual fuel and can also use gasoline. These are being supplanted by a battery-powered fluorescent lamp and LED models, which are safer in the hands of young people and inside tents. Battery-operated lanterns are produced by many manufacturers including Coleman. Liquid fuel lanterns remain popular where the fuel is easily obtained and in common use.\nMany portable mantle-type fuel lanterns now use fuel gases that become liquid when compressed, such as propane, either alone or combined with butane. Such lamps usually use a small disposable steel container to provide the fuel. The ability to refuel without liquid",
"-29.553028654867376"
],
[
"cars can also run on HEP from elsewhere, without using their own diesel. Although considered inefficient and obsolete, mainly because the generator car 'wastes' traction power, staff, and fuel (if running on electrified lines), new cars using AC HEP are still in production, along with new generator cars/sets, mostly for use in areas without electrification, considering that the vast majority of China Railways' engines that are capable of supplying HEP are electric locomotives. \nOn most newer 25G cars and 25/19T cars, power is supplied at 600 V DC by electric locos such as SS7C, SS7D, SS7E, SS8, SS9, HXD1D, HXD3C,",
"-29.5286551562167"
],
[
"set of plugs is supplied separately. There may be several reasons for this: reliability (typically aircraft), starting, or better combustion performance by initiating the flamefront at opposing points simultaneously (e.g. Alfa Romeo). These are not considered as wasted spark systems, as their sparks all take place after the useful compression stroke, rather than \"wasted\" in the exhaust stroke.",
"-29.5195159265229"
],
[
"or any of its other components.\nLightboxes have historically been lighted with fluorescent lamps due to their (a) cooler operating temperature than incandescent; (b) relatively efficient power consumption; and (c) inherent diffusive property. However, as in most commercial lighting applications, there has been a significant industry-wide shift in the late 20th and early 21st century toward LED lamps in POS lightboxes, for not just the universally-acknowledged benefit of economy but also of practicality, as LED lamps are more durable and impact-resistant in shipping, handling and public applications such as Point-of-Sale. Motion LED lightboxes are a variation on traditional lightboxes, and use",
"-29.467375107449698"
],
[
"large enough to power both the house itself and one or two electric cars. Moreover, not only is there room for a larger array, so that the car can be charged more or faster, but power companies will also pay more for your electricity during the day than you’ll pay them to charge your electric car off the grid at night. Additionally, there is no risk of damage that random road debris might do to the cells on a car.\nOn the other hand, solar-powered cars could potentially be of use in regions where sunlight and space are abundant, and without",
"-29.44914458549829"
],
[
"such as modern LED lamp, which greatly extend the battery life and provide brighter light than the standard PR bulb.",
"-29.42143717021463"
],
[
"cars. The consumer magazine decided to conduct the survey after several consumers who wanted to buy a plug-in car reported to the organization that some dealerships were steering them toward gasoline-powered models. The survey found that not all sales people seemed enthusiastic about making PEV sales; a few outright discouraged it, and even one dealer was reluctant to even show a plug-in model despite having one in stock. And many sales people seemed not to have a good understanding of electric-car tax breaks and other incentives or of charging needs and costs. Consumer Reports also found that when it came",
"-29.393937964323413"
],
[
"automobiles used a magneto for ignition, which provided no accessory power. \nThe first electrical accessory connection was supplied by a DC generator. Voltage varied with engine speed and because of technological limitations, complicated mechanical devices were used to regulate it. Even so, voltage at idle was too low to be useful. A lead-acid battery was used to provide proper voltage when the generator could not, and was recharged at higher engine speed or lower electrical load. The automobile self starter was an early engine system to use this.\nLighting, which had previously been provided by kerosene lamps or gas lamps, was",
"-29.373660321307398"
],
[
"device is generally considered obsolete as pilot lights can waste a surprising amount of gas (in the same way a dripping faucet can waste a large amount of water over an extended period), and are also no longer used on stoves, but are still to be found in many gas water heaters and gas fireplaces. Their poor efficiency is acceptable in water heaters, since most of the energy \"wasted\" on the pilot still represents a direct heat gain for the water tank. The Millivolt system also makes it unnecessary for a special electrical circuit to be run to the water",
"-29.295495288444727"
],
[
"This gas was piped to lighting fixtures inside the house, where it was burned, creating a very bright flame. Carbide lighting was inexpensive but was prone to gas leaks and explosions.\nEarly models of the automobile, motorbike and bicycle used carbide lamps as headlamps. Acetylene gas, derived from carbide, enabled early automobiles to drive safely at night. Thick concave mirrors combined with magnifying lenses projected the acetylene flame light. These type of lights were used until reliable batteries and dynamos became available, and manufacturers switched to electric lights.\nAcetylene lamps were also used on riverboats for night navigation. The National Museum of",
"-29.281091310945385"
],
[
"Electric car use by country Electric car use by country varies worldwide, as the adoption of plug-in electric vehicles is affected by consumer demand, market prices and government incentives. Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) are generally divided into all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), that run only on batteries, and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs), that combine battery power with internal combustion engines. \nThe popularity of electric vehicles has been expanding rapidly due to government subsidies, their increased range and lower battery costs, and environmental sensitivity. However, the stock of plug-in electric cars represented just about 1 out of every 250 motor vehicles",
"-29.24908297544789"
],
[
"vehicles off the road, and save at least $90 million annually in electricity costs.\nAs LED lighting fixtures normally produce less illumination it is important to use a well-distributed illumination pattern in order to produce the same illumination as higher-lumen conventional fixtures. For example, different LEDs in one fixture can target different points on the street.",
"-29.23417638560204"
],
[
"are depleted, a gas-powered generator creates electricity for continued driving, similar to the architecture of the Chevy Volt.",
"-29.22193624094507"
],
[
"they were built to, because owners will install roughly 14 car batteries, and a balancing charger, rather than the original batteries that weighed much less. Cars today must have their battery sets changed relatively frequently. For example, a private owner whom is only the 3rd owner of his car, has changed batteries 3 times since purchasing his vehicle in 1988.\nThe Detroit Electric was mainly sold to women drivers and physicians who desired the dependable and immediate start without the physically demanding hand cranking of the engine that was required with early internal combustion engine autos. A statement of the car's",
"-29.204545545868314"
],
[
"power-source option, one that does not rely on an internal-combustion engine at all, was demonstrated in the Volt fuel cell concept vehicle, which appeared at the 2007 Shanghai Auto Show. Due to the high cost of fuel cells compared to newer lower cost lithium batteries, General Motors has publicly suggested that the Volt will not be using fuel cells in any near term production vehicles.\nThe general layout of the initial production platform is considered by some to be a plug-in series hybrid design (since mechanical power initially drives the generator, which in turn charges the battery pack), despite its",
"-29.170914055470348"
],
[
"such a situation, electrical vehicles are still more efficient than a comparable amount of fossil fuel vehicles. In areas with a deregulated electrical energy market, an electrical vehicle owner can choose whether to run his electrical vehicle off conventional electrical energy sources, or strictly from renewable electrical energy sources (presumably at an additional cost), pushing other consumers onto conventional sources, and switch at any time between the two. Efficiency Because of the different methods of charging possible, the emissions produced have been quantified in different ways. Plug-in all-electric and hybrid vehicles also have different consumption characteristics. Electromagnetic radiation Electromagnetic radiation",
"-29.170531951593148"
],
[
"mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. Electric cars do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.\nInternal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motors, on the other hand, are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and",
"-29.142836269773397"
],
[
"in March 2019. The primary reason given was that the Volt is a sedan, and sales of four-door vehicles were in decline. Car salesmen were proving resistant to selling the car because it was more complicated (and thus took more of their time) to explain how the vehicle operated. Marketing trends showed that sales of hybrids were dropping as more customers were turning to all-electric vehicles like the Chevrolet Bolt. The range-anxiety associated with all-electric vehicles had been in decline due to better battery technology, and most hybrid drivers were turning on their gas-powered engines less frequently. The battery technology",
"-29.14133658823266"
],
[
"which means that, at best, only 20% of the light captured by the panel is turned into electricity.)\nMany, but not most or all countries are introducing CO\n2 average emissions targets across all cars sold by a manufacturer, with financial penalties on manufacturers that fail to meet these targets. This has created an incentive for manufacturers, especially those selling many heavy or high-performance cars, to introduce electric cars and turbocharged cars as a means of reducing average fleet CO\n2 emissions. Air pollution and carbon emissions in various countries Electric cars have several benefits over conventional internal combust engine automobiles, reduction of",
"-29.093607617098314"
],
[
"in history out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. In fact, in 1900, 28 percent of the cars on the road in the USA were electric. EVs were so popular that even President Woodrow Wilson and his secret service agents toured Washington, DC, in their Milburn Electrics, which covered 60–70 mi (100–110 km) per charge.\nA number of developments contributed to decline of electric cars. Improved road infrastructure required a greater range than that offered by electric cars, and the discovery of large reserves of petroleum in Texas, Oklahoma, and California led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline/petrol, making internal combustion powered cars cheaper to operate",
"-29.04927135827893"
],
[
"ignition, and since models without the starter had no battery, they continued to use magneto-powered lights. Advantages over dynamos Alternators have several advantages over direct-current generators (dynamos). They are lighter, cheaper, more rugged, and can provide useful charge at idle speed. They use slip rings having greatly extended brush life over a commutator. The brushes in an alternator carry only DC excitation current, a small fraction of the current carried by the brushes of a DC generator, which carry the generator's entire output. A set of rectifiers (diode bridge) is required to convert AC to DC. To provide direct current",
"-28.959925614883105"
],
[
"low-speed small electric cars were sold in China in 2013, most of which are powered by lead-acid batteries. These electric vehicles are not considered by the government as new energy vehicles due to safety and environmental concerns, and consequently, do not enjoy the same benefits as highway legal plug-in electric cars. 2000s: Modern highway-capable electric cars The emergence of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology led to the development of modern electric road vehicles. The MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor), invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, led to the development of the power MOSFET",
"-28.929051978413554"
],
[
"is useful because it reduces glare. Lamp fixture design must control light from a long tube instead of a compact globe.\nThe compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) replaces regular incandescent bulbs. However, some CFLs will not fit some lamps, because the harp (heavy wire shade support bracket) is shaped for the narrow neck of an incandescent lamp, while CFLs tend to have a wide housing for their electronic ballast close to the lamp's base. Flicker problems Fluorescent lamps using a magnetic power line frequency ballast do not give out a steady light; instead, they flicker at twice the supply frequency. This results",
"-28.918453255262648"
],
[
"the two plugs as to erosion suffered at the center electrode. Because the spark jumps in opposite directions on the companion plugs, one bank will erode the center electrode more, and the opposite bank will erode the ground electrode more. Spark plugs used in wasted spark systems should have precious metals, such as platinum and/or iridium, on both the central and ground electrodes in order to increase the average service interval time before replacement is needed. Twin plug combustion Since the earliest gasoline engines, some have used twin spark systems. These have two spark plugs in each cylinder. Each",
"-28.916905017088084"
],
[
"are also much louder than electric motors.\nAnother alternative is the gasoline engine. While glow engines run on special and expensive hobby fuel, gasoline runs on the same fuel that powers cars,lawnmowers, weed whackers etc. These typically run on a two-stroke cycle, but are radically different from glow two-stroke engines. They are typically much, much larger, like the 80 cm³ Zenoah. These engines can develop several horsepower, incredible for something that can be held in the palm of the hand. Electrical Electric power is often the chosen form of power for aircraft, cars and boats. Electric power in aircraft in particular has",
"-28.90280161125702"
],
[
"household power outlet in its country of sale. If plugged in, recharging can be controlled remotely through a smartphone application. Others To save energy, the Volt sometimes heats the seats instead of blowing heated air through HVAC system, as heating the vehicle's cabin draws significant power, and can even exceed what is needed to move the vehicle on occasions. A power-saving stereo system uses amplifiers that switch on and off rapidly to save power. It uses 50 percent less energy. The system is also lighter because the use of high grade neodymium magnets. Performance The Volt has a top speed",
"-28.86958656807292"
],
[
"this system, no extra diode is needed since there would be no fuel-air mixture present at the inactive spark plug. \nIn a low-inductance coil, fewer primary turns are used, so primary current is higher. This is not compatible with the capacity of mechanical breaker points, so solid-state switching is used. Use in cars Early gasoline (petrol) internal combustion engines used a magneto ignition system, since no battery was fitted to the vehicle; magnetos are still used in piston-engine aircraft to keep the engine running in the event of an electrical failure. The voltage produced by a magneto is dependent on",
"-28.840955988045607"
],
[
"of power, the electric vehicle is able to accelerate faster than gasoline cars.\nIn the 1970s, the electric vehicle made its reappearance because of the 1973 OPEC Oil Embargo. Previously, the abundant gasoline had become the prime source of fuel for vehicles. But after the shortage, manufacturers began looking towards electric vehicles again. Despite the improved technology from the 1800s, the electric vehicles faced similar technological flaws such as limited mileage and speed. They could only travel up to 45 miles per hour and had a range of approximately 40 miles.",
"-28.781844472978264"
],
[
"headlight also was AC-powered, as it too drew its power directly from the alternator.\nHowever, all other electrical components - lighting and horn - were still DC-powered. In all models, a rectifier converts the alternator's AC to DC in order to charge the battery.\nThe change in 1976 to AC ignition and an AC headlight caused changes to the wiring harness, the ignition switch, the coil, the alternator, the rotor, and the ignition advance mechanism.",
"-28.764716818033776"
],
[
"II included, because of the lack of oil, in many countries, like Italy, France, Great Britain and Sweden, several gasoline-powered cars were modified, with the addition of a wood gas generator (a \"gasogen\"), a device powered by wood, coal, or burnable waste, able to produce (and purify) gas that immediately, in the same vehicle, could power a slightly modified ICE engine of a standard car (low-compression engine). Carburetor had to be changed with an air-gas mixer). There were several setbacks, as the great reduction of maximum speed and the need to drive using low gears and wisely dosing the amount",
"-28.72766499024874"
],
[
"to handle high heat and voltage within the spark plug, enabling vehicles to operate in a more clean and, in turn, more efficient manner. By encasing the spark plugs, she had made possible for them to become quite durable. Prior to the design changes, spark plugs would get covered in byproducts spewed by the engine and had to be manually cleaned every 70 to 150 kilometers for the vehicle to function effectively.",
"-28.7256696277218"
],
[
"customer can replace the light bulbs with ones of higher wattage to provide sufficient lighting. In today's modern world many light fixtures, including the ones with LED type bulbs, are dimmable. Therefore at lower voltage the dimmer will be turned up and at higher voltage it will be turned down, resulting in the same lumens being generated by the light fixture, hence no energy savings will take place. A good comparison of methodology of lowering the voltage to save energy is to draw a parallel with lowering the water pressure to save water. The washing machine will have to fill",
"-28.721950554705472"
],
[
"is not consumed while the vehicle is stationary, unlike internal combustion engines which consume fuel while idling. However, looking at the well-to-wheel efficiency of EVs, their total emissions, while still lower, are closer to an efficient gasoline or diesel in most countries where electricity generation relies on fossil fuels.\nWell-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if electricity production were switched from fossil fuel to a wind or tidal primary source of energy. Thus, when \"well-to-wheels\"",
"-28.700940110553347"
],
[
"its financiers to form the Electric Vehicle Company.\nElectric vehicles had a number of advantages over their early-1900s competitors. They did not have the vibration, smell, and noise associated with gasoline cars. They also did not require gear changes. (While steam-powered cars also had no gear shifting, they suffered from long start-up times of up to 45 minutes on cold mornings.) The cars were also preferred because they did not require a manual effort to start, as did gasoline cars which featured a hand crank to start the engine.\nElectric cars found popularity among well-heeled customers who used them as city cars,",
"-28.56837145243844"
],
[
"of affordable gasoline, making gas-powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances. Electric cars were limited to urban use by their slow speed (no more than 24–32 km/h or 15–20 mph) and low range (50–65 km or 30–40 miles), and gasoline cars were now able to travel farther and faster than equivalent electrics.\nGasoline cars became even easier to operate thanks to the invention of the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912, which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use of the muffler, which",
"-28.55958293960066"
],
[
"was used instead of gasoline to power the on-board generator engine. Robert Lutz added that if the driver used E85, \"the fuel economy figure became 525 miles per (equivalent) petroleum gallon\", as only 15% of gasoline is used in this blend. General Motors also noted that actual production of the Volt depended on further battery development, because the required rechargeable batteries needed to make the Volt a viable vehicle did not exist in the market and had yet to be developed. The concept car was actually powered by two 12-volt conventional car batteries, just enough power to allow the vehicle",
"-28.55548723857646"
],
[
"gas turbine). Non-military usage Many other types of engines and other heat-generating machinery are designed to burn more than one type of fuel. For instance, some heaters and boilers designed for home use can burn wood, pellets, and other fuel sources. These offer fuel flexibility and security, but are more expensive than are standard single fuel engines. Portable stoves are sometimes designed with multifuel functionality, in order to burn whatever fuel is found during an outing.\nThe movement to establish alternatives to automobiles running solely on gasoline has greatly increased the number of automobiles available which use multifuel",
"-28.5396826377837"
],
[
"battery that is continually recharged with power from the internal combustion engine and regenerative braking, they can not be recharged from an off-vehicle electric energy source, and therefore, they do not belong to the category of plug-in electric vehicles.\n\"Plug-in electric drive vehicle\" is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for federal tax credits depending on battery size and their all-electric range. In some European countries, particularly in France, \"electrically chargeable vehicle\" is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives.\nWhile the term \"plug-in electric vehicle\" most",
"-28.53091604027577"
],
[
"Street lighting Cities around the globe light up millions of streets with 300 million lights. Some cities are seeking to reduce street light power consumption by dimming lights during off-peak hours or switching to LED lamps. It is not clear whether the high luminous efficiency of LEDs will lead to real reductions in energy, as cities may end up installing extra lamps or lighting areas more brightly than in the past. Aircraft There are several ways to reduce energy usage in air transportation, from modifications to the planes themselves, to how air traffic is managed. As in cars, turbochargers are",
"-28.518434196499584"
],
[
"lamps are much more efficient than incandescent lamps, and for a short time became popular in street lighting both because of the efficiency and the novelty value. Fluorescent lamps for street lighting were first introduced to the public for commercial uses at the 1939 World's Fair.\nThe major problems with standard fluorescent lamps for street lighting is that they are large, and produce a diffused non-directional light. They are also rather fragile. Therefore, the fixtures needed to be large, and could not be mounted more than 20–30 feet above the pavement if they were to produce an acceptable light level.\nFluorescent lamps",
"-28.513013719262744"
],
[
"where their limited range proved to be even less of a disadvantage. Electric cars were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to their ease of operation; in fact, early electric cars were stigmatized by the perception that they were \"women's cars\", leading some companies to affix radiators to the front to disguise the car's propulsion system.\nAcceptance of electric cars was initially hampered by a lack of power infrastructure, but by 1912, many homes were wired for electricity, enabling a surge in the popularity of the cars. In the United States by the turn of the century,",
"-28.510317515967472"
],
[
"than for need — many are more powerful than the vehicles can actually make use of. Although the body shell is original in appearance, engines of a wide variety of makes are commonly used. The small-block Chevrolet is a common choice, since it is relatively small, light, easy to obtain and to improve, and performs well. Four-cylinder engines are common also, especially if the car is used regularly. Many install blowers (superchargers) on their engines, and people use modern fuel-injected engines.",
"-28.471819847574807"
],
[
"compact in size and not prone to theft due to their lack of use in other situations unlike lead acid batteries. Pole Strong poles are necessary to all street lights, especially to solar street lights as there are often components mounted on the top of the pole: fixtures, panels and sometimes batteries. However, in some newer designs, the PV panels and all electronics are integrated in the pole itself. Wind resistance is also a factor.\nIn addition, accessories do exist for these types of poles, such as a foundation cage and a battery box. Types Each street light can have its",
"-28.449003529545735"
],
[
"difference between AC and DC motors is the sort of system that is required to run it in an electric vehicle. An AC motor is generally cheaper but the components required to run it in an electric vehicle such as the controller and inverter makes it more expensive than the DC motor. A unique feature of electric vehicles compared to its gasoline counterparts, the electric vehicle is more simple than the gasoline vehicle. The electric vehicle bypasses the gasoline car components such as the crankshaft which allows it to generate power much faster than gasoline. Because of the faster transfer",
"-28.410522515068806"
],
[
"using coal, driving electric vehicles would cause larger environmental damage than driving petrol vehicles. When justifying use of electric cars over petrol cars, these kinds of studies do not provide sufficiently clear results. Environmental impact is calculated based on fuel mix used to produce electricity that powers electric cars. However, when a gas vehicle is replaced by an equivalent electric vehicle, additional power must be installed in electrical grid. This additional capacity would normally not be based on the same ratios of energy sources (\"clean\" versus fossil fuels) than the current capacity. Only when additional electricity production capacity installed to",
"-28.396999721997418"
],
[
"advertisements featuring cut-outs that could be attached to light switches, reading \"Last Out, Lights Out: Don't Be Fuelish\".\nBy 1980, domestic luxury cars with a 130-inch (3.3 m) wheelbase and gross weights averaging 4,500 pounds (2,041 kg) were no longer made. The automakers had begun phasing out the traditional front engine/rear wheel drive layout in compact cars in favor of lighter front engine/front wheel drive designs. A higher percentage of cars offered more efficient four-cylinder engines. Domestic auto makers also began offering more fuel efficient diesel powered passenger cars as well.\nAlthough not regulated by the new legislation, auto racing groups voluntarily began conserving. In",
"-28.361737591541896"
],
[
"small power draws. The U.S. Department of Energy said in 2008:\n\"Many appliances continue to draw a small amount of power when they are switched off. These \"phantom\" loads occur in most appliances that use electricity, such as VCRs, televisions, stereos, computers, and kitchen appliances. This can be avoided by unplugging the appliance or using a power strip and using the switch on the power strip to cut all power to the appliance.\"\nStandby power used by older devices can be as high as 10–15 W per device, while a modern HD LCD television may use less than 1 W in standby mode. Some",
"-28.354642182464886"
],
[
"the complexities of using a combustion engine as a power source. However, in one sense they are simpler: the use of a separate rectifier is unnecessary because they can provide either AC or DC. However, the engine driven units are most practical in field work where the welding often must be done out of doors and in locations where transformer type welders are not usable because there is no power source available to be transformed.\nIn some units the alternator is essentially the same as that used in portable generating sets used to supply mains power, modified to produce a higher",
"-28.332412247120374"
],
[
"a reasonable estimate. However, Consumer Reports have noted that fuel-efficient hybrids and diesel models often depreciate far less than most vehicles, which might increase the Volt's resale value after three years above the US$17,000 estimate. Additionally, if gasoline prices continue to rise or if the tax credits expire, the demand for used Chevrolet Volts could quickly increase, raising their market value. On the other hand, if the next-generation Volt’s battery has twice the capacity and cost less, as General Motors has claimed, the first generation Volts would be obsolete when the new ones come out in 2015. Considering these assumptions,",
"-28.22032568265422"
],
[
"fires due to overloading them. Adaptors can be made with ceramic, Bakelite, or other plastic bodies. Lampholder plug A lampholder plug fits into a light socket in place of a light bulb to connect appliances to lighting circuits. Where a lower rate was applied to electric power used for lighting circuits, lampholder plugs enabled the consumers to reduce their electricity costs. Lampholder plugs are rarely fused. Edison screw lampholder adaptors (for NEMA 1-15 plugs) are still commonly used in the Americas. Soviet adaptor plugs Some appliances sold in the Soviet Union had a flat unearthed plug with an additional pass-through",
"-28.200651256764104"
],
[
"release gas. The spark ignites the flammable gas causing a flame to come out of the lighter which continues until either the top is closed (naphtha type), or the valve is released (butane type).\nA metal enclosure with air holes generally surrounds the flame, and is designed to allow mixing of fuel and air while making the lighter less sensitive to wind. The high energy jet in butane lighters allows mixing to be accomplished by using Bernoulli's principle, so that the air hole(s) in this type tend to be much smaller and farther from the flame.\nSpecialized \"windproof\" butane lighters are manufactured",
"-28.122350317304154"
],
[
"home EV conversions use the large format versions as the car's traction pack. With the efficient power-to-weight ratios, high safety features and the chemistry's resistance to thermal runaway, there are few barriers for use by amateur home \"makers\". Motorhomes are often converted to lithium iron phosphate because of the high draw.\nSome electronic cigarettes use these types of batteries. Other applications include flashlights, radio-controlled models, portable motor-driven equipment, amateur radio equipment, industrial sensor systems. and emergency lighting.",
"-28.099691653696937"
],
[
"cars were much more vulnerable to such a situation, because they have less underbody protection. It also noted that the battery pack holds only about 10% of the energy contained in a gasoline tank and is spread across 16 firewalled modules, meaning that the combustion potential is only about 1% as much. Elon Musk posted on his blog that, based on U.S. automobile miles-per-fire statistics from the National Fire Protection Association, a driver is \"5 times more likely to experience a fire in a conventional gasoline car than a Tesla.\" After news of the accident, Tesla stock fell 6.24%",
"-28.069824231015446"
],
[
"large difference in use of electricity in hybrid cars. Alternative green vehicles Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that go fully or partly on alternative energy sources than fossil fuel. Another option is to use alternative fuel composition (i.e. biofuels) in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, making them go partly on renewable energy sources.\nOther approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept that offers automated on-demand non-stop transportation, on a network of specially built guideways. Peugeot/Citroën Hybrid Vehicle Peugeot and Citroën have announced that they too are building a car that uses compressed air as an energy source.",
"-28.050831590167945"
],
[
"Light electric vehicle Light electric vehicles are electric vehicles with two or four wheels powered by a battery, fuel cell, or hybrid-powered, and generally weighing less than 100 kilograms (220 lb). Examples include electric bicycles and electric kick scooters.",
"-28.036463849639404"
],
[
"and side marker lamps. The Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222) has no non-LED lamps at all, not even in the most basic trim level.\nLED lamps are used for flashing beacon lights on vehicles such as maintenance trucks. Previously, traditional light sources required the engine to continue running to ensure that the battery would not become depleted if the lights were to be used for more than a few hours. The energy-efficient nature of the LED allows the engine to be turned off but the light continue to flash.\nLED lighting systems are sensitive to heat. Due to the negative influences of heat on",
"-28.024138678192685"
],
[
"fire appliances was their four-wheel drive. Fuel consumption was between 8 mpg‑imp (35 L/100 km; 6.7 mpg‑US) and 10 mpg‑imp (28 L/100 km; 8.3 mpg‑US), depending on driving style and quantity of water carried. They also have less water capacity at 400 imperial gallons (1,800 L) in 4x2 form, 300 imperial gallons (1,400 L) on 4x4 versions, than a modern vehicle, and poorer stability due to a lack of baffle partitions in the water tank.\nSome were later modified by the installation of flashing blue lamps and two tone warning sirens, and alterations to the rear lamps, to bring them into line with then current practice on 'regular' emergency",
"-28.000323655101965"
],
[
"History of AC power plugs and sockets Plugs and sockets for portable appliances started becoming available in the 1880s. A proliferation of types developed to address the issues of convenience and protection from electric shock. Today there are approximately 20 types in common use around the world (see AC power plugs and sockets), and many obsolete socket types are still found in older buildings. Early history When electricity was first introduced into houses in the 1880s, it was primarily used for lighting. One common approach for other appliances (such as vacuum cleaners, electric fans, smoothing irons and curling tong heaters)",
"-27.955175658258668"
],
[
"version has screw terminals and a rectangular base. Since it is 12-volt, this type can be used to power car accessories outside of an automobile, using extra wiring or an adapter.",
"-27.954810484083282"
],
[
"explicitly an on-board battery, electric cars with motors powered by other energy sources are typically referred to by a different name. An electric car carrying solar panels to power it is a solar car, and an electric car powered by a gasoline generator is a form of hybrid car. Thus, an electric car that derives its power from an on-board battery pack is a form of battery electric vehicle (BEV). Most often, the term \"electric car\" is used to refer to battery electric vehicles, but may also refer to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV). History In 1835, in Groningen, the",
"-27.935253047020524"
],
[
"to withstand the higher heat and power consumption from off-spec lamps. Lamps with higher-than-specified output can also create unsafe levels of glare. There is considerable variability by jurisdiction in the regulation of off-road applications of lamp types used in on-road vehicles.",
"-27.927983958317782"
],
[
"that functions as an electrical ballast. This is the only kind of mercury vapor lamp that can be connected directly to the mains without an external ballast. These lamps have only the same or slightly higher efficiency than incandescent lamps of similar size, but have a longer life. They give light immediately on startup, but usually need a few minutes to restrike if power has been interrupted. Because of the light emitted by the filament, they have slightly better color rendering properties than mercury vapor lamps. Operation When a mercury vapor lamp is first turned on, it will produce a",
"-27.911092977594308"
],
[
"times. Lights drawing more than a few tens of watts are not practical. The old classic, a 12 volt automobile incandescent headlight mounted on a Styrofoam float ring, is probably the least expensive and lasts for a few hours before the battery is discharged. Battery-operated fluorescent lamps are three times more efficient in converting electricity to light. Therefore, comparing lamps of similar brightness, they can be operated about three times longer before the battery is discharged. Also, the operating lifetime of fluorescent lights are about ten times longer than incandescent lights. Commercial portable fishing lights based on fluorescent lamps",
"-27.886940769385546"
],
[
"were phased out in Australia in November 2009.\nObjections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps. Some people have concerns about the health effects of fluorescent lamps. However, even though they contain mercury, the environmental performance of CFLs is much better than that of light bulbs, mostly because they consume much less energy and therefore strongly reduce the environmental impact of power production. LED lamps are even more efficient, and are free of mercury. They are regarded as the best solution in terms of cost",
"-27.883776864171523"
],
[
"one of the first common electrical accessories. \nEarly systems used 6 volts, but 12 volts became the standard because it provided greater power with less current. The original DC generator was replaced by an alternator controlled by a voltage regulator. Due to mechanical and electrical properties, it is more efficient to first produce alternating current and then immediately convert it to direct current. By regulating the current sent to the alternator's rotor and thus the strength of the magnetic field, a stable voltage can be produced over a wider range of engine speeds. \nStarting, lighting and ignition systems of",
"-27.869396967551438"
],
[
"PV systems, due to their high reliability, low self discharge and investment and maintenance costs, despite shorter lifetime and lower energy density. Lithium-ion batteries have the potential to replace lead-acid batteries in the near future, as they are being intensively developed and lower prices are expected due to economies of scale provided by large production facilities such as the Gigafactory 1. In addition, the Li-ion batteries of plug-in electric cars may serve as a future storage devices in a vehicle-to-grid system. Since most vehicles are parked an average of 95% of the time, their batteries could be used to let",
"-27.869071441302367"
],
[
"or use kerosene or white gas. Battery powered lights are best, but they must provide reliable illumination for at least one hour.",
"-27.857210150235915"
],
[
"carburetor might be regarded as the most complicated device to generate fuel-air mixture widely used in passenger cars. With prevalence of the three-way catalytic converter (needing specific air fuel ratio) double-register carburetors became obsolete and were replaced temporarily by electronically controlled simpler carburetors and then finally by fuel injection systems that are more reliable in the long term and can be easily maintained.",
"-27.828397567011052"
],
[
"the same purpose, but the cost is decreasing rapidly. Even with the high per-unit cost, the increase in efficiency and increased lifespan make them very attractive for street lighting use. The reduced cost of electricity and maintenance in some cases can offset the increased cost of the lamp.\nLEDs are increasingly finding widespread usage in general street, sidewalk, or parking lot illumination as technology improvements bring their brightness and cost into competition with HPS, MH, or CFL lighting. For example, the city of Ann Arbor, Michigan, implemented LEDs in street lighting applications in March 2006 and have since expanded their use.",
"-27.810725618033757"
],
[
"range of a pure electric vehicle and its battery size, adding the range extending gasoline is considered by many to be good compromise to give the Chevy Volt a significantly greater driving range. How many benefits are derived from using the primary fuel however depend on how the vehicles are driven. For example, a first generation Chevy Volt will operate 100% on battery power from the electric grid for the first 60 km (37 miles), while the second generation Volt will operate on 100% battery power for the first 85 km (53 miles) when fully recharged between trips. However,",
"-27.80616932081466"
],
[
"often refers to automobiles or \"plug-in cars\", there are several other types of plug-in electric vehicle, including electric motorcycles and scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles or microcars, city cars, vans, buses, electric trucks or lorries, and military vehicles. Battery electric vehicles A battery electric vehicle (BEV) uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs as its only source for propulsion. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion.\nA plug-in hybrid operates as an all-electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge-depleting mode, but it switches to charge-sustaining mode after the battery has reached its",
"-27.79885415049648"
],
[
"wide-coverage light that can illuminate an area quite well. Some lights are halogen, and provide a light source and intensity similar to that of an automobile headlight.\nEarly battery backup systems were huge, dwarfing the size of the lights for which they provided power. The systems normally used lead acid batteries to store a full 120-volt charge. For comparison, an automobile uses a single lead acid battery as part of the ignition system. Simple transistor or relay technology was used to switch on the lights and battery supply in the event of a power failure. The size",
"-27.791896442435245"
],
[
"electric generator load on the engine. ATEGs allow the automobile to generate electricity from the engine's thermal energy rather than using mechanical energy to power an electric generator. Since the electricity is generated from waste heat that would otherwise be released into the environment, the engine burns less fuel to power the vehicle's electrical components, such as the headlights. Therefore, the automobile releases fewer emissions.\nDecreased fuel consumption also results in increased fuel economy. Replacing the conventional electric generator with ATEGs could ultimately increase the fuel economy by up to 4%.\nThe ATEG's ability to generate electricity without moving parts is an",
"-27.741392477757472"
],
[
"1999, seven years after EEC regulations signaled the end of production for cars using leaded gasoline in member states. At this stage, a large percentage of cars from the 1980s and early 1990s which ran on leaded gasoline were still in use, along with cars which could run on unleaded fuel. However, the declining number of such cars on British roads saw many gasoline stations withdrawing LRP from sale by 2003. MMT Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) is used in Canada and the USA to boost octane rating. It also helps old cars designed for leaded fuel run on unleaded fuel",
"-27.72929244446641"
],
[
"motors, on public roads. Mindful of this, several companies (Tesla Motors, BMW, Uniti) have succeeded in keeping the body light, while making it very strong. Controls As of 2018, most electric cars have similar driving controls to that of a car with a conventional automatic transmission. Even though the motor may be permanently connected to the wheels through a fixed-ratio gear and no parking pawl may be present, the modes \"P\" and \"N\" are often still provided on the selector. In this case the motor is disabled in \"N\" and an electrically actuated hand brake provides the \"P\" mode.\nIn some",
"-27.685511292911542"
],
[
"system using only one of the two batteries.\nVintage cars may have 6-volt electrical systems, or may connect the positive terminal of the battery to the chassis. The methods intended for boosting 12-volt, negative-ground vehicles cannot be used in such cases.\nHybrid vehicles may have a very small 12 volt battery system unsuitable for sourcing the large amount of current required to boost a conventional vehicle. However, as the 12-volt system of a hybrid vehicle is only required to start up the control system of the vehicle, a very small portable battery may successfully boost a hybrid that has accidentally discharged",
"-27.681097372500517"
],
[
"generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and\noff-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand. This pattern of fuel shifting explains why emission rates tend to be higher at night and",
"-27.678214916762954"
],
[
"use than the primary fuel source, so the vehicle control system gives preference to using the primary fuel if it's available. However, due to range limitations with the primary fuel source, the range extending fuel allows the vehicle to get many of the cost and environmental benefits of the primary fuel, while maintaining the full driving range of the range extending fuel source. For example, in the Chevy Volt, battery power from the electric grid can be cheaper and more environmentally sustainable than burning gasoline (depending on the electric generation source), but due to the trade offs between the",
"-27.668715273046473"
],
[
"the common configuration of a carbureted engine with a magneto ignition system that does not require electrical power generated by an alternator to run, which is considered a safety advantage.",
"-27.656080250621017"
],
[
"an ignition agent. Larger engines can be glowplug but increasingly common gasoline is the fuel of choice. These engines are spark ignited.\nIn recent years electric powered models have increased in popularity due to the reducing cost and weight of components and improvements in technology, especially lithium polymer (LiPo) batteries and the choice of brushed motors and brushless motors. Electric systems are quieter and as they do not require fuel/exhaust, are cleaner. The advantage of electric power is the ease of starting the motor as compared to the starting of engines; electric motors that are comparable to engines are cheaper. Any",
"-27.639245029786252"
],
[
"now been achieved with 12 volt systems. 42-volt electrical components are now used in only a few automotive applications, since incandescent light bulbs work well at 12 volts and switching of a 42-volt circuit is more difficult.\n48 volt systems are being deployed in mild hybrid vehicles, which add electric assistance to the propulsion and regeneration during braking for fuel savings. USA – Consortium on Advanced Automotive Electrical and Electronic Systems The SAE discussed an increased automobile standard voltage as early as 1988.\nIn 1994, at the initiative of Daimler-Benz, the first \"Workshop on Advanced Architectures for Automotive Electrical Distribution Systems\" was held",
"-27.623750608690898"
],
[
"stationary or trailer-mounted units that can supply over a million watts. Regardless of the size, generators may run on gasoline, diesel, natural gas, propane, bio-diesel, water, sewage gas or hydrogen. Most of the smaller units are built to use gasoline (petrol) as a fuel, and the larger ones have various fuel types, including diesel, natural gas and propane (liquid or gas). Some engines may also operate on diesel and gas simultaneously (bi-fuel operation).\nMany engine-generators use a reciprocating engine, with fuels mentioned above. This can be a steam engine, such as most coal-powered fossil-fuel power plants use. Some engine-generators use a",
"-27.60438243295266"
],
[
"is that the fuel compartment is sealed shut with a rubber o-ring, which slows or stops fuel evaporation. Flameless lighter A flameless lighter is a safe alternative to traditional lighters. The flameless lighter uses an enclosed heating element which glows, so that the device does not produce an open flame. Typical flameless heating elements are an electrically heated wire or an artificial coal.\nFlameless lighters are designed for use in any environment where an open flame, conventional lighters or matches are not permitted. The flameless lighter is used in many environments such as prisons and detention facilities, oil and gas",
"-27.564144346411922"
],
[
"220 V. Brazil In Brazil, this kind of plug is commonly found in high-power appliances like air conditioners, dishwashers, and household ovens. The reasons why they have been unofficially adopted for this use may be the robustness and high-current bearing capabilities, the impossibility of inverting phase (active) and neutral pins, or the fact that Argentina, a border country, uses this plug and used to be more developed than Brazil in the past so there may have been a flux of high-powered appliances from Argentina to Brazil at some point in time.\nNowadays, Brazil has adopted the national standard NBR 14136, which",
"-27.555364254254528"
],
[
"marking functions, as well. The first halogen lamp approved for automotive use was the H1, which was introduced in Europe in 1962, 55 W producing 1500 lm. Light-emitting diodes (LED) Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are increasingly used in automotive lamps. They offer very long service life, extreme vibration resistance, and can permit considerably shallower packaging compared to most bulb-type assemblies. LEDs also offer a potential safety benefit when employed in stop lights, because when power is applied they rise to full intensity approximately 250 milliseconds (¼ second) faster than incandescent bulbs. This fast rise time not only improves the intentional conspicuity",
"-27.53801253654092"
],
[
"moving equipment with Diesel engines use 24 volt systems. In some older vehicles, 6 V was used, such as in the original classic Volkswagen Beetle. At one point a 42 V electrical system was considered for automobiles, but this found little use. To save weight and wire, often the metal frame of the vehicle is connected to one pole of the battery and used as the return conductor in a circuit. Often the negative pole is the chassis \"ground\" connection, but positive ground may be used in some wheeled or marine vehicles. Telecommunication Telephone exchange communication equipment uses standard −48 V DC",
"-27.51243371105602"
]
] |
jnte0 | what Tor is, and why everyone praises it as the king of proxies. | [
"Imagine the internet as a phone system. When you make a regular call, it's easy to see who is calling who (caller ID) and what they're saying (phone taps and the like). What TOR does is splits everything up and encrypts it. So instead of calling the person you want to talk to directly, you call a designated stranger, and give him your message in code. Then he calls another person, and re-encodes your message. Then that person sends it along again, each of them decoding and encoding parts of the message, but never the whole thing at once. Eventually, the message gets to where it was intended to go, and then the reply is sent back the same way. Now imagine that this is happening at the speed of light, millions of times a second, and instead of talking you're looking at a screen. That's TOR.",
"it's like staring at a hot chicks boobs while you're wearing sunglasses. only you're wearing 3 glasses. anyone (your ISP) can see that you're looking in a direction (on the internet) but they can't tell what you're looking at.",
"Tor is not really a proxy in the traditional sense of the word (i.e. where your computer connects just to one other computer and then it connects to the Internet for you --making it appear to websites that you are where the other computer is) although it does route your data through other computers. Tor is a darknet: It encrypts your data, breaks it up, and sends it through multiple computers (who are also running Tor) and then finally lets the data leave and join the 'normal' Internet. The purpose being that it would be very difficult (but not impossible) for anyone to find out who really did or said what. Because your data has to be sent and resent by many computers, it will be much slower than accessing the Internet normally -- and probably not fast enough to make it useful for streaming video content -- but it provides the best protection for people who NEED to be anonymous. There are also websites ending in .onion instead of .com that are hosted within the Tor darknet. Because the data never leaves the darknet it's much more secure. But these websites are probably not suitable for 5 year olds! Criminality, scamming and illegal adult content are rife. But that's the price of a truly free, anonymous network. there are also whistle-blowing, wikileaks and political .onion sites. As a last note, running Tor as a server could mean that your computer could appear to download or do something nasty even though you didn't do it. You would be unable to tell who the real perpetrators were and depending on where you live, it could get you in trouble.",
"This is very simplified, but as specific as I can get. Will someone second this if it's correct, as I'm not 100% on it. Basically, you have an IP address, this identifies your computer. When you access the Internet via tor, your IP is bounced around to different IP's all over the world, making it near impossible to trace.",
"imagine it's snack time at school. the teacher (web host) hands out a stack of 10 cookies (website/file/other content) to each student (user). this is what the internet is like. with tor, instead of getting your snack from the teacher, you get 10 other students to grab 1 cookie each for you. You end up with your full snack, but you never got anything from the teacher yourself. it's a lot like bittorrent, but instead of each person having the full version, they are just passing things along."
] | [
[
"Torte Origin The best-known of the typical tortes include the Austrian Sachertorte and Linzertorte, the German Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte, and the many-layered Hungarian Dobos torte. But other well-known European confections are also tortes, such as the French Gâteau St. Honoré.\nIn Poland, Ukraine, and Russia cakes are usually called tortes without differentiating between cake and torte. In Polish, as an example, the word torte is translated into Polish as tort, but tort can be also translated as layer cake or cream cake. Birthday cake is tort urodzinowy and wedding cake is tort weselny (though the general word for cake is ciasto). The",
"-24.901885556959314"
],
[
"Torc Waterfall Naming The word Torc is from the Irish translation of a \"wild boar\", and the area is associated with legends involving wild boars. One legend is of a man who was cursed by the Devil to spend each night transformed into a wild boar, but when his secret was revealed by a local farmer, he burst into flames and disappeared into the nearby Devils Punchbowl on Mangerton Mountain from which the Owengarriff River emerged to hide the entrance to his cave beneath the Torc Waterfall. There is also the story of how the legendary Irish warrior,",
"-23.5061201172648"
],
[
"Torkan Torkan is a heroic fantasy comic strip written and illustrated by Roger Fletcher. The strip debuted in June 1976 in the Sunday Telegraph and has appeared continuously in the paper to the present day, with over seventy stories having been published.\nDuring the early 1970s, Fletcher began developing a comic strip about an Australian soldier-of-fortune, titled Nathan Cole—until he was introduced to the world of sword and sorcery by science-fiction writer Fritz Leiber that would have a profound impact on his future. In particular, the pair of characters called Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser influenced Fletcher greatly.\nFletcher worked on a",
"-23.212522671790794"
],
[
"Pixie Day Pixie Day is a tradition that takes place in Ottery St. Mary, England, annually on the Saturday nearest Mid-Summer's Day in June. Dating from 1954, and based on a pamphlet written by R. F. Delderfield for the 500th anniversary of the installation of the bells of the Church of St. Mary, the event commemorates a legend of Ottery St. Mary's 'pixies' being banished from the town (where they caused havoc) to a local cave known as 'Pixies' Parlour'.\nThe celebrations begin in the early afternoon when a large fête takes place on the Land of Caanan park. At 6 pm",
"-22.961672900477424"
],
[
"dead, which were supposed to depart from the summit of the Tor. This was the chief reason why the chapel, and later the church, of St. Michael were built on the high hill; St. Michael being the chief patron against diabolic attacks which the monks believed the Fairy King to be numbered among. Accordingly, Williamson posits that the Tor was named after the glassy mansion of the dead.\nWilliam of Malmesbury in his De Antiquitate Glastonie Ecclesie gives the Old Celtic Ineswitrin (or Ynys Witrin) as its earliest name, and asserts that the founder of the town was the eponymous Glast,",
"-22.817022934381384"
],
[
"Tormoid (\"seed of Tormod\"), the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan; the other branch being: Sìol Torcaill (\"seed of Torcall\"), the MacLeods of Lewis. This traditional story is no longer taken seriously by historians, and Torquil is now considered to have been the son of Murdoch, who was a grandson of Leod.\nThe late 20th-century historian William Matheson stated that the name Torquil was not a common one. Matheson noted that it occurs in the old genealogies of the MacNicols. Traditions linked the MacNicols with Lewis, as well as Assynt across the Minch; before being supplanted by the MacLeods who married a",
"-22.7990340134711"
],
[
"four torcs were buried together, some 15–20 centimetres (6–8 in) below the surface. Subsequent archaeological investigations determined that the torcs had originally been buried within a roundhouse, a prehistoric circular building. This building may have had religious significance, as hoard finds tend to be either votive offerings to the gods, or items of great value that had been hidden in time of unrest or war, and because the building did not seem to have features like a hearth associated with a dwelling. \nAll four torcs date to between 300 and 100 BC, they are highly and unexpectedly varied in form and",
"-22.57149462979578"
],
[
"The Terrapin \"The Terrapin\" is a short story by Patricia Highsmith. Based on the difficult relationship she had with her own mother, the story revolves around a young boy, Victor, who is emotionally abused by his difficult, haughty mother, an illustrator of children's books. \nThe terrapin of the title, a small tortoise purchased by his mother for cooking, suffers an agonizing death when she drops it into the boiling pan. This event pushes young Victor over the edge—he believes he heard it scream—and during the night he butchers his mother with a kitchen knife for revenge. The story ends while",
"-22.5122796833748"
],
[
"Brodequin (band) Themes The name Brodequin was chosen by Jamie Bailey, after the medieval torture device. Torture devices in general are referred to frequently in the group's lyrical content. While lyrics describing dismemberment, torture, murder, and abuse are unsurprising in death metal, Brodequin is unusual in exploring such phenomena within a historical context. Jamie Bailey is a history graduate and most of his lyrics are inspired by real historical events.",
"-22.30479809647659"
],
[
"than a separate power. Torcs There are three kinds of torc made by the Tanu: gold, silver and grey. Gold Torcs are the original version, worn by all pure-blooded Tanu, as well as the inhabitants of the Daughter Worlds back in the Duat Galaxy. A gold torc makes a person with latent powers completely operant in those powers.\nDr. Eusebio Gomez-Nolan, a human who was given the name Sebi-Gomnol by the Tanu, invented the silver and grey torcs, along with much simplified torc-like devices for controlling the ramapithecine apes which do the drudge work in Tanu society. These lesser torcs",
"-22.262346198782325"
],
[
"Tora-san Loves an Artist Synopsis Tora-san watches the family shop while the rest of his family takes a vacation to Kyushu. \nAn old friend introduces Tora-san to his sister Ritsuko, and he promptly falls in love with her. She is an artist and has no time for Tora-san. Critical appraisal Stuart Galbraith IV calls Tora-san Loves an Artist a \"solid\" entry in the series, which is \"alternately sweet and touching, funny and biting.\" The German-language site molodezhnaja gives Tora-san Loves an Artist three and a half out of five stars. Availability Tora-san Loves an Artist was released theatrically on December",
"-22.209718267899007"
],
[
"the name Torquil is found within MacNicol pedigrees, and that according to tradition, the clan possessed Lewis and Assynt before a MacLeod married a MacNicol heiress and gained the clan's lands. Matheson believed that the first MacLeod to bear the name, Torquil MacLeod, was the son of the MacNicol heiress of tradition, and that it was through her that the MacLeods of Lewis (Sìol Thorcaill) gained the name.",
"-21.98046115375473"
],
[
"Toramana Overview Toramana is known from Rajatarangini, through coins and inscriptions. Punjab inscription In the Kura inscription (495-500, in the Salt Range in Punjab), Toramana assumes the Indian regnal title Rajadhiraja Maharaja Toramana Sahi Jaukha. Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula In the Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula, from Gwalior in northern Madhya Pradesh, India, and written in Sanskrit, Toramana is described as: \nA ruler of [the earth], of great merit, who was renowned by the name of the glorious Tôramâna; by whom, through (his) heroism that was specially characterized by truthfulness, the earth was governed with justice. Eran Boar inscription The Eran",
"-21.979569328825164"
],
[
"is a tubular annular torc, which would have had a hinge and catch. It is of ornate design compared to the ribbon torcs, and experts have identified it as a type originating from the Toulouse area in southern France. It is the first of its kind to have been found in Britain.\nThe fourth torc is a looped terminal torc, complete and in good condition. It is made from eight gold wires twisted together. It has intricately decorated terminals and has a short length of safety chain. It has been described by Dr Fraser Hunter, Iron Age and Roman curator at",
"-21.946695969701977"
],
[
"Mimir (sculpture) Description and history Mimir is an 8-foot (2.4 m) bronze and concrete sculpture designed by Portland artist Keith Jellum, whose other works in the city include Electronic Poet (1984) and Transcendence, a fish sculpture above Southpark Seafood at Southwest Salmon Street and Ninth Avenue. Mimir is based on the figure of the same name in Norse mythology, renowned for his knowledge and wisdom, and who is beheaded during the Æsir–Vanir War. Afterward, the god Odin carries around Mímir's head, which serves as an oracle and recites secret knowledge and counsel to him. Jennifer Anderson of the Portland Tribune",
"-21.9347161569749"
],
[
"torts (Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1926).\nHe died on December 9, 1942, in Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, at age 74.",
"-21.92668670671992"
],
[
"Moriones Festival The Moriones is a lenten rites held annually on Holy Week on the island of Marinduque, Philippines. The \"Moriones\" are men and women in costumes and masks replicating the garb of biblical Roman soldiers as interpreted by local folks. The Moriones or Moryonan tradition has inspired the creation of other festivals in the Philippines where cultural practices or folk history is turned into street festivals.\nIt is a colorful festival celebrated on the island of Marinduque in the Philippines. The participants use morion masks to depict the Roman soldiers and Syrian mercenaries within the story of the Passion of",
"-21.857935595267918"
],
[
"Tigtone Plot Tigtone is an intense and high-strung adventurer with a penchant for the over-dramatic and a murderous obsession for quests. He resides in the surreal, medieval kingdom of Propecia, ruled by its two-headed monarch, King Queen, who is regularly flanked by their effeminate manchild Prince Lavender and their frequently put-upon attendant Command-Or Mathis. Joined by his trusty and expendable companion Helpy, Tigtone regularly accepts tasks and assignments that take him to various locations in Propecia, slaughtering numerous enemies along the way. Shorts (2014–15, 2019) In addition to the main episodes, there have been twelve Tigtone's Journal shorts released on",
"-21.850484540103935"
],
[
"everything from the unusual tattoos to unique slang. He famously described them as follows:\nThe clochard does not work work, he carries out obligations. Everyone has his fiddle, or his \"defense\" (his way to fend for himself) that he will not give up to anyone else, and he jealously guards the secret. The clochard gets by during the night and often sleeps during the day wherever he is taken by fatigue, on a bench, a ventilation grille, even on the pavement or on the paths along the Seine\n— Le Royaume d'Argot p260\nFrom 1943 to 1958 he published five poetry collections, the last",
"-21.77553566021379"
],
[
"Tamraparni Tamraparni (Sanskrit for \"with copper leaves\" or \"red-leaved\") is an older name for multiple distinct places, including Sri Lanka, Tirunelveli in India, the Thamirabarani River that flows through Tirunelveli. As a name for Sri lanka The rock edicts of the 3rd century BCE Indian emperor Ashoka mentions the word Tamraparni (as \"Tambapanni\") in connection with his foreign missions. One edict states that his dhamma vijaya (victory through dhamma) prevailed in frontier kingdoms of the Choda (Cholas), Pada (Pandyas), and as far as Tambapanni. This seems to be a reference to Sri Lanka, as the Buddhist chronicles of Sri Lanka",
"-21.700630631647073"
],
[
"Tortoise and when Alice asks him why he was called Tortoise if he was a Turtle the Mock Turtle answers, \"We called him tortoise because he taught us!\" ('tortoise' and 'taught us' both being pronounced <tɔːtʊs> in Carroll's dialect).",
"-21.67265993822366"
],
[
"Tora-san Goes Religious? Synopsis When his travels bring him to Western Japan, Tora-san decides to pay his respects to the late Hyoichiro Suwa, his sister's father-in-law. He gets drunk with the priest at the temple, falling in love with the priest's daughter in the process. When the priest is too hung-over to deliver a eulogy the next morning, Tora-san takes his place, with great success. Tora-san's sister and his brother-in-law's family show up for Hyoichiro Suwa's memorial service, and an argument breaks out over his estate. Critical appraisal Tora-san Goes Religious? was the fifth highest earning film at Japanese box-offices",
"-21.65556622295844"
],
[
"Tora-san's Dear Old Home Synopsis Tora-san meets three women on vacation when he travels to Fukui. One of the women meets him at his home, and he believes she has fallen in love with him, unaware that she hopes to marry a potter in the countryside. Critical appraisal Stuart Galbraith IV writes that Tora-san's Dear Old Home is a \"typically fine early entry in the series' run\", which shows Yamada and Atsumi still experimenting with the Tora-san character and stories. Galbraith singles out Yamada's portrayal of \"fleeting friendships\" in this film, pointing out, \"Yamada's camera lingers on little details, especially",
"-21.620189285604283"
],
[
"a woman by her husband's family if she was having trouble conceiving.\nRobley, author of A History of the Maori Tiki, suggested a similarity of some tiki to images of Buddha, which were often fashioned in green jade. He believed they may have been a forgotten memory, in debased form, of these.\nThe most valuable hei-tiki are carved from pounamu which is either nephrite or bowenite (Māori: tangiwai). Pounamu is esteemed highly by Māori for its beauty, toughness and great hardness; it is used not only for ornaments such as hei-tiki and ear pendants, but also for carving tools, adzes, and weapons.",
"-21.50874914531596"
],
[
"Rat Queens Publication history Writer Kurtis Wiebe described the series as a \"love letter to my years of D&D (...) and fantasy\" with a modern twist, and the concept as \"Lord of the Rings meets Bridesmaids\". Originally intended to be funded through Kickstarter, it was picked up by Jim Valentino at Image Comics a week before the funding campaign was to start. Rat Queens was intended to be published at a pace of ten issues per year, with two-month breaks between collections.\nAfter artist Roc Upchurch was arrested on charges of domestic violence in November 2014, Wiebe announced that Upchurch would",
"-21.48357123005553"
],
[
"Cegilune Publication history Cegilune was first detailed in the book Monster Mythology (1992), including details about her priesthood. Description Cegilune appears as a filthy hag with yellow-brown skin. She may also appear as a young human or elf woman, or as a homely old lady. Very rarely, she'll manifest as a scruffy orc or goblinoid woman. In all of her forms, she carries a small iron pot. Relationships Cegilune is believed to be related to the sylvan deities. Some say she is the dark twin of Titania, queen of the fey, herself. It is alleged that if either Titania or",
"-21.458109174040146"
],
[
"Norwegian Lady Statues Norwegian Lady Statues are located in the sister cities of Moss, a coastal town and municipality in the county of Østfold, Norway, and at the Oceanfront (boardwalk) in the coastal resort city of Virginia Beach, Virginia in the United States. They commemorate the lives lost in the 1891 shipwreck of the Norwegian barque Dictator off the coast of Virginia Beach and the lifesaving efforts of the community. Wreck of the Dictator On Good Friday, March 27, 1891, the Norwegian barque Dictator, whose home port was the coastal town of Moss, Norway, was lost in the Atlantic Ocean",
"-21.432650074042613"
],
[
"Monaciello The Monaciello ([monaˈʧjɛlːo], meaning \"little Monk\" in Neapolitan language) is a fairy of the tradition of Naples, Italy. He is usually depicted as a short thick kind of little man dressed in the long garments of a monk with a broad brimmed hat. Tradition The tradition of the Monaciello seems to pertain exclusively to that portion of Southern Italy consisting of Naples and its surroundings. According to the tradition, the precise place where it dwells does not appear to be accurately known; but it is reasonably supposed to be in some of those remains of Abbeys and Monasteries that",
"-21.42652997118421"
],
[
"As an act of vengeance for being fooled as such he mutilated the work with his chisel, whereupon the Duke, considering himself affronted, denounced Torrigiano as a heretic. In other stories, he was carving the Virgin and made a mistake, at which point he defaced the statue in his annoyance, and was seen by clerics and charged as a result. Vasari misdates his death to 1522.",
"-21.413464871351607"
],
[
"Tora (film) Synopsis The film centred on two neighboring families in a village in Assam. The two families share a very amicable relation. Tora, the protagonist is a seven-year-old girl with her parents Purna (father) and Jonaki (mother). Naba and Daba are two brothers of the other family with their ailing bedridden mother. One day a dispute arises over a piece of land. Whilst the adults quarrel, Tora's voice is the only significant factor that can resolve the matter. Film dedicated to Dhemaji victims Jahnu Barua, the director of Tora, dedicated his film on 19 August 2004 to the children",
"-21.408941926667467"
],
[
"Torc Mountain Naming The word Torc comes from the Irish translation of a \"wild boar\", and the area is associated with legends involving wild boars – Irish academic Paul Tempan notes that: \"Wild boar is significant in Celtic mythology, being depicted on Celtic artefacts found in continental Europe, Ireland and Britain; it represents physical strength and heroic fighting skills\". One legend is of a man who was cursed by the Devil to spend each night transformed into a wild boar, but when his secret was revealed by a local farmer, he burst into flames and disappeared into the nearby",
"-21.37631924613379"
],
[
"33 kilograms or 73 pounds), far too heavy to wear. A torc from the 1st century BC Winchester Hoard, is broadly in Celtic style but uses the Roman technique of laced gold wire, suggesting it may have been a \"diplomatic gift\" from a Roman to a British tribal king.\nA very late example of a torc used as ceremonial item in early Medieval Wales can be found in the writings of Gerald of Wales. The author wrote that there still existed a certain royal torc that had once been worn by Prince Cynog ap Brychan of Brycheiniog (fl. 492 AD) and was",
"-21.33497083964903"
],
[
"Nodens Nodens (Nudens, Nodons) is a Celtic deity associated with healing, the sea, hunting and dogs. He was worshipped in ancient Britain, most notably in a temple complex at Lydney Park in Gloucestershire, and possibly also in Gaul. He is equated with the Roman gods Mars, Neptune and Silvanus, and his name is cognate with that of the Irish mythological figure Nuada and the Welsh Nudd. Etymology The name Nodens probably derives from a Celtic stem *noudont- or *noudent-, which J. R. R. Tolkien suggested was related to a Germanic root *neut- meaning \"acquire, have the use of\", earlier",
"-21.314870433183387"
],
[
"Torcida Split History The Torcida was founded in 1950 by a group of sailors from Korčula who had witnessed the passion of the crowd at the World Cup Final in Brazil.\nThe name \"Torcida\" returned to public use in 1980, when the new generation of fans of Hajduk wanted, by old name and tradition, to celebrate and support the club. Since then, the fans began to assemble in the north stand of the new stadium in Poljud. Alliances They are in very good terms with another ultra group from Dalmatia, Tornado Zadar.\nThey are in good terms with the biggest ultra group",
"-21.27899576094933"
],
[
"Razori Name Razori was first mentioned in written records in 1736 as ex Rosor, and later as ex Rosora (in 1745) and ex Raſsorie (in 1747). In the past it was known as Rosore in German. The name Razori is a plural form of the common noun razor 'dead furrow'. The name probably does not refer to agricultural activity, but is instead metaphorical, referring to split or fissured terrain. Cultural heritage A wayside shrine in the form of a large wooden crucifix stands in the center of the village, near the intersection of the road to Brezovica pri Ljubljani with",
"-21.261716663779225"
],
[
"Tam o' Shanter (poem) \"Tam o' Shanter\" is a narrative poem written by the Scottish poet Robert Burns in 1790, while living in Dumfries. First published in 1791, it is one of Burns' longer poems, and employs a mixture of Scots and English.\nThe poem describes the habits of Tam, a farmer who often gets drunk with his friends in a public house in the Scottish town of Ayr, and his thoughtless ways, specifically towards his wife, who is waiting at home for him, angry. At the conclusion of one such late-night revel after a market day, Tam rides home on",
"-21.196833137160866"
],
[
"as it was already known as a Tarapith. Among piths, Tarapith is a siddha pith, which grants enlightenment, wisdom, happiness and siddhis (\"supernatural powers\").\nAnother oral legend about the temple states that sage Vashishtha practised austerities to Tara, but was unsuccessful, so on the advice of a divine voice, he went to meet the Buddha – an avatar of Vishnu according to some schools of Hinduism – in Tibet. The Buddha instructed Vasishtha to worship Tara through the practices of vamachara. During this time, Buddha had a vision of Tarapith as an ideal location for enshrining the image of Tara in",
"-21.140177966386545"
],
[
"Elaine of Astolat Elaine of Astolat (/ˈæstəˌlæt, -ɑːt/), also known as Elayne of Ascolat and other variants of the name, is a figure in Arthurian legend. She is a lady from the castle of Astolat who dies of her unrequited love for Sir Lancelot. Well-known versions of her story appear in Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur and Alfred, Lord Tennyson's Idylls of the King, as well as in Tennyson's poem \"The Lady of Shalott\". Legend A version of the story appeared in the early 13th-century French Mort Artu, in which the Lady of Escalot (Demoiselle d'Escalot) dies of unrequited",
"-21.11799220508692"
],
[
"man known for his extreme cruelty in regards to the execution of Lancastrians during his rule as Lord High Constable in the early 1460s. The creature is known for its awesome ugliness, and is perhaps a reflection of those that wore it as their mark. Tiptoft was beheaded in 1470 by the Lancastrians during the War of the Roses (1455-1487).",
"-21.08673639198969"
],
[
"Tora-san, the Go-Between Synopsis In Nagasaki, Tora-san and an acquaintance help an old woman who has fallen and injured herself. She invites them to her home where the three share a night of eating and drinking. The old woman's health deteriorates and she dies. At her funeral, Tora-san falls in love with the old woman's daughter, but winds up acting as a go-between for her and a young law student. Critical appraisal Series composer Naozumi Yamamoto was nominated for Best Music Score at the Japan Academy Prize for his work on Tora-san, the Go-Between. Though commenting that the film opens",
"-21.060117208748125"
],
[
"La donna serpente La donna serpente is a fable by Carlo Gozzi which premiered at the Teatro Sant'Angelo, Venice, in 1762. The plot concerns a fairy princess, Cherestani, whose marriage to a mortal Farruscad was opposed and given a curse-like condition by her father the fairy king Demogorgon. Farruscad is made to swear never to curse his wife Cherestani, no matter what she does. If he does, she will be transformed into a snake. \nThe play was adapted as a children's TV film, broadcast Rete 1, 26 March 1976, directed by it:Alessandro Brissoni, starring Ave Ninchi, Carlo Bagno, Enrico Osterman",
"-21.054971531266347"
],
[
"the former, he appears repeatedly in the light of a good-natured and humorous fellow. But besides that, there is one feature in which he parallels Asmodeus, inasmuch as his desires turn upon Solomon's wives and Bath-sheba.\nAnother Talmudic legend has King Solomon tricking Asmodai into collaborating in the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem (see: The Story of King Solomon and Ashmedai).\nAnother legend depicts Asmodai throwing king Solomon over 400 leagues away from the capital by putting one wing on the ground and the other stretched skyward. He then changed places for some years with King Solomon. When King Solomon returned,",
"-21.02659496461274"
],
[
"Princess Python Publication history Princess Python, Zelda DuBois, is a snake charmer who controls a gigantic snake to help with her crimes. She first appeared in The Amazing Spider-Man #22 (Mar 1965), created by writer Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko. Zelda DuBois started out as a snake charmer, using a 25-foot python in her act. She later became a criminal, using a gigantic snake under her mental control to commit crimes as Princess Python, part of the Circus of Crime. DuBois and the Circus are part of a group of villains that interrupt the wedding of Avengers Yellowjacket and",
"-21.012735402211547"
],
[
"In the Forgotten Realms, Loviatar is commonly known by the name Maiden of Pain, and her portfolio includes pain, hurt and torture. Her symbol is a nine-stranded whip, with barbed strands. Relationships Her portfolio conflicts most with that of Ilmater, because Loviatar despises those who help others. Her followers are encouraged to wipe out his followers from the face of the Kingdoms. Loviatar, once a follower of Bhaal, is affiliated with Malar and Talona and has fallen under the sway of Shar. Dogma The world is filled with pain and torment, and the best that one can do is to",
"-21.00395851919893"
],
[
"He is also known to have been systematically abused by his father as a boy. Some writers have suggested that the reason Roughouse wears long hair and a full beard is to hide scars received at the hands of his father.\nIn recent years, Roughouse has come to the island nation of Madripoor along with his partner, the \"pseudo-vampire\" Bloodscream. They have found employment under General Coy, one of the island's most powerful crime lords, as special enforcers used to eliminate any threats to his operations. They are sent after the woman called Tyger Tiger, Coy's primary rival as the",
"-20.984890945008374"
],
[
"the toran to be hung in a high place that the Rana, who is 120 years old and feeble cannot reach up to. Instead of the Rana, Savai Bhoj strikes down the toran. \nWhen the marriage procession arrives, the queen pretends she has a high fever. She asks her maidservant to bring Savai Bhoj's sword that is supposed to have healing powers. In the inner chambers of the palace, she then circles the sword, thereby secretly marrying Savai Bhoj. In public, however, she marries the Rana. At the end of the ceremonies, when she is to accompany the Rana to",
"-20.975341628842216"
],
[
"pay Elaine for her services; insulted, Elaine brings him his shield, which she had been guarding, and a wary Lancelot leaves the castle, never to return but now aware of her feelings for him. Ten days later, Elaine dies of heartbreak. In accordance with her instructions, her body is placed in a small boat, clutching a lily in one hand, and her final letter in the other. She then floats down the river to Camelot (Winchester), where she is discovered by King Arthur's court, who call her 'a little lily maiden'. Lancelot is summoned and hears the contents of the",
"-20.972581990812614"
],
[
"Balin (Middle-earth) Etymology Balin is the only dwarf of Thorin's company whose name does not come directly from the Old Norse poem \"Völuspá\", part of the Poetic Edda. The name does appear in Le Morte d'Arthur, but Mallory's Sir Balin is not nearly as likeable a character. Early life Balin was born in Erebor in T.A. 2763 the son of Fundin. In 2770, the year Balin turned 7, Erebor was sacked by Smaug, and the Dwarves went into exile. During that period his younger brother Dwalin was born. Their father Fundin was killed in 2799 in the Battle of Azanulbizar. In",
"-20.93934427385102"
],
[
"Bysen Bysen ([¹byːsɛn]) is a legendary gnome-like creature that haunts the woods of the island of Gotland, Sweden.\nBysen carries an axe. He is said to have committed a crime, and condemned to walk the Earth forever. He attracts people, making them get lost. Often he meddles with woodsmen, delays their transports, and tips loads of timber over. He often interferes with men in other ways and is accused of all sorts of mischief. Bysen often appears as a stump or an insignificant, little, grey man. Sometimes he wears a red, woven cap and an axe, because one of his tasks",
"-20.922798620536923"
],
[
"Mundamala Mundamala (Sanskrit: मुण्डमाला, muṇḍamālā), also called kapalamala or rundamala, is a garland of severed human heads and/or skulls, in Hindu iconography and Tibetan Buddhist iconography. In Hinduism, the mundamala is a characteristic of fearsome aspects of the Hindu Divine Mother and the god Shiva; while in Buddhism, it is worn by wrathful deities of Tibetan Buddhism. Fearsome goddesses The mundamala is often found in the iconography of the Mahavidyas, a group of ten fearsome Tantric goddesses. Kali, the foremost Mahavidya, often wears a garland of freshly severed heads. The blood from her bleeding garland bathes her nude body.",
"-20.91416387609206"
],
[
"Fairie, including Queens, are 'mortal'); the mantle of the Summer Lady then passes to Maeve's twin sister Sarissa. Sarissa Species: High Sidhe (former changeling)\nDescription: Lady of the Summer Sidhe\nMaeve's fraternal twin sister and Mab's daughter, she first appears as Harry's physical therapist to help in his rehabilitation. She is bound to Mab, having asked of her a favor. Unlike Maeve, Sarissa has a good relationship with her mother, which makes Maeve hate and envy her. She also hasn't embraced her Fairie side and thus is still part human. At the end of Cold Days, it is revealed that Mab",
"-20.90864964091452"
],
[
"in the British Isles to be claimed by local folklore as the burial place of King Arthur. The name Bedd Arthur means Arthur's Grave. There are numerous prehistoric sites around Pembrokeshire, claiming an association with Arthur. In the vicinity of Bedd Arthur, there are the Cromlechau Meibion Arthur in Nevern, Garn Arthur and Cerrig Meibion Arthur in Mynachiog-Ddu, and Bwrdd Arthur in Llanboidy Stonehenge connection It sits on top of the Preseli ridge and overlooks the rocky outcrop of Carn Menyn, a site that has been suggested as a source for some of the bluestones used at Stonehenge. A 2011",
"-20.89828024088638"
],
[
"Conan the Valorous by John Maddox Roberts. In this story, Crom is worshipped in, and reportedly lives in, a great cave in the east face of the mountain called Ben Morgh in Cimmeria where he (or a giant statue of him) is seated on a throne overlooking the Cimmerian burial grounds known as the Field of the Dead. In other media Crom is briefly mentioned in Conan the Barbarian, a 1982 film directed by John Milius, co-written by Oliver Stone, and loosely based on Robert E. Howard's works. The film's Crom is similar to the god described in Howard's works,",
"-20.821769228437915"
],
[
"circles, Stonehenge is in many ways atypical—for example, at more than 24 feet (7.3 m) tall, its extant trilithons' lintels, held in place with mortise and tenon joints, make it unique. Early history Mike Parker Pearson, leader of the Stonehenge Riverside Project based at Durrington Walls, noted that Stonehenge appears to have been associated with burial from the earliest period of its existence:\nStonehenge was a place of burial from its beginning to its zenith in the mid third millennium B.C. The cremation burial dating to Stonehenge's sarsen stones phase is likely just one of many from this later period of the",
"-20.769586050824728"
],
[
"Beachy Head Lady The Beachy Head Lady is an ancient skeleton discovered in Beachy Head, East Sussex, England. The Beachy Head Lady lived during the Roman period, around 200 to 250 AD, and is thought to have originated from Sub-Saharan Africa. So far, no DNA analysis has been done to substantiate the claim based on facial reconstruction.\nAs part of the Eastbourne Ancestors project, 300 sets of human remains excavated from Anglo-Saxon cemeteries were re-examined. Heritage Officer Jo Seaman and his team found two boxes labelled \"Beachy Head, something to do with 1956 or 1959\". Inside they found a very",
"-20.758574993014918"
],
[
"Toru's conditions.\nMurphy continues to bumble his way through life at Toru's school until, after a treacherous and almost fatal attempt by one of the higher members of the school to steal the sword, he leaves and is found in a hotel in Kyoto by Akiko, Toru's only daughter. Finding romance, they go out to see the sights and sounds of the city, including watching a Shinto ceremony. During the hub-bub of the crowded parade, Murphy and Akiko get separated and Hideo's henchmen kidnap her and deliver her to her uncle. Toru, laden with ancient weaponry, ventures out to Hideo's industrial",
"-20.75470288633369"
],
[
"Tatterhood Tatterhood is a Norwegian fairy tale collected by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe.\nIt is Aarne–Thompson type 711, the beautiful and the ugly twin. This tale type is quite common in Norway and Iceland and very rare elsewhere.\nA version of the tale also appears in A Book of Witches and A Choice of Magic, by Ruth Manning-Sanders. Synopsis A king and queen had no children, which grieved the queen greatly. To alleviate the queen's loneliness, they adopted a girl to raise as their own. One day, when the queen saw her adopted daughter playing with a",
"-20.754630510666175"
],
[
"as a matador is embarrassingly ludicrous.\"",
"-20.70644564507529"
],
[
"of King Scar\" as taking on qualities of a tango. Connecting Scar's behavior with the Argentine tango, Modenessi described his attempts to approach Nala as occurring to \"the beat of that stereotyped 'music of seduction'\". Reception and impact \"The Madness of King Scar\" received primarily positive reviews from music critics. Ben Hewis of WhatsOnStage.com included the song in his list of his top five favorite show tunes, writing that it \"shin[ed] a humanising light on the thought process of Scar is brilliantly effective storytelling\". Hewis found the track to be an interesting exploration of Scar, and felt its removal from",
"-20.70609374169726"
],
[
"by the workers' guild, who feared her wrath very much. Being a local deity, only small rock temples were dedicated to her (such as the one located on the path leading to the Valley of the Queens) and some stelae with prayers and poignant requests for forgiveness, as well as various cappelletti right at the foot of the hill dedicated to her — which was her embodiment too. She was sometimes associated with Hathor: even the latter was considered a protector of the graves in her funerary aspects of \"Lady Of The West\" and \"Lady Of The Necropolis\" who opened",
"-20.67460857736296"
],
[
"follows. Characteristics The merrow-maiden is like the commonly stereotypical mermaid: half-human, a gorgeous woman from waist up, and fish-like waist down, her lower extremity \"covered with greenish-tinted scales\" (according to O'Hanlon). She has green hair which she fondly grooms with her comb. She exhibits slight webbing between her fingers, a white and delicate film resembling \"the skin between egg and shell\".\nSaid to be of \"modest, affectionate, gentle, and [benevolent] disposition,\" the merrow is believed \"capable of attachment to human beings,\" with reports of inter-marriage. One such mixed marriage took place in Bantry, producing descendants marked by \"scaly skin\" and \"membrane",
"-20.653666417871136"
],
[
"who like to communicate by drooling and licking. Commander Henderson causes a diplomatic conflict by not allowing the Glish ambassadors to rub their genitals on his face. The Queppu A Medieval-ish race living on a mostly desert planet. They have a pseudo-feudal society with monarchical (if not totalitarian) government. Typical dress includes jester-like bright red latex suits. The despotic and insane king desires that everyone marvel at his civilization, for example, he possesses a \"Doom Ray\", with which he threatens Henderson, Teal, and York and at which he expects them to marvel. The \"Doom Ray\" apparently takes three days",
"-20.630437884701678"
],
[
"Oppari An oppari is an ancient form of lamenting in southern india, particularly in Tamil Nadu and North-East Sri Lanka where Tamils form the majority. Oppari is a folk song tradition and is often an admixture of eulogy and lament. The oppari is typically sung by a group of women relatives who came to pay respects to the departed in a death ceremony. It in a means to express one's own grief and also to share and assuage the grief of the near and dear of the diseased. Many communities use the oppari to express their grief at a funeral.",
"-20.628626456746133"
],
[
"the humans and takes a liking to human jokes (humor rarely translating well across different species).\nHigh-Priest Gratar is the priest-king of the city-state of Diaspra. Considered by most to be a farely decent king and the equivalent of saint in the eyes of the people of Diaspra, Gratar is devout is his belief and his faith in the God of Water which the city worships and seeks to please his God in creating great works for Him so as to prevent his wrath. His devotion however, has caused him to overlook the growing discontent of members of his council who",
"-20.59940214618109"
],
[
"is thought to have been buried in about 75 BC. Discovery The major part of the torc was found on 6 May 1965 in a field at West Hall Farm in Sedgeford, Norfolk, while the field was being lightly harrowed. As the harrow only penetrated a few inches, it is thought that the torc had been brought to near the surface by earlier deep ploughing. The findspot is only two miles west of the site of the large Snettisham Hoard, which included many gold torcs. The torc was declared treasure trove during an inquest held at Sedgeford",
"-20.57706826372305"
],
[
"legend have almost invariably featured a Maid Marian, and have mostly made her a highborn woman with a rebellious or \"tomboy\" character.\nIn 1938's The Adventures of Robin Hood, she is a courageous and loyal woman (played by Olivia de Havilland), and a ward of the court, an orphaned noblewoman under the protection of King Richard. Although always ladylike, her initial antagonism to Robin springs not from aristocratic disdain but out of an aversion to robbery.\nIn The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men (1952), she, despite being a lady-in-waiting to Eleanor of Aquitaine during the Crusades, is in reality",
"-20.55791793129174"
],
[
"(0.91 m), has curly hair and features that have been described as \"cherubic\" chubby and has an insatiable appetite, thanks to which he's earned the nickname \"Rumblebelly,\" bestowed by Bruenor and the usage has spread. One of his hands has only two fingers and one thumb after Artemis Entreri removed two fingers with his dagger, leaving them to taunt Drizzt and Wulfgar whilst pursuing him in \"The Halflings Gem\". Whilst the first finger was severed to punish Regis for slowing their journey to Calimport, the second was used to enrage and lure Wulfgar into a trap in the thieves guild sewer",
"-20.543181016109884"
],
[
"original Pixie's Parlour can be found along the banks of the River Otter). Characteristics Pixies are variously described in folklore and fiction.\nThey are often described as ill-clothed or naked. In 1890, William Crossing noted a pixie's preference for bits of finery: \"Indeed, a sort of weakness for finery exists among them, and a piece of ribbon appears to be... highly prized by them.\"\nSome pixies are said to steal children or to lead travellers astray. This seems to be a cross-over from fairy mythology and not originally attached to pixies; in 1850, Thomas Keightley observed that much of Devon pixie mythology",
"-20.526695554843172"
],
[
"Tora-san Meets His Lordship Synopsis Tora-san returns to his family home in Shibamata, Tokyo, but soon leaves again due to squabbles involving a dog they have named Tora-san. During his travels in Shikoku, Tora-san makes the acquaintance of a descendant of a local daimyō. The old man asks Tora-san to find his son's widow in Tokyo, whom he had previously alienated. Critical appraisal Tora-san Meets His Lordship was the ninth top money-maker at the Japanese box-office in 1977. Kiyoshi Atsumi and Chieko Baisho were nominated for Best Actor and Best Actress respectively at the Japan Academy Prize ceremony for their",
"-20.516163325344678"
],
[
"Taniwha In Māori mythology, taniwha ([ˈtanifa]) are beings that live in deep pools in rivers, dark caves, or in the sea, especially in places with dangerous currents or deceptive breakers (giant waves). They may be considered highly respected kaitiaki (protective guardians) of people and places, or in some traditions as dangerous, predatory beings, which for example would kidnap women to have as wives. Etymology and Pacific analogues Linguists have reconstructed the word taniwha to Proto-Oceanic *tanifa, with the meaning \"shark species\". In Tongan and Niuean, tenifa refers to a large dangerous shark, as does the Samoan tanifa; the Tokelauan tanifa",
"-20.51175572653301"
],
[
"Sebile Sebile, alternatively written as Sedile, Sebille, Sibilla, Sibyl and other similar names, is a mythical medieval queen or princess who is frequently portrayed as a fairy or an enchantress in the Arthurian legends and Italian folklore. She appears in a variety of roles, from the most faithful and noble lady to a wicked seductress, often in relation with or substituting for the character of Morgan le Fay. Some tales feature her as a wife of either King Charlemagne or Prince Lancelot, and even as the mother of King Arthur. Origins The character of Sebile has her earliest roots in",
"-20.495282056275755"
],
[
"Mokomokai Mokomokai are the preserved heads of Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand, where the faces have been decorated by tā moko tattooing. They became valuable trade items during the Musket Wars of the early 19th century. Moko Moko facial tattoos were traditional in Māori culture until about the mid 19th century when their use began to disappear, although there has been something of a revival from the late 20th century. In pre-European Māori culture they denoted high social status. There were generally only men that had full facial moko, though high-ranked women often had moko",
"-20.491853345069103"
],
[
"Also known as \"Merry Gentry\", title heroine, Princess of Flesh and Blood, daughter of Essus, niece to Andais and Taranis. Merry is one fourth Seelie sidhe, one half Unseelie sidhe, one eighth brownie, and one eighth human. She is also mortal.\nRhys - Also known as \"Cromm Cruach\", former God of Death, guard in The Ravens, and film noir buff. One of Merry's favorite lovers. He's regained some of his former power over life and death through Merry. Extremely prejudiced against the goblins due to having his face disfigured by them. Besides Galen, Rhys is the most comfortable and knowledgeable about",
"-20.476906388968928"
],
[
"Byatis Byatis (the Serpent-Bearded) is a fictional deity in the Cthulhu Mythos. The Great Old One was first mentioned in Robert Bloch's short story \"The Shambler From the Stars\", originally published in the September 1935 issue of Weird Tales. It plays a central role in Ramsey Campbell's 1964 short story \"The Room in the Castle\". Summary In Bloch's story, \"serpent-bearded Byatis\" is merely alluded to, along with \"Father Yig\" and \"dark Han\", as among the \"gods of divination\".\nThe first full description of Byatis occurs in \"The Room in the Castle\" where an 18th-century document relates that a statue of the",
"-20.42852704502002"
],
[
"Jötunn In Norse mythology, a jötunn (/ˈjɔːtʊn/; plural jötnar) is a type of entity contrasted with gods and other figures, such as dwarfs and elves. The entities are themselves ambiguously defined, variously referred to by several other terms, including risi, thurs, and troll.\nAlthough the term giant is sometimes used to gloss the word jötunn and its apparent synonyms in some translations and academic texts, jötnar are not necessarily notably large and may be described as exceedingly beautiful or as alarmingly grotesque. Some deities, such as Skaði and Gerðr, are themselves described as jötnar, and various well-attested deities, such as Odin,",
"-20.420089305611327"
],
[
"Tiki In Māori mythology, Tiki is the first man created by either Tūmatauenga or Tāne. He found the first woman, Marikoriko, in a pond; she seduced him and he became the father of Hine-kau-ataata. By extension, a tiki is a large or small wooden or stone carving in humanoid form, although this is a somewhat archaic usage in the Māori language. Carvings similar to tikis and coming to represent deified ancestors are found in most Polynesian cultures. They often serve to mark the boundaries of sacred or significant sites. Religion In traditions from the West Coast of the South Island",
"-20.387087634400814"
],
[
"mutineer names\"; Buffett, Evans, and Nobbs are \"Pitcairn names\" – descended from the two Englishmen and one Welshman who married into the mutineer families on Pitcairn; and Blucher, Bataille, Robinson, Snell, Rossiter, and Bailey are among the \"Norfolk names\". Culture Bounty Day is a national holiday primarily celebrated by islanders of Pitcairn heritage on 8 June, held in the World Heritage area of Kingston, the day that the descendants of the mutineers arrived on the island. The Islander's re-enact the landing of the Pitcairners on the island and is named for the ship HMS Bounty. Another celebration is Thanksgiving held",
"-20.38345652503631"
],
[
"Cernunnos is depicted on a stone statue from a well in Sommerécourt, Haute-Marne, France, and on a bronze figurine from Autun. Both statue and figurine portray Cernunnos with the two ram-headed serpents encircling his waist. This is more than just a small similarity to the instance of the serpent that guarded the treasure of the fort in Táin Bó Fraích surrendering to Conall Cernach and becoming his belt. Cernunno's connections to the deity Mars serve to underline Conall's role as hero-warrior in the tale.\nThe anti-climactic nature of the eighth-century Irish tale then gains significant clarity in the light of the",
"-20.3748081587255"
],
[
"Polybius described the gaesatae, Celtic warriors from modern northern Italy or the Alps, fighting at the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC, although other Celts there were clothed. One of the earliest known depictions of a torc can be found on the Warrior of Hirschlanden (6th century BC), and a high proportion of the few Celtic statues of human figures, mostly male, show them wearing torcs.\nOther possible functions that have been proposed for torcs include use as rattles in rituals or otherwise, as some have stones or metal pieces inside them, and representations of figures thought to be deities carrying torcs",
"-20.367128910293104"
],
[
"Mannanar The Mannanars were a Thiyyar ruling dynasty of Malabar, in the present day Kannur and Kasaragod districts of India. They may have had a Buddhist heritage. The word Mannanar derives from mannan, meaning king and ar, which pluralises it.",
"-20.366748479485977"
],
[
"Rhysson The former Low King and current Low Queen of the dwarfs. She hails from Llamedos (the Discworld's Wales) and thus has a slight lilt to her accent. She is considered a moderniser who is interested in embracing new cultures and ideas. She has held council with the Diamond King of Trolls and is untroubled by (and indeed seems quite interested in) the new trends in feminisation. Her tolerance was somewhat tested by Adora Belle Dearheart having removed four thousand priceless golems from territory that, by rights, belonged to her, but little seems to have come of it. She was",
"-20.345944264758145"
],
[
"Mithril Properties In The Fellowship of the Ring, the wizard Gandalf explained mithril to others while passing through Moria:\nMithril! All folk desired it. It could be beaten like copper, and polished like glass; and the Dwarves could make of it a metal, light and yet harder than tempered steel. Its beauty was like to that of common silver, but the beauty of mithril did not tarnish or grow dim.\n \nThe Noldor of Eregion made an alloy out of it called ithildin (\"star moon\"), which was used to decorate gateways, portals and pathways. It was visible only by starlight or moonlight.",
"-20.335559405459207"
],
[
"(collectively known as the \"Sand Snakes\") are portrayed by Keisha Castle-Hughes (Obara Sand), Jessica Henwick (Nymeria Sand), and Rosabell Laurenti Sellers (Tyene Sand).\nIn King's Landing, Jonathan Pryce joins the cast as the High Sparrow, the leader of the militant faithful in King’s Landing, while Hannah Waddingham portrays Septa Unella, one of the \"Most Devout\", the ruling council of the Faith of the Seven. Nell Williams was cast as a young Cersei Lannister seen in flashbacks, while Jodhi May was cast as Maggy the Frog, a fortune-teller.\nAcross the Narrow Sea, Enzo Cilenti joins as Yezzan, a Yunkish nobleman and slave",
"-20.330038823507493"
],
[
"The Monk's Tale \"The Monk's Tale\" is one of The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer.\nThe Monk's tale to the other pilgrims is a collection of 17 short stories, exempla, on the theme of tragedy. The tragic endings of these historical figures are recounted: Lucifer, Adam, Samson, Hercules, Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, Zenobia, Pedro of Castile, Peter I of Cyprus, Bernabò Visconti, Ugolino of Pisa, Nero, Holofernes, Antiochus, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, and Croesus. \nSome literary critics believe that a large portion of the tale may have been written before the rest of the Canterbury Tales and that the four",
"-20.30880274483934"
],
[
"Mitra (Conan) Mitra is a deity from the Hyborian Age setting created by Robert E. Howard for his Conan the Barbarian series of stories. Mitra is a personification of good popular among the Hyborian peoples. Overview He is probably loosely based on the Vedic and Zoroastrian figure by the same name, and in the Hyborian universe, his worship generally represents Christianity. In the essay \"The Hyborian Age\", Howard notes that followers of Mitra are urged to forgive their enemies (though many of them fail to actually do so . The Mitra religion is strongly missionary, its adherents sometimes risking their",
"-20.307049709425883"
],
[
"Bêlit (Robert E. Howard) Bêlit is a character appearing in the fictional universe of Robert E. Howard's Conan the Barbarian. She is a pirate queen who has a romantic relationship with Conan. She appears in Howard's Conan novelette Queen of the Black Coast, first published in Weird Tales 23 5 (May 1934). She was selected as the fourth greatest pirate by Wired magazine's Geekdad blog. Appearance As a native of the Hyborian nation of Shem, Bêlit is Shemite. Her name may have been taken from Bel, god of thieves in her native land. (Historically, Bêlit was an Akkadian",
"-20.304971044533886"
],
[
"attributed Scarron's deformities to rheumatism contracted from spending time in a swamp. According to this story, Scarron, while residing at Le Mans, once tarred and feathered himself as a carnival freak and was obliged to hide in a swamp to escape the wrath of the townspeople. Another story has Scarron falling into an ice-water bath during the Carnival season. It seems more likely, seeing the connection with water, that he was crippled by polio.\nWhatever the cause, Scarron began to suffer from miserable deformity and pain. His upper body became permanently twisted and his legs were paralyzed; he was",
"-20.30439982493408"
],
[
"She usually carries a hand held, electric cattle prod capable of discharging 1,000 volts.\nPrincess Python has a 25-foot (7.6 m) trained pet rock python. She has had more than one such snake in her criminal career. Although real-life snakes are deaf, her pythons respond to verbal command, indicating they are of an unusual breed. In Howard the Duck #27, one even reacted to her cry of distress from several yards away. Ruins The Ruins version of Princess Python is a performer for the Quintano Carnival, America's last freak show, and it is implied that her act consists of indulging in bestiality",
"-20.30018124965136"
],
[
"Temple Drake Temple Drake is a fictional character created by William Faulkner. She appears in the novels Sanctuary and Requiem for a Nun. The play Requiem for a Nun and the films The Story of Temple Drake and Sanctuary also feature the character. In the two films she is played, respectively, by Miriam Hopkins and Lee Remick. Plot In the first novel, she is a University of Mississippi student who is kidnapped and raped by a criminal, Popeye. Corrupted by her experience in a house of prostitution, she lies in a court, resulting in an innocent man being lynched for",
"-20.291558783472283"
],
[
"a tort, survives despite Pau's subsequent fame. It is a discreet maldit in which he attacks his lady for her infidelity. A fragment, Per fembre fo Salamo enganat, of a lost poem by Pau is preserved in the Conhort of Francesc Ferrer. In this fragment Pau lists the names of famous men who were the victims of woman's lies: Solomon, David, Samson, Adam, Aristotle, Virgil, John the Baptist, and Hippocrates. In both his extant pieces, Pau comes across as misogynistic, but his light-hearted treatment of the subject and his use of irony assured his popularity. It is unknown whether he",
"-20.286082666250877"
],
[
"specialist in service to the illustrious sellsword company, the Freeborn Blades. Vulcan is a mysterious person whose past is largely forgotten by him/her, as his/her past is largely mere invention to stave off questions regarding his/her past. The Freeborn Blades are under the employment of the Red Scribes in their attempt to hold back the army of undead Deadwalkers in service to the Ice Lords. During a mysterious ritual conducted by the Red Scribes, something goes wrong and Vulcan is possessed by a fiery demon, endowing him/her with inhuman powers of strength and magical abilities of pyromancy, which he/she then",
"-20.27693381777499"
],
[
"Tarasque The Tarasque is a fearsome legendary dragon-like mythological hybrid from Provence, in southern France, tamed in a story about Saint Martha. On 25 November 2005 the UNESCO included the Tarasque on the list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. Legend The legend of the Tarasque is reported in several sources, but especially in the story of St. Martha in the Golden Legend. The creature inhabited the area of Nerluc in Provence, France, and devastated the landscape far and wide. The Tarasque was a sort of dragon with a lion's head, six short legs like a",
"-20.26295122411102"
],
[
"is half-pixie and half-Unseelie sidhe. His powers include the subtle ability to have everyone like him. He has also gained power through Merry. Galen is extremely unpolitical, naive, and idealistic, but he is also the voice of simple reasoning for Merry. Fortunately, letting go of those naive and idealistic ideals is allowing Merry to survive.\nKitto - Half-goblin and half-Seelie sidhe, his sidhe mother was raped during the goblin wars by a snake-type goblin. Kitto was given to Merry to cement her alliance with the goblins. He was brought into his sidhe-side powers (The Hand of Reaching) by Merry.\nMeredith NicEssus -",
"-20.257918696908746"
],
[
"Shinde The Shinde (also spelled Scindia, Sindhe, Sinde) is a Maratha dynasty founded by Ranoji Rao Scindia, who was the son of Jankoji Rao Scindia, the Deshmukh of Kanherkhed, a village in Satara District, Maharashtra, India. Origins The Scindia/Shinde were also Shiledars under the sultanates of the Deccan.",
"-20.244357333693188"
],
[
"to see, summon, and make corporeal the dead.\nHe prefers isolation, and protects his cemetery from looters and vandals by wearing a skeletal costume and frightening away, or outright attacking, trespassers. He goes by aliases such as the Skeleton Man, Graveyard Guardian, and Fright Knight. He is quite capable in a fight, even being able to outrun a group of angry dragons, although he is still only human, without any over-all magical talents whatsoever. As a sort of running gag, he is frequently rendered incapacitated, drunk, drugged, bewitched, or unconscious, and then taken advantage of by any number of women in",
"-20.243135283410084"
],
[
"every day about his gallant feats among those beasts of Englishmen.\nWhen he heard the story of what Torrigiano did to Michelangelo, Cellini says he could no longer \"bear the sight of him\".\nThe latter part of Torrigiano's life was spent in Spain, especially at Seville, where, besides the painted figure of St. Hieronymus in the museum, some terracotta sculpture by him still exists. His violent temper got him into difficulties with the authorities, and he died in 1528 in prison.\nAccording to Vasari, Torrigiano was swindled of his payment by the Duke of Arcos for a sculpture of the Virgin and Child.",
"-20.238477524660993"
],
[
"of whom has come to Baldur's Gate for different reasons. Dorn seeks fame and glory. Vhaidra has come looking for vengeance against those who have attempted to destroy her family. Ysuran is suffering from amnesia and has come in the hope of finding clues to his past. Borador comes for wealth, in order to release his clan from its debt to the drow. Allessia comes to spread the word of Helm and advance to become a high-ranking priest. Story The game begins by revealing the fate of the three protagonists from the first game; after jumping through the portal at",
"-20.22111144219525"
],
[
"Often Liked, Occasionally Beaten (2004), consisting of multi-coloured resin tiki (the figure of the first man) on lollipop sticks, comments on the commercialisation of Maori taonga, mass production of Maori souvenirs and the cultural appropriation of Maori art. (Since the 1960s, plastic hei tiki have become a part of New Zealand popular culture, often regarded as one of the great kiwiana icons). The title of the work is a political play on the local Frosty Boy ice cream marketing catchphrase, Often liked, never beaten while alluding to the social issue of family violence. Artist residences In 2010, Youle was the",
"-20.200348559717327"
],
[
"their carefully sculpted forms. Tik'toks have emotions and build their own children, but the process is difficult and prone to failure, a consequence that can scar them for many years. They tend towards the reverence or at least acknowledgement of Dotrak, an emergent Deity whose demesne is Machines. Tortogs Reptilian, tortoise-like humanoids whose heavy shells and armored hide protect them from all but the worst of the lunar rain. They have turned this protection into a racial profession of trading. Their society is strange, but it has been shown to place importance on dreams and visions, a peculiarity given they",
"-20.193813691847026"
],
[
"The Troth The Troth, formerly the Ring of Troth, is an American-based international heathen organization. It is prominent in the inclusionary, as opposed to folkish sector of heathenry. The organization was founded on December 20 (Mothers' Night), 1987 by former Ásatrú Free Assembly members Edred Thorsson and James Chisholm. Chisholm remains associated with the organization as an Elder Emeritus. The current Steer is Robert Lüsch Schreiwer.\nThe Troth is registered as a non-profit corporation in the state of New York with federal 501(c)(3) status as a public charity. It hosts a yearly June meeting called Trothmoot. Trothmoot 2016 was held at",
"-20.182550178898964"
]
] |
3f595e | Why sheep are symbol of innocence, while goats are symbol of the devil? | [
"Sheep are a metaphor for good men that follow God. They're cute, harmless & generally do what they're told but they occasionally do something stupid, get themselves into trouble & need help. They're safe as long as they stay under the watch of the shepard. Goats, OTOH, are obstinate, uncontrollable & do what they damned well feel like - even if that means eating tin cans. They reject all authority and insist on going their own way, regardless of what's good for them. This, as a counterpoint to the sheep, nicely ties into the story of how Satan rebelled against God.",
"In the pagan religion, horns and antlers are associated with fertility, and the male aspect of divinity. Horned gods were then taken as the go-to image for 'devil', to help provide negative connotations for the established native religions Christianity had to compete with. URL_0 TL;DR \"Your god isn't a god of your religion, he's the devil of mine!\"",
"Because sheep are cute and woolly. Goats have the weirdest eyes and behaviors and you get a bad feeling when they watch you. EDIT: also goats have the weirdest screams which can freak you out",
"Horns. Also, have you ever met a goat? They're horrible",
"Less serious response but true: If you've ever spent time around a goat, you'll know. They're fucking terrifying assholes and they're smart. We had a goat at my horse stable and I despised that thing. It was always trying to do evil to us. It used to be tied to a tree sometimes with a long rope as a tie. God forbid anyone get between it, the rope, and the tree because it was always waiting to start running around the tree immediately wrapping your legs up in the rope, purposely trying you up so become entangled and stuck. Then it would come at you with its head and rear up at you in defeat. You could hardly get near it even to feed it. When it came time to bring it in, it'd drag you all the way there but not before getting severe rope burn on your hands. The asshole even escaped its tether one time and tied up a fucking pony causing severe burns and injuries to the poor pony's legs. Fuck that goat. Evil, ugly, soulless piece of shit that contributed nothing- I have no idea why the barn owner kept it at all.",
"We actually had a lesson about this last week in church (I teach a youth class for the LDS church). And the lesson was based on Matthew 25:32. For a visual lesson, we watched these two clips and compared animals...I think they liked it. Then we talked about a whole bunch of ways to be nice and serve others. URL_1 URL_0 ",
"I think after watching this video you will no longer question that goats are evil: URL_0 It shows the true nature of the goat.",
"Sheep are more a symbol of blind ignorant conformity, than innocence. Or is this the modern take?",
"Sheep = dumb, stupid, wandering beasts with a usually gentle disposition. There's a great book called \" [A Shepherd Looks at Psalm 23]( URL_0 ) \" where he discusses what sheep are like. I think he goes too far in trying make the analogy work, though that doesn't necessarily mean he's wrong. Best example of how sheep are sheep - they are so top-heavy with all their wool that they can actually fall over and get stuck on their back like a turtle. They stay stuck like that and can die within a matter of hours due to gas buildup in their gut or something. Add heat of the day and it gets worse. Other sheepy thing: Shepherds the world over will break the leg of a sheep that stray too far or do not respond to the shepherd's voice. They then have to carry the sheep around with them until the leg heals. This stops the sheep from running off cliffs (which they often do), and it allows the sheep to learn the shepherd's voice/trust the shepherd, etc. Goats, like others have said, are jerks. Generally. Story from a missionary friend - On a mission trip, the people in the village were making the missions team dinner. The men and women on the team were always asked if they would like to assist, and they usually agreed. This involved the women getting to actually butcher a chicken or two on a daily basis - new for all of them - but the people in the village decided to make stew from goat and lamb one night. So, my friend was asked to butcher them and he agreed. The goat went first. It was a small, young one, and that thing fought while being chased, fought while caught, fought while it bled out, fought until death. Then the lamb went. Didn't need to be chased. Didn't disagree with being picked up. When my friend laid the lamb on the table, on its side, it didn't fight or move. It didn't even make a sound when it was cut. Not to get all religious, but: [Isaiah 53:7]( URL_1 ) He was oppressed and afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth; he was led like a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before its shearers is silent, so he did not open his mouth.",
" > The merest accident of microgeography had meant that the first man to hear the voice of Om, and who gave Om his view of humans, was a shepherd and not a goatherd. They have quite different ways of looking at the world, and the whole of history might have been different. For sheep are stupid, and have to be driven. But goats are intelligent, and need to be led.” Terry Pratchett Small Gods",
"Traditionally, goats were the symbol of lust rather than the devil. However, I suspect it may have something to do with the popularity of goats as livestock during the time most of these religious texts were made. They probably witnessed all manner of genetic mutation and deformity, and a peasant population could relate to this use of symbols because they had goats at home.",
"A lot had to do with the Greeks. Satyrs were notorious for being horny and agressive, often painted as mechievious or downright malevolent. When Christianity went to Greece they made that form the symbol of the devil, while demonizing the pagan religions."
] | [
[
"The Sheep and the Goats Interpretation The connection between the images of king and shepherd, recalls the figure of David.\n The terms \"sheep\" and \"goat\" are contrasting symbols for the righteous and the wicked, respectively, as in Zechariah 10:3. \nThe three parables that precede this one (The Talents, Bridesmaids, Unfaithful and Faithful Slaves) all stress waiting for and preparing for the return of Christ. \"This parable is similar to the Rich man and Lazarus in that the time to repent and be converted, the time to care for the poor on one's doorstep, is past.\" It also recalls the parable",
"-32.151190625765594"
],
[
"Wolf in sheep's clothing A wolf in sheep's clothing is an idiom of Biblical origin used to describe those playing a role contrary to their real character with whom contact is dangerous, particularly false teachers. Much later, the idiom has been applied by zoologists to varying kinds of predatory behaviour. A fable based on it has been falsely credited to Aesop and is now numbered 451 in the Perry Index. The confusion has arisen from the similarity of the theme with fables of Aesop concerning wolves that are mistakenly trusted by shepherds; the moral drawn from these is that",
"-30.221973589301342"
],
[
"sheep and The Shepherd as protectors of each other. The Shepherd watches over his herd with delight as God watches over his people. Reversed, Jesus - represented as a lamb - does not lead mankind - The Shepherd - astray. Illustration The Shepherd in the illustration is standing underneath a vine-wrapped tree surrounded by his herd of sheep. In many of the Songs of Innocence, Blake uses vegetation to show the security of innocence that is secure and unthreatened. This dove underneath the poem mimics the dove found on the introduction plate. Typically a symbol of peace, the dove enables",
"-30.165682858321816"
],
[
"angel which appears to the left hand side of Jesus behind three goats. Satan may have first become associated with goats through the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats, recorded in Matthew 25:31–46, in which Jesus separates sheep (representing the saved) from goats (representing the damned); the damned are thrown into a hell along with \"the devil and his angels.\"\nMedieval Christians were known to adapt previously existing pagan iconography to suit depictions of Christian figures. Much of Satan's traditional iconography in Christianity appears to be derived from Pan, a rustic, goat-legged fertility god in ancient Greek religion. Early Christian",
"-30.131031584038283"
],
[
"The lamb and lion \"The lamb with the lion\" – often a paraphrase from Isaiah, and more closely quoted as \"the lion and lamb\", \"a child will lead them\", and the like – are an artistic and symbolic device, most generally related to peace.\nThe symbol is used in both Christianity and Judaism to represent the Messianic Age. In addition, in Christianity, according to a sermon by Augustine, the lion stands for Christ resurrected, the lamb for Christ's sacrifice (\"He endured death as a lamb; he devoured it as a lion.\"—Augustine, Sermon 375A).\nNote that Isaiah 35:9 casts a lion as metaphorically",
"-29.904742252379947"
],
[
"Matthew 7:15 The metaphor The metaphor of 'a wolf in sheep's clothing' has become a common English expression. It is alluded to in Romeo and Juliet, where a character is called a \"wolvish ravening lamb.\" See The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing for some other cultural uses of the phrase. \nSheep were an important part of life in Galilee of Jesus' era, and the metaphor of the pious as a flock of sheep is a common one in both the Old and New Testaments. Wolves were regarded as greedy and malevolent predators who were a threat to the innocent, and such",
"-29.203754542424576"
],
[
"can be seen in the scene, probably a simple pet. It may represent faith, dogs are traditionally symbols of and are representing faith. According to J. Richard Judson the dog near Judas, it perhaps representing greed, or representing the evil, as the companion of Judas, as in John 13:27.\nThe Sacrament of the Last Supper, Salvador Dalí's depiction, combines the typical Christian themes with modern approaches of Surrealism and also includes geometric elements of symmetry and polygonal proportion.",
"-29.066240292682778"
],
[
"are unacceptable in a Judeo-Christian society. There may be some connection between the Brazilian Headless Mules and folklore about witches in Western Europe.\nBeing personified as an animal implies a negative view of the character, which embodies the deepest forces that are part of the human consciousness, namely the libido, whose sexual aspect is traditionally associated with the horse, a symbol of sexual potency and brutal feats. The absence of a head may be a metaphor for the lack of reason, or evidence that the curse involved the perdition of the soul. In either case, without the head to give direction,",
"-28.51786024280591"
],
[
"Animals in Christian art Symbolic animals from the catacombs The paintings of the first period, as seen in the Catacombs of Rome, show us, usually, the lamb accompanying the Good Shepherd, a representation of the Christian soul during its earthly life. The lamb was strongly associated with religious sacrifices in the ancient Near East, and was adopted as a symbol of Christ and his sacrifice on behalf of humanity.\nBirds, too, appear either as simple decorative elements transmitted from antique paintings, or used symbolically as in Noah's dove, symbolical of the Christian soul released by death; the peacock, with its ancient",
"-28.40317144722212"
],
[
"tree. On other shepherds asking him why he had hanged a sheep, the shepherd answered: The skin is that of a sheep, but the activities were those of a wolf.' Abstemius' comment on the story follows the Biblical interpretation: 'people should be judged not by their outward demeanor but by their works, for many in sheep's clothing do the work of wolves'. \nCertain elements of this story are to be found in Aesop's fable of the shepherd who raised a wolf cub among his dogs. When it was grown, it secretly reverted to type. If a wolf stole a sheep",
"-28.29936829271901"
],
[
"Buddhist texts, a fact which attests to the Buddhist origins of the Inari cult.) The statues do not symbolize the animals' proverbial malice, but the magic powers they are believed to possess. Sometimes the guardians are painted, and in that case they are always white. White foxes are messengers of the kami, who is sometimes himself believed to be, and portrayed as, a fox. Although visible genitals are rare, the left fox is believed to be male, the right one female.\nOften the foxes wear red votive bibs (see photo left) similar to those worn by statues of other deities,",
"-28.294381894083926"
],
[
"wolves, usually as metaphors for greed and destructiveness. In the New Testament, Jesus is quoted to have used wolves as illustrations to the dangers his followers, whom he represents as sheep, would face should they follow him (Matthew 7:15, Matthew 10:16, Acts 20:29). Isengrim the wolf, a character first appearing in the 12th-century Latin poem Ysengrimus, is a major character in the Reynard Cycle, where he stands for the low nobility, whilst his adversary, Reynard the fox, represents the peasant hero. Although portrayed as loyal, honest and moral, Isengrim is forever the victim of Reynard's wit and cruelty, often dying",
"-28.20312113018008"
],
[
"bull are given a sacred place in Hindu culture as a mark of respect. The cow symbolizes motherhood through the offering of milk, and the bull represents the father who tills the soil and provides grain. Kallidai writes that most Hindus consider bovicide to be equivalent to matricide, and that go raksha (cow protection) is an important part of the Hindu faith. According to Mahatma Gandhi, \"One can measure the greatness of a nation and its moral progress by the way it treats its animals. Cow protection to me is not mere protection of the cow. It means protection of",
"-28.156786093488336"
],
[
"animal to signify purity, there had to be an opposite to bring out the fear of evil. In York Minster, for example, the carvings in the Chapter house, which are particularly obscene and which were supposedly created as caricatures of the then Dean and Chapter, were put there above the seats to create an opposite to each occupant, who one might like to assume was not in fact the foul person their carvings made them out to be.\nThe origin of the term hunky punk has been ascribed to the old English \"hunkers\" which means haunches and \"punchy\" which means short-legged.",
"-28.086466469801962"
],
[
"centre of their ceremonies\", and his churchwarden ascribed the damage to \"some kind of devil worship\". Similarly, police reportedly stated that, as animal sacrifice was commonly described in accounts of satanic rites, the cockerel was possibly \"sacrificial\", and the crosses were possibly painted with animal blood (although on this point Barker disagreed, thinking them more likely to be simply red paint). Author and researcher Bill Ellis, writing some years later, opined that the police's idea of a \"sacrificial cockerel\" had been derived from a scene in Denis Wheatley's 1934 novel The Devil Rides Out, where a black cock and white",
"-27.862203382654116"
],
[
"\"The Reindeer Rule\"—a regulation calling for equal opportunity for non-religious symbols, such as reindeer. This principle was further clarified in 1989, when the Supreme Court in County of Allegheny v. ACLU ruled that a crèche placed on the grand staircase of the Allegheny County Courthouse in Pittsburgh, PA violated the Establishment Clause, because the \"principal or primary effect\" of the display was to advance religion.\nIn 1994, at Christmas, the Park Board of San Jose, California, removed a statue of the infant Jesus from Plaza de Cesar Chavez Park and replaced it with a statue of the plumed Aztec god, Quetzalcoatl,",
"-27.856977607967565"
],
[
"important symbolism during the passage from paganism to Germanic Christianity. They were frequently combined with images of deer, crustaceans, or supernatural beasts. The purpose may have been to protect the stones and to deter people who might destroy them.",
"-27.755291684763506"
],
[
"Golden calf According to the Bible, the golden calf (עֵגֶּל הַזָהָב ‘ēggel hazāhāv) was an idol (a cult image) made by the Israelites when Moses went up to Mount Sinai. In Hebrew, the incident is known as ḥēṭ’ ha‘ēggel (חֵטְא הַעֵגֶּל) or the Sin of the Calf. It is first mentioned in Exodus 32:4.\nBull worship was common in many cultures. In Egypt, whence according to the Exodus narrative the Hebrews had recently come, the Apis Bull was a comparable object of worship, which some believe the Hebrews were reviving in the wilderness; alternatively, some believe the God of Israel",
"-27.511826538539026"
],
[
"of mystical orders and traditions, including Kabbalah, Freemasonry, and Gnosticism. One of these tapestries included the imagery of the wolf, a symbol of freedom and power, which reflected in the killer's dentures, which were made exclusively with real canine teeth only (canines being symbolic of the wolf). The key feature of the vault is a silver skeleton arranged in a \"widow's son\" pose, a position known to the ancient Greeks as one of sacrifice. Parts of the silver skeleton had been replaced with actual bone, which bear teeth marks from two different individuals, suggesting ritualistic consumption of flesh. The vault",
"-27.294817123794928"
],
[
"two variants of sheep came to presume important religious significance as well as domestic use. Herodotus recounts that early Egyptians did not wear wool, but some scholars argue that it was meant only for the priests and that there is archaeological evidence, including the body of a man wrapped in wool dating to the First Dynasty in a burial at al-Helwan, that delineates this point. The use of this sheep is also unique in Egyptian depiction of their early deities. In fact, \"the standard representation of Egyptian gods, were first developed, and naturally the ram-headed deities wore the horns of",
"-27.27528254283243"
],
[
"of the world around and have a better understanding. Pejorative meaning In some cases, the term \"innocence\" has a pejorative meaning, where an assumed level of experience dictates common discourse or baseline qualifications for entry into another, different, social experience. Since experience is a prime factor in determining a person's point of view, innocence is often also used to imply naiveté or lack of personal experience. Symbolism The lamb is a commonly used symbol of innocence's nature. In Christianity, for example, Jesus is referred to as the \"Lamb of God\", thus emphasizing his sinless nature. Other symbols of innocence",
"-27.27516626031138"
],
[
"Genesis was interpreted in Medieval Europe as stating that nature exists solely to support man (Genesis 1:29), who must cultivate it (Genesis 2:15), and that animals are made for his own purposes (Genesis 2:18–20).\nThe wolf is repeatedly mentioned in the scriptures as an enemy of flocks: a metaphor for evil men with a lust for power and dishonest gain, as well as a metaphor for Satan preying on innocent God-fearing Christians, contrasted with the shepherd Jesus who keeps his flock safe. The Roman Catholic Church often used the negative imagery of wolves to create a sense of real devils prowling",
"-27.137804196274374"
],
[
"take any shape, but the deer with fiery eyes is the most known..\nOften mistaken for Anhanguera due to the words being similar, however the Anhangá is not considered a devil, though it was feared. Name Origin \"Anhangá\" comes from the Tupi term \"añánga\", \"spirit\". Protector of Animals According to some myths, he protected the animals against the hunters. When the prey could escape, the Tupi would say that Anhangá had protected them and helped them escape. Christian Version of Myth The Jesuit catechists of the Indians used the word Anhangá to refer to the Christian demon. This on account of",
"-27.12356692220783"
],
[
"(\"evil suggestions\"). Although Satan is generally viewed as evil, some groups have very different beliefs.\nIn Theistic Satanism, Satan is considered a deity who is either worshipped or revered. In LaVeyan Satanism, Satan is a symbol of virtuous characteristics and liberty. Satan's appearance is never described in the Bible, but, since the ninth century, he has often been shown in Christian art with horns, cloven hooves, unusually hairy legs, and a tail, often naked and holding a pitchfork. These are an amalgam of traits derived from various pagan deities, including Pan, Poseidon, and Bes. Satan appears frequently in Christian literature, most",
"-27.123111416440224"
],
[
"which he included a chained monkey in fool's clothes who is looking through a telescope from the wrong end. In addition, monkeys were associated with the Antichrist and the Devil and regarded as the opposite of god. In Dürer's print Madonna with a monkey the Virgin, who represents holiness, is contrasted with the monkey chained at her feet who symbolizes evil.\nThe Flemish engraver Pieter van der Borcht introduced the singerie as an independent theme around 1575 in a series of prints, which were strongly embedded in the artistic tradition of Pieter Bruegel the Elder. These prints were widely disseminated",
"-26.929970615383354"
],
[
"goat characteristics, such as hooves, horns, and a beard. Along with Pan, the goat was closely related to Dionysus during the Roman era (Neave 1988, p. 8). To honor Dionysus, Romans would tear apart a goat and eat it alive. The goat was commonly associated with dark arts and the devil. This association was amplified in Egypt during the Middle Ages (Neave 1988, p. 8). [Entire paragraph above not accurate per reference listed]\nExcavations in Central Asia have revealed ancient ritual goat-burial that show a religious significance of the goat predominantly in the area (Sidky 1990, p. 286). These findings have been used as",
"-26.907896410208195"
],
[
"horns (the unicorn). As part of its legendary dimension, the white horse in myth may be depicted with seven heads (Uchaishravas) or eight feet (Sleipnir), sometimes in groups or singly. There are also white horses which are divinatory, who prophesy or warn of danger.\nAs a rare or distinguished symbol, a white horse typically bears the hero- or god-figure in ceremonial roles or in triumph over negative forces. Herodotus reported that white horses were held as sacred animals in the Achaemenid court of Xerxes the Great (ruled 486–465 BC), while in other traditions the reverse happens when it was sacrificed to",
"-26.89127670286689"
],
[
"divine actors, in which the role of the oxen are more subsidiary. In some cases, Chinese myths focus on oxen-related subjects, such as plowing and agriculture or ox-powered carriage. Another important historical role for beef cattle has been in the religious capacity of sacrificial offerings. Sheep and goats Sheep and goats are not necessarily traditionally distinguished, in traditional Chinese language, with one word serving to denominate both.\nSheep are the eighth animal of the Chinese zodiac, and a symbol of filial piety, as the lambs are thought to kneel while their mothers suckle them (Eberhard: 264, sub \"Sheep\"). As symbol of",
"-26.88344733545091"
],
[
"its back, and a tail that might end with a snake's head, was one of the offspring of Typhon and Echidna and a sibling of such monsters as Cerberus and the Lernaean Hydra. The sheep, synonymous with the goat in Chinese mythology, is the eighth animal of the Chinese zodiac, and a symbol of filial piety. Classification FAMILY BOVIDAE",
"-26.831896358082304"
],
[
"bathed in light. The she-wolf represents the sins of concupiscence and incontinence. She is prophecised by the shade of Virgil to one day be sent to Hell by a greyhound.\nMuch of the symbolism Jesus used in the New Testament revolved around the pastoral culture of Israel, and explained his relationship with his followers as analogous to that of a good shepherd protecting his flock from wolves. An innovation in the popular image of wolves started by Jesus includes the concept of the wolf in sheep's clothing, which warns people against false prophets. Several authors have proposed that Jesus's portrayal of",
"-26.789395919564413"
],
[
"stolen sheep that its protagonist, Mak, tries to pass off as his new-born child asleep in a crib; it ends when the shepherds from whom he has stolen are summoned to the Nativity of Jesus.\nMorality plays (a modern term) emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished in the early Elizabethan era in England. Characters were often used to represent different ethical ideals. Everyman, for example, includes such figures as Good Deeds, Knowledge and Strength, and this characterisation reinforces the conflict between good and evil for the audience. The Castle of Perseverance (c. 1400—1425) depicts an archetypal",
"-26.777975082979538"
],
[
"and carry away the sin of the world. In Christian theology the Lamb of God is viewed as foundational and integral to the message of Christianity.\nA lion-like lamb that rises to deliver victory after being slain appears several times in the Book of Revelation. It is also referred to in Pauline writings: 1 Corinthians 5:7 suggests that Saint Paul intends to refer to the death of Jesus, who is the Paschal Lamb, using the theme found in Johannine writings. The lamb metaphor is also in line with Psalm 23, which depicts God as a shepherd leading his flock (mankind).\nThe Lamb",
"-26.72979481256334"
],
[
"lamblike horns shall cause \"the earth and them which dwell therein\" to worship the papacy—there symbolised by the beast \"like unto a leopard.\" \nHe was granted power to give breath to the image of the beast, that the image of the beast should both speak and cause as many as would not worship the image of the beast to be killed. He causes all, both small and great, rich and poor, free and slave, to receive a mark on their right hand or on their foreheads, and that no one may buy or sell except one who has",
"-26.725272667885292"
],
[
"between goat and wolf is that between a \"feeder par excellence\", whose producing abilities are indicated by the password she selects, and an intruding \"avid consumer\", who celebrates his status by performing an \"enigmatic ritual\" with the kids' severed heads. The plot, Anghelescu notes, inverts these two main roles, transforming the goat into a carnivore, the wolf into \"steak\", and \"the culinary fire\" into a \"fire of pain, of revenge and of death.\" Also according to Anghelescu, the story implies a \"triple sacrilege\" in respect to Romanian Orthodox customs: the predator eats his godsons, the goat murders her cumătru, and",
"-26.68833586887922"
],
[
"a servitude to Satan such as the beaver-hued beard alluding to the allegorical significance of beavers for the Christian audience of the time who believed that they renounced the world and paid \"tribute to the devil for spiritual freedom.\"Another possible interpretation of the Green Knight views him as combining elements from the Greek Hades and the Christian Messiah, at once representing both good and evil and life and death as self-proliferating cycles. This interpretation embraces the positive and negative attributes of the colour green and relates to the enigmatic motif of the poem. The description of the Green Knight upon",
"-26.66812202031724"
],
[
"the moral that honesty outweighs boasting. In other versions, the lion asks who made the statue and refuses to take it as evidence on learning that it was a man. In the late Latin version of Ademar of Chabannes the lion takes the man to an amphitheatre to demonstrate what happens in reality, while William Caxton has the lion pounce on the man to make its point. But Jefferys Taylor argues facetiously, at the end of his Aesop in Rhyme (1828), that it is the fact that lions cannot sculpt which is the true proof of their inferiority. ",
"-26.56689412972628"
],
[
"Marco Dimitri Philosophy Dimitri refutes any notion that his group are Satan worshippers, because \"the cult of the Devil would be the cult of evil – but for us, good and evil are subjective to each individual.\" Satan, he asserts, is not about worshiping evil, rather it is a symbol of being an adversary, standing up to a repressive system. It is the church that is \"repressive and forces man on his knees with laws that haven’t been created by Christ but by man to enrich man.\" Court cases In 1996 Dimitri was accused of raping a two-year-old boy and",
"-26.563065694645047"
],
[
"Zeus—when they chop up a single ram, skin it, dress the statue of Zeus in the way mentioned, and then bring the statue of Heracles up close to the statue of Zeus. Then everyone around the sanctuary mourns the death of the ram and finally they bury it in a sacred tomb.\"\nDemonologists in early modern times often imagined Satan as manifesting himself as a goat or satyr, because goats had a reputation for lustful behavior and were used in the iconography of pre-Christian gods like Pan and the goat of Mendes. The occultist Eliphas Levi in his Dogme et Rituel",
"-26.53433965530712"
],
[
"The Wolf and the Lamb The Wolf and the Lamb is a well-known fable of Aesop and is numbered 155 in the Perry Index. There are several variant stories of tyrannical injustice in which a victim is falsely accused and killed despite a reasonable defence. The fable and its variants A wolf comes upon a lamb and, in order to justify taking its life, accuses it of various misdemeanours, all of which the lamb proves to be impossible. Losing patience, the wolf says the offences must have been committed by someone else in the family and that it does not",
"-26.491197689290857"
],
[
"northern nomadic culture Herding of sheep and/or goats was often associated with the peripheral area of China, or beyond the borders. For example, the Chinese envoy Su Wu was semi-mythologically depicted as herding sheep/goats, during part of his 19 years of captivity with the Xiongnu. Mythological types Some mythological Bovidae in Chinese mythology are incapable of any pretence at scientific classification. Some of these are translated as \"unicorns\", in English. Some of the mythological types may represent extinct or exotic species, others seem completely mythological (Parker: passim). Some of the mythological types are chimeras, or composite type beasts, composed of",
"-26.393367502816545"
],
[
"virility, and male gods with horns or antlers were common in pagan religious iconography throughout the ancient world.\nIn Wicca, the Green Man is also often associated with the Horned God, though he does not always have horns.\nAt different times of the Wiccan year the God is seen as different personalities. He is sometimes seen as the Oak King and the Holly King, who each rule for half of the year each. Oak and Holly are two European trees. Another view of the God is that of the sun god, who is particularly revered at the sabbat of Lughnasadh. Many Wiccans",
"-26.368605719180778"
],
[
"seen as having strong sexual potency and young Lakota males who had dreamed of elk would have an image of the mythical representation of the elk on their \"courting coats\" as a sign of sexual prowess. The Lakota believed that the mythical or spiritual elk, not the physical one, was the teacher of men and the embodiment of strength, sexual prowess and courage.\nNeolithic petroglyphs from Asia depict antler-less female elk, which have been interpreted as symbolizing rebirth and sustenance. By the beginning of the Bronze Age, the elk is depicted less frequently in rock art, coinciding with a cultural transformation",
"-26.351486500992905"
],
[
"is that the tapestries show pagan and Christian symbolism. The pagan themes emphasise the medieval lore of beguiled lovers, whereas Christian writings interpret the unicorn and its death as the Passion of Christ. The unicorn has long been identified by Christian writers as a symbol of Christ, conscripting the traditionally pagan symbolism of the unicorn. The original pagan myths about The Hunt of the Unicorn refer to an animal with a single horn that can only be tamed by a virgin; Christian scholars translated this into an allegory for Christ's relationship with the Virgin Mary.\nIn the Gothic tapestry, the makers",
"-26.3488034181064"
],
[
"shall lead them.\"\n\"In like a lion, out like a lamb\" is a proverb having to do with March weather. It has been speculated that its origin is from astrological Leo (lion) being followed by Aries ([kid] goat). Examples In the 1830s, American Quaker artist Edward Hicks began painting a series of paintings on the theme of the Peaceable Kingdom.\nThe kingdom-of-peace motif has been popular among various so-called Christian \"Restorationist\" groups. The lamb and lion have been used informally in Community of Christ since the Latter Day Saints' \"Kirtland\" period. Its original formal iteration, prominently featuring the lion, the lamb, and",
"-26.265355923911557"
],
[
"to the cloven hoof of cattle, sheep or pigs, and from this the term Cluitie is used as a euphemism for the Devil.",
"-26.241236831563583"
],
[
"it is told of David (1 Samuel 17:36) and about Benaiah (2 Samuel 23:20).\nAccording to Paul Carus, the lion is a mythical symbol of the heat of the sun, and Samson represents the solar deity who can \"kill the lion\", that is to diminish the heat of the sun. Carus' conjecture is rooted in an old scholarly approach, not accepted in current research, which considers Samson a mythological \"solar hero\" – that is, a god or a demigod related to the sun – and interprets the stories about him from this point of view.\nMargalith points out the fact that in",
"-26.23172490077559"
],
[
"top of the hierarchy. In parts of West and East Africa, the lion is associated with healing and is regarded as the link between seers and the supernatural. In other East African traditions, the lion is the symbol of laziness. In African folklore, the lion is portrayed as having low intelligence and is easily tricked by other animals. Near East The ancient Egyptians portrayed several of their war deities as lionesses, which they revered as fierce hunters. Egyptian deities associated with lions include Sekhmet, Bast, Mafdet, Menhit, Pakhet and Tefnut. These deities were often connected with the sun god Ra",
"-26.194683380701463"
],
[
"own blood) is a recognised symbol for Christ's love for the Church. A cat playing with a mouse may represent the Devil snaring a human soul. Other subjects illustrate popular fables or sayings such as \"When the fox preaches, look to your geese\". Many depict animals, some of which may symbolise a human vice or virtue, or an aspect of faith.\nTwenty-seven of the carvings depict animals: rabbits, dogs, a puppy biting a cat, a ewe feeding a lamb, monkeys, lions, bats, and the Early Christian motif of two doves drinking from a ewer. Eighteen have mythological subjects, including mermaids, dragons",
"-26.13260309715406"
],
[
"of piebald sheep is the story of Jacob from the first book of the Hebrew Bible, called by Christians the Old Testament. According to the Book of Genesis (Genesis 30:31–43), Jacob took every speckled and spotted sheep from his father-in-law's (Laban's) flock and bred them. Due to the resemblance to the animal described in Genesis, the Jacob sheep was named for the Biblical figure of Jacob sometime in the 20th century.\nIn 2009, a study which used endogenous retrovirus markers to investigate the history of sheep domestication found the Jacob to be more closely linked to sheep from Africa and South-west",
"-26.10133515612688"
],
[
"Devil's Bridge type is also an example of the motif of a dog (in this case a dog also named Grim) being sacrificed in place of a human being. In the North Riding of Yorkshire attempts were made to build a bridge that could withstand the fury of the floods but none were successful. The Devil promised to build one on condition that the first living creature that crossed it should serve as a sacrifice. When the bridge was complete the people gave long consideration as to who should be the victim. A shepherd who owned a dog named Grim",
"-26.065714331372874"
],
[
"Buddha. Deer According to local folklore, Sika deer from this area were considered sacred due to a visit from Takemikazuchi-no-mikoto, one of the four gods of Kasuga Shrine. He was said to have been invited from Kashima Shrine in present-day Ibaraki Prefecture, and appeared on Mount Mikasa (also known as Mount Wakakusa) riding a white deer. From that point, the deer were considered divine and sacred by both Kasuga Shrine and Kōfuku-ji. Killing one of these sacred deer was a capital offense punishable by death up until 1637, the last recorded date of a breach of that law.\nAfter World",
"-26.04786268272437"
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[
"role of the animal as a symbol, religious or geographic, rather than just the depiction of an animal for decorative purposes. The nandipada and the zebu bull are generally associated with Nandi, Shiva's humped bull in Hinduism. The same association was made later on coins of Zeionises or Vima Kadphises. The elephant, pendant to the bull, and shown with a girdle on the obverse, also must have a symbolic role, possibly Buddhism, as it was associated with the stupa hill in the earliest coins of Apollodotus. \nApollodotus experimented with different coin standards for his silver, until he settled for a",
"-26.036340703663882"
],
[
"Devil's grandmother The devil's grandmother is a common figure in Russian folklore, mainly used in curses and as a reason that something has gone wrong, e.g. when a machine breaks down. She also appears in the German fairy tales The Devil and his Grandmother and The Devil with the Three Golden Hairs. She appears in the Swedish film, Haxan, in the sabbath scene, where she concocts spells. Here appearance is similar to the traditional depiction of demons, but is covered in fur. \nAlso occasionally mentioned in less prominent roles are the devil's other relatives, such as his mother.",
"-26.029973366181366"
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[
"of Christian Art. The lamb is now the most important of these, and its meaning is either the same as before or, more frequently perhaps, it is symbolic of Christ the expiatory victim. The dove is the Holy Spirit, and the four animals that St. John saw in Heaven are used as personifications of the Four Evangelists. Under the influence of Byzantine art, a great variety of fantastic animals, such as dragons, birds with human heads, winged lions, etc., entwined themselves around the decorative forms until foreign wars and the iconoclast movement brought this period of vigorous art to an",
"-26.01370439362654"
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[
"Devil, their principal worship was devoted to what he called \"field and house devils\" (velt en huisduivelen) which they made \"in various forms, and each had its own name.\" However, he also noted that an nkisi (\"mokisie\") was neither good nor bad, but a general term for all types of divinity. Although these deities had specific jurisdictions in the natural world, they were also localized to a particular place, though they might travel with people as well. New ones were made all the time, and they competed for authority, or people judged them effective or not according",
"-25.993393240729347"
],
[
"stem from Pre-Christian Ireland, from the Celtic festival of Lughnasa which symbolised the beginning of the harvest season, and that the goat is a pagan fertility symbol.\nIn 1931, Margaret Murray tied the Puck Fair into her version of the witch-cult hypothesis, asserting that it was a pre-Christian festival in honour of the Horned God. However, historians Jeffrey B. Russell and Brooks Alexander have asserted that \"Today, scholars are agreed that Murray was more than just wrong – she was completely and embarrassingly wrong on nearly all of her basic premises.\"",
"-25.97941673115656"
],
[
"(animal); cognates in other Germanic languages have divergent meanings, including 'fox', 'dwarf', 'old man', and 'devil'. The modern spelling dates to the 14th century. Historically the animals called shrews were superstitiously feared, falsely believed to have a venomous bite and to behave aggressively and with cruelty, leading to the now-obsolete word beshrew, 'to curse or invoke evil upon'.\nBeginning in the mid-13th century, following on the belief that the animals could exert a wicked influence on humans exposed to them, the term was applied metaphorically to a person of either sex thought to have a similar disposition, but by",
"-25.977358630654635"
],
[
"horse is frequently found in Québécois imagery. This may be connected with the morals of the Catholic Church and the fear of a meeting with the devil.",
"-25.975229395495262"
],
[
"which teaches that the Devil is a real creature. A spokesman for Sosa later argued that Sosa was not denying church teaching, saying, \"to say the devil symbolizes evil is not to deny the existence of the devil.\" On 21 August 2019, Sosa declared in an interview that the Devil “exists as the personification of evil in different structures, but not in persons, because [he] is not a person, [he] is a way of acting evil. He is not a person like a human person. It is a way of evil to be present in human life [...] Good and",
"-25.96701141016092"
],
[
"Like sheep to the slaughter \"Like sheep to the slaughter\" (Hebrew: כצאן לטבח) is a phrase which refers to the idea that Jews went passively to their deaths during the Holocaust. It derives from a similar phrase in the Hebrew Bible which positively depicts martyrdom in both the Jewish and Christian religious traditions. Opposition to the phrase became associated with Jewish nationalism due to its use in Josippon and by Jewish self-defense groups after the 1903 Kishinev pogrom. During the Holocaust, Abba Kovner and other Jewish resistance leaders used the phrase to exhort Jews to fight back. In postwar Israel,",
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[
"The Church of Satan has chosen Satan as its primary symbol because in Hebrew it means adversary, opposer, one to accuse or question. We see ourselves as being these Satans; the adversaries, opposers and accusers of all spiritual belief systems that would try to hamper enjoyment of our life as a human being.\" The term \"Theistic Satanism\" has been described as \"oxymoronic\" by the church and its High Priest. The Church of Satan rejects the legitimacy of any other organizations who claim to be Satanists, dubbing them reverse-Christians, pseudo-Satanists or Devil worshipers, atheistic or otherwise, and maintains a purist approach",
"-25.94264578394359"
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[
"symbol of jealousy, enmity and ruthlessness, however it is not Satan.",
"-25.925241212709807"
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[
"animals. Many Jains also rescue animals from slaughterhouses. Hinduism Hinduism teaches that a part of God resides in all living things, which forms the atman. As such, reverence and respect for animals is taught.\nIn Hinduism, many animals are venerated, including the tiger, the elephant, the mouse, and especially, the cow.\nMahatma Gandhi is noted for his compassion to all living things; he advocated against animal experimentation and animal cruelty. Mahayana Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism teaches that \"we can only escape our own suffering if we avoid inflicting it on others.\" Mahayana Buddhists practice vegetarianism to this end.",
"-25.903954675071873"
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[
"of Argus preserved forever, in the peacock's tail.\nThe symbolism was adopted by early Christianity, thus many early Christian paintings and mosaics show the peacock. The peacock is still used in the Easter season, especially in the east. The 'eyes' in the peacock's tail feathers symbolise the all-seeing Christian God and – in some interpretations – the Church. A peacock drinking from a vase is used as a symbol of a Christian believer drinking from the waters of eternal life. The peacock can also symbolise the cosmos if one interprets its tail with its many 'eyes' as the vault of heaven",
"-25.88321745529538"
],
[
"Deer, and this represents the third symbolism, from this world to the hereafter can do it, because when get the blue deer, stop being ordinary, and the man will be transformed.",
"-25.87716148531763"
],
[
"green oak with idols representing a pagan \"trinity\": Patrimpas (god of spring), Perkūnas (god of thunder) and Patulas (god of the underworld). The place was guarded by priests and vestales. Images appeared based on this description and became very popular with romantic historians. Grunau changed the name for the place to Rickoyoto (from Prussian rikijs - ruler and -ote - a place name ending) and invented the term \"Kriwe of Kriwes\" (Lithuanian: krivių krivaitis, Latvian: krīvu krīvs).\nHowever, no other sources support such statements. The descriptions suggest that the pagan cult had hierarchy and internal organization, which is known not to",
"-25.8725522296736"
],
[
"Goatman (Maryland) Legend According to urban legend, the Goatman is an axe-wielding half-animal, half-man creature that was once a scientist who worked in the Beltsville Agricultural Research Center. The tale holds that he was experimenting on goats until one experiment backfired, and he was mutated, becoming goat-like himself. He then began attacking cars with an axe, roaming the back roads of Beltsville, Maryland. A variation of the legend tells of the Goat-man as an old hermit who lives in the woods, seen walking alone at night along Fletchertown Road.\nAccording to University of Maryland folklorist Barry Pearson, the goatman legends began",
"-25.866966274174047"
],
[
"goat head; in both cultures, the goat denotes fertility. He is worshipped to beget children. Jain texts According to the Kalpa Sutra, Naigamesha, on the orders of the king of the gods Indra, transferred the embryo of the Tirthankar Mahavira from the womb of the Brahmin (priest class) woman Devananda to the Kshatriya (ruling caste) Trishala, who finally delivers Mahavira. According to the Shvetambara text Neminanathacharita, which recalls the life of the Tirthankar Neminatha, Krishna – a cousin of Neminatha and generally venerated as Hindu deity – worships Naigamesha to beget a son from his second wife Satyabhama; a son",
"-25.854287324822508"
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[
"instead claiming that they were simply misguided. In Christian iconography, the Devil and demons were given the physical traits of figures from Classical mythology such as the god Pan, fauns, and satyrs.\nThose Christian groups regarded as heretics by the Roman Catholic Church were treated differently, with theologians arguing that they were deliberately worshipping the Devil. This was accompanied by claims that such individuals engaged in incestuous sexual orgies, murdered infants, and committed acts of cannibalism, all stock accusations that had previously been leveled at Christians themselves in the Roman Empire.\nThe first recorded example of such an accusation being made within",
"-25.84035376016982"
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[
"and Greek deities devils.\nChristianity describes him as a fallen angel who terrorizes the world through evil, is the antithesis of truth, and shall be condemned, together with the fallen angels who follow him, to eternal fire at the Last Judgement.\nIn mainstream Christianity the devil is usually also referred to as Satan. This is because Christian beliefs in Satan are inspired directly by the dominant view of Second Temple Judaism, as expressed/practiced by Jesus, and with some minor variations. Some modern Christians consider the devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host (the demons), rebelled against",
"-25.80830683594104"
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[
"less likely to be regarded as idolatrous than lifelike animal forms. All representations of animals were against strict interpretations of Islam, and three-dimensional ones, especially when large, were especially likely to be accused of skirting idolatry, and are rare in Islamic art. An aquamanile in the Hermitage Museum of a cow and calf attacked by a lion has later had the throats of the animals cut with a sharp groove, apparently to make it clear that they are dead. Oleg Grabar suggests that the engraved decoration may be \"translations into cheaper bronze\" of inlays and enamelling found on gold and",
"-25.804720065847505"
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[
"significance\", and Christians used it to recognize churches and other believers through this symbol because they were persecuted by the Roman Empire. The Ichthys symbol is also a reference to \"the Holy Eucharist, with which the miracle of the multiplication of the loaves and fishes had such intimate connection both in point of time and significance.\" While many Christians hang a cross necklace or rosary inside their vehicles, \"the fish sticker on the car is a more conscious symbol of a witnessing Christian—significantly, unlike the former, it is on the outside of the car for everyone to see\". In the",
"-25.767572790238773"
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[
"by a majority of theistic Satanists. Wiccans may consider most Satanism to be reverse Christianity, and the head of the atheistic Church of Satan, Peter H. Gilmore, considers “devil worship” to be a Christian heresy, that is, a divergent form of Christianity. The diversity of individual beliefs within theistic Satanism, while being a cause for intense debates within the religion, is also often seen as a reflection of Satan, who encourages individualism.\nIn Luciferianism, Michael W. Ford, author and founder of The Order of Phosphorus, Black Order of the Dragon and later co-founder of the Assembly of Light Bearers, presents both",
"-25.762995220036828"
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[
"cried bitterly. This made the rooster a symbol for both vigilance and betrayal.\nEarlier, Jesus compares himself to a mother hen when talking about Jerusalem: \"O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, you who kill the prophets and stone those sent to you, how often I have longed to gather your children together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, but you were not willing.\"\nIn the sixth century, Pope Gregory I declared the rooster the emblem of Christianity and another Papal enactment of the ninth century by Pope Nicholas I ordered the figure of the rooster to be placed on every church steeple.\nIn",
"-25.748697091650683"
],
[
"and propagation inherent in all living things\". The Devil is embraced as a symbol of defiance against the Abrahamic faiths which LaVey criticized for what he saw as the suppression of humanity's natural instincts. Moreover, Satan also serves as a metaphorical external projection of the individual's godhood. LaVey espoused the view that \"god\" is a creation of man, rather than man being a creation of \"god\". In his book, The Satanic Bible, the Satanist's view of god is described as the Satanist's true \"self\"—a projection of his or her own personality—not an external deity. Satan is used as a representation",
"-25.744650279244524"
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[
"horn, and the bull runs out of the woods, goring her in the heart just as Mr. Greenleaf reappears.\nSome writers suggest that the bull symbolizes Christ.",
"-25.744207289477345"
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[
"is that dogs and pigs represent Gentiles and heathens, and that this verse is rare relic demonstrating that Jesus' original message was intended only for the Jews. Harrington notes that such warnings are found in rabbinic works of the period. In Jewish literature heathens were often compared to dogs, and the unclean pig was a Jewish symbol for the Roman Empire. In 2 Peter 2:22 dogs and swine quite clearly refers to heretics. According to Schweizer this verse was used by Jewish Christians to attack the Gentile churches, to argue that Gentile Christians would turn on the Jews by rejecting",
"-25.743988946953323"
],
[
"the midst of wolves: be ye therefore wise as serpents, and harmless as doves\" (Matthew 10:16). Wilhelm Gesenius notes that even amongst the ancient Hebrews, the serpent was a symbol of wisdom.\nIn the Gospel of John, Jesus made mention of the Mosaic serpent when he foretold his crucifixion to a Jewish teacher. Jesus compared the act of raising up the Mosaic serpent on a pole, with the raising up of the Son of Man on a cross (John 3:14-15). Main: Nehushtan#New Testament Snake Handling Snake handling is a religious ritual in a small number of Christian churches in the U.S.,",
"-25.734780938568292"
],
[
"Devil in Christianity Christian teachings In Christianity, Satan became the name of the personification of evil. Christian tradition and theology changed Satan from an accuser appointed by God to test men's faith to God's godlike fallen opponent: \"the devil\".\nTraditionally, Christians have understood the devil to be the author of lies and promoter of evil. However, the devil can go no further than God allows, resulting in the problem of evil.\nLiberal Christianity often views the devil metaphorically. This is true of some Conservative Christian groups too, such as the Christadelphians and the Church of the Blessed Hope. Much of the popular",
"-25.704658997769002"
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[
"the father of sheep (Rra-nku) 'Ga-Ranku' refers to the place of the father of sheep. 'We are taken' is not a likely meaning of the word since it derives from a Sotho word, while most Ga-rankuwa residents are Tswana.Tswana.Garankuwa was also very active during 1976 student uprising which resulting in many government buildings being burnt and many students fleeing into exile in neighboring countries. The suburb also played a large role in overthrowing the formally Bophuthatswana homeland in 1993-94 resulting in scores of people being brutally killed by Bophuthatswana armed forces. Geography It is divided into 18 sections called Units,",
"-25.704439621214988"
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[
"the moral degeneration of the human world, when monks and nuns do not behave as they should and humanity has gone astray from ethical livelihood. In popular culture The legend has been referenced many times in popular culture. One of the most famous ghostly black dogs in fiction appears in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's The Hound of the Baskervilles, where a large dog-like creature haunts a family estate. Sherlock Holmes is brought in to determine if the dog is in fact real or supernatural. This story makes use of folktales where black dogs symbolize death.\nAnother famous ghostly black dog may",
"-25.68053799995687"
],
[
"around these idols for worship.\nThe Christian missionaries, particularly from the London Missionary Society such as John Williams, and others such as the Methodist Missionary Society, characterized these as idolatry, in the sense of islanders worshipping false gods. They sent back reports which primarily focussed on \"overthrow of pagan idolatry\" as evidence of their Christian sects triumph, with fewer mentions of actual converts and baptism. False god or intolerance Yehezkel Kaufman (1960) states that the biblical prohibition of idolatry relates to the belief where the idols are considered gods. He adds that it is erroneous to assume that all idolatry was",
"-25.678148088918533"
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[
"of Christianity for well over 1,000 years. The Islamic proverbial reproduction may also be shown in the image of some animals such as the dog. Although dog is portrayed in many European proverbs as the most faithful friend of man, it is represented in some Islamic countries as impure, dirty, vile, cowardly, ungrateful and treacherous, in addition to links to negative human superstitions such as loneliness, indifference and bad luck. Psychology Though much proverb scholarship is done by literary scholars, those studying the human mind have used proverbs in a variety of studies. One of the earliest studies in this",
"-25.673830132116564"
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[
"of which have no obvious link to Christianity. Often the creature was seen to represent some particular vice or virtue or was believed to have a certain characteristic which could serve as a warning or as an example to the Christian believer. \"Sins of the Flesh\" were often represented by human figures poking out their tongues, stroking their beards, displaying their genitals or gorging on food.\nOther motifs represent the Nature of Christ, or the nature of the Church. One such is that of the pelican. It was believed that a pelican was prepared to peck its own breast in",
"-25.655240105232224"
],
[
"Spiniensis In Roman mythology, Spiniensis was the god of thorns. People prayed to him when they removed thorny plants from their fields, as he presided over the digging out of thorn bushes and guarded the field against thorns. His name comes from spina (\"spine\").",
"-25.653696903318632"
],
[
"representing truth, the Tin Woodsman representing love, and the Cowardly Lion representing courage.\nThe Virtues have become a frequent theme in the Ultima games following Ultima IV, with many different variants used throughout the series. Ultima V: Warriors of Destiny saw Lord Blackthorn turn the virtue system into a rigid and draconian set of laws. The rigid system of Blackthorn unintentionally causes the Virtues to actually achieve their polar opposites, in part due to the influence of the Shadowlords. This shows that the Virtues always come from one's own self, and that codifying ethics into law does not automatically make evil people good.",
"-25.613602624662235"
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[
"or goats that were sacrificed on the Eid. They dance around in their masks and costumes carrying limbs of the sacrificed animals, which they use to chase people they run into and lightly hit them. The point is to spread laughter and cheer. Islamic opinion In the opinion of some local Islamic scholars, this celebration is \"not permissible as it likens humans, who have been blessed by God, to beasts, and the skin of these animals defiles the human body. It also makes it impossible to pray on time, because changing in and out of the clothes takes time, and",
"-25.611391041136812"
],
[
"can be turned into Christ giving the Law (Traditio Legis) and the Good Shepherd respectively\" (Peter and Linda Murray, The Oxford Companion to Classical Art and Architecture, p. 475.). The Good Shepherd is a common motif from the Catacombs of Rome (Gardner, 10, fig 54) and in sarcophagus reliefs, where Christian and pagan symbolism are often combined, making secure identifications difficult. The theme does appear in the wall-paintings of the baptistery of the Dura-Europos church, a house-church at Dura-Europos before 256 CE, and more familiarly in sixth-century Christian mosaics, as in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia at Ravenna, and there is",
"-25.584717896475922"
],
[
"any early Christian writings, though Paul the Apostle does write that \"Satan disguises himself as an angel of light\" (2 Corinthians 11:14). The Devil was never shown in early Christian artwork and first appears in medieval art of the ninth century, where he is shown with cloven hooves, hairy legs, the tail of a goat, pointed ears, a beard, a flat nose, and a set of horns. Some art historians claim that Satan was depicted earlier in the sixth century in one of the mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. The mosaic \"Christ the Good Sheppard\" features a blue",
"-25.57019941273029"
],
[
"Eastern Orthodox In Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Satan is one of humanity's three enemies, along with sin and death (in some other forms of Christianity the other two enemies of mankind are \"the world\", and self (or the flesh), which is to be taken as man's natural tendency to sin). Evangelical Protestants Evangelicals agree with the Protestant orthodox of theology that Satan is a real, created being given entirely over to evil and that evil is whatever opposes God or is not willed by God. Evangelicals emphasize the power and involvement of Satan in history in varying degrees; some virtually ignore",
"-25.56083391085849"
],
[
"The Dog and the Sheep The Dog and the Sheep is one of Aesop’s Fables and is numbered 478 in the Perry Index. Originally its subject was the consequence of bearing false witness. However, longer treatments of the story during the Middle Ages change the focus to deal with perversions of justice by the powerful at the expense of the poor. It has sometimes been alternatively titled The Wolf, the Dog and the Sheep in order to distinguish it from the fable of the dispute between the sheep and the dog that guards them (Perry 356).",
"-25.540811257174937"
],
[
"the gods.\nIn more than one tradition, the white horse carries patron saints or the world saviour in the end times (as in Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam), is associated with the sun or sun chariot (Ossetia) or bursts into existence in a fantastic way, emerging from the sea or a lightning bolt.\nThough some mythologies are stories from earliest beliefs, other tales, though visionary or metaphorical, are found in liturgical sources as part of preserved, on-going traditions (see, for example, \"Iranian tradition\" below). Celtic In Celtic mythology, Rhiannon, a mythic figure in the Mabinogion collection of legends, rides a \"pale-white\" horse. Because",
"-25.540596667968202"
],
[
"embraced because of its association with social non-conformity and rebellion against the dominant system. LaVey embraced the iconography of Satan and the label of \"Satanist\" because it shocked people into thinking, and when asked about his religion, stated that \"the reason it's called Satanism is because it's fun, it's accurate and it's productive\".\nLaVey also conceptualised Satan as a symbol of the individual's own vitality, thus representing an autonomous power within, and a representation of personal liberty and individualism. Throughout The Satanic Bible, the LaVeyan Satanist's view of god is described as the Satanist's true \"self\"—a projection of his or her",
"-25.53203097273945"
],
[
"presents an alternate view. It describes that the concept of Satan, used synonymously with \"God\", is different for each LaVeyan Satanist, but that to all it represents a good and steadying force in their life. Believers have been called \"atheistic Satanists\" because of this lack of belief in external gods, but others identify as antitheistic. Satan is seen to LaVeyan Satanists not as \"an anthropomorphic being with cloven hooves, a barbed tail, and horns\", but as a force of nature that has only been described as evil by other religions. Satan is viewed as a metaphor or a symbol, not",
"-25.518700225948123"
],
[
"believed that animals were the \"terrestrial media for celestial gods\", serving as a sort of lower deity that enabled doctors. Therefore, animals were prominently involved in Pawnee religion. However, those traditions disappeared or were marginalized as the tribe became more Europeanized.\nThe greatest example of a change in Pawnee religion as a result of white settler contact was the disappearance of the Morning Star ceremony. Members of one village (Village Across a Hill) in the Skidi subtribe regularly sacrificed a young girl as part of their creation belief, believing that it assisted the renewal of the earth and its resources. The",
"-25.51143096593296"
],
[
"devils falsely related against the kingdom of Solomon. Solomon disbelieved not; but the devils disbelieved, teaching mankind sorcery and that which was revealed to the two angels in Babel, Harut and Marut ... And surely they do know that he who trafficketh therein will have no (happy) portion in the Hereafter; and surely evil is the price for which they sell their souls, if they but knew. (Qur'an 2:102)\nIslam distinguishes between God-given gifts or good magic and black magic. Good supernatural powers are therefore a special gift from God, whereas black magic is achieved through help of jinn and demons. In",
"-25.50258836412104"
],
[
"as a bull, and became a bull demon in Abrahamic traditions. The bull is familiar in Judeo-Christian cultures from the Biblical episode wherein an idol of the Golden Calf is made by Aaron and worshipped by the Hebrews in the wilderness of Sinai (Exodus). The text of the Hebrew Bible can be understood to refer to the idol as representing a separate god, or as representing the God of Israel himself, perhaps through an association or syncretization with Egyptian or Levantine bull gods, rather than a new deity in itself.\nExodus 32:4 \"He took this from their hand, and fashioned",
"-25.49887860880699"
],
[
"the speaker or writer regarded as the true variant of Christianity, they were regarded as being essentially in league with the Devil. During the nineteenth century, the term \"Satanism\" began to be used to describe those considered to lead a broadly immoral lifestyle, and it was only in the late nineteenth century that it came to be applied in English to individuals who were believed to consciously and deliberately venerate Satan. This latter meaning had appeared earlier in the Swedish language; the Lutheran Bishop Laurentius Paulinus Gothus had described devil-worshipping sorcerers as Sathanister in his Ethica Christiana, produced between 1615",
"-25.48901927645784"
],
[
"throughout The Satanic Bible. LaVey describes Satanism as \"a religion based on the universal traits of man,\" and humans are described throughout as inherently carnal and animalistic. Each of the seven deadly sins is described as part of human's natural instinct, and are thus advocated. Social Darwinism is particularly noticeable in The Book of Satan, where LaVey plagiarizes portions of Redbeard's Might Is Right, though it also appears throughout in references to man's inherent strength and instinct for self-preservation. LaVeyan Satanism has been described as \"institutionalism of Machiavellian self-interest\" because of many of these themes. Influence The Satanic Bible is",
"-25.480694164405577"
],
[
"within such a pentagram, which he contrasted with the microcosmic man arranged within a similar but upright pentagram. The actual image of a goat in a downward-pointing pentagram first appeared in the 1897 book La Clef de la Magie Noire by Stanislas de Guaita, later adopted as the official symbol—called the Sigil of Baphomet—of the Church of Satan, and continues to be used among Satanists. Neopaganism Few neopagan reconstructionist traditions recognize Satan or the Devil outright. However, many neopagan groups worship some sort of Horned God, for example as a consort of the Great Goddess in Wicca. These gods",
"-25.47629168193089"
]
] |
2ye86a | Why do some cities have a distinguishable accent while others don't? | [
"Well, you can still spot a Chicago accent, or Atlanta or New Orleans...etc. However the Midwestern accent has been adopted by news, broadcast and Hollywood., so those are alike by dissemination by the entertainment industry. Used to be that Hollywood used the artificial, trained \"Mid-Atlantic\" accent (Hepburn, Gable, Bogart) to appear more sophisticated and blend better into the UK accent, but it was abandoned for the Midwestern accent that the next generation entertainers and newscasters such as Johnny Carson (Nebraska) and Walter Cronkite (Missouri) had.",
"LA has the same accent as Chicago? Not even close.",
"If you were raised in Chicago or if you spent a very long time there you will incorporate a Chicago accent. There is a distinct Chicago accent.",
"Being from a small country like Ireland its crazy to me to. Just go a couple miles any direction from where you live and the accent will change.. sometimes dramatically like its not even the same language.",
"People who live in towns like this are Wicked Smaht.",
"Los Angeles does have an accent in certain parts",
"I guess it's because a country like the US is relatively new compared to European countries. in Europe many people would stay in the same towns or villages for generations and hardly travel at all. thus meaning dialects and accents have time to evolve and develop their own characteristics. In the US a lot of cities have been built up in an age where travel is more common. Plus having people from all over the world mixing together. US cities aren't going to have a distinguished accent. Unless of course people stop traveling so much and stay in the same neighborhoods for a few generations.",
"Distinguishable to whom? You might not be able to tell a difference, but others certainly can. I'm no dialect/accent expert, but even I can tell the difference between cities in *my own state*. Seattle and Chicago are light years apart by comparison. Also, bonus knowledge: cities aren't homogeneous. Chicagoans you might hear on, say, the TV news sound a lot different from Chicagoans on the street. Living in another city, you might only be exposed to more mobile, educated folks from other cities like Seattle and Chicago, but spend some time in a few of their neighborhoods and you'll start to hear some differences."
] | [
[
"accent are native to the region. Many of its most stereotypical features (such as r dropping and the so-called broad A) are believed to have originated in Boston from the influence of England's Received Pronunciation, which shares those features. While some Boston accents are most strongly associated with the so-called \"Eastern Establishment\" and Boston's upper class, the common accent is locally prevalent and predominantly associated with blue-collar natives exemplified by movies like Good Will Hunting and The Departed. The Boston accent and accents closely related to it cover eastern Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine.\nSome Rhode Islanders speak with a non-rhotic",
"-34.27335015125573"
],
[
"while other accents, like of New York City and Boston, have remained stable in that same time-frame. However, a General American sound system also has some debated degree of influence nationwide, for example, gradually beginning to oust the regional accent in urban areas of the South and at least some in the Inland North. Rather than one particular accent, General American is best defined as an umbrella covering any American accent that does not incorporate features associated with some particular region, ethnicity, or socioeconomic group. Typical General American features include rhoticity, the father–bother merger, Mary–marry–merry merger, pre-nasal \"short a\" tensing,",
"-33.90578072308563"
],
[
"General American may sometimes be erroneously designated in their countries of origin as \"accentless\" to indicate that they offer no obvious clue to the speaker's regional or social background. Prestige Certain accents are perceived to carry more prestige in a society than other accents. This is often due to their association with the elite part of society. For example, in the United Kingdom, Received Pronunciation of the English language is associated with the traditional upper class. The same can be said about the predominance of Southeastern Brazilian accents in the case of the Brazilian variant of the Portuguese language, especially",
"-33.09814912080765"
],
[
"people are more likely to categorise their accent by a region or county than by their town or village. As agriculture became less prominent, many rural dialects were lost. Some urban dialects have also declined; for example, traditional Bradford dialect is now quite rare in the city, and call centres have seen Bradford as a useful location for the very fact there is a lack of dialect in potential employees. Some call centres state that they were attracted to Bradford because it has a regional accent which is relatively easy to understand. But working in the opposite direction concentrations of",
"-33.08563990457333"
],
[
"an advanced form of Inland Northern American English. This dialect can also be found in other cities bordering the Great Lakes such as Cleveland, Milwaukee, Detroit, and Rochester, New York, and most prominently features a rearrangement of certain vowel sounds, such as the short 'a' sound as in \"cat\", which can sound more like \"kyet\" to outsiders. The accent remains well associated with the city. Entertainment and the arts Renowned Chicago theater companies include the Goodman Theatre in the Loop; the Steppenwolf Theatre Company and Victory Gardens Theater in Lincoln Park; and the Chicago Shakespeare Theater at Navy Pier. Broadway",
"-32.868838384281844"
],
[
"carry more prestige in some societies over other accents. For example, in the United States speaking General American (i.e., an absence of a regional, ethnic, or working class accent) is widely preferred in many contexts such as television journalism. Also, in the United Kingdom, the Received Pronunciation is associated with being of higher class and thus more likeable. In addition to prestige, research has shown that certain accents may also be associated with less intelligence, and having poorer social skills. An example can be seen in the difference between Southerners and Northerners in the United States, where people from the",
"-32.745699350722134"
],
[
"West Midlands English County accents Certain areas of the West Midlands are stereotyped as having stronger accents than others, Dudley in the Black Country being an example. There are some local phrases in the Black Country that are renowned. People do tend to substitute a reply of \"arr\" for \"yes\". Generally, most words are shortened, most commonly being \"I haven't\" to \"I ay\" (which can be argued as an even shorter form of \"I ain't\").\nIn the south of the West Midlands (southern Warwickshire and Worcestershire), the accent is more similar to the general southern accent.\nDave Bradley, a presenter on BBC",
"-32.55870555317961"
],
[
"New Orleans:\nThere is a New Orleans city accent ... associated with downtown New Orleans, particularly with the German and Irish Third Ward, that is hard to distinguish from the accent of Hoboken, Jersey City, and Astoria, Long Island, where the Al Smith inflection, extinct in Manhattan, has taken refuge. The reason, as you might expect, is that the same stocks that brought the accent to Manhattan imposed it on New Orleans.\nToday, few citizens of German or Irish background occupy the Third Ward; the presence of immigrant groups in the city of New Orleans, however, has inevitably led to the formation",
"-32.34102837764658"
],
[
"are quite different. The dialect is not a recent phenomenon, and can be heard in the speech of local people in their nineties. The surrounding accents geographically are quite different, and few contain as many of the \"Estuary-isms\" found in the Pompey dialect and some of those may actually originate from Portsmouth, rather than Estuary English. Bedfordshire As with neighbouring Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire has a variety of accents.\nIn the Luton/Dunstable Urban Area, the accent is similar to a London accent, and it is often mistaken as one. This is because of the overflow of Londoners and their subsequent generations in",
"-32.27828137052711"
],
[
"accent that many compare to a \"Brooklyn\" or a cross between a New York and Boston accent (\"water\" becomes \"wata\"). Many Rhode Islanders distinguish the aw sound [ɔə̯], as one might hear in New Jersey; e.g., the word coffee is pronounced [ˈkʰɔə̯fi]. This type of accent was brought to the region by early settlers from eastern England in the Puritan migration in the mid-seventeenth century. Social activities and music In much of rural northern New England, particularly Maine, Acadian and Québécois culture are included in music and dance. Contra dancing and country square dancing are popular throughout New England, usually",
"-32.23473805884714"
],
[
"with some non-English language features, such as the Afro-Asiatic and Asian languages. In the 1960s, major cities such as Sydney and Melbourne received large numbers of immigrants from Southern Europe and the Middle East (Italians, Greeks, Lebanese, Maltese, Croats, Jews etc.), the second generation of these immigrants can also have a distinct accent, in a similar situation as the east coast of the United States with descendants of European migrants having the \"Jersey accent\". Regional variation Although relatively homogeneous, some regional variations in Australian English are notable. The dialects of English spoken in the eastern states, where the majority of",
"-32.02438486301253"
],
[
"in the Yat accent of New Orleans. The local dialects of eastern New England, especially Boston, Massachusetts, extending into the states of Maine and (less so) New Hampshire, show some non-rhoticity, as well as the traditional Rhode Island dialect; however, this feature has been receding in the recent generations. The New York City dialect is traditionally non-rhotic, though William Labov more precisely classifies its current form as variably rhotic, with many of its sub-varieties now fully rhotic, such as in northeastern New Jersey.\nAfrican-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is largely non-rhotic, and in some non-rhotic Southern and AAVE accents, there is no",
"-31.60410261771176"
],
[
"most distinctive accents in the form of the Scouse accent, which originates from Liverpool and its surrounding areas, and the Manc accent, deriving from the central Manchester district. The region's accents are among those referred to as 'Northern English'.\nLarge immigrant populations in the North West result in the presence of significant immigrant languages. South Asian languages such as Urdu, Hindi and Punjabi are widespread, with the largest number of speakers residing in Preston, Blackburn and Manchester. The Chinese once made up the largest minority in the region (as Liverpool has one of the oldest Chinese settlements in Europe), and still",
"-31.506177056813613"
],
[
"all major U.S. cities along the Atlantic coast except for the Delaware Valley area centered around Philadelphia and Baltimore. During the early to mid-1900s (presumably correlated with the Second World War), rhotic accents began to gain social prestige even in the these traditionally non-rhotic areas. Thus, non-rhotic accents are increasingly perceived by Americans as sounding foreign or less educated, while rhotic accents are increasingly seen as sounding more \"General American\".\nToday, non-rhoticity in the American South is found primarily among older speakers, and only in some areas such as central and southern Alabama; Savannah, Georgia; and Norfolk, Virginia, as well as",
"-31.47016291168984"
],
[
"relating to regional or social accent divergence, while the \"West/Centre/Paris\" is more related to standardness of accent and convergence. The usage of authentic speech samples for identification reveals how well subjects are able to actually perceive the differences between dialects according to their own folk beliefs. Geography People generally regard their own dialect as distinct from other quite similar ones. A study of Bostonians reflected this tendency. People outside of the New England area saw speech as having a single Bostonian accent, while Bostonians themselves perceived different dialect boundaries, with their own region being separate from the rest of the",
"-31.42578560068796"
],
[
"Mid-city, Lakeview, parts of Gentilly and Uptown. Local variance The Yat dialect is the most pronounced version of the New Orleans Accent. Natives often speak with varying degrees of the Brooklyn-esque accent, ranging from a slight intonation to what is considered full Yat. As with all dialects, there is variance by local speakers due to geographic and social factors. This results in many different levels of Yat throughout the area, marking distinct differences between higher-income people and lower-income people. Yat tends to differ in strength and intonation from neighborhood to neighborhood. The type, strength, and lexicon of the accent vary",
"-31.30422078317497"
],
[
"appears simultaneously as a single dialect area and two separate dialect areas\". Texas Rather than a proper Southern accent, several cities in Texas can be better described as having a Midland U.S. accent, as they lack the \"true\" Southern accent's full /aɪ/ deletion and the oft-accompanying Southern Vowel Shift. Texan cities classifiable as such specifically include Abilene, Austin, and Corpus Christi. Austin, in particular, has been reported in some speakers to show the South Midland (but not the Southern) variant of /aɪ/ deletion mentioned above.",
"-31.032142170501174"
],
[
"in London in the period July 2009 to June 2010 were those born in India, Poland, the Republic of Ireland, Bangladesh and Nigeria. Accent There are many accents traditionally associated with London. The most well known of the London accents long ago acquired the Cockney label from London's East End, which is heard both in London itself, and across the wider South East England region more generally. The accent of a 21st-century Londoner varies widely; what is becoming more and more common amongst the under-30s however is some fusion of Cockney with a whole array of ethnic accents, in particular",
"-30.96808197622886"
],
[
"a dialectally remarkable area, because young and old speakers alike have a Midland accent, except for a single middle generation born between the 1920s and 1940s, who have an Inland Northern accent diffused into the area from Chicago.\nErie, Pennsylvania, though in the geographic area of the \"Inland North,\" never underwent the Northern Cities Shift and now shares more features with Western Pennsylvania English due to contact with Pittsburghers, particularly with Erie as their choice of city for a summer-vacation destination. Meanwhile, in suburban areas, the dialect may be less pronounced, for example, native-born speakers in Kane, McHenry, Lake, DuPage, and",
"-30.83780580034363"
],
[
"but a long way above Cockney and Scouse. Recent polls put the West Country accent as third and fifth most attractive in the British Isles respectively.\nThe West Country accent is probably most identified in film as \"pirate speech\" – cartoon-like \"Ooh arr, me 'earties! Sploice the mainbrace!\" talk is very similar. This may be a result of the strong seafaring and fisherman tradition of the West Country, both legal and outlaw. Edward Teach (Blackbeard) was a native of Bristol, and privateer and English hero Sir Francis Drake hailed from Tavistock in Devon. Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta The Pirates of Penzance may",
"-30.809273171093082"
],
[
"English language in southern England South East England and the Home Counties South East England and the Home Counties (the counties bordering London) tend to reflect the interface between the London region and other regional accents. Affluent districts are associated with a modified Received Pronunciation (RP) accent, reflecting their traditional popularity with upper middle and upper-class residents which has spread throughout more social classes broadly in rural areas with commuting access to London. Less affluent areas have traditionally mainstream London accents (that is, variants of the Estuary English accent) that grade into southern rural outside urban areas. Multicultural London",
"-30.743213037523674"
],
[
"New Orleans English History Port cities like New Orleans and New York City (with regard to the surrounding boroughs) have caused the growth of similar dialects as both cities attracted many European immigrants during the 19th century. The result has yielded similar dialects which combine sounds from Irish, German, Italian, and many other immigrants' speech which have blended with the local dialect to create a new variant. However, recent dialect studies suggest that New Orleans and New York City in particular have a shared dialect history, probably via New York accent features being transported to New Orleans thanks to significant",
"-30.564357297727838"
],
[
"industry boom. However, even in a single town, an individual's identification with working and playing outdoors versus indoors appears to be a determiner of accent more than the authenticity or not of this individual's Southern heritage; for example, this correlates with less educated rural men of Northern California documented as raising /ɛ/ in a style similar to the Southern drawl. Other varieties Certain varieties of Chicano English are also native to California, sometimes even being spoken by non-Latino Californians. One example is East Los Angeles Chicano English, which has been influenced by both Californian and African American Vernacular English.A variety",
"-30.514196622913005"
],
[
"opportunities from many parts of Europe, most notably Ireland. Geographical coverage The Manchester accent is relatively localised, and is usually found in Greater Manchester including the cities of Salford and Manchester and also in adjoining parts of the boroughs of Bury, Oldham, Rochdale, Stockport, Tameside and Trafford. It is also prominent in 'overspill' towns and estates such as Hattersley, Gamesley, Handforth and Birchwood.\nThe dialect itself is more distinctive than many people realise. It is quite noticeably different from the accent spoken in adjacent towns such as Bolton, Oldham and Wigan despite them being within Greater Manchester. The",
"-30.450997583277058"
],
[
"\"Cajun\" was often discovered to be a potentially lucrative marketing term.\nA Yat accent is a creole accent and is considered an identity marker of white, metropolitan people who have been raised in the greater New Orleans area. Speakers with a New Orleans accent are typically proud of their accent as it organically stems from the historical mixing of language and culture. This distinctive accent has been dying out generationally in the city due to white flight of the city, but remains very strong in the suburbs. However, the creole Yat dialect does survive in the city in several areas, notably",
"-30.41652971645817"
],
[
"I as 'oy' whereas Black Country uses the dialect 'Ah' as in 'Ah bin' meaning I have been.\nThorne (2003) has said that the accent is \"a dialectal hybrid of northern, southern, Midlands, Warwickshire, Staffordshire and Worcestershire speech\", also with elements from the languages and dialects of its Asian and Afro-Caribbean communities.\nThere are also differences between Brummie and Black Country accents, which are not readily apparent to people from outside the West Midlands. A Black Country accent and a Birmingham accent can be hard to distinguish if neither accent is that broad. Phonetician John Wells has admitted that he cannot tell",
"-30.362534976331517"
],
[
"from section to section of the New Orleans Metropolitan Area. Longtime residents can often tell what area the other residents are from by their accent.\nSpeakers of this dialect originated in the Ninth Ward, as well as the Irish Channel and Mid-City. Slighter intonations of the dialect can be heard in some parts of the city, such as Lakeview, the Marigny, the Garden District, and some parts of Gentilly, but mainly in the suburbs. The dialect is present to some degree in all seven parishes that make up the New Orleans metropolitan area, from St. Tammany to Plaquemines. As with many",
"-30.30989739531651"
],
[
"Therefore, the own-accent bias is due to the fact that own-accents are similar to the prototype of \"accent\" hence are processed and categorised more easily than those other-accents that are dissimilar. This idea is supported by research showing that the further away a voice is from the average, (which is assumed to be a good representation of the internal prototype of accent) the more distinctive and less attractive it is rated, and the more activity is produced in the temporal voice areas (areas of the brain that deal with voice perception and accents). Research into accent perception Recent research has",
"-30.30026440229267"
],
[
"is not the only \"Baltimore accent\", as Black Baltimoreans have their own unique accent. For example, among Black speakers, Baltimore is pronounced more like \"Baldamore,\" as compared to \"Bawlmer.\" Other notable phonological characteristics include vowel centralization before /r/ (such that words such as \"carry\" and \"parents\" are often pronounced as \"curry\" or \"purrents\") and the mid-centralization of /ɑ/, particularly in the word \"dog,\" often pronounced like \"dug,\" and \"frog,\" as \"frug.\" The accent and dialect of African-American Baltimoreans also share features of African American English. LGBT community In 2001, The Portal was established as a community center for LGBT African-Americans.",
"-30.260442427825183"
],
[
"in which actors often mistakenly use a New York accent or simply substitute a General American accent. Philadelphia natives who work in media and entertainment often assimilate to the General American broadcast standard. Speakers with a noticeable local accent include Jim Cramer, the host of CNBC's Mad Money, singer Joe Bonsall, political commentator Chris Matthews, Bam Margera, and several others in the MTV Jackass crew. Venezuelan American actress Sonya Smith, who was born in Philadelphia, speaks with a Philadelphia accent in both English and Venezuelan Spanish.\nMovies and television shows set in the Philadelphia region generally make the mistake of giving",
"-30.199410860892385"
],
[
"migration may cause a town or area to develop its own accent. The two most famous examples are Liverpool and Corby. Liverpool's dialect is influenced heavily by Irish and Welsh, and it sounds completely different from surrounding areas of Lancashire. Corby's dialect is influenced heavily by Scots, and it sounds completely different from the rest of Northamptonshire. The Voices 2006 survey found that the various ethnic minorities that have settled in large populations in parts of Britain develop their own specific dialects. For example, Asian may have an Oriental influence on their accent so sometimes urban dialects are now just",
"-30.171404909924604"
],
[
"accent specific to their location or simply one which best reflects their perceived values. In particular, research found the Scottish accent is perceived as trustworthy and reassuring while the Yorkshire accent, used by brands such as O2 (United Kingdom) in television and radio advertising, is seen as wise and honest.\nA 2014 study among 1,000 UK consumers, conducted by PHMG (company), aimed to determine perceptions of business call handling standards. It found just 23% of British people are happy with the way their calls to business are handled, with satisfaction levels being particularly low among the older generations - just 12%",
"-30.047995217726566"
],
[
"to the city in recent years!\nAccording to a BBC study, the Cardiff accent, as well as that of Liverpool and East London, is in the process of changing due to the modern influence of immigration on youth, primarily of Arabic and Hindi influence. Social variation Research has shown that there is a great sociolinguistic variation on the Cardiff accent, that is to say, a difference in the way people speak from different social backgrounds in Cardiff. Unsurprisingly, those from a more affluent background generally speak with a less broad accent, closer to that of standard English, compared with people from",
"-29.99424868961796"
],
[
"the varieties of the United States and Canada.\nJust as there are accents in speech, there are regional accents in sign. People from the South sign slower than people in the North—even people from northern and southern Indiana have different styles.\n— Walker, Lou Ann (1987). A Loss for Words: The Story of Deafness in a Family. New York: HarperPerennial. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-06-091425-7.\nMutual intelligibility among these ASL varieties is high, and the variation is primarily lexical. For example, there are three different words for English about in Canadian ASL; the standard way, and two regional variations (Atlantic and Ontario), as shown in the videos",
"-29.929651755606756"
],
[
"Baltimore city along the Maryland Route 140 and Maryland Route 26 corridors brought local pronunciations with them, creating colloquialisms that make up the Baltimore accent. Ethnic variation According to linguists, the \"hon\" dialect that is popularized in the media and that derives historically from the speech of by White blue-collar residents of South, and Southeast Baltimore is not the only accent spoken in the region. There is also a particular Baltimore accent found among Black Baltimoreans. For example, among Black speakers, Baltimore is pronounced more like \"Baldamore,\" as compared to \"Bawlmer.\" Other notable phonological characteristics include vowel centralization before /r/",
"-29.916443288326263"
],
[
"common in eastern New England, for example in some Boston accents (the former more likely than the latter), as well as in the Upper Midwest. South Atlantic English and the accents of England's Fens feature it as well.\nRaising of just /aɪ/ is found in a much greater number of dialects in the United States. This phenomenon is most consistently found in the Inland North, the Upper Midwest, New England, New York City, and the mid-Atlantic areas of Pennsylvania (including Philadelphia), Maryland, and Delaware, as well as in Virginia. It is somewhat less common in the lower Midwest, the West, and",
"-29.82229849932628"
],
[
"\"Where you at?\". The New York accent features shared with the Yat accent include: non-rhoticity, a short-a split system (so that bad and back, for example, have different vowels), /ɔ/ as high gliding [ɔə], /ɑr/ as rounded [ɒ~ɔ], and the coil–curl merger (traditionally, though now in decline). Yat also lacks the typical vowel changes of the Southern Shift and the pin–pen merger that are commonly heard elsewhere throughout the South. Yat is associated with the working and lower-middle classes, though a spectrum with fewer notable Yat features is often heard the higher one's socioeconomic status; such New Orleans affluence is",
"-29.762030395126203"
],
[
"to working-class accents, of the Home Counties Modern Dialect area\". Peter Roach comments, \"In reality there is no such accent and the term should be used with care. The idea originates from the sociolinguistic observation that some people in public life who would previously have been expected to speak with an RP accent now find it acceptable to speak with some characteristics of the London area... such as glottal stops, which would in earlier times have caused comment or disapproval\". \nFoulkes & Docherty (1999) state \"All of its [EE's] features can be located on a sociolinguistic and geographical continuum between",
"-29.761623352067545"
],
[
"Accent perception Accents are the distinctive variations in the pronunciation of a language. They can be native or foreign, local or national and can provide information about a person’s geographical locality, socio-economic status and ethnicity. The perception of accents is normal within any given group of language users and involves the categorisation of speakers into social groups and entails judgments about the accented speaker, including their status and personality. Accents can significantly alter the perception of an individual or an entire group, which is an important fact considering that the frequency that people with different accents are encountering one",
"-29.639353249804117"
],
[
"English is different. However, the accent area spreads east and west of the city's political borders, covering much of the former counties of South Glamorgan and south-west Gwent, including Newport and coastal Monmouthshire.\nThe dialect developed distinctively as the city grew in the nineteenth century, with an influx of migrants from different parts of Britain and further afield. The Cardiff accent and vocabulary has been influenced in particular by those who moved there from the English Midlands, the West Country, other parts of Wales, and Ireland. The Survey of English Dialects did not cover Cardiff but it did survey nearby",
"-29.593631948169786"
],
[
"sense of what is morally and ethically right, from using race, ethnicity, homeland or economics more directly. We have no such compunctions about language, thus, accent becomes a litmus test for exclusion, and excuse to turn away, to recognize the other.\nSpeakers with certain accents often experience discrimination in housing and employment. For example, speakers who have foreign or ethnic-minority accents are less likely to be called back by landlords and are more likely to be assigned by employers to lower status positions than those with standard accents. In business settings, individuals with non-standard accents are more likely to be evaluated",
"-29.558385486569023"
],
[
"as easily identifiable as rural dialects, even if they are not from South Asia. In the traditional view, urban speech was just seen as a watered-down version of that of the surrounding rural area. Historically, rural areas had much more stable demographics than urban areas, but there is now only a small difference. It has probably never been true since the Industrial Revolution caused an enormous influx to cities from rural areas. South West England The West Country dialects and accents are the English dialects and accents used by much of the indigenous population of South West England, the area",
"-29.389281725336332"
],
[
"German journal. He believed the accent was based on the English as it was spoken by the earliest settlers, therefore derived from Elizabethan England and preserved with modifications by Charleston speakers. The rapidly disappearing \"Charleston accent\" is still noted in the local pronunciation of the city's name. Many Charleston natives ignore the 'r' and elongate the first vowel, pronouncing the name as \"Chah-l-ston\". Religion Charleston is known as \"The Holy City.\" Despite beliefs that the term dates to the city's earliest days and refers to its religiously tolerant culture, the term was coined in the 20th century, likely as a",
"-29.37242877029348"
],
[
"Brummie dialect Name The term Brummie derives from Brummagem or Bromwichham, which are historical variants of the name Birmingham. Accent The strength of a person's accent varies greatly all across Birmingham. Like most cities, the accent changes relative to the area of the city. A common misconception is that everyone in Birmingham speaks the same accent. It could be argued Brummie is an accent rather than a dialect as in Black Country, which is a dialect with unique words and phrases, as in owamya? for how are you, which many comment is not used in Brummie speech. Similarly Brummies pronounce",
"-29.31514084734954"
],
[
"sociolinguistic artifacts, the dialect is usually more distinct among older members of the population. The New Orleans suburban area of Chalmette is known for the strongest Yat accent of the Greater New Orleans area. In popular culture The distinct New Orleans dialect has been depicted in many ways throughout the city and the U.S.\nThe main character of the cartoon strip Krazy Kat spoke in a slightly exaggerated phonetically-rendered version of early-20th century Yat; friends of the New Orleans-born cartoonist George Herriman recalled that he spoke with many of the same distinctive pronunciations.\nActual New Orleans accents were seldom heard nationally. New",
"-29.243872566730715"
],
[
"may explain some of the differences outlined above, including why most traditionally non-rhotic white Southern accents have shifted to now becoming intensely rhotic. Social perceptions In the United States, there is a general negative stigma surrounding the Southern dialect. Non-Southern Americans tend to associate a Southern accent with cognitive and verbal slowness, lack of education, ignorance, bigotry, or religious and political conservatism, using common labels like \"hick\", \"hillbilly\", or \"redneck\" accent. The accent is also associated nationwide with the military, NASCAR, and country music; in fact, even non-Southern American country singers typically imitate a Southern accent in their music. Meanwhile,",
"-29.227934795897454"
],
[
"people of this area, many of whom choose to hide or modify their accents when they visit or move to areas outside of Appalachia.\nDespite all of the debates surrounding this dialect and whether or not its boundaries are legitimate and correct, to the people of Appalachia, their variety of English is central to their identities regardless of how it is seen by linguists, as well as outsiders.",
"-29.216870921605732"
],
[
"realistic\", he noted, \"I'm going to go with that. I know people who sound like that.\" In response to the accent, Moore explained \"I went to school in Boston and worked with a lot of guys from Dorchester, so that's where [the accent] came from. We made it thick ... for humor's sake, but then again, not really. There are folks with seriously heavy accents there, and they are proud of it.\"",
"-29.20668399700662"
],
[
"having a Dominican rather than a Puerto Rican accent. The New York Superior Court ruled that distinguishing between accents was permissible based on the fact that \"human experience has taught us to discern the variation in the mode of speech of certain individuals.\" The court found that a certain degree of familiarity with the accents and dialects of a region or ethnic group qualified an individual to identify ethnicity or race in a court based on auditory evidence. Clifford v. Kentucky A similar justification was used in the later case of Clifford v. Kentucky. A white police officer testified against",
"-29.179745158355217"
],
[
"Accent (sociolinguistics) History As human beings spread out into isolated communities, stresses and peculiarities develop. Over time, they can develop into identifiable accents. In North America, the interaction of people from many ethnic backgrounds contributed to the formation of the different varieties of North American accents. It is difficult to measure or predict how long it takes an accent to form. Accents from Canada, South Africa, Australia and the US for example, developed from the combinations of different accents and languages in various societies and their effect on the various pronunciations of British settlers.\nIn many cases, the accents of non-English",
"-29.11532309339964"
],
[
"to that of neighbouring areas of Lancashire. The influence of Irish and Welsh migrants, combined with European accents, contributed to a distinctive local Liverpool accent. The first reference to a distinctive Liverpool accent was in 1890. Linguist Gerald Knowles suggested that the accent's nasal quality may have derived from poor 19th-century public health, by which the prevalence of colds for many people over a long time resulted in a nasal accent becoming regarded as the norm and copied by others learning the language. Academic research The period of early dialect research in Great Britain did little to cover Scouse. The",
"-29.115194161830004"
],
[
"similar to dialects in the Mid-Atlantic (especially the New York area dialect, Northern New Jersey English, and New York Latino English.) Unlike Virginia Piedmont, Coastal Southern American, and Northeast American dialects and Florida Cracker dialect (see section below), \"Miami accent\" is rhotic; it also incorporates a rhythm and pronunciation heavily influenced by Spanish (wherein rhythm is syllable-timed).\nHowever, this is a native dialect of English, not learner English or interlanguage; it is possible to differentiate this variety from an interlanguage spoken by second-language speakers in that \"Miami accent\" does not generally display the following features: there is no addition of /ɛ/",
"-29.027532108593732"
],
[
"and prejudice Stereotypes refer to specific characteristics, traits, and roles that a group and its members are believed to possess. Stereotypes can be both positive and negative, although negative are more common.\nStereotypes may result in prejudice, which is defined as having negative attitudes toward a group and its members. Individuals with non-standard accents often have to deal with both negative stereotypes and prejudice because of an accent. Researchers consistently show that people with non-native accents are judged as less intelligent, less competent, less educated, having poor English/language skills, and unpleasant to listen to. Not only people with standard accents subscribe",
"-28.981296244310215"
],
[
"and Luxembourgish), all of which have this construction, like Swedish kom med.\nAlso, sometimes the comparative form of adjectives are used in place of the root form of the adjective. In popular culture The Upper Midwestern accent is made conspicuous, often to the point of parody or near-parody, in the film Fargo (especially as displayed by Frances McDormand's character Marge Gunderson) and the radio program A Prairie Home Companion (as displayed by many minor characters, especially those voiced by Sue Scott, with whom lead characters, most frequently male roles voiced by Garrison Keillor). It is also evident in the film New",
"-28.946237253956497"
],
[
"cities include Houston, Texas, and Raleigh, North Carolina; in Raleigh, for example, this retreat from the accent appears to have begun around 1950. Other sub-regions are unique in that their inhabitants have never spoken with the Southern regional accent, instead having their own distinct accents. Southern Louisiana Most of southern Louisiana constitutes Acadiana, a cultural region dominated for hundreds of years by monolingual speakers of Cajun French, which combines elements of Acadian French with other French and Spanish words. Today, this French dialect is spoken by many older Cajun ethnic group and is said to be dying out. A related",
"-28.93627731630113"
],
[
"norms. For example, Standard English in the United Kingdom is based on the south-eastern dialect and accent centered around London. In other parts of the UK, various dialects are spoken, such as Scots and Geordie; even in London, there exist Cockney and Estuary accents. Studies of young people in Glasgow show that they self-report linguistic insecurity, describing their own speech as 'slang' in comparison to the 'standard form' and attempting to incline their own speech to the standard.\nPrestige forms may also demonstrate linguistic insecurity. Again, in the UK, Received Pronunciation (RP), a prestige accent, has been affected by other varieties",
"-28.90391738795006"
],
[
"is frequently the subject of humor about Boston, as in comedian Jon Stewart joking in his book America that, although John Adams drafted the 1780 Massachusetts Constitution, \"delegates from his state refused to ratify the letter 'R'.\"\nBeing conspicuous and easily identifiable as regional, Boston accents are routinely featured by actors in films set in Boston, particularly for working-class white characters, such as in Good Will Hunting, Mystic River, The Departed, Manchester by the Sea, The Town, Ted, The Fighter, and Black Mass. Television series based within a Boston setting such as Boston Public and Cheers have featured the accent. Simpsons",
"-28.902950101182796"
],
[
"Linguistic discrimination Linguistic prejudice It can be noted that use of language such as certain accents may result in an individual experiencing prejudice. For example, some accents hold more prestige than others depending on the cultural context. However, with so many dialects, it can be difficult to determine which is the most preferable. The best answer linguists can give, such as the authors of \"Do You Speak American?\", is that it depends on the location and the individual. Research has determined however that some sounds in languages may be determined to sound less pleasant naturally. Also, certain accents tend to",
"-28.86996031882518"
],
[
"similarities to others in neighbouring regions. Although natives of such locations, especially in rural parts, can still have West Country influences in their speech, the increased mobility and urbanisation of the population have meant that in Berkshire, Hampshire (including the Isle of Wight), and Oxfordshire the dialect itself, as opposed to various local accents, is becoming increasingly rare.\nAcademically the regional variations are considered to be dialectal forms. The Survey of English Dialects captured manners of speech across the South West region that were just as different from Standard English as any from the far North of England. There is some",
"-28.789062477299012"
],
[
"Caribbean, which form an accent labelled Multicultural London English (MLE). The other widely heard and spoken accent is RP (Received Pronunciation) in various forms, which can often be heard in the media and many of other traditional professions and beyond, although this accent is not limited to London and South East England, and can also be heard selectively throughout the whole UK amongst certain social groupings. Since the turn of the century the Cockney dialect is less common in the East End and has 'migrated' east to Havering and the county of Essex. Economy London's gross regional product in 2016",
"-28.786872937809676"
],
[
"cot [ɑ] versus caught [oə], plus the pronunciation of /ɑr/, as in car, far back in the mouth as [ɑ~ɑə]—these three features making this New England accent noticeably similar to a New York accent. These features are often unlike the modern Northeastern New England (NENE) dialect of Boston, as is Rhode Island's feature of a completed father–bother merger, shared with the rest of the country outside of NENE. A few terms are unique only to this area, such as the word cabinet to mean \"milkshake\" (particularly, coffee cabinets), pizza strips (Italian tomato pie strips served cold without cheese), and coffee",
"-28.740297198994085"
],
[
"talks with a distinct Boston accent, although it sometimes lapses into a Brooklyn accent. Many elements of the Boston accent can be heard on the animated TV series Family Guy, which is set in the fictional city of Quahog, Rhode Island.",
"-28.720144384831656"
],
[
"to these beliefs and attitudes, but individuals with accents also often stereotype against their own or others' accents. Accent discrimination Discrimination refers to specific behaviors or actions directed at a group or its individual members based solely on the group membership. In accent discrimination, one's way of speaking is used as a basis for arbitrary evaluations and judgments. Unlike other forms of discrimination, there are no strong norms against accent discrimination in the general society. Rosina Lippi-Green writes,\nAccent serves as the first point of gate keeping because we are forbidden, by law and social custom, and perhaps by a prevailing",
"-28.678503602626733"
],
[
"Newport and six small villages in Monmouthshire. Influence The formation of the modern Cardiff accent has been cited as having an Irish influence, similar to the influence of the Liverpool accent, given both cities' status as major world ports. However, recent analysis has shown that the accent has much older and local roots, the investigation uncovered findings in conflict to the view that the accent has strong origins outside of the local area, as summarised:\nThe Cardiff accent has been analysed by a number of dialect experts from England and they tend to emphasise the influence of immigrants from Ireland and",
"-28.61196504579857"
],
[
"is also sufficiently distinct from standard English that researchers from the University of Birmingham have carried out research on the accent in an effort to improve speech recognition software.\nThe former Assembly First Minister Rhodri Morgan pointed out in a pamphlet of Cardiff that having a strong Cardiff accent has long been an issue of class, recalling how teachers at a Cardiff high school prepared pupils for the middle class professions by reciting: \"Hark, hark the lark\nIn Cardiff Arms Park!\"\nIn a survey, carried out by the BBC, Welsh accents are among the least popular accents in the UK. However, the Cardiff",
"-28.610354616772383"
],
[
"a working-class background. Thus, the city itself has different dialects, with people from the less affluent eastern and western districts of the city having a stronger and broader accent than those living in the more affluent north Cardiff. Vowels The accent is non-rhotic, in other words the /r/ is only pronounced before a vowel. Much like RP, linking and intrusive R is present in Cardiff English, such as in drawing or draw attention.\nUnlike the consonants, CE's vowels are significantly different to Received Pronunciation. Many vowels in this accent have a more centralised articulation, as well as the starting points of",
"-28.570608832873404"
],
[
"Baltimore accent The Baltimore accent, also known as Baltimorese (sometimes pseudo-phonetically written Bawlmerese, Ballimorese, etc.), commonly refers to the accent and dialect that originated among blue-collar residents of South and Southeast Baltimore, Maryland: a sub-variety of Mid-Atlantic American English, as is nearby Philadelphia English.\nAt the same time, there is considerable linguistic diversity within Baltimore, which complicates the notion of a singular \"Baltimore accent\". According to linguists, the accent and dialect of African American Baltimoreans are different from the \"hon\" variety that is popularized in the media as being spoken by white blue-collar Baltimoreans. White working-class families who migrated out of",
"-28.479493197170086"
],
[
"widely encountered throughout southeast England, particularly among the young. It is considered to be a working-class accent, although often used by the lower middle classes too. In the debate that surrounded a 1993 article about Estuary English, a London businessman claimed that RP was perceived as unfriendly, so Estuary English was now preferred for commercial purposes. \nSome adopt the accent as a means of \"blending in\" to appear to be more working class or in an attempt to appear to be \"a common man\". That affectation of the accent is sometimes derisively referred to as \"Mockney\". A move away from",
"-28.455089705326827"
],
[
"to a European American informant planted by the police. Acting and accents Actors are often called upon to speak varieties of language other than their own. Similarly, an actor may portray a character of some nationality other than his or her own by adopting into the native language the phonological profile typical of the nationality to be portrayed in what is commonly called \"speaking with an accent\".\nAccents may have stereotypical associations. For example, in Disney animated films mothers and fathers typically speak with white middle class American or English accents. English accents in Disney animated films are frequently employed to",
"-28.403677752183285"
],
[
"Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach, as well as the three \"Treasure Coast\" counties of Indian River, St. Lucie, and Martin to the north. Miami accent The Miami accent is a regional accent of the American English dialect spoken in South Florida, particularly in Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, and Monroe counties. The accent was born in central Miami, but has expanded to the rest of South Florida in the decades since the 1960s. The Miami accent is most prevalent in American-born South Floridian youth.\nThe Miami accent is based on a fairly standard American accent but with some changes very similar to",
"-28.38774863483559"
],
[
"people from these places to Bedford. Kent Accents today are a cross between Estuary English and Received Pronunciation which both evolve over time and are becoming significantly more similar; where towards the former, accents have been strongly influenced by proximity to towns in the London Gateway involved in heavy trades, fishing and repairs and merchant sides of the Royal Navy, which was concentrated in Greenwich and Chatham. This corresponds to the name of the dialect which refers to the Thames Estuary. 'H dropping' is in general rare, as in the other Home Counties, but 't dropping' or substitution",
"-28.382104921391146"
],
[
"to be a reason for denigration and stereotype:\nThe people of the South West have long endured the cultural stereotype of 'ooh arr'ing carrot-crunching yokels, and Bristol in particular has fought hard to shake this image off\n— Anonymous editorial, Bristol Post, 7 August 2008\nThere is a popular prejudice that stereotypes speakers as unsophisticated and even backward, due possibly to the deliberate and lengthened nature of the accent. This can work to the West Country speaker's advantage, however: recent studies of how trustworthy Britons find their fellows based on their regional accents put the West Country accent high up, under southern Scottish English",
"-28.323026493919315"
],
[
"coach Liz Himelstein maintained that \"the accent was another character\". She coached the cast using audio tapes and field trips. Another dialect coach, Larissa Kokernot (who also played one of the prostitutes), noted that the \"small-town, Minnesota accent is close to the sound of the Nords and the Swedes\", which is \"where the musicality comes from\". She taught McDormand \"Minnesota nice\" and the characteristic head-nodding to show agreement. The strong accent spoken by Macy's and McDormand's characters, which was exaggerated for effect, is less common in the Twin Cities, where over 60% of the state's population lives. The Minneapolis and",
"-28.232454202719964"
],
[
"Estuary English Status as accent of English The boundary between Estuary English and Cockney is far from clearcut. Several writers have argued that Estuary English is not a discrete accent distinct from the accents of the London area. The sociolinguist Peter Trudgill has written that the term \"Estuary English\" is inappropriate because \"it suggests that we are talking about a new variety, which we are not; and because it suggests that it is a variety of English confined to the banks of the Thames estuary, which it is not. The label actually refers to the lower middle-class accents, as opposed",
"-28.228045918687712"
],
[
"nineteenth-century commercial interaction between the two cities.\nAllan A. Metcalf discusses the socioeconomic associations linked with speakers of Yat. He notes that Yats mostly live near the Irish Channel in blue-collar neighborhoods. The dialect's connotation with the working class, white population encodes the speaker's identities. Metcalf describes the historical linguistic setting of Louisiana from the Choctaw to the French along with Spanish and English.\nThe origins of the accent are described in A. J. Liebling's book The Earl of Louisiana, in a passage that was used as a foreword to A Confederacy of Dunces, John Kennedy Toole's well-known posthumously published novel about",
"-28.19820304820314"
],
[
"\"Good American Speech\" or \"Eastern Standard\" (both names now dated), described it as the appropriate American pronunciation for \"classics and elevated texts\". She vigorously drilled her students in learning the accent at the Carnegie Institute of Technology and, later, the Juilliard School.\nIt is also possible that the clipped, nasal, \"all-treble\" quality associated with the Mid-Atlantic accent partly arose out of technological necessity in the earliest days of radio and sound film, which ineffectively reproduced normal human bass tones. As used by actors, the Mid-Atlantic accent is also known by various other names, including American Theater Standard or American stage speech.\nAmerican",
"-28.18836133411969"
],
[
"Southerners themselves tend to have mixed judgments of their own accent, some similarly negative but others positively associating it with a laid-back, plain, or humble attitude. The sum negative associations nationwide, however, are the main presumable cause of a gradual decline of Southern accent features, since the middle of the twentieth century onwards, among younger and more urban residents of the South.",
"-28.17409639012476"
],
[
"(but pop in the Great Lakes region and generic coke in the South) for a sweet and bubbly soft drink, you or you guys for the plural of you (but y'all in the South), sneakers for athletic shoes (but often tennis shoes outside the Northeast), and shopping cart for a cart used for carrying supermarket goods. General American In 2010, William Labov noted that Great Lakes, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and West Coast accents have undergone \"vigorous new sound changes\" since the mid-nineteenth century onwards, so they \"are now more different from each other than they were 50 or 100 years ago\",",
"-28.143106656825694"
],
[
"North-Central American English Other characteristics North Central speech is rhotic. Th-stopping is possible among speakers of lower-class backgrounds. In addition, traces of a pitch accent as in Swedish and Norwegian can persist in some areas of heavy Norwegian or Swedish settlement, and among people who grew up in those areas (some of whom are not of Scandinavian descent). Also, sometimes the comparative form of adjectives are used in place of the root form of the adjective (e.g., saying \"the sky is bluer\" when the person means \"the sky is blue\" is common in Minnesota). History and geography The appearance of",
"-28.032504736096598"
],
[
"must be because he sounds different. Well, guess what: Asian people have accents. The accent isn’t about a joke, it’s part of who that character is, but it doesn’t make it intrinsically racist. If you’re uncomfortable with that baggage, then you need to examine it yourself and see where it comes from.\"\nMark Breslin, founder of the Canadian comedy club chain Yuk Yuk's, was critical of the show's lack of strong humour, saying \"As a sitcom, it’s more sit than com. It’s pleasant to watch but just not that funny. The characters aren’t exaggerated enough. They lack big comic flaws. The",
"-28.006597445812076"
],
[
"older people in local areas. Although natives of such locations, especially in western parts, can still have West Country influences in their speech, the increased mobility and urbanisation of the population have meant that local Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Hampshire and Isle of Wight dialects (as opposed to accents) are today essentially extinct.\nAcademically the regional variations are considered to be dialectal forms. The Survey of English Dialects captured manners of speech across the West Country that were just as different from Standard English as anything from the far North. Close proximity has completely different languages such as Cornish, which is a Celtic",
"-27.913576175633352"
],
[
"the distinctive accent and vocabulary of the native-born colonists, that differed from that of their parents and with a strong London influence. Anthony Burgess writes that \"Australian English may be thought of as a kind of fossilised Cockney of the Dickensian era.\"\nThe first of the Australian gold rushes, in the 1850s, began a large wave of immigration, during which about two per cent of the population of the United Kingdom emigrated to the colonies of New South Wales and Victoria. According to linguist Bruce Moore, \"the major input of the various sounds that went into constructing the Australian accent was",
"-27.88965635736531"
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[
"a foreign accent; it could not be attributed to any known disorder or condition. For those who suffer from this type of dysprosody, sometimes the accents they speak are from countries to which the person has never been. This is very puzzling for neuroscientists, since dialects and accents are considered to be an acquired behavior of learning pitches, intonations and stress patterns.\nThere have been another 21 cases documented up until 1978. Thirteen of those cases were documented at the Mayo Clinic, while the others were documented at clinics and hospitals elsewhere.\nThere have been more recent occurrences of people who have",
"-27.88789092076695"
],
[
"settlers from the British Isles affected the accents of the different colonies quite differently. Irish, Scottish and Welsh immigrants had accents which greatly affected the vowel pronunciation of certain areas of Australia and Canada. Non-native accents An important factor in predicting the degree to which the accent will be noticeable (or strong) is the age at which the non-native language was learned. The critical period theory states that if learning takes place after the critical period (usually considered around puberty) for acquiring native-like pronunciation, an individual is unlikely to acquire a native-like accent. This theory, however, is quite controversial among",
"-27.861523089639377"
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[
"the accent, but with a tinge of an East Asian.\nThe Puerto Rican accent is somewhat similar to the accents of the Spanish-speaking Caribbean basin, including Cuba and the Dominican Republic, and those from the Caribbean/coastal regions of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Honduras, and Nicaragua (particularly to a non-Puerto Rican). However, any similarity will depend on the level of education of the Puerto Rican speaker and their immediate geographic location. It also continues to be extremely similar to the accent of the Canary Islanders and Andalusians in southern Spain. Overall, most Puerto Ricans make an emphatic distinction between their accent and other",
"-27.817186019849032"
],
[
"and other particular vowel sounds. General American features are embraced most by Americans who are highly educated or in the most formal contexts, and regional accents with the most General American native features include North Midland, Western New England, and Western accents. Other varieties Although no longer region-specific, African-American Vernacular English, which remains the native variety of most working- and middle-class African Americans, has a close relationship to Southern dialects and has greatly influenced everyday speech of many Americans, including hip hop culture. Hispanic and Latino Americans have also developed native-speaker varieties of English. The best-studied Latino Englishes are Chicano",
"-27.801193271006923"
],
[
"a given word's phonetic qualities. Nevertheless, since the 19th century, communities on the Eastern seaboard and much of the South increasingly adopted many of the phonetic qualities of educated, non-rhotic (sometimes called \"r-less\") British accents based around southeastern England. During the earlier part of the 20th century, imitation of British speaking styles was increasingly taught as a part of public speaking skills, particularly to the upper class. Sociolinguist William Labov describes that such \"r-less pronunciation, following Received Pronunciation\", the standard accent of London and much of Southern England, \"was taught as a model of correct, international English by schools of",
"-27.797935862850863"
],
[
"form, however, exerts a steady pressure toward non-rhoticity. Thus the urban speech of Bristol or Southampton is more accurately described as variably rhotic, the degree of rhoticity being reduced as one moves up the class and formality scales. Scotland Most Scottish accents are rhotic, but non-rhotic speech has been reported in Edinburgh since the 1970s and Glasgow since the 1980s. United States American English is predominantly rhotic today, but at the end of the 1800s non-rhotic accents were common throughout much of the coastal Eastern and Southern U.S., including along the Gulf Coast. In fact, non-rhotic accents were established in",
"-27.78930569521617"
],
[
"Molière, even when an acute accent might be wrongly interpreted as a stress, as in István or Gérard. However, frequently used foreign names, such as names of cities or countries, are often spelled without diacritics: Bogota, Panama, Peru. ISO 8859 The character encoding standard ISO 8859 initially defined a single code page for the entire Central and Eastern Europe — ISO 8859-2. This code page includes only \"s\" and \"t\" with cedillas. The South-Eastern European ISO 8859-16 includes \"s\" and \"t\" with comma below on the same places \"s\" and \"t\" with cedilla were in ISO 8859-2. The ISO 8859-16",
"-27.736036190995947"
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[
"spreading, due to local pride and rejection of other accents.",
"-27.735176266753115"
],
[
"of a number of social and sociolinguistic reasons such as the intended audience of the sentence, a phenomenon known as code switching. Hispanic Americans and linguicism Another form of linguicism is evidenced by the following: in some parts of the United States, a person who has a strong Mexican accent and uses only simple English words may be thought of as poor, poorly educated, and possibly an illegal immigrant by many of the people who meet them. However, if the same person has a diluted accent or no noticeable accent at all and can use a myriad of words in",
"-27.71182542274255"
],
[
"Pennsylvania Dutch specialties, artisan cheese and meat, locally grown groceries, and specialty and ethnic foods. Dialect The traditional Philadelphia accent is considered by some linguists to be the most distinctive accent in North America. The Philadelphia dialect, which is spread throughout the Delaware Valley and South Jersey, is part of a larger Mid-Atlantic American English family, a designation that also includes the Baltimore dialect. Additionally, it shares many similarities with the New York accent. Owing to over a century of linguistic data collected by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania under sociolinguist William Labov, the Philadelphia dialect has been one",
"-27.70339402271202"
],
[
"cities of Dallas, Lubbock, Odessa, and San Antonio, which all firmly demonstrate the first stage of the Southern Shift, if not also further stages of the shift. Texan cities that are noticeably \"non-Southern\" dialectally are Abilene and Austin; only marginally Southern are Houston, El Paso, and Corpus Christi. In western and northern Texas, the cot–caught merger is very close to completed. Distinct phonologies Some sub-regions of the South, and perhaps even a majority of the biggest cities, are showing a gradual shift away from the Southern accent since the second half of the twentieth century to the present. Such well-studied",
"-27.69319360796362"
],
[
"vary between speakers of different dialects. Speakers with the Southern accent from Memphis, Tennessee, rated other Southern regions as less correct than other regions, but no less pleasant. Surprisingly, they rated their own speech as least educated and pleasant. Speakers from Memphis were also much more aware of distinctions among dialects within the South, but were not aware of differences in other regions such as the West, lumping it as one largely \"correct\" area. There were also varying ratings of pleasantness and correctness among regions within the South. When English speakers from Reno, Nevada rated Southern English, they rated it",
"-27.692284403805388"
],
[
"suburbs. However, there are some slight differences between the urban and suburban speech. For instance, the retroflex set is only heard in the suburbs, but not in the city and some words have a different final in the two varieties. Dialects There are no substantial differences between dialects in the neighbourhoods of Changsha; however, age dialects do exist. For example, the distinction between alveolar and alveolo-palatal consonants is only made by the elderly while the younger generations do not normally distinguish them. The finals [-oŋ] and [-ioŋ] have become [-ən] and [-in] in the younger speech. Also, the initial consonant",
"-27.651056174654514"
],
[
"the language as well as a certain amount of superstrata influence from English. Apart from accent and intonation, differences are mainly vocabulary used for local fauna, flora and so on, retentions from local indigenous languages or other substrata languages (such as Malay) and minor differences in pronunciation because of substrata influences.\nThe dialects group generally into the Western-Central-Cape York dialects where the western and central language of Torres Strait (Kala Lagaw Ya) has a strong influence (an influence which is also 'over-powering' other sub-strata influences), 'TI' Brokan with a strong Malay/Indonesian-Filipino-European influence, Eastern Brokan with a South Seas and Meriam Mìr",
"-27.597284615505487"
],
[
"culture is considerably younger. Additionally, its demographic composition underlies its cultural difference from the rest of the United States. California's history first as a major Spanish colony, and later Mexican territory, has given the lower West Coast a distinctive Hispanic tone, which it also shares with the rest of the Southwest. Similarly, two of the three cities in which Asian Americans have concentrated, San Francisco and Los Angeles, are located on the West Coast, with significant populations in other West Coast cities. San Francisco's Chinatown, the oldest in North America, is a noted cultural center.\nThe West Coast also has a",
"-27.554347747704014"
],
[
"New Delhi) in big cities where most of the upper middle-class and upper-class people live. New Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore and the like all have gated communities. Sometimes these communities are separated not just by wealth but also by ethnicity. Members of a particular ethnicity tend to feel more comfortable living among their own owing to reasons related to common festivals, language, and cuisine. Examples of this are common in New Delhi where there is a strong Punjabi community. Many gated neighborhoods are predominantly Punjabi and there have been cases of discrimination against members of other ethnic backgrounds living in",
"-27.531698474194854"
],
[
"a \"broad a,\" like in spa: [haf] and [pas]. Boston Boston, Massachusetts is the birthplace and most famous site of Eastern New England English. Historically, a Northeastern type of New England English spread from metropolitan Boston into metropolitan Worcester, the bulk of New Hampshire, and central and coastal Maine. Boston speech also originated many slang and uniquely local terms that have since spread throughout Massachusetts and Eastern New England. Although mostly non-rhotic, the modern Boston accent typically pronounces the r sound in the NURSE vowel, /ɜr/, as in bird, learn, turkey, world, etc. Maine The old Maine accent, the closest",
"-27.510706673390814"
],
[
"white accents of English once spoken in Southern plantation areas—namely, the Lowcountry, Virginia Piedmont and Tidewater, lower Mississippi Valley, and western Black Belt—the modern-day AAVE accent is mostly non-rhotic (or \"r-dropping\" ). The presence of non-rhoticity in both black English and older white Southern English is not merely coincidence, though, again, which dialect influenced which is unknown. It is better documented, however, that white Southerners borrowed some morphological processes from black Southerners.\nMany grammatical features were used alike by older speakers of white Southern English and African-American Vernacular English more so than by contemporary speakers of the same two varieties. Even",
"-27.509326412458904"
]
] |
5vjl2v | Whats the big deal with the new AMD Ryzen CPU? | [
"As stated on the comment above, Intel thoroughly dominated the desktop CPU market for way too long. Why you may ask? Let's rewind back to 2011, Intel just released their 2nd gen of core i3/i5/i7 CPUs and AMD needed to respond. AMD's response to the market is their Bulldozer line of CPUs, Bulldozer failed because it was made with too much emphasis on multi-core performance and as a result, Bulldozer CPU's single core performance were horrible. Combine that with the fact that most programs at the time did not support multi-core CPUs, AMD gave way for Intel. Fast forward to 2014 and Intel knew that AMD weren't a threat anymore, as a result Intel gotten lazy at generational improvements, causing them to \"milk\" the CPU market for time to come. Fast forward to the present and AMD needs to respond badly, and Zen is their last ditch effort at it. Zen was made with single core performance in mind and as a result, Zen is reported to have a 52% improvement in single core performance over Bulldozer, enough to put them in place with 5th generation core i3/i5/i7 CPUs. AMD needs Zen to succeed badly, because if they fail to meet their quota, AMD may never compete in the desktop CPU market ever again. We need Zen to succeed badly, not because of AMD's sake, but for the sake of competition in the CPU market.",
"basiclly intel has dominated amd for the past several years while amd has hade nothing much to combat it. Granted amd does have the budget friendly FX series which has the bottom of the cpu market. The new Ryzen line offers products that match and or beat intels line up and in all having a lower cost to them",
"An article I read earlier showed performance numbers for the $400 Ryzen 1700x matching the performance of the $1100 i7 6900k. For $500, you can get a Ryzen 1800x that BEATS that 6900k. If these are actual, un-altered numbers, this is huge for not only AMD and the PC world, but will really lead to some innovations in CPU technology in the coming years because of new-found competition from AMD.",
"Simply put it's a new CPU architecture from amd (the first dedicated desktop cpu from them in awhile) that provides most if not more performance them some of intel's higher end offerings for much much cheaper were talking about half the price in some cases. It's set to shake up the industry because Intel has gotten pretty lazy lately barely improving performance with each iteration while price gouging the hell of out their cpu's because they were pretty much the only game in town when it came to high end performance. For the normal consumer this is a big big deal because you can now make a top end gaming / production & creative computer for much cheaper and normal middle to low end pc's and laptop's will benefit from a huge jump in processing power. on the industrial side you can make powerful more power efficient servers for much cheaper once ryzen drops. It's just a big deal for AMD period because they have been getting creamed by Intel for the last decade and things were looking grim like we don't know how much longer they will be in business grim if they didn't get a win soon(would have given intel a monopoly outside of mobile). On both the GPU and CPU side though they are poised to make a comeback with their latest offerings.",
"AMD has been Intel prime rival but failed miserably back then in around 2011 when they released Bulldozer which is a disaster. That leads to Intel to heavily dominate the market, they become super lazy & at some point, evil, in the market. Now many ppl just want to shake Intel to the core so the guys will be back to business, and the CPU market is back to being healthy once more. And AMD's **live** benchmarks have been very promising. How promising you might ask, AMD's $500 chip beat Intel's $1000 chip. As a former user of AMD 10 years ago (now I use E3 1220v2), I have to say AMD isn't really innovative now, they're just playing fair, it's just Intel has been milking & idling for so long. Edit: For more info about AMD is just playing fair while Intel being too evil, AMD Ryzen development cost is only near 10% of Intel's development cost.",
"Intel has been without major competition for years, allowing them to price gouge and *arguably* innovate less/slower than they would have otherwise. Overall not good for consumers. There has also been concern that AMD would go out of business because of their crappy/unpopular product lineup, and Intel would be free of competition for a very long time. AMD has finally brought a halfway-decent set of products to market, which should prevent Intel from jacking up their prices without consequence. And hopefully keep them alive to do the same in the future"
] | [
[
"re-design that marked the return of AMD to the high-end CPU market, offering a product stack able to compete with Intel at every level. Having more processing cores, Ryzen processors offer greater multi-threaded performance at the same price point relative to Intel's Core processors. The Zen architecture delivers more than 52% improvement in instructions-per-clock cycle over the previous-generation Bulldozer AMD core, without increasing power consumption. Since the release of Ryzen, AMD's CPU market share has increased while Intel appears to have stagnated. APUs: Picasso Picasso is the 12nm refresh of Raven Ridge, offering a modest increase in clock speeds (up",
"-36.97862071346026"
],
[
"Ryzen History In the five years before the release of Ryzen, AMD's direct competitor in the x86 and x86-64 consumer-level CPU marketspace, Intel, had continued to grow its market share with the tick-tock improvement cycle of its Core series of microprocessors. Since the release of its Bulldozer microarchitecture in 2011, AMD's CPUs had fallen progressively behind those from Intel in both single- and multi-core performance. Despite a die shrink and several revisions of the Bulldozer architecture, performance and power efficiency failed to catch up with Intel's competing products.\nRyzen is the consumer-level implementation of the newer Zen microarchitecture, a complete",
"-36.86895094846841"
],
[
"Haswell (microarchitecture) Haswell Refresh Around the middle of 2014, Intel released a refresh of Haswell, simply titled Haswell Refresh. When compared to the original Haswell CPUs lineup, Haswell Refresh CPUs offer a modest increase in clock frequencies, usually of 100 MHz. Haswell Refresh CPUs are supported by Intel's 9 Series chipsets (Z97 and H97, codenamed Wildcat Point), while motherboards with 8 Series chipsets (codenamed Lynx Point) usually require a BIOS update to support Haswell Refresh CPUs.\nThe CPUs codenamed Devil's Canyon, covering the i5 and i7 K-series SKUs, employ a new and improved thermal interface material (TIM)",
"-36.263820752326865"
],
[
"AMD introduced a scheme to characterize the power consumption of new processors under \"average\" daily usage, named average CPU power (ACP). Socket FT3 The Opteron X1150 and Opteron X2150 APU are used with the BGA-769 or Socket FT3. Recognition In the February 2010 issue of Custom PC (a UK-based computing magazine focused on PC hardware), the AMD Opteron 144 (released in Summer 2005) appeared in the \"Hardware Hall of Fame\". It was described as \"The best overclocker's CPU ever made\" due to its low cost and ability to run at speeds far beyond its stock speed. (According to Custom PC,",
"-34.87918611301575"
],
[
"K6-III went out of production when Intel released their \"Coppermine\" Pentium III (a much improved part that used an on-die cache) and, at the same time, switched to a new production process. The changeover was fraught with difficulties and Intel CPUs were in global short supply for 12 months or more. This, coupled with the better performance of the Athlon, resulted in even many former Intel-only manufacturers ordering Athlon parts, and stretched AMD's manufacturing facilities to the limit. In consequence, AMD stopped making the K6-III in order to leave more room to manufacture Athlons (and K6-2s). K6-III+ and K6-2+ By",
"-34.38511694439512"
],
[
"on the same die, as well as northbridge functions, and using \"Socket FM1\" with DDR3 memory. The CPU part of the processor was based on the Phenom II \"Deneb\" processor. AMD suffered an unexpected decrease in revenue based on production problems for the Llano. High-power, high-performance Bulldozer cores Bulldozer was AMD's microarchitecture codename for server and desktop AMD FX processors first released on October 12, 2011. This family 15h microarchitecture is the successor to the family 10h (K10) microarchitecture design. Bulldozer was a clean-sheet design, not a development of earlier processors. The core was specifically aimed at 10–125 W TDP computing",
"-34.224584267649334"
],
[
"to design a new generation microarchitecture called Zen. After years of being unable to compete with Intel in the high-end CPU market, the new generation of Zen processors is hoped to restore AMD's position in the high-end x86-64 processor market. On September 18, 2015, Keller departed from AMD to pursue other opportunities, ending his three-year employment at AMD.\nIn January 2016, Keller joined Tesla, Inc. as Vice President of Autopilot Hardware Engineering.\nIn April 2018, Keller joined Intel. Personal life Jim Keller is married to Bonnie Peterson, sister of clinical psychologist Jordan Peterson.",
"-34.14805880433414"
],
[
"the time the x86 CPU shortage was over, AMD had developed and released revised members of the K6 family. These K6-2+ and K6-III+ variants were specifically designed as low-power mobile (laptop) CPUs, and significantly marked the transition of the K6 architecture (and foretold of AMD's future K7 project) to the new 180 nm production process. Functionally, both parts were die shrunk K6-IIIs (the 2+ disabled 128 KiB of cache, the III+ had the full 256 KiB) and introduced AMD's new PowerNow! power saving technology. PowerNow! offered processor power savings for mobile applications by measuring computational load, and reduced processor operational voltage and",
"-33.85817943152506"
],
[
"the LGA 1150 platform, in parallel with the previously announced Haswell refresh. This would coincide with the release of Intel's 9-series chipset, which would be required for Broadwell processors due to a change in power specifications for its LGA 1150 socket.\nOn May 18, 2014, Reuters quoted Intel's CEO promising that Broadwell-based PCs would be on shelves for the holiday season, but probably not for the back-to-school shopping.\nMobile CPUs were expected in Q4 2014 and high-performance quad-core CPUs in 2015. The mobile CPUs would benefit from the reduced energy consumption of the die shrink.\nOn June 18, 2014, Intel told CNET",
"-33.75447068968788"
],
[
"their new lineup plans, with Ryzen 2. AMD launched CPUs with the 12nm Zen+ microarchitecture in April 2018, following up with the 7nm Zen 2 microarchitecture in June 2019, including an update to the Epyc line with new processors using the Zen 2 microarchitecture in August 2019. ATI prior to AMD acquisition Lee Ka Lau, Francis Lau, Benny Lau, and Kwok Yuen Ho founded ATI in 1985 as Array Technology Inc.\nWorking primarily in the OEM field, ATI produced integrated graphics cards for PC manufacturers such as IBM and Commodore. By 1987, ATI had grown into an independent graphics-card retailer, introducing",
"-33.50350402004551"
],
[
"to an additional 300MHz maximum boost), Precision Boost 2, an up to 3% increase in IPC from the move to the Zen+ core with its reduced cache and memory latencies, and newly added solder thermal interface material for the desktop parts. Initial reception The first Ryzen 7 (1700, 1700X, and 1800X) processors debuted in early March 2017 and were generally well received by hardware reviewers. Ryzen was the first brand new architecture from AMD in five years, and without very much initial fine-tuning or optimization, it ran generally well for reviewers. Initial Ryzen chips ran well with software and games",
"-33.33960978128016"
],
[
"technology and Samsung's 14 nm FinFET technology.\nIn June 2016, AMD released its Radeon RX 400 GPUs based on the Polaris architecture, which incorporates 14 nm FinFET technology from Samsung. The technology was licensed to GlobalFoundries for dual sourcing.\nOn August 2, 2016, Microsoft released the Xbox One S, which utilized 16 nm by TSMC.\nOn March 2, 2017, AMD released its Ryzen CPUs based on the Zen architecture, incorporating 14 nm FinFET technology from Samsung which was licensed to GlobalFoundries for GlobalFoundries to build.\nThe NEC SX-Aurora TSUBASA processor, introduced in October 2017, uses a 16 nm FinFET process from TSMC and is designed for use with NEC",
"-33.27112783805933"
],
[
"refresh\" of a tock in the form of a smaller update to the microarchitecture not considered a new generation in and of itself.\nIn March 2016, Intel announced in a Form 10-K report that it deprecated the tick–tock cycle in favor of a three-step \"process–architecture–optimization\" model, under which three generations of processors are produced under a single manufacturing process, with the third generation out of three focusing on optimization. The first optimization of the Skylake architecture was Kaby Lake. Intel then announced a second optimization, Coffee Lake, making a total of four generations at 14 nm.",
"-33.09921497676987"
],
[
"number of links to forums and discussions regarding the problem.\nSeveral of these reviewers hoped that the machine's performance would be improved by a CPU update, to a next-generation VIA Nano, or perhaps the Intel Atom. HP notebook product marketing manager Robert Baker remarked that the decision to launch the machine with current-generation processors was driven by the education market's purchasing schedule, and that they would consider new CPUs for an \"interim refresh\" about six months into the machine's life. Similar products from HP A new HP notebook similar in appearance to the Mini-Note, called the \"Digital Clutch\", was unveiled in",
"-33.09806952101644"
],
[
"The new SoCs are targeted for wireless communications, industrial, video surveillance, automotive and medical equipment markets. With these SoCs devices, users are able to create custom field-programmable SoC variants for power, board space, performance and cost optimization. 14-nm technology In February 2013, Altera announced an agreement with Intel to use Intel’s foundry services to produce its 14-nm node for the future manufacturing of its FPGAs, based on Intel’s 14 nm tri-gate transistor technology, in place of Altera’s ongoing agreement with Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (TSMC).\nIn October 2016, nearly one year after Intel's integration with Altera, STRATIX 10 was announced, which is",
"-33.05058950162493"
],
[
"on K12 were subsequently delayed with no release planned, in preference to the development of AMD's x86 based Zen microarchitecture. Zen based CPUs and APUs Zen is a new architecture for x86-64 based Ryzen series CPUs and APUs, introduced in 2017 by AMD and built from the ground up by a team led by Jim Keller, beginning with his arrival in 2012, and taping out before his departure in September 2015. One of AMD's primary goals with Zen was an IPC increase of at least 40%, however in February 2017 AMD announced that they had actually achieved a 52% increase.",
"-33.020352770836325"
],
[
"service centers. Processor Nvidia's Tegra 2 System on a chip (SoC) uses Nvidia's own GeForce ultra-low power (ULP) for its GPU.\nNvidia's Tegra 2 supports the Tegra Zone application and service which is intended to give Android users an enhanced gaming experience by allowing users to download games that have been well optimized for Tegra 2 powered devices. This has been marketed as \"console-quality gaming\" by Nvidia. Tegra 2 also features support for hardware acceleration for Flash and Javascript within websites, and is one of the first SoCs to be natively supported by Android 3.0 \"Honeycomb\". Memory The Galaxy R features",
"-32.993962916429155"
],
[
"processors, dense servers, semi-custom SoC products (including solutions for gaming consoles), engineering services, and royalties. As part of this restructuring, AMD announced that 7% of its global workforce would be laid off by the end of 2014. IBM PC and the x86 architecture In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of 8086 and 8088 processors. IBM wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its IBM PC, but IBM's policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the Am286 under the same arrangement. In 1984,",
"-32.9851252293447"
],
[
"focus on developing high-performance computing and graphics technologies for three growth areas: gaming, datacenter, and \"immersive platforms\" markets.\nIn January 2016, Su announced that AMD was working on new FinFET-based chips to create a new line of microprocessors, products, accelerated processing units (APUs), graphics chips, and semi-custom chip designs for unreleased video game consoles. AMD's share value spiked in July 2016, when AMD reported strong revenue growth. Fortune attributed the \"impressive\" statistic to Su, stating she \"continues to execute on her comeback plan ... key gains in graphics and video gaming console chips have boosted results as well as a savvy deal",
"-32.773388182977214"
],
[
"Processors made on the Zen architecture are built on the 14 nm FinFET node and have a renewed focus on single-core performance and HSA compatibility. Previous processors from AMD were either built in the 32 nm process (\"Bulldozer\" and \"Piledriver\" CPUs) or the 28 nm process (\"Steamroller\" and \"Excavator\" APUs). Because of this, Zen is much more energy efficient. The Zen architecture is the first to encompass CPUs and APUs from AMD built for a single socket (Socket AM4). Also new for this architecture is the implementation of simultaneous multithreading (SMT) technology, something Intel has had for years on some of their processors",
"-32.67245249450207"
],
[
"of 64-bit computing in its processors. Further updates involved improvements to the microarchitecture, and a shift of target market from mainstream desktop systems to value dual-core desktop systems. In 2008, AMD started to release dual-core Sempron processors exclusively in China, branded as the Sempron 2000 series, with lower HyperTransport speed and smaller L2 cache. Thus AMD completed its dual-core product portfolio for each market segment.\nAfter K8 came K10. In September 2007, AMD released the first server Opteron K10 processors, followed in November by the Phenom processor for desktop. K10 processors came in dual-core, triple-core, and quad-core versions, with all cores",
"-32.554885459539946"
],
[
"NT or Red Hat Linux (see also SGI Visual Workstation) proved to be a financial disaster, and shook customer confidence in SGI's commitment to its own MIPS-based line. Switch to Itanium In 1998, SGI announced that future generations of its machines would be based not on their own MIPS processors, but the upcoming \"super-chip\" from Intel, code-named \"Merced\" and later called Itanium. Funding for its own high-end processors was reduced, and it was planned that the R10000 would be the last MIPS mainstream processor. MIPS Technologies would focus entirely on the embedded market, where it was having some success, and",
"-32.52426633797586"
],
[
"SGI would no longer have to fund development of a CPU that, since the failure of ARC, found use only in their own machines. This plan quickly went awry. As early as 1999 it was clear the Itanium was going to be delivered very late and would have nowhere near the performance originally expected. As the production delays increased, MIPS' existing R10000-based machines grew increasingly uncompetitive. Eventually it was forced to introduce faster MIPS processors, the R12000, R14000 and R16000, which were used in a series of models from 2002 through 2006.\nSGI's first Itanium-based system was the short-lived SGI 750",
"-32.519144345016684"
],
[
"called next-generation polymer thermal interface material (NGPTIM). This improved TIM reduces the CPU's operating temperatures and improves the overclocking potential, as something that had been problematic since the introduction of Ivy Bridge. Other changes for the Devil's Canyon CPUs include a TDP increase to 88 W, additional decoupling capacitors to help smooth out the outputs from the fully integrated voltage regulator (FIVR), and support for the VT-d that was previously limited to non-K-series SKUs. TSX was another feature brought over from the non-K-series SKUs, until August 2014 when a microcode update disabled TSX due to a bug that was discovered",
"-32.511275414188276"
],
[
"the works, although there still are minor issues with most of them. Most of these kernels aim to allow users to run Mavericks on AMD and older Intel CPUs, which lack certain instruction sets of the latest Intel CPUs. Significant efforts have been made to emulate instruction sets like SSSE3, which are not present on AMD K10-based CPUs, and older Intel CPUs, like the Intel Core Duo.\nAMD's latest CPUs, from the 'Bulldozer' architecture onwards, contain almost all the latest instruction sets, and hence, some kernels with full SSE4 support have also been released. After two months, Niresh's Distro was released",
"-32.50066632067319"
],
[
"with their proprietary Hyper-Threading implementation of SMT. This is a departure from the \"Clustered MultiThreading\" design introduced with the Bulldozer architecture. Zen also has support for DDR4 memory. AMD released the Zen-based high-end Ryzen 7 \"Summit Ridge\" series CPUs on March 2, 2017, mid-range Ryzen 5 series CPUs on April 11, 2017, and entry level Ryzen 3 series CPUs on July 27, 2017. AMD later released the Epyc line of Zen derived server processors for 1P and 2P systems. In October 2017, AMD released Zen based APUs as Ryzen Mobile, incorporating Vega graphics cores. In January 2018 AMD has announced",
"-32.498801719397306"
],
[
"to shut down so as to avoid damaging the processor. Nvidia have stated that they do not consider the 820 to be an enthusiast (because it is older) processor, and as such will not be enabling support for it. However, the nForce4 SLI X16 supports it. nForce4 SLI x16 The nForce4 SLI x16 has similar features to the nForce4 SLI, except it now provides 16 PCI-Express lanes to both graphics cards in an SLI configuration (as opposed to only 8 lanes per graphics card with the original SLI chipset).\nThis is the only version of the nForce4 for AMD processors",
"-32.48685102153104"
],
[
"RISC-V's open intellectual property allows its designs to be published, reused, and modified. Software A normal problem for a new instruction set is a lack of CPU designs and software. Both issues limit its usability and reduce adoption.\nThe RISC-V website has a specification for user-mode instructions, and a preliminary specification for a general-purpose privileged instruction set, to support operating systems.\nThere are several open-sourced RISC-V CPU designs, including the 64-bit Berkeley Out of Order Machine (BOOM), 64-bit Rocket, five 32-bit Sodor CPU designs from Berkeley, picorv32 by Clifford Wolf, scr1 from Syntacore, PULPino (Riscy and Zero-Riscy) from ETH Zürich / University",
"-32.43790594965685"
],
[
"CPU was released in late 2011. The new T4 CPU will drop from 16 cores (on the T3) back to 8 cores (as used on the T1, T2, and T2+). The new T4 core design (named \"S3\") feature improved per-thread performance, due to introduction of out-of-order execution, as well as having additional improved performance for single-threaded programs.\nIn 2010, Larry Ellison announced that Oracle will offer Oracle Linux on the UltraSPARC platform, and the port was scheduled to be available in the T4 and T5 timeframe.\nJohn Fowler, Executive Vice President Systems Oracle, in Openworld 2014 said Linux will be able",
"-32.42614754824899"
],
[
"an Intel GMCH (Graphics Memory Controller Hub) featuring its own in-built graphics controller (complete memory hub controller and graphics accelerator on the one die) and a separate NVIDIA graphics accelerator chipset directly interfaced with the GMCH. The GMCH could be used to reduce power consumption and extend battery life whereas the NVIDIA chipset would be used when greater graphics processing power was needed. A switch is used to toggle between the graphics options but required the user to preselect the mode to be used before the motherboard could initialize. The Z series has recently replaced the SZ series and does",
"-32.41095831588609"
],
[
"boards. This allows existing AM2/AM2+ systems to upgrade the CPU without having to upgrade any other components. Heatsink The 4 holes for fastening the heatsink to the motherboard are placed in a rectangle with lateral lengths of 48 mm and 96 mm for AMD's sockets Socket AM2, Socket AM2+, Socket AM3, Socket AM3+ and Socket FM2. Cooling solutions should therefore be interchangeable. Socket AM3+ AM3+ is a modification of the AM3 socket. It has one additional pin for new Bulldozer-based AM3+ processors and is backwards-compatible with AM3 processors. It broke backwards-compatibility between AM3+ processors and AM2 and AM2+ motherboards because the processors",
"-32.410850152286"
],
[
"AMD Accelerated Processing Unit History The AMD Fusion project started in 2006 with the aim of developing a system on a chip that combined a CPU with a GPU on a single die. AMD took a key step toward realising such a vision when it acquired the graphics chipset manufacturer ATI in 2006. The project reportedly required three internal iterations of the Fusion concept to create a product deemed worthy of release. Reasons contributing to the delay of the project include the technical difficulties of combining a CPU and GPU on the same die at a 45 nm process, and conflicting",
"-32.387962723354576"
],
[
"The APU Fusion processors support AMD-V. AMD-V is not supported by any Socket 939 processors. The only Sempron processors which support it are Huron and Sargas.\nAMD Opteron CPUs beginning with the Family 0x10 Barcelona line, and Phenom II CPUs, support a second generation hardware virtualization technology called Rapid Virtualization Indexing (formerly known as Nested Page Tables during its development), later adopted by Intel as Extended Page Tables (EPT).\nAs of 2019, all modern Zen-based AMD processors support AMD-V.\nThe CPU flag for AMD-V is \"svm\". This may be checked in BSD derivatives via dmesg or sysctl and in Linux via /proc/cpuinfo. Intel",
"-32.36322620045394"
],
[
"a K8 design. Iterations of the release In late 2007 to second quarter of 2008, there will be a modification to the core to be fabricated at 45 nm process node, with enhancements such as FB-DIMM support, Direct Connect Architecture 2.0, enhanced Reliability, Availability and Serviceability (RAS), and probably more for the processor die. The platform will also add support for I/O Virtualization, PCI Express 2.0, 10 Gigabit NIC, larger caches, and more.\nHowever, reports have suggested that FB-DIMM support had been dropped from future roadmaps of the majority of AMD products since popularity is low. Also, FB-DIMM's future as an",
"-32.34938120923471"
],
[
"increase the system's performance, such as by reducing memory latency, it locks the microprocessor to a specific type (or types) of memory, forcing a redesign in order to support newer memory technologies. When DDR2 SDRAM was introduced, AMD released new Athlon 64 CPUs. These new models, with a DDR2 controller, use a different physical socket (known as Socket AM2), so that they will only fit in motherboards designed for the new type of RAM. When the memory controller is not on-die, the same CPU may be installed on a new motherboard, with an updated northbridge.\nSome microprocessors in the 1990s, such",
"-32.31779606081545"
],
[
"processors, whereas the 12 nm versions are used for consumer processors. Products On May 26, 2019, AMD announced six Zen 2 based desktop processors. These included 6-core and 8-core variants in the Ryzen 5 and Ryzen 7 product lines, as well as a new Ryzen 9 line that includes the company's first 12-core and 16-core mainstream desktop processors.\nAMD's 2nd generation of EPYC processors, known as Rome, features up to 64 cores and was launched on August 7, 2019.",
"-32.28605840104865"
],
[
"updating Itanium microprocessors from 2009 to 2014. In 2010, the two companies signed another $250 million deal, which obliged Intel to continue making Itanium CPUs for HP's machines until 2017. Under the terms of the agreements, HP has to pay for chips it gets from Intel, while Intel launches Tukwila, Poulson, Kittson, and Kittson+ chips in a bid to gradually boost performance of the platform. Market share In comparison with its Xeon family of server processors, Itanium has never been a high-volume product for Intel. Intel does not release production numbers. One industry analyst estimated that the production rate was",
"-32.256963914609514"
],
[
"Zen CPU cores. The new AMD processor supports native 4K video playback with modern HDCP, has built-in Ethernet and a secure framebuffer.\nIn July 2019, Atari announced that they would be providing more information about the product's mass production and game content to be available for the system in summer 2019. By the end of summer 2019, no functional version of the AtariVCS meeting the product description has been shown publicly, and additional details of gaming content have not been forthcoming.\nOn October 4, 2019, lead architect Rob Wyatt stated that he resigned from the project in a statement to The Register.",
"-32.21606755943503"
],
[
"Zen-based processors expected for October 2016.\nIn November 2015, a source inside AMD reported that Zen microprocessors had been tested and \"met all expectations\" with \"no significant bottlenecks found\".\nIn December 2015, it was rumored that Samsung may have been contracted as a fabricator for AMD's 14 nm FinFET processors, including both Zen and AMD's then-upcoming Polaris GPU architecture. This was clarified by AMD's July 2016 announcement that products had been successfully produced on Samsung's 14 nm FinFET process. AMD stated Samsung would be used \"if needed\", arguing this would reduce risk for AMD by decreasing dependence on any one foundry. Manufacturing process Processors",
"-32.21260165784042"
],
[
"R-series RISC microprocessors. After the WE 32000 microprocessors were canceled, the 3B2 follow-on (codenamed \"Phoenix\") was also to use a MIPS CPU. The entire MIPS-based product line was to be renamed the System 9000, and to feature \"scalavailability\" - from normal commercial availability (NCA) choices, to fault-tolerant (FT), to high performance SMP.\nThe System 9000 strategy was canceled when AT&T's Board of Directors decided to close down AT&T Computer Systems, and buy the NCR Corporation, announced in 1991, and implemented January 1, 1992. NCR management tried to cancel all further development of AT&T-CS systems, though some refused to allow this for",
"-32.129571514902636"
],
[
"variant of the 65C816, which was the core of the Apple IIGS computer and was the basis of the Ricoh 5A22 processor that powered the popular Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The W65C816S incorporates minor improvements over the 65C816 that make the newer chip not an exact hardware-compatible replacement for the earlier one. Currently available through electronics distributors as of September 2019, the W65C816S is rated for 14-megahertz operation.\nThe Western Design Center also designed and produced the 65C802, which was a 65C816 core with a 64-kilobyte address space in a 65(C)02 pin-compatible package. The 65C802 could be retrofitted to a",
"-32.100697952300834"
],
[
"diminish production of the Wii U. It formally announced the end of its production on January 31, 2017. Console The Wii U uses a custom multi-chip module (MCM) developed by AMD, IBM and Renesas in co-operation with Nintendo IRD and Nintendo Technology Development. The MCM combines an \"Espresso\" central processing unit (CPU) and a \"Latte\" graphics chip (GPU), as well as a SEEPROM memory chip. The Espresso CPU, designed by IBM, consists of a PowerPC 750-based tri-core processor with 3 MB of shared L2 cache memory and clocked at approximately 1.24 GHz. Despite being based on the PowerPC 750, the Espresso also",
"-32.09628466295544"
],
[
"fetch and load, it is expected to increase the suitability of the processor to scientific and high-performance computing tasks and potentially improve its competitiveness with Intel's Xeon, Core 2, Itanium 2 and other contemporary microprocessors.\nMany of the improvements in computational throughput of each core are listed below. Server There are two generations of K10-based processors for servers: Opteron 65 nm and 45 nm. Successor AMD discontinued further development of K10 based CPUs after Thuban, choosing to focus on Fusion products for mainstream desktops and laptops and Bulldozer based products for the performance market. However, within the Fusion product",
"-32.08076244988479"
],
[
"PDP-11 compatibility as a MEI standard, a process sometimes called PDP revolt in Russian literature. Thus, the microcode for the new simplified CPU was redesigned and made compatible with LSI-11 instruction set. The new processor was released in 1982, designated K1801VM1. It was supplemented by the 600-gate KR1801VP1 (Russian: КР1801ВП1) gate array, which was used to implement various support circuitry, 64 Kib KR1801RE2 ROM chip, and 64 Kib K573RF3 EPROM. Together they constituted the first widely used generation of 1801 family. The KR18101VP1 gate array was later manufactured by a number of second sources: Exiton Pavlovsky Posad, SEMZ Solnechnogorsk, and",
"-32.07094740291359"
],
[
"ceased to publish a roadmap to the 750 family, in favor of marketing themselves as a custom processor vendor. Given IBM's resources, the 750 core will be produced with new features as long as there is a willing buyer. In particular, IBM has no public plans to produce an ordinary 750-based microprocessor in a process smaller than 90 nm, effectively phasing it out as a commodity chip competitive in such markets as networking equipment. However IBM did make the Espresso processor for Nintendo, which is a 750 based design with improvements such as multiprocessor support (the part is a triple",
"-32.011265955719864"
],
[
"the Nvidia chip is a 330m. The user can switch between the Nvidia (for better graphics performance) and Intel (for longer battery life) via a 3 way switch above the keyboard.\nNewer options with the Z series are an integrated Blu-ray Disc drive, built-in HSDPA support and the use of an SSD (including RAID configuration, for better performance) instead of a hard drive for storage.\nOther features include a 0.3 megapixel webcam, Bluetooth, SD and Memory Stick reader, fingerprint sensor and Trusted Platform Module support.\nAs with the SZ series, the Z is equipped with standard, rather than ultra-low voltage (which are slower,",
"-31.957661417254712"
],
[
"stated that NX would have a \"brand-new concept\", and not be a direct successor to the Wii U or 3DS product lines; in an interview with the Asahi Shimbun, company president Tatsumi Kimishima reiterated this position and stated that while he thinks that the Wii U business would \"slow\" after the release of NX, he felt that the console would \"have a larger impact than the Wii U\". The announcement that The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild was in development for both Wii U and NX further supported Nintendo's view of the console as being a new product",
"-31.91663957813944"
],
[
"its future GPU products.\nIn November 2011, after initially unveiling it at Mobile World Congress, Nvidia released its Tegra 3 ARM system-on-chip for mobile devices. Nvidia claimed that the chip featured the first-ever quad-core mobile CPU. In May 2011, it was announced that Nvidia had agreed to acquire Icera, a baseband chip making company in the UK, for $367 million. In January 2013, Nvidia unveiled the Tegra 4, as well as the Nvidia Shield, an Android-based handheld game console powered by the new system-on-chip. On July 29, 2013, Nvidia announced that they acquired PGI from STMicroelectronics.\nOn May 6, 2016, Nvidia unveiled",
"-31.898309919517487"
],
[
"die as the CPU. AMD markets CPUs with integrated graphics under the trademark Accelerated Processing Unit (APU), while Intel markets similar technology under the \"Intel HD Graphics and Iris\" brands. With the 8th Generation Processors, Intel announced the Intel UHD series of Integrated Graphics for better support of 4K Displays. Although they are still not equivalent to the performance of discrete solutions, Intel's HD Graphics platform provides performance approaching discrete mid-range graphics, and AMD APU technology has been adopted by both the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One video game consoles. Power demand As the processing power of video cards has",
"-31.886167117161676"
],
[
"the CPU: Flexible Display Interface (FDI) and Direct Media Interface (DMI). The FDI is only used when the chipset requires supporting a processor with integrated graphics. The Intel Management Engine was also moved to the PCH starting with the Nehalem processors and 5-Series chipsets.\nWith the northbridge functions integrated to the CPU, much of the bandwidth needed for chipsets is now relieved.\nThis style began in Nehalem and will remain for the foreseeable future, through Cannon Lake. Phase-out Beginning with ultra-low-power Broadwells and continuing with mobile Skylake processors, Intel incorporated the clock, PCI controller, and southbridge IO controllers into the CPU package,",
"-31.87281745299697"
],
[
"Xeon and Athlon MP branded CPUs (both stuck with rather old chipsets), and it quickly became the top-selling server/workstation processor. Nocona and Irwindale Due to a lack of success with Intel's Itanium and Itanium 2 processors, AMD was able to introduce x86-64, a 64-bit extension to the x86 architecture. Intel followed suit by including Intel 64 (formerly EM64T; it is almost identical to AMD64) in\nthe 90 nm version of the Pentium 4 (\"Prescott\"), and a Xeon version codenamed \"Nocona\" with 1 MB L2 cache was released in 2004. Released with it were the E7525 (workstation), E7520 and E7320 (both server)",
"-31.859709978249157"
],
[
"port.\nAs part of Project Denver, Nvidia intends to offer ARMv8 processor cores embedded into future Tesla GPUs. This will be a 64-bit follow-up to the 32-bit Tegra chips.\nThe Tesla P100 uses TSMC's 16 nanometer FinFET semiconductor manufacturing process, which is more advanced than the 28 nanometer process previously used by AMD and Nvidia GPUs between 2012 and 2016. The P100 also uses Samsung's HBM2 memory. Applications Tesla products are primarily used in simulations and in large scale calculations (especially floating-point calculations), and for high-end image generation for applications in professional and scientific fields.\nThe defense industry currently accounts for less than",
"-31.833915477385744"
],
[
"hypervisor level access to the machine's CPU.\nOn January 26, 2010, Hotz released the exploit to the public. On March 28, 2010, Sony responded by announcing their intention to release a PlayStation 3 firmware update that would remove the OtherOS feature from all models, a feature that was already absent on the newer Slim revisions of the machine.\nOn July 13, 2010, never having achieved any method of reading, installing, or modifying software on the PS3, Hotz posted a message on his Twitter account stating that he had abandoned his efforts of trying to crack the PS3 any further due to the",
"-31.782653391477652"
],
[
"Intel has been using an internal RISC processor core for its processors.\nWhile early RISC designs differed significantly from contemporary CISC designs, by 2000 the highest performing CPUs in the RISC line were almost indistinguishable from the highest performing CPUs in the CISC line. Use of RISC architectures RISC architectures are now used across a wide range of platforms, from cellular telephones and tablet computers to some of the world's fastest supercomputers such as Summit, the fastest on the TOP500 list as of November 2018.",
"-31.78018110487028"
],
[
"be connected to newer systems, as this poses no problem. The initial motherboard version was known as \"Xenon\" and used a 203 watt power supply, and lacked an HDMI video port. The \"Zephyr\" revision was largely the same aside from the addition of the HDMI port, and an improved GPU heatsink. The \"Falcon\" incorporated a newer 65 nm CPU, 80 nm GPU and eDRAM, and it required less power so it came packaged with a 175 watt power supply. \"Jasper\" (released late August or early September 2008) used both a 65 nm CPU and GPU, as well as 16, 256 or 512 MB of on-board flash",
"-31.76739250222454"
],
[
"technology in the fourth quarter of 2011. Intel stated that improvements in graphics capabilities, including support for 1080p video, additional display options including HDMI and DisplayPort, and enhancements in power consumption are to enable fanless designs with longer battery life.\nThe Cedar Trail platform includes two new CPUs, 32 nm-based N2800 (1.86 GHz) and N2600 (1.6 GHz), which replace the previous generation Pineview N4xx and N5xx processors. The CPUs also feature an integrated GPU that supports DirectX 9.\nIn addition to the netbook platform, two new Cedarview CPUs for nettops, D2500 and D2700, were released on 25 September 2011.\nIn early March 2012, the N2800-based Intel DN2800MT",
"-31.766358272638172"
],
[
"to eight channels) and ECC. \nPre-release reports stated APUs using the Zen architecture would also support High Bandwidth Memory (HBM). However, the first demonstrated APU did not use HBM. Previous APUs from AMD relied on shared memory for both the GPU and the CPU. Power consumption and heat output Processors built at the 14 nm node on FinFET silicon should show reduced power consumption and therefore heat over their 28 nm and 32 nm non-FinFET predecessors (for equivalent designs), or be more computationally powerful at equivalent heat output/power consumption.\nZen also uses clock gating, reducing the frequency of underutilized portions of the core to",
"-31.764998941740487"
],
[
"already on the market, performing exceptionally well in workstation scenarios, and well in most gaming scenarios. Compared to Piledriver-powered FX chips, Zen-powered Ryzen chips ran cooler, much faster, and used less power. IPC uplift was eventually gauged to be 52% higher than Excavator, which was two full generations ahead of the architecture still being used in AMD's FX-series desktop predecessors like the FX-8350 and FX-8370. Though Zen fell short of Intel's Kaby Lake in terms of IPC, and therefore single-threaded throughput, it compensated by offering more cores to applications that can use them. Power consumption and heat were found to",
"-31.749506470863707"
],
[
"their Am386 in March 1991. This also paved the way for competition in the 80386-compatible 32-bit CPU market and so lowered the cost of owning a PC.\nWhile Intel's 386 CPUs had topped out at 33 MHz in 1989, AMD introduced 40 MHz versions of both its 386DX and 386SX out of the gate, extending the lifespan of the architecture. In the following two years the AMD 386DX-40 saw popularity with small manufacturers of PC clones and with budget-minded computer enthusiasts because it offered near-80486 performance at a much lower price than an actual 486. Generally the 386DX-40 performs nearly on par",
"-31.699416385556106"
],
[
"generation DirectX 9 chips released in late 2003, outperforming the GeForce FX 5200 and the midrange FX 5600, and performing similarly to the mid-range Radeon 9600 Pro in some situations. Architecture Many criticized the GeForce 4 MX name as a misleading marketing ploy since it was less advanced than the preceding GeForce 3. In the features comparison chart between the Ti and MX lines, it showed that the only \"feature\" that was missing on the MX was the nfiniteFX II engine—the DirectX 8 programmable vertex and pixel shaders. However, the GeForce4 MX was not a GeForce4 Ti with the shader",
"-31.65979434181645"
],
[
"division of AMD released the TeraScale microarchitecture implementing a unified shader model. This design replaced the previous fixed-function hardware of previous graphics cards with multipurpose, programmable shaders. Initially released as part of the GPU for the Xbox 360, this technology would go on to be used in Radeon branded HD 2000 parts. Three generations of TeraScale would be designed and used in parts from 2008-2014. Combined GPU and CPU divisions In a 2009 restructuring, AMD merged the CPU and GPU divisions to support the companies APU's which fused both graphics and general purpose processing. In 2011, AMD released the successor",
"-31.634903146594297"
],
[
"Am386 History and design While the AM386 CPU was essentially ready to be released prior to 1991, Intel kept it tied up in court. AMD had previously been a second-source manufacturer of Intel's Intel 8086, Intel 80186 and Intel 80286 designs, and AMD's interpretation of the contract, made up in 1982, was that it covered all derivatives of them. Intel, however, claimed that the contract only covered the 80286 and prior processors and forbade AMD the right to manufacture 80386 CPUs in 1987. After a few years in the courtrooms, AMD finally won the case and the right to sell",
"-31.616266891476698"
],
[
"Analyst Day that, sometime during 2008, users should be able to use two, future quad-core AMD processors using the chipset, providing a total of eight physical cores, dubbed as \"4x4++\" with DDR3 support. While backward compatible AMD quad-cores will also support an update to HyperTransport which will benefit more from a new chipset released at the same time.\nThe eight-core variant has never materialized, since AMD canceled development of the platform in 2007.",
"-31.604945843690075"
],
[
"there was an exponential growth, with 48-million MIPS-based CPU shipments and 49% of total RISC CPU market share in 1997. MIPS was so successful that SGI spun off MIPS Technologies in 1998. Fully half of MIPS's income today comes from licensing their designs, while much of the rest comes from contract design work on cores that will then be produced by third parties.\nIn 1999, MIPS Technologies replaced the previous versions of the MIPS architecture with two architectures, the 32-bit MIPS32 (based on MIPS II with some additional features from MIPS III, MIPS IV, and MIPS V) and the 64-bit MIPS64",
"-31.599813383742003"
],
[
"the name implies, this CPU was designed for \"mini\" tasks, and was also used in the IBM RT PC in 1986, which turned out to be a commercial failure. But the 801 inspired several research projects, including new ones at IBM that would eventually lead to the IBM POWER instruction set architecture.\nThe most public RISC designs, however, were the results of university research programs run with funding from the DARPA VLSI Program. The VLSI Program, practically unknown today, led to a huge number of advances in chip design, fabrication, and even computer graphics. The Berkeley RISC project started in 1980",
"-31.577796733239666"
],
[
"second CPU, serviceability, and questioned the then-limited offerings via Thunderbolt 2 ports. By 2016, reviewers started to agree that the Mac Pro was now lacking in functionality and power, it having not been updated since 2013, and it was past time for Apple to update it. Apple later revealed in 2017 that the thermal core design had limited the ability to upgrade the Mac Pro's GPUs and that a new design was under development, to be released sometime after 2017. 3rd generation (Tower and USB-C) In April 2018, Apple confirmed that a redesigned Mac Pro would be released in 2019",
"-31.574458954739384"
],
[
"consumer platforms.\nIn May 2007, AMD officially codenamed the eight core setup with two Phenom FX processors to be the FASN8 (pronounced as \"fascinate\", /ˈfæsɪneɪt/, in short for First AMD Silicon Next-gen 8-core Platform) from the previous codename \"4x4+\" used in Analyst Day presentations. Configuration In each socket resides an AMD Athlon 64 FX CPU. Each socket is connected using AMD's Direct Chip Module, this dual-processor architecture was dubbed by AMD as the \"Dual Socket Direct Connect Architecture\" (DSDC Architecture), providing a dedicated channel between the CPU cores and from each CPU out to the system memory. Due to the nature",
"-31.563181847504893"
],
[
"Extreme Edition, a CPU designed to compete with the Athlon 64 FX. The Extreme Edition was widely considered a marketing ploy to draw publicity away from AMD, and was quickly nicknamed among some circles the \"Emergency Edition\". Despite a very strong demand for the chip, AMD experienced early manufacturing difficulties that made it difficult to deliver Athlon 64s in quantity. In the early months of the Athlon 64 lifespan, AMD could only produce 100,000 chips per month. However, it was very competitive in terms of performance to the Pentium 4, with magazine PC World calling it the \"fastest yet\". \"Newcastle\"",
"-31.556882259217673"
],
[
"a 50 percent power reduction compared to the company's 40 nm devices and offer capacity of up to 2 million logic cells. Less than one year after announcing the 7 series 28 nm FPGAs, Xilinx shipped the world's first 28 nm FPGA device, the Kintex-7, making this the programmable industry's fastest product rollout. In March 2011, Xilinx introduced the Zynq-7000 family, which integrates a complete ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore processor-based system on a 28 nm FPGA for system architects and embedded software developers. In May 2017, Xilinx expanded the 7 Series with the production of the Spartan-7 family.\nIn Dec, 2013, Xilinx introduced the",
"-31.545368400911684"
],
[
"Duron Performance The original Duron processors were derived from AMD's mainstream Athlon Thunderbird processors, the primary difference being a reduction in L2 cache size to 64 KB from the Athlon's 256 KB. This was a relatively severe reduction, making it even smaller than the 128 KB L2 available on Intel's competing budget Celeron line. However, the originating Thunderbird architecture already featured one of the largest L1 caches at 128 KB (which was not reduced in the Duron) and also introduced AMD's switch to an exclusive cache design which effectively unified the L1 and L2 caches. Because of this, the Duron",
"-31.536249648197554"
],
[
"HyperTransport 3.0 and DDR3 implementation, due in Q1-Q2 2008.\nAMD, on September 17, 2007, announced that a three core (triple-core) processor will also be released under the Phenom brand lineup, codenamed Toliman. AMD official replied in an interview that this product is benefitted from ATI technologies to add fuses to the quad-core processor and shutting down one of the four cores to become a triple-core processor, which the technique has been popular for making one or more mainstream GPU cores from a single high-end GPU core by blowing out parts of the circuit to save R&D costs while targeting",
"-31.52220460778335"
],
[
"AMD K6-2 History The K6-2 was designed as a competitor to Intel's flagship processor, the significantly more expensive Pentium II. Performance of the two chips was similar: the previous K6 tended to be faster for general-purpose computing, while the Intel part was faster in x87 floating-point applications. To battle the Pentium 2's dominance on floating point calculations the K6-2 was the first CPU to introduce a floating point SIMD instruction set (dubbed 3DNow! by AMD), which significantly boosted performance. However programs needed to be specifically tailored for the new instructions and despite beating Intel's SSE instruction set to market,",
"-31.511708746489603"
],
[
"which signed an exclusive agreement using the Am486. Another Am486-based processor, the Am5x86, was released in November 1995 and continued AMD's success as a fast, cost-effective processor.\nFinally, in an agreement effective 1996, AMD received the rights to the microcode in Intel's x386 and x486 processor families, but not the rights to the microcode in the following generations of processors. K5, K6, Athlon, Duron, and Sempron AMD's first in-house x86 processor was the K5, which was launched in 1996. The \"K\" was a reference to Kryptonite. (In comic books, the only substance which could harm Superman was Kryptonite. This is a",
"-31.48519808844867"
],
[
"allow two CPUs and at most three graphic cards to run on the same board, but was obviously cancelled as AMD demonstrated the 790FX chipset recently in internal events and Computex 2007 instead of a revamped 580X chipset. System builders Since the platform launched in November, AMD has announced a list of System Builders, which have announced PC systems for the platform, those includes Vigor Gaming, IBuyPower, CyberPowerPC, MainGear and Velocity Micro.\nAmerican-based system builder, Alienware, a subsidiary of Dell Computers have announced that there will be a system using the platform once the product released. Alienware has announced products for",
"-31.47570467560581"
],
[
"that it has 576 GB of Graphics memory and over 1500 CPU cores, several orders of magnitude more powerful than the best publicly available computer on the market.\nAn XK6 cabinet accommodates 24 blades (96 nodes). Each of the Tesla processors is rated at 665 double-precision gigaflops giving 63.8 teraflops per cabinet. The XK6 is capable of scaling to 500,000 Opteron cores, giving up to 50 petaflops total hybrid peak performance.\nThe XK6 runs the Cray Linux Environment. This incorporates SUSE Linux Enterprise Server and Cray's Compute Node Linux.\nThe first order for an XK6 system was an upgrade of an existing ",
"-31.438026696792804"
],
[
"MP6 History Rise Technology had spent 5 years developing a x86 compatible microprocessor, and finally introduced it in November 1998 as a low-cost, low-power alternative for the Super Socket 7 platform, that allowed for higher Front-side bus speeds than the previous Socket 7 and that made it possible for other CPU manufacturers to keep competing against Intel, that had moved to the Slot 1 platform. Design The mP6 made use of the MMX instruction set and had three MMX pipelines which allowed the CPU to execute up to three MMX instructions in a single cycle. Its three integer units made",
"-31.378926160687115"
],
[
"to TeraScale, Graphics Core Next (GCN). This new microarchitecture emphasized GPGPU compute capability in addition to graphics processing, with a particular aim of supporting heterogeneous computing on AMD's APUs. GCN's reduced instruction set ISA allowed for significantly increased compute capability over TeraScale's very long instruction word ISA. Since GCN's introduction with the HD 7970, five generations of the GCN architecture have been produced from 2008 through at least 2017. Radeon Technology Group In September 2015, AMD separated the graphics technology division of the company into an independent internal unit called the Radeon Technology Group (RTG) headed by Raja Koduri. This",
"-31.377144215628505"
],
[
"and the engineers proposed that they release the machines using the MIPS R2000 processor instead, moving its release date up considerably. DEC management doubted the need to produce a new computer architecture to replace their existing VAX and DECstation lines, and eventually ended the PRISM project in 1988.\nBy the time of cancellation, however, second-generation RISC chips (such as the newer SPARC architecture) were offering much better price/performance ratios than the VAX lineup. It was clear a third generation would completely outperform the VAX in all ways, not just on cost. Alpha Another study was started to see if a new",
"-31.37492889899295"
],
[
"Intel Xeon E5-2680V2 (Ivy Bridge) processors. When installation was complete in August 2013, the system's overall peak performance increased 62% from 1.78 petaflops to 2.87 petaflops. The system was slowly upgraded again between January and April 2014, adding another 29 racks of Ivy Bridge nodes and increasing the system's theoretical computational capability to 3.59 petaflops. To make room for the expansion, all of the system's remaining Nehalem nodes and 12 Westmere nodes were removed.\nIn late 2014, more Westmere nodes were removed to make room for new Intel Xeon Haswell processors, increasing the theoretical processing power by one petaflop to 4.49",
"-31.3624162208871"
],
[
"Bulldozer (microarchitecture) Overview According to AMD, Bulldozer-based CPUs are based on GlobalFoundries' 32 nm Silicon on insulator (SOI) process technology and reuses the approach of DEC for multitasking computer performance with the arguments that it, according to press notes, \"balances dedicated and shared computer resources to provide a highly compact, high units count design that is easily replicated on a chip for performance scaling.\" In other words, by eliminating some of the \"redundant\" elements that naturally creep into multicore designs, AMD has hoped to take better advantage of its hardware capabilities, while using less power.\nBulldozer-based implementations built on 32nm SOI with",
"-31.361741260552662"
],
[
"products. AMD claimed dramatic performance-per-watt efficiency improvements in high-performance computing (HPC) applications with Bulldozer cores. While hopes were high that Bulldozer would bring AMD to be performance-competitive with Intel once more, most benchmarks were disappointing. In some cases the new Bulldozer products were slower than the K10 models they were built to replace.\nThe Piledriver microarchitecture was the 2012 successor to Bulldozer, increasing clock speeds and performance relative to its predecessor. Piledriver would be released in AMD FX, APU, and Opteron product lines. Piledriver was subsequently followed by the Steamroller microarchitecture in 2013. Used exclusively in AMD's APUs, Steamroller focused on",
"-31.35670361435041"
],
[
"with the latest XBMC 12 (OpenELEC 3.0) platform. Arctic and OpenELEC were planning on their next release, aimed to provide a more dedicated builds for the Arctic MC001 systems. Shortly after partnershipping with OpenELEC, the development of passively cooled media centers was abandoned. Dispute Arctic was reportedly planning to file a lawsuit against Advanced Micro Devices (\"AMD\") for the infringement of its trademark \"Fusion\", the name that AMD used to describe its series of APUs which integrate x86 processing cores with Radeon stream processors on the same piece of silicon. In light of the lawsuit, AMD has announced earlier",
"-31.354703358752886"
],
[
"sales, the Altair's 8080 CPU was becoming increasingly outdated, so Pertec decided to retire the Altair as well as the MITS name itself.\nIn 1978, the company launched the first of its own designs, the PCC-2000. This was based on two Intel 8085 series microprocessors: one of which was given over to I/O control. Being a high end machine, it was intended to be the core of what would now be described as a workgroup. The machine was intended to support four \"dumb\" terminals connected via RS-232 serial lines, in addition to its internal console. The basic machine had twin 8-inch",
"-31.347300925059244"
],
[
"as Direct3D-12-ready.\nBroadwell-E introduced Intel Turbo Boost Max Technology 3.0. Roadmap and history On September 10, 2013, Intel showcased the Broadwell 14 nm processor in a demonstration at IDF. Intel CEO Brian Krzanich claimed that the chip would allow systems to provide a 30 percent improvement in power use over the Haswell chips released in mid-2013. Krzanich also claimed that the chips would ship by the end of 2013; however, the shipment was delayed due to low yields from Intel's 14 nm process.\nOn October 21, 2013, a leaked Intel roadmap indicated a late 2014 or early 2015 release of the K-series Broadwell on",
"-31.33802171694697"
],
[
"of EUV lithography machines.\nIn June 2018, AMD announced 7 nm Radeon Instinct GPUs launching in the second half of 2018. In August 2018, the company has confirmed the release of the GPUs.\nIn August 2018, GlobalFoundries announced it was stopping development of 7 nm chips citing cost.\nOn August 21, 2018, Huawei announced their HiSilicon Kirin 980 SoC to be used in their Huawei Mate 20 and Mate 20 Pro built using TSMC's 7 nm (N7) process.\nOn September 12, 2018, Apple announced their A12 Bionic chip used in iPhone XS and iPhone XR built using TSMC's 7 nm (N7) process. The A12 processor became",
"-31.329220742569305"
],
[
"of the Tegra family are now supported by Nvidia's own Vibrante Linux distribution. Vibrante comes with a larger set of GNU/Linux tools plus several Nvidia provided libraries for acceleration in the area of data processing and especially image processing for driving safety and automated driving up to the level of deep learning and neuronal networks that make e.g. heavy use of the CUDA capable accelerator blocks, and via OpenCV can make use of the NEON vector extensions of the ARM cores.\nAs of April 2012, due to different \"business needs\" from that of their GeForce line of graphics cards, Nvidia and",
"-31.303503383183852"
],
[
"its first media processor capable of 720P HD Video for portable devices. In January, 2009 the SoC team merged with a Creative product division and rebranded as ZiiLABS to offer processors and complete market-ready hardware and software platforms to consumer OEMs and ODMs.\nIn November 2012, Creative announced an agreement to sell the ZiiLabs subsidiary to Intel. Media processors The ZMS processors are based on a low-power multicore architecture including dual ARM cores for handling traditional CPU tasks plus a closely coupled, fully programmable SIMD array processor to do the heavy lifting for intensive media processing tasks such as; 2D graphics,",
"-31.25014167613699"
],
[
"counterparts, which relegated them to the budget and upgrade market. While AMD had been able to sell some of its 486s to large OEMs, notably Acer and Compaq, Cyrix had not. The Cyrix chips did gain some following with upgraders, as their 50-, 66-, and 80 MHz 486 CPUs ran at 5 V, rather than the 3.3 V used by AMD, making the Cyrix chips usable as upgrades in early 486 motherboards. Cyrix 5x86 In 1995, with its Pentium clone not yet ready to ship, Cyrix repeated its own history and released the Cyrix Cx5x86 (M1sc), which plugged into a 3.3V",
"-31.239102154504508"
],
[
"SuperH History The SuperH processor core family was first developed by Hitachi in the early 1990s.\nHitachi has developed a complete group of upward compatible instruction set CPU cores. The SH-1 and the SH-2 were used in the Sega Saturn, Sega 32X and Capcom CPS-3. These cores have 16-bit instructions for better code density than 32-bit instructions, which was a great benefit at the time, due to the high cost of main memory.\nA few years later the SH-3 core was added to the SH CPU family; new features included another interrupt concept, a memory management unit (MMU) and a modified cache",
"-31.20574627717724"
],
[
"dual core DDR2 based platforms were upgradeable to quad core chips.\nThe fourth generation was announced in June 2009 with the Istanbul hexa-cores. It introduced HT Assist, an additional directory for data location, reducing the overhead for probing and broadcasts. HT Assist uses 1 MB L3 cache per CPU when activated.\nIn March 2010 AMD released the Magny-Cours Opteron 6100 series CPUs for Socket G34. These are 8- and 12-core multi-chip module CPUs consisting of two four or six-core dies with a HyperTransport 3.1 link connecting the two dies. These CPUs updated the multi-socket Opteron platform to use DDR3 memory and increased the maximum",
"-31.20446775513119"
],
[
"TSMC using a 7 nm FinFET process. Reception Initial reception to Epyc was generally positive. Epyc was generally found to outperform Intel CPUs in cases where the cores could work independently, such as in high-performance computing and big-data applications. First generation Epyc fell behind in database tasks compared to Intel's Xeon parts due to higher cache latency. Third generation Epyc (Milan) At the HPC-AI Advisory Council in the United Kingdom in October 2019, AMD stated specifications for Milan, Epyc chips based on the Zen 3 microarchitecture. Milan chips will use Socket SP3, with up to 64 cores on die, and support",
"-31.17430133605376"
],
[
"Intel 80486SX Intel's i486SX was a modified Intel 486DX microprocessor with its floating-point unit (FPU) disabled. It was intended as a lower-cost CPU for use in low-end systems. Computer manufacturers that used these processors include Packard Bell, Compaq, ZEOS and IBM. Overview In the early 1990s, common applications did not need or benefit from an FPU. Among the rare exceptions were CAD applications, which could often simulate floating point operations in software, but benefited from a hardware floating point unit immensely. AMD had begun manufacturing its 386DX clone which was faster than Intel's. To respond to this new situation Intel",
"-31.166863931764965"
],
[
"Macintosh LC II Overview The LC II retains the original LC's 16-bit system bus and 10 MB RAM limit, making its performance roughly the same as the earlier model. The main benefit of the 68030 processor in the LC II is its onboard paged memory management unit, which System 7 uses to enable its new virtual memory feature. Apple had opted to get a quick update to the LC out the door instead of spending the additional time required to do a full architectural update, which happened the following year with the Macintosh LC III.\nThe LC II was sold at the",
"-31.155667363782413"
],
[
"use compared with the sixth generation chips. Third-party benchmarks do not confirm these percentages as far as gaming is concerned. Features Built on an improved 14 nm process (14FF+), Kaby Lake features faster CPU clock speeds, clock speed changes, and higher Turbo frequencies. Beyond these process and clock speed changes, little of the CPU architecture has changed from Skylake, resulting in identical IPC (Instructions Per Clock).\nKaby Lake features a new graphics architecture to improve performance in 3D graphics and 4K video playback. It adds native HDCP 2.2 support, along with fixed function decode of H.264, HEVC Main and Main10/10-bit, and VP9",
"-31.15311155677773"
],
[
"AMD's right to use derivatives of Intel's microcode for its cloned processors. In the face of uncertainty during the legal dispute, AMD was forced to develop clean-room designed versions of Intel code for its x386 and x486 processors, the former long after Intel had released its own x386 in 1985. In March 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386 processor. By October of the same year it had sold one million units.\nIn 1993, AMD introduced the first of the Am486 family of processors, which proved popular with a large number of original equipment manufacturers, including Compaq,",
"-31.114483421681143"
],
[
"be used due to the lack of computational resources in current Tesla hardware. The next version of the hardware (3.0) will provide the resources to allow for improved accuracy in predictions.\nHW 3.0 includes a custom Tesla-designed processor using application-specific integrated-circuit (ASIC) chips. Tesla claimed that the new system would process 2,300 frames per second, which is a 21x improvement in image processing compared to hardware 2.5 which is capable of 110 fps. The firm described it as a \"neural network accelerator\". The company claimed that 3.0 was necessary for \"full self-driving\", but not for \"enhanced Autopilot\" functions.\nIn October 2018,",
"-31.0883391025709"
],
[
"the processor to a 2.6 GHz AMD LE-1640.\nOn December 29, 2008, HP announced two more models, the EX485 and the EX487, available for pre-orders starting on January 8, 2009. The newer models include support for Apple's Time Machine backup software. They also use a 2.0 GHz Intel Celeron processor, replacing the AMD Sempron from the old models. Other features include a revamped user interface and larger preinstalled hard drives (one 750 GB drive for the EX485; two 750 GB drives in the EX487).\nOn April 30, 2009, HP announced the MediaSmart Server LX195 which was intended to be a low-cost entry into",
"-31.08576262952556"
],
[
"Project Denver Chips A dual-core Denver CPU was paired with a Kepler-based GPU solution to form the Tegra K1; the dual-core 2.3 GHz Denver-based K1 was first used in the HTC Nexus 9 tablet, released November 3, 2014. Note, however, that the quad-core Tegra K1, while using the same name, isn't based on Denver.\nThe Nvidia Tegra X2 has two Denver2 (ARMv8 64bit) cores inside and another four A57 (ARMv8 64bit) cores using a coherent HMP (Heterogeneous Multi-Processor Architecture) approach. This pairs the units with a Parker-GPU.\nThe Tegra Xavier is pairing an Nvidia Volta-GPU and several special purpose accelerators with 8 CPU",
"-31.058996192150516"
],
[
"Intel Xeon E5450 processors, with 5,120 AMD graphics processing units (GPUs), which were made up of 2,560 dual-GPU ATI Radeon HD 4870 X2 graphics cards. Tianhe-1A In October 2010, Tianhe-1A, an upgraded supercomputer, was unveiled at HPC 2010 China. It is now equipped with 14,336 Xeon X5670 processors and 7,168 Nvidia Tesla M2050 general purpose GPUs. 2,048 FeiTeng 1000 SPARC-based processors are also installed in the system, but their computing power was not counted into the machine's official LINPACK statistics as of October 2010. Tianhe-1A has a theoretical peak performance of 4.701 petaflops. NVIDIA suggests that it would have taken \"50,000",
"-31.035394320148043"
],
[
"LGA 2011 Physical design and socket generations Intel CPU sockets use the so-called Independent Loading Mechanism (ILM) retention device to apply the specific amount of uniform pressure required to correctly hold the CPU against the socket interface. As part of their design, ILMs have differently placed protrusions which are intended to mate with cutouts in CPU packagings. These protrusions, also known as ILM keying, have the purpose of preventing installation of incompatible CPUs into otherwise physically compatible sockets, and preventing ILMs to be mounted with a 180-degree rotation relative to the CPU socket.\nDifferent variants (or generations) of the LGA 2011",
"-31.034774283180013"
]
] |
22xg64 | What is the story behind the Bundy vs. BLM standoff? | [
"In 1993, to protect the desert tortoise which was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act, the BLM modified the terms of Bundy’s cattle grazing agreement. Bundy refused to comply with the new terms, so the BLM cancelled his permit. Bundy stopped paying the grazing fees, but continued to let his animals roam the public lands, claiming an ancestral right to the land based on his Mormon family settling there in the 19th century and his belief that federal authority doesn't apply to state land(s). As part of an effort to further protect the tortoise, Clark County (NV) purchased all of the active grazing permits in the area and closed it to grazing. Despite him no longer having a valid legal claim, the government offered Bundy compensation, for water rights and range improvements, for his previously held grazing permit. He rejected the offer and left his cattle out there. The government finally had enough and started rounding up his cattle to move them off of the closed land. Bundy claimed the government was taking away his freedom and a bunch of Tea Party nuts showed up to support him with semi-automatic weapons. The BLM, outnumbered and outgunned, told the protesters that they had to stay within certain 'First Amendment' areas to stage their protests. This further inflamed the 'right', who began comparing the situation to East Berlin. As more anti-government groups, right-wing politicians, and gun-rights activists showed up, pushing turned to shoving and one of Bundy's kids got tasered. Seeing a Ruby Ridge/Waco situation in the offing, the government backed down, halting the round-up and vowing to continue fighting Bundy in the same courts he's ignored for the past 20 years. /standoff",
"Ok, 5 year-old: 1. The US Government owns the land 2. The US Government wants Cliven Bundy's cows to leave the land 3. Cliven said 'no'. 4. The courts said 'yes'. 5. Cliven said 'make me'. 6. The BLM came to take Cliven's cows. 7. A band of armed men showed up and intimidated the BLM into leaving the cows alone. Everything else is just muddying the water. It doesn't matter why BLM wants the cows off the land - they own the land!",
"As I understand it... A cattle rancher named Cliven Bundy has been in the southern Nevada area for a long time and is using federal land and allowing his cows to eat the grass. This guy claims that he paid for and inherited rights to use this federal property for his cattle's purposes. Up until two decades ago, there was little or no issue with what he was doing. In fact, he says he was paying the state of Nevada to manage the land, whatever the hell that means. Around that time, the Bureau of Land Management started trying to assess fees for grazing, which Bundy wouldn't pay because he felt he was reimbursing them for driving his cattle off the land, and push his cattle off the land, stating that his cattle were trampling the habitat of the endangered desert tortoise. Now, the BLM has stepped up their game and has been actively rounding up Bundy's cattle, which he obviously disagrees with and doesn't like. The family has protested and at times gone a bit overboard, so the BLM setup a First Amendment Area where they could protest and not be in the way of the BLM operation. As you might have guessed, this pissed off the Bundys even more and drove even more protesting. Now the Bundys are pushing to get the BLM to leave them alone and return their cattle. Bundy is also a local militia member who rounded up his buddies and is ready to fight the government that he says is trampling on his rights. Several people have taken sides and it's unclear why this has come to a head now, but conspiracy theorists believe that there is something going on with Harry Reid and that he might be brokering a deal to setup a solar energy farm on the land. This is of course just hearsay.",
"I read somewhere that the land had belonged to the Bundy family since like 1870. I also read about the Harry Reid thing saying they wanted to do frakking on the land. I am still trying to make sense of it all, reading various articles and viewpoints.",
"There are fees to graze certain areas in Nevada. He believes he has a right to graze there even though the laws not on his side and has done it for years dodging over 1000000 dollars in fees.",
"No matter witch side you agree with, a large group of armed citizens drove the federal government off the land, this is a very big deal and should be the headlines of every news station in the country but it is largely being ignored by traditional media."
] | [
[
"Prosecution On February 7, 2016, Ammon Bundy—along with his father Cliven, brother Ryan, and others—were indicted in the U.S. District Court for the District of Nevada for their roles in the 2014 Bundy standoff. The men were charged with 16 felony counts: one count of \"conspiracy to commit an offense against the United States\"; one count of \"conspiracy to impede or injure a federal officer\"; four counts of \"using and carrying a firearm in relation to a crime of violence\"; two counts of \"assault on a federal officer\"; two counts of \"threatening a federal law enforcement officer\"; three counts of",
"-30.98220102209598"
],
[
"to felony conspiracy to injure or impede a federal officer.\nOn January 8, 2018, U.S. District Judge Gloria Navarro in Las Vegas dismissed with prejudice the criminal charges against Cliven Bundy, his sons Ammon and Ryan, and co-defendant Ryan Payne regarding the standoff. Prosecutions of some standoff participants The first criminal case resulting from the standoff, against six Bundy supporters, was declared a mistrial by U.S. District Judge Gloria Navarro on April 24, 2017. Six men had been charged with conspiring with Cliven Bundy to prevent a court-ordered cattle seizure. The mistrial was declared hours after the jury convicted two men",
"-30.969670999620575"
],
[
"Goins On October 6, 2015, Goins filed a lawsuit against Cosby. In her complaint, she stated that Cosby had assaulted her, causing her to suffer \"emotional distress\", \"psychiatric trauma\", and impairment of her education. Goins's lawyer, Spencer Kuvin, said his client's number-one priority was that the truth come out and Cosby be criminally prosecuted. Singer stated he would provide documentary evidence to the LAPD that established Cosby was in New York on August 9, 2008, the date of the alleged incident. Although the prosecutor's office had considered filing criminal charges, the charges were dropped because the statute of limitations had",
"-30.2467234255746"
],
[
"home in Emmett, Idaho. On January 28, 2016, Lisa Bundy reiterated her husband's statements in an audio-recording, urging the remaining militants to follow his wishes and return home to their families. Standoff Bundy participated in the 2014 Bundy standoff in Bunkerville, Nevada, in which his father, Cliven Bundy, was the central figure. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) attempted to confiscate Cliven's cattle for grazing on public land for years without a permit.\nOn April 9, Bundy drove an all-terrain vehicle in front of a BLM truck to block it from leaving. Officers told him to move his ATV, and he",
"-30.123491071048193"
],
[
"expired and a lack of sufficient evidence.\nIn February 2016, Goins dismissed her lawsuit without prejudice. In May 2016, she refiled the suit, adding Hefner as a co-defendant. The judge denied Cosby's request to dismiss and set the trial to start sometime in June 2018. Renita Hill Hill claims that Cosby gave her a bit part on television, funded her college education and pledged to assist her career, all while sporadically sexually abusing her from 1983 to 1987. In October 2015, she filed a defamation suit against Cosby, Singer and Camille Cosby, alleging defamation, false light, and intentional infliction of emotional",
"-29.942898540204624"
],
[
"suspended from January 17, 2013 until January 17, 2023.\nOn February 27, 2013, Dutrow filed a lawsuit with the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York against the New York State Gaming Commission (former NYSR&WB), the Association of Racing Commissioners International (ARCI) and several other entities, seeking monetary damages and an overturning of his suspension. The suit alleges that Dutrow was \"substantially and irreparably harmed\" by the suspension and claims that he was deprived of due process under the law.",
"-29.84967687749304"
],
[
"Brian Sandoval and Nevada Attorney General Catherine Cortez Masto of the agency's proposed actions. Clark County sheriff Doug Gillespie relayed information from the BLM and helped negotiate an end to the standoff. In 2012 and again during the 2014 roundup, the BLM had reportedly offered to buy Bundy's cattle and give him proceeds from their eventual sale. According to Cliven Bundy's son, Ammon Bundy, Gillespie also delivered an offer for the bureau to leave the area and keep the cattle. First Amendment zones The Bureau of Land Management designated two First Amendment zones \"... for members of the public to express",
"-29.55415741420802"
],
[
"nation.\"\nAccording to Sandra Lambertus, defendants' lawyers said that a fair trial was jeopardized because of a number of factors including biased pre-trial media coverage. Witnesses for the defence, RCMP media liaison supported this allegation, and one journalist was identified as having contributed to an organized police media strategy in which the standoff was \"portrayed as a war.\" According to Lambertus, Glavin (1996) and 100 Mile House Free Press, the media coverage of Gustafsen Lake standoff beginning with the RCMP media event at William Lake, was like \"a circus coming to town\" where a minor dispute was exaggerated and portrayed as",
"-29.292585043687723"
],
[
"in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. At that time, no criminal charges were filed.\nOn December 30, 2015, however, Cosby was charged with three second degree felony counts of aggravated indecent assault as a result of the accusations made by Constand about the January 2004 incident, including revelations in Cosby's 2005 deposition in the case which came to public and investigators' attention when they were unsealed by a judge in 2015.\nIn 2018, Cosby was found guilty of all three counts against Constand. \nHe was sentenced to 3–10 years in state prison. Upon his release, he must register as a sexually violent predator for the",
"-29.19420881383121"
],
[
"Lynchs against AIB's claim.\nThe particular circumstances included Mr Lynch's \"highly implausible\" claim he made a last-minute decision at Heathrow Airport hours before the deal closed he would not proceed with it if the loan was a recourse loan.\nThere was, he found, no reliance on the legal advice and therefore any damage suffered was not caused by the solicitor's error.\nThe Lynchs' loss was rather caused by a combination of the property collapse and the fact, despite their having had constant advice over a year that, to minimise tax, they should be borrowers in the deal, little or no attention was paid",
"-29.152297625725623"
],
[
"Sandra Anderson, Jeff Banta, and Fry surrendered to the FBI without incident. The previous night, Cliven Bundy had been arrested by the FBI after deplaning at the Portland International Airport on charges related to events that were alleged to have occurred during the 2014 Bundy standoff. He had flown to Portland to support Fry, Banta, and the Andersons. In February 2016, the elder Bundy was transported back from Portland, Oregon, to Las Vegas, Nevada, to be tried in the United States District Court for the District of Nevada on charges related to the standoff at his Nevada ranch. In the",
"-29.10789822875813"
],
[
"with the Bundys, including three Southern Nevada Tea Party groups that organized a protest outside Las Vegas police headquarters on April 11, 2014, claiming that Sheriff Doug Gillespie had failed in his duty to protect Nevadans from abuse by the federal government.\nThe Bundy family claimed victory on having its cattle returned. In an interview after the BLM's withdrawal, Sean Hannity asked Bundy if he had a reply to Senator Harry Reid's comment that the situation was not over. Bundy said, \"I don't have a response for Harry Reid, but I have a response for every county sheriff across the United",
"-29.045461873640306"
],
[
"suit vs. Cosby, denied the insurance company's motion to pause that case. Gloria Allred vs. Cobb-Marietta Coliseum, et al. On November 18, 2015, Gloria Allred announced she was suing Cobb County, Georgia; Cobb-Marietta Coliseum; and Michael Taormina for violating her first amendment rights when she was denied entry to Cosby's stand-up comedy performance on May 2, 2015, at the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Center in Atlanta. Allred participated in a protest outside of the venue, but had also purchased a ticket to the show. Nevertheless, local police officers told her she would be arrested for trespassing if she entered the",
"-29.023455598158762"
],
[
"for Payment to Bundy by placing it on the dashboard of Bundy's vehicle while he was in the vehicle. BLM officials allege that Bundy became agitated, descended from his truck and accused the BLM of harassing him. He then returned to his truck, threw the proposed order out of the window and drove away. One of Bundy's sons then picked up the document, tore it to pieces and threw it on the ground. On February 17, 1994, the BLM issued a final decision canceling Bundy's range-grazing permit. Bundy subsequently informed the BLM in several administrative notices that he intended to",
"-29.005972583952826"
],
[
"Billy Corgan came down to the ring and interjected himself into the discussion with Storm. Corgan insulted Storm and suggested that Storm \"may not be able to win the big one.\" This set Storm off and he confronted and cornered Corgan, threatening to use Corgan to satisfy his bucket list goal of \"kicking a rockstar's ass\". Storm then left the ring and on the way up the ramp, Corgan yelled \"James Storm is suspended indefinitely.\" Although unofficial, on September 15, 2016, he announced he was a free agent.\nFollowing this, vignettes aired for many weeks with three masked men with altered",
"-28.933592792600393"
],
[
"four other militants refused to enter pleas in regards to their roles in the standoff, prompting U.S. Magistrate Judge George Foley, Jr. to enter not guilty pleas on their behalf. In the unusually long arraignment, Bundy asked for the 64-page indictment to be read aloud in court.\nThe trial for the Bundy standoff case was set for February 2017 in Nevada. Mistrial and acquittal On December 20, 2017, Federal judge Gloria Navarro declared a mistrial in the Bundy case, citing gross misconduct by the federal government. In her ruling, Judge Navarro stated, \"The court does regrettably believe a mistrial in this",
"-28.888164938246064"
],
[
"the trigger if fired upon.\"\nLas Vegas Metro Deputy Chief Tom Roberts defused the situation by announcing that Bundy's cattle would be returned within 30 minutes. The BLM announced that it would suspend the mass roundup, citing safety reasons. Clark County Sheriff Gillespie mediated the agreement between the Bundy family and the BLM, saying, \"[W]hen a group of protesters threaten civil unrest or violence in this county -- it is my job to step in and ensure the safety of citizens.\" BLM Director Neil Kornze said that \"Based on information about conditions on the ground, and in consultation with law enforcement,",
"-28.84213374875253"
],
[
"a motion to throw out the new indictment on the grounds that it was double jeopardy. On April 27, the judge decided to postpone his decision about where to hold the trial. He also rejected the defense motion stating that the new indictment was a case of double jeopardy. The defense argued that the prosecution had illegally used Brownsville and Houston grand juries to work on the case, but the judge countered that claim saying only the Houston grand jury had handled the case. On May 4, the trial was moved from Brownsville to Houston, Texas, because of the earlier",
"-28.801444690441713"
],
[
"charge.\nOn July 19, Ryan Payne pleaded guilty to a federal conspiracy charge for his role in the occupation, as well as three federal charges related to the 2014 Bundy standoff, as part of a plea bargain deal.\nOn July 20, Travis Cox pleaded guilty to a federal conspiracy charge as part of a plea bargain deal.\nOn August 1, Joseph O'Shaughnessy pleaded guilty to a federal conspiracy charge and is expected to do the same to federal charges related to the Bundy standoff. That same day, Kenneth Medenbach was sentenced to five years' probation for unlawfully occupying and camping on federal public",
"-28.797238980885595"
],
[
"Rule was initially named as a co-defendant, but was later removed from the suit after an undisclosed private agreement with the two attendees' attorney. Criminal investigation On May 21, 2017, The New York Times reported McFarland and his associates were under an active federal criminal investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation for mail fraud, wire fraud, and securities fraud. The case was overseen by the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York. On June 30, 2017, McFarland was arrested and charged with one count of wire fraud.\nIn March 2018, McFarland pleaded guilty to one count of",
"-28.69070673477836"
],
[
"Murdock arrested, but the FBI betrays him at the last minute and arrests him as well, placing him in the same jail as Murdock in the hopes that the two will kill each other. Instead, the two enemies team up in order to survive a prison riot directed at them. Finally, Murdock sacrifices the deal, refusing to let Bullseye (who was also incarcerated) leave the prison as the Kingpin had planned. The fight ends with the Kingpin shot point-blank in the knee by gunfire from Bullseye intended for Murdock, while Murdock escapes.\nFisk appears in the 2006 Civil War: War Crimes",
"-28.68078515058005"
],
[
"threat until two weeks after it was made; she explained the delay by saying that Wooten had no reason to shoot Heath. According to Heath himself, the delay was a month: \"Heath stated that his daughters didn't report the incident to him until a month later.\" Divorce proceedings On May 9, a court hearing was held regarding the DVPO. At this hearing the DVPO was quashed because McCann's counsel was unable to produce evidence of any acts of physical or implied violence.\nIn October 2005, the divorce went to trial. During the trial, Judge John Suddock expressed puzzlement at the efforts",
"-28.656531962100416"
],
[
"Jaffe faces new charges In September 1983, the Florida Fifth District Court of Appeal overturned Jaffe's conviction on the land fraud charges on the two grounds that the prosecutors had made paperwork errors and that the judge below had misdirected the jury. However, by that time State Attorney Stephen Boyles had already filed a new organized fraud charge. In August 1983, Jaffe's lawyer Daniel Dearing filed a motion in state court to dismiss the new fraud charges, stating that they were \"filed in bad faith without probable cause in order to hold the defendant and frustrate his release on parole",
"-28.59345065843081"
],
[
"Cosby was found guilty of all three counts against Constand. On September 25, 2018, he was sentenced to 3–10 years in state prison. Cosby and his lawyers intended to appeal.",
"-28.585536240570946"
],
[
"focus on his defense in a criminal case in Pennsylvania. Pressley wrote that Cosby plans to re-file the case against Johnson before the statute of limitations expires. Bill Cosby vs. Andrea Constand, Constand's mother, Constand's attorneys and National Enquirer On February 1, 2016, Cosby filed a breach-of-contract lawsuit against Andrea Constand, her mother Gianna Constand, her current lawyer Dolores Troiani, her former lawyer Bebe Kivitz and the publisher of the National Enquirer. Cosby filed the lawsuit a day before the February 2 criminal court hearing that included testimony from Troiani. The lawsuit seeks full repayment plus interest on \"the substantial",
"-28.529202613746747"
],
[
"client.\" Cosby's spokesperson, Monique Pressley, did not immediately comment on the decision.\nOn September 20, 2016, it was revealed that one of the thirteen prosecution witnesses in the criminal trial is alleged Cosby victim Margie Shapiro. Allred filed a motion in the Huth civil case to have the deposition of Shapiro postponed until after the criminal trial. Allred stated she believed the defense would try to use the deposition against Shapiro to find discrepancies in the upcoming trial. Cosby attorney Angela Agrusa opposed this motion. On June 27, 2017, Judge Kaplan set a trial start date for July 30, 2018. Chloe",
"-28.499819557764567"
],
[
"that the prosecution presented \"no real new evidence.\"\nThe prosecution announced on the same day of the mistrial that they intend to retry the case. Criminal proceedings and trial #2 On July 6, 2017, Judge O'Neill set a trial date of November 6, 2017 for Cosby's second trial, and also said that both the defense and prosecution must submit jury selection questions by October 30, 2017. This was subsequently delayed because Cosby changed attorneys. On September 15, 2017, Judge O'Neill set a new trial date of April 2, 2018. Appeals Process Cosby’s attorneys have filed an appeal for a new trial",
"-28.44862347684102"
],
[
"of nine separate complaints to the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council, and was formally censured six times.\nBlundell was indefinitely suspended from CFNY in December 2013, following reports that he and cohost Derek Welsman had discussed on the air a jury trial in which Welsman was the foreman. The trial had concerned a sexual assault charge against a client of a gay bathhouse, and Blundell and Welsman's commentary about it was criticized both for homophobia and for potentially causing a mistrial by publicly discussing the jury deliberations. The program's cancellation was announced in January 2014. Subsequent career Following his departure from CFNY,",
"-28.44173621603113"
],
[
"altercation on January 30, 2016, at a downtown Dallas hotel. According to Crowley, Manziel forced her into a car, pulled her by the hair, and threatened to kill both her and himself. According to ESPN and NFL Network, this incident was the last straw for the Browns, and was a factor in their decision to cut ties with him.\" On April 24, Manziel was indicted by a Dallas grand jury on misdemeanor assault charges for the incident.\nOn April 19, 2016, after just two months of representing him, agent Drew Rosenhaus terminated Manziel as a client, marking the first time in",
"-28.423259538249113"
],
[
"his due process rights were violated. On November 16, 2016, O'Neill denied the motion.\nCosby faced a maximum sentence of fifteen to thirty years in prison if found guilty on all three counts and a fine of up to $25,000. Evidentiary motions On September 6, 2016, the prosecution filed a motion to introduce 13 other accusers to show a method of operation. Cosby opposed the motion. On February 24, 2017, O'Neill ruled that, out of the other accusers that the prosecution wanted to introduce to show a pattern of alleged criminal sexual behavior by Cosby, only one would be allowed to",
"-28.378104164497927"
],
[
"When the Bough Breaks (1986 film) Plot Alex Delaware, a Los Angeles psychiatrist, testifies for the prosecution in the trial of an accused child molester. Later the defendant, who is out on bail, is found dead in the psychiatrist's office, in what appears to be a suicide. Shaken, the psychiatrist moves to the mountains outside of L.A. Not long afterwards a detective he knows, Milo Sturgis, comes to him for help. A seven-year-old girl saw someone kill both of her parents, but is so traumatized by the event that she can't remember anything, and Sturgis wants the doctor to help:",
"-28.365021612204146"
],
[
"assertions. O'Neill scheduled a preliminary hearing for March 8. On February 12, Cosby's legal team filed a notice of appeal seeking to give their arguments before the Superior Court of Pennsylvania. \"If Mr. Cosby is successful on appeal, the case would be terminated immediately,\" they wrote. On March 1, the Superior Court issued an order temporarily staying Cosby's March 8 preliminary hearing until it could rule on his appeal asking for the case to be dismissed.\nOn April 13, 2016, Cosby filed a motion with the Superior Court to re-seal the deposition from the original Constand lawsuit. His lawyers made a",
"-28.305631238617934"
],
[
"On 15 June 2018, Morcillo was arrested after being accused of match fixing. He was subsequently released, after the police declared the evidence against him to be 'inconclusive'.",
"-28.25609623012133"
],
[
"covered the lane closure story on December 8, 2013.\nThe scandal broke in full on January 8, 2014, with an online story by Shawn Boburg of The Record that Christie's deputy chief of staff Bridget Kelly was involved in the planning of the toll lane closures. That revelation catapulted the story into a national political event. The Record continued with details of the dialogues in the troves of e-mails and texts supplied to the New Jersey Assembly Transportation Committee by David Wildstein. The Record described \"vindictive lane closures\" that were intended to cause massive traffic jams in Fort Lee. Related news",
"-28.24400760862045"
],
[
"in the alleged victim's accusations, a lack of injuries, and the statement of a third party witness who said that \"nothing happened.\" Schwartzbach subsequently obtained the revocation of a restraining order against Lynch arising out of the same alleged incident.\nSchwartzbach again represented Lynch, now an All-Pro with the National Football League's Seattle Seahawks, in a 2009 Culver City prosecution for carrying a loaded firearm. The case concluded with Lynch pleading guilty to a misdemeanor offense. Hootan Roozrokh In the first criminal prosecution of its kind in the United States, Schwartzbach represented Hootan Roozrokh in a 2009 San Luis",
"-28.23930501716677"
],
[
"From July through October 2015, the Los Angeles Police Department conducted a criminal investigation into Cosby's alleged sexual assault of then 18-year-old model Chloe Goins. The following day, in a statement to ABC News, the LAPD said it will explore any sexual assault accusations against Cosby, including accusations for which the statute of limitations has expired, and referred the case to the County District attorney's office.\nAs with nearly all other cases of alleged sexual misconduct by Cosby, the statute of limitations has expired on this 2008 case, according to most experts. Nonetheless, an investigation of the Goins allegations was opened",
"-28.215739219915122"
],
[
"filed on December 15, 2015, the alleged sexual assault on Constand is presumed to have occurred at Cosby's home in Cheltenham Township, PA, on an unspecified date between mid-January and mid-February 2004. (The news media coverage refers to the date of the incident as \"January 2004\"). The accusation against Cosby was first made to the Durham Regional Police Service near Constand's home in Pickering, Ontario, on January 13, 2005; the report was subsequently forwarded to the authorities in Pennsylvania. The warrant alleges that blue pills, said to be Benadryl by Cosby, were given to Constand who had also been drinking",
"-28.198216264194343"
],
[
"Andrea Constand v. William H. Cosby, Jr. Andrea Constand v. William H. Cosby Jr. is a civil suit filed in March 2005 and resolved with an undisclosed cash settlement (including a confidentiality agreement between its two parties) in November 2006. It was later revealed that the amount paid to Constand was $3.38 million. The case was filed by Andrea Constand, a former college and Canadian national team basketball player, against comedian and entertainer Bill Cosby, concerning a sexual assault that occurred a year prior in Cosby's home in January 2004 while Constand was working for Temple University women's basketball team",
"-28.19280010391958"
],
[
"2017, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court declined to hear Cosby's appeal to question Constand before the trial.\nCosby had faced a maximum of fifteen to thirty years in prison if found guilty on all three counts and a fine up to $25,000. Cosby's trial started on June 5, 2017, and ended in mistrial on June 17. Judith Huth On December 16, 2014, after a 10-day investigation, Los Angeles prosecutors declined to file any charges against Cosby after Judith Huth claimed the comedian molested her around 1974 at the Playboy Mansion. Huth had met with Los Angeles police detectives for 90 minutes. In",
"-28.191297673911322"
],
[
"and Elaine Brown and some of their followers were subsequently charged, tried, and found guilty of crimes in connection with the standoff. Convictions of followers Four individuals who assisted Ed and Elaine Brown in the standoff were convicted in connection with the matter. Danny Riley of Cohoes, New York was sentenced to 36 years in federal prison, after having been convicted of helping to supply the Browns, and of stockpiling weapons and threatening law enforcement officials. Riley was convicted of conspiracy, aiding and abetting, and using guns and bombs in connection with the standoff. Also convicted in other trials were",
"-28.165616379155836"
],
[
"The lawsuit currently remains under seal and Cosby's lawyers have declined to comment on the nature of the allegations in it.\nOn July 28, 2016, Cosby filed a motion to dismiss his entire lawsuit against all the defendants. Bruce Castor vs. Andrea Constand On October 20, 2017, Bruce Castor's attorney, James Beasley Jr, announced that he plans to file a lawsuit against Andrea Constand for damages suffered as a result of the election in which he lost to Kevin Steele who is now prosecuting Cosby for the same acts that Castor would not prosecute him for. In his suit he claims",
"-28.164157844003057"
],
[
"February 10, 2016, Cliven Bundy traveled to Portland, Oregon, in response to federal law enforcement moving to end a standoff led by his sons Ammon and Ryan at the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. He was arrested at the airport by the FBI and was incarcerated at the Multnomah County Jail. He was indicted for 16 federal felonies on February 17, along with Ammon and Ryan Bundy, militia leader Ryan Payne, and broadcaster Peter Santilli, who were already under arrest for their role in the Malheur standoff. Another 14 individuals were charged on March 3, 2016. Santilli subsequently pled guilty",
"-28.14667380519677"
],
[
"The following day it was reported that Hernandez was under federal investigation, and Hernandez was subsequently charged by the Securities and Exchange Commission with operating a Ponzi scheme.\nIn July 2009, North was sued in federal court by defrauded investors for his role in Hernandez's scheme but was cleared and released of any wrongdoing.\nIn December 2009, Comcast SportsNet decided not to renew North's television show because the budget costs were too high to sustain, effective 31 December 2009.",
"-28.137253722299647"
],
[
"Port. Suspension In mid-May 2014, Gargan was suspended by Police and Crime Commissioner Sue Mountstevens, as a result of allegations of 'inappropriate behaviour towards female officers and staff'. The enquiry into the allegations was referred to the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC). During the period of Gargan's suspension and following his resignation, the force was led by the Deputy Chief Constable, John Long, and subsequently by Gareth Morgan, following Long's retirement\nOn 9 July 2015 Gargan was found guilty of eight counts of misconduct, none of which related to the original allegations. During the course of the investigation, which lasted",
"-28.135260355426"
],
[
"on allegations by Constand concerning incidents in January 2004. Cosby's first trial in June 2017 ended in a mistrial. Cosby was found guilty of three counts of aggravated indecent assault at retrial on April 26, 2018 and on September 25, 2018, Cosby was sentenced to three to ten years in state prison and fined $25,000 plus the cost of the prosecution, $43,611. Cosby appealed on June 25, 2019. 1965–1996 allegations Of the many other allegations against Cosby, the earliest date claimed was December 1965; Kristina Ruehli accused Cosby of drugging and assaulting her in his Beverly Hills home during that",
"-28.10503793344833"
],
[
"commission from FourWinds for successfully soliciting her business. Cantu claims that FourWinds divided her money among the company officers and did not purchase fracking sand as they had promised. Uresti denied any wrongdoing and asked that the suit be delayed until after the legislature adjourned at the end of May.\nOn May 16, 2017, Uresti was indicted on two separate indictments by a federal grand jury in the United States District Court for the Western District of Texas for conspiracy to commit wire fraud and conspiracy to commit money laundering. The other indictment lists conspiracy to commit bribery and conspiracy to",
"-28.104614521027543"
],
[
"\nIn February 2012, Judge Ronald A. Guzman of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois dismissed Gensler's complaint on procedural grounds before trial, ruling that the allegations Gensler made against Strabala do not constitute a violation of the Lanham Act or related state law. Gensler appealed the dismissal.\nIn August 2014, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit vacated the District Court's dismissal of the lawsuit and remanded the case back to the District Court therefore reviving the lawsuit. In April 2015, Gensler dropped the suit. SOM The day after Gensler sued Strabala, SOM sued",
"-28.088069522404112"
],
[
"Linda Kelly announced that a grand jury had returned a superseding indictment against Curley and Schultz. The indictment added additional charges of child endangerment, obstruction of justice and conspiracy. Spanier was also indicted for allegedly covering up Sandusky's crimes.\nOn July 30, 2013, Curley was ordered by Judge William Wenner to stand trial on charges accusing them of a cover-up.\nOn March 13, 2017, Curley and Schultz each pled guilty to child endangerment charges in exchange for the dismissal of the conspiracy charges against them. Both men, however, later testified against Spainer, who, in a split verdict, was convicted of one",
"-28.071843196084956"
],
[
"file criminal charges, Chain's mother started a civil suit against Ammons, Pacific Lumber and its parent company, Maxxam, alleging they were reckless and responsible for the death of her son.\nA wrongful death settlement was reached three days before trial was scheduled to commence. Its financial terms remain undisclosed but other parts were made public, as a reminder of the tragedy, the 135-foot tree that struck Chain will remain where it fell, and a 100-foot buffer zone \\ prevented any nearby logging. A memorial was also erected. Consequences Soon after Chain's death, it was revealed that the California Department of Forestry",
"-28.035751238727244"
],
[
"is not an issue of racial bias. Instead, it is an issue of whether or not Mr. Cosby has committed acts of gender sexual violence.\" Declaration of mistrial On June 17, 2017, O'Neill stated that the jurors were \"hopelessly deadlocked\" and declared a mistrial. Reports suggest that the jury deadlocked in a 10–2 vote in favor of convicting Cosby on counts 1 (digital penetration without consent) and 3 (drugged without knowledge or consent), and was 11–1 in favor of acquittal on count 2 (that Constand was unconscious or unaware during the alleged assault).\nIn an account by NBC News reporter Tracy",
"-28.00963681896974"
],
[
"tout Burke as the epitome of the new ECW. As a result, Tommy Dreamer, Balls Mahoney, Sabu, and The Sandman interrupted and attacked Burke, provoking a feud. The next week, McMahon appeared on ECW again, insulting Dreamer, Mahoney, Sabu, The Sandman, and Rob Van Dam, before informing them that they would be fired if they interfered in each other's matches that night. Matt Striker and Kevin Thorn, along with his valet Ariel, joined forces with Burke and Cor Von as the New Breed. Striker was named the special guest referee for Thorn's match with Dreamer that night, and refused to",
"-28.00432970013935"
],
[
"there would be no charges due to insufficient credible and admissible evidence. Constand then filed a civil claim in March 2005, with thirteen women as potential witnesses if the case went to court. Cosby settled out of court for an undisclosed amount in November 2006. After learning that charges were not pursued in the Constand case, California lawyer Tamara Lucier Green, the only publicly named woman in the prior case, came forward with allegations in February 2005 that Cosby had drugged and assaulted her in the 1970s. Cosby's lawyer said that Cosby did not know her and that the events",
"-28.001703465008177"
],
[
"morals clause for the show did not consider DUI charges to be an immoral act, and thus Bumpass was not legally subject to termination.",
"-27.995000830851495"
],
[
"from the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department. Without any more loaded guns at his disposal, Davis surrendered. Suicide of Twinning Three miles away from the shootout scene, Twinning broke into a house and took one of the occupants hostage. The man's wife and son escaped and called police, and soon the house was surrounded by officers from the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department. For the next several hours, negotiators talked on the phone with Twinning, who bragged about how he had taken advantage of Frago's mistake in carrying his gun at port. \"He got careless, so I wasted him.\" By",
"-27.988187986891717"
],
[
"it to roll over his wife when she tried to retrieve it. After he ran over her, he stated that he had moved the combine back from his wife's body, hid the twine and called 9-1-1, stating that there had been a farm accident at his farm south of Maryville. Taylor was convicted of murder and received a 25-year sentence.\nIn the spring of 1995, Dennis Lee Jones of Maryville assaulted and murdered Karen Hawkins, a student at Northwest Missouri State and a friend of his since high school at Maryville. Jones sexually assaulted her, killed her by strangulation and stomping/kicking",
"-27.987062071217224"
],
[
"arraigned on 6 June 2011, and pleaded not guilty. On 30 June 2011, The New York Times reported that the case was on the verge of collapse because of problems with the credibility of the alleged victim, who had, according to sources within the NYPD, repeatedly lied since making her first statement. According to prosecutors, the accuser admitted that she lied to a grand jury about the events surrounding the alleged attack. Diallo said that the translator misunderstood her words. Strauss-Kahn was released from house arrest on 1 July.\nAfter completing a lengthy investigation, prosecutors filed a motion to",
"-27.98622894566506"
],
[
"to stand down and go home.\nIn a March 3 interview, Bundy described his life in jail and continued to explain his motives of the occupation. Although he did not witness Finicum's death, Bundy also asserted Finicum had been cooperating with officers before they shot him.\nOn March 8, the federal grand jury in Oregon returned a new, superseding indictment that unsealed the following day, charging Bundy and 25 co-defendants with a variety of crimes in relation to the occupation. Bundy was charged with a total of three offenses: conspiracy to impede officers of the United States by force, intimidation, or threats;",
"-27.981753243599087"
],
[
"because he was getting a traffic violation ticket in Makedonska street several blocks away at the time the fight was taking place. In spite of Stefan having an alibi, he was sentenced to seven years in prison.\nThe film chronicles several alleged inconsistencies between the statements of the accused and the court findings in the case, analyzing whether Taton was thrown off a ledge or had fallen while running away from the fight.\nThe film alleges the trial was finished with record speed, and that the verdict didn't explain what happened that day, since none of the evidence provided answers to how",
"-27.938539238879457"
],
[
"made a face turn late in 1983 after Bad News Allen turned against Gouldie and his storyline \"son\", Jeff, during a six-man tag team match and brutalized and injured Jeff (which led to Stampede TV host Ed Whalen to quit the company in protest); the attack led to a bloody feud which climaxed with Gouldie defeating Bad News for the Stampede North American title (his 14th, and what would be final, reign).\nGouldie never used the Mongolian Stomper gimmick while wrestling in Stampede; instead, staying true to his roots, he went with the gimmick of a tough Alberta cowboy as just",
"-27.91504579008324"
],
[
"in her own car. Buck was arrested, and Tracey issued a restraining order against him, but he continued to harass and threatened to kill her. Tracey went to the police, but they did very little to help.\nAfter the divorce was finalized, he showed up again, causing Tracey to call the police hoping that when they saw him threatening her, they would arrest him. Buck demanded Tracey to come out immediately, and when he stated that he wanted them back together, she refused to stop the divorce. When the police showed up, Buck pulled out a knife and stabbed her numerous",
"-27.903597821248695"
],
[
"earlier. Paradoxically, he also claimed that he was badly treated by the media because he was innocent of the charges in the Headland saga and he should have just been allowed to prove his innocence.\nSource: AFL Tables Derby XXXIV Round 18, 2011 The closest finish to a derby occurred in Round 18, 2011 when Eagles midfielder Matt Rosa was penalised by umpire Dean Margetts in a deliberate out of bounds decision with West Coast leading by two points in the dying seconds. Having earned a free kick from the decision, Hayden Ballantyne had a chance to win the game for",
"-27.84704633965157"
],
[
"a double count-out with Van Dam at Victory Road, leaving no prevalent contender. Partially granted by “TNA owner” Hulk Hogan and partner Eric Bischoff, who booked a four-way involving Anderson and Van Dam, the match, however, ended in a double pinfall causing the same result. The following week, Sting entered the picture when he was selected by “The Network” to be the Special Enforcer (ringside referee) of the rematch between Anderson and Van Dam for title contention that night, but this led to a feud where Anderson accused Sting for disqualifying him for his actions that rendered the official referee",
"-27.84277143678628"
],
[
"Scruggs made the arrangements for these payments, the other members of the SKG joint venture knew or should have known that the payments were being made, and I am of the opinion that their failure to take timely and reasonable remedial steps or to object to this arrangement amounts to a ratification of Scruggs's actions. While the other ethical misconduct alleged by State Farm and Renfroe are substantial, the payments to the Rigsby sisters are, in and of themselves, sufficient to warrant disqualification.\nIt is apparent to me, from my review of the deposition testimony of the Rigsby sisters, that there",
"-27.82732928128098"
],
[
"laps around the block.\nFollowing a four-month coma, Boulala was subsequently charged, found guilty of culpable driving and sentenced to a four-year prison sentence. Huck magazine published an interview that one of its journalists had conducted with Boulala following his release. In the several months following Cross' death, senior Flip team rider, Arto Saari, quit from the Flip company, despite having been with the company for the entirety of his professional career, due to the distress that was caused by Cross' death.\nIn episode 2 of the Globe United By Fate video series, Cross can be seen performing a trick (a \"360-flip\"",
"-27.80071054014843"
],
[
"Break Up (1998 film) Plot After blacking out in a violent domestic battle, Jimmy (Bridget Fonda) awakens in the hospital to learn that her abusive husband, Frank (Hart Bochner), has died in a fiery crash, and that she is the prime suspect. As the police focus on building their case against Jimmy, she uncovers evidence indicating that Frank may not only still be alive, but getting away with murder. Jimmy, in a daring escape from police custody, races towards a final confrontation with justice and revenge. Reception The film was acquired in 1997 by Harvey Weinstein, who then ran Miramax",
"-27.79878400475718"
],
[
"Thomas Gehret dismissed all charges against Bostian, ruling after a preliminary hearing that the evidence did not support criminal charges and that the derailment was \"more likely than not\" an accident. On February 6, 2018, following an appeal of Gehret's ruling by the Pennsylvania Attorney General's Office, Philadelphia Common Pleas Court Judge Kathryn Streeter Lewis reinstated all criminal charges against Bostian.",
"-27.780431441846304"
],
[
"was charged with misdemeanor assault and fined by the UHL for leaving the owner's box. The UHL stated that because of the disturbances on the ice they could not determine what actually happened. The linesman was suspended for five games for his part in the altercation. He later asked that the assault charges against Galante be dropped. After this request prosecutors still intended to pursue the charges, but eventually dropped them citing lack of evidence. After the brawl the Trashers went 8–2–0 in their next 10 games. A second brawl occurred months later in a game versus the Adirondack",
"-27.77529440735816"
],
[
"they were \"blocked by the statute of limitations or lacked sufficient evidence.\" Criminal proceedings and trial #1 On September 6, 2016, Judge Steven T O'Neill set a trial date in the case of Commonwealth of Pennsylvania vs. William H. Cosby Jr., in which Cosby is being tried for three counts of aggravated indecent assault of Andrea Constand. O'Neill set a trial date of June 5, 2017. The judge ruled that Cosby is blind and that he may need special accommodations during the proceedings.\nOn October 6, 2016, Cosby resumed his bid to have his sexual assault case thrown out, arguing that",
"-27.766167477238923"
],
[
"Lamb case, the media-obsessed Bronx County District Attorney Abe Weiss pushes for McCoy's arrest. The evidence includes McCoy's car (which matches the description of the vehicle involved in the alleged hit and run), plus McCoy's evasive response to police questioning. The arrest all but ruins McCoy; distraction at work causes him to flub on finding an investor for a $600 million bond on which he had pegged all his hopes of retiring the mortgage on his home and covering his family costs. While McCoy is getting a dressing down from his boss for failing to sell the bond, his lawyer,",
"-27.750500858644955"
],
[
"was included in the trial, Bovell claimed that he \"hadn't realized his actions were illegal\", and the New York Police Department stated that \"an allegation of ticket fixing is immaterial as to either Officer Bovell's alleged propensity to physically abuse or sexually assault a prisoner held in police department custody\". Bovell suffered a black eye in the assault, along with bruising, swelling, and a cut under his eye. He later experienced headaches and blurred vision. The New York Daily News and The Guardian reported that Bovell \"repeatedly cited the wrong eye when testifying\".\nMcMillan was later sentenced to three months in",
"-27.72429637890309"
],
[
"patently clear next week when I strike back.\" On 21 March, Thompson filed a counter-suit, accusing Take-Two of multiple violations of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO), as well as a continued effort to violate his constitutional rights, beginning in July 2005. He also accused the Entertainment Software Association, Penny Arcade, IGN, GamePolitics.com, GameSpot, GameSpy, Eurogamer, Kotaku, Blank Rome and the US Justice Department of collaborating and conspiring with Take-Two to commit racketeering activities.\nThe dispute was ultimately settled before it went to the courts; Thompson agreed not to sue, threaten to sue or attempt to block the sale",
"-27.714575784048066"
],
[
"County, naming the co-administrators of Dunn's estate as defendants, along with Barnaby's West Chester, the Pennsylvania bar where Dunn drank prior to the fatal crash. The suit claims negligence and recklessness, as well as wrongful death in the incident that killed 30-year-old Hartwell.\nThe plaintiffs claim that Dunn displayed negligence and recklessness in failing to have his vehicle under adequate and proper control, operating his vehicle under the influence of alcohol, operating his vehicle at an excessive speed and violently veering off a road and into a tree, among other alleged transgressions. They are seeking unspecified punitive and compensatory damages, as",
"-27.703660934697837"
],
[
"Lynch executive before the two companies merged. Under the settlement's terms BoA was allowed to deny any wrongdoing, which they did when pressed by Rakoff on the matter of guilt. Rakoff said the settlement did not \"comport with the most elementary notions of justice and morality\". Seven months later, Rakoff approved a $150 million settlement of the BoA case; BoA did not have to change its declaration of innocence.\nUpon Schapiro's departure from the SEC in December 2012, President Obama commended Schapiro's contributions as Chair in an official White House statement. Subsequent career In April 2013, Schapiro joined Promontory Financial Group",
"-27.692162663675845"
],
[
"After Blalock's initial interaction with the committee at the Bluegrass Invitational, 27 LPGA players signed an affidavit demanding \"that more severe action be taken against Jane Blalock,\" specifically arguing that probation, a fine, and disqualification from the Bluegrass tournament were not enough punishment. Initial antitrust lawsuit (1972) On June 1, 1972, Blalock filed a $5 million antitrust countersuit against the LPGA's suspension on advice of her attorneys, with the intent of \"[leaving] it to the court whether she had been suspended wrongly.\" Blalock's lawyers motioned for her be allowed to continue playing while the suit was resolved. As part of",
"-27.670849259884562"
],
[
"the claims made publicly by other women against Defendant' and 'the implication that Ms. Dickinson's rape disclosure is a lie and that therefore she is a liar'\", she wrote. As courts impose coverage in a \"mixed\" action, Cosby prevailed here as well but this ruling does not apply to the Massachusetts case, where AIG and Cosby are still fighting to determine who is liable. AIG plans to appeal this ruling.\nA Massachusetts federal judge, Mark G. Mastroianni, denied Cosby's bid to dismiss or pause the AIG suit on December 14, 2015. This judge, also responsible for the Green et al. defamation",
"-27.662477402132936"
],
[
"reasons. Denying the motion on grounds that this policy is rational and that the Bundys did not show their attire would prejudice their case, Judge Brown said Ammon was \"dressed better than most people in the building, period.\" On October 27, 2016, a jury acquitted seven of the defendants. Five of them were released but Ammon Bundy and his brother Ryan remained in federal custody pending trial on charges related to the 2014 Bundy standoff. Trial dates relating to Malheur and verdict Jury selection for Bundy's trial began on September 7, 2016. Judge Brown said the case would require an",
"-27.657651817891747"
],
[
"due to EC3's attack, would be pulled from the Lockdown card due to a torn MCL. On March 9, at Lockdown, Bobby Lashley answered Carter's open challenge after his scheduled opponent (Kurt Angle) couldn't wrestle due to injury the match ended in a no contest. The following week on Impact Wrestling, Lashley and Carter had a rematch which Carter won via disqualification after an assault by Willow on Carter. This started a feud between the two, as EC3 and Rockstar Spud attempted to search for Willow in the woods. However, they were both attacked by Willow. At Sacrifice, they were",
"-27.654875544831157"
],
[
"been previously arrested and interviewed over the allegations in May 2014. Daw denied the allegations, while North Melbourne stated that he would remain available for selection. On 3 December 2015, Daw was found not guilty on all counts.\nOn 18 December 2018 Daw abandoned his vehicle on the Bolte Bridge and fell into the Yarra River 25 metres (82 ft) below. Motorists on the bridge raised the alarm around 11 pm and he was recovered from the river by police and paramedics. He suffered broken hips and pelvis. Then In July 2019 Daw made a return for The North Melbourne VFL Affiliate against",
"-27.654051610734314"
],
[
"are currently on hold awaiting the outcome of his criminal trial. Some are still allowed to file motions and depose witnesses, with the exception of Cosby himself. However, most judges have indicated that a civil trial will not take place until after the criminal trial is held.\nIn 2005, Constand sued Cosby. The parties settled the case on confidential terms in 2006. In July 2015, after portions of the sealed deposition were released, Cosby released a statement stating that the \"only reason\" why he settled \"was because it would have been embarrassing in those days to put all those women on",
"-27.653917090559844"
],
[
"ruled out for the season due to tearing a pectoral muscle while weightlifting.\nOn August 22, 2017, Bryant was released by the Browns. Personal life In June 2010, Bryant was one of five men arrested for an attack in a parking lot. Bryant was arrested on a misdemeanor criminal mischief charge for allegedly showing up drunk and shirtless at a Florida family's home on February 24, 2013. His mug shot showing him intoxicated with his eyes half closed and tongue sticking out went viral.",
"-27.647842450183816"
],
[
"concerning the same incident. They were accused of violating a court order requiring those demonstrating to stay five meters back from company work sites, when they allegedly blocked the roadway. On April 9, 2018, Justice Kenneth Affleck of the British Columbia Supreme Court recommended that May and the others arrested should be charged with criminal contempt in relation to the alleged incident. On April 16, 2018, it was reported that special prosecutors would be overseeing the charges against May and Stewart. On May 14, 2018, the special prosecutor handling May's case told Justice Affleck that the province was pursuing a",
"-27.618175324751064"
],
[
"access to formerly confidential documents in the 2005 Constand case. 2015 criminal investigation review On September 11, 2015, it was reported that the Constand case may be reopened. Cosby admitted in the unsealed civil deposition that he digitally penetrated Constand which, if non-consensual, would be grounds for a felony charge such as aggravated indecent assault. The statute of limitations on such a charge would not run out until January 2016. Constand's original complaint only referenced misdemeanor-level offenses, which have a two-year statute of limitations. Several legal experts, including former prosecutors and at least one former deputy Attorney General, have said",
"-27.56957246782258"
],
[
"headquarters. The hurricane sends Lane's kidnappers back to Lute-Mae's as well, and try to play on the act that they all entered the bar separately. Soon, though, hell breaks loose and one of the men is shot, while they are all arrested. Field comforts Lane, but Constance breaks them up, claiming that the divorce papers she had drawn were fakes and that she and Field were still married. In a rage, Field sent Constance over the railing at the top of the stairs and onto the floor. Season two (November 3, 1981 – May 4, 1982, 22 episodes) Constance survives",
"-27.569418342609424"
],
[
"Renfroe have charged Scruggs with two basic types of ethical misconduct and with conflicts of interest, all of which relate in one way or another to the relationship between Scruggs and the SKG and two former Renfroe employees Cori and Kerri Rigsby (the Rigsby sisters). State Farm and Renfroe allege 1) that Scruggs participated and encouraged the Rigsby sisters to wrongfully appropriate and disclose confidential documents in which both State Farm and Renfroe had a legitimate right to confidentiality; and 2) that Scruggs paid the Rigsby sisters a substantial sum in furtherance of Scruggs's efforts to encourage the misappropriation of",
"-27.564142605056986"
],
[
"defense has also asked the case be dismissed on prosecutorial misconduct and claims the statute of limitations has expired as well. Guilty verdict On April 26, 2018, a jury found Bill Cosby guilty of three counts of aggravated indecent assault against Andrea Constand. The Montgomery County district attorney, Kevin Steele, asked at this point that Cosby's $1 million bail be revoked, suggesting that he owned a private plane and could flee. This prompted an angry outburst from Cosby, who shouted, \"He doesn't have a plane, you asshole!\"; Cosby was ultimately not ruled a flight risk. All three charges are felonies,",
"-27.536584911576938"
],
[
"2018 Karbi Anglong lynching Arrests As of June 21, 2018, 36 people had been arrested. The prime accused is Alphajoz Timung, who was arrested on June 12, 2018, after hiding out in the district for several days. He had been involved in an earlier lynching of a motorcycle mechanic, Mithu Das, in the same district. Fake news Fake news spread via WhatsApp have been named as the cause of these two lynchings. The rumors said that child lifters were in the area.",
"-27.536013034172356"
],
[
"claimed none of it was true, he pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy and was found guilty of 12 counts of perjury, related to the alleged failure to report all campaign contributions. Since California, like most other states, does not allow convicted felons to hold elected office, Hedgecock resigned on December 5 of that year. His first trial ended in a mistrial with a hung jury after the jury deadlocked 11-1 in favor of conviction. However, two of the 12 jurors in the first trial submitted sworn statements that the jury bailiff, Al Burroughs, provided them alcohol and tried",
"-27.534815157414414"
],
[
"made a clearance from his own half, Lafferty made a sliding tackle on him. Both players squared up to each other and Lafferty fell to the ground clutching his face as though he had been headbutted. Referee Stuart Dougal sent Mulgrew off for violent conduct, but television pictures clearly showed that Mulgrew had not made clear contact with Lafferty. Lafferty was seen to wink to a teammate after Mulgrew had left the field. Mulgrew later had his red card rescinded and Lafferty was given a two-month suspension.\nIn October 2009, Mulgrew was offered a new contract by Aberdeen, but he rejected",
"-27.520217479439452"
],
[
"Warner Bros. cartoon \"A Feud There Was\" (released in September, 1938, two months after Corrigan's flight), an unseen character, when confronted by one of the feuding hillbillies, states that he's \"Non-Stop Corrigan,\" and that \"I thought I was headed for Los Angeles, it was a mistake, my compass broke -- honest!\" (composer Carl Stalling plays \"Wearing of the Green\" during the gag, underscoring the allusion). A character named \"Wrong Way Feldman\" was portrayed by Hans Conreid in two episodes of Gilligan's Island in the 1960s. Also, in the short 'Birds on a Wire', part of the last episode (1998) of",
"-27.51826352556236"
],
[
"greatest serial rapist that ever got away with this for the longest amount of time. He got away with it because he was hiding behind the image of Cliff Huxtable.\" Unsealing of Constand v. Cosby deposition On July 8, 2015, Constand and her attorney Dolores Troiani filed a motion to negate the confidentiality agreement in the 2005 case against Cosby, claiming that Cosby had already engaged in \"total abandonment of the confidentiality portions of the agreement\" by way of the recent, sweeping denials of all allegations against him. A judge ruled that releasing the sealed documents was justified by Cosby's",
"-27.497103707049973"
],
[
"probation.\nOn December 16, 2015, Shawn Peterson pled guilty to manslaughter for the triple murder of his ex-girlfriend, Christine George, their son, Leonard George, and her daughter, Trisa George in the Gentilly neighborhood of New Orleans. Peterson's defense attorneys argued that producers from The First 48 withheld video evidence that could have exonerated their client. A judge rejected the motion but conceded that the show did complicate the case. In 2016, the city of New Orleans announced that it would be ending its contract with A&E, ending any future productions of episodes of The First 48, or Nightwatch, another A&E show",
"-27.49632961396128"
],
[
"Fellers v. United States Facts After John Fellers was indicted on February 24, 2000, by a grand jury, a police sergeant named Michael Garnett and a deputy sheriff named Jeff Bliemeister from the Lincoln, Nebraska Police Department and the Lancaster County Sheriff's Office respectively, came to his home to arrest him. When they came to his house, they knocked on the door and identified themselves. They requested to enter his house, and Fellers invited them to his living room. When the officers went into the living room, they advised him that they were here to question",
"-27.463668525218964"
],
[
"a court of law.\" Attorneys for Cosby, on January 11, 2016, filed a motion to dismiss the sexual assault charges, stating that Castor's office had promised in 2005 that Cosby would not be prosecuted. In testimony involving Cosby's motion to dismiss the charges, Castor defended his decision not to bring charges, citing among other things Constand's year-long delay in reporting the allegations, her continued contact with Cosby, and suggestions that she and her mother might have tried to extort the TV star.\nOn February 3, 2016, Judge Steven O'Neill ruled \"there was no basis\" to dismiss the case based on Cosby's",
"-27.44973832350297"
],
[
"and Curley were ordered by Judge William Wenner to stand trial. On January 22, 2016, some of the charges against Curley, Schultz, and Spanier were dropped due to the violation of their rights to legal representation.\nOn March 24, 2017, Spanier was found guilty of one charge of child endangerment and not guilty of the second charge of child endangerment or conspiracy. Curley and Schultz had previously pleaded guilty to misdemeanor child endangerment charges and testified at Spanier's trial in exchange for all other charges, including conspiracy, being dropped. On June 2, 2017, Spanier, Schultz and Curley were sentenced to",
"-27.449424859369174"
],
[
"Phi Kappa Psi...so there's no reason to keep them suspended\". On January 30, 2015, UVA President Teresa Sullivan acknowledged that the Rolling Stone story was discredited. Charlottesville Police officially suspended their four-month investigation on March 23, 2015, stating that they had no evidence of a gang rape taking place, and that \"there is no substantive basis to support the account alleged in the Rolling Stone article.\" On April 5, 2015, Columbia Journalism Review published a report calling the Rolling Stone article \"a failure\" and criticizing the magazine's actions. That same day, Rolling Stone officially retracted the article and has since",
"-27.438399657257833"
],
[
"3, 2016, following the occupation of the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Lynch said charges would be filed soon against participants in the standoff while appearing in Portland, Oregon to commemorate the community's policing.\nAfter the death of Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia, Lynch's name was mentioned as being a potential nominee to replace him. On March 8, a Justice Department spokesperson said Lynch had asked the White House to withdraw her from consideration.\nIn April 2016, Lynch took an active role in addressing what she called the difficulty of re-entry into society by felons, writing an op-ed and making public appearances in",
"-27.431903198885266"
],
[
"Wildstein's plea bargain. He had agreed in January to plead guilty to conspiracy to commit fraud and conspiracy against civil rights. Wildstein, whose sentencing was delayed until after the trial, agreed to testify against Baroni and Kelly.\nThe indictments charge that the lane closures were retribution against Sokolich for not endorsing Christie. Fishman said that Wildstein had corroborated the allegations in the indictments, and said that the three officials \"agreed to and did use public resources to carry out a vendetta and exact retribution,\" and that they \"callously victimized the people of Fort Lee.\" Kelly vigorously denied wrongdoing. Baroni argued",
"-27.430331381503493"
],
[
"and punitive damages, as well as the exclusive right to the name \"Breaking Benjamin\". Fink and Klepaski's attorneys stated the two \"dispute and strictly deny\" Burnley's allegations, instead asserting that \"at issue is the validity of a January 2009 partnership agreement giving Burnley permission to dismiss Fink and Klepaski for 'cause,'\" saying that the agreement was no longer valid due to Burnley's status of indefinite hiatus. The case was ordered by a judge to arbitration. Burnley's attorney, Brian Caplan, told the Associated Press, \"The relationship between Mr. Burnley and the two other members of the band has ended ... Mr.",
"-27.426621084538056"
],
[
"Morton's Fork (Fargo) Plot The episode opens up showing the aftermath of a snowmobile crash. From the snowmobile, a trail of footprints are seen in the snow leading to a hole in the frozen lake.\nBack in the parking lot outside Lester Nygaard's workplace, Lester watches as Lorne Malvo exits the building after having killed his second wife Linda. Once Lorne leaves the scene, Lester goes into the office in order to get the money from the safe. Before leaving, he covers up the crime scene in order to make it look like he was never there.\nLester enters Lou's diner, telling",
"-27.416193602373824"
],
[
"because \"LAPD officials said there were many reasons to investigate sexual assault allegations that fall beyond those legal deadlines. Old accusations may lead investigators to more recent incidents with other victims\" and Goins would be allowed to testify if charges were laid in any other (more recent) cases.\nCosby's former attorney Martin Singer has stated he would provide documentary evidence to the Los Angeles police that established Cosby was in New York on August 9, 2008, the date of the incident alleged by Goins.\nOn January 6, 2016, the Los Angeles District Attorney's office announced that no charge would be laid because",
"-27.411982124845963"
]
] |
1jcguf | Do clip-on mosquito repellents work? If so, how? | [
"My understanding is that the word \"repellent\" is a bit of misnomer. Your body gives off various chemicals that mosquitos have evolved to sense. They see them almost as you'd see a neon \"FREE CAKE\" hanging somewhere. These \"repellents\" are designed to mask those chemical signs so that the insects don't see you as a potential target. Unfortunately, even if that neon \"FREE CAKE\" sign has been taken down, and the cake has been hidden away in a fridge somewhere, when you walk into the room, you might see some other cake indicators, such as paper plates, forks, napkins, and milk. Once you've gotten that much info, you might start thinking to yourself, \"Hey, there might be cake here.\" The same happens with the bugs. The 'repellents\" won't prevent them from flying near you or even landing on you, they are just meant to mask the fact you have delicious cake hidden somewhere in your veins.",
"As one with severe mosquito allergies, as well as an unfortunate ability to attract them from miles away.... they don't work at all for me. The only thing I've been able to find that actually works is high quantities of DEET (80% or more) applied to clothing or skin... even then it isn't very effective. Sucks for long term exposure but honestly anything else just hasn't worked.",
"Good luck getting a mosquito to stay still long enough to clip something to it!",
"Here's something that you already have in your house that actually does work: URL_0 "
] | [
[
"or permethrin) are effective, highly recommended means for reducing mosquito bites. Daily doses of a non-sedating second-generation anti-histamines (e.g. cetirizine or levocetirizine) can effectively reduce the immediate and delayed reactions to mosquito bites. The use of recombinant mosquito saliva proteins to desensitize individuals against developing reactions to mosquito bites has yielded variable results and requires further study. Treatment Treatment of ordinary small or large mosquito bite reactions is limited to the use of non-sedative H1 antihistamines, e.g. cetirizine\nor a drug with combined activity in inhibiting histamine and platelet-activating factor, e.g. rupatadine. Randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled studies are needed to determine if",
"-29.27648614172358"
],
[
"a filter at the inner end to prevent accidental ingestion. Small insects (e.g., Drosophila) may be gently collected and held against the filter by steady inhalation, and transferred into a container by then blowing the insect(s) out. A skilled lab worker, for instance, may be able to sequentially inhale and then transfer a pooter-full of Drosophila flies singly into vials, thus facilitating rapid setup of fly experiments with a minimum of pain caused to the researcher, or the researched. Larger, motor-powered variants of this design exist (typically, a leaf blower working in reverse), where the insects are sucked into a",
"-28.966065204236656"
],
[
"consisted of DEET and polymers that extended the release of the DEET and reduced its evaporation rate. This extended-release application was registered by the EPA in 1991. Mechanism and effectiveness DEET was historically believed to work by blocking insect olfactory receptors for 1-octen-3-ol, a volatile substance that is contained in human sweat and breath. The prevailing theory was that DEET effectively \"blinds\" the insect's senses so that the biting/feeding instinct is not triggered by the chemicals present in the sweat and breath of humans or other animals. DEET does not appear to affect the insect's ability to smell carbon dioxide,",
"-28.046918769076"
],
[
"to feel for a place to bite. To feed, they pierce the skin and inject saliva containing an anticoagulant and an anesthetic. The anesthetic reduces pain so the host does not detect the bite, and the anticoagulant prevents blood from clotting so they can continue to feed. Pathological organisms contained in the saliva injection by the female mosquitoes can quickly spread diseases.",
"-27.682147205341607"
],
[
"under 6 months. Some experts recommend against applying DEET and sunscreen simultaneously since that would increase DEET penetration; Xiaochen Gu, a professor at the University of Manitoba’s faculty of Pharmacy who led a study about mosquitos, advises that DEET should be applied 30 or more minutes later. \nDEET is commonly used in combination with insecticides and can strengthen the toxicity of carbamate insecticides, which are also acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. These findings indicate that DEET has neurological effects on insects in addition to known olfactory effects, and that its toxicity is strengthened in combination with other insecticides. Detection in body fluids",
"-27.478200539626414"
],
[
"levels slightly but does not affect the risk of death or need for hospitalization. Mosquito control Vector control refers to methods used to decrease malaria by reducing the levels of transmission by mosquitoes. For individual protection, the most effective insect repellents are based on DEET or picaridin. Insecticide-treated mosquito nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) have been shown highly effective in preventing malaria among children in areas where malaria is common. Prompt treatment of confirmed cases with artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) may also reduce transmission.\nMosquito nets help keep mosquitoes away from people and reduce infection rates and transmission of",
"-27.4587053124269"
],
[
"condemned attempts to control the transmitting mosquitoes by spraying pesticide, saying the detrimental health effects of spraying outweigh the relatively few lives that may be saved, and more environmentally friendly ways of controlling mosquitoes are available. They also question the effectiveness of insecticide spraying, as they believe mosquitoes that are resting or flying above the level of spraying will not be killed; the most common vector in the northeastern United States, Culex pipiens, is a canopy feeder. Treatment No specific treatment is available for WNV infection. Most people recover without treatment. In mild cases, over-the-counter pain relievers can help ease",
"-27.380757851482485"
],
[
"injected in the leg with bee or wasp venom, they shed this appendage. But, if they are injected with only saline, they rarely autotomize the leg, indicating it is not the physical injection or the ingress of fluid per se that causes autotomy. In addition, spiders injected with venom components which cause injected humans to report pain (serotonin, histamine, phospholipase A2 and melittin) autotomize the leg, but if the injections contain venom components which do not cause pain to humans, autotomy does not occur. Bees and wasps Sometimes when honey bees (genus Apis) sting a victim, the barbed stinger remains",
"-26.894607283757068"
],
[
"impractical for routine use. Prevention and treatment The preventive measures listed for ordinary mosquito bite reactions are important for avoiding Skeeter syndrome reactions. In addition to second generation, non-sedative H1 antihistamines, antipyretics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are typically used to treat patients with acute attacks of the syndrome. Presentation Individuals with systemic mosquito bite allergies respond to mosquito bites with intense local skin reactions (e.g. blisters, ulcers, necrosis, scarring) and concurrent or subsequent systemic symptoms (high-grade fever and/or malaise; less commonly, muscle cramps, bloody diarrhea, bloody urine, proteinuria, and/or wheezing; or very rarely, symptoms of overt anaphylaxis such as hives,",
"-26.677280318745034"
],
[
"through in-country distribution networks.\nITNs protect people sleeping under them and simultaneously kill mosquitoes that contact the nets. Some protection is provided to others by this method, including people sleeping in the same room but not under the net. However, mathematical modeling has suggested that disease transmission may be exacerbated after bed nets have lost their insecticidal properties under certain circumstances. Although ITN users are still protected by the physical barrier of the netting, non-users could experience an increased bite rate as mosquitoes are deflected away from the non-lethal bed net users. The modeling suggests that this could increase transmission when",
"-26.334145755390637"
],
[
"as malaria. This is being tested with generous funds from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The use of Abate in tandem with area-wide deworming campaigns has the potential to disrupt the transmission cycle of insect vectored human diseases, like malaria, in the treated areas. Managing mosquitoes and the diseases they vector: Nectar Based Attract and Kill Mosquitoes, independent of their physiological state or gender, feed on sugar solutions virtually every day of their lives. Mafra-Neto's group has developed an artificial blend, called Vectrax, that attracts disease-carrying male and female disease-carrying mosquitoes by mimicking the scent of flowers and",
"-25.910074595856713"
],
[
"effective repellent for body lice, head lice, and stable flies. A study conducted by ARPA in 1963 determined that hydroxycitronellal was an effective repellent against both aquatic and terrestrial leeches.\nThe US Environmental Protection Agency states that citronella oil has little or no toxicity when used as a topical insect repellent, with no reports of adverse effects of concern over a 60-year period. Some products are applied to human skin, so EPA requires proper precautionary labeling to help assure safe use. If used according to label instructions in the US, citronella is not expected to pose health risks to people, including",
"-25.79780442279298"
],
[
"ticks that have attached to humans. The spray kills ticks by freezing, rather than by the traditional method of removal using tweezers. Removing ticks by tweezers was found to have a significantly detrimental effect because tweezers squeeze toxins from the tick into the host and thereby significantly increasing the allergen injected.",
"-25.72656691546581"
],
[
"antileukotriene drugs or topical steroids have beneficial effects in reducing the symptoms of these bites. Presentation The Skeeter syndrome is by definition a mosquito bite allergy that consists of a large mosquito bite reaction that may be accompanied by a brief or longer-term (i.e. days to weeks) low-grade fever. and, on rare occasions, vomiting. The bite site shows an intense, large reaction often resembling a cellulitis infection that persists for days to weeks. The syndrome usually afflicts healthy children, immune-deficient persons, and individuals who are new to an area inhabited by mosquito species to which they have not been exposed.",
"-25.701014324149583"
],
[
"required for developing the early stage of the delayed reaction. T cells present in or recruited to the mosquito bite area appear responsible for mediating the full delayed reaction. The full delayed reaction is a type IV hypersensitivity reaction. Diagnosis The diagnosis of ordinary mosquito reactions is made on the basis of the history and clinical features of an mosquito bites. Prevention Reducing mosquito breeding areas (e.g. eliminating standing water pools, stocking ponds with fish that consume mosquito larva) and the use of other mosquito control methods such as insecticides, mosquito traps, protective clothing, bed nets, and repellants (e.g. DEET",
"-25.673271665582433"
],
[
"evaporates, and the virus becomes a droplet nucleus which can be inhaled by another person, thus spreading the virulent infection. Examples of virulent infections that spread by sneezing include measles, mumps, rubella, and influenza. Vehicle operation A fit of sneezing while operating a vehicle can cause the operator to lose control of that vehicle, resulting in injury to the person, and damage to the vehicle and/or surroundings. In particular, photic sneezing poses a considerable risk to pilots, due to the frequent presence of bright sunlight and the precise reactions needed to successfully control the aircraft. For the pilot of a",
"-25.612087778456043"
],
[
"sprayed with insecticides, but application inside houses is not recommended by the WHO. Insecticide-treated mosquito nets are effective, just as they are against the Anopheles mosquito that carries malaria. Treatment As for other Flavivirus infections, no cure is known for yellow fever. Hospitalization is advisable and intensive care may be necessary because of rapid deterioration in some cases. Different methods for acute treatment of the disease have been shown not to be very successful; passive immunization after the emergence of symptoms is probably without effect. Ribavirin and other antiviral drugs, as well as treatment with interferons, do not have a",
"-25.567185303661972"
],
[
"appliance, which applies traffic shaping at the network layer, Traffic Control applies traffic shaping to individual senders at the application layer. This approach results in a somewhat more effective handling of spam traffic originating from botnets because it allows the software to slow traffic from individual spam zombies, rather than requiring zombie traffic to be aggregated into a class.",
"-25.527081043517683"
],
[
"of the mosquitoes towards parasite infection, and the compound could be absorbed through the legs of the insect (as if it was landing briefly on a bed net). This could potentially be used to design more effective bed nets, which are currently becoming less effective due to the spread of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes. Although mosquitoes are unlikely to develop resistance, given that their survival rates appear to be unaffected by the drug in lab conditions, malaria may still develop resistance especially if the drug is implemented on a mass scale.",
"-25.483191528634052"
],
[
"washings in customer-treated items and up to 70 washings for factory-treated items. Permethrin should not be used on human skin, underwear or cats.\nThe EPA recommends several tick repellents for use on exposed skin, including DEET, picaridin, IR3535 (a derivative of amino acid beta-alanine), oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE, a natural compound) and OLE's active ingredient para-menthane-diol (PMD). Unlike permethrin, repellents repel but do not kill ticks, protect for only several hours after application, and may be washed off by sweat or water. The most popular repellent is DEET in the U.S. and picaridin in Europe. Unlike DEET, picaridin is odorless",
"-25.44068336748751"
],
[
"Spooling In computing, spooling is a specialized form of multi-programming for the purpose of copying data between different devices. In contemporary systems, it is usually used for mediating between a computer application and a slow peripheral, such as a printer. Spooling allows programs to \"hand off\" work to be done by the peripheral and then proceed to other tasks, or to not begin until input has been transcribed. A dedicated program, the spooler, maintains an orderly sequence of jobs for the peripheral and feeds it data at its own rate. Conversely, for slow input peripherals, such as",
"-25.050006111501716"
],
[
"screen of labels for products containing [l]inalool (as the sole active ingredient) indicates that efficacy data on file with the Agency may not support certain claims to repel mosquitos.\" Safety and potential toxicity Linalool can be absorbed by inhalation of its aerosol and by oral intake or skin absorption, potentially causing irritation, pain and allergic reactions. Some 7% of people undergoing patch testing in Europe were found to be allergic to the oxidized form of linalool.",
"-25.013158675981686"
],
[
"by direct transmission (when an infected person sneezes mucus directly into the eyes, nose or mouth of another person); the airborne route (when someone inhales the aerosols produced by an infected person coughing, sneezing or spitting) and through hand-to-eye, hand-to-nose, or hand-to-mouth transmission, either from contaminated surfaces or from direct personal contact such as a handshake. The relative importance of these three modes of transmission is unclear, and they may all contribute to the spread of the virus. In the airborne route, the droplets that are small enough for people to inhale are 0.5 to 5 µm in diameter and inhaling",
"-24.987071212904993"
],
[
"measures to decrease contact with blood, body fluids, or tissues of infected animals and protection against mosquitoes and other bloodsucking insects. Use of mosquito repellents and bed nets are two effective methods. For persons working with animals in RVF-endemic areas, wearing protective equipment to avoid any exposure to blood or tissues of animals that may potentially be infected is an important protective measure. Potentially, establishing environmental monitoring and case surveillance systems may aid in the prediction and control of future RVF outbreaks.\nNo vaccines are currently available for humans. While a vaccines have been developed for humans, it has only been",
"-24.985843219503295"
],
[
"similar to that of other mosquito-spread illnesses; one can use barriers both physical (a mosquito net), chemical (insect repellent), or mass chemotherapy as a method to control the spread of the disease.\nMass chemotherapy should cover the entire endemic area at the same time. This will significantly decrease the overall microfilarial titer in blood in mass, hence decreasing the transmission through mosquitoes during their subsequent bites.\nAntibiotic active against the Wolbachia symbionts of the worm have been tested as treatment. Wolbachia-free worms immediately become sterile, and later die prematurely. Epidemiology W. bancrofti is responsible for 90% of lymphatic filariasis. Recently, 120 million",
"-24.9410258627031"
],
[
"This is because the side effects of the drug commonly outweigh the consequences of the infection. Prevention Take preventative measures by using DEET or other insect repellents to ward off midges when traveling into endemic areas.",
"-24.903842088067904"
],
[
"Immunology and Allergy recommends not using tweezers to remove ticks, because if the person is allergic, anaphylaxis could result. Instead, a product should be sprayed on the tick to cause it to freeze and then drop off. A doctor would use liquid nitrogen, but products available from drugstores for freezing warts can be used instead. Another method originating from Australia consists in using about 20 cm of dental floss or fishing line for slowly tying an overhand knot between the skin and the tick and then pulling it away from the skin. Preventive antibiotics The risk of infectious transmission increases with",
"-24.820438630064018"
],
[
"cleaner, are often suggested as a way to immediately cleanse the skin and remove excess venom, and sweat itself (which also contains small amounts of ammonia) may provide some small relief.\nBee venom is acidic, and these interventions are often recommended to neutralize the venom; however, neutralizing a sting is unlikely to be effective as the venom is injected under the skin and deep into the tissues, where a topically applied alkali is unable to reach, so neutralization is unlikely to occur. In any case, the amount of venom injected is typically very small (between 5 and 50 micrograms of fluid)",
"-24.778719339403324"
],
[
"Pathophysiology Mechanistically, the Skeeter syndrome appears to be a particularly intense variant of the ordinary mosquito bite reaction. It involves sequential Type I, III, and IV hypersensitivity reactions that are mediated by the IgE, IgG, and T cells that are directed against mosquito salivary proteins. Prognosis Children afflicted with the syndrome remain healthy although subject to recurrent severe reactions to mosquito bites. The development of desensitization that follows repetitive mosquito bites and reduces the intensity or completely blocks reactions to mosquito bits may take longer to develop and/or be less effective in those with Skeeter syndrome compared to those with",
"-24.74781124724541"
],
[
"of a nozzle on the air pump. When a jet of high-velocity air exits the pump and streams across end of the siphon tube, it lowers the pressure in the siphon (Bernoulli's principle), drawing insecticide upward from the reservoir, which then atomizes the liquid as it is entrained in the air jet (it is an atomizer nozzle). With each vigorous forward stroke of the pump handle a burst of spray is produced, similar to that of a modern aerosol spray can.",
"-24.744312728056684"
],
[
"and summer months. Preventive measures include avoiding trails that are overgrown with bushy vegetation, wearing light-coloured clothes that allow one to see the ticks more easily, and wearing long pants and closed-toe shoes. Tick repellents containing DEET (N,N, diethyl-m-toluamide) are only marginally effective and can be applied to skin or clothing. Rarely, severe reactions can occur in some people who use DEET-containing products. Young children may be especially vulnerable to these adverse effects. Permethrin, which can only be applied to clothing, is much more effective in preventing tick bites. Permethrin is not a repellent but rather an insecticide; it",
"-24.686267080018297"
],
[
"Soumossou, Bobo-Dioulasso, Africa. ITNs are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets, and offer greater than 70% protection compared with no net. These nets are dip-treated using a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide such as deltamethrin or permethrin which will double the protection over a non-treated net by killing and repelling mosquitoes. For maximum effectiveness, ITNs should be re-impregnated with insecticide every six months. This process poses a significant logistical problem in rural areas. Newer, long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) have now replaced ITNs in most countries. Effectiveness The distribution of mosquito nets or bednets impregnated with insecticides such as permethrin",
"-24.652734957810026"
],
[
"moisture to the printhead. Typically there is no separate supply of pure ink-free solvent available to do this job, and so instead the ink itself is used to remoisten the printhead. The printer attempts to fire all nozzles at once, and as the ink sprays out, some of it wicks across the printhead to the dry channels and partially softens the hardened ink. After spraying, a rubber wiper blade is swept across the printhead to spread the moisture evenly across the printhead, and the jets are again all fired to dislodge any ink clumps blocking the channels.\nSome printers use a",
"-24.618933220626786"
],
[
"receptors, this insecticide is selectively more toxic to insects than mammals. Non-target effects Application is only recommended when pollinators are not likely to be present in an area as sulfoxaflor is highly toxic to bees if they come into contact with spray droplets shortly after application; toxicity is reduced after the spray has dried. Registration On May 6, 2013, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approved the first two commercial pesticide products that contain sulfoxaflor, marketed under the brand names \"Transform\" and \"Closer\", to the Dow Chemical Corporation. \nOn September 10, 2015 the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals",
"-24.579353223765793"
],
[
"program, and comes in two versions. Free WiperSoft offers users to scan their computers for spyware. Paid WiperSoft features include spyware detection and removal, help desk services and custom fix.\nAccording to Wiper Software, the program can detect and remove threats like potentially unwanted programs, adware, browser hijackers, questionable toolbars and browser add-ons. Detected potential threats are not automatically deleted, and users have the option of keeping them installed. The program will also undo the changes made by detected threats, such as change of homepage or default search engine. Availability The program is currently only available for Microsoft Windows users. All",
"-24.505107750883326"
],
[
"available. However, diethylcarbamazine treatment is suggested to reduce risk of infection. Avoiding areas where the vectors, deer and mango flies, are found also reduces risk. This includes swamps, bogs, and shaded areas near rivers or near wood fires. Fly bites can be reduced by using insect repellents such as DEET and wearing long sleeves and pants during the daytime. Permethrin treatment on clothes is an additional repellent that could be used. Also, using malaria nets can reduce the number of fly bites acquired. Epidemiology Reports of microfilaremia have been made in Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, the",
"-24.487996073672548"
],
[
"Fluticasone propionate Medical uses Fluticasone is used by powder or aerosol inhalation for the prophylaxis of asthma. \nThe nasal spray is used for prevention and treatment of allergic rhinitis. Nasal drops are used in the treatment of nasal polyps. The nasal spray can also be used orally for the treatment of Mouth ulcers. Adverse effects If taken correctly, the nasal spray and oral inhaler formulation have fewer corticosteroid side effects than the tablet formulation because they limit systemic (blood) absorption. However, the systemic absorption is not negligible even with correct administration. Using the spray or inhaler at higher than",
"-24.449125719838776"
],
[
"some insect wings. The coating can be sprayed onto objects to make them waterproof. The spray is anti-corrosive and anti-icing; has cleaning capabilities; and can be used to protect circuits and grids.\nSuperhydrophobic coatings have important applications in maritime industry. They can yield skin friction drag reduction for ships' hulls, thus increasing fuel efficiency. Such a coating would allow ships to increase their speed or range while reducing fuel costs. They can also reduce corrosion and prevent marine organisms from growing on a ship's hull.\nIn addition to these industrial applications, superhydrophobic coatings have potential uses in vehicle windshields to prevent rain",
"-24.413507889665198"
],
[
"cells unaffected. In the study detailed by this report, it was found that nanoparticles loaded with Mellitin, a compound found in Bee venom, could deliver the agent to the HIV, causing the breakdown of the outer protein envelope of the virus. This, they say, could lead to the production of a vaginal gel which could help prevent infection by disabling the virus. Dr Joshua Hood goes on to explain that beyond preventative measures in the form of a topical gel, he sees \"potential for using nanoparticles with melittin as therapy for existing HIV infections, especially those that are drug-resistant. The",
"-24.309164536651224"
],
[
"Captan Applications Although it can be applied on its own, Captan is often added as a component of other pesticide mixtures. It is used to control diseases on a number of fruits and vegetables as well as ornamental plants. It also improves the outward appearance of many fruits, making them brighter and healthier-looking. Captan is utilized by both home and agricultural growers and is often applied during apple production. It is also active against certain oomycetes, such as Pythium, making it useful for controlling damping off. Biodegradation The compound biodegrades with halflife of less than 1 day in soil.",
"-24.28885261126561"
],
[
"30–50% DEET to prevent the spread of pathogens carried by insects. Effects on health As a precaution, manufacturers advise that DEET products should not be used under clothing or on damaged skin, and that preparations be washed off after they are no longer needed or between applications. DEET can act as an irritant; in rare cases, it may cause severe epidermal reactions. Other symptoms that can occur are breathing difficulty, burning eyes, or headaches.\nThe authors of a 2002 study published in The New England Journal of Medicine wrote, \"DEET has a remarkable safety profile after 40 years of use and",
"-24.28696628506441"
],
[
"with Chikungunya fever although nonspecific laboratory findings such as C reactive protein and elevated cytokines can correlate with disease activity. Prevention Because no approved vaccine exists, the most effective means of prevention are protection against contact with the disease-carrying mosquitoes and controlling mosquito populations by limiting their habitat. Mosquito control focuses on eliminating the standing water where mosquitos lay eggs and develop as larva; if elimination of the standing water is not possible, insecticides or biological control agents can be added. Methods of protection against contact with mosquitos include using insect repellents with substances such as DEET, icaridin, PMD (p-menthane-3,8-diol,",
"-24.28017179563176"
],
[
"from spray dryers are typically controlled by a cyclone followed by a wet scrubber.",
"-24.246897504199296"
],
[
"spread faster due to the weakened immune response of its host. However, a current study has found that the protein D7 hinders the virus transmission into the host cells.\nThe immune responses of antibodies that are trying to fight off the foreign virus actually increase transmission and make the infection worse. Levels of protein D7 are more prevalent in salivary glands of dengue-infected mosquitoes compared to those uninfected ones. D7 is found in mosquito saliva and was thought to assist the process of blood feeding. Despite the prior assumptions, D7 can modulate the host cell and act against the virus to",
"-24.215545398095855"
],
[
"which helps to conceal the diver's presence by masking the release of bubbles, by breaking them up to sizes which are less easily detected. A diffuser also reduces bubble noise. Loop drainage Many rebreathers have \"water traps\" in the counterlungs or scrubber casing, to stop large volumes of water from entering the scrubber media if the diver removes the mouthpiece underwater without closing the valve, or if the diver's lips get slack and let water leak in.\nSome rebreathers have manual pumps to remove water from the water traps, and a few of the passive addition SCRs automatically pump water out",
"-24.1959123822744"
],
[
"synergists. Product rotation is integral to resistance prevention programs. Insecticidal soaps and horticultural oils are both effective, but only in very frequent, sometimes impractical spray schedules (at least once a week). Systemic neonicotinoids such as imidacloprid were once considered to be sparing of beneficial insects and natural predators, and recommended for integrated pest management of chilli thrips, especially when used as a soil soak or drip irrigation product. The past decade has revealed that neonicotinoids can seriously impact beneficial insects, especially bees, through effects that are not immediately apparent - even at trace concentrations.\nEntomopathogenic fungi are an emerging control method",
"-24.169524705037475"
],
[
"Sticky bit History The sticky bit was introduced in the Fifth Edition of Unix (in 1974) for use with pure executable files. When set, it instructed the operating system to retain the text segment of the program in swap space after the process exited. This speeds up subsequent executions by allowing the kernel to make a single operation of moving the program from swap to real memory. Thus, frequently-used programs like editors would load noticeably faster. One notable problem with \"stickied\" programs was replacing the executable (for instance, during patching); to do so required removing the sticky bit from the",
"-24.147758951759897"
],
[
"surfactant and diluted with water. As with chemical control, repeated applications are required. Predatory mites Predatory mites of the Phytoseiidae family, including Phytoseiulus persimilis, eat adult mites, their eggs, and all developmental stages between. Predatory mites can consume as many as 5 adult spider mites per day, or 20 eggs per day. Insecticidal soap Insecticidal soap spray is effective against spider mites. It is commercially available or can be made of certain types of household soap. However, since it will also kill predatory mites, its use is not recommended if the latter are present. Harpin Alpha Beta In some cases,",
"-24.065891534090042"
],
[
"the very high drop ejection frequency, allowing for very high speed printing. Another advantage is freedom from nozzle clogging as the jet is always in use, therefore allowing volatile solvents such as ketones and alcohols to be employed, giving the ink the ability to \"bite\" into the substrate and dry quickly.\nThe ink system requires active solvent regulation to counter solvent evaporation during the time of flight (time between nozzle ejection and gutter recycling), and from the venting process whereby air that is drawn into the gutter along with the unused drops is vented from the reservoir. Viscosity is monitored and",
"-24.059344313223846"
],
[
"player removes viruses from the screen by matching their colors with that of a pill capsule. The player orients a single pill capsule against an array of viruses and obstacles. As the pill begins to drift upwards, the player can rotate and horizontally move the pill such that, when settled, the pill's color will match at least two similarly colored viruses in a vertical or horizontal direction. The level is complete when all viruses are removed.\nThe player is able to float multiple pills at once and even drag pills through obstacles to specific positions as long as the pill feasibly",
"-24.018509733024985"
],
[
"Cyclonic spray scrubber Cyclonic spray scrubbers are an air pollution control technology. They use the features of both the dry cyclone and the spray chamber to remove pollutants from gas streams. \nGenerally, the inlet gas enters the chamber tangentially, swirls through the chamber in a corkscrew motion, and exits. At the same time, liquid is sprayed inside the chamber. As the gas swirls around the chamber, pollutants are removed when they impact on liquid droplets, are thrown to the walls, and washed back down and out.\nCyclonic scrubbers are generally low- to medium-energy devices, with pressure drops of 4 to",
"-23.93850582561572"
],
[
"cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Pepper spray and pests Capsaicinoids are also an active ingredient in riot control and personal defense pepper spray agents. When the spray comes in contact with skin, especially eyes or mucous membranes, it produces pain and breathing difficulty, discouraging protestors and assailants.\nCapsaicin is also used to deter pests, specifically mammalian pests. Targets of capsaicin repellants include voles, deer, rabbits, squirrels, bears, insects, and attacking dogs. Ground or crushed dried chili pods may be used in birdseed to deter rodents, taking advantage of the insensitivity of birds to capsaicin. The Elephant Pepper Development Trust",
"-23.926119967130944"
],
[
"and China. Vector Marketing Vector Marketing is a direct sales group that builds its sales force through advertising via newspapers, direct marketing, word-of-mouth, posted advertisements, letters and various media on the internet. Their fliers advertising \"student work\" are distributed in many high schools and college campuses across the United States and Canada. Students are hired to sell Cutco products (mainly kitchen knives) to customers, starting with their friends and family, then branching out through recommendations, all through one-on-one demonstrations. While Vector required a deposit on the sample kit representatives were issued in the past, this was changed in 2011 and",
"-23.91553954826668"
],
[
"to describe Hotmail's practice of appending advertising to outgoing mail from their users. An earlier attestation of the term is found in PC User magazine in 1989, but with a somewhat differing meaning.\nAmong the first to write about viral marketing on the Internet was the media critic Doug Rushkoff. The assumption is that if such an advertisement reaches a \"susceptible\" user, that user becomes \"infected\" (i.e., accepts the idea) and shares the idea with others \"infecting them\", in the viral analogy's terms. As long as each infected user shares the idea with more than one susceptible user on average (i.e.,",
"-23.89817176446377"
],
[
"ordinary mosquito bite reactions. Diagnosis The diagnosis of Skeeter syndrome is based mainly on the appropriate history of severe skin responses to mosquito bites that may be associated with fever. The diagnosis can be supported by the detection, using for example an ELISA assay), IgE directed against mosquito saliva proteins in the afflicted individuals serum. Direct mosquito bite testing is perhaps the best method for diagnosing mosquito bite allergy but difficulty in determining which mosquito species to use for the test, the possibly of transmitting a mosquito-borne disease, and the risk of triggering a very severe response make this test",
"-23.88679059880087"
],
[
"content. Statistical filters typically also look at message headers, considering not just the content but also peculiarities of the transport mechanism of the email.\nSoftware programs that implement statistical filtering include Bogofilter, DSPAM, SpamBayes, ASSP, CRM114, the email programs Mozilla and Mozilla Thunderbird, Mailwasher, and later revisions of SpamAssassin. Tarpits A tarpit is any server software which intentionally responds extremely slowly to client commands. By running a tarpit which treats acceptable mail normally and known spam slowly or which appears to be an open mail relay, a site can slow down the rate at which spammers can inject messages into the",
"-23.848491007462144"
],
[
"in individual live flies . \nHytrosavirus infections in mass-reared tsetse flies can be effectively managed by an integrated approach involving a \"clean feeding system\" (CFS), which is based on strict sanitation, regular and routing monitoring of viral infections and the occurrence of overt SGH symptoms . The CFS can be combined with supplementation of bloodmeals with antiviral drugs such as valacyclovir, which are administered at low doses that are non-detrimental to the fly's DNA synthesis . When administered, the antiviral drug is converted into active metabolites by the virally-encoded thymidylate synthase. The active metabolites subsequently block viral replication resulting in",
"-23.844470334472135"
],
[
"Sneeze Epidemiology While generally harmless in healthy individuals, sneezes spread disease through the infectious aerosol droplets, commonly ranging from 0.5 to 5 µm. A sneeze can produce 40,000 droplets. To reduce the possibility of thus spreading disease (such as the flu), one holds the forearm, the inside of the elbow, a tissue or a handkerchief in front of one's mouth and nose when sneezing. Using one's hand for that purpose has recently fallen into disuse as it is considered inappropriate, since it promotes spreading germs through human contact (such as handshaking) or by commonly touched objects (most notably doorknobs). Prevention",
"-23.778024843377352"
],
[
"applying the patch, the sticky adhesive part of the patch should make contact with the skin, and the remaining protective covering should be removed. Then, the patch should be pressed into place for at least 10 seconds to ensure that the patch will stick. After application, hands should be washed since nicotine from the patch could linger on the hands, and this could cause further irritation if left alone.\nNicotine patches should be removed and replaced every day at the same time. When removing a nicotine patch, pinch the middle of the patch and press the sticky sides of the patch",
"-23.777344673129846"
],
[
"as \"signature-based systems\" in which the software will attempt to detect patterns in the request packet. But attacks are constantly evolving, so this may not be a viable option when patterns can't be discerned from thousands of requests. There's also the behavioral approach to thwarting bots, which ultimately is trying distinguish bots from humans. By identifying non-human behavior and recognizing known bot behavior, this process can be applied at the user, browser, and network levels.\nThe most capable method of using software to combat against a virus has been to utilize honeypot software in order to convince the malware that a",
"-23.760404581669718"
],
[
"BufferGel BufferGel is the brand name of a spermicide and microbicide gel which is being tested for its potential development into a preventative medicine to stop the transmission of HIV. Testing In macaques, after BufferGel's effect on microflora and pH were measured by vaginal colposcopy and rectal lavage researchers determined that it fit the safety profile of a drug which could be tested on humans.\nA phase I clinical trial done on women in India, Thailand gave supporting evidence that users tolerate the drug well. A similar trial in the United States also showed drug tolerance.",
"-23.756791848747525"
],
[
"rudis is only capable of transmitting bacteria that causes opportunistic infections. These results indicate that “mass infestations of cluster flies occurring in sensitive areas, especially in hospitals, may cause a low, but not neglectable health threat due to mechanical transmission of bacterial pathogens.”",
"-23.737480930052698"
],
[
"of propagation was through sending malicious e-mails that included malware attachments which would infect a computer when opened, effectively turning the computer into another zombie controlled by the botnet. At its peak, the botnet was capable of sending 3.6 billion infected emails every day. The other main form of propagation was through the use of drive-by downloads - a method which exploits security vulnerabilities in software. This method allowed the botnet to bypass software protection in order to facilitate downloads without the user being aware of them.\nThe main income of the botnet was generated through leasing parts of the botnet to",
"-23.70533189433627"
],
[
"insect venom rather than the whole body, and thus that injections of venom-sac extract would be a more effective therapy. Since pure venom was unavailable, she collected and anesthetized insect samples herself before removing their venom sacs to prepare for injecting into her patients; by 1964, she had dissected some 30,000 insects, and reported that she had become so proficient at the process that she could dissect \"a bug a minute\". From 1953 to 1956, she injected patients at her allergy clinic with increasing doses of venom and monitored their reactions to subsequent bee and wasp stings. Receiving booster doses",
"-23.69993979856372"
],
[
"sporozoites into the salivary glands of the mosquito. The process then repeats itself through the human host if the mosquito lives long enough to infect a human. Clinical Features When infected with P. coatneyi, the host shows the general symptoms of malaria are fever, headache, chills, vomiting, diarrhea, jaundice, joint pain and anemia. These symptoms occur in the form of paroxysmal attacks, which is a sudden increase of these symptoms after a period of remission. This is due to the release of merozoites from schizonts inside the red blood cells. This cyclic cycle occurs every other day when infected with",
"-23.680028662784025"
],
[
"PRP. They function as signal transducing molecules that have the unique effect of modulating the immune system, turning it up when the body comes under attack from pathogens or other disease agents, and damping it when the danger is eliminated or neutralized. At first thought to actually transfer immunity from one immune system to another, it now appears that PRPs simply stimulate cell-mediated immunity.",
"-23.674863488864503"
],
[
"coats the ejection channel of the slime, stopping it from sticking to the organism when it is secreted. It also prolongs the drying process long enough for the slime to reach its target.\nAnother surfactant called nonoxynol, which was once used as intravaginal spermicide and condom lubricant, was found to metabolize into free nonylphenol when administered to lab animals. Applications Nonylphenol is used in manufacturing antioxidants, lubricating oil additives, laundry and dish detergents, emulsifiers, and solubilizers. It can also be used to produce tris(4-nonyl-phenyl) phosphite (TNPP), which is an antioxidant used to protect polymers, such as rubber, Vinyl polymers, polyolefins, and",
"-23.64453073972254"
],
[
"microbicide for persons who engage in anal sex or a vaginal microbicide for persons who engage in vaginal sex - and if infected body fluid such as blood or semen were to touch the gel, then HIV in that fluid would be destroyed and the people having sex would be less likely to spread infection between themselves.\nOn March 7, 2013, the Washington University in St. Louis website published a report by Julia Evangelou Strait, in which it was reported that ongoing nanoparticle research showed that nanoparticles loaded with various compounds could be used to target infectious agents whilst leaving healthy",
"-23.633976332261227"
],
[
"and is less likely to irritate the skin or harm fabric or plastics. Repellents with higher concentration may last longer but are not more effective; against ticks, 20% picaridin may work for 8 hours vs. 55-98.11% DEET for 5–6 hours or 30-40% OLE for 6 hours. Repellents should not be used under clothes, on eyes, mouth, wounds or cuts, or on babies younger than 2 months (3 years for OLE or PMD). If sunscreen is used, repellent should be applied on top of it. Repellents should not be sprayed directly on a face, but should instead be sprayed on a",
"-23.59709941170877"
],
[
"to block (or prevent autoplay of) Flash animation or image loading or Microsoft Windows audio and video files. This can be done in most browsers easily and also improves security and privacy. This crude technological method is refined by numerous browser extensions. Every web browser handles this task differently, but, in general, one alters the options, preferences or application extensions to filter specific media types. An additional add-on is usually required to differentiate between ads and non-ads using the same technology, or between wanted and unwanted ads or behaviors.\nThe more advanced ad blocking filter software allow fine-grained control of advertisements",
"-23.582450104528107"
],
[
"research, and case management. Insecticide treated mosquito nets have been identified as a cost-effective and sustainable public health method to combat malarial infections. The Ministry of Health and the Ghana Health Service mass distribute the nets free of charge at schools and clinics. At least one Insecticide-treated mosquito net is owned by 68% of all households in Ghana; however, the Ghana Health and Demographic Survey recognise large gaps between insecticide treated mosquito net ownership and use meaning that many with access to the nets are not effectively using them. HIV/AIDS Like other countries worldwide, HIV/AIDS is present in Ghana. In",
"-23.575604744903103"
],
[
"or deltamethrin has been shown to be an extremely effective method of malaria prevention. According to a 2015 Nature study, mosquito nets averted 68% of an estimated 663 million averted cases of malaria infection since 2000. It is also one of the most cost-effective methods of prevention. These nets can often be obtained for around $2.50–$3.50 (2–3 euros) from the United Nations, the World Health Organization (WHO), and others. ITNs have been shown to be the most cost-effective prevention method against malaria and are part of WHO’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Generally LLINs are purchased by donor groups and delivered",
"-23.570762204006314"
],
[
"whole patch, by diffusion through a membrane which may only have adhesive on the patch rim or drug release may be controlled by release from a polymer matrix. Cutting a patch might cause rapid dehydration of the base of the medicine and affect the rate of diffusion. Vapor Some medications are applied as an ointment or gel, and reach the mucous membrane via vaporization. Examples are nasal topical decongestants and smelling salt.",
"-23.542708904016763"
],
[
"the lesion. Serologic testing has also been used to diagnose the presence of botfly larvae in human ophthalmomyiasis. Prevention The first control method is preventive and aims to eradicate the adult flies before they can cause any damage and is called vector control. The second control method is the treatment once the infestation is present, and concerns the infected animals (including humans).\nThe principal control method of adult populations of myiasis inducing flies involves insecticide applications in the environment where the target livestock is kept. Organophosphorus or organochlorine compounds may be used, usually in a spraying formulation. One alternative prevention",
"-23.521291594253853"
],
[
"content from web sites or emails, to \"tuck\" the clipping underneath the physical hinge of the journal, and then to flip the virtual pages until the clipping was pasted into the appropriate page. This differs from a traditional clipboard, in which copied items are not visible while on the clipboard, and are usually manipulated one at a time. Touch The Courier would have featured multi-touch and stylus operation. The stylus would have operated in several different modes, allowing users to easily toggle between writing, painting, and sketching. Additionally, the physical stylus would have been able to access",
"-23.51820438914001"
],
[
"sneeze reflex can, however, have dangerous implications during certain scenarios and activities, such as operating a vehicle, or while undergoing operations (dental, optical) and having bright lights directed towards the patient's face. Disease transmission Perhaps the most universal risk of sneezing is the spread of disease. Bacterial infections can spread to susceptible uninfected people via the spread of microscopic organisms suspended in the droplets expelled by a sneeze. Bacteria which commonly spread by sneezing include bacterial meningitis, strep throat, and tuberculosis. Viral infections can also be spread by sneezing. When a virus is expelled by a sneeze, its mucous membrane",
"-23.500689768465236"
],
[
"that only pepper spray was a safer intervention option. Drive Stun Some Taser models, particularly those used by police departments, also have a \"Drive Stun\" capability, where the Taser is held against the target without firing the projectiles, and is intended to cause pain without incapacitating the target. \"Drive Stun\" is \"the process of using the EMD (Electro Muscular Disruption) weapon [Taser] as a pain compliance technique. This is done by activating the Taser and placing it against an individual's body. This can be done without an air cartridge in place or after an air cartridge has been deployed.\"\nGuidelines released",
"-23.499523187521845"
],
[
"in osmotic pressure when these gels contact mucus gels will draw water into the formulation and quickly dehydrate the mucus gel, forcing intermixing and consolidation until equilibrium results.\nThis mixture of formulation and mucus can increase contact time with the mucous membrane, leading to the consolidation of the adhesive bond. However, the dehydration theory does not apply to solid formulations or highly hydrated forms. Mucoadhesives in drug delivery Depending on the dosage form and route, mucoadhesives may be used for either local or systemic administration of pharmaceuticals. An overview on the mucoadhesive properties of mucoadhesives is provided by Vjera Grabovac and",
"-23.497363814385608"
],
[
"meals. As an inexpensive, efficacious, and easy-to-apply mosquito control formulation specifically designed for outdoor use, this product is addressing a critical weakness in current efforts to eradicate malaria[5][4], Zika, Dengue, Filariasis and other vector-transmitted diseases, improving the health and quality of life of people living in endemic regions around the globe. Smart traps and sensors Dr. Mafra-Neto has developed IP that resulted in several patents, including on autonomous, area-wide monitoring and reporting systems, on smart traps and pest identification sensors His research on sensors, including nanosensors and sensor signals resulted in competitive awards from several agencies, including the",
"-23.47585125733167"
],
[
"non-ventilation engineering controls in general cover a range of control measures, such as guards and barricades, material treatment, or additives. One example is placing walk-off sticky mats at room exits. Antistatic devices can be used when handling nanomaterials to reduce their electrostatic charge, making them less likely to disperse or adhere to clothing. Water spray application is also an effective method for reducing respirable dust concentrations.",
"-23.45364955731202"
],
[
"(HFA), which has replaced CFC-propellant-based inhalers. CFC inhalers were banned as of 2008 as part of the Montreal Protocol because of environmental concerns with the ozone layer. HFA propellant inhalers like FloVent and ProAir ( Salbutamol ) have no generic versions available as of October 2014. Fluorosurfactants Fluorosurfactants, which have a polyfluorinated \"tail\" and a hydrophilic \"head\", serve as surfactants because they concentrate at the liquid-air interface due to their lipophobicity. Fluorosurfactants have low surface energies and dramatically lower surface tension. The fluorosurfactants perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are two of the most studied because of",
"-23.449161464348435"
],
[
"maggot. Another treatment discussed in the March 2014 Journal of the American Medical Association is to inject a combination of anaesthetic and epinephrine into the insect's chamber. Less drastically, because larvae of C. anthropophaga have smaller hooked bristles on the cuticle than those of Dermatobia hominis, it often is practical just to push on each side of the hole to squeeze the maggot out, especially after first enlarging the punctum. It is important not to burst the larva to prevent the risk of granulomatous or serious inflammatory reaction.\nPatients should be monitored for additional and subsequent lesions, as development does not",
"-23.42642621183768"
],
[
"as golf courses or for mosquito control. It may also be sold in ant and roach baits with childproof packaging. In 2000, manufacturers reached an agreement with the EPA to voluntarily restrict the use of chlorpyrifos in places where children may be exposed, including homes, schools and day care centers.\nIn 2007 Pesticide Action Network North America and Natural Resources Defense Council (collectively, PANNA) submitted an administrative petition requesting a chlorpyrifos ban. On August 10, 2015, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in PANNA v. EPA ordered the EPA to respond to PANNA's petition by \"revok[ing] all tolerances for the insecticide",
"-23.411480751121417"
],
[
"or scraped off and even a delay of a few seconds leads to more venom being injected. Once the stinger is removed, pain and swelling should be reduced with a cold compress. A topical anesthetic containing benzocaine will kill pain quickly and menthol is an effective anti-itch treatment. Itching can also be relieved by antihistamine or by a steroid cream.\nMany traditional remedies have been suggested for bee stings including damp pastes of tobacco, salt, baking soda, papain, toothpaste, clay, garlic, urine, onions, aspirin or even application of copper coins. As with jellyfish stings, ammonia and ammonia-containing liquids, such as window",
"-23.406683878973126"
],
[
"through features such as blacklists, whitelists, and regular expression filters. Certain security features also have the effect of disabling some ads. Some antivirus software can act as an ad blocker. Filtering by intermediaries such as ISP providers or national governments is increasingly common. Browser integration As of 2015, many web browsers block unsolicited pop-up ads automatically. Current versions of Konqueror and Internet Explorer also include content filtering support. Content filtering can be added to Firefox, Chromium-based browsers, Opera, Safari, and other browsers with extensions such as AdBlock, Adblock Plus, and uBlock Origin, and a number of sources provide regularly updated",
"-23.397163230576552"
],
[
"Mupirocin Medical uses Mupirocin is used as a topical treatment for bacterial skin infections, for example, furuncle, impetigo, open wounds, which are typically due to infection by Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes. It is also useful in the treatment of superficial methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections. Mupirocin is inactive for most anaerobic bacteria, mycobacteria, mycoplasma, chlamydia, yeast and fungi.\nIntranasal mupirocin before surgery is effective for prevention of post-operative wound infection with Staphylcoccus aureus and preventative intranasal or catheter-site treatment is effective for reducing the risk of catheter site infection in persons treated with chronic peritoneal dialysis. Resistance Shortly after the",
"-23.340280860022176"
],
[
"Aspirator (entomology) In entomology, an aspirator, also known as a pooter, is a device used in the collection of insects, crustaceans or other small, fragile organisms, usually for scientific purposes. Design and use Such devices are most commonly used by entomologists for field and lab work. One of the most common designs consists of a small resealable jar or vial, the lid or stopper of which is penetrated by two tubes. On the inner end of one tube, fine mesh or another type of filter is attached, and this tube leads to the user's mouth (usually connected by a long,",
"-23.33907197008375"
],
[
"phishing emails that tricked users into installing the malicious software. More sophisticated delivery methods developed since that time use malicious banner ads which take advantage of exploits found in outdated of versions of Java, or Adobe Acrobat, Flash, Shockwave. A type of Drive-by download, this method typically does not require the user to click on the ad, and the download may commence without any visible indications after the malicious ad recognizes the old software version and redirects the browser to the Torpig download site. To complete its installation into the infected computer's Master Boot Record (MBR), the",
"-23.33454966149293"
],
[
"mosquito. This is primarily accomplished through the use of drugs. The treatment for B. malayi infection is the same as for Bancroftian filariasis. Diethylcarbamazine has been used in mass treatment programs as an effective microfilaricidal drug in several locations, including India. While diethylcarbamazine tends to cause adverse reactions like immediate fever and weakness, it is not known to cause any long-term adverse drug effects. It has been shown to kill both adult worms and microfilariae. In Malaysia, diethylcarbamazine dosages (6 mg/kg weekly for 6 weeks; 6 mg/kg daily for 9 days) reduced microfilariae by 80% for 18–24 months",
"-23.321386934214388"
],
[
"Finally, inspired by Daniel Drachman’s\nwork with chicks at Johns Hopkins, Dr Scott and colleagues injected botulinum toxin into monkey extraocular muscles. The result was remarkable: a few picograms induced paralysis that was confined to the target muscle, long in duration, and without side-effects.\nBotox is formed by spores of the bacteria Clostridium botulinum, which is found naturally in sediments as well as the intestinal tracts of some animals and fish. The drug binds to receptors in skeletal muscle, nerve endings, the brain, and some smooth muscle, preventing the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. By blocking nerves from sending signals to the",
"-23.306069661863148"
],
[
"product. They have no reported side effects other than possible skin irritation from the adhesive.\nStudies indicate that they are useful in increasing nasal cavity volume in the front three centimeters of the human nose, and for that purpose could be an alternative to decongestive nose sprays, but nasal strips are not particularly helpful for congestion in the posterior nasal apertures. They also have been shown to reduce snoring loudness and improve quality of sleep. Subjects wearing the strips in tests indicated that they believed that the strips helped them breathe more easily, and they are of particular interest",
"-23.285027602818445"
],
[
"the mosquitoes to determine the intensity of the resultant infection.\nThe researchers tested patient responses to various potential treatments. The majority of these treatments had not yet been evaluated on humans, and their toxicity and potency was thus unknown. Most were 8-aminoquinoline compounds, analogs of pamaquine, an existing alternative to quinine that was unfavorable due to its higher toxicity. The researchers tested a wide range of doses, including some exceptionally high doses of treatments known to be toxic. The purpose of this was to establish a maximum margin of safety, and to observe the manifestation of side effects. Thus, adverse side",
"-23.250360214500688"
],
[
"U.S. in February 1996, when the market exclusivity held by Bristol-Myers Squibb for captopril expired.\nThe development of captopril has been claimed as an instance of 'biopiracy' (commercialization of traditional medicines), since no benefits have flowed back to the indigenous Brazilian tribe who first used pit viper venom as an arrowhead poison. Pharmacokinetics Unlike the majority of ACE inhibitors, captopril is not administered as a prodrug (the only other being lisinopril). About 70% of orally administered captopril is absorbed. Bioavailability is reduced by presence of food in stomach. It is partly metabolised and partly excreted unchanged in urine.",
"-23.234348281403072"
],
[
"Transdermal spray A metered-dose transdermal spray (MDTS) delivers a drug to the surface of the skin and is absorbed into the circulation on a sustained basis. It works in a similar manner to a transdermal patch or topical gel. The drug is delivered by a device placed gently against the skin and triggered, causing it to release a light spray containing a proprietary formulation of the drug that quickly dries on the skin to form an invisible drug depot. As it would be from a patch, the drug is then absorbed steadily for a predetermined amount of time.",
"-23.226837192371022"
],
[
"can contribute in various ways throughout social media. When certain posts become popular, they start to get retweeted over and over again, becoming viral. Hashtags can be used in tweets, and can also be used to take count of how many people have used that hashtag. Bots Social media can enable companies to get in the form of greater market share and increased audiences. Internet bots have been developed which facilitate social media marketing. Bots are automated programs that run over the Internet. Chatbots and social bots are programmed to mimic natural human interactions such as liking, commenting, following, and",
"-23.222182189667365"
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[
"throat passageways into the lungs.\nIn agricultural nozzles the pattern of the spray is important so as to optimize the delivery of pesticides and fertilizers to the plants. Spray drying requires that the droplet sizes be closely controlled. In general, increasing the total drop surface area within the dryer will lead to higher evaporation rates and greater efficiency for the process.\nSimilarly, pharmaceutical tablets owe their thin film surface coating to an atomizer produced spray that needs to be perfect. The coating not only masks taste but also performs key functions such as sealing the tablet from moisture to",
"-23.219482250860892"
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"packing has been replaced with products such as Merocel and the Rapid Rhino. The Merocel nasal tampon is similar to gauze packing except it is a synthetic foam polymer (made of polyvinyl alcohol and expands in the nose after application of water) that provides a less hospitable medium for bacteria. The Rapid Rhino stops nosebleeds using a balloon catheter, made of carboxymethylcellulose, which has a cuff that is inflated by air to stop bleeding through extra pressure in the nasal cavity. Systematic review articles have demonstrated that the efficacy in stopping nosebleeds is similar between the Rapid Rhino and Merocel",
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"such as frequent net changing, cleaning/removal of unwanted organisms from nets, net repairs, and chemical treatment including antimicrobial coatings on nylon nets. The cost of antifouling a single salmon net can be several thousand British pounds. In some sectors of the European aquaculture industry, cleaning biofouled fish and shellfish pens can cost 5–20% of its market value. Heavy fouling can reduce the saleable product in nets by 60–90%.\nAntifouling coatings are often used on nylon nets because the process is more economical than manual cleaning. When nylon nets are coated with antifouling compounds, the coatings repel biofouling for a period of",
"-23.20977273839526"
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[
"bio-filter to remove contagious microbes or viruses from an individual in transport (TNG: \"Shades of Gray\", TOS: \"The Naked Time\"). The transporter can also serve a tactical purpose, such as beaming a photon grenade or photon torpedo to detonate at remote locations (TNG: \"Legacy\", VOY: \"Dark Frontier\"), or to outright destroy objects (TNG: \"Captain's Holiday\"). The TOS episode \"A Taste of Armageddon\" mentions Vendikar materializing fusion bombs over targets of enemy planet Eminiar VII in the course of theoretical computer warfare.\nWhenever a person or object is transported, the machine creates a memory file of the pattern. This has",
"-23.204955436987802"
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[
"software, images, text messages, email messages, or web pages. The most commonly utilized transmission vehicles for viral messages include pass-along based, incentive based, trendy based, and undercover based. However, the creative nature of viral marketing enables an \"endless amount of potential forms and vehicles the messages can utilize for transmission\", including mobile devices.\nThe ultimate goal of marketers interested in creating successful viral marketing programs is to create viral messages that appeal to individuals with high social networking potential (SNP) and that have a high probability of being presented and spread by these individuals and their competitors in their communications with",
"-23.185098466463387"
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] |
2qs3ix | With all the lawsuits going around where companies can't be sexist when hiring employees how is hooters able to only hire big breasted women | [
"They are hiring models. It is legal to base hiring of models on physical characteristics. They have already been sued over it and won. Edit: Well I didn't think my short comment would be the at the top. Hooters lost the overall case and had to settle. However, they retained the right to maintain their hiring standards on their female wait staff. They opened many other positions to males as part of the settlement.",
"Legally, it's what's called a \"bona fide occupational qualification\" that hooters waitresses must be female. The federal law that protects from employment discrimination says that you can refuse to hire someone based on their gender if their gender is that specific to the job. HOWEVER, Hooters has to be willing to hire male cooks, busboys, etc, because those jobs are \"behind the scenes\" and so are not protected by the Hooters = women thing. Basically, it works because Hooters' entire brand is based on hiring women as waitresses. Doesn't mean they can get away with never hiring men for OTHER jobs, and doesn't mean any restaurant could get away with it. If I had a restaurant that was 100% branded to be all about hot guys, I could legally hire only hot guys. But if I had a regular coffee shop that wasn't marked as a hot guy coffee shop, I could not legally refuse to hire women. ETA: Race is not a BFOQ, so no, you can't refuse to hire someone based on race. It's not going to fly. ETA 2: YES, EVEN FOR A MOVIE. As I have said below, race is not a BFOQ even for movies, but physical characteristics associated with race are okay in some circumstances, and yes, it is a big complicated mess. When the law was passed in the 1960s, the Senators who wrote a sort of guide to the law (which does not carry the same legal weight as the law but is considered by judges interpreting the law) said while the law says race is not a BFOQ, physical characteristics that go along with race might be in the case of a movie. Later judges have said that this means you can't base your hiring of actors based on race, but you can based on physical characteristics. In the words of one judge, \"A film director casting a movie about African-American slaves may not exclude Caucasians from the auditions, but the director may limit certain roles to persons having the physical characteristics of African-Americans.\"",
"They don't 'only' hire women with large breasts. I dated a hooter's waitress, and a lot of her co-workers were small or average.",
"You have obviously never been to a Hooters. Real vs. Ideal: Ideally Hooters would hire only big breasts. The Reality is that Hooters hire breasts of all sizes.",
"I asked a Hooters waitress if they had to have large breasts. The girl was pretty, petite, and had average size boobs. She said no, that she worked with a lot of beautiful girls who were flat-chested, and they either wore a push-up bra, or just wore a tighter top. Said management hired girls who were attractive in the face and body, not necessarily with giant breasts. Looked around and saw boob range from B to a D. This was at a Hooters in New York City.",
"Actually they don't hire big breasted women. I used to date a girl who worked at hooters, she just put on 3 bras before going to work.",
"They can also use this to set a weight limit to their employees, for example if you gain five pounds you are fired. They do the same thing in casinos.",
"What I want to know is, how do the people that apply even know they were refused for being ugly/small breasted? Can't the people that interview them just say they didn't make the cut for another reason and hire someone else? Hell at my old jobs we didn't even send out rejection notices when someone didn't make it. I saw a few get the axe for (behind the scenes) things that would easily get the companies in trouble. One guy had a wandering eye that creeped out my boss for example. They didn't come out and say \"your wandering eye is creepy so I'm not hiring you\". (Edit: not that I condone that, my boss was a dick)",
"The first time I went to a Hooters our waitress was flat chested. Hooters does not only hire big breasted women.",
"If being female is considered intrinsic to the job, it's called a bona fide occupational qualification, or BFOQ. Similarly, you can discriminate against black females if you're casting for a movie and you need a white male. You can discriminate against paraplegics if you're hiring an acrobat. You can discriminate against Jews if you're hiring a minister for a Methodist Church. And you can discriminate against people over 50 if you're hiring a child model. Hiring is a intrinsically discriminatory process. Companies discriminate against people who are unqualified, lazy, late, poorly dressed, combative, rude, violent, thieving, et cetera. Congress passed various laws to restrict discrimination based on certain characteristics. Primarily, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, or sex. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 covers age-related discrimination. And the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 includes disabled persons. The federal government doesn't prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, but many states, including California, have laws in place prohibiting it. When passing these laws, however, Congress knew the realities of employment, so it created exceptions in the form of BFOQs, in case the discriminatory characteristic is necessary for the function of the job and cannot be reasonably accommodated without undue burden. The courts are always in a position to be skeptical if an employer tries to stretch the limits what can be considered a BFOQ.",
"Simply put, human rights panels across both Canada and the US agree that if a workplace can provide justification that hiring otherwise would negatively affect their bottom-line then it is fine to have hiring practices like this. For example, say you own a restaurant in a primarily Korean part of Toronto and wish to only hire a person who speakers Korean so that they may communicate with the patrons. That is in your right as an employer as otherwise your bottom line may fall. This is the same case for Hooters.",
"Well big breasted men aren't usually confident in wearing tight fitting clothing, so its not that they're not allowed, they just kind of don't want to.",
"Former Hooters girl here! We were hired as models essentially and knew that our job was image-based. We had an \"image meeting\" every 90 days where our pictures were taken/updated.",
"This will get buried but... They are protected under title vii of employment law. It is illegal to hire based on gender since gender is a protected class (also included is race religion, certain age groups, and orientation in California). This is called disparate impact. They only way they can hire base on gender is because of the BFOQ (bona fide occupational qualification) clause. This means that the discrimination is legal as long as you can prove that it's necessary for the job/service provided.",
"I worked at Hooters in Ohio back in 2003. I had an actual normal interview. I thought they would make me put on the uniform or something but nope. The only requirement was you had to wear the uniform and they are of course very small. We had girls who were anywhere from A - E cups working. Pregnant ladies were allowed to modify the uniform and wear a regular Hooters t-shirt and normal length orange shorts. Our uniforms has to be clean and we needed to have our hair/make-up done. Hair was supposed to be worn down - this was about the only thing different than other restaurants where my hair needed to always be pulled back. There were strict rules to ensure the male employees did not touch/harass us. I'll say where I worked the male staff were very nice and looked out for us - except for the 2 creepy male managers who were gross. Just wanted to share what my experience was like - feel free to AMA.",
"Known as bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQ) in US employment law and bona fide occupational requirements (BFOR) in Canadian employment law, there are some selected, few qualities or an attributes that employers are allowed to consider when making decisions on the hiring and retention of employees: qualities that would constitute discrimination when they are considered in other contexts and thus in violation of civil rights employment law. Such qualifications must be listed in the employment offering",
"The answer to this is being an attractive female is a BFOQ. A Bona Fide Occupational Qualification - sometimes the very nature of the job requires you to choose candidates based on what are otherwise protected characteristics. Like age, gender, religion. For example: being attractive is BFOQ of being a model. Being able to lift heavy blocks is a BFOQ of a construction job. For more information see: URL_0 Source: HR expert.",
"I have been to a couple of hooters in the city, and some of the girls there are uuugglllyyy. Just plain eyesores. But then again, most people in said areas are ugly, so I guess standards are different.",
" URL_0 You might wanna read this article written by a girl who actually worked at hooters.",
"Surprised Dale hasn't shown up in this thread. :/",
"Here's the skinny: The suits relate to jobs wherein the work entails something such as physical ability, mental ability, or having certain skills. In jobs like these, it is illegal to discriminate based on sex or gender, as they have no bearing on the job at hand. Hooters however, essentially hires models or actors, who are required to fit physical specifications. For example, in a movie, you may need someone to play the role of a male, threatening-looking biker. Are you going to cast the guy who looks like Stone Cold Steve Austin and Danny Trejo's hybrid, Bill Gates meets Harold Ramis, or an Ellen Degeneress-sized Gwendelon Christie? The STCA/DJ person most visibly fits the role, and as long as his acting skills are good enough, he's probably going to be hired on the spot. Likewise, for a business that serves \"hooch, hotwings, and hooters,\" they are going to hire someone matching the description that can work as a server.",
"Former hooters girl here. It's not always true that you HAVE to have big boobs to work there but it helps. If you were drop dead gorgeous, they'd still hire you, even if you were the president of the itty bitty titty committee. Most of the girls I worked with, including myself used cutlets (fake jelly like inserts) or padded push up bras. It was never encouraged, but if you were smart, you knew that that made you more money.",
"The answer you are looking for is a occupational law called \"Bonafide occupational qualification\" BFOQ Basically an employer is allowed to be consider certain attributes or skills when it is a requirement of completing that job. In hooters case, part of their selling is people come to see the girls.. It's a main point of the company and thus a bonafide reason as a requirement for the position of waitress. URL_0 ",
"The Hooters in my town closed because no one in town wanted to be seen going in. And the real deal killer was if you went in, more than likely one of the girls is a friend of one of your kids. Awkward. I think it made it for about 2 months.",
"Have you ever actually been to a Hooters? Plenty of the waitresses are B-cup or even smaller. Push-up bras, deep U neck collars, leaning on your table just so, and being casually flirty does the rest. The one thing those girls all seem to have is....baggage.",
"Besides the model policy, allowing them to hire based on physical appearances, and going through several lawsuits, it's also not true that they only hire well endowed women. The men do non-waiter/ress work such as the cooking among other tasks.",
"Same thing happened to me when I applied for a stripper gig. They said I couldn't have the job because I am a guy. When I sued they changed their story to I couldn't dance. Mother fuckers! Lol",
"As I remember it, there are restrictions on hiring men vs women, but there are not restrictions on hiring sexy vs ugly women because ugliness is not a protected group.",
"This is a sort of related question... how come Curves - a fitness studio that caters exclusively to women - can exclude men... but you can't have men-only clubs?",
"Not entirely true. The Hooters at my location has small breasted women also. In fact, most of the hooters I've been to has small breasted females also...",
"I worked at hooters with a small C cup, however my ass goes on for days so I think that helped me out.",
"The hooters in Mission Valley (San Diego) doesn't have many big breasted women. If you go looking for them, you will be disappointed.",
"You've obviously never been to the Hooters here.. i have bigger moobs than any of the girls have boobs.",
"I'm going to open a new restaurant called Wieners! That'll show 'em. Wait... No I won't.",
"you should go to my local hooters... all small boobies.",
"The fact is humanity works on a pendulum and right now and for the next 10 years or so its gonna swing way in the direction of womens rights, because 30 years ago it had just finished swinging the other way. Heres an opinion im no konger allowed to have. I think men and women should be much less over sexed, and we are loosing our ability to form intense strong bonds with more people choosing to spend their 20s in superficial relationships that start based on lust, imagination, and limmerence. ie everyne is becomming slutty. Men and Women. But for some reason me as a guy looking for a girl on my level is now somehow anti women. Even though I hold the samestandard for myself and guys in general too. Love is important, and possibly the only spiritual hint left behind for us. Sex is the physical manifestation of it. If I say that out loud than I must hate women.",
"Employers can discriminate on pretty much whatever basis they want as long as they can show that the characteristics they are hiring are required to function in the role. For instance, you won't see any handicapped construction workers because it doesn't make sense to make a construction site accessible–they're the ones building the accessibility. It also wouldn't make sense to hire handicapped (or even weak) people as firefighters; if you can't carry or drag someone out of a fire, you can't do the job. The same goes for casting a movie, for instance. If you're hiring an actor to portray MLK, Jr, for instance, you probably want a black male of the appropriate age. It would be odd to have an elderly Indonesian woman portray MLK. Hooters has argued that their business model depends upon providing a certain kind of waitstaff, and they ended up settling when sued. IMHO they probably would have won if they hadn't settled.",
"Employers can discriminate against an employee if the job the employer is hiring for requires a certain qualification. \"Title VII prohibits employers from discriminating in employment decisions based on gender, race, national origin, religion or age. Many states make it illegal to discriminate based on sexual orientation or transgender status. Title VII also, however, allows for discrimination based on protected characteristics (except race), when that characteristic is what is called a \"Bona Fide Occupational Qualification\" (BFOQ). To be a BFOQ, being a member of that group is essential to the job.\" URL_0 ",
"Many businesses (including most major clothing companies) hire retail employees or in your case waitresses as \"models\" or \"actors\", \"performers\" job titles like that. Then they can put whatever requirements they want on applicants. The employees are hired under a totally different set of rules. Walk into something like a Holister and try to find an ugly employee, good luck, you'll need it. Source: Friend was a manager at a retail clothing store.",
"From what i understand, Hooters girls aren't Waitresses, They are actresses /entertainers. they don't do anything a waitress does. they don't run food, they don't roll silverware, they don't buss tables, they take your order and look cute. they are simply \"playing a part\". and in doing so, they don't apply for a waitress position, they audition for a hooters girls spot. its all int he wording and job title.",
"Hooters girls aren't actually considered waitresses by the company. Your official job title is \"Hooters girl\", which is described as an entertainer in all of the paperwork you sign. As an entertainer, they can pick whoever fits the look they're trying to achieve. Which is not always big boobs haha, I know a girl who worked there who had average size boobs.",
"I have a friend who works at Hooters, and her and many of her co-workers are in line with the model status quo, however, some are just moderately attractive female employees with a great attitude and good work ethic. The \"big boobs\" is a logo and actually a dress code, if you don't have em, Victoria invented the bombshell for a reason.",
"Hooter's hires plenty of small breasted women as well for the servers. The large breasted ones are the ones they mainly use for advertisement. So they aren't really being that sexist. What they do discriminate against is the girls having visible tattoos, being fat, or simply not pretty enough for their standards. Source: Cooked at Hooter's for a few years.",
"There was an AMA from a girl that worked at the Tilted Kilt (newer than hooters, but same idea). From what I remember the job description is \"entertainer\", so they have to fit certain physical qualifications. They are hired to be models/entertainers who happen to take your order, bring out your food, and pour your drinks",
"it's a job requirement. all companies have a interview process and they get the best candidates that meet their requirements. hooters requirements is big breasts, so a small breasted woman may never get in, although, the hooters near my place has girls working of all breast sizes. but i get the thrust of your question.",
"It's part of their business model. Hooters gets sued all the time for discriminating against people who aren't big breasted women, they just pay up. They have a certain quota of law suits they can handle and while the number of times they get sued is below that limit, they're ok.",
"I have not seen the real answer here, so I'll tell you: It's because hooters won a lawsuit where they were being sued for this exact reason. The conclusion was basically if it is an integral part of their business model, it can be allowed. It's called the bona-fide occupational qualification",
"They dont. Thats just you, only remembering the big breasted women working there. I have two or three petite friends working at hooters who aren't very busty. Also, they will even hire a man as a hooters girl so he cant sue. He just wont make any tips.",
"Not all Hooters waitresses have big boobs. I think Hooters is able to skirt a lot of problems by saying that their staff must fit into the provided uniforms. If a 300lb woman can fit into the shorts and t-shirt provided as the uniform she \"can\" be hired.",
"Honestly Hooters doesn't only hire women with big boobs. Both locations I've been to, actually had more women with small boobs than not. They were still really attractive women, but not always stacked. I didn't mind though, I like em small.",
"Besides what everyone has already said, Hooters actually does not recruit only big breasted women. Many of the women working there do not have big boobs and rather resort to tricks and illusions to make them seem several cups above.",
"Hooters doesn't hire women for the waitressing -- they \"cast\" for the position instead. Because they are \"casting\", they can hire the very specific type of woman they want for the position because it's the exact same thing in acting.",
"It's kind of the same way construction workers are usually big, strong men. The company is specifically designed to fill a need and Hooters need hot women the same way construction workers need to be bug strong men",
"I just figured if Hooters is a privately owned company they can hire anyone they please. For instance, an obese old man would have a hard time proving he should be hired to strip at déjà vu.",
"They aren't all busty. Just generally more visually appealing. Girl i liked in college worked at a Hooters in Virginia and was actually pretty flat chested. I tell you what though. . . she was adorable.",
"What Hooters are you going to where the waitresses only have big cans? I've seen plenty of Hooters girls that were fairly flat chested, and I've only gone there a handful of times.",
"I believe and was told that they are hired specifically as \" female models \" and must maintain such classification that the company posts such as weight control and body \"wellness\"",
"I'm gonna guess they are hired as models, not waitresses. That means physical appearance can be taken into account. It's how A & F have gotten around that one for years.",
"its the same reason the NBA doesnt get in trouble for only hiring tall men(or almost entirely) its because its a valid qualification, the law only protects against arbitrary issues",
"Hooters actually was sued for this almost twenty years ago. They paid out a settlement and agreed to practice more diverse hiring in other positions to balance it out. URL_0 ",
"I assume you've not actually been to a Hooters? Rarely do I see women with big breasts in there. Either that or you consider A and B cups big.",
"Former hooter employee : we are hired as entertainers and models as to why they can discriminate. Can also get fired for weight gain or changing our appearance.",
"My friend worked at Tilted Kilt and she said they called the interview an \"audition\" so they could decide if you got the part based on looks.",
"I've seen plenty of small-breasted women at Hooters. The way it was explained to me is you had to fit in the uniform",
"I AM A MALE AND AM GOING TO REQUEST A JOB AT HOOTERS. I WILL SUE IF DECLINED. ^^^Kidding ^^^^shut ^^^^the ^^^^^fuck ^^^^^^up",
"As a hooter girl I can confirm we are hired as \"entertainers\". Thus meaning they can discriminate on sex and physical characteristics.",
"I've only been to hooters a handful of times, but I was always disappointed by the absence of large breasts.",
" > How is Hooters able to only hire big breasted women Have you ever actually *been* to a Hooters?",
"It's essential to their business model. You can discriminate if it's essential to business operations.",
"Ugly or small boobs aren't a protected class under FLSA, state laws, et al.",
"Have you been to a Hooter's? Not all of the models are abnormally busty.",
"Big breasted? That's like maybe 1/4 girls working there, they only hire chicks.",
"Don't they just put their boobs on when they get to work?",
"I know what you're thinking, Dale Gribble. But it'll never work.",
"Are you suggesting they should hire big breasted men as well?",
"Big breasted? Clearly you've never been the to branch in Singapore.",
"They don't. Ever been there on a Tuesday for lunch?",
"Because sexism doesn't apply to men you silly bugger!"
] | [
[
"women enter sex work through job advertisements in newspaper, magazines, or the internet. Advertisements look like legitimate jobs, but women are required to engage in sex service once they are hired. Some women voluntarily enter for survival. Regardless of how they enter sex work, brothels abuse them economically, physically, and mentally. Procurers use debt bondage and lure women in with advance payments. They write employment contracts so that it is virtually impossible to pay back the debt. Contracts involve heavy penalties for failing to generate daily profits for owners. They eventually become stuck in increasing debt, and cannot get away",
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],
[
"measures In the sexual harassment example described above, the employer may be held liable for negligent hiring if the harasser had a previous history of harassment. This is because an employer has an obligation to its employees and others who will come in contact with them to provide a safe and productive working environment.\nOne preventive measure for negligent hiring is to perform a reasonable investigation on potential employees. This may include conducting interviews, verifying work and educational histories, checking references and conducting a background check on all applicants who have accepted an offer of conditional hire, and if an adverse",
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],
[
"to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women defines sexual harassment of women to include:\nsuch unwelcome sexually determined behavior as physical contact and advances, sexually colored remarks, showing pornography and sexual demands, whether by words or actions. Such conduct can be humiliating and may constitute a health and safety problem; it is discriminatory when the woman has reasonable ground to believe that her objection would disadvantage her in connection with her employment, including recruitment or promotion, or when it creates a hostile working environment.\nWhile such conduct can be harassment of women by men, many laws",
"-28.567054880782962"
],
[
"sexual harassment constitutes sex discrimination under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. A male supervisor was found to have retaliated against Diane R. Williams by firing her after she refused to have sex with him. The court found that it was form of sex discrimination when a condition of employment is to submit to the sexual advances of a superior. Additionally, there was evidence that other female employees had been subjected to similar conditions. It was ruled that William B. Saxbe had only required women to submit to his advances, which created an artificial barrier to employment for one gender",
"-28.228373244099203"
],
[
"problems; imposing financial penalties for companies that allow workers to remain in their position when they have repeatedly sexually harassed others; and forcing companies to pay huge fines or lose tax breaks if they decide to retain workers who are sexual harassers. Media coverage In the coverage of #MeToo, there has been widespread discussion about the best way for sufferers of sexual abuse or harassment to stop what is happening to them at work. There is general agreement that a lack of effective reporting options is a major factor that drives unchecked sexual misconduct in the workplace.\nFalse reports of sexual",
"-27.975483203248587"
],
[
"were charged with pimping. The court quashed the charges, arguing that the prostitution law of 2002 created a regular employer-employee relationship and thus gave the employer certain rights to direct the working conditions. Colosseum remained in business.\nIn early 2005, the media in Great Britain reported that a woman refusing to take a job as a sex worker might have her unemployment benefits reduced or removed altogether.\nA similar account had appeared in mid-2003; a woman received a job offer through a private employment agency. In this case, however, the agency apologized for the mistake, stating that a request for a sex",
"-27.88699424584047"
],
[
"they ever had and are choosing to make personal claims that may have been brushed under the rug prior to the internet culture we’re now living in. According to Time Magazine, 95% of women in the film and entertainment industry admit to being sexually harassed by men in their industry. In addition to the #MeToo movement, women in industry are using #TimesUp, with the goal of aiming to help prevent sexual harassment in the workplace for victims who cannot afford their own resources. Variations by country or culture Gender inequality is a result of the persistent discrimination of one group",
"-27.799850485753268"
],
[
"in the workplace. Backlash stress now deters many male workers from befriending female colleagues, or providing them with any assistance, such as holding doors open. As a result, women are being handicapped by a lack of the necessary networking and mentorship. Evolution of law in different jurisdictions It may include a range of actions from mild transgressions to sexual abuse or sexual assault. Sexual harassment is a form of illegal employment discrimination in many countries, and is a form of abuse (sexual and psychological abuses) and bullying.\nThe Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women classifies violence against women into",
"-27.72112960962113"
],
[
"in more than 80 territories by the end of 2017.\nOn December 23, 2017, The New York Times reported that there have been four settlements involving allegations of sexual harassment or defamation against Vice employees. In addition, over twenty other women stated that they had experienced or witnessed sexual misconduct, including unwanted kisses, groping, lewd remarks and propositions for sex, at the company. In a statement provided to The New York Times, Vice co-founders Shane Smith and Suroosh Alvi said, \"from the top down, we have failed as a company to create a safe and inclusive workplace where everyone, especially women,",
"-27.694333874504082"
],
[
"became one of the first women in the US to sue her employer on such grounds. \nIn 1975, Carmita Wood quit her position at Cornell University due to harassment from her supervisor, Boyce McDaniel, and the University refused to approve of a transfer. Subsequently, Wood filed for unemployment benefits from the university. Cornell refused to approve the benefits, stating Wood had quit for \"personal reasons.\" Working Women United was active in response to the incident and Wood's subsequent lawsuit. Cornell instructor Lin Farley, a key organiser in Working Women United, used the phrase \"sexual harassment\" at a hearing of the",
"-27.390290397568606"
],
[
"of illegal denial of promotion in retaliation against the plaintiff's refusal of sexual advances by her supervisors, the plaintiff must show (1) that she was a victim of a pattern or practice of sexual harassment attributable to her employer (Bundy has, of course, already shown this); and (2) that she applied for and was denied a promotion for which she was technically eligible and of which she had a reasonable expectation. If the prima facie case is made out, the employer then must bear the burden of showing, by clear and convincing evidence, that he had legitimate nondiscriminatory reasons for",
"-27.332774486341805"
],
[
"story and in the process they will have embarrassed and humiliated themselves.\nIn France, a person who makes a sexual harassment complaint at work is reprimanded or fired 40% of the time, while the accused person is typically not investigated or punished. In the United States, a 2016 report from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission states that although 25–85% of women say they experience sexual harassment at work, few ever report the incidents, most commonly due to fear of reprisal. There is evidence that in Japan, as few as 4% of rape victims report the crime, and the charges are dropped",
"-27.321503707556985"
],
[
"out in porn, producers don’t send them off for a routine labiaplasty.\"\nIn the United States, a labiaplasty surgeon can earn up to $250,000 a month. Simone Weil Davis, professor of American studies, told Shameless magazine in 2005 that surgeons are perpetuating the idea that there is a right way for women's genitalia to look; because most women see only their own vaginas or pornographic images, it is easy to make them doubt themselves. The feminist organization, the New View Campaign, has spoken out against the existence of unregulated cosmetic surgery clinics as business enterprises, which it says trade on women's",
"-27.259595666471796"
],
[
"can do about it. Furthermore, it is not taking into consideration how many of these workplaces have civility tools or initiatives at the researched companies.\nNumerous organizations, including the United States government, have actively attempted to put in place measures to prevent incivility in the workforce. One measure that was initiated to reduce workplace incivility, was processing cases of sexual harassment to be illegal, which is defined by the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as being against the law in every state to harass any person during the employment or hiring process because of that person's gender. Harassment can include",
"-27.24579982913565"
],
[
"levels and that these disadvantages become worse later in a person's career.\"\nIn the United States, women account for 52% of the overall labor force, but only make up 3% of corporate CEOs and top executives. Some researchers see the root cause of this situation in the tacit discrimination based on gender, conducted by current top executives and corporate directors (primarily male), as well as \"the historic absence of women in top positions\", which \"may lead to hysteresis, preventing women from accessing powerful, male-dominated professional networks, or same-sex mentors\". The glass ceiling effect is noted as being especially persistent for women",
"-27.14423699717736"
],
[
"may be offering equal salaries to women, and the density of women in technology companies may be relatively high, but this does not necessarily ensure a level playing field. For example, Microsoft (US) was sued because of the conduct of one of its supervisors over e-mail. The supervisor allegedly made sexually offensive comments via e-mail, such as referring to himself as \"president of the amateur gynecology club.\" He also allegedly referred to the plaintiff as the \"Spandex Queen. E-harassment is not the sole form of harassment. In 1999, Juno Online faced two separate suits from former employees who alleged that",
"-27.125849346164614"
],
[
"various sex work. The company suspended its adult listings following accusations by a United States Senate subcommittee of being directly involved with sex-trafficking and the sexual exploitation of minors. However, many escorts and erotic masseuses admit to moving their ads to the \"massage\" and \"women seeking men\" listings. Prostitution is illegal throughout the United States, except for some counties in Nevada.\nKristen DiAngelo, executive director of the Sex Workers Outreach Project of Sacramento, criticized the shutdown, questioning how many sex workers across the United States no longer had a way to support themselves. Backpage allowed for sex workers using the site",
"-27.07392572687968"
],
[
"tool, to be sexually, psychologically, and emotionally empowering. Feminist strippers argue that they receive positive reinforcement while performing, and this reinforcement perpetuates their self empowerment. A main argument of feminism is the exploitation of the female body by the dominant group, i.e. males, is a main concern that perpetuates the domination of females because of their body. Many find problems with self-identified feminist strippers, because of this argument.\nWhen I read some of the stuff written by so-called \"feminist allies\" it feels like they are fighting over bodies. Some of them say they are \"pro-prostitution,\" as if it could be that",
"-27.063211377710104"
],
[
"them economically by reducing their choices. Many adult performers have stated that the social stigma surrounding their type of work is already a major barrier when they're seeking help, and making porn illegal would leave them few options if they are suffering from sexual abuse.\nAs a result of #MeToo, many adult performers, sex worker advocates and feminists have called for greater protections for pornographic actresses, for example reducing social stigmas, mandating training courses that teach performers their rights, and providing access to independent hotlines where performers can report abuse. They argue that making porn illegal would only cause the production",
"-27.03971865773201"
],
[
"cases of what women would call sexual harassment, men do not consider the act as not unwelcome or threatening, and that the consequences are not as damaging for men as they are for women. Others Different documents (for example the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action) have stated that women of ethnic and cultural minorities are more likely to become victims of sexual violence. Other factors that are likely to effect the probability of getting sexually offended are social status, possible drug usage, belonging to a sexual or gender minority or being disabled as well as if the person is",
"-27.017239176202565"
],
[
"and gender discrimination laws, stating that it had \"repeatedly and persistently treated female employees less well than male-employees through gender-based hostile workplace harassment, quid pro quo harassment, and discrimination\" by maintaining \"a group of female employees whose primary job it was to accompany HW (sic) to events and to facilitate HW’s sexual conquests\". In addition, the lawsuit includes information that the company's Chief Operating Officer communicated with the Human Resources Director about complaints where settlements and non-disclosure agreements were needed, with the H.R. Director not being involved in any investigation or resolution process \"on more than one occasion\", and details",
"-26.96445032255724"
],
[
"for a price. She also makes the point that prostitution and many other sex industries reinforces the idea of male ownership of a woman. On the other hand, some other feminists see the sex industry as empowering women. They could be seen as simply jobs. The woman who are working them are breaking free from social norms that would previously keep their sexuality under wraps as immoral.\nBased on these arguments, Sweden, Norway and Iceland have criminalized the buying of sexual services, while decriminalizing the selling of sexual services. (In other words, clients and pimps can be prosecuted for moneyed sexual",
"-26.954047931008972"
],
[
"promote increased awareness of and viable remedies for the problem of workplace sexual harassment. As of 1997, there were only thirty-six countries with legislation specifically targeting sexual harassment. Of those countries, only 12 were from Latin America, the Caribbean or Africa. It is not uncommon for women to be subjected to bodily searches or fired for refusing sexual advances. The prevalence of subcontracting and other forms of \"flexible\" work arrangements in the global economy make it very difficult for women to organize against such abuse. Accord on Fire and Building Safety Designed to hold companies around the world accountable to",
"-26.89250897410966"
],
[
"v. Martin Marietta Corp. In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., a 1971 Supreme Court case regarding the gender provisions of the Act, the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool-age child unless they did the same with potential male employees. A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs which required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women to take lunch breaks when men were not required to. In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, the United States Supreme",
"-26.85917542898096"
],
[
"about mentoring up and coming female executives because of the perceived risks involved. One said, \"If men avoid working or traveling with women alone, or stop mentoring women for fear of being accused of sexual harassment, those men are going to back out of a sexual harassment complaint and right into a sex discrimination complaint.\" Politics and government Statehouses in California, Illinois, Oregon, and Rhode Island responded to allegations of sexual harassment surfaced by the campaign, and several women in politics spoke out about their experiences of sexual harassment, including United States Senators Heidi Heitkamp, Mazie Hirono, Claire McCaskill and",
"-26.814040072495118"
],
[
"mobbing or relational aggression.\nWomen are not necessarily sympathetic to female complainants who have been sexually harassed. If the harasser was male, internalized sexism (or jealousy over the sexual attention towards the victim) may encourage some women to react with as much hostility towards the complainant as some male colleagues. Fear of being targeted for harassment or retaliation themselves may also cause some women to respond with hostility. For example, when Lois Jenson filed her lawsuit against Eveleth Taconite Co., the women shunned her both at work and in the community—many of these women later joined her suit. Women may even",
"-26.795861854217947"
],
[
"their jobs altogether. Retaliation can even involve further sexual harassment, and also stalking and cyberstalking of the victim. Moreover, a school professor or employer accused of sexual harassment, or who is the colleague of a perpetrator, can use their power to see that a victim is never hired again(blacklisting), or never accepted to another school.\nOf the women who have approached her to share their own experiences of being sexually harassed by their teachers, feminist and writer Naomi Wolf wrote in 2004:\nI am ashamed of what I tell them: that they should indeed worry about making an accusation because what they",
"-26.76809334603604"
],
[
"worker would normally have been rejected, but the client misled them, describing the position as \"a female barkeeper.\" To date, there have been no reported cases of women actually losing benefits in such a case, and the employment agencies have stated that women would not be made to work in sex work.\nIn March 2007, the brothel \"Pascha\" in Cologne announced that senior citizens above the age of 66 would receive a discount during afternoons; half of the price of €50 for a \"normal session\" would be covered by the house. Earlier, in 2004, a 20% discount for long-term unemployed had",
"-26.70533182658255"
],
[
"risk. In 2010, Working to Halt Online Abuse stated that 73% of women were victimized through such sites. Types of victimization include cyber stalking, harassment, online pornography, and flaming. Sexual harassment in particular is a large barrier for women in the workplace. It appears in almost all industries, but is most notable in the following: business, trade, banking and finance, sales and marketing, hospitality, civil service, and education, lecturing and teaching. According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), sexual harassment is a clear form of gender discrimination based on sex, a manifestation of unequal power relations between men and women.",
"-26.67773189477157"
],
[
"men and women equally for equal work, and if they are not in compliance they will receive daily fines until they have reached compliance. While the law is intended to fix specifically gender inequity the lawmakers believe that it can also be applied for other marginalized groups such as race and sexual orientation. Google In 2017 a spreadsheet was distributed amongst Google employees that details the discrepancy in pay between male and female employees. The spreadsheet details that the salary and bonuses paid out at all levels of the organization favor men. Tech companies have continued to garner more importance",
"-26.62144945045111"
],
[
"and that the approach excludes women.\nOpponents of unisex public toilets have often referenced concerns that women and children are more likely to be harassed and sexually assaulted there compared to sex-segregated public toilets. Safety in public toilets remains a serious issue for women. The Me Too movement has underscored that sexual harassment disproportionately affects women and girls and remains a pressing concern for them. The recording of persons in private spaces without their consent (such as installing spy cams) is also an issue. Other concerns include that unisex toilets are avoided by women, leading to both discomfort to women and",
"-26.594999452820048"
],
[
"for open positions at the Charlie Rose show, all of whom were young women. Rose hired three of these women, one of whom told New York: \"I was being offered up for abuse\". Sexual harassment accusations On November 20, 2017, eight women who were employees of, or aspired to work for, Rose accused him of contriving to be naked in their presence, groping them, and making lewd phone calls. The accusations, which were made in a report in The Washington Post, dealt with conduct from the late 1990s to 2011. On the day the article on the women's statements was",
"-26.563298719469458"
],
[
"to The Nation article is Heather McGhee, president of Demos. She explains that a business model that relies on suppressed wages on those who are at the bottom of their society's social and political hierarchies – women as well as that of immigrants, people of color, and the poor – will not be feminist when a woman breaks through as a CEO. McGhee mentions some statistics gathered by Demos, which shows that retail's gender pay gap costs women an estimated $40.8 billion in lost wages annually, a total that will rise to $381 billion cumulatively by 2022. McGhee advocates that",
"-26.55438217218034"
],
[
"because the sex industry \"has been largely ignored by the evangelical church\" and the budget allotted to JC's Girls is small compared to the money made by the sex industry. Sandals Church members were also concerned that ministering to strippers would be ineffective. Brown responded by referring to Veitch's conversion, suggesting that other strippers could have similar experiences. Terry Barone of the California Southern Baptist Convention asserted that JC's Girls members \"are doing what Jesus did ... He ministered to prostitutes and tax collectors.\"\nBrown said that the most common complaint that he received about JC's Girls was \"the way Heather Veitch looks...",
"-26.545768482028507"
],
[
"of the women who work in these massage sex parlors have actually been forced into prostitution. The women may initially be lured into the US under false pretenses. In huge debt to their 'owners', they are forced to earn enough to eventually \"buy\" their freedom. In some cases women who have been sex trafficked may be forced to undergo plastic surgery or abortions. A chapter in The Slave Next Door (2009) reports that human trafficking and sexual enslavement are not limited to any specific location or social class. It concludes that individuals in society need to be alert to report",
"-26.52726153403637"
],
[
"speech.\nJana Rave, professor in organizational studies at the Queen's School of Business, criticized sexual harassment policy in the Ottawa Business Journal as helping maintain archaic stereotypes of women as \"delicate, asexual creatures\" who require special protection when at the same time complaints are lowering company profits. Camille Paglia says that young girls can end up acting in such ways as to make sexual harassment easier, such that for example, by acting \"nice\" they can become a target. Paglia commented in an interview with Playboy, \"Realize the degree to which your niceness may invoke people to say lewd and pornographic things",
"-26.48920321103651"
],
[
"impact \"discrimination\" against the department if they passed the 100-pound test at a rate less than 80% of the rate at which men passed the test. In order to avoid a lawsuit by the female job applicants, the department might refuse to hire anyone from its applicant pool—in other words, the department may refuse to hire anyone because too many of the successful job applicants were male. Thus, the employer would have intentionally discriminated against the successful male job applicants because of their gender, and that likely amounts to illegal disparate treatment and a violation of the Constitution's right to",
"-26.437602627207525"
],
[
"they were told that they would be fired if they broke off their ongoing relationships with senior executives. Pseudo Programs, a Manhattan-based Internet TV network, was sued in January 2000 after male employees referred to female employees as \"bimbos\" and forced them to look at sexually explicit material on the Internet. In India, HR managers admit that women are discriminated against for senior Board positions and pregnant women are rarely given jobs but only in private. In addition to this, it has been suggested that there are fewer women in the IT sector due to existing stereotypes that depict the",
"-26.420667607686482"
],
[
"is typical practice in companies and organizations to have policies against sexual harassment and to conduct trainings regarding sexual harassment. Due to this heightened awareness of sexual harassment occurrences, many individuals will step back from cross-sex friendships as they can sometimes be misinterpreted by the opposite sex individual or bystanders as sexual harassment. In the study conducted by Elsesser and Peplau, it was stated that most men interviewed in their study often think over conversation topics before initiating conversation with women coworkers, in fear that their comments would be misinterpreted as sexual harassment. In the cases of such wrong accusations,",
"-26.41432200728741"
],
[
"that they may be \"aiding and abetting\" sex workers commit crimes (such as brothel keeping, etc.), and told the media that they should require such registration before accepting advertisements. Prostitution Reform Act 2003 In 1997, a number of groups came together to hold a Women's Forum in Wellington, out of which a working group developed to draft a bill, including the NZPC, academics, women's groups (New Zealand Federation of Business and Professional Women, National Council of Women, YWCA), and the AIDS Foundation. Other individuals included legal volunteers and MPs, in particular Maurice Williamson (National, Pakuranga 1987–2017), Associate Minister of Health",
"-26.404623898502905"
],
[
"implemented to place women at a disadvantage, may actually harm women because they erase and contort women's history, under a mission of providing relief for other vulnerable groups. The same applies to theories that ignore the historical role that sexual harassment and sexual assault have played in women's history. In fact, women's struggles for equality is intricately tied up with efforts to find protection from sexual assault and sexual abuse. The interpretation of public toilet histories that claim patriarchy and sexism primarily drove sex-separation treat women's negative experiences with sexual harrassment as if they did not exist. Such approaches",
"-26.404037012311164"
],
[
"to attention because unemployment is sometimes a threat to women. The reason for it being a threat is because without jobs and their own income women may fall victim to discrimination or abuse. It is very valuable to many women to be able to obtain their own source of income, outsourcing allows women in countries that may not easily obtain a job the opportunity to obtain jobs. Many times factory owners discuss how many women want the jobs they have to offer.\nWith the availability of jobs and the seeming benefits comes a concern for the work conditions in these outsourced",
"-26.3996813787453"
],
[
"losing her job) for refusing to submit to requests for sexual favors. The appeals ruling was based in part on the Williams v. Saxbe (1976) decision. The court also found that companies are liable for not stopping sexual harassment if they know it is being conducted by supervisors. As part of the ruling of Barnes v. Costle, Barnes received around $18,000 for back pay and the loss of promotions. Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson (1986) In the 1986 case of Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, the Supreme Court first recognized \"sexual harassment\" as a violation of Title VII, established the",
"-26.364819815964438"
],
[
"filed by two female laborers and their male co-workers who supported them, settled for $65,000 and significant changes in the companies’ future business practices related to hiring of women, training and providing adequate toilet facilities. The workers allege that they were fired from their work on a 38-acre vineyard owned by Alsace Co. LP in June, 2013 after repeatedly requesting a second bathroom as required by law for their crew, which included both men and women. ”When farmworkers in California’s multibillion dollar agricultural industry labor in unlawful conditions, it is of extreme concern to the Department, which is charged with",
"-26.33911890303716"
],
[
"Professor of Economics at the University of California, Irvine, and colleagues (1996) found statistically significant evidence of sex discrimination against women in hiring. In an audit study, matched pairs of male and female pseudo-job seekers were given identical résumés and sent to apply for jobs as waiters and waitresses at the same set of restaurants. In high priced restaurants, a female applicant's probability of getting an interview was 35 percentage points lower than a male's and her probability of getting a job offer was 40 percentage points lower. Additional evidence suggests that customer biases in favor of men partly underlie",
"-26.325257114658598"
],
[
"to say this – however, women should avoid dressing like sluts in order not to be victimized.\"\nSexual assault victims may stay away from work in order to avoid contact with the perpetrator. For example, Caroline Lamarre, an office worker who was sexually assaulted at work, has not returned to work in order to avoid contact with her assailant. The assailant was convicted of sexual assault.\nVictims of sexual assault may be subjected to cyberbullying, as in the case of the suicide of Audrie Pott, suicide of Rehtaeh Parsons and sexual assault of Savannah Dietrich. The Netflix documentary Audrie",
"-26.322749335318804"
],
[
"blonde highlights as a Hooters Girl prior to becoming a brand manager and the company will continue to diversify its employees, from the restaurant to the annual Hooters International Swimsuit Pageant. Legal status In employment discrimination law in the United States, employers are generally allowed to consider characteristics that would otherwise be discriminatory if they are bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQ). For example, a manufacturer of men's clothing may lawfully advertise for male models. Hooters has argued a BFOQ defense, which applies when the \"essence of the business operation would be undermined if the business eliminated its discriminatory policy\". Charitable",
"-26.26781301968731"
],
[
"JC's Girls for not explicitly encouraging women in the sex industry to quit. He commended Veitch \"for her zeal and desire to reach the lost for Christ\", but asked, \"How can you stay in the industry and have a relationship with God?\", and quoted Matthew 6:24, a Bible verse that states that a person cannot serve two masters. In response to the idea that strippers should quit their jobs before attending a church, Veitch said, \"Do we ask gluttons to stop eating too much before they come to church?\" At the 2006 AVN Adult Entertainment Expo, photographer Michael Grecco photographed",
"-26.22854463639669"
],
[
"district liable in damages under Title IX for a teacher's sexual harassment of a student absent actual notice and deliberate indifference.\"\nHowever, many harassment targets fear to make reports because of the possible repercussions. \nOf the women who have approached her to share their own experiences of being sexually harassed by their professors, feminist and writer Naomi Wolf writes,\nI am ashamed of what I tell them: that they should indeed worry about making an accusation because what they fear is likely to come true. Not one of the women I have heard from had an outcome that was not worse",
"-26.196258530952036"
],
[
"in which he contracts female workers to have anonymous sex with male employees in an office through a hole in the bathroom wall. He convinces the entire office that this is a good form of sex and that it prevents sexual harassment in the work environment. This novelty becomes extremely popular and catches on nationwide. Reception Jennifer Szalai, writing in The New York Times, wrote \"DeWitt points to problems that are recognizable and real — how men’s desires can differ from women’s, how harassment can upend a workplace — and offers up a modest proposal using the familiar",
"-26.166641422523753"
],
[
"for many sport organisations, either through fear of reputational damage or through ignorance, silence and collusion.” Female athletes and sports industry employees need more education on what acts of sexual harassment look like, how to seek help, and who they can trust to speak out to. “All forms of harassment and abuse breach human rights and may constitute a criminal offence. Therefore, there is a legal and moral duty of care incumbent on those who organise sport, to ensure that risks of non-accidental violence are identified and mitigated.”\nAnother factor that contributes to the existence of sexual harassment of female athletes",
"-26.161527105490677"
],
[
"sexual harassment in the workplace, such harassment is common and generally not prosecuted. While the law recognises women's right to property, inheritance and divorce, many women lack awareness of their rights.\nPresident Mugabe has criticised homosexuals, attributing Africa's ills to them. Common law prevents homosexual men, and to a lesser extent homosexual women, from fully expressing their sexual orientation. In some cases it also criminalises the display of affection between men. The criminal code has been amended to define sodomy to include \"any act involving physical contact between males that would be regarded by a reasonable person to be an indecent",
"-26.15730586470454"
],
[
"opening themselves \"up to further harassment, victim-blaming, and unpleasant professional ramifications\".\nIn August 2019, following Nathalie Lawhead coming forward with sexual harassment accusations against Jeremy Soule, several other women and non-binary people began bring additional accusations against members of the industry, including some whose reports of sexual harassment had been generally overlooked in the past. A number of industry members established a \"Times Up\" group to encourage other women to speak up about events in their past. Anita Sarkeesian stated that this may be the expected #MeToo moment for the industry. Effects A study performed by Jesse Fox et al. suggested",
"-26.139633873543062"
],
[
"the ability to file complaints without retaliation. She supports legislation making it difficult for publicly traded companies to hide cover-up payments from their stockholders and would like to make it illegal for employers to require new workers to sign non-disclosure agreements as a condition of employment. Gender analysts such as Anna North have stated that #MeToo should be addressed as a labor issue due to the economic disadvantages to reporting harassment. North suggested combating underlying power imbalances in some workplaces, for example by raising the tipped minimum wage, and embraces innovations like the \"portable panic buttons\" that are mandated for",
"-26.129798496782314"
],
[
"losses (for example losing her job) for refusing to submit to requests for sexual favors. The appeals ruling was based in part on the Williams v. Saxbe (1976) decision by a U.S. District Court which ruled that quid pro quo sexual harassment constitutes sex discrimination under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Barnes also found that companies are liable for not stopping sexual harassment if they know it is being conducted by supervisors. As a result of Barnes v. Costle, Barnes received about $18,000 for back pay and the loss of promotions.",
"-26.126303457655013"
],
[
"the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights published a counter-report, and on May 17, 2013, the United Nations Economic and Social Council released a statement to the Government of Japan urging to introduce new regulations that would make sexual harassment in the workplace illegal.\nOn May 15, 2010, a former Prada manager filed a civil lawsuit against Prada alleging violations of women's rights.",
"-26.122546241618693"
],
[
"countries such as Nepal. Due to this, there is a great incentive for corruption as far as within officials and the police. “This puts women sex workers in vulnerable positions because the institution mandated to protect people either ignores their problems or takes part in the abuse.” If sex workers were to challenge the authority of these officials—even by demanding control over their own bodies—they are running the risk of being punished within the community and even the law. This is another controversial issue, in that the suppliers are always the ones being punished, while the demand sector of this",
"-26.116179537028074"
],
[
"open their own businesses after losing their jobs or as a result of annoyance with their prior professional positions in which they could have encountered discrimination, sexual harassment, and other disturbances. There has been an increase in the number of women pursuing self-employment within businesses of their own in recent decades. But, although having similar motives and displaying comparable skill sets as men, women have had less success within their businesses. Women are also subjected to opening a business within a limited number of fields and cannot usually venture into areas deemed as more masculine such as construction or carpentry,",
"-26.10845239837363"
],
[
"can or should do. In this way, gender plays a mediating role in work discrimination, and women find themselves in positions that do not allow for the same advancements as males.\nSome research suggests that women are more likely to volunteer for tasks that are less likely to help earn promotions,and that they are more likely to be asked to volunteer and more likely to say yes to such requests. Consequences The gender pay gap can be a problem from a public policy perspective because it reduces economic output and means that women are more likely to be dependent upon",
"-26.04835947486572"
],
[
"published by Christina Coleburn.\nIn reference to the toll that sexual harassment takes on women, Boland states that \"victims suffer physical, mental, emotional, and financial losses that can be devastating\". It is for this reason that many female athletes choose to stay silent about their sexual harassment. Discussed in the article Sports Journalism Has A Major Sexual Harassment Problem, women working in the sport industry infrequently report incidents where they have experienced sexual harassment and inappropriate comments throughout their careers due to fear or losing their job. “The impact of sexual harassment is often measured such as somatic, physical and psychological/emotional",
"-26.019635625416413"
],
[
"The employer cannot make any unwanted sexual advances including both physical and verbal sexual actions. If the worker files a complaint, the employer cannot retaliate. This law covers all full-time workers, including immigrants. This law does not cover people who are related to the person they care for, or if they are a part-time worker, such as a baby-sitter. Hawaii Hawaii governor Neil Abercrombie signed a domestic workers bill of rights in July 2013, making Hawaii the second U.S. state to give nannies, housekeepers and others protections on wages and other labor issues. The domestic workers bill in Hawaii makes",
"-25.9886714341701"
],
[
"the employer in sexual harassment cases. They called out the fact that there is no stipulated liability for employers in cases of employee-to-employee harassment, something upheld in many other countries. They also viewed the provision that employers are obligated to address grievances in a timely manner at the workplace as problematic because of potentially uncooperative employees. Furthermore, the law requires a third-party non-governmental organisation to be involved, which could make employers less comfortable in reporting grievances, due to confidentiality concerns.\nCompliance to this statute has so far been left to the vagaries of the employers and government has not taken",
"-25.971323224017397"
],
[
"Harvey, \"Sexual harassment has been at the forefront of recent headlines. Why is it important for men and women to work together in tackling this issue?\" Bennett answered:\n\"Sexual harassment is a form of abuse and no abuse should be tolerated whether in the workplace or in society. I believe that men and women should come together and be professional, leave this act alone, and anything that happens, such as sexual harassment, should be taken into the law and should be dealt with. Thank you.\"\nIn the final round Bennett was asked question - \"What quality in yourself are you most proud",
"-25.9030771147809"
],
[
"fired the women.\nThe women sued Platy Enterprises Ltd., the owner of Phraos restaurant, as well as Tommy, under section 6(1) of the Manitoba Human Rights Act, for violating their right to equal opportunity by firing them because of their sex.\nThe Manitoba Human Rights Tribunal held that the women had been subject to sexual harassment on the basis of sex and so the restaurant owners were in violation of section 6(1) of the Act. The Court of Queen's Bench upheld the decision.\nThe Manitoba Court of Appeal overturned the Court of Queen's Bench. The court found that sexual harassment was not considered",
"-25.89434331547818"
],
[
"There is growth in advocacy organizations to reduce and erase prejudice and stigma against sex work, and to provide more support and resources for sex workers. Legal dimensions of sex work Depending on local law, sex workers' activities may be regulated, controlled, tolerated, or prohibited. In most countries, even those where sex work is legal, sex workers may be stigmatized and marginalized, which may prevent them from seeking legal redress for discrimination (e.g., racial discrimination by a strip club owner), non-payment by a client, assault or rape. Sex worker advocates have identified this as whorephobia.\nThe legality of different types of",
"-25.893332626816118"
],
[
"tactic is also often used to frighten hired workers to not get pregnant in order to retain their employment. In addition, according to a 2004 study by Alex Covarrubias and Gabriela Grijalva that took place in Sonora (northern Mexico), twenty percent of maquiladora workers had been victims of sexual harassment by male co-workers, supervisors, and managers.\nAnother study found that in professional and technical occupations, there are about 65 women to every 100 men. This study also found that the greatest economic gender inequality exists in business ownership, with 17 businesses owned by women to every 100 businesses owned by men.\nEven",
"-25.890546775364783"
],
[
"Feminist stripper Benefits Feminist strippers exercise their freedom of sexuality, that is their freedom to choose how to use their bodies in interaction with their environment, through their performances, and this freedom contributes to a feeling of power and control. The amount of pay received can place strippers in an economic position of superiority over women in other occupations. Criticism There are many debates surrounding the justification of viewing stripping as a feminist action. Many feminists find stripping to violate human rights and dignity, saying that stripping, and sexual exploitation will be the \"end of feminism.\" This criticism is supported",
"-25.858918587327935"
],
[
"Work behavior Sexual harassment in the workplace Sexual harassment occurs when one individual (whether it's a male or female) takes a sexual interest in the other person while at work and try to exploit them. The act of objectifying the target could lead to the feeling of insecurities, and pressures to leave the company. A researched showed that out of 134,200 people in a studied, 65% of men and 93% of women were harassed sexually in the place of work and that efficiency of work was affected due to job turnover and people calling out sick. The study also",
"-25.840302802214865"
],
[
"with creating the term \"sextortion\" in 2009 to describe the pervasive form of sexual exploitation that occurs when people in positions of authority seek to extort sexual favours in exchange of something within their power to grant or withhold.\nThe IAWJ works with national associations in five regions to develop and implement training on issues concerning discrimination and violence against women, including its judicial training initiative, the Jurisprudence of Equality Program.",
"-25.838169744238257"
],
[
"years, while the company may be fined 10 times the salary of its highest-paid employee.\nSexual harassment is a criminal offense, punishable by up to two years in jail. The law encompasses sexual advances in the workplace or in educational institutions and between service providers or clients. In the workplace it applies only in hierarchical situations, where the harasser is of higher rank or position than the victim. Although the legislation exists and was enforced, accusations remained rare, and the extent of the problem was not documented. Property rights Though women possess significant property rights under the current Brazilian Constitution, de",
"-25.819885821663775"
],
[
"(\"GID\"), she began to experience harassment and retaliation following complaint. She filed Title VII claims of sex discrimination and retaliation, equal protection and due process claims under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, and state law claims of invasion of privacy and civil conspiracy. On appeal, the Price Waterhouse precedent was applied at p574: \"[i]t follows that employers who discriminate against men because they do wear dresses and makeup, or otherwise act femininely, are also engaging in sex discrimination, because the discrimination would not occur but for the victim's sex.\" Chow (2005 at p214) comments that the Sixth Circuit's holding and reasoning",
"-25.800858584581874"
],
[
"harassment as coming from a \"split\" between what she calls \"power feminists\" who are pro-sex (like herself) and what she calls \"victim feminists\", who are not. She argues that the split has helped lead to a perversion of the definition of sexual harassment, which used to be about sexism but has come to be about anything that's sexual.\nThere is also concern over abuses of sexual harassment policy by individuals as well as by employers and administrators using false or frivolous accusations as a way of expelling employees they want to eliminate for other reasons. These employees often have virtually no",
"-25.764111403026618"
],
[
"have an answer or they'll tell you 'No'.\" Falle stated that she believes that sex workers \"become sucked into the sex trade and become very conditioned\" within a short period of time. Falle expressed her opinion that women enter the sex industry because of \"unresolved personal issues,\" such as abuse or trauma, and that the \"vast majority\" of women in the sex industry are not participants by choice. At the Supreme Court of Canada On Friday, December 20, 2013, the Supreme Court of Canada struck down Canada's remaining prostitution laws, finding that bans on street soliciting, brothels and people living",
"-25.757216556332423"
],
[
"women. California law requires at least two separate toilet facilities when both men and women are working together in agricultural operations. Alsace vineyard manager, Jeff Roberts of Farm West LLC, acknowledged that he was unhappy when women showed up in the crew, as he had a policy to hire only men in the vineyards he manages. Workers stated that their foreman told them that Roberts demanded that either the men or the women leave. When the women refused to leave and again complained about the restrooms, they were fired. The farm labor contractor, DJRAS Corp., doing business as Prime Harvest",
"-25.755507410038263"
],
[
"sex workers, often female university students, and sometimes women who had become dependent on drugs. In 2014, the manager of a North Korean factory in China was accused of pimping out female factory workers.\nThe reports do not suggest that the state has consciously chosen to tolerate or profit from the sex trade as a matter of policy. The security forces periodically crack down on the sex trade, but inevitably, when corrupt authorities attempt to police a profitable trade, the authorities begin to see that trade as just another way to supplement their pay. More fundamentally, in a society where officials",
"-25.712364439154044"
],
[
"push the worker out against his or her will through shunning, sabotage, false accusations and a series of investigations and poor reviews. Another form of employment where workers are mobbed are those that require the use of uniforms or other markers of group inclusion (law enforcement, fire fighting, military), organizations where a single gender has predominated, but the other gender is beginning to enter (STEM fields, fire fighting, military, nursing, teaching, and construction). Finally, she suggests that organizations where there are limited opportunities for advancement can be prone to mobbing because those who do advance are more likely to view",
"-25.683230692091456"
],
[
"up preventing many more persons of one sex than the other from the job (such as height and weight limits). This act only applies to employers with 15 or more employees. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulations (1980) In 1980, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) issued regulations defining sexual harassment and stating it was a form of sex discrimination prohibited by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Civil Rights Act of 1991 The Civil Rights Act of 1991 added provisions to Title VII protections including expanding the rights of women to sue and collect compensatory and punitive damages for sexual",
"-25.667681938735768"
],
[
"prove their masculinity to their friends, or under peer pressure and fear that they would be rejected if they didn't participate in the assault. Sex industry and rape Some theorists charge that the acceptance of these sexual practices increase sexual violence against women, by reinforcing stereotypical views about women, who are seen as sex objects which can be used and abused by men, and by desensitizing men; this being one of the reasons why some theorists oppose the sex industry. They argue that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are",
"-25.59769642923493"
],
[
"a problem (see section 5, Trafficking). Laws regulating prostitution require prostitutes to register, undergo periodic health examinations, and pay taxes.\nThe law prohibits sexual harassment, and the government effectively enforced those laws. Of the 4,418 cases of discrimination brought to the ombudsman for equal treatment of gender in 2005, 408 involved sexual harassment. The labor court can order employers to compensate victims of sexual harassment on the basis of the Federal Equality Commission's finding on the case; the law provides that a victim is entitled to a minimum of $840 (700 euros) in financial compensation.\nThere are no legal restrictions on women's",
"-25.594041338277748"
],
[
"consider. She also said that, without the laws, \"pimps will be legitimate businesspeople [and] billboards advertising brothels could start appearing on roadsides.\" Ron Marzel, a lawyer attempting to have the anti-prostitution laws declared unconstitutional, said, \"the reality is there are consenting adults who want to go into\" prostitution. Falle was angered by this statement, and replied that 97% of women in the sex industry are not engaging in prostitution by choice, and that \"the voices of the overwhelming majority of women who want to get out of prostitution are being drowned out by a vocal few.\"\nThe Government of Canada disagreed",
"-25.589288833842147"
],
[
"ended. Firing someone because of lactation or breast-pumping is not sex discrimination.\" Hughes was overruled by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals which held that Venters had established a prima facie case of sex discrimination under Title VII. Sexism controversy Upon dismissing the indictment in a case titled United States v. Swenson, Judge Hughes sharply criticized a female prosecutor on the case, saying \"It was a lot simpler when you guys wore dark suits white shirts and navy ties . . . we didn’t let girls do it in the old days.\" The Fifth Circuit reversed, and stated that Judge",
"-25.578251340892166"
],
[
"offices specifically to provide counseling and assistance in rape cases. A number of NGOs, such as La Morada Corporation for Women, provide counseling for rape victims. Sexual harassment A 2005 law against sexual harassment provides protection and financial compensation to victims and penalizes harassment by employers or co-workers. The law provides severance pay to anyone who resigns due to being a victim of sexual harassment if she/he has worked for the employer for at least one year. During 2005 the Labor Directorate received 244 complaints of sexual harassment, and in 2009 there were 82 complaints were received. The majority of",
"-25.572226417316415"
],
[
"these studies. Discrimination Sex workers may be stereotyped as deviant, hypersexual, sexually risky, and substance abusive. Sex workers cope with this stigmatization, or othering, in ways such as hiding their occupation from non-sex workers, social withdrawal, and creating a false self to perform at work. Sex-work-related stigma perpetuates rape culture and leads to slut-shaming.\nGlobally, sex workers encounter barriers in accessing health care, legislation, legal resources, and labor rights. In a study of U.S sex workers, 43% of interview participants reported exposure to intimate-partner violence, physical violence, armed physical violence, and sexual violence in the forms of sexual coercion and rape.",
"-25.571041258517653"
],
[
"sex that adversely affects the dignity of women or men in the workplace is discriminatory. Such behaviour includes in particular threats, the promise of advantages, the use of coercion and the exertion of pressure in order to obtain favours of a sexual nature.\" United Kingdom The Discrimination Act of 1975, was modified to establish sexual harassment as a form of discrimination in 1986. It states that harassment occurs where there is unwanted conduct on the ground of a person's sex or unwanted conduct of a sexual nature and that conduct has the purpose or effect of violating a person's dignity,",
"-25.566911150934175"
],
[
"is not readily enforced for situations where sexual assault takes place. Pamela Y. Price in her book Directions in Sexual Harassment Law describes how \"a major argument for why [laws against] sexual harassment won't work in education is that issues of sexuality can't be regulated (similar to the debate in employment) or that adolescent behavior is too unpredictable to be legally controlled\" (Price 62). Finance It has been noted that, although the financial industry is known to have a wide prevalence of sexual harassment, as of January 2018, there were no high-profile financial executives stepping down as the result of",
"-25.538345946522895"
],
[
"Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes Background In 2000, Betty Dukes, a 54-year-old Walmart worker in California, claimed sex discrimination. Despite six years of work and positive performance reviews, she was denied the training she needed to advance to a higher salaried position. Walmart argued that Dukes clashed with a female Walmart supervisor and was disciplined for admittedly returning late from lunch breaks.\nIn June 2001, the lawsuit began in US District Court in San Francisco. The plaintiffs sought to represent 1.6 million women, including women who were currently working or who had previously worked in a Walmart store since December 26,",
"-25.52331872563809"
],
[
"jokes, remarks, etc., are only deemed discriminatory if the employer has stated so in their written policy. Law number 1385 of December 21, 2005 regulates this area. France In France, both the Criminal Code and the Labor Code are relevant to the issue of sexual harassment. Until May 4, 2012, article 222-33 of the French Criminal Code described sexual harassment as \"The fact of harassing anyone in order to obtain favors of a sexual nature\". Since 2002, it recognized the possibility of sexual harassment between co-workers and not only by supervisors. On May 4, 2012, the Conseil constitutionnel (French Supreme",
"-25.520762958505657"
],
[
"of the regulations around licensing for strip club-based sex workers. The most significant aspect was a reappraisal of the “no touching” rule so that it specified areas of the body to prevent people from being fined in the event of acceptable casual physical contact. Of those sex workers who responded to the survey, 67 percent stated that they had been sexually assaulted or touched without their consent, while they further documented the responses from their employers: 2 percent called the police, 34 percent asked the customer to leave, 22 percent ignored the incident, 4 percent blamed the stripper and 14",
"-25.517846547067165"
],
[
"around the world which prohibit sexual harassment recognize that both men and women may be harassers or victims of sexual harassment. However, most claims of sexual harassment are made by women.\nThere are many similarities, and also important differences in laws and definitions used around the world. Egypt Sexual harassment is rife in Egypt. A 2013 study from the United Nations showed that 99.3 per cent of Egyptian women have suffered some form of sexual harassment. Authorities punish women when they do speak out. Morocco In 2016 a stricter law proscribing sexual harassment was proposed in Morocco specifying fines and a",
"-25.512993248412386"
],
[
"person to employ or otherwise control or profit from the work of individual sex workers. A review clause was included because of the uncertainty as to what the right way to proceed was. The Act commenced 1 January 2006. Current situation Prostitution is legal, but it is illegal for a person to employ or otherwise control or profit from the work of individual sex workers. The Sex Industry Offences Act 2005 states that a person must not be a commercial operator of a sexual services business – that is, \"someone who is not a self-employed sex worker and who, whether",
"-25.50256752765813"
],
[
"work at the firm. It was Pao's contention that men with similar profiles were, nevertheless, promoted.\nOn May 10, 2012, Pao filed a gender discrimination lawsuit against her employer alleging workplace retaliation by a married junior partner, Ajit Nazre, with whom she had an affair. She planned to continue working at the firm but left on October 1 claiming that she was terminated. Her lawyer said she was fired in retaliation for her lawsuit and the complaint was amended to add that cause of action.\nPao joined Reddit in 2013 and became interim CEO in November 2014 after Yishan Wong resigned. Kleiner",
"-25.49093062314205"
],
[
"or woman is either underage or forced into the exchange, she is still often arrested and victim blamed instead of being offered resources. The men who are charged with engaging in these illegal acts with woman who are prostitutes are able to pay for the exchange and therefore are usually able to pay for their release while the woman may not be able to. This generates a cycle of violence against women, as the situation’s outcome favors the man. In one case, a nineteen-year-old woman in Oklahoma was charged with offering to engage in prostitution when the woman was known",
"-25.462831944809295"
],
[
"While the website is most commonly associated with men seeking to quit porn and reduce masturbation, there are a minority of females who are users of the website as well, who are nicknamed \"Femstronauts\"; Rhodes has estimated that five percent of participants are women.\nThe expression \"fap\" is an onomatopoeic Internet slang term for male masturbation that first appeared in the 1999 web comic Sexy Losers to indicate the sound of a male character masturbating.\nAlexander Rhodes appears in the documentary written and directed by Nicholas Tana called Sticky: A (Self) Love Story, in which he discusses his findings and his opinions",
"-25.44116287305951"
],
[
"people gave for why there were small numbers of women in the auto industry. Men cited the idea that such dirty work was unsuitable for women and women were unable to train because of family duties. Stobbe argues that the male workers created a machismo masculinity to distinguish themselves from women who might have been qualified to work in the auto shop. Women who do work in male-dominated professions have to carefully maintain and simultaneously balance their femininity and professional credibility.\nEven though gender seems more salient in some situations – for instance, when a woman enters a male-dominated profession –",
"-25.44015201018192"
],
[
"decisions made through majority vote, with or without their personal approval.\nIn the Lusty Lady case study, this strip club was the first all-woman-managed club to successfully unionize in 1996. Some of the working conditions they were able to address included \"protest[ing] racist hiring practices, customers being allowed to videotape dancers without their consent via one-way mirrors, inconsistent disciplinary policies, lack of health benefits, and an overall dearth of job security\". Unionizing exotic dancers can certainly bring better work conditions and fair pay, but it is difficult to do at times because of their dubious employee categorization. Also, as is",
"-25.436504730954766"
],
[
"addition, even when sex workers do consent to certain sex acts, they are often forced or coerced into others (often anal intercourse) by clients. Sex workers may also experience strong resistance to condom use by their clients, which may extend into a lack of consent by the worker to any sexual act performed in the encounter; this risk is magnified when sex workers are trafficked or forced into sex work.\nForced sex work often involves deception - workers are told that they can make a living and are then not allowed to leave. This deception can cause ill effects on the",
"-25.432684631119628"
],
[
"work is done by consenting adults, where the act of selling or buying sexual services is not a violation of human rights\". Legal discrimination Sexual discrimination happens to those who work both in sex work and forced prostitution. Historically, crimes involving violence against women and having to do with prostitution and sex work have been taken less seriously by the law. Although acts such as the Violence Against Women Act have been passed to take steps toward preventing such violence, there is still sexism rooted in the way that the legal system approaches these cases. Gender based violence is a",
"-25.430616774021473"
],
[
"panty liners and menstrual cups. This bill also did not pass. Legal scholars note that Ohio women still have to pay around four million dollars each year due to taxes on these items.\nIn Tennessee, the same bill was sent to the Senate and House to reduce the 7% sales tax on feminine products, defined as “any product to be used by women with respect to menstruation… [including] tampons, pads, liners, [and] cups.” Both the Senate and the House did not pass the bill.\nIn Virginia, a delegate named Mark Keam introduced House Bill 952. The bill wanted to exempt the same",
"-25.40787848344189"
],
[
"year in which \"sexual harassment became a fireable offense\".\nMen and women aired claims of sexual misconduct in workplaces across multiple industries, leading to the swift international condemnation or removal of many men in positions of power. On Twitter, the #MeToo campaign encouraged hundreds of thousands of people to share their stories. Examples of the effect are numerous, with Screen Junkies creator Andy Signore, actors such as Kevin Spacey, Dustin Hoffman, Louis C.K., Ben Affleck, and filmmakers Brett Ratner and James Toback all being affected. In journalism, allegations led to the firing of editors, publishers, executives, and hosts, including high-profile television",
"-25.396053344011307"
],
[
"for the poor. Therefore, poor women can be easily exploited when there is a lack of sexual services which does not lead to their empowerment. Melissa Farley supported this idea with an analysis stating that most women do not rationally decide to enter prostitution; rather, the decision is made as a survival choice and that there are certain circumstances can drive women into the field of prostitution, leaving them with a choice that is more along the lines of voluntary slavery. Thus, it is merely used as a surviving strategy.\nFurthermore, Raymond states that businesses in the sex industry are able",
"-25.390033023664728"
]
] |
2v4n6z | Why doesn't the West openly say the Russian military is fighting in Ukraine? | [
"West excluding Russia: not enough evidence. Russia's military doctrine is called 'maskirovka', and revolves around deception. It's a tactic that has been used for approximately a millennium, and is still as effective as ever. Basically the Russians deny everything, admit nothing, and play dirty; for example there is some evidence that they painted trucks white, disguising them as an aid convoy, and used them to ship ammunition and soldiers into Ukraine. Any other nation would probably admit that they have invaded another country, but Russia's MO is deception, disguise, and denial.",
"The West a) doesn't have enough evidence and b) even if they did have hard evidence, what would the West do about it? It's a cost benefit analysis issue, save Ukraine and piss off Russia, potentially sparking further conflict, or just leave the situation alone, and maybe sanction Russia a bit. The West is trying to deescalate the situation. Openly saying that Russia is fighting would be escalation, which is not something we would want.",
"even if they had had firm evidence of it, it would do nothing to solve the situation. It would most likely make it even more tense, and bring the situation futher away from a solution than it already is. What do you think they would gain from doing it?",
"Because it's not. There might be military aid/advisors. But the actual Russian army is not fighting in Ukraine."
] | [
[
"fight in Ukraine.\nOn 28 August, members of the commission called the presence of Russian troops on Ukrainian soil \"an outright invasion\". The same day, Ukraine ordered national mandatory conscription.\nIn late August, NATO released satellite images which it considered to be evidence of Russian operations inside Ukraine with sophisticated weaponry, and after the setbacks of Ukrainian forces by early September, it was evident Russia had sent soldiers and armour across the border and locals acknowledged the role of Putin and Russian soldiers in effecting a reversal of fortunes. Luhansk region The 76th Guards Air Assault Division based in Pskov allegedly entered",
"-33.53619248953328"
],
[
"official Russian military plates crossed into Ukraine near the militant-controlled Izvaryne border crossing on 14 August. The Ukrainian government later announced that they had destroyed most of the armoured column with artillery. Secretary General of NATO Anders Fogh Rasmussen said this incident was a \"clear demonstration of continued Russian involvement in the destabilisation of eastern Ukraine\". The same day, Russian President Vladimir Putin, speaking to Russian ministers and Crimean parliamentarians on a visit to Crimea, undertook to do everything he could to end the conflict in Ukraine, saying Russia needed to build calmly and with dignity, not by confrontation and",
"-32.6625484618271"
],
[
"Ukraine.\nThis is not our war, this is not your war, this is not the war of 20-year-old paratroopers sent out there. This is Vladimir Putin's war.\nHe accused Putin of \"trying to dissect Ukraine and create in the east of the country a puppet state, Novorossiya, that is fully economically and politically controlled by the Kremlin.\" Meanwhile, wrote Nemtsov, \"Russia itself is sinking into lies, violence, obscurantism and imperial hysteria.\" He stated that he sometimes thinks Putin is insane, but at other times he recognizes that Putin is driven by one goal: the \"preservation of personal power and money at any",
"-32.538979315024335"
],
[
"the Russian military intervention in Ukraine, Bandow described Ukraine as a \"fake country\" where \"there's nothing at stake\" for the U.S., and suggested that Russia should be allowed to exert influence there. Since the start of the Russo-Ukrainian conflict, Bandow continued to author opinion pieces on why the U.S. should not help Ukraine against Russia. Bandow's current non-interventionist stance regarding Ukraine differs from his own position in 2003, when he questioned the favorable treatment of a hostile Russia at the expense of a friendly Ukraine: \"But why not adopt a similar approach to Ukraine, the second-largest piece of the former",
"-32.45528967824066"
],
[
"incursion rather than an invasion. The Russian government denied these claims. NATO published satellite photos which it said showed the presence of Russian troops within Ukrainian territory. The pro-Russian separatists admitted that Russian troops were fighting alongside them, stating that this was \"no secret\", but that the Russian troops were just soldiers who preferred to take their vacations fighting in Ukraine rather than \"on the beach\". The Prime Minister of the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic stated that 3,000 to 4,000 Russian troops had fought in separatist ranks and that most of them had not returned to Russia, having continued to",
"-32.24508155955118"
],
[
"that allowed them to turn the tables on government forces. Armoured columns coming from Russia also pushed into southern Donetsk Oblast and reportedly captured the town of Novoazovsk, clashing with Ukrainian forces and opening a new front in the Donbass conflict.\nRussian officials denied reports that Russian military units were operating in Ukraine (see War in Donbass), claiming instead they had been sent on routine drills close to the border with Ukraine and crossed the border by mistake. On 28 August 2014 Dutch Brigadier-General Nico Tak, head of NATO's crisis management center, said that \"over 1,000 Russian troops are now operating",
"-32.183083096548216"
],
[
"mistake by the Soviet Union and its successor states, but the lack of media coverage, and the censorship through the war have ensured that many still remain unaware of their nation's involvement in the conflict. Despite Ukraine having the 3rd largest contingent of troops in Iraq in 2004, few also realize that their nation has many veterans of the Iraq war.\nSoldiers that took part in the War in Donbass can receive free land plots.\nOn 22 November 2018 the (Ukrainian) Ministry for Veterans Affairs was officially established.",
"-31.939269887283444"
],
[
"war in Ukraine, saying \"The Kremlin is determined to fight for the independence of South-east Ukraine.\" Following the video's release, a member of Dugin's Eurasian Youth Union (Oleg Bakhtiyarov) was arrested on 31 March for planning terrorist acts in Ukraine. OSCE monitors Monitors from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) were sent to Ukraine after a request by the Ukrainian government, and an agreement between all member states of the OSCE, including Russia. The Special Monitoring Mission (SMM) deployed on 6 April, and has remained in Ukraine to \"contribute to reducing tensions and fostering peace, stability and",
"-31.599472358997446"
],
[
"Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and foreign journalists have inspected the areas that came under fire from Ukraine's territory. Germany's military attache, Brigadier General Reiner Schwalb stated \"Russia does not conceal the events. Our task is to understand the situation,\".",
"-31.512824442703277"
],
[
"French television channel TF1 and Radio Europe1 in June 2014, Russian president Vladimir Putin said: \"There are no armed forces, no 'Russian instructors' in Ukraine—and there never were any.\" March–July 2014 In late March Russia continued the buildup of military forces near Ukraine reaching 30-40,000 troops total. Concerns were expressed that Russia may again be readying an incursion into Ukraine following its annexation of Crimea.\nAmerican and Ukrainian officials said they had evidence of Russian interference in Ukraine, including intercepted communications between Russian officials and Donbass insurgents.\nUkrainian media have described the well-organised and well-armed pro-Russian militants as similar to those which",
"-31.459504879196174"
],
[
"Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present) Background Despite being an independent country since 1991, Ukraine has been perceived by Russia as being part of its sphere of interest. Iulian Chifu and his co-authors claim that in regard to Ukraine, Russia pursues a modernized version of the Brezhnev Doctrine on \"limited sovereignty\", which dictates that the sovereignty of Ukraine cannot be larger than that of the Warsaw Pact prior to the demise of the Soviet sphere of influence. This claim is based on statements of Russian leaders that possible integration of Ukraine into NATO would jeopardize Russia's national security.\nAfter the",
"-31.347971281560604"
],
[
"the incursion – they were merely spontaneous 'self-defence groups' who may have acquired their Russian-looking uniforms from local [military] shops (voyentorg)\". According to the Ukrainian Gun Owners Association, Ukrainian law does not allow the selling or carrying of firearms other than for hunting.\nOn 17 April, President Putin admitted for the first time publicly that Russian special forces were involved in the events of Crimea, for the purposes of protecting local people and creating conditions for a referendum. Later, he admitted that Russian Armed Forces had blocked Ukrainian Armed Forces in Crimea during the events.\nIn answer to the question of the",
"-31.29107830359135"
],
[
"its border to reinforce ISIS.\" \nWhen asked in a Vox interview about Russian military policy in Crimea and Ukraine, Stein answered, \"These are highly questionable situations. Why are we — Russia used to own Ukraine. Ukraine was historically a part of Russia for quite some period of time, and we all know there was this conversation with Victoria Nuland about planning the coup and who was going to take over ... Let's just stop pretending there are good guys here and bad guys here. These are complicated situations. Yeah, Russia is doing lots of human rights abuse, but you know",
"-31.029813135042787"
],
[
"an air-defense army (8th Air Defence Army), three regular armies, two tank armies, one army corps, and the Black Sea Fleet. Altogether the Armed Forces of Ukraine included about 780,000 personnel, 6,500 tanks, about 7,000 combat armored vehicles, 1,500 combat aircraft, and more than 350 ships. Along with their equipment and personnel, Ukraine's armed forces inherited the battle honors and lineage of the Soviet forces stationed in Ukraine. However, due to the deterioration of Russian-Ukrainian relations and to the continued stigma of being associated with the Soviet Union, in 2015 the President of Ukraine ordered the removal of most",
"-30.995708342641592"
],
[
"military in Ukraine, and Russian officials stated that their military forces in Crimea were not a breach of existing agreements between Russia and Ukraine. The Ukrainian response has been muted trying to find a diplomatic solution, with no military action on the part of Ukraine's government, which was formed in Kiev less than a week before the intervention. Russia vowed troops would stay until the political situation was \"normalised\". A referendum on whether Crimea would separate from Ukraine was held on 16 March 2014—the same day as the closing ceremony of these Games.\nThe effects of these developments led to several",
"-30.957853759024147"
],
[
"near Ukrainian-Russian border was shelled by modern Russian MLRS system 9K51M \"Tornado-G\", suffering heavy casualties.\nOn 24 July, the American government stated that it had evidence that the Russian military was firing on Ukrainian territory from across the border. A spokesman for the US Department of Defence stated that there was \"no question\" as to Russia's involvement in the attacks on Ukrainian Armed Forces. On 28 July, it published satellite photos showing heavy artillery shelling Ukrainian positions from Russian territory. On 27 July, U.S. officials confirmed Russia had shelled Ukrainian territory. At the time, Russian government spokesman denied these allegations.\nThe shelling",
"-30.940907791722566"
],
[
"political science at Rutgers University argues that Russia's direct and indirect involvement in the violence in eastern Ukraine qualifies as a state-sponsored terrorism, and that those involved qualify as \"terrorist groups.\" Behaviour by Russia with its neighbours was named by Dalia Grybauskaitė, President of Lithuania, who gave an interview to the BBC, in which she repeated her charge, saying that \"Russia demonstrates the qualities of a terrorist state.\"\nIn May 2016, Reuters published a Special Report titled \"How Russia allowed homegrown radicals to go and fight in Syria\" that, based on first-hand evidence, said that at least in the period between",
"-30.909562088316306"
],
[
"there is no doubt.\" Zbigniew Brzezinski, a former American National Security Advisor, said that the events in the Donbass were similar to events in Crimea, which led to its annexation by Russia, and noted that Russia acted similarly.\nIn April 2014, a US State Department spokeswoman, Jen Psaki, said, \"there has been broad unity in the international community about the connection between Russia and some of the armed militants in eastern Ukraine\". The Ukrainian government released photos of soldiers in eastern Ukraine, which the US State Department said showed that some of the fighters were Russian special forces. US Secretary of",
"-30.89626091693208"
],
[
"Russian military intervention in Ukraine \"until normalization of a socio-political environment in the country\". Putin's swift manoeuvre prompted protests of intelligentsia and demonstrations in Moscow against a Russian military campaign in Crimea. By 2 March, Russian troops moving from the country's naval base in Sevastopol and reinforced by troops, armour, and helicopters from mainland Russia exercised complete control over the Crimean Peninsula. Russian troops operated in Crimea without insignia. On 4 March, Ukrainian General Staff claimed there were units of the 18th Motor Rifle Brigade, 31st Air Assault Brigade and 22nd Spetsnaz Brigade deployed and operating in Crimea, instead of",
"-30.873999455419835"
],
[
"Modern Russia, added, “Armed conflict between Russia and Ukraine is a tragedy. The Report explains the legal stakes, but no Report can explain adequately the terrifying human stakes for both Russia and Ukraine.”\nThe Report, with citations, covers the right of secession; crimes of aggression; critical energy security issues; sanctions imposed to date; and military law.\nAmbassador Sergeyev, the Razom Organization and the international team of legal scholars that put together this document, encourage all people to access The White Paper and ensure that they keep being actively informed.\n\nThe report can be viewed on-line at http://razomforukraine.org/report.",
"-30.868082122295164"
],
[
"the Russia-backed separatist forces of the self-declared Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics. In August Russian military vehicles crossed the border in several locations of Donetsk Oblast. The incursion by the Russian military was seen as responsible for the defeat of Ukrainian forces in early September.\nIn November 2014, the Ukrainian military reported intensive movement of troops and equipment from Russia into the separatist-controlled parts of eastern Ukraine. The Associated Press reported 80 unmarked military vehicles on the move in rebel-controlled areas. An OSCE Special Monitoring Mission observed convoys of heavy weapons and tanks in DPR-controlled territory without insignia. OSCE monitors further",
"-30.84126032423228"
],
[
"escalated at least one week prior to the invasion. According to NATO reports, Russian military shelled Ukrainian positions across the border from mid-August, and by 22 August, Russian artillery and personnel had crossed the border into Ukraine itself. August 2014 military invasion In early August, according to Igor Strelkov, Russian servicemen, supposedly on \"vacation\" from the army, began to arrive in Donbass.\nOn 13 August, members of the Russian Human Rights Commission stated that over 100 Russian soldiers had been killed in the fighting in Ukraine and inquired why they were there.\nA convoy of military vehicles, including armoured personnel carriers, with",
"-30.797346284263767"
],
[
"heavy weapons\" into the Donbass. Deputy head of the OSCE mission in Ukraine Alexander Hug said on 25 March 2016 that the OSCE had observed \"armed people with Russian insignia\" fighting in Donbass from the beginning of the conflict, that they had talked to prisoners who said they were Russian soldiers, and that they had seen \"tire tracks, not the vehicles themselves, but the tracks of vehicles crossing the [Russo-Ukrainian] border\". Russian Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Maria Zakharova said on 27 March 2016 that Russia was \"not a party to the Minsk agreements\", and that the agreements were \"devoted to two",
"-30.756516360444948"
],
[
"war which isolated it from the rest of the world. The comments came as international sanctions against Russia were being stepped up.\nOn 22 August 2014, according to NATO officials, Russia moved self-propelled artillery onto the territory of Ukraine.\nOn 24 August 2014, President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko referred to the conflict as Ukraine's \"Patriotic War of 2014\" and a war against \"external aggression\". The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine labeled the conflict an invasion on 27 August 2014.\nOn 26 August 2014, a mixed column composed of at least 3 T-72B1s and a lone T-72BM was identified on a video from",
"-30.59934262096067"
],
[
"Ukraine of turning to the \"practice of terrorism\". Ukrainian President Poroshenko called the Russian version of events \"equally cynical and insane\". The U.S. denied Russia's claims, with its ambassador to Ukraine (Geoffrey R. Pyatt) stating \"The U.S. Government has seen nothing so far that corroborates Russian allegations of a \"Crimea incursion\".\nUkrainian president Petro Poroshenko warned that Russia was preparing for a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, something that Europe is too weak to prevent it from doing. 2018 Kerch Strait incident On 25 November, near the Russia-controlled Kerch Strait, Russian warships fired on and seized three Ukrainian vessels: (P175) Berdiansk and",
"-30.54692029405851"
],
[
"the report, the Russian troops are the most capable units on the anti-Ukrainian side, with the regular Donetsk and Luhansk rebel formations being used essentially as \"cannon fodder\". The Chicago Council on Global Affairs stated that the Russian separatists enjoyed technical advantages over the Ukrainian army since the large inflow of advanced military systems in mid-2014: effective anti-aircraft weapons (\"Buk\", MANPADS) suppressed Ukrainian air strikes, Russian drones provided intelligence, and Russian secure communications system thwarted the Ukrainian side from communications intelligence. The Russian side also frequently employed electronic warfare systems that Ukraine lacked. Similar conclusions about the technical advantage of",
"-30.53144578228239"
],
[
"War. And that is exactly what Russia’s President Putin is trying to do.\" Implying that Yatsenyuk said that it was the USSR who started the war against Germany and not the other way around, this later turned out to be a misrepresentation meant to further the Russian political objectives in Ukraine. The actual statement by Yatsenyuk was \"Russian aggression against Ukraine is an encroachment on the world order. We all remember well the Soviet invasion both in Ukraine, including, and in Germany. It must be avoided. Nobody is allowed to rewrite the results of the Second World War.\" Referring the",
"-30.51122356867654"
],
[
"Western Military District History On 26 February 2014, during the Crimean crisis, President Vladimir Putin ordered the Russian Armed Forces to be \"put on alert in the Western Military District as well as units stationed with the 2nd Army Central Military District Command involved in aerospace defense, airborne troops and long-range military transport.\" Despite media speculation it was for in reaction to the events in Ukraine, Russian Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu said it was unrelated to the unrest in Ukraine.\nA December 2018 Russian Ministry of Defense press release reported that an independent Spetsnaz company had been formed in a combined",
"-30.485698597020928"
],
[
"Security and Defence of Ukraine announced that there is a chance of Russian military invasion and that Ukrainian army is ready to stop it. On 7 August 2014, the leader of pro-Russian militants Alexander Borodai was replaced with Alexander Zakharchenko. Ukrainian troops made their first attempts to attack Ilovaysk on 7 August 2014.\nOver the next few days, Ukrainian forces made multiple attempts to enter the city but were bogged down by heavy fighting with the insurgents. Ukrainian forces enter Ilovaisk Ukrainian forces attempted to enter Ilovaisk during the day on 18 August but failed. Led by the Donbas Battalion, government",
"-30.480161217885325"
],
[
"ammunition truck into a Ukrainian checkpoint, the Russian military maintained the man was not involved with the Russian military and fought for local separatists. The major was later exchanged for captured Ukrainian soldiers. In September 2015 Ukraine's border guards detained 2 Russian internal troops when they crossed the border in Ukraine's Luhansk oblast, the Russian servicemen stated they were lost and crossed the border by accident, with the Russian Military of Defense accusing Ukraine's forces of crossing into the nearby Russian village and abducting the servicemen. In October 2015, Russian Ministry of Defence admitted that \"special forces were pulled out",
"-30.445642452978063"
],
[
"Governance In March 2016, Germany's Bild reported that minutes from an October 2015 meeting of the \"Interministerial Commission for the Provision of Humanitarian Aid for the Affected Areas of the Southeast of the Donetsk and Lugansk Regions\" indicated that Russia was running militant-controlled parts of east Ukraine. According to Bild, \"It is notable that no members of the self-declared people's republics in eastern Ukraine are on the commission\". Ukrainian response Interim Ukrainian President Oleksandr Turchynov accused Russia of \"provoking a conflict\" by backing the seizure of the Crimean parliament building and other government offices on the Crimean peninsula. He compared",
"-30.43958757002838"
],
[
"Russian Black Sea Fleet personnel, which violated international agreements signed by Ukraine and Russia. Despite numerous media reports and statements by the Ukrainian and foreign governments describing the unmarked troops as Russian soldiers, government officials concealed the identity of their forces, claiming they were local \"self-defence\" units over whom they had no authority. As late as 17 April, Russian foreign minister Lavrov said that there were no spare armed forces in the territory of Crimea.\nRussian officials eventually admitted to their troops' presence. On 17 April 2014, Putin acknowledged the Russian military backed Crimean separatist militias, stating that Russia's intervention was",
"-30.43126171890617"
],
[
"a series of military defeats and setbacks for the Donetsk and Lugansk separatists, who united under the banner of \"Novorossiya\", a term Russian President Vladimir Putin used to describe southeastern Ukraine, Russia dispatched what it called a \"humanitarian convoy\" of trucks across the Russo-Ukrainian border in mid-August 2014. Ukraine reacted to the move by calling it a \"direct invasion\". Ukraine's National Security and Defense Council published a report on the number and contents of these convoys, claiming they were arriving almost daily in November (up to 9 convoys on 30 November) and their contents were mainly arms and ammunition. In",
"-30.391788198263384"
],
[
"eastern and southern Ukraine, including Donetsk, Luhansk, Kharkiv, and Odessa. Russian annexation of Crimea Starting on 26 February 2014, pro-Russian armed men gradually began to take over the peninsula, provoking protests. Russia initially said that these uniformed militants, termed \"little green men\" in Ukraine, were \"local self-defence forces\". However, they later admitted that these were in fact Russian soldiers without insignias, confirming on-the-ground reports of a Russian incursion into Ukraine. By 27 February, the Crimean parliament building had been seized by Russian forces. Russian flags were raised over these buildings, and a self-declared pro-Russian government said that it would hold",
"-30.25404501230514"
],
[
"they would not return to Ukraine if the Ukrainian army won the War in Donbass, but would, instead, engage in a partisan warfare campaign in Eastern Ukraine.",
"-30.218485574965598"
],
[
"Ukrainian servicemen and this is a war crime without any expiry under a statute of limitations.\" Acting Ukrainian president Oleksandr Turchynov suggested that the Russian annexation of Crimea was moving from a political phase to a military phase, following the announcement of the death of a servicemen. He issued orders on the night of 18 March, allowing Ukrainian soldiers to use their weapons to defend themselves. The Ukrainian government released a statement declaring that the steps Russia was reminiscent to those taken by Nazi Germany and its annexations of territories before the start of World War 2.\nThe Treaty on Accession",
"-30.21543081686832"
],
[
"necessary, replace the increasingly unpopular United Russia party that currently backs Putin. Intervention in Ukraine and annexation of Crimea In 2014, Russia made several military incursions into Ukrainian territory. After the Euromaidan protests and the fall of Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych, Russian soldiers without insignias took control of strategic positions and infrastructure within the Ukrainian territory of Crimea. Russia then annexed Crimea after a disputed referendum in which Crimeans voted to join the Russian Federation, according to official results. Subsequently, demonstrations by pro-Russian groups in the Donbass area of Ukraine escalated into an armed conflict between the Ukrainian government and",
"-30.180175780842546"
],
[
"between Ukraine and the Soviet Russia. Between the fighting sides was created a neutral territory between 10–40 km wide to prevent further aggression, yet the Russian side decided to create some guerrilla forces which were transformed in two \"Ukrainian divisions\" (see Nikolay Shchors).\nPeace talks started on 23 May 1918 in Kiev where the Russian delegation was headed by Christian Rakovsky and Dmitry Manuilsky, while the Ukrainian - by Serhiy Shelukhin (Ambassador of Ukraine to Russia). On June 12, 1918 the sides signed the preliminary peace treaty. Further negotiations stalled due to lack of consensus on issue of the border. The Ukrainian",
"-30.11047188975499"
],
[
"Russia–Ukraine barrier History Following the 2014–15 Russian military intervention in Ukraine, in June 2014, Ukrainian politician and business magnate Ihor Kolomoyskyi suggested that Ukraine should build a wall along the border with Russia. On 3 September 2014 Ukrainian Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk announced Ukraine would strengthen its border with Russia and called this \"Project Wall\". The command of Ukraine's anti-terrorist forces stated that \"Two defense lines have been planned, and their main goal is to prevent the infiltration by the adversary into the territory of Ukraine\". According to Yatsenyuk the project was needed \"to cut off Russian support for insurgents",
"-30.046161580830812"
],
[
"August 10, Russia claimed two servicemen were killed and 10 injured in clashes with Ukrainian commandos in Armyansk (Crimea) on August 7, and that Ukrainian operatives had been captured. Russian media reported that one of the killed soldiers was a commander of the Russian GRU, and later was buried in Simferopol. Ukraine denied that the incident took place, and parallel to the incident on August 9, a Ukrainian official claimed that a number of Russian soldiers had deserted but had not entered into Ukraine, and that skirmishes broke out between Russian intelligence officers and border guards. Russian President Putin accused",
"-30.03871249873191"
],
[
"The Russian Federation, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America reaffirm their obligation to refrain from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of Ukraine, and that none of their weapons will ever be used against Ukraine except in self-defence or otherwise in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.\n3. The Russian Federation, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America reaffirm their commitment to Ukraine, in accordance with the principles of the Final Act of the Conference",
"-30.029804598307237"
],
[
"Armed Forces of Ukraine Origins of the Modern Ukrainian Military As of 1992, the Ukrainian Armed Forces were completely inherited from the Soviet Union, in which Ukraine had been a member state (a union republic). Like other Soviet republics, it did not possess its own separate military command, as all military formations were uniformly subordinated to the central command of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Administratively, the Ukrainian SSR was divided into three Soviet military districts (the Carpathian Military District, Kiev Military District, and Odesa Military District). Three Soviet air commands and most of the Black Sea Fleet naval",
"-30.02752923197113"
],
[
"(including Kiev), while the Commonwealth retained the right-bank Ukraine.\nIn addition to the territorial changes from the war, this conflict sparked major changes in the Russian military. While the Russian army was still a \"semi-standing, mobilized seasonally\", this conflict moved it along the path toward a standing army, laying the groundwork for Russian military successes under Peter the Great and Catherine the Great.",
"-29.988512308627833"
],
[
"use of weapons.\nSince 30 November 2018 Ukraine bans all Russian men between 16 and 60 from entering the country with exceptions for humanitarian purposes. Ukraine claims this is a security measure to prevent Russia from forming units of “private” armies on Ukrainian soil. Security checkpoints Since the start of the War in Donbass in April 2014 Ukraine lost (according to head of the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine Viktor Nazarenko) control of 409.3 kilometres (254.3 mi) of the state border in southeastern Ukraine. This stretch of land is now controlled by organizations better known as Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk",
"-29.96801509251236"
],
[
"of Ukraine and sent to Syria\" and that they were serving in eastern Ukraine on territories held by pro-Russian rebels. On 17 December 2015 when asked about the two detained Russian citizens in Ukraine who were being accused of being military intelligence officers President Vladimir Putin responded: \"We never said there were not people there who carried out certain tasks including in the military sphere.\" This was generally taken as an admission that Russian military operatives were deployed to Ukraine. Before that declaration there had been a large amount of circumstantial evidence that confirmed the presence of Russia's military.\nLarge part",
"-29.95645488257287"
],
[
"World\" could acquire Russian citizenship.\nOn 26 February, Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered the Russian Armed Forces to be \"put on alert in the Western Military District as well as units stationed with the 2nd Army Central Military District Command involved in aerospace defence, airborne troops and long-range military transport.\" Despite media speculation that this was in reaction to the events in Ukraine, Russian Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu said it was for reasons separate from the unrest in Ukraine. On 27 February 2014, the Russian government dismissed accusations that it was in violation of the basic agreements regarding the Black Sea",
"-29.946298967632174"
],
[
"the other hand - a group of well-armed and equipped men in uniform without identifying signs. Until the end of the Crimean crisis, these formations provided control over strategic objects and local authorities, their protection and functioning, and blocked Ukrainian military units and headquarters. The Ukrainian and Western media, the Ukrainian authorities and the leadership of the Western powers from the very first days have said with certainty that they are talking about the actions of units of the Russian forces, qualifying it as aggression, military invasion and occupation. Russian officials until April 2014 refused to admit it publicly.\nOn March",
"-29.928449952974916"
],
[
"On 7 November, NATO officials confirmed the continued invasion of Ukraine, with 32 Russian tanks, 16 howitzer cannons and 30 trucks of troops entering the country. On 12 November, NATO reiterated the prevalence of Russian troops; US general Philip Breedlove said \"Russian tanks, Russian artillery, Russian air defence systems and Russian combat troops\" were sighted. The Lithuanian Mission to the United Nations denounced Russia's 'undeclared war' on Ukraine. Journalist Menahem Kahana took a picture showing a 1RL232 \"Leopard\" battlefield surveillance radar system in Torez, east of Donetsk; and Dutch freelance journalist Stefan Huijboom took pictures which showed the 1RL232 traveling",
"-29.909310212009586"
],
[
"Ukraine on 11 November 2014 and later returned. On 23 January 2015 the Committee of Soldiers' Mothers warned about conscripts being sent to east Ukraine. NATO said it had seen an increase in Russian tanks, artillery pieces and other heavy military equipment in eastern Ukraine and renewed its call for Moscow to withdraw its forces.\nThe Center for Eurasian Strategic Intelligence estimated, based on \"official statements and interrogation records of captured military men from these units, satellite surveillance data\" as well as verified announcements from relatives and profiles in social networks, that over 30 Russian military units were taking part in",
"-29.88209492250462"
],
[
"warning Russia not to intervene in Crimea. The statement said that President Obama is \"deeply concerned by reports of military movements taken by the Russian Federation inside of Ukraine.\" It added that \"any violation of Ukraine's sovereignty and territorial integrity would be deeply destabilizing, which is not in the interest of Ukraine, Russia, or Europe\" and that it would be \"a clear violation of Russia's commitment to respect the independence and sovereignty and borders of Ukraine, and of international laws.\"\n\nOn 1 March, Obama held a phone conversation with Putin and said that the Russian invasion was a \"violation of Ukrainian",
"-29.88090562564321"
],
[
"Russia. According to the Russian Federal Security Service forty-one Ukrainian soldiers defected to Russia at Izvaryne on 27 July. Ukrainian Defence Minister Valeriy Heletey confirmed that 41 Ukrainian soldiers had crossed into Russia and that this case was investigated.\nOn September 10, 2014, the Border Guard Service of Ukraine reported that from the Russian side the checkpoint was crossed by 12 tanks, 48 BTRs, 1 BRDM, 20 vehicles \"Ural\" full of ammunition, 8 vehicles \"Ural\" with troops, 4 vehicles of anti-air defense, and 5 fuelers all of them were heading towards Krasnodon. In the opposite direction Ukraine left several military vehicles",
"-29.872796879033558"
],
[
"Ukraine, however it would be several months until these units would be trained. Therefore, Ukraine's depleted Spetsnaz forces, without the aid of a larger conventional force, or an effective local police force, were called to defend the state. According to Ukraine's Minister of Defense Stepan Poltorak, Spetsnaz forces operated largely alone during the first period of the war in Ukraine's Donbass region as they were the only units fit for duty at the time.\nA group of heavily armed men appeared in Donetsk on 3 March 2014. These were dubbed as Russian Spetsnaz operatives invading Ukraine by some, or American Blackwater",
"-29.82614754512906"
],
[
"insurgents in eastern Ukraine by 23 May. Russian defectors to Ukraine On 19 July Ilya Bogdanov, a former Russian FSB lieutenant in Vladivostok, defected to Ukraine claiming that he couldn't longer stand the lies used by Russia to stimulate the situation in Eastern Ukraine and Dagestan, where he served earlier. On 24 July Russian army serviceman Andrej Balabanov asked for political asylum in Ukraine stating \"I finally took a decision not to take part in this war and sided with Ukraine. This is my protest against Russia's political leaders\". Balabanov claimed his unit had sent \"military intelligence, GRU, experts and",
"-29.820483410265297"
],
[
"Ukrainian army controlled Ukraine located in the eastern part Avdiivka. This meant that the pro-Russian separatists no longer had full control of the highway that united their controlled cities Donetsk and Horlivka and that it became more difficult for them to fire at Avdiivka with weapons not prohibited by the Minsk II agreement. Since March 2016 fighting for Avdiivka's \"Industrial Zone\" greatly intensified.\nFrom 29 January 2017 until 4 February 2017 the city was embroiled in the Battle of Avdiivka which left Avdiivka without electricity and heating for several days. Industry and infrastructure Heating energy is normally provided via natural",
"-29.791984122013673"
],
[
"and the United States Department of State, this is a false statement and claim the separatists have received military equipment from Russia, including multiple rocket launch systems and tanks. Despite the fact that Russian officials deny supplying arms to the militia, numerous evidence proves that it is true. In August 2014 Ukrainian Defense Minister Valeriy Heletey claimed the proof for the weapons supply from Russia was that the fighters of the Donbass People's Militia were using Russian-made weapons that were never used (or bought) by the Ukrainian army. NAF militias acquired many Ukrainian military vehicles and equipment during the Ilovaisk",
"-29.718168302380946"
],
[
"blessing and backing of the Russian state, \"even if the Russians are indeed volunteers rather than serving military men\". Weapons supply A Russian opposition politician, Ilya Ponomarev, said \"I am absolutely confident that in the eastern regions of Ukraine there are Russian troops in very small numbers. And it's not regular soldiers, but likely representatives of special forces and military intelligence.\" Later in July, after the shooting down of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, he said that \"Putin now understands that he has passed weapons to the wrong people\". He also said that even if Moscow stopped the supply of weapons",
"-29.687733504513744"
],
[
"the conflict in Ukraine. In total, over 8,000 soldiers had fought there at different moments. The Chicago Council on Global Affairs stated that the Russian separatists enjoyed technical advantages over the Ukrainian army since the large inflow of advanced military systems in mid-2014: effective anti-aircraft weapons (\"Buk\", MANPADS) suppressed Ukrainian air strikes, Russian drones provided intelligence, and Russian secure communications system thwarted the Ukrainian side from communications intelligence. The Russian side also frequently employed electronic warfare systems that Ukraine lacked. Similar conclusions about the technical advantage of the Russian separatists were voiced by the Conflict Studies Research Centre.\nIn November 2014,",
"-29.674627953907475"
],
[
"2016 OSCE deputy mission head in Ukraine Alexander Hug summarized the mission's two years of observations stating that \"since the beginning of the conflict\" the mission has seen \"armed people with Russian insignia\", vehicle tracks crossing border between Russia and Ukraine as well as talked to prisoners who were declaring themselves Russian soldiers.\nIn January 2015, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) accepted a resolution that noted \"the direct involvement of the Russian Federation in the emergence and worsening of the situation in these parts of Ukraine\" and called both sides to fully respect the terms of Minsk Agreement.\nIn",
"-29.672927760286257"
],
[
"reserves.\nFrom 1991 the Ukrainian Ground Forces bought its military equipment only from Russia and other CIS states, as well as locally producing some of their own equipment. The defence industry in Ukraine produced equipment was not used to equip the Armed Forces prior to the War in Donbass (that started in April 2014) but it produced only for export. Loss of Crimea In the aftermath of the 2014 Ukrainian Revolution, Russian special forces in unmarked uniforms began surrounding Ukrainian military bases on the Crimea before capturing them individually using a mixture of attrition and threats. Over the following weeks the",
"-29.667685923806857"
],
[
"declared the unrecognized proto-state Novorossiya, intending a secession from Ukraine, and an insurgency which eventually led to war in Donbass, the eastern parts of Ukraine. While Russia denied involvement in the war in Donbass, numerous evidence pointed at its support of the pro-Russian separatists. Amnesty International accused Russia of \"fuelling separatist crimes\" and called upon on \"all parties, including Russia, to stop violations of the laws of war\".\nHuman Rights Watch stated that pro-Russian insurgents \"failed to take all feasible precautions to avoid deploying in civilian areas\" and in one case \"actually moved closer to populated areas as a response to",
"-29.66768097016029"
],
[
"Russia's military actions to the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, when Russian troops occupied parts of the Republic of Georgia and the breakaway enclaves of Abkhazia and South Ossetia were established under the control of Russian-backed administrations. He called on Putin to withdraw Russian troops from Crimea and stated that Ukraine will \"preserve its territory\" and \"defend its independence\". On 1 March, he warned, \"Military intervention would be the beginning of war and the end of any relations between Ukraine and Russia.\"\nOn 1 March, Acting President Oleksandr Turchynov placed the Armed Forces of Ukraine on full alert and combat readiness.\nOn 15 April",
"-29.58609891287051"
],
[
"Russian Armed Forces consolidated control of the peninsula and established road blocks to cut off the possibility of Ukraine sending reinforcements from the mainland. By the end of March, all remaining Ukrainian troops were ordered to pull out of Crimea. The Ukrainian Army was considered to be in a poor state during and after the annexation with only 6,000 of its troops ready for combat and many of its vehicles lacking batteries. (According to February 2016 official Ukrainian figures) after Russia's annexation only 6,000 of the 20,300 Ukrainian soldiers stationed in Crimea before the annexation left the peninsula. War in",
"-29.536034485558048"
],
[
"State John Kerry said the militants \"were equipped with specialized Russian weapons and the same uniforms as those worn by the Russian forces that invaded Crimea.\" The US ambassador to the United Nations said the attacks in Sloviansk were \"professional,\" \"coordinated,\" and that there was 'nothing grass-roots seeming about it'. The British foreign secretary, William Hague, stated, \"I don't think denials of Russian involvement have a shred of credibility, ... The forces involved are well armed, well trained, well equipped, well co-ordinated, behaving in exactly the same way as what turned out to be Russian forces behaved in Crimea.\" The",
"-29.49103601038223"
],
[
"primary task – to protect the external borders of the Union.” Russia Zeman has described the war in Donbass as \"a civil war between two groups of Ukrainian citizens\" that have foreign support, and compared it to the Spanish Civil War. As for the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, he has noted that the Kosovo precedent has been used as an argument for the separation of Crimea from Ukraine.\n\nZeman announced that he intended to visit Moscow for the 2015 Victory Day celebrations and the 70th anniversary of the liberation from Nazi Germany. He said that he was not",
"-29.45453694515163"
],
[
"Crimean crisis Ukrainian Armed Forces and the Ukrainian Navy were evicted from their bases and Ukraine subsequently withdrew its forces from Crimea. Fifty-four out of sixty-seven ships of the Ukrainian Navy have been transferred to the Black Sea Fleet, with St. Andrew flags raised on them. On 8 April 2014 an agreement was reached between Russia and Ukraine to return Ukrainian Navy materials to Ukraine proper. A part of the Ukrainian Navy was then returned to Ukraine but Russia suspended this agreement after Ukraine did not renew its unilaterally declared ceasefire on 1 July 2014 in the conflict in the",
"-29.452771224809112"
],
[
"of Russian forces in Ukraine. The next day the Federation Council voted to repeal its previous decision, making it illegal to use the Russian organized military forces in Ukraine. 2014 annexation Days after Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovich fled the capital of Kiev in late February 2014, armed men opposed to the Euromaidan movement began to take control of the Crimean Peninsula. Checkpoints were established by unmarked Russian soldiers with green military-grade uniforms and equipment in the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Simferopol, and the independently administered port-city of Sevastopol, home to a Russian naval base under the Kharkiv",
"-29.43417500804935"
],
[
"mean the presence of the regular Russian army (though other military forces, like marines, were not ruled out) in Ukraine.\nBy end of 2017, OSCE observatory mission accounted for around 30,000 military-style personnel crossing from Russia to Donbass just at two border checkpoints it was allowed to monitor.",
"-29.399954302818514"
],
[
"demanded that Europe respond to the escalation of violence in Ukraine by agreeing to further sanctions against Russia, saying that \"[a]ny hesitation would be seen by [Russian President Vladimir] Putin as European weakness that would encourage him to keep going.\" However, he ruled out a U.S. proposal to arm Ukraine against Russia, calling it a \"grave mistake\" which \"not only would [give] Putin a pretext to expand the war beyond eastern Ukraine, it would also serve his other goal to divide the West wherever he can.”\nAmid the debate on sending military assistance to the Iraqi government following a dramatic push",
"-29.39873932430055"
],
[
"highlighted the 'frustration of dealing with Russian officialdom apparently so keen to cover up all traces of those fighting across the border'.\nAlexander Zakharchenko said that 1200 fighters had trained in Russia for four months, crossed the border, and were ready to fight. Zakharchenko said the reinforcements included 30 tanks and 120 armoured vehicles. He later denied making the comments.\nCases of Russian soldiers killed and wounded in Ukraine are widely discussed in local Russian media in the republics from which they originated. Recruitment for Donbass is performed rather openly via veteran and other paramilitary organisations. Vladimir Yefimov, leader of one of",
"-29.356781431779382"
],
[
"professional Ukrainian army to prevent the conflict spreading to other parts of the country. The party seeks a peaceful resolution to the conflict by negotiating with Russia through European mediators but not directly with the pro-Russian combatants.",
"-29.341920486534946"
],
[
"Russian leadership of the local DNR forces in the area.\nOn 17 October 2016 the OSCE mission noted a minivan with \"black licence plates with white lettering\" which are used on military vehicles in Russia. A number of people in civilian and military camouflage were travelling on the vehicle. Details of Russian involvement Russia officially has long denied organized presence of their military units in Ukraine. Nevertheless, evidence of its soldiers' involvement is rampant. OSCE monitoring mission has on numerous occasions spotted military convoys covertly crossing the border from Russia into Donbass, as well as presence of military equipment produced",
"-29.33963390099234"
],
[
"he has called 'a revanchist KGB thug', has written on the Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 shootdown and called for Western action.\nAn August 2014 survey by the Levada Center reported that only 13% of those Russians polled would support the Russian government in an open war with Ukraine.\nFormer Russian vice-minister of foreign affairs Georgy Kunadze (1991 –1993) said that if Western policy toward Russia had been tougher in 2008, during the Russo-Georgian War, \"there would be no Crimea nor Lugandon\" (the latter was a reference to the LPR). Ukrainian public opinion A poll of the Ukrainian public, excluding Russian-annexed Crimea, was",
"-29.324163416284136"
],
[
"projects, programs\". Ukraine On 26 June 2016, during a speech in Saint Petersburg, Russia, Ban said Russia \"has a critical role to play\" in addressing global issues \"from ending the conflicts in Ukraine and Syria, to safeguarding human rights and controlling the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.\" His comments were condemned by Ukraine's UN envoy Volodymyr Yelchenko, saying that he doesn't understand how the UN chief \"can say such things which sort of praise the role of Russia in settling the conflict in Ukraine when the Russian Federation is the main player in aggressing Ukraine and in keeping this",
"-29.322723012242932"
],
[
"During the 2013–15 Ukrainian Crisis frontman Andrey Makarevich denounced Russian military intervention in Crimea and eastern Ukraine. Other people associated with the band kept a low profile in the matter through 2014, but in 2015 it became known that at least Kutikov was against Russian policy in Ukraine, while Derzhavin and director/manager Vladimir Sapunov sided with President Vladimir Putin's policies.",
"-29.307216515764594"
],
[
"to him, since Russian military operation in Crimea began on 20 February 2014, Russian propaganda could not argue that the Russian aggression was the result of Euromaidan. The war in Ukraine did not happen \"all of sudden\", but was pre-planned and the preparations began as early as 2003. Illarionov later stated that one of the Russian plans envisaged war with Ukraine in 2015 after a presidential election, however Maidan accelerated the confrontation. Renewed conflict in 2016 On August 8, 2016 Ukraine reported that Russia had increased its military presence along the Crimea demarcation line. Border crossings were then closed. On",
"-29.15450227059773"
],
[
"President Obama is \"deeply concerned by reports of military movements taken by the Russian Federation inside of Ukraine.\" It added that \"any violation of Ukraine's sovereignty and territorial integrity would be deeply destabilizing, which is not in the interest of Ukraine, Russia, or Europe\" and that it would be \"a clear violation of Russia's commitment to respect the independence and sovereignty and borders of Ukraine, and of international laws.\"\n\nOn March 1, Obama held a phone conversation with Putin and said that the Russian invasion was a \"violation of Ukrainian sovereignty and territorial integrity ... [and a] breach of international law.\"",
"-29.121632906375453"
],
[
"necessary \"to ensure proper conditions for the people of Crimea to be able to freely express their will\". Defence Minister Sergey Shoygu said the country's military actions in Crimea were undertaken by forces of the Black Sea Fleet and were justified by \"threat to lives of Crimean civilians\" and danger of \"takeover of Russian military infrastructure by extremists\". Ukraine complained that by increasing its troop presence in Crimea, Russia violated the agreement under which it headquartered its Black Sea Fleet in Sevastopol and violated the country's sovereignty. The United States and United Kingdom also accused Russia of breaking the terms",
"-29.116817603004165"
],
[
"were shelling targets in Ukraine from Russian territory, around 2 km from the border.\nAllies of Boris Nemtsov released Putin. War in May 2015, a report on Russian involvement that he had been working on before his death. Other Russian opposition activists announced that they had found fresh graves of members of a GRU special forces brigade that had operated in Ukraine.\nIn May, two GRU soldiers, Alexander Alexandrov and Yevgeny Yerofeyev, were captured in a battle near Schastie and were later interviewed by press, admitting to being on active duty at the time of capture. Russian military command declared they left active",
"-29.11244587157853"
],
[
"union republics. Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to conflict in the post-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made a substantial contribution to UN peacekeeping operations since 1992.\nLeonid Derkach (chairman of the SBU, which is Ukraine's security service, successor to the KGB) was fired due to Western pressure after he organized the sale of radar systems to Iraq while such sales were embargoed. Belarus The 1997 boundary treaty with [Belarus] remains un-ratified due to unresolved financial claims, stalling demarcation",
"-29.087207413453143"
],
[
"stated that \"We often see how Russian media outlets manipulate our statements. They say that we have not seen Russian troops crossing the borders. But that only applies to two border crossings. We have no idea what is going on at the others.\"\nIn July 2015, Ukraine arrested a Russian officer, Vladimir Starkov, when his truck loaded with ammunition took a wrong turn and ended up at a Ukrainian checkpoint. On arrest, Starkov declared that he was a Russian military officer in active service and later explained that he was officially assigned to a Russian military unit in Novocherkassk, but immediately",
"-29.07295516646991"
],
[
"entered Ukraine, but referred to them as \"volunteers\". A reporter for Novaya Gazeta, an opposition newspaper in Russia, stated that the Russian military leadership paid soldiers to resign their commissions and fight in Ukraine in the early summer of 2014, and then began ordering soldiers into Ukraine. This reporter mentioned knowledge of at least one case when soldiers who refused were threatened with prosecution. Russian opposition MP Lev Shlosberg made similar statements, although he said combatants from his country are \"regular Russian troops\", disguised as units of the DPR and LPR.\nIn December, Ukrainian hackers published a large cache of documents",
"-29.033531377557665"
],
[
"its actions in post-revolutionary Ukraine, accusing it of breaking international law and of violating Ukrainian sovereignty. Many countries implemented economic sanctions against Russia, Russian individuals or companies – to which Russia responded in kind.\nIn October 2015, The Washington Post reported that Russia had redeployed some of its elite units from Ukraine to Syria in recent weeks to support Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. In December 2015, Russian Federation President Putin admitted that Russian military intelligence officers were operating in Ukraine.\nMany members of the international community assumed that Putin's annexation of Crimea had initiated a completely new kind of Russian foreign policy.\nThey",
"-29.016524666163605"
],
[
"Russia is also reinforcing its military presence on the eastern border with Ukraine as well as near Belgorod which is close to Kharkiv.\nIn May 2015, Reuters interviewed a number of Russian soldiers, some named and some speaking under condition of anonymity, who were serving in Donbass as truck drivers, crew of a T-72B3 tank and of a \"Grad\" launcher. Some of their colleagues resigned when asked to go to Donbass by their commanders, which was \"not an easy decision\" because the salary offered was between 20 and 60,000 rubles per month. The members of the \"Grad\" launcher crew confirmed they",
"-28.957900032168254"
],
[
"of the circumstantial evidence are military vehicles and weapons that are unique to Russian armed forces and never present in Ukraine before the conflict captured by journalists and found on social media. The OSCE monitoring mission has also noted the presence of troops declaring themselves as Russian servicemen in DPR-controlled territory. As the rest of the post-Soviet republics every Russian military equipment has a hull number (bortovoi nomer). However equipment in possession of the LPR and DPR has all hull number painted over to conceal its relation to the Russian Armed Forces.\nIn 2015, NATO spokesman Robert Pszczel stated in an",
"-28.942514138142997"
],
[
"March 2016, the Ukrainian army set up its fortifications in the \"Industrial Zone\". This meant that the pro-Russian separatists no longer had full control of the highway that united their controlled cities of Donetsk and Horlivka and that it became more difficult for them to fire at Avdiivka with weapons not prohibited by the Minsk II agreement. Since March 2016 fighting for Avdiivka's \"Industrial Zone\" greatly intensified.\nIn the days before the 29 January bombardments, the OSCE special monitoring mission in Ukraine documented a series of violations of the Minsk II agreement by separatists and Ukrainian troops who both placed weapon",
"-28.930306392489"
],
[
"Armed Forces of Ukraine have called unacceptable the violent seizure of state institutions, and interference with representatives of state and local governments to carry out their duties, noting that further escalation of the conflict threatens the territorial integrity of the state. Laying out their civil position, servicemen and employees of Ukraine's armed forces... called on the commander-in-chief to take urgent steps within the limits of existing legislation with a view to stabilising the situation in the country and reaching consent in society\". Juristic response The General Prosecutor of Ukraine's Office called in for questioning (starting on 9 December) on",
"-28.926398167968728"
],
[
"3rd Ukrainian Soviet Army The 3rd Ukrainian Soviet was a field army of the Red Army during the Russian Civil War, which existed between April 15, 1919 and June 13, 1919 as part of the Ukrainian Front. Then the troops became part of the newly formed 12th Army of the Western Front. History The 3rd Ukrainian Soviet Army fought against the UNR Army in the Odessa - Kherson -Mykolaiv area, and by the end of April had cleared the entire Left Bank from the enemy from Transnistria to Tiraspol. On May 11, 1919, the Army forces crossed the Dniester river",
"-28.91778810264077"
],
[
"peninsula. The interim Government of Ukraine described events as an invasion and occupation and did not recognize the Aksyonov administration as legal. Ousted Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovich sent a letter to Putin asking him to use military force in Ukraine to restore law and order and, on 1 March, the Russian parliament granted President Vladimir Putin the authority to use such force. Three days later, several Ukrainian bases and navy ships in Crimea reported being intimidated by Russian forces and Ukrainian warships were also effectively blockaded in Sevastopol.\nOn 6 March, the Crimean Parliament asked the Russian government for the region",
"-28.896137940813787"
],
[
"conflict between the separatist forces of the self-declared Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics (DPR and LPR respectively), and the Ukrainian government. Prior to a change of the top leadership in August 2014, the separatists were largely led by Russian citizens. Russian paramilitaries are reported to make up from 5% to 20% of the combatants.\nBetween 22 and 25 August 2014, Russian artillery, personnel, and what Russia called a \"humanitarian convoy\" were reported to have crossed the border into Ukrainian territory without the permission of the Ukrainian government. Reportedly, crossings occurred both in areas under the control of pro-Russian forces and areas",
"-28.894135762471706"
],
[
"SBU also released their photos and names. The next day, the Russian Ministry of Defence said that they had crossed the border \"by accident\". On 31 August, the Russian media reported that ten Russian paratroopers captured inside Ukraine had returned home following a troop exchange. The 64 Ukrainian troops provided in exchange were captured after entering Russia to escape the upsurge in fighting. Russia claimed that the Russian troops had mistakenly crossed an unmarked area of the border while on patrol. Ukraine released videos of captured Russian soldiers which challenged Russia's claim that it had nothing to do with the",
"-28.8707439021382"
],
[
"Russia–Ukraine border The Russian-Ukrainian border is the international state border between the Russian Federation and Ukraine. Over land the border outlines five oblasts (regions) of Ukraine and five oblasts of the Russian Federation. The modern border issue has been ongoing ever since the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917.\nSince the spring of 2014 the border has been compromised once again now due to the 2014–present Russian military intervention in Ukraine. According to head of the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine Viktor Nazarenko Ukraine doesn't control 409.3 kilometres (254.3 mi) of the border with Russia. This stretch of land is",
"-28.839776842156425"
],
[
"that were not under their control, such as the south-eastern part of Donetsk Oblast, near Novoazovsk. These events followed the reported shelling of Ukrainian positions from the Russian side of the border over the course of the preceding month. Head of the Security Service of Ukraine Valentyn Nalyvaichenko said that the events of 22 August were a \"direct invasion by Russia of Ukraine\". Western and Ukrainian officials described these events as a \"stealth invasion\" of Ukraine by Russia. As a result, DPR and LPR insurgents regained much of the territory they had lost during the preceding government military on the",
"-28.81185493140947"
],
[
"the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister accused the US of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.\nThe Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from US Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32; and the fighting was beyond the UN Charter's scope, because the initial north-south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council at the time, legal scholars posited that deciding upon an",
"-28.784686931758188"
],
[
"are being cleansed from DNR by FSB because of this insufficient compliance with Kremlin's policy on the republic.\nOn 28 August Russian media published photos of Girkin walking with Alexander Dugin and Konstantin Malofeev in Valaam Monastery in northern Russia.\nIn November 2014 in an interview for \"Moscow Speaking\" radio said that \"the existence of Lugansk and Donetsk People's Republics in their current form, with the low-profile but still bloody war, is definitely convenient for USA in the first place, and only for them, because they are the ulcer that divides Russia and Ukraine\". Later in November in an interview for \"Zavtra\"",
"-28.780214905069442"
],
[
"the Ukrainian special unit “Berkut” which was involved in violence and shootings against Ukrainian protesters during Euromaidan and the Orange Revolution.\nRegarding the armed conflict in east Ukraine, Solovyov took a well-defined position that mirrored that of president Putin and the Russian government: that the conflict was between the fascists of the Ukrainian maidan and the anti-fascists of the rebel eastern territories.\nIn 2017 the FBK found that Solovyov owns a luxury villa in Italy on Como lake. Since then he started to use offensive rhetoric for everyone who disagrees with Putin in any question.\nIn June 2017, the journalist called participants in",
"-28.74819130814285"
],
[
"Kuwait to join the Court. Russia Russia signed the Rome Statute in 2000. On 14 November 2016 the ICC published a report on its preliminary investigation of the Russian military intervention in Ukraine which found that \"the situation within the territory of Crimea and Sevastopol factually amounts to an on-going state of occupation\" and that \"information, such as reported shelling by both States of military positions of the other, and the detention of Russian military personnel by Ukraine, and vice-versa, points to direct military engagement between Russian armed forces and Ukrainian government forces that would suggest the existence of",
"-28.725547960493714"
],
[
"Olivier Védrine Quotes Olivier VEDRINE: “Ukraine needs to get rid of the Soviet legacy”\nMykola Siruk\n18 June, 2013\n\"Putin wants to be like a new Stalin but Stalin had no bank accounts abroad, Stalin had an ideology, Putin has no ideology.\"\n\"Ukrainians want to be free, and in Russia they want to be great\"\n\"The biggest advantage Ukraine enjoys is its strategic position\" \n\"The future of European democracy will be decided in Ukraine” \n\"I believe that a good education is the key to build a strong and prosperous Ukraine.\" \n\"The war in Ukraine is not only about freedom from Russian occupation but also freedom",
"-28.70646721002413"
],
[
"some parts of Ukraine due to this statements about Western Ukrainians, his preference for the Russian language, and his denial of the Holodomor. Tabachnyk's view of Ukraine’s history includes the thesis that western Ukrainians aren’t really Ukrainian. In an article for the Russian newspaper Izvestia Tabachnyk wrote last year: “Halychany (western Ukrainians) practically don’t have anything in common with the people of Great Ukraine, not in mentality, not in religion, not in linguistics, not in the political arena” “We have different enemies and different allies. Furthermore, our allies and even brothers are their enemies, and their ‘heroes’ (Stepan Bandera, Roman",
"-28.680751500520273"
],
[
"has time\". The issue of Russian military intervention Yanukovych also claimed \"eastern Ukraine will rise up as soon as they have to live without any means\". On 28 February 2014 the BBC reported him as insisting that military action was \"unacceptable\" and as stating that he would not request Russian military intervention.\nOn 4 March 2014, Russia's Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Vitaly Churkin, displayed a photocopy of a letter allegedly signed by Victor Yanukovych on 1 March 2014. In the letter Yanukovych requested Russian military intervention in Ukraine to \"restore law and order\".\nIn an interview with the Associated Press",
"-28.666749084717594"
],
[
"presence of Russian troops in Crimea, Russian Minister of Defence Sergey Shoygu said, \"Regarding the statements about use of Russian special forces in Ukrainian events, I can only say one thing – it's hard to search for a black cat in a dark room, especially if it's not there,\" and added cryptically that searching for the cat would be \"stupid\" if the cat is \"intelligent, brave, and polite\".\nIn April 2015, retired Russian Admiral Igor Kasatonov (Игорь Касатонов) said that the \"little green men\" were members of Russian Spetsnaz special forces units. According to his information, Russian troop deployment in Crimea included",
"-28.664729628595524"
]
] |
2l11dx | Why my internet speed says 185 mbps on speedtest, but youtube videos still lag and take a long time to load. | [
"Speed tests are done under ideal conditions from servers with the bandwidth possible to \"max out\" the testing program. Most servers you connect to on the internet are not like that. They are often overworked and the bandwidth provided to them would be fine if they were serving 100 people at once, but its probably many more multiples of that. You're basically fighting other people to get the same content. You can only cram so much down the pipe then it has to contend with all the other traffic around it as well to get to you. Most ISP speedtests and speedtest applications look for the closest server to you so you can see your maximum throughput. A lot of ISP based speedtest applications...you don't even leave their network, so you don't see any internet latency or congestion. A speedtest tells you the potential of your line. In real life, you can only download as fast as the server you're connected to can send it...plus internet overhead. Its like taking a race car on an open track. With no other cars around, you can push it to the limit. But on the freeway at 5pm in bumper to bumper traffic, that race car will be lucky to see 15 mph. It doesn't matter what kind of horsepower you have under the hood-you can't run into or run over other cars to use it to its maximum potential. You know it can do 200mph, but in that case, its only going to do 15. Edit: Thanks for the gold. I didn't expect this to blow up. I've tried to reply to a few people before I go do what I need to do this morning.",
"Right answer: Your ISP won't pay to upgrade their speed with other ISPs. ELI20 version: Your ISP has peerage agreements with other ISPs to allow content to flow both ways unhindered. Netflix outright *caught* Comcast and Verizon cheating at the edges of their networks to cause artificial lag that would encourage Netflix and Youtube to pay more for a \"fast lane\" (ie, the exact opposite of net neutrality). Verizon actually sued Netflix for proving this; Netflix eventually caved and just paid more to get their content to their customers (pity really, not many have the same ability to take a stand), but make no mistake, your ISP takes **all** the blame.",
"Check out this page: [Google Video Quality Report]( URL_0 ) It details how Youtube videos get to you and how the ISP affects that. Also it rates many ISP on how well they work with Youtube.",
"ELI5 definition of throttling: Imagine that Youtube and the URL_0 wants to send you a package delivered by a truck. Youtube owns a million trucks and can dispatch a truck to your house immediately. URL_0 rents 100 trucks from UPS (UPS is the CDN in this analogy), but fortunately, all you need is a package from one truck. Both trucks leave the factory at the same time, but there are traffic police that can get in the way. If you happen to live in the wrong state, there are toll roads everywhere. URL_0 trucks don't have to pay a toll to use the highway, but Youtube trucks do. The traffic police will target only some delivery companies to pay a toll and Youtube is one of them. Youtube does not think it's fair that they have to pay a toll and others don't, so they refuse to pay. So thanks to the traffic police and their toll roads, speedtest trucks get on the empty, fast highway, and youtube trucks have to sit in slow congested roads. And that's how the URL_0 trucks always get there first and the Youtube trucks always take so long.",
"Your ISP throttles your bandwidth to certain websites to reduce consumption, e.g. Youtube, Netflix, etc.",
"Just because you have a Ferrari, that doesn't mean you don't get stuck in traffic.",
"I'd tell you a joke about UDP, but I don't think you'd get it.",
"The short answer is you are probably getting the video from a caching server instead of the source. This was discussed in a thread over a year ago and I assume is still relevant. Take a look, maybe it'll help. Edit: the links in the thread are broken... bummer, maybe someone else has a more up to date discussion on this? ~~ URL_0 ",
" URL_1 URL_0 Check those links out, that should explain some I know there are a couple of reddit threads about this floating around",
"I'm from Ireland and comcast doesn't exist here. My internet is 10 mbps and youtube is still slow as fuck. It buffers the video just enough but it's always too little and hits the buffer. Then sometimes it will buffer and stops and won't change no matter what. I end up having to refresh the page. I know that youtube go way out of their fucking way to make you able to watch video uninterrupted. So if your watching something in HD and your internet isn't fast enough they'll pop you down to 480p or even 144p. You actually want to watch it in HD and switch it back and wait for it to buffer. Their videos are also in segments and not a complete video. So they have different segments in different qualities so it makes it easier to switch to a low quality stream or a high quality stream. They also store copies of more popular videos around the world. You can watch the clip below where the people themselves explain the problems with buffering. [How YouTube Works]( URL_0 ) My theory is that youtube are now not only trying to allow you to watch a clip uninterrupted (mostly fail at this). They are also trying to regulate their bandwidth to save money. So they are trying to refine their data output so you download just enough footage to watch the clip uninterrupted and they are trying to avoid people who buffer something and end up not watching it as this is a waste of energy and their money. They are trying to be efficient because youtube is so motha fucken big they need to prioritize how they deliver content, so their resources are used on things that matter.",
"Just because you have 185 mbps down doesn't mean Youtube has 185 mbps up dedicated to you for every single video they host.",
"Because YouTube doesn't have enough bandwidth for their content and knows you'll wait. Notice the ads load instantly, always, without fail.",
"Someone help me out here, was this a recent thing? My internet (Brighthouse Networks) is like 10mbps, and for years, up until a month or two ago it was perfect all the time. 10mbps, while not much, was plenty to stream movies, or do my work. Now youtube sometimes defaults to 144p, and it sometimes refuses to buffer. Every other website on the internet works wonderfully, but not youtube. I tracert to youtube, no problems found. I alternate between China and the U.S. several times a year, and my god damn internet in China using a VPN can play several 1080p youtube videos at the same time.... 怎麼辦?!?!",
"Speedtest is a marketing gimmick. Try a 3rd party download website to measure speed. I usually download some obscure Linux distro CD and time it. ISPs know when you are trying to measure throughput when you access Speedtest website. They let you have max throughput with Speedtest. This saves them from customer care calls. With other websites ( especially YouTube and Netflix) they will throttle the bandwidth that you receive. To test this theory, measure downl speed using some 3rd party website and then call customer care and ask them if they will accept results measured at other websites.",
"Imagine driving from your house to another, the other side of the city. You'll be driving on residential roads, larger roads, and maybe a few minutes of highway, then more residential roads at the far end. Just because the speed limit on your street is high, it doesn't mean it's the same everywhere, and it doesn't mean that traffic will necessarily allow you to drive at that speed limit. Although your end of the network may run at 185mbps, it doesn't mean that every section of the network between the server and you is fast and uncongested.",
"I have a Mac too and whenever I watch a video it heats up like crazy and sounds like a jet engine. YouTube constantly lags and freezes. I have good internet so that wasn't the problem. The problem was Flash player, especially while using Chrome. It was eating up my CPU, literally hogging 90% of the resources. Its just something I have come to live with, its not so bad on Safari but its Flash's problem and its been happening for years. I don't imagine they're going to fix it anytime soon.",
"Dash playback. Youtube doesn't load the entire video, instead loading segments as you watch. If the server is busy, or there's a lot of traffic your queue request can get bogged down and you wait for the server to answer the request. Disable dash playback using youtube center plugin, or the user script. It has a bunch of other good stuff as well, UI hacks, download icons for video and audio conversion, blocking autoplay and more. Dash Playback - URL_0 Disable Dash playback via lifehacker - URL_1 The script - URL_2 ",
" URL_0 According to this link it's all about the ISP's politics: \" But behind the scenes, in negotiations that almost never become public, the world's biggest Internet providers and video services argue over how much one network should pay to connect to another. When these negotiations fail, users suffer. In other words, bad video performance is often caused not just by technology problems but also by business decisions made by the companies that control the Internet.\"",
"There is a long road that you can run from one end to the other in 10 minutes. However, bad men put themselves at random points on the road. They say, \"Hey, you have to give us your milk money or wait here for 1 minute.\" These bad men are essentially the ISPs. They have the capability, but won't because it is easy money.",
"It's due to packet shaping. read: \"your isp is fucking you when you watch youtube\"",
"Because your ISP hasn't given you a \"fast lane\".",
"This is a very complicated issue. In your local neighborhood, your isp connects you up to a backbone. From there, your isp has no control over the flow of data (other than saying X amount of users are having Y problem accessing something upstream) . This can have a huge impact on everything. For instance, if you live in the south east United States, run a tracerout from your computer or other device and watch for packet loss. Level-3 (a major network backbone carrier) can get pretty wonky when traffic passes through there Atlanta node, espically during peak hours. Netflix and YouTube are getting smart tho. They cut deals with your local isp and send them some hardware called a \"cache box\". Its a glorified NAS device that holds many terabytes of storage. The most popular videos and movies are downloaded to the cache box and then placed inside your local isp's network. Source: I work as a tier 2 tech for multiple isp's.",
"I work for a major ISP --Not Comcast--and I don't know why youtube buffers and is so slow. I've never looked into it. I do know that no matter what tier of service/ speed you order , youtube sucks. Netflix is fine, Hulu is mostly fine. Amazon is fine. Youtube sucks. I have parked next to utility pole , connected modem to wire at pole, and then surfed youtube within my work van on a wired / hardline connection, and it still sucks. Most of the time customers don't believe you. And one of the first things people do when they get internet is hit up facebook and youtube.",
"The ISP sees you connect to URL_0 and goes \"Oh, looks like Margington is trying to check his connecction, better give him all we can!(185 mbps)\". Then you connect to youtube and they go \"Margington is trying to watch youtube, that's a lot of data to process and fuck those guys, we'll only give Margington 400kb/s(or something to that effect) to watch youtube\". You can check this is the case by using a VPN, in that case the ISP just sees some encrypted stream and will have no choice but to treat all traffic through it equally. Case in point URL_1 ",
"I pay for 75/75 fiber internet. My YouTube streaming, especially during primetime hours is poor over my native IPv4 connection. If I use an IPv6 tunnel to Hurricane Electric, I get fantastic YouTube performance. This tells me that my pipe isn't congested, and the connection from my ISP to Hurricane Electric is fine, but the connection from my ISP to Google is congested or throttled. Welcome to 2014, when ISPs can charge you for service and charge companies additional fees to guarantee they can reach the customers who are already paying to reach them.",
"Because YouTube sucks. YouTube servers are slower (or throttled down) than your Internet connection. For example, Vimeo has way faster streaming (and a bit better quality) than YouTube. Also, SpeedTest tests your speed to closest test server which can even be your local ISP server so it's like testing speed to a building 10 km away from you. I always test Internet speed to UK (I'm in Ukraine so it's data going across whole Europe). My results: URL_0 3 years old PC and some cheap TPLink router.",
"Because Youtube or your ISP is throttling you. Most likely both. I would suggest installing a program called Greasemonkey to firefox which allows you to install scripts that are peer-reviewed. One of these scripts loads the video continuously. I rarely have a problem with 1080p with 5 MBp/s bandwidth. The script is called, Youtube Auto Buffer & Auto HD 1.2.87",
"3 Possible reasons. 1. Youtube does not buy a large enough connection with their ISP. 2. Youtube's ISP and your ISP have a shitty connection between each other. 3. Your ISP is fucking you over by throttling your communications with youtube to protect your ISPs cable tv or video service. Most likely the correct answer is #3.",
"One thing to always keep in mind is that whole you may be able to download at a certain speed that doesn't mean that a website you access can upload (allow you to download) at the same speed. Though in this case it appears the isp screws with video stream traffic because they also sell TV.",
"ISPs , in addition to throttling your traffic to select sites also prioritize it when checking out speedtest or a simillar speed testing service. If it was truly 185mbps you could probably download a heavily seeded torrent at 20 - 23MB/sec.",
"Because your ISP prioritizes which sites it wants you to go on. then it drops down to whatever they feel like giving you after. Speed test sites are given number two priority (after their bill-pay site of course)",
"I think it is also worth mentioning that speedtest tell you the ping, down/upload speed between you and one of their nearest servers. NOT the ones between you and things like video servers of YouTube or whatever",
"I liken it to speed limits on the interstate. Your computer can travel at 185Mbps, but the speed limit in YouTube's lane is set to 1.5Mbps, or some number smaller than 185Mbps.",
"Try choosing a different / distant server on speedtest. If the server you chose has the same ISP as you, you'll always get better results.",
"It's because your ISP throttles specific domains, either permanently or at different times of the day. Everyday the net is a little less neutral.",
"And I'm just sitting here with my 1.5. Fuckin showoff"
] | [
[
"provided quantitative evidence of the impact of Internet speed on online video users. Their research studied the patience level of millions of Internet video users who waited for a slow-loading video to start playing. Users with faster Internet connectivity, such as fiber-to-the-home, demonstrated less patience and abandoned their videos sooner than similar users with slower Internet connectivity.\nOpponents of the rules declared September 10, 2014, to be the \"Internet slowdown\". Participating websites were purposely slowed down to show what they felt would happen if the new rules took effect. Websites that participated in the Internet slowdown included Netflix, Reddit, Tumblr, Twitter,",
"-32.87872852112196"
],
[
"and sometimes excessive motion blur, depending on the camera and shutter speed that was used when the video was recorded. Otherwise, videos over 200fps are more preferred, since they look more fluid and realistic naturally or by simply changing the shutter speed with an ND filter at frame rates between 50fps and 120fps. \nYouTube in October 2014 started to allow for the beginning of High-Motion content or High Frame Rate content, as well as videos before 2014 uploaded at over 30fps, up to 60fps. Alternate use of the term In the context of digital video compression, \"high motion\" is sometimes",
"-32.74267456730013"
],
[
"high bitrate videos.\nVideos streamed using traditional formats such as progressive download and RTSP have a common challenge; any given video must be encoded at a specific target bitrate (e.g., 500 kbps) – and that is the bitrate regardless of the access network over which it is delivered.\nIf the chosen target bitrate is too high, the video will not be delivered smoothly over lower-speed networks and there will be slow start times and re-buffering throughout the video. Even on fast networks like LTE 4G, slow start times and re-buffering will occur during times of congestion or high network utilization.\nIf the chosen",
"-32.20742259605322"
],
[
"issues when streaming video such as YouTube and HBO-GO. Some users reported Speedtest.net benchmarks above 3 Mbit/s, while other users reported low results of 0.03 Mbit/s down and 0.27 up. In January 2015 David P. Reed reported that Gogo service exhibited multiple seconds of latency under load, due to bufferbloat. The user connects to the gogoinflight network and registers in the same way they would on the ground. The network becomes accessible as soon as electronic devices are approved for use after take-off.\nThe service includes account management and allows purchasing service before the flight using the product",
"-31.721039016731083"
],
[
"pay for the \"fast lane\". Video providers Netflix and Vimeo in their comments to FCC in favor of net neutrality use the research of S.S. Krishnan and Ramesh Sitaraman that provides the first quantitative evidence of adaptation to speed among online video users. Their research studied the patience level of millions of Internet video users who waited for a slow-loading video to start playing. Users who had a faster Internet connectivity, such as fiber-to-the-home, demonstrated less patience and abandoned their videos sooner than similar users with slower Internet connectivity. The results demonstrate how users can get used to faster Internet",
"-31.137304456933634"
],
[
"in the description fields of his videos, but Bain felt this was no longer good enough because YouTube videos that are embedded or that are displayed with certain apps omit that information.\nAlongside his own Steam Curators channel, Bain founded the \"Framerate Police\" Curator group, intended to review games which reportedly had been locked to a 30 frames-per-second frame rate and determine if a higher frame rate was possible, as higher frame rate games typically look better and may be more responsive to player input. Bain said of the group's purpose \"One of the biggest frustrations for people like that is",
"-30.692596070788568"
],
[
"quite large. In 2016, the service was responsible for using up about 20% of total Internet traffic and 40% of mobile traffic. In 2016, 100 hours of video content on YouTube was uploaded every 60 seconds. YouTube not only offers content for download (through streaming) but also a portion of their total Internet usage is attributed to uploading video content as well. As of 2018, 300 hours of YouTube video content is uploaded every minute. Increased wireless and mobile traffic The usage of mobile technologies to access IP networks has resulted in an increase in overall IP traffic in the",
"-30.55865543478285"
],
[
"their browser will use data compression technology to speed up data transmission. While pre-compressed data such as ZIP files, JPEG images, MP3 audio, MPEG video will not show significantly improved transmission speeds, uncompressed data will be transmitted in as little as one sixth the time, depending upon how efficiently it can be compressed. If and when successfully combined with Server-side web compression, 1G Analog Internet service might actually be able to compete with 2G or 3G digital internet service. Datawind claims that their browser can give up to 30 times faster speeds. Development and testing Kapil Sibal has stated that",
"-30.39601398369814"
],
[
"- 250 Mbps.\nInternet 30\nThis plans provides super fast high speed data to do the things you enjoy online with speeds of up to 30 Mbps. Surf the net, stream your favorite content and chat with friends… enjoy the internet. With Unlimited Data, there will be no overage charges.\nInternet 75\nComwave's Internet 75 plan is designed for large whole-home instant browsing, email, social media and streaming. With it's Unlimited data, download hundreds of pictures and stream HD movies every month without buffering. \nInternet 150\nStream, download and surf with ease with Internet 150. This plan offers unlimited high-speed data to share with the",
"-30.071571226755623"
],
[
"research study conducted by Forrester Research, online shoppers expected the web pages they visited to download content instantly. When a page fails to load at the expected speed, many of them simply click out. A study found that even a one-second delay could lead to \"11% fewer page views, a 16% decrease in customer satisfaction, and 7% loss in conversions\". This delay can cause a server problem to small innovators who have created new technology. If a website is slow by default, the general public will lose interest and favor a website that runs faster. This helps large corporate companies",
"-29.50246445569792"
],
[
"more efficiently than the on-the-fly compression of V.44 modems. Typically website text is compacted to 5% thus increasing effective throughput to approximately 1000 kbit/s, and JPEG/GIF/PNG images are lossy-compressed to 15–20% (increasing throughput up to 300 kbit/s).\nThe drawback of this approach is a loss in quality, where the graphics acquire compression artifacts taking on a blurry or colorless appearance; however the perceived speed is dramatically improved. (If desired the user may choose to view uncompressed images instead, but at a much slower load rate.) Since streaming music and video are already compressed at the source, they are typically passed by",
"-29.310475800298263"
],
[
"rate of the video being streamed. Video sessions, regardless of the rate of views, are each granted the same amount of bandwidth. This bottlenecking of content results in longer buffering time and poor viewing quality. Some solutions, such as upLynk and Skyfire’s Rocket Optimizer, attempt to resolve this issue by using cloud-based solutions to adapt and optimize over-the-top content. History The spike in mobile video streaming has come about as a result of the development of the smartphone. Smartphones registered a 5% to 40% market penetration between 2007 and 2010 in the United States. In the third quarter of 2011,",
"-29.303051047609188"
],
[
"out at the selected fast-forward or rewind speed within the original bandwidth envelope. Alternatively, the server may pregenerate an entirely new video stream with at least one forward and backward speed and switch to it when requested.",
"-29.19455819403811"
],
[
"73% of total IP traffic. Furthermore, Cisco has predicted that this trend will continue into the future, estimating that by 2021, 82% of total IP traffic will come from video traffic.\nThe amount of data used by video streaming services depends on the quality of the video. Thus, Android Central breaks down how much data is used (on a smartphone) with regards to different video resolutions. According to their findings, per hour video between 240p and 320p resolution uses roughly 0.3GB. Standard video, which is clocked in at a resolution of 480p, uses approximately 0.7GB per hour. High-definition video which varies",
"-29.15865329571534"
],
[
"of up to 10 minutes in length with a file size of up to 650 MB, with verified and popular users allowed to upload videos of up to 60 minutes in length with a file size of up to 5.4 GB. The app automatically begins playing videos as soon as it is launched, which CEO Kevin Systrom contrasted to video hosts where one must first locate a video. Instagram Direct In December 2013, Instagram announced Instagram Direct, a feature that lets users interact through private messaging. Users who follow each other can send private messages with photos and videos, in",
"-29.132243407308124"
],
[
"than 80 million subscribers. Streaming high definition video content through Netflix uses roughly 3 GB of data per hour, while standard definition takes up around 1 GB of data per hour. In North America, during peak bandwidth consumption hours (around 8 PM) Netflix uses about 40% of total network bandwidth. The vast amount of data marks an unparalleled period in time and is one of the major contributing factors that has led the world into the Zettabyte Era. YouTube YouTube is another large video streaming (and video uploading) service, whose data consumption rate across both fixed and mobile networks remains",
"-29.043683867901564"
],
[
"video streams in which only serial access is possible, digital video allows for random access to the media, which raises the possibility of alternative fast forwarding algorithms and visualizations. In video streaming formats, such as H.264, fast forward algorithms use the I-frames to sample the video at faster than normal speed. In streaming videos, fast-forward represents a useful search or browsing mechanism, but introduces extra network overhead when non-I-frames are transmitted in addition to the viewed I-frames and extra computational complexity in the video transcoder. Finding more network bandwidth-conserving and computationally efficient algorithms for accommodating both fast-forward and normal speed",
"-28.870483321370557"
],
[
"images, MP3 audio, MPEG video). A modem might be sending compressed files at approximately 50 kbit/s, uncompressed files at 160 kbit/s, and pure text at 320 kbit/s, or any rate in this range. Compression by the ISP As telephone-based Internet lost popularity in the mid 2000s, some Internet service providers such as TurboUSA, Netscape, CdotFree, and NetZero started using data compression to increase the perceived speed. As an example, EarthLink advertises \"surf the Web up to 7x faster\" using a compression program that squeezes images, text/html, and SWF flash animations prior to transmission across the phone line.\nThe pre-compression operates much",
"-28.709207835199777"
],
[
"Media Player, QuickTime and RealPlayer) that generally require the user to download and install a web browser plugin in order to view video. Flash also requires a plug-in, but the Flash 7 plug-in is generally considered to be present on approximately 90% of online computers. The video can also be played back with gnash(cannot) or VLC. It has pixel dimensions of 320 by 240 (4:3) or 352 by 264 (16:9), depending on the aspect ratio of the source video. Videos run at 25 frames per second with a maximum data rate of 300kbit/s.\nTudou accepts uploaded videos in a",
"-28.583175086881965"
],
[
"or Xvid encoded files up to 1080p60. Stage6 rejected encoded videos not mixed with MP2 or MP3 audio. Upload file size limit for an individual video was 2 Gigabytes. The download speeds from Stage6 ranged up to and above 16 MBit/s.\nThe video playback was based on the DivX codec and required the user to download and install a web browser plug-in in order to view video. Since the DivX Web Player was designed specifically for viewing videos, streamed on extremely high quality, high resolution videos were made possible under comparatively low CPU usage.\nDownloaded videos could also be played-back with third-party",
"-28.20723907143838"
],
[
"bitrate is low, on the other hand, the video quality will be lower – thereby reducing the customer’s quality of experience.\nThere are a number of ways of dealing with these challenges. One way is to take the YouTube approach. YouTube uses HTTP progressive download, and makes multiple versions of the video available at different resolutions and bitrates. Users themselves can then select the quality / bitrate that works best for them. If stalling or rebuffering occur, then can select the next lower resolution and continue viewing the video.\nAdaptive bitrate effectively automates these resolution / quality adjustments on behalf of the",
"-28.207037018506526"
],
[
"rates. The player client switches between streaming the different encodings depending on available resources. \"The result: very little buffering, fast start time and a good experience for both high-end and low-end connections.\"\nMore specifically, and as the implementations in use today are, adaptive bitrate streaming is a method of video streaming over HTTP where the source content is encoded at multiple bit rates, then each of the different bit rate streams are segmented into small multi-second parts. The streaming client is made aware of the available streams at differing bit rates, and segments of the streams by a manifest file.",
"-28.034295152319828"
],
[
"technique; users' download speed is limited during peak times, if they have downloaded a large amount of data that day.",
"-27.87216457547038"
],
[
"browser, the maximum quality settings were 1000 kbit/s for video and 44 kHz for audio. As a comparison, YouTube High Quality video at the time 400-500 kbit/s, and 720p high definition video is approximately 2000 kbit/s. The 1000 kbit/s limit could be exceeded by using alternate broadcasting methods, such as Flash Media Encoder and Quicktime Broadcaster, and 720p video in H.264 had been broadcast by some users.\nFollowing the Justin.tv re-design in July 2009, the default channel video size changed from a standard aspect ratio of 468 x 353 pixels to a widescreen 630 x 353 pixels. Content accessibility Like YouTube and",
"-27.784674365015235"
],
[
"viewing is an active area of research.\nWhen fast-forwarding is used as a search mechanism (sometimes called a fast-forward video surrogate) in video libraries, the question arises as to what is perceptually the best fast-forward strategy for effective browsing. The main trade-off is between the fast-forward speed and the ability to understand the video. One study concluded that a 1:64 ratio surrogate (that is, show one frame out of every 64) allowed most participants to perform adequately on a range of tasks related to video understanding. Metaphorical uses Fast-forwarding videotapes and similar is familiar enough for metaphorical uses to develop, e.g.",
"-27.736877021816326"
],
[
"in the 320x240 pixel resolution, while others opt for a larger format, such as 480x360 pixels (for a typical display) and 640x360 (for a widescreen 16:9 display).\nMany portals use Adobe Flash Player for their videos, the player which is becoming a de facto industry standard. Others use Windows Media Player, QuickTime, DivX Web Player or RealPlayer.\nDevices like Apple TV or Netgear's Digital Entertainer, capable of transferring video files from the Internet to the television screen, will cause an increase in the length of the size of videos, both in definition and duration.\nMost video portals generate their revenue through advertising. There",
"-27.58110203598335"
],
[
"Internet video Video file formats Practical online video streaming was only made possible with advances in data compression, due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video. Raw digital video requires a bandwidth of 168 Mbps for SD video, and over 1 Gbps for FHD video.\nThe most important compression technique that enabled practical video streaming is the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a form of lossy compression first proposed in 1972 by Nasir Ahmed, who then developed the algorithm with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao at the University of Texas in 1973. The DCT algorithm is the basis for the first",
"-27.568956218659878"
],
[
"of using the YouTube APIs is that as there are hundreds of hours of footage, however with using an API, it is easy to select the data and videos to store on a 3rd party site. Disadvantages During a period that included March 2006, API calls from Flash were disabled due to security concerns. These, however, have since been re-enabled. \n\nThere are also problems currently (October 2014) with the orientation on Android devices. Even by adding the fullscreen to the AndroidManifest, it still does not load properly in the correct full screen orientation.\n\nYouTube also does not allow videos to",
"-27.479488852986833"
],
[
"limiting link speed based on amount of transferred data). The speed varied depending on the loop length up to 20 Mbit/s.\nThe typical ADSL/VDSL (no limits/No data cap) connection offered is from 20/2Mbit up to 100/10Mbit. For short local loops, 250/25 Mbit/s plan is offered by some VDSL3 (G.Fast) internet providers. Speeds and overbooking vary per each ISP. Internet censorship and surveillance There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. Individuals and groups engage in the free expression of views via the Internet, including by",
"-27.445666803861968"
],
[
"the slower method of reading all the complete article headers. Many clients are unable to do this, and limit filtering to what is available in the summaries. Speed Speed, for the purpose of this article, is how quickly a server can deliver an article to the user. The server that the user connects to is typically part of a server farm that has many servers dedicated to multiple tasks. How fast the data can move in this farm is the first thing that affects the speed of delivery.\nOnce the farm is able to deliver the data to the network, then",
"-27.429246537212748"
],
[
"a high rate. A common case is a web spider which accesses too many pages on a web server too quickly at the expense of the server's intended audience.",
"-27.347444662103953"
],
[
"Google PageSpeed Tools Speed Impact The PageSpeed Module showed the most significant impact on decreasing webpage loading times, payload size, and number of requests when compared to other options in the industry. According to several researchers, mod_pagespeed can reduce loading times by up to 80%, amount of bytes on a wire can be decreased by 30% and the number of total requests can drop by over 20%. Since many search engines, including Google, employ a ranking algorithm which is affected by a page’s loading speed, these optimizations can impact a website’s placement in search results. As of February 2015, Google",
"-27.267357979901135"
],
[
"For example, back in 2005 YouTube was just a small startup company. Due to an absence of Internet fast lanes, YouTube had the ability to grow larger than Google Video. Tom Wheeler and Senators Ronald Lee Wyden (D-Ore.) and Al Franken (D-Minn.) said, \"Internet service providers treated YouTube's videos the same as they did Google's, and Google couldn't pay the ISPs [Internet service providers] to gain an unfair advantage, like a fast lane into consumers' homes,\" they wrote. \"Well, it turned out that people liked YouTube a lot more than Google Video, so YouTube thrived.\" Preserving Internet standards Net neutrality",
"-27.197205402386317"
],
[
"Gbit/s speed was achieved with a total of 16 different wavelength signals.\nOn December 31, 2006, NHK demonstrated a live relay of their annual Kōhaku Uta Gassen over IP from Tokyo to a 450 in (11.4 m) screen in Osaka. Using a codec developed by NHK, the video was compressed from 24 Gbit/s to 180–600 Mbit/s and the audio was compressed from 28 Mbit/s to 7–28 Mbit/s. Uncompressed, a 20-minute broadcast would require roughly 4 TB of storage.\nThe SMPTE first released Standard 2036 for UHDTV in 2007. UHDTV was defined as having two levels, called UHDTV1 (3840 × 2160) and UHDTV2 (7680 × 4320).\nIn May 2007, the NHK did an indoor demonstration",
"-27.109895415225765"
],
[
"type, predicting the best fit based on your input. It is virtually ‘instant’, as the name would suggest, and greatly reduces the time taken to find a file compared to the full version of YouTube. Limitations YouTube Instant possesses very little of the functionality offered by YouTube. Both the name of the file and the user name of the individual that uploaded it are not shown to the user. Also, there are no account-based features either, so the user cannot, for example, log into his/her existing YouTube account and add a file to his/her favorites. Public response Aboukhadijeh was",
"-27.105761321960017"
],
[
"16.875 in/s (429 mm/s), vs. a standard cassette's speed of 1.875 in/s (47.6 mm/s) on a C90 CrO₂ (chromium dioxide) cassette. The higher speed is necessary because video requires a wider bandwidth than standard audio recording. (In magnetic tape recording, the faster the tape speed, the more data can be read/written per second, i.e. higher bandwidth.) The PXL-2000 records the video information on the left audio channel of the cassette, and the audio on the right.\nIn order to reduce the amount of information recorded to fit within the narrow bandwidth of the sped-up audio cassette, it uses an ASIC to generate slower video timings",
"-27.095536263426766"
],
[
"the open source MPlayer project has now developed software capable of playing the RDT streams.\nTo facilitate real-time streaming, RealVideo (and RealAudio) normally uses constant bit rate encoding, so that the same amount of data is sent over the network each second. Recently, RealNetworks has introduced a variable bit rate form called RealMedia Variable Bitrate (RMVB). This allows for better video quality, however this format is less suited for streaming because it is difficult to predict how much network capacity a certain video stream will need. Video with fast motion or rapidly changing scenes will require a higher bit rate. If",
"-27.026308041531593"
],
[
"market record 24-frame/s video using 2-3 pulldown and 30-frame/s video using 2-2 pulldown. Progressive-scan DV camcorders for 50 Hz market record 25-frame/s video using 2-2 pulldown.\nProgressive video can be recorded with interlaced delivery in mind, in which case high-frequency information between fields is blended to suppress interline twitter. If the goal is progressive-scan distribution like Web videos, progressive-scan DVD-video or filmout, then no filtering is applied. Video recorded with 2-2 pulldown and no vertical filtering is conceptually identical to progressive segmented frame.\nConsumer-grade DV camcorders capable of progressive recording usually offer only 2-2 pulldown scheme because of its simplicity. Such a video",
"-26.934752724599093"
],
[
"Star Eater) and higher data rate for video recording. Several other hacks are under development but not yet published.\nJune 2013 Simon Pilgrim was able to enable RAW video recording but the frame rate (roughly 1.5 frames per second) is not high enough to be useful. The hack is not yet published.",
"-26.91376687578304"
],
[
"service) the private network. Economics The cable industry's expenditures of approximately $1 billion per year are based on network updates to accommodate higher data speeds. Most operators use 2–3 channels to support maximum data speeds of 50 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s. However, because video streams require a high bit rate for much longer periods of time, the expenditures to support high amounts of video traffic will be much greater. This phenomenon is called persistency. Data persistency is routinely 5% while video persistency can easily reach 50%. As video traffic continues to grow, this means that significantly more CMTS downstream channels will be",
"-26.913689966197126"
],
[
"although still better than CBR. Specifying a higher average or maximum may simply make the file bigger with no discernible quality effect, and an increased maximum bitrate may introduce stutter when streaming the file. However, reducing these criteria too low will eventually lead to quite drastic losses in quality. The effect on video is typically an increased blockiness, because the frames are no longer being fully detailed in their rendering.\nThe multi-pass ABR encoding is more similar to fixed quantizer VBR, because a higher average will really increase the quality.\nThere are no ideal \"one-size-fits-all\" settings for ABR in video",
"-26.878811548871454"
],
[
"a short pause to confirm that the user is happy with the match, plays the video in the central display. Beneath this, users are also presented with a smaller version of the file that is being played with a simple play and pause function as well as four other strong matches that the user can opt to select and play in the central panel instead.\nYouTube Instant, as Aboukhadijeh said, would be most useful when one is \"looking for a serendipitous video browsing experience\". In comparison with Google Instant, it might not be as useful if \"you know exactly what you’re",
"-26.857441689178813"
],
[
"to 70 megabits per second, with 100 Mbit/s to be available when satellite-beaming techniques are perfected.\nActual speed is less impressive, as discussed in a TechTimes summary of some journalists' findings during the November 13, 2015 trials. \"Speedtest rated it at 11.71 Mbit/s downloads, a 656-millisecond ping and uploads of 0.53 Mbit/s on my first try,\" said Timothy J. Seppala from Engadget. He added that one drawback is the ping time, which varies between 500 and 1000 milliseconds. ... The Verge's Chris Welch, meanwhile, observed that upload speeds were almost nonexistent, but stressed that casual Internet users seldom need to upload",
"-26.855777397286147"
],
[
"user. Each ABR video is encoded at multiple bitrates, each broken into \"chunks\" of varying lengths (e.g., Apple’s HTTP Live Streaming generally uses 10s chunks). If network bandwidth is insufficient to deliver the video at this bitrate, the client will request the next \"chunk\" to be at a lower bitrate; quality of video will be reduced, but re-buffering will be avoided. Conversely, if the network can deliver at higher than the current bitrate, the client will request the next chunk to be at a higher bitrate, and quality will increase. Cloud A newer approach is to perform video and multimedia",
"-26.854056188545655"
],
[
"often have a setting to avoid it or have dedicated screenshot functions. Screen recording The screen recording capability of some screen capture programs is a time-saving way to create instructions and presentations, but the resulting files are often large.\nA common problem with video recordings is the action jumps, instead of flowing smoothly, due to low frame rate. Though getting faster all the time, ordinary PCs are not yet fast enough to play videos and simultaneously capture them at professional frame rates, i.e. 30 frame/s. For many cases, high frame rates are not required. This is not generally an issue if",
"-26.850789423217066"
],
[
"a large and fast memory buffer to the sensor, where it can temporarily store a significant amount of captured data before transferring it to the device's internal memory for processing. This enables the camera sensor to record the highlight super slow-motion videos at a frame rate of 960 fps practically unheard of in a smartphone before. Recording at super slow motion is only limited to 0.18 seconds per buffer (about a blink of an eye) and at 720p HD resolution though, due to limitations. This specific limitation also requires a very bright light source directly on to the subject,",
"-26.839883211214328"
],
[
"looking for, since you’re shown distracting YouTube videos on the way to your destination\", said Aboukhadijeh. He continues by saying that he thinks this is perfect for many internet users.”\nYouTube Instant presents itself as a \"streamlined, neatly presented microcosm\" of the YouTube universe, which provides a simple and effective means of finding and playing a specific file. Like Google Instant, as soon as the user starts typing into the search bar, the utility looks for matches, and presents a file name to the right of the bar (in a distinctive and quite stylish script), which changes as you continue to",
"-26.81923420506064"
],
[
"has begun testing “Slow” labels on mobile devices for websites that exceed a certain amount of loading time, prompting developers to examine ways to increase a page’s load speed. PageSpeed Insights PageSpeed Insights is an online tool which helps in identifying performance best practices on any given website, provides suggestions on a webpage’s optimizations, and suggests overall ideas of how to make a website faster. This tool can be accessed directly in any browser. Per URL request, it grades webpage performance on a scale from 1 to 100 and provides a report on suggested optimizations, divided into categories of high,",
"-26.674041116639273"
],
[
"PPS.tv Applications However, the nature of peer to peer serving means that each user of the system is also a server. The upload speed of standard home broadband connections is usually a fraction of the download speed, so several upload sources may be required by each additional peer. Additionally, on services with high contention ratios or poorly configured switches, large numbers of people attempting to use the service may slow all internet usage to unusable speeds. Acting as an upload server to the limit of ones upload bandwidth increases the round trip time for webpage requests, making web browsing while",
"-26.638822060398525"
],
[
"LG Arena (KM900) Firmwares Although the device is compatible with both Wi-Fi and YouTube, streaming YouTube videos using a wireless network is not possible with most firmware versions, including the newest ones. Some alternative (and older) firmware versions, like V0O_02, implement the solution for this problem, but were not developed by LG and result on device's performance decrease. In September 2009 the V10P_00 version was released and updated the Google Maps version to 2.3.2, as well as some GPS functions, making possible for the handset to find the users' location in under 5 seconds. In older firmware version this would",
"-26.493568305799272"
],
[
"setting the minimum speed to 2 Mbit/s in addition to lowering the prices.",
"-26.450036503723823"
],
[
"high level of CPU consumption to decompress.\nAs of 2011, the highest resolution demonstrated for digital video generation is 35 megapixels (8192 x 4320). The highest speed is attained in industrial and scientific high speed cameras that are capable of filming 1024x1024 video at up to 1 million frames per second for brief periods of recording.",
"-26.4495324458112"
],
[
"also allowed users to change the speed of video recordings and share to Instagram.",
"-26.384272403200157"
],
[
"P2PTV Technology and use In a P2PTV system, each user, while downloading a video stream, is simultaneously also uploading that stream to other users, thus contributing to the overall available bandwidth. The arriving streams are typically a few minutes time-delayed compared to the original sources. The video quality of the channels usually depends on how many users are watching; the video quality is better if there are more users.\nThe architecture of many P2PTV networks can be thought of as real-time versions of BitTorrent: if a user wishes to view a certain channel, the P2PTV software contacts a \"tracker server\" for",
"-26.35395729963784"
],
[
"followed by an interval or period of lower or zero rate transmission, may also be seen as a form of jitter, as it represents a deviation from the average transmission rate. However, unlike the jitter caused by variation in latency, transmitting in bursts may be seen a desirable feature, e.g. in variable bitrate transmissions. Video and image jitter Video or image jitter occurs when the horizontal lines of video image frames are randomly displaced due to the corruption of synchronization signals or electromagnetic interference during video transmission. Model-based dejittering study has been carried out under the framework of digital image",
"-26.316294481395744"
],
[
"popular YouTube service. It also contain powerful extended media download functions.\nMozilla broke compatibility with Flashgot (and many other add-ons) in version 56, so it works only on older Mozilla versions.\nFlashGot supports metalinks for sending mirror and checksum information to supported download managers for faster and more reliable downloads.\nVersion 1.2.1.13 included an experimental \"Search Refinements for downloadable files and media\" feature based on Surf Canyon technology. This functionality, which submitted search keywords to Surf Canyon for processing, was easy to opt out of with one click but enabled by default, prompting criticism equating the feature to adware and spyware, even though",
"-26.24240345779981"
],
[
"of a network or internet connection. It is typically undertaken by attempting to download or upload the maximum amount of data in a certain period of time, or a certain amount of data in the minimum amount of time. For this reason, Bandwidth tests can delay internet transmissions through the internet connection as they are undertaken, and can cause inflated data charges.\nA more accurate method is to use dedicated software such as Netcps, JDSU QT600, Spirent Test Center, IxChariot, Xena Networks Valkyrie & Vulcan, Iperf, Ttcp, netperf or bwping for measuring the maximum throughput of a network access, or to",
"-26.22561392863281"
],
[
"than the loss of whole packets. Resending packets is not an option because of the sequential nature of the underlying video signal. For live video, a resent packet would arrive well after the arrival of the next frame of video. Network delay variation Network delay variation can be kept to a minimum by using a high-speed network backbone, and ensuring that video traffic does not encounter excessive queue delays. This is typically done by either ensuring that the network is not too close to its full capacity, or that video traffic is prioritized using traffic engineering techniques (see",
"-26.2037301575765"
],
[
"slowing down video considerably, especially as the IIsi had 1 MB of slow RAM soldered to the motherboard. David Pogue's book Macworld Macintosh Secrets observed that one could speed up video considerably if one set the disk cache size large enough to force the computer to draw video RAM from faster RAM installed in the SIMM banks.\nThe IIsi also suffers from sound difficulties: over time, the speaker contacts can fail, causing the sound to periodically drop out. This problem was caused by the very modular construction of the computer, where the mono loudspeaker is on a daughterboard under the motherboard, with",
"-26.186166833882453"
],
[
"variety of formats, including .WMV, .AVI, .MOV, MPEG and .MP4.\nVideo can be seen in windowed mode or full screen mode; it is possible to switch the mode during the viewing of any video without reloading it because of the full-screen function of Adobe Systems Flash Player 9.\nBecause of the copyright and licensing issues, some Tudou videos are blocked to international IP addresses. Bandwidth Tudou reports that it's one of the world's largest bandwidth users, sending over 1PB (Petabyte) of video files per day, which is nearly 100Gbit/s of sustained traffic. The company uses a variety of proprietary and commercial",
"-26.17020253764349"
],
[
"definition playback Non-HD videos are re-encoded at a maximum of 30 frames per second, but suffer in image quality, which is inline with the low bit rate for videos in the 640×360 size. Usually, the video content is re-encoded to bit rate below 0.5 Mbit/s. This is not enough to reproduce the fine details that can be captured from a consumer video camera or a smartphone, for example. China Vimeo is blocked in China. India Starting May 4, 2012, the site was blocked in India by some ISPs under orders from the Department of Telecommunications, without any stated reasons. Vimeo was",
"-26.168545650027227"
],
[
"streams that use variable bit rate encoding, the number of bits per unit of time is not obscured, and this can be exploited to guess spoken phrases. Similarly, the burst patterns that common video encoders produce are often sufficient to identify the streaming video a user is watching uniquely. Even the total size of an object alone, such as a website, file, software package download, or online video, can uniquely identify an object, if the attacker knows or can guess a known set the object comes from. The side-channel of encrypted content length was used to extract passwords from",
"-26.105262072902406"
],
[
"longer. This feature is named as High-Speed Channel and allows Xunlei users retrieve data faster than others. But only paying users have access to these servers and download files.",
"-25.986236465607362"
],
[
"displaying the video at its nominal rate must accommodate the varying input stream arrival times by buffering the data arriving early and assuring that there is enough already stored data to face the possible delays in the received data (because of this the buffer is filled before displaying).\nSimilarly, the network infrastructure (switches, routers,…) uses buffers at each node to avoid packet loss. These buffers must be sized appropriately to handle network congestion.\nPacket delays can be caused by multiple facts, among which there are the way traffic is routed through the infrastructure and possible differences between link speeds in the infrastructure.\nMoreover,",
"-25.964889881419367"
],
[
"A mobile live streaming software called Qik allows the users to upload videos from their cell phones to the internet. The videos will then be stored online and can be shared to various social networking sites like Twitter, Facebook and YouTube. Videos will be stored on the servers and can be watched from both the mobile devices and the website. History Practical online video hosting and video streaming was made possible by advances in video compression, due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video. Raw digital video has a bit rate of 168 Mbps for SD video, and over",
"-25.948600110481493"
],
[
"to include videos discovered by their web crawlers on other hosting services, in YouTube and user uploads. Thereafter, search result links opened a frameset with a Google Video header at the top, and the original player page below it. \nAs of August 2007, the DTO/DTR (download-to-own/rent) program ended. Users who previously purchased a video from Google Video were no longer able to view them. Credits for users were made available as values for Google Checkout and were valid for 60 days.\nIn 2009, Google ended the ability for users to upload videos to Google Video. Videos that were already uploaded continued",
"-25.937167125521228"
],
[
"need to run a parallel infrastructure to deliver live and stored video services. Limitations IPTV is sensitive to packet loss and delays if the streamed data is unreliable. IPTV has strict minimum speed requirements in order to facilitate the right number of frames per second to deliver moving pictures. This means that the limited connection speed and bandwidth available for a large IPTV customer base can reduce the service quality delivered.\nAlthough a few countries have very high-speed broadband-enabled populations, such as South Korea with 6 million homes benefiting from a minimum connection speed of 100 Mbit/s, in other countries (such as",
"-25.924923296639463"
],
[
"original, lower recording speed was retained as a user option because not all VHS recorders of the time offered sufficient recording quality to reliably support this higher speed.\nAn E-180 video tape is able to hold 2 GB of uncompressed data at the lower rate, more than sufficient for most PC hard drives of the time. This can be shown by calculating 200 KB x 60 x 60 x 3 = 2.06 GB (2.06 x 2^30 bytes), which also leaves a few minutes spare for header and synchronisation space.\nNote that it is unclear here whether \"200 kbyte\" means 200,000 (200 x",
"-25.90165404463187"
],
[
"to be hosted. Later, other navigation features were retired, such as ability to cross-reference videos back to now-inactive user accounts, as well as selection of top videos.\nOn April 15, 2011, Google announced that they would stop hosting user-uploaded videos. The plan would make videos unavailable for public viewing on April 29 and removed from users' accounts in 28 days. On April 22, 2011, a week after the announcement, Google announced that due to feedback they would not be removing videos at this time. Instead they will start automatically migrating videos to YouTube, as well as providing easier tools for account",
"-25.898079357772076"
],
[
"in Manitoba. Download speeds are up to 25 Mbit/s for average users, though recent upgrades now make HDTV and much higher rates possible.\nFor cable offerings, standard North American DOCSIS based equipment are used. The largest cable internet providers in Canada are Shaw Communications (Western) and Rogers Cable (Eastern) offering internet speeds of up to 1000 Mbit/s. Usage-based billing (UBB) Internet bandwidth limits and caps are considered by many to be too restrictive, due to the increasing popularity of online streaming media services such as Netflix, which require large amounts of bandwidth.\nThe decision to impose bandwidth caps on smaller independent",
"-25.891071271849796"
],
[
"report sorted and listed the number of times that each of the user's videos had been viewed and downloaded within a specific time frame. These ranged from the previous day, week, month or the entire time the videos have been there. Totals were calculated and displayed and the information could be downloaded into a spreadsheet format or printed out. Website The basic way to watch the videos was through the Google Video website, video.google.com. Each video had a unique web address in the format of http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=<video_id>, and that page contained an embedded Flash Video file which could be viewed in",
"-25.89069989589916"
],
[
"feed for video links. In June 2006, Blinkx reached 4 million hours of searchable video content. In October 2006, Microsoft Corp. agreed to use Blinkx technology to power the video search on some parts of its MSN service and Live.com. Other sites it powers include Lycos, InfoSpace, the RealPlayer and parts of AOL. In February 2007, Blinkx received the DEMOgod award from DEMO 07 conference organizers.\nIn June 2007, Blinkx launched a contextual video advertising platform named AdHoc.\nIn March 2008, Blinkx released the Blinkx Beat video screensaver.\nIn April 2008, the company launched its broadband TV application. In May 2008, Blinkx introduced",
"-25.860832465667045"
],
[
"upon a screen, typically 24 per second. Traditional interlaced SD video has no real frame rate, (though the term \"frame\" is applied to video, it has a different meaning). Instead, video consists of a very fast succession of horizontal lines that continually cascade down the television screen – streaming top to bottom, before jumping back to the top and then streaming down to the bottom again, repeatedly, almost 60 alternating screen-fulls every second for NTSC, or exactly 50 such screen-fulls per second for PAL and SECAM. Since visual movement in video is infused in this continuous cascade of scans lines,",
"-25.860018817184027"
],
[
"is the quality of image and audio transmission from the servers of the distributor to the user's screen. High-definition video (720p+) and later standards require higher bandwidth and faster connection speeds than previous standards, because they carry higher spatial resolution image content. In addition, transmission packet loss and latency caused by network impairments and insufficient bandwidth degrade replay quality. Decoding errors may manifest themselves with video breakup and macro blocks. The generally accepted download rate for streaming high-definition video encoded in H.264 is 3500 kbit/s, whereas standard-definition television can range from 500 to 1500 kbit/s depending on the resolution on",
"-25.848588101100177"
],
[
"whole family and then some. All the download speed you need at a low price and no overage charges.\nInternet 250\nThis plan is ludicrously fast. Have the world at your finger-tips while you stream, download and surf instantly with this unlimited data plan. Internet 250 offers unlimited high-speed data and peace of mind knowing you will never be charged for overage fees! Television On September 25, 2017, Comwave Networks announced that the company will enter the television market by announcing their new service named Comwave TV. Due to Comwave solely being a networking company, Comwave's new television service may use IPTV",
"-25.839913373463787"
],
[
"services Google offered users the means to save only some of the videos on the site, mostly for copyright reasons. Their documentation went so far as to claim that only these videos could be downloaded. However, since viewing a video requires downloading it to the computer, their software merely made saving videos less than trivially difficult, not impossible: a number of solutions, including external software and bookmarklets, have been developed. Market adoption Despite downloading being available in multiple formats, being less restrictive on video uploads, and Google being tremendously well-known, Google Videos had only a minor share from the online",
"-25.82990199737833"
],
[
"Streamus Features Streamus features include the ability to search for YouTube videos and create playlists, keyboard shortcuts, Beatport integration, and Omnibox integration. Omnibox integration allows users to search using Streamus with the URL address bar, by typing \"Streamus\" and hitting tab. Shutdown On July 13, 2015, after four months of intense negotiation, Sean announced that due to difficulty meeting YouTube's API guidelines, the extension would be removed from the Chrome Web Store the following day. The reason and the entire email conversation with the YouTube team was made public by the author through his extension app.",
"-25.82449193642242"
],
[
"Putfile Uploading Putfile accepted files in most common video, music, audio, and image formats. There was a 5 MB image size limit. File size maximums for videos and Flash files were repeatedly increased; as of July 2007, the maximum file size was 200MB.\nMedia could be rated on a scale from 1 (worst) to 5 (best). Statistics were kept on the number of views a file had and its average rating. The site provided links to the highest rated and most viewed media.\nRegistration was free. As of December 2005, text ads were being sold on Putfile. Viewing media The photo upload",
"-25.79717297056959"
],
[
"a speed of 1 gigabit/s would imply an error every 1000 seconds or once every 1000th transmitted Gbit. Layer 2 thus automatically corrects these errors at the cost of marginal loss of bandwidth and at the cost of buffer space needed in L2 to store copies of transmitted data frames for possible retransmission or \"replay\". L2 flow control Another feature of L2 is the ability for an L2 transmitter to know whether there is buffer space for the data frame at the receiving end. This again relies on L2 control frames (AFC) which allow a receiver to tell the peer's",
"-25.785615102620795"
],
[
"such as Highest Download Speed and Lowest Latency.\nBadges are awarded when either Highest Download or Lowest Ping will be. My Results The Ookla Speed Test also has a tool called “My Results” which lets you graphically compare your upload and download speeds as well as the different servers you have tested. Users who have been through many internet service providers, or that have more than one, may find value in this tool and could use it to choose the most efficient.",
"-25.78020936367102"
],
[
"between 720p and 2k resolution uses about 0.9GB (720p), 1.5GB (1080p) and 3GB (2k) per hour. Finally, 4K video, known as ultra-high-definition video, uses about 7.2GB per hour.\nNetflix and YouTube are at the top of the list in terms of the most globally streamed video services online. In 2016, Netflix represented 32.72% of all video streaming IP traffic, while YouTube represented 17.31%. The third spot is taken up by Amazon Prime Video where global data usage comes in at 4.14%. Netflix Currently, Netflix is the largest video streaming service in the world, accessible in over 200 countries and with more",
"-25.766992392396787"
],
[
"broadly into developing markets.\nWith increased consumer demand for streaming content such as video on demand and peer-to-peer file sharing, demand for bandwidth has increased rapidly and for some ISPs the flat rate pricing model may become unsustainable. However, with fixed costs estimated to represent 80–90% of the cost of providing broadband service, the marginal cost to carry additional traffic is low. Most ISPs do not disclose their costs, but the cost to transmit a gigabyte of data in 2011 was estimated to be about $0.03.\nSome ISPs estimate that a small number of their users consume a disproportionate portion of the",
"-25.739111401024275"
],
[
"as \"an always-on Internet connection with download speed of 256 kbit/s or above.\" The definition was amended in July 2013 defining broadband as a \"data connection that supports interactive services, including internet access, capable of a minimum download speed of 256 kbps to an individual subscriber.\" The minimum download speed was officially raised from 256 kbit/s to 512 kbit/s in August 2014.\nOn 31 October 2016, TRAI issued a directive to all fixed broadband ISPs ordering them to ensure that the minimum download speed of a connection would not drop below 512 kbit/s even after a subscriber had used up their",
"-25.699160678079352"
],
[
"speeds approach 1 Gbit/s, the recovery time becomes half an hour and for 10 Gbit/s it's over 4 hours.\nScalable TCP modifies the congestion control algorithm. Instead of halving the congestion window size, each packet loss decreases the congestion window by a small fraction (a factor of 1/8 instead of Standard TCP's 1/2) until packet loss stops. When packet loss stops, the rate is ramped up at a slow fixed rate (one packet is added for every one hundred successful acknowledgements) instead of the Standard TCP rate that's the inverse of the congestion window size (thus very large windows take a",
"-25.680571153119672"
],
[
"own videos and YouTube included GoFish, ExposureRoom, Vimeo, Myspace, Biku, and Yahoo! Video. Video distribution methods Google Videos offered both free services and commercial videos, the latter controlled with digital rights management. Uploading videos Until 2009, users were able to upload videos either through the Google Video website (limited to 100 MB per file); or alternatively through the Google Video Uploader, available for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux.\nWhile the Video Uploader application was available as three separate downloads, the Linux version was written in Java, a cross-platform programming language, and would therefore also work on other operating systems without",
"-25.653998255729675"
],
[
"or even via speech-recognition software. (Still, some CD and DVD players offer tape-style fast-forwarding, so that the user can detect when the destination is reached and stop.) Usage in video Analogue VCRs provided fast-forward by simply playing the tape faster. The resulting loss of synchronization of the video was accepted because it was still possible to make out approximately what was happening in the video to find the desired playback point. Modern digital video systems such as DVR and Video on Demand systems use 'trick mode' to present an apparently faster stream by only displaying selected frames.\nUnlike analogue",
"-25.59616482295678"
],
[
"video market, amassing around 2.5 million videos uploaded.\nWhile initially only available in the United States, over time Google Videos had become available to users in more countries and could be accessed from many other countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Canada and Japan.\nRegardless of general availability, content providers were given the opportunity to limit access to video files to only users from certain countries of residence. However, methods of circumventing geographical filtering existed. Shut down On October 9, 2006, Google bought former competitor YouTube. Google announced on June 13, 2007, that the Google Video search results would begin",
"-25.588103348040022"
],
[
"are no larger than 500 megabytes in size and no longer than 5 minutes in length. TinyPic officially accepts the uploading of videos in the following video formats: 3g2, 3gp, 3gp2, 3gpp, 3p, asf, avi, divx, dv, dvx, flv, moov, mov, mp4, mpe, mpeg4, mpeg, mpg4, mpg, qt, rm, wmv, and xvid and generally users are able to upload all but the most unusual formats.\nTinypic deleted images and videos that are not associated with a user account and that have not been viewed for 90 days. Tinypic will sometimes reuse URLs of deleted images, resulting in old image links showing",
"-25.58233654385549"
],
[
"service in August 2006 and, two years later the company announced the launch of two new internet access services; Ultimate Speed Internet 30 and Ultimate Speed Internet 50 which deliver speeds of 30 Mbit/s and 50 Mbit/s respectively.\nIn the spring of 2010, Vidéotron launched IllicoWeb, an online television and video-on-demand service. In September, it launched a 3G+ wireless service, with plans to offer a quadruple play service with its existing cable services.\nOn December 30, 2017, assets from Vidéotron G.P. were transferred to Vidéotron Ltée, as the company underwent a corporate reorganization.\nIn September 2018, Vidéotron began beta testing for Fizz, a",
"-25.572440846066456"
],
[
"the maximum number of simultaneous users. The advertised peak bandwidth per user of 7 Mbit/s is 92 times the guaranteed bandwidth per user of 0.076 Mbit/s. In this example, the download oversubscription ratio is 92:1.\nA similar calculation can be performed using upstream bandwidths. Typically, advertised upload rates are 1/4 the download rates however the available upload bandwidth using DOCSIS 1.1 or 2.0 is also lower. If 100 users allocated 1.75 Mbit/s of upload bandwidth share a single DOCSIS 1.1 upstream, the upload oversubscription ratio is 17:1. One article found a typical DOCSIS download",
"-25.553496964392252"
],
[
"the video signal far more difficult. This is typically solved by genlocking both ends of the system to external station sync signals, typically generated from sources such as GPS or atomic clocks, thus only requiring the extraction of coarse timing information at the receiving end in order to achieve high-quality video synchronization. The extraction of coarse timing data is typically done using a phase locked loop with a long time constant. Adequate bandwidth Even with packet loss mitigation, video over IP will only work if the network is capable of carrying the content with some reasonable maximum packet loss rate.",
"-25.552494084258797"
],
[
"is provided. Filimo adapts the playing quality to the users’ Internet speed hence ensuring smooth playing of the content in case of a drop in the Internet speed. Three months after beginning of its operation, Android software of this service was introduced to users. At present, the content provided in this service is accessible to all users and there is no need to become a member in order to watch the videos. Social Impact Following the filtering of YouTube and other international video sharing services, Iranian users of these services were gradually reduced in size. Finally, in February 2010, Saba",
"-25.54921135917175"
],
[
"targeted at recording 4K video. Before November 2013, the rating was branded UHS Speed Grade and contained grades 0 (no symbol) and 1 ('U1' symbol). Manufacturers can also display standard speed class symbols (C2, C4, C6, and C10) alongside, or in place of UHS speed class.\nUHS memory cards work best with UHS host devices. The combination lets the user record HD resolution videos with tapeless camcorders while performing other functions. It is also suitable for real-time broadcasts and capturing large HD videos. Video Speed Class Video Speed Class defines a set of requirements for UHS cards to match the modern",
"-25.542839273868594"
],
[
"iChat instant messaging program (now called Messages). Webcam software enables users to record a video or stream the video on the Internet. As video streaming over the Internet requires a lot of bandwidth, such streams usually use compressed formats. The maximum resolution of a webcam is also lower than most handheld video cameras, as higher resolutions would be reduced during transmission. The lower resolution enables webcams to be relatively inexpensive compared to most video cameras, but the effect is adequate for video chat sessions.\nThe term \"webcam\" (a clipped compound) may also be used in its original sense of a video",
"-25.47395919432165"
],
[
"automatically throttle back on the bandwidth being used during periods of network congestion. This is fair in the sense that all users that experience congestion receive less bandwidth, but it can be frustrating for customers and a major problem for ISPs. In some cases the amount of bandwidth actually available may fall below the threshold required to support a particular service such as video conferencing or streaming live video–effectively making the service unavailable.\nWhen traffic is particularly heavy, an ISP can deliberately throttle back the bandwidth available to classes of users or for particular services. This is known as traffic shaping",
"-25.468825782481872"
],
[
"standard image quality needs 1 Mbit/s link speed for SD 480p, HD 720p quality requires 2.5 Mbit/s, and the top-of-the-line HDX quality needs 4.5 Mbit/s for 1080p.\nWebcams are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give full-frame-rate video, the picture either is usually small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, traffic at a local roundabout or monitor their own premises, live and in real time. Video chat rooms and video conferencing are also popular with many uses being found for personal webcams, with and without two-way",
"-25.438412665884243"
],
[
"a filesize of approximately 100 MB at a 160 × 120 resolution. MTV The MTV video format (no relation to the cable network) consists of a 512-byte file header that operates by displaying a series of raw image frames during MP3 playback. During this process, audio frames are passed to the chipset's decoder, while the memory pointer of the display's hardware is adjusted to the next image within the video stream. This method does not require additional hardware for decoding, though it will lead to a higher amount of memory consumption. For that reason, the storage capacity of an MP4",
"-25.43149956362322"
],
[
"has grown over 60% between 2008 and 2009 alone. It is no surprise that the company is planning to manage as many as 10 million servers in the future.\nThe explosion of video on the net is another disruptive element. The Amesterdam Internet exchange (AMS-IX), which handles approximately 20% of Europe’s traffic, saw its aggregate data traffic increase from 1.75 Petabyte per day in November 2007 to an expected 4 Petabyte per day in November 2009. Much of this rapid increase in traffic is driven by widespread use of voice and, in particular, video over the Internet.",
"-25.426470368547598"
],
[
"for move generation, but the one that has stuck is the DAWG algorithm. The GADDAG algorithm is faster, but a DAWG for North American English is only 0.5 MB, compared to about 2.5 MB for a GADDAG. That makes a significant difference for download games, whereas the speed advantage is not important. (Note that unimportant does not mean that the difference is small, merely that users cannot tell the difference. The GADDAG is perhaps twice as fast, but both algorithms are fast enough.) Rack evaluation The first (1986) version of Maven used a set of about 100 patterns to value",
"-25.38721434114268"
],
[
"codecs and metadata formats than previous versions of iMovie or today's QuickTime Player. For example, QuickTime Player can be extended to support the FLIP Video 3ivx MPEG-4 codec, but iMovie '08 cannot. iMovie '08 also removed the ability to import DV footage. As a result, all resulting videos have lossy compression applied and there is no facility for managing full format video. The peculiar lack of QuickTime support means QuickTime Pro can edit a larger range of video than iMovie '08.\nApple released iMovie HD 6 as a free download to those who had purchased iMovie '08. However, in response to",
"-25.362434445414692"
]
] |
2es05y | What is it like to have a sense of smell? | [
"I'll use hearing as an analogy, since it's closest in my mind. Imagine that every chemical in the world made its own sound. I don't mean like the difference between the musical notes A# and D, but like the difference between a flute playing A# and a blender with rocks in it. Smell is that rich and complex of an experience, compared to the simpler colors & brightness of vision. Like sounds, you can smell things over long distances without direct line of sight, and it's hard to completely block out, even if you pinch off the pass to the organ sensing it. Some smells drown out others, and some come through clearly no matter what (like a baby crying). Some smells are pleasant and stir emotions (particularly primal ones like hunger, lust, and safety), and some are incredibly annoying or even painful. Some differences are that you filter out background smells faster and more completely than sounds; you don't usually smell yourself at all, whereas you do hear a distorted version of your own voice always. It's harder to be overwhelmed by odors unless they come from gasses that cause other physiological effects (e.g. ammonia), whereas deafening sounds will cause permanent damage. It's hard to impossible to burn out smell from overexposure to non-toxic chemicals. On the other hand, bad smells can make it hard to breathe and make you nauseous. I can only imagine eating without smell would be like watching a movie without sound and subtitles. Maybe you can get a general feel for what people are saying by watching lips (so long as they face you), but you miss out on the effects of the background music for setting mood and all the foley effects. [Edit: Missing a word.]",
"Smelling is a function of the brain, as you know. It lets me know I am alert. It taps into the primal part of self. I am able to place locations like certain streets or kitchens by smell. I can know the scent of another person and know that they have been. It comes about unexpectedly, one minute I have smelled the same smells for one hour and with a single breath I am introduced to a foreign scent without my approval. But sometimes I smell a smell I am expecting. Like my farts. I love the smell of my farts.",
"for want of taste, smell is best compared to touch. a truly foul odor is very much like having a mild acid in your sinuses. courtesy of menthol and similar compounds in cleaning products, things that smell \"clean\" are best compared to a feeling of cold.",
"It's a subtle bookmark for places and events that so instantly take you back to a memory. Smell is the nostalgic sense",
"How had your loss of taste affected your diet? I've often wondered if it would improve ones diet if they could suppress thier taste senses, as it would (in my theory) eliminate any eating based on cravings.",
"Many of the responses here deal with the emotional response that smelling something produces. I think that's good, but I prefer digging deeper, since there's still a link in the chain there that's missing, and that is the actual physical perception of smell. I'm sure that you know what it feels like to have the emotional experiences that the people are talking about, so that isn't explaining anything that you don't already experience or know, so a more detailed description of how the stimuli presents itself to your awareness is in order, I think. /u/pyr666 does a good job of comparing it to touch, since that makes a link between your experience of touch and what it feels like to smell. Maybe that's just my take on it though, since I can understand how all sense is in a spectrum and that they cross over from time to time (I'm a mild synesthete). To me, extreme hot and extreme cold are similar to white, which are similar a loud trumpet playing its highest possible note, which is similar to very strong and distinct tastes like pure lemon. To me, they all share the property of being \"high energy\" because they present themselves to my awareness such that I'm keenly aware of them and they can't be ignored. In the same way, some smells have that same kind of spectrum of \"can't ignore\" - they \"shock\" your nervous system - often in a specific way. A very bright point of light to your vision is like a sharp needle to your touch, which is like a squirt of lemon juice or wasabi to your taste, and perhaps like vinegar to smell. That's generally what sour smells (and tastes) are like. Then there are those at the other end of the spectrum - tastes and smells that aren't overpowering, but that you need to pay attention to your sense to make it known to your attention. This is like the smallest amount of hair on your arm being moved but you just barely register it in your sense of touch. Similarly, colours that are hard to distinguish such as very pale colors or very dark colours may blend together and not be as distinct or catching to your awareness. In terms of smell, you might say this is like the smell of something fairly muted, like the smell of paper or sand. Bitter, as both a taste and a smell, to most people, is not pleasant if too strong, and might even be said to be painful and presents itself to your awareness with a kind of sense of immediacy, like being overwhelmed by looking at the sun (that sense of needing to look away), or pull away in the case of getting a deep papercut. Sharp spices like cinnamon are like having the blood flow back into your hand and you get pins and needles - many tiny bursts of individual neurons. Like the tickle you get in your nose when you're just about to sneeze, but milder and more diffuse. For more complex smells, such as where someone invites you to try to smell the different \"notes\" in a wine, it usually has a very strong sensation of one sort (usually the alcohol or the sourness of grapes) which makes it very difficult to make out the other smells - like trying to pick out the clarinet with a tuba blaring beside it (one drowns out the other, or makes it necessary to search harder for it). Some smells \"feel\" pleasant, like silk caressing your skin (such as the smell of butter or vanilla), or \"warm\" like the feeling of warmth on your skin after being out in the cold (such as the smell of freshly baked bread). These smells generally produce an immediate effect on your body of making your muscles relax, or to feel tingly all over. Similar to medium-saturation warm colors like yellow, orange, and red. Blue and green colors are like fresh coolness on your skin, which is the same as \"cool\" smells. The coolness of the sensations is also a relaxing one, often. A cool smell is like mint, pine, citrus because they seem to \"reset\" your sensory pallatte and don't linger long. A cool mist on your warm skin will seem to numb your skin very slightly and then cannot be felt soon after.",
"to smell is a gift and a curse at the same time. Overwhelming scents can be devastating such as a skunks spray while others such as the aroma of a fine wine can be uplifting.",
"I read an article about a woman who had a magnet in planted in her finger. This resulted in a new sense where she could feel magnetic flieds (like microwave ovens, high voltage lines, etc.) and detect near by metal. Thinking about this completely alien sense helped me to consider my other senses more objectively. So being able to smell actually gives you information about the chemistry of objects. Consider all the chemical reactions that take place in cooking; they result in differnt smells (and tastes). Smell can also tell you if fruit and vegiyables are ripe or even spoiled. Likewise of meat goes bad it give off a smell - kind of a warning. So you can think of that as being smiliar to being able to see or hear that information - since you get it from a distance. It it probably more similar to hearing since it doesn't require direct or uninterrupted \"line - of - sight\". Off all my senses, smell is the one that most often conveys bad information. For like in the case of spoilage, the smell is revolting. Like a loud sound, or a bright light. Smell is a really strong trigger for memories too. For many people smelling cookies reminds them of home. Or maybe certain foods remind them of holidays. The part of the brain that processes olfactory (smell) information is closely associated with memories. Because smell gets stronger the closer you get to the subject, it often times draws me in for smells I like (good food, a woman with nice colonge, the smell of the woods, etc.), or drives me away for ones I dislike (spoilage, feeces, filth, body oder, too much fragrance, etc). As a parent of small children, smell is one way I know my kids needs a clean diaper. Often times he\\she will get cranky (audible) or show other visual signs. The smell is another queue. My mother in law has no sense of smell, so she would always stick a finger in the diaper to veifiy - which is messy. I just look when I am unsure. Generally speaking smell is a way we learn things not to eat. There are some poisons that are adapted to smell good or not at all, but very few things that smell bad that are good for you (individual tastes aside). So smell is just another way to collect information at a distance from the world around us. Most of that information can be collected other ways too. Especially if you took chemistry and have isolated different compounds and elemtents. Smell is just a convenient way to do that.. Edit: hit post early.",
"A good smell is like feeling something very pleasant and soothing. It often elicits memories, as smell is very strongly tied to memory, and you may find yourself back in a happy childhood memory. The smell of bread in the oven would immediately transport your mind back to being a small child, helping your grandmother bake in the kitchen and feeling like the world was amazing and the day would last forever. It's a very visceral, all-over feeling when one is enveloped by a familiar, pleasant smell. You feel your body open up to pull it in, your eyes close and you salivate involuntarily, and everything around you slows just a little bit. Think of it a little like being in the afterglow of a good orgasm. Conversely, a bad smell is not as often tied with memory but creates a very physical response just the same. You'll feel your throat close as you gag, and your stomach churn or heave. The smell feels viscous and heavy in your mouth, as though it's tangible and you've bitten down on it. It seeps into you, burns a little, and feels thick and wet in your throat like you're choking on something slimy. Smelling something bad is like trying to swallow a mouthful of lukewarm eggwhites when you're already so full from eating that you're rather nauseated.",
"Hey! I lost my sense of smell just a few years back, but I can still remember how things smell. It's kind of like closing your eyes and picturing something, but instead smell. As a note, I don't have full anosmia, I can still occasionally smell extremely strong scents (like a lot of cologne, or smoke) if they're right under my nose, on my upper lip.",
"Smelling is like touching the texture of the air (a chemical texture), except there is a lot of different nuances, a little bit like different colours (except each person has about 400 \"primary odor\"). Also, if you stay a long time in the same odor, it disapears, you get used to it.",
"It's like tasting things which you eat, but with nose.",
"It's like tasting the air, but not as strong."
] | [
[
"the voices are telling you to do?\" Olfactory Phantosmia (olfactory hallucinations), smelling an odor that is not actually there, and parosmia (olfactory illusions), inhaling a real odor but perceiving it as different scent than remembered, are distortions to the sense of smell (olfactory system) that, in most cases, are not caused by anything serious and usually go away on their own in time. It can result from a range of conditions such as nasal infections, nasal polyps, dental problems, migraines, head injuries, seizures, strokes, or brain tumors. Environmental exposures are sometimes the cause as well, such as smoking, exposure to",
"-32.76749009115156"
],
[
"sense of smell, but made up for this with good vision and hearing.",
"-32.14302272157511"
],
[
"generates a force by pulling on tip link proteins connecting adjacent stereocilia. Olfactory Perceptual adaptation is a phenomenon that occurs for all of the senses, including smell and touch. An individual can adapt to a certain smell with time. Smokers, or individuals living with smokers, tend to stop noticing the smell of cigarettes after some time, whereas people not exposed to smoke on a regular basis will notice the smell instantly. The same phenomenon can be observed with other types of smell, such as perfume, flowers, etc. The human brain can distinguish smells that are unfamiliar to the individual, while",
"-31.616275770415086"
],
[
"novel objects from familiar ones—they examined both equally. Thus, other brain regions are involved with noticing unfamiliarity, but the perirhinal cortex is needed to associate the feeling with a specific source. Analogous to human senses Other living organisms have receptors to sense the world around them, including many of the senses listed above for humans. However, the mechanisms and capabilities vary widely. Smell An example of smell in non-mammals is that of sharks, which combine their keen sense of smell with timing to determine the direction of a smell. They follow the nostril that first detected the smell. Insects have",
"-31.546401458166656"
],
[
"The olfactory system is considered the sense of smell. People with Sensory Dysfunction Disorder could have difficulty with certain fragrances or odors. Conversely, they may find certain smells to be soothing, and use them to calm themselves. Gustatory system The Gustatory system concerns a person's taste and sense of smell. A child with Sensory Dysfunction Disorder may not be able to tolerate the texture or taste of certain foods. Their senses may not respond well to food, and they may be unable to smell food that is burning. Auditory system The auditory system deals with hearing. Children with Sensory",
"-31.266270825639367"
],
[
"inability to taste is called ageusia. Olfactory Smells in the external world activate hair receptors in nostrils. These receptors then send signals to the olfactory bulb, which is located at the base of the brain. Anosmia is the inability to smell. Somatosensory Somatosensory sensations occur when receptors detect changes on one's skin or within one's body. Cutaneous sensations Sensations on the skin are detected by cutaneous receptors. These receptors may feel sensations such as pain, tickle, cold, hot, soft, and rough. Mechanoreceptors detect light pressure (e.g., caress), vibration, and texture, nociceptors detect strong pressure (e.g., pain), and thermoreceptors detect temperature.\nFor",
"-30.093340934399748"
],
[
"Phantosmia Phantosmia (phantom smell), also called an olfactory hallucination or a phantom odor is smelling an odor that is not actually there. It can occur in one nostril or both. Unpleasant phantosmia, cacosmia, is more common and is often described as smelling something that is burned, foul, spoiled, or rotten. Experiencing occasional phantom smells is normal and usually goes away on its own in time. When hallucinations of this type do not seem to go away or when they keep coming back, it can be very upsetting and can disrupt an individual's quality of life.\nOlfactory hallucinations can be caused by",
"-30.032040074875113"
],
[
"understand the smell (described by a person) but should desire to know him who smells,\n\nOne should not desire to understand the form (of the person) but should desire to know him who sees the form,\n\nOne should not desire to understand the sound (described) but should desire to know him who hears,\n\nOne should not desire to understand the food (description) but should desire to know him who tastes,\n\nOne should not desire to understand the deed but should desire to know him who performs the deed,\n\nOne should not desire to understand pleasure and pain from excitation but should desire to know him",
"-29.948468908951327"
],
[
"hippocampus, areas of the brain that have long been known to be involved in emotion and place memory, respectively.\nSince any one receptor is responsive to various odorants, and there is a great deal of convergence at the level of the olfactory bulb, it may seem strange that human beings are able to distinguish so many different odors. It seems that a highly complex form of processing must be occurring; however, as it can be shown that, while many neurons in the olfactory bulb (and even the pyriform cortex and amygdala) are responsive to many different odors, half the neurons in",
"-29.799740310831112"
],
[
"Merciful anosmia Merciful anosmia is a condition in which the person is unaware of a foul smell emanating from his own nose. This condition is seen in atrophic rhinitis. In atrophic rhinitis, the turbinates, venous sinusoids, seromucinous glands and nerves undergo atrophy, resulting in a foul smelling discharge. As the nerve fibres sensing smell are also atrophied, the patient is unable to appreciate the foul smell.",
"-29.76828207235667"
],
[
"contain, or visitors as they approach the house, and can navigate in total darkness by the smell of objects around him.\nOne day, long after having memorized nearly all the smells of the city, he is surprised by a unique smell. Grenouille traces it with his nose and finds that the source of the scent is a young virgin girl just passing puberty. She is not much younger than Grenouille himself. Entranced by her scent and believing that he alone must possess it, he strangles her and stays with her body until the scent has left it. In his quest to",
"-29.70903527198243"
],
[
"other similar factor), wind speed, and wind direction. Health risks The human sense of smell is a primary factor in the sensation of comfort. Olfaction as a sensory system brings awareness of the presence of airborne chemicals. Some inhaled chemicals are volatile compounds that act as a stimulus, triggering unwanted reactions such as nose, eye, and throat irritation. Perception of odor and of irritation is unique to each person, and varies because of physical conditions or memory of past exposures to similar chemicals. A person's specific threshold, before an odor becomes a nuisance, depends also on the frequency, concentration, and",
"-29.70162623259239"
],
[
"beginning to decline in the second decade of life, and then deteriorating appreciably as age increases, especially once over 70 years of age. Smell acuity compared to other animals For most untrained people, the process of smelling gives little information concerning the specific ingredients of an odor. Their smell perception primarily offers information related to the emotional impact. Experienced people, however, such as flavorists and perfumers, can pick out individual chemicals in complex mixtures through smell alone.\nOdor perception is a primal sense. The sense of smell enables pleasure, can subconsciously warn of danger, help locate mates, find food, or detect",
"-29.36052409390686"
],
[
"Old person smell Old person smell is the characteristic odor of elderly humans. Much like many animal species, human odor undergoes distinct stages based on chemical changes initiated through the aging process. Research suggests that this enables humans to determine the suitability of potential partners based on age, in addition to other factors.\nOne study suggested that old person smell may be the result of 2-nonenal, an unsaturated aldehyde which is associated with human body odor alterations during aging; however, there are other hypotheses. Another study failed to detect 2-nonenal at all, but found significantly increased concentrations of benzothiazole, dimethylsulphone, and",
"-29.234583981728065"
],
[
"or fibromyalgia, where symptoms such as brain fog and headaches can be triggered by chemicals or inhalants. Through behavioral conditioning, they may develop real, but unintentionally psychologically produced, symptoms such as anticipatory nausea when they encounter certain odors or other perceived triggers. Affected individuals may also have a tendency to \"catastrophically misinterpret benign physical symptoms\" or simply have a disturbingly acute sense of smell. The personality trait absorption, in which individuals are predisposed to becoming deeply immersed in sensory experiences, may be stronger in individuals reporting symptoms of MCS. Behaviors exhibited by MCS sufferers may reflect broader sociological fears about",
"-29.215913134841685"
],
[
"himself does not possess any scent: he cannot smell himself and neither, he finally understands, can other people. Traveling to Montpellier with a fabricated story about being kidnapped and kept in a cave for seven years to account for his haggard appearance, he creates a body odour for himself from everyday materials and finds that his new \"disguise\" tricks people into thinking that it is the scent of a human; he is now accepted by society instead of shunned. In Montpellier, he gains the patronage of the Marquis de La Taillade-Espinasse, who uses Grenouille to publicize his pseudoscientific theory about",
"-29.146812026243424"
],
[
"means of defining the and interacting with the world. This is particularly the case in so far as odours are closely associated with personal and group identity. The study of the history, anthropology, and sociology of smells is, in a very real sense, an investigation into the ‘essence’ of human culture itself.\"",
"-29.12073115084422"
],
[
"nonanal on older subjects.\nIn 2012 the Monell Chemical Senses Center published a press release claiming that the human ability to identify information such as age, illness, and genetic suitability from odor is responsible for the distinctive \"old man smell\". Sensory neuroscientist Johan Lundström stated, \"Elderly people have a discernible underarm odor that younger people consider to be fairly neutral and not very unpleasant.\"\nOld person smell is known as kareishū (加齢臭) in Japan, where it is of particular concern due to the high value placed on personal hygiene.",
"-29.087019126593077"
],
[
"the sense of smell plays an important role in daily life and how it interacts with other senses (particularly taste). Typically, museums and science centers celebrating the day will feature hands-on activities and informational displays about the sense of smell. National Fragrance Day The Fragrance Foundation launched a Fragrance Day in 2018. The first day was celebrated on March 21, 2018, and numerous brands and retailers held promotions and social media campaigns.",
"-28.942938221938675"
],
[
"General sense (anatomy) In medicine and anatomy, the general senses are the senses which are perceived due to receptors scattered throughout the body such as touch, temperature, and hunger, rather than tied to a specific structure, as the special senses vision or hearing are. Often, the general senses are associated with a specific drive; that is, the sensation will cause a change in behavior meant to reduce the sensation.",
"-28.911100551486015"
],
[
"eye contains water), sound (corresponding to air), smell (corresponding to fire), and touch (corresponding to earth). Aristotle viewed taste as merely a specialized form of touch, which he in turn viewed as the primary sense (because all life-forms possess it). He rejected the earlier view by Democritus that there was in fact only one sense, touch.\nSimilarly, Plato, in Theaetetus, has Socrates stating that there are innumerable senses without names, and that the senses with names include hearing, sight, smell, senses of heat and cold, pleasure, pain, desire, and fear.\nAulus Gellius defined five senses, saying \"Ex quinque his sensibus",
"-28.634897770301905"
],
[
"an odor or perfume), one can not consciously force himself to smell that thing. Neural adaptation is tied very closely to stimulus intensity; as the intensity of a light increases, one's senses will adapt more strongly to it. In comparison, habituation can vary depending on the stimulus. With a weak stimulus habituation can occur almost immediately but with a strong stimulus the animal may not habituate at all e.g. a cool breeze versus a fire alarm. Habituation also has a set of characteristics that must be met to be termed a habituation process. Short-term adaptations Short term neural adaptations occur",
"-28.605932704376755"
],
[
"\"what you feel and smell and hear\" vibe in attempt to maintain harmony amongst spirit, art, and nature.",
"-28.574637925696152"
],
[
"Our Enigmatic Sense of Smell (William Morrow/Harper Collins Publishers) as well as working on other means to educate and stimulate the general public about the chemical senses. Her commercial ventures include The Educated Palate. Psychology of smell Herz has been conducting research on smell, emotion and cognition since 1990. Her research has shown how odor-evoked memory is emotionally unique compared to other kinds of memory experiences, how emotional associations can change odor perception, and how odors can be conditioned to emotions and subsequently influence motivated behavior. Her work also deals with how language can affect odor perception and her laboratory",
"-28.55200622019038"
],
[
"because of \"blunt trauma\", such as coup-contrecoup damage, meningitis, and tumors of the frontal lobe of the brain. These injuries often lead to a reduced ability to taste and smell. Lesions of the olfactory nerve do not lead to a reduced ability to sense pain from the nasal epithelium. This is because pain from the nasal epithelium is not carried to the central nervous system by the olfactory nerve - it is carried to the central nervous system by the trigeminal nerve. Aging and smell A decrease in the ability to smell is a normal consequence of human",
"-28.421265460608993"
],
[
"Her memory is flawless; but strangest of all is Alyzon’s sense of smell. She can smell people's feelings, view flashes of their lives and perceive their essences. \nHer best friend smells of a comforting sea breeze. She registers her father’s contentment as the sweet scent of caramelized sugar. But why does the cutest guy in school smell so rancid? With these new senses she discovers that some people's spirits have been infected by a sentient disease.\nWith Alyzon’s extrasensory perception comes intrigue and danger, as she becomes aware of the dark secrets and hidden ambitions that threaten her family. In the",
"-28.369686141079"
],
[
"and the following two quotations: \nAnd this knowledge descendeth and cometh of the five corporal senses and wits of the persons, as the eyes, understanding, and hearing of the ears, smell of the nose, taste of the mouth, […]\n— Larke, Book of Wisdom\nMy five wits have I fondly misused and spent, in hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and also feeling, which thou has given me […]\n— King Henry The Eighth's Primer, 1546\nThis definition of five senses has its origins in thinkers that came after Aristotle. Aristotle himself, in De Sensu et Sensibilibus defined four senses: sight (associated with water because the",
"-28.232621148665203"
],
[
"by one, beginning with smell, as the sense that contributes least to human knowledge. At its first experience of smell, the consciousness of the statue is entirely occupied by it; and this occupancy of consciousness is attention. The statue's smell-experience will produce pleasure or pain; and pleasure and pain will thenceforward be the master-principle which, determining all the operations of its mind, will raise it by degrees to all the knowledge of which it is capable. The next stage is memory, which is the lingering impression of the smell experience upon the attention: \"memory is nothing more than a mode",
"-28.21702129516052"
],
[
"travel through the optic radiation to reach the visual cortex.\nHearing and balance are both generated in the inner ear. Sound results in vibrations of the ossicles which continue finally to the hearing organ, and change in balance results in movement of liquids within the inner ear. This creates a nerve signal that passes through the vestibulocochlear nerve. From here, it passes through to the cochlear nuclei, the superior olivary nucleus, the medial geniculate nucleus, and finally the auditory radiation to the auditory cortex.\nThe sense of smell is generated by receptor cells in the epithelium of the olfactory mucosa in the",
"-28.16947447550774"
],
[
"meaning of a spoken word. Trauma, phobias, and neuropsychiatric disorders Neuroscientific research on mice suggests that some experiences can influence subsequent generations. In a 2013 study, mice trained to fear a specific smell passed on their trained aversion to their descendants, which were then extremely sensitive and fearful of the same smell, even though they had never encountered it, nor been trained to fear it.\nChanges in brain structure were also found. The researchers concluded that \"[t]he experiences of a parent, even before conceiving, markedly influence both structure and function in the nervous system of subsequent generations\".\nScientists speculate that similar genetic",
"-28.039286479295697"
],
[
"allowing smell information direct input to the prefrontal cortex, or the major decision-making area of the brain. There are only three types of neurons that smell molecules pass before arriving at the OFC: the olfactory receptor cells in the olfactory epithelium, mitral cells, and olfactory pyramidal neurons.\nAt the level of the OFC, associations with other brain areas are made, including input from the mouth (somatosensation), emotional input (amygdala), visual information, and evaluative information (prefrontal cortex). The OFC is responsible for selective odor tuning, fusing of sensory domains, and hedonic evaluations of smells. At-home evidence of the role smell plays in",
"-27.9689741715556"
],
[
"the sensory \"primitives\" that are processed as the basis of smell perception? This fundamenteal problem was attacked by modeling the molecular interactions between odor molecules and the new discovered olfactory receptors. \"Determinants\" were identified on the odor molecules that activate specific sites on the receptors to encode the identity of the odor molecule.\nA new appreciation of the human sense of smell suggested a new focus on retronasal smell, which activates an extensive \"flavor system\" in the human brain; this led in 2015 to a new field of \"neurogastronomy\", based on his book of that name which has among",
"-27.871055766416248"
],
[
"The Scents and Sensibility (theatrically released in Brazil as Aromas e Sensibilidade) is a loose adaptation of the novel directed by Brian Brough.\n• 2014: Kumkum Bhagya, an Indian-Hindi television series which is an adaptation of Sense and Sensibility.\n• 2015: Dedunnai Adare, a Sri Lankan-Sinhala television series which is an adaptation of Sense and Sensibility and an influence of Kumkum Bhagya television series.\n• 2018: Kasthooriman, an Indian-Malayalam television series which is an adaptation of Sense and Sensibility.\n• 2019: Siri Siri Muvvalu, is an Indian-Telugu television series which is an adaptation of Sense and Sensibility and an influence of Kasthooriman and",
"-27.767095799033996"
],
[
"to odors than humans, especially in studies using short-chain compounds. Higher cognitive brain mechanisms and more olfactory brain regions enable humans to discriminate odors better than other mammals despite fewer olfactory receptor genes. Olfaktometrie In Germany, the concentrations of odorants have since the 1870s been defined by Olfaktometrie, which helps to analyze the human sense of smell according to odor substance concentration, intensity of odor, odor quality, and hedonic assessment.\nThe most accurate smell sensing is when a smell is first encountered, before habituation begins to change perception of odor. Concentration Odor concentration is an odor's pervasiveness. To measure odor sensation,",
"-27.653900489094667"
],
[
"their share of trouble. Not only does a strange and worse than Cimmerian darkness hide familiar landmarks from the sight, but the taste and sense of smell are offended by an unhallowed compound of flavours, and all things become greasy and clammy to the touch. During the continuance of a real London fog—which may be black, or grey, or more probably orange-coloured—the happiest man is he who can stay at home...Nothing could be more deleterious to the lungs and the air-passages than the wholesale inhalation of the foul air and floating carbon which, combined, form a London fog.\"\nThere was wide",
"-27.4414443578421"
],
[
"be touch, taste, smell, sound, then sight. This observation was named a panchronistic tendency by Stephen Ullmann since he saw the lowest levels of sense having the poorest vocabulary. Upwards transfers are thought to have strong emotional effects, but downwards transfers generally witty effects. Synaesthetic polysemy When a linkage of two senses depends upon a pun, this is known as synaesthetic polysemy. Examples include:\n\"the hyacinth purple, and white, and blue,\n\nWhich flung from its bells a sweet peal anew\n\nOf music\"\n— Percy Bysshe Shelley, The Sensitive Plant",
"-27.432353429176146"
],
[
"The presence of the tone resulted in a significant number (22%) of respondents reporting feeling uneasy or sorrowful, getting chills down the spine or nervous feelings of revulsion or fear.\nIn presenting the evidence to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Professor Richard Wiseman said \"These results suggest that low frequency sound can cause people to have unusual experiences even though they cannot consciously detect infrasound. Some scientists have suggested that this level of sound may be present at some allegedly haunted sites and so cause people to have odd sensations that they attribute to a ghost—our findings support",
"-27.2916274349991"
],
[
"by odors are significantly more emotional and evocative than those recalled by the same cue presented visually or auditorily. Odors can become conditioned to experiential states and when later encountered have directional influences on behavior. Doing a frustrating task in a scented room decreases performance of other cognitive tasks in the presence of the same odor. Nonhuman animals communicate their emotional states through changes in body odor, and human body odors are indicative of emotional state.\nHuman body odors influence interpersonal relationships and are involved in adaptive behaviors, such as parental attachment in infants or partner choice in adults. \"Mothers can",
"-27.255427867465187"
],
[
"visualizes odor through color change and creates a \"picture\" of it. Behavioral cues Odor perception is a complex process involving the central nervous system and can evoke psychological and physiological responses. Because the olfactory signal terminates in or near the amygdala, odors are strongly linked to memories and can evoke emotions. The amygdala participates in the hedonic or emotional processing of olfactory stimuli. Odors can disturb our concentration, diminish productivity, evoke symptoms, and in general increase a dislike for an environment. Odors can impact the liking for a person, place, food, or product as a form of conditioning. Memories recalled",
"-27.237447544612223"
],
[
"only experience history with their eyes but also feel in all of their senses. From the use of sounds and lights that adapt according to the expositions presented to the incorporation of smells that define unique environments, there are endless opportunities to the application of IE into this sort of entertainment.\nThe same concept can be used to not only improve existent leisure experiences but also to create new ones. Artistic expression has had a significant influence on this since we have seen new forms of art using Artificial Intelligence and IE. Take for example the work of the artist Chris",
"-27.14922678581206"
],
[
"be able to exert their effects through learning and conscious perception, such that responses typically associated with particular odors are learned through association with their matched emotional experiences. In-depth research has documented that emotion elicited by odors, both pleasant and unpleasant, affects the same physiological correlates of emotion seen with other sensory mechanisms. Somatic Theories on emotion have focused on perception, subjective experience, and appraisal. Predominant theories of emotion and emotion perception include what type of emotion is perceived, how emotion is perceived somatically, and at what stage of an event emotion is perceived and translated into subjective, physical experience.",
"-26.95467352268315"
],
[
"of a compensating effect, whereby their sense of touch or smell becomes more acute, changing the way they perceive and reason about the world; especially telling examples are found in the cases of \"wild children\", whose early childhoods were spent in abusive, neglected, or non-human environments, both intensifying and minimizing perceptual abilities (Classen 1991). Sensory ecology and anthropology These sorts of insights were the impetus for the development of the burgeoning field of sensory anthropology, which seeks to understand other cultures from within their own unique sensoria. Anthropologists such as Paul Stoller (1989) and Michael Jackson (1983, 1989) have focused",
"-26.94918787595816"
],
[
"aids in olfactory memory and learning as well. Several olfaction-memory processes occur in the hippocampus. Similar to the process in the amygdala, an odor is associated with a particular reward, i.e. the smell of food with receiving sustenance. Odor in the hippocampus also contributes to the formation of episodic memory; the memories of events at a specific place or time. The time at which certain neurons fire in the hippocampus is associated by neurons with a stimulus such as an odor. Presentation of the odor at a different time may cause recall of the memory,",
"-26.89976515516173"
],
[
"sense of smell and are therefore not deterred.",
"-26.822853133715398"
],
[
"Dysosmia Signs and symptoms Smell disorders can result in the inability to detect environmental dangers such as gas leaks, toxins, or smoke. In addition to safety, nutritional and eating habits can also be affected. There is a loss of appetite because of unpleasant flavor and fear of failing to recognize and consuming spoiled food. A decreased or distorted sense of smell therefore results in a decreased quality of life. Distortions are believed to have a greater negative impact on people than the complete loss of smell because they are constantly reminded of the disorder and the distortions have a",
"-26.80278277000616"
],
[
"that you are in the surroundings you suppose you are in ... various hypotheses could explain how things look and feel. You might be sound asleep and dreaming or a playful brain surgeon might be giving you these experiences by stimulating your cortex in a special way. You might really be stretched out on a table in his laboratory with wires running into your head from a large computer. Perhaps you have always been on that table. Perhaps you are quite a different person from what you seem...\"\nSuch scenarios had been used many times in science fiction but in philosophy",
"-26.782268193230266"
],
[
"smell is fatigued, but recovers if the stimulus is removed for a time. Odors can change due to environmental conditions: for example, odors tend to be more distinguishable in cool dry air.\nHabituation affects the ability to distinguish odors after continuous exposure. The sensitivity and ability to discriminate odors diminishes with exposure, and the brain tends to ignore continuous stimulus and focus on differences and changes in a particular sensation. When odorants are mixed, a habitual odorant is blocked. This depends on the strength of the odorants in the mixture, which can change the perception and processing of an odor. This",
"-26.73705466510728"
],
[
"feces, or even to consciously notice the smell. Sigmund Freud also noted this phenomenon in Civilization and Its Discontents, though he described lack of awareness of fecal smell in general, not just while reading: \"in spite of all man's developmental advances, he scarcely finds the smell of his own excreta repulsive, but only that of other people's.\"\nThe psychoanalyst Otto Fenichel believed bathroom reading was an indication of early childhood trauma. He wrote that the activity is \"an attempt to preserve the equilibrium of the ego; part of one's bodily substance is being lost and so fresh matter must be absorbed",
"-26.730973022296894"
],
[
"simoom; he uses it to describe his urge to escape something most unwanted. \"There is no odor so bad as that which arises from goodness tainted. It is human, it is divine, carrion. If I knew for a certainty that a man was coming to my house with the conscious design of doing me good, I should run for my life, as from that dry and parching wind of the African deserts called the simoom, which fills the mouth and nose and ears and eyes with dust till you are suffocated, for fear that I should get some of his",
"-26.71691431029467"
],
[
"is referred to as macrosmatic.\nFigures suggesting greater or lesser sensitivity in various species reflect experimental findings from the reactions of animals exposed to aromas in known extreme dilutions. These are, therefore, based on perceptions by these animals, rather than mere nasal function. That is, the brain's smell-recognizing centers must react to the stimulus detected for the animal to be said to show a response to the smell in question. It is estimated that dogs in general have an olfactory sense approximately ten thousand to a hundred thousand times more acute than a human's. This does not mean they are overwhelmed",
"-26.68165964441141"
],
[
"Fear Sweat from 2005 examines the body odors of twenty men, all of whom have a severe phobia of other bodies. Their smells were collected and chemically reproduced. The simulated sweat molecules were painted onto the gallery walls using a micro-encapsulation process, where they became activated by touch.\n\nFrom her artist's statement about the installation the Fear of smell — the smell of Fear at the 2005 Tirana Biennale, Tolaas explains: \n\"In the modern West, we tend to think of smell in purely aesthetic terms, pleasant or unpleasant. In many other cultures however, smells have provided and still provide a basic",
"-26.659898394485936"
],
[
"motor neuron disease. This kind of damage results in loss of muscular power and precision rather than total paralysis.\nIt functions as the center of sensory perception, memory, thoughts and judgement; the cerebrum also functions as the center of voluntary motor activities Sensory processing The primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex receive and process visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory information. Together with association cortical areas, these brain regions synthesize sensory information into our perceptions of the world. Olfaction The olfactory bulb, responsible for the sense of smell, takes up a large area of the cerebrum in most vertebrates. However,",
"-26.643493997093174"
],
[
"the cycle of nature.\nThe five elements are associated with the five senses, and act as the gross medium for the experience of sensations. The basest element, earth, created using all the other elements, can be perceived by all five senses — (i) hearing, (ii) touch, (iii) sight, (iv) taste, and (v) smell. The next higher element, water, has no odor but can be heard, felt, seen and tasted. Next comes fire, which can be heard, felt and seen. Air can be heard and felt. “Akasha” (aether) is beyond the senses of smell, taste, sight, and touch; it being accessible to the sense",
"-26.602230142016197"
],
[
"such as the Pinocchio illusion.\nThe proprioceptive sense is often unnoticed because humans will adapt to a continuously present stimulus; this is called habituation, desensitization, or adaptation. The effect is that proprioceptive sensory impressions disappear, just as a scent can disappear over time. One practical advantage of this is that unnoticed actions or sensation continue in the background while an individual's attention can move to another concern. The Alexander Technique addresses these unconscious elements by bringing attention to them and practicing a new movement with focus on how it feels to move in the new way.\nPeople who have a limb",
"-26.5299365784158"
],
[
"aging, and usually is more pronounced in men than in women. It is often unrecognized in patients except that they may note a decreased ability to taste (much of taste is actually based on reception of food odor). Some of this decrease results from repeated damage to the olfactory nerve receptors due likely to repeated upper respiratory infections. Patients with Alzheimer's disease almost always have an abnormal sense of smell when tested.",
"-26.486482092528604"
],
[
"temperature. It also affects the sensory nervous system, which controls activities related to the senses, such as taste and the perception of pain, heat, and cold. Familial dysautonomia is also called hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy, type III.\nProblems related to this disorder first appear during infancy. Early signs and symptoms include poor muscle tone (hypotonia), feeding difficulties, poor growth, lack of tears, frequent lung infections, and difficulty maintaining body temperature. Older infants and young children with familial dysautonomia may hold their breath for prolonged periods of time, which may cause a bluish appearance of the skin or lips (cyanosis) or",
"-26.47366957954364"
],
[
"smells, hardnesses, roughnesses, and so on. We shall give the name \"sensation\" to the experience of being immediately aware of these things... The colour itself is a sense-datum, not a sensation. (p. 12)\nRussell further described his reasoning behind his definitions of \"truth\" and \"falsehood\" in the same book (Chapter XII Truth and Falsehood). Consequences of the law of excluded middle in Principia Mathematica From the law of excluded middle, formula ✸2.1 in Principia Mathematica, Whitehead and Russell derive some of the most powerful tools in the logician's argumentation toolkit. (In Principia Mathematica, formulas and propositions are identified by a leading",
"-26.427923278155504"
],
[
"your mind is in a different state. So sensation is in fact a change in your mental state. How is this related to objects and ideas? Bolzano explains that this change, in your mind, is essentially a simple idea (Vorstellung), like, ‘this smell’ (of this particular rose). This idea represents; it has as its object the change. Besides being simple, this change must also be unique. This is because literally you can’t have the same experience twice, nor can two people, who smell the same rose at the same time, have exactly the same experience of that smell (although they",
"-26.389238693154766"
],
[
"weather and barometric pressure changes. Many have photo-sensitivity and find it more difficult to walk in the dark as well as other sensitivities to strong smells including chemical smells. Cognitive impairment (\"brain fog\") includes an inability to recall words, short term memory loss, an inability to multi-task, misspelling and mispronunciation of words, difficulty in concentrating. Many MdDS sufferers report they are unable to use a computer for any length of time due to the visual over stimulation, and some are even unable to watch television.\nSymptoms can be increased by stress, lack of sleep, crowds, flickering lights, loud sounds, fast",
"-26.3656742075691"
],
[
"in the West, the sense in question is suppressed or mostly ignored (Classen, Howes and Synnott 1994).\nThis interplay of various ways of conceiving the world could be compared to the experience of synesthesia, where stimulus of one sense causes a perception by another, seemingly unrelated sense, as in musicians who can taste the intervals between notes they hear (Beeli et al., 2005), or artists who can smell colors. Many individuals who have one or more senses restricted or lost develop a sensorium with a ratio of sense which favors those they possess more fully. Frequently the blind or deaf speak",
"-26.342887883627554"
],
[
"as the selection of information through attention, the organization of sensory information through grouping, and the identification of events and objects. In the dog, olfactory information (the sense of smell) is particularly salient (compared with humans) but the dogs senses also include vision, hearing, taste, touch and proprioception. There is also evidence that dogs sense the earth's magnetic field.\nOne researcher has proposed that dogs perceive the passing of time through the dissipation of smells. Awareness The concept of \"object permanence\" refers to the ability of an animal to understand that objects continue to exist even when they have moved outside",
"-26.32921294431435"
],
[
"soul; the walls sweat like those of an aqueduct; the floor moves under your feet like the deck of a vessel; the steps and voices of the people coming the other way give forth a cavernous sound, and are heard before you see the people, and they at a distance seem like great shadows; there is, in short, a sort of something mysterious, which without alarming causes in your heart a vague sense of disquiet. When then you have reached the middle and no longer see the end in either direction, and feel the silence of a catacomb, and know",
"-26.309375251992606"
],
[
"theory of olfaction” suggests that certain olfactory receptors are triggered by certain shapes of chemicals and those receptors send a specific message to the brain. Another theory (based on quantum phenomena) suggests that the olfactory receptors detect the vibration of the molecules that reach them and the “smell” is due to different vibrational frequencies, this theory is aptly called the “vibration theory of olfaction.”\nThe vibration theory of olfaction, created in 1938 by Malcom Dyson but reinvigorated by Luca Turin in 1996, proposes that the mechanism for the sense of smell is due to G-protein receptors that detect molecular vibrations due",
"-26.304767355744843"
],
[
"Peanut butter test Proposed explanation The lead author of the 2013 article, Jennifer J. Stamps, had concluded, from her own research, that the sense of smell is dependent upon the olfactory nerve, and also noted that this nerve is one of the first things to be affected by cognitive decline. Likewise, the front part of the temporal lobe has not only been implicated in olfaction, but is also known to be one of the first areas of the brain to degenerate due to Alzheimer's. The researchers also expected the difference to be in the left nostril because in Alzheimer's, the",
"-26.263915643969085"
],
[
"human to detect. Exposure to intense, high-frequency sound is far more painful for Tigra than a normal human.\nTigra's sense of smell is developed to the point that she can recognize a person by scent alone, and track an individual across great distances and through complex environments. She can also sense changes in a person's mood through changes in scent.\nThick pads on her feet, combined with her natural grace, allow her to move in almost complete silence.\nTigra's thick coat of fur prevents her from losing body heat quickly. She has stated that she wears bikinis partly because a full set of",
"-26.235760958807077"
],
[
"that the inside and outside is relative to each other in which both are a kind of inner joy, to mobilize your senses. For example, the senses are developed from mobilizing the substance itself to gain pleasure from Coca-Cola or olive oil, it is a kind of illusion, forged emotion or a desire stimulated within the body. This cannot control the quality of the substance, neither can control what the viewer will see or sense at particular time, but at least through this illusion we can understand the world without an exterior. Everything We Create is not Ourselves is based",
"-26.23527447192464"
],
[
"Lexical-gustatory synesthesia Lexical-gustatory synesthesia is a rare form of synesthesia in which spoken and written language (as well as some colors and emotions) causes individuals to experience an automatic and highly consistent taste/smell. The taste is often experienced as a complex mixture of both temperature and texture. For example, in a particular synaesthete, JIW, the word jail would taste of cold, hard bacon. Synesthetic tastes are evoked by an inducer/concurrent complex. The inducer is the stimulus that activates the sensation and the taste experience is the concurrent. Experimental studies There are many scientific standards in use to determine if a",
"-26.206683667754987"
],
[
"component of a perfume by smelling it and can perform the same trick with food. The talent seems to be hereditary, as it has been displayed by both of his parents, and has led to the uncovering of crucial evidence in several cases. He has been shown to have a fear of dead people, having run away from a scene where a dead person is present on more than one occasion. He has showed the dislike of seeing blood on occasions. He is also well-versed in high-tech locks or safes, as demonstrated by his ability to crack an electronic lock",
"-26.07972581559443"
],
[
"cause the impression of paranormal voices. The human brain evolved to recognize patterns, and if a person listens to enough noise the brain will detect words, even when there is no intelligent source for them. Expectation also plays an important part in making people believe they are hearing voices in random noise.\nApophenia is related to, but distinct from pareidolia. Apophenia is defined as \"the spontaneous finding of connections or meaning in things which are random, unconnected or meaningless\", and has been put forward as a possible explanation. According to the psychologist James Alcock what people hear in EVP",
"-26.074976355337185"
],
[
"the final stage of sensory processing before information is sent to the cortex. It has been proven that there is a strong correlation between cognitive function and olfactory function. It has been reported that the ability of detection of odors is not as challenging as the identification of odors. It has been hypothesized that this is due to lack of verbal or visual representations of odors. It has also been speculated that olfactory function and odor detection have a correlation to memory function. It has been shown that olfactory identification is predictive of memory decline. Demographics In",
"-25.99584226454317"
],
[
"immersion in nature using human's five senses, it is expected that the participants can acquire a sense of calm and comfort in the process. For instance, the sound of trickle renders an aural experience of the flowing water; the vanilla may stimulate the sense of touch and smell when its light fragrance flows into the lungs. Moreover, the sense of taste may also be stimulated with plants like passion fruits. All these are to cultivate a peaceful mind for patients. Concepts Plants have life just like human beings. Generally speaking, their life processes include seed germination, stem elongation, flower development",
"-25.973231403157115"
],
[
"Afghan soldier gave to a Pakistani newspaper, describing what he experienced when the containers were opened: \"I shall never forget the sensation as long as I live. It was the most revolting and powerful stench you can imagine: a mixture of faeces, urine, blood, vomit, and rotting flesh. It was a smell to make you forget all other smells you have experienced in your life.\"\nAnother driver states that he was asked to drive his truck, carrying a container with about 300 men, into the desert; he says those who had not died of asphyxiation were shot, in the presence of",
"-25.938378625927726"
],
[
"urge. First, people begin suffering uncontrollable bouts of crying and this is soon followed by the loss of their sense of smell. An outbreak of irrational panic and anxiety, closely followed by a bout of frenzied gluttony, precedes the loss of the sense of taste. The film depicts people trying to adapt to each loss and trying to carry on living as best they can, rediscovering their remaining senses as they do so. Michael and his co-workers do their best to cook food for people who cannot smell nor taste.\nThe loss of hearing comes next and is accompanied by an",
"-25.929701490924344"
],
[
"is. Another example would be thought broadcast, which is when a patient believes that everyone can hear their thoughts. These positive symptoms sometimes are so severe to where the schizophrenic believes that something is crawling on them or smelling something that is not there in reality. These strong hallucinations are intense and difficult to convince the patient that they do not exist outside of their cognitive beliefs, making it extremely difficult for a patient to understand and become self-aware that what they are experiencing is in fact not there.\nFurthermore, a study by Bedford and Davis (2013) was conducted to look",
"-25.789174673089292"
],
[
"in humans, this part of the brain is much smaller and lies underneath the frontal lobe. The olfactory sensory system is unique since the neurons in the olfactory bulb send their axons directly to the olfactory cortex, rather than to the thalamus first. Damage to the olfactory bulb results in a loss of olfaction (the sense of smell). Language and communication Speech and language are mainly attributed to the parts of the cerebral cortex. Motor portions of language are attributed to Broca's area within the frontal lobe. Speech comprehension is attributed to Wernicke's area, at the temporal-parietal lobe junction. These",
"-25.77713190455688"
],
[
"Psychoacoustics Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception and audiology—how humans perceive various sounds. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound (including noise, speech and music). It can be further categorized as a branch of psychophysics. Psychoacoustics received its name from a field within psychology—i.e., recognition science—which deals with all kinds of human perceptions. It is an interdisciplinary field of many areas, including psychology, acoustics, electronic engineering, physics, biology, physiology, and computer science. Background Hearing is not a purely mechanical phenomenon of wave propagation, but is also a sensory",
"-25.74516432393284"
],
[
"left side of the brain is usually affected first, and because the sense of olfaction is ipsilateral—that is, the side of the body that picks up the odor is the same as the side of the brain that processes it. Implications Stamps cautioned that they can currently only use the test to confirm already-established diagnoses, but added that \"...we plan to study patients with mild cognitive impairment to see if this test might be used to predict which patients are going to get Alzheimer's disease.\" NPR also reported that the study, at 94 patients, was \"too small to be conclusive.\"",
"-25.731524254137184"
],
[
"institution or dogma.\nAccording to Strong's Hebrew dictionary, the Hebrew word, ta‛am, is; properly a taste, that is, (figuratively) perception; by implication intelligence; transitively a mandate: advice, behaviour, decree, discretion, judgment, reason, taste, understanding. Medicine Praxis is the ability to perform voluntary skilled movements. The partial or complete inability to do so in the absence of primary sensory or motor impairments is known as apraxia.",
"-25.649115988213453"
],
[
"the human mind, links and categorizes different tastes, colours, feelings, smells and sounds in order to perceive real things in terms of the \"common sensibles\" (or \"common perceptibles\"). In this discussion, \"common\" (κοινή, koiné) is a term opposed to specific or particular (idia). The Greek for these common sensibles is tá koiná (τά κοινᾰ́, lit. 'that which is common to many'), which means shared or common things, and examples include the oneness of each thing, with its specific shape and size and so on, and the change or movement of each thing. Distinct combinations of these properties are common to all",
"-25.615739376371494"
],
[
"impact that anosmia can have on a person's life. Anosmia sufferers have been shown to be susceptible to dangerous situations such as gas leaks, fires, hazardous chemical vapors, and ingesting spoiled food. Additionally, people with smell loss can also experience difficulty with eating due to the close relationship between smell and taste. Studies also indicate that some individuals develop depression in response to feelings of social isolation, fears regarding safety and personal odor management, and a diminished connection to pleasure, emotion, and memory. History Anosmia Awareness Day was first launched by Daniel Schein, an American man with olfactory dysfunction, on",
"-25.614762088254793"
],
[
"the initial encounter of the stimulus. In regards to olfactory memory, deliberate recollection of an odor experience is not necessary in order for implicit memories of odors to form in the brain. Techniques used to study implicit olfactory memory are considered to be applicable to both humans and animals. In tests of implicit memory, memory of a stimulus is shown to be aided by previous exposure to that same stimulus. Evidence of the formation of implicit memory is found in tests of habituation, sensitization, perceptual learning and classical conditioning. In olfaction there exists a strong tendency",
"-25.606321872455737"
],
[
"Francis Galton in \"The Visions of Sane Persons\". Auditory-tactile synesthesia In auditory-tactile synesthesia, certain sounds can induce sensations in parts of the body. For example, someone with auditory-tactile synesthesia may experience that hearing a specific word feels like touch in one specific part of the body or may experience that certain sounds can create a sensation in the skin without being touched. It is one of the least common forms of synesthesia. Ordinal linguistic personification Ordinal-linguistic personification (OLP, or personification for short) is a form of synesthesia in which ordered sequences, such as ordinal numbers, week-day names, months and alphabetical",
"-25.597677060191927"
],
[
"The Stench uses Odorama.\nAs they go through Dr. Mnesyne's trunks of equipment, they find a short cult film called Possessor, that greatly resembles Maggie's dreams. Davis informs them Lanyard Gates, the film's director, killed his own family while shooting the final scene before setting the theater on fire, trapping the audience inside. Maggie soon becomes obsessed with Possessor and tries to figure out why she has been dreaming about it. When she asks her mother if she has heard of Gates or Possessor, Suzanne becomes uncomfortable; she urges Maggie to quit the festival and wants them to go away together.",
"-25.587460625451058"
],
[
"of about 20 to 20,000 hertz, with substantial variation between individuals. Hearing at high frequencies declines with an increase in age. Inability to hear is called deafness or hearing impairment. Sound can also be detected as vibrations conducted through the body by tactition. Lower frequencies that can be heard are detected this way. Some deaf people are able to determine the direction and location of vibrations picked up through the feet. Taste Taste or gustation (adjectival form: gustatory) is one of the traditional five senses. It refers to the capability to detect the taste of substances such as food, certain minerals,",
"-25.573815801549927"
],
[
"which may serve as evidence for intrauterine olfactory learning. Mammals’ sense of smell becomes mature at an early stage of development. Fetal olfactory memory has been demonstrated in rats, for example. This is shown by rat pups, who avoid odors that they experienced in association with a noxious stimulus prior to birth. While animal studies play an important role in helping discover and learn olfaction memory of humans, it is important to pay attention to the specifics of each study, as they cannot always be generalized across all species. Human studies Research studies provide evidence that the fetus becomes familiar",
"-25.461883905503782"
],
[
"Senses or Wits, five \"inward\" and five \"outward\". Sometimes the outward are simply called \"senses\" and the inward \"wits\". The five outward are what are now known as the Five Senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. The inward are memory, estimation, imagination, phantasy, and common wit (or common sense).\n\"There is no need to write a separate section on the Vegetable Soul,\" Lewis writes. \"It is responsible for all the unconscious, involuntary processes in our organism: for growth, secretion, nutrition, and reproduction.\" Soul and Body When the relationship between soul and body is studied, Lewis points out two ways in",
"-25.444878217189398"
],
[
"modulates the access and processing of odors at the neural level. Inhalation is necessary for odor input to the brain. Further, odor input through the brain is temporally linked to the respiratory cycle, with bouts of activity occurring with each inhalation. This linkage between sniffing frequency and odor processing provides a mechanism for the control of odor input into the brain by respiratory frequency and possibly amplitude, though this is not well established. Sniffing in humans The nature of sniffing regulates odor perception in humans and in fact, in humans, a single sniff is often sufficient for optimal",
"-25.41969924152363"
],
[
"a human being, but to a fox it was like a drug. He tackled the source of the smell, buried his snuffling muzzle in her fur, because he had known all along, with what was left of his consciousness, that what he was smelling was Alice. Vulpine hormones and instincts were powering up, taking over, manhandling what was left of his rational human mind. He locked his teeth in the thick fur of her neck. It didn't seem to hurt her any, or at least not in a way that was easily distinguishable from pleasure. He caught a glimpse of",
"-25.40869947484316"
],
[
"the sussurant sound (\"siss phuss\") the moving breath makes in the nostrils, the breath of course being an important object of meditative concentration (a bija in yoga). Repetitive inhalation–exhalation are described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and the boulder on a hill. As a compendium Sansonese provides five axioms to guide the interpretation of archaic mythopoesis. A critical contention of the book is that myths are not so much symbols natural to human ideation, as Carl Jung proposed in 1933, as they are culture-specific, esoteric descriptions of somatic activity proprioceived during exalted trance",
"-25.388065898383502"
],
[
"route to the brain’s limbic system which governs emotion. Smell impulses are faster than other sensory stimuli such as visual and auditory processing, and thus has a powerful effect on one’s emotional state. Aromatherapy, is a smell technique that uses essential oils, extracted from plants for the treatment of physical and emotional health. The essential oils can be ingested or inhaled, or applied topically. Research has shown aromatherapy to produce modest to significant effects. In one study, researchers studied various scents (lavender, lemon, rose) for anti-stress. Results indicated that lemon scents were the best anti-stress aromas for stress situations. Interventions",
"-25.38347451016307"
],
[
"Common sense Aristotelian The origin of the term is in the works of Aristotle. The best-known case is De Anima Book III, chapter 1, especially at line 425a27. The passage is about how the animal mind converts raw sense perceptions from the five specialized sense perceptions, into perceptions of real things moving and changing, which can be thought about. According to Aristotle's understanding of perception, each of the five senses perceives one type of \"perceptible\" or \"sensible\" which is specific (ἴδια, idia) to it. For example, sight can see colour. But Aristotle was explaining how the animal mind, not just",
"-25.381622712036915"
],
[
"sensory integrative dysfunction experience problems with their sense of touch, smell, hearing, taste, sight, body coordination, and movement against gravity. Along with this might possibly be difficulties in movement, coordination and sensing where one's body is in a given space. According to proponents of sensory integration therapy, sensory integrative dysfunction is a common disorder for individuals with neurological learning disabilities such as an autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and sensory modulation dysfunction.\nAyres' approach has proliferated among therapy and educational professionals over the past several decades. It has been met with some resistance within the occupational therapy profession and",
"-25.317780094701448"
],
[
"arrival of night-active mammals, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense, which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory. The mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept – one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. These odor pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain.\nEmotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior,",
"-25.312574469775427"
],
[
"is created by combining multiple sensory inputs. Different modalities help determine perception of taste especially when attention is drawn to particular sensory characteristics which is different from taste. Integration of taste and smell modality Impression of both taste and smell occurs in heteromodal regions of the limbic and paralimbic brain. Taste–odor\nintegration occurs at earlier stages of processing. By life experience, factors such as the physiological significance of a given stimulus is perceived. Learning and affective processing are the primary functions of limbic and paralimbic brain. Taste perception is a combination of oral somatosensation and retronasal olfaction. Description Temperature modality excites",
"-25.282643323065713"
],
[
"automatically experiences smells, tastes, and feelings of textures in her mouth and throat when she reads, speaks, or hears language, music, and certain environmental sounds. In SC’s case study, researchers utilized fMRI to determine the areas of the brain that were activated during her synesthetic experiences. They compared areas of activation in SC’s brain to those found in literature for other synesthetes, speech processing, language, and sound processing. In SC’s scans, two important regions of the brain were largely activated during her taste sensations: the left anterior insula and the left superior parietal lobe. The scans led researchers to speculate",
"-25.27581151033519"
],
[
"Pseudohallucination A pseudohallucination (from Ancient Greek: ψευδής (pseudḗs) \"false, lying\" + \"hallucination\") is an involuntary sensory experience vivid enough to be regarded as a hallucination, but considered by the person as subjective and unreal, unlike \"true\" hallucinations, which are considered real by patients with psychological disorders. Unlike normal hallucinations, which occurs when one sees, hears, smells, tastes or feels something that is not there, with a compelling feeling or thought that it is real, pseudohallucinations are recognised by the person as unreal. In other words, it is a hallucination that is recognized as a hallucination, as opposed to",
"-25.267689310276182"
],
[
"and gives rise to the passions. The passions, also, are nothing but sensation transformed.\nThese indications will suffice to show the general course of the argument in the first section of the Traité des sensations. He thoroughly developed this idea through the subsequent chapters: \"Of the Ideas of a Man limited to the Sense of Smell,\" \"Of a Man limited to the Sense of Hearing,\" \"Of Smell and Hearing combined,\" \"Of Taste by itself, and of Taste combined with Smell and Hearing,\" \"Of a Man limited to the Sense of Sight.\"\nIn the second section of the treatise, Condillac invests his statue",
"-25.241101447376423"
],
[
"involving miscellaneous air phenomena: \"breath\", \"wind\", and even \"odour\".) Related concepts Similar concepts in other languages include Greek pneuma and Sanskrit akasha / atman (see also prana). Some languages use a word for spirit often closely related (if not synonymous) to mind. Examples include the German Geist (related to the English word ghost) or the French l'esprit. English versions of the Bible most commonly translate the Hebrew word ruach (רוח; wind) as \"the spirit\", whose essence is divine.\nAlternatively, Hebrew texts commonly use the word nephesh. Kabbalists regard nephesh as one of the five parts of the Jewish soul, where nephesh",
"-25.20098007307388"
],
[
"sense that includes imagination.) Later philosophers developing this line of thought, such as Themistius, Galen, and Al-Farabi, called it the ruler of the senses or ruling sense, apparently a metaphor developed from a section of Plato's Timaeus (70b). Augustine and some of the Arab writers, also called it the \"inner sense\". The concept of the inner senses, plural, was further developed in the Middle Ages. Under the influence of the great Muslim philosophers Al-Farabi and Avicenna, several inner senses came to be listed. \"Thomas Aquinas and John of Jandun recognized four internal senses: the common sense, imagination, vis cogitativa, and",
"-25.16833896614844"
],
[
"what is visible, ear and what is audible, smell and the objects of smell, taste and objects of taste, touch and objects of touch, speech and objects of speech, sexuality and objects of its enjoyment, feet and what is moveable, hands and what is seizable, mind and the objects of mind, thought and objects of thought, reason and objects of reason, self-consciousness and objects of self-consciousness, insight and objects of illumination, life-force and object of life-force.\nAfter setting the foundation of its dream theory and deep-sleep theory, the Prashna Upanishad defines Atman as Purusha (Cosmic Self, Consciousness, Soil of all beings,",
"-25.167594497441314"
]
] |
1r5f51 | Why are we so worried about a water shortage when there is plenty of ocean water? Why don't we just filter the salt out? | [
"Filtering ocean water to the point of it being drinkable is an INCREDIBLY expensive process. Just getting the salt out alone is very expensive. Then the water still has to go through the whole usual water cleaning process. On top of that, the solution really only helps those close enough to an ocean to get to the water. There'd be no feasible way to get the water to the center of large continents that didn't involve literally shipping it in trucks/trains/etc. Water in large volumes is incredibly heavy, thus very expensive to ship. So the question becomes how do you deal with all of that? Who pays for what? Do we have enough of the materials needed to filter that much water long term? Who's responsible for building new infrastructure? Where does the money come from? All that money being sucked into maintaining the current water supply would cripple most economies. And this is just the 1st world discussion. In 3rd worlds, where EXISTING fresh water is already hard enough to come by, there'd be no good solution at all.",
"Because it's expensive to build and operate desalination plants. For example the [Gold Coast Desalination Plant]( URL_0 ) cost over 1 billion Australian Dollars to build (about the same amount in USD)",
"Because filtering salt water, on an industrial scale, is very hard and expensive. Salt water is extremely corrosive to metals, especially at the high pressures and temperatures required for any desalination process. Even stainless steel pipes are quite vulnerable. (By the way, this is the reason everyone was so shocked when the Fukushima company in Japan decided to dump sea water on the damaged reactor - it was a desperate move because it meant that cooling the plant was more important than salvaging anything in it.)",
"There's plenty of freshwater around as well. It's getting that water to different parts of the country/world that makes it difficult. At New Orleans, the Mississippi River flows at about 600,000 cubic feet per second. At ~7.5 gallons per cubic foot, that's 4.5 million gallons of freshwater passing by New Orleans each SECOND and almost 400 billion gallons each day. That is almost the entire daily usage of the United States passing by New Orleans each day.",
"Even though everyone is saying how expensive it is to filter the salt out of the water its also going to be expensive to pipe or ship it to the places that need it. People usually try to say that we do this with oil but you have to remember that even though it might be feasible for normal families to pay 3 dollars a gallon for water especially if they cut down usage. But the main uses for water would be for farming and farmers just couldn't pay that much for the amount of water they use. It would probably ruin the US economy because all our food would be ridiculously expensive.",
"I remember reading about technology involving your question. The book was by Peter Diamandis called Abundance. Someone correct me if I'm wrong, but I believe the technology is available to make the water from the ocean potable. What they are working on now is how to make the technology more available (i.e., cheaper, mobile, ease of use).",
"Removing the salt from seawater is called desalination. It is expensive, but is done in many places around the world. The wikipedia article lists desalination methods, some costs, and a list of desalination facilities. URL_0 "
] | [
[
"and access The scarcity of fresh water resources is an issue in arid regions around the world, but is becoming more common due to overcommitment of resources. In the case of physical water scarcity, there is not enough water to meet demand. Dry regions do not have access to fresh water in lakes or rivers while access to groundwater is sometimes limited. Regions most affected by this type of water scarcity are Mexico, Northern and Southern Africa, the Middle East, India, and Northern China. \nEconomic water scarcity applies to areas that lack the fiscal resources and/or human capacity to invest",
"-30.465795932221226"
],
[
"several decades. Diminishing aquifers and lower water tables are a concern because aquifers are relatively slow to recharge, and lower water tables can lead to salt intrusion and make freshwater unfit for consumption.\nGenerally, water markets are considered flexible instruments that, in theory, should adjust for changing prices, and respond to changing markets conditions (e.g. less rainfall, increased demand). Historically, certain communities, such as those in the western United States, may have responded to water shortage and increasing demand through supply-side solutions, like increased storage capacity and transportation infrastructure (e.g. dam and aqueduct construction). Due to higher capital costs, decreasing sites",
"-30.110716119714198"
],
[
"the others as well. Water pollution and subsequent eutrophication also reduces the availability of fresh water.\nMany areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability (or water scarcity). Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses, it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse. A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the human population as it would affect everything from sanitation, to overall health and the production of grain. Minimum streamflow An important concern for hydrological ecosystems is securing",
"-28.87139255301281"
],
[
"to ground water, salt water can also intrude into aquifers near the coast. Soils may become too salty for farms or forests. For example, some of the freshwater swamps along the York River’s tidal tributaries have standing dead trees that were killed by saltwater intrusion made possible by rising sea level\". Storms, homes, and infrastructure \"Tropical storms and hurricanes have become more intense during the past 20 years. Although warming oceans provide these storms with more potential energy, scientists are not sure whether the recent intensification reflects a long-term trend. Nevertheless, hurricane wind speeds and rainfall rates are likely to",
"-28.76728351507336"
],
[
"issues – including the lack of infrastructure and government corruption – which is estimated to raise the prices of water services by 10% to 30%.\nSo, the social and economic consequences of a lack of clean water penetrate into realms of education, opportunities for gainful employment, physical strength and health, agricultural and industrial development, and thus the overall productive potential of a community, nation, and/or region. Because of this, the UN estimates that Sub-Saharan Africa alone loses 40 billion potential work hours per year collecting water. Conflict The explosion of populations in developing nations within Africa combined with climate change is",
"-28.18571591633372"
],
[
"of safe water is time consuming and expensive. Alternatively, physical scarcity is when there simply is not enough water within a given region.\nThe 2006 United Nations Economic Commission for Africa estimates that 300 million out of the 800 million who live on the African continent live in a water-scarce environment. Specifically in the very north of Africa, as well the very south of Africa, the rising global temperatures accompanying climate change have intensified the hydrological cycle that leads to drier dry seasons, thus increasing the risk of more extreme and frequent droughts. This significantly impacts the availability, quality and quantity",
"-28.084056226420216"
],
[
"helps maintain surface water flows during extended dry periods. With both sources diminishing, the quality and availability of water will decrease. Long-term effects Excessive ground water pumping and aquifer depletion will lead to land sinking and permanent loss of groundwater storage. Decreasing groundwater levels lead to exposing of underground water storage areas, this will cause lack of soil structure strength and possible sinking if the land above is heavy enough. This has already begun in certain parts of the state during the most recent drought. In coastal communities, excessive water pumping can lead to sea water intrusion, which means sea",
"-27.382859969788115"
],
[
"though the canals also conveyed seawater inland until the construction of water control gates. Effect on water supply Many coastal communities around the United States are experiencing saltwater contamination of water supply wells, and this problem has been seen for decades. The consequences of saltwater intrusion for supply wells vary widely, depending on extent of the intrusion, the intended use of the water, and whether the salinity exceeds standards for the intended use. In some areas such as Washington State, intrusion only reaches portions of the aquifer, affecting only certain water supply wells. Other aquifers have faced more widespread salinity",
"-27.370521960780025"
],
[
"because the demand for water resources and potable water can exceed supply, or because control over access and allocation of water may be disputed. Elements of a water crisis may put pressures on affected parties to obtain more of a shared water resource, causing diplomatic tension or outright conflict.\n11% of the global population, or 783 million people, are still without access to improved sources of drinking water which provides the catalyst for potential for water disputes. Besides life, water is necessary for proper sanitation, commercial services, and the production of commercial goods. Thus numerous types of parties can become",
"-27.339269068295835"
],
[
"to improve water quality using new technology which allows water to be disinfected immediately upon collection and during the storage process. Clean water is necessary for cooking, cleaning, and laundry because many people come into contact with disease causing pathogens through their food, or while bathing or washing.\nAn ongoing issue of contaminated water in the United States has been taking place in Flint, Michigan. On September 4, 2018, evidence of E Coli and other organisms that can cause disease were found in the water. The issue of contaminated water in Flint, Michigan started when the source for drinking water",
"-27.311377853009617"
],
[
"high for some habitats to withstand. Some are able to cope with the salt and recycle it back into the ocean, but others can not release the extra surface water quickly enough or do not have a large enough freshwater source to replace it. Because of this, some species of plants and vegetation die due to the excess salt. In addition, hurricanes can carry toxins and acids onto shore when they make landfall. The flood water can pick up the toxins from different spills and contaminate the land that it passes over. The toxins are very harmful to the people",
"-27.181140092056012"
],
[
"Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intrusion is the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to contamination of drinking water sources and other consequences. Saltwater intrusion occurs naturally to some degree in most coastal aquifers, owing to the hydraulic connection between groundwater and seawater. Because saline water has a higher mineral content than freshwater, it is denser and has a higher water pressure. As a result, saltwater can push inland beneath the freshwater. Certain human activities, especially groundwater pumping from coastal freshwater wells, have increased saltwater intrusion in many coastal areas. Water extraction drops the level of fresh groundwater,",
"-26.9648122274084"
],
[
"Tripoli.\" Thus while the study is generally positive about the technology for affluent areas that are proximate to oceans, it concludes that \"Desalinated water may be a solution for some water-stress regions, but not for places that are poor, deep in the interior of a continent, or at high elevation. Unfortunately, that includes some of the places with biggest water problems.\" \"Another potential problem with desalination is the byproduction of saline brine, which can be a major cause of marine pollution when dumped back into the oceans at high temperatures.\"\nThe world's largest desalination plant is the Jebel Ali Desalination Plant",
"-26.889733881806023"
],
[
"this may result in reduced fresh water availability from surface and underground sources and can cause serious damage to surrounding and associated environments.\nFresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.\nThe increase in the world population and the increase in per capita water use puts increasing strains on the finite resources availability of clean fresh water. The World Bank adds that the response by freshwater ecosystems to a changing climate can be described in terms of three interrelated components: water quality, water quantity or volume, and water timing. A change in one often leads to shifts in",
"-26.78357321151998"
],
[
"a high risk of becoming too saline from rising sea levels. With respect to estuaries, an increase in salinity would threaten aquatic animals and plants that cannot tolerate high levels of salinity. Aquifers often serve as a primary water supply to surrounding areas, such as Florida's Biscayne aquifer, which receives freshwater from the Everglades and then supplies water to the Florida Keys. Rising sea levels would submerge low-lying areas of the Everglades, and salinity would greatly increase in portions of the aquifer. The considerable rise in sea level and the decreasing amounts of freshwater along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts",
"-26.68600471643731"
],
[
"think tank, was warning that the lack of replenishment water was leading to a \"period of very rapid deterioration.\" The rapidly shrinking sea was a \"looming environmental and public health crisis\" With the increased shrinkage, dust storms would increase and a rotten-egg smell could reach to the coastal cities.\nIn 2018, California's Natural Resources Agency received 11 proposals to increase waterflow to the sea in order to reduce dust and dust-borne toxins. Proposal costs ranged from $300 million to several billion dollars. No winner was selected in this phase. Earthquake geology The Salton Sea and surrounding basin sits over the San",
"-26.67071992183628"
],
[
"includes fishing, agriculture, manufacturing, recreation and tourism, among other possibilities, can create dispute even when access to potable water is not necessarily an issue. As a resource, some consider water to be as valuable as oil, needed by nearly every industry, and needed nearly every day. Water shortages can completely cripple an industry just as it can cripple a population, and affect developed countries just as they affect countries with less-developed water infrastructure. Water-based industries are more visible in water disputes, but commerce at all levels can be damaged by a lack of water.\nInternational commercial disputes between nations can be",
"-26.64191834302619"
],
[
"the \"Harvesting Stage\", which makes water-scarce regions difficult to aid because of a lack of industrial technology to make solutions sustainable. In addition to the geographic and developmental limiting factors, a number of political, economic reasons also stand in the way of ensuring adequate aid for Africa. Politically, tensions between local governments versus foreign non-governmental organizations impact the ability to successfully bring in money and aid-workers. Economically, urban areas suffer from extreme wealth gaps in which the overwhelming poor often pay four to ten times more for sanitary water than the elite, hindering the poor from gaining access to clean",
"-26.476851259329123"
],
[
"of green manures, mulching, and recycling of crop residues and animal manure increases the water holding capacity of soils and their ability to absorb water during torrential rains\", which is a way to optimize the use of rainfall and irrigation during dry periods in the season. Water Reuse Water shortage has become an increasingly difficult problem to manage. More than 40% of the world's population live in a region where the demand for water exceeds its supply. The imbalance between supply and demand, along with persisting issues such as climate change and population growth, has made water reuse a necessary",
"-26.453501026844606"
],
[
"a global water crisis, farmers will have to make strides to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.\nSuccessful agriculture is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over-committed. This can",
"-26.43680357025005"
],
[
"reducing its water pressure and allowing saltwater to flow further inland. Other contributors to saltwater intrusion include navigation channels or agricultural and drainage channels, which provide conduits for saltwater to move inland. Sea level rise could also contribute to saltwater intrusion. Saltwater intrusion can also be worsened by extreme events like hurricane storm surges. Hydrology At the coastal margin, fresh groundwater flowing from inland areas meets with saline groundwater from the ocean. The fresh groundwater flows from inland areas towards the coast where elevation and groundwater levels are lower. Because saltwater has a higher content of dissolved salts and",
"-26.418318943702616"
],
[
"monsoonal deluges and floods cannot easily be used. As time advances, water is becoming scarcer and having access to clean, safe, drinking water is limited among countries. At present only about 0.08 percent of all the world's fresh water is exploited by mankind in ever increasing demand for sanitation, drinking, manufacturing, leisure and agriculture. Due to the small percentage of water remaining, optimizing the fresh water we have left from natural resources has been a continuous difficulty in several locations worldwide.\nMuch effort in water resource management is directed at optimizing the use of water and in minimizing the environmental",
"-26.355150716146454"
],
[
"aquifers, thus making pollution consequential to the health of many species.[Citation Needed]\nUnited Nations and domestic scientists believe that there is no significant way to clean the water sources or ensure that the water in these sources can be clean due to the highly diluted chemicals; however, education on how to test the water as well as resources for farmers to obtain fresh water has promoted clean water initiatives.[Citation Needed] While this does not help nonhuman species, reducing further water pollution can ensure species do not get as sick or endangered.\nKuwait's oil industry poses a large threat to the already valuable",
"-26.32644029194489"
],
[
"supply water efficiently enough. As these countries become richer, their water problems will become less difficult\". This theoretical argument, however, ignores real-world conditions, including strong barriers to open water markets, the difficulty of moving water from one region to another, inability of some populations to pay for water, and grossly imperfect information on water use. Actual experience with peak water constraints in some wealthy, but water-short countries and regions still suggests serious difficulties in reducing water challenges. Climate change Extensive research has shown the direct links between water resources, the hydrologic cycle, and climatic change. As climate changes, there will",
"-26.322138689236454"
],
[
"sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers, lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. Due to the water cycle, fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation, however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world's wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. Greater emphasis is now",
"-26.234670326812193"
],
[
"news and vlogs which blamed the water crisis on water inefficent agricultural and livestock farming methods. Optimal allocation of water between agricultural and urban use is particularly complicated due to the presence of multiple externalities, with irrigated water being crucial for food security and urban use for public health, as well as the seasonal changes in demand. Comments by Premier of Western Cape, Helen Zille Helen Zille, Premier of the Western Cape, drew attention for some of her comments on the water crisis. In September 2017, she revealed that she only showered once every three days, and that she regards",
"-26.11179460614221"
],
[
"poor irrigation practices have led to increased salt content in the soil, reducing the productivity of the land. Irrigation salinity is caused by water soaking through the soil level adding to the ground water below. This causes the water table to rise, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. As the irrigated area dries, the salt remains. At Wakool in the Riverina region of New South Wales, irrigation salinity is mitigated through a salt interception scheme that pumps saline ground water into evaporation basins, protecting approximately 50,000 hectares of farmland in the area from high water tables and salinity. The subsequent",
"-26.098625618673395"
],
[
"and climate all contribute to uneven distribution of fresh drinking water. Without clean water, good health is not a viable option. Besides drinking, water is used to create sanitary living conditions and is the basis of creating a healthy environment fit to hold human life. In addition to drinking water, water is also used for bathing, washing clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, a variety of cleaning methods, recreation, watering lawns, and farm irrigation.\nIrrigation poses one of the largest problems, because without sufficient water to irrigate crops, the crops die and then there is the problem of food rations and starvation.",
"-26.096458844142035"
],
[
"sources that were once plentiful are now being diminished due to anthropogenic metabolism of the growing population. The water footprint encompasses how much fresh water is needed for each consumer’s needs. According to J. Allan, \"there is a huge impact of water use on stores of surface and groundwater and on flows to which water is returned after use. These impacts are shown to be particularly high for manufacturing industries. For example, that there are less than 10 economies worldwide that have a significant water surplus, but that these economies have successfully met, or have the potential to meet, the",
"-25.96588231122587"
],
[
"environmental flows. There is no water allocation for the purpose of salt export to the sea. When rain water comes in contact with the soil, it picks up some salts in dissolved form from the soil. The total amount of dissolved salts contained in the river water has to reach sea without accumulating in the river basin. This process is called \"salt export\". If all the water is utilised without letting adequate water to the Sea, the water salinity / total dissolved salts (TDS) would be so high making it unfit for human, cattle and agriculture use. Higher Sodium in",
"-25.924221461405978"
],
[
"regional water security uncertainty in a changing climate. Surface water quality is declining due to increasing population, depleted streams, and land subsidence along certain coastlines. The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer is considered to have low to moderate stress, but the region's economic capacity and land-use patterns signal trends toward a human-dominated stress on water resources.",
"-25.87303746503312"
],
[
"water demand in the U.S. has been to tap into ever more distant sources of conventional water supply, in particular rivers. Because of environmental concerns and limitations in the availability of water resources, including droughts that may be due to climate change, this approach now is in many cases not feasible any more. Still, supply-side management is often being pursued tapping into non-conventional water resources, in particular seawater desalination in coastal areas with high population growth. California alone had plans to build 21 desalination plants in 2006 with a total capacity of 450 million US gallons (1,700,000 m³) per day, which would",
"-25.73778104836674"
],
[
"marginal benefit with marginal cost causing the market to come to an economically-efficient level.\nWater has high transaction costs and create market barriers which devalues the use to society restricting the reallocation of resources. The demand does not change when there is a market barrier so there will be many unpleasant people if they do not get their share of water. If a bank is in the process of being made the removal of market-access barriers can be part of the negotiations, but it is not necessarily the bank itself that is the cause. Groundwater banking could reduce transaction costs because",
"-25.734100321889855"
],
[
"100 km² (39 sq mi) sea. If brine water was not sent back to the ocean, it would precipitate 90,000 long tons (91,000 t) of salt every year. Salinity The salinity in the lake increases as the 450 mm (18 in) salt crust dissolves over a period of six months of a major flood, resulting in a massive fish kill. When over 4 m (13 ft) deep, the lake is no more salty than the sea, but salinity increases as the water evaporates, with saturation occurring at about a 500 mm (20 in) depth. The lake takes on a pink hue when saturated, due to the presence of beta-carotene pigment",
"-25.729781593952794"
],
[
"supply. Water stress Water stress or water lack, poses the greatest threat in Spain. Water scarcity is a significant issue in many regions throughout Spain and climate change may aggravate the problem, with longer periods of dry weather. Supply problems regularly occur in the Jucar basin during summer. In the Segura basin, water scarcity has resulted in an increase of the water prices by 30% for households. Overall, the regions in the south-east of Spain are particularly vulnerable to water shortages. Furthermore, large areas of the Mediterranean are affected by saltwater intrusion.",
"-25.68732159587671"
],
[
"toxic chemicals. Diseases Caused by Unsanitary Water Water is essential for human development. Lack of access to safe water is both a cause and symptom of poverty and under-development. Limited access to safe water is a cause of poverty because they are at an economic disadvantage—agriculture and farming. It is hard to farm or for crops to grow there is a constant need for water. All businesses rely on some extent of constant clean water and sanitation. Furthermore, without water supplies, people must leave work earlier in search of water. Besides, the absence of safe, clean water results in morbidity",
"-25.679529543500394"
],
[
"of its food supply. For the same reason, communities have had to manage increasingly saline groundwater. The majority of islands in the Maldives do not have a secure supply of fresh water or distribution networks that can ensure sufficient safe freshwater during dry periods. It is also due to these prolonged dry periods that many islands have experienced severe shortages of drinking water, often necessitating emergency water supply initiatives on the part of the government. Freshwater security is currently a pressing issue in the Maldives.\nMany climate related diseases, such as dengue and scrub typhus, have also become more common. The",
"-25.62088973011123"
],
[
"due to reduced water pressure in higher lying areas. Responses to the water crisis There has been attempts to both increase the supply and reduce the demand for water in the Western Cape Water Supply System. Many individuals and businesses have also attempted to reduce their reliance on the municipal water system to safeguard their own water supplies. This water crisis has spurred research and investment in alternative water systems, which may ultimately help prevent other cities from falling into the same degree of water scarcity. It has also highlighted the need for longer-term planning in a city where climate",
"-25.58313293379615"
],
[
"last year there have still been reported water shortages. The region's water supplies have dipped dangerously low and newer stricter precautions have been forced onto citizens for using water. Even with the plans for future water sources, it seems that with the growing population in the region and increasingly dry seasons, water scarcity is still a pressing issue. Background The three rivers involved are part of the ACF River Basin which stretches from northern Georgia down to Eastern Alabama and the Florida panhandle. The Chattahoochee River is fed mostly from surface water and has its origins in Georgia near",
"-25.525118832156295"
],
[
"hypersalinity and presence of contaminants in the Salton Sea triggered massive die-offs in the fish and avian populations; Salt water carries less oxygen than fresh water, which was further depleted by algal blooms and by extreme temperatures during the summer period, and the contamination promoted the outbreak and spread of diseases such as avian cholera. In turn, the loss of several species of fish that the avian population depended on for food increased their risk of starvation, exacerbating their decline.\nBy 2014, large swaths of lake bed were exposed and salt levels drastically increased due to mandated water transfers to metropolitan",
"-25.502274282634517"
],
[
"effect of sending a signal to farmers that water was inexpensive and abundant, leading to uneconomic use of a scarce resource. Increasing difficulties in meeting demand for water in the western United States have been blamed on the continuing establishment of governmental control and a return to tradable property rights has been proposed. Criticisms Some critics argue that free-market environmentalists have no method of dealing with collective problems like environmental degradation and natural resource depletion because of their rejection of collective regulation and control. They see natural resources as too difficult to privatize (e.g. water), as well as legal responsibility",
"-25.46487765343045"
],
[
"government corruption and lack of sufficient supplies of safe, clean water. Simon wrote, \"there is complete agreement among water economists that all it takes to ensure an adequate supply for agriculture as well as for households in rich countries is that there be a rational structure of water law and market pricing. The problem is not too many people but rather defective laws and bureaucratic interventions; freeing up markets in water would eliminate just about all water problems forever... In poor water-short countries the problem with water supply—as with so many other matters—is lack of wealth to create systems to",
"-25.442797496682033"
],
[
"canals, lakes or rivers for their water needs.\nA clean water supply—in particular, water that is not polluted with fecal matter from lack of sanitation—is the single most important determinant of public health. Destruction of water supply and/or sanitation infrastructure after major catastrophes (earthquakes, floods, war, etc.) poses the immediate threat of severe epidemics of waterborne diseases, several of which can be life-threatening. Technical overview Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including groundwater (aquifers), surface water (lakes and rivers), and the sea through desalination. The water treatment steps include, in most cases, purification, disinfection",
"-25.44256892966223"
],
[
"Agency has noted that water resources in the UK are under increasing pressure because of the growing population. In addition, the agency has warned that the South East of England is facing more serious water scarcity than anywhere else in England or Wales, such that the per-capita water supply is lower than many Mediterranean countries. The agency encourages a two-pronged approach to both reduce demand and increase supply, such as through the use of rainwater harvesting. However, there is a fundamental mismatch between supply and demand; the areas of the UK suffering water scarcity are in most cases also areas",
"-25.382907556340797"
],
[
"may have earlier lacked it. The proportion of people in developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30 percent in 1970. to 71 percent in 1990, 79 percent in 2000 and 84 percent in 2004, parallel with rising population. This trend is projected to continue.\nThe Earth has a limited though renewable supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Oceans are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very",
"-25.3731460532872"
],
[
"energy costs of pumping large volumes of water from the deep ocean. Deep ocean water contains high concentrations of essential nutrients that are depleted in surface waters due to biological consumption. This \"artificial upwelling\" mimics the natural upwellings that are responsible for fertilizing and supporting the world's largest marine ecosystems, and the largest densities of life on the planet.\nCold-water delicacies, such as salmon and lobster, thrive in this nutrient-rich, deep, seawater. Microalgae such as Spirulina, a health food supplement, also can be cultivated. Deep-ocean water can be combined with surface water to deliver water at an optimal temperature.\nNon-native species",
"-25.370762038626708"
],
[
"Many parts of the Middle East had more rain than this area, and it is getting even drier and warmer due to climate change. Environmental criticisms In July 2011, the think tank Policy Exchange reported a significant decline in river quality due to abstraction carried out by water companies. The report calls for water companies to be charged more for using the most environmentally vulnerable rivers and aquifers in drier parts of the country, with cheaper rates where water is more abundant. It also called for higher water charges during droughts.\nIn 2009, an investigation conducted by the BBC's Panorama concluded",
"-25.33923803937796"
],
[
"supply, supported by reservoirs, can generate higher dependence on water resources, which in turn increases social vulnerability and economic damage when water shortage eventually occurs.\nAttempts to increase water supply to cope with growing water demand, which is fuelled by the increase in supply, has been shown to be unsustainable. Drought occurrences can trigger temporary reductions of water availability, often leading to water shortage when water demand cannot be satisfied by the available water. Examples of reservoir effects and supply-demand cycles In Athens, the Mornos Reservoir overflow of 1985 lead to a new law in 1987 which declared water as a",
"-25.31128615597845"
],
[
"a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the human activity that consumes the most fresh water, this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems.\nIn Australia, over-abstraction of fresh water for intensive irrigation activities has caused 33% of the land area to be at risk of salination. With regards to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that will foster debate.",
"-25.292335722784628"
],
[
"limitation caused by the fact that the poor population does not have formal access to drinking water and is thereby forced to buy drinking water from informal water vendors. The informal market is not affected by the subsidies and furthermore tends to be even more expensive than the formal market price. Response to challenges In response to these challenges, two major programs are underway. The National Water Commission has launched a massive US$2.8 billion Water Sustainability Program in 2007 for bulk water supply, drainage and wastewater treatment for the period 2007-2012. In parallel, the government of the Federal District has",
"-25.29086851584725"
],
[
"Economic water scarcity Economic water scarcity is caused by a lack of investment in water infrastructure or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand of water in areas where the population cannot afford to use an adequate source of water.\nSymptoms of economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to fetch water from rivers or lakes for domestic and agricultural uses (irrigation). Although much emphasis is put on improving water sources for drinking and domestic purposes, evidence suggests that much more water is used for other uses such as bathing, laundry, livestock and cleaning than for",
"-25.28706408618018"
],
[
"lower rainfall, and longer droughts, leading to even less access to water. Moreover, seawater intrusion or fossil saltwater contamination of the limited freshwater aquifers due to groundwater overexploitation affect those who live close to the coastline.\nIn recent years, population growth has increased rapidly with the addition of many refugees. Natural resources Unlike much of the Horn of Africa and Middle East which is rich in lucrative crude oil, Djibouti has limited natural resources. These include potential geothermal power, gold, clay, granite, limestone, marble, salt, diatomite, gypsum, pumice, petroleum. Environment Natural hazards include earthquakes, drought, and occasional cyclonic disturbances from the",
"-25.282172155202716"
],
[
"and streams. Salt water contamination and cool water species Species of fish living in cold or cool water can see a reduction in population of up to 50% in the majority of U.S. fresh water streams, according to most climate change models. The increase in metabolic demands due to higher water temperatures, in combination with decreasing amounts of food will be the main contributors to their decline. Additionally, many fish species (such as salmon) utilize seasonal water levels of streams as a means of reproducing, typically breeding when water flow is high and migrating to the ocean after spawning. Because",
"-25.222472681838553"
],
[
"water and the aquifer currently are managed as an integrated water system.\nBecause the top part of the Biscayne aquifer is the water table, this aquifer is known as an unconfined aquifer. Since it merges with the floor of Biscayne Bay and with the Atlantic Ocean, it is also a coastal aquifer. Both of these factors contribute to its potential contamination. Lowered water tables, primarily from over-pumping, could allow salt water intrusion without man-made interventions such as dam-like structures that control fresh and salt water levels in canals. Because the aquifer is so close to the surface, it is extremely",
"-25.21327419258887"
],
[
"of common resources (such as excessive use of freshwater to control the salinity of the ponds, causing the water table to sink and leading to the salination of freshwater aquifers by an inflow of salt water). With growing experience, countries usually introduced stronger governmental regulations and have taken steps to mitigate such problems, for instance through land zoning legislations. Some late adopters have even managed to avoid some problems through proactive legislation, e.g. Mexico. The situation in Mexico is unique owing to the strongly government-regulated market. Even after the liberalisation in the early 1990s, most shrimp farms are still owned",
"-25.202651527622947"
],
[
"surrounding them erodes due to higher temperatures and acidic water chemistry, salt water is able to infiltrate the lens and contaminate the drinking water supply. In coastal Bangladesh it has been demonstrated that seasonal hypertension in pregnant women is connected with such phenomenon due to high sodium intake from drinking water. Reef erosion, coupled with sea level rise, tends to flood low-lying areas more frequently during storm surges and weather events. Warming ocean waters generate larger and more devastating weather events that can decimate coastal populations especially without the protection of coral reefs. Human health The health of our oceans",
"-25.192808061969117"
],
[
"increases fresh water scarcity among the population and also makes populations susceptible to economic, social, and political conflict in a number of ways; rising sea levels forces migration from coastal areas to other areas farther inland, pushing populations closer together breaching borders and other geographical patterns, and agricultural surpluses and deficits from the availability of water induce trade problems and economies of certain areas. Climate change is an important cause of involuntary migration and forced displacement According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, global greenhouse gas emissions from animal agriculture exceeds that of transportation. Water management",
"-25.17399192531593"
],
[
"quality, and control of water. Water has also been used as a tool in conflicts or as a target during conflicts that start for other reasons. Water shortages may well result in water conflicts over this precious resource.\nIn West Africa and other places like Nepal, Bangladesh, India (such as the Ganges Delta), and Peru, major changes in the rivers generate a significant risk of violent conflict in coming years. Water management and control could play a part in future resource wars over scarce resources. Solutions Freshwater usage has great potential for better conservation and management as it is used inefficiently",
"-25.072347581444774"
],
[
"pushed further inland, an intrusion of saltwater results in an increase of salinity in reservoirs and aquifers. Sea-level rise may also consequently be caused by a depletion of groundwater, as climate change can affect the hydrologic cycle in a number of ways. Uneven distributions of increased temperatures and increased precipitation around the globe results in water surpluses and deficits, but a global decrease in groundwater suggests a rise in sea level, even after meltwater and thermal expansion were accounted for, which can provide a positive feedback to the problems sea-level rise causes to fresh-water supply.\nA rise in air",
"-24.999143847016967"
],
[
"in some of the most depleted areas use of groundwater for irrigation has become impossible or cost prohibitive. Environmental impacts Overusing groundwater, old or young can lower subsurface water levels and dry up streams, which could have a huge effect on ecosystems on the surface. When the most easily recoverable fresh groundwater is removed this leaves a residual with inferior water quality. This is in part from induced leakage from the land surface, confining layers or adjacent aquifers that contain saline or contaminated water. Worldwide the magnitude of groundwater depletion from storage may be so large as to constitute a",
"-24.998820375156356"
],
[
"bulk water export a more favourable plan.\nThe canals that would have to be constructed to transfer water require huge investment and operation costs. This would make the cost for consumers of the water expensive. In contrast, the technology needed to desalinise seawater has improved dramatically and has an acceptable cost for urban markets. Whether or not pressures for large-scale water exports continues to increase depends mostly on future advances in desalination technology. If the cost of desalination drops enough, it will be cheaper to generate freshwater from saltwater than to import freshwater from another country. The cost of desalination is",
"-24.982729050214402"
],
[
"a significant environmental hazard, both due to corrosive and sediment-forming effects of salts and toxicity of other chemicals diluted in it. It must be properly disposed, which may require permits and compliance with environmental regulations.\nThe simplest way to dispose of unpolluted brine from desalination plants and cooling towers is to return it to the ocean. To limit the environmental impact, it can be diluted with another stream of water, such as the outfall of a wastewater treatment or power plant. Since brine is heavier than seawater and would accumulate on the ocean bottom, it requires methods to ensure proper diffusion,",
"-24.957057942646315"
],
[
"depended on irrigating their fields with fresh water from the two rivers noticed an increase in salinity farther inland than before. It became obvious that fresh water was being pumped out of the Delta faster than it could be replenished by rain and snow during the wet season. Farmers, businessmen and politicians complained that allowing fresh water to flow to the ocean was wasteful. While many solutions were proposed, few appeared practical. A political consensus formed that damming the Carquinez Strait should solve the seawater intrusion problem.\nIn September, 1923, the California Legislature appropriated $10,000 (equivalent to $147,000 today) for a",
"-24.899852230679244"
],
[
"water. These of course, lead to situations where there is an extreme decrease in water availability. As water availability decreases, it increases the chances for dependent species to die out.\n Groundwater aquifers support drought refuges for water-dependent ecosystems.Pollution and over-extraction of groundwater are both problematic because it lowers its ability to support groundwater-supplied drought refuges. Over-extraction lowers the water table and degrades water-dependent ecosystems. Over-extraction often occurs in areas with surface water scarcity and frequent drought; where groundwater refuges and refugia are most important. Man-made disturbances can mimic the effects of drought, like water withdrawal, and dams. Man-made channel modifications",
"-24.895253070302715"
],
[
"small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from desalination. However, modern technologies, such as the Seawater Greenhouse, use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner. Most affected countries Based on the map published by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the countries and regions suffering most water stress are North Africa, the Middle East, India, Central Asia, China, Chile, Colombia, South Africa and Australia.\nWater scarcity is also increasing in South Asia. Israel The Israeli Holistic Approach to Water Security draws from 70 years of experience in national security",
"-24.88887547585182"
],
[
"meet the demands of the population, and economic water scarcity as where water requirements are not satisfied because of a lack of investment in water or human capacity. Averting a global water crisis IWMI's approach towards defining water scarcity provided a new context within which the scientific debate on water availability subsequently became centred. For example, the theme of the UN World Water Day in 2007 was Coping with Water Scarcity; The USA's Worldwatch Institute featured a chapter on water management in its assessment State of the World 2008; and reports published in 2009 by the World Economic Forum and",
"-24.849950255360454"
],
[
"demand and lack of drinkable water on the planet presents an additional challenge to the future of human health. Partly, the problem lies in the success of water suppliers to increase supplies and failure of groups promoting preservation of water resources. While the distribution of clean water increases, in some parts of the world it remains unequal. According to the World Health Organisation (2018) only 71% of the global population used a safely managed drinking-water service.\nSome of the health issues influenced by biodiversity include dietary health and nutrition security, infectious disease, medical science and medicinal resources, social and psychological health.",
"-24.836844499281142"
],
[
"nearly everywhere, but until actual scarcity hits, people tend to take access to freshwater for granted. Water conservation There are several ways to reduce the use of water. For example, most irrigation systems waste water; typically, only between 35% and 50% of water withdrawn for irrigated agriculture ever reaches the crops. Most soaks into unlined canals, leaks out of pipes, or evaporates before reaching (or after being applied to) the fields. Swales and cisterns can be used to catch and store excess rainwater.\nWater should be used more efficiently in industry, which should use a closed water cycle if possible. Also,",
"-24.820399180229288"
],
[
"promotes this alternative source especially in the agricultural sector, but also in hotels, government premises and on the individual household level. The most important motivation for using greywater - next to saving freshwater - is to cut down water bills. Efficiency The share of non-revenue water (NRW) - water which is produced but not billed - was estimated at approx. 50% nationwide in 2014. This amounts to an estimated physical leakage of 76 billion litres per year, which could meet the needs of 2.6 million people (more than a third of the population. The main reasons leading to this",
"-24.763444994401652"
],
[
"and sodium; and these may lead to increased weight gain, high cholesterol (hypercholesterolaemia), high blood pressure (hypertension), and chronic diseases.\nPresently, the two biggest problems with the growing population are water and sewage. Water from the rivers and lakes is no longer potable as a result of pollution. Wells must be drilled and sewage lagoons built, but there are inherent problems as well. Chamber pots (qurrun in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, qerrun in Cup'ig) or honey buckets with waterless toilets are common in many rural villages in the state of Alaska, such as those in the Bethel area of the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta.",
"-24.751936810466077"
],
[
"An evaluation in 2002 showed that the incidence of waterborne diseases had declined substantially compared to the early 1990s and that costs were more than fully recovered. As of 2009, water supply remained continuous and water quality good. The water committees remained financially sustainable with more than 90% of the customers paying their water bills.\nInterface Between Formal and Informal Institutions. In rural areas that lack formal water systems or water management, traditional forms of water resource management and sanitation practices are passed down generationally as traditional ecological knowledge. Here, distrust between the government and indigenous groups stemming from the failed",
"-24.734313462497084"
],
[
"of water due to reduced river flows and reservoir storage, lowering of water tables and drying up of aquifers in the northern and southern regions of Africa.\nIncluded in the category of physical scarcity is the issue of overexploitation. This is contributing to the shrinking of many of Africa's great lakes, including the Nakivale, Nakuru, and Lake Chad, which has shrunk to 10% of its former volume. In terms of policy, the incentives for overuse are among the most damaging, especially concerning ground water extraction. For ground water, once the pump is installed, the policy of many countries is to only",
"-24.729795670777094"
],
[
"expensive.\nThis leads to awareness of water management challenges.\nIn rain-rich states and countries, which are not drought-prone, the water, as elsewhere, is managed by government consent, which assumes ownership and management of all free flowing rivers, lakes, and bodies of water in its parameters. The water being used for commercial purposes, such as Nestle's 72 brands of bottled water, is done so only as permitted and granted by governmental authorities. Lately, locals have been fighting back against the \"stealing\" of precious resources by opposing and not allowing huge water draw down facilities to be set up. In some instances, water tables",
"-24.69952834653668"
],
[
"the allocated daily water allowance of 50 litres per capita per day were fined between R500–3,000 (US$35–210). Yet this impact further cemented the poverty gap because the fine was relatively small for the wealthy but crippling for less affluent residents. Public health Public health professionals raised concerns about diseases that could be spread via faecal-oral contamination as a result of less hand-washing. Public health companies, research centres and health providers were also worried about the impact that the water crisis could have had on health services. \nInadequate sanitation could have led to diarrhoeal diseases, which kill 2.2 million people every",
"-24.698700228182133"
],
[
"block spring flood water that would bring fresh water and sediment to marshes. Swamps have been extensively logged, leaving canals and ditches that allow saline water to move inland. Canals dug for the oil and gas industry also allow storms to move sea water inland, where it damages swamps and marshes. Rising sea waters have exacerbated the problem. Some researchers estimate that the state is losing a land mass equivalent to 30 football fields every day. There are many proposals to save coastal areas by reducing human damage, including restoring natural floods from the Mississippi. Without such restoration, coastal communities",
"-24.6733571725199"
],
[
"some treatment. Fresh water can easily become polluted by human activities or due to naturally occurring processes, such as erosion.\nWater is critical to the survival of all living organisms. Some organisms can thrive on salt water, but the great majority of higher plants and most mammals need fresh water to live. Numerical definition Fresh water can be defined as water with less than 500 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved salts.\nOther sources give higher upper salinity limits for fresh water, e.g. 1000 ppm or 3000 ppm. Systems Fresh water habitats are classified as either lentic systems, which are the stillwaters",
"-24.656216819537804"
],
[
"the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. In the industrial world demand management has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry desalination is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management. Land Loss of biodiversity stems largely from the habitat loss and fragmentation produced by the human appropriation of land for development, forestry",
"-24.65055352600757"
],
[
"people living where lack of water creates millions of deaths every year.\nWhere the water supply system cannot reach the slums, people manage to use hand pumps, to reach the pit wells, rivers, canals, swamps and any other source of water. In most cases the water quality is unfit for human consumption. The principal cause of water scarcity is the growth in demand. Water is taken from remote areas to satisfy the needs of urban areas. Another reason for water scarcity is climate change: precipitation patterns have changed; rivers have decreased their flow; lakes are drying up; and aquifers are being",
"-24.645560254197335"
],
[
"evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Strait of Gibraltar: that is, an outflow submarine current of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. In the 1920s, Herman Sörgel proposed the building of a hydroelectric dam (the Atlantropa project)",
"-24.635990065027727"
],
[
"issue. Global freshwater resources dwindle in the eastern hemisphere either than at the poles, and with the majority of urban development millions live with insufficient fresh water. This is caused by polluted freshwater resources, overexploited groundwater resources, insufficient harvesting capacities in the surrounding rural areas, poorly constructed and maintained water supply systems, high amount of informal water use and insufficient technical and water management capacities.\nIn the areas surrounding urban centres, agriculture must compete with industry and municipal users for safe water supplies, while traditional water sources are becoming polluted with urban runoff. As cities offer the best opportunities for selling",
"-24.62966358428821"
],
[
"Water Act\nIn a January 2012 U.S. National Research Council report, a committee of independent experts found that expanding the reuse of municipal wastewater for irrigation, industrial uses, and drinking water augmentation could significantly increase the United States' total available water resources. The committee noted that a portfolio of treatment options is available to mitigate water quality issues in reclaimed water. The report also includes a risk analysis that suggests the risk of exposure to certain microbial and chemical contaminants from drinking reclaimed water is not any higher than the risk from drinking water from current water treatment systems—and in some",
"-24.617225107751437"
],
[
"and mass movement of land, a decline in water quality is probable, because while water will carry more nutrients it will also carry more contaminants. While most of the attention about climate change is directed towards global warming and greenhouse effect, some of the most severe effects of climate change are likely to be from changes in precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, and soil moisture. It is generally expected that, on average, global precipitation will increase, with some areas receiving increases and some decreases.\nClimate models show that while some regions should expect an increase in precipitation, such as in the tropics",
"-24.56982392433565"
],
[
"the fact that warmer water occupies a larger volume (thermal expansion). Hurricanes Tropical storms and hurricanes have become more intense in recent years. While warming waters make these storms more intense, \"scientists are not sure whether the recent intensification represents a long-term trend.\" But it is likely that storms will tend to worsen as the climate warms. Ecosystems With rising sea levels, salt water can make its way farther upstream. The increased salinity can kill some types of trees found in swamp areas. \"Salt water also reacts with some wetland soils, which causes the surface of the wetlands to sink",
"-24.566402224591002"
],
[
"loss. Federal, state, and local governments have ongoing projects to slow land loss in Louisiana, but if the sea rises more rapidly in the future, these efforts will become increasingly difficult\". Tropical storms \"Tropical storms and hurricanes have become more intense during the past 20 years. Although warming oceans provide these storms with more potential energy, scientists are not sure whether the recent intensification reflects a long-term trend. Nevertheless, hurricane wind speeds and rainfall rates are likely to increase as the climate continues to warm\". Increased flooding \"Whether or not tropical storms become more frequent, rising sea level makes low-lying",
"-24.562114177970216"
],
[
"drinking and cooking alone. This observation suggests that putting too much emphasis on drinking water needs addresses an insignificant part of the problem of water resources and therefore limits the range of solutions available.\nLarge parts of Africa suffer from economic water scarcity; developing water infrastructure there could therefore help to reduce poverty. Investing in water retention and irrigation infrastructure would also help to increase food production, especially in developing countries that largely rely on low-yield agriculture. Being able to provide a community with water that is adequate for consumption would also greatly benefit the people’s health. Overcoming this type of",
"-24.56087161198957"
],
[
"Water restrictions in Australia Water restrictions have been enacted in many cities and regions in Australia, which is the Earth's driest inhabited continent, in response to chronic water shortages resulting from the widespread drought. Depending upon the location, these can include restrictions on watering lawns, using sprinkler systems, washing vehicles, hosing pavement, refilling swimming pools, etc. Overpopulation, evidence of drying climates, coupled with corresponding reductions in the supply of drinking water has led various state governments to consider alternative water sources to supplement existing sources, and to implement \"water inspectors\" who can issue penalties to those who waste water. \nAs",
"-24.56036379263969"
],
[
"zone, the erosion of land and deforestation have all contributed toward making this region more flood-prone. Deforestation has allowed silt to fill in rivers thereby reducing their capacity and making floods more likely. \nWith the onset of constant rainfall due to a low pressure system located nearby, the combination of these influences contributed to making the flood event even worse than it might otherwise have been.\nSome have suggested that global warming has increased sea levels, making water regions at the low sandy zones of the Gulf of Mexico disappear. However, sea level rises due to global warming are probably still",
"-24.531568220321788"
],
[
"water will begin to flow into the underground water storage areas that were vacated by excess pumping. This can cause decreased water quality and lead to an expensive desalination effort to clean the water before distribution. Water flows through wildlife refuges and national parks can decrease or stop all together due to the decrease of surface and groundwater, the California Water Science Center is a part of a team trying to restore and maintain water flow in these at risk areas. With reduction of water flow and increased windy or dry weather, wildfire risks increase; lightning strikes or accidental human",
"-24.502313975179277"
],
[
"they are also fundamental to global efforts to mitigate climate change. Climate change also has an effect on the ocean and life within the ocean. Pollution Pollution comes from run-off, sewage systems, and garbage. However, this typically all ends up in the ocean after there is rain or floods. Everything that ends up in the water changes the quality and balance of the ocean. Poor coastal water quality has adversely affected fisheries, tourism and mariculture, as well as undermining biological sustainability of the living resources of ocean and coastal habitats. Jamaica imports and exports many goods through their waters. Some",
"-24.459734157309867"
],
[
"are overpumping aquifers as they struggle to satisfy their growing water needs, including each of the big three grain producers— China, India, and the United States. These three, along with a number of other countries where water tables are falling, are home to more than half the world's people.\nWater is intrinsic to biological and economic growth, and overdraft limits its available supply. According to Liebig's law of the minimum, growth is therefore impeded. Deeper wells must be drilled as the water table drops, which can become expensive. In addition, the energy needed to extract a given volume of water increases",
"-24.45199440664146"
],
[
"to remove nutrients from overfertilised parts of the sea. Minimizing nonpoint pollution: future work Nonpoint pollution is the most difficult source of nutrients to manage. The literature suggests, though, that when these sources are controlled, eutrophication decreases. The following steps are recommended to minimize the amount of pollution that can enter aquatic ecosystems from ambiguous sources. Riparian buffer zones Studies show that intercepting non-point pollution between the source and the water is a successful means of prevention. Riparian buffer zones are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land, and have been created near waterways in an attempt to",
"-24.436720313708065"
],
[
"for water in the country is outstripping supply, leading to serious water shortages and unsustainable drawal of ground water in many parts of the country. Whereas we increase the amount of water that is effectively available, the real solution lies in increasing the efficiency of water use. At present, almost 80% of our water is used in agriculture, and it is used very inefficiently. Water use in agriculture can be cut to half with known technology, e.g., by switching from flood irrigation of paddy to SRI. Water availability can be improved by treating sewage water before it enters our fresh",
"-24.413170536980033"
],
[
"water in 2005, almost half, or 15 million, were not poor. Furthermore, many poor in rural areas, who receive limited amounts of water for free through standpipes, do not benefit fully. Those without access to publicly provided water do not benefit at all from the program. The policy is more successful in wealthier municipalities, which have the ability to cross-subsidise water provision for the poor, than in poorer, often rural municipalities. This is one of the reasons why in 2009 the government announced it would review its implementation strategy for free basic water, possibly through registers of poor users.\nAs part",
"-24.38800041223294"
],
[
"concerns about exporting water to the United States since the 1960s, when states in the south-western US experienced their first water shortages and began to seek water sources to augment their overstretched supplies. Large-scale removal of water from lakes would negatively affect their ecosystems, increasing pollution concentrations and harming plant and animal communities. Legal issues Water has been classed as a commodity under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) since the 1980s. This has increased tensions in the debate about exporting water. Although none of the NAFTA rules force Canada to begin to export its water in bulk,",
"-24.382364119024714"
],
[
"reasons, and aid self-sufficiency. Stored water may be used for watering gardens, agriculture, flushing toilets, in washing machines, washing cars, and also for drinking, especially when other water supplies are unavailable, expensive, or of poor quality, and when adequate care is taken that the water is not contaminated and is adequately filtered.\nUnderground rainwater tanks can also be used for retention of stormwater for release at a later time and offer a variety of benefits described in more detail below. In arid climates, rain barrels are often used to store water during the rainy season for use during dryer periods.\nRainwater tanks",
"-24.316440390539356"
],
[
"majority of the world's freshwater supply is contained in the polar icecaps, and underground river systems accessible through springs and wells.\nFresh water can be obtained from salt water by desalination. For example, Malta derives two thirds of its freshwater by desalination. A number of nuclear powered desalination plants exist; however, the high costs of desalination, especially for poor countries, makes the transport of large amounts of desalinated seawater to interiors of large countries impractical. The cost of desalination varies; Israel is now desalinating water for a cost of 53 cents per cubic meter, Singapore at 49 cents per cubic meter.",
"-24.300992008298635"
],
[
"clean, safe water because most household and industrial wastes are dumped directly into rivers and lakes without treatment. This contributes to the rapid increase in waterborne diseases in humans. Out of India's 3119 towns and cities, just 209 have partial treatment facilities, and only 8 have full wastewater treatment facilities (WHO 1992). 114 cities dump untreated sewage and partially cremated bodies directly into the Ganges River. Downstream, the untreated water is used for drinking, bathing, and washing. This situation is typical of many rivers in India as well as other developing countries.\nGlobally, but especially in developing nations like India where",
"-24.293314955197275"
],
[
"Because the water would only be a temporary supply, farmers were advised to use it for seasonal crops (such as alfalfa or hay) rather than permanent crops such as orchards. Nevertheless, many farmers used the water to develop new permanent crops, creating a dependency on SWP water that is technically part of Southern California's entitlement, This is now causing tensions as Southern California continues to increase its use of SWP water, decreasing the amount of surplus available to the system, especially in years of drought.\nIn dry years, water pumped from the Delta creates a hazard to spring-run salmon. As the",
"-24.28773147379252"
],
[
"insecurity are places with low rainfall, places with rapid population growth in a freshwater scarce area, and areas with international competition over a water source. Background Water security is achieved when there is enough water for everyone in a region and the water supply is not at risk of disappearing. According to the Pacific Institute \"While regional impacts will vary, global climate change will potentially alter agricultural productivity, freshwater availability and quality, access to vital minerals, coastal and island flooding, and more. Among the consequences of these impacts will be challenges to political relationships, realignment of energy markets and regional",
"-24.278327432111837"
],
[
"of inadequate water supply and sanitation services, many inhabitants are suffering from waterborne diseases, including diarrhea, typhoid, and cholera.\nThe current water crisis is a result of the deteriorated state of the water infrastructure due to underinvestment in the water sector and conflict-related destruction as well as the rapid growth of the population, which was estimated at 4 percent in urban areas and 2.5 percent in rural areas by the World Bank in 2009. Overall, the DRC's water supply and sanitation sector is characterized by several overlapping and conflicting institutional jurisdictions. Therefore, the water crisis in the DRC can be categorized",
"-24.27164394647116"
]
] |
4y2xbq | Why are prescription drug advertisements necessary? | [
"They aren't necessary. They are effective at getting people to ask their doctor \"Would Xyzzy make my condition better? Is it cheaper?\" and a host of other questions that drive sales. Commercials on TV for any product are about driving sales.",
"They aren't. In fact, here in Australia it is illegal for pharmaceutical companies to advertise directly to the consumer. Drug company reps used to be able to treat *doctors* to extravagant dinners, events and gifts but that also became illegal a few years ago. Now reps can just present the features and benefits of their products to doctors",
"It's a part of \"direct to consumer\" advertising. It's highly effective at selling more drugs because consumers actually ask their doctor about the medication or choose it over an alternative because it is familiar. If you're interested in this kind of stuff, check out the book \"Selling Sickness\"",
"In the United States, prescription drugs are like any other product and marketing them directly to consumers is the fastest way for them to establish a foothold in the market over their competitors. With new drugs, doctors often don't know about them as they have not gained broad acceptance in the medical field. That's why these ads often end with \"Ask you doctor if (name of drug) would be right for you\" followed by some optimistic outlook (ex. \"Relief is only a spray away!\").",
"Ever heard of Viagra? How about Prozac? Zoloft? Now how about Nitrostat? Brintellix? Elavil? They're all name brands. The top row are or have been widely advertised. The bottom do the same things as the ones above. The top row are household names, the bottom are largely unheard of unless you've been prescribed them.",
"There is absolutely no reason why prescription drugs should be advertised on TV like they are a typical product. Can you go to the store and by these medications on your own? No, you must have a prescription from your doctor. can I buy granola bars without a doctors prescription? Yes. So the reasoning in the original explanation is flawed. The reason why the advertisements say, 'Ask your doctor about a certain prescription' is so you can go to your doctor and ask for their prescription vs. the competition. Also why are more than half the commercials dedicated to talking about all the side effects while the narrator speaks in an increased speed than when he is talking about possible benefits?",
"I hope I am not falling on my own sword but... Edit: They are not necessary but can be informative. There are over 6k drugs approved by the FDA in the US. That is a lot of drugs, and that does not include many oncological drugs. Before advertisement many people did not know there was help for them. Take people with active bladder issues. Before 5 years ago only 5% of the population took medications to help them. Most people just learned where all the bathrooms were. Now there is actual study and medications to help. IBS for many years was thought to be \"in the mind\" of the patient and now we have real medications to help people with their issues. The stigma of AD(H)D has been lessened with many information out there and various treatments to help children and adults. Many adults who suffer RA have more than two options. At the end of the day the most important aspect of humanity is choice. How do we make decisions without all the information? Commercials can help people learn they are not alone in their problems and seek help. Not all drugs are a fix, but sometimes they are necessary. There are so many ways to help people manage their illnesses, not just by drugs mind you!, but by knowing options and what your condition might be. Sometimes a person can have an issue, see the doctor and it is something else but at least they saw the doctor. Sometimes medications are not needed just a lifestyle change. In the end it is up to people to decide if they want treatment but it is up to doctors and pharmaceutical companies to provide truthful information regarding possible medications. And it is up to the patients to be honest to their medical professionals to get proper treatment. Taking medications, making medications, handing out medications is such a two edged sword. On one hand I feel proud about my profession and the people I help, on the other hand I see the detriment of poorly managed patients and the side effects of people thinking that medications will cure everything. Note: I do not own a tv or cable package so I have little knowledge in what current commercials play on tele or what they entail. The last commercial I saw was for Detrol LA at an airport. I have second hand info from emails/fliers or people telling me.",
"Because if you make a drug that is $8k a dose you want people to ask about that drug. We have a miracle drug that your insurance will pay for. Be sure to ask your doctor.",
"On top what was already said - it is only legal to advertise them direct to the consumer in the US and New Zealand."
] | [
[
"type of drug and words and images that can be used, among other things. Advertisements for prescription medications can only appear in scientific, medical, or health professional journals. Canada The Food and Drugs Act prohibits most direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications: all direct-to-consumer advertising of drugs was forbidden until 1978, when Health Canada began to allow ads containing names, quantities, and prices only, so that pharmacies could display their prices for comparison purposes. In 2000, Health Canada adopted an interpretation of this law allowing for the aforementioned \"reminder\" and \"help-seeking\" advertisements, although U.S.-style \"full product ads\" that mention",
"-30.704967563186074"
],
[
"the Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1988 banned the traffic or counterfeiting of redeemable drug coupons. For instance, it is against the law to buy or sell coupons for prescription drugs on E-Bay. Types Most drug coupons are printed by consumers using their personal computer and printer. Drug coupons reduce out-of-pocket costs for consumers in a variety of ways such as instant savings offers, free trial offers (also known as try-before-you-buy offers), copay reduction or rebates.\nGeneric drug companies rarely offer coupons, though insurance companies occasionally offer discounts on generic drugs.\nIn addition PBMs (Pharmacy Benefit Managers) offer discount cards that act",
"-30.239603359485045"
],
[
"and saving money in the health care system. Advanced models can be linked via the Internet to a medical facility, to aid in monitoring and reminding a patient to take his/her medications. Legality In some jurisdictions in the United States possession of prescription drugs in a pill organizer is a crime, and people have been prosecuted for it . The legal theory is that since the drug is not in the package it was dispensed in by the pharmacy, and since it is not \"in use\" (e.g., swallowed), it is unlawfully possessed. The affirmative defense, which is that",
"-29.722091003175592"
],
[
"heavily-advertised drugs, leading to superfluous or sub-optimal treatment. Doctors may feel pressured to prescribe specific brand-name medications because they were mentioned by a patient. In 2016, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that 47% of all antibiotics prescribed in the United States were unnecessary. Another study of young people living in West Palm Beach, Florida found that a 10% increase in advertising expose increased the total number of prescriptions by 5%; a higher percentage change than in Denver, Colorado – where DTCA expenditures per person are lower. Market impact It has been argued that direct-to-consumer advertising can influence",
"-29.08542955512894"
],
[
"physician disclosure of conflicts of interest, and other promotional activities.\nIn an essay on the effect of advertisements for marketed anti-depressants there is some evidence that both patients and physicians can be influenced by media advertisements and this has the possibility of increasing the frequency of certain medicines being prescribed over others.",
"-29.008136534976074"
],
[
"drugs, they are typically stored behind the counter and are sold only in stores that are registered with their state. They may be unavailable in convenience and grocery stores that stock other non-restricted OTC medications.\nFor example, many drugstores have moved products containing pseudoephedrine, an OTC product, into locations where customers must ask a pharmacist for them. A prescription is not required; the change has been made in an effort to reduce methamphetamine production. Since the passage of the Illinois Methamphetamine Precursor Control Act and the subsequent federal Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005, the purchase of pseudoephedrine is restricted. Sellers",
"-28.955981858365703"
],
[
"that direct-to-consumer advertising promotes communication between patients and their doctors about medications. Thirty percent of Americans indicated they talk with their doctor about a medicine they saw on TV. In addition, surveys showed that increased advertising has had a positive impact on the degree to which people adhere to a given course of treatment – but only among those who were already on medication prior to exposure to direct-to-consumer advertising. Among this population, a 10% increase in exposure to drug advertising increases the rate of adherence between 1% and 2%.\nSome studies have asserted that direct-to-consumer advertising misleads patients into demanding",
"-28.90286119682969"
],
[
"unduly influence the prescribing of the prescriptions based on consumer demands when, in some cases, they may not be medically necessary, or there are cheaper options available. Critics of DTCA have argued that too much is spent on marketing medications, rather than into research and development; in the United States, ad spending by drugmakers reached US$5.2 billion in 2016. Types The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies a \"Product claim\" advertisement as one that identifies the name and trademark brand of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits.\nA \"reminder\"",
"-28.55632372690161"
],
[
"Consumer import of prescription drugs Consumer import of prescription drugs refers to an individual person, typically a patient, getting prescription drugs from a foreign country for their own personal use in their own country. Import mechanisms People might have drugs shipped to them from online pharmacies. They may travel internationally for the purpose of medical tourism, and purchase drugs there to be used back home. Causes Individual consumers will only consider seeking drugs from other countries if they have some barrier to access in their own country. One barrier to access is high local prices compared to other markets. Another",
"-28.524992568418384"
],
[
"Administration (FDA), direct-to-consumer \"product claim\" advertisements for a prescription medication must include information on their major side effects and contraindications in the main body, with a \"fair balance\" in its coverage of benefits to risks. Unless they are given \"adequate provision\" via a variety of different outlets, ads must also include a \"brief summary\" of all risks associated with the medication. In print ads within magazines, this summary is typically given on a second page. Effective in July 2019, ads must also include pricing information if the prescription costs more than $35 for 30 days of treatment.\nPrint ads must",
"-28.38441986565158"
],
[
"do not make health claims do not fall under the FDA's jurisdiction, but can still be regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. History In 1962, the United States Congress gave the FDA the authority to regulate prescription drug labeling and advertising, but the FDA did not establish regulations until 1969. These required that ads for prescriptions include information on their major side effects and contraindications, and unless they have \"adequate provision\" via different outlets, a \"brief summary\" of all side effects and contraindications.\nPharmaceutical companies shifted the focus of their marketing efforts to licensed medical doctors in the 1970s, as the",
"-28.324525267700665"
],
[
"has had a global impact on marketing strategies. Many pharmaceutical commercial ads list symptoms such as fatigue, depression, or anxiety. However, such symptoms are not necessarily abnormal, and are appropriate responses to such occurrences as the loss of a loved one. The targets of such ads in such cases do not need medication, and can naturally overcome their grief, but with such an advertising strategy pharmaceutical companies can greatly expand their marketing.",
"-28.30741231938373"
],
[
"Many patients will inquire about, or even demand a medication they have seen advertised on television. In the United States, recent years have seen an increase in mass media advertisements for pharmaceuticals.\nExpenditures on direct-to-users advertising have more than quintupled in the seven years between 1997 and 2005 since the FDA changed the guidelines, from $1.1 billion in 1997 to more than $4.2 billion in 2005, a 19.6% annual increase, according to the United States Government Accountability Office, 2006).\nThe mass marketing to users of pharmaceuticals is banned in over 30 industrialized nations, but not in the US and New",
"-28.279599580851936"
],
[
"and infirm needed access to such information to make informed decisions about how to get their prescriptions filled inexpensively. For such people in need, Blackmun reasoned, such information was more than simply a convenience. Furthermore, he stressed the importance of price advertising in a free market economy, because they serve to provide the underlying information for citizens to make private economic decisions.\nThe Commonwealth of Virginia justified its enactment of the regulation on the grounds of maintaining the professionalism of pharmacists, asserting that aggressive price competition among pharmacists would make it difficult for pharmacists to provide the proper professional",
"-28.103367823860026"
],
[
"restrictions (such as the required listing of side effects), or outright prohibitions on product claims advertising, as neither of them are focused on promoting the drug itself. Sometimes, a campaign may mix both of these ads, with one ad discussing the condition, and another, similarly-styled ad, mentioning the product but not the condition, seeking to have the viewer infer the association between the ads. Brazil In 2008 a new resolution from ANVISA (Control Agency for Sanitary Vigilance), Resolution 96 from December 17 was released, with focus on medication advertisements. It allows direct-to-consumer advertising of non-prescription medication, with restrictions on the",
"-27.978359539076337"
],
[
"where a drug is prescribed under more than one brand name, doctors may choose not to allow pharmacists to substitute a brand different from the one prescribed unless the consumer requests it. Fraud A series of scandals around the approval of generic drugs in the late 1980s shook public confidence in generic drugs; there were several instances in which companies obtained bioequivalence data fraudulently, by using the branded drug in their tests instead of their own product, and a congressional investigation found corruption at the FDA, where employees were accepting bribes to approve some generic companies' applications and delaying or",
"-27.942819935269654"
],
[
"public are prohibited from containing any references to prescription-only medications, under the belief that only physicians and health care professionals should prescribe medications, and that they must not be presented as a consumer's choice. The home page of a drug manufacturer's website also constitutes advertising material, and thus may not include references to prescription products either. In a 2005 Health Select Committee hearing, GlaxoSmithKline UK general manager Eddie Gray stated that the company did not plan to lobby for DTC in the region, citing prevailing consumer attitudes against the concept. United States Under the regulations of the Food and Drug",
"-27.884539682767354"
],
[
"ended granting the largest pharmaceutical settlements in the world.\nIn the United States in 2017, the government is considering allowing direct-to-consumer advertising to promote off-label drug use. The appointment of Scott Gottlieb to become head of the Food and Drug Administration furthered discussion, as this person advocates to allow that sort of promotion. Regulation in the United States In the United States, the law permits a physician or other healthcare practitioner to prescribe an approved medication for other uses than their specific FDA-approved indications. Pharmaceutical companies are not allowed to promote a drug for any other purpose without formal FDA approval.",
"-27.8580835106186"
],
[
"dose of the drug is appropriate per indication, and this can greatly improve patient safety and drug effectiveness.\nHowever, there are still some challenges with incorporating the indication of use on prescription drug labels. Revealing the indication of use on prescription drug labels can breach patient confidentiality since the label will disclose private information publicly. Some medications can also be used for multiple diseases and one disease may have multiple medications for its prevention or treatment, therefore adding an indication on prescription labels in these cases may cause some confusion and may not be able to actually fit onto the label.",
"-27.83601497201016"
],
[
"However, all abbreviations carry an increased risk for confusion and misinterpretation and should be used cautiously. Non-prescription drug prescriptions Prescriptions are also used for things that are not strictly regulated as a prescription drug. Prescribers will often give non-prescription drugs out as prescriptions because drug benefit plans may reimburse the patient only if the over-the-counter medication is taken under the direction of a medical practitioner. Conversely, if a medication is available over-the-counter, prescribers may ask patients if they want it as a prescription or purchase it themselves. Pharmacists may or may not be able to price the medication competitively with",
"-27.813010611745995"
],
[
"DOJ on charges that it allowed ads from Canadian pharmacies, leading to illegal imports of prescription drugs. Shipment of prescription drugs from foreign pharmacies to customers in the US typically violates the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and the Controlled Substances Act. Impact on online freedom of speech Mentioned on the Texas Insider, President Obama \"will not support legislation that reduces freedom of expression\", said interviewer Jay Carney.\nOn TIME's Techland blog, Jerry Brito wrote, \"Imagine if the U.K. created a blacklist of American newspapers that its courts found violated celebrities' privacy? Or what if France blocked American sites",
"-27.67194462462794"
],
[
"Drugs I Need Drugs I Need is a satirical animated short made by The Animation Farm and the Austin Lounge Lizards and produced by the Consumers Union. Plot The animation parodies a regular pharmaceutical television commercial, detailing the benefits of a drug whose use isn't described in detail. Instead, a large number of side effects are sung to an upbeat musical jingle, which emphasizes that the consumer should buy the fictional drug Progenitorivox— even if the generic drug is half the cost— if only to be like a family on TV. The animation ends with a seemingly random disclaimer, also",
"-27.577952113584615"
],
[
"for government reform Consumers may feel that prescription drugs which are available to multiple countries to be of equivalent quality, and feel comfortable buying and using drugs by choosing to purchase from the country which offers the drugs at the lowest price. Legal status Governments typically oversee the import of prescription drugs so bringing a prescription drug from a foreign country could be Illegal drug trade.",
"-27.454415799002163"
],
[
"their relative earning potential. Regulation Self-medication is highly regulated in much of the world and many classes of drugs are available for administration only upon prescription by licensed medical personnel. Safety, social order, commercialization, and religion have historically been among the prevailing factors that lead to such prohibition.",
"-27.441691944899503"
],
[
"well understood. Pharmaceutical marketing / reps assert a me-too drug may work better than another, but they \"don’t test their me-too drugs in people who have not done well with an earlier drug of the same class.\" Laws In 1990, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) passed laws banning \"gifts of substantial value\" of drug companies to doctors, however this has changed the gifts from objects to meals and travel.\nIn 2006, New Hampshire forbid the sale of prescription data to commercial entities.\nEncountering ill-informed reps at his practice Dr. Dan Foster, a West Virginia surgeon and lawmaker, introduced a bill to",
"-27.33974283419957"
],
[
"or off-label indications, which are not approved. Currently in the US, including the indication or purpose of use for a drug is not required on prescription labels. However, manufacturers of prescription drugs are required to include an \"Indications and usage\" section on the prescribing information or package insert. Label indications vs. off-label indications In the United States there are label indications and off-label indications\nLabel indications:\nMedication that have label indications mean that they were approved by the FDA. This means that they are clinically significant for the indication and manufacturers are allowed to market their drug for the indication. A drug",
"-27.168224479537457"
],
[
"the doctor–patient relationship, including patients bringing up their need for an advertised, name-brand drug as their primary concern during a doctor visit, and becoming interested in newly-introduced medications that may not have undergone sufficient postmarketing surveillance. It has been demonstrated that direct-to-consumer ads have contributed to the frequency of requests made by patients towards their physicians to prescribe analgesic drugs, including opioids. A patient's request for a specific medication dramatically increases the rate at which physicians prescribe usually more expensive, branded drugs even when treatment for existing indications does not warrant such use. Pharmaceutical companies have also faced allegations of",
"-27.131605596463487"
],
[
"drugs only with a prescription, some do not require a pre-written prescription. In some countries, this is because prescriptions are not required. Some customers order drugs from such pharmacies to avoid the cost and inconvenience of visiting a doctor or to obtain medications their doctors were unwilling to prescribe. People living in the United States and other countries where prescription medications are very expensive may turn to online pharmacies to save money. Many of the reputable websites employ their own in-house physicians to review the medication request and write a prescription accordingly. Some websites offer medications without a prescription",
"-26.996347646869253"
],
[
"into account in a tort of passing off, and there is no reason for the Court to adopt a different rule when the manufacturer is a pharmaceutical laboratory.\nIn addressing Ciba-Geigy's argument, the Court also observed that despite the regulatory restriction on public advertising of prescription drugs, patients can still gain knowledge about the products through pharmaceutical advertising directed at health care professionals, and therefore risk being affected by confusion.\nAnother important consideration by the Court is that the Prescription Drug Cost Regulation Act which later came into force gave patients increased control over the brand of drug he or she wishes",
"-26.98964801690454"
],
[
"ensure that commercials that mention the name of a product cannot in any way describe what it does. Commercials that mention a medical problem cannot also mention the name of the product for sale; at most, they can direct the viewer to a website or telephone number operated by the pharmaceutical company.\nReynold Spector has provided examples of how positive and negative hype can affect perceptions of pharmaceuticals using examples of certain cancer drugs, such as Avastin and Opdivo, in the former case and statins in the latter. Drug coupons In the United States, pharmaceutical companies often provide drug coupons to",
"-26.6335520358989"
],
[
"the availability, nature, and prices of products and services, allowing them to act rationally in a free enterprise system.The listener's interest in receiving information regarding potential commercial transactions is \"substantial.\" In fact, \"the consumer's concern for the free flow of commercial speech often may be far keener than his concern for urgent political dialogue.\"\nThese reasons were central to the Court's rejection of a ban on advertising the prices of prescription drugs in Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, 425 U.S. 748 (1976). The Court held that the citizen's interest in knowing the price of certain prescription",
"-26.497179770478397"
],
[
"the primary methods of diversion of legitimate pharmaceuticals is illegal dispensing and prescribing by physicians, illegal distribution by pharmacists, prescription forgery, doctor shopping, and drug thefts from pharmacies, nursing homes, and hospitals. Pharmacy burglaries are prevalent throughout the state and Diversion Investigators are also encountering pharmaceuticals that have been purchased via the Internet without a doctor's prescription. The use and sale of oxycodone (OxyContin, Percocet, Percodan), hydrocodone (Vicodin, Lortab), and anabolic steroids are of concern to the Drug Enforcement Administration. Also, as of January 2008, methadone use has increased dramatically in the state. Tobacco Oregon's Tobacco Prevention and Education",
"-26.441389562241966"
],
[
"Prescription drug A prescription drug (also prescription medication or prescription medicine) is a pharmaceutical drug that legally requires a medical prescription to be dispensed. In contrast, over-the-counter drugs can be obtained without a prescription. The reason for this difference in substance control is the potential scope of misuse, from drug abuse to practicing medicine without a license and without sufficient education. Different jurisdictions have different definitions of what constitutes a prescription drug.\n\"Rx\" (℞) is often used as a short form for prescription drug in North America - a contraction of the Latin word \"recipe\" (an imperative form of \"recipere\") meaning",
"-26.31784504838288"
],
[
"any refusal to add a product to the list must be open to challenge in the courts. Some media observers believe that, as a result of this legislation, a black market will emerge, and that controls over ingredients and quality will vanish. Conspiracy theories Health freedom-orientated writers and campaigners tend to see restrictive legislation on supplements as being designed to protect the interests of the pharmaceutical industry. If herbal medicines and supplements are removed from sale, they argue, patients will have no alternative but to use conventional pharmaceutical medicines.\nPharmacist and skeptical writer Scott Gavura notes that the reverse is more",
"-26.3146395595395"
],
[
"copays.\nAs of 2008, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was planning a study to see if coupons make patients overlook drug risks and side effects in their effort to save money. All medicines come with a certain level of risk. This is why all prescription drugs include information reviewed and approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) about how the medication works in the body, its uses and when it should not be used, possible side effects, the recommended dosage, and other facts about the appropriate use of the drug. Most Americans have never heard of “Risk",
"-26.073525492218323"
],
[
"Legal drug trade Production Drugs useful for treating diseases are the object of pharmaceutical research and medical practice, and produced by the pharmaceutical industry, which in theory should be above United Nations legislation prohibiting use or sole possession of the drugs termed illegal for other purposes. Distribution Pharmaceutical companies, through authorized dealers, guarantee the distribution of their products to their customers.\nSince antiquity, there have been stores specialized in drug selling. Today, they are called pharmacies or, straightforwardly, drugstores. Certain drugs officially considered trade-able without medical supervision are also sold in non-specialized stores, such as supermarkets. Consumption Therapeutic drug consumption can",
"-26.002655267700902"
],
[
"have any effect on the conditions they purport to cure, and often carry with them serious side effects that are not revealed to consumers. The authors claim that advertising for these drugs is deliberately misleading and uses a variety of dishonest techniques from false testimonials to fake experts. The authors also question the value of statements made by scientists who vouch for the safety of products, citing the example of a dean of the College of Pharmacy of Columbia University who had vouched for the safety of a drug that later proved fatal to many.\nIn the final analysis, the authors",
"-26.00251348046004"
],
[
"particular drugs by name, thereby creating a conversation between consumer and drug company that threatens to cut the doctor out of the loop. Additionally, there is a widespread concern regarding the extent of the pharmaceutical marketing direct to doctors and other healthcare professionals. Examples of this direct marketing are visits by salespeople, funding of journals, training courses or conferences, incentives for prescribing, and the routine provision of \"information\" written by the pharmaceutical company.\nThe role of patients in this economy has also changed. Once regarded as passive victims of medicalization, patients can now occupy active positions as advocates, consumers, or even",
"-25.984885681507876"
],
[
"the purpose of a prescription remain prohibited. Later that year, Health Canada ruled that a pairing of similarly-themed reminder and help-seeking commercials ran afoul of the regulations, as their combination constituted a full product ad.\nThere is no regulation requiring direct-to-consumer ads illegal under Canadian law to be removed or substituted when U.S. television channels and print publications are distributed within Canada.\nIn 2014, York University professor and physician Dr. Joel Lexchin, and University of British Columbia associate professor Barbara Mintzes, published a study that highlighted 10 DTC cases between 2000 and 2011 with \"unsatisfactory\" responses from Health Canada. They found",
"-25.83524293249502"
],
[
"needing a doctor's prescription, and prescription only medicines, which must be prescribed by a licensed medical professional, usually a physician.\nIn the United Kingdom, behind-the-counter medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist. These medications are designated by the letter P on the label. The range of medicines available without a prescription varies from country to country. Medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented to give the developer exclusive rights to produce them. Those that are not patented (or with expired patents) are called",
"-25.802210862515494"
],
[
"of Ayerst, McKenna & Harrison, Inc. v. Apotex Inc.(1983), which addressed similar issues associated with drugs with similar appearance. In the Court of Appeal decision, Cory J.A. commented that for the purposes of a passing-off action the customers of pharmaceutical laboratories consist exclusively of health care professionals and not the patients who use the product. This decision was subsequently followed by a number of cases.\nThe Court declined to follow the opinion in Ayerst, McKenna & Harrison. One of the reasons is that the field of prescription drugs is just like any other market, where the ultimate consumer should be taken",
"-25.80001283044112"
],
[
"United States. This is why the FDA exists - to protect American consumers from those who would otherwise profit from the sale of counterfeit prescription drugs. \nGregg Fischer walked the halls of Congress (and the U.S. Senate), speaking to anyone who was willing to listen. President George W. Bush was not only listening he had picked up the gauntlet left behind by President Bill Clinton (who had proposed the idea of a Medicare Prescription Drug Benefit in 1999) but, with both houses in control of Republicans, the idea never turned into reality until President George W. Bush decided it was",
"-25.79971691168612"
],
[
"target U.S. consumers with ads to illegally import prescription drugs from Canadian pharmacies.\nOpponents stated that it violated the First Amendment, is Internet censorship, would cripple the Internet, and would threaten whistle-blowing and other free speech actions.\nIn October, 2011, co-sponsor Representative Bob Goodlatte (R-VA), chairman of the House Judiciary Committee's Intellectual Property sub-panel, told The Hill that SOPA is a rewrite of the Senate's bill that addresses some tech-industry concerns, noting that under the House version of the legislation copyright holders won't be able to directly sue intermediaries such as search engines to block infringing websites and would instead need a",
"-25.758047491995967"
],
[
"which anything not explicitly allowed is forbidden, and it is accepted that drugs may be used in off-label ways as long as a competent professional prescribes them. Frequency of off-label use Off-label use is very common. Generic drugs generally have no sponsor as their indications and use expands, and incentives are limited to initiate new clinical trials to generate additional data for approval agencies to expand indications of proprietary drugs. Up to one-fifth of all drugs are prescribed off-label and amongst psychiatric drugs, off-label use rises to 31%.\nAmong use of antipsychotic medications in the United States, a shift occurred from",
"-25.717678980494384"
],
[
"\"disease mongering\"—the process of promoting awareness of minor conditions such as balding and skin wrinkles in such a way that it encourages the sale of treatments for them.\nCritics also argue that resources spent on advertising could otherwise be spent on research and development for new drugs and medical therapies. Danish physician Peter C. Gøtzsche indicated that pharmaceutical companies will advertise for their most profitable products, many of which are unnecessary \"me-too\" drugs. He maintains that \"there is no need for marketing, as the products should speak for themselves.\" Drug safety Advertisements generally begin within a year of drugs entering the",
"-25.71427965231851"
],
[
"from a solid tablet to a liquid, to avoid a non-essential ingredient that the patient is allergic to, or to obtain the exact dose(s) needed or deemed best of particular active pharmaceutical ingredient(s). It may also be done for more optional reasons, such as adding flavors to a medication or otherwise altering taste or texture. Provisions of the bill The law amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act to grant the Food and Drug Administration more authority to regulate and monitor the manufacturing of compounded drugs. The bill would also \"make it easier to trace drugs throughout the",
"-25.665162352321204"
],
[
"exclusive rights to a particular drug. The act allows and makes it easier for generic versions of drugs to be made, preventing unaffordable drug prices. If the deal was passed, other pharmaceutical companies could have exploited the loophole and partnered with other sovereign entities such as tribes or state universities in order to maintain exclusivity to drug patents. With this exploitation of the Hatch-Waxman Act, generic medication would not be able to hit the market. Since branded drugs usually lose more than 40% of their value when generic counterparts hit the market, this deal likely would have led to an",
"-25.637657392479014"
],
[
"raise awareness of problems with pharmaceutical advertising. Impact Since the settlement in 2004, whistleblowers and the federal government have prosecuted numerous off-label promotion cases under the False Claims Act using this case as a precedent.\nSubsequent research reported that the wrongful promotion of the drug was planned by integrating it into Continuing medical education, supporting consultants and members of medical advisory boards to recommend the use to institutions, and paying people to write about the drug in any positive context including in academic literature, letters to the editor, and managing the STEPS trial as a seeding trial.\nLitigation around the marketing of",
"-25.623101802036217"
],
[
"services. Blackmun responded that while regulation of the pharmacy profession was both necessary and within the prerogative of the several States through their police power, the statute promoted consumers’ ignorance, effectively keeping them in the dark about prescription drug prices. Blackmun dismissed this rationale as paternalistic, saying that if consumers had sufficient access to information regarding drug pricing and availability, it would only serve to aid them in their decisions about choosing a prescription drug supplier.\nBlackmun concluded his opinion by explaining that states still retained the power to regulate some commercial speech, via content-neutral time, place, and manner",
"-25.45659573793455"
],
[
"prescriptions to gain access to prescription medications. A somewhat rarer type is a citizen posing as a doctor to, among other things, gain access to the free samples of drugs that some drug manufacturers give out. The samples may also be sold to desperate patients at an exorbitant rate. Actual physicians may do this also. Others may prescribe drugs without sufficient cause. Legal status Illegal drug fraud is rarely addressed in court, as victims rarely involve police, but legal drug fraud is on the rise. Its upswing has increased calls for accountability as well as a bill being passed",
"-25.44846896448871"
],
[
"cause harmful side effects by themselves and interact with prescription medication in ways that make those drugs less effective. [...] According to a 2015 nationally representative Consumer Reports survey, almost half of American adults think that supplement makers test their products for efficacy, and more than half believe that manufacturers prove their products are safe before selling them.\nIn February 2019 Scott Gottlieb said that the agency needed stronger powers over health claims and the FDA warned a dozen companies to stop claiming their products can cure diseases. The present law, established in 1994, requires the agency to prove that a",
"-25.32538512647443"
],
[
"lawyer in Costa Rica, Le Roux abandoned his online gambling activities and launched several web sites and call centers for the online sale of prescription drugs.\nTo place an order on these sites, customers would fill out questionnaires about their medical history and symptoms, order their chosen medication and pay by credit card. The questionnaires would get forwarded to doctors in the US, who would in turn write prescriptions for the drugs ordered, despite never having examined the patient in person. The prescription, along with the customer's order, would go to a pharmacy in the US, which would then ship the",
"-25.197982351106475"
],
[
"drugs, which can only be obtained through prescription. There are also specific rules for labelling and barcoding.\nIt appears that electronic prescriptions should be valid especially in the light of the Pharmacy Practice Regulations of 2015 declared by the Pharmacy Council of India in January 2015. In these regulations, “prescription,” as defined by regulation 2, (j)[3] ‘means a written or electronic direction from a Registered Medical Practitioner.’ On the basis of existing regulations, it appears that a scanned copy of a prescription would be considered as a valid prescription. However, whether such electronic prescriptions can be used to buy medicine from",
"-25.19623279562802"
],
[
"or a doctor review. This practice has been criticized as potentially dangerous, especially by those who feel that only doctors can reliably assess contraindications, risk/benefit ratios, and the suitability of a medication for a specific individual. Pharmacies offering medication without requiring a prescription and doctor review or supervision are sometimes fraudulent and may supply counterfeit—and ineffective and possibly dangerous—medicines. International consumers International consumers sometimes purchase drugs online from online pharmacies in their own countries, or those located in other countries. Some of these pharmacies require prescriptions, while others do not. Of those that do not require prescriptions, some",
"-25.18838094678358"
],
[
"as Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council (1976) and Florida Bar v. Went For It (1995).\nVoluntary disclaimers, however, have been used since the beginning of advertising. They lead to more persuasive advertising, and they provide useful information to consumers. Experimental studies suggest that mandatory disclaimers do not help buyers and may lead them to make inferior decisions.",
"-25.163627508780337"
],
[
"and medical research, are used, including paying to publish articles about promoted drugs for the medical literature, and alleged suppression of unfavorable study results. Private and public insurers Public and private insurers affect the writing of prescriptions by physicians through formularies that restrict the number and types of drugs that the insurer will cover. Not only can the insurer affect drug sales by including or excluding a particular drug from a formulary, they can affect sales by tiering, or placing bureaucratic hurdles to prescribing certain drugs. In January 2006, the United States instituted a new public prescription",
"-25.16287451959215"
],
[
"of \"pharmacy medicines\", which can only be sold in registered pharmacies by or under the supervision of a pharmacist.\nMedical errors include overprescription and polypharmacy, misprescription, contraindication and lack of detail in dosage and administrations instructions. In 2000 the definition of a prescription error was studied using a Delphi method conference; the conference was motivated by ambiguity in the what a prescription error and a need to use a uniform definition in studies. United Kingdom In the UK, the Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme is intended to ensure that the National Health Service is able to purchase drugs at reasonable prices. The",
"-25.152470385633933"
],
[
"transmission of prescriptions and prescription-related information for its Medicare program. One of the considerations in support of this move to electronic prescriptions was the view that using electronic prescriptions in lieu of written or oral prescriptions could reduce medical errors that occur\nbecause handwriting is illegible or phoned-in prescriptions are misunderstood as a result of similar-sounding medication names. Another consideration is that, if prescription records are linked to other medical records, practitioners can be alerted at the time of prescribing to possible interactions with other drugs the patient is taking or allergies a patient might\nhave. Electronic prescribing systems also can link",
"-25.112858704291284"
],
[
"Doctor shopping Doctor shopping is the practice of visiting multiple physicians to obtain multiple prescriptions for otherwise illegal drugs, or the medical opinion that one wants to hear. It is a common practice of drug addicts, suppliers of drug addicts, hypochondriacs or patients of factitious disorder and factitious disorder imposed on another. A doctor who, for a price, will write prescriptions without the formality of a medical exam or diagnosis is known as a \"writer\" or \"writing doctor\". For prescription drugs Frequently involved in prescription fraud are narcotics, stimulants, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, tranquilizers and other psychoactive substances manufactured for use in",
"-25.11055438774929"
],
[
"is sometimes a cause of concern and confusion among physicians. This has been addressed by the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists in their Statement on the Use of Medications for Unlabeled Uses:\nUnder the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act, a drug approved for marketing may be labeled, promoted, and advertised by the manufacturer only for those uses for which the drug's safety and effectiveness has been established and which the FDA has approved. These are commonly referred to as \"approved uses\". This means that adequate and well-controlled clinical trials have documented these uses, and the results of the trials",
"-25.092434658203274"
],
[
"drug advertising, which is regulated by the FDA.\nThe FDA requires OTC products to be labeled with an approved \"Drug Facts\" label to educate consumers about their medications. The labels comply to a standard format and are intended to be easy for typical consumers to understand. Drug Facts labels include information on the product's active ingredient(s), indications and purpose, safety warnings, directions for use, and inactive ingredients. Restricted over-the-counter substances An ill-defined third category of substances is products having over-the-counter status from the FDA while being simultaneously subject to other restrictions on sale. While they are legally classified as OTC",
"-25.0797459333844"
],
[
"create custom drugs for patients who may not be able to take the medication in its standard form, such as due to an allergy or difficulty swallowing. Compounding is necessary for these patients to still be able to properly get the prescriptions they need.\nOne area of compounding is preparing drugs in new dosage forms. For example, if a drug manufacturer only provides a drug as a tablet, a compounding pharmacist might make a medicated lollipop that contains the drug. Patients who have difficulty swallowing the tablet may prefer to suck the medicated lollipop instead.\nAnother form of compounding is by mixing",
"-25.010591191065032"
],
[
"diseases. This results in less competition in the marketplace for these drugs due to patent protection, which allows these firms to act as monopolists (See Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act). Due to this lack of competition, policies that serve to limit prices in other markets can be ineffective or even counter-productive when applied to specialty drugs.\nHigh prices for specialty drugs are a problem for both patients and payers. Patients frequently have difficulty paying for these medications, which can lead to lack of access to treatment. Specialty drugs are now so expensive that they",
"-24.992149980767863"
],
[
"The selling of many class (schedule) drugs without a valid prescription (also called Rx-only drugs or legend drugs) is illegal and companies shipping them by mail can be prosecuted for mail fraud (Postal Inspection Service) as well as investigations and Federal charges by the DEA, IRS, Homeland Security, Food and Drug Administration's Office of Criminal Investigations, Department of Justice, INTERPOL, and the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), and it is common practice for many agencies to jointly investigate alleged crimes. Bulgarian consumers All Bulgarian online pharmacies must be registered with the Bulgarian Drug Agency (BDA). BDA controls the trade",
"-24.945105124104884"
],
[
"money, gifts, or hospitality from the pharmaceutical industry; to seek unbiased sources of information and not rely on information disseminated by drug companies; and to avoid conflicts of interest in [their] practice, teaching, and/or research. \n As of 2004, the pledge had about 300 signers. Patients can use a directory provided by the group to find doctors who have taken the pledge.\nThe group claims that doctors preferentially prescribe drugs that are marketed to them over better or cheaper options because they are beholden to drug companies from which they accept gifts. Some doctors argue that they are not",
"-24.94283314227505"
],
[
"easier access to a pharmacist. Being timely includes both processing the request quickly and having drug stock available to fill the prescription. Some consumers need drugs delivered to their home, perhaps by mail, and may select a pharmacy which offers that service. Different pharmacies may charge different prices for the same drugs, so shopping for lower prices may identify a pharmacy offering better value. In addition to fulfilling prescriptions, a pharmacy might offer preventive healthcare services like vaccinations. Up-to-date technology at a pharmacy can assist a patient with prescription reminders and alerts about potential negative drug interactions, thereby reducing medical",
"-24.857958001608495"
],
[
"to enact compulsory licenses to export essential medicines to countries without the capacity to manufacture their own. Other countries that have since enacted similar legislation include Norway and India. Purpose The purpose of the Act is to improve access to drugs for developing countries that lack the resources to manufacture the drugs and cannot afford to buy them at the usual market cost. The drugs that fight these diseases are expensive to create and manufacture and thus are usually unaffordable for those who need them the most.\nThe Pledge to Africa Act allows for the patents on these drugs to be",
"-24.81936338232481"
],
[
"to obtain where the product is interchangeable. The Court found that patients do have the opportunity to exercise their choice over the product brand in the prescription process, therefore patients should be included in the customers covered by the passing-off action as they are also exposed to the risk of confusion.",
"-24.784291052224944"
],
[
"Off-label use Indications and labeling laws An indication is when a drug is medically appropriate for a given condition; an approved indication is when a government drug regulatory agency formally agrees that the drug is medically appropriate for the named condition. Indications may depend not only upon the medical condition that is being treated, but also upon other factors, such as dose, the patient's age, size and sex, whether the patient is pregnant or breastfeeding, and other medical conditions. For example, aspirin is generally indicated for a headache, but it is not indicated for headaches in people with",
"-24.77680537980632"
],
[
"such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, morphine, and cannabis, be accurately labeled with contents and dosage. Previously many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels. Cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and other such drugs continued to be legally available without prescription as long as they were labeled. It is estimated that sale of patent medicines containing opiates decreased by 33% after labeling was mandated. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 is cited by drug policy reform advocates such as James P. Gray as a successful model for re-legalization of currently prohibited drugs by requiring accurate",
"-24.759738717926666"
],
[
"for it, and the drug is properly declared at the border crossing. U.S. residents are limited to 50 dosage units (e.g., pills). Under the US Pure Food and Drug Act, drug companies are not allowed to market their drugs for off-label uses (conditions other than those officially approved by the FDA); Cephalon was reprimanded in 2002 by the FDA because its promotional materials were found to be \"false, lacking in fair balance, or otherwise misleading\". Cephalon pleaded guilty to a criminal violation and paid several fines, including $50 million and $425 million fines to the U.S. government in 2008. China",
"-24.75608891324373"
],
[
"can have more than one FDA labeled indication, this means they can be used for multiple medical conditions. As the evidence and consensus for use of the drug increases and strengthens, its class of indication is improved. Preferred drugs (and other treatments) are also referred to a \"first line\" or \"primary\" while others are called \"second line\", \"third line\" etc. A drug may be indicated as an \"adjunct\" or \"adjuvant\", added to a first line drug.\nOff-label:\nOff-label indications are drugs that are used for medical indications that have not been approved by the FDA. Off label indications often have some clinical",
"-24.68081690237159"
],
[
"to user advertising, 4% on detailing to hospitals, and 2% on journal ads. There is some evidence that marketing practices can negatively affect both patients and the health care profession. To health care providers Marketing to health-care providers takes three main forms: activity by pharmaceutical sales representatives, provision of drug samples, and sponsoring continuing medical education (CME). The use of gifts, including pens and coffee mugs embossed with pharmaceutical product names, has been prohibited by PHRMA ethics guidelines since 2008.\nOf the 237,000 medical sites representing 680,000 physicians surveyed in SK&A's 2010 Physician Access survey, half said they prefer or require",
"-24.677606348705012"
],
[
"psychiatric conditions—conditions that had not been approved by FDA. In 2004, Warner-Lambert admitted to charges that it violated FDA regulations by promoting the drug for these off-label uses: pain, psychiatric conditions, migraine, and other unapproved uses. The company paid $430 million to the federal government to settle the case. Marketing of off-label use Access to pharmaceutical industry documents has revealed marketing strategies used to promote drugs for off-label use. The United States federal government is aggressively pursuing criminal and civil cases against pharmaceutical companies and their employees for promoting off-label uses of prescription drugs. Between 2003 and 2008, U.S. federal",
"-24.613111985047"
],
[
"Not just pharmacies, but various other types of stores including convenience stores and supermarkets, have been able to obtain the required licenses. However, many small online sellers bring covered items back from overseas and sell them on internet auction websites without knowing about this requirement. Under articles 27 and 92, fines could range from NT$30,000 to $150,000. Items covered under the law include not just those which consumers traditionally think of as pharmaceuticals, but some unexpected items such as make-up, tooth bleaching agents, hair removal products, band-aids, knee pads, and body fat percentage monitors.",
"-24.606821118213702"
],
[
"Marketing information for the drug will list one or more indications, that is, illnesses or medical conditions for which the drug has been shown to be both safe and effective.\nHowever, once a drug has been approved for sale for one purpose, physicians are free to prescribe it for any other purpose that in their professional judgment is both safe and effective, and are not limited to official, FDA-approved indications. This off-label prescribing is most commonly done with older, generic medications that have found new uses but have not had the formal (and often costly) applications and studies required by the",
"-24.596954432607163"
],
[
"by country basis, including in the European Union, where the European Medicines Agency issued guidelines for national regulatory agencies to follow. In the US, Europe, and the EU, no company could be compelled to provide a drug or device that it was developing.\nCompanies sometimes provide drugs under these programs to people who were in clinical trials and who responded to the drug, after the clinical trial ends. State law as of February 2019, 41 states have passed right-to-try laws that permit manufacturers to provide experimental medicines to terminally ill people without US FDA authorization. Legal, medical, and bioethics scholars, including",
"-24.521734365436714"
],
[
"will allow pharmacists and consumers to authenticate their medicines. United States In the US GMP is based on the Code of Federal Regulations 21 CFR 210/211, and USP 1079.\nThe US Drug Supply and Chain Security Act (DQSA), was enacted by Congress on November 26, 2013 and outlines requirements to build electronic systems that identify and trace prescription drugs distributed in the US. By November 27th 2023, full electronic track & trace capability will be required for all partners in the supply chain. Illegal drugs An illegal drug trade operates to distribute illegal drugs. The trade of illegal drugs overlaps with",
"-24.517216063220985"
],
[
"costs and an 18% decrease in total prescription costs in one study.\nPrescribing combination drugs instead of two separate medications can also potentially reduce monthly copays.\nBecause the FDA has no regulations on drug companies in providing evidence that a new drug has a therapeutic advantage over an older drug, many physicians have a tendency to write prescriptions for drugs they are most familiar with. Oftentimes, these prescribing practices are influenced by manufacturer marketing to private practices or hospitals. Prescriber monitoring programs should be implemented to help physicians make cost-effective, evidence-based prescribing decisions, and foundation protocols should be established. This is important",
"-24.498687623883598"
],
[
"legitimate medical treatment. Law enforcement officers spend a significant amount of time investigating cases involving prescription fraud, many of which also involve insurance, Medicare, or Medicaid fraud.\nPrescription drug diversion occurs by faking, forging, or altering a prescription; obtaining bogus prescriptions from criminal medical practitioners; or buying drugs diverted from health care facilities by personnel. Pharmacy thefts are increasing throughout the United States to feed the growing demand for prescription drugs. The rising cost of prescription drugs has also enticed senior citizens to join in the diversion and to sell their prescriptions.\nDoctor shopping is a kind of malingering with the specific",
"-24.424417215734138"
],
[
"procurement. Olsen explained: \"No one has solved the problem of drug addiction, so is it not better that people find the money to buy their drugs this way than through crime and prostitution?\" Needle exchange programmes The use of some illicit drugs can involve hypodermic needles. In some areas (notably in many parts of the US), these are available solely by prescription. Where availability is limited, users of heroin and other drugs frequently share the syringes and use them more than once. As a result, infections such as HIV or hepatitis C can spread from user to user through the",
"-24.420671726576984"
],
[
"contain a standard notice that instructs patients to report negative side effects to the FDA's MedWatch program. In ads carried on broadcast media, such as television commercials, only the major side effects are typically listed, and the ad contains blurbs directing viewers to where they can obtain more information (the aforementioned \"brief summary\"), such as on a website, phone hotline, or a current magazine issue. If the drug is subject to a boxed warning from the FDA (which indicates a serious risk), the warning must be reproduced in all advertising materials, and reminder ads for the drug are prohibited.\nAds that",
"-24.38416281112586"
],
[
"the dispensing pharmacy. The list was established in 1985. No new items have been added since 2004.\nSome brand name medicines on the blacklist can be dispensed against prescriptions for generic drugs (if the approved generic name is not itself included in the blacklist). For example, Calpol can be dispensed for a prescription for paracetamol suspension, but it is generally cheaper to dispense the generic form, and it is at the pharmacy's discretion to do otherwise.\nA pharmacist is at liberty to dispense private prescriptions for such items, or to sell over the counter items without a prescription. Review of",
"-24.338604156160727"
],
[
"significance to back the use, but they have not gone through the extensive testing required by the FDA to have an official labeled indication. Drug companies can not provide any official medication information (e.g package inserts) for off label indications. FDA approval The purpose for adding FDA-approved indications in the United States is to ensure that healthcare providers can easily identify appropriate use of drug therapy. Gaining FDA approval is based on the body of scientific evidence supporting the effectiveness of a drug treatment. The scientific evidence is gathered in the first 3 steps in the drug development process: discovery",
"-24.331290797970723"
],
[
"information to be included on the drug's label. More detail is included in the drug's package insert.\nThe FDA approves a drug for prescription use, and continues to regulate the pharmaceutical industry's promotional practices for that drug through the work of the Office of Prescription Drug Promotion (OPDP, formerly the Division for Drug Marketing, Advertisement and Communication (DDMAC). The FDA does not have the legal authority to regulate the practice of the medicine, and the physician may prescribe a drug off-label. Contrary to popular notion, it is legal in the United States and in many other countries to use drugs off-label,",
"-24.30360734212445"
],
[
"prescription drugs from the market, the FDA mandated that companies stop manufacturing this drug or be subject to criminal charges. The FDA has not evaluated this drug for safety, effectiveness or quality and has concerns about inappropriate dosing and risk of contamination during the manufacturing process. The FDA adverse event reporting database does not have any known cases of adverse events where Auralgan is the primary suspect.",
"-24.291459772270173"
],
[
"a statutory definition of \"prescription\" that applies as a term of art only to the operation of that statute (see below about prescriptions that may legally be filled with prescription-only items), but the general legal definition of the word is this broad one. Contents Many brand name drugs have cheaper generic drug substitutes that are therapeutically and biochemically equivalent. Prescriptions will also contain instructions on whether the prescriber will allow the pharmacist to substitute a generic version of the drug. This instruction is communicated in a number of ways.\nIn some jurisdictions, the preprinted prescription contains two signature lines:",
"-24.25658170261886"
],
[
"FDA warned numerous supplement manufacturers about the illegal status of their products as unapproved drugs with no proven safety or efficacy at the doses recommended, together with misleading marketing.",
"-24.24240663692035"
],
[
"drugs are injected. Among the most popular in many countries are morphine, heroin, cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine. Prescription drugs—including tablets, capsules, and even liquids and suppositories—are also occasionally injected. This applies particularly to prescription opioids, since some opioid addicts already inject heroin. Injecting preparations which were not intended for this purpose is particularly dangerous because of the presence of excipients (fillers), which can cause blood clots. Injecting codeine into the bloodstream directly is dangerous because it causes a rapid histamine release, which can lead to potentially fatal anaphylaxis and pulmonary edema. Dihydrocodeine, hydrocodone, nicocodeine, and other codeine-based products carry similar",
"-24.2322723515681"
],
[
"to sale. If a product has drug properties, it must be approved as a drug.\"\nTo avoid inquiry and punitive action by the United States Federal Trade Commission, cosmeceuticals which do not intend to be regulated as drugs by the FDA are carefully labeled to avoid making statements which would indicate that the product has drug properties. Any such claims made regarding the product must be substantiated by scientific evidence as being truthful.\nGenerally speaking, it is to the financial benefit of the cosmeceutical manufacturer that their products are not regulated by the FDA as drugs, because the FDA review process",
"-24.2288965251646"
],
[
"you do in fact have a valid prescription for the drug in question, is not always accepted by the court.",
"-24.206354208115954"
],
[
"prescription drugs.",
"-24.192998135345988"
],
[
"published in the Australian Pharmaceutical Formulary & Handbook. Analogy to \"off-label\" use Regarding traditional/patient-specific compounding, the practice of \"off-label use\" can be considered a related analogous point regarding the broad professional discretion to customize patient care. About 20–30% of prescription medications in the US are estimated to be used \"off-label,\" meaning the physician believes the drug to be beneficial for a patient despite its not being approved for that particular use/condition. This too is perfectly legal, subject only to state regulations on the practice of medicine, etc.\nThe appropriateness of prescribing approved drugs for uses not included in their official labeling",
"-24.190279639617074"
],
[
"of the drug or on statements for inclusion in advertisements but not require changes in such advertisements, and to require inclusion in advertisements of certain disclosures about a serious risk listed in the labeling of the drug.\nIt requires the FDA to issue special guidance for clinical trials of antibiotics. \nIt prohibits interstate commerce of any food that has an approved drug, licensed biological product, or certain other drugs or biological products added, unless the drug or biological product was marketed in food prior to approval, licensure, or clinical investigation, the FDA has approved the use of such drug or biological",
"-24.15571702500165"
],
[
"are becoming more common, especially in urban areas. Many drug users begin heroin use by smoking, but later find it more cost effective to inject because of the stronger effect gained from injecting a smaller amount. Sharing injection equipment is common.\nNational policymakers have recently shifted their position and publicly acknowledged the extent and pattern of increasing drug use, which has led to a rapid increase in treatment options for drug users. According to the regulations on the prohibition of narcotics, drug users identified by authorities for the first time are fined or sent to a voluntary detoxification center run by",
"-24.107600866351277"
],
[
"dispensing prescription medicines prescribed in accordance with the PBS Schedule, a comprehensive but closed formulary. Drugs are added to the formulary on the basis of an assessment of comparative effectiveness and cost effectiveness compared to the therapy most likely to be replaced in practice. The result is that where there is no evidence of incremental benefit, a drug may not be listed at a higher price than the comparator with the result that for many (but by no means all) drugs the prices for subsidy purposes are a great deal cheaper than in many other major markets.\nWhile the scheme is",
"-24.086629257013556"
],
[
"example, if it is a matter of credit, there are a series of measures relating to advertising. Without exception, sellers must clearly state the prices they will charge for credit. Some things given as \"guarantees\" must also be divulged to the consumer up-front. In general, advertising must be honest. Advertising to children less than thirteen years of age is forbidden.\nSome traders, notably itinerant traders (\"hawker\"s and \"busker\"s), may be excluded from these rules, if they have a permit issued by the Office de la protection du consommateur (the Office). The law gives authority to the Office that in certain circumstances",
"-24.031582214949594"
],
[
"may have been sought in medical contexts.\nThe word \"prescription\", from \"pre-\" (\"before\") and \"script\" (\"writing, written\"), refers to the fact that the prescription is an order that must be written down before a compound drug can be prepared. Those within the industry will often call prescriptions simply \"scripts\".\nIn certain states medical marijuana legislation has been drafted calling for a health care professional's written or oral \"recommendation\", in the belief that a written one would be legally distinguishable from a prescription, but since written advice to a patient is what a prescription is, that belief is mistaken. Jurisdictions may adopt",
"-24.025437764823437"
],
[
"be medicines which doctors refuse to prescribe for patients, or would charge a private prescription fee, as all patients treated under the National Health Service pay either a flat price or nothing for prescribed medicine (except for medicine classed as lifestyle medicine, e.g. anti-malarials for travel), and medical equipment. Since July 2015 the Medicines and Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) has required online sellers of medicines to adopt an EU wide logo and maintain an entry in the MHRA medicines sellers registry.\nIn the UK, online pharmacies often link up with online clinic doctors. Doctors carry out online consultations and issue prescriptions.",
"-24.02416062669363"
],
[
"manufacturer agrees to provide statutorily specified discounts on \"covered outpatient drugs\" purchased by government-supported facilities, known as covered entities, that are expected to serve the nation's most vulnerable patient populations. These discounts only apply to purchases of covered outpatient drugs. Covered entities are allowed to dispense the discounted medication both to uninsured patients, and patients covered by Medicare or private insurance. In cases where the covered entity treats an insured patient with discounted medication, the federal government or the patient’s private insurance routinely reimburses the entity for the full price of the medication, and the entity is able to",
"-24.01482185536588"
]
] |
4lgt6r | How do computers choose "random" numbers? | [
"You start with a sort-of-random number. Often something like \"the number of milliseconds since January 1st 1970\" is close enough to random to count, but if you want to be really random, you base it off of something like whatever random noise the computer's microphone picks up or the airflow readings around the hard drive. Then you put that number through some super messy and complicated math formula to get an even more random number. Then you can feed that number back into the same calculation to get another number. These numbers aren't truly random, but it's close enough for almost all purposes.",
"There are no true *random* numbers. Random number algorithms generally produce pseudo-random results that would give an equal distribution of numbers across a given interval if they are run a lot of times. How they calculate these values depends on the algorithm and it's often based on the things /u/blablahblah mentioned.",
"You have the computer take a number that isn't random but is constantly changing (for example, on Linux it's the amount of time since the beginning of 1970), then passes it through a hashing algorithm, which is basically a mathematical formula that makes the number super messy to the point where it seems random. The algorithm works in such a way that even a difference of a single millisecond in what is input will drastically change the output. The algorithm is also part of the reason why your iPhone would brick when you set the date to January 1st, 1970.",
"How do you tell if a sequence of numbers was randomly chosen? It's a very hard question, but it contains a much easier one as a subpart: * What techniques can you use to prove that a sequence of numbers is **not** random? For example, if I gave you a sequence of 100 digits between 0 and 9, and half of the digits are 7, then you can be all but certain it's not a random sequence—each digit should appear approximately the same number of times as all the others. This is an example of a [**statistical test of randomness**]( URL_0 )—a statistical calculation that analyzes some data and tries to prove that it's not random. There's a lot of different tests that have been invented for that, and automated as computer programs for testing whether a sequence of numbers is *not* random. So a [**pseudo-random number generator**]( URL_1 ) is a computer program that's designed to fool statistical randomness tests. The output is completely determined by the input, but it passes randomness tests. There are many different designs with different properties, and I won't discuss them; that would get long and complicated really fast.",
"You need some external source of entropy (\"randomness\"). People are using the current time as an example, but this is actually a pretty poor source. Better sources are input from peripherals (such as your mouse and keyboard), traffic from the network card, and seek times from the HDD (SSDs don't help here because they are too predictable). Those sources aren't perfectly random. For example, keypresses from the keyboard aren't typically random: they generally follow a pattern (such as writing words in a given language). But they are not fully predictable. You then use this source of entropy to seed a [pseudo-random number generator]( URL_1 ). We have techniques to turn poor random numbers into excellent random numbers. With only 256 bits of randomness, we can seed high-quality PRNGs for a really long time. The trouble is how to get this 256 bits. There are [hardware random number generators]( URL_0 ) as well, which uses quantum phenomena and other sources of physical randomness to generate random numbers.",
"Well for a long time random numbers werent truly random they were just spaced out enough to seem that way. But if someone had access to the data points they could predict the next random numbers. Then came a company maybe 10 years ago. I believe it was call Lava RNA or something like that. They started selling truly random numbers for things like encryption and cybersecurity. The way they were able to do this was they basically had a webcam set up in a room with a lava lamp. The random numbers came from taking the feed from the webcam and converting the pixels to a set of numbers based on the colors the camera was seeing. Since the way a lava lamp moves is random it made a great Random number generator....Now days Random numbers are generated in a multitude of ways. Everything from webcams watching traffic, to microphone in rooms with 7 radioastations playing at once.",
"Not very well it turns out. Without specialized hardware it isn't really possible for a computer to make a random number from scratch so we call them pseudo random numbers. We call these PRNG's for short and they are basically algorithms. They are started with an initial value which is called the seed, which can be anything from the user wiggling their mouse around on the screen, or the time and date (bad encryption), the state of the IRQ registers, the amount of memory in use at the moment times pi etc. You get the idea, they generate a starting number from some combination of factors, and then they use that number in the algorithm to keep generating new factors based off that starting number/seed."
] | [
[
"to generate a series of random numbers, some of which may be discarded or used to determine the magnitude of the result. However, some games (such as the Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game and Nobilis) use no random factor at all. These instead use direct comparison of character ability scores to difficulty values, often supplemented with points from a finite but renewable pool. These \"resource points\" represent a character's additional effort or luck, and can be used strategically by the player to influence the success of an action.",
"-31.593907284652232"
],
[
"Randomization function Uses Randomizing functions are used to turn algorithms that have good expected performance for random inputs, into algorithms that have the same performance for any input.\nFor example, consider a sorting algorithm like quicksort, which has small expected running time when the input items are presented in random order, but is very slow when they are presented in certain unfavorable orders. A randomizing function from the integers 1 to n to the integers 1 to n can be used to rearrange the n input items in \"random\" order, before calling that algorithm. This modified (randomized) algorithm will have",
"-31.57005015089817"
],
[
"samples and random permutations can be reduced to simply selecting random numbers, random number generation methods are now most commonly used, both hardware random number generators and pseudo-random number generators.",
"-31.39446886930091"
],
[
"are generated via a formula based on the previously generated value, and thus are not truly random. Locations $4E and $4F, which the system cycles the values of continuously while waiting for user keystrokes, can be PEEKed to provide truly random values to use as a seed (when negated) for RND.\nLike other implementations of Microsoft BASIC, Applesoft discards spaces (outside of strings and comments) on program lines. LIST adds spaces when displaying code for the sake of readability. Since the LIST code will add a space before AND after every tokenized keyword, it often produces two spaces in a row",
"-31.28996025014203"
],
[
"order of their random numbers. This will generate a random permutation, unless any of the random numbers generated are the same as any others (i.e. pairs, triplets etc.). This can be eliminated either by adjusting one of the pair's values randomly up or down by a small amount, or reduced to an arbitrarily low probability by choosing a sufficiently wide range of random number choices. If using efficient sorting such as mergesort or heapsort this is an O(n log n) average and worst-case algorithm. In online gambling These issues are of considerable commercial importance in online gambling, where the randomness",
"-30.813452064525336"
],
[
"can be truly random to prevent tell-tale repetitions, but not long enough to prevent the attacker from recovering, say, a \"randomly\" produced key.\nRandom numbers typically go through several layers of hardware and software before they are used. Bits may be generated in a peripheral device, sent over a serial cable, collected in an operating system utility and retrieved by a system call. The subverted bits can be substituted at any point in this process with little likelihood of detection.\nA hardware circuit to produce subverted bits can be built on an integrated circuit a few millimeters square. The most sophisticated hardware",
"-30.75742185721174"
],
[
"random numbers; the original ERNIE used a gas neon diode. In contrast, pseudorandom numbers, although sometimes simply referred to as random, are produced deterministically by the algorithm used to generate them. The randomness of ERNIE's numbers derived from random statistical fluctuations in the physical processes involved. ERNIE's output was independently tested each month by the Government Actuary's Department, the draw being valid only if it was certified to be statistically consistent with randomness. At the end of its life it was moved to Bletchley Park's National Museum of Computing. \nERNIE 5, the latest model, was brought into service in March",
"-30.706990454229526"
],
[
"of random element in which a single outcome is selected from some family of functions, where the family consists some class of all maps from the domain to the codomain. For example, the class may be restricted to all continuous functions or to all step functions. The values determined by a random function evaluated at different points from the same realization would not generally be statistically independent but, depending on the model, values determined at the same or different points from different realisations might well be treated as independent. Random process A Random process is a collection of random variables,",
"-30.70256814347522"
],
[
"Pseudorandomness History The generation of random numbers has many uses (mostly in statistics, for random sampling, and simulation). Before modern computing, researchers requiring random numbers would either generate them through various means (dice, cards, roulette wheels, etc.) or use existing random number tables.\nThe first attempt to provide researchers with a ready supply of random digits was in 1927, when the Cambridge University Press published a table of 41,600 digits developed by L.H.C. Tippett. In 1947, the RAND Corporation generated numbers by the electronic simulation of a roulette wheel; the results were eventually published in 1955 as A Million Random",
"-30.649578639182437"
],
[
"Random number table History Tables of random numbers have the desired properties no matter how chosen from the table: by row, column, diagonal or irregularly. The first such table was published by L.H.C. Tippett in 1927, and since then a number of other such tables were developed. The first tables were generated through a variety of ways—one (by L.H.C. Tippett) took its numbers \"at random\" from census registers, another (by R.A. Fisher and Francis Yates) used numbers taken \"at random\" from logarithm tables, and in 1939 a set of 100,000 digits were published by M.G. Kendall and B. Babington Smith",
"-30.612322661210783"
],
[
"is necessary to generate random numbers (as values of variables). The problem is that the computer is highly deterministic machine—basically, behind each process there is always an algorithm, a deterministic computation changing inputs to outputs; therefore it is not easy to generate uniformly spread random numbers over a defined interval or set.\nA random number generator is a device capable of producing a sequence of numbers which cannot be \"easily\" identified with deterministic properties. This sequence is then called a sequence of stochastic numbers.\nThe algorithms typically rely on pseudorandom numbers, computer generated numbers mimicking true random numbers, to generate a realization,",
"-30.585894962881866"
],
[
"random numbers. It attempts to constantly replenish the pool, depending on the level of importance, and so will issue a random number. In computational complexity In theoretical computer science, a distribution is pseudorandom against a class of adversaries if no adversary from the class can distinguish it from the uniform distribution with significant advantage.\nThis notion of pseudorandomness is studied in computational complexity theory and has applications to cryptography.\nFormally, let S and T be finite sets and let F = {f: S → T} be a class of functions. A distribution D over S is ε-pseudorandom against F if for",
"-30.38262756745098"
],
[
"Random number generators All modern machines are designed using pseudo random number generators (\"PRNGs\"), which are constantly generating a sequence of simulated random numbers, at a rate of hundreds or perhaps thousands per second. As soon as the \"Play\" button is pressed, the most recent random number is used to determine the result. This means that the result varies depending on exactly when the game is played. A fraction of a second earlier or later, and the result would be different.\nIt is important that the machine contains a high-quality RNG implementation, because all PRNGs must eventually repeat their number sequence,",
"-30.340115687111393"
],
[
"one possible outcome of a process.\nMethods for obtaining random numbers have existed for a long time and are used in many different fields (such as gaming). However, these numbers suffer from a certain bias. Currently the best methods expected to produce truly random sequences are natural methods that take advantage of the random nature of quantum phenomena.",
"-30.267114141432103"
],
[
"Hardware random number generator Uses Unpredictable random numbers were first investigated in the context of gambling, and many randomizing devices such as dice, shuffling playing cards, and roulette wheels, were first developed for such use. Fairly produced random numbers are vital to electronic gambling and ways of creating them are sometimes regulated by governmental gaming commissions.\nRandom numbers are also used for non-gambling purposes, both where their use is mathematically important, such as sampling for opinion polls, and in situations where fairness is approximated by randomization, such as military draft lotteries and selecting jurors. Cryptography The major use for hardware random",
"-30.23818016028963"
],
[
"m, and the constants a and b, where x' = ax +b (mod m), given only five consecutive values. Even if a better random number generator is used, it might be insecure (e.g., the seed might be guessable), producing predictable keys and reducing security to nil. (A vulnerability of this sort was famously discovered in an early release of Netscape Navigator, forcing the authors to quickly find a source of \"more random\" random numbers.) For these applications, truly random numbers are ideal, and very high quality pseudo-random numbers are necessary if truly random numbers, such as coming from a hardware",
"-30.211194319800484"
],
[
"A true random sort is provided by the Unix utility shuf. Sort by version The GNU implementation has a -V --version-sort option which is a natural sort of (version) numbers within text. This happens to work for ip addresses.",
"-30.024555431402405"
],
[
"small expected running time, whatever the input order. Randomness In theory, randomization functions are assumed to be truly random, and yield an unpredictably different function every time the algorithm is executed. The randomization technique would not work if, at every execution of the algorithm, the randomization function always performed the same mapping, or a mapping entirely determined by some externally observable parameter (such as the program's startup time). With such a \"pseudo-randomization\" function, one could in principle construct a sequence of calls such that the function would always yield a \"bad\" case for the underlying deterministic algorithm. ",
"-29.964487933990313"
],
[
"random values are required in cryptography, the goal is to make a message as hard to crack as possible, by eliminating or obscuring the parameters used to encrypt the message (the key) from the message itself or from the context in which it is carried. Pseudorandom sequences are deterministic and reproducible; all that is required in order to discover and reproduce a pseudorandom sequence is the algorithm used to generate it and the initial seed. So the entire sequence of numbers is only as powerful as the randomly chosen parts—sometimes the algorithm and the seed, but usually only",
"-29.82882702059578"
],
[
"Random group In mathematics, random groups are certain groups obtained by a probabilistic construction. They were introduced by Misha Gromov to answer questions such as \"What does a typical group look like?\"\nIt so happens that, once a precise definition is given, random groups satisfy some properties with very high probability, whereas other properties fail with very high probability. For instance, very probably random groups are hyperbolic groups. In this sense, one can say that \"most groups are hyperbolic\". The few-relator model of random groups The simplest model of random groups is the few-relator model. In this model, a number of",
"-29.797850590315647"
],
[
"difficult\" to predict, one can generate true random numbers to use as the initial value (i.e., the seed), and then use the pseudo-random number generator to produce numbers for use in cryptographic applications. Such random number generators are called cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generators, and several have been implemented (for example, the /dev/urandom device available on most Unixes, the Yarrow and Fortuna designs, server, and AT&T Bell Laboratories \"truerand\"). As with all cryptographic software, there are subtle issues beyond those discussed here, so care is certainly indicated in actual practice. In any case, it is sometimes impossible to avoid the",
"-29.7931674944557"
],
[
"acceptable. Their use may be tempting, but in reality, they permit easier attacks than attacking the cryptography.\nSince most cryptographic applications require a few thousand bits at most, slow random number generators serve well—if they are actually random. This use of random generators is important; many informed observers believe every computer should have a way to generate true random numbers. Literature, music and art Some aesthetic theories claim to be based on randomness in one way or another. Little testing is done in these situations, and so claims of reliance on and use of randomness are generally poorly based in definite",
"-29.72240495094229"
],
[
"need for true (i.e., hardware-based) random number generators.\nSince a requirement in cryptography is high entropy, any published random sequence is a poor choice, as are such sequences as the digits in an irrational number such as the φ or even in transcendental numbers such as π, or e. All are available to an enterprising attacker. Put another way, in cryptography, random bit streams need to be not only random, but also secret and hence unpredictable. Public or third-party sources of random values, or random values computed from publicly observable phenomena (weather, sports game results, stock prices), are almost never cryptographically",
"-29.70811270090053"
],
[
"using ideas related to signature sorting to partition the data into many small sublists, of a size small enough that signature sorting can sort each of them efficiently. It is also possible to use similar ideas to sort integers deterministically in time O(n log log n) and linear space. Using only simple arithmetic operations (no multiplications or table lookups) it is possible to sort in randomized expected time O(n log log n) or deterministically in time O(n (log log n)1 + ε) for any constant ε > 0.",
"-29.70346314337803"
],
[
"Applications of randomness Randomness has many uses in science, art, statistics, cryptography, gaming, gambling, and other fields. For example, random assignment in randomized controlled trials helps scientists to test hypotheses, and random numbers or pseudorandom numbers help video games such as video poker.\nThese uses have different levels of requirements, which leads to the use of different methods. Mathematically, there are distinctions between randomization, pseudorandomization, and quasirandomization, as well as between random number generators and pseudorandom number generators. For example, applications in cryptography usually have strict requirements, whereas other uses (such as generating a \"quote of the day\") can use a",
"-29.57160048664082"
],
[
"A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates is a random number book by the RAND Corporation, originally published in 1955. The book, consisting primarily of a random number table, was an important 20th century work in the field of statistics and random numbers. It was produced starting in 1947 by an electronic simulation of a roulette wheel attached to a computer, the results of which were then carefully filtered and tested before being used to generate the table. The RAND table was an important breakthrough in delivering random numbers, because",
"-29.515483226277865"
],
[
"algorithm would still have as many \"bad\" cases as the original, they will be certain peculiar orders that would be quite unlikely to arise in real applications. So, in practice one often uses randomization functions that are derived from pseudo-random number generators, preferably seeded with external \"random\" data such as the program's startup time. Uniformity The uniformity requirements for a randomizing function are usually much weaker than those of hash functions and pseudo-random generators. The minimum requirement is that it maps any input of the deterministic algorithm into a \"good\" input with a sufficiently high probability. (However,",
"-29.162689630073146"
],
[
"Random number book A random number book is a book whose main content is a large number of random numbers or random digits. Such books were used in early cryptography and experimental design, and were published by the Rand Corporation and others. The Rand corporation book A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates was first published in 1955 and was reissued in 2001.\nRandom number books have been rendered obsolete for most purposes by the ready availability of random number generators running on electronic computers. However they still have niche uses, particularly in the performance of experimental music pieces that",
"-29.10224727942841"
],
[
", could tell whether they were uniformly random or from . If we need to distinguish uniformly random samples from , where is chosen uniformly at random from , we could simply try different values sampled uniformly at random from , calculate and feed these samples to . Since comprises a large fraction of , with high probability, if we choose a polynomial number of values for , we will find one such that , and will successfully distinguish the samples.\nThus, no such can exist, meaning LWE and DLWE are (up to",
"-29.07390053836025"
],
[
"at the start of the program. The random numbers could be any length, but 64 bits was natural due to the 64 squares on the board. A position was transcribed by cycling through the pieces in a position, indexing the corresponding random numbers (vacant spaces were not included in the calculation), and XORing them together (the starting value could be 0, the identity value for XOR, or a random seed). The resulting value was reduced by modulo, folding or some other operation to produce a hash table index. The original Zobrist hash was stored in the",
"-29.026003691062215"
],
[
"finding the factors of a given integer N. The best factoring algorithms known run in time, where b is the number of bits needed to represent N.\nThis function can be generalized by allowing p and q to range over a suitable set of semiprimes. Note that f is not one-way for randomly selected integers p,q>1, since the product will have 2 as a factor with probability 3/4 (because the probability that an arbitrary p is odd is 1/2, and likewise for q, so if they're chosen independently, the probability that both are odd is therefore 1/4; hence",
"-28.988847032520425"
],
[
"C is algorithmically random if and only if A is algorithmically random, and B is algorithmically random relative to A. A closely related consequence is that if A and B are both random themselves, then A is random relative to B if and only if B is random relative to A. Stronger than Martin-Löf randomness Relative randomness gives us the first notion which is stronger than Martin-Löf randomness, which is randomness relative to some fixed oracle A. For any oracle, this is at least as strong, and for most oracles, it is strictly stronger, since there will be Martin-Löf random",
"-28.835298027086537"
],
[
"2s, 3s, etc. were present; more complicated tests looked for the number of digits between successive 0s and compared the total counts with their expected probabilities. Over the years more complicated tests were developed. Kendall and Smith also created the notion of \"local randomness\", whereby a given set of random numbers would be broken down and tested in segments. In their set of 100,000 numbers, for example, two of the thousands were somewhat less \"locally random\" than the rest, but the set as a whole would pass its tests. Kendall and Smith advised their readers not to use those particular",
"-28.729621153353946"
],
[
"to carry out computer simulation of physical phenomena, notably simulation of neutron transport in nuclear fission.\nPseudo-random numbers are frequently used in simulation of statistical events, a very simple example being the outcome of tossing a coin. More complicated situations are simulation of population genetics, or the behaviour of sub-atomic particles. Such simulation methods, often called stochastic methods, have many applications in computer simulation of real-world processes.\nSome more speculative projects, such as the Global Consciousness Project, monitor fluctuations in the randomness of numbers generated by many hardware random number generators in an attempt to predict the scope of an event in",
"-28.714732532738708"
],
[
"their algorithm that includes the use of random numbers and integer division operations improves this to O(n√log n).\nSince their work, even better algorithms have been developed. For instance, by repeatedly applying the Kirkpatrick–Reisch range reduction technique until the keys are small enough to apply the Albers–Hagerup packed sorting algorithm, it is possible to sort in time O(n log log n); however, the range reduction part of this algorithm requires either a large memory (proportional to √K) or randomization in the form of hash tables.\nHan & Thorup (2002) showed how to sort in randomized time O(n√log log n). Their technique involves",
"-28.682567938762077"
],
[
"but the random numbers generated by this means are expensive. The method is inherently slow, and is unusable for most computing applications.\nOn 29 April 1947, RAND Corporation began generating random digits with an \"electronic roulette wheel\", consisting of a random frequency pulse source of about 100,000 pulses per second gated once per second with a constant frequency pulse and fed into a five-bit binary counter. Douglas Aircraft built the equipment, implementing Cecil Hasting’s suggestion (RAND P-113) for a noise source (most likely the well known behavior of the 6D4 miniature gas thyratron tube, when placed in a magnetic field). ",
"-28.6472271478342"
],
[
"random and considers the line through . The algorithm picks an arbitrary subset of , where , and queries coordinates of the codeword that correspond to points for all and obtains values . Then it uses polynomial interpolation to recover the unique univariate polynomial with degree less than or equal to such that for all . Then, to get the value of , it just evaluates . To recover a single value of the original message, one chooses to be one of the points that defines the polynomial.\nEach individual query is",
"-28.566697142552584"
],
[
"near future. The intent is to prove that large-scale events that are about to happen build up a \"pressure\" which affects the RNGs. Cryptography A ubiquitous use of unpredictable random numbers is in cryptography which underlies most of the schemes which attempt to provide security in modern communications (e.g., confidentiality, authentication, electronic commerce, etc.).\nFor example, if a user wants to use an encryption algorithm, it is best that they select a random number as the key. The selection must have high entropy (i.e., unpredictability) to any attacker, thus increasing attack difficulty. With keys having low entropy (i.e., relatively easily guessable",
"-28.543138585358975"
],
[
"(the names are given here in alphabetical order; much of the research was independent, and the unity of the concept of randomness was not understood at the time). The main idea is to consider a universal Turing machine U and to measure the complexity of a number (or string) x as the length of the shortest input p such that U(p) outputs x. This approach revolutionized earlier ways to determine when an infinite sequence (equivalently, characteristic function of a subset of the natural numbers) is random or not by invoking a notion of randomness for finite objects. Kolmogorov complexity became",
"-28.40206877302262"
],
[
"of each length. Whether any particular string is random, however, depends on the specific universal computer that is chosen.\nThis definition can be extended to define a notion of randomness for infinite sequences from a finite alphabet. These algorithmically random sequences can be defined in three equivalent ways. One way uses an effective analogue of measure theory; another uses effective martingales. The third way defines an infinite sequence to be random if the prefix-free Kolmogorov complexity of its initial segments grows quickly enough — there must be a constant c such that the complexity of an initial segment of length",
"-28.393892020441854"
],
[
"(1888) suggested using sums of 50 digits taken from mathematical tables of logarithms as a form of random number generation; if one assumes that each digit is random, then by the central limit theorem, these digit sums will have a random distribution closely approximating a Gaussian distribution.\nThe digit sum of the binary representation of a number is known as its Hamming weight or population count; algorithms for performing this operation have been studied, and it has been included as a built-in operation in some computer architectures and some programming languages. These operations are used in computing applications including cryptography, coding",
"-28.388079508556984"
],
[
"of random numbers, which included the diehard tests.\nHe also developed some of the most commonly used methods for generating random numbers and using them to produce random samples from various distributions. Some of the most widely used being the multiply-with-carry, subtract-with-borrow, xorshift, KISS and Mother methods for random numbers, and the ziggurat algorithm for generating normally or other unimodally distributed random variables. Life He was Professor Emeritus of Pure and Applied Mathematics and Computer Science at Washington State University and Professor Emeritus of Statistics at Florida State University.\nMarsaglia died from a heart attack on February 15, 2011, in Tallahassee.",
"-28.275201686949003"
],
[
"Random ballot Method and properties In an election or referendum, the ballot of a single voter is selected at random, and that ballot decides the result of the election. In this way, each candidate or option wins with a probability exactly equal to the fraction of the electorate favouring that candidate or option.\nThe random ballot method is decisive, in that there is no possibility of a tied vote, assuming that the selected voter has expressed a preference (if not then another ballot can be selected at random). It is unbiased, in that the probability of a particular result is",
"-28.234334881577524"
],
[
"sequences which are not random relative to the oracle A. Important oracles often considered are the halting problem, , and the nth jump oracle, , as these oracles are able to answer specific questions which naturally arise. A sequence which is random relative to the oracle is called n-random; a sequence is 1-random, therefore, if and only if it is Martin-Löf random. A sequence which is n-random for every n is called arithmetically random. The n-random sequences sometimes arise when considering more complicated properties. For example, there are only countably many sets, so one might think that these",
"-28.161839047505055"
],
[
"predictable, data encrypted with pseudorandom numbers is potentially vulnerable to cryptanalysis. Hardware random number generators produce sequences of numbers that are assumed not to be predictable, and therefore provide the greatest security when used to encrypt data. Early work One early way of producing random numbers was by a variation of the same machines used to play keno or select lottery numbers. These mixed numbered ping-pong balls with blown air, perhaps combined with mechanical agitation, and used some method to withdraw balls from the mixing chamber (U.S. Patent 4,786,056). This method gives reasonable results in some senses,",
"-28.141780203135568"
],
[
" Generate uniform random number u in [0,1] and let p ← p × u.\n while p > L.\n return k − 1.\nThe complexity is linear in the returned value k, which is λ on average. There are many other algorithms to improve this. Some are given in Ahrens & Dieter, see § References below.\nFor large values of λ, the value of L = e-λ may be so small that it is hard to represent. This can be solved by a change to the algorithm which",
"-28.130810025955725"
],
[
"ones as random if it is not biased by having the frequency stability property i.e. the frequency of zeros goes to 1/2 and every sub-sequence we can select from it by a \"proper\" method of selection is also not biased.\nThe sub-sequence selection criterion imposed by von Mises is important, because although 0101010101... is not biased, by selecting the odd positions, we get 000000... which is not random. Von Mises never totally formalized his definition of a proper selection rule for sub-sequences, but in 1940 Alonzo Church defined it as any recursive function which having read the first N elements of",
"-28.076032463286538"
],
[
"similar numerical results, which is why each can be seen as approximation to the other. Although there are huge theoretical differences in their mathematical insights, the main practical difference for statistics users is that the bootstrap gives different results when repeated on the same data, whereas the jackknife gives exactly the same result each time. Because of this, the jackknife is popular when the estimates need to be verified several times before publishing (e.g., official statistics agencies). On the other hand, when this verification feature is not crucial and it is of interest not to have a number but just",
"-28.0411460432515"
],
[
"using these random numbers must use the most significant bits; reducing to a smaller range using a modulo operation with an even modulus will produce disastrous results.\nTo achieve this period, the multiplier must satisfy a ≡ ±3 (mod 8) and the seed X₀ must be odd.\nUsing a composite modulus is possible, but the generator must be seeded with a value coprime to m, or the period will be greatly reduced. For example, a modulus of F₅ = 2³²+1 might seem attractive, as the outputs can be easily mapped to a 32-bit word 0 ≤ Xᵢ−1 < 2³². However, a seed of",
"-28.03823066260884"
],
[
"an individual or on a statistical basis remains a remote prospect.\nIn the late 1970s and early 1980s, computer scientists began to realize that the deliberate introduction of randomness into computations can be an effective tool for designing better algorithms. In some cases, such randomized algorithms outperform the best deterministic methods.",
"-27.93104137375485"
],
[
"same sequence of numbers.\nThe choice of a good random seed is crucial in the field of computer security. When a secret encryption key is pseudorandomly generated, having the seed will allow one to obtain the key. High entropy is important for selecting good random seed data.\nIf the same random seed is deliberately shared, it becomes a secret key, so two or more systems using matching pseudorandom number algorithms and matching seeds can generate matching sequences of non-repeating numbers which can be used to synchronize remote systems, such as GPS satellites and receivers.\nRandom seeds are often generated from the state of",
"-27.90536222027731"
],
[
"this input with a guess of bit and then random bits, chosen with uniform probability. Then it runs , and outputs if the result is , and else.",
"-27.8905024479609"
],
[
"types (for which a simple random generator can be used), tools targeting object-oriented languages typically explore the program to test and find generators (constructors or methods returning objects of that type) and call them using random inputs (either themselves generated the same way or generated using a pseudo-random generator if possible). Such approaches then maintain a pool of randomly generated objects and use a probability for either reusing a generated object or creating a new one. On randomness According to the seminal paper on random testing by D. Hamlet\n[..] the technical, mathematical meaning of \"random testing\" refers to an explicit",
"-27.883935447625845"
],
[
"few. For example, seven shuffles of a new deck leaves an 81% probability of winning New Age Solitaire where the probability is 50% with a uniform random deck. One sensitive test for randomness uses a standard deck without the jokers divided into suits with two suits in ascending order from ace to king, and the other two suits in reverse. (Many decks already come ordered this way when new.) After shuffling, the measure of randomness is the number of rising sequences that are left in each suit. Shuffling algorithms If a computer has access to purely random numbers, it is",
"-27.837415341928136"
],
[
"that almost every sequence (from the point of view of the standard measure—\"fair coin\" or Lebesgue measure—on the space of infinite binary sequences) is random. Also, since it can be shown that the Kolmogorov complexity relative to two different universal machines differs by at most a constant, the collection of random infinite sequences does not depend on the choice of universal machine (in contrast to finite strings). This definition of randomness is usually called Martin-Löf randomness, after Per Martin-Löf, to distinguish it from other similar notions of randomness. It is also sometimes called 1-randomness to distinguish it from other stronger",
"-27.816502754198154"
],
[
"a computer program can access randomness as a function, this effectively allows for a flexible, creative, and adaptive intelligence. Evolutionary algorithms, a subfield of machine learning (itself a subfield of artificial intelligence), have been used to mathematically demonstrate that randomness and selection can be used to \"evolve\" complex, highly adapted structures that are not explicitly designed by a programmer. Evolutionary algorithms use the Darwinian metaphor of random mutation, selection and the survival of the fittest to solve diverse mathematical and scientific problems that are usually not solvable using conventional methods. Intelligence derived from randomness is essentially indistinguishable from the \"innate\"",
"-27.81247063970659"
],
[
"at least the length of the string. This is a different meaning from the usage of the term in statistics. Whereas statistical randomness refers to the process that produces the string (e.g. flipping a coin to produce each bit will randomly produce a string), algorithmic randomness refers to the string itself. Algorithmic information theory separates random from nonrandom strings in a way that is relatively invariant to the model of computation being used.\nAn algorithmically random sequence is an infinite sequence of characters, all of whose prefixes (except possibly a finite number of exceptions) are strings that are \"close to\" algorithmically",
"-27.80158209754154"
],
[
"encourage people to interpret their own cards and speculate on their meaning without adherence to any particular ideology, and without the intervention of an expert. This process makes possible the exploration of such phenomena as perception differences, projection, transference, stimulation, cognition, intuition, and meaning. Differences and similarities between individuals are highlighted. The use of random draws, or casts, has a long history related to, among other things, shamanism, occult practices, \"primitive\" religions, as well as science, where random numbers are often an essential ingredient in statistical analysis. One of the best known uses of this process is the consultation of",
"-27.763921792269684"
],
[
"Random sequence The concept of a random sequence is essential in probability theory and statistics. The concept generally relies on the notion of a sequence of random variables and many statistical discussions begin with the words \"let X₁,...,Xₙ be independent random variables...\". Yet as D. H. Lehmer stated in 1951: \"A random sequence is a vague notion... in which each term is unpredictable to the uninitiated and whose digits pass a certain number of tests traditional with statisticians\".\nAxiomatic probability theory deliberately avoids a definition of a random sequence. Traditional probability theory does not state if a specific sequence is random,",
"-27.748271790216677"
],
[
"flow, stellar evolution and VLSI design. All these simulations require the use of random numbers and therefore pseudorandom number generators, which makes creating random-like numbers very important.\nA simple example of how a computer would perform a Monte Carlo simulation is the calculation of π. If a square enclosed a circle and a point were randomly chosen inside the square the point would either lie inside the circle or outside it. If the process were repeated many times, the ratio of the random points that lie inside the circle to the total number of random points in the",
"-27.74465113884071"
],
[
"betting on a random sequence. Relative randomness As each of the equivalent definitions of a Martin-Löf random sequence is based on what is computable by some Turing machine, one can naturally ask what is computable by a Turing oracle machine. For a fixed oracle A, a sequence B which is not only random but in fact, satisfies the equivalent definitions for computability relative to A (e.g., no martingale which is constructive relative to the oracle A succeeds on B) is said to be random relative to A. Two sequences, while themselves random, may contain very similar information, and therefore neither",
"-27.739935243560467"
],
[
"a rising edge with a 0. This eliminates simple bias, and is easy to implement as a computer program or in digital logic. This technique works no matter how the bits have been generated. It cannot assure randomness in its output, however. What it can do (with significant numbers of discarded bits) is transform a biased random bit stream into an unbiased one.\nAnother technique for improving a near random bit stream is to exclusive-or the bit stream with the output of a high-quality cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator such as Blum Blum Shub or a strong stream cipher.",
"-27.734091965940024"
],
[
"two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same",
"-27.7275296622538"
],
[
"Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates. Almost random A pseudorandom variable is a variable which is created by a deterministic algorithm, often a computer program or subroutine, which in most cases takes random bits as input. The pseudorandom string will typically be longer than the original random string, but less random (less entropic in the information theory sense). This can be useful for randomized algorithms.\nPseudorandom number generators are widely used in such applications as computer modeling (e.g., Markov chains), statistics, experimental design, etc.\nLinux uses various system timings (like user keystrokes, I/O, or least-significant digit voltage measurements) to produce a pool of",
"-27.703632875171024"
],
[
"random (in the sense of being invented out of thin air by the author, not in a modern technical sense). See also Eugenio Montale, Theatre of the Absurd.\nRandomness in music is generally thought to be postmodern, including John Cage's chance derived Music of Changes, stochastic music, aleatoric music, indeterminate music, or generative music. Other uses Random numbers are also used in situations where \"fairness\" is approximated by randomization, such as selecting jurors and military draft lotteries. In the Book of Numbers (33:54), Moses commands the Israelites to apportion the land by lot.\nOther examples include selecting, or generating, a \"Random Quote",
"-27.676205042691436"
],
[
"Random binary tree Binary trees from random permutations For any set of numbers (or, more generally, values from some total order), one may form a binary search tree in which each number is inserted in sequence as a leaf of the tree, without changing the structure of the previously inserted numbers. The position into which each number should be inserted is uniquely determined by a binary search in the tree formed by the previous numbers. For instance, if the three numbers (1,3,2) are inserted into a tree in that sequence, the number 1 will sit at the root of the",
"-27.64208618865814"
],
[
"Given the first n digits of Ω and a k ≤ n, the algorithm enumerates the domain of F until enough elements of the domain have been found so that the probability they represent is within 2 of Ω. After this point, no additional program of length k can be in the domain, because each of these would add 2⁻ᵏ to the measure, which is impossible. Thus the set of strings of length k in the domain is exactly the set of such strings already enumerated. Algorithmic randomness A real number is random if the binary sequence representing the",
"-27.629577366809826"
],
[
"and 2 having level 3. Before each run, one of the slips would be drawn blindly from the box and the level selected would be used for the next run of the experiment.\nIn practice, the randomization is typically performed by a computer program. However, the randomization can also be generated from random number tables or by some physical mechanism (e.g., drawing the slips of paper). Sample randomized sequence of trials The randomized sequence of trials might look like: X₁: 3, 1, 4, 2, 2, 1, 3, 4, 1, 2, 4, 3\nNote that in this example there are 12!/(3!*3!*3!*3!) = 369,600",
"-27.607702764566056"
],
[
"table as the representation of the position.\nLater, the method was extended to hashing integers by representing each byte in each of 4 possible positions in the word by a unique 32-bit random number. Thus, a table of 2⁸x4 of such random numbers is constructed. A 32-bit hashed integer is transcribed by successively indexing the table with the value of each byte of the plain text integer and XORing the loaded values together (again, the starting value can be the identity value or a random seed). The natural extension to 64-bit integers is by use of a table of 2⁸x8",
"-27.584028433659114"
],
[
"error occurs in exactly the same place for each group (e.g., \"1010 1010 1010\" in the previous example would be detected as correct). The advantage of repetition codes is that they are extremely simple, and are in fact used in some transmissions of numbers stations. Parity bits A parity bit is a bit that is added to a group of source bits to ensure that the number of set bits (i.e., bits with value 1) in the outcome is even or odd. It is a very simple scheme that can be used to detect single or any other odd number",
"-27.582572324638022"
],
[
"involve rounding errors leading to approximation. Log tables, slide rules and calculators produce approximate answers to all but the simplest calculations. The results of computer calculations are normally an approximation expressed in a limited number of significant digits, although they can be programmed to produce more precise results. Approximation can occur when a decimal number cannot be expressed in a finite number of binary digits.\nRelated to approximation of functions is the asymptotic value of a function, i.e. the value as one or more of a function's parameters becomes arbitrarily large. For example, the sum (k/2)+(k/4)+(k/8)+...(k/2^n) is asymptotically equal to",
"-27.546828200342134"
],
[
"had never before been available (the largest previously published table was ten times smaller in size), and because it was also available on IBM punched cards, which allowed for its use in computers. In the 1950s, a hardware random number generator named ERNIE was used to draw British premium bond numbers.\nThe first \"testing\" of random numbers for statistical randomness was developed by M.G. Kendall and B. Babington Smith in the late 1930s, and was based upon looking for certain types of probabilistic expectations in a given sequence. The simplest test looked to make sure that roughly equal numbers of 1s,",
"-27.544782937620766"
],
[
"This is because it uses a full-precision random variate x each time, even when only a few random bits are needed.\nOne case arises when the probabilities are particularly well balanced, so many Uᵢ = 1 and Kᵢ is not needed. Generating y is a waste of time. For example if p₁ = p₂ = ¹⁄₂, then a 32-bit random variate x could be used to make 32 choices, but the alias method will only generate one.\nAnother case arises when the probabilities are strongly unbalanced, so many Uᵢ ≈ 0. For example if p₁ = 0.999 and p₂",
"-27.475340299046366"
],
[
"made an error in a combinatorics problem. The question was how many different 4-digit briefcase combinations contain a particular digit (say 5, for example). She said the answer was 4000, yet people showed the correct answer—3439—using various strategies. The incorrect answer of 4000 counted those combinations with more than one \"5\" multiple times (twice for \"1535\", three times for \"1555\", for instance). So, the correct answer is to take all possible combinations minus the combinations in which each digit is not a 5 to the nᵗʰ power, or 10,000 - 9⁴ = 3439.\nOn June 22, 2014, Savant made",
"-27.451926429988816"
],
[
"electronic noise studies, engineering, and operations research. Many methods of statistical analysis, such as the bootstrap method, require random numbers. Monte Carlo methods in physics and computer science require random numbers.\nRandom numbers are often used in parapsychology as a test of precognition. Statistical sampling Statistical practice is based on statistical theory which is, itself, founded on the concept of randomness. Many elements of statistical practice depend on randomness via random numbers. Where those random numbers fail to be actually random, any subsequent statistical analysis may suffer from systematic bias. Elements of statistical practice that depend on randomness include: choosing a",
"-27.439639183692634"
],
[
"with 1 than with 2, more with 2 than with 3, etc. These proportions are measurable and expected for certain types of populations; there are distributions for both first and second digits. Since people cannot effectively create random numbers, there is a good chance that human-fabricated numbers will not follow Benford's law for the distribution of digits. Other experts, such as Joseph Deckert, Mikhail Myagkov and Peter C. Ordeshook from University of Oregon and California Institute of Technology, argue that fraud can move data in direction of satisfying that law. In a paper titled \"Benford’s Law and the",
"-27.430524714756757"
],
[
"determine the likelihood that a detected signal actually represents a genuine signal. Such analysis methods requires the generation of random numbers. If the statistical method is extremely sensitive to patterns in the data (such as those used to search for binary pulsars), very large amounts of data with no recognizable pattern are needed. Simulation In many scientific and engineering fields, computer simulations of real phenomena are commonly used. When the real phenomena are affected by unpredictable processes, such as radio noise or day-to-day weather, these processes can be simulated using random or pseudo-random numbers.\nAutomatic random number generators were first constructed",
"-27.423475027404493"
],
[
"that number as the seed for the next iteration. For example, squaring the number \"1111\" yields \"1234321\", which can be written as \"01234321\", an 8-digit number being the square of a 4-digit number. This gives \"2343\" as the \"random\" number. Repeating this procedure gives \"4896\" as the next result, and so on. Von Neumann used 10 digit numbers, but the process was the same.\nA problem with the \"middle square\" method is that all sequences eventually repeat themselves, some very quickly, such as \"0000\". Von Neumann was aware of this, but he found the approach sufficient for his purposes, and was",
"-27.404184088722104"
],
[
"\n 1. Pick a random such that the probability\n to choose a particular is proportional to \n 2. Randomly pick which ends in position \n 3. Using the Hadamard test create a random variable with\n \n Do the same to create with \n Let be",
"-27.402046783536207"
],
[
"random variates corresponding to a uniform distribution, where these procedures would actually provide values chosen from a uniform distribution of pseudorandom numbers.\nProcedures to generate random variates corresponding to a given distribution are known as procedures for random variate generation or pseudo-random number sampling.\nIn probability theory, a random variable is a measurable function from a probability space to a measurable space of values that the variable can take on. In that context, those values are also known as random variates or random deviates, and this represents a wider meaning than just that associated with pseudorandom numbers. Practical aspects For the generation",
"-27.397988359676674"
],
[
"series of calculations over the weekend, only to find when he arrived on Monday morning that an error had occurred early in the process and the calculation had errored off. Digital machines manipulated information as sequences of zeroes and ones, units of information that Tukey would christen \"bits\". If a single bit in a sequence was wrong, then the whole sequence would be. To detect this, a parity bit was used to verify the correctness of each sequence. \"If the computer can tell when an error has occurred,\" Hamming reasoned, \"surely there is a way of telling where the error",
"-27.394263787678938"
],
[
"there is a simple and fast process to check whether a given number is of this form. Probably the most elegant method is to check whether holds for any 1 < b < log(n) using an integer version of Newton's method for the root extraction.\nThe biggest problem is finding a sufficient number of z such that both z and z+n are B-smooth. For any given B, the proportion of numbers that are B-smooth decreases rapidly with the size of the number. So if n is large (say, a hundred digits), it will be difficult or impossible to find enough",
"-27.382420893562085"
],
[
"a series of tests for statistical randomness in a given set of digits which, with some small modifications, became fairly widely used. He produced one of the second large collections of random digits (100,000 in total, over twice as many as those published by L. H. C. Tippett in 1927), which was a commonly used tract until the publication of RAND Corporation's A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates in 1955 (which was developed with a roulette wheel-like machine very similar to Kendall's and verified as \"random\" using his statistical tests).\nIn 1937, he aided the ageing statistician G. Udny",
"-27.368711957271444"
],
[
"other ways to find the answer for all of these.\nNote that numbers with values less than one are not usually written with a leading zero. For example, \"0.4\" is usually written as \".4\". This is because \"0\" is a digit, and in this puzzle only the digit \"4\" can be used.\nA given number will generally have a few possible solutions; any solution that meets the rules is acceptable. Some variations prefer the \"fewest\" number of operations, or prefer some operations to others. Others simply prefer \"interesting\" solutions, i.e., a surprising way to reach the goal.\nCertain numbers, such as",
"-27.352889131521806"
],
[
"until the numbers are so small that they can (or must) be computed directly.\nIn a computer with a full 32-bit by 32-bit multiplier, for example, one could choose B = 2³¹ = 2147483648, and store each digit as a separate 32-bit binary word. Then the sums x₁ + x₀ and y₁ + y₀ will not need an extra binary word for storing the carry-over digit (as in carry-save adder), and the Karatsuba recursion can be applied until the numbers to multiply are only one-digit long. Pseudocode Here is the pseudocode for this algorithm, using numbers represented in base ten. For",
"-27.348880944628036"
],
[
"= 0.001, then the great majority of the time, only a few random bits are required to determine that case 1 applies. \nIn such cases, the table method described by Marsaglia et al. is more efficient. If we make many choices with the same probability we can on average require much less than one unbiased random bit. Using Arithmetic coding techniques arithmetic we can approach the limit given by the Binary entropy function.",
"-27.348875118877913"
],
[
"periodically refreshed random key Other designs use what are believed to be true random bits as the key for a high quality block cipher algorithm, taking the encrypted output as the random bit stream. Care must be taken in these cases to select an appropriate block mode, however. In some implementations, the PRNG is run for a limited number of digits, while the hardware generating device produces a new seed. Problems It is very easy to misconstruct hardware or software devices which attempt to generate random numbers. Also, most 'break' silently, often producing decreasingly random numbers as they degrade.",
"-27.326151176006533"
],
[
"\"description language\" in which the \"descriptions\" are given), the collection of random strings does depend on the choice of fixed universal machine. Nevertheless, the collection of random strings, as a whole, has similar properties regardless of the fixed machine, so one can (and often does) talk about the properties of random strings as a group without having to first specify a universal machine.\nAn infinite binary sequence is said to be random if, for some constant c, for all n, the Kolmogorov complexity of the initial segment of length n of the sequence is at least n − c. It can be shown",
"-27.31571881887794"
],
[
"to reveal a different angle of attack on the problem. Implementations Low-tech implementations of random word often randomly shuffle a pile of index cards. For example, the \"Oblique Strategies\" created by Brian Eno and Peter Schmidt in 1975 is a set of 100 cards, each of which is a suggestion of a course of action or thinking to assist in creative situations, where standard logical solutions do not produce the desired result. High-tech implementations adopt computers, random number generators and internet resources. Simple random techniques are classified by modality of association (Verbal, Visual, Audial, Kinesthetic). Multi-modal techniques combine different random",
"-27.311436901800334"
],
[
"a random value.\nAt each iteration, the magnitude of the random value should be reduced.\nDuring the square steps, points located on the edges of the array will have only three adjacent values set rather than four. There are a number of ways to handle this complication - the simplest being to take the average of just the three adjacent values. Another option is to 'wrap around', taking the fourth value from the other side of the array. When used with consistent initial corner values this method also allows generated fractals to be stitched together without discontinuities. Visualization The",
"-27.304561990344155"
],
[
"the previous chosen sort orders preserved on the screen and a stable sort algorithm can do that. Another reason why stability is important: if the users are not programmers, then they can choose to sort by section and then by name, by first sorting using name and then sort again using section. If the sort algorithm is not stable, the users won't be able to do that.\nMore formally, the data being sorted can be represented as a record or tuple of values, and the part of the data that is used for sorting is called the key. In the card",
"-27.303064979216288"
],
[
"not available in streaming scenarios.\nA very simple random sort algorithm was proved by Sunter in 1977 which simply assigns a random number drawn from uniform distribution (0, 1) as key to each item, sorts all items using the key and selects the smallest k items.\nJ. Vitter in 1985 proposed reservoir sampling algorithm which is often widely used. This algorithm does not require advance knowledge of n and uses constant space.\nRandom sampling can also be accelerated by sampling from the distribution of gaps between samples, and skipping over the gaps. Sampling a dichotomous population If the members of the population",
"-27.281645651964936"
],
[
"raw (or prior) probability that the pattern of bits is random (has no pattern) is .\nEach program that produces the sequence of bits, but is shorter than the n is a theory/pattern about the bits with a probability of where k is the length of the program.\nThe probability of receiving a sequence of bits y after receiving a series of bits x is then the conditional probability of receiving y given x, which is the probability of x with y appended, divided by the probability of x. Universal priors The programming language affects the predictions of the next bit",
"-27.24043050153341"
],
[
"real number is an algorithmically random sequence. \nCalude, Hertling, Khoussainov, and Wang showed\nthat a recursively enumerable real number is an algorithmically random sequence if and only if it is a Chaitin's Ω number. Incompleteness theorem for halting probabilities For each specific consistent effectively represented axiomatic system for the natural numbers, such as Peano arithmetic, there exists a constant N such that no bit of Ω after the Nth can be proven to be 1 or 0 within that system. The constant N depends on how the formal system is effectively represented, and thus does not directly reflect the complexity of",
"-27.232651217927923"
],
[
"source of strong random numbers (which is platform dependent).\nuse Crypt::Random::Source qw(get_strong);while(length($out) < 15) {\n my $a = get_strong(1);\n $a =~ s/[^[:graph:]]//g;\n $out .= $a;}print $out; Python The language Python includes a SystemRandom class that obtains cryptographic grade random bits from /dev/urandom on a Unix-like system, including Linux and Mac OS X, while on Windows it uses CryptGenRandom. Here is a simple Python 2 script that demonstrates the use of this class:\n# !/usr/bin/pythonimport random, stringmyrg = random.SystemRandom()length = 10# If you want non-English characters, remove the [0:52]alphabet = string.letters[0:52] + string.digitspw = str().join(myrg.choice(alphabet) for _",
"-27.21756747121981"
],
[
"random number generator (RNG) or pseudorandom number generator (PRNG). A PRNG is a computer algorithm that produces data that appears random under analysis. PRNGs that use system entropy to seed data generally produce better results, since this makes the initial conditions of the PRNG much more difficult for an attacker to guess. Another way to generate randomness is to utilize information outside the system. veracrypt (a disk encryption software) utilizes user mouse movements to generate unique seeds, in which users are encouraged to move their mouse sporadically. In other situations, the key is derived deterministically using a passphrase and a",
"-27.21000048096903"
],
[
"and continuing recursively in each subtree. If x is chosen uniformly at random in the interval, the result is the same as the random binary search tree generated by a random permutation of the nodes, as any node is equally likely to be chosen as root; however, this formulation allows other distributions to be used instead. For instance, in the uniformly random binary tree model, once a root is fixed each of its two subtrees must also be uniformly random, so the uniformly random model may also be generated by a different choice of distribution for x. As Devroye and",
"-27.200340970186517"
],
[
"items.\nAndersson et al. (1998) provide a randomized algorithm called signature sort that allows for linear time sorting of sets of up to 2 items at a time, for any constant ε > 0. As in the algorithm of Kirkpatrick and Reisch, they perform range reduction using a representation of the keys as numbers in base b for a careful choice of b. Their range reduction algorithm replaces each digit by a signature, which is a hashed value with O(log n) bits such that different digit values have different signatures. If n is sufficiently small, the numbers formed by this replacement process",
"-27.199074923511944"
],
[
"generated random numbers. The random number generator is based on the RIPEMD-160 secure hash function, and it is seeded by hashing together the output of various shell commands. These provide unpredictability in the form of a system random number seed, access times of important system files, usage history of the host, and more. The random state is the 160-bit output of the hash function. The random state is iterated after each use by concatenating the old state with the current high-resolution timer output and hashing the result again. The first 72 bits of the hash output are encoded with a",
"-27.198372382146772"
],
[
"the original data-set, the only one observed. The variation of statistics calculated for these alternative data-sets is a guide to the uncertainty of statistics estimated from the original data. Gambling Randomization is used extensively in the field of gambling. Because poor randomization may allow a skilled gambler to take advantage, much research has been devoted to effective randomization. A classic example of randomizing is shuffling playing cards. Techniques Although historically \"manual\" randomization techniques (such as shuffling cards, drawing pieces of paper from a bag, spinning a roulette wheel) were common, nowadays automated techniques are mostly used. As both selecting random",
"-27.14524302119389"
]
] |
2zbh5r | The US spends more money than any other country on education. Why does the US continue to lag behind other developed countries in spite of our (more than generous) education budget? | [
"If you look at [spending per student]( URL_0 ), we're actually quite low, wedged between Poland and Romania. There's also bureaucracy, standardized testing, and general teacher apathy caused by the profession being under perpetual assault by the broader public culture. Source: The World Bank for statistics, and I work in education at an American school.",
"Looking at % of GDP spent on primary education, the US is not really that remarkable. We're comparable with other stable nations like Italy, Japan, Israel, Germany, and France. How much value we're getting for that is another complicated question, but the continued per-capita GDP growth of the US - which must rely on school graduates as \"raw material\" is not expected to decline anytime soon. We're the third-largest country in the world in terms of population, behind China and India. The per-capita income of a US resident is nearly 10 times that of someone in China. If you compare the GPI of [various contries]( URL_0 ) you will find that the amount they pay to educate a student **compared to average personal income** is actually surprisingly consistent, and - to my reading - says the US is getting a hell of a deal when taking into account the future incomes of the students we graduate.",
"There are several reasons that higher spending doesn't always translate into better outcomes: * Underlying social problems (poor nutrition, unstable home life, low SES, lack of sleep, untreated medical conditions) affect how much students can take in, learn, and utilize. These things are factors from fetal development onwards (brain development depends on proper nutrition), and there are large segments of US society which may be overweight but are nonetheless not getting the nutrition and social support needed to grow and develop properly. * Cultural factors - the US has a profoundly anti-intellectual culture, glorifying athletes and businesspeople rather than those who devote themselves to knowledge. We look down on teachers (those who can, do; those who can't, teach), and in many states, only require teachers to have an education degree, rather than a degree in the subject they are teaching (this is not necessarily bad for those teaching younger students, but can be problematic once you get past elementary school). * Our schools are structured to teach compliance and make good workers, rather than developing creative thought or even fact-based knowledge. We focus on obeying rules (dress code, zero tolerance, don't be late for class) and observing a strict schedule (move to the next class at the bell, not when you're through with the material) - these things make good workers, but they don't necessarily reward thinking (and sometimes discourage it - if you're stuck working on a problem and the bell rings, you have to give up and move along, rather than getting the reward that comes from solving it). [Washington D.C. spends more per student on K-12 education than the rest of the country ]( URL_0 )(PDF, page 26 and 29), partially because they have fewer students than most states, but also because many of the public school students have low SES. Other states, like Mississippi/Alabama/Arkansas/Missouri, don't spend nearly as much but also have terrible education outcomes. That said, it also depends how you measure education spending. If you're throwing college costs in, you're going to skew the numbers high for the US, because it costs a lot to go to college here, and the state isn't paying all that much of the costs anymore. If you measure state funding, you're leaving out places that use local tax $$ to fund schools (and thus have very wealthy and very poor districts). It's also very difficult to compare countries across even uniform testing measurements, since populations differ so much - the US has much higher social inequality than Finland does; is it really fair to compare our education scores directly knowing that the US has many more students who face challenges due to home life (and not the educational system directly)?",
"Is that more per student, per capita or simply more than other countries in total? Are we talking higher education alone or primary and secondary education too?",
"There's a few flaws with this rationale. First the assumption is, if you have more funding you get better education. These two things are not really related, see all kinds of statistical data on poor nations doing well in this area, failed funding in developed nations in education etc. There's a lot of precedent for this. Secondly we can not look at education as a stand alone entity. Culture is a complex sociopsychological system. Many many factors may drive the quality of education, not just the methods and abilities of the educational institution, but also the values and expectations of a culture, the ideology behind it, the current paradigm of the culture as far as education and its goals and so forth. You couldn't even ignore less sociological factors like diet and health, the biological aspects of the environment.There is literally an infinite, but still examinable number of factors. In the specific case of the USA I think its a huge cultural problem. Peoples values, expectations, morals and world view are getting more and more skewed. To put it differently, people are scared and confused and don't know what to do. The problem is, that this happens on every level of society and the ramifications of this are huge. The rampant materialism also doesn't help. We rear people to be obedient workers who's main value is production, consumption and material gain. When you do this at the expense of all other facets of humanity you get something that's oddly out of balance. I've only given a few examples, but this is a very complex issue. The main problem with modern society is that we look at aspects of it (education, health, politics etc) as separate entities. Thus when symptoms arise, in our overzealous quest for productivity, instant solutions and instant gratifications, we try to cure those instead of realizing the problem lies deeper and not in the symptom. This creates a whole new set of problems and unforseen consequences. Its not simple. That's why we have a hard time as humans. Its not simple and we lack the wisdom to recognize this. Nothing stands alone it will always be part of a system. If your culture is healthy so will be your educational system, if its corrupt, twisted, ill or confused it will manifest symptoms of this illness on every level of society.",
"TL;DR Fix funding inequalities and watch our test scores catch up to the rest of the world! People make the mistake all the time of conflating education spending with federal education spending. The Fed government spends only 0.8% of GDP on education. It spends around 3.8% on the military. States and municipalities chip in the other 5%GDP or so that we spend. Make no mistake, this is a huge number. It also means jack squat for test scores if the money isn't spread evenly across school districts. So guess what? It isn't at all. States and municipalities do a horrible job of distributing money evenly to school districts. We fund schools in an extremely disproportionate manner. 23 states spend more per pupil on rich pupils than poor pupils. Let that sink in. Taxpayers spend more, in 23 states, to educate the children of the rich. URL_0 Live in an economically depressed area? Good freaking luck finding a decent public elementary school for your kid. I can't think of another first world country that concedes so much decentralized power to its states and counties for education. It comes down to two major issues: 1) Poor school districts are a huge drag on education scores because their districts barely have enough money for facilities and salary, let alone technology. The richer districts are essentially Scrooging their way to more tax dollars and hoarding good staff, equipment and buildings. (Performance-based funding only exacerbates this problem. Telling a school it won't get more money if its students don't perform well in an already unfair system of funding creates a predictably bad outcome.) 2) A modest attempt at creating national standards for education has failed miserably. States HATE federal education intervention. Don't know why really. Every other country I can think of with a decent standard of living uses their national government to manage education.",
"The truth is we **don't** really lag behind most other countries. The thing is, many other countries when testing students for international rankings, only test or submit the best, where as the US submits almost every score. Adjusting for socio-economic factors, US students tend to perform as well or sometimes better as most other countries, and comparing specific states (NY, Mass.) that are strong on education, to other countries, we can see they perform very well too. [This]( URL_0 ) article explains it very well. Another example was the recently released technology literacy exam. The article posted to reddit stated US scores were 'abysmal'. Yet if you looked at the data; the spread for most of the top countries was within 10-15% and the US, while toward the lower end of the top countries, was within 5% of most other western nations. I would not call 5% 'abysmal'",
"I assume you're looking at reports like [this one]( URL_0 ). A couple of things to note about that study: it includes spending by students and parents, not just the government, and it includes college. The numbers are probably skewed, therefore, by our ludicrous higher-education costs.",
"There's always the question of what do you teach kids, some states teach \"science\" from a very religious and strict way, this will mean that later on these students won't be as likely to get into college or score well against foreign counter parts.",
"At least in higher ed, most of the money goes to the administrators and sports."
] | [
[
"but seven of the leading countries are developing countries; ranked high because of a low GDP.\nFigures exist for education spending in the United States, both total and per student, and by state and school district. They show a very wide range in spending, but due to the varying spending policies and circumstances among school districts, a cost-effectiveness analysis is very difficult to perform.\nChanges in funding appear to have little effect on a school system's performance. Between 1970 and 2012, the full amount spent by all levels of government on the K–12 education of an individual public school student graduating in",
"-34.35798944323324"
],
[
"government today is spending more money on elementary and High School (K-12) education than at any other time in the history of the United States. Funding increases have to a large degree been offset at the state level by increased costs associated with implementing NCLB, as well as the impacts of the economic downturn on education budgets. Economy According to the National Bureau of Economic Research, the economy suffered from a recession that lasted from March 2001 to November 2001. During the Bush Administration, Real GDP has grown at an average annual rate of 2.5%.\nInflation under Bush has remained near",
"-33.99454866006272"
],
[
"parents of the students. As a result, the U.S. educational system significantly aids in widening the gap between the rich and the poor. This gap has increased, rather than decreased, over the past few decades due in part to a lack of social mobility. International comparisons Compared to other nations, the United States is among some of the highest spenders on education per student behind only Switzerland and Norway. The per-pupil spending has even increased in recent years but the academic achievement of students has remained stagnant.\nThe Swedish educational system is one such system that attempts to equalize students and",
"-33.98301054359763"
],
[
"globalized and the United States' economy has shifted away from manufacturing and towards a knowledge-based economy; education has become an increasingly important determinate of economic success and prosperity. A strong education is now essential for preparing and training the future workforce that is able to compete in the global economy. Education is also important for attaining jobs and a stable career, which is critical for breaking the cycle of poverty and securing a sound economic future, both individually and as a nation. Students with lower achievement are more likely to drop out of high school, entering the workforce with minimal",
"-33.37134407425765"
],
[
"desirable to society because it increases productivity and standards of living. However, the cost for college tuition has increased significantly faster than inflation, leading the United States to have one of the most expensive higher education systems in the world. It has been suggested that tax policy could be used to help reduce these costs, by taxing the endowment income of universities and linking the endowment tax to tuition rates. The United States spends about 7.3% of GDP ($1.1 trillion in 2011 - public and private, all levels) annually on education, with 70% funded publicly through varying levels",
"-33.21166438725777"
],
[
"educational budgetary spending is unlikely to occur. \"America spends over $500 billion a year on public elementary and secondary education in the United States. On average, school districts spend $10,314 for each individual student.\" For the fiscal year 2010, State and local funding accounted for 87% of total funding in the U.S.\nThe focus of reform-minded politicians has been unilateral; Increase the output of citizens' economic potential in order to keep up with the rest of the world. What is forgot while new legislature is forged are the many other goals families and communities have for their children. Developing respect for",
"-33.043490734737134"
],
[
"order to boost productivity, which is the reason that US and Canada surpassed the others. Greater access to education allowed for greater investment in human capital, which increases productivity and contributed to the United States and Canada's economic growth. According to Sokoloff and Engerman's article \"History Lessons: Institutions, Factors Endowments, and Paths of Development in the New World,\" not only the United States had relatively equal distribution of wealth, it had relatively homogeneous population, political power and human capital. United States and Canada's relatively equal distribution of wealth, amount of human capital and political power ultimately affected development of institution,",
"-32.49559489582316"
],
[
"and increase GDP by as much as $9.6 billion. Overall, the cost of high school drop outs on the US economy is roughly $355 billion.\n$3.7 billion would be saved on community college remediation costs and lost earnings if all high school students were ready for college. Furthermore, if high school graduation rates for males raised by 5 percent, cutting back on crime spending and increasing earnings each year would lead to an $8 billion increase the US economy. Job opportunities As the United States' economy has moved towards a globalized knowledge-based economy, education has become even more important for attaining",
"-32.131384059612174"
],
[
"children have chosen to withdraw their children from the labor force to give them opportunities to be educated at school improving the issue of child labor. Thus, despite seemingly unequal distribution of income within these developing countries, their economic growth and development have brought about improved standards of living and welfare for the population as a whole.\nPer capita gross domestic product (GDP) growth among post-1980 globalizing countries accelerated from 1.4 percent a year in the 1960s and 2.9 percent a year in the 1970s to 3.5 percent in the 1980s and 5.0 percent in the 1990s. This acceleration in growth",
"-31.92636718490394"
],
[
"globally for overall higher education, but only 15th when GDP was factored into the equation. Accounting for GDP, the top 10 nations for higher education in 2018 were Finland, the United Kingdom, Serbia, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal, Switzerland, South Africa, Israel and New Zealand.\nStrong research funding helped 'elite American universities' dominate global rankings in the early 21st century, making them attractive to international students, professors and researchers. Other countries, though, are offering incentives to compete for researchers as funding is threatened in the US and US dominance of international tables has lessened. The system has also been blighted by fly-by-night",
"-31.892851878190413"
],
[
"than any other country in the world. Although this served as an indication of the nation's high regard for education, expatriate teachers' salaries accounted for a disproportionate share of expenditure, reducing the benefits to the nation. Generous scholarships for secondary school students reduced funds available for younger children.\nIn 2000, Ivory Coast devoted 3.7% of GDP to public education. By 2015, the government had increased this share to 5.03% of GDP, according to an estimation by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Higher education receives more than one-quarter of public education spending: 0.82% of GDP in 2000 and 1.08% of GDP in",
"-31.73052217278746"
],
[
"is a cost-effective, population-level strategy that would significantly impact public health and the U.S. economy, with benefits quickly outweighing any immediate costs. After just two years, the study conservatively projected a gain of $8.6 billion to the U.S. economy. After a decade, this gain would increase to $83 billion, and after 15 years to $140 billion, amounting to an average annual gain to the U.S. economy of $9.3 billion. An earlier Hamilton Project Report published by the Brookings Institution concluded that starting class later can be an immediate and inexpensive way to boost health, safety, and achievement for all students.",
"-31.52639833255671"
],
[
"came in last among all 33 nations for problem-solving skills. Wider economic impact Current education trends in the United States represent multiple achievement gaps across ethnicities, income levels, and geography. In an economic analysis, consulting firm McKinsey & Company reports that closing the educational achievement gap between the United States and nations such as Finland and Korea would have increased US GDP by 9-to-16% in 2008.\nNarrowing the gap between white students and black and Hispanic students would have added another 2–4% GDP, while closing the gap between poor and other students would have yielded a 3-to-5% increase in GDP, and",
"-31.34312316926662"
],
[
"the sequence of four undergone transformations, namely agriculture, industry, services and GWU (government, welfare and unemployment)\nThe US economy has become one of the most mature (with Japan and Western Europe) in terms of its sector evolution. It has entered the stage – perhaps as the first economy ever – of declining employment share in both the service and government sectors.\nProductivity growth rates are now accelerating in the US services and its employment creation and absorption potential are declining rapidly. Accelerating productivity growth rates are dictated by global competition and human striving for better standards of living –",
"-31.306660365196876"
],
[
"of the available monetary resources directed at improving education in the region. The Education Performance Index(EPI) that measures the quality of education in the developing countries conveyed a discrepancy between the different countries in the region. They varied in the ways of exploiting the advantages of economic potential for the benefit of their people. Countries such as Tunisia succeeded in investing more than six per cent of its GNP in free public education. As a consequence, more than 1.4 million students could enjoy a free and compulsory education in 1991.\nIn other countries such as Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Qatar, despite",
"-31.302516100811772"
],
[
"prefer to study in the US because US education focuses on quality education instead of quantity education followed by Chinese system. The reason is that China is one of the developed countries in the world and mostly students from wealthy and middle-class families can easily fund their education and bear the expense of visa and education in the US. Hence they can easily settle there and carry out their education without problems. Indian students in the United States The number of Indian students in the United States grew from 148,360 in March 2015 to 194,438 in March 2016, a jump",
"-31.174428216414526"
],
[
"had the technological edge, and the latter the commercial one. By country Different countries spend vastly different amounts on research, in both absolute and relative terms. For instance, South Korea and Israel spend more than 4% of their GDP on research while many Arabic countries spend less than 1% (e.g. Saudi Arabia 0.25%). United States The US spent $456.1 billion for research and development (R&D) in 2013, the most recent year for which such figures are available, according to the National Science Foundation. The private sector accounted for $322.5 billion, or 71%, of total national expenditures, with universities and colleges",
"-31.139668946038"
],
[
"This article queries the reasons the United States invested in human capital through post-elementary education to a far greater extent than other wealthy nations at the time.\n\"The Human Capital Century\" examines the ways that post-elementary education in the United States during the 20th century was advanced, and argues that the principal reasons for U.S. education advancement were an ethic of egalitarianism (as opposed to elite educational systems in many European countries) and initial factor endowments which led to liberal education instead of vocational education, a high level of return on post-elementary education, geographic mobility, and a decentralized educational system.\nVirtues contributing",
"-31.049700651637977"
],
[
"meet the demands of society, matching educational “outputs” with labor market needs, and negotiating a competitive global education market.\nThere has been tremendous growth in higher education in the Arab world since the last years of the twentieth century. Student enrollment has jumped from roughly 3 million students in 1998/99 to about 7.5 million students in 2007/08, while the number of universities has grown almost three-fold in the same time period. Higher education in the region has also trended toward increased privatization, though considerable differences occur between countries; Bahrain, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, and the UAE have the highest percentage of students",
"-30.95314934523776"
],
[
"in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production. The future of education Many countries are now drastically changing the way they educate their citizens. The world is changing at an ever quickening rate, which means that a lot of knowledge becomes obsolete and inaccurate more quickly. The emphasis is therefore shifting to teaching the skills of learning: to picking up new knowledge quickly and in as agile a way as possible. Finnish schools have even begun to move away from the regular subject-focused curricula, introducing instead developments",
"-30.889132310723653"
],
[
"poverty and contributed to the economic development of China, India and others. The Institute estimates that increased exports in developing countries contribute to one-fifth of non-farm jobs in those nations and that immigrants from developing countries contributed to 40 percent of the workforce in advanced ones. By 2008 foreign-born workers accounted for 17 percent of all STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) positions in the United States. Employment and unemployment Employment is growing fastest in emerging and developing economies. Over the past 5 years, the incidence of long-term unemployment (the share of unemployed persons out of work for 12 months",
"-30.845348426140845"
],
[
"Healthcare reform in the United States Motivation International comparisons of healthcare have found that the United States spends more per-capita than other similarly developed nations but falls below similar countries in various health metrics, suggesting inefficiency and waste. In addition, the United States has significant underinsurance and significant impending unfunded liabilities from its aging demographic and its social insurance programs Medicare and Medicaid (Medicaid provides free long-term care to the elderly poor). The fiscal and human impact of these issues have motivated reform proposals.\nU.S. healthcare costs were approximately $3.2 trillion or nearly $10,000 per person on average in 2015. Major",
"-30.814225874491967"
],
[
"to include homeless persons, foster youth, those who left the foster care system, and children with parents on active duty in the United States armed forces. Funding levels According to a 2005 report from the OECD, the United States is tied for first place with Switzerland when it comes to annual spending per student on its public schools, with each of those two countries spending more than $11,000 (in U.S. currency).\nDespite this high level of funding, U.S. public schools lag behind the schools of other rich countries in the areas of reading, math, and science. A further analysis of developed countries shows",
"-30.798593019950204"
],
[
"Exchange blog, R.A. concluded that Cowen's analysis of education suggested that the rich world would do better by aiding mass education programs in developing countries rather than pursuing the diminishing returns in domestic education and research, in contrary to President Obama's State of the Union speech in 2011. Looser immigration law would also allow rich and poor countries to exploit this source of growth. Secondly, it proposed to harvest \"policy low-hanging fruit\" i.e. reforming or abolishing foolish and costly policies. It proposed taxing \"bads\" such as traffic congestion and pollution rather than \"goods\" such as income, reducing spending on",
"-30.75403833243763"
],
[
"each other, responsibility, economic sustainability, cultural diversity, equality, and happiness are just a few of the many goals Americans have for their children in schools. Larry Cuban, a professor emeritus of education at Stanford University argues that, \"policy makers and reform-minded civic and business elites have not only defined economic problems as educational ones that can be fixed by more time spent in schools but also neglected the powerful hold socialization goals have on parents' and taxpayers' expectations.\"\nThere are other educational reform options for improving the U.S. educational system that do not cost more money and still allow for local",
"-30.749029838319984"
],
[
"higher than the average pay across the entire U.S. workforce.\nPresident Barack Obama said in 2012, \"In a global economy, the United States faces increasing competition for the jobs and industries of the future. Taking steps to ensure that we remain the destination of choice for investors around the world will help us win that competition and bring prosperity to our people.\"\nIn September 2013, the United States House of Representatives voted to pass the Global Investment in American Jobs Act of 2013 (H.R. 2052; 113th Congress), a bill which would direct the United States Department of Commerce to \"conduct a review",
"-30.732102613692405"
],
[
"education in developing countries, Glewwe (with Michael Kremer) criticizes that, although school enrollment rates have risen rapidly in the developing world between 1960 and 2000, dropout rates remain high and learning outcomes disappointing, and thus argues that the primary policy question should be which policies most effectively improve learning, with RCTs as the preferred tool to conduct that investigation. More recently, Glewwe has emphasized (with Karthik Muralidharan) that educational spending in developing countries could be much more cost effective, as improvements to pedagogy (e.g. remedial classes for children lagging behind) as well as improvements to school governance and teacher accountability",
"-30.719051072839648"
],
[
"as well as exposure to STEM areas and careers. In 2016, Time.com published an article mentioning that one way of reenergizing the United States economy is to provide quality education and training opportunities for American youngsters. There is a need to update funding streams for schools at the federal, state, and local levels such as Pell Grants addressing the requirements of college students. The Grant or specific amount of money is given by the government every school year for disadvantaged students who need to pay tuition fees in college. Higher education Higher education in the United States of America has",
"-30.715650045021903"
],
[
"they tend to save more of their money than people—ordinary working people who can't afford to do that.\nAnd a fourth is that advanced economies are just simply paying the price for years of inadequate investment in infrastructure and education, the basic ingredients of growth. Japan: 1991–present Japan has been suffering economic or secular stagnation for most of the period since the early 1990s. Economists, such as Paul Krugman, attribute the stagnation to a liquidity trap (a situation in which monetary policy is unable to lower nominal interest rates because these are close to zero) exacerbated by demographics factors. World since",
"-30.62044798611896"
],
[
"matters. More aggressive redistribution through taxes and transfers has spared Europe from the acute disparities that Americans have grown used to. Unequal access to education is helping reproduce inequality in the United States down the generations.\" The Times article also noted that, \"China's strategy based on low-skill manufacturing for export, and underpinned by aggressive investment in infrastructure, has proven more effective at raising living standards for the bottom half of the population than India's more inward-looking strategy, which has limited the benefits of globalization to the well-educated elite.\" Tetlow of the Financial Times described inequality as the \"defining characteristic of",
"-30.559270657075103"
],
[
"spend over a month less in school than children in South Korea -- every year. That's no way to prepare them for a 21st century economy. That's why I'm calling for us ... to rethink the school day to incorporate more time -– whether during the summer or through expanded-day programs for children who need it.\nThe administration has supported this agenda with additional funding. On February 17, 2009 President Obama signed into law the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) Included in the Act was $3.5 billion for the School Improvement Fund, a program within the United States",
"-30.55346296133939"
],
[
"with the richest nations benefiting from educational resources of the nations who can least afford to lose the most productive career years of their highly skilled professionals. This factor disincentives investment in education in both the developing and developed world, as foreign students and foreign workers limit opportunities for citizens in the receiving countries. Some developing countries see the migration of domestically trained professionals abroad not as a drain but as a gain, a \"brain bank\" from which to draw at a price; for these professionals, on their return with their accumulated skills, would contribute to the growth of the",
"-30.49631314096041"
],
[
"secondary education and a rising number of college graduates that outnumber high school dropouts. As a whole, the population of the United States is becoming increasingly more educated.\nPost-secondary education is valued very highly by American society and is one of the main determinants of class and status. As with income, however, there are significant discrepancies in terms of race, age, household configuration and geography.\nSince the 1980s the number of educated Americans has continued to grow, but at a slower rate. Some have attributed this to an increase in the foreign born portion of the workforce. However, the decreasing growth of",
"-30.45377106557862"
],
[
"found that the United States spends substantially more on health care than any other country in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and that the use of health care services in the U.S. is below the OECD median by most measures. The authors of the study conclude that the prices paid for health care services are much higher in the U.S. than elsewhere. While the 19 next most wealthy countries by GDP all pay less than half what the U.S. does for health care, they have all gained about six years of life expectancy more than the U.S.",
"-30.425173508701846"
],
[
"wages in the world.\nThe United States has been the world's largest national economy in terms of GDP since at least the 1920s. For many years following the Great Depression of the 1930s, when danger of recession appeared most serious, the government strengthened the economy by spending heavily itself or cutting taxes so that consumers would spend more, and by fostering rapid growth in the money supply, which also encouraged more spending. Ideas about the best tools for stabilizing the economy changed substantially between the 1930s and the 1980s. From the New Deal era that began in 1933, to the Great",
"-30.34876047630678"
],
[
"The political and social structure of the U.S. economy has created an atmosphere that allows domestic demand-led growth to flourish within its borders.\nStudies have produced mixed results as to whether the U.S. operates under a profit-led or wage-led demand regime. However, recent political movements in the U.S. have increased the chances that the minimum wage there will nearly double, which raises the possibility that the U.S. will develop more distinctly under a wage-led demand regime.\nPolicies that drive wages up can be categorized under wage-led growth. In addition, fiscal and monetary policies that allow for or promote private organizations that give",
"-30.29177325010096"
],
[
"in half by 2013, and to stabilize or reduce the national debt as a share of the economy. To lay the foundation for future growth, including through greater U.S. exports, the United States will increase and improve investment in innovation, infrastructure, and education.\n……\nThe two countries reiterate their support for the G-20 Framework for Strong, Sustainable, and Balanced Growth, and reaffirm their commitments to improve the living standards of our citizens through strong economic and jobs growth, and use the full range of policies required to strengthen the global recovery and to reduce excessive external imbalances and maintain",
"-30.266556760063395"
],
[
"students in higher education than on students in basic school. Tunisia, Jordan, and Morocco spent correspondingly about 8, 14, and 15 times more on a student in university than on a student in compulsory education. Though it might be argued that this is due to the costs of higher education, governments that spend more than ten times per student in higher education tend to ignore the importance of compulsory education's importance in personal and intellectual development.\nIn the Arab world, the low quality of the educational system is not due to the lack of funding but results from the inadequate management",
"-30.261643954960164"
],
[
"a significant amount of money that would otherwise be used for economic development. Poor Education Outcomes Economic struggles contribute to poor education outcomes in the country. Education is expensive for individuals who cannot access basic human needs. There are high levels of school dropout rates in the country as the young children seek employment to provide for their economic needs. The state continues to experience high levels of illiteracy. \nBy 2011, just 29 percent of the adults who are above 25 years of age had attained primary school education — also, illiteracy levels among the individuals who are between 15–24",
"-30.256206292193383"
],
[
"opportunity cost of other goods” not purchased like raising salaries, a new car, or better education. The authors found that “nearly all countries fall short of ideal in productive efficiency” and the United States system lags behind (is less efficient) other countries most of the time. They found that the U.S. has a high degree of allocative inefficiency, when compared with other high-income countries. The causes are “high prices for inputs, poorly restrained incentives for overutilization, and a tendency to adopt expensive medical innovations rapidly, even when evidence of effectiveness is weak or absent”.\nCombining the quality definition",
"-30.232183263928164"
],
[
"in developing the school system and education by investing 5,3% of the GDP in the education the quality is still low and lacking and needs to be improved (can be seen on the table). There is also a difference in education and a large gap between the rich and the poor. Furthermore, the political instability in the region and the conflicts are forcing children to drop out of school. Still, school dropouts have significantly decreased in the region. Languages The five major languages in the Middle East and North Africa are: Arabic, Hebrew, Persian, Turkish and Kurdish. There are approximately",
"-30.222226358164335"
],
[
"is also experiencing a struggle because of the recent significant development in globalisation and automation where the competition with lower-paid workers overseas and robots was created. The United States is one of the few countries that has been experiencing weak wage growth while achieving low unemployment rates as it has been significantly low for nearly two decades. One of the factors is because of the limiting official definition of unemployment as it leaves out students and people that are not looking for work but willing to work if there are job opportunities. Studies found that 70% of the people who",
"-30.14891836233437"
],
[
"these public institutions since the Great Recession is nearly \"$9 billion below its 2008 level, after adjusting for inflation.\" However, OECD figures show that American expenditures per full-time-equivalent student in postsecondary education actually rose slightly in that period, and exceeded those of other OECD nations.\nThe long-term consequences of a decline in state funding for public colleges and universities are fewer low-income students, more non-residents of the state (non-resident tuition is typically three times resident tuition), and higher tuition.\nSince the Great Recession, U.S. universities have transitioned from federal grants to corporate funds and have been \"increasingly reliant on private philanthropy\". At",
"-30.093421500598197"
],
[
"place from early 1961 to mid-1969, with an expansion of 53% (5.1% a year), from mid-1991 to late in 2000, at 43% (3.8% a year), and from late 1982 to mid-1990, at 37% (4% a year).\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, it was popular in the U.S. to believe that Japan's economy would surpass that of the U.S., but this did not happen.\nSince the 1970s, several emerging countries have begun to close the economic gap with the United States. In most cases, this has been due to moving the manufacture of goods formerly made in the U.S. to countries where they",
"-30.09113916015849"
],
[
"by educating individuals on things that are not needed for their future it is possible to look at the situation and realize that the monies could have been of more use in giving another individual more specific instruction.\nIn the world of academics and policy wonks, however, a growing number of alarmist studies have appeared over the last several years about how much more unprepared young Americans are for the demands of work today than was the case twenty years ago. Workers entering the labor force in the United States are less educated than young people in many other countries...\nOur",
"-30.056226780769066"
],
[
"$15,000, and so on.\nIn 2012, Sharma began applying this basic framework to analyzing the position of the United States, and concluded that – despite the growing camp of American declinists—the United States is in position to be a \"Comeback Nation.\" He cites five key factors, all related to the superior flexibility of the US system, compared to its peers. The US is paying down its private debts faster than European rivals or Japan. The dollar is at its most competitive level in three decades (in real terms). The US remains the hub of technological innovation. The revolution in US shale",
"-30.04176072284463"
],
[
"Like in the United States, education funding is primarily the responsibility of local governments in China. As poor localities are less able to fund these services and poor households are less able to afford the high private cost of basic education, China has seen an increase in the inequality of education outcomes. “For example, in 1998, per pupil expenditure in Beijing was 12 times that in Guizhou, and the difference jumped to 15 times in 2001.” Demographic Change According to research published in the China Economic Review, population aging is “largely responsible for the sharp increase in income inequality in",
"-29.98837568704039"
],
[
"emphasized to importance of higher education in the country. A huge revenue and a huge percentile of budget was actually spent to promote higher education efforts in the country. Thesis written by Usman Ali Isani pointed out that ₨. 912 million was spent annually for the fiscal period of 1960–65 in a joint collaboration led by MoF, MoEd, UGC and Planning Commission. Colleges were transformed into full-scale research universities and special research institutes were established in all over the country. According to the calculations performed by the Ministry of Statistics and published by Isani, around 430,000 students were enrolled in",
"-29.978414445417002"
],
[
"that the U.S. spends so much because its health care system is more costly. It noted that \"the United States spent considerably more on health care than any other country ... [yet] most measures of aggregate utilization such as physician visits per capita and hospital days per capita were below the OECD median. Since spending is a product of both the goods and services used and their prices, this implies that much higher prices are paid in the United States than in other countries. The researchers examined possible reasons and concluded that input costs were high (salaries, cost of pharmaceutical), and",
"-29.975804030458676"
],
[
"country targeted towards devoting 6% share of the GDP towards the educational sector, the performance has definitely fallen short of expectations. Expenditure on education has steadily risen from 0.64% of GDP in 1951–52 to 2.31% in 1970–71 and thereafter reached the peak of 4.26% in 2000–01. However, it declined to 3.49% in 2004–05. There is a definite need to step-up again. As a proportion of total government expenditure, it has declined from around 11.1% in 2000–2001 to around 9.98% during UPA rule, even though ideally it should be around 20% of the total budget. A policy brief issued by [Network",
"-29.95969702900038"
],
[
"savings rates (as high as 40% in China), or because of high oil prices.\nBernanke referred to this as a \"saving glut\" that may have pushed capital into the United States, a view differing from that of some other economists, who view such capital as having been pulled into the U.S. by its high consumption levels. In other words, a nation cannot consume more than its income unless it sells assets to foreigners, or foreigners are willing to lend to it. Alternatively, if a nation wishes to increase domestic investment in plant and equipment, it will also increase its level of",
"-29.942703624721617"
],
[
"student enrollments in public universities are projected to increase by about 6.6 percent annually, reaching approximately 470,000 (all categories) in 2010, while at the same time, the quality and relevance of education are in need of updating. At 2 percent of GDP, public spending on higher education is already higher than in most countries in the world. Unemployment among university graduates is increasing and the employability of graduates in modern, export-oriented sectors is weak. Mechanisms and incentives to promote quality at the university level are for the most part inadequate and universities cannot fully exercise the autonomy that will help",
"-29.930255343206227"
],
[
"Development in the Americas Development in the Americas 2018 The 2018 DIA, \"Better Spending for Better Lives,\" analyzes government spending in Latin America and the Caribbean. The research details widespread waste and inefficiencies that could be as large as 4.4 percent of the region’s GDP, suggesting there is room to improve services without increasing expenditures. The report provides policy recommendations on how to improve the efficiency of government spending. It argues against across-the-board cuts and suggests countries re-align their spending to meet priorities, including taking into account if given expenditures increase or decrease inequality. Development in the Americas 2017 The",
"-29.890111968677957"
],
[
"the smallest growth by 0.8% due to the increased employment in 16 and 17-year-olds who get paid the national minimum wage of 4.20 pounds whereas people aged 25 years and older get 7.83 pounds. The United States Due to the Global Financial Crisis (GFC), the United States also experienced a significant decline in wage growth like the other advanced countries. Despite the major recovery after the GFC, wage growth in the United States has failed to reach the growth achieved in pre-GFC and has been stagnated for a recent decade. Like the weak wage growth in Australia, the United States",
"-29.875639305158984"
],
[
"to average workers’ pay in U.S. went from 24:1 in 1965 to 262:1 in 2005. A survey carried out by Pew Research Center shows that a majority of American predicted the U.S. economy to be weaker in 2050. Also, the survey says, a majority of the people thought the U.S. would be \"a country with a burgeoning national debt, a wider gap between the rich and the poor and a workforce threatened by automation.\"\nMost right wingers and some centrists believe that the American fiscal crisis stems from the rising expenditures on social programs or alternatively from the increases in military",
"-29.83826210303232"
],
[
"2009 was $1.531 trillion U.S. dollars. 46.5% of this total, roughly $712 billion U.S. dollars, was spent by the United States. The privatization of the production and invention of military technology also leadsto a complicated relationship with significant research and development of many technologies. \nIn 2011, the United States spent more (in absolute numbers) on its military than the next 13 nations combined.\nThe military budget of the United States for the 2009 fiscal year was $515.4 billion. Adding emergency discretionary spending and supplemental spending brings the sum to $651.2 billion. This does not include many military-related items that are outside",
"-29.78888185636606"
],
[
"the United States spent 3.2% of its GDP on its military, while Saudi Arabia spent 8.8%, Israel spent 4.3%, Pakistan spent 4.0%, Russia spent 3.9%, South Korea spent 2.6%, China spent 1.9%, United Kingdom spent 1.8%, and Germany spent 1.2% of its GDP on defense.\nThe US Military's budget has plateaued in 2009, but is still considerably larger than any other military power.\nMilitary spending is important to the Trump administration and it is unlikely that he has any reason to curb it. In addition, military spending is popular with 2017 House Speaker Paul Ryan, showing that U.S. military spending will continue",
"-29.771363243693486"
],
[
"key to the growth was Western Europe's ability to import and implement technology from the United States. The growth rate of a developing country will be higher than the growth rate of a developed country because the diminishing return of developing countries is much lower. If a country is trying to be industrialized, it can only be better off; it will grow much faster than countries that are already industrialized. In the process, the country creates more jobs and more capital, which means the economy's total revenue will increase more and more quickly. Limitation to catch-up growth Abramovitz's theory does",
"-29.757103184005246"
],
[
"personnel and work with skilled local suppliers and firms. Higher education Since 1995, enrolment in higher education has grown tenfold to well over 2 million in 2012. By 2014, there were 419 institutions of higher education. A number of foreign universities operate private campuses in Vietnam, including Harvard University (USA) and the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (Australia).\nThe government’s strong commitment to education (6.3% of GDP in 2012), in general, and higher education, in particular (1.05% of GDP in 2012), has fostered significant growth in higher education but this growth will need to be sustained to retain academics. The Law",
"-29.751308008213528"
],
[
"attainment, an issue that is specifically prevalent in developing countries. \nAnother influential study shows that U.S. food aid is largely driven by U.S. objectives and can lead to more conflict in recipient countries. A well-cited finding using historical data (together with Nathan Nunn) is that the introduction of the potato within the Columbian exchange may have been responsible for at least a quarter of the population and urbanisation growth observed in the Old World between 1700 and 1900. A paper with Nathan Nunn and Sandra Sequeira shows that historical immigration to the United States increased productivity and innovation. ",
"-29.740637598384637"
],
[
"Infrastructure Investment Bank, the United Nations and the New Development BRICS Bank.\nSuccessive Indian governments have been advised to continue liberalisation. Even though, in early years India grew at slower pace than China (however, since 2013 India has been growing faster than its northern counterpart in terms of percentage of GDP growth, although China's absolute growth still exceeds India by a large margin). The McKinsey Quarterly states that removing main obstacles \"would free India's economy to grow at 10% a year\".\nThere has been significant debate, however, around liberalisation as an inclusive economic growth strategy. Since 1992, income inequality has deepened in",
"-29.705025965115055"
],
[
"when picked by hands in unison, whereas the United States was generally a wheat producer. The true advantage of the United States and Canada lay in a more equitable distribution of factors that could not be exploited on an extremely large scale. This distribution led to a more open and opportunistic economy, and eventually to long-term prosperity. For example, because wealth and power were distributed relatively equally in the United States and in Canada, these two countries led the rest of the Americas in providing education on a broader scale. Education is an important factor to improve technology in",
"-29.68839523254428"
],
[
"Hong Kong, Singapore, India, Thailand, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia, Philippines, and Indonesia are developing at high to moderate levels. Thailand, for example, has grown at double-digit rates most years since the early 1980s. China had been the world leader in economic growth from 2001 to 2015. It is estimated that it took England around 60 years to double its economy when the Industrial Revolution began. It took the United States around 50 years to double its economy during the American economic take-off in the late nineteenth century. Several East and Southeast Asian countries today have been doubling their economies every",
"-29.67825748148607"
],
[
"to the private funding of education, only 2.7% of the nation's total GDP is spent towards public education.\nShifting the perspective to the effects immigration has placed on the existing economic status of the African-American population, there is yet even higher levels of economic bifurcations. While African-Americans occupied larger employment levels of at least 19 percent in sectors like transportation and hospital and social services during the 1990s, immigration caused a shift in this employment trend pushing them more towards private or self employment. One causing factor is the growing Puerto Rican and Mexican population who have increasingly found their employment",
"-29.666946129873395"
],
[
"to provide reasonable religious accommodation'. United States According to a new study by Harvard and McGill University researchers, the United States lags far behind nearly all wealthy countries when it comes to family-oriented workplace policies such as maternity leave, paid sick days and support for breast feeding. Jody Heyman, founder of the Harvard-based Project on Global Working Families and director of McGill's Institute for Health and Social Policy, states that, \"More countries are providing the workplace protections that millions of Americans can only dream of. The United States has been a proud leader in adopting laws that provide for equal",
"-29.654236173490062"
],
[
"the least developed countries such as in Africa and South Asia have less than 30% each. On the other hand, the reduced cost and increasing availability of mobile devices such as smartphones throughout less developed regions is helping to reduce this disparity at an exponential rate. In just two years, between 2013 and 2015, the number of Internet users in developing nations has risen by 9%, according to the Pew Research Center. Other research has shown, though, that even within more developed countries like the United States, the digital divide continues to persist between upper and lower socioeconomic classes and",
"-29.64533584244782"
],
[
"long run, nations with trade surpluses tend also to have a savings surplus. The U.S. generally has developed lower savings rates than its trading partners, which have tended to have trade surpluses. Germany, France, Japan, and Canada have maintained higher savings rates than the U.S. over the long run. Impacts The notion that bilateral trade deficits are bad in and of themselves is overwhelmingly rejected by trade experts and economists.\nWealth-producing sector jobs in the U.S. such as those in manufacturing and computer software have often been replaced by lower-paying wealth-consuming service sector jobs such as those in retail and government",
"-29.644594505545683"
],
[
"prosperity sought by millions of individuals. However, Freeman’s thesis that labor markets will not always be friendly to university-educated workers is enjoying a revival in the early twenty-first century. This re-consideration has gained momentum since the high unemployment and underemployment of college graduates following the Great Recession of 2008 as well as trends in globalization that have led to the off shoring of many jobs done by lawyers, accountants, information technology workers, and other well-educated professionals.\nFreeman has made the case that expanding programs for employee ownership and broader-based profit sharing would help reduce inequality in the United States. ",
"-29.63922593247844"
],
[
"that of under-performing states and the rest of the nation another 3-to-5% GDP. In sum, McKinsey's report suggests, \"These educational gaps impose on the United States the economic equivalent of a permanent national recession.\"\nOverall the households and demographics featuring the highest educational attainment in the United States are also among those with the highest household income and wealth. Thus, while the population of the US is becoming increasingly educated on all levels, a direct link between income and educational attainment remains.\nACT Inc. reports that 25% of US graduating high school seniors meet college-readiness benchmarks in English, reading, mathematics, and science.",
"-29.63673879057751"
],
[
"US workforce should keep updating its work skills. Making the workforce more adaptable, Friedman argues, will keep it more employable. He also suggests that the government make it easier for people to switch jobs by making retirement benefits and health insurance less dependent on one's employer and by providing insurance that would partly cover a possible drop in income when changing jobs. Friedman also believes there should be more inspiration for youth to become scientists, engineers, and mathematicians because of a decrease in the percentage of those professionals who are American. Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention The Dell Theory of",
"-29.626991063414607"
],
[
"or future lost earnings because of poor health. Developing future economic models that would guide both private and public investments as well as drive future policy to evaluate the efficacy of positive lifestyle choices on health is a major topic for economists globally.\nAmericans spend over three trillion a year on health care but have a higher rate of infant mortality, shorter life expectancies, and a higher rate of diabetes than other high-income nations because of negative lifestyle choices. Despite these large costs, very little is spent on prevention for lifestyle-caused conditions in comparison. The Journal of American Medical",
"-29.623954642913304"
],
[
"a result of the reforms put by the New Government which led to the economy becoming healthy again and the current account deficit coming in control. Growth reached 7.5% in the Jan–Mar quarter of 2015 before slowing to 7.0% in Apr–Jun quarter\nBy 2050, India's economy is expected to overtake the US economy, putting it behind China in the world's largest economies. Like China, agriculture makes up a large part of the Indian economy. As the Indian economy has grown, agriculture's contribution to GDP has steadily declined, but it still makes up a large portion of the workforce and socio-economic development.",
"-29.62287313514389"
],
[
"and India as well as most of East Asia began copying the Japanese model of weakening their currencies, and restructuring their economies so as to create a current account surplus to build large foreign currency reserves. This has led to ever-increasing funding for U.S. treasury bonds, allowing or aiding housing (in 2001–2005) and stock asset bubbles (in 1996–2000) to develop in the United States.",
"-29.61389422614593"
],
[
"students every summer), Family Life Center, Young & Able, and Impact Young Lives Foundation. Overview Education in South Africa still is the largest single beneficiary of the government public expenditure as it is a key figure to reducing poverty and accelerating long term economic development and sustainability. In fact, South Africa has one of the highest rates of public investment in education in the world. The Government expenditure for education grew 14% a year for the past 4 years, accounting for R 104,4 billion ($14.31 billion US dollars) in 2009 and nearly R 165,0 billion ($22.73 billion US dollars) in",
"-29.600678677204996"
],
[
"vast majority of their total enrollment within the public sector as well. These countries see about 75% to 100% of their total enrollment attend public institutions. There has been a clear trend in higher education in Latin America towards the commercialization and privatization of higher education. This is a trend that is evident throughout the world when it comes to higher education. An increase in private schools meaning more private money which introduces more flexibility when it comes to funding programs and beginning innovation initiatives. Since 1994, enrollment in private institutions has increased nearly 8% to 46% (from 38%) of",
"-29.572203469928354"
],
[
"could be made for sufficiently less money to cover the cost of shipping plus a higher profit. In other cases, some countries have gradually learned to produce the same products and services that previously only the U.S. and a few other countries could produce. Real income growth in the U.S. has slowed. 21st century The United States economy experienced a recession in 2001 with an unusually slow jobs recovery, with the number of jobs not regaining the February 2001 level until January 2005. This \"jobless recovery\" overlapped with the building of a housing bubble and arguably a wider debt bubble,",
"-29.57033306141966"
],
[
"reduction of expenditures necessary to balance spending and revenues in the long run. For example, a fiscal gap of 5% could be eliminated by an immediate and permanent 5% increase in taxes or cut in spending or some combination of both.\nIt includes not only the structural deficit at a given point in time, but also the difference between promised future government commitments, such as health and retirement spending, and planned future tax revenues. Since the elderly population is growing much faster than the young population in many developed countries, many economists argue that these countries have important fiscal gaps,",
"-29.531840417184867"
],
[
"albeit less than President Obama did. Children and food security On April 29, 2008, a UNICEF UK report found that the world's poorest and most vulnerable children are being hit the hardest by climate change. The report, \"Our Climate, Our Children, Our Responsibility: The Implications of Climate Change for the World's Children\", says that access to clean water and food supplies will become more difficult, particularly in Africa and Asia. In the United States By way of comparison, in one of the largest food producing countries in the world, the United States, approximately one out of six people are \"food",
"-29.52000608970411"
],
[
"share of workers with deductibles exceeding $1,000 grew from 10 percent to 27 percent. Increased out-of-pocket expenses have made patients and physicians more cost conscious. Further, a combination of prior notification, higher patient co-payments and restrained reimbursements may have contributed to slowing cost growth. Motivation International comparisons of healthcare have found that the United States spends more per-capita than other similarly developed nations but falls below similar countries in various health metrics, suggesting inefficiency and waste. In addition, the United States has significant underinsurance and significant impending unfunded liabilities from its aging demographic and its social insurance programs Medicare",
"-29.509710931044538"
],
[
"globally. But, as noted in the book, global growth of 4% is possible because several countries, such as China, can grow at a much faster rate as they \"catch up\" to more industrialized nations, while its hard for those nations already industrialized to grow at such a rate for a sustained period of time.\nAccording to a review published in The New York Times, \"The ideas in the book include lowering corporate tax rates, shifting away from taxing income to taxing consumption and property, promoting innovation by letting professors keep gains from their research, expanding free-trade pacts with Japan and",
"-29.504357870435342"
],
[
"more rightfully part of the developing nation and required to further its economic growth. Over time, the United Nations have come to more generally support the developing nations' point of view, and have requested significant offsetting \"foreign aid\" contributions so that a developing nation losing human capital does not lose the capacity to continue to train new people in trades, professions, and the arts. Development Human resources play an important part of developing and making a company or organization at the beginning or making a success at the end, due to the labor provided by employees. Human resources is intended",
"-29.47924712416716"
],
[
"resisted better than public expenditure on education overall. The latter peaked at 4.7% of GDP in 2007 before slipping to 2.9% of GDP in 2015. Vision 2025 fixed a target of raising public expenditure on education to 7% of GDP by 2025. Student enrollment trends The result of greater spending on higher education has been a steep rise in tertiary enrollment. Between 2007 and 2013, student rolls swelled from 2.8 million to 4.4 million in the country's public and private universities. Some 45% of students were enrolled in private universities in 2011. There were more women studying than men in",
"-29.477981082571205"
],
[
"science and politics may lead the way for breathtaking innovations to take place.\nChina will become the biggest economy; picking up slack from the sagging American economy. Economy prosperity will continue in Brazil, Russia, India, and China and the N-11 countries.\nBuildings may become energy traders instead of being merely energy consumers. Power plants may become reality in desert regions like the Sahara and the Mojave Desert in the Southwestern United States. Seven billion people will live in urban areas by 2050; vastly outnumbering rural people. There will be more senior citizens than young people (between the ages of 12 and 17)",
"-29.469641362607945"
],
[
"determining the direction and scale of what the U.S. economy produces. This is enhanced by relatively low levels of regulation and government involvement, as well as a court system that generally protects property rights and enforces contracts. Today, the United States is home to 29.6 million small businesses, 30% of the world's millionaires, 40% of the world's billionaires, as well as 139 of the world's 500 largest companies.\nFrom its emergence as an independent nation, the United States has encouraged science and innovation. In the early 20th century, the research developed through informal cooperation between U.S. industry and academia grew rapidly and",
"-29.431818333425326"
],
[
"changes in the labour market that require people to have a high school diploma and, in many cases, a university degree. Nonetheless, more than 54.0% of Canadians have a college or university degree, the highest rate in the world. The majority of schools, 67%, are co-educational.\nCanada spends about 5.4% of its GDP on education. The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student). Recent reports suggest that from 2006 the tuition fees of Canadian universities have increased by 40 percent. Since the adoption of section 23 of the Constitution Act, 1982, education in both English and French",
"-29.41638705995865"
],
[
"claim that underlying changes in the economy, such as slowing growth in the working-age population, have made episodes like the past five years in Europe and the United States, and the last 20 years in Japan, likely to happen often. That is, we will often find ourselves facing persistent shortfalls of demand, which can’t be overcome even with near-zero interest rates.\" At its root is \"the problem of building consumer demand at a time when people are less motivated to spend\".\nOne theory is that the boost in growth by the internet and technological advancement in computers of the new economy",
"-29.369129994214745"
],
[
"International Academic City and Dubai Knowledge Village, the global economic downturn has had a negative impact on learning and development spending within the Middle East. More than half the respondents noted that spending on executive education had been “significantly” affected, while other organizations agreed that spending had been “somewhat” affected.\nA return to higher participation appears to be coming as the economy shows more signs of improvement. A substantial portion of the organizations surveyed by Manchester Business School said they anticipate executive education spending to moderately increase during the next three years.\nThe situation is similar in other parts of the world",
"-29.365343467739876"
],
[
"market. Another way in which periphery countries better their education system is by spending money to send university-level students and staff abroad to places such as the U.S. and Europe to receive a better education.\nOnce the people in these countries have become educated enough and they realize their place in the world economy, they can also demand help from the core countries. Although unlikely, due to the fact that the core countries rely on the exploitation of the periphery, there have been pushes for core countries to help better the periphery countries. Some of the ideas suggested are to help",
"-29.303234536120726"
],
[
"in mainstream terms of search.\nEconomist Jeffrey Sachs argues that among developed countries those with high rates of taxation and high social welfare spending perform better on most measures of economic performance compared to countries with low rates of taxation and low social outlays. He concludes that Friedrich Hayek was wrong to argue that high levels of government spending harms an economy and \"a generous social-welfare state is not a road to serfdom but rather to fairness, economic equality and international competitiveness\". Austrian economist Sudha Shenoy responded by arguing that countries with large public sectors have grown more slowly.\nEconomist Bryan Caplan",
"-29.27334416040685"
],
[
"distribution and politics, rather than production. Other critics say that the world has so many people because the second green revolution adopted unsustainable agricultural practices that left the world with more mouths to feed than the planet can sustain. Pfeiffer claimed that even if technological farming could feed the current population, its dependence on fossil fuels, which in 2006 he incorrectly predicted would reach peak output in 2010, would lead to a catastrophic rise in energy and food prices.\nClaimed deployment constraints to developing nations include the lack of easy access, equipment costs and intellectual property rights that hurt developing countries.",
"-29.270768612754182"
],
[
"protests. Education With such major growth in Arab youth population, two things begin to lack; education as well as job opportunity. \"While countries across the region had made tremendous strides in bolstering rates of educational attainment within their populations, particularly for young women, educational outcomes have not provided youth with the skills sought out by private sector employers in the region.\" Due to large enrollment numbers in education each individuals access begins to decrease. A world bank report in 2008,\"estimated that the secondary school population in the region will grow by one-third during the next 30 years, and that tertiary",
"-29.24564913767972"
],
[
"significant impact on the views of prospective continuing education students. A survey of 1,500 adults who planned to enroll in a course or program within the next two years determined that while nearly half of respondents believed that the value of education had risen due to the recession, over two-thirds said the state of the economy had affected their plans to pursue continuing education.\nThe World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on the future of work explains that flexible learning opportunities at universities and adult learning programs that allow workers to retrain and retool are vital in order for labor",
"-29.244483681570273"
],
[
"growing working-age population; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle-class. The World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.\nAccording to the Worldwide Cost of Living Report 2017 released by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) which was created by comparing more than 400 individual prices across 160 products and services, four of",
"-29.241514197783545"
],
[
"and to make recommendations to leaders in both nations towards an ambitious goal: to double the number of study abroad students in each country by 2020.Over the past 15 years, there has been a 57 percent drop in the number of Japanese students studying in the United States, from over 47,000 students in 1997-1998 to fewer than 20,000 in 2011-2012. During the same period, Japan fell from being the number-one country of origin for foreign students on U.S. campuses to seventh place. In the same period, U.S. citizens studying in Japan tripled, reaching 6,000, largely as a result",
"-29.225911977813666"
],
[
"growth rates but relatively low economic freedom. Developing nations can have higher growth rates than developed nations, as they have cheap labor and can import investment, technology and organizational skills from rich countries.\nWhen examining the subcomponents of the index, any positive effect that a low level of taxes might have is more disputed than the importance of rule of law, lack of political corruption, low inflation, and functioning property rights. Many north European nation, such as Iceland (# 70), Denmark (# 15), Finland (# 11) and Sweden (# 39), have extensive welfare states, which are strongly opposed by advocates of",
"-29.220533234765753"
],
[
"countries have been hit by recession very hard, for instance Spain's unemployment rate reached 18.7% (37% for youths) in May 2009 — the highest in the eurozone. In the UK, youths bore the brunt of unemployment during the recession.\nThe rise of advanced economies in Brazil, India, and China increased the total global labor pool dramatically. Recent improvements in communication and education in these countries has allowed workers in these countries to compete more closely with workers in traditionally strong economies, such as the United States. This huge surge in labor supply has provided downward pressure on wages and contributed to",
"-29.215174267883413"
],
[
"a nation modernises and its economy develops. The United States showed a 12% increase in demand during each year of the first three decades of the twentieth century, a rate of growth that is now being experienced by emerging economies such as those of India or China. Historically, the growth rate for electricity demand has outstripped that for other forms of energy.\nEnvironmental concerns with electricity generation have led to an increased focus on generation from renewable sources, in particular from wind and solar. While debate can be expected to continue over the environmental impact of different means of electricity production,",
"-29.20909923160798"
],
[
"9.5% from 2005–2008. Economic growth has also led to increases in the per capita gross domestic product (GDP), from $1,255 in 1978 to $3,452 in 2005, and finally to $3,900 in 2012.\nJobs in the technology and business sectors have many benefits. However, only people in those sectors are benefiting. The overall employment rate for the country has decreased, while the number of job seekers is increasing at a yearly rate of 2.5%. Despite those statistics, the GDP is increasing every year. Growth is limited to some states, including Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Other states like Bihar,",
"-29.20698233222356"
],
[
"the last decade, and expected to reach 25% in the near future.\nRapidly rising middle class (from current US$2 billion to US$5 billion in 2030) and increased access to more disposable income, means more purchasing power – the number of youth travellers is on the rise – in 2012, nearly 30% of young people described themselves as ”tourists” compared to about 15% in 2002.\nRecently, diversification in destinations and source markets has seen growth at the expense of developed countries across all youth travel sectors, incl. student and educational travel market.\nBrazil, India, China or other emerging countries have been the markets of",
"-29.18516018614355"
],
[
"workforce. While most of the absolute increase in this global labor supply consisted of less-educated workers (those without higher education), the relative supply of workers with higher education increased by about 50 percent during the same period. From 1980 to 2010, the global workforce grew from 1.2 to 2.9 billion people. According to a 2012 report by the McKinsey Global Institute, this was caused mostly by developing nations, where there was a \"farm to factory\" transition. Non-farming jobs grew from 54 percent in 1980 to almost 73 percent in 2010. This industrialization took an estimated 620 million people out of",
"-29.183076494839042"
]
] |
521lvl | Why do dams have a massive ramp when releasing overflow water? | [
"Spillways are generally used in emergency situations when you need to reduce the water level in your reservoir FAST. The water released has huge amounts of energy, as you can see in the video. Think of all the damage that water can do when it reaches the bottom. If you just had a ramp straight down, the water would reach the downstream riverbed with huge amounts of energy, and start pushing away the soil and rocks at the bottom (causing erosion). But, so what if that stuff gets pushed away? Well the dam is a really heavy structure that's supporting lots of pressure, and so it requires a good base to stand on. If this erosion goes uncontrolled, the dam can become unsupported and lose stability, leading to a collapse. This would be catastrophic for anyone/anything that is downstream. (You can google dam collapses, that shit ain't pretty). With this in mind, spillways are designed with a big curve at the bottom called a 'ski jump'. The purpose is simple: to dissipate all of that energy flowing downstream. And tbh it also has the added benefit of looking super cool.",
"The biggest danger for a dam is undercutting, where the water flowing down the face of the dam swirls around and eats away at or under its base. But designing a spillway to direct the water away from the face of the dam, you reduce or eliminate that risk. Throwing the water into the air also gets rid of a lot of the energy of that falling water. It transmits a lot of it into air that is pulled into the foam, and the air takes the energy away as wind. Lastly, the water in a dam has often been still for a long time, and has lost a lot of its oxygen and gained some sulphur chemicals. That oxygen gets added back in, and the sulphur dispersed, by mixing in a lot of air like this. This isn't as important with spillways, but it is with dams that release water from pipes at their base.",
"Same reason that when I am pouring water from a 5 gallon bucket into my fish tank I have to make sure I pour it over the rock structure in the tank so the gravel doesn't get shot everywhere and my fish aren't left with a giant crater. ^_^",
"I actually just watched a show on the science channel about the three gorges dam in China. The reason the ramp is there is so the water can separate in the air and the energy dissipate so as to not dig out the base of the dam.",
"Spillways can have baffles, steps, or a ramp in them as a means of dissipating energy. By slowing down the water, there's less erosion of the riverbed right behind the dam.",
"Does this affect the wild life at all? Like there has to be a ton of fish going off that ramp and being moved to a new ecosystem down river.",
"Water coming down a dam has a lot of energy. You could use that energy to make electricity. Some dams aren't used to make electricity. Other dams make electricity but sometimes need to release more water than they can use to make electricity. If the water was simply released downwards, it would erode the river bottom, and maybe even erode under the dam and weaken it. The ramp is there to use up some of that energy and make the water hit further away from the dam, to protect the dam.",
"Essentially, if the ramp wasn't there the water would erode the area just below the dam. This could cause the whole dam to fail and come crashing down.",
"From /u/runningturtle6 [original post]( URL_0 ) > It's a phenomenon called hydraulic jump. The spillway is designed this way so that the water's energy is dissipated before entering the river. This helps prevent erosion and a torrent of fast moving water rushing downstream. I believe the dam is partially built on the area where the water would hit so if you erode it, you'd be eroding part of the foundation of the dam itself. Further in the comments it is debated whether this is a \"hydraulic jump\" or not.",
"There is no greater force on earth than moving water en mass. You have to protect the channel, or you'll be carving the basement down further when releasing energy in this small a space, at this high a volume. If you do not protect the foundation of the entire area (including immediately downstream), then your dam will be undermined and the damage will be catastrophic.",
"Energy dissapation, some use ramps, some have sloped blocks called dragon teeth, it slows the watwr and allows gravith to do most of the work. Without these the erosion to downstream would be very problematic.",
"I would think because it takes out some of the kinetic energy when it goes up it so it won't just drill a hole in the ground",
"To reduce the amount of kinetic energy of the falling water. Otherwise it could tear hills literally apart, create mudslides, etc."
] | [
[
"the dam had reached an advanced stage where it could begin to impound its reservoir. While filling with water, cracks began to appear in the dam on its upstream heel when the reservoir level was 42 metres (138 ft) below its maximum operating level of 1,902 metres (6,240 ft) above sea level. Uplift pressure on the dam had unexpectedly increased as well and engineers worried that the structure's grout curtain had been damaged. Because the dam is in a \"U\"-shaped valley instead of the usual \"V\"-shaped for arch dams, hydrostatic pressure is exceptionally strong on the center-bottom (heel) upstream portion of the",
"-37.10753573029069"
],
[
"ends of the dam's spillways. This measure saved cost, but introduced a weak point at the elbow where the two tunnels intersected. The upper ends of the diversion tunnels were then sealed with a solid concrete \"plug\". \nWhile this made the spillways more economical to construct, they had less capacity in part because engineers must maintain at least 30 percent clearance between the water level and the tunnel ceiling. in addition to the tunnel spillways, the dam has a set of river outlet works designed to release 15,000 cubic feet (420 m³) per second. The dam also releases water",
"-36.96011120957337"
],
[
"dam is being filled, the surrounding groundwater level rises. The dam failure may trigger further catastrophic processes. As the water level rapidly drops, the uncompensated groundwater hydraulic pressure may initiate additional landslides. Those that fall into the dam reservoir may lead to further catastrophic spillages. Moreover, the resulting flood may undercut the sides of the river valley to further produce landslides downstream.\nAfter forming, the dam leads to aggradation of the valley upstream, and dam failure leads to aggradation downstream.\nConstruction engineers responsible for design of artificial dams and other structures in river valleys must take into account the potential of",
"-36.89915822938201"
],
[
"dams in front of reservoirs act as knickpoints-the energy of the water falling from them reduces and deposition is a result below the dams. Seismicity The filling (impounding) of reservoirs has often been attributed to reservoir-triggered seismicity (RTS) as seismic events have occurred near large dams or within their reservoirs in the past. These events may have been triggered by the filling or operation of the reservoir and are on a small scale when compared to the amount of reservoirs worldwide. Of over 100 recorded events, some early examples include the 60 m (197 ft) tall Marathon Dam in Greece (1929), the",
"-36.40782817336731"
],
[
"bottom outlets with valves or gates which may be operated to release flood flow, and a few dams lack overflow spillways and rely entirely on bottom outlets.\nThere are two main types of spillways: controlled and uncontrolled.\nA controlled spillway has mechanical structures or gates to regulate the rate of flow. This design allows nearly the full height of the dam to be used for water storage year-round, and flood waters can be released as required by opening one or more gates.\nAn uncontrolled spillway, in contrast, does not have gates; when the water rises above the lip or crest of the spillway",
"-35.86582747293869"
],
[
"that would happen if the dam were overtopped.\nOther uses of the term \"spillway\" include bypasses of dams or outlets of channels used during high water, and outlet channels carved through natural dams such as moraines.\nWater normally flows over a spillway only during flood periods – when the reservoir cannot hold the excess of water entering the reservoir over the amount used. In contrast, an intake tower is a structure used to release water on a regular basis for water supply, hydroelectricity generation, etc. Types A spillway is located at the top of the reservoir pool. Dams may also have",
"-35.81025967658206"
],
[
"all reservoir evaporation is attributed to power production. Siltation and flow shortage When water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during a flood and fail.\nChanges in the amount of river flow will correlate with",
"-35.79741721285973"
],
[
"middle layer or \"Power Storage\" portion is used to regulate the flow of water running into the generators of the dam. The top portion or \"Flood Storage\" is usually empty unless holding floodwater.\nA spillway at the top of the dam is used to regulate the top portion of the dam, the spillway contains walls to maneuver the flow of the water, and a stilling basin is placed at the foot of the spillway to dissipate erosion from the spillway water hitting the base of the dam. The spillway is not used frequently because flooding can be regulated by other means,",
"-35.70087046996923"
],
[
"pleasing dams, primarily because of the slenderness of the concrete arch and the \"outstanding cleanness of the design.\" The design also reduced the amount of concrete needed, therefore reducing the cost as well. Spillways The dam has two spillways, each located on the structure, near its abutments on either side which have a maximum discharge capacity of 1,300 m³/s (46,000 cu ft/s). Each spillway contains six fixed-crest weirs that are 12 m (39 ft) wide. From each opening, the water flows down a single chute to a flip bucket at the bottom of the spillway. The flip buckets dissipate and deflect the water towards the",
"-35.58623365739186"
],
[
"flow, holes can subtly aerate the water, enough to allow craft to fall through the aerated water to the bottom of a deep 'hole'.\nSome of the most dangerous types of holes are formed by low head dams (weirs), and similar types of obstruction. In a low head dam, the 'hole' has a very wide, uniform structure - there's no escape point - and the sides of the hydraulic (ends of the dam) are often blocked by a man-made wall, making it impossible to paddle around, or slip off the side of the hydraulic, where the bypass water flow would",
"-35.5694567055034"
],
[
"as either overflow dams, where water consistently flows over or is blocked through a gate on top of crest, or non-overflow dams, which channel water through or around the dam with emergency flood gates. They both range in size. An overflow dam has a similar nappe typology to weirs (free, depressed and clinging nappes). Engineers usually construct an ogee crest, which forms a clinging nappe. This increases discharge, reduces atmospheric pressure and decreases the chances of air cavitation occurring. Nappe vibration Nappe vibration is classified in hydraulic literature as fluid dynamic excitation; vibrations are generated by the fluid and the",
"-35.49628836172633"
],
[
"required for the dam would create a structure so massive, that heat released during its setting would be trapped for years, and would eventually cause cracks to form. To aid the release of this heat, engineers divided the dam into construction joints and outfitted them with grout pipes and cooling coils. The dam's spillway presented another problem, as engineers were worried that the water's 400-foot (120 m) drop would cause erosion issues at the dam's foundation. A special spillway was thus designed that drains water out through two 34-foot (10.3 m) diameter spill pipes into a diversion tunnel equipped",
"-35.431905482459115"
],
[
"gallons per day. \nOn September 6 a 15-foot (4.6 m) by 20-foot (6.1 m) sinkhole developed on the upstream face of the dam's crest, which workers immediately filled with riprap bulldozed from the nearby dam surface into the hole. The hole was 30 feet (9.1 m) deep, with the bottom 11 feet (3.4 m) below the level of the reservoir, with only 45 feet (14 m) of dam structure remaining between the sinkhole and the downstream face. Further collapse could have created a breach in the dam, leading to total failure. Leakage did not increase during the incident. The emergency release of water flooded",
"-35.18154100690299"
],
[
"automatically opens when water levels are high. The dam's gates, which needs power only to close, won an award for \"Innovative Design in Civil Engineering\" by the Institution of Civil Engineers. The total effective width of the spillways is 100 m (328 ft), allowing a maximum discharge of 8,200 m³/s (289,580 cu ft/s). Two additional low-level sluices at the base of the dam allows the purging of accumulated silts behind the dam.",
"-35.121745025069686"
],
[
"through the dam's power turbines, which are capable of releasing 31,500 cubic feet (890 m³) per second. The official spillway capacity is 208,000 cu ft/s (5,900 m³/s). Tunnel spillways damaged At first, as inflows exceeded normal levels, the US Bureau of Reclamation engineers opened penstocks to full release. When inflow rates continued to rise, they also opened the river outlet works. The reservoir continued to rise.\nReclamation Bureau officials met in late June and agreed that the maximum water level the dam could handle was 3,708 feet (1,130 m). At that level they feared they could not control the spillway gates. The engineers decided to",
"-35.07269922954583"
],
[
"dam. However, because the water is traveling through bedrock and not the dam itself, this poses little threat to the dam's structural stability. During extreme flood events, however, this may still be a cause for concern.\nFlood waters are released through a concrete ogee crest spillway with 16 tainter gates. The gates measure 50 by 54 feet (15 m × 16 m) and can spill up to 1,507,000 cubic feet per second (42,700 m³/s). The spillway empties into a stilling basin 950 feet (290 m) long, designed to dissipate erosion. Water supply and flood control The Amistad reservoir covers 65,000 acres (26,000 ha) at normal (conservation) water",
"-35.07227575383149"
],
[
"dam. As excessive water leaked into lower areas of the dam, the water level was drawn down and engineers increased drainage. \nIn 1979, the grout curtain was strengthened and another full impoundment was unsuccessfully attempted. Between 1980 and 1981, a polyurethane resin grout was used to re-grout joints and they were frozen during the next impoundment attempt, allowing them to thaw naturally. As remedial works progressed, cracks near the abutments (flanks) of the dam formed as well; on the downstream side and in a horizontal direction. A plastic sheet-covered concrete blanket was laid on the upstream valley floor behind",
"-34.94706352442154"
],
[
"for flood storage, but was designed so that a generator could easily be added should the need for one arise. The dam was formed by building a rock and stone \"crib\" and lining the middle with earthen fill. The dam was built as quickly as possible in hopes of allowing its reservoir ample time to fill during the rainy winter months. The speed of its construction was aided by the use of rock-and-fill rather than concrete (the spillway was the only major section that required concrete) and the dam's relatively simple design, which was also employed at",
"-34.879811390375835"
],
[
"the stress level of the dam must be calculated in advance of building to ensure that its break level threshold is not exceeded.\nOvertopping or overflow of an embankment dam beyond its spillway capacity will cause its eventual failure. The erosion of the dam's material by overtopping runoff will remove masses of material whose weight holds the dam in place and against the hydraulic forces acting to move the dam. Even a small sustained overtopping flow can remove thousands of tons of overburden soil from the mass of the dam within hours. The removal of this mass unbalances the forces that",
"-34.80830862506991"
],
[
"properly seated the dam runs the chances of a possible collapse. Some problems that might occur during the construction of a buttress dam is cracks along the convex side near the cresting of the dam due to thermal stresses and the dam not being 'loaded'. Once the dam has been reinforced if cracks continue to occur the cracks will close once the force of the water is against it.\nJohn S. Eastwood an engineer, was a designer and proponent of buttress dams. Buttress or hollow gravity dams were originally built to retain water for irrigation or mining, the benefits of multiple-arch",
"-34.787051071820315"
],
[
"Dam failure A dam failure or dam burst is a catastrophic type of failure characterized by the sudden, rapid, and uncontrolled release of impounded water or the likelihood of such an uncontrolled release.\nA dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs,that directs or slows down the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundments. Most dams have a section called a spillway or weir over or through which water flows, either intermittently or continuously, and some have hydroelectric power generation systems installed.\nDams are considered \"installations containing dangerous forces\" under International humanitarian law due to the massive impact of a",
"-34.73273557666107"
],
[
"of the reaction.\nMassive structures such as dams pose particular problems: they cannot be easily replaced, and the swelling can block spillway gates or turbine operations. Cutting slots across the structure can relieve some pressure, and help restore geometry and function.",
"-34.62053513841238"
],
[
"be lowered in guides, cutting off the incoming water and allowing the pipeline to drain. A second similar structure allowed water to be taken from about 40 feet (12 m) above the bottom of the reservoir. When the dam was nearly completed, there was evidence of slippage on the upsteam face, which displaced the tower slightly. Leslie put this down to the dam being built too quickly, with insufficient attention being paid to consolidating the hard boulder clay from which much of the dam was constructed, and all his subsequent dams were constructed in layers less than 1 foot (300 mm) thick,",
"-34.62015002249973"
],
[
"flood control pool at elevation 1,414.0, and is 320 feet (98 m) long measured along the axis of the dam. Concrete piers and training walls at each end of the spillway direct floodwater into and over the crest. Floodwaters fall into a plunge pool energy dissipater at the toe of the dam. The spillway is designed for a maximum discharge of 38,300 cubic feet (1,080 m³) per second with the reservoir at elevation 1,423.6 feet (433.9 m).",
"-34.4875316984253"
],
[
"it begins to be released from the reservoir. The rate of discharge is controlled only by the depth of water above the reservoir's spillway. Storage volume in the reservoir above the spillway crest can only be used for the temporary storage of floodwater; it cannot be used as water supply storage because it is normally empty.\nIn an intermediate type, normal level regulation of the reservoir is controlled by the mechanical gates. If inflow to the reservoir exceeds the gate's capacity, an artificial channel called either an auxiliary or emergency spillway that is blocked by a fuse plug dike will operate.",
"-34.44690980196174"
],
[
"allow excess water to drain off without damaging it. Dams are generally built wider at the base and the top is usually tilted upstream to resist the force of the current. Beavers can transport their own weight in material; they drag logs along mudslides and float them through canals to get them in place. Once the dam has flooded enough area to the proper depth to form a protective moat for the lodge (often covering many acres), beavers begin construction on the lodge.\nTrees approaching a diameter of 90 centimetres (3.0 ft) may be used to construct a dam, although",
"-34.42530697688926"
],
[
"and threatened to overtop the unfinished auxiliary dike south of the dam, possibly allowing the river to cut a new, lower channel and potentially leaving the damsite dry. Explosive charges were placed in the crest of the main dam, to be used if the overflow occurred, thus keeping the lowest point at the dam. The dike held and the charges were not needed, but did have to be removed by explosives experts in 1949. An auxiliary dike was built at the location in 1910 to develop the reservoir's full capacity. The potential overtopping gave rise to sensational stories in Denver",
"-34.39452319557495"
],
[
"Splash dam A splash dam was a temporary wooden dam used to raise the water level in streams to float logs downstream to sawmills. By impounding water and allowing it to be released on the log drive's schedule, these dams allowed many more logs to be brought to market than the natural flow of the creek allowed. Water releases from multiple splash dams on tributaries were also often combined to maximize the number of logs floated throughout a given watershed. Construction Splash dams were typically constructed of logs or boards, which formed cribs that were then filled with stones and",
"-34.374882502947"
],
[
"has prevented approximately $36 million in flood-related damages. When it was constructed, certain deficiencies were noted in the foundations for the dam. When the reservoir is at normal levels, the failure risk is small, but as the water level rises, the potential for collapse increases. Floods in May 1969 caused the reservoir to rise to its record level, over 105,000 acre feet (130,000,000 m³), causing leakage of the dam. This level was not even half the reservoir's maximum capacity of 230,000 acre feet (280,000,000 m³). In 1993 and 1995, floods caused the lake to rise to within 1 foot (0.3 m) of the",
"-34.343451164328144"
],
[
"the canals have become derelict. Moreover, the dam is silted up. During the last phase of the monsoon season when excessive rainfall occurs the dam cannot take in all the water and so much of it is released. This surplus water becomes voluminous and overflows the bank of the river and canals. The side embankments are not constructed perfectly everywhere, and the weak points are breached to cause flood. Flood waters can not always find passage to be drained out quickly causing water logging.",
"-34.32213474495802"
],
[
"(12 in) high, 45 cm (18 in) wide, 80 cm (31 in) long and roughly 50 lb (23 kg). Destruction Because of erosion on the downstream face of the incomplete dam and its lack of a spillway, it is believed that a flood destroyed it. In addition, there was no evidence of a trench or tunnel that would have diverted water in the wadi around the construction site. Construction on the upstream side of the dam was mostly complete but the downstream side was much less developed. The crest of the dam sloped towards the center which the engineers may have intended to use as a spillway.",
"-34.28699590516044"
],
[
"flooding. Dams Many dams and their associated reservoirs are designed completely or partially to aid in flood protection and control. Many large dams have flood-control reservations in which the level of a reservoir must be kept below a certain elevation before the onset of the rainy/summer melt season to allow a certain amount of space in which floodwaters can fill. Other beneficial uses of dam created reservoirs include hydroelectric power generation, water conservation, and recreation. Reservoir and dam construction and design is based upon standards, typically set out by the government. In the United States, dam and reservoir",
"-34.28345865604933"
],
[
"tunnel. Engineers knew that increasing the flow would decrease the turbulence but would further damage to the tunnel walls. To increase the reservoir's capacity further, engineers began an emergency effort to add 8 feet (2.4 m) to the height of the spillway gates, avoiding increasing the rate of water releases. Diversion tunnel threatened The force of the water at the left tunnel eroded concrete near the diversion plug, a device that blocked the diversion tunnel used during construction. The Bureau of Reclamation was concerned that the water would eventually erode the diversion plug altogether, creating a connection to the reservoir floor.",
"-34.23507328215783"
],
[
"stabilize the dam against its reservoir as the mass of water still impounded behind the dam presses against the lightened mass of the embankment, made lighter by surface erosion. As the mass of the dam erodes, the force exerted by the reservoir begins to move the entire structure. The embankment, having almost no elastic strength, would begin to break into separate pieces, allowing the impounded reservoir water to flow between them, eroding and removing even more material as it passes through. In the final stages of failure the remaining pieces of the embankment would offer almost no resistance to",
"-34.224508592509665"
],
[
"the dam's existing foundation drainage system, or \"drainage gallery\", at 5-foot (1.5 m) intervals, relieving the pressure on the dam's backside. In June 1980, the dam again experienced leakage problems when a 236-foot (72 m) crack opened on its upstream face, sending more than 17 cubic feet per second (0.48 m³/s) of water spraying across the downstream side of the dam. Seventy drainage holes were drilled into the crack to relieve pressure before the crack was permanently sealed by an aggregate of cement, volcanic ash, and sawdust. The cost of the repair exceeded $1 million. Specifications Dworshak Dam is a concrete gravity dam with",
"-34.22354463630472"
],
[
"When sediment laden river flow reaches a dam’s reservoir, the water slows down as it pools. Since slower water can’t carry as much sediment, virtually all of the sediment falls out of suspension before the water passes through the dam. The result is that most dams are nearly 100% efficient sediment traps. Additionally, the use of dams for flood control reduces the ability of downstream channels to produce sediment. Since the vast majority of sedimentation occurs during the biggest floods, reduced frequency and intensity of flood-like flows can drastically change production rates. For thousands of years there were too",
"-34.2214823809627"
],
[
"Buttress dam A buttress dam or hollow dam is a dam with a solid, water-tight upstream side that is supported at intervals on the downstream side by a series of buttresses or supports. The dam wall may be straight or curved. Most buttress dams are made of reinforced concrete and are heavy, pushing the dam into the ground. Water pushes against the dam, but the buttresses are inflexible and prevent the dam from falling over. Buttress dams do however, run into certain problems that are not as prevalent in other dams. Even though they tend to be more",
"-34.20284904638538"
],
[
"flow exceeds the capacity of the power plant or diversion capacity of the dam, but do not have flows high enough to warrant the use of the dam spillways. They may also be utilized when river flows must be bypassed due to maintenance work in the power station or diversion gates. Although similar in purpose to spillways, outlet works provide a more controlled release to meet downstream flow requirements. \nA typical set of outlet works begins in an intake structure, which is usually a canal or intake tower. A regulating gate or valve controls water flow into the pipes of",
"-34.13992730512837"
],
[
"decreasing the flow velocity or by increasing the boundary pressure. Energy dissipation Every dam needs some form of energy dissipation in its discharge structure to prevent erosion and scour on the downstream side of the dam, since these phenomena can result in dam failure. Plunge pools (also called stilling basins) and impact boxes are two examples of energy dissipators used on dams.\nMany USBR dams use energy dissipating blocks for chute spillways (also called baffled aprons). These blocks help induce a hydraulic jump to establish subcritical flow conditions on the downstream side of the dam.\nThe steps on stepped spillways can be",
"-34.10172617647004"
],
[
"Dam is designed with a steep stepped spillway. During years of high snow or fast melt conditions, the dam may fill until the water elevation reaches the spillway. The spill creates a curtain of falling water 600 feet wide and 200 feet tall. The event typically lasts for a few days and commonly attracts tourist and media attention.",
"-34.05743411317235"
],
[
"has a maximum capacity of 45,409 acre⋅ft (56,011,000 m³) at spillway crest, 21 feet (6.4 m) below the top of the dam itself. Water releases from the dam are controlled by two sets of gates. The outlet works, located at the base of the dam, are fed by sixteen 7 ft (2.1 m) diameter conduits capable of discharging 17,000 cu ft/s (480 m³/s). The emergency spillway is located to the northwest of the dam and comprises a concrete overflow weir with a capacity of 200,000 cu ft/s (5,700 m³/s). Operations The dam functions as a dry dam, with its reservoir empty most of the year. During large floods, water is stored",
"-34.04061665048357"
],
[
"When heavy rains occur, the river or lake fills up and the dam gradually releases the extra stored water. Often this is all that is necessary to reduce the height of the flood wave moving down the river, and will reduce or eliminate damage to human structures. Flood control is achieved in other ways as well. The surface of any stream intersects the surrounding water table. By raising the stream level, the gradient of the surface of the water table above the beaver dam is reduced, and water near the beaver dam flows more slowly into the stream. This further",
"-33.985877831466496"
],
[
"major floods, floodgate operations are conducted to protect property around Lake Travis as well as the dam itself.\nWhile the dam's physical design assists in its own protection during floods, extensive spillway operations, a worst-case scenario which has not happened in the lake's history, could undermine the dam's base and affect its overall integrity. Under such conditions, operations are primarily intended to protect the dam, and lake water may be released to the dam's full, 24-floodgate capacity—regardless of downstream effects—to prevent the catastrophic loss of the dam. Including its hydroelectric generators but not the spillway, at 681 feet above",
"-33.946961560403"
],
[
"rough outlet surface, the flow through was unsteady which caused pressure surges. Cracks were formed along the edges of the right angles to the axis of the dam causing a subsidence 9 m (30 ft) wide, leaving the crest of the dam 0.6 m (2.0 ft) above the reservoir level on 11 July. The failure was attributed to inadequate provision of the outlet facility during emergency. This caused the fateful collapse of the structure above the outlets.\nPanshet Dam had been cleared for construction under the aegis of the Bombay State Irrigation Department. When the State split into Maharashtra and Gujarat in 1960, Panshet Dam",
"-33.88769674912328"
],
[
"base of the dam into bedrock. The reservoir was to be kept empty in 1986, but heavy spring runoff carried logs and tumbleweeds into the reservoir, clogging the outlet works. The reservoir partially filled, preventing flooding in the town of Green River, but creating anxiety about possible failure of the dam, which was retaining fifty feet of water, rising at times five feet in a day. An environmental assessment of the repair program noted that the only alternative was an intentional and permanent breaching of the center section of the dam, leaving local industries without water. The test section",
"-33.875374591734726"
],
[
"second (2,480 m³/s). To prevent flash floods from overtopping the dam, the gates are left open during the rainy season from November 1 to April 1.\nThe dam's primary purpose is to store water for diversion through the Dulzura Conduit, a 14-mile (23 km) long concrete aqueduct which transfers water from the Cottonwood Creek basin to Lower Otay Reservoir. Water is released into the Dulzura Conduit via an outlet tower and a 30-inch (76 cm) diameter pipe with a capacity of 271 cubic feet per second (7.7 m³/s). Water stored at Lower Otay passes through the Otay Water Treatment Plant before entering the municipal system.",
"-33.863658918984584"
],
[
"Diversion dam A diversion dam is a dam that diverts all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. Diversion dams do not generally impound water in a reservoir; instead, the water is diverted into an artificial water course or canal, which may be used for irrigation or return to the river after passing through hydroelectric generators, flow into a different river or be itself dammed forming an onground or groundwater reservoir or a storm drain. \nAn early diversion dam is the Ancient Egyptian Sadd el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, which was located about",
"-33.84823850040266"
],
[
"dam and its associated structures as the weakest part of the overall structure, the aim of such controls is to prevent an uncontrolled release of water from the reservoir. Reservoir failures can generate huge increases in flow down a river valley, with the potential to wash away towns and villages and cause considerable loss of life, such as the devastation following the failure of containment at Llyn Eigiau which killed 17 people.(see also List of dam failures)\nA notable case of reservoirs being used as an instrument of war involved the British Royal Air Force Dambusters raid on Germany in World",
"-33.822241283836775"
],
[
"earth. They could be anywhere from 50 feet (15 m) to several hundred feet wide, and were used from one to several years. A splash dam had to be sited on a section of the stream that allowed as large a body of water to accumulate behind the dam as possible. Behind the dam logs were transported to the creek and its banks, often along log slides.\nThe splash dam was equipped with a chute to allow water and logs to escape. When the chute was closed, water collected behind the dam. Construction work also extended to the stream below the splash",
"-33.774077940382995"
],
[
"coordinated with the Los Angeles County Department of Public Works. The provisions allow the dam to discharge water onto spreading grounds located south of the dam, which then percolates into groundwater recharge basins and is stored as part of the city's water supply.\nAccumulation of debris from previous floods reduced the amount of storage capacity of the reservoir. As a result, in 1981, the Corps proposed raising the height of the dam rather than starting the expensive process of removing the build up of silt, sand, gravel and other debris. The proposal did not pass, and responsibility was redirected back to",
"-33.742150618978485"
],
[
"the crest and over 2,800 feet (850 m) wide at the base. High water releases are controlled by four sets of gates. A set of internal gates in the diversion tunnel can release up to 7,370 cubic feet per second (209 m³/s), while a hollow jet valve at the base of the dam can discharge 3,100 cubic feet per second (88 m³/s). The service spillway, controlled by three 45-by-30-foot (13.7 m × 9.1 m) radial gates, has a capacity of 172,000 cubic feet per second (4,900 m³/s), and finally the emergency spillway, a 995-foot (303 m) long concrete overflow structure, can discharge more than 300,000 cubic feet per",
"-33.64083552945522"
],
[
"reservoir continues to fill. The damage would occur by direct impact of the falling water to the spill well (which, once its concrete slab lining were destroyed, would expose and erode the dam's bedrock support) as well as by intense vibrations created by the waterfall, which the concrete dam, lacking steel reinforcement, is not designed to withstand for prolonged periods. To date, only one section of the bypass spillway had been completed, and was capable of routing only 2,000 m³/s of water, meaning that the main spillway, probably already worn and torn from the 2009 winter's heavy ice deposition on",
"-33.63373393533402"
],
[
"The water impounded by a landslide dam may create a dam reservoir (lake) that may last from short times to several thousand years.\nBecause of their rather loose nature and absence of controlled spillway, landslide dams frequently fail catastrophically and lead to downstream flooding, often with high casualties. A common failure scenario is overflowing with subsequent dam breach and erosion by the overflow stream.\nLandslide dams are responsible for two types of flooding: backflooding (upstream flooding) upon creation and downstream flooding upon failure. Compared with catastrophic downflooding, relative slow backflooding typically presents little life hazard, but property damage can be substantial.\nWhile the",
"-33.60251694204635"
],
[
"However, as the top of the dam was not beheaded it was not protected from flood water that would over-top the crest. The dam's proximity to the fertile Nile River and distance from populations indicates it was built for protection against such events, similar to those that still occur today. If complete, the dam would have stored 465,000 m³ (16,400,000 cu ft) – 625,000 m³ (22,100,000 cu ft) of water and flooding would have caused the reservoir to flood into adjacent parallel wadis. The dam's failure likely made Egyptian engineers reluctant to construct another for nearly eight centuries.\nAnother indication that the dam may have been",
"-33.56579905701801"
],
[
"dam. Removing hollow items can be dangerous, because the water pressure against them can cause them to implode. In addition to large amounts of driftwood, about 100 animal carcasses (cattle, deer, dogs, and various small animals) become lodged against the dam or the penstock intake screens each year. Floating screens at the entrance to the forebay catch many items, as do the penstock intake screens. Workers use a crane to remove items from these screens, and bury the items retrieved at a landfill. Dam operators also use a yellow civilian version of the Alvis Stalwart amphibious vehicle to remove objects,",
"-33.54582945315997"
],
[
"dams in the project, more than would at first appear needed, is maintenance. Dams need to be cleaned from the debris carried with the water flow. After a while the dam becomes obsolete as water flow slows down to inadequate levels. The dams will be shut down every 5 to 10 years for fall maintenance (also called fall cleanup). Water levels are normally lowest in fall. The extra dams are placed in service during this maintenance period.\nIn cases of natural disasters such as floods, the maintenance may be performed earlier. The plan is to have one or two dams spare",
"-33.504112689741305"
],
[
"drainage area; it is 7 miles (11 km) long. The dam structure contains a concrete spillway on its left side capable of discharging overflow at 107,000 cubic feet per second (3,000 m³/s). The spillway is controlled by two 45 x 30 ft (15 x 6 m) Tainter gates while an outlet tunnel at the base of the dam is controlled by two 10 x 12 ft (3 x 4 m) Tainter gates.\nThe dam serves its flood control purpose during the rainy season collecting and then controlling the release of flood waters through the base outlet tunnel. This process occurs as often as necessary and",
"-33.49926296783087"
],
[
"the dam On 25 March 1917 the bed of the Mangamahoe River was seriously scoured out immediately from under the tunnel where it passed under the dam to a depth of 6 ft (1.83 m) to 10 ft (3 m), which caused all of the water in the dam to be lost.\nA temporary sack dam was erected behind the breach which allowed an approximately 3ft 6in (1.1 metre) head to be obtained in the reservoir. However it was difficult to regulate the flow of water while trying to avoid the risk of carrying away the dam at another place.\nRather than repair the damage which",
"-33.489869175537024"
],
[
"for which the dam and reservoir are named.\nWater is released via a 387-foot (118 m) long tunnel, fed by an intake tower that can draw up to 595 cubic feet per second (16.8 m³/s) water from different elevations of the reservoir. The spillway is located on the north side of the dam and has a crest 310 feet (94 m) long, topping out at 3,039 feet (926 m) above sea level. Flood flows through the spillway are controlled by steel flash gates 7.5 feet (2.3 m) high. The spillway has a capacity of approximately 25,000 cubic feet per second (710 m³/s). Usage The Morena reservoir serves",
"-33.461384583526524"
],
[
"behind the dam down a smooth decline into the river below. These are usually designed following an ogee curve. Most often, they are lined on the bottom and sides with concrete to protect the dam and topography. They may have a controlling device and some are thinner and multiply lined if space and funding are tight. In addition, they are not always intended to dissipate energy like stepped spillways. Chute spillways can be ingrained with a baffle of concrete blocks but usually have a 'flip lip' and/or dissipator basin which creates a hydraulic jump, protecting the toe of the",
"-33.424930820649024"
],
[
"Reservoir were removed, to allow more water to be impounded when river flows are high.",
"-33.4103689835174"
],
[
"water to control flooding was discovered. This was accomplished by containing 2 parallel tubes within a third outer tube. When filled, this structure formed a non-rolling wall of water that can control 80 percent of its height in external water depth, with dry ground behind it. Eight foot tall water filled barriers were used to surround Fort Calhoun Nuclear Generating Station during the 2011 Missouri River Flooding. Instead of trucking in sandbag material for a flood, stacking it, then trucking it out to a hazmat disposal site, flood control can be accomplished by using the on site water. However, these",
"-33.34983460234071"
],
[
"Leaky dams Leaky dams are a flooding prevention measure, moderating the flow of water downstream. Barriers are added to a stream/river to prevent soil and silt escaping and allowing water to escape at a slower rate. History With the regular flooding of settlements in the UK, a rethink on flood risk management was initiated. One of the proposals put forward was containing flood waters at source to prevent large volumes of water flowing downstream causing soil erosion and flooding of properties.\nA variety of solutions was put forward including using naturally occurring composting materials in path of flow to hold valuable",
"-33.33189061540179"
],
[
"for when the reservoir is not only full but empty. The dam's outlet works consist of two discharge pipes, capable of releasing up to 170 m³/s (6,000 cu ft/s) each. One discharges into the original diversion tunnel and another is located at the base of the dam and discharges into the river valley below.\nThe dam creates Lago di Vogorno which has a 105,000,000 m³ (3.7×10⁹ cu ft) capacity and surface area of 160 ha (400 acres), collected from a catchment area of 230 km² (89 sq mi). The Verzasca River has very irregular seasonal flows which can reach as high as 1,000 m³/s (35,000 cu ft/s).\nLombardi considers it one of his most aesthetically",
"-33.29801782016875"
],
[
"the whole dam is compromised. Multiple dome or multiple arch buttress dams are most likely to fail at either end of the dam in the first dome or arch. This is because those two arches or domes take most of the force being exerted on the dam itself. When compared to multiple arch buttress dams, multiple dome buttress dams do not hold up as well in high stress environments. This is due to the fact that there is less reinforcement in the domes than in the arches. The multiple dome buttress dam is best used in places with little to",
"-33.2345201872522"
],
[
"Two 16.75-by-34-foot (5.11 m × 10.36 m) gates at the tunnel entrance will pass up to 28,800 cubic feet per second (820 m³/s) of floodwater. At its upstream end the tunnel is 26.5 feet (8.1 m) in diameter, and at the discharge point is 18 feet (5.5 m) in diameter. The dam's outlet works consist of two 72-inch (1.8 m) diameter steel pipes through the dam. The discharge capacity of the outlet works is 4,000 cubic feet per second (110 m³/s). Due to the large storage capacity of the reservoir, the tunnel spillway is rarely used, except for high water years such as 1983–84. As originally built, the",
"-33.23176940710982"
],
[
"two bottom outlets. All of the dam's outlets including the power station give it a maximum flood discharge of 20,709 m³/s (731,331 cu ft/s).\nOn the right bank of the dam is the power station intake which receives water into six 9.6 m (31 ft) diameter penstocks which each feed a 700 MW Francis turbine-turbine in the underground power station. The drop in elevation from the intake to the turbine affords a maximum hydraulic head of 251 m (823 ft). Once discharged by the turbine, the water is sent down one of two 18 m (59 ft) diameter tailrace tunnels towards the river.",
"-33.22559062588698"
],
[
"30-inch (76 cm) diameter outlet pipes through the center section which were controlled by slide gates attached to the upstream face. Dam instability Water began to fill the reservoir on March 12, 1926. It rose steadily and rather uneventfully, although several temperature and contraction cracks did appear in the dam and a minor amount of seepage began to flow from under the abutments. In accord with the protocol for design, which had been established by the engineering department during construction of the Mulholland dam, no contraction joints were incorporated. The most notable incidents were two vertical cracks that ran down through",
"-33.19090554933064"
],
[
"has five 14 m (46 ft) x 17 m (56 ft) crest openings along with three mid-level openings and one bottom flushing outlet. With these openings, the design flood discharge capacity of the dam is 18,000 m³/s (635,664 cu ft/s) while the maximum is 23,500 m³/s (829,895 cu ft/s).\nThe dam's power station is underground and supplied with water via six 179.5 m (589 ft) long penstocks. Once through the six turbines, the water exits back to the river by means of two tailrace tunnels, one 1,355 m (4,446 ft) long and the other 1,248 m (4,094 ft).",
"-33.182675058342284"
],
[
"Drop structure A drop structure, also known as a grade control, sill, or weir, is a manmade structure, typically small and built on minor streams, or as part of a dam's spillway, to pass water to a lower elevation while controlling the energy and velocity of the water as it passes over. Unlike most dams, drop structures are usually not built for water impoundment, diversion or raising the water level. Mostly built on watercourses with steep gradients, they serve other purposes such as water oxygenation and erosion prevention. Typical designs Drop structures can be classified into three different basic types:",
"-33.17763533710968"
],
[
"the dam by 1.6 feet (0.5 m), while the second was to lower the height of the main and auxiliary spillways by a similar amount. The second option was preferred, because of the impact on the aesthetics of the area of a larger wall in front of the mill building, and raising the crest of the dam would have required major strengthening of the existing concrete walls, which were cracked as a result of the subsidence.\nThe main spillway was lowered by 14 inches (0.35 m), and both it and the auxiliary spillway were made wider. The slope below the spillways had to",
"-33.1731661381782"
],
[
"was already at full capacity due to good rains and it was only through the expert management of the Hydrology staff at DWAF that the maximum flood released from the dam was limited to 2,300 cubic metres per second (81,000 cu ft/s). Flows above 2,300 cubic metres per second (81,000 cu ft/s) would have caused serious damage downstream of Vaal Dam and the situation during the 1996 flood became extremely tense as the storage in the reservoir peaked at 118.5% of Full Supply Capacity on 19 February 1996 i.e. only 194,000,000 cubic metres (6.9×10⁹ cu ft) of flood absorption capacity remained before the full inflow would",
"-33.16112856246764"
],
[
"without much difficulty by simply tipping material to form an embankment, although some of the earth sank into the mud, so more had to be added.\nThe western dam caused much more trouble, since it rested on mud that varied in depth to upwards of 40 feet (12 m). The ends of the dam were formed by tipping earth from wagons run out from the mainland and the island. In the centre, the earth sank into the deep mud and slid away with it. A viaduct of timber piles was built across the gap, to carry loaded trucks from which the earth",
"-33.11095420771744"
],
[
"river.\nThere is also a 900 metres (3,000 ft) long auxiliary spillway to handle conditions of extreme flooding. \nWhen filled, the reservoir will have backwater reach of about 20 kilometres (12 mi) up river.\nA 48 metres (157 ft) high concrete intake tower 7 metres (23 ft) in diameter with five gate openings feeds a 260 metres (850 ft) long steel pipe 3 metres (9.8 ft) in diameter that passes under the dam embankment and then splits to a pump station and a river outlet. A 61 metres (200 ft) steel bridge connects the intake tower to the top of the dam embankment.\nThe project also included building housing",
"-33.04779546713689"
],
[
"is directly dependent on the water level behind the dam. All river flows below 7,300 cubic feet per second (210 m³/s) pass unimpeded through the dam's outlets. The dam is designed to contain a design flood of 94,000 cubic feet per second (2,700 m³/s), to a maximum outflow of 23,500 cubic feet per second (670 m³/s). The reservoir is generally drained within 2–3 days of a flooding event.\nBecause the dam reduces the sharp peaks of flash floods in the Mojave River channel, it also provides incidental groundwater recharge benefits in the Victor Valley area. Recreation Although there is no permanent pool at Mojave",
"-33.03713341461298"
],
[
"15,043,000,000 m³ (12,196,000 acre·ft); of that capacity, 9,895,000,000 m³ (8,022,000 acre·ft) is active (or \"useful\") storage. The dam traps water from a catchment area covering 113,300 km² (43,700 sq mi). The surface of the reservoir at normal level covers 190 km² (73 sq mi).\nHelping to control floods, the dam has two spillways, 5 gates near the crest and a tunnel on the left bank. The gates can discharge up to 5,130 m³/s (181,164 cu ft/s) while the tunnel has a maximum discharge of 4,884 m³/s (172,477 cu ft/s). In the middle portion of the dam, there are six orifice openings that can discharge 6,500 m³/s (229,545 cu ft/s). In addition, the dam can release additional water and sediment with",
"-33.031639595825254"
],
[
"exits the dam it is slowed down by a concrete energy dissipator (pictured). Creation of electricity is only part of the usage of the tons of water collected at the dam.\nWhen dealing with tons of water, it has to be distributed evenly and slowly. Occasionally main channels will need maintenance, or may be damaged due to external reasons. In order to even assess the problem, tons of water need to be removed from the main channel. The best way to do this is to slow the overall flow from the main dam and redirect all water flowing originally through the",
"-33.02261829178315"
],
[
"to overtopping by flood waters. The waters which flowed over the downstream slopes of the embankment and breached the dam along various reaches. In addition, there was an Earthquake registered during the period of failure although the foundation was strong. Tough shutters were promptly operated during flood, the staff could only partially lift the shutters, due to power failure and with the additional the additionally stand-by generator commissioned did not help either. The staff then opted for the manual operation of shutters. In spite of all efforts, water eventually overtopped the embankment. Water gushed over the rear slopes, as a",
"-32.99961792101385"
],
[
"up to 2000 tonnes of water falling per second during an extreme flood.\nIt is one of the thinnest concrete arch dams in the world. It was completed by the Hydro-Electric Commission in 1969 and is 84 metres high. The narrowness of the gorge and the computer-aided design of its double-curvature shape enabled engineers to minimise the volume of concrete and hence the cost of the dam. Flood waters falling freely from the crest strike concrete slabs carefully positioned on the abutments to prevent undermining of the dam by erosion. Lake Cethana The walk starts at the junction just before turning",
"-32.97940186690175"
],
[
"1959 the reservoir had reached its maximum level. The guardian Ferro asked for permission to release the excess water and was denied the ability to do so until 6pm of that day. The amount of water was by then so high that it took three hours to release only a few centimeters of water. The entire wall then collapsed with only a few blocks remaining on the right bank. Pieces of the dam are still scattered throughout the area.\nThe breach created a massive dam-break wave, or wall of water, 40 metres (130 ft) high and moving at 70 kilometres (43 mi) per",
"-32.96150489326101"
],
[
"used for normal releases, with a capacity of 34 cubic metres per second (1,200 cu ft/s). The dam also has two additional flood tunnels which were completed in 1978, in order to allow faster evacuation of reservoir storage prior to typhoons. Each tunnel is 375.4 metres (1,232 ft) long, 1.372 metres (4.50 ft) in diameter, with a combined capacity of 2,400 cubic metres per second (85,000 cu ft/s). Power station The dam's hydroelectric power station is located on the left bank of the Dahan River at the base of the dam. Two steel 4.57-metre (15.0 ft) diameter penstocks, each 318.8 metres (1,046 ft) long, feed water to two",
"-32.94507008254004"
],
[
"and cavitation will occur. Spillways When water flows over a dam spillway, the irregularities on the spillway surface will cause small areas of flow separation in a high-speed flow, and, in these regions, the pressure will be lowered. If the flow velocities are high enough the pressure may fall to below the local vapor pressure of the water and vapor bubbles will form. When these are carried downstream into a high pressure region the bubbles collapse giving rise to high pressures and possible cavitation damage.\nExperimental investigations show that the damage on concrete chute and tunnel spillways can start at",
"-32.93475613242481"
],
[
"they were not entirely successful and water continued to permeate through the face of the dam. A two-inch pipe was used to collect this seepage and was laid from the fault line down to the home of the dam keeper, Tony Harnischfeger, which he used for domestic purposes. Water that collected in the drainage pipes under the dam to relieve the hydrostatic uplift pressure was carried off in this manner as well.\nIn April 1927 the reservoir level was brought to within ten feet of the spillway, and during most of May the water level was within three feet of overflowing.",
"-32.922628796688514"
],
[
"heavy rainfall was that Lake Monowai rose 9.5 ft (2.9 m) which confirmed that the dam and control gates were up to the task. \nA car was driven the length of the pipeline once it was completed. However once the pipeline was filled with water for the first time it was found to be deflecting by up to 7 in (180 mm), which caused some of its supporting cradles to crack. The issue was fixed by installing additional cradles. \nWhen the surge chamber was filled with water for the first time it was found to leak badly, but Alfred Walker solved the",
"-32.91909887752263"
],
[
"now releases water based on the natural seasonal hydrograph of the Green River before damming. In addition, water flows must be maintained above 800 cubic feet per second (23 m³/s) at all times.\nOn August 11, 1977, the Unit 2 turbine, jammed after one of the sealing rings on the penstock failed. This event led to the seal rings on all three penstocks being replaced. These seal rings also failed, and were replaced again. However, no major structural damage to the dam occurred. Spillways The spillway consists of a 675-foot (206 m) long tunnel that runs through the left abutment of the dam.",
"-32.86660759334336"
],
[
"lake level.\nThe spillway for the dam is constructed on the central hill; it consists of a semi-circular concrete dam, which regulates the flow of water down a concrete channel built into the back slope of the hill. The spillway dam itself measures 225 metres (738 ft) along the top; its crest is at 16 feet (4.9 m) below the normal lake level. The spillway is designed so that water pouring over the semi-circular dam converges at the bottom from opposite directions and neutralises its own force, thus minimising erosion below.\nThe spillway dam is topped by 14 gates, supported by concrete piers and",
"-32.86042090761475"
],
[
"dam should remain at the lowest water level to prevent overtopping. Overtopping is when the water level behind the dam exceeds the dam crest height. The dam crest is the top edge of the dam. Overtopping is caused by extreme flooding or severe waves. The severe waves can be a result of high winds, landslides, and earthquakes. The detention dam design must take into account the probability of overtopping occurring and be designed accordingly. Detention dams built to restrict flow rate regulate the amount water released into channels. Detentions dams used to replenishment the subsurface water or groundwater hold surface",
"-32.84212350950111"
],
[
"via a large bell-mouth drop-shaft overflow in one corner, a feature not normally seen on Pennine dams which usually have masonry spillways.\nOn the dam wall near the drop shaft is an ingeniously-designed emergency overflow consisting of three metal troughs that when full tip water over a wall where it runs across the road and back into the river below. The emergency overflow is activated if a flash flood of approximately two metres of water occurs. Recreation Access to the reservoir is via the A635 road to the pay and display car parks. There are toilets at Binn Green and at",
"-32.769012827950064"
],
[
"laborious job of quarrying and setting stone.\nSteel dams use relatively thin steel plates in contact with the water surface, with a framework of steel behind them transmitting the load to the ground. The plates are slanted upwards in the direction of water flow, so that the weight of the water puts compressive forces on the girders holding the plates up. This transmits force to the ground without the bending moment that a vertical wall of plates would engender. It was believed that these dams could be constructed faster and more cheaply than masonry dams. Location The dam lies about 3",
"-32.73750880116131"
],
[
"by late 1981 or 1982. Because the material forming the dam consisted of soft volcanic debris and ash, it would erode quickly if overtopped, causing serious flooding downstream.\nIn early 1981, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers excavated a spillway and outlet channel for the lake, stabilizing it at 2,503 feet (763 m) above sea level with a volume of 67,300 acre feet (83,000,000 m³). In May 1985 a tunnel was excavated to connect Spirit Lake to South Coldwater Creek. The eruption had blocked the outlet of Spirit Lake causing it to rise to dangerous levels. The tunnel allowed excess water from Spirit",
"-32.708685114979744"
],
[
"a once in 5,000 year flood event.\nIt utilised state-of-the-art post-tensioning techniques to cope with any problems or movements in the riverbed.\nThe dam has five bay spillway controlled by 30.5 metres (100 ft) wide, hydraulically operated fish-belly flap gates. The fish-belly gates allow for a precise control of water level, reducing the dead area on the banks between high and low water levels. As at November 2010, the five gates have only been opened simultaneously once in the dam's history, during heavy flooding in 1976.\nLady Denman Drive, a roadway atop the dam wall provides a third road crossing for the lake. It",
"-32.689575287280604"
],
[
"run-off carried rubble to the Canyon Lake Dam creating a barrier in front of its spillway. This resulted in the \"increase in depth of water behind the dam of 11 to 12 feet,\" which caused the release of more water adding to the already moving floodwaters. The flash flood hit Rapid City the hardest around midnight on June 9; the flood waters also hit the small town of Keystone nearby. Damage The flood caused a tremendous amount of damage. Flood waters displaced large rocks, trees, trailers, and vehicles, and carried homes away. In Rapid City the flood resulted in the",
"-32.6836148899165"
],
[
"and settling of the concrete in the dam, it was cooled with a series of steel pipes that ran throughout the mass of concrete, with the exception of the top 30 m (98 ft) of the dam. A grout curtain was placed around and below the dam as well to prevent leakage, which consumed a large amount of cement. In August 1964, the reservoir began to fill and in September 1965, the reservoir was full and the dam completed. Seismic activity During what Dr. Giovanni Lombardi, the dam's designer, described as an \"exceptionally rapid rise of water during the first filling\" of",
"-32.679637388617266"
],
[
"trap sediment by regulating the flow rate of the runoff into channels downstream. Diversion dams are used to raise the water level in order to redirect the water to the designated location. The diverted water can be used for supplying irrigation systems or reservoirs. Purpose Diversion dams are installed to raise the water level of a body of water to allow the water to be redirected. The redirected water can be used to supply irrigation systems, reservoirs, or hydroelectric power generation facilities. The water diverted by the diversion dam to the reservoirs can be used for industrial applications or for",
"-32.6303896161553"
],
[
"stream flow, the spillway gates are opened to pass the water in excess of the capacity of the turbines, and as necessary for retention and regulation of floodwaters through surcharge operation. The upper portion of the reservoir, corresponding to a five-foot depth above the normal headwater level, is provided for surcharge storage. This storage space is utilized by raising all of the spillway gates in small equal increments, thus permitting passage of some water under them, but retaining or forcing into storage all inflow to the reservoir in excess of the spillway discharge and power releases. 2010 Flooding",
"-32.618354177626316"
],
[
"flood condition. A wall, 24 feet (7.3 m) high, was built on top of the dam using interlocking concrete units set 24 feet (7.3 m) apart, with the space between filled with compacted earth, the first example of this technique to be used by the Bureau of Reclamation. The outlet works and spillway were raised at this time. Operation No minimum water release agreement applies to discharges from Lake Sherburne, with no effective flow in the creek from November through February.",
"-32.60167517037644"
],
[
"the dam, with control rods running up the stone cladding of the dam to a control wheel on its crest.\nOne unexpected consequence of moving the control valve to the upstream side of the dam was that the rectangular culvert which carried water between the reservoir and the original cut-off valve well, near the core of the dam, was now pressurised in a way for which it had not been designed, and the entrance to the culvert collapsed in 1964. A repair was made by welding oil drums together to form a circular tube, and then grouting the gap around the",
"-32.58827751950594"
],
[
"high. It was made from earth compacted into a wall 16 metres (52 ft) high and the reservoir held at least 2,000,000 cubic metres (71,000,000 cu ft) of water. The original use of the dam had been to retain water for irrigation of rice paddies which were then replaced by urban development. People living near the dam had made complaints about leaks in the past and the dam actually breached in November 2008 but no damage was done. It is thought that little maintenance had been carried out since the dam was built.",
"-32.56991173574352"
],
[
"the risk of over-topping in a major flood. The original dam wall contains 100,000 tons of concrete, over one million tons of earth and 100,000 tons of clay for the core. The upstream face is stone faced. Materials were brought to the site on the Derwent Valley Water Board's own branch line and their sidings off the main line in the Hope Valley.\nThe dam's design is unusual in having two totally enclosed bellmouth overflows (locally named the \"plugholes\") at the side of the wall. These are stone and of 80 feet (24 m) diameter with outlets of 15 feet (4.6 m) diameter.",
"-32.543566666485276"
],
[
"dredge removed woody sediment from the dam's inside face and, when breached, the reservoir was expected to drain within six hours, but actually drained much faster, in only about 30 minutes. The rest of the dam will be cut into blocks and removed for disposal or recycling on-site. As of the date of demolition, Condit dam was the largest dam ever removed for environmental reasons and the largest dam ever removed in the United States.\nThe quick drainage of the reservoir flushed a large amount of sediment quickly, helping to create a new river channel above the dam. The remaining sediment",
"-32.541862978367135"
]
] |
65knxh | Can alcoholism actually be "passed down" from an addicted parent, or is it just a sorry excuse people use to keep being alcoholic? | [
"I assume ELI5 actually means explaining like OP is 5. So I'll give it a shot. When someone says *passed down*, they typically mean transferring a trait from parent to child. There are 2 ways this can happen. **Environmental factors** (these are things that are *outside* the body. Like home-life, parent-child relationship, type of friends, role models, all that good stuff) & **Genetic factors** (things that are *inside* the body. Like genes and...well mostly just genes) The potential environmental factors are obvious, so I'll spare reddit the details. Genetic factors are a little more complex. You see, the mechanism of **addiction** is in the brain. But not just in a person's thoughts and/or feelings, but *literally* in the brain. In the pink tissue inside our skulls, there are tiny receptors (think of a baseball glove) that *catch* tiny neurotransmitters which are chemicals created and released *by* and *to* other brain tissue (think of tiny baseballs). Now, drinking alcohol, for most, makes a person feel good, right? When the brain feels good like this, it releases baseballs to their respective baseball gloves. However, overdoing this will cause the brain to create more baseballs than gloves. But the brain is basically a god-damned 3d printer. So it just creates more baseball gloves for the extra baseballs. Here's where the plot twist comes in, and where alcoholism rears it's head. These gloves don't *just* catch baseballs. They catch all kinds of balls as well, such as tennis balls (seizures), golf balls (hallucinations), and ping balls (death). An alcoholic, then, has to KEEP drinking alcohol to make the brain continue to release enough **base**balls to fill up the available gloves and to prevent these random other balls from entering the gloves. These gloves have always been able to catch these random balls, but since there was always a limited number of gloves, the chances of catching a tennis ball in the middle of a baseball field was always highly unlikely. So addiction comes down to too many gloves catching the wrong balls. Now, the most common way this happens is by the pathway mentioned above: a person drinking way too much and then causing the brain to make shitload a gloves. However, genetics has a role here too. There are some folks who's brain's 3d printer is way too efficient and is programmed to build more gloves quicker. In other words, in these folks it would take less drinks to cause them to become full blown alcoholics. Also, genetics can affect how *good* a glove can catch these other balls. So if you're brain's 3d printer is building Hyuuuge gloves, then obviously that person's glove will catch more random balls. Genetics can affect any part of that terrible baseball metaphor. I'd go on, but I'm sure you're getting the point. I think we've talked about balls enough today. **Serious Note**: So, no. It's not a sorry excuse for some people. It's a real disease. Hey, from personal experience, I know how problematic dealing with alcoholics can be, but they deserve empathy and patience. Some of them were just dealt a bad hand.",
"The genetic variance for alcoholism is often estimated at 50-60%. Genetic variance, however, is a weird concept. Here's an example I like a lot. Assume there's only two things that influence lung cancer: Smoking, and genes. Now, let's go to a city where literally everyone smokes, and 20% get lung cancer. Because smoking doesn't vary, 100% of variance is due to genes. Sure, smoking actually caused it, but it doesn't explain why some people got it and some didn't. So genetic variance doesn't tell us what most people think of when they hear that something is \"50% genetic.\" So what genetic variance tells us here is basically something you might observe anyway: Lots of people drink, and only a minority develop a strange and uncontrollable pattern of drinking. Some of this is explainable with genes, some with life history and environmental stressors, and some is mysterious. Questions of free will, I leave to the philosophers. What I can say is that alcoholics are not lacking in willpower--to the contrary, they're capable of tremendous persistence. The problem is that it's been progressively channeled towards getting another drink. Incidentally, while some gene variants increase risk for alcoholism, some actually decrease it. Some East Asian populations have high rates of a variant enzyme involved in breaking down alcohol, producing rapid facial flushing and other unpleasant symptoms after drinking.",
"You can be genetically predisposed to alcoholism and addiction. In addition, a stressful environment as a child/adolescent can make you more vunerable to stress later in life, this can lead to depression and drinking behaviour (as a coping mechanism).",
"There can be a genetic pre-disposition for alcoholism. My family is full of mentally ill alcoholics. My mother was one of the few members who was not an alcoholic, but she was diagnosed years ago with some things and put on heavy medication, so she didn't need to self-medicate with alcohol.",
"It's that certain people have addictive personalities or addictive tendencies, which can be passed down to children.",
"Not an expert but to add on to what others are saying. If grown up you see your parents deal with problems by drinking it may drill into you that that is the correct way to deal with your problems."
] | [
[
"over whether the main cause is the direct toxic effect of alcohol itself or whether the disease is a result of alcoholism-related malnutrition.\nFrequently alcoholics have disrupted social links in their lives and have an irregular lifestyle. This may cause an alcoholic to change their eating habits including more missed meals and a poor dietary balance. Alcoholism may also result in loss of appetite, alcoholic gastritis, and vomiting, which decrease food intake. Alcohol abuse damages the lining of the gastrointestinal system and reduces absorption of nutrients that are taken in. The combination of all of them may result in a nutritional",
"-35.77777649520431"
],
[
"Alcoholism Signs and symptoms The risk of alcohol dependence begins at low levels of drinking and increases directly with both the volume of alcohol consumed and a pattern of drinking larger amounts on an occasion, to the point of intoxication, which is sometimes called \"binge drinking\". Young adults are particularly at risk of engaging in binge drinking. Long-term misuse Alcoholism is characterised by an increased tolerance to alcohol – which means that an individual can consume more alcohol – and physical dependence on alcohol, which makes it hard for an individual to control their consumption. The physical dependency caused by alcohol can",
"-35.45701605558861"
],
[
"craving that an alcoholic feels for alcohol can be as strong as the need for food or water. An alcoholic will continue to drink despite serious family, health, or legal problems. Like many other diseases, alcoholism is chronic, meaning that it lasts a person's lifetime; it usually follows a predictable course; and it has symptoms. The risk for developing alcoholism is influenced both by a person's genes and by his or her lifestyle.\" Criticism Some physicians, scientists and others have rejected the disease theory of alcoholism on logical, empirical and other grounds. Indeed, some addiction experts such as Stanton Peele",
"-35.422580855462"
],
[
"some studies that compared alcoholics with non-alcoholics suggest alcoholism is linked to increased externality for health locus of control; however, other studies have linked alcoholism with increased internality. Similar ambiguity has been found in studies of alcohol consumption in the general, non-alcoholic population. They are more optimistic in reviewing the literature on the relationship between internal health locus of control and smoking cessation, although they also point out that there are grounds for supposing that powerful-others and internal-health loci of control may be linked with this behavior. It is thought that, rather than being caused by one or the other,",
"-35.37217401567614"
],
[
"Disease theory of alcoholism Theory Alcoholism is a chronic problem. However, if managed properly, damage to the brain can be stopped and to some extent reversed. In addition to problem drinking, the disease is characterized by symptoms including an impaired control over alcohol, compulsive thoughts about alcohol, and distorted thinking. Alcoholism can also lead indirectly, through excess consumption, to physical dependence on alcohol, and diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver.\nThe risk of developing alcoholism depends on many factors, such as environment. Those with a family history of alcoholism are more likely to develop it themselves",
"-35.264084483496845"
],
[
"or public disorder, or civil penalties for tortious behavior, and may lead to a criminal sentence. An alcoholic's behavior and mental impairment while drunk can profoundly affect those surrounding him and lead to isolation from family and friends. This isolation can lead to marital conflict and divorce, or contribute to domestic violence. Alcoholism can also lead to child neglect, with subsequent lasting damage to the emotional development of the alcoholic's children. For this reason, children of alcoholic parents can develop a number of emotional problems. For example, they can become afraid of their parents, because of their unstable mood behaviors.",
"-35.18176494369982"
],
[
"the first time, in January 1993. After quitting drinking, Judge recounts suffering from a significant amount of depression. Judge argues in the book that alcoholism is a disease process, and compares it to opiate and heroin. He brings forth research in the book attempting to demonstrate that the brain and liver of alcoholics predispose them to addictive tendencies not seen in otherwise healthy and normative humans. Alcoholics Anonymous is criticized repeatedly in the book, due to its reliance upon psychological themes to combact alcoholism. The author criticizes Alcoholics Anonymous for not emphasizing physiological and biochemical causes of alcoholism. Composition and",
"-34.861779981525615"
],
[
"alcoholic parents contributes to inadequate understanding of how to engage in opposite gender interactions.\nSons of alcoholics are at risk for poor self-regulation that is often displayed in the preschool years. This leads to blaming others for behavioral problems and difficulties with impulse control. Poor decision-making correlates to early alcohol use, especially in sons of alcoholics. Sons often demonstrate thrill-seeking behavior, harm avoidance, and exhibit a low level of frustration tolerance.” Health risks and alcohol consumption There are many short and long term health conditions that are attributed to alcohol consumption. These harmful conditions over prolonged use are well documented to",
"-34.59155761147849"
],
[
"abuse of alcohol. Irresponsible drinking can lead to a variety of problems and this model informs people about the outcomes of fatal car accidents, crimes committed and family issues all arising from the misuse of alcohol. This model also portrays the amount of money spent on health problems also related to alcohol. However this model is one-sided and has shown to be ineffective. The Alcoholism Approach This approach treats alcohol as if it were a disease. The alcoholism approach compares the negative effects of alcohol to the negative effect of other diseases. It focuses on the negative physiological and psychological",
"-34.56629844332929"
],
[
"formerly dependent drinkers, a wide variety of other evidence is set out to contest the disease model. One strong theme of the book is the complexity of alcohol problems, whereby dependence itself can vary greatly in severity. As such, Heather argues that there is no hard and fast line between 'alcoholics' and 'non-alcoholics', so the concept is inherently flawed. Also argued are that many people who do indeed develop alcohol dependence do recover, often spontaneously or without subscribing to any formal support. Dependence does not also mean an inevitable progression into worsening addiction and ultimately 'rock bottom', as is",
"-34.53682381747058"
],
[
"has also been correlated with depression, unemployment, and family problems with an increased risk of domestic abuse.\nGender and parental history of alcoholism and binge drinking has an influence on susceptibility to alcohol dependence as higher levels are typically seen in males and in those with a family history. Prevalence Nearly half of American alcoholics exhibit “neuropsychological disabilities [that] can range from mild to severe” with approximately two million requiring lifelong care after developing permanent and debilitating conditions. Prolonged alcohol abstinence can lead to an improvement in these disabilities. For those with mild impairments, some improvement has been seen within a",
"-34.40685360968928"
],
[
"of physicians at an annual conference of the International Doctors in Alcoholics Anonymous reported that 80 percent believe that alcoholism is merely bad behavior instead of a disease.\nThomas R. Hobbs says that \"Based on my experiences working in the addiction field for the past 10 years, I believe many, if not most, health care professionals still view alcohol addiction as a willpower or conduct problem and are resistant to look at it as a disease.\"\nAlcoholics Anonymous says that \"Some professionals will tell you that alcoholism is a disease while others contend that it is a choice\" and \"some doctors will",
"-34.278424976801034"
],
[
"of alcoholism, and about 40 percent of alcoholics will drink excessively by their late adolescence. It is not entirely clear whether this association is causal, and some researchers have been known to disagree with this view.\nSevere childhood trauma is also associated with a general increase in the risk of drug dependency. Lack of peer and family support is associated with an increased risk of alcoholism developing. Genetics and adolescence are associated with an increased sensitivity to the neurotoxic effects of chronic alcohol abuse. Cortical degeneration due to the neurotoxic effects increases impulsive behaviour, which may contribute to the development, persistence",
"-34.277720564743504"
],
[
"seeking or forming social connections, which negatively affects students' sense of belonging and in turn impacts their school experience and academic performance. Students may suffer from Social Anxiety, preventing them from going out and creating new relationships with new people or any social reaction one might come across. Alcoholism Continuous alcohol consumption can affect student's mental health. Too much and drinking too often can lead to alcoholism. People who consume alcohol before the age of fourteen are more likely to drink more often without thinking about the consequences later on. Alcoholism can affect ones’ mental health by being dependent",
"-33.887192023859825"
],
[
"adult adjustment. Alcohol Social skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism. This is due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol abuse, include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody perception problems, and theory of mind deficits. The ability to understand humor is also impaired in alcohol abusers. Impairments in social skills can also occur in individuals who suffer from fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. These deficits persist throughout the affected people's lives, and may worsen over time due to the effects",
"-33.835806001821766"
],
[
"expression, as well as thiamin deficiency. It is possible in some cases that alcohol abuse via a kindling mechanism can cause the development of a chronic substance-induced psychotic disorder, i.e. schizophrenia. The effects of an alcohol-related psychosis include an increased risk of depression and suicide as well as psychosocial impairments. However, moderate wine drinking has been shown to lower the risk for depression.\nWhile alcohol initially helps social phobia or panic symptoms, with longer term alcohol misuse can often worsen social phobia symptoms and can cause panic disorder to develop or worsen, during alcohol intoxication and especially during the alcohol withdrawal",
"-33.69189259666018"
],
[
"and anxiety. In coordination with these factors, molecular and epigenetic mechanisms influence the progression toward alcoholism. Mechanisms An increased propensity for alcoholism has been associated with stress-related anxiety and dysphoria, a state of general unease or dissatisfaction. The experience of various types of stress, including severe acute stress and chronic stress, can lead to the onset of dysphoria. Ethanol consumption promotes the release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens (NAc) which is translated as a “reward\". Thus, to cope with negative emotions, individuals often turn to alcohol as a form of temporary self-medication. Unfortunately, repeated ethanol use results in diminishing",
"-33.6440109180985"
],
[
"35s are correlated with alcohol or other substance misuse.\nSocial skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol abuse include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody perception problems and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humour is also impaired in alcohol abusers.\nStudies have shown that alcohol dependence relates directly to cravings and irritability. Another study has shown that alcohol use is a significant predisposing factor towards antisocial behavior in children. Depression, anxiety",
"-33.619589135050774"
],
[
"had a number of books published which present evidence and theories that intend to disprove the notion that alcoholism exists as a disease. In 1981 Heather co-authored a book on controlled drinking, which looked at a number of studies that found some dependent drinkers were able to return to problem free drinking. In 1997 Heather's co-authored book 'Problem Drinking' was published by Oxford Medical Publications. The book extensively explored alcohol problems and their interpretation through various research and debate, repeatedly setting out evidence to contest disease model interpretations of alcohol problems.\nAs well as evidence of controlled drinking in some",
"-33.3971805399633"
],
[
"low emotional adjustment, aggression, sensation seeking and impulsivity\".\nIt is also common for offenders to use drinking as a coping mechanism, not necessarily for social or enjoyment reasons, when they are antisocial in nature and have a father with a history of alcoholism. Offenders who begin drinking at an earlier age for thrills and \"fun\" are more likely to be antisocial later in their lives. The majority of the sample, 72%, came from what is considered more \"normal\" circumstances. This group was older when they began drinking, came from families without a history of alcoholism, were relatively well-behaved as children, were",
"-33.33704310571193"
],
[
"High-functioning alcoholic A high-functioning alcoholic (HFA) is a person who maintains jobs and relationships while exhibiting alcoholism.\nStatistics from the Harvard School of Public Health indicated that 31 percent of college students show signs of alcohol abuse and 6 percent are dependent on alcohol. Doctors hope that the new definition will help identify severe cases of alcoholism early, rather than when the problem is fully developed.\nMany HFAs are not viewed as alcoholics by society because they do not fit the common alcoholic stereotype. Unlike the stereotypical alcoholic, HFAs have either succeeded or over-achieved throughout their lifetimes. This can lead to denial",
"-33.2096825982735"
],
[
"\"alcoholism\" as the equivalent of alcohol dependence. The American Hospital Association, the American Public Health Association, the National Association of Social Workers, and the American College of Physicians classify \"alcoholism\" as a disease.\nIn the US, the National Institutes of Health has a specific institute, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), concerned with the support and conduct of biomedical and behavioral research on the causes, consequences, treatment, and prevention of alcoholism and alcohol-related problems. It funds approximately 90 percent of all such research in the United States. The official NIAAA position is that \"alcoholism is a disease. The",
"-33.17979469243437"
],
[
"Americans, implying the phenomenon may be due to an interplay of multiple genes and environmental factors. Research on alcoholism in family systems suggests that learned behavior augments genetic factors in increasing the probability that children of alcoholics will themselves have problems with alcohol. Historical trauma response Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart has argued that historical trauma plays a significant role in motivating substance abuse as a pathological coping strategy to deal with \"low self-esteem, loss of cultural identity, lack of positive role models, history of abuse and neglect, self-medication due to feelings of hopelessness, and loss of family and tribal",
"-33.14448497421108"
],
[
"the user's emotional disposition prior to alcoholic consumption was negative. In these cases, the individual is drinking to cope and is shown to have less control over his/her own use. Alcohol mediates negative feelings by their suppression but also encourages the habituated continuance of positive emotion. Recovering alcoholics often report that the reason for relapse is often related to the impulse to compensate for negative feelings, resulting in a motivation to cope and therefore drink. Evolutionary Mismatch Despite being harmful, drugs such as nicotine, cocaine, alcohol, THC, and opium artificially stimulate the emotions and neural circuits involved in the mesolimbic",
"-32.97164803260239"
],
[
"alcoholism, gambling addiction, poor mental health, immaturity, irresponsibility or under-achievement. Alcoholic/addict Enabling can be observed in the relationship between the alcoholic/addict and a codependent spouse or a parent. The spouse may attempt to shield the addict from the negative consequences of their behavior by calling in sick to work for them when they are hungover or binging on substances, making excuses that prevent others from holding them accountable, and generally cleaning up the mess that occurs in the wake of their impaired judgment. In reality, what the spouse is doing may be hurting, not helping. Enabling can tend to",
"-32.886157165747136"
],
[
"is a way to prevent individuals driving under the influence of alcohol, but does not prevent alcohol abuse per se.\nAn individual's need for alcohol can depend on their family's alcohol use history. For instance, if it is discovered that their family history with alcohol has a strong pattern, there might be a need for education to be set in place to reduce the likelihood of reoccurrence (Powers, 2007). However, studies have established that those with alcohol abuse tend to have family members who try to provide help. In many of these occasions the family members would try to help the",
"-32.86344041886332"
],
[
"developed an alcohol problem in later life. It is not entirely clear whether this association is causal, and some researchers have been known to disagree with this view.\nAlcohol use disorders often cause a wide range of cognitive impairments that result in significant impairment of the affected individual. If alcohol-induced neurotoxicity has occurred a period of abstinence for on average a year is required for the cognitive deficits of alcohol abuse to reverse.\nCollege/university students who are heavy binge drinkers (three or more times in the past two weeks) are 19 times more likely to be diagnosed with alcohol dependence, and 13",
"-32.74357146353577"
],
[
"and fetal damage. Alcohol has also been linked with lowered inhibitions, although it is unclear as to what degree this is chemical or psychological as studies with placebos can often duplicate the social effects of alcohol at either low or moderate doses. Some studies have suggested that intoxicated people have much greater control over their behavior than is generally recognized, though they have a reduced ability to evaluate the consequences of their behavior. Behavioral changes associated with drunkenness are, to some degree, contextual.\nAreas of the brain that are responsible for planning and motor learning are sharpened. A related effect, which",
"-32.719020685857686"
],
[
"were also attributed to alcohol. Thus, problems such as urban crime, poverty and high infant mortality rates were blamed on alcohol, although \"it is likely that gross overcrowding and unemployment had much to do with these problems.\" Over time, more and more personal, social and religious/moral problems would be blamed on alcohol. And not only would it be enough to prevent drunkenness; any consumption of alcohol would come to be seen as unacceptable. Groups that began by promoting the moderate use of alcohol instead of its abuse- would ultimately form temperance movements and press for the complete and total prohibition",
"-32.61660292801389"
],
[
"personality and psychiatric comorbidity, hereditary factors, and environmental aspects.\nStudies show that child maltreatment such as neglect, physical, and/or sexual abuse, as well as having parents with alcohol abuse problems, increases the likelihood of that child developing alcohol use disorders later in life. According to Shin, Edwards, Heeren, & Amodeo (2009), underage drinking is more prevalent among teens that experienced multiple types of childhood maltreatment regardless of parental alcohol abuse, putting them at a greater risk for alcohol use disorders. Genetic and environmental factors play a role in the development of alcohol use disorders, depending on age. The influence of genetic",
"-32.602126049059734"
],
[
"polysubstance dependence in order to increase the success rate of treatment and decrease the probability of relapse. One specific study focused on alcohol and depression, because they are so commonly inter-related. Researchers have discovered that depression continues for several weeks after a patient had been rehabilitated and those who relapsed developed depression again. This means that the onset of depression happens after alcohol dependence occurs, which means that alcohol is a major contributor to depression. Eating disorders One study showed that patients who are recovering from an addiction, who have had an eating disorder in the past, often use food",
"-32.5537545242114"
],
[
"It is something like that with alcoholism. Therefore, we did not wish to get in wrong with the medical profession by pronouncing alcoholism a disease entity. Hence, we have always called it an illness or a malady—a far safer term for us to use.\nSince then medical and scientific communities have generally concluded that alcoholism is an \"addictive disease\" (aka Alcohol Use Disorder, Severe, Moderate, or Mild). The ten criteria are: alcoholism is a Primary Illness not caused by other illnesses nor by personality or character defects; second, an addiction gene is part of its etiology; third, alcoholism has predictable symptoms;",
"-32.542668264053646"
],
[
"and just as inevitably they take on that role. They argue that the disease theory of alcoholism exists only to benefit the professionals' and governmental agencies responsible for providing recovery services, and the disease model has not offered a solution for those attempting to stop abusive alcohol and drug use.\nThese critics hold that by removing some of the stigma and personal responsibility the disease concept actually increases alcoholism and drug abuse and thus the need for treatment. This is somewhat supported by a study which found that a greater belief in the disease theory of alcoholism and higher",
"-32.516903372663364"
],
[
"the disease of alcoholism.\" Regardless of official positions, since AA's inception, most members have believed alcoholism to be a disease.\nAA's Big Book calls alcoholism “an illness which only a spiritual experience will conquer.\" Ernest Kurtz says this is \"The closest the book Alcoholics Anonymous comes to a definition of alcoholism.\" Somewhat divergently in his introduction to The Big Book, non-member and early benefactor William Silkworth said those unable to moderate their drinking suffer from an allergy. In presenting the doctor's postulate AA said \"The doctor’s theory that we have an allergy to alcohol interests us. As laymen, our",
"-32.4905748819001"
],
[
"to working memory, visuospatial skills, and can cause an abnormal personality as well as affective disorders to develop. Binge drinking is associated with individuals reporting fair to poor health compared to non-binge drinking individuals and which may progressively worsen over time. Alcohol also causes impairment in a person's critical thinking. A person's ability to reason in stressful situations is compromised, and they seem very inattentive to what is going on around them. Social skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain.",
"-32.4723968320759"
],
[
"study suggests that certain brain mechanisms are more genetically prone to alcoholism.{{R D Mayfield, M. (2019). Genetic factors influencing alcohol dependence. [online] PubMed Central (PMC). Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2442454/ [Accessed 15 Oct. 2019].}}\nThe convergent evidence from these studies present a strong case for the genetic basis of alcoholism. History Historians debate who has primacy in arguing that habitual drinking carried the characteristics of a disease. Some note that Scottish physician Thomas Trotter was the first to characterize excessive drinking as a disease, or medical condition.\nOthers point to American physician Benjamin Rush (1745–1813), a signatory to the United States Declaration of",
"-32.37291415495565"
],
[
"Alcoholism in adolescence Consequences of alcoholism throughout Adolescence Most research is based on alcohol and the effects on people in general, essentially relating to adults. Little to no research is shown on the intake of alcohol throughout adolescents and the consequences that binge drinking from a young age can create. \"The rate of alcohol use increases sharply between the ages of 12 and 21 years, and adolescents frequently adopt a binge-like drinking pattern\". These patterns can then lead to various consequences including automobile accidents, drug abuse, sexual activity, skipping school and failing grades. \"Recent studies show that alcohol\nconsumption has the potential",
"-32.33548029116355"
],
[
"often claimed by disease model advocates.\nDespite arguing that alcohol problems are in a large part attributable to social learning theory, Heather still recognises the role of genetics as an influencing risk factor for developing alcohol dependence. However whilst some people may have a genetic predisposition, there are a wide range of socio-psychological factors that also significantly influence risk of dependency, rendering disease model thinking simplistic and flawed. In the 2007 interview with the Addiction Journal, Nick Heather stated he was \"depressed by the resurgence of the\nnotion of there is something called ‘alcoholism’ which is a brain disease\", which has",
"-32.310541843413375"
],
[
"They found that genetic heritability, personal choice, and environmental factors are comparably involved in the etiology and course of all of these disorders, providing evidence that drug (including alcohol) dependence is a chronic medical illness. Genetics and environment According to the theory, genes play a strong role in the development of alcoholism.\nTwin studies, adoption studies, and artificial selection studies have shown that a person's genes can predispose them to developing alcoholism. Evidence from twin studies show that concordance rates for alcoholism are higher for monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins—76% for monozygotic twins and 61% for dizygotic twins. However, female",
"-32.20625977407326"
],
[
"is the brain. In the United States approximately 20% of admissions to mental health facilities are related to alcohol-related cognitive impairment, most notably alcohol-related dementia. Chronic excessive alcohol intake is also associated with serious cognitive decline and a range of neuropsychiatric complications. The elderly are the most sensitive to the toxic effects of alcohol on the brain. There is some inconclusive evidence that small amounts of alcohol taken in earlier adult life is protective in later life against cognitive decline and dementia. However, a study concluded, \"Our findings suggest that, despite previous suggestions, moderate alcohol consumption does not protect older",
"-32.17921893298626"
],
[
"traits contribute heavily to an alcohol use disorder. Neurological deficits Alcoholics can typically be divided into two categories, uncomplicated and complicated. Uncomplicated alcoholics do not have nutritional deficiency states or liver disease, but have a reduction in overall brain volume due to white matter cerebral atrophy. The severity of atrophy sustained from alcohol consumption is proportional to the rate and amount of alcohol consumed during a person's life. Complicated alcoholics may have liver damage that impacts brain structure and function and nutritional deficiencies “that can cause severe brain damage and dysfunction”. Pathophysiology Adolescents are much more vulnerable to alcohol-related brain",
"-32.123560270818416"
],
[
"alcohol-related injury, violence, or illness. Drinking on an empty stomach allows ethanol to reach the blood system at a swifter pace and raises one's blood alcohol content with an often dangerous speed. This can render the drinker more vulnerable to alcohol-related brain damage. In addition, alcohol abuse can have a detrimental impact on hydration and the body's retention of minerals and nutrients, further exacerbating the consequences of malnutrition and denigrating an individual's cognitive faculties. This can ultimately have a negative impact on academic performance.\nThese harmful consequences can be more easily induced in women, as women are oftentimes less capable",
"-32.109684513823595"
],
[
"they are not yet fully recovered from the alcohol they have consumed, indicating that the recovery rates do not coincide.\nThis thought process and brain function that is lost under the influence of alcohol is a very key element in regards to being able to drive safely, including \"making judgments in terms of traveling through intersections or changing lanes when driving.\" These essential driving skills are lost while a person is under the influence of alcohol. Personality traits Although situations differ and each person is unique, some common traits have been identified among drunk drivers. In the study \"personality traits",
"-32.10653629453009"
],
[
"complex mixture of genetic and environmental factors influences the risk of the development of alcoholism. Genes that influence the metabolism of alcohol also influence the risk of alcoholism, and may be indicated by a family history of alcoholism. One paper has found that alcohol use at an early age may influence the expression of genes which increase the risk of alcohol dependence. Individuals who have a genetic disposition to alcoholism are also more likely to begin drinking at an earlier age than average. Also, a younger age of onset of drinking is associated with an increased risk of the development",
"-32.105214983770566"
],
[
"dependence and abuse. Credible, evidence based educational campaigns in the mass media about the consequences of alcohol abuse have been recommended. Guidelines for parents to prevent alcohol abuse amongst adolescents, and for helping young people with mental health problems have also been suggested. Management Treatments are varied because there are multiple perspectives of alcoholism. Those who approach alcoholism as a medical condition or disease recommend differing treatments from, for instance, those who approach the condition as one of social choice. Most treatments focus on helping people discontinue their alcohol intake, followed up with life training and/or social support to help",
"-31.992611622437835"
],
[
"vulnerability to the effects of alcohol. The former may predispose an individual to alcoholism, as altered memory function during intoxication may affect an individual’s alcohol expectancy, one may perceive positive aspects of intoxication while unintentionally ignoring the negative aspects. Causes Blackouts are commonly associated with the consumption of large amounts of alcohol; however, surveys of drinkers experiencing blackouts have indicated that they are not directly related to the amount of alcohol consumed. Respondents reported they frequently recalled having \"drunk as much or more without memory loss,\" compared to instances of blacking out. Subsequent research has indicated that blackouts are",
"-31.92792159190867"
],
[
"Impact of alcohol on aging The impact of alcohol on aging is multifaceted. Evidence shows that alcoholism or chronic alcohol consumption can cause both accelerated (or premature) aging – in which symptoms of aging appear earlier than normal – and exaggerated aging, in which the symptoms appear at the appropriate time but in a more exaggerated form. The effects of alcohol abuse/misuse on the aging process include hypertension, cardiac dysrhythmia, cancers, gastrointestinal disorders, neurocognitive deficits, bone loss, and emotional disturbances especially depression. On the other hand, research also shows that drinking moderate amounts of alcohol may protect healthy adults from",
"-31.885896623542067"
],
[
"believed active alcoholics were in a state of insanity rather than a state of sin, an idea they developed independently of the Oxford Group.\nTo produce a spiritual conversion necessary for sobriety and sanity, alcoholics needed to realize that they couldn't conquer alcoholism by themselves—that surrendering to a higher power and working with another alcoholic were required. Sober alcoholics could show drinking alcoholics that it was possible to enjoy life without alcohol, thus inspiring a spiritual conversion that would help ensure sobriety.\nThe tactics employed by Smith and Wilson to bring about the conversion was first to determine if an individual had",
"-31.871536750433734"
],
[
"recall and free association. This is not because alcohol better produces associations, but because the person with alcoholism lives a larger portion of their life under the influence of alcohol. This produces changes in cognition and so when the person with alcoholism drinks, the intoxication primes their brain towards certain associations made in similar states. Essentially, the intoxicated and sober states of the alcoholic are in fact, different from the intoxicated and sober states of the non-alcoholic person, whose body is not as used to processing such large amounts of the substance. For this reason, we see slightly larger effects",
"-31.781388001243613"
],
[
"of a human being. It also demonstrates that a lack of these insights compromises 'normal' functioning. This leads to less healthy functioning. In the autism spectrum, there is a profound deficit in Theory of Mind.\nIn people who identify as alcoholics, there is a belief that the need to control cognition is an independent predictor of alcohol use over anxiety. Alcohol may be used as a coping strategy for controlling unwanted thoughts and emotions formed by negative perceptions. This is sometimes referred to as self medication. Implications Wells' and Matthews' theory proposes that when faced with an undesired choice, an individual",
"-31.771366291563027"
],
[
"and panic disorder are disorders commonly reported by alcohol dependent people. Alcoholism is associated with dampened activation in brain networks responsible for emotional processing (e.g. the amygdala and hippocampus). Evidence that the mental health disorders are often induced by alcohol misuse via distortion of brain neurochemistry is indicated by the improvement or disappearance of symptoms that occurs after prolonged abstinence, although problems may worsen in early withdrawal and recovery periods. Psychosis is secondary to several alcohol-related conditions including acute intoxication and withdrawal after significant exposure. Chronic alcohol misuse can cause psychotic type symptoms to develop, more so than with other",
"-31.687794283381663"
],
[
"cases are related to alcohol consumption, making it the second leading cause of dementia. Excessive alcohol use causes damage to brain function, and psychological health can be increasingly affected over time. Social skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol abuse include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody perception problems and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humour is also impaired in alcohol abusers. Psychiatric disorders are common in alcoholics, with",
"-31.643440033105435"
],
[
"also been argued to fuel perfectionism and feelings of inferiority or insecurity regarding negative evaluation from others. The need for social acceptance or social standing has been elaborated in other lines of research relating to social anxiety. Substance-induced While alcohol initially relieves social phobia, excessive alcohol misuse can worsen social phobia symptoms and cause panic disorder to develop or worsen during alcohol intoxication and especially during alcohol withdrawal syndrome. This effect is not unique to alcohol but can also occur with long-term use of drugs which have a similar mechanism of action to alcohol such as the benzodiazepines which are",
"-31.571955650113523"
],
[
"in the present moment and of emotions that arise from thoughts) can reduce the consumption of alcohol. Epidemiology Alcohol abuse is said to be most common in people aged between 15 and 24 years, according to Moreira 2009. However, this particular study of 7275 college students in England collected no comparative data from other age groups or countries.\nCauses of alcohol abuse are complex and are likely the combination of many factors, from coping with stress to childhood development. The US Department of Health & Human Services identifies several factors influencing adolescent alcohol use, such as risk-taking, expectancies, sensitivity and tolerance,",
"-31.54136666035265"
],
[
"is the increase in risk-taking behaviors, such as the emergence of alcohol use. Children aged 16 and under who consume alcohol heavily display symptoms of conduct disorder. Its symptoms include troublesome behaviour in school, constantly lying, learning disabilities and social impairments.\nAlcohol abuse during adolescence greatly increases the risk of developing an alcohol use disorder in adulthood due to changes to neurocircuitry that alcohol abuse causes in the vulnerable adolescent brain. Younger ages of initial consumption among males in recent studies has shown to be associated with increased rates of alcohol abuse within the general population.\nSocietal inequalities (among other factors) have",
"-31.459060437147855"
],
[
"risk factors in developing alcohol use disorders increase with age ranging from 28% in adolescence and 58% in adults. Prognosis Alcohol abuse during adolescence, especially early adolescence (i.e. before age 15), may lead to long-term changes in the brain which leaves them at increased risk of alcoholism in later years; genetic factors also influence age of onset of alcohol abuse and risk of alcoholism. For example, about 40 percent of those who begin drinking alcohol before age 15 develop alcohol dependence in later life, whereas only 10 percent of those who did not begin drinking until 20 years or older",
"-31.403242964472156"
],
[
"in alcohol use severity among samples, as the allostatic model of addiction contends that individuals shift from reward to relief drinking as alcohol use disorder progresses. Thus, it is possible that social drinkers and individuals with mild alcohol use disorder may experience the hedonic effects of alcohol as most salient while individuals with more severe alcohol use disorder may consume alcohol for its negative reinforcing properties (i.e., to reduce withdrawal symptoms). The use of retrospective, instead of real time, self-reports of SR as well as differences in ethnicities of samples may further contribute to discrepancies in studies exploring the effects",
"-31.368917684303597"
],
[
"alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence often acts to keep the anxiety disorders going and often progressively makes them worse. Many people who are addicted to alcohol or prescribed benzodiazepines decide to quit when it is explained to them they have a choice between ongoing ill mental health or quitting and recovering from their symptoms. It was noted that because every individual has an individual sensitivity level to alcohol or sedative hypnotic drugs, what one person can tolerate without ill health will cause another to suffer very ill health, and that even moderate drinking in sensitive individuals can cause rebound anxiety syndromes",
"-31.30189653870184"
],
[
"with unintended pregnancies.\nEffects on the unborn\nWomen who continue to consume alcohol during pregnancy are highly likely to have offspring that have birth defects. As alcohol is able to get directly into the nutrition that the mother is passing on to the baby through her placenta, there is a direct effect to the development of the fetus resulting in damaged cells, birth defects, neurological disorders and miscarriage.\nEffects on the vital organs\nStudies have shown a damaging relation between higher amounts of alcohol consumption and organ damage. Cardiovascular problems like high blood pressure, cardiomyopathy and heart attacks have been attributed to excessive alcohol",
"-31.286954927491024"
],
[
"coordination, low intelligence, behavioral problems, hearing loss, and vision problems. Those affected are more likely to have trouble in school, legal problems, participate in high-risk behaviors, and have trouble with alcohol and recreational drug use. Alcohol use during pregnancy also can cause spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, low birthweight, and prematurity. Not all infants exposed to alcohol in utero will have defects related to the alcohol consumption. The use of alcohol during pregnancy is associated with domestic violence and potential harm to the infant.\nFetal alcohol syndrome usually occurs when a pregnant woman has more than four drinks per day during the",
"-31.28291058819741"
],
[
"usage, historical and contemporary trends of alcohol usage, and alcohol use as a self handicapping strategy.\nTucker has received numerous grants for projects including the CITY Health II Project, Time Horizons and the Behavioral Economics of Recovery from Drinking Problems, and the Recovery and Health Seeking Processes in Problem Drinkers. Research Tucker and her colleagues have studied the effect of the environment on recovery from alcohol misuse and relapse. In one study, she compared individuals who had abstained from alcohol for an average of six years with those who were still active drinkers; in both groups, none of the individuals had",
"-31.254602205444826"
],
[
"narcissism, and those who are sober but retain characteristics of personality disorders associated with addiction are known in AA as dry drunks. The term is used by Alcoholics Anonymous in relation to feelings of anger, depression and resentment.\nA dry drunk can be described as a person who refrains from alcohol or drugs, but still has all the unresolved emotional and psychological issues which might have fueled the addiction to begin with. These unresolved issues continue to have a hold on their psyche and hence, they act like \"dry drunks.\" In most cases, alcohol dependency is a substantial factor in the",
"-31.150511147308862"
],
[
"labels and diagnoses as well as through other behaviors associated with their mental illness defined as deviant. This stigma may not be as easily understood as alcoholism or addiction because the behavior is more varied and can not be explained by substance use.\nThe objective of NA and AA is not just to help their members stop abusing drugs and alcohol. It is acknowledged in these programs that addiction is more systemic than a \"bad habit\" and is fundamentally caused by self-centeredness. Long term membership in Alcoholics Anonymous has been found to reform pathological narcissism, and those who are sober but",
"-31.122640992718516"
],
[
"of alcohol consumption and from periods of alcohol withdrawal. Aging Normal aging, although not responsible for causing memory disorders, is associated with a decline in cognitive and neural systems including memory (long-term and working memory). Many factors such as genetics and neural degeneration have a part in causing memory disorders. In order to diagnose Alzheimer's disease and dementia early, researchers are trying to find biological markers that can predict these diseases in younger adults. One such marker is a beta-amyloid deposit which is a protein that deposits on the brain as we age. Although 20-33% of healthy elderly adults have",
"-31.113279217854142"
],
[
"on adolescent sensitivity to alcohol showed that there were few gross behavioral changes between children (10–15) after they were given a dose of alcohol that would cause intoxication in adults. Good parental communication and high levels of parental nurture can lead to lower levels of alcohol abuse in adolescents. Physiological effects Alcohol abuse can lead to many problems, including increased chances of developing certain cardiovascular conditions, depressant effect resulting in decreased attention and slow reaction speed, loss of control of actions, mood changes, addiction, brain deterioration, and pregnancy issues. Alcohol increases flow of insulin, which speeds up glucose metabolism and",
"-31.086921334150247"
],
[
"to the limbic system. This may lead to troubles recognizing emotional facial expressions and “interpreting nonverbal emotional cues\".\nBinge drinking, or heavy episodic drinking, can lead to damage in the limbic system that occurs after a relatively short period of time. This brain damage increases the risk of dementia and abnormalities in mood and cognitive abilities. Binge drinkers also have an increased risk of developing chronic alcoholism. Alcoholism is also associated with many other health problems including memory disorders, high blood pressure, muscle weakness, heart problems, anaemia, low immune function, liver disease, disorders of the digestive system, and pancreatic problems. It",
"-31.056241597456392"
],
[
"not as physically and emotionally affected by alcohol when compared with the rest of the study, and had the less emotional complications, such as anxiety and depression. The smaller portion of the sample, 28%, comes from what is generally considered less than desirable circumstances, or \"not normal\". They tended to start drinking heavily earlier in life and \"exhibited more premorbid risk factors, had a more severe substance abuse and psychosocial impairment.\"\nVarious characteristics associated with drunk drivers were found more often in one gender than another. Females were more likely to be affected by both mental and physical health",
"-31.007821767401765"
],
[
"limits for different types of alcohol drinks.\nThe most commonly known reason for the law behind the legal drinking age is the effect on the brain in adolescents. Since the brain is still maturing, alcohol can have a negative effect on the memory and long-term thinking. Alongside that, it can cause liver failure, and create a hormone imbalance in teens due to the constant changes and maturing of hormones during puberty. Young people especially are also are at increased risk of injury when drinking alcohol.",
"-30.96606359037105"
],
[
"Long-term impact of alcohol on the brain While researchers have found that moderate alcohol consumption in older adults is associated with better cognition and well-being than abstinence, excessive alcohol consumption is associated with widespread and significant brain lesions. The effects can manifest much later—mid-life Alcohol Use Disorder has been found to correlate with increased risk of severe cognitive and memory deficits in later life. Alcohol related brain damage is not only due to the direct toxic effects of alcohol; alcohol withdrawal, nutritional deficiency, electrolyte disturbances, and liver damage are also believed to contribute to alcohol-related brain damage. Adolescent brain",
"-30.943091007182375"
],
[
"as 40% of college students could now be considered alcoholics, as defined by the next edition psychiatry's diagnostic manual, but many of these individuals would be regarded as having only a mild drinking problem. Most college binge drinkers and drug users don't develop lifelong problems. Health hazards There are many health hazards that are caused from drinking. When students drink too much, the alcohol affects one's brain and ability to comprehend what is going on. One such problem is alcohol poisoning. After drinking too much, the alcohol and toxins in alcoholic drinks cause complications in one's brain and respiratory system.",
"-30.938683535219752"
],
[
"to trigger long-term biological changes that may have detrimental effects on the developing adolescent brain, including neurocognitive impairment.\" \nUnder age drinking is a danger that brings many dangers and risks for all. Underage drinking causes 5,000 deaths a year. 1,900 by motor vehicle, 1,600 involving homicides, 300. suicides. Prevention There are a number of ways to preventing alcoholism throughout adolescents. One of the main ways to do this is to \"Promote an understanding of underage alcohol consumption in the context of human development and maturation that takes into account individual adolescent characteristics as well as environmental, ethic, cultural and gender differences\".",
"-30.908144060173072"
],
[
"This is known as insecure attachment. Insecure attachment contributes to trust and bonding issues with intimate partners and offspring. In addition, prior parental emotional unavailability contributes to poor conflict resolution skills in adult relationships. Evidence shows a correlation between alcoholic fathers who display harsh and ineffective parenting practices with adolescent and adult alcohol dependence.\nChildren of alcoholics are often unable to trust other adults due to fear of abandonment. Further, because children learn their bonding behaviors from watching their parents’ interactions, daughters of alcoholic fathers may be unable to interact appropriately with men when they reach adulthood. Poor behavior modeling by",
"-30.875990278320387"
],
[
"these substances can lead to the development of dependence syndrome.\" The report states that \"dependence has not previously been recognized as a disorder of the brain, in the same way that psychiatric and mental illnesses were not previously viewed as being a result of a disorder of the brain. However, with recent advances in neuroscience, it is clear that dependence is as much a disorder of the brain as any other neurological or psychiatric illness.\"\nThe American Society of Addiction Medicine and the American Medical Association both maintain extensive policy regarding alcoholism. The American Psychiatric Association recognizes the existence of",
"-30.85230389703065"
],
[
"drinking episodes leaving adolescents particularly at risk for alcoholism. The still developing brain of adolescents is more vulnerable to the damaging neurotoxic and neurodegenerative effects of alcohol. “High impulsivity has [also] been found in families with alcoholism, suggestive of a genetic link. Thus, the genetics of impulsivity overlaps with genetic risks for alcohol use disorder and possibly alcohol neurodegeneration\".\nThere is also a genetic risk for proinflammatory cytokine mediated alcohol-related brain damage. There is evidence that variants of these genes are involved not only in contributing to brain damage but also to impulsivity and alcohol abuse. All three of these genetic",
"-30.8149231657153"
],
[
"non-abstinent recovery or controlled drinking. Other factors such as a significant period of abstinence or changes in life circumstances were also identified as strong influences for success in a book on Controlled Drinking published in 1981. Managed drinking As part of a harm reduction strategy, provision of small amounts of alcoholic beverages to homeless alcoholics at homeless shelters in Toronto and Ottawa reduced government costs and improved health outcomes. Legal considerations In 1988, the US Supreme Court upheld a regulation whereby the Veterans' Administration was able to avoid paying benefits by presuming that primary alcoholism is always the",
"-30.733029722381616"
],
[
"a chronic alcohol consumer when they transition into adulthood. A particular study conducted by the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth found that harmful drinking during adolescent years was significantly associated with the continuance of dangerous levels of alcohol consumption into adulthood years. Central nervous system Heavy binge drinkers tend to have delayed auditory and verbal memory and deficits in executive planning function and episodic memory, which are similar to deficits seen in Korsakoff's syndrome. Impairments in spatial working memory and pattern recognition tasks also have been found in heavy binge drinkers. Impulse control is also impaired in binge drinkers, especially",
"-30.727204662165605"
],
[
"aid in better understanding and treating drunkorexia.\nOther motivations for drunkorexia include; preventing weight gain, saving money that would be spent on food to buy alcohol, and getting intoxicated faster which also saves money as they won't need to buy as many drinks. Drunkorexia as a diagnosis Co-existing, and self-reinforcing starvation and alcohol disorders are gaining recognition in the fields of dual diagnosis, psychiatry, and addictionology.",
"-30.714680848555872"
],
[
"be dissimilar from the rest of the population, but so can their thought processes, or cognitive processes. They are unique in that \"they often drink despite the severity of legal and financial sanctions imposed on them by society.\"\nIn addition to these societal restraints, DUI offenders ignore their own personal experience, including both social and physical consequences. The study \"Cognitive Predictors of Alcohol Involvement and Alcohol consumption-Related Consequences in a Sample of Drunk-Driving Offenders\" was performed in Albuquerque, New Mexico on the cognitive, or mental, factors of DUI offenders. Characteristics such as gender, marital status, and age of these DWI",
"-30.627564542461187"
],
[
"specific changes that may relate to alcohol use disorder. These changes have been noted in the synaptic transcriptome in the prefrontal cortex, and are seen as a factor causing the drive to alcohol dependence, and also to other substance abuses.\nOther related studies have also shown evidence of synaptic alterations and their loss, in the ageing brain. Changes in gene expression alter the levels of proteins in various neural pathways and this has been shown to be evident in synaptic contact dysfunction or loss. This dysfunction has been seen to affect many structures of the brain and has a marked effect",
"-30.61847155750729"
],
[
"Alcohol abuse Signs and symptoms Individuals with an alcohol use disorder will often complain of difficulty with interpersonal relationships, problems at work or school, and legal problems. Additionally, people may complain of irritability and insomnia. Alcohol abuse is also an important cause of chronic fatigue.\nSigns of alcohol abuse are related to alcohol's effects on organ systems. However, while these findings are often present, they are not necessary to make a diagnosis of alcohol abuse. Signs of alcohol abuse show its drastic effects on the central nervous system, including inebriation and poor judgment; chronic anxiety, irritability, and insomnia. Alcohol's effects on",
"-30.569118779501878"
],
[
"persisting neuroadaptations. Alcoholism has serious adverse effects on brain function; on average it takes one year of abstinence to recover from the cognitive deficits incurred by chronic alcohol abuse. Psychological Various forms of group therapy or psychotherapy can be used to deal with underlying psychological issues that are related to alcohol addiction, as well as provide relapse prevention skills. The mutual-help group-counseling approach is one of the most common ways of helping alcoholics maintain sobriety. Alcoholics Anonymous was one of the first organizations formed to provide mutual, nonprofessional counseling, and it is still the largest. Others include LifeRing Secular Recovery,",
"-30.562989119312988"
],
[
"the neurotoxic effects of alcohol, and if long-lasting or permanent damage to the brain occurs similar to what animal studies suggest, then this represents a major public health issue due to the high levels of alcohol use by adolescents. Indeed, alcohol can affect the remodeling and functional changes in synaptic plasticity and neuronal connectivity in different brain regions that occurs during adolescence (see this related article). Diagnosis For the purpose of identifying an alcohol use disorder when assessing binge drinking, using a time frame of the past 6 months eliminates false negatives. For example, it has been found that using",
"-30.456221644533798"
],
[
"use alcohol or other drugs, which can lead to substance abuse. It is estimated that one-fifth of patients with social anxiety disorder also suffer from alcohol dependence. However, some research suggests SAD is unrelated to, or even protective against alcohol-related problems. Those who suffer from both alcoholism and social anxiety disorder are more likely to avoid group-based treatments and to relapse compared to people who do not have this combination. Differential diagnosis The DSM-IV criteria stated that an individual cannot receive a diagnosis of social anxiety disorder if their symptoms are better accounted for by one of the autism spectrum",
"-30.44426267268136"
],
[
"due to unintentional injury from alcohol consumption. Psychological effects The liver is the organ that is most affected by alcohol. The brain is also affected, however, and can be damaged leading to the drinker's behavioral changes and emotional distress. Three noticeable effects of alcohol injury to the brain are memory loss, confusion, and augmentation. An adult is legally considered the age of 18, right to vote, contractual capacity, and financial responsibility. By age 15, adolescents are as capable as adults at logically assessing the likelihood of risk due to their development of emotional and behavioral self-regulation by this age. Studies",
"-30.40322638186626"
],
[
"decide on quitting alcohol or their benzodiazepines. Symptoms may temporarily worsen however, during alcohol withdrawal or benzodiazepine withdrawal. Psychological factors Research has indicated the role of 'core' or 'unconditional' negative beliefs (e.g. \"I am inept\") and 'conditional' beliefs nearer to the surface (e.g. \"If I show myself, I will be rejected\"). They are thought to develop based on personality and adverse experiences and to be activated when the person feels under threat. One line of work has focused more specifically on the key role of self-presentational concerns. The resulting anxiety states are seen as interfering with social performance and the",
"-30.35149025807914"
],
[
"consumption. Beyond the circulatory system, kidney and liver disease are also attributed to alcohol consumption. Effects on brain function have been found, for example memory loss reduced intellectual ability, reduced brain size and coordination.\nSocial effects\nProlonged excessive use are known to induce many hard to treat conditions like depression, impulsive decision making, violent and abusive behavior, reduced cognitive abilities. All of these can limit the quality of interactions with family, friends and can lead to harmful behavior towards self and others. Economic impact from long-term consumption of alcohol There is currently no consistent approach to measuring the economic impact of alcohol",
"-30.345419455785304"
],
[
"for alcoholics in hospitals. Two years later, in the same journal, he argued that the heavier an individual, the less likely they were to feel drunk. By 1943, in the Boston number of the Medical Clinics of North America, he argued that adult neurosis and alcoholism could be prevented if parents ensured children matched the skills of their peers and never \"go off the track of normal development\". He also published articles in medical journals about \"drug addiction, suicide, venereal disease [...], the psychoneurosis of war, migraine headaches.\" Meanwhile, Moore also treated patients like Robert Frost's daughter, who suffered from",
"-30.321458093705587"
],
[
"an alcohol use disorder damage the hippocampal, prefrontal cortex, and temporal lobes. Chronic alcohol exposure can result in increased DNA damage in the brain, as well as reduced DNA repair and increased neuronal cell death. Alcohol metabolism generates genotoxic acetaldehyde and reactive oxygen species.\nUntil recently, the underlying mechanisms mediating the link between pubertal maturation and increased alcohol use in adolescence was poorly understood. Now research has suggested that sex steroid hormone levels may play a role in this interaction. When controlling for age, it was demonstrated that elevated estradiol and testosterone levels in male teenagers undergoing pubertal",
"-30.296222166376538"
],
[
"Alcohol education Definition Alcohol education is the planned provision of information and skills relevant to living in a world where alcohol is commonly misused. The World Health Organisations (WHO) Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health, highlights the fact that alcohol will be a larger problem in later years, with estimates suggesting it will be the leading cause of disability and death. Informing people on alcohol and harmful drinking should become a priority. Alcohol Education Goals Educating the youth about alcohol use is an attempt at minimizing the risk of substance abuse in the future. Drinking alcoholic beverages is among",
"-30.239067112386692"
],
[
"the major causes of health problems world-wide. Substance use at a young age can lead to a variety of health risks, both immediate and later in life. Educating the youth about the effects of alcohol and health problems that come with it earlier on in life may help prevent the damage before it is done. History in the United States Teaching about alcohol consumption has been a controversial topic for schools in the United States due to the differing viewpoints of Americans on the subject. A variety of educational methods that reflect these viewpoints have been developed and tried over",
"-30.198993851181513"
],
[
"family. A family member's negative response to the person's disorder can increase the OCD behavior. Colas started taking medication and made the conscious effort to stop obsessing over unimportant matters. The last section of entries demonstrates a healthier and more controlled person and the reader sees a change in the narrator. OCD in college students In her narrative, Emily Colas covers her time as an obsessive-compulsive college student. She writes that she had a bad habit of using drugs. She was a consistent user until one evening she had a terrible experience. She decided that drugs were not for her",
"-30.179885380668566"
],
[
"effect of the drug. Although this approach may be helpful to point out signs and symptoms of alcohol abuse it fails to discourage a person from drinking, responsibly or irresponsibly. The Alternative Approach This approach seeks to find alternatives to drinking. The alternatives have shown to be successful in the replacement of alcohol as long as they're available to the person alternating. This approach though does not do well to change one's drinking attitude or habit, but rather lessens the amount of alcohol consumed. It is also hard to find alternatives to fit in the place of alcohol in some",
"-30.1386310804628"
],
[
"earlier.\nGiven this controversy, the best one can say is that the idea that habitual alcohol drinking was a disease had become more acceptable by the middle of the nineteenth century, although many writers still argued it was a vice, a sin, and not the purview of medicine but of religion.\n\nBetween 1980 and 1991, medical organizations, including the AMA, worked together to establish policies regarding their positions on the disease theory. These policies were developed in 1987 in part because third-party reimbursement for treatment was difficult or impossible unless alcoholism were categorized as a disease. The policies of the AMA, formed",
"-30.119139561778866"
],
[
"use than most other racial or ethnic groups and those that live on reservations are at the highest risk of developing alcohol related problems. According to Kunitz study on alcoholism in Native American populations, reasons for the prevalence of alcoholism and alcohol consumption on reservations is attributable to \"access to alcohol became much easier, and patterns of drinking that had not been particularly problematic in the past began to have measurable consequences in respect of morbidity and mortality.\" Such consumption and addiction is especially prevalent on reservations. Another explanation for the prevalence of alcoholism on reservations is advertising and",
"-30.102290165959857"
],
[
"alcohol is one of the reasons people engage in alcohol abuse as this substance is easily obtained in shops. Another influencing factor among adolescents and college students are the perceptions of social norms for drinking; people will often drink more to keep up with their peers, as they believe their peers drink more than they actually do. They might also expect to drink more given the context (e.g. sporting event, house party, etc.). This perception of norms results in higher alcohol consumption than is normal.\nAlcohol abuse is also associated with acculturation, because social and cultural factors such as an ethnic",
"-30.099295261665247"
],
[
"family systems since the 1980s. For example, Kasl and others in the field of addiction have long noted that the classic \"Characteristics of Adult Children of Alcoholics\" and the list known as \"The Problem\" in ACA (which are read at every ACA meeting) focus strongly on \"character defects\" and do not adequately support the creation or celebration of character strengths, strengths which are often the result of surviving these very systems.\nMany twelve-step programs, such as Narcotics Anonymous, have special interest groups, typically meetings specifically geared towards young people, men, women, gays and lesbians, etc. Alcoholics Anonymous has also started",
"-30.09232069889549"
],
[
"Brazilian study conducted in 2006 found that combining an energy drink and alcohol \"appears to show us that the use of energy drinks might predispose people to abuse alcohol when its depressant effects—or at least the perception of such effects—are masked by them\". Professor Roseli Boergnen de Lacerda, who conducted the study, also warned of another possible effect: \"a higher risk of car accidents because [people who drank energy drinks with alcohol] felt less intoxicated than they were\".",
"-30.026251472358126"
],
[
"age 50 to 70. The onset and the severity of this type of dementia is directly correlated to the amount of alcohol that a person consumes over their lifetime.\nEpidemiological studies show an association between long-term alcohol intoxication and dementia. Alcohol can damage the brain directly as a neurotoxin, or it can damage it indirectly by causing malnutrition, primarily a loss of thiamine (vitamin B1). Alcohol abuse is common in older persons, and alcohol-related dementia is under-diagnosed. A discredited French study, looking at other studies of thousands of subjects, found that moderate alcohol consumption (up to four glasses of wine per",
"-30.023403627288644"
],
[
"that controls coordination thereby leading to the development of cerebellar ataxia. These patients frequently have problems with sensation in their extremities and may demonstrate unsteadiness on their feet.\nAlcohol-related dementia can produce a variety of psychiatric problems including psychosis (disconnection from reality), depression, anxiety, and personality changes. Patients with alcoholic dementia often develop apathy, related to frontal lobe damage, that may mimic depression. People with alcoholism are more likely to become depressed than people without alcoholism, and it may be difficult to differentiate between depression and alcohol dementia. Pathophysiology Alcohol has a direct effect on brain cells in the front part",
"-30.001054675274645"
],
[
"follow-up studies conducted primarily by Schuckit's group established that low-level of response is a genetically-linked risk factor for alcohol use disorder, which is not better explained by robust confounding factors such as age of first drink, current alcohol use and impulsivity. A 1992 meta-analysis further buttressed the Low Level of Response Model by reporting that sons of alcoholics exhibited lower responses to alcohol on both the ascending and descending limbs of the BAC curve. Importantly, differences in SR by family history were significant only in the alcohol condition and not the placebo condition, suggesting that SRs observed in the alcohol",
"-29.916787153400946"
]
] |
2dghfa | Do different types of hard alcohols, say vodka vs. tequila, truly affect your mood in different ways? If so, why? | [
"One possible explanation: mixers. Lots of people shoot tequila straight, whereas rum is commonly taken in tandem with something else – cola, for example. If you're combining gin with tonic, or vodka with something super-caffeinated like Red Bull, whose to say the drunk you're experiencing is due to the alcohol, and not because of what you're drinking with it? Despite the fact that there are no scientific studies (to my knowledge) that examine the behavioral effects that different alcoholic beverages may or may not have, the most common explanation for the differential effects of booze is that it's all in your head, and that your experience with a given alcohol is dictated largely by the social situations in which you choose to consume it. Fundamentally, alcohol is alcohol whichever way you slice it.",
"In general, no, it's all just ethyl alcohol affecting you. As jhaake said, though, you can expect some differences based on the mixers you use. Red Bull will give you a different reult from club soda, because you are adding a stimulant. There's a *possibility* the different congeners (the byproducts of fermentation and distillation in different alcohols, or in other words, the other 60% of the fluid that isn't alcohol in your standard 80 proof liquor) may have some unknown affect on people, but nothing has been isolated that seems to be able to affect mood like that. What is more likely, and the generally accepted definition, is that you get self fulfilling prophecies. If you expect to be a raging party animal when you drink tequila, then you drink tequila, you'll be a raging party animal. If you expect to get angry and hit people when you drink irish whiskey, that's what you'll do. On that note, I've seen someone get stupid drunk on a non-alcoholic beverage they thought was alcoholic.",
"Bartender of almost 10 years here...I don't know if it will actually make you act different if let's say, you didn't know which type of alcohol you were drinking but I do know that certain regulars are not allowed certain drinks (tequila, jager) because of how they act when they drink it. Some alcohol is stronger than others obviously. If.you are drinking Malibu rum it is only 42 proof(21% alcohol) whereas if you drank Bacardi 151 you would have 75.5 % alcohol. Mixing with any carbonated beverage does get it into your blood stream faster, as does caffeine. To my knowledge the reason people act different of certain liquors is because they like it better and drink it faster",
"Think of the situations in which you'd drink different kinds of alcohol. Something like vodka or gin, you might be at a swanky party. Rum, tequila, or beer, maybe you're at a more casual, much louder party. Wine at a quiet dinner or a night at home with a friend. How are you drinking? Shots, like you normally do with tequila? Mixed drinks, mainly vodka, gin, or rum? Are these mixed with something sugary or caffeinated? Drinking two heavy beers while having dinner at a casual bar with friends, or drinking 4 light beers at a beer pong table? Alcohol is alcohol, they're all ethanol. But what we drink them with, where we drink them, how much and how fast are all going to affect our drunkenness.",
"I was a bartender with a psychology degree for many years. I believe that if you have an experience that you associate with certain kinds of alcohol you tend to blame those experiences on said alcohol. For example, if a person got into a fight while drinking whiskey, they tend to believe later that whiskey made them angry and they fought because of it. This belief will effect their behavior to the point they believe they get angry drinking whiskey.",
"I suspect it's a conditioning process. If you have a couple really wild nights the first times you drink tequila, then the smell and taste of tequila is going to bring up memories and put you in that crazy party mood. Also a self-fulfilling prophecy. If you expect to be wild on tequila, you will, and if you make that widely known to friends, then they'll treat you differently as well."
] | [
[
"5.22), which define the identity standards for various alcohols, vodka is in the class of neutral spirits and is defined as: \"neutral spirits so distilled, or so treated after distillation with charcoal or other materials, as to be without distinctive character, aroma, taste, or color\". Health In some countries, black-market or \"bathtub\" vodka is widespread because it can be produced easily and avoid taxation. However, severe poisoning, blindness, or death can occur as a result of dangerous industrial ethanol substitutes being added by black-market producers. In March 2007 in a documentary, BBC News UK sought to find the cause of",
"-34.84357955714222"
],
[
"One of alcohol's primary effects is the allosteric inhibition of NMDA receptors and facilitation of GABAA receptors (e.g., enhanced GABAA receptor-mediated chloride flux through allosteric regulation of the receptor). At high doses, ethanol inhibits most ligand gated ion channels and voltage gated ion channels in neurons as well. Alcohol inhibits sodium-potassium pumps in the cerebellum and this is likely how it impairs cerebellar computation and body co-ordination.\nWith acute alcohol consumption, dopamine is released in the synapses of the mesolimbic pathway, in turn heightening activation of postsynaptic D1 receptors. The activation of these receptors triggers postsynaptic internal signaling events through protein",
"-34.15565882460214"
],
[
"which leads to slurred speech, impaired fine-motor skills, and delayed reaction time. The effects of alcohol on the body's neurochemistry are more difficult to examine than some other drugs. This is because the chemical nature of the substance makes it easy to penetrate into the brain, and it also influences the phospholipid bilayer of neurons. This allows alcohol to have a widespread impact on many normal cell functions and modifies the actions of several neurotransmitter systems. Alcohol inhibits glutamate (a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system) neurotransmission by reducing the effectiveness at the NMDA receptor, which is related to",
"-34.139653588565125"
],
[
"are many factors in the environment and within the user that interact with each drug differently. Overall, some studies suggest that alcohol is one of the most dangerous of all recreational drugs; only heroin, crack cocaine, and methamphetamines are judged to be more harmful. However, studies which focus on a moderate level of alcohol consumption have concluded that there can be substantial health benefits from its use, such as decreased risk of cardiac disease, stroke and cognitive decline. This claim has been disputed. Researcher David Nutt stated that these studies showing benefits for \"moderate\" alcohol consumption lacked control for the",
"-33.65183982742019"
],
[
"concurrent auditory stimuli, and a general intensification of the experience of music. Higher doses often cause intense and fundamental distortions of sensory perception such as synaesthesia, the experience of additional spatial or temporal dimensions, and temporary dissociation. Adverse effects Of the 20 drugs ranked according to individual and societal harm by David Nutt, LSD was third to last, approximately 1/10th as harmful as alcohol. The most significant adverse effect was impairment of mental functioning while intoxicated. Mental disorders LSD may trigger panic attacks or feelings of extreme anxiety, known familiarly as a \"bad trip.\" Review studies suggest that LSD likely",
"-33.22794272121973"
],
[
"such as sodium channels can also be affected by high doses of alcohol, and alteration in the numbers of these channels in chronic alcoholics is likely to be responsible for as well as other effects such as cardiac arrhythmia. Other targets that are affected by alcohol include cannabinoid, opioid and dopamine receptors, although it is unclear whether alcohol affects these directly or if they are affected by downstream consequences of the GABA/NMDA effects. People with a family history of alcoholism may exhibit genetic differences in the response of their NMDA glutamate receptors as well as the ratios of GABAA subtypes",
"-32.91017912471216"
],
[
"of alcohol in essential tremor and other movement disorders, but this remains speculative. Moderate doses Ethanol inhibits the ability of glutamate to open the cation channel associated with the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors. Stimulated areas include the cortex, hippocampus, and nucleus accumbens, which are all responsible for both thinking and pleasure seeking. Another one of alcohol's agreeable effects is body relaxation, which is possibly caused by neurons transmitting electrical signals in an alpha waves-pattern; such waves are actually observed (with the aid of EEGs) whenever the body is relaxed.\nShort-term effects of alcohol include the risk of injuries, violence,",
"-32.77903635057737"
],
[
"syndrome. This effect is not unique to alcohol but can also occur with long-term use of drugs which have a similar mechanism of action to alcohol such as the benzodiazepines, which are sometimes prescribed as tranquillizers to people with alcohol problems. Approximately half of patients attending mental health services for conditions including anxiety disorders such as panic disorder or social phobia suffer from alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence. It was noted that every individual has an individual sensitivity level to alcohol or sedative hypnotic drugs and what one person can tolerate without ill health another will suffer very ill health and",
"-32.76130001350248"
],
[
"crime, it may either be referred to as a DUI (Driving Under the Influence) or a DWI (Driving While Intoxicated), where a DUI is generally considered to be a lesser crime.\nStudies have been performed to identify commonalities between severe drunk drivers. Effects of alcohol on cognitive processes Alcohol has a very significant effect on the functions of the body which are vital to driving and being able to function. Alcohol is a depressant, which mainly affects the function of the brain. Alcohol first affects the most vital components of the brain and \"when the brain cortex is released from",
"-32.62006385601126"
],
[
"furfural, and tannins, many but not all of which are toxic. One study in mice indicates that fusel oil may have a mitigating effect on hangover symptoms, while some whiskey congeners such as butanol protect the stomach against gastric mucosal damage in the rat. Different types of alcoholic beverages contain different amounts of congeners. In general, dark liquors have a higher concentration while clear liquors have a lower concentration. Whereas vodka has virtually no more congeners than pure ethanol, bourbon has a total congener content 37 times higher than that found in vodka.\nSeveral studies have examined whether certain types of",
"-32.312508883784176"
],
[
"about violence caused by drugs and alcohol.",
"-32.249438203376485"
],
[
"Alcohol and health Alcohol (also known as ethanol) has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol consumption include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain and alcoholism. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. Alcohol stimulates insulin production, which speeds up glucose metabolism and can result in low blood sugar, causing irritability and possibly death for diabetics. Even light and moderate alcohol consumption increases cancer risk in individuals. A 2014 World Health Organization report found that harmful alcohol consumption caused",
"-32.240943506987605"
],
[
"Alcohol and sex Alcohol and sex deals with the effects of the consumption of alcohol on sexual behavior. The effects of alcohol are balanced between its suppressive effects on sexual physiology, which will decrease sexual activity, and its suppression of psychological inhibitions, which may increase the desire for sex.\nAlcohol is a depressant. After consumption, alcohol causes the body’s systems to slow down. Often, feelings of drunkenness are associated with elation and happiness but other feelings of anger or depression can arise. Balance, judgment, and coordination are also negatively affected. One of the most significant short term side effects of alcohol",
"-32.184783413875266"
],
[
"Short-term effects of alcohol consumption The short-term effects of alcohol (more specifically ethanol) consumption – due to drinking beer, wine, distilled spirits or other alcoholic beverages – range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills and euphoria at lower doses to intoxication (drunkenness), stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia (memory \"blackouts\"), and central nervous system depression at higher doses. Cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol, so once alcohol is in the bloodstream, it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body.\nThe concentration of alcohol in blood is measured via blood alcohol content (BAC). The amount and circumstances of consumption",
"-32.088717130005534"
],
[
"can measure the anxiolytic effects of alcohol in the human brain. The British National Formulary states, \"Alcohol is a poor hypnotic because its diuretic action interferes with sleep during the latter part of the night.\" Alcohol is also known to induce alcohol-related sleep disorders. Inhalants The anxiolytic effects of solvents act as positive modulators of GABAA receptors (Bowen and colleagues 2006). Alternatives to medication Psychotherapeutic treatment can be an effective alternative to medication. Exposure therapy is the recommended treatment for phobic anxiety disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been found to be effective treatment for panic disorder, social anxiety",
"-31.95153176673921"
],
[
"colds because drinking was associated with decreased illness following infection. However, the benefits of drinking occurred only among nonsmokers. [...] Although alcohol consumption did not influence risk of clinical illness for smokers, moderate alcohol consumption was associated with decreased risk for nonsmokers.\"\nAnother study concluded, \"Findings suggest that wine intake, especially red wine, may have a protective effect against common cold. Beer, spirits, and total alcohol intakes do not seem to affect the incidence of common cold.\" Cancer In 1988 the International Agency for Research on Cancer (Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer) of the World Health Organization classified alcohol",
"-31.944370711469674"
],
[
"impact of alcohol (2010) A December 2010 article determined that alcohol had the worst medical and social effects compared to other recreational substances such as heroin and crack cocaine. The drugs marijuana, ecstasy, and LSD scored far lower in terms of related harms. The authors did not advocate alcohol prohibition, but they suggested that the government raise the price of alcohol until it was no longer widely available. Gavin Partington, spokesman of the Wine and Spirit Trade Association, responded to the report by saying that alcohol abuse affects \"a minority\" needing \"education, treatment and enforcement\". He also remarked that millions",
"-31.895881274031126"
],
[
"population. Alcohol Alcohol consumption increases the risk of hypothermia in two ways: vasodilation and temperature controlling systems in the brain. Vasodilation increases blood flow to the skin, resulting in heat being lost to the environment. This produces the effect of an individual feeling warm, when they are actually losing heat. Alcohol also affects the temperature-regulating system in the brain, decreasing the body's ability to shiver and use energy that would normally aid the body in generating heat. The overall effects of alcohol lead to a decrease in body temperature and a decreased ability to generate body heat in response to",
"-31.894974645838374"
],
[
"these receptors causes most of the effects of alcohol such as relaxation and relief from anxiety, sedation, ataxia and increase in appetite and lowering of inhibitions that can cause a tendency toward violence in some people.\nAlcohol has a powerful effect on glutamate as well. Alcohol decreases glutamate's ability to bind with NMDA and acts as an antagonist of the NMDA receptor, which plays a critical role in LTP by allowing Ca2+ to enter the cell. These inhibitory effects are thought to be responsible for the \"memory blanks\" that can occur at levels as low as 0.03% blood level. In addition,",
"-31.77092517458368"
],
[
"an accident and is often a separately defined felony punishable by jail, license suspension, fines or compulsory treatment. Long-term effects Alcohol is the main active ingredient of wine, beer and distilled spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death. Drinking more than this amount, however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking, which may result in violence or",
"-31.525001502246596"
],
[
"the evidence which suggests a protective role of low doses of alcohol against heart attacks. There is an increased risk of hypertriglyceridemia, cardiomyopathy, hypertension, and stroke if 3 or more standard drinks of alcohol are taken per day. A systematic review reported that reducing alcohol intake lowers blood pressure in a dose-dependent manner in heavy drinkers. For people who drank two or fewer drinks per day, no difference was found. Cardiomyopathy Large amount of alcohol over the long term can lead to alcoholic cardiomyopathy. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy presents in a manner clinically identical to idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, involving hypertrophy of",
"-31.40073368261801"
],
[
"were intoxicated believed they were more sexually aroused than before consumption of alcohol. This psychological effect contrasts with the physiological effects measured, but refers back to the loss of inhibitions because of alcohol. Often, alcohol can influence the capacity for a woman to feel more relaxed and in turn, be more sexual. Alcohol may be considered by some women to be a sexual disinhibitor. Drug facilitated sexual assault Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA), also known as predator rape, is a sexual assault carried out after the victim has become incapacitated due to having consumed alcohol or other drugs. The unofficial term",
"-31.189110806133613"
],
[
"some studies that compared alcoholics with non-alcoholics suggest alcoholism is linked to increased externality for health locus of control; however, other studies have linked alcoholism with increased internality. Similar ambiguity has been found in studies of alcohol consumption in the general, non-alcoholic population. They are more optimistic in reviewing the literature on the relationship between internal health locus of control and smoking cessation, although they also point out that there are grounds for supposing that powerful-others and internal-health loci of control may be linked with this behavior. It is thought that, rather than being caused by one or the other,",
"-31.163225626311032"
],
[
"exert their effects through a number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include facilitation of GABA, and inhibition of glutamatergic or monoaminergic activity. Other examples are chemicals that modify the electrical signaling inside the body. The most prominent of these being bromides and channel blockers. Alcohol An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains alcohol (also known formally as ethanol), an anesthetic that has been used as a psychoactive drug for several millennia. Ethanol is the oldest recreational drug still used by humans. Ethanol can cause alcohol intoxication when consumed. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general",
"-31.113244063948514"
],
[
"or wine was is associated with a lower risk of developing kidney stones. Sexual dysfunction Long term excessive intake of alcohol can lead to damage to the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system resulting in loss of sexual desire and impotence in men. This is caused by reduction of testosterone from ethanol-induced testicular atrophy, resulting in increased feminisation of males and is a clinical feature of alcohol abusing males who have cirrhosis of the liver. Hormonal imbalance Excessive alcohol intake can result in hyperoestrogenisation. It has been speculated that alcoholic beverages may contain estrogen-like compounds. In men, high",
"-31.110965782267158"
],
[
"spirits, was associated with a reduced NHL risk and a large European study found a protective effect of alcohol among men and in non-Mediterranean countries..\" A study of older women in Iowa found alcohol to reduce the risk of NHL and the amount of alcohol consumed, rather than the type of alcoholic beverages, appeared to be the main determinant in reducing risk.\" A possible mechanism has been suggested.\nSome studies have not found a protective effect from drinking. British research found no association between frequency of drinking and NHL and research in Sweden found that total beer, wine, or",
"-30.981113139656372"
],
[
"developing alcohol problems. Another study found that FH+ subjects reported experiencing less intoxication than FH- subjects in response to a placebo drink, indicating that alcohol expectancies may account for differences in risk more so than SR. That is, individuals at greatest risk for developing alcohol use disorder may expect alcohol to be more enjoyable and less aversive than low-risk individuals. Differentiator Model The Differentiator Model is based on the widely accepted notion that alcohol's effects are biphasic. That is, the stimulating effects of alcohol (i.e., euphoria, sociality, energy) are more prevalent as BAC rises (i.e., ascending limb), while alcohol's sedative",
"-30.951767711900175"
],
[
"consuming alcohol in combination with cocaine may be more cardiotoxic than cocaine and \"it also carries an 18 to 25 fold increase over cocaine alone in risk of immediate death\". Cocaethylene has a higher affinity for the dopamine transporter than does cocaine, but has a lower affinity for the serotonin and norepinephrine transporters.",
"-30.92740918889467"
],
[
"of alcohol consumed by problem drinkers. Benzodiazepine dependency requires careful reduction in dosage to avoid benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome and other health consequences. Dependence on other sedative-hypnotics such as zolpidem and zopiclone as well as opiates and illegal drugs is common in alcoholics. Alcohol itself is a sedative-hypnotic and is cross-tolerant with other sedative-hypnotics such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines. Dependence upon and withdrawal from sedative-hypnotics can be medically severe and, as with alcohol withdrawal, there is a risk of psychosis or seizures if not properly managed. Epidemiology The World Health Organization estimates that as of 2010 there are 208 million",
"-30.909035580058116"
],
[
"Approximately three percent of people who are suffering from alcoholism experience psychosis during acute intoxication or withdrawal. Alcohol related psychosis may manifest itself through a kindling mechanism. The mechanism of alcohol-related psychosis is due to the long-term effects of alcohol resulting in distortions to neuronal membranes, gene expression, as well as thiamin deficiency. It is possible in some cases that alcohol abuse via a kindling mechanism can cause the development of a chronic substance induced psychotic disorder, i.e. schizophrenia. The effects of an alcohol-related psychosis include an increased risk of depression and suicide as well as causing psychosocial impairments. Cannabis",
"-30.90146956890385"
],
[
"over whether the main cause is the direct toxic effect of alcohol itself or whether the disease is a result of alcoholism-related malnutrition.\nFrequently alcoholics have disrupted social links in their lives and have an irregular lifestyle. This may cause an alcoholic to change their eating habits including more missed meals and a poor dietary balance. Alcoholism may also result in loss of appetite, alcoholic gastritis, and vomiting, which decrease food intake. Alcohol abuse damages the lining of the gastrointestinal system and reduces absorption of nutrients that are taken in. The combination of all of them may result in a nutritional",
"-30.844149593096517"
],
[
"alcohol is one of the reasons people engage in alcohol abuse as this substance is easily obtained in shops. Another influencing factor among adolescents and college students are the perceptions of social norms for drinking; people will often drink more to keep up with their peers, as they believe their peers drink more than they actually do. They might also expect to drink more given the context (e.g. sporting event, house party, etc.). This perception of norms results in higher alcohol consumption than is normal.\nAlcohol abuse is also associated with acculturation, because social and cultural factors such as an ethnic",
"-30.831248085960397"
],
[
"that even moderate drinking can cause rebound anxiety syndromes and sleep disorders. A person who is suffering the toxic effects of alcohol will not benefit from other therapies or medications as they do not address the root cause of the symptoms.\nAddiction to alcohol, as with any drug of abuse tested so far, has been correlated with an enduring reduction in the expression of GLT1 (EAAT2) in the nucleus accumbens and is implicated in the drug-seeking behavior expressed nearly universally across all documented addiction syndromes. This long-term dysregulation of glutamate transmission is associated with an increase in vulnerability to both relapse-events",
"-30.741912586010585"
],
[
"Surrogate alcohol Dangers to health Most surrogate alcohols have very high alcoholic levels, some as high as 95%, and thus can lead to alcohol poisoning, along with other symptoms of alcohol abuse such as vertigo, impaired coordination, balance and judgment, nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, and even long-term effects such as heart failure, stroke, and death.\nBesides alcohol, there are many other toxic substances in surrogate alcohol such as hydrogen peroxide, antiseptics, ketones, as well as alcohols other than ethanol (drinking alcohol) such as isopropanol and methanol. Methanol, and, to a far lesser extent isopropanol, is a poison. The effect of other",
"-30.66574569309887"
],
[
"Alcohol and cardiovascular disease Excessive alcohol intake is associated with an elevated risk of alcoholic liver disease (ALD), heart failure, some cancers, and accidental injury, and is a leading cause of preventable death in industrialized countries. However, extensive research has shown that moderate alcohol intake is associated with health benefits, including less cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and hypertension.\nEpidemiological and short term experimental studies have shown drinkers who consume one to two drinks per drinking day have a beneficial association with ischemic heart disease compared to never-drinkers. Furthermore, regular consumption of light to moderate dose of alcohol (1 drink/day for women",
"-30.65863274008734"
],
[
"higher educational levels, etc. However, when these and other factors are considered, the cardioprotective effects of alcohol are still evident. Confirmation of Cardioprotection Multiple studies on moderate alcohol consumption have now reconfirmed earlier suspected cardioprotection findings. A 2006 study concluded, \"Even in men already at low risk on the basis of body mass index, physical activity, smoking, and diet, moderate alcohol intake is associated with lower risk for myocardial infarction.\" Another study found that when men increased their alcohol intake from very low to moderate, they significantly reduced their risk of coronary heart disease. The study monitored the",
"-30.609240480785957"
],
[
"carcinogen. Cardiovascular system Studies have shown that heavy drinkers put themselves at greater risk for heart disease and developing potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Excessive alcohol consumption can cause higher blood pressure, increased cholesterol levels and weakened heart muscles. Studies have shown that moderate wine drinking can improve the balance of low-density lipoprotein (LDL or \"bad\" cholesterol) to high-density lipoprotein (HDL or \"good\" cholesterol), which has been theorized as to clean up or remove LDL from blocking arteries. The main cause of heart attacks and the pain of angina is the lack of oxygen caused by blood clots and atheromatous plaque",
"-30.601740532394615"
],
[
"in criminal court because alcohol concentration is a relatively reliable indicator of how recently and how much alcohol was consumed. In contrast, THC levels can vary widely depending on the means of ingestion, THC is metabolized at an exponentially declining rate (as opposed to the steady metabolization rate for alcohol), and there is very poor correlation of THC blood levels with impairment. As stated in a report to Congress produced by the U.S. Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, \"[I]n contrast to the situation with alcohol, someone can show little or no impairment at a THC level at",
"-30.545029294182314"
],
[
"effect of increasing the craving for alcohol. Short-term effects The short-term effects of alcohol consumption range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills at lower doses to unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, and central nervous system depression at higher doses. Cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol, so once alcohol is in the bloodstream it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body.\nThe concentration of alcohol in blood is measured via blood alcohol content (BAC). The amount and circumstances of consumption play a large part in determining the extent of intoxication; for example, eating a heavy meal before alcohol consumption",
"-30.53439746791264"
],
[
"Some analysts forecast that the trend will result in increased adoption of samogon among the middle class, and by 2014, samogon will overtake vodka as the most common alcoholic beverage nationwide.\nIn 2016, it was estimated that the black market share in hard liquor sales in Russia dropped to 50 percent in 2016 from 65 percent in 2015 and sells for about a third of the vodka sold in shops. Saudi Arabia In Saudi Arabia, where alcohol is prohibited, black-market alcohol, typically distilled from fermented sugar water, is mostly known as \"Aragh\" (\"عرق\" in Arabic). 'Sidiki' or 'sid' are also commonly",
"-30.491176432795328"
],
[
"Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center list alcohol as a risk factor.\nA WCRF panel report finds the evidence \"convincing\" that alcoholic drinks increase the risk of colorectal cancer in men at consumption levels above 30 grams of absolute alcohol daily. The National Cancer Institute states, \"Heavy alcohol use may also increase the risk of colorectal cancer\"\nA 2011 meta-analysis found that alcohol consumption was associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer. Liver cancer Alcohol is a risk factor for liver cancer, through cirrhosis. \"Cirrhosis results from scar formation within the liver, most commonly due to chronic alcohol use.\"\n\"Approximately 5 percent of people with",
"-30.465281465534645"
],
[
"of FASD. While consensus exists that alcohol is a teratogen, there is no clear consensus as to what level of exposure is toxic. The CDC guidelines are silent on these elements diagnostically. The IOM and Canadian guidelines explore this further, acknowledging the importance of significant alcohol exposure from regular or heavy episodic alcohol consumption in determining, but offer no standard for diagnosis. Canadian guidelines discuss this lack of clarity and parenthetically point out that \"heavy alcohol use\" is defined by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism as five or more drinks per episode on five or more days",
"-30.458632210065844"
],
[
"to develop the disease compared to the half who drank the least.\nThe researchers noted that moderate alcohol consumption also reduces the risk of other inflammatory processes such as cardiovascular disease. Some of the biological mechanisms by which ethanol reduces the risk of destructive arthritis and prevents the loss of bone mineral density (BMD), which is part of the disease process.\nA study concluded, \"Alcohol either protects from RA or, subjects with RA curtail their drinking after the manifestation of RA\". Another study found, \"Postmenopausal women who averaged more than 14 alcoholic drinks per week had a reduced risk of rheumatoid arthritis...\"",
"-30.39625590768992"
],
[
"in their brain. Alcohol inhibits sodium-potassium pumps in the cerebellum and this is likely how it corrupts cerebellar computation and body co-ordination.\nContrary to popular belief, research suggests that acute exposure to alcohol is not neurotoxic in adults and actually prevents NMDA antagonist-induced neurotoxicity. Alcohol and sleep Low doses of alcohol (one 360 ml (13 imp fl oz; 12 US fl oz) beer) appear to increase total sleep time and reduce awakening during the night. The sleep-promoting benefits of alcohol dissipate at moderate and higher doses of alcohol. Previous experience with alcohol also influences the extent to which alcohol positively or negatively affects sleep. Under free-choice conditions, in",
"-30.319338190136477"
],
[
"Factors associated with being a victim of sexual violence Alcohol and drug consumption Increased vulnerability to sexual violence also stems from the use of alcohol and other drugs. Consuming alcohol or drugs makes it more difficult for people to protect themselves by interpreting and effectively acting on warning signs. Drinking alcohol may also place a person in settings where his or her chances of encountering a potential offender are greater. Having previously been raped or sexually abused There is some evidence linking experiences of sexual abuse in childhood or adolescence with patterns of victimization during adulthood. A national study of",
"-30.2598129373946"
],
[
"in part due to increased dietary salt intake.\nThe relationship between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease is complex, and may depend on the amount of alcohol consumed. There is a direct relationship between high levels of drinking alcohol and cardiovascular disease. Drinking at low levels without episodes of heavy drinking may be associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. At the population level, the health risks of drinking alcohol exceed any potential benefits. Celiac disease Untreated celiac disease can cause the development of many types of cardiovascular diseases, most of which improve or resolve with a gluten-free diet and",
"-30.246077071176842"
],
[
"the liver, and in the bloodstream.\nHigh level of alcohol dehydrogenase activity results in fast transformation of ethanol to more toxic acetaldehyde. Such atypical alcohol dehydrogenase levels are less frequent in alcoholics than in nonalcoholics. Furthermore, among alcoholics, the carriers of this atypical enzyme consume lower ethanol doses, compared to the individuals without the allele.\nAn estimated one out of twenty people have an alcohol flush reaction. It is not in any way an indicator for the drunkenness of an individual. A mild flushing reaction occurs when the body metabolizes alcohol more quickly into acetaldehyde, a toxic metabolite. A more severe flushing",
"-30.236278938595206"
],
[
"descent demonstrated that G carriers experienced greater sensitivity to alcohol's aversive effects as compared to A homozygotes.\nThere is limited evidence suggesting that quetiapine and varenicline increase the aversive effects of alcohol.",
"-30.230580322619062"
],
[
"use of alcohol is associated with a decrease in NREM stage 3 and 4 sleep as well as suppression of REM sleep and REM sleep fragmentation. Frequent moving between sleep stages occurs, with awakenings due to headaches, the need to urinate, dehydration, and excessive sweating. Glutamine rebound also plays a role as when someone is drinking; alcohol inhibits glutamine, one of the body's natural stimulants. When the person stops drinking, the body tries to make up for lost time by producing more glutamine than it needs.\nThe increase in glutamine levels stimulates the brain while the drinker is trying to sleep,",
"-30.186996465927223"
],
[
"drugs of abuse. Alcohol abuse has been shown to cause an 800% increased risk of psychotic disorders in men and a 300% increased risk of psychotic disorders in women which are not related to pre-existing psychiatric disorders. This is significantly higher than the increased risk of psychotic disorders seen from cannabis use making alcohol abuse a very significant cause of psychotic disorders. Approximately 3 percent of people who are alcohol dependent experience psychosis during acute intoxication or withdrawal. Alcohol-related psychosis may manifest itself through a kindling mechanism. The mechanism of alcohol-related psychosis is due to distortions to neuronal membranes, gene",
"-30.18417625033544"
],
[
"coma and can prove fatal.\nOther disorders caused by excessive alcohol consumption are grouped under alcoholic liver diseases and these include alcoholic hepatitis, fatty liver, and cirrhosis. Factors contributing to the development of alcoholic liver diseases are not only the quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption, but can also include gender, genetics, and liver insult.\nLiver damage can also be caused by drugs, particularly paracetamol and drugs used to treat cancer. A rupture of the liver can be caused by a liver shot used in combat sports.\nBudd–Chiari syndrome is a condition caused by blockage of the hepatic veins (including thrombosis) that drain",
"-30.114726730127586"
],
[
"A physician from the World Health Organization labeled such alcohol promotion as \"ridiculous and dangerous\". One reviewer noted, \"Despite the wealth of observational data, it is not absolutely clear that alcohol reduces cardiovascular risk, because no randomized controlled trials have been performed. Alcohol should never be recommended to patients to reduce cardiovascular risk as a substitute for the well-proven alternatives of appropriate diet, exercise, and drugs.\" It has been argued that the health benefits from alcohol are at best debatable and may have been exaggerated by the alcohol industry, with investigators holding that alcohol should be regarded as a recreational",
"-30.094592872523208"
],
[
"also employed. Effects and dangers An alcohol enema is a faster method of alcohol intoxication since the alcohol is absorbed directly into the bloodstream. The lower gastrointestinal tract lacks the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme present in the stomach and liver that breaks down ethanol into acetylaldehyde, which is actually more toxic than ethanol (drinking alcohol) and is responsible for most chronic effects of ethanol. When rectally absorbed, ethanol will still eventually arrive at the liver, but the high alcohol content could overwhelm the organ. Additionally, consuming the alcohol rectally neutralizes the body's ability to reject the toxin by vomiting. Native American",
"-30.054142734385096"
],
[
"tract. Alcohol slows these cells' healing ability to repair the damage to their DNA caused by the harmful chemicals in tobacco. Alcohol contributes to cancer through this process.\nWhile lower quality evidence suggests a cardioprotective effect, no controlled studies have been completed on the effect of alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism. The American Heart Association \"cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation.\"\nAlcoholic drinks are classified by",
"-30.04403797177656"
],
[
"to the same substance, but highlight their different origins. Toxicity Like many alcohols, butanol is considered toxic. It has shown low order of toxicity in single dose experiments to laboratory animals and is considered safe enough for use in cosmetics. Brief, repeated overexposure with the skin can result in depression of the central nervous system, as with other short-chain alcohols. Exposure may also cause severe eye irritation and moderate skin irritation. The main dangers are from prolonged exposure to the alcohol's vapors. In extreme cases this includes suppression of the central nervous system and even",
"-30.03206450495054"
],
[
"experience of being in a nightclub with pulsating lights and flashing lasers and throbbing dance music, because they cause hallucinations or unusual perception effects. Risks and adverse effects Although research continues into the full scope of the effects of illegal drugs, regular and unsafe use of club drugs is widely accepted to have damaging side effects and carry a risk of addiction. Increased heart rate, a steep increase in body temperature, increase in blood pressure, spasms and dehydration are all common side effects of MDMA and methamphetamine. Breathing and respiratory issues, drowsiness, nausea and confusion are common side effects of",
"-30.006856570238597"
],
[
"craving that an alcoholic feels for alcohol can be as strong as the need for food or water. An alcoholic will continue to drink despite serious family, health, or legal problems. Like many other diseases, alcoholism is chronic, meaning that it lasts a person's lifetime; it usually follows a predictable course; and it has symptoms. The risk for developing alcoholism is influenced both by a person's genes and by his or her lifestyle.\" Criticism Some physicians, scientists and others have rejected the disease theory of alcoholism on logical, empirical and other grounds. Indeed, some addiction experts such as Stanton Peele",
"-29.999726673719124"
],
[
"Toxic alcohol Toxic alcohols are a group of alcohols that include methanol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, and isopropyl alcohol. They are alcohols that should not be drunk. They are in contrast to ethanol, which is commonly used as a recreational drug and is the alcohol that is found in alcoholic drinks.",
"-29.9826484919613"
],
[
"sedatives, to increases in the intensity of sensory qualities produced by stimulants, cannabis, empathogens–entactogens such as MDMA (\"Ecstasy\"), or most notably by the class of drugs known as psychedelics. LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, Dimethyltryptamine, and others in this group can produce major distortions of perception, including hallucinations; some users even describe their drug-induced experiences as mystical or spiritual in quality. The brain mechanisms underlying these effects are not as well understood as those induced by use of alcohol, but there is substantial evidence that alterations in the brain system that uses the chemical neurotransmitter serotonin play an essential role.\nThere has been",
"-29.958705475233728"
],
[
"with an energy drink are similar to those of other drinks that contain both caffeine and alcohol. These effects are held to be different from those of strictly alcoholic drinks. This is attributed to the fact that caffeine has a stimulating effect on the central nervous system, whereas alcohol has a depressing effect. Consequently, some of the effects of alcohol intoxication are masked. However, caffeine does not affect the reduced motor coordination that is typically seen in intoxicated persons. There have been reports of drinkers being hospitalized after excessive consumption of Jägerbombs due to the effect of excessive caffeine.\nA",
"-29.93602796468076"
],
[
"as an adjunct treatment for drug addiction. Alcohol addiction Alcohol, like opioids, can induce a severe state of physical dependence and produce withdrawal symptoms such as delirium tremens. Because of this, treatment for alcohol addiction usually involves a combined approach dealing with dependence and addiction simultaneously. Benzodiazepines have the largest and the best evidence base in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal and are considered the gold standard of alcohol detoxification.\nPharmacological treatments for alcohol addiction include drugs like naltrexone (opioid antagonist), disulfiram, acamprosate, and topiramate. Rather than substituting for alcohol, these drugs are intended to affect the desire to drink, either",
"-29.928980686956493"
],
[
"the underage drinkers they host, because those under 21 aren’t competent to handle the potentially dangerous effects of alcohol. Massachusetts In Massachusetts, the state's highest court has held that a bar could be sued where a patron exhibiting \"drunk, loud and vulgar\" behavior was determined to be \"visibly intoxicated\". In that case, the evidence showed that the intoxicated patron had been served six or more White Russians by a bar. The patron left the bar, arriving at another bar about fifteen minutes later \"totally drunk,\" holding a White Russian. The next bar that he went to refused to serve him.",
"-29.928956578170983"
],
[
"adverse symptoms are largely mediated by acetaldehyde build up). In a chronic alcoholic who has built up a tolerance to ethanol, this removes some of the disincentives to ethanol consumption (\"negative reinforcement\") while allowing them to become intoxicated with a lower dose of ethanol. The danger is that the alcoholic will then overdose on ethanol (possibly fatally). If alcoholics instead very carefully reduce their doses to reflect the now slower metabolism, they may get the \"rewarding\" stimulus of intoxication at lower doses with less adverse \"hangover\" effects - leading potentially to increased psychological dependency. However, these lower doses may therefore",
"-29.859309236722765"
],
[
"immune to the effects of alcohol may often be the most at risk for health concerns and the most dangerous of all operating a vehicle.\n\"Chronic heavy drinkers display functional tolerance when they show few obvious signs of intoxication, even at high blood alcohol concentrations which in others would be incapacitating or even fatal. Because the drinker does not experience significant behavioral impairment as a result of drinking, tolerance may facilitate the consumption of increasing amounts of alcohol. This can result in physical dependence and alcohol-related organ damage.\"",
"-29.846250195101675"
],
[
"less intoxicated than they were.\"\nA further concern is the effect that the stimulant-depressant combination has upon the heart. Alcohol can reduce brain activity, impair heart function, and lead to a heart attack. When combined with an energy drink, its effects may include cardiovascular risks, shortness of breath, and rapid heartbeat. The body’s defenses are weakened by the dehydration caused by the alcohol and caffeine, both of which are diuretics.",
"-29.840171528514475"
],
[
"sensitivity reaction will also suffer alcohol-induced reactions.\nIt seems likely, although further study is needed, that most respiratory symptoms induced by alcoholic beverages, particular wines and beers, occurring in non-Asian individuals are due to true allergic responses to the allergens that are part of, or contaminate, these drinks. Diagnosis Diagnosis of alcohol-induced respiratory symptoms can be strongly suggested on the bases of survey questionnaires. Questionnaires can be devised to determine the specific types of alcoholic beverages eliciting reactions; reactions evoked by one or only a few but not other types of alcoholic beverage, particularly when the offending beverage(s) is",
"-29.83376673280145"
],
[
"gravity in addition to rotational acceleration.\nThe spins are often reported when alcohol is mixed with cannabis, since both may cause dizziness and magnify each other's effects. Smoking after drinking especially intensifies the effects of the alcohol, often resulting in nausea. Treatment and prevention Since at least some of the symptoms of \"the spins\" can be attributed to alcohol's disturbance of the vestibular system, many symptom relief strategies are based on increasing the body's ability to use other senses to regain balance. In addition to the vestibular system, vision and touch information from the body are extremely important in maintaining balance.",
"-29.80836692173034"
],
[
"using alcohol for pain. Moderate use of alcohol can lessen certain types of pain in certain circumstances. Attempting to use alcohol to treat pain has also been observed to lead to negative outcomes including excessive drinking and alcohol use disorder. Medical cannabis Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana, refers to cannabis or its cannabinoids used to treat disease or improve symptoms. There is evidence suggesting that cannabis can be used to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms, with some trials indicating improved relief of neuropathic pain over opioids. Combinations Analgesics are frequently used in combination, such as the paracetamol and",
"-29.756815761753387"
],
[
"alcohol consumption or smoking history, or breast self-examination. Associations for LCIS were similar.\" Ependymoma A review of the basic literature found that consumption of beer was associated with increased risk in one study but not in another Intraocular and uveal melanomas A study found no association between alcohol and uveal melanoma. Nasopharynageal cancer / Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) A systematic review found evidence that light drinking may decrease the risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma whereas high intake of alcohol may increase the risk. Neuroblastoma A few studies have indicated an increased risk of neuroblastoma with use of alcohol during pregnancy. Salivary gland",
"-29.710366827632242"
],
[
"the cytotoxic activity of ethanol is concentration-dependent, the risk of these cancers will not only increase with increasing amounts of ethanol, but also with increasing concentrations; an ounce of whisky is probably more carcinogenic when taken undiluted than when taken mixed with non-alcoholic beverages. The local cytotoxic effect of ethanol may also explain the known synergistic effect of alcohol and tobacco use on the risk of these cancers. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition A study found that alcohol stimulates the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), in which ordinary cancer cells change into a more aggressive form and begin to spread throughout the body. Effect of",
"-29.671276882232632"
],
[
"and sleep disorders. A person who is suffering the toxic effects of alcohol or benzodiazepines will not benefit from other therapies or medications as they do not address the root cause of the symptoms. Recovery from benzodiazepine dependence tends to take a lot longer than recovery from alcohol but people can regain their previous good health. A review of the literature regarding benzodiazepine hypnotic drugs concluded that these drugs cause an unjustifiable risk to the individual and to public health. The risks include dependence, accidents and other adverse effects. Gradual discontinuation of hypnotics leads to improved health without worsening of",
"-29.628353595981025"
],
[
"influence of alcohol, and a person may misinterpret their actual level of intoxication. Since caffeine and alcohol are both diuretics, combined use increases the risk of dehydration, and the mixture of a stimulant (caffeine) and depressant (alcohol) sends contradictory messages to the nervous system and can lead to increased heart rate and palpitations. Although people decide to drink energy drinks with alcohol with the intent of counteracting alcohol intoxication, many others do so to hide the taste of alcohol. However, in the 2015, the EFSA concluded, that “Consumption of other constituents of energy drinks at concentrations commonly present in such",
"-29.587219733039092"
],
[
"Alcohol and cortisol Recent research has looked into the effects of alcohol on the amount of cortisol that is produced in the human body. Continuous consumption of alcohol over an extended period of time has been shown to raise cortisol levels in the body. Cortisol is released during periods of high stress, and can result in the temporary shut down of other physical processes, causing physical damage to the body. Alcohol and cortisol interactions High cortisol levels have largely been associated with high alcohol consumption, which is likely due to the disregulation (impaired inhibitory control) of the HPA axis. History",
"-29.54972099061706"
],
[
"Brazilian study conducted in 2006 found that combining an energy drink and alcohol \"appears to show us that the use of energy drinks might predispose people to abuse alcohol when its depressant effects—or at least the perception of such effects—are masked by them\". Professor Roseli Boergnen de Lacerda, who conducted the study, also warned of another possible effect: \"a higher risk of car accidents because [people who drank energy drinks with alcohol] felt less intoxicated than they were\".",
"-29.542954901378835"
],
[
"adding another white powdery substance to the drug. This cumulative effect can lead to further unintended harm to health dependent on what is being covertly added. Concerns also exist about a number of pharmacological pairings: alcohol and cocaine increase cardiovascular toxicity; alcohol or depressant drugs, when taken with opioids, lead to an increased risk of overdose; and opioids or cocaine taken with ecstasy or amphetamines also result in additional acute toxicity. Benzodiazepines can cause death when mixed with other CNS depressants such as opioids, alcohol, or barbiturates. Scheduling Within the general concept of multiple drug use, several specific meanings",
"-29.525329843600048"
],
[
"punch, alcohol substrates bind to glutamate receptors, which blocks its excitatory activity. Alcohol effects on both of these metabolic pathways obstructs the brain from making memories, making well thought out decisions, and controlling impulses after a long term use.\nCollaborative Study on Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) identified alcohol dependence on chromosome 4p, where SNP genotyping, measurement of genetic variation, found GABRA2's association with alcoholism within European and African ancestries. Most of these findings were strongly associated with early alcohol use and along with drug dependence. Besides these findings, COGA investigators identified GABRA2 associated with impulsiveness and found other phenotypes affected by",
"-29.50631299230281"
],
[
"involved or putting herself in immediate physical danger.\nSee also the sections on testosterone and evolutionary explanations for gender differences above. Situational factors There has been some links between those prone to violence and their alcohol use. Those who are prone to violence and use alcohol are more likely to carry out violent acts. Alcohol impairs judgment, making people much less cautious than they usually are (MacDonald et al. 1996). It also disrupts the way information is processed (Bushman 1993, 1997; Bushman & Cooper 1990).\nPain and discomfort also increase aggression. Even the simple act of placing one's hands in hot water",
"-29.505333269757102"
],
[
"work led to the discovery of genes that determine the extent of pleasure one feels when drinking alcohol. Individuals with a particular genetic variant have a sensitive endogenous opioid system that is activated by alcohol, thereby producing stimulation and euphoria. Naltrexone blocks this form of alcohol reward, so the medication is particularly effective for these individuals. Aimed at establishing a genomic sub-category of alcoholism, this work seemed to support the movement toward \"personalized medicine\" in the treatment of alcoholism. O'Brien and his colleagues never applied for a patent on the discovery of Naltrexone’s effectiveness for treating alcohol addiction, so this",
"-29.48138857219601"
],
[
"0.12%. In their study based on the 1990s German data, the effect of alcohol was higher for almost all BAC levels than in Borkenstein, et al. Recreational drugs Drivers who have smoked or otherwise consumed cannabis products such as marijuana or hashish can be charged and convicted of impaired driving in some jurisdictions. A 2011 study in the B.C. Medical Journal stated that there \"...is clear evidence that cannabis, like alcohol, impairs the psychomotor skills required for safe driving.\" The study stated that while \"[c]annabis-impaired drivers tend to drive more slowly and cautiously than drunk drivers,... evidence shows they are",
"-29.4775176862604"
],
[
"Some depressants, such as Rohypnol, are dangerous to take while drinking alcohol. \"Ketamine often is taken in \"trail mixes\" of methamphetamine, phencyclidine, cocaine, sildenafil citrate (Viagra), morphine or heroin.\" Injury or death due to risky behaviour Another risk with club drugs is one shared by all drugs, from legal drugs like alcohol to abused over-the-counter drugs (taking large amounts of dextromethorphan cough syrup) and illegal drugs (BZP, amphetamines, etc.): while impaired, the user is more likely to be injured, engage in dangerous or risky behaviour (e.g., unsafe sex) or, if she or he drives, have an accident resulting in injury",
"-29.447647161825444"
],
[
"are disabled due to alcohol-related neuropsychiatric disorders. Alcohol abuse is highly associated with adolescent suicide. Adolescents who abuse alcohol are 17 times more likely to commit suicide than adolescents who don't drink. Additionally, alcohol abuse increases the risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence. Alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated with violent crimes, through specifics differ between particular countries and cultures. By country According to studies of present and former alcoholic drinkers in Canada, 20% of them are aware that their drinking has negatively impacted their lives in various vital areas including",
"-29.411414649890503"
],
[
"drunkenness, and that alcohol consumption is prohibited by Islam because it weakens the conscience of the believer.\nIn the Quran, intoxicants, i.e. all kinds of alcoholic drinks, are variably referenced as incentives from Satan, as well as a cautionary note against their adverse effect on human attitude in several verses:\nO you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone altars [to other than Allah], and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid it that you may be successful.\n— Surat 5:90\nSatan only wants to cause between you animosity and hatred through intoxicants and gambling and to avert",
"-29.33662267147156"
],
[
"been used in Russia is the practice of \"coding\", in which therapists pretend to insert a \"code\" into patients' brains with the ostensible effect that drinking even small amounts of alcohol will be extremely harmful or even lethal. Despite not being recommended in Russian clinical guidelines, it has enjoyed considerable popularity. In recent years its use has lessened, due to the spread of information about its ineffectiveness.",
"-29.317699829281082"
],
[
"alcohol metabolizing enzymes alcohol dehydrogenases and aldehyde dehydrogenase through genetic testing can predict the amount of reaction that one would have. More crude measurements can be made through measuring the amount of redness in the face of an individual after consuming alcohol. Computer and phone applications can be used to standardize this measurement.\nOther effects include \"nausea, headache and general physical discomfort\".\nMany cases of alcohol-induced respiratory reactions, which involve rhinitis and worsening of asthma, develop within 1–60 minutes of drinking alcohol and are due to the same causes as flush reactions. Causes Around 80% of East Asians (less common in Southeast",
"-29.317020469054114"
],
[
"research which suggests that alcohol is more harmful than all but the most \"dangerous\" drugs. When the level of harm associated with the other drugs includes harm that arises solely as a result of the drugs illegality rather than merely that danger which is associated with actually using the drugs, only heroin, cocaine, barbiturates and street methadone were shown to be more harmful than the legal drug alcohol.\nA 2002 DAWN report, for the USA records two possible drug-induced deaths where marijuana was the only drug found. Legal drugs however, have been the cause of more than half a million deaths",
"-29.292723474995"
],
[
"Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen, similar to arsenic, benzene and asbestos. Its evaluation states, \"There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of alcoholic beverages in humans. …Alcoholic beverages at any quantity are carcinogenic to humans (Group 1).\" Acetaldehyde Acetaldehyde is produced by the liver as it breaks down ethanol. The liver then normally eliminates 99% of the acetaldehyde. An average liver can process 7 grams of ethanol per hour. For example, it takes 12 hours to eliminate the ethanol in a bottle of wine, giving 12 hours or more of acetaldehyde exposure.\nA study of 818 heavy drinkers",
"-29.220744739133806"
],
[
"and increased thirst. Consuming alcohol while taking metoprolol may cause mild body rashes and is not advised. Precautions Metoprolol may worsen the symptoms of heart failure in some patients, who may experience chest pain or discomfort, dilated neck veins, extreme fatigue, irregular breathing, an irregular heartbeat, shortness of breath, swelling of the face, fingers, feet, or lower legs, weight gain, or wheezing.\nThis medicine may cause changes in blood sugar levels or cover up signs of low blood sugar, such as a rapid pulse rate. It also may cause some people to become less alert than they are normally, making it",
"-29.209000624119653"
],
[
"aspirin, and by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) other than aspirin. The study suggested the salicylate-\"contaminates\" in wine may contribute to these responses. In other studies, D.P. Agarwal and colleagues associated race-based variations in the activity alcohol-metabolizing enzymes with the occurrence of alcohol flush reactions to alcohol and alcoholic beverages in certain Asian populations. This early work is the basis for further studies that have defined not only many alcohol-induced flush reactions but also many alcohol-induced respiratory reactions as due to racially associated genetic differences in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes. In Asians Alcohol-induced asthma reactions among Asians has been most",
"-29.208409029466566"
],
[
"may act as a cultural break time, providing the opportunity for antisocial behavior. Thus people are more likely to act violently when drunk because they do not consider that they will be held accountable for their behavior. Some forms of group sexual violence are also associated with drinking. In these settings, consuming alcohol is an act of group bonding, where inhibitions are collectively reduced and individual judgement ceded in favor of the group. Psychological factors There has been considerable research in recent times on the role of cognitive variables among the set of factors that can lead to rape. A",
"-29.203161842975533"
],
[
"predator rape, is a sexual assault carried out after the victim has become incapacitated due to having consumed alcoholic beverages or other drugs. Alcohol has been shown to play a disinhibiting role in certain types of sexual assault, as have some other drugs, notably cocaine. Alcohol has a psychopharmacological effect of reducing inhibitions, clouding judgements and impairing the ability to interpret cues. The biological links between alcohol and violence are, however, complex. Research on the social anthropology of alcohol consumption suggests that connections between violence, drinking and drunkenness are socially learnt rather than universal. Some researchers have noted that alcohol",
"-29.20279072615085"
],
[
"term \"date rape drug\" most often refers to. Sexual risk-taking Alcohol intoxication is associated with an increased risk that people will become involved in risky sexual behaviours, such as unprotected sex. It is unclear whether the two are linked or the personality types of people who often drink large amounts of alcohol are more tolerant of risk-taking.\nAlcohol is linked to a large proportion of unwanted outcomes associated with sex such as date rape, unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. \"Beer goggles\" \"Beer goggles\" is a slang term for the phenomenon in which consumption of alcohol lowers sexual inhibitions to the",
"-29.199680391182483"
],
[
"women in the general population, which can lead to higher instances of psychiatric disorders and greater dependence on alcohol. Social effects Serious social problems arise from alcoholism; these dilemmas are caused by the pathological changes in the brain and the intoxicating effects of alcohol. Alcohol abuse is associated with an increased risk of committing criminal offences, including child abuse, domestic violence, rape, burglary and assault. Alcoholism is associated with loss of employment, which can lead to financial problems. Drinking at inappropriate times and behavior caused by reduced judgment can lead to legal consequences, such as criminal charges for drunk driving",
"-29.19244633388007"
],
[
"For alcohol in combination with drugs and medicines, rates are respectively \n0,35% and 0,16%",
"-29.19207148491114"
],
[
"due to injuries due to drunkenness and organ damage from long-term use, and secondary treatment costs, such as the costs of rehabilitation facilities and detoxification centers. Alcohol use is a major contributing factor for head injuries, motor vehicle accidents (due to drunk driving), domestic violence, and assaults. Beyond the financial costs that alcohol consumption imposes, there are also significant social costs to both the alcoholic and their family and friends. For instance, alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome, an incurable and damaging condition. Estimates of the economic costs of alcohol abuse, collected by the",
"-29.181548744323663"
],
[
"caused by the misuse of multiple substances.\nAnother study that tried to find differences between the effects of particular drugs focused on polysubstance users who were seeking treatment for addictions to cannabis, cocaine, and heroin. They studied a group of polysubstance users and a group that was not dependent on any drugs. Because alcohol was a common co-substance for nearly all of the polysubstance user group, it was difficult to tell exactly which drugs were affecting certain cognitive functions. The researchers found that the difference in the two groups' performance levels on executive function, or higher-level cognitive processing tasks were consistently",
"-29.174776487561758"
],
[
"of Tequila for consumption in that country\". However, Tequila cannot be sold in the U.S. at under 40% alcohol concentration (80 U.S. proof).",
"-29.1744771777594"
],
[
"findings Recent research supports this strong association between high alcohol use and heightened cortisol levels. In one study, overnight urinary cortisol levels were taken from people who regularly drank a large amount of alcohol versus a small amount of alcohol. People who drank more alcohol had higher cortisol levels and lower heart rate variability (which is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, ANS), suggesting a connection between the HPA axis and the ANS. People who drank more alcohol had higher blood pressure and difficulty sleeping, indicative of heightened cortisol levels.\nRecent technology has allowed researchers to measure cortisol levels in human",
"-29.14654947676172"
],
[
"and liver disease.\nCenters for Disease Control defines a drink as 0.6 ounces of pure alcohol and excessive drinking as 8 or more drinks per week for women and 15 or more drinks per week for men. Major health risks Sexual functions\nProlonged use of alcohol has been known to impair the nervous system, heart, liver and the reproductive organs resulting in reduced sexual abilities in adult males. Furthermore, due to the mental impairment often related to prolonged use can also lead to tendencies of practicing unprotected sexual intercourse and intercourse with multiple partners. This can result in sexually transmitted diseases along",
"-29.13129567647752"
],
[
"increase creativity, has no lasting positive effect in treating alcoholics or criminals, does not produce a 'model psychosis', and does not generate immediate personality change.\n\nHowever, drug studies have confirmed that the powerful hallucinogenic effects of this drug can produce profound adverse reactions, such as acute panic reactions, psychotic crises, and \"flashbacks\", especially in users ill-equipped to deal with such trauma.\nThe governors of Nevada and California both signed bills into law on May 30, 1966, to control LSD, making them the first two states to outlaw the manufacture, sale, and possession of the drug. The law went into effect immediately in",
"-29.11097138713012"
],
[
"toxic levels in alcoholics. This suggests that there is a possibility ethanol (or its metabolites) may cause alcoholic polyneuropathy. There is evidence that polyneuropathy is also prevalent in well nourished alcoholics, supporting the idea that there is a direct toxic effect of alcohol.\nMany of the studies conducted that observe alcoholic polyneuropathy in patients are often criticized for their criteria used to assess nutritional deficiency in the subjects because they may not have completely ruled out the possibility of a nutritional deficiency in the genesis of the polyneuropathy. Many researchers favor the nutritional origin of this disease, but the possibility of",
"-29.10011246749491"
]
] |
2j7mil | If someone leaked the entirety of windows source code, would people be able to incorporate it into other operating systems in a way that allows windows applications and libraries to be used? | [
"Legally, no. They could not use the leaked/stolen code in their own OS, because it is leaked/stolen. Microsoft still owns the rights to it. The same way they can't take a windows machine and reverse engineer the code from it (legally) Illegally, they could try, but Microsoft would have them so tied up in lawsuits it wouldn't be worth the effort However, there are already programs out there to allow Windows programs to run on other OSes, such as WINE.",
"The Windows 2000 source code *did* leak. No one could touch it for fear of becoming tainted. If Microsoft suspected that an Open Source project contained code that had been written by someone who had been influenced by knowledge of their proprietary code, they would sue immediately. So, in a theoretical sense on the technical side, it could help a little. Realistically, it would hurt more than help, at least in the US. Links: URL_0 URL_1 ",
"I just leave this here for the geek fellows: URL_0 ",
"From an application developer's standard the big different between Operating Systems is their API, or Application Programming Interface. It's a library of functions which the OS provides to the developer to allow them to interact with the OS and the hardware it manages. Each OS has a different API and manages the resources in subtly different ways, which can lead to unexpected bugs when porting software between OSes. Since the API is already public, people are already writing programs that provide an \"interface layer\" between software writing for one OS and another, such as Wine and Cygwin.",
"Theoretically, it would help wine. They would have a 'perfect' reference implementation. That said, it isn't like the code could just be copy and pasted. They would still have to write the code for wine since it isn't a copy of windows but is instead like a translator. It translates windows commands into linux ones.",
"It's already possible using software like [Wine]( URL_0 ), even without the source code.",
"It would provide insight into various interfaces and implementations that still are hidden. So say samba(filesharing/domain/kerberos), openoffice (formats/implementation) and reactos(pure rewritten win32) would have the final parts to 1:1 integration. They could newer legaly do it. Cool stuff that might surface. - free xp/reactos win32 clones (think steamos/xbmc os) Xbmc is actualy an non legal thing at orginal xbox(the old one) that mimic that. - dx11/12 support for wine. - complete destruction of license/drm functions. - complete breakage of tpm/drm/code signing. Note that I newer seen any usage/knownlage lifted from the leaked source years ago. (Aik nt4 src) As for \"how\" In theory you can just replace the current code in reactos/wine/samba, and compile and suddenly everything was 1:1."
] | [
[
"this changed later, as an updated version of Windows 98 called Windows 98 Second Edition was released in 1999.\nOn or shortly before February 12, 2004, \"portions of the Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows NT 4.0 source code were illegally made available on the Internet.\" The source of the leak remains unannounced. Microsoft issued the following statement:\n \n\"Microsoft source code is both copyrighted and protected as a trade secret. As such, it is illegal to post it, make it available to others, download it or use it.\" \nDespite the warnings, the archive containing the leaked code spread widely on the file-sharing",
"-28.54646178672556"
],
[
"certain fields, for example, in the development of sound tracking software and Tetris clones, with each group of developers trying to outdo the current state of the art. In fact, some demos even featured their source code as part of the executable to save hackers the trouble of disassembly, though it came strewn with incendiary comments for those who would seek to improve on it.",
"-28.18459189706482"
],
[
"sometimes this means a copy is bundled with a computer for sale at no additional charge. Open source software Open source software is software with its source code made available under a certain license to its licensees. It can be used and disseminated at any point, the source code is open and can be modified as required. The one condition with this type of software is that when changes are made users should make these changes known to others. One of the key characteristics of open source software is that it is the shared intellectual property of all developers and",
"-28.06472878959903"
],
[
"Samizdat: And Other Issues Regarding the 'Source' of Open Source Code Samizdat: And Other Issues Regarding the 'Source' of Open Source Code is a 2004 report by Kenneth Brown. The report suggests that the Linux kernel may have been created or distributed illegally and that open-source software may be generally subject to such abuses.\nThe report states that the Linux kernel was written using copied source code from Minix and other resources acquired improperly or possibly illegally by Linus Torvalds. It also suggests that one can never be certain of the origins of open source code, so similar misuse of copyrighted",
"-27.940039330744185"
],
[
"is not a separate piece of software but simply a brand name for the web browsing and HTML rendering capacities of the Windows operating system. In this view, the result of removing IE is simply a damaged Windows system; to have a working system without IE one must replace Windows entirely.\nIn contrast, some programmers and security writers have held that it is possible to have a useful and working Windows system with IE excised. These people include consultant Fred Vorck, who advocates that consumers should have the choice to remove \"integrated\" features of Microsoft Windows and participates in the HFSLIP",
"-27.45235246475204"
],
[
"of all private materials that could allow script kiddies from compromising systems via unknown methods.\nThe open-source movement has been an invaluable tool in the computer world, and we are all indebted to it. Open-source is a wonderful concept which should and will exist forever, as educational, scientific, and end-user software should be free and available to everybody.\nExploits, on the other hand, do not fall into this broad category. Just like munitions, which span from cryptographic algorithms to hand guns to missiles, and may not be spread without the control of export restrictions, exploits should not be released to a mass",
"-27.41599999592654"
],
[
"A local bug-fix or solution to a software problem, written by a developer either at a company's request or to make his/her own job easier, can be released as an open-source contribution without costing the company anything. A larger project such as the Linux kernel may have contributors from dozens of companies which use and depend upon it, as well as hobbyist and research developers.\nA new funding approach for open-source projects is crowdfunding, organized over web platforms like Kickstarter, Indiegogo, or Bountysource. FOSS and economy According to Yochai Benkler, the Berkman Professor for Entrepreneurial Legal Studies at Harvard Law School,",
"-27.287600631127134"
],
[
"these rights, and do not require the distribution of source code.\nReuses of open source software which subvert the freedom of the software by adding extra restrictions are called open source hijacking. Other forms of open source licensing are susceptible to hijacking, so creators who desire that their work remain free may choose to use copyleft. The Open Directory Project (ODP, also known as DMOZ), which is created and maintained entirely by volunteer editors, can be considered an example of open-source hijacking. Since all of the top search engines use DMOZ, it is an extremely important public commodity which is entirely",
"-27.23975998433889"
],
[
"official repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unofficial repositories, download pre-compiled packages directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with different degrees of difficulty; compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it is hardly needed in modern distributions and is not a method specific to Linux. Netbooks Linux distributions have also become popular in the netbook market, with many devices such as the Asus Eee PC and Acer Aspire One shipping with customized Linux distributions installed.\nIn 2009, Google announced its Chrome OS as a",
"-27.194099220083444"
],
[
"entries in the registry or files on the computer.\nIt is also possible to cross-compile Windows applications with MinGW-GCC under POSIX systems. This means that developers do not need a Windows installation with MSYS to compile software that will run on Windows with or without Cygwin.",
"-27.193989648977777"
],
[
"open-source library can be leveraged to carry an exploit, even though the proprietary binary which uses it is a closed source.\n(iii) It can also be used to hack an open-source server for which the binary is unknown.\nThe attack assumes that there is a service on the server which has a known stack vulnerability and also that the service should restart on crash. Stack Reading Return instruction pointers are usually protected by stack canaries. A stack canary causes the program to crash if its value is modified by a buffer overrun. In the BROP model of attack, the buffer overrun is",
"-26.983175649133045"
],
[
"with NSIS, Innosetup).\nIf the source code is available, support can by provided most effectively. Sometimes the source code is released intentionally, sometimes by leaking or mistake, such as what happened with the game engine of the Thief series. Sometimes fans even completely reverse-engineer source code from the original program binary. With the source code available even the support of completely different but recent platforms with source ports becomes possible. Law While no court cases have directly addressed the legal ramifications of unofficial patches, similar cases have been tried on related issues. The case of Galoob v. Nintendo found that it",
"-26.97469955321867"
],
[
"There has been debate on whether it is illegal to skirt copyleft software licenses by releasing source code in obfuscated form, such as in cases in which the author is less willing to make the source code available. The issue is addressed in the GNU General Public License by requiring the \"preferred form for making modifications\" to be made available. The GNU website states \"Obfuscated 'source code' is not real source code and does not count as source code.\"",
"-26.821178988495376"
],
[
"OpenDocument has been implemented in a large number of open source and proprietary software. Therefore, using OpenDocument is one option for archiving editable documents from office applications. More broadly, the use of open source software is a prevention measure. Since the source code for reading and writing a file format is open, the code can be used as a base for future implementations. In 2007, the chief information officer of the UK's National Archives stated \"We welcome open-source software because it makes our lives easier\". Data storage standardization In 2007, Microsoft created a partnership with the UK's National Archives to",
"-26.797243643341062"
],
[
"software where the source is available for viewing, but which may not legally be modified or redistributed. Such software is more often referred to as source-available, or as shared source, a term coined by Microsoft in 2001. While in 2007 two of Microsoft's Shared Source Initiative licenses were certified by the OSI, most licenses from the SSI program are still source-available only. Widely used open-source software Open source software projects are built and maintained by a network of volunteer programmers and are widely used in free as well as commercial products. Prime examples of open-source products are the Apache HTTP",
"-26.74887000999297"
],
[
"usually harder to ″hide″ a backdoor in there. Combined with reproducible builds one can also be sure that a provided binary corresponds to the publicly available source code. Worms Many computer worms, such as Sobig and Mydoom, install a backdoor on the affected computer (generally a PC on broadband running Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Outlook). Such backdoors appear to be installed so that spammers can send junk e-mail from the infected machines. Others, such as the Sony/BMG rootkit, placed secretly on millions of music CDs through late 2005, are intended as DRM measures—and, in that case, as data-gathering agents, since",
"-26.72790728721884"
],
[
"released the source code for MS-DOS 1.25 and 2.0 on GitHub. The purpose of this, according to Microsoft, is mainly for education and experimentation with historic operating systems and for new programmers to gain an understanding of how low-level software works, both historic and current.\nDue to the historical nature of the software, Microsoft will not accept any pull requests to the code; only pull requests for modified and translated documentation will be accepted. Users, however, are allowed and fully encouraged to fork the repository containing the MS-DOS source code and make their own modifications, and do whatever they like with",
"-26.68030781589914"
],
[
"Raymond in October 1998, who immediately published an annotated version on his web site. The document contained references to a second memorandum specifically dealing with Linux, and that document, authored by Vinod Valloppillil and Josh Cohen at Microsoft, was also obtained, annotated and published by Raymond. Microsoft has since acknowledged the documents' authenticity. Marked \"Microsoft confidential\", the documents identified open-source software, and in particular the Linux operating system, as a major threat to Microsoft's domination of the software industry, and suggested tactics Microsoft could use to disrupt the progress of open-source software.\nThese documents acknowledged that free software products such as",
"-26.646647779736668"
],
[
"code, blueprint or design to be used, modified and/or shared under defined terms and conditions. This allows end users and commercial companies to review and modify the source code, blueprint or design for their own customization, curiosity or troubleshooting needs. Open-source licensed software is mostly available free of charge, though this does not necessarily have to be the case. Licenses which only permit non-commercial redistribution or modification of the source code for personal use only are generally not considered as open-source licenses. However, open-source licenses may have some restrictions, particularly regarding the expression of respect to the origin of software,",
"-26.64608120817593"
],
[
"\"attacker may be able to download and execute arbitrary code\". Sourceforge Many open-source software developers have expressed frustration and dismay that their work is being packaged by companies that profit from their work by using search advertising to occupy the first result on a search page. Increasingly, these pages are offering bundled installers that include unwanted software, and confuse users by presenting the bundled software as an official download page endorsed by the open source project.\nAs of early 2016 this is no longer the case. Ownership of Sourceforge transferred to SourceForge Media, LLC, a subsidiary of BIZX, LLC (BIZX). After",
"-26.63226802891586"
],
[
"find gobs of copied source code. He spent most of the conversation trying to convince me that I must have made a mistake, since it was clearly impossible for one person to write an OS and 'code theft' had to have occurred.\nAlthough Linux 0.01 was written using Minix as an example and starting point — Minix had been created by Tanenbaum as an example for study — no code from Minix was actually used in it; Tanenbaum himself agrees on this point, and stated as much in an interview with Ken Brown while the latter was researching Samizdat. Furthermore, Linux",
"-26.629699028970208"
],
[
"(archive editing/browsing, better compression, JPEG compression, encryption, old packages). An open source alternative might be The Unarchiver, even if it doesn't support newer StuffIt file formats. Some 3rd-party software, such as the Macintosh Finder replacement Path Finder, use the Stuffit SDK to gain all the features of Stuffit.",
"-26.618750848574564"
],
[
"for some it might be valuable to have the right to modify and exploit source code written by others and possibly incorporate it into proprietary code and make money with it (and therefore these see permissive licenses as offering them a \"right\"), while for other developers it might be more valuable to know that nobody will ever capitalize what has mostly been their work (and therefore these see copyleft licenses as offering them a \"right\"). Furthermore, the final users might not be developers at all, and in this case copyleft licenses offer them the everlasting right to access a software",
"-26.490244207881915"
],
[
"projects. For example, the BSD Unix operating system kernel (under the BSD license) was used in Apple's Mac PCs that were sold as proprietary products. Obfuscation of source code An approach to allow commercialization under some open-source licenses while still protecting crucial business secrets, intellectual property and technical know-how is obfuscation of source code. This approach was used in several cases, for instance by Nvidia in their open-source graphic card device drivers. This practice is used to get the open-source-friendly propaganda without bearing the inconveniences. There has been debate in the free-software/open-source community on whether it is illegal to skirt",
"-26.478411652322393"
],
[
"help developer by telling them what open-source they are using, who created it, what it is doing (or could do) in their applications and which components have vulnerabilities. They become a part of the developers' workflow and examine security risks of open-source code in real time. Their analytics and machine-learning tools analyze open-source components and report on their origin, creation, and impact on applications. They tell developers which vulnerabilities could be exploited by hackers and how to prevent them. The service also allows users to scan their GitHub repositories and run in their continuous integration systems.\nSourceClear currently supports Java, JavaScript,",
"-26.464558790728915"
],
[
"will. In 1999, Bristol Technology Inc., a software company which provided a WISE SDK, sued Microsoft, arguing that it illegally withheld Windows source code and used its dominant position with Windows to move into other markets. A ruling later ordered Microsoft to pay $1 million to Bristol Technologies. Source code leak To be able to develop WISE SDKs, software providers needed to have access to Windows internals source code. In 2004, more than 30,000 source files from Windows 2000 and Windows NT 4.0 were leaked to the internet. It was later discovered that the source of the leak originated from",
"-26.442384307561042"
],
[
"convinced by open source's ability to produce quality systems identify the unclear process, the late defect discovery and the lack of any empirical evidence as the most important problems (collected data concerning productivity and quality). It is also difficult to design a commercially sound business model around the open source paradigm. Consequently, only technical requirements may be satisfied and not the ones of the market. In terms of security, open source may allow hackers to know about the weaknesses or loopholes of the software more easily than closed-source software. It depends on control mechanisms in order to create effective performance",
"-26.401402411982417"
],
[
"source code with a compiler patched to eliminate the error (using a TURBO.TPL itself compiled with a corrected CRT unit) or, if source code is not available, executables can be patched by a tool named TPPATCH or equivalent, or by loading a Terminate and Stay Resident program loaded before running the faulty program.\nThere are also patches to the TP7 compiler itself, thus if the Pascal source is available, a new compilation's code will work without the compiled code having to be patched. If the source code is available, porting to libraries without CPU clock speed dependency is a solution too.",
"-26.372729073336814"
],
[
"there is no obfuscation allowed for any part of a code which is based on open source software and that no open source software can be used as a commercially sold product. The most famous open source code is the Linux operating system, which is used and distributed both non-commercially and commercially (not sold). Free and open source software, however, are not in competition with each other. Linux and GNU, including other open source or free software such as MINIX, are often used in combination in original software development.\nWikipedia, otherwise known as the free encyclopedia, is free",
"-26.37053424026817"
],
[
"Source-code editor Features Source-code editors have features specifically designed to simplify and speed up typing of source code, such as syntax highlighting, indentation, autocomplete and brace matching functionality. These editors also provide a convenient way to run a compiler, interpreter, debugger, or other program relevant for the software-development process. So, while many text editors like Notepad can be used to edit source code, if they don't enhance, automate or ease the editing of code, they are not source-code editors.\nStructure editors are a different form of source-code editor, where instead of editing raw text, one manipulates the code's structure, generally the",
"-26.18702818301972"
],
[
"open-source projects can be so massive and its organization so complex that individual users often find the task of interpreting the underlying code too daunting when they are interested in a small portion of the overall code base, e.g. if the user would like to know how a particular tool or algorithm operates. Furthermore, when the software's source code is written in an unfamiliar programming language, the task of interpreting the code is made even more difficult. For some open-source projects, these characteristics can create a divide between the development and user communities, often restricting future development to a few",
"-26.12409604730783"
],
[
"the bytecode for programs written in Java can be easily decompiled to somewhat usable code, and the source code for programs written in scripting languages such as PHP or JavaScript is available at run time. Redistribution Proprietary software vendors can prohibit the users from sharing the software with others. Another unique license is required for another party to use the software.\nIn the case of proprietary software with source code available, the vendor may also prohibit customers from distributing their modifications to the source code.\nShareware is closed-source software whose owner encourages redistribution at no cost, but which the user sometimes must",
"-26.090048000682145"
],
[
"code form when being run by a web server. The source code is covered by a non-disclosure agreement or a license that allows, for example, study and modification, but not redistribution. The text-based email client Pine and certain implementations of Secure Shell are distributed with proprietary licenses that make the source code available.\nSome governments fear that proprietary software may include defects or malicious features which would compromise sensitive information. In 2003 Microsoft established a Government Security Program (GSP) to allow governments to view source code and Microsoft security documentation, of which the Chinese government was an early participant. The program",
"-26.009141631857347"
],
[
"if the licensor becomes unable to do so, such as because of bankruptcy. This is most easily achieved by obtaining a copy of the up-to-date source code. The licensor, however, will often be unwilling to agree to this, as the source code will generally represent one of their most closely guarded trade secrets.\nAs a solution to this conflict of interest, source code escrow ensures that the licensee obtains access to the source code only when the maintenance of the software cannot otherwise be assured, as defined in contractually agreed-upon conditions. Third party escrow agents Museums, archives and other GLAM organizations",
"-25.99794592021499"
],
[
"for many years. Many applications and libraries for those platforms are open-source software, written in C and C++, so that if they are 64-bit-safe, they can be compiled into 64-bit versions. This source-based distribution model, with an emphasis on frequent releases, makes availability of application software for those operating systems less of an issue.",
"-25.997198806377128"
],
[
"created a special page that deploys a number of open source applications and techniques which protect those leaking confidential documents and files. This software even protects whistleblowers from the Nawaat team itself, which thanks to these techniques will not be able to identify the identity of those who leak information through their address emails, IP addresses, names or their geographic locations. To provide them with further protection, the Nawaat team will as usual and before the publication of any leaked confidential document, delete all meta data which increases the possibility of identifying the electronic source of documents in its different",
"-25.982372440223116"
],
[
"source code to learn about programming techniques. The sharing of source code between developers is frequently cited as a contributing factor to the maturation of their programming skills. Some people consider source code an expressive artistic medium.\nPorting software to other computer platforms is usually prohibitively difficult without source code. Without the source code for a particular piece of software, portability is generally computationally expensive. Possible porting options include binary translation and emulation of the original platform.\nDecompilation of an executable program can be used to generate source code, either in assembly code or in a high-level language.\nProgrammers frequently adapt source code",
"-25.87877062978805"
],
[
"entire source code need to be made available to end users, including any code changes and additions—in that case, copyleft is applied to ensure that end users retain the freedoms defined above.\nHowever, software running as an application program under a GPL-licensed operating system such as Linux is not required to be licensed under GPL or to be distributed with source-code availability—the licensing depends only on the used libraries and software components and not on the underlying platform. For example, if a program consists only of own original custom software, or is combined with source code from other software components, then",
"-25.849672909709625"
],
[
"of open-source software development are displayed, along with the corresponding data elements. This diagram is made using the meta-modeling and meta-process modeling techniques. Types of open-source projects Several types of open-source projects exist. First, there is the garden variety of software programs and libraries, which consist of standalone pieces of code. Some might even be dependent on other open-source projects. These projects serve a specified purpose and fill a definite need. Examples of this type of project include the Linux kernel, the Firefox web browser and the LibreOffice office suite of tools.\nDistributions are another type of open-source project. Distributions are",
"-25.794183468678966"
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[
"software, and invited to contribute to the copyleft commons. Later, variations of such licenses were developed by others. Informal software sharing continues However, there were still those who wished to share their source code with other programmers and/or with users on a free basis, then called \"hobbyists\" and \"hackers\". Before the introduction and widespread public use of the internet, there were several alternative ways available to do this, including listings in computer magazines (like Dr. Dobb's Journal, Creative Computing, SoftSide, Compute!, Byte, etc.) and in computer programming books, like the bestseller BASIC Computer Games. Though still copyrighted, annotated source code",
"-25.75003848975757"
],
[
"form. Without the source code an adaption (Porting) on modern computing hardware or operating system is most often impossible, therefore the original hardware and software context needs to be emulated. Another potential challenge for software preservation can be the copyright which prohibits often the bypassing of copy protection mechanisms (Digital Millennium Copyright Act) in case software has become an orphaned work (Abandonware). An exemption from the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act to permit to bypass copy protection was approved in 2003 for a period of 3 years to the Internet Archive who created an archive of \"vintage software\", as",
"-25.739430097164586"
],
[
"Comparison of open-source and closed-source software Free/open-source software – the source availability model used by free and open-source software (FOSS) – and closed source are two approaches to the distribution of software. Background Under the closed-source model source code is not released to the public. Closed-source software is maintained by a team who produces their product in a compiled-executable state, which is what the market is allowed access to. Microsoft, the owner and developer of Windows and Microsoft Office, along with other major software companies, have long been proponents of this business model, although in August 2010, Microsoft interoperability general",
"-25.703837108565494"
],
[
"Microsoft Visual SourceSafe History SourceSafe was originally created by a North Carolina company called One Tree Software. One Tree SourceSafe had gone through several releases in their 1.x to 2.x cycles, supporting DOS, OS/2 (with a Presentation Manager GUI), Windows, Windows NT, Mac, and Unix. When Microsoft bought OneTree in 1994, they immediately ceased development on all versions except for Windows. Microsoft SourceSafe 3.1, Windows 16-bit-only and Macintosh, rebranded One Tree 3.0 versions, were briefly available before Microsoft released a Version 4.0. With the acquisition of One Tree Software, Microsoft discontinued its source code control product at the time, Microsoft",
"-25.503830048954114"
],
[
"is part of Microsoft's broader Shared Source Initiative which provides source code access for some products. The Reference Source License (Ms-RSL) and Limited Public License (Ms-LPL) are proprietary software licenses where the source code is made available.\nGovernments have also been accused of adding such malware to software themselves. According to documents released by Edward Snowden, the NSA has used covert partnerships with software companies to make commercial encryption software exploitable to eavesdropping, or to insert backdoors.\nSoftware vendors sometimes use obfuscated code to impede users who would reverse engineer the software. This is particularly common with certain programming languages. For example,",
"-25.503093468025327"
],
[
"Research License Agreement, which makes the code source-available, but not open source as defined by Open Source Initiative or Free Software Foundation standards. Microsoft would later re-license the code under the MIT License on September 28, 2018, making these versions free software.\nAs an April Fool's Day joke in 2015, Microsoft Mobile launched a Windows Phone application called MS-DOS Mobile which was presented as a new mobile operating system and worked similar to MS-DOS. Legal issues As a response to Digital Research's DR DOS 6.0, which bundled SuperStor disk compression, Microsoft opened negotiations with Stac Electronics, vendor of the most popular",
"-25.478272613836452"
],
[
"any open source project, you're probably going to be spending time in IRC. If you want to make sure you don't miss a minute of your project's conversations, you'll want to check out Smuxi.",
"-25.46520022492041"
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[
"otherwise very easy to copy and redistribute. The end result is that an end-user is not actually purchasing software, but purchasing the right to use the software. To this end, the source code to closed-source software is considered a trade secret by its manufacturers. FOSS FOSS methods, on the other hand, typically do not limit the use of software in this fashion. Instead, the revenue model is based mainly on support services. Red Hat Inc. and Canonical Ltd. are such companies that give its software away freely, but charge for support services. The source code of the software is usually",
"-25.447275012149476"
],
[
"Source code Definitions The Linux Information Project defines source code as:\nSource code (also referred to as source or code) is the version of software as it is originally written (i.e., typed into a computer) by a human in plain text (i.e., human readable alphanumeric characters).\nThe notion of source code may also be taken more broadly, to include machine code and notations in graphical languages, neither of which are textual in nature. An example from an article presented on the annual IEEE conference and on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation:\nFor the purpose of clarity \"source code\" is taken to mean any",
"-25.420013597235084"
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[
"to FOSS-based systems.\nSome closed-source software is released by their owner at end-of-life as open-source or source available software, often to prevent the software from becoming unsupported and unavailable abandonware. 3D Realms and id Software are famous for the practice of releasing closed source software into the open source. Some of those kinds are free-of-charge downloads (freeware), some are still commercially sold (e.g. Arx Fatalis). More examples of formerly closed-source software in the List of commercial software with available source code and List of commercial video games with available source code. Formerly open-source software Some formerly open-source software was made proprietary",
"-25.40874330175575"
],
[
"from other applications in the operating system, preventing it from accessing or modifying anything besides the Temporary Internet Files directory. Microsoft's anti-spyware product, Windows Defender, has been incorporated into Windows, providing protection against malware and other threats. Changes to various system configuration settings (such as new auto-starting applications) are blocked unless the user gives consent.\nWhereas prior releases of Windows supported per-file encryption using Encrypting File System, the Enterprise and Ultimate editions of Vista include BitLocker Drive Encryption, which can protect entire volumes, notably the operating system volume. However, BitLocker requires approximately a 1.5-gigabyte partition to be permanently not encrypted and",
"-25.40065966214752"
],
[
"applications, as \"one of the worst in US history\". Adobe also announced that hackers stole parts of the source code of Photoshop, which according to commentators could allow programmers to copy its engineering techniques and would make it easier to pirate Adobe's expensive products.\nPublished on a server of a Russian-speaking hacker group, the \"disclosure of encryption algorithms, other security schemes, and software vulnerabilities can be used to bypass protections for individual and corporate data\" and may have opened the gateway to new generation zero-day attacks. Hackers already used ColdFusion exploits to make off with usernames and encrypted passwords of PR",
"-25.306586443051856"
],
[
"the range of open-source software available, regardless of their funding arrangements. The open source tools often act as incubators of ideas, or community-supported plug-ins in commercial applications. They may also provide de facto standards and shared object models for assisting with the challenge of bioinformation integration.\nThe range of open-source software packages includes titles such as Bioconductor, BioPerl, Biopython, BioJava, BioJS, BioRuby, Bioclipse, EMBOSS, .NET Bio, Orange with its bioinformatics add-on, Apache Taverna, UGENE and GenoCAD. To maintain this tradition and create further opportunities, the non-profit Open Bioinformatics Foundation have supported the annual Bioinformatics Open Source Conference (BOSC) since 2000.\nAn alternative",
"-25.251185006694868"
],
[
"TeX, The Program by Donald Knuth, PGP Source Code and Internals by Philip Zimmermann, PC SpeedScript by Randy Thompson, and µC/OS, The Real-Time Kernel by Jean Labrosse. Organization The source code which constitutes a program is usually held in one or more text files stored on a computer's hard disk; usually these files are carefully arranged into a directory tree, known as a source tree. Source code can also be stored in a database (as is common for stored procedures) or elsewhere.\nThe source code for a particular piece of software may be contained in a single file or many files.",
"-25.1806568717584"
],
[
"Stanford AI Labs. Many open source software projects have begun as research projects within universities, as personal projects of students or professors, or as tools to aid scientific research. The influence of universities and research institutions on open-source shows in the number of projects named after their host institutions, such as BSD Unix, CMU Common Lisp, or the NCSA HTTPd which evolved into Apache.\nCompanies may employ developers to work on open-source projects that are useful to the company's infrastructure: in this case, it is developed not as a product to be sold but as a sort of shared public utility.",
"-25.173274085158482"
],
[
"Alexis de Tocqueville Institution Intellectual property studies The AdTI published a series of studies beginning in 2002 on the theme of intellectual property in the software industry. The Institution authored Opening the Open Source Debate (June 2002), a report critical of Microsoft's open-source rivals. This report claimed that open source software was inherently less secure than proprietary software and hence a particular target for terrorists.\nThese studies culminated in Samizdat: And Other Issues Regarding the 'Source' of Open Source Code (prereleased May 2004), questioning the generally accepted provenance of Linux and other open source projects, and recommending that government-funded programming should",
"-25.14349844382923"
],
[
"access to the system, and to undocumented parts of the system (in particular, a video game-like simulation mode and direct interaction with the artificial intelligence).\nAlthough the number of backdoors in systems using proprietary software (software whose source code is not publicly available) is not widely credited, they are nevertheless frequently exposed. Programmers have even succeeded in secretly installing large amounts of benign code as Easter eggs in programs, although such cases may involve official forbearance, if not actual permission.\nA countermeasure against backdoors is open-source software, where the source code can be examined for potential backdoors and it is as such",
"-25.137287918507354"
],
[
"/r from MS Windows to fix the damaged NTFS file system and then shutting down Windows cleanly may fix any corruptions (this may take a significant amount of time to run as root.disk is a large file). Influences Wubi relies on other open source projects: Debian installer, Migration Assistant, Grub4Dos, NTFS-3G, NSIS and Metalink. Development The lead developers are Agostino Russo, Geza Kovacs, Oliver Mattos and Ecology2007. The main development occurs at Launchpad and is led by the Lupin Team (Lupin is the loop-installer, handles everything that happens after reboot) through the original Ubuntu blueprint page and the new",
"-25.113089372054674"
],
[
"such as a requirement to preserve the name of the authors and a copyright statement within the code, or a requirement to redistribute the licensed software only under the same license (as in a copyleft license). One popular set of open-source software licenses are those approved by the Open Source Initiative (OSI) based on their Open Source Definition (OSD). Open-source software code Generally, open source refers to a computer program in which the source code is available to the general public for use for any (including commercial) purpose, or modification from its original design. Open-source code is meant to be",
"-25.101081295346376"
],
[
"Santa Barbara.\nLocus eventually joined the Microsoft WISE\nprogram which gave them access to Windows source code, which allowed later versions of Merge to run Windows Shrink wrapped applications without a copy of Windows.",
"-25.10082544735633"
],
[
"users. The Linux operating system is one of the best known examples of a collection of open source software. Copylefted software Copylefted software is free software whose distribution terms ensure that all copies of all versions carry more or less the same distribution terms. This means, for instance, that copyleft licenses generally disallow others to add additional requirements to the software (though a limited set of safe added requirements can be allowed) and require making source code available. This shields the program, and its modified versions, from some of the common ways of making a program proprietary. Some copyleft licenses",
"-25.067284074477357"
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[
"hackers are not using them. There are ways to hide shellcode so it can be harder to detect. A couple of examples on how to hide shellcode are found in the book.\nBuffer Restrictions\n\nSometimes there are restrictions put on buffers so that vulnerabilities cannot be exploited. There are a few ways that the book depicts on how to get around buffer restrictions.\nHardening Countermeasures\n\nThe exploits that are found in this book have been around for a long time. It took hackers a while before they figured out how to take advantage of the vulnerabilities described in this book. Memory corruption, a change",
"-25.051658880300238"
],
[
"copy of the content can often be made easily; in the case of Wikipedia, CD-ROMs and printed versions have been made of parts of Wikipedia's content.\nAllowing offline editing, however (where the changes are synchronized when the user is back online), is a much more difficult process. One approach to doing this is using a distributed revision control system as a backend of the wiki, in peer-to-peer style. With this approach, there is no central store of the wiki's content; instead, every user keeps a complete copy of the wiki locally, and the software handles merging and propagating of changes when",
"-25.041959044581745"
],
[
"Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities A source-code repository is a file archive and web hosting facility for source code of software, documentation, web pages, and other works, accessible either publicly or privately. They are often used by open-source software projects and other multi-developer projects to maintain revision and version history, or version control. Many repositories provide a bug tracking system, and offer release management, mailing lists, and wiki-based project documentation. Software authors generally retain their copyright when software is posted to a code hosting facilities.",
"-25.029299510468263"
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[
"an Open API document based on the code itself. This is informally called code-first or bottom-up API development. While the software code itself can accurately represent the Open API document, many API developers consider this to be an outdated technique as it embeds the API description in the source code of a project and is typically more difficult for non-developers to contribute to.\nAlternatively, using Swagger Codegen, developers can decouple the source code from the Open API document, and generate client and server code directly from the design. While considered complicated, this has been considered a more modern API workflow by",
"-25.028083468438126"
],
[
"a copy of the Mac OS running in emulation. The Carbon libraries are extensively cleaned up, modernized and better \"protected\". While the Mac OS was filled with APIs that shared memory to pass data, under Carbon all such access was re-implemented using accessor subroutines on opaque data types. This allowed Carbon to support true multitasking and memory protection, features Mac developers had been requesting for a decade. Other changes from the pre-existing API removed features which were conceptually incompatible with Mac OS X, or simply obsolete. For example, applications could no longer install interrupt handlers or device drivers.\nIn order to",
"-24.99765228643082"
],
[
"Though the practice is uncommon, a program's source code can be written in different programming languages. For example, a program written primarily in the C programming language, might have portions written in assembly language for optimization purposes. It is also possible for some components of a piece of software to be written and compiled separately, in an arbitrary programming language, and later integrated into the software using a technique called library linking. In some languages, such as Java, this can be done at run time (each class is compiled into a separate file that is linked by the interpreter at",
"-24.94172694302688"
],
[
"download from Microsoft; but most of the software bundled in it or in Windows Essentials 2011, including Windows Live Mail, continues to function and it can still be downloaded from Archive.org.",
"-24.92305650789058"
],
[
"maintenance of packages, resulting in the temporary removal of ownCloud from the Ubuntu repository.\nownCloud has been integrated with the GNOME desktop. Additional projects that use or link to ownCloud include a Raspberry Pi project to create a cloud storage system using the Raspberry Pi's small, low-energy form-factor.\nIn addition to the standard open-source packages, an Enterprise version of ownCloud is also sold, aimed at businesses which require advanced features and software support.",
"-24.91662315884605"
],
[
"systems, or other digital storage devices. The data are then imported into servers employing any necessary transcoding, digitizing or transfer). Once imported, the source material can be edited on a computer using application software, any of a wide range of video editing software.\nEditing software records the editor's decisions in an edit decision list (EDL) that is exportable to other editing tools. Many generations and variations of the original source files can exist without storing many different copies, allowing for very flexible editing. It also makes it easy to change cuts and undo previous decisions simply by editing the",
"-24.914969545672648"
],
[
"Pascal, a basic all-in-one system, working in memory and producing .COM executable files for DOS and CP/M, and equivalent .CMD executables for CP/M-86 (totally different from .CMD batch files later used in 32-bit Microsoft Windows). Source code files were limited to 64 KB to simplify the IDE, and DOS .COM files were limited to 64 KB each of code, stack and global (static) variables. Program source code could be extended by the use of Included files, and the .COM programs could be overlaid, effectively using virtual memory if they would not otherwise fit in memory. Versions 4 Released in 1987, it was",
"-24.88874325971119"
],
[
"DevShare was discontinued. On May 17, 2016, SourceForge announced that they were now scanning all projects for malware, and displaying warnings on projects detected to have malware. Project hijackings and bundled malware GIMP, who discontinued their use of SourceForge as a download mirror in November 2013, reported in May 2015 that SourceForge was hosting versions of their Windows binaries that \"put other software apart from GIMP on our users' systems\" on their Open Source Mirror directory, which SourceForge claims is a collection of abandoned projects. This came despite SourceForge's commitment in November 2013 to never bundle adware with project downloads",
"-24.883553496794775"
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[
"used - an exact used version must be correctly identified. Further difficulties may arise if the library owner removes the obsolete versions (that were under different license) from the public sources.\nSome licenses (like LGPL) have very different conditions for the simple linking and creating of the derivative works. In such case the proper audit must take into consideration if the library has been linked or the derivative work (custom branch) has been created.\nFinally, some software packages may internally contain fragments of the source code (such as source code of the Oracle Java) that may be provided only for reference or",
"-24.87308695539832"
],
[
"it is supported by some source code editors in the form of snippets. Origins Copy and pasting is often done by inexperienced or student programmers, who find the act of writing code from scratch difficult or irritating and prefer to search for a pre-written solution or partial solution they can use as a basis for their own problem solving.\n(See also Cargo cult programming)\nInexperienced programmers who copy code often do not fully understand the pre-written code they are taking. As such, the problem arises more from their inexperience and lack of courage in programming than from the act of copying and",
"-24.871520945278462"
],
[
"purpose of archiving it, the archive bit will still not be cleared. A specific command for clearing or setting the bit must be executed. In MS-DOS as well as nearly all versions of Windows, the archive bit's status can be viewed or changed with the attrib command-line utility, or by viewing the properties of a file with the Windows shell or Windows Explorer. The archive bit's status can also be viewed or changed with the GetFileAttributes, GetFileAttributesEx, and SetFileAttributes Windows APIs. The archive bit can be set or cleared with the attributes property in VBScript or JScript.\nWhen",
"-24.83561267168261"
],
[
"if used unlicensed beyond the 30-day trial period; the overall license policy is similar to the DeLano system. The source code remains mostly available, this time under a BSD-like license. As with the previous distribution, unofficial Windows binaries in the wheel format are available, and Linux distributions continue to provide their own builds of the open-source code.",
"-24.825061630108394"
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[
"as of October 2014 SRWare Iron was \"supposedly open source but haven't released their source for years\". In 2015, SRWare resumed releasing what they claim is the source code for the browser, although not stating on their page what version the source code is from.",
"-24.82402302864648"
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[
"fully executable description of a software system. It is therefore so construed as to include machine code, very high level languages and executable graphical representations of systems.\nOften there are several steps of program translation or minification between the original source code typed by a human and an executable program. While some, like the FSF, argue that an intermediate file \"is not real source code and does not count as source code\", others find it convenient to refer to each intermediate file as the source code for the next steps. History The earliest programs for stored-program computers were entered in binary",
"-24.810969271231443"
],
[
"Open-source journalism Usage At first sight, it would appear to many that blogs fit within the current meaning of open-source journalism. Yet the term's use of open source clearly currently implies the meaning as given to it by the open-source software movement; where the source code of programs is published openly to allow anyone to locate and fix mistakes or add new functions. Anyone may also freely take and re-use that source code to create new works, within set license parameters. \nGiven certain legal traditions of copyright, blogs may not be open source in the sense that one is",
"-24.803078185534105"
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[
"programmer a degree of control over what is hidden, typically via keywords like public and private. ISO C++ standard refers to protected, private and public as \"access specifiers\" and that they do not \"hide any information\". Information hiding is accomplished by furnishing a compiled version of the source code that is interfaced via a header file.\nHiding the internals of the object protects its integrity by preventing users from setting the internal data of the component into an invalid or inconsistent state. A supposed benefit of encapsulation is that it can reduce system complexity, and thus increase robustness, by allowing",
"-24.788985997904092"
],
[
"open source effort to run Windows. Negroponte agreed to provide engineer assistance to Microsoft to facilitate their efforts. During this time, the project mission statement changed to remove mentions of \"open source\". A number of developers, such as Ivan Krstić and Walter Bender, resigned because of these changes in strategy.\nApproximately 400 developer boards (Alpha-1) were distributed in mid-2006; 875 working prototypes (Beta 1) were delivered in late 2006; 2400 Beta-2 machines were distributed at the end of February 2007; full-scale production started November 6, 2007. Quanta Computer, the project's contract manufacturer, said in February 2007 that it had confirmed orders",
"-24.747339794412255"
],
[
"the whole of the source code. This is said to be strictly analogous to taking the plot of a book[12]: an author who takes the plot of another work and copies nothing else will still infringe copyright if a substantial part of the earlier author's work is represented by that plot, and the same goes for computer programs: John Richardson Computers v Flanders [1993] FSR 497 (Ferris J). easyJet's Position easyJet accepts that copyright subsists in the source code of OpenRes. However, they stressed to the court that with regards to the user interface, the only question to be considered",
"-24.743752887123264"
],
[
"source software is part of the integrated network fabric which connects and enables our command and control system to work effectively, as people's lives depend on it.\nWhen we rolled into Baghdad, we did it using open source. It may come as a surprise to many of you, but the U.S. Army is \"the\" single largest install base for Red Hat Linux. I'm their largest customer. Netbooks In 2008, Gartner analysts predicted that mobile devices like Netbooks with Linux could potentially break the dominance of Microsoft's Windows as operating system provider, as the netbook concept focuses on OS-agnostic applications built as",
"-24.718973784620175"
],
[
"of expanding its executive, engineering and research team.\nSourceClear again made headlines in November 2015, when it identified a flaw in Spring Social, a popular Java application library. The flaw had allowed hackers to impersonate users on social media. SourceClear privately disclosed the flaw to Pivotal Software, which then patched the library. Later that month, SourceClear also demonstrated a Denial-of-service attack based on the Amazon AWS SDK for Java. Software The focus of SourceClear is open-source software development. Since developers are increasingly consuming and extending free open-source and third-party components and libraries, their products can become vulnerable to hacking. SourceClear's tools",
"-24.69121380581055"
],
[
"that directly competes with Microsoft. It was initially developed by a student called Linus Torvalds and later became an open source software. The code is publicly available and anyone can contribute or enhance it. The success of Linux is the constant and continuous updating which is done at a much lower cost than closed source software.\nWikipedia gathers thousands of volunteers that constantly write and update content. Although it does not have a hierarchy nor a central authority, the entries are mostly accurate and complete. Volunteers share a strong feeling of community and willingness to contribute towards knowledge without being",
"-24.66217424045317"
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[
"and irreversibly deletes files, when most computer users are accustomed to having a virtual trash can or recycle bin that will hold files until the user specifically tells the system to delete the files.\nWhile Windows and Mac OS have third-party software that allows users to \"un-delete\" trashed and removed files, there is no user-friendly equivalent available to Linux users. In an effort to buffer the removal of a file and its irreversible deletion, Klaatu wrote trash, a BASH shell scripts that move a file to a hidden trash folder, and empty, a shell script that removes files from the",
"-24.650160180637613"
],
[
"large software projects, using Makefiles can substantially reduce build times if only a few source files have changed.\nUsing C/C++ as an example, when a C/C++ source file is changed, it must be recompiled. If a header file has changed, each C/C++ source file that includes the header file must be recompiled to be safe. Each compilation produces an object file corresponding to the source file. Finally, if any source file has been recompiled, all the object files, whether newly made or saved from previous compilations, must be linked together to produce the new executable program. Unix-like Makefiles originated on Unix-like",
"-24.633363718516193"
],
[
"developing the entire system together as a single team. These operating system development projects closely integrate their tools, more so than in the other distribution-based systems.\nFinally, there is the book or standalone document project. These items usually do not ship as part of an open-source software package. The Linux Documentation Project hosts many such projects that document various aspects of the GNU/Linux operating system. There are many other examples of this type of open-source project. Methods It is hard to run an open-source project following a more traditional software development method like the waterfall model, because in these traditional methods",
"-24.614485850092024"
],
[
"the work done by a single FreeBSD developer. Open source operating systems Some FSF-approved projects strive to provide a free operating system and will remove all binary blobs when no documentation for hardware or source code for device drivers and all applicable firmware is available; such projects include Linux-libre kernel packaging from FSFLA, Parabola, Devuan, Trisquel, and LibreCMC. However, the vast majority of open-source projects make a distinction between binary-only device drivers (blobs) and binary-only firmware (not considered blobs), allowing for certain proprietary firmware to be freely distributed as part of their kernels, and, to the disagreement of some core",
"-24.606761830393225"
],
[
"not open source. Microsoft's F# compiler, created in 2002, has also been released as open source under the Apache license. The F# compiler is a commercial product, as it has been incorporated into Microsoft Visual Studio, which is not open source.\nMicrosoft representatives have made regular appearances at various open source and Linux conferences for many years.\nIn 2012, Microsoft launched a subsidiary named Microsoft Open Technologies Inc., with the aim of bridging the gap between proprietary Microsoft technologies and non-Microsoft technologies by engaging with open-source standards. This subsidiary was subsequently folded back into Microsoft as Microsoft's position on open source and",
"-24.598828581452835"
],
[
"for third-party binaries which must be treated differently for both technical and legal reasons. Introduction Software development can be a complex process involving many developers, or teams of developers working on shared code bases, accessing the same build tools, downloading and using a shared set of binary resources, and deploying components into the same software product. To manage the source files used in software development, organizations will typically use revision control. The many source files used in software development are eventually built into the binary artifacts (also known as “binaries”) which constitute the components of a software product. In addition,",
"-24.593147074469016"
],
[
"expanded source code can be done from any section or subsection (i.e. a piece of code designated as \"<<name of the chunk>>=\", with the equal sign), so one literate program file can contain several files with machine source code.\nThe purpose of wc is to count lines, words, and/or characters in a list of files. Thenumber of lines in a file is ......../more explanations/Here, then, is an overview of the file wc.c that is defined by the noweb program wc.nw:\n <<*>>=\n <<Header files to include>>\n <<Definitions>>\n <<Global variables>>\n ",
"-24.587127465114463"
],
[
"community, sometimes even by releasing the source code under a software license which allows the software community the continued software support by themselves. Examples for such software are in the List of commercial video games with later released source code.\nThe free and open source software movement was founded in the 1980s to solve the underlying problem of unofficial patches, the limited possibility for user self-support in binary only distributed software due to missing source code. Free and open source software demands from distributed software the availability of source code, which prevents the technical problems and legal uncertainties of binary only",
"-24.583454733190592"
],
[
"open source software exist:",
"-24.5816674270809"
],
[
"OpenIDM History ForgeRock launched the OpenIDM project in October 27, 2010 at GOSCON in Portland following a 6-month internal development process.\nForgeRock felt there was no strong open source identity provisioning project, and launched OpenIDM under CDDL licensing for compatibility with OpenAM and OpenDJ. However, just giving access to an old, flattened X.0.0 source tree which usually still contains many bugs, can hardly be described as what is usually understood as Open Source. So since it prevents the community from taking part on developing within the latest version aka trunk, doesn't give any insights, what actually got fixed/features got merged, it",
"-24.55998118291609"
],
[
"source files as of July 2016. \nAdditional sponsors of the Software Heritage initiative include Microsoft and the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and the\nNetherlands Organisation for Scientific Research's Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS). Creative Commons, Free Software Foundation, GitHub, Jason Scott, the Linux Foundation, and Microsoft among others have endorsed the project. Overview Software Heritage's goal is to preserve software in its original source code that is free/open source software (FOSS). The focus of the initiative is to collect, preserve, and share software that is across cultural heritage, industry, education, science, and research communities, with the concern",
"-24.54670474457089"
],
[
"in Chrome OS Vanilla and later the default was empty, and instructions on updating it were displayed at each login. Open source Chrome OS is partially developed under the open source Chromium OS project. As with other open source projects, developers can modify the code from Chromium OS and build their own versions, whereas Chrome OS code is only supported by Google and its partners and only runs on hardware designed for the purpose. Unlike Chromium OS, Chrome OS is automatically updated to the latest version. Chrome OS on Windows On Windows 8 exceptions allow the default desktop web browser",
"-24.53001080453396"
],
[
"open source software projects such as the GNU project, the Apache Software Foundation, and Linux (protected via the Linux Mark Institute).",
"-24.529297777975444"
],
[
"non-Windows partition formats or drivers so therefore configuring other operating systems is not directly possible through Boot Camp itself. However, any operating system which can utilize the BIOS emulation of Intel Macintosh can be made to work, including non-XP versions of Windows. The Ubuntu Linux distribution is particularly popular for this purpose because they provide an option to use proprietary device drivers along with open source drivers.",
"-24.523022866807878"
],
[
"has helped produce reliable, high quality software quickly and inexpensively.\nOpen source development offers the potential for a more flexible technology and quicker innovation. It is said to be more reliable since it typically has thousands of independent programmers testing and fixing bugs of the software. Open source is not dependent on the company or author that originally created it. Even if the company fails, the code continues to exist and be developed by its users. Also, it uses open standards accessible to everyone; thus, it does not have the problem of incompatible formats that may exist in proprietary software.\nIt is",
"-24.513770476914942"
],
[
"fixes a bug or makes a program it benefits others in an open-source environment. Another motivation is that a programmer can work on multiple projects that they find interesting and enjoyable. Programming in the open-source world can also lead to commercial job offers or entrance into the venture capital community. These are just a few reasons why open-source programmers continue to create and advance software.\nWhile cognizant of the fact that both, the free-software movement and the open-source movement, share similarities in practical recommendations regarding open source, the free-software movement fervently continues to distinguish themselves from the open-source movement entirely. The",
"-24.51317564503188"
]
] |
jete0 | What is a karat? How does it differ from diamonds to gold? | [
"A karat in terms of gold is not the same measure as a carat of diamond weight. A carat of diamond weight is equivalent to 0.2g. Many other stones are also measured in carats, but due to varying densities, a carat of sapphire is physically smaller than a carat of diamond. Karat in gold terms is a measure of purity. Because it is measured as 24 times the purity by mass, 24k gold is pure (well, 99.9% pure) gold. 18k gold is 75% pure gold. 12k gold is 50%, and so on. The markings on the inside of a piece of jewelery may indicate the purity of the material. 24k is marked 999. 10k is marked 417. (99.9% and 41.7% respectively.)",
"At first I read \"what is karate?\" Edit: then I finished reading the title.",
"For gems a carat is 200 milligrams. For gold, a carat is a unit of purity, with 24 carat gold being pure gold."
] | [
[
"millesimal finenesses used for precious metals and the most common terms associated with them. Karat The karat (US spelling, symbol K or kt) or carat (UK spelling, symbol C or ct) is a fractional measure of purity for gold alloys, in parts fine per 24 parts whole. The karat system is a standard adopted by US federal law. Etymology Karat is a variant of carat. First attested in English in the mid-15th century, the word carat came from Middle French carat, in turn derived either from Italian carato or Medieval Latin carratus. These were borrowed into Medieval Europe from the",
"-34.53883380861953"
],
[
"trade of gem diamonds, carat is often used in denominating lots of diamonds for sale. For example, a buyer may place an order for 100 carats (20 g) of 0.5-carat (100 mg), D–F, VS2-SI1, excellent cut diamonds, indicating a wish to purchase 200 diamonds (100 carats (20 g) total mass) of those approximate characteristics. Because of this, diamond prices (particularly among wholesalers and other industry professionals) are often quoted per carat, rather than per stone.\nTotal carat weight (t.c.w.) is a phrase used to describe the total mass of diamonds or other gemstone in a piece of jewelry, when more than one gemstone is",
"-30.17788697325159"
],
[
"Mithqal Mithqāl (Arabic: مثقال) is a unit of mass equal to 4.25 grams which is mostly used for measuring precious metals, such as gold, and other commodities, like saffron.\nThe name was also applied as an alternative term for the gold dinar, a coin that was used throughout much of the Islamic world from the 8th century onward and survived in parts of Africa until the 19th century. The name of Mozambique's currency since 1980, the metical, is derived from mithqāl. Etymology The word mithqāl (Arabic: مثقال; “weight, unit of weight”) comes from the Arabic thaqala (ثقل), meaning “to weigh”.",
"-29.127865551927243"
],
[
"their flanks, and their backs.- \"This is the (treasure) which ye buried for yourselves: taste ye, then, the (treasures) ye buried!\" (The Holy Qur'an 9:34–35).\nMuslims of each era have agreed upon the obligatory nature of paying Zakat for gold and silver, and from those the other kinds of currency.\nZakat is obligatory when a certain amount of money, called the nisab is reached or exceeded. Zakat is not obligatory if the amount owned is less than this nisab. The nisab (or minimum amount) of gold and golden currency is 20 mithqal, approximately 85 grams of pure gold. One mithqal is approximately 4.25 grams.",
"-28.661208660312695"
],
[
"containing 75% gold is denoted as \"750\". Many European countries use decimal hallmark stamps (i.e., \"585\", \"750\", etc.) rather than \"14K\", \"18K\", etc., which is used in the United Kingdom and United States.\nIt is an extension of the older karat system of denoting the purity of gold by fractions of 24, such as \"18 karat\" for an alloy with 75% (18 parts per 24) pure gold by mass.\nThe millesimal fineness is usually rounded to a three figure number, particularly where used as a hallmark, and the fineness may vary slightly from the traditional versions of purity.\nHere are the most common",
"-28.63969006948173"
],
[
"while it has mixed sp² and sp³ bonding, it is mostly sp³, which leads to its unique hardness and its electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Q-carbon is harder than diamond by 48–70% because carbon is metallic in the molten state and gets closely packed, with a bond length smaller than that in diamond. Unlike all other known forms of carbon, Q-carbon is ferromagnetic, with a saturation magnetization of 20 emu/g and an estimated Curie temperature of approximately 500 K.\nDepending on the quenching rate from the supercooled state, Q-carbon can be a semiconductor or metallic. It glows more than diamond when",
"-28.064052582369186"
],
[
"sold for industrial use each year, as are about 100 tonnes (110 short tons) of synthesized diamond. Carat The carat weight measures the mass of a diamond. One carat is defined as 200 milligrams (about 0.007 ounces avoirdupois). The point unit—equal to one one-hundredth of a carat (0.01 carat, or 2 mg)—is commonly used for diamonds of less than one carat. All else being equal, the price per carat increases with carat weight, since larger diamonds are both rarer and more desirable for use as gemstones.\nThe price per carat does not increase linearly with increasing size. Instead, there are sharp jumps",
"-27.593215305241756"
],
[
"purity on a touchstone. As a result, the use of gold for as commodity money spread from Asia Minor, where it first gained wide usage.\nA touchstone allows the amount of gold in a sample of an alloy to been estimated. In turn this allows the alloy's purity to be estimated. This allows coins with a uniform amount of gold to be created. Coins were typically minted by governments and then stamped with an emblem that guaranteed the weight and value of the metal. However, as well as intrinsic value coins had a face value. Sometimes governments would reduce the amount",
"-27.382907554972917"
],
[
"are \"unanimous in regarding the rates of Zakat as permanently fixed by Islamic law\", but \"a number\" of recent writers, \"mostly economists, argue in favour of making these rates amendable to modification\". Gold and silver Al-Qaradawi quotes Imam Al-Shafi‘i in his Al Risalah about zakah on gold: \"The Prophet of God ordered zakah on silver currency and Muslims after him collected zakah on gold. They were either depending on a saying of the Prophet that never reached our times or applying analogy because of the similarities between gold and silver as money, since both were used in several countries as",
"-27.176306227978785"
],
[
"damar\". Gold Faturan The properties found inside Faturan determine its desirability and value, the most valuable being gold, in the forms of gold leaf, dust or metal, added when molten. Gold Faturan was used for making jewelry beads, rings, and accessories. Tribal beads were used as dowry gifts and for making necklaces and other jewelry in North Africa and Asia. Golden Lava Flow Faturan One of the rarest and sought after Faturan types is called Golden Lava Flow Faturan. It is a very rare mixture that involves a complicated and costly method of preparing a combination of melted gold and",
"-26.73322030507552"
],
[
"or 75% gold alloy), as well as white gold and Celestrium (jeweler's stainless steel). A typical ring, medium size and 14-carat gold, would cost US$616 in 2010 (Class of 2012 ring).",
"-26.53588021879841"
],
[
"Titanium gold In metallurgy, titanium gold (Ti-Au or Au-Ti) refers to an alloy consisting of titanium and gold. Such alloys are used in dentistry, ceramics and jewelry. Like many other alloys, titanium gold alloys have a higher yield strength, tensile strength, hardness, and magnetism than either of its constituent metals.\nIn July 2016, researchers have discovered that a titanium-gold alloy, β-Ti₃Au (strictly speaking, an intermetallic), is up to 4 times harder than titanium. In popular culture In the 2008 film Iron Man (2008 film), the title character wears an armor made from a titanium-gold alloy. According to actor Robert Downey Jr.,",
"-26.459787260799203"
],
[
"Al Haliq Mosque Al Haliq Mosque is a mosque in Tunis, Tunisia, located in the Sidi El Bechir arrondissement. Localization The mosque is located near Bab Jedid and Al Marr Street. According to the legend, a widow sold her jewels to finance its construction, hence the name of \"haliq\", meaning \"rings of a gold ornament\".",
"-26.458748233912047"
],
[
"to exchange, for example, two quarter-carats (50 mg) for one half-carat (100 mg). With commodities such as gold, it is clear that one 20-gram bar is worth the same as two 10-gram bars, assuming the same purity. In most terminal markets, there needs to be a readily available standard quality, or limited number of qualities, available in sufficient quantity to be tradeable. This is a major factor which affects liquidity. The many variables in diamond quality makes commodity-like pricing difficult, especially with rarer stones that merit special handling above standard-issue diamonds.\nThe investment parameter of diamonds is their high value per unit weight,",
"-26.423310945538105"
],
[
"keep them from becoming damaged. A hologram security feature known as a Kinegram can also be inserted into the packaging. Bars that contain these are called Kinebars. Largest gold bar The world's largest gold bar stands at 250 kg (551 lb), measuring at the base 45.5 cm × 22.5 cm (17.9 in × 8.9 in) and 17 cm (6.7 in) high with 5 degree draft angle (equal to 15,730 cm³ or 960 cu in). It was manufactured by the Mitsubishi Materials Corporation, a subsidiary of Mitsubishi. It went on display at the Toi Gold Museum on 11 July 2005. Its gold content was valued in 2005 at 400 million yen (approximately US$3,684,000",
"-25.86209249123931"
],
[
"the same ruling given to a similar case because of common reason (`illah)). An example of use of ijma is the rule that zakah is \"obligatory on golden assets at the same rate as it is on silver\", (i.e. one fourth of a tenth) despite the fact that only silver had zakat ordered upon it by a hadith of Muhammad. Zakat regulations on silver and gold are also an example of qiyas as both metals are being \"used in several countries as measures and store of value\", and so are analogous.\nAccording to Mohammad Najatuallah Siddiqui, the ulema (Islamic scholars)",
"-25.78440839844552"
],
[
"can therefore be referred to as 18 karat gold. Purple gold is more brittle than other gold alloys (a serious fault when it forms in electronics), as it is an intermetallic compound instead of a malleable alloy, and a sharp blow may cause it to shatter. It is therefore usually machined and faceted to be used as a \"gem\" in conventional jewelry rather than by itself. At a lower content of gold, the material is composed of the intermetallic and an aluminium-rich solid solution phase. At a higher content of gold, the gold-richer intermetallic AuAl forms; the purple color is",
"-25.689713854459114"
],
[
"14 carat (58⅓%) and 18 carat (75%). Titanium is a less common metal used for making nibs. Gold is considered the optimum metal for its flexibility and its resistance to corrosion, although gold's corrosion resistance is less of an issue than in the past because of better stainless steel alloys and less corrosive inks.\nVisconti uses a nib made out of palladium, as it acts like gold, but is rarer and more exotic. Nib plating Further gold plating provides favorable wettability, which is the ability of a solid surface to reduce the surface tension of a liquid in contact with it",
"-25.6792611622368"
],
[
"BIS hallmark Gold The BIS system of hallmarking of gold jewellery began in April 2000. The standard specifications governing this system are IS 1417 (Grades of Gold and Gold Alloys, Jewellery/Artefacts), IS 1418 (Assaying of Gold in Gold Bullion, Gold alloys and Gold Jewellery/Artefacts), IS 2790 (Guidelines for Manufacture of 23,22,21,20,19,18,17,16,14 and 9 carat Gold Alloys), IS 3095 (Gold solders for use in manufacture of jewellery). Silver BIS introduced hallmarking for silver jewellery in December 2005 under IS 2112, the standard specification for 'Hallmarking of Silver Jewellery/Artefacts'. Assaying & Hallmarking Centres The testing of the jewellery as well as the",
"-25.457670035713818"
],
[
"Qard al-Hasan Etymology Qardh (Arabic: قرض), translated as loan in English, means \"to cut\", because historically the lender cut off part of his or her property to give to the borrower as a loan. The word hasan is derived from Ihsan (Arabic: احسان), which is translated as splendid or beautiful. Scriptural basis The word qardh appears in the Qur'an in six verses: Q2:245, Q5:12, Q57:11, Q57:18, Q64:17, Q73:20. In every verse it is used as part of the phrase qardh al-hasan, and always in reference to a loan to Allah rather than other human beings.\n\nOne example is \nIf you",
"-25.031995804514736"
],
[
"Kurta A kurta (or sometimes kurti, for women) is a loose collarless shirt worn in many regions of South Asia, and now also worn around the world. Tracing its roots to Central Asian nomadic tunics, or upper body garments, of the late-ancient- or early-medieval era, the kurta has evolved stylistically over the centuries, especially in South Asia, as a garment for everyday wear as well as for formal occasions.\nThe kurta is traditionally made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as chikan; and it can be loose or tight in the torso, typically falling",
"-24.997840255877236"
],
[
"inertness makes it a good choice for those with allergies or those who will be wearing the jewelry in environments such as swimming pools. Titanium is also alloyed with gold to produce an alloy that can be marketed as 24-karat gold because the 1% of alloyed Ti is insufficient to require a lesser mark. The resulting alloy is roughly the hardness of 14-karat gold and is more durable than pure 24-karat gold.\nTitanium's durability, light weight, and dent and corrosion resistance make it useful for watch cases. Some artists work with titanium to produce sculptures, decorative objects and furniture.\nTitanium may be",
"-24.996346196276136"
],
[
"or gold alloys, with the most popular gold content being 14 carat (58⅓%) and 18 carat (75%). Titanium is a less common metal used for making nibs. Gold is considered the optimum metal for its flexibility and its resistance to corrosion, although gold's corrosion resistance is less of an issue than in the past because of better stainless steel alloys and less corrosive inks. Nib plating Further gold plating provides favorable wettability, which is the ability of a solid surface to reduce the surface tension of a liquid in contact with it such that it spreads over the surface. Nib",
"-24.949128364911303"
],
[
"Az-Zukhruf Overview and contents Ornaments of Gold, or Surat Az-Zukhruf, is the 43rd sura of the Qur'an containing a total of 89 verses. Named after the golden ornaments recognized in verse 35 and again in verse 53, this sura dates back to the Second Meccan Period before the Prophet Muhammad’s migration to Medina. According to the Nöldeke Chronology of suras, the Ornaments of Gold was the 61st sura revealed. The Standard Egyptian chronology, however, acknowledges this as the 63rd sura revealed. Regardless of the exact position in which this sura was revealed, it is clear that the sura was revealed",
"-24.878745327645447"
],
[
"the advice given by the Guru. The Kara is an iron/steel circle to symbolise God as never ending. It is a symbol of permanent bonding to the community, of being a link in the chain of Khalsa Sikhs (the word for link is \"kari\"). Kachera ਸੀਲ ਜਤ ਕੀ ਕਛ ਪਹਿਰਿ ਪਕਿੜਓ ਹਿਥਆਰਾ ॥ The sign of true chastity is the Kachera, you must wear this and hold weapons in hand.\n— Bhai Gurdas Singh, Var. 41, pauri 15\nThe Kachera is a shalwar-undergarment with a tie-knot worn by baptized Sikhs. Originally, the Kachera was made part of the five Ks as a symbol",
"-24.823811344991555"
],
[
"more gold in gold filled than there is on plated wire. With gold filled wire that is designated 14/20 it means that a minimum 20% of the entire wire is 14k gold. As with solid gold the gold filled wire can come in at least yellow and rose colours enabling the range of jewellery that can be made to be expansive.",
"-24.67309331870638"
],
[
"gold symbolizes the light of the sun, richness, and happiness.\nAn earlier design was adopted on July 17, 1997 which consisted of a green field. The field was changed to blue on September 18 of that same year. The proportions are 2:3.",
"-24.658212445792742"
],
[
"Isotopically pure diamond An isotopical pure diamond is a type of diamond that is composed entirely of one isotope of carbon. Isotopically pure diamonds have been manufactured from either the more common carbon isotope with mass number 12 (abbreviated as ¹²C) or the less common ¹³C isotope. Compared to natural diamonds that are composed of a mixture of ¹²C and ¹³C isotopes, isotopically pure diamonds possess improved characteristics such as increased thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity of diamonds is at a minimum when ¹²C and ¹³C are in a ratio of 1:1 and reaches a maximum when the",
"-24.632589053479023"
],
[
"Cashmeran Physical-chemical properties Cashmeran is an alicyclic ketone with the molecular formula C₁₄H₂₂O and a molecular weight of 206 g/mol. At room temperature it occurs as a white solid but its melting point is 27 °C. Boiling point has been reported to be 256 °C, however in some tests decomposition of the material was noted at 220 °C. History Cashmeran was discovered by International Flavors and Fragrances in the 1970s by John Hall. Its invention came about researching inexpensive chemical transformations from ingredients from the pentamethyl indane and tetramethyl naphthalene structures. As a result Cashmeran, an unsaturated ketone, was identified as an",
"-24.60397736504092"
],
[
"Gold Flex Protection GoldFlex gives great resistance to abrasion and resists organic solvents making itself nonconductive, low flammable, and a great fabric that has an amazing resistance to elevated temperatures. Its degradation point starts from 500 °C and it has no melting point. It is sensitive to salts, acids, and ultraviolet radiation. When it comes to the static build-up in the body it is prone to it as well [1]. Protection is also based on the pressure of the impact. Some of these fabrics are only designed with hand-guns in mind basically making anything with a bigger calibre a threat potential.",
"-24.560536278469954"
],
[
"Borazon Borazon is a brand name of a cubic form of boron nitride (cBN). Its color ranges from black to brown and gold, depending on the chemical bond. It is one of the hardest known materials, along with various forms of diamond and boron nitride. Borazon is a crystal created by heating equal quantities of boron and nitrogen at temperatures greater than 1800 °C (3300 °F) at 7 GPa (1 million lbf/in²). \nBorazon was first produced in 1957 by Robert H. Wentorf, Jr., a physical chemist working for the General Electric Company. In 1969, General Electric adopted the name Borazon as its trademark for",
"-24.47887704128516"
],
[
"Benzene Discovery The word \"benzene\" derives from \"gum benzoin\" (benzoin resin), an aromatic resin known to European pharmacists and perfumers since the 15th century as a product of southeast Asia. An acidic material was derived from benzoin by sublimation, and named \"flowers of benzoin\", or benzoic acid. The hydrocarbon derived from benzoic acid thus acquired the name benzin, benzol, or benzene. Michael Faraday first isolated and identified benzene in 1825 from the oily residue derived from the production of illuminating gas, giving it the name bicarburet of hydrogen. In 1833, Eilhard Mitscherlich produced it by distilling benzoic acid (from gum",
"-24.369866310269572"
],
[
"(SACADA). Diamond Diamond is a well known allotrope of carbon. The hardness and high dispersion of light of diamond make it useful for both industrial applications and jewelry. Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral. This makes it an excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish and luster extremely well. No known naturally occurring substance can cut (or even scratch) a diamond, except another diamond.\nThe market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color, mostly",
"-24.35735306101276"
],
[
"French heraldry, it refers to the leather tanning process and to the color the finished product is said to have, hence the name tanné ('tanned'). Being the initial shade of brown available by itself in heraldry, its hatching form naturally took the shape of red and green lines mixed together. Tenné is expected to be slightly darker than Gules, clearly darker than orange, but lighter than brunatre (dark brown), sanguine (dark red), murrey (dark purple) & sable (black).",
"-24.352984430559445"
],
[
"Ka'ak Ka'ak (Arabic: كعك, also transliterated kaak) or Kahqa is the Arabic word for cake, and can refer to several different types of baked goods produced throughout the Arab world and the Near East. The bread, in Middle Eastern countries, is similar to a hardened biscuit. This pastry is popular in Indonesia, and called as \"kue kaak\". Bread rings Ka'ak can refer to a bread commonly consumed throughout the Near East that is made in a large ring-shape and is covered with sesame seeds. Fermented chickpeas are used as a leavening agent. Widely sold by street vendors, it is usually",
"-24.33432616223581"
],
[
"Superhard material A superhard material is a material with a hardness value exceeding 40 gigapascals (GPa) when measured by the Vickers hardness test. They are highly incompressible solids with high electron density and high bond covalency. As a result of their unique properties, these materials are of great interest in many industrial areas including, but not limited to, abrasives, polishing and cutting tools and wear-resistant and protective coatings.\nDiamond is the hardest known material to date, with a Vickers hardness in the range of 70–150 GPa. Diamond demonstrates both high thermal conductivity and electrically insulating properties and much attention has been",
"-24.266759243007982"
],
[
"word shekel came into the English language via the Hebrew Bible, where it is first used in the Book of Genesis. History The earliest shekels were a unit of weight, used as other units such as grams and troy ounces for trading before the advent of coins. The shekel was common among western Semitic peoples. Moabites, Edomites, and Phoenicians used the shekel, although proper coinage developed very late. Carthaginian coinage was based on the shekel and may have preceded its home town of Tyre in issuing proper coins. \nCoins were used and may have been invented by the early Anatolian",
"-24.21638741355855"
],
[
"gold forms an intermetallic AuGa₂ (58.5% Au, 14ct) which has slighter bluish hue. The melting point of AuIn₂ is 541 °C, for AuGa₂ it is 492 °C. AuIn₂ is less brittle than AuGa₂, which itself is less brittle than AuAl₂.\nA surface plating of blue gold on karat gold or sterling silver can be achieved by a gold plating of the surface, followed by indium plating, with layer thickness matching the 1:2 atomic ratio. A heat treatment then causes interdiffusion of the metals and formation of the required intermetallic compound. Blue gold Oxide layers can also be used to obtain blue gold from",
"-24.163622748921625"
],
[
"Modern gold dinar Value and denomination Per the historical law stated above, one dinar is 4.44 grams of pure gold, and a smaller denomination, the daniq, one sixth of that. Again by the law above, the dirham is 3.11 grams of pure silver. The value of each coin is according to their weight and the market value of the two metals. Coins may be minted at fractions or multiples of these weights and valued accordingly.\nIn practice coins may be minted in either 24 karat \"pure gold\" or in 22k for greater durability. In either case the weight of the gold content will",
"-24.11950205801986"
],
[
"(6K) gold can then be parted with dilute nitric acid (one part 68-70% nitric acid to one part DISTILLED water). With the karat gold this low (6K), and over medium high heat, the dilute nitric acid will dissolve the Sterling silver (and other base metals in the karat gold) starting on the outside surface of the 6K gold alloy, working its way into the gold alloy, forming a honeycomb structure as it works its way into the metals. Since nitric acid will not dissolve gold, nearly pure gold (very close to 99.5% pure) will be left behind after the reaction",
"-24.08646726614097"
],
[
"Material properties of diamond Hardness and crystal structure Known to the ancient Greeks as ἀδάμας – adámas (\"proper\", \"unalterable\", \"unbreakable\") and sometimes called adamant, diamond is the hardest known naturally occurring material, scoring 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Diamond is extremely strong owing to the structure of its carbon atoms, where each carbon atom has four neighbors joined to it with covalent bonds. The material boron nitride, when in a form structurally identical to diamond (zincblende structure), is nearly as hard as diamond; a currently hypothetical material, beta carbon nitride, may also be as hard or harder",
"-24.051716997171752"
],
[
"Al Qassar Etymology In Arabic, qassar is a word used for small black rocks found around beaches. The district received its name because of its high concentration of these rocks. Transport Currently, the underground Al Qassar Metro Station is under construction, having been launched during Phase 1. Once completed, it will be part of Doha Metro's Red Line North. Archaeology Al Qassar was found to have rock carvings of human and animals by an excavation team in 1979. Most of them have been eroded beyond recognition. Stone blocks containing still-recognizable carvings were cut off and transported to the Qatar National",
"-24.050350440171314"
],
[
"Mahd adh Dhahab The Mahd adh-Dhahab (Arabic: مَـهـد الـذّهـب, \"Cradle of (the) Gold\"), is a small gold area in the Arabian Peninsula. It is located in the Province of Al-Madinah, in the Hejazi region of Saudi Arabia.\nGold was first mined in Arabia c. 3,000 BC. A second period of activity was during the Islamic Abbasid period between 750 and 1258 AD. The latest activities by Saudi Arabian Mining Syndicate began in 1936 using both open-pit and underground mines at Mahd adh-Dhahab. The Saudi Arabian Directorate General of Mineral Resources carried out further gold exploration in the 1970s,",
"-23.98701384569722"
],
[
"Kupiah A kupiah is a cap that originates from Aceh, Indonesia. There are two types of kupiahs, the kupiah meukeutob and kupiah riman. Kupiahs are worn by Acehnese men as an everyday wear or specifically in ceremonies such as in a wedding. History During the Sultanate of Aceh, kupiah meukeutob were worn specially for sultans and ulemas, while the kupiah riman were worn by noblemen and ordinary people. The use of kupiah meukeutob is believed to have begun in Sultan Iskandar Muda's reign, and in the 19th century, kupiah meukeutob were famously used by Indonesian national heroes from Aceh, such",
"-23.969836577249225"
],
[
"Khaleeji (currency) Proposed name The term 'Khaleeji' is Arabic for \"of the Gulf\", and is traditionally associated with Eastern Arabia's Gulf states. The proposed name was turned down in late 2009, and no official name was later agreed prior to the withdrawal of an agreement for a GCC common currency. Although the name \"Dinar\" (Arabic: دينار, from Latin, denarius) has been suggested since it is already used in the Arab world and is mentioned in the Quran due to a dinar being used during the time of the life of Mohammed. Backing Since Islamic economic jurisprudence prohibits interest, or 'riba,'",
"-23.94458917459997"
],
[
"goldbeaters make 23 karat leaf. The gold and its alloy are put in a crucible and melted in a furnace. The liquid gold is poured into a mold to cast it into a bar. The bar of gold is put through a rolling mill repeatedly. Each time through the mill, the rollers are adjusted closer and closer to each other, to make the gold thinner and thinner. The bar is rolled to a thickness of 25 μm (1/1000 of an inch). Beating After rolling, the ribbon of gold is cut into one-inch squares. The first step in the beating process is",
"-23.941572216222994"
],
[
"being equal to 0.2 grams), cut (quality of the cut is graded according to proportions, symmetry and polish), color (how close to white or colorless; for fancy diamonds how intense is its hue), and clarity (how free is it from inclusions). A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon.\nA large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Although most gem-grade diamonds are sold newly polished, there is a well-established market for resale of polished diamonds (e.g. pawnbroking, auctions, second-hand jewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.). One hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting",
"-23.88166562949482"
],
[
"wa, ngan and rai are still used in measurements of land area.\nThe baht is still used as a unit of measurement in gold trading. However, one baht of 96.5% gold bullion is defined as 15.16 grams rather than the generic standard of 15 grams. The baht has also become the name of the currency of Thailand, which was originally fixed to the corresponding mass of silver.",
"-23.879388538189232"
],
[
"Shekel Shekel or sheqel (Hebrew: שקל, plural שקלים sheqalim or shekels; Akkadian: 𒅆𒅗𒇻 šiqlu or siqlu) is an ancient Near Eastern unit of weight. It was a currency in ancient Israel under the Maccabees and in ancient Carthage.\nThe modern currency unit used in the State of Israel today is officially known as the Israeli new shekel (Hebrew: שקל חדש, sign: ₪), which replaced the Old Israeli shekel in 1985. Name The Hebrew word shekel is based on the Semitic verbal root for \"weighing\" (Š-Q-L), cognate to the Akkadian šiqlu or siqlu, a unit of weight equivalent to the Sumerian gin2.",
"-23.87259954950423"
],
[
"word qanāt (قنات) is also used in Persian. Other names for qanat include kahan (Persian: کهن), Kahn (Balochi), kahriz/kəhriz (Azerbaijan); khettara (Morocco); Galerías, minas or viajes de agua (Spain); falaj (Arabic: فلج) (United Arab Emirates and Oman), foggara/fughara (North Africa). Alternative terms for qanats in Asia and North Africa are kakuriz, chin-avulz, and mayun. Origins Traditionally it is recognized that the qanat technology was invented in ancient Iran sometime in the early 1st millennium BC, and spread from there slowly westward and eastward. Accordingly, some sources state qanats were invented in Iran before 1000 BC and as far back as",
"-23.86753771197982"
],
[
"most recent IUPAC publications on chemical nomenclature (the \"Red Book\", 2005) and terminology (the \"Gold Book\", 2006–) do not include any recommendations as to the usage or non-usage of the terms metalloid or semimetal.\nUse of the term semimetal, rather than metalloid, has recently been discouraged. This is because the former term 'has a well defined and quite distinct meaning in physics'. In physics, a semimetal is an element or a compound in which the valence band marginally (rather than substantially) overlaps the conduction band. This results in only a small number of effective charge carriers. Thus, the densities",
"-23.843125663377577"
],
[
"in bulletproof vests. Different forms of Kevlar are anywhere from five to twenty times stronger than steel per weight. The disadvantages of Kevlar are that it degrades with exposure to UV light, is expensive to produce, and is difficult to shape. Meta aramids Meta aramids are aramid compounds that have a different molecular structure, giving them different physical properties to para aramid fibers. The most popular product of this kind is Nomex. Nomex has less strength than Kevlar, but it has extremely high heat, flame, ultraviolet, chemical, and radiation resistance. Meta aramids are commonly found in firefighting equipment, as well",
"-23.81040355161531"
],
[
"Taqarub Taqarub is an Islamic doctrine that advocates cordial relations and peaceful coexistence between Muslims and non-Muslims. It also encourages the involvement of groups often excluded by traditionalist Wahhabis, such as Shi'ites or feminists.",
"-23.71014899003785"
],
[
"Imqaret Imqaret ([ɪm'ʔarɛt]) are traditional Maltese sweets made with pastry and a filling of dates. The word imqaret in Maltese, is the plural of maqrut (diamond-shaped) and it signifies the diamond shape of the sweets – even though in many cases they are sold in a rectangular shape. They are very popular in Malta and they are sold in street markets, as well as in village feasts, in some cases served with ice-cream.\nDuring preparation the imqaret are deep fried and are usually infused with the flavours of aniseed and bay leaf. The imqaret are prepared individually by folding the pastry,",
"-23.70465029415209"
],
[
"Karak Nuh History The town was an important religious site during the Middle Ages, drawing devotion from the local rural village communities. The town was known as al-Karak during the time of the Ayyubid dynasty and changed to Karak Nuh under the Mamluks. It became known as a centre of learning for Shia Islam and the administrative centre of the southern Beqaa. A Mamluk officer established the first recorded waqf endowment for Karak in 1331 AD. A Safavid Sheikh and various dignitaries were born in the town. Under the Ottoman Empire, in around 1538 the waqf was increased and",
"-23.69597432485898"
],
[
"position on money.\nThe Murabitun traced the bi-metallic currency back to Muhammad and the first Muslim community; its specific weights and purities were formally recorded by ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab. They also cited the dinar’s mention in the Qur'an, its use in the universally accepted fiqh to define the terms of zakat, and its mention as currency throughout the entire body of Islamic fiqh.\nIn February 2014, however, Shaykh Dr. Abdalqadir as-Sufi distanced himself from the dinar and dirham movement, saying, \"So, I now dis-associate myself from all activity involving the Islamic gold dinar and silver dirham\". Amirate, sultaniyya and caliphate The Murabitun",
"-23.690426011919044"
],
[
"Qafiz Qafiz (Arabic: قفيز) is a traditional Arabian unit of measure for several quantities including volume, weight and area which took several different values depending on the time and region. The oldest accurate information about it is that of the qafiz of Hajjaj which equaled one Sa' of the Prophet's (4.2125 liter). It is still used in at least one country— Libya— to measure quantities of olive oil. In Libya it measures about 7 liters (almost 2 gallons). A measurement derived from it is cafisu (aka. cafiso or caffiso) and is still in use in Malta, Calabria and",
"-23.66616465046536"
],
[
"lượng) unit of 37.5 g is used for domestic transactions in gold. Real estate prices are often quoted in taels of gold rather than the local currency over concerns over monetary inflation.",
"-23.63623478752561"
],
[
"Nuqat About Nuqat grew out of frustration from the lack of empowering education for expression, inspiration, and creative thinking in the Middle East and North Africa. Nuqat aims to address this by facilitating, enabling and nurturing a collaborative community that solve social challenges through creative thinking. Nuqat is primarily a platform providing cultural programming and community networking.\nNuqat, first known as 'Nuqat Ala Al Huroof' (نقاط على الحروف) \"started off with one objective in mind - to develop Arab creativity on all levels, encompassing design, advertising, architecture, fashion, production and all other pertinent social and cultural fields. Established out of frustration",
"-23.633193307206966"
],
[
"the method of songket making; to hook and pick a group of threads, and then slip the gold and silver threads in it. Another theory suggested that it was constructed from the combination of two terms; tusuk (prick) and cukit (pick) that combined as sukit, modified further as sungki and finally songket. Some says that the word songket was derived from songka, a Palembang cap in which gold threads was first woven.\nThe Malay word menyongket means ‘to embroider with gold or silver threads’. Songket is a luxury product traditionally worn during ceremonial occasions as sarong, shoulder cloths or head ties",
"-23.623408133280464"
],
[
"Ta'wiz The ta'wiz, tawiz (Urdu: تعویز, ), muska (Turkish) or taʿwīdh (Arabic: تعويذ) is an amulet or locket usually containing verses from the Quran or other Islamic prayers and symbols. The Tawiz is worn by some Muslims to protect them from evil. As such it is intended to be an amulet. The word ta'wiz is also used to refer to other types of amulets. It may be a pendant, carvings on metal or even framed duas. \nMost ta'wiz consist of a small paper with Quranic verses or prayers written on it, typically in ink or with saffron paste. Etymology",
"-23.604595682321815"
],
[
"Libyan dinar Popular nomenclature and denominations The Libyan dinar is commonly called jni, [ʒni] (western Libyan Dialect) or jneh [ʒneh] (eastern Libyan dialect). The name dinar is rarely used outside official circles. The authorized fractional unit, the dirham, is never mentioned in everyday conversation. Garsh - a variant of the word qirsh - is employed instead, with 1 garsh = 10 dirhams. One thousand dinars is stylishly called a kilo [kiːlu]. Similarly, five dinar notes and ten dinar notes are sometimes nicknamed, in the younger generation male slang, faifa [faːifa] and tsena [tseːna] respectively, which are playful feminizations of the",
"-23.562721446505748"
],
[
"Kretek Kretek /ˈkrɛtɛk/ are cigarettes made with a blend of tobacco, cloves and other flavors. The word \"kretek\" itself is an onomatopoetic term for the crackling sound of burning cloves.\nPartly due to favorable taxation compared to \"white\" cigarettes, kreteks are by far the most widely smoked form of cigarettes in Indonesia, where they are preferred by about 90% of smokers.\nIn Indonesia, there are hundreds of kretek manufacturers, including small local makers and major brands. Most of the widely known international brands, including Dji Sam Soe 234, Bentoel, Minak Djinggo, Djarum, Gudang Garam, and Wismilak originate from Indonesia. Nat Sherman of",
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[
"to most Islamic jurists. The Hanafis, however, also allow most movable goods to be dedicated to a waqf with some restrictions. Some jurists have argued that even gold and silver (or other currency) can be designated as waqf. Declaration of founding The declaration of founding is usually a written document, accompanied by a verbal declaration, though neither are required by most scholars. Whatever the declaration, most scholars (those of the Hanafi, Shafi'i, some of the Hanbali and the Imami Shi'a schools) hold that it is not binding and irrevocable until actually delivered to the beneficiaries or put in their use.",
"-23.496883504616562"
],
[
"Tantalite Occurrence Tantalite occurs in granitic pegmatites that are rich in rare-earth elements, and in placer deposits derived from such rocks. It has been found in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Colombia (Guainía and Vichada), Egypt, northern Europe, Madagascar, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, The Democratic Republic of Congo, the United States (California, Colorado, Maine, and Virginia), and Zimbabwe. Brazil has the world's largest reserve of tantalite (52.1%). In 2006, 75% of world tantalite production came from Australia. Sustainability The mining of tantalite causes many environmental and social problems in Democratic Republic of Congo.",
"-23.493594281375408"
],
[
"Gold halide Gold halides are compounds of gold with the halogens. Monohalides AuCl, AuBr, and AuI are all crystalline solids with a structure containing alternating linear chains: ..-X-Au-X-Au-X-Au-X-... The X-Au-X angle is less than 180°.\nThe monomeric AuF molecule has been detected in the gas phase. Trihalides Gold triiodide does not exist or is unstable.\nGold(III) fluoride, AuF₃, has a unique polymeric helical structure, containing corner-sharing {AuF₄} squares. Pentahalides Gold(V) fluoride, AuF₅, is the only known example of gold in the +5 oxidation state. It most commonly occurs as the dimer Au₂F₁₀.",
"-23.4773215187015"
],
[
"is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. (Zakat purifies the wealth of a Muslim, (according to Surah At-Tawba, Ayat 60 in the Quran), and several a hadith.)\nIn Pakistan Zakat is levied on sahib-e-nisab, i.e. a person who owns or possesses assets liable to Zakat under Shariah equal to or more than nisab, (about US $300, calculated according to the value of 612.32 grams of silver). There are eleven types of assets liable to Zakat \"detailed in 1st schedule of Zakat & Ushr Ordinance 1980\". Ushr Ushr is collected on compulsory basis at a rate of 5 percent of the",
"-23.463124438858358"
],
[
"Shaw, asked me to expand it. I resisted, but complied. I hate puffing things. Cutting is fine. Everything can use cutting. But puffing creates fat. Gold Medal took it for their new line of originals. It was titled The Brass Cupcake.\" Numbered as Gold Medal 124, The Brass Cupcake was John D. MacDonald's first novel.\nGold Medal 129 was an unusual graphic novel experiment, John Millard's Mansion of Evil, an original color comic book story packaged as a paperback. Other 1950 Gold Medal originals included the Western Stretch Dawson by William R. Burnett and three mystery-adventure novels – Nude in Mink by",
"-23.398772769083735"
],
[
"be used; the choice is ultimately dependent on the end application of the leather. The most commonly used tanning material is chromium, which leaves the leather, once tanned, a pale blue colour (due to the chromium), this product is commonly called “wet blue”.\nThe acidity of hides once they have finished pickling will typically be between pH of 2.8-3.2. At this point the hides are loaded in a drum and immersed in a float containing the tanning liquor. The hides are allowed to soak (while the drum slowly rotates about its axle) and the tanning liquor slowly penetrates through the full",
"-23.388804151909426"
],
[
"Keltic Gold Keltic Gold is a type of semi-hard cheese from Cornwall in the United Kingdom. It is made by Whalesborough Farm Foods near Bude.\nDuring ripening, it is dipped in cider and scrubbed three times each week. The milk comes from Trewithen Dairy and the cider from Cornish Orchards. The cheese has been supplied to Fortnum & Mason and Arsenal football club and the House of Commons.",
"-23.357535026676487"
],
[
"Thai baht Money and unit of mass Ngoen (เงิน) is Thai for \"silver\" as well as the general term for money, reflecting the fact that the baht (or tical) is foremost a unit of weight for precious metals and gemstones. One baht = 15.244 grams. Since the standard purity of Thai gold is 96.5 percent, the actual gold content of one baht by weight is 15.244 × 0.965 = 14.71046 grams; equivalent to about 0.473 troy ounces. 15.244 grams is used for bullion; in the case of jewellery, one baht should be more than 15.16 grams.",
"-23.349304204049986"
],
[
"Goldstino The goldstino is the Nambu−Goldstone fermion emerging in the spontaneous breaking of supersymmetry. It is the close fermionic analog of the Nambu−Goldstone bosons controlling the spontaneous breakdown of ordinary bosonic symmetries.\nAs in the case of Goldstone bosons, it is massless, unless there is, in addition, a small explicit supersymmetry breakdown involved, on top of the basic spontaneous breakdown; in this case it develops a small mass, analogous to that of Pseudo-Goldstone bosons of chiral symmetry breaking.\nIn theories where supersymmetry is a global symmetry, the goldstino is an ordinary particle (possibly the lightest supersymmetric particle, responsible for dark matter).\nIn theories",
"-23.343074131320463"
],
[
"gold metal surface by bringing their mating surfaces in intimate contact at about 300 °C which is well below their respective melting points of 1064 °C, hence the term solid-state bonds.\nTwo commonly used methods of forming this type of bond are thermocompression bonding and thermosonic bonding. Both of these processes form the bonds with a hard faced bonding tool that makes direct contact to deform the gold wires against the gold mating surfaces (Figure 2).\n\nSince gold is the only metal that does not form an oxide coating which can interfere with making a reliable metal to metal contact, gold wires are widely",
"-23.300402054359438"
],
[
"Fiqh Etymology The word fiqh is an Arabic term meaning \"deep understanding\" or \"full comprehension\". Technically it refers to the body of Islamic law extracted from detailed Islamic sources (which are studied in the principles of Islamic jurisprudence) and the process of gaining knowledge of Islam through jurisprudence. The historian Ibn Khaldun describes fiqh as \"knowledge of the rules of God which concern the actions of persons who own themselves connected to obey the law respecting what is required (wajib), sinful (haraam), recommended (mandūb), disapproved (makrūh) or neutral (mubah)\". This definition is consistent amongst the jurists.\nIn Modern Standard Arabic, fiqh",
"-23.29466051896452"
],
[
"Diamond Material properties Diamond is a solid form of pure carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal. Solid carbon comes in different forms known as allotropes depending on the type of chemical bond. The two most common allotropes of pure carbon are diamond and graphite. In graphite the bonds are sp² orbital hybrids and the atoms form in planes with each bound to three nearest neighbors 120 degrees apart. In diamond they are sp³ and the atoms form tetrahedra with each bound to four nearest neighbors. Tetrahedra are rigid, the bonds are strong, and of all known substances diamond",
"-23.27254800280207"
],
[
"Feta Description Feta is a soft brined white cheese with small or no holes, a compact touch, few cuts, and no skin. It is usually formed into large blocks, which are submerged in brine. Its flavor is tangy and salty, ranging from mild to sharp. Its maximum moisture is 56%, its minimum fat content in dry matter is 43%, and its pH usually ranges from 4.4 to 4.6. Feta is traditionally categorized into firm and soft varieties. The firm variety is tangier and considered higher in quality. The soft variety is almost soft enough to be spreadable, mostly",
"-23.24211014294997"
],
[
"Halaqa A halaqa (Arabic: حلقة - 'circle / ring') in Islamic terminology is a religious gathering or meeting for the study of Islam and the Quran. Generally, there are one or more primary speakers that present the designated topic(s) of the halaqa while others sit around them (in an approximate circle) and listen. The attendees may participate in the discussions, ask questions, and voice concerns. Usually, prayers and supplications are part of such programs. Also, meals or snacks may be served to the participants. Al Halaqa is the Arabic word for gathering in a circle – a round table of",
"-23.221548802917823"
],
[
"Gold in cosmetics Gold in skin care products Gold is now considered as a go to ingredient in skin care products. It is now flaked, liquified and added in moisturizers, sunscreens, eye creams and lip balms. Spa centers also use gold facials, and these are priced around $100 to $1,000. Cosmetic makers cite the use of gold in medicine, it is given to patients with rheumatoid arthritis. A professor and cancer researcher named Debabrata Mukhopadhya at the Mayo Clinic stated that while gold nano particles show promise for skin care they are still toxic when injected in high doses",
"-23.20932288992026"
],
[
"Shir Kuh Etymology \"Shir Kuh\" or \"Shirkuh\" is formed of two words: \"sher\" in Middle Persian or \"shir\" in Modern Persian means \"lion\", and \"kof\" in Middle Persian or \"kuh\" in Modern Persian means \"mountain\". So, in Persian \"Shir Kuh\" could mean (the) \"Lion Mountain\". Geology Geologically, Shir Kuh is made chiefly of Jurassic granite surrounded by Cretaceous rocks. It is located almost in the vicinity of the Sahand-Bazman volcanic arc, a volcanic arc that was formed during the Tertiary and mainly in the Eocene volcanism. Shir Kuh consists mainly of intrusive rocks (Jurassic granite) that were made in the",
"-23.195839648600668"
],
[
"Body jewelry sizes Body jewelry sizes express the thickness of an item of body jewelry, using one of several possible systems. Background Items of body piercing jewelry have an important common factor: the diameter of the part of the item of jewelry where it will rest in the piercing site. With the wearing of European-traditional kinds of earrings, that thickness is not an issue, because jewelry is made to use only thin wire for support, and the wearer need only have a narrow piercing hole to accommodate it. But with body jewelry, there is a wide variety of",
"-23.17759568215115"
],
[
"Saudi riyal History The riyal has been the currency of Saudi Arabia since the country came into being and was the currency of Hejaz before Saudi Arabia was created, one of the primary currencies in the Mediterranean region during the Ottoman era. The Hejaz riyal was based on but not equivalent to the Ottoman 20 kuruş coin and was consequently divided into 20 qirsh. However, although the Hejaz riyal was the same weight as the Ottoman 20 kuruş, it was minted in .917 fineness, compared to .830 fineness for the Ottoman coin. Thus, because the first Saudi riyal had the",
"-23.14308269378671"
],
[
"Zakat Etymology Zakat literally means \"that which purifies\".\nZakat is considered a way to purify one's income and wealth from sometimes worldly, impure ways of acquisition.\nAccording to Sachiko Murata and William Chittick, \"Just as ablutions purify the body and salat purifies the soul (in Islam), so zakat purifies possessions and makes them pleasing to God.\" Quran The Quran discusses charity in many verses, some of which relate to zakat. The word zakat, with the meaning used in Islam now, is found, for example, in suras: 7:156, 19:31, 19:55, 21:73, 23:4, 27:3, 30:39, 31:4 and 41:7.\nZakat is found in the early Medinan",
"-23.142306465480942"
],
[
"Taleqan County Etymology Some folk etymology says that the name Taleqan means \"separators\" in Persian, but Dehkhoda says that: Taleqan root is Talcan from talc because of existence of talc mine there. تالکان\nٍTalc in English is a loan word from Arabic talq, from Persian talk \"talc\". Talc",
"-23.14197676294134"
],
[
"Khums Etymology The Arabic term khums literally means one-fifth. It is referred to as \"spoils of war, booty\" based on the Quran and various Hadiths. In other words, Khums and ghanima are revealed in the Quran. Concept Khums means \"one-fifth or 20%\". In Islamic legal terminology, it means one-fifth of certain items that a person acquires as wealth must be paid to the state of Islam. This is one of many forms of tax in Islamic jurisprudence that applies on ghanima and fai (or fay). In the early and middle history of Islam, ghanima was property and wealth that was",
"-23.133833199448418"
],
[
"Other variants of the unit in English include miskal (from Persian or Urdu مثقال; misqāl), mithkal, mitkal and mitqal. Indian mithqaal In India, the measurement is known as mithqaal. It contains 4 mashas and 3½ raties (rata'ii; مثقال).\nIt is equivalent to 4.25 grams when measuring gold, or 4.5 grams when measuring commodities. It may be more or less than this.",
"-23.116771236220302"
],
[
"LITE Leather The LITE Leather (Low Impact To the Environment Leather) label is a certificate that can be attached to any product that is manufactured with especially low energy consumption and water usage. The certification is based on a product's CO\n2 footprint, which involves documenting the carbon dioxide emissions for each square meter of leather produced. LITE standards are based on calculations by the LWG (Leather Working Group) for average energy and water consumption in the industry — LITE products are produced with roughly 35% less energy and 50% less water. To accelerate the process of making leather production environmentally",
"-23.104017389938235"
],
[
"are becoming feasible. The high thermal conductivity of diamond makes it suitable as a heat sink for integrated circuits in electronics. Mining Approximately 130,000,000 carats (26,000 kg) of diamonds are mined annually, with a total value of nearly US$9 billion, and about 100,000 kg (220,000 lb) are synthesized annually.\nRoughly 49% of diamonds originate from Central and Southern Africa, although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in Canada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia. They are mined from kimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes, which can bring diamond crystals, originating from deep within the Earth where high pressures and temperatures enable them to form, to",
"-23.08970970775772"
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[
"ratios are all approximately equal has some interesting consequences. Let the gold to silver ratio be exactly 15.5. Then a pennyweight of gold, that is 24 grains of gold, is nearly equal in value to a dollar of silver (1 dwt of gold = $1.002 of silver). Second, a dollar of gold is nearly equal in value to a pound of silver ($1 of gold = 5754 3/8 grains of silver = 0.999 Lb of silver). Third, the number of grains in a dollar (371.25) roughly equals the number of grams in a troy pound (373.24).\nThe",
"-23.071834519214462"
],
[
"Feret diameter The Feret diameter or Feret's diameter is a measure of an object size along a specified direction. In general, it can be defined as the distance between the two parallel planes restricting the object perpendicular to that direction. It is therefore also called the caliper diameter, referring to the measurement of the object size with a caliper. This measure is used in the analysis of particle sizes, for example in microscopy, where it is applied to projections of a three-dimensional (3D) object on a 2D plane. In such cases, the Feret diameter is defined as the distance between",
"-23.05781920661684"
],
[
"Telluride (chemistry) Inorganic tellurides Many metal tellurides are known, including some telluride minerals. These include natural gold tellurides, like calaverite and krennerite (AuTe₂), and sylvanite (AgAuTe₄). Commercially, the tellurides are minor ores of gold, although they comprise the major naturally occurring compounds of gold. (A few other natural compounds of gold, such as the bismuthide maldonite (Au₂Bi) and antimonide aurostibite (AuSb₂), are known). Although the bonding in such materials is often fairly covalent, they are described casually as salts of Te²⁻. Using this approach, Ag₂Te is derived from Ag⁺ and Te²⁻.\nTellurides do not have any great economic importance. Cadmium telluride",
"-23.04556368768681"
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[
"into consideration. Riba al-fadl While riba an-nasiya=interest is a major issue among Islamist/revivalist preachers, writers and economists, and forms the basis of Islamic Banking, another type of riba—what jurists call riba al-fadl (\"surplus riba\") -- is also forbidden by orthodox jurists. Riba al-fadl does not involve paying back over time but instead the trading of different quantities of the same commodity (gold, silver, wheat, barley, date, or salt), typically because the quality of the smaller quantity is superior.\nBecause riba al-fadl involves barter, and barter is much less common than it was in early Meccan society, riba al-fadl is of",
"-23.042852445534663"
],
[
"Leather Leather is a durable and flexible material created by tanning animal rawhide and skins. The most common raw material is cattle hide. It can be produced at manufacturing scales ranging from artisan to modern industrial scale.\nLeather is used to make a variety of articles, including footwear, automobile seats, clothing, bags, book bindings, fashion accessories, and furniture. It is produced in a wide variety of types and styles and decorated by a wide range of techniques. The earliest record of leather artifacts dates back to 2200 BC. Production processes The leather manufacturing process is divided into three fundamental subprocesses: preparatory",
"-23.030246234266087"
],
[
"32 parts total. This amounts to approximately 56% gold, 18% silver, and 25% copper. Western explorers initially believed that guanín was a naturally-occurring alloy. However, modern analyses have shown that the copper levels in guanín are consistently high, in excess of 25%, which indicates that high-heat smelting must have been used to create the alloy.\nThe brilliant shine of polished guanín was a major part of its importance to the Taíno, who valued an \"aesthetic of brilliance\" which associated light and light-reflecting objects with spiritual energy. This spiritual energy was thought to have \"healing and energizing qualities\", which in turn were",
"-23.015371054432762"
],
[
"If a person has possessions or wealth in excess of what is necessary equal in value to at least nineteen mithqáls of gold (2.2246 ounces or 69 grams) it is a spiritual obligation to pay nineteen percent of the total amount, once only, as Huqúqu'lláh. Thereafter, whenever an individual acquires more possessions or wealth from income by the amount of at least nineteen mithqáls of gold, one is to pay nineteen percent of this increase, and so on for each further increase.\nCertain categories of possessions are exempt from the payment of the Huqúqu'lláh, such as one’s residence, necessary household furnishings,",
"-23.00982479519189"
],
[
"Arabic name شاورما (shāwarmā) derives from another Turkish word, çevirme, also meaning \"turning\". Persians refer to it as \"kebab torki\". Azerbaijan In Azerbaijan, döner kebab (Azerbaijani: dönər), served similarly to the European style of sandwich wrapped in lavaş (flatbread) or in çörәk (bread, including tandoor bread), is one of the most widespread fast foods. It is usually made with әt (meat, essentially lamb or mutton), but sometimes toyuq (chicken). Japan In Japan, döner kebabs are now common, especially in Tokyo. They are predominantly made of chicken but occasionally beef, and called simply \"kebab\". The toppings include shredded lettuce or cabbage,",
"-23.00801248755306"
],
[
"and line extensions within specific consumer markets. It celebrated its 75th anniversary on 10 October 2009.\nThe traditional bar has four fingers which each measure approximately 1 centimetre (0.4 in) by 9 centimetres (3.5 in). A two-finger bar was launched in the 1930s, and has remained the company's best-selling biscuit brand ever since. The 1999 Kit Kat Chunky (known as Big Kat and Kit Kat Extra Crispy in the US) has one large finger approximately 2.5 centimetres (1 in) wide. Kit Kat bars contain varying numbers of fingers depending on the market, ranging from the half-finger sized Kit Kat Petit in Japan, to",
"-22.992192869831342"
],
[
"Semimetal A semimetal is a material with a very small overlap between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence band.\nAccording to electronic band theory, solids can be classified as insulators, semiconductors, semimetals, or metals. In insulators and semiconductors the filled valence band is separated from an empty conduction band by a band gap. For insulators, the magnitude of the band gap is larger (e.g. > 4 eV) than that of a semiconductor (e.g. < 4 eV). Because of the slight overlap between the conduction and valence bands, semimetal has no band gap and a negligible",
"-22.980603202599013"
],
[
"Rub el Hizb The Rub el Hizb (Arabic: ربع الحزب rubʿ al-ḥizb) is a Islamic symbol, represented as two overlapping squares, which is found on a number of emblems and flags. In Arabic, Rubʻ means \"one fourth, quarter\", while Hizb means a group or party. Initially, it was used in the Quran, which is divided into 60 Hizb (60 groups of roughly equal length); the symbol determines every quarter of Hizb, while the Hizb is one half of a juz'. The main purpose of this dividing system is to facilitate recitation of the Qur'an.\nThe symbol is used as a",
"-22.979586361907423"
],
[
"Kara-Khanid Khanate Names The name of the royal clan is not actually known and the term Karakhanid in English is artificial — it was derived from Qara Khan or Qara Khaqan (Persian: قراخان, romanized: Qarākhān, the word \"Kara\" means \"black\" and also \"courageous\" from Old Turkic 𐰴𐰺𐰀), which was the foremost title of the rulers of the dynasty, and was devised by European Orientalists in the 19th century to describe both the dynasty and the Turks ruled by it. Arabic Muslim sources called this dynasty al-Khaqaniya (\"That of the Khaqans\") or al Muluk al-Khaniyya al-Atrak (The Khanal kings of the",
"-22.96914047008613"
],
[
"eight people; because of this, many countries do not use nickel in their white gold formulations. Gold is rarely pure gold, even before another metal is added to make a white gold alloy and often contains a mercury alloy from its production, which can cause an allergic reaction. Spangold Some gold copper–aluminium alloys form a fine surface texture at heat treatment, yielding an interesting spangling effect. At cooling, they undergo a quasi-martensitic transformation from body-centered cubic to body-centered tetragonal phase; the transformation does not depend on the cooling rate. A polished object is heated in hot oil to 150–200 °C for",
"-22.965711489552632"
]
] |
84diwz | Published papers in science | [
"Normally, this refers to peer-reviewed articles published in academic journals, like [this]( URL_4 ) or [this]( URL_1 ) or [this]( URL_2 ) or even [this]( URL_3 ). Literally tens of thousands if not more of these journals exist, covering about every field you can imagine and then some. Some that are very prominent include *Science*, *Nature*, *Journal of the American Psychological Association*, *Journal of the American Medical Association*, etc. These very high-profile journals often cover a broader field, whereas smaller, lesser-known journals (like the reindeer one above!) usually publish articles on very specific subfields. These are published by private academic publishing companies like [Elsevier]( URL_0 ), or by professional/academic organizations like the American Medical Association, or university-owned companies like the [Cambridge University Press]( URL_5 ). People who read them include other researchers in the field, who usually have subscriptions through their institution. You do that because you want to stay up-to-date on what's happening in your field! \"Articles\" can be many things, but generally think about anything you might write in college/university for a class, but more detailed and on a more advanced topic. In science, most commonly they can be the results of an experiment or experiments on a single topic (kind of like a lab report), but they can also be a review of current research in a field, responses to other studies that have been published, case studies of a single patient in medicine, etc. In other fields, they take many forms...book reviews, essays on a particular philosopher, you name it. \"Peer-reviewed\" means that when you submit an article, it gets reviewed by an anonymous panel of reviewers people who are selected by the journal *who know a lot about that field*, usually other professors/researchers. This is key, because it means what you wrote has to stand up to the scrutiny of people who also know a lot about the subject. If I submit an article to a physics journal about how we're all quantum wavelengths of the divine or something, the physicists who review it will say \"nope, this doesn't make sense.\" Whether it's a valid metric is a controversial question. Certainly someone who has published tons of work in important journals has likely done a lot of important research, and also importantly lots of people have heard of their research. However, you can probably imagine a lot of reasons why \"number of published papers\" does not = \"great researcher!\"",
"Each journal that publishes papers establishes a committee of experts who review the papers before they are published. There is a huge difference between publication in a prestigious journal, like Nature, and publishing in an obscure one. However, when you are just introducing someone, \"n published papers\" is enough to show that they are an academic. When it makes a difference, academics typically provide a Curriculum Vitae (CV). A CV is like a resume, but it focuses on where you studied, with whom, and it lists all your publications by title and journal. This allows folks to see if you've published in related topics or in more prestigious journals.",
"The answer to this really depends on the journal you are talking about. Some journals, like _Nature_, are highly respected and are very selective about what papers they publish. Submissions are highly reviewed and must be of substantive nature. Other journals will publish _literally_ anything you pay them to publish (as an example, _Adam Ruins Everything_ got the script of one of their episodes published in an \"academic\" journal by paying the fee).",
"The act of being published does not necessarily correlate to the quality of content, it just means the paper they produced was published in a journal somewhere. Publishing is an important part of the scientific process as it allows your work to reach the larger audience, which in turn allows for criticism, review, and confirmation by other scientists. Many research professors and residents are hired based on the number of publications they make per year, and the phrase \"Publish or perish\" is a common one in research circles. If your studies and experiments aren't producing results, what use are you as a researcher? Quality becomes less important than quantity at the beginning of your career when your position in the field is less stable. I'd argue that the vast majority of scientific publications are **old ideas** being verified, criticized, or altered in such a way that it becomes an important difference. For example, one paper might push the new idea of measuring time by the oscillation of caesium atoms, and then 3,000 papers will come out shortly afterward talking about that first paper in some manner or other.",
"Papers are essentially articles published in an academic journal. In science, the article might be the details and results of a new experiment; in a history journal, it might be a new theory based on re-reading a ton of old documents, etc. If we restrict the discussion to science, then articles can be of several types. A common set of types are: Full papers (a long detailed description of a new experiment/trial, and its results, together with how they affect current theories), short communications (a brief description of a new result, not important or complicated enough to need a full paper), reviews (an article going through all the existing papers on a particular subject, pointing out which are good and bad, which results are reliable and which might not be, and producing an overall conclusion about the current theories, etc.) Anyone can write a paper and submit it to a journal. Editorial staff will then look at the paper, make sure it is something that journal readers might be interested in, and then find some volunteer experts to review it. Typically, the experts will be authors who have previously submitted papers on a similar topic to the journal and had them accepted for publication. However, they might also be personally recommended to the editors, or the editors may be familiar with their expertise from other journals. The reviewers will then review the paper, and make a recommendation to the editor as to whether it should be published or not. So, who reads the journals? Anyone that is interested in the up-to-date knowledge. For science journals, that would be scientists working in that field. For medical journals, it would be doctors who need to know about the latest advances. The journals are essentially a method for people to get their results and theories out to the wider world. Some are old and have a long and prestigious history, taking care to make sure that the reviews are of good quality and that the papers are interesting and important. Some, especially these days, are little more than scams which will publish anything if you pay their \"publication fee\". The older ones were typically weekly or monthly printed magazines, but these days people prefer online subscriptions; with many of the new low cost journals being online only. One of the problems with just using number of papers published as a metric, is that it doesn't reflect on quality. A preferred metric is \"impact factor\" which is based on how many times an author's papers are cited.",
"So basically as far as science goes you can think of published papers as mainly a way of sharing research with other scientists. Some papers might have such a huge impact that they're read generally by all biologists or chemists or whatever, but most research isn't getting published in Nature or Lancet or the handful of other very popular journals. What happens in biomedical science, which is what I know, is that papers published in associated journals gets a unique ID and entered into a database called pubmed. As other scientists, when we're learning about something or coming up with an experiment, we use these databases to find and read all the related work that's been done. Most of these papers wouldn't be read by the public because they probably seem insanely boring, but I care a lot, for example, about a paper presenting the structure of a receptor that a virus I work with binds to. A lot of journals are behind paywalls and a single article can cost $50, so those are pretty much restricted to students and facilities with access. The other point a lot of people made already is that a lot of published papers are reviews. These are basically written as introduction to something and a review of all the prior research. A researcher with a passing interest in something can read reviews to get a general idea of what's going on in a specific area, and they're very helpful when you're starting to work with something new.",
"I had started to write out a long explanation about the hierarchy and politics of scientific publications... but here's a blunter version: In academia, unless you are working primarily as a teacher at a small college or something, the *real* metric of success is *money.* STEM professors are expected to bring in big research grants (because the school gets to take half of that money for *other* stuff, but that's a whole other can of worms). If they don't, they're out. Having publications in a specific area makes it more likely for someone to get a grant on that topic because it is evidence that other experts agree that you *can* do the type of work you are proposing. Grant renewals often hinge on publications, because they are seen as signs of progress. If you had X years of funding and nothing to show for it, they aren't going to give you X more years of funding."
] | [
[
"world. Papers are peer-reviewed, and only those that meet high standards of scientific merit are accepted for publication. The journal publishes significant, original studies, reviews, and perspectives on all areas of basic, clinical, translational, epidemiological, and prevention research in cancer and the cancer-related biomedical sciences. Some of the topics include biochemistry; chemical, physical, and viral carcinogenesis and mutagenesis; clinical research including clinical trials; endocrinology; epidemiology and prevention; experimental therapeutics, molecular targets, and chemical biology; immunology and immunotherapy including biological therapy; molecular biology, pathobiology, and genetics; radiobiology and radiation oncology; cell and tumor biology; tumor microenvironment; systems biology and other emerging",
"-25.448245970605058"
],
[
"Library of Science is a nonprofit open-access scientific publishing project aimed at creating a library of open access journals and other scientific literature under an open content license. The founding of the organization had its origins in a 2001 online petition calling for all scientists to pledge that from September 2001 they would discontinue submission of papers to journals which did not make the full-text of their papers available to all, free and unfettered, either immediately or after a delay of several months. The petition collected 34,000 signatures but the publishers took no strong response to the demands. Shortly thereafter,",
"-24.80302917159861"
],
[
"than 250 papers in international scientific journals and numerous scientific and technical reports.",
"-24.711814156908076"
],
[
"Main scientific publications Published more than 140 research papers and 17 monographs.",
"-24.540024809277384"
],
[
"published over 600 scientific papers and 3 books.",
"-24.358789054502267"
],
[
"types of articles: Research Papers (original scientific work), Communications (original work that merits urgent publication), and Highlights (short reviews of topics from the field of crystal engineering).",
"-24.306680368084926"
],
[
"research scientific journals, and 20 books and 200 scientific articles were published.",
"-24.208253266784595"
],
[
"thematic volumes of chapters from different authors. Many journals have a regional focus, specializing in publishing papers from a particular geographic region, like African Invertebrates. History The history of scientific journals dates from 1665, when the French Journal des sçavans and the English Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first began systematically publishing research results. Over a thousand, mostly ephemeral, were founded in the 18th century, and the number has increased rapidly after that.\nPrior to mid-20th century, peer review was not always necessary, but gradually it became essentially compulsory. Publishing process The authors of scientific articles are active researchers instead",
"-24.07154799962882"
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[
"scientific record. Scope Articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education. Scientific articles allow researchers to keep up to date with the developments of their field and direct their own research. An essential part of a scientific article is citation of earlier work. The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting citations (citation impact). Some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles, and seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper. Schoolbooks and textbooks have been written usually only on established topics,",
"-24.006996839074418"
],
[
"Scientific journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals, Journal des Sçavans followed by the Philosophical Transactions, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500. The United States National Library of Medicine currently indexes 5,516 journals that contain articles on topics related to the life sciences. Although the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of",
"-23.89278877378092"
],
[
"\"Online scientific interaction outside the traditional journal space is becoming more and more important to academic communication\". In addition, experts have suggested measures to make the publication process more efficient in disseminating new and important findings by evaluating the worthiness of publication on the basis of the significance and novelty of the research finding. Scholarly paper In academic publishing, a paper is an academic work that is usually published in an academic journal. It contains original research results or reviews existing results. Such a paper, also called an article, will only be considered valid if it undergoes a process of",
"-23.87899872217531"
],
[
"the scientific committee gave a young researcher best paper award. Publications Proceedings of the conferences are published as a book series by Springer Science+Business Media, whereas selected papers are published in journals such as BMC Bioinformatics.",
"-23.492194916354492"
],
[
"A Publications Policy Committee suggested that more overseas scientists could be encouraged to submit papers if the requirement to have papers communicated by Fellows was dropped. This did not happen until 1990. There was also a suggestion to create a \"C\" journal for molecular sciences to attract more authors in that area, but the idea never materialized. The conclusion in 1973 was a general appeal to encourage more British scientists (whether Fellows or not) to publish papers with the Society and to pass on the message to their overseas colleagues; by the early 2000s, the proportion of non-UK authors had",
"-23.453218982031103"
],
[
"cut. Most publishers of scientific journals accept material that has previously been presented at a conference or in the form of a preprint. Those publishers that accept material that has been previously published in these forms have generally indicated informally that web publication of data, including Open Notebook Science, falls into this category. Open notebook projects have been successfully published in high impact factor peer reviewed journals but this has not been tested with a wide range of publishers. It is to be expected that those publishers that explicitly exclude these forms of pre-publication will not accept material previously disclosed",
"-23.276440550689586"
],
[
"than 200 published scientific research articles and reports in chemistry, computational chemistry and computer science. His fields of research included spectroscopy, charge transfer complexes, solution theory, data compression, information retrieval, human-machine interfaces, expert systems and systems for detecting and correcting computational errors.",
"-23.26952668591548"
],
[
"modern book papers. In 1960, William Barrow wrote \"The Manufacture and Testing of Durable Book Papers\" which he takes his findings from his 1959 publication and demonstrate that it was possible to treat newly manufactured papers with solutions of magnesium and calcium bicarbonates, thus neutralizing acidity and prolonging the life of such papers materially. Education and career Barrow was a native of Brunswick County, Virginia, born December 11, 1904.\nHe graduated from Randolph-Macon Academy and later attended Randolph-Macon College. Although Barrow never completed his undergraduate education, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by his alma mater, Randolph-Macon College, a",
"-23.06468746894825"
],
[
"Geology. His first-known scientific paper was for the Philosophical Magazine (July, 1845) describing his discovery of a more sensitive method for the detection of mineralised phosphoric acid. With Kane, he wrote on the usage of turf (for paper, charcoal and industrial gases) and beetroot and performed research on varieties of \"Swedish turnips\" (\"swedes\" to the Irish, of a variety now known as sugar beet) as a potential sugar-crop. He built a model sugar-production plant in the basement of the Museum. In 1846, he became the Museum's official chemist; this position was terminated after two years after his criticism of the",
"-23.041402715956792"
],
[
"considered to be a primary source. Technical reports, for minor research results and engineering and design work (including computer software), round out the primary literature. Secondary sources in the sciences include articles in review journals (which provide a synthesis of research articles on a topic to highlight advances and new lines of research), and books for large projects, broad arguments, or compilations of articles. Tertiary sources might include encyclopedias and similar works intended for broad public consumption or academic libraries.\nA partial exception to scientific publication practices is in many fields of applied science, particularly that of U.S. computer science research.",
"-23.035920946043916"
],
[
"Scientific journal In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. Content Articles in scientific journals are mostly written by active scientists such as students, researchers and professors instead of professional journalists. There are thousands of scientific journals in publication, and many more have been published at various points in the past (see list of scientific journals). Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields. Scientific journals contain articles",
"-23.025050865719095"
],
[
"Frederick Soddy for his work on radioactivity with Ernest Rutherford, Cyril Norman Hinshelwood for his work on chemical kinetics, and Dorothy Hodgkin on crystallography. Among the notable achievements by professors in the department are the development of the Periodic Table by William Odling, work on solid state chemistry by John Stuart Anderson and John B. Goodenough (winner of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry), and bioinorganic chemistry by Robert Williams.",
"-22.999503638478927"
],
[
"Radiology (journal) Publishing formats Publishing formats are Original Research articles (3000 words), Technical Developments (2000 words), Invited Perspectives (2500 words) review articles (4500 words), Special Report, Invited Editorial, Invited Controversies, solicited Science to Practice (commentary on a novel basic science investigation or technical development), letter to the editor, Images in Radiology, Diagnosis Please, and Case Series.",
"-22.846331506967545"
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[
"In this way, the observer works to organize and systematize the laboratory such that it \"began to take on the appearance of a system of literary inscription\" (52).\nHaving concluded that the \"production of papers\" for publication in a scientific journal is the primary focus of a laboratory, the observer next aims to \"consider papers as objects in much the same way as manufactured goods\" (71). This involves asking how papers are produced, what their constituent elements (or raw materials) are, and why these papers are so important. First, the authors recognize that in papers, \"some statements appeared more",
"-22.697062595456373"
],
[
"representing the latest theoretical research and experimental results in the field of science covered by the journal. They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field and advanced students. In some subjects this is inevitable given the nature of the content. Usually, rigorous rules of scientific writing are enforced by the editors; however, these rules may vary from journal to journal, especially between journals from different publishers. Articles are usually either original articles reporting completely new results or reviews of current literature. There are also scientific publications that bridge the gap between articles and books by publishing",
"-22.686889581884316"
],
[
"many scientists would be reluctant to sacrifice the \"emotional reward\" of having their discoveries published in the usual, traditional way. Established scientists are often loath to switch to an open-source model, according to one view.\nTimo Hannay explained that the traditional publish-a-paper model, sometimes described as \"Science 1.0\", was a workable one but there need to be other ways for scientists to make contributions and get credit for their work:\nThe unit of contribution to the scientific knowledge base has become the paper. Journals grew up as a means for scientists to be able to share their discoveries and ideas. The incentive",
"-22.673258566501318"
],
[
"and Physical Review Letters, have a reputation of publishing articles that mark a fundamental breakthrough in their respective fields. In many fields, a formal or informal hierarchy of scientific journals exists; the most prestigious journal in a field tends to be the most selective in terms of the articles it will select for publication, and usually will also have the highest impact factor. In some countries, journal rankings can be utilized for funding decisions and even evaluation of individual researchers, although they are poorly suited for that purpose. Reproducibility and replicability For scientific journals, reproducibility and replicability are core concepts",
"-22.65657681642915"
],
[
"library that would provide the full contents of the published record of research and scholarly discourse in medicine and the life sciences in a freely accessible, fully searchable, interlinked form\". Scientists signing the letter also pledged not to publish in or peer-review for non-open access journals. This led to the establishment of the Public Library of Science, an advocacy organization. However, most scientists continued to publish and review for non-open access journals. PLoS decided to become an open access publisher aiming to compete at the high quality end of the scientific spectrum with commercial publishers and other open access journals,",
"-22.58377952738374"
],
[
"Over one hundred scientific and popular articles including several books:",
"-22.53657854096673"
],
[
"the indexed articles are published in English.\nMost scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific paper. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider populace.\nScience magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.",
"-22.530655735055916"
],
[
"to current journals and books. Its holdings also include illustrated works from as early as the 15th century, including Konrad Gessner's Historia animalium, Maria Sibylla Merian's Insects of Surinam, Edward Lear's Psittacidae or Parrots, and a double elephant folio of John James Audubon's The Birds of America. Scientific publications The Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences was the first peer-reviewed publication in the United States devoted to the natural sciences. The first volume was published in 1817. By 1842, it had been superseded by the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences. The Proceedings have been published",
"-22.48466201571864"
],
[
"paper. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2018 impact factor of 36.216, ranking it first out of 298 journals in \"Biochemistry & Molecular Biology\". Contents and features In addition to original research articles, 'another section publishes previews, reviews, analytical articles, commentaries, essays, correspondence, current nomenclature lists, glossaries, and schematic diagrams of cellular processes. Features include \"PaperClips\" (short conversations between a Cell editor and an author exploring the rationale and implications of research findings) and \"PaperFlicks\" (video summaries of a Cell paper). Availability Content over 12 months old is freely accessible, starting from the January 1995 issue.",
"-22.409772974671796"
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[
"that allow other scientists to check and reproduce the results under the same conditions described in the paper or at least similar conditions and produce similar results with similar measurements of the same measurand or carried out under changed conditions of measurement. Electronic publishing Electronic publishing is a new area of information dissemination. One definition of electronic publishing is in the context of the scientific journal. It is the presentation of scholarly scientific results in only an electronic (non-paper) form. This is from its first write-up, or creation, to its publication or dissemination. The electronic scientific journal is specifically designed",
"-22.408777462725993"
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[
"scientists using desktop computers, from a wide variety of sources. Articles were listed by author. Availability When published, copies were available to individual subscribers by regular mail. Science Software Quarterly was discontinued in 1990. To date, an archive of the journal has not been established on the World Wide Web.",
"-22.367545605346095"
],
[
"is associated with eleven winners of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, five in physics and sixteen in medicine.\nScientists who performed research in Oxford include chemist Dorothy Hodgkin who received her Nobel Prize for \"determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances\",, Howard Florey who shared the 1945 Nobel prize \"for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases\", and John B. Goodenough, who shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2019 \"for the development of lithium-ion batteries\". Both Richard Dawkins and Frederick Soddy studied at the university and returned for research purposes.",
"-22.359506447202875"
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[
"most productive scientific author in the field of climate change, and among the authors who contributed to 5 of the 100 most influential papers in this field in a recent CarbonBrief analysis (2015) and was ranked among the list of Highly Cited Researchers in Clarivate Analytics. \nHe has published more than 650 scientific papers in journals of the Science Citation Index, including Nature journals and Science, and contributed to the dissemination of science activities at national and international level.",
"-22.337698343384545"
],
[
"the subject matter of the papers, their level, methods applied etc. All these are left to the participants' choice. The papers, however, have to have a research character and deal with physics topics or topics directly related to physics. The papers are evaluated by the Evaluating Committee, which is nominated by the Organizing Committee. It was recently won by David Rosengarten. History In the first two competitions, only Polish physicists participated in the Evaluation Committee. In the third competition, one non-Polish judge took part in evaluation of the papers. In the fourth competition, the number of physicists from other countries",
"-22.335624519444536"
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[
"submitted to scientific publications and reviewed by editors and gatekeepers and other scientists. Last, it was published. This has been the traditional pathway of scientific advancement, sometimes dubbed Science 1.0.\nEstablished journals provided a \"critical service\", according to one view. Publications such as Science and Nature have large editorial staffs to manage the peer-review process as well as have hired fact-checkers and screeners to look over submissions. These publications get revenue from subscriptions, including online ones, as well as advertising revenue and fees paid by authors. According to advocates of Science 2.0, however, this process of paper-submission and review was rather",
"-22.273087646914064"
],
[
"the cornerstones of physical chemistry, such as Gibbs energy, chemical potentials, and Gibbs' phase rule.\nThe first scientific journal specifically in the field of physical chemistry was the German journal, Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie, founded in 1887 by Wilhelm Ostwald and Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff. Together with Svante August Arrhenius, these were the leading figures in physical chemistry in the late 19th century and early 20th century. All three were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry between 1901–1909.\nDevelopments in the following decades include the application of statistical mechanics to chemical systems and work on colloids and surface chemistry, where",
"-22.253175167619702"
],
[
"Physics (magazine) Features Physics contains three types of commentaries on research papers: journalistic articles (\"Focus\"), in depth pieces written by active researchers (\"Viewpoints\"), and short summaries of a research paper (\"Synopsis\") written by editorial staff. Readers get free access to the underlying research papers on which the commentaries are based.",
"-22.25076429976616"
],
[
"Scientific literature Preparation The actual day-to-day records of scientific information are kept in research notebooks or logbooks. These are usually kept indefinitely as the basic evidence of the work, and are often kept in duplicate, signed, notarized, and archived. The purpose is to preserve the evidence for scientific priority, and in particular for priority for obtaining patents. They have also been used in scientific disputes. Since the availability of computers, the notebooks in some data-intensive fields have been kept as database records, and appropriate software is commercially available.\nThe work on a project is typically published as one or more",
"-22.230437909107422"
],
[
"while the latest research and more obscure topics are only accessible through scientific articles. In a scientific research group or academic department it is usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs. Public funding bodies often require the results to be published in scientific journals. Academic credentials for promotion into academic ranks are established in large part by the number and impact of scientific articles published. Many doctoral programs allow for thesis by publication, where the candidate is required to publish a certain number of scientific articles. Wording Articles tend to be highly technical,",
"-22.20003097492736"
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[
"articles were published in NATURE, the world’s most highly cited interdisciplinary science journal, and nine in SCIENCE.",
"-22.16958082621568"
],
[
"1991–2011. The paper was the most downloaded paper for that week across all Institute of Physics' journals, and was widely cited across hundreds of newspapers, magazines, blog posts, and scientific papers from around the world. It also ranked as the 11th most-discussed scientific paper of 2013. The paper was awarded the 'Best article of 2013' prize by the editorial board of ERL.\nIn 2013, Skeptical Science established a sister website – The Consensus Project. This website promoted public awareness of the reported high degree of scientific consensus around global warming, in contrast with a public perception of still widespread debate; this",
"-22.146984988859913"
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[
"or engineer working in a\nUK laboratory, adjudged to have presented the best scientific paper in that year. In 1981 the\nCouncil was pleased when Dr. C. R. Burch agreed to allow his name to be attached to the prize\nin recognition of his pioneering work in vacuum science particularly in developing Apiezon oils\nsome 50 years earlier.\nCurrently, the Council awards the C R Burch Prize and the BVC Medal to encourage outstanding work by scientists and engineers in the early stages of their careers in the field of vacuum science, surface science, thin films, or any related topic in which vacuum science and",
"-22.14336500079662"
],
[
"the order of multiple authors in a list have historically varied significantly between fields of research. Some fields list authors in order of their degree of involvement in the work, with the most active contributors listed first; other fields, such as mathematics or engineering (e.g., control theory), sometimes list them alphabetically. Historically biologists tended to place a principal investigator (supervisor or lab head) last in an author list whereas organic chemists might have put him or her first. Research articles in high energy physics, where the author lists can number in the tens to hundreds, often list authors alphabetically. ",
"-22.13765388476895"
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[
"scientific literature and the authors who produce it, with the aim of studying and analyzing scientific activity. In the bibliometric rankings, the most common criteria include the citation analysis, the impact of specialized magazines and the number of publications in refereed journals. However, the classifications based on production of documents or scientific activity generally do not apply corrections by establishment size, so its tend to be biased to favor large universities that produce a larger mass of research papers. Additionally, the rankings based on scientific publications do not directly measure the quality of teaching and learning outcomes of students. Consequently,",
"-22.129213135929604"
],
[
"Archives of Biological Sciences About The Archives of Biological Sciences is a multidisciplinary journal that covers original research in a wide range of subjects in life science, including biology, ecology, human biology and biomedical research. The journal features articles in genetics, botany and zoology (including higher and lower terrestrial and aquatic plants and animals, prokaryote biology, algology, mycology, entomology, etc.); biological systematics; evolution; biochemistry; molecular biology; cell biology, including all aspects of normal cell functioning, from embryonic to differentiated tissues and in different pathological states; physiology; radiobiology; neurobiology; immunology, including human immunology; human biology, including the biological basis of specific",
"-22.087368487773347"
],
[
"number of scientific papers published (see Bibliography section).\nAn American chemist, George D. Timmons, had a book called Questions on Newth's Inorganic Chemistry published in 1912.\nIt has been reported of John D. R. Thomas, past president (1990) of the Royal Society of Chemistry that his interest in chemistry derived from his father’s 1913 edition of G. S. Newth’s Elementary Practical Chemistry - A Laboratory Manual for Use in Organized Science Schools.\nA memoir of Herbert Marcus Powell (1906–1991) mentions a poem he wrote about chemicals ('The Chemists Dream') which included a reference to G S Newth.\nNewth's books offer insight into late Victorian",
"-22.083160367270466"
],
[
"technical reports, or articles. In some fields both are used, with preliminary reports, working papers, or preprints followed by a formal article. Articles are usually prepared at the end of a project, or at the end of components of a particularly large one. In preparing such an article vigorous rules for scientific writing have to be followed. Language Often, career advancement depends upon publishing in high-impact journals, which, especially in hard and applied sciences, are usually published in English. Consequently, scientists with poor English writing skills are at a disadvantage when trying to publish in these journals, regardless of the",
"-22.04897754569538"
],
[
"the first governmental reports on the teaching of science in the United States. The report was sponsored by the US Commissioner of Education in 1878 and titled: \"Report on the teaching of chemistry and physics in the United States\". It was printed by the Government Printing Office in Washington, DC. Clarke's stated purpose in writing the report was to \"state the facts, and secondly, to point out defects and remedies--to show on the one hand what is, and on the other what ought to be\" (p. 377) relative to the teaching of chemistry and physics in the United States. The report",
"-22.04789059603354"
],
[
"Scientific writing History Scientific writing in English started in the 14th century.\nThe Royal Society established good practice for scientific writing. Founder member Thomas Sprat wrote on the importance of plain and accurate description rather than rhetorical flourishes in his History of the Royal Society of London. Robert Boyle emphasized the importance of not boring the reader with a dull, flat style.\nBecause most scientific journals accept manuscripts only in English, an entire industry has developed to help non-native English speaking authors improve their text before submission. It is just now becoming an accepted practice to utilize the benefits of these services.",
"-22.023412154550897"
],
[
"sciences The natural sciences have no universal standard for authorship, but some major multi-disciplinary journals and institutions have established guidelines for work that they publish. The journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) has an editorial policy that specifies \"authorship should be limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work\" and furthermore, \"authors are strongly encouraged to indicate their specific contributions\" as a footnote. The American Chemical Society further specifies that authors are those who also \"share responsibility and accountability for the results\" and the U.S. National Academies specify \"an",
"-22.00156611035345"
],
[
"Cancer Science History The journal was established in 1907 as the Japanese Journal of Cancer Research by Katsusaburō Yamagiwa (University of Tokyo), who first produced tumors in animals by painting tar on their skin. In 1908, he joined the Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research as the first president, and the journal became the official journal of the foundation. The journal was transferred to the Japanese Cancer Association in 1941 and able to continue its work throughout the Second World War. The name of the journal obtained its current name in 2003. Association awards The \"Cancer Science Young Scientists Award for",
"-21.985018318181574"
],
[
"include scientific papers and material from Walter Garstang, Sidney Harmer, Hildebrand Wolfe Harvey, Thomas Hincks, Thomas V. Hodgson, Stanley W. Kemp, Charles A. Kofoid, Mary Parke, John Richardson, Frederick S. Russell, Thomas A. Stephenson, Walter Frank Raphael Weldon, Edward A. Wilson and William Yarrell. Journal of the Marine Biological Association Since 1887, the MBA has published the Journal of the Marine Biological Association (JMBA), a scientific journal \"publishing original research on all aspects of marine biology\".",
"-21.96775799180614"
],
[
"made as generalized suggestions on basic experimental procedures and forms of data that should be collected as a minimum level of reported information for other researchers to understand and use when reading the published material. Setting up a recognized and largely agreed upon set of guidelines such as these was deemed important by the scientific community especially due to the ever increasing amount of scientific work coming from developing countries with many different languages and protocols. History In 2009, an international group of scientists headed by Stephen Bustin collaborated to put together a set of guidelines on how to perform",
"-21.950304772064555"
],
[
"four grant applications and in eight publications and one published manuscript\". \nIn the wake of the investigations, papers have been retracted from several journals including Science and Mutation Research, while more articles were partially retracted from journals including Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and Molecular and Cellular Biology.",
"-21.876987464376725"
],
[
"PLOS History The Public Library of Science began in 2000 with an online petition initiative by Nobel Prize winner Harold Varmus, formerly director of the National Institutes of Health and at that time director of Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center; Patrick O. Brown, a biochemist at Stanford University; and Michael Eisen, a computational biologist at the University of California, Berkeley, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The petition called for all scientists to pledge that from September 2001 they would discontinue submission of articles to journals that did not make the full text of their articles available to all, free and",
"-21.863044981844723"
],
[
"is the oldest scientific journal in the English-speaking world. Henry Oldenburg was appointed as the first (joint) secretary to the society and he was also the first editor of the society's journal. In 1887 the journal expanded to become two separate publications, one serving the physical sciences, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, and the other focusing on the life sciences, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. Nowadays, both journals publish themed issues and discussion meeting issues, while individual research articles are published in the sister journal Proceedings of the Royal",
"-21.820119680458447"
],
[
"publications have subsequently been retracted. Some of the journals had listed academics on their editorial boards without their permission or even knowledge, sometimes in fields very different from their own. In 2012, one of its journals, Advances in Pure Mathematics, accepted a paper written by a parody generator; the paper was not published, but only due to its author's unwillingness to pay the publication fee. The company has also been noted for the many unsolicited bulk emails it sends to academics about its journals. \nIn 2013, the Open Journal of Pediatrics, a SCIRP journal, published a study which concluded that",
"-21.81409510911908"
],
[
"(www.researcherid.com/rid/B-4111-2009), which includes citation numbers, trends, along with the top 20 citing scientists, institutions, and collaboration scientists, institutions, research fields and global distribution maps, as well as total citations each year in the past 20 years). Peer Reviewed Articles The 326 peer reviewed articles have been cited 18,946 scientific papers published in over 800 bio-medical journals as of May 5, 2017.[1] These include original articles, reviews, perspectives, commentaries and editorials. Other publications These include books, book chapters, encyclopedia and handbook chapters, meeting abstracts, computer software, and patents. These publications are not included in the Thomson Reuters Web of",
"-21.759697869681986"
],
[
"and apps. Academic publishing After an article is submitted to an academic journal for consideration, there can be a delay ranging from several months to more than two years before it is published in a journal, rendering journals a less than ideal format for disseminating current research. In some fields such as astronomy and some areas of physics, the role of the journal in disseminating the latest research has largely been replaced by preprint repositories such as arXiv.org. However, scholarly journals still play an important role in quality control and establishing scientific credit. In many instances, the electronic materials uploaded",
"-21.755641124560498"
],
[
"ACS Chemical Biology Types of content ACS Chemical Biology publishes research letters, articles, and reviews that are all peer-reviewed. In addition, specially commissioned articles that describe journal content are solicited. Letters describe findings of broad interest are generally five printed pages or shorter in length, while articles are comprehensive reports of research of \"immediate, broad, and lasting impact\". Usually articles are twelve printed pages or shorter in length. Finally, reviews cover key concepts of interest to a broad readership.\nWeb-only content includes podcasts, a wiki, and articles published online ahead of print. ACS Chemical Biology has published the first three-dimensional",
"-21.753220842250812"
],
[
"good number of research papers in leading international journals of the field viz., Nematology, Journal of Nematology, Hydrobiologia etc.",
"-21.744353778864024"
],
[
"Research Letters in Physics Abstracting and indexing The journal is abstracted and indexed in Academic OneFile, Academic Search Premier, Chemical Abstracts, EBSCO databases, InfoTrac, INSPEC, International Nuclear Information System, and Scopus.",
"-21.708594713476487"
],
[
"Chemistry Chemical Physics (from 1999, formerly Faraday Transactions with a history dating back to 1905); Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics (1947); Annual Review of Physical Chemistry (1950); Molecular Physics (1957); Journal of Physical Organic Chemistry (1988); Journal of Physical Chemistry B (1997); ChemPhysChem (2000); Journal of Physical Chemistry C (2007); and Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters (from 2010, combined letters previously published in the separate journals)\nHistorical journals that covered both chemistry and physics include Annales de chimie et de physique (started in 1789, published under the name given here from 1815–1914).",
"-21.7014303941628"
],
[
"science and technology literature for the period 1948 through 1976. Included are scientific and technical reports of the US Atomic Energy Commission, United States Energy Research and Development Administration and its contractors, other agencies, universities, and industrial and research organizations. Approximately 25% of the records in the file contain abstracts. Nuclear Science Abstracts contains over 900,000 bibliographic records. In comparison, the entire Energy Science and Technology Database contains over 3 million bibliographic records.",
"-21.675993978686165"
],
[
"Council for Science (ICSU) Committee on Freedom and Responsibility in the Conduct of Science (CFRS) issued a \"statement on publication practices and indices and the role of peer review in research assessment\", suggesting many possible solutions—e.g., considering a limit number of publications per year to be taken into consideration for each scientist, or even penalising scientists for an excessive number of publications per year—e.g., more than 20.\nIn February 2010, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation) published new guidelines to evaluate only articles and no bibliometric information on candidates to be evaluated in all decisions concerning \"performance-based funding allocations, postdoctoral qualifications,",
"-21.66009730420774"
],
[
"in the sciences, see the articles for specific areas of scientific knowledge and discovery.",
"-21.648013185709715"
],
[
"of his accomplishments was the founding of a new journal. The scientific papers published in DPG journals became so voluminous, a committee of the DPG, in 1919, recommended the establishment of Zeitschrift für Physik for publication of original research articles, which commenced in 1920. Since any reputable scientist could have their article published without refereeing, time between submission and publication was very rapid – as fast as two weeks time. This greatly stimulated the scientific theoretical developments, especially that of quantum mechanics in Germany at that time, as this journal was the preferred publication vehicle for the new generation of",
"-21.604882363346405"
],
[
"scientists’ monographs are also published, all of which are Mathematical research paves the way. In the 18 years after liberation, the number of published papers accounted for more than three times the total number of articles before liberation. Many of them not only filled the gaps in China's past, but also reached the world's advanced level.\nJust as mathematicians fought to catch up and try to restore the advanced position of Chinese mathematics in the world, a ruthless storm swept China. In the decade of the Cultural Revolution, society was out of control, people were chaotic, and science declined. In the",
"-21.567000019655097"
],
[
"Haidinger published some 24 papers (according to the Catalogue of Scientific Papers), which appeared in such well known journals as Poggendorff's Annalen and the Zeitschrift für Physik. One of the papers described the occurrence of fossil plants in the brown coal and sandstones of the surroundings of Elbogen (Loket).\nIn 1840 Wilhelm Haidinger moved to Vienna to succeed his tutor Friedrich Mohs as director of the mineralogical collection of the \"Kaiserlich-Königlichen Hofkammer im Münz- und Bergwesen\". How very much Haidinger devoted himself to science in general is evident from the fact that he founded a non-governmental scientific society: the \"Freunde der",
"-21.554939247784205"
],
[
"of journalists; typically, a graduate student or a researcher writes a paper with a professor. As such, the authors are unpaid and receive no compensation from the journal. However, their funding bodies may require them to publish in scientific journals. The paper is submitted to the journal office, where the editor considers the paper for appropriateness, potential scientific impact and novelty. If the journal's editor considers the paper appropriate, the paper is submitted to scholarly peer review. Depending on the field, journal and paper, the paper is sent to 1–3 reviewers for evaluation before they can be granted permission to",
"-21.548525649341173"
],
[
"and wrote a letter to Science claiming that only 29% of such papers agreed with the consensus viewpoint, 3% explicitly disagreeing. Science chose not to publish Peiser's letter saying that the basic contents of his letter were not novel enough to be published, as they were \"widely dispersed on the internet.\"\nIn an article in The Daily Telegraph, Peiser claimed that leading scientific journals were 'censoring debate on global warming' and that Science \"has a duty to publish [his research]\".\nOne of his main points of criticism is that the vast majority of the abstracts referred to in the study do not",
"-21.537280620250385"
],
[
"papers/articles in various national and international journals, authored/edited 15 books, contributed 41 chapters in books in taxonomy, plant breeding, conservation biology, biotechnology, ethnobiology, ethnopharmacology and IPR, etc. Filed/Awarded 85 patents in herbal drugs/products jointly with other scientists. 15 of his patented products are already commercialized.",
"-21.49513121144264"
],
[
"an Associate Professor of Chemistry at Drexel University at the time. Bradley described open-notebook science as follows:\n... there is a URL to a laboratory notebook that is freely available and indexed on common search engines. It does not necessarily have to look like a paper notebook but it is essential that all of the information available to the researchers to make their conclusions is equally available to the rest of the world\n— Jean-Claude Bradley Benefits A public laboratory notebook makes it convenient to cite the exact instances of experiments used to support arguments in articles. For example, in a paper",
"-21.436190334439743"
],
[
"Journal of Biochemistry Article types The Journal of Biochemistry publishes Regular Papers (original scientific work), Rapid Communications (complete, yet brief, accounts of work), and Reviews (short reviews solicited by the editorial board).",
"-21.432751585845836"
],
[
"researchers to use other researchers’ data to pursue new research questions or to conduct data-driven replications. History The widespread adoption of the institution of the scientific journal marks the beginning of the modern concept of open science. Before this time societies pressured scientists into secretive behaviors. Before journals Before the advent of scientific journals, scientists had little to gain and much to lose by publicizing scientific discoveries. Many scientists, including Galileo, Kepler, Isaac Newton, Christiaan Huygens, and Robert Hooke, made claim to their discoveries by describing them in papers coded in anagrams or cyphers and then distributing the coded text.",
"-21.406344882539997"
],
[
"by the French Academy of Sciences; papers in this competition were submitted anonymously. Initially presenting her work without claiming authorship allowed her to have her work judged by established scientists while avoiding the bias against women in the sciences. She did not win the competition, but eventually her paper was published alongside the winning submissions, under her real name.\nScientists and engineers working in corporate and military organizations are often restricted from publishing and claiming authorship of their work because their results are considered secret property of the organization that employs them. One notable example is that of William Sealy Gosset,",
"-21.38106751453597"
],
[
"research papers in areas such as design, communication, education, media studies and technology.\nSome selected works can be found below:",
"-21.348402308402"
],
[
"the researcher.\nThe degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review. Graduate students are commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation.\nScientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into",
"-21.33518176950747"
],
[
"that articles in Scientific American should be written by authorities in their fields and not by housewives!\"\nThe Scientific American article led to an invitation from Robert L. Crowell of the Thomas Y. Crowell Co. publishing house to write \"a little book on numbers\" that became From Zero to Infinity. Two more popular math books for Crowell followed: Introduction to Higher Mathematics for the General Reader in 1959 and A Long Way from Euclid in 1963.\nAfter writing these books she felt she had run out of ideas, and her sister Julia Robinson suggested that she should update Eric Temple",
"-21.29300807267282"
],
[
"the editor of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, the first academic journal devoted to science, and the foundation for the growth of scientific publishing. By 1699 there were 30 scientific journals; by 1790 there were 1052. Since then publishing has expanded at even greater rates. Popular Science Writing The first popular science periodical of its kind was published in 1872, under a suggestive name that is still a modern portal for the offering science journalism: Popular Science. The magazine claims to have documented the invention of the telephone, the phonograph, the electric light and the onset of automobile technology.",
"-21.286480899900198"
],
[
"Research The scientific activity, documented by more than 430 papers (h-index 50), concerns experimental and theoretical aspects in the fields of radiation chemistry, of the ionic reactions in the gas phase, of elastic, inelastic and reactive collisions, between atoms and simple molecules of atmospheric and astrophysical interest, of quantum and semi-classical physical chemistry.\nHis experimental activity was initiated in Rome in the Sixties, with the study of the role of the reactions involving ions in radiation chemistry and of the mechanisms of ion-molecule reactions. The construction in Perugia in the Seventies of an original experimental apparatus, where coupling the",
"-21.27230421130662"
],
[
"engineer working in a\nUK laboratory, adjudged to have presented the best scientific paper in that year. In 1981 the\nCouncil was pleased when Dr. C. R. Burch agreed to allow his name to be attached to the prize\nin recognition of his pioneering work in vacuum science particularly in developing Apiezon oils\nsome 50 years earlier. British Vacuum Council Senior Prize In 1988 the BVC Medal and Prize was first awarded for distinguished contributions to British scientific research in the fields of vacuum science, surface science, thin films or any related topic in which vacuum science and engineering play an important role. It",
"-21.234571627457626"
],
[
"Kenneth Nyitray Trueblood Kenneth Nyitray Trueblood (1920–1998) was an American chemist known for pioneering work in the use of computers to determine chemical structures. His work is recognized as significantly contributing to Nobel Prizes being awarded to his long-term collaborators Dorothy Hodgkin and Donald Cram. He published 140 research papers. His organization of a departmental X-ray crystallography lab served as a worldwide model for other chemistry departments.\nTrueblood was a Guggenheim fellow for the academic year 1976-1977. He was Chair of the UCLA Department of Chemistry from 1965–1970 and 1990–1991. He was Dean of UCLA's College of Letters and Science from",
"-21.223376841749996"
],
[
"research and patents followed, mainly related to paper processing technology.\nLittle left and formed his own company. He was joined by a colleague from Richmond Paper, Roger Griffin forming a new company in 1886, Little & Griffin, which was located in Boston where MIT was also located. Griffin and Little prepared a manuscript for The Chemistry of Paper-making which was for many years an authoritative text in the area. The book had not been entirely finished when Griffin was killed in a laboratory accident in 1893.\nAfter this tragedy, Little carried on in the business alone for a number of years.",
"-21.210558235645294"
],
[
"EPL (journal) Scope EPL publishes original letters that communicates new results and findings that merit rapid publication in all areas of physics. EPL also publishes comments on letters previously published in the journal. History Europhysics Letters was founded in 1986 by the European Physical Society (EPS), Société Française de Physique (SFP) and its subsidiary EDP Sciences, the Società Italiana di Fisica (SIF) and the Institute of Physics (IOP). The new journal incorporated Lettere al Nuovo Cimento and Journal de Physique: Lettres and was published by EPS, EDP Sciences and SIF until 2006.\nEPL is now published under the scientific policy",
"-21.191627367283218"
],
[
"i.e. representing non-copyrightable facts, and therefore tend to make them freely available online, independent of the accessibility status of linked scientific articles. Trends As of 2008, more than 700,000 crystal structures had been published and stored in crystal structure databases. The publishing rate has reached more than 50,000 crystal structures per year. These numbers refer to published and republished crystal structures from experimental data. Crystal structures are republished owing to corrections for symmetry errors, improvements of lattice and atomic parameters, and differences in diffraction technique or experimental conditions. As of 2016, there are about 1,000,000 molecule and crystal structures known",
"-21.14232728915522"
],
[
"addition, an extensive body of published scientific literature has been published over the years. Library The institute library holds foreign literature, besides Russian literature, of the 18th through the 21st centuries. The topics of interest are: astronomy, physics mathematics, mechanics, Earth sciences, cosmonautics, and electronics. The library consists of 60,000 items consisting of 10,000 books and 50,000 periodicals.",
"-21.133537920366507"
],
[
"journal for the previous two years, divided by the number of articles published in those years. It is widely used, both for appropriate and inappropriate purposes—in particular, the use of this measure alone for ranking authors and papers is therefore quite controversial.\nIn an early study in 1964 of the use of Citation Analysis in writing the history of DNA, Garfield and Sher demonstrated the potential for generating historiographs, topological maps of the most important steps in the history of scientific topics. This work was later automated by E. Garfield, A. I. Pudovkin of the Institute of Marine Biology, Russian",
"-21.120506373554235"
],
[
"a paper is methodologically sound. Almost half of their submissions are still rejected on that basis. Unpublished research Only 22% of the clinical trials financed by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) released summary results within one year of completion, even though the NIH requires it. Fewer than half published within 30 months; a third remained unpublished after 51 months. When other scientists rely on invalid research, they may waste time on lines of research that are themselves invalid. The failure to report failures means that researchers waste money and effort exploring blind alleys already investigated by other scientists. Fraud",
"-21.096361935601635"
],
[
"the growing field Information literacy.\nStudy issues like relevance, quality indicators for documents, kinds of documents and their qualities (e.g. scholarly editions) and related issues are studied in LIS and are relevant for source criticism. Bibliometrics is often used to find the most influential journal, authors, countries and institutions. The study of book reviews and their function in evaluating books should also be mentioned. The well-known comparison of Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica (Giles, 2005) - although not done by information scientists - contained an interview with an information scientist (Michael Twidale) and should be obvious to include in LIS.\nIt could be",
"-21.086001756309997"
],
[
"the first research labs in the industry. He was able to acquire the financial support of 19 pulp and paper companies that encompassed 90 percent of the state's paper industry and in 1929 IPST was founded as the Institute of Paper Chemistry in Appleton, Wisconsin.\nThe school moved to a spot on Georgia Tech's northwest campus in 1989. On July 1, 2003, the IPST merged with Georgia Tech; and on September 1, 2003, the institute received a new director, William J. Frederick, Jr., who received a corresponding faculty appointment in the School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering in the Georgia Tech",
"-21.078463146288414"
],
[
"Science Publishing Group Science Publishing Group is a publisher of academic journals and books. It has an address in New York, USA, but is based in Pakistan. Activities Science Publishing Group started business in 2012. In January 2018, it published 476 academic journals in the fields of Biology and Life Sciences, Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Medicine, Health & Food, Physics, Materials Science, Mathematics & Statistics, Electrical & Computer Science, Earth, Energy & Environment, Architecture & Civil Engineering, Transportation & Logistics, Engineering & Technology, Economics & Management, Education, Social Sciences & Psychology, Arts, Literature & Linguistics.\nScience Publishing Group uses an Open",
"-21.04895059336559"
],
[
"great scientists (after Isaac Newton's statement that he \"stood on the shoulders of giants\"). The most important papers mostly cite other important papers by a small number of outstanding scientists, suggesting that the breakthroughs do not actually draw heavily on a large body of minor work. Rather, the pattern of citations suggests that most minor work draws heavily on a small number of outstanding papers and outstanding scientists. Even minor papers by the most eminent scientists are cited much more than papers by relatively unknown scientists; and these elite scientists are clustered mostly in a small group of elite",
"-21.03833679924719"
],
[
"Advanced Science Letters Scope Coverage includes joining basic and applied original research across multiple disciplines. These are the physical sciences, biological sciences (including health sciences and medicine), computer sciences (including information science), agriculture sciences, geosciences, and environmental sciences (including environmental engineering). Education and public relations are also covered.",
"-21.037468608818017"
],
[
"The primary publishers of this set were the consortium of Longman, Hurst, Rees (who by then apparently held an equity share), Orme, and Brown, of Paternoster Row.\nHowever, correct dating by half-volume or fascicle (1802–1820) can have serious implications for the accuracy of citations by modern writers, especially when discussing scientific priority: a list compiled in 1820 in Philosophical Magazine was designed to give proper priority to scientific discoveries. Volumes of plates were issued in blocks, and not with the texts to which they refer.\nBotanical historian Benjamin Daydon Jackson, unaware of this list, attempted to compile a list based on contemporaneous",
"-21.016856833040947"
],
[
"Stanley, to describe the large number of papers written by physicists in the problems of (stock and other) markets, in a conference on statistical physics in Kolkata (erstwhile Calcutta) in 1995 and first appeared in its proceedings publication in Physica A 1996. The inaugural meeting on econophysics was organised in 1998 in Budapest by János Kertész and Imre Kondor.\nThe almost regular meeting series on the topic include: APFA, ECONOPHYS-KOLKATA, Econophysics Colloquium, ESHIA/ WEHIA.\nIn recent years network science, heavily reliant on analogies from statistical mechanics, has been applied to the study of productive systems. That is the case with the",
"-21.014941640023608"
],
[
"books, authored over 200 peer-reviewed articles, and has over two dozen patents.",
"-20.984505121945404"
],
[
"his research in chemical separations.\nKlaus Rudenberg, physics and Ames Laboratory, 2001 recipient of the American Chemical Society Award in Theoretical Chemistry for his innovative research in the field of theoretical chemistry.\nPaul Canfield, Sergey Bud'ko, Costas Soukoulis, physics and Ames Laboratory, named to Thomas Reuters' World's Most Influential Scientific Minds 2014. The award recognizes the greatest number of highly cited papers (among the top 1 percent for their subject field and year of publication between 2002 and 2012).\nCostas Soukoulis, physics and Ames Laboratory, received the Max Born Award from the Optical Society of America in 2014. The award honors",
"-20.975549585615227"
],
[
"25 years working as a scientific editor ... I have not been aware of any valid argument for more than three authors per paper, although I recognize that this may not be true for every field.\" The rise of shared authorship has been attributed to Big Science—scientific experiments that require collaboration and specialization of many individuals.\nAlternatively, the increase in multi-authorship might be a consequence of the way scientists are evaluated. Traditionally, scientists were judged by the number of papers they published, and later by the impact of those papers. The former is an estimate of quantity and the latter of",
"-20.97440380754415"
]
] |
3gmrby | How can ESPN copy and paste a reddit AMA and profit off it by calling it an article while I'd get in trouble for doing the same thing for a school paper? | [
"The author clearly cites it as a Reddit thread. In a scholastic paper, you would be expected to have a bit more original content, but you wouldn't 'get in trouble'",
"ESPN is a journalistic organization. Reddit is a forum open to the public. An AMA is a conversation between a famous person and a group of people. ESPN may repeat what is said in an AMA because it is said in a publicly-open place; the words are not private or copyrighted, so they may be repeated freely. You can't do the same thing for a school paper because your instructor doesn't want you to. ESPN only answers to the law and its readership, neither of which have a problem with poaching answers from an AMA.",
"As a student you are held to a higher standard of integrity than a journalist working for a newspaper.",
"People are using content from other websites? That's unheard of on Reddit!",
"Because the rules for publishing an article and writing a school paper are different. Your teacher likely set explicit or implicit rules that you yourself be the author of your essay. The author wasn't under the same restrictions.",
"Wow they didn't even take the good questions, like the ones about Pokémon and WoW and Dragonball."
] | [
[
"and it also gives athletes who may not be the top stars in their sport a chance to earn dollars by being part of the campaign on a different platform, Messler said. Criticism Although the site gives the appearance of athletes writing their own blog posts, this is not the case. The vast majority of articles are written by staff at The Players' Tribune, who craft stories based on long interviews directly with the athletes. Editing is allegedly minimal, but players get the final approval before an article is published, so there is little contentious content. The staff who write",
"-25.438936457270756"
],
[
"for posting content or charge money for posting on the website, and it uses advertisements to pay for costs.\nFanFiction.net does not operate a screening or editorial board. Many users leave short reviews after reading stories, most of which are positive. While reviews can be left by those without accounts, it is an option for all writers on the site to moderate \"anonymous reviews\", made by those who are not signed into an account.\nThe stories are based on books, television series, films, and video games. Stories are about recent works and older works. By 2001, almost 100,000 stories were posted on",
"-25.367225818008592"
],
[
"in some media sources accusing them of double standards and poor journalistic practices. ESPN began reporting on the story on July 23, 2009; one month later on August 18, ESPN released a column on its website explaining the network's decision. Fantasy football and advertising influence In 2015, ESPN received criticism from Deadspin for accepting advertising from DraftKings, a daily fantasy sports site, and integrating DraftKings into the network's football coverage through product placement, breaching the ethical wall between journalism and sponsorship. Conflicts of Interests with NFL: Deflategate, concussions, legal issues In 2011, ESPN agreed to a deal with the NFL",
"-24.599625583156012"
],
[
"and an instructor answer, shown directly below, which can only be edited by instructors. Multiple students are allowed contribute to each answer like the Wikipedia entries, and each answer have a version history that shows what each student wrote. Users are allowed to attach external files to posts, use LaTeX formatting, view a post's edit history, add follow-up questions, and receive email notifications when new content is added. The interface consists of a dynamic list of posts on the left side of the screen, a central panel for viewing and contributing to individual posts, and an upper bar for account",
"-24.45250800641952"
],
[
"coverage by ESPN. Rolling Stone writers Jordan Burchette and Michael Weinreb each published articles examining the implications of ESPN's perceived SEC bias during the 2014 college football season. Moreover, independent blogging group Are You Cereal Box's main tactic is to track mentions of ESPN's alleged favorite teams and players via mentions on ESPN.com's front page. ESPN MVP/Mobile The book Those Guys Have All the Fun: Inside the World of ESPN notes that Apple CEO Steve Jobs reportedly told ESPN President George Bodenheimer in reference to the network's failed attempt at a mobile virtual network operator mobile phone service, Mobile ESPN",
"-24.34099137847079"
],
[
"same contractual term of carriage that ESPN provided to Comcast and DirecTV for ESPNU and ESPN Classic. The lawsuit claimed that ESPN violated the \"Most Favored Nations\" clause. The following day, representatives for ESPN announced in a press release that the company would fight the lawsuit, stating: \"We have repeatedly advised Dish that we are in full compliance with our agreement and have offered them a distribution opportunity with respect to ESPNU and ESPN Classic consistent with the rest of the industry. We will not renegotiate settled contracts and will vigorously defend this legal action, the apparent sole purpose of",
"-24.285404432739597"
],
[
"users create new posts, while 9 percent reply and 90 percent are lurkers that don't contribute to the discussion. When no users reply, the original poster has no way of knowing what lurkers think of their contribution.\nWarnock's dilemma leads to online writers and publishers adopting more confrontational writing strategies in order to ensure that they will get a response. However, this can also lead publishers to avoid producing the kind of content that might fail to generate comments due to its high quality. This problem arises particularly with sites that focus on viral content, such as Buzzfeed and",
"-24.237767560698558"
],
[
"web he figured that \"in order to get people to read it, it had to be different from what people got in newspapers and magazines.\" He claims that he believed his job was not to get into the heads of the players, but into the heads of his readers, and to do so by updating frequently and being provocative, and get a discussion going with his readers. Simmons has stated that he \"...will never write a traditional sports column.\"\nWith his column, Simmons aims to speak for, reconnect sportswriting with, and reproduce the experience for the average fan. Simmons' writing in",
"-24.14623734023189"
],
[
"Assistant News, Opinions, Features, Arts, Sports, Humour, Photo, Multimedia, and Assistant Multimedia. They also have three possible staff writer positions available, as well as a volunteer proofreader position. All editorial roles, with the exception of Editor-in-Chief and volunteer proofreader are hired on a semesterly basis. There is no Sports Editor position in the summer semester. Until December 2016 there was a paid proofreader position, but it was discontinued as a paid position.\nThere are several non-editorial roles, hired at an hourly/salary rate, which are not rehired each semester, including Social Media and Promotions Coordinator, Business Manager, Web Manager, and Distribution Manager",
"-24.09752857965941"
],
[
"and papers from the teachers on the school network, as well as place their own completed assignments within the folders on the network and, in effect, decrease the amount of paper used.\nIn addition, AHA is currently using Turnitin, a website that scans finished papers and assignments for plagiarism and helps prevent it as well. Beginning with the class of 2011, AHA began to use LiveText, an online storage site in which each student is able to upload their best papers and projects, ultimately creating their own 'online resume.' With this new addition, each student is given an edge that many",
"-23.981176069704816"
],
[
"the United States government save money on ink by changing official fonts.\nTo counter a criticism listed below, the American Journal of Undergraduate Research has relied on a rigorous, faculty-led peer-review process. Criticism The model of separate journals specifically for undergraduates has been criticized for several reasons. Such journals may not be indexed in common literature databases and publishing research in an undergraduate-only venue may make it difficult for others to find the work. Concerns have also been expressed that the process could increase stress and competitiveness in undergraduate research.",
"-23.914719303313177"
],
[
"university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work, preferring primary sources; some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. \"For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia,\" he said.\nIn February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that",
"-23.830293391947635"
],
[
"partially through ad sales. The paper is editorially independent of the university.\nThe newspaper is run by the editor in chief and the business manager. The editor in chief makes all content decisions and is the public face of the newspaper, while the business manager has final say on business decisions. The paper also has a board composed of the editor in chief, news editor, Web editor, sports editor, production manager, style editor, photography editor, opinion editor, and head copy editor. Unlike many other college newspapers, the Campus does not have any non-student employees.\nIn fall 2009, The Maine Campus switched from",
"-23.648622489301488"
],
[
"college or university can write for the community which is located nearest to them. Once a user has been approved, they can start posting content on the platform. Most pieces of content are reviewed in a three-tiered editing system, starting with volunteer editors, then moving on to an outsourced set of freelance copy editors, and finally back to a set of paid content strategists, employed by Odyssey.\nWhile users are not regularly paid, incentives for highly-viewed articles are given. Writers have the opportunity to receive compensation for their articles based on the number of page views a contributor generates.",
"-23.462751879444113"
],
[
"the Globe when he wasn’t covering the Red Sox. His \"Sunday Baseball Notes\" column in the Globe was nationally read.\nCafardo was the author of several books on sports. He wrote The Impossible Team: The Worst to First Patriots’ Super Bowl Season (2002), Boston Red Sox: Yesterday and Today (2007), and 100 Things Red Sox Fans Should Know and Do Before They Die (2008). With Tom Glavine, he wrote None But the Braves: A Pitcher, a Team, a Champion (1996) and Inside Pitch: Playing and Broadcasting the Game I Love (2016), while with Jerry Remy, he wrote If These Walls Could",
"-23.439501277826253"
],
[
"as well as carriage fees and issues regarding the exportation of ESPN content. Some critics argue that ESPN's success is their ability to provide other enterprise and investigative sports news while competing with other hard sports-news-producing outlets such as Yahoo! Sports and Fox Sports. Some scholars have challenged ESPN's journalistic integrity calling for an expanded standard of professionalism to prevent biased coverage and conflicts of interest.\nOn October 8, 2019 Deadspin reported that an internal memo was sent to ESPN employees instructing them to avoid any political discussions regarding China and Hong Kong in the aftermath of a tweet by Rockets",
"-23.39210917550372"
],
[
"Sox fan alive. And it's not as if there wasn't room for more material, \"Red Sox Rule\" checks in at 202 pages of text, and it's easy to breeze through this in a couple of days.\nThis is a good read for Red Sox fans looking to learn a bit more about Francona, both on and off the field. Like many, he’s taken an interesting route to get where he is, and like most, it hasn’t been a straight or easy path to the manager’s chair.\nAt least one Boston-based critic stated that Holley’s relationship with Francona was much too close and",
"-23.321524725994095"
],
[
"to write for any of the various content sections, which include news, opinion, arts, media, sports, \"Dartbeat\", or \"The Mirror\". they can also to work on the photography, graphics, design or copyediting staff. Students are asked to submit an application before interviewing with current staff. On the business side, students can apply for the advertising, strategy, communications and marketing, or product development sections. Applicants are asked to submit an application before interviewing with current staff.\nThe Dartmouth publishes two weekly supplements, \"Big Green Sports Weekly\" on Mondays and \"The Dartmouth Mirror\" on Wednesdays, and maintains an online blog called \"DartBeat\", formerly",
"-23.291362135809322"
],
[
"Critics have brought up questions regarding the role of traditional reporters and beat writers in sports today. Jeter has responded, \"We're not trying to take away from sportswriters. Sportswriters are what makes sports successful.\" He added, \"We're not covering day-to-day sports scores. We don't have sports highlights. This is completely different. . . . . I think we can coexist.\" Some media outlets question the ability of The Players' Tribune to stand out in the news cycle, especially with other social media platforms, such as Twitter. Staff have countered with defenses of the platform's purpose: \"This is longform social, to",
"-23.21754002815578"
],
[
"these being the show's titular \"wipeouts\". As part of wiping out, the competitors often end up covered in mud, froth, vats of food, or other unlikely substances.\nIn one of the show's trademarks, the commentators have a humorous running commentary, often mocking and insulting the contestants as they compete. The hosts make frequent use of puns. Jokey sound effects and cheesy visual effects are often added as well. The exchanges between the two hosts is often a subplot of episodes themselves, with Anderson playing it mostly straight as a play-by-play man while Henson offers up off-the-wall inanities and non sequiturs as",
"-23.180603619199246"
],
[
"write columns for ESPN.com. In May 2007, the show, which had been produced in the network's New York studios, was rebranded as First Take and production was moved to the network's headquarters in Bristol, Connecticut. Around this time, Bayless stopped writing for ESPN.com; he resumed writing columns for the website in August 2012.\nOn April 26, 2016, it was reported that Bayless had parted ways with ESPN, and would be moving to Fox Sports after his contract expires in August. His final appearance on First Take was on June 21, 2016.\nBayless debuted Skip and Shannon: Undisputed along with Shannon Sharpe September",
"-23.169040845008567"
],
[
"now publishes a three-sectioned print version, which focuses on in-depth coverage. The website, which contains most of the newspaper's content, contains all of the features and articles previously found in the Monday-to-Friday paper, in addition to audio clips, videos, and other multimedia extras. 2012 walkout On August 15, 2012, student editors and other staff at The Red & Black resigned, claiming interference by non-student managers. The paper's former editor-in-chief said The Red & Black had hired non-student employees “with veto power over students’ decisions.”\nAfter a few days, the board of The Red & Black agreed to the students' demands for",
"-23.166011502151377"
],
[
"to develop their own editorial policies regarding news coverage, or content without interference by the university or its administrators, faculty, staff or agencies.\" It is further specified that students bear the legal responsibility for what they produce, and university officials are prohibited from requiring prior review, imposing sanctions on the basis of content, and denying funding on the basis of content.\nThe Evergreen is self-supporting, with most funding from advertising sold and coordinated by a staff of student advertising representatives. Evergreen editors typically request additional funding each year from the Student Services and Activities Fees committee, which is made up of",
"-23.15307030652184"
],
[
"Massachusetts in late 2001 and started writing a weekly sports column on his Web site, \"Wink & The Gun.\" In December 2002, Bona joined ESPN.com's Page 2 as a freelance columnist. In addition to writing columns for ESPN.com, Bona teamed up with Eric Kielb to write and record song parodies for Page 2 under the alias \"Bristol Bob & The Page 2 Crue.\" After contributing dozens of columns and songs, Bona parted ways with ESPN.com in early 2006.\nAfter leaving ESPN.com, Bona joined an advertising agency in Portland, Maine as director of business development. Bona briefly attended Syracuse University's",
"-23.06888902449282"
],
[
"After School Club Premise and format The show broadcasts live online and utilizes social media technologies such as Twitter and Google Hangouts to directly interact with international fans. Two activities that take place every episode are the Roll Calls and Hangouts. During the \"Roll Call\" portion Twitter users tweet their name, location, the time and generally a short message to the weekly guest. Those that participate may be singled out during the beginning of the episode and given a shout out by the guest. \"Hangouts\" are typically done twice an episode where some fans are selected for a real-time Google",
"-23.0475544789806"
],
[
"an announcer.\nMost of the popular runs feature video game glitches and discussion between the runner and the commentators, most frequently describing techniques or using observational humor and banter. Humor and banter is especially used for non-interactive or repetitive sequences that don't require the runner to use much or any skill. Donations from viewers may feature humorous comments that contain inside jokes among the speedrunning community, as well as more personal acknowledgements concerning the charity donated to. Because of the live broadcast and wider audience, runners and commentators are encouraged to refrain from using strong profanity and offensive behavior. History Writer",
"-22.802237343319575"
],
[
"NCAA Football 12 Cover On April 19, 2011, it was announced that former Alabama running back and 2009 Heisman Trophy winner Mark Ingram Jr. would be the cover athlete for the game. Ingram won a fan vote organized by EA Sports to determine who the cover athlete would be in a campaign using the slogan \"U Want Me\". Ingram beat out Auburn's Nick Fairley, Oklahoma's DeMarco Murray, and Washington's Jake Locker. Votes were taken through the game's Facebook page. Alternate covers (Nick Fairley, DeMarco Murray, Jake Locker) were made available for download on the NCAA Football 12 website. Commentary",
"-22.772473890411675"
],
[
"can view, edit, or get an individual copy. Students can create files and then attach them to the assignment if a copy of a file wasn't created by the teacher. Teachers have the option to monitor the progress of each student on the assignment where they can make comments and edit. Turned in assignments can be graded by the teacher and returned with comments to allow the student to revise the assignment and turn back in. Once graded, assignments can only be edited by the teacher unless the teacher turns the assignment back in. Communication Announcements can be posted by",
"-22.73480513866525"
],
[
"year. ESPN had initially reaffirmed its commitment to the product, stating that they expected that price cuts in handsets, increased marketing efforts, and other incentives for customers would prove to be successful. However, on September 28, 2006, ESPN announced it would be discontinuing the service to take effect by the end of the year. Those who had subscribed to long-term plans received refunds from ESPN.",
"-22.67858466751204"
],
[
"and praise the athlete which is essential because a recruit might make his college decision based on what school and fan base shows the most love. Recruits can also use their twitter as a platform to help get them noticed by college coaches. An athlete can showcase his talent to the world by posting his highlight tape and simply waiting for a coach to see it. Players must be careful about the content that they post however, because in today's world coaches will not offer a scholarship to anyone who has anything bad on their account. Propaganda on Facebook Facebook",
"-22.647493981097796"
],
[
"fine, but not everybody learns best from text books. iPads, hands-on, works of art, debate, humor, graphics, and video, the more different ways you can teach something, the more likely it is to get in there, stay in there, and be useful.\" Progress notes Each week, teachers write progress notes for each of their students as a way to inform students and their families on how they are doing in each of their classes and what they could be doing to improve. Teachers may also include the most recent grades that students have received on assignments or tests. Progress notes",
"-22.599396831472404"
],
[
"the campus. Editors tend to be elected by the student body on a separate ticket to other student representatives and are paid an honorarium, although some student organisations have been known to employ unelected staff to coordinate the production of the newspaper (an example of this is the national Student View newspaper). Controversy surrounding Australian student press Australian student newspapers have courted controversy since their inception. One of the more notorious of these controversies involved the publication of an article which allegedly incited readers to shoplift. The July edition of the magazine was banned by the Office of Film and",
"-22.592399231143645"
],
[
"the Chat 140 section (which allowed fans to discussion the events with other fans; this was later withdrawn as ESPN removed commenting functionality), and Facebook connect (which connects fans to their Facebook profile and allowed them to both post about the event that they are watching on their wall and discuss the event with other Facebook fans; this was also removed when ESPN removed commenting functionality). Mobile devices WatchESPN was available through the ESPN app for Android and iOS, and the WatchESPN app for Windows Phone. In December 2015, WatchESPN's streaming features were integrated directly into the main ESPN app",
"-22.570706509926822"
],
[
"due to their positive effects upon students. These online journals are primarily used to support communication in the form of presentation, and they provide a useful tool for class interaction. Weblogs allow students to present their own findings and discoveries to an authentic audience. Receiving feedback about course work not just from your teacher but from your peers, or possibly from the outside world, can be very empowering to students. In their eyes, having the ability to publish their writing on a blog suddenly transforms them into authors and publishers. Blogs make students are of careful and conscientious writing. Students",
"-22.521108047978487"
],
[
"applications should take care that handwriting is legible, particularly email addresses. Advisors counsel that mistakes or changes should be explained somewhere in the application; for example, an adviser at Grinnell College suggested that a record need not be perfect but there must be an \"explanation for any significant blip.\" Advisors suggest that applicants should \"own up to any bad behavior\" such as suspensions since schools are \"dutybound to report them\", and suggest that a person should \"accept responsibility and show contrition for \"lessons learned,\" according to one view. Disciplinary actions are usually reported to the colleges by the high school",
"-22.478125393623486"
],
[
"students, fans I have gotten to know from around the country, they all get to check out my books hot off the press before anyone else gets a chance to see them. That means before my literary agent. That means before my editor. That means before anyone in the adult world who works in “the publishing industry”. Real kids are my readers and if they don’t like something – if they don’t laugh, if they don’t cry, if they don’t approve – then it doesn’t really matter what the adults think. I write for them!\" When asked of where he",
"-22.474516475922428"
],
[
"for educational reporting. The newspaper does not accept advertising, and plans to be supported by subscriptions and donations after the initial funding runs out.",
"-22.469872413425037"
],
[
"Joe Schad Joe Schad (born c. 1974) is a reporter, writer, analyst and broadcaster focused on college football and the NFL for the past 20 years. In July 2016, Schad announced he would begin covering the Miami Dolphins and the NFL at the Palm Beach Post.\nSchad joined ESPN in 2005 as a sports reporter, working as ESPN's National College Football Reporter and appearing on shows including College Football Live, SportsCenter, College GameDay, ESPN First Take, and ESPNEWS. Schad provided college football news and notes for SportsCenter. In addition, Schad wrote news stories and blogged for ESPN.com. Schad hosted a",
"-22.445944122424407"
],
[
"of the textbooks or materials was used for profit or to get items not related to academics, and that the athletes involved who still have eligibility remaining have had to pay restitution.\" Alabama's appeal of the ruling was unsuccessful.",
"-22.43986852344824"
],
[
"Eleven paid staff members make up the editorial body of the paper.\nAny Lakehead University student may apply for membership to the Argus after having contributed printed works to the paper throughout the year and successfully petitioning the executive committee for admission. Membership entitles a student to an honorarium for each article published, as well as other rights within the newspaper. Articles are accepted for publication from any student, despite his or her membership in the newspaper, so long as they meet the content and quality requirements laid out by the editors.\nAdvertising sales are coordinated through the business manager",
"-22.40627358717029"
],
[
"they do not, it is a sign they are not confident in their recommenders. Referee The person providing a reference is called a referee. An employment reference letter is usually written by a former employer or manager, but references can also be requested from co-workers, customers and vendors. Teachers and professors often supply references for students who have taken their classes. Reference letters for organizations are usually supplied by parties to which the company has provided similar services in the past. Checking of references Most potential employers will contact referees to obtain references before offering a job to a new",
"-22.403479041531682"
],
[
"for all of ESPN. In this role, he is responsible for overseeing all aspects of ESPN’s content creation across television, digital and print platforms including all of ESPN's live event programming (NBA Finals, College Football National Championship, Monday Night Football, etc...) and all of ESPN's studio programming (SportsCenter, Pardon the Interruption, etc..). Additionally, Schell has oversight of ESPN.com, ESPN the Magazine, ESPN Radio, FiveThirtyEight.com and The Undefeated. Films Connor is a producer of the Academy Award-winning 2016 documentary film O.J.: Made in America along with Ezra Edelman, Caroline Waterlow, Libby Geist, Tamara Rosenberg and Nina Krstic. O.J.: Made in",
"-22.362569936201908"
],
[
"ESPN’s Outside the Lines and Kickin' The Tires",
"-22.35382883535931"
],
[
"Slashdot and Fark websites, administrators decide which articles are selected for the front page. On Reddit and Digg, the articles that get the most votes from the community of users will make it to the front page. Many social news websites also feature an online comment system, where users discuss the issues raised in an article. Some of these sites have also applied their voting system to the comments, so that the most popular comments are displayed first. Some social news websites also have a social networking function, in that users can set up a user profile and follow other",
"-22.350494811777025"
],
[
"page will now grab your attention in a way it never has before. The paper will be easier to flip through, read and digest between classes, or on your lunch break,\" the editorial board wrote in a Nov. 20 editorial. \"The news cycle has changed and so have your reading habits. News hits your cellphone or laptop long before you have the chance to pick up The State Press on campus. That’s why we created a product that speaks more to the college experience – a product that ties traditional print news to new forms of digital media.\"\nThe paper's",
"-22.3142308273018"
],
[
"will read their writing only to make comments and feedback about content and grammar mistakes. They also turn to essay mills to insure that all citations are correct. Some customers claim that they turn to essay mills because society has put too much pressure on students to achieve academic success. GPAs and grades are greatly stressed in schools which causes students to worry and make them feel like they cannot meet their deadlines. In order to get the paper handed in on time, students seek out term paper mills. Essay mills have been compared to business situations.",
"-22.288952363305725"
],
[
"been Ron Franklin, Mike Gottfried and Adrian Karsten, but all have gone on to different assignments, except for Karsten, who died in 2005. Currently, the primary commentators for the ESPN version are Sean McDonough on play-by-play, Todd Blackledge as analyst and Holly Rowe as field reporter. The secondary commentators are Chris Fowler on play-by-play, Kirk Herbstreit as analyst and Maria Taylor as field reporter, all of whom also serve as the primary commentating team for ABC's Saturday Night Football.\nOn October 14, 2006, ESPN College Football Primetime aired on five different networks as part of ESPN Full Circle. The",
"-22.238669788697734"
],
[
"the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn \"karma\" for their posts and comments, which reflects the user's standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit.\nThe most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By",
"-22.236413020655164"
],
[
"Each student had been instructed to provide the artists with a script to introduce their work, and the resulting footage was released under a Creative Commons license, enabling the public to freely adapt and remix it. One segment, written by Joshua Parker, in the form of an exaggerated motivational speech dubbed \"Just Do It\" after the eponymous Nike slogan, became an Internet meme after going viral within days of being released, spawning numerous remixes and parodies, and becoming the most searched for GIF of 2015 according to Google. 30th anniversary and Colin Kaepernick controversy The \"Just Do It\" campaign celebrated",
"-22.14702089289858"
],
[
"chronicle the accomplishments of the school's teams. Along with a short article listing the season's highlights, these pages include team photographs and action pictures. Advertising pages Many yearbooks gain revenue by including a section of ads from local businesses.\nSome schools sell advertisements for seniors. Parents, other family members, and friends use these ads to congratulate a senior — or group of seniors — for their accomplishments. Index Bigger yearbooks tend to include an alphabetical listing of everyone included in the yearbook, along with a listing of the pages they may be found on. Colophon Usually near the end of the",
"-22.10338100104127"
],
[
"York Times and join ESPN. In its announcement of its acquisition of FiveThirtyEight, ESPN reported that \"Silver will serve as the editor-in-chief of the site and will build a team of journalists, editors, analysts and contributors in the coming months. Much like Grantland, which ESPN launched in 2011, the site will retain an independent brand sensibility and editorial point-of-view, while interfacing with other websites in the ESPN and Disney families. The site will return to its original URL, www.FiveThirtyEight.com.\"\nAccording to Silver, the focus of FiveThirtyEight in its ESPN phase would broaden: \"People also think it's going to be a sports",
"-22.096675524604507"
],
[
"8, 2015, that Simmons' contract, which was due to expire in September 2015, would not be renewed. Grantland Simmons served as the editor-in-chief of Grantland, a website owned by ESPN covering sports and pop culture that launched on June 8, 2011. The website's name was a reference to deceased sportswriter Grantland Rice, though it was reportedly not Simmons' choice for the name. Sports blog Deadspin had previously reported in 2010 that Simmons was working on a \"top secret editorial project.\" Some key contributors to the website included Jalen Rose, Zach Lowe, Kirk Goldsberry and Wesley Morris. In August 2014, ESPN",
"-22.087677743344102"
],
[
"operations of the newspaper, the day-to-day decisions for the newspaper rest on the student staff. The advisers choose not to restrict the content that is placed in the paper, but instead make suggestions and give advice to the editorial board.",
"-22.083791323238984"
],
[
"be used to promote Fox Sports pundits and their television programs, including Fox Sports 1 hosts Colin Cowherd and Skip Bayless, rather than original reports. During the lead-up to Super Bowl LI, the website piloted an aspect of this content strategy by having articles ghostwritten under the names of FS1 pundits.\nOn June 26, 2017, Fox Sports redesigned its website to focus primarily on streaming video content, laying off 20 writers so these positions could be filled by video-focused roles. The video content draws largely from FS1 studio programs. On July 3, 2017, Horowitz was fired from Fox Sports over allegations",
"-22.065283684118185"
],
[
"no award being given. In 2009, submissions could be sent to either Bent's or The Bookseller's Twitter accounts. People cannot nominate their own works, nor can they select books they publish themselves. Titles that are deliberately created to be funny are normally rejected. Also, nominators, judges and voters are actively discouraged from reading any of the nominations, \"for fear that becoming too close to the work may cloud their judgement in declaring the text's title 'odd'. Especially considering the prize champions 'odd titles' and not 'odd books' (see the Man Booker for the latter)\". The winner was originally voted for",
"-22.055006603710353"
],
[
"The College Fix Notable stories The Fix's April 2018 report on a George Washington University diversity workshop designed to combat \"Christian privilege\" led to that very phrase trending on Twitter for hours on April 3.\nIn March 2018, The Fix's report on Stanford's rejection of the College Republicans' choice of logo -- the American flag -- garnered a lot of media coverage, and a few days later the university changed its mind.\nIn July 2017 Claremont College retracted its appointee to the role of LGBTQ center director after The Fix publicized tweets of the director professing his suspicion \"of white gays and",
"-22.053039833670482"
],
[
"Olympics, and award shows.\nDepending on the user's location, localized news. Multimedia content are also incorporated on the news pages, including images and videos with smart-motion thumbnails similar to Bing Videos.\nBing News also allow users to type in a search term to browse through an archive of news articles relevant to the search query. In addition, users may refine their results by location and category, or search with an alternative related search term. RSS support was added on April 24, 2008, providing support for subscription to a specific news category or search results. In March 2011 Microsoft added Twitter \"tweets\" to",
"-22.014785224891966"
],
[
"by the students who choose to take the journalism course. According to their mission statement, the Playwickian is, \"Saving the world, one word at a time\" and is dedicated to providing \"the student body with a voice and exercise students First Amendment rights while remaining unbiased and truthful in the reporting of information and the quest for self-expression.\" Relations between the paper and administration are sometimes stressed, with censorship an ongoing issue. Soccer Team The Neshaminy Redskins soccer program has four state championship titles. The Boy's program won PIAA State Championships in 1982, 1984, and 1994. The Girl's program won",
"-21.991436834388878"
],
[
"in a typical year there were two or three paid editors, elected by the student body the previous year, who planned the paper. The paid editors were assisted by unpaid sub-editors, columnists and other contributors who researched and wrote individual sections. On Dit is unusual among student papers in that for much of its existence it has remained independent of the prevailing political parties on campus. In 2007, the Student Union voted to remove salaries from the editors (by way of comparison, the 3 editors in 1997 split an annual A$30,000 between them). Because of Voluntary Student Unionism, the editors",
"-21.975266033230582"
],
[
"Student-run advertising agency A student-run advertising agency acts like a real advertising agency, but is operated by students. The agency can be included in the academic curriculum, allowing students to work in the agency for academic credit. Or, the agency can simply be housed within the academic unit, allowing students to work in the agency for volunteer experience. In other cases, the agency can operate as a student club within the broader organizational structure of the university. The student-run agency provides advertising and similar communications services (public relations, marketing, social media, etc.) to various organizations such as college departments, small",
"-21.94313891523052"
],
[
"ESPN beat out game rightsholder Fox (as well as CBS and NFL Network), left the possibility open for Ryan to continue with ESPN through the 2017 season. In April, it was announced that Ryan would officially join ESPN's Sunday NFL Countdown as an analyst. Coaching philosophy Ryan stresses that coaches are essentially supposed to be open and communicative with the players and management, who in turn will reciprocate the same attitude. By connecting with his associates, Ryan states, it's \"valuable when it comes to figuring out how to motivate somebody (...) because I want that guy to fight for me,",
"-21.941225866747118"
],
[
"which ruled against the paper.\nIn 1991, a volunteer group of alumni incorporated The Friends of The Stanford Daily Foundation to provide support for the newspaper.\nIn 1982, after the Stanford football team officially lost the Big Game against cross-bay rival University of California at Berkeley (\"Cal\") due to what has become known as \"The Play,\" The Daily published a fake edition of The Daily Californian, Cal's student newspaper, announcing officials had reversed the game's outcome. Styled as an \"extra,\" the bogus paper headlined \"NCAA AWARDS BIG GAME TO STANFORD\". The Daily distributed 7,000 copies around the Berkeley campus early in the",
"-21.913450592779554"
],
[
"hiring a young copywriter he often asks him to make up a sample book of his work. He suggests that he choose two examples of current commercial campaigns, one good and one bad in his opinion. The prospective employee then writes another commercial in each series, pointing out the merits of the good campaign and the faults of the bad.\"\nEarlier, as Vice-President of Robert W. Orr and Assoc. of New York City, he was listed in The Radio Annual and Television Yearbook, 1949, a \"1,200 pages chronicle the vital statistical record of last year's achievements and tomorrow's planning\" that was",
"-21.896318541606888"
],
[
"involving him visiting a strip club, Coach Price was dismissed for behavior unbecoming a representative of the University of Alabama, before ever coaching a game. Following a Sports Illustrated article that elaborated on the incident, Price sued the magazine for defamation, and sued the university, claiming wrongful termination. The lawsuit against the University of Alabama was dismissed and the lawsuit against Sports Illustrated was settled out of court. Mike Shula era (2003–2006) Less than a week later, Alabama hired Mike Shula, a former Alabama quarterback and then-quarterbacks coach for the Miami Dolphins. Alabama had reportedly been searching mainly for former",
"-21.877936177130323"
],
[
"In this way, NESN reporters produce original content that develops in their field areas. Some reporters are full time exclusively to NESN.com while other stories are contributed by NESN reporters from other fields of NESN, such as broadcasting.\nThe content and construction of the articles themselves vary drastically. Some provide in-depth analysis of current events happening with Boston teams, while others provide quick updates with videos. A majority of the articles, however, are purely factual and present interviews with players and coaches. Some articles also focus on new trade rumors or free agent pick ups. The primary subscriber and reader of",
"-21.839934717165306"
],
[
"spanning several months, including edits to the page for Tampa Bay Buccaneers quarterback Jameis Winston and to the page for The Hunting Ground itself. Such edits can violate Wikipedia's conflict of interest rules.",
"-21.805101965903305"
],
[
"provide input in deciding which stories are reported. This is done by funding certain reporters and their pitches. Donating can be seen as an act that \"bonds\" reporters and their readers. This is because readers are expressing interest for their work, which can be \"personally motivating\" or \"gratifying\" for reporters.\nSpot.us, which was closed in February 2015, was a crowdfunding platform that was specifically meant for journalism. The website allowed for readers, individual donors, registered Spot.us reporters, or news organizations to fund or donate talent toward a pitch of their choosing. While funders are not normally involved in editorial control, Spot.us",
"-21.794025214068824"
],
[
"announced Whitlock's departure from that paper. ESPN In 2002, Whitlock started writing columns for ESPN.com's Page 2. Whitlock had guest-hosted several ESPN TV shows, including Jim Rome Is Burning, and Pardon the Interruption. He was a regular fill-in host on The Jim Rome Show on Premiere Radio Networks. He also appeared regularly on ESPN's The Sports Reporters Outside the Lines. Leaving ESPN for AOL Sports In 2006, Whitlock announced the departure of his online column from ESPN.com's Page 2 in favor of AOL Sports, but initially expected to continue his television work for ESPN. However, after the announcement,",
"-21.753188717179"
],
[
"Daily Campus. It has been featured on the left side of page 4 in recent years. The Daily Campus' editorial board, composed of the Opinion editors, weekly columnists and Editor-in-Chief, meet weekly in order to determine the editorials for the coming week. A disclaimer was added below the editorial in 2003 following an incident in which 9,000 copies of the paper were stolen after a controversial column was published in Opinion (see Controversies below). The disclaimer states that only the editorial is the official opinion of the paper, while the columns are the opinions of the columnist and columnist alone.",
"-21.738191970613116"
],
[
"press box above the field, on the play and then announces the final result over the wireless microphone.\nIn addition to the general equipment listed above, the referee also carries a coin to conduct the pregame (and if necessary, overtime) coin toss. Umpire The umpire (U) stands behind the defensive line and linebackers (except as described below for the NFL), observing the blocks by the offensive line and defenders trying to ward off those blocks, looking for holding or illegal blocks. Prior to the snap, he counts all offensive players.\nDuring passing plays, he moves forward towards the line of scrimmage as",
"-21.731868674978614"
],
[
"the APR only applies to students that receive athletic financial aid, which is by no means all varsity athletes at a university. NCAA's 1,265 member colleges and universities report that they have more than 355,000 student-athletes playing each year. Approximately 36% of these NCAA student-athletes receive a share of the $1 billion earmarked for athletic scholarships. Another common misuse of the data occurs when APR results are compared between universities. This is usually not a valid comparison unless it is viewed alongside the graduation rates for non athletes at the institution. For example, one institution may have",
"-21.7002838999324"
],
[
"founding editor of ESPN The Magazine, now serves as editorial director. Maureen Cavanagh, former photography director for Sports Illustrated, is the creative director and Alex Rose is the General Manager. In June 2017, Jeff Levick, former Spotify Chief Revenue Officer, was named the first CEO of the company. Legendary Entertainment supplied funding as well as creative support. On June 15, 2015, it was announced that New Enterprise Associates, a venture capital firm, had invested $9.5M in The Players' Tribune. Among the attractions for the firm was the athlete ownership of the site and athlete involvement. As of October 27,",
"-21.681424415757647"
],
[
"for whom he wrote the Oscars show jokes, replying: \"I write across the board. Every year it breaks down differently, depending on the host, but as we get closer to the date, all of the writers tend to be writing over each other. Everyone's contributing to everybody else's work. There are four of us writing the actual show, and you end up writing and rewriting so many things at the same time. So I do a little of everything. There's a lot of mileage involved in writing for the Academy Awards, you go through a lot of hoops.\" When asked",
"-21.672469492885284"
],
[
"American School self-publish an annual Yearbook and a student-run Newsletter. Additionally, the school website features some of the best student work on its student work page , including student art work , student speeches , student created websites and student performances .",
"-21.6718909611227"
],
[
"or provide full transcripts and recordings of their interviews. The public will be able to modify and update articles; however, such updates will only go live after approval by staff or trusted volunteers.\n\"This will be the first time that professional journalists and citizen journalists will work side-by-side as equals writing stories as they happen, editing them live as they develop and at all times backed by a community checking and rechecking all facts,\" said Wales. Wales intends for the project to help fight fake news online; he was reportedly motivated to address this problem after hearing the Counselor to the",
"-21.66609057423193"
],
[
"week. The Technique's office is located in the northwest corner of the Student Services Building.\nThe paper is operated by a staff of approximately 50 paid and unpaid students, as well as two permanent, paid, non-student staff members. As Georgia Tech has no journalism school, the Technique welcomes all students within the institute to contribute to its content. The Technique is funded primarily by advertisements, and to a lesser extent by Tech's Student Government Association.\nThe Technique is generally between 16 and 40 pages long, the length of an issue being dependent upon the number of advertisements purchased for a given week.",
"-21.66068069935136"
],
[
"to think \"Why didn't I take Lisa's advice?\" when he lost. As Lisa studies football at the Springfield library, she goes through the card catalog and finds an entry on Phyllis George, an American sportscaster. The title of the episode is a reference to the American bookie and sports commentator Jimmy \"the Greek\" Snyder. The Duff Bowl commercial that airs during halftime is a reference to Bud Bowl ads for Budweiser. \"Smooth\" Jimmy Apollo is based on Jimmy \"the Greek\" Snyder and Brent Gunsilman is based on Brent Musburger.\nIn addition to the football references, the episode parodies the 1979 film",
"-21.636624288046733"
],
[
"with other hard sports-news-producing outlets such as Yahoo! Sports and Fox Sports. Some scholars have challenged ESPN's journalistic integrity calling for an expanded standard of professionalism to prevent biased coverage and conflicts of interest. Mike Freeman's 2001 book ESPN: The Uncensored History, which alleged sexual harassment, drug use and gambling, was the first critical study of ESPN. Cost and finances ESPN currently charges the highest retransmission consent fee of any major cable television network in the United States. In 2011, the main channel alone carried a monthly rate of $4.69 per subscriber (nearly five times the price of the next-costliest",
"-21.599299735215027"
],
[
"basketball team, in October 2006, the 1927 New York Yankees won for best Major League Baseball team, and in December 2006, the 1995 Nebraska Cornhuskers won the fan poll for best-ever college football team.\nEach of these programs features expert analysis and live interactive voting online at ESPN.com, with the first votes being cast one week before the scheduled live show and continued balloting online and via text messaging until the end of the show. Cessation of original programming On January 14, 2007, Deadspin.com reported that ESPN Classic would no longer develop or air original programming. It was not immediately clear",
"-21.571403812617064"
],
[
"documents that reside on the student's Google Drive with the teacher, files are hosted on the student's Drive and then submitted for grading. Teachers may choose a file that can then be treated as a template so that every student can edit their own copy and then turn back in for a grade instead of allowing all students to view, copy, or edit the same document. Students can also choose to attach additional documents from their Drive to the assignment. Grading Google Classroom supports many different grading schemes. Teachers have the option to attach files to the assignment which students",
"-21.569171316805296"
],
[
"a Twitter Account under the name JDHS Newsfeed, the Twitter account gives Sports Updates and Results & News about Upcoming Events at the School.",
"-21.544740184763214"
],
[
"working with a graphic tablet during their post processing can really speed up tasks like creating a detailed layer mask or dodging and burning.\nEducators make use of tablets in classrooms to project handwritten notes or lessons and to allow students to do the same, as well as providing feedback on student work submitted electronically. Online teachers may also use a tablet for marking student work, or for live tutorials or lessons, especially where complex visual information or mathematical equations are required. Students are also increasingly using them as note-taking devices, especially during university lectures while following along with the lecturer.",
"-21.536015754682012"
],
[
"tests to filter which students are perfect to land the job as editors, reporters, photographers, cartoonists and contributors, among others. The administration selects a moderator for the school paper, usually a member of the English faculty, to facilitate the editorial staff in managing the newsletter.",
"-21.52319127564988"
],
[
"sent periodically, rather than all at once, to the plant. This is done to stagger the work required to complete yearbooks for all the schools they cover. After the editors review each page and make changes, the pages are sent to the yearbook plant, usually via the Internet. Yearbook companies that use digital printing methods may only require one submission since the entire book is printed at once.\nIf the proofing process is not performed on-line, the adviser and editors receive proofs (typically full size prints) about a week or so after the submission of pages. This gives the school a",
"-21.485309904732276"
],
[
"the student body. Besides these purposes, student publications also serve as a watchdog to uncover problems at the school. The majority of student publications are funded through their educational institution. Some funds may be generated through sales and advertisements, but the majority usually comes from the school itself. Because of this, educational institutions have specific way in which they can influence the publications through funding. Online student publications Due to the rise in adoption of Internet accessible devices such as computers and smartphones, many high schools and colleges have begun offering online editions of their publications in addition to printed",
"-21.481819910521153"
],
[
"one of its reporters to cover the game in a more in-depth fashion (as ESPN does for Sunday NFL Countdown). As of 2014, the on-site role has been primarily filled by Kathryn Tappen. Previously, reports were filed by Carolyn Manno and Alex Flanagan (the latter left NBC Sports after the 2014 season). The on-site reporting role is now a rotating one, with reports now filed by Manno, Tappen and Paul Burmeister (who came over from NFL Network in 2015 to replace the departed Alex Flanagan). Hyundai Sunday Night Kickoff Hyundai Sunday Night Kickoff (previously sponsored by Chevrolet in",
"-21.463672444486292"
],
[
"scenes from this episode that Josh Weinstein considers to be \"classic\", with the second being the sequence when the crowd throw their free pretzels onto the baseball field, knocking Whitey Ford unconscious. The Ford scene was placed 24th on ESPN.com's list of the \"Top 100 Simpsons sport moments\", released in 2004. Greg Collins, the author of the list, added that \"Every time it looks like a fight is about to start at a baseball game, I start quoting this scene.\" The A.V. Club named the baseball commentator's line \"Aaaannnd heeerrre come the pretzels\" one of the quotes from The Simpsons",
"-21.42307254509069"
],
[
"sent out to all of the teams saying not to do it. But what irritates me is hearing some reactions from players and coaches. These players don't know what their coaches are doing. And some of the coaches have selective amnesia because I know for a fact there were various teams doing this. That's why the memo was sent to everybody. That doesn't make [Belichick] right, but a lot of teams are doing this.\"\nFormer Miami Dolphins head coach Don Shula commented on the incident on November 6, when the Patriots themselves were seven wins away from a perfect regular season,",
"-21.422668695217"
],
[
"sports journalism background, and Jacobson, Paige, and Bayless joined. Co-host Andrews was transferred by ESPN to Los Angeles to co-host ESPN2's new evening entertainment news show, ESPN Hollywood. That show was cancelled in January 2006, and Andrews remained with ESPN until November 2006, when she left the company to work as a correspondent for Entertainment Tonight.\nThe most recent format of the program featured the introduction graphic introducing the hosts and a show rundown. Following that was \"The Top Story\" of the sports world and an appropriate guest, followed by the \"Morning Headlines,\" which included about four or five news items",
"-21.416261723148637"
],
[
"not. Through her research, Williams learned that students often praised their professors for things outside of just teaching well; instead, students would acknowledge the equipment used or the legibility of the teachers' handwriting. These factors would then cause the students to get a false impression of their teacher, believing the instructor was good on these bases rather than how they would teach or what they would teach.",
"-21.40660670993384"
],
[
"On April 26, 2017, approximately 100 ESPN employees were notified that their position with the sports network had been terminated, among them athletes-turned-analysts Trent Dilfer and Danny Kanell, and noted journalists like NFL beat reporter Ed Werder and Major League Baseball expert Jayson Stark. The layoffs come as ESPN continues to shed viewers, more than 10 million over a period of several years, while forking over big money for the broadcast rights to such properties as the NFL, NBA and College Football Playoff. Further cost-cutting measures taken include moving the studio operations of ESPNU to Bristol from Charlotte, North Carolina,",
"-21.388675278125447"
],
[
"published their second book together, Those Guys Have All the Fun: Inside the World of ESPN, which chronicles the history of the network ESPN from its infancy in 1979 through 2010. In 2015, the Focus Features optioned the book to adapt it into a movie.\nOf Shales, the Forbes Media Guide Five Hundred, 1994 wrote: \"Forget the middle ground, Shales either loves it or hates it – and his reviews of TV shows and personalities are often unabashed paroxysms of that love or hate....Like the medium he covers, Shales turns out fast-paced and amusing fare that often lacks depth\". Honors Shales",
"-21.385384352877736"
],
[
"Jeffri Chadiha Jeffri Chadiha' is an American sports journalist currently employed by NFL Media, having joined the Media arm of the NFL in August 2015. He previously worked for ESPN, frequently contributing to ESPN.com on the NFL. Prior to working for ESPN, he worked for Sports Illustrated, having started out at the Ann Arbor News and San Francisco Examiner. He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1993 after transferring from the University of Wyoming.",
"-21.383356873993762"
],
[
"dispute. Fact checking In 2011, AP expanded its fact checking web presence to Twitter. AP sports polls The AP conducts polls for numerous college sports in the United States. The AP college football rankings were created in 1936, and began including the top 25 teams in 1989. Since 1969, the final poll of each season has been released after all bowl games have been played. The AP released its all-time Top 25 in 2016. As of 2017, 22 different programs had finished in the number one spot of the poll since its inception.\nThe AP college basketball poll has been used",
"-21.37949384454987"
],
[
"story at the time, no action was taken because the BBC stated that the facts had not been brought to their attention. Editing In 2016, at the Henley Literary Festival, Jeremy Paxman revealed that, when students were unable to answer several consecutive starter questions, those questions were often deleted before the show is broadcast. He explained that this was done to make a better programme and because \"you as a taxpayer do not want to think your money is being wasted.\" Teams Teams consist of four members and most represent a single university. The exceptions to this are colleges of",
"-21.375774227723014"
],
[
"college coaches have a plethora of followers, they can use their platform to help a recruit and get attention by posting about him/her. This approach is most commonly used on football players because if a coach posts about them it makes them feel wanted and respected. One example of how coaches use twitter to recruit would be taking a photo of the recruit playing football and photo shop it to make it look like the recruit is wearing the uniform of that particular college and then posting it to their twitter. This gives the fan base a chance to react",
"-21.347486017431947"
],
[
"Pay scale Examiner.com was criticized for the low compensation received by some contributors. The site claimed it told contributors that they should not consider this full-time employment, and \"tries to be very clear and transparent that this isn't a 'quit your day job' opportunity.\"\nExaminers were paid based on a black box system, which quantifies page views and other metrics, or the \"Gawker-model\" made famous by the blog Gawker.com. This resulted in writers not getting paid when blogs were not widely read, despite numerous online ads that should have given Examiner.com plenty of revenue. The profits that were made were not",
"-21.340563366229617"
],
[
"user on someone else's post) there is a profile photo gallery and optionally a validation of the user's school attended. Users can make anonymous posts to the community, which collect private comments from other users, those private comments reveal the commenting user's profile to the anonymous poster. This allows more honest expression than fully attributed posts, and provides a safer context for comments and responses that are important feedback to the anonymous poster.\nFounder Drew Halliday says all content is deleted from the servers when the post lifetime expires.\nUsers who post, like or comment, can be seen by other users,",
"-21.336726666020695"
],
[
"Spellings testified before the House Education and Labor Committee responding to criticism from New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo that the Education Department had been \"asleep at the switch\" in overseeing student loan programs, allowing corruption and conflicts of interest to spread. Spellings has further gone on record to say that she is disregarding the suggestion by the Inspector General to hold the loan companies accountable for their graft.\nAltha Cravey and Robert Siegel wrote in the News & Observer that Spellings had been \"supporting for-profit colleges who prey on students – and then profiting off those same students when they",
"-21.332317887805402"
],
[
"a new selection process. While similar to the old selection, student employees at the UP have complained that the new process is \"neutered.\" As a result, the official Spring 2011 editor selection was augmented with a \"fake\" editor selection held in the old style.",
"-21.316905867439772"
]
] |
17lde2 | Why people have birth marks. | [
"Birthmarks are caused by some body tissues, such as blood vessels, smooth muscle, and fat when they grow too much. It is not well understood why this happens, but one of the leading ideas is that there is an imbalance in the different factors relating to skin cell growth and migration.",
"I have a non-natural birthmark of sorts. My mom had a c-section and I was a mega huge baby or something. I have a scar on my ankle where the doctor cut me",
"I have a birthmark in the back of my head the size of about a nickel. When I was younger my pediatrician explained that it's overgrown skin tissue that developed when I was in the womb. For the most part, it looks like a \"bald spot\", but there is some hair growing out of it. Just a little bit of information, I cannot feel if someone is touching it. I have people touch and poke at it and they ask if it hurts. The slightest touch cannot be felt. Even barbers ask if it it would hurt if they passed the clippers over it to cut some of the hair growing out of it. I'm not sure if this is hereditary, but my aunt has the same sized birthmark on the side of her head.",
"I have a blonde birthmark in my hair (reference to rogue or a skunk) right on the center top of my head. I'm also wanting to know why, a doctor of mine said birthmarks in the hair are sometimes a sign of a deeper medical problem/disease but thats all I got from her. Other than that I'd say its just a way to make you stand out from the crowd and rock what you got. If theres any valid responses to this subject, please someone, do tell!",
"ITT: A lot of mystery about birthmarks :/"
] | [
[
"solely about amending birth registrations or other official documents. Firstly, it is about intersex people who have been issued a male or a female birth certificate being able to enjoy the same legal rights as other men and women\nAccess to a birth certificate with a correct sex marker may be an issue for people who do not identify with their sex assigned at birth, or it may only be available accompanied by surgical requirements.\nThe passports and identification documents of Australia and some other nationalities have adopted \"X\" as a valid third category besides \"M\" (male) and \"F\" (female), at least",
"-31.631619880266953"
],
[
"you know the birth date, the birth county and the checksum algorithm. Even easier is to call the tax authority and ask, since the personal identity number is public information.\nWith citizens and other persons born in Sweden, the identity number is issued soon after the birth of a child has been reported by the parents and medical professionals. In exceptional cases, the number may be changed later in life, typically because the date of birth or the registration of gender of the child were in error. If a person changes their legal gender, they will be issued a new identity",
"-31.422039006793057"
],
[
"on birth certificates for babies who are not distinctly male or female. On 22 December 2018, the adopted act entered into force, allowing the choice for intersex people (both at birth and at a later age) between \"female\", \"male\", \"diverse\" and no gender marker at all. In case of a change later in life, first names can also be changed. To change the marker and/or names according to this law, a doctor's note is required, but it is not specified what kind of \"variance of gender development\" is required for the law. As such, non-intersex non-binary people have made use",
"-30.811933129501995"
],
[
"number as well to reflect their new legal gender. Changes in the records of who were someone's biological parents do not affect the number, which has nothing to do with family circumstances.\nA review on the Swedish Personal Identity Number was published in 2009 by medical researchers and representatives of the Tax authority, Statistics Sweden and the National Board of Health and Welfare.\nThere is a problem that the numbers are going to run out for certain dates, mainly the 1st of some months, which have been used in birth certificates in some countries where births often have not been properly registered.",
"-30.133472903209622"
],
[
"sex-specific epi-marks normally prevent female fetuses from being masculinized through exposure of atypically high testosterone, and vice versa for male fetuses. Sex-specific epi-marks are normally erased and not passed between generations. However, they can sometimes escape erasure and are then transferred from a father's genes to a daughter or from a mother's genes to a son. When this happens, this may lead to an altered sexual preference. Epi-marks normally protect parents from variation in sex hormone levels during fetal development, but can carry over across generations and subsequently lead to homosexuality in opposite-sex offspring. This demonstrates that gene coding for",
"-29.42233760675299"
],
[
"number separating persons born on the same date and C is a check digit, but for people born before 1 January 1954 the form is without the check digit - YYXXDD/SSS. This enables the system to work until the year 2054. The whole number must be divisible by 11.\nThe system is raising privacy concerns, since the age and the sex of the bearer can be decoded from the number. Therefore, the birth number is considered a sensitive piece of personal information. Denmark A Personal Identification Number (Da. CPR, Det Centrale Personregister) in Denmark is used in dealings with public agencies,",
"-29.32803706318373"
],
[
"identification, his identification with the father in his own personal prehistory...with the parents\". This means that when a baby is born he is not capable of making a distinction between himself and important others. The baby has an emotional attachment with his parents and experiences his parents as a part of himself. \"The breast is part of me, I am the breast\".\nDuring this process of identification children adopt unconsciously the characteristics of their parents and begin to associate themselves with and copy the behavior of their parents. Freud remarked that identification should be distinguished from imitation, which is a voluntary",
"-29.269049131602515"
],
[
"The Birth-Mark \"The Birth-Mark\" is a short story by American author Nathaniel Hawthorne. The tale examines obsession with human perfection. It was first published in the March 1843 edition of The Pioneer and later appeared in Mosses from an Old Manse, a collection of Hawthorne's short stories published in 1846. Plot summary Aylmer is a brilliant and recognized scientist and philosopher who drops his focus from his career and experiments to marry the beautiful Georgiana (who is physically perfect except for a small red birthmark in the shape of a hand on her cheek). \nAs the story progresses, Aylmer becomes",
"-28.81890384282451"
],
[
"or not the child will later identify themselves that way (see gender identity). For instance, intersex individuals, who have mixed physical and/or genetic features, may use other criteria in determining their gender identities.\nAlthough fewer females than males are born (the ratio is around 1:1.05), newborn girls are more likely to reach their first birthday than are boys and women typically have a longer life expectancy of six to eight years, although in some areas gender-based discrimination against women has lowered female life expectancy to lower or equal to that of males. Out of the total human population in 2015,",
"-28.588899077731185"
],
[
"lives longer than one hundred years. In several countries, especially in Europe, a national identification number was introduced (often in the 1950s), including two-digit information about the birth year.\nThe largest unwelcome side effect from this is people 100 or more years old being mistaken for young children or in some cases, young children being mistaken for adults.\nWhen handling the year 2000 problem, measures were sometimes taken to avoid or rectify this: modifying the national identification number, for instance. For example, year is recorded only with two digits in Bulgarian Uniform civil number; however, a solution was ready as early as",
"-28.514510453336698"
],
[
"a medical record number is assigned to an infant at birth, and bands with this number as well as the last name of the mother of the infant, the sex of the infant, and the date and time of birth are placed on the infant and the mother immediately after parturition before the mother and child are separated. A band may also be placed on the father (or other person chosen by the mother) at the time of birth.",
"-28.46818091138266"
],
[
"not need to be amended.\"\nAustralian Commonwealth guidelines on the recognition of sex and gender, published in June 2013, extended the use of an 'X' gender marker to any adult who chooses that option, in all dealings with the Commonwealth government and its agencies. The option is being introduced over a three-year period. The guidelines also clarify that the federal government collects data on gender, rather than sex. In March 2014, the Australian Capital Territory introduced an 'X' classification for birth certificates.\nNorrie May-Welby is popularly - but erroneously - often regarded as the first person in the world to obtain officially",
"-28.383166197018"
],
[
"identity number before 1990 can still have their birth county or immigration identified.\nThe last digit is a checksum which was introduced in 1967 when the system was computerized. Originally, when the personal identity number was introduced, it had nine digits and the seventh and eighth denoted the county (Swedish: län) in which the subject was born or had been living in 1947 - see above. The seventh digit was 9 for foreign born. This system was replaced with the current system in 1990. Everyone however keeps their number and it is not hard to find out someone's number if",
"-28.272486933274195"
],
[
"Birth certificate A birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a child. The term \"birth certificate\" can refer to either the original document certifying the circumstances of the birth or to a certified copy of or representation of the ensuing registration of that birth. Depending on the jurisdiction, a record of birth might or might not contain verification of the event by such as a midwife or doctor. History and contemporary times The documentation of births is a practice widely held throughout human civilization, especially in China, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Persia. The original purpose of",
"-28.17665387649322"
],
[
"deal of fear, sometimes called a maternal impression.\nIn Iranian folklore, a birthmark appears when the pregnant mother touches a part of her body during a solar eclipse.\nIn Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity folklore, a birthmark is considered a \"kiss of St. Mary the virgin\".\nAccording to modern American folklore in the New Age community, birthmarks sometimes indicate the site of traumatic injuries in a past life.",
"-28.08989226334961"
],
[
"population, the heat and the rumors about baby exchanges in the ward or in the delivery room. This is a media fabrication as hospital staff know well that babies even before they are even seen by the doctor after coming out of their mothers are already attached 2 tags on the ankle and one the wrist which makes it nearly impossible to mistake a baby. Mothers are also given these ID tags just to make sure the child is being given to the right mother. So the baby factory term is true as also back in the early 2000s there",
"-28.015295230492484"
],
[
"at birth, the first interactions influence the development of one's identity. With the introductions of more and more groups, starting with the significant other (ex. family) and reference groups (ex. friends) an individual develops his or her perception of self. As Conley states, individuals \"...develop a sense of other, that is, someone or something outside of oneself\". Finally, individuals interact with the generalized other, \"which represents an internalized sense of the total expectations of others in a variety of settings—regardless of whether we're encountered those people or places before\". Stigma \"A stigma is a negative social label that not only",
"-27.901249396440107"
],
[
"physical and psychosocial development. Legal recognition The Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions states that legal recognition is firstly \"about intersex people who have been issued a male or a female birth certificate being able to enjoy the same legal rights as other men and women.\" In some regions, obtaining any form of birth certification may be an issue. A Kenyan court case in 2014 established the right of an intersex boy, \"Baby A\", to a birth certificate.\nLike all individuals, some intersex individuals may be raised as a certain sex (male or female) but then identify with another",
"-27.876275694114838"
],
[
"relationship with the external world (Piaget, 1954). Facial recognition places a big pivotal point in their development of self-awareness. By 18 months, the infant can communicate their name to others, and upon being shown a picture they are in, they can identify themselves. By two years old, they also usually acquire gender category and age categories, saying things such as \"I am a girl, not a boy\" and \"I am a baby or child, not a grownup\". Evidently, it is not at the level of an adult or an adolescent, but as an infant moves to middle childhood and onwards",
"-27.67585993357352"
],
[
"Place of birth The place of birth (POB) or birthplace is the place where a person was born. This place is often used in legal documents, together with name and date of birth, to uniquely identify a person. As a general rule with respect to passports, the place of birth is determined to be the country that currently has sovereignty over the actual place of birth, regardless of when the birth actually occurred. The place of birth is not necessarily the place where the parents of the new baby live. If the baby is born in a hospital in another",
"-27.590088356140768"
],
[
"1895). Similarly, 40 is added to denote that a person was born after 1999 (e.g. 054907XXXX denotes a person born on 7 September 2005).\nEGNs were introduced in 1977 and are used in virtually all dealings with public service agencies, and often with private businesses. EGNs are also printed on Bulgarian identity cards and passports, under the heading \"ЕГН/Personal number\". Croatia In Croatia, the Personal Identification Number (Croatian: Osobni identifikacijski broj (OIB)), is used for identifying the citizens and legal persons in many government and civilian systems. The OIB-system was introduced on January 1, 2009 and replaced the old JMBG system,",
"-27.589679078839254"
],
[
"Austria to receive it. Australia First reported in January 2003, Australians can choose \"X\" as their gender or sex. Alex MacFarlane is believed to be the first person in Australia to obtain a birth certificate recording sex as indeterminate, and the first Australian passport with an 'X' sex marker in 2003. This was stated by the West Australian newspaper to be on the basis of a challenge by MacFarlane, using an indeterminate birth certificate issued by the State of Victoria. Other individuals known to have similar early options include Tony Briffa of Organisation Intersex International Australia and former mayor of",
"-27.440793891029898"
],
[
"later in life, while most do not. A 2012 clinical review suggests that between 8.5-20% of persons with intersex conditions may experience gender dysphoria, distress or discomfort as a result of the sex and gender they were assigned at birth.\nLike non-intersex people, some intersex individuals may not identify themselves as either exclusively female or exclusively male. Sociological research in Australia, a country with a third 'X' sex classification, shows that 19% of people born with atypical sex characteristics selected an \"X\" or \"other\" option, while 52% are women, 23% men, and 6% unsure. At birth, 52% of persons in the",
"-27.42217237193836"
],
[
"\nLikewise, girls' symbol of coming of age was a nose piercing, but was done by her husband after marriage. Culturally, the piercings signified the social status of the individual and their right to access other ceremonies. For women, it displayed their ability to acquire a husband. For the husband it displayed is ownership and right to his wife. For men, it presented the boy now as a man and his place is society with men. He no longer belonged to the children and the women who raised him. In addition, he now had the right to ceremonies such as circumcision",
"-27.3228571730142"
],
[
"birth name (maiden name) may be reflected in her children's middle names; her own middle name; or dropped entirely. Children may sometimes assume stepparent, foster parent, or adoptive parent names. Because official records may reflect many kinds of surname change, without explaining the underlying reason for the change, the correct identification of a person recorded identified with more than one name is challenging. Immigrants to America often Americanized their names.\nSurname data may be found in trade directories, census returns, birth, death, and marriage records. Place names While the locations of ancestors' residences and life events are core elements of",
"-27.287457741622347"
],
[
"whose birth certificates recorded their sex as indeterminate ... Alex is also believed to be the first Australian issued with a birth certificate acknowledging a gender other than male or female. Alex says \"indeterminate – also known as intersex\". It was issued in Alex's birth State of Victoria, which unlike WA, changed its policy to allow the category\".\nSeveral other Australians are known to have adopted sex non-specific or indeterminate identification documents subsequently, including Tony Briffa, and Norrie May-Welby.",
"-27.27476646568175"
],
[
"birth certificate. United States The United States has historically imposed a strong presumption of marital paternity and has also imposed barriers to paternity challenges once paternity has been legally established. In more recent years, especially since the advent of DNA testing, laws and guidelines have been proposed or enacted that may allow for a paternity challenge by a legal father who later determines he is not a child's biological father, or by a biological father who learns that somebody else has been named on a child's birth certificate as the child's father. California In the case of County of Los",
"-27.251718919636915"
],
[
"then identify with another later in life, while most do not. A 2012 clinical review suggests that between 8.5-20% of persons with intersex conditions may experience gender dysphoria, distress or discomfort as a result of the sex and gender they were assigned at birth. Australian sociological research published in 2016 shows that 19% of 272 people born with atypical sex characteristics participating in the study selected an \"X\" or \"other\" option, while 52% are women, 23% men and 6% unsure.\nAccording to the Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions, few countries have provided for the legal recognition of intersex",
"-27.190689767652657"
],
[
"Paternity law Overview The legal process of determining paternity normally results in the naming of a man to a child's birth certificate as the child's legal father. A paternity finding resolves issues of legitimacy, and may be followed by court rulings that relate to child support and maintenance, custody and guardianship. Unmarried fathers Generally, under common law, a biological father has a legal obligation for the maintenance or support of his biological offspring, whether or not he is legally competent to marry the child's mother.\nIn jurisdictions where there is no presumption of paternity there is a process for fathers to",
"-27.131731791771017"
],
[
"Number (Slovak: Rodné číslo (RČ)), issued at birth by the civic records authority (Slovak: matrika) and recorded on the birth certificate. Its format is YYMMDD/XXXX with YYMMDD being the date of birth and XXXX being a semi-unique identifier. For females, the month of the date of birth is advanced by 50. Full identification number in the form YYMMDDXXXX must be divisible by 11. Since this system does not provide a truly unique identifier (the numbers are repeated every century) and contains what might be considered private information, it may be updated in the future.\nThe second system is the Citizen's Identification",
"-27.0739779866999"
],
[
"period to comply with legal requirements of other countries. In June 2019, Canadian authorities announced that non-binary people may also apply to have an \"X\" gender marker. Denmark According to comment by Transgender Europe, Danish citizens have been issued passport with option 'X' upon application, without medical requirements. However, it follows from the Danish Passport Regulations that persons with even personal identification numbers receive the gender marker \"F\" and persons with odd personal identification numbers the gender marker \"M\" (§ 4(4)), with the only exception that persons who have not (yet) had an official gender change but to whom",
"-26.808407847416674"
],
[
"birth certificate, but only the absence of any such marker. The court held at the same time that even an adult intersex person who was registered with a gender marker at birth can obtain the deletion of that gender marker. This judgment was sent for review by the Federal Court of Justice.\nOn 8 November 2017, the Federal Constitutional Court released a press statement about its ruling from 10 October 2017, which is in favour of a positive third gender option instead of no entry. On 15 August 2018, the German government approved a draft law allowing a third gender option",
"-26.743729511203128"
],
[
"Several medical conditions can result in an apparent sex change in humans, where the appearance at birth is somewhat, mostly, or completely of one sex, but changes over the course of a lifetime to being somewhat, mostly, or completely of the other sex. The overwhelming majority of natural sex changes are from a female appearance at birth to a male appearance after puberty, due to either 5-alpha-reductase deficiency (5alpha-RD-2) or 17-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency (17beta-HSD-3). A relative handful of male to female changes have been reported, and the etiologies of these are not well understood.\nGenetic females (with two X chromosomes) with",
"-26.703019040374784"
],
[
"far back as the 1880’s. One day she was talking to me about birthmarks and how important they had been when she was a little girl. People living in the village believed that you would know how somebody had sinned because of the mark on their face, things like that. After that conversation, I took my bike on a wonderful ride through the vineyards, quite far from the village; as I was returning, the sun was setting, and I saw this creature bounding across a meadow. It looked like a ball of fire at first—an incredible incandescence; then it stopped",
"-26.64717237750301"
],
[
"themselves who lower their public age, but others around them such as publicists, parents, and other handlers. Most cases involve taking or adding one or two years to their age. However, in more extreme cases such as with Al Lewis and Charo, a decade has been added or subtracted. Official state documents (such as birth, marriage and death certificates, the census, and other identity documents) typically provide the correct date.\nAlthough uncommon in modern Western society, it is still possible for a person not to know their exact date of birth. Such a person may arbitrarily choose a date of",
"-26.53545030983514"
],
[
"that \"at law, the gender of an individual is his or her gender as registered at birth, unless the person possesses a gender recognition certificate issued under section 9 of the UK Gender Recognition Act 2004, in which case the person's gender is the acquired gender.\"",
"-26.507078348018695"
],
[
"persons with intersex conditions may experience gender dysphoria, while sociological research in Australia, a country with a third 'X' sex classification, shows that 19% of people born with atypical sex characteristics selected an \"X\" or \"other\" option, while 52% are women, 23% men and 6% unsure.\nDepending on the jurisdiction, access to any birth certificate may be an issue, including a birth certificate with a sex marker. The Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions states that:\nRecognition before the law means having legal personhood and the legal protections that flow from that. For intersex people, this is neither primarily nor",
"-26.486159474938177"
],
[
"if they disclosed it without the subject's consent. However, in the first seven years of operation, birth certificates drawn from the Gender Recognition Register were immediately distinguishable from a natal birth certificate, since they had only nine columns of information, omitting the item 'Signature, description and residence of informant' that appears on birth certificates. These Gender Recognition Certificates also replaced the rubric 'Certified to be a true copy of an entry in the certified copy of a Register of Births in the District above mentioned', which appears on birth certificates, with the rubric 'Certified to be a true copy of",
"-26.485590862110257"
],
[
"place, that place is the place of birth. In many countries, this also means that the government requires that the birth of the new baby is registered in the place of birth.\nSome countries place less or no importance on the place of birth, instead using alternative geographical characteristics for the purpose of identity documents. For example, Sweden has used the concept of födelsehemort (\"domicile of birth\") since 1947. This means that the domicile of the baby's mother is the registered place of birth. The location of the maternity ward or other physical birthplace is considered unimportant. Similarly, Switzerland uses the",
"-26.477217733379803"
],
[
"by a physician stating \"that the physician has performed an operation on the person, and that by reason of the operation, the sex designation of such person's birth record should be changed\", a court order for legal name change, and payment of the associated fees.",
"-26.443893966570613"
],
[
"that correspond to the sex identified on their birth certificates. Transgender persons born in North Carolina can obtain modified birth certificates on which their sex is different than what was originally identified at the time of their birth, but only if they have undergone sex reassignment surgery. For those born in other places, the ability to change the sex listed on a birth certificate is governed by their place of birth (which may have substantially different requirements, and in some cases may not allow such changes).\nThe bill also overturns an LGBT anti-discrimination ordinance that had been passed by Charlotte, North",
"-26.341331880248617"
],
[
"child's birth registration form (B-Form), and then a National Identity Card (NIC) with the same number is issued at the age of 18. Until, 2001 NIC numbers were 11 digits long. In 2001–2002, the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA), started issuing 13-digit NIC numbers along with their new biometric ID cards. The first 5 digits are based on the applicant's locality, the next 7 are serial numbers, and the last digit is a check digit. The last digit also indicates the gender of the applicant; an even number indicates a female and an odd number indicates a male. The",
"-26.336081399815157"
],
[
"attachment to others, such as adoptive parents, children had trouble adapting to their new lives after being adopted.\nAdditionally to physical effects, the legal attributes of being disowned include a loss of legal surname, in addition to first names being assigned as numbers. Young children brought to orphanages typically cannot remember their names and because of this are named by their caretakers.",
"-26.2954355582915"
],
[
"Parliament titled the 'Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics Act' (GIGESC Bill). The bill allows minors to have their parents apply to have their legal gender marker changed for them or to have a gender marker held from their birth certificate until their gender identity has been self-determined. The bill also prevents surgeries from being performed on intersex infants until their gender identity has been discovered; the parents are no longer required to make an immediate decision and medical personnel cannot override this decision because the bill also outlaws the request to view medical records. For individuals who are",
"-26.28424555910169"
],
[
"name, and occupation. Certificates for births before 1911 do not show the mother's maiden name, before 1969 do not show the detail(s) of the parent(s), place of birth and registration, and before 1984 do not show mother's occupation.\nThe short certificate, titled 'CERTIFICATE OF BIRTH', shows the child's full name, sex, date, and place of birth. It does not give any detail(s) of the parent(s); therefore it is not proof of parentage. A short birth certificate is issued, free of charge, at the time of registration.\nBoth versions of a certificate can be used in the verification of identity by acting as",
"-26.279676525620744"
],
[
"sex characteristics selected an \"X\" or \"other\" classification, while 52% are women and 23% men and 6% unsure.\nAlex MacFarlane received the first Australian passport with an 'X' sex descriptor, reported in January 2003. Australian government policy between 2003 and 2011 was to issue passports with an 'X' marker only to people who could \"present a birth certificate that notes their sex as indeterminate\" In 2011, the Australian Passport Office introduced new guidelines for issuing of passports with a new gender, and broadened the availability of the X descriptor to all individuals with documented \"indeterminate\" sex. From 2013, federal guidelines enable",
"-26.278413527528755"
],
[
"to the child without specifying a gender; Doty has filed a legal challenge. Doty and seven other transgender and intersex people have filed a human rights complaint against the province, alleging that publishing gender markers on birth certificates is discriminatory.\nIn July 2017, the Northwest Territories began allowing \"X\" as a non-binary option on birth certificates.\nOn August 31, 2017, Canada began allowing an observation to be added to passports requesting that the holder's gender should be read as \"X\", indicating that it is unspecified, though a gender of \"M\" or \"F\" had to be added as a gender for an undefined",
"-26.260324754257454"
],
[
"among other information, such as marriage status and current registered address. When a child is born in Sweden, the nurse is obligated to report that to the Swedish Tax Authority, which in turn will issue a Personal identity number (personnummer) for the child. This number can then later be used to request the extract. United States In the U.S., the issuance of birth certificates is a function of the Vital Records Office of the states, capital district, territories and former territories. Birth in the U.S. establishes automatic eligibility for American citizenship, so a birth certificate from a local authority is",
"-26.1799455537257"
],
[
"every child shortly after their birth when a claim to Child Benefit is made. People coming from overseas have to apply for a NI number before they can qualify for benefits, though holding a NI number is not a prerequisite for working in the UK.\nAn NI number is in the format: two letters, six digits, and one further letter or a space. The example used is typically AB123456C. It is usual to pair off the digits - such separators are seen on forms used by government departments (both internal and external, notably the P45 and P60). National Insurance and",
"-26.15766280074604"
],
[
"an \"X\" as part of REAL ID. Since November 2018, Colorado has legally provided gender X on driver's license forms and other I.Ds.\nLegislation to offer an \"X\" gender marker for residents' ID cards was introduced in New York state in June 2017 (and was introduced in New York City in June 2018), and in Massachusetts in May 2018. New York city began offering birth certificates with an \"X\" gender marker in January 2019. Federal There is no federal law designating transgender as a protected class, or specifically requiring equal treatment for transgender people. Some versions of the Employment Non-Discrimination",
"-26.15660732827382"
],
[
"if the paternity of the child is questioned. If a child is born to an unmarried woman, or if paternity is disavowed by the mother's husband, the father may later claim paternity through family court proceedings, or the child may file in family court to force his or her father to be recognized as the father.\nChildren are given the family name of their parents at the time of birth. If the father is unknown at the time of the child's birth, the child is given the family name of the mother, but may have his or her name changed to",
"-26.09616571839433"
],
[
"is not possible to assign a sex. The New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs states, \"A person’s sex can be recorded as indeterminate at the time of birth if it cannot be ascertained that the person\nis either male or female, and there are a number of people so recorded.\"\nPassports are available from December 2012 with an 'X' sex descriptor, where \"X\" means \"indeterminate/unspecified\". These were originally introduced for people transitioning gender.\nOn 17 July 2015, Statistics New Zealand introduced a new gender identity classification standard for statistical purposes. The classification has three categories: male, female, and gender diverse. Gender diverse can",
"-26.05288408207707"
],
[
"Today, ear-piercing is not necessary for a young man to receive his adult name, so long as he is old enough and knowledgeable enough. Some men also change their names again later in life as they achieve a higher social status. Women Girls traditionally had their noses pierced around age 12, though today some Rikbaktsa practice this and others do not. At this age, girls take \"forest medicine\" to reduce the pain that will be felt when they give birth later. Traditionally, fathers decided when their daughters would have their faces tattooed in a ceremony, after which they are considered",
"-26.0415920476662"
],
[
"date of birth, the next one stands for a century person was born in (0 for XIX, 1 for XX and 2 for XXI), NNN is birth serial number in that day, and Z is checksum digit.\nFrom July 1, 2017 Personal Codes are issued without indication to date of birth.\nPersonas kods (PK): ABCDEF-XGHIZ = (1101-(1*A+6*B+3*C+7*D+9*E+10*F+5*X+8*G+4*H+2*I)) | Mod 11 | Mod 10. Lithuania In Lithuania the Personal Code (Lithuanian: Asmens kodas) consists of 11 digits, and currently is in the form G YYMMDD NNN C, where G is gender & birth century, YYMMDD is the birthday, NNN is a serial number, C is a",
"-26.04108223359799"
],
[
"Age assessments are conducted when children arrive to a country without valid identity documents or the validity of their documents is questioned. It is not uncommon for children from less developed countries to not be registered at birth, making reliable information about their age and identity difficult for authorities in countries of destination to access.\nIdentity established in a country of transit may appear incorrect. This could be the case with erroneous statements or assessments of age made in a first point of arrival and challenged or contested by the child or the authorities later on. The child or the authorities",
"-26.013559887062"
],
[
"the name or surname which the infant is to bear after the adoption differs from his original name or surname, the new name or surname shall be specified in the order instead of the original.\nIf there was an infant who had not been requested to be adopted before, and now had someone interested in adopting them, their name and information would be directed to the Registrar General to cause the entry in the Registers of Births to be marked with the word “adopted.\" If there was an infant who had previously been the subject of an adoption order, the order",
"-26.010477513016667"
],
[
"alleging that publishing gender markers on birth certificates is discriminatory. The British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal agreed in 2015 to hear their complaint. In April 2017, Doty's child, Searyl Atli Doty, became the first in the world known to be issued a health card with a gender-neutral \"U\" sex marker, but the province has refused to issue a birth certificate without specifying a gender. Doty has filed a legal challenge. Manitoba Under Manitoba law, the Vital Statistics Act of Manitoba (C.C.S.M. c. V60) no longer requires gender reassignment surgery for a person to change their \"sex designation\" on their birth",
"-26.00933024927508"
],
[
"so she or he will not have an identity in the government and they can keep on giving birth until they're satisfied, without fines or punishment. In 2017, the government announces that all child without an identity can now have an identity legally, known as family register. Japan Since feudal Japan the common slang for infanticide was \"mabiki\" (間引き) which means to pull plants from an overcrowded garden. A typical method in Japan was smothering through wet paper on the baby's mouth and nose. It became common as a method of population control. Farmers would often kill their second or",
"-26.00010946166003"
],
[
"other words. People who do not like themselves tend not to exhibit the name-letter effect. A similar effect has been found for numbers related to birthdays: people tend to prefer the number signifying the day of the month on which they were born. Alternative explanations for the name-letter effect, such as frequent exposure and early mastery, have been ruled out. In psychological assessments, the Name Letter Preference Task is widely used to estimate implicit self-esteem.\nThere is some evidence that the effect has implications for real-life decisions. In the lab, people disproportionately favor brands matching their initials. An analysis of a",
"-25.99946509420988"
],
[
"or female, or leave the genitalia as is. Some parents allow their doctors to choose. If they do decide to modify the genitalia, they have approximately a 50% chance of getting genitalia that will match the child's gender identity. If they pick the wrong one, their child may begin to show symptoms of transsexualism, which can lead them to a life of discomfort until they are able to remedy the issue.\nBecause of the strong sexual selection affecting the structure and function of genitalia, they form an organ system that evolves rapidly. A great variety of genital form and function may",
"-25.93458134678076"
],
[
"when an attending midwife or physician announces, \"It's a girl!\" Synonyms: female assigned at birth (FAAB) and designated female at birth (DFAB).\nIntersex, in humans and other animals, describes variations in sex characteristics including chromosomes, gonads, sex hormones, or genitals that, according to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, \"do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies\". These may complicate the sex assignment of a newborn and can result a phenotypical sex assignment that is inconsistent with normal genotype.\nTransgender people have a gender identity, or gender expression, that differs from their assigned sex. Transgender",
"-25.839295941754244"
],
[
"or female, with no intersex/unspecified option) is still collected for medical purposes. Children born with ambiguous genitalia are given an additional 60 days to choose a sex for registration. The child's sex will be displayed on the birth certificate only if the parents choose to opt-in. The same reforms also allowed persons over the age of 16 to change their gender identity on official documentation - without a sex reassignment surgery or hormone replacement therapy - by providing a gender declaration. Canada In June 2016, the government of the province of Ontario announced changes to the way gender will be",
"-25.815553589475115"
],
[
"in numbers: gender (1 number) – birth date (6 numbers) – unique ID (4 numbers). They are no longer used as a personal identification number, but as a statistical signature.\nOther valid documents are the passport (blue colored or red colored with RFID chip) and the driver's license; an individual is required to have at least one of them on hand all the time. The Personal Identity Card is mandatory to vote in state elections or open a bank account in the country.\nID cards are issued to permanent residents of Hungary; the card has a different color for foreign citizens. Iceland",
"-25.81033004570054"
],
[
"automatically determines the nationality of the baby, a practice often referred to by the Latin phrase jus soli. Almost all countries outside the Americas instead attribute nationality based on the nationality(-ies) of the baby's parents (referred to as jus sanguinis). \nThere can be some confusion regarding the place of birth if the birth takes place in an unusual way: when babies are born on an airplane or at sea, difficulties can arise. The place of birth of such a person depends on the law of the countries involved, which include the nationality of the plane or ship, the nationality(-ies) of",
"-25.808119688066654"
],
[
"social insurance number. Birth registration processes are set by individual provinces and may present unique challenges for Queer families. For example, in Ontario a female same sex couple using an unknown sperm donor may place both their names on the form automatically. If a known sperm donor is used the donor must forfeit their rights and the non-biological parent must legally declare second parentage or second parent adoption. This creates a lapse in legal recognition of the non-biological parent, the family maintains responsibility for legal fees. Recent developments Recent legal proceedings have provided progressive results for families who wish to",
"-25.76282313701813"
],
[
"Personal ID Number Certificate Personnummerbevis is the Danish term for the personal identification number certificate. Today this certificate is of little use in Danish society, as it has been largely replaced by the much more versatile Sundhedskort (\"Health Card\"), which contains the same information and more. Both certificates retrieve their information from the Civil Registration System. However, personnummerbevis is still issued today and has been since September 1968.\nIt is received upon registration with the Civil Registration System, either by birth or by moving to the country. It may only be issued once and change of address does not entail issuing",
"-25.759132761639194"
],
[
"point up and signal it through assumptions concerning gender in clothing codes. The manner in which an infant is dressed \"affects behavior toward the infant\". Clothing may be sex-typed by colour (e.g. - pink or yellow for girls, blue or red for boys), or by style (ruffles and puffed sleeves for girls). If children's clothes, in the past, were used to differentiate those belonging to rich families from those coming from poor ones, today clothes are a symbol of gender differentiation.\nA 1985 study found that US parents were not \"bothered by strangers' mistaking the infant's sex\". Gender differentiation Gender is",
"-25.72848614619579"
],
[
"birthday-number effect. A similar effect, the name-letter effect, has been found for letters: people tend to prefer the letters that are part of their name. The birthday-number effect and the name-letter effect are significantly correlated. In psychological assessments, the Number Preference Task is used to estimate implicit self-esteem.\nThere is some evidence that the effect has implications for real-life decisions. One lab study revealed an increase in a favourable attitude towards prices when they were secretly manipulated to match subjects' birthday dates, thus resulting in a higher chance of purchase. However a second study using birth year as price did not",
"-25.72800556238508"
],
[
"Recognition (family law) Germany The legal framework for the recognition of paternity is defined in section 1594 of the German Civil Code.\nA child has in certain circumstances (initially) no legal father. This is always the case where no legal presumption of paternity exists, for example if at the time of birth the mother is unmarried or divorced or the marriage is legally annulled, or if the husband is deceased more than 300 days before the child's birth. The same applies to a child whose origin is unclear (a foundling) or if the previous paternity in the context of paternity",
"-25.699427188781556"
],
[
"content about the situation. Psychologists, sexologists, and researchers frequently still believe that it is better for a baby's genitalia to be changed when they were younger than when they were a mature adult. These scientists believe that early intervention helped avoid gender identity confusion. This was called the 'Optimal Gender Policy', and it was initially developed in the 1950s by John Money. Money and others controversially believed that children were more likely to develop a gender identity that matched sex of rearing than might be determined by chromosomes, gonads, or hormones. The primary goal of assignment was to choose the",
"-25.695214829291217"
],
[
"number from the fertility clinic or sperm bank used for their birth. They may then share their number on a registry. By finding shared donor numbers, offspring may find their genetic half-siblings. The donor may also find his number on a registry and choose to make contact with his offspring or otherwise reveal his identity. Tracking by DNA databases Even sperm donors who have chosen anonymity and not to contact their offspring through a registry are now increasingly being traced by their children. Improved DNA technology has brought into question the possibility of assuring a donor's anonymity. For example, at",
"-25.66868960764259"
],
[
"marker (at all: not a marker of \"undetermined\", \"unstated\", etc). Persons can ask that their own certificates do not include gender markers. This is in line with the Yogyakarta +10 recommendation 31, Royal assent was granted on 8 May 2019 by the Governor of Tasmania and went into effect after 120 days (i.e. from 5 September 2019). Passports The Australian Government Guidelines on the Recognition of Sex and Gender, which took effect from 1 July 2013, enable any adult to choose to identify as male, female or X. Documentary evidence must be provided from a doctor or psychologist, but no",
"-25.652775250928244"
],
[
"so before seeking to update their birth certificate. Queensland only allows people to change their name if they were either born/adopted in Queensland or born overseas but have lived in Queensland for at least twelve months. A name change is allowed every twelve months and cannot be made for criminal purposes, such as fraud. Intersex rights In March 2017, representatives of Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome Support Group Australia and Organisation Intersex International Australia participated in an Australian and Aotearoa/New Zealand consensus \"Darlington Statement\" by intersex community organizations and others. The statement calls for legal reform, including the criminalization of deferrable intersex",
"-25.65148318052161"
],
[
"well as derivative citizenship upon the naturalization of a parent (8 U.S.C. §§ 1431–1433). Birth or parental naturalization in the U.S. Children born in the U.S. are U.S. citizens, regardless of their parents' citizenship or immigration status or whether the family lives in the U.S. after the child is born; the only exception recognized under current law is for children born to foreign diplomats. Many babies who grew up in towns along the Canada–United States border were born in a hospital on the opposite side of the border and thus acquired the citizenship of the other country this way. Also, when an",
"-25.61645220212813"
],
[
"genetic sex (XY-male or XX-female) corresponds with the phenotypical sex; that is to say, genetic sex corresponds with internal and external gonads, and external appearance of the genitals. Signs There are a variety of symptoms that can occur. Ambiguous genitalia being the most common sign, there can be micropenis, clitoromegaly, partial labial fusion, electrolyte abnormalities, delayed or absent puberty, unexpected changes at puberty, hypospadias, labial or inguinal (groin) masses (which may turn out to be testes) in girls and undescended testes (which may turn out to be ovaries) in boys. Ambiguous genitalia Ambiguous genitalia may appear as a large",
"-25.597025048802607"
],
[
"research, Judith Rich Harris suggests that birth order effects may exist within the context of the family of origin, but that they are not enduring aspects of personality. When people are with their parents and siblings, firstborns behave differently from laterborns, even during adulthood. However, most people don't spend their adult lives in their childhood home. Harris provides evidence that the patterns of behavior acquired in the childhood home don't affect the way people behave outside the home, even during childhood. Harris concludes that birth order effects keep turning up because people keep looking for them, and keep analyzing and",
"-25.581126937871886"
],
[
"number of intersex babies born in the country. The standard procedure in a case of an intersex child birth is the removal of the male genitalia due to the fact that it is an easier operation than the one removing the female genitalia. The parents are rarely informed of the damages this could later cause to the child's gender identity. There are no laws concerning intersex people. Military service Bulgaria's Protection Against Discrimination Act of 2003 protects individuals from discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation in relation to recruitment to the military. Blood donation Gay and bisexual men are",
"-25.575040418552817"
],
[
"child's biological father. From 4 May 2006, with the introduction of the Family Law (Scotland) Act 2006, a father named on the child's birth certificate also automatically obtains responsibilities and rights. It is important to note that the Act only applies to births from 4 May 2006 and any previous births would have to be re-registered by both parents in order for the father to obtain legal status.",
"-25.524363352218643"
],
[
"name the experience\". Gender identities Like all individuals, some intersex individuals may be raised as a particular sex (male or female) but then identify with another later in life, while most do not. Like non-intersex people, some intersex individuals may not identify themselves as either exclusively female or exclusively male. A 2012 clinical review suggests that between 8.5-20% of persons with intersex conditions may experience gender dysphoria, while sociological research in Australia, a country with a third 'X' sex classification, shows that 19% of people born with atypical sex characteristics selected an \"X\" or \"other\" option, while 52% are women,",
"-25.518121821478417"
],
[
"and through identity documents and secondarily through the widespread use of the number in various contacts with authorities, businesses etc. They are necessary for personal service at banks, authorities, health care and other services which use the personal identity number. Most people are familiar with their full number and those of their children without hesitation. Personal identity numbers of individuals are openly available from the Swedish tax authorities to anyone who asks (over phone, letter, over the desk, but not over the internet), according to the Swedish principle of freedom of information. Redistribution of these numbers using computers are",
"-25.49925129464691"
],
[
"with day-to-day issues they encountered.\nThe 1966 case of Anonymous v. Weiner dealt with a transsexual person who had undergone a sex reassignment surgery and wanted to change the name and sex on the birth certificate. The court ruled against allowing a transgender person to change their original sex cited on their birth certificate to match the reassigned gender. It ruled that the only time the sex on a birth certificate could be changed was when an error had been made when recording it at birth.\nOver the last decade, more than one person per month has died due to transgender-based hate",
"-25.49581295142707"
],
[
"by later laws, such as the Nationality Act of 1940. Birthright citizenship U.S. citizenship is usually acquired by birth when a child is born within the territory of the United States. In addition to the 50 U.S. states, this includes the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Citizenship, however, was not specified in the original Constitution. In 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment specifically defined persons who were either born or naturalized in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction as citizens. All babies born in the United States—except those born to",
"-25.457240569858186"
],
[
"to be named on their child's birth certificate as the legal parents/guardians of the child. Discrimination protections The passage of the Equality Act 2010 (Scottish Gaelic: Achd na Co-ionannachd 2010) by the Parliament of the United Kingdom directly impacted on Scotland. Since implementation, the Act has covered gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, sex, and sexual orientation among a host of other attributes. The Act outlaws discrimination, harassment and victimisation of another person because they belong to a group that the Act protects, are thought to belong to one of those groups or are associated with someone who does.\nIn 2009,",
"-25.430042346793925"
],
[
"facial discrimination and recognition shortly after birth. Therefore, it is not surprising that infants develop strong facial recognition of their mother. Studies have shown that newborns have a preference for their mothers' faces two weeks after birth. At this stage, infants would focus their visual attention on pictures of their own mother for a longer period than a picture of complete strangers. Studies have shown that infants even as early as four days old look longer at their mothers’ face than at those of strangers only when the mother is not wearing a head scarf. This may suggest that hairline",
"-25.407701363845263"
],
[
"In December 2017, Washington state filed an adopted rule to allow a third, non-binary \"X\" gender marker on amended birth certificates, although certificates will still be initially issued with male or female designations; the rule went into effect on January 27, 2018. Oregon also allows a person to amend their birth certificate to include non-binary \"X\" gender marker as of January 1, 2018.\nOn June 11, 2018, Maine began allowing \"X\" gender markers on state IDs. They are currently issuing stickers that read “Gender has been changed to X – Non-binary,\" and will begin issuing IDs with \"X\" printed on them—phasing",
"-25.39266670565121"
],
[
"to a sex category on the basis of biological genitalia at birth. Following this sexual assignment, parents begin to influence gender identity by dressing children in ways that clearly display this biological category. Therefore, biological sex becomes associated with a gender through naming, dress, and the use of other gender markers. Gender development continues to be affected by the outlooks of others, education institutions, parenting, media, etc. These variations of social interactions force individuals to \"learn what is expected, see what is expected, act and react in expected ways, and thus simultaneously construct and maintain the gender order\". Gender-based harassment",
"-25.375542645313544"
],
[
"& another v Attorney General & 6 others [2014], a Kenyan court ordered the Kenyan government to issue a birth certificate to a five-year-old child born in 2009 with ambiguous genitalia. In Kenya a birth certificate is necessary for attending school, getting a national identity document, and voting. The child's lawyer, John Chigiti, stated that this was a \"first step toward recognizing intersex people\".\nIn an earlier, 2010, High Court case, Richard Muasya v. the Hon. Attorney General, the Court had determined that an intersex person was responsible for registering his own birth, following a failure to do so at the",
"-25.36295841805986"
],
[
"of pregnancy, maternal complications, and maternal death, it has been studied that age itself may cause fewer health risks for the mother or the offspring due to the prevalence of first-births among the younger ages. First births are higher among teenagers and are usually more complicated than higher-order births. Included in these observations are other complications related to delivery such as cephalopelvic disproportion, which is a condition in which the mother's pelvis is too small relative to the child's head to allow the child to pass. Cephalopelvis disproportion is most common in younger women. Many of these risks are higher",
"-25.343722176388837"
],
[
"... For example, 100 individuals in ELVIS [the Kansas Election Voter Information System] have birth dates in the 1800s, indicating that they are older than 118. And 400 individuals have birth dates after their date of registration, indicating they registered to vote before they were born. ... The voting rate among purported noncitizen registrations on [a Kansas temporary drivers license] match list is around 1%, whereas the voting rate among registrants in Kansas more generally is around 70%.”\nDefendant Kobach “insists that [published numbers of noncitizens voting] are just 'the tip of the iceberg.' This trial was his opportunity",
"-25.340059079942876"
],
[
"that \"the child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have the right from birth to a name, the right to acquire a nationality and, as far as possible, the right to know and be cared for by his or her parents\". United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and a number of non-governmental organizations (Plan International, Save the Children Fund, World Vision, etc.) have particularly promoted the human rights aspects of registration, while the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and World Health Organization (WHO) have focused more on the statistical aspects of civil registration.\nCountries which",
"-25.306043185002636"
],
[
"between them when retested at the nine months mark. This research shows that the individuation process helps to shape and maintain discrimination abilities for categories of familiarity, and is instrumental in the recognition of familiar faces later in life. It also highlights the importance of experience in perceptual narrowing.\nInfants showed similar results to non-primate species such as cats and dogs at the ages of three to four months of age, however without the confirmation of whether or not the ability to discriminate decreases as development occurs after nine months. Phoneme distinction At birth, infants have broad abilities to detect",
"-25.30449398888868"
],
[
"or in rare cases, old people for whom no birth certificate was processed at birth). After this digit, two blocks of four digits follow; the combination corresponds to the unique identifier of the citizen.\nIt is widely requested as part of every legal and financial purpose, often requested at payment with credit or debit cards for identification guarantee and requested for buying alcoholic beverages or cigarettes or upon entrance to adults-only places like bars.\nThe card must be renewed every ten years and is freely issued again if lost. Among the information included there are, on the front, two identification pictures and",
"-25.28651986757177"
],
[
"the gender designation on a birth certificate due to gender surgery, while Idaho and Ohio have the same prohibition, but via court decision rather than by statute; and in Puerto Rico, a U.S. territory, a court ruled that gender markers could not be changed on identity documents under any circumstances.\nIn California, the Gender Recognition Act of 2017 was introduced in the State Senate in Sacramento in January 2017, and signed into law by governor Jerry Brown on October 19. The law recognizes a third gender option known as \"non-binary\" which may be used on state-issued documents such as driver's",
"-25.281318865774665"
],
[
"see that the birth is properly registered with the appropriate government agency.\nThe actual record of birth is stored with a government agency. That agency will issue certified copies or representations of the original birth record upon request, which can be used to apply for government benefits, such as passports. The certification is signed and/or sealed by the registrar or other custodian of birth records, who is commissioned by the government.\nThe right of every child to a name and nationality, and the responsibility of national governments to achieve this are contained in Articles 7 and 8 in the United Nations Convention",
"-25.264182671206072"
],
[
"cause in order to access their birth certificates. Some groups, such as Bastard Nation, One Voice, and Origins USA, campaign for adoptees' automatic access to birth certificates in other US states.",
"-25.262162878527306"
],
[
"is found in the age at first memories, females have earlier memories than males. Women's earlier first memories may be accounted for by the fact that mothers generally have more elaborative, evaluative, and emotional reminiscent style with daughters than with sons, which has been shown to result in more richly detailed childhood memories. Women across cultures tend to have more information-dense memories than men, and women tend to refer to others more than themselves in their earliest memories. Men, on the other hand, exhibit more early memory focus on their individual selves. Men have been found more likely than women",
"-25.255351609750505"
],
[
"all people to identify gender as male, female or X on federal documents, including passports. Documentary evidence must be witnessed by a doctor or psychologist, but medical intervention is not required.\nIn Australia, birth certificates are issued by States and Territories. Intersex Human Rights Australia states that identification changes are managed as an administrative correction.\nAlex MacFarlane is also believed to be the first person in Australia to obtain a birth certificate recording sex as indeterminate, reported in January 2003.\nIn March 2017, an Australian and Aotearoa/New Zealand community statement called for an end to legal classification of sex, stating that legal third",
"-25.230987641771208"
],
[
"(or partner) but is actually the progeny of another man.\" Non-paternity events are also sometimes referred to as misattributed paternity, paternal discrepancy or false paternity. Although it is sometimes referred to as paternity fraud, this suggests that the misattribution was deliberate rather than accidental. In a scientific review of non-paternity studies since the 1950s, Bellis et al. (2005) stated that knowingly covering up an accidental pregnancy that resulted from infidelity is often assumed to be the reason for non-paternity, but that there are many other reasons, \"for example, where sex with the long term partner has not produced children a",
"-25.21092974662315"
],
[
"registration as UK citizens provided application was made before the child reached age 18. Many eligible children were not registered before their 18th birthday due to the fact this policy concession was poorly publicised. Hence it was effectively reintroduced by the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 for those aged under 18 on the date of the original announcement, with the law adding a new section 4C to the British Nationality Act 1981.\nThe Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act 2009 then expanded the earliest date of birth covered from 1961 to 1 January 1949, and elaborated in \"a dense",
"-25.18829486746108"
],
[
"less than a year in the country or don't reside at all but needs authority contacts, e.g owning a summer house, or for Swedish citizens who have never been residents of Sweden. It is structured along the same lines, but with the day in the date of birth advanced by 60 (giving a number between 61 and 91). The reason for this routine is that there is a risk of running out of personal identity numbers. It is easier to get a co-ordination number than a personal identity number because the latter require evidence of work or education which would",
"-25.181628464953974"
]
] |
jv91t | What prime numbers are and why they're important | [
"Imagine I gave you a whole bunch of blocks, and asked you to arrange them for me. I need you to arrange them in a rectangle. Let's start with 10 blocks: ********** After messing around a bit, you manage to make the following rectangle: ***** ***** Good! Now count the number of blocks on each edge of the rectangle. 2, 5, 2, 5. Notice each number will for sure appear twice, so we only need to keep track of the two that might be different, 2 and 5. We call these numbers a *factorization* of our first number, 10. What if I give you one more block? ***** ****** It doesn't seem to fit anywhere. After a while, you give up. That's because 11 is a *prime* number, the only rectangle you can make with it is: *********** the line rectangle. Now, how about we add one more? ************ This time, you manage to make two *different* rectangles: ****** **** ****** **** **** So 12 is definitely not prime, it is composite. Why don't you try 13? What makes primes important is that you can use them to build up all the other numbers. When you have a composite number, you get two factors, two numbers that multiply to give you the composite number. These two numbers might be prime, but if not, you can factor them instead, and keep going down until you have all prime numbers. For example 10=2\\*5, which are both prime. 12= 2\\*2\\*3, all prime. So often, if mathematicians can show something is true for prime numbers, they can then show that it is true for all numbers, because every number is built up this way from prime numbers.",
"This isn't really an answer, just an interesting related note. You also see prime numbers in biology. For example, the [Cicada]( URL_0 ) has a very long 13 or 17 year life-cycle. Its no accident that these are prime numbers, since it means that their predators, with shorter life cycles, can't synchronize their cycles so that they always emerge at the same time the Cicadas do. If a Cicada had a 12 year life cycle, then a predator with a 2, 3, 4, or 6 year life cycle could have a feast once every 6, 4, 3, or 2 cycles respectively.",
"I think others have covered what prime numbers are quite well. Let's talk about why they're important. First, every whole number bigger than 1 can be expressed as a product of primes--and the series of primes that represents a whole number is unique. Reducing a number to the series of primes that represent it, however is *very hard*. In fact, it's so hard that we haven't come up with a fast and consistent way of doing it that doesn't depend on trying every possible combination--or at least making educated guesses. This is particularly true of semiprimes--the product of two prime numbers. However, checking if a number is prime--and checking the factorization of prime numbers is correct--is a *very* easy thing to do. We can check 300 digit prime numbers within a fraction of a second using computers! Now, one thing we can do is use two very large prime numbers to scramble messages--as all messages can be encoded as numbers. What's more, the way we scramble it means that I could hand you one number to use to scramble the message you want to send me, while I keep one that de-scrambles that message. It doesn't matter how many people know about the number I give you: as long as it takes several hundred computers two years to factorize a large semiprime (large here meaning more than 200 digits), nobody's going to calculate *my* number using yours. This process is called asymmetric key encryption (or public key encryption). Why is this important? Every time you want to make a purchase online, you want to make sure that bad guys don't get your credit card number. Websites use asymmetric key encryption to ensure that bad guys listening to your Internet connection cannot get your credit card number and take trips to Thailand with your money. Banks use similar methods to ensure that bank-to-bank electronic money transfers are secure and that bank robbers can't take their money by tapping into an Internet connection. The military uses it to pass its orders around so that enemies can't see the military's plans. Indeed, the Nazis lost the war at least in part to the fact that their message scrambling wasn't as secure as they thought. But you didn't ask about how computers were invented, so we'll save that story for another time.",
"What a prime number *is* is simple enough: Any whole number which can only be divided by itself and one and still give a whole number as a result. e.g. 6 is **not** prime, because you can divide 6 by 2 and get 3. 3 however is prime, because you can't divide 3 by any whole number besides 1 and 3 and get another whole number. For any non-prime whole number, you can get that number by multiplying together 2 or more prime numbers, e.g. 50 = 2 x 5 x 5. Why they are important is a more complex issue. They have their uses in cryptography which have been explained to five year olds [before]( URL_0 ). What mainly interests mathematicians is that there doesn't seem to be any pattern to the prime numbers. Take the first few: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 17, 19, 23, ~~27~~... there is no discernible pattern to this sequence of numbers. An awful lot of mathematicians have spent a long time searching for a pattern in the prime numbers, but no one has found one yet.",
"Not like you're five, but i'll try to simplify. Let's say we find a rock on the ground with a lot of different colors. We put it through a magical grinder which crushes the rock into tiny atoms and sorts them into different piles. One pile contains carbon atoms, another one contains cobalt, and so on. These atoms are the fundamental building blocks of all things in the universe. Now let's look at a number. We grind this number by dividing it into smaller numbers. At the end, we have numbers that cannot be divided any further. These prime numbers are the fundamental building blocks of all other numbers in the sense of multiplication. This is why they are interesting. The word 'primal' is probably a better description. Primal as in fundamental, the beginning, optimus prime..al?",
"There's something my brain isn't quite grasping, which is, if a given number X is the product of two primes Y and Z, then those are the *only* two primes which can be multiplied together to make X. I mean, I can sit here and go \"3 x 5 is 15; are there any other primes which can be multiplied together to make 15? Obviously not. Next, 5 x 7 is 35...\" but I don't instinctively, logically *see* that this remains true all the way up. Can anyone Prove It To Me Like I'm Five?",
"A prime number is a number that can be divided only by 1 and by itself. The first primes are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 and so on. Usually 1 is not considered prime. For example 4 is not prime because 4 = 2 x 2. 6 = 3x2, 9=3x3, on the other hand 17 is prime because 17 = 17 x 1. Prime numbers are infinite. It was proved by an ancient Greek mathematician, Euclid. *He said: suppose that there are only 3 prime numbers: 2, 3 and 5. Multiply these three numbers: 2 x 3 x 5 = 30, now add one: 30 + 1 = 31. This number is not divisible by 2, not divisible by 3 and not divisible by 5. So there are two cases: 31 is prime or is the product of other prime numbers. In both these cases the list of primes is incomplete. Note that with this method you don't get all the prime numbers. (Like You're 12)* Finding big prime numbers is hard (even with computers). This is why prime numbers are interesting for mathematicians. They are struggling to find a way to get prime numbers easily. Now prime numbers are used to hide messages (there's a lot of theory behind this so it's difficult to make it easy) in what is called public key cryptography. Prime numbers also have some application in mathematics, but not really useful (for now).",
"This question itself is way more interesting than any possible answer:)"
] | [
[
"are based on the mathematics of prime numbers. For instance the checksums used in International Standard Book Numbers are defined by taking the rest of the number modulo 11, a prime number. Because 11 is prime this method can detect both single-digit errors and transpositions of adjacent digits. Another checksum method, Adler-32, uses arithmetic modulo 65521, the largest prime number less than .\nPrime numbers are also used in pseudorandom number generators including linear congruential generators and the Mersenne Twister. Other applications Prime numbers are of central importance to number theory but also have many applications to other areas within mathematics,",
"-29.24249772397161"
],
[
"Prime number A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that cannot be formed by multiplying two smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number. For example, 5 is prime because the only ways of writing it as a product, 1 × 5 or 5 × 1, involve 5 itself.\nHowever, 6 is composite because it is the product of two numbers (2 × 3) that are both smaller than 6. Primes are central in number theory because of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic: every natural",
"-29.174658500705846"
],
[
"examples. Examples The prime numbers are the natural numbers bigger than 1 that have no divisors but 1 and themselves. Taking these in their natural order gives the sequence (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...). The prime numbers are widely used in mathematics and specifically in number theory.\nThe Fibonacci numbers comprise the integer sequence whose elements are the sum of the previous two elements. The first two elements are either 0 and 1 or 1 and 1 so that the sequence is (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...).\nFor a large",
"-28.899139839908457"
],
[
"of digits, that is, to its logarithm.\nSeveral historical questions regarding prime numbers are still unsolved. These include Goldbach's conjecture, that every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes, and the twin prime conjecture, that there are infinitely many pairs of primes having just one even number between them. Such questions spurred the development of various branches of number theory, focusing on analytic or algebraic aspects of numbers. Primes are used in several routines in information technology, such as public-key cryptography, which relies on the difficulty of factoring large numbers into their prime factors.",
"-28.839933771290816"
],
[
"Primes in arithmetic progression In number theory, primes in arithmetic progression are any sequence of at least three prime numbers that are consecutive terms in an arithmetic progression. An example is the sequence of primes (3, 7, 11), which is given by for .\nAccording to the Green–Tao theorem, there exist arbitrarily long sequences of primes in arithmetic progression. Sometimes the phrase may also be used about primes which belong to an arithmetic progression which also contains composite numbers. For example, it can be used about primes in an arithmetic progression of the form , where a and b are",
"-28.154334770471905"
],
[
"Prime number theorem In number theory, the prime number theorem (PNT) describes the asymptotic distribution of the prime numbers among the positive integers. It formalizes the intuitive idea that primes become less common as they become larger by precisely quantifying the rate at which this occurs. The theorem was proved independently by Jacques Hadamard and Charles Jean de la Vallée Poussin in 1896 using ideas introduced by Bernhard Riemann (in particular, the Riemann zeta function).\nThe first such distribution found is π(N) ~ , where π(N) is the prime-counting function and log(N) is the natural logarithm of N. This means",
"-28.02743623915012"
],
[
"Prime Pages The Prime Pages is a website about prime numbers maintained by Chris Caldwell at the University of Tennessee at Martin.\nThe site maintains the list of the \"5,000 largest known primes\", selected smaller primes of special forms, and many \"top twenty\" lists for primes of various forms. As of 2018, the 5,000th prime has around 412,000 digits.\nThe Prime Pages has a wealth of articles on primes and primality testing. It includes \"The Prime Glossary\" with articles on hundreds of glosses related to primes, and \"Prime Curios!\" with thousands of curios about specific numbers.\nThe database started as a list",
"-27.34266208394547"
],
[
"Gigantic prime A gigantic prime is a prime number with at least 10,000 decimal digits. \nThe term appeared in Journal of Recreational Mathematics in the article \"Collecting gigantic and titanic primes\" (1992) by Samuel Yates. Chris Caldwell, who continued Yates' collection in The Prime Pages, reports that he changed the requirement from Yates' original 5,000 digits to 10,000 digits, when he was asked to revise the article after the death of Yates. Few primes of that size were known then, but a modern personal computer can find many in a day.\nThe first discovered gigantic prime was the Mersenne prime 2⁴⁴⁴⁹⁷",
"-27.249221783733447"
],
[
"including abstract algebra and elementary geometry. For example, it is possible to place prime numbers of points in a two-dimensional grid so that no three are in a line, or so that every triangle formed by three of the points has large area. Another example is Eisenstein's criterion, a test for whether a polynomial is irreducible based on divisibility of its coefficients by a prime number and its square.\nThe concept of prime number is so important that it has been generalized in different ways in various branches of mathematics. Generally, \"prime\" indicates minimality or indecomposability, in an appropriate sense. For",
"-27.119423791213194"
],
[
"as a connected sum of prime knots. The prime decomposition of 3-manifolds is another example of this type.\nBeyond mathematics and computing, prime numbers have potential connections to quantum mechanics, and have been used metaphorically in the arts and literature. They have also been used in evolutionary biology to explain the life cycles of cicadas. Quantum mechanics Beginning with the work of Hugh Montgomery and Freeman Dyson in the 1970s, mathematicians and physicists have speculated that the zeros of the Riemann zeta function are connected to the energy levels of quantum systems. Prime numbers are also significant in quantum information",
"-27.04901861619146"
],
[
"mathematical circles, through the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search and other distributed computing projects. The idea that prime numbers had few applications outside of pure mathematics was shattered in the 1970s when public-key cryptography and the RSA cryptosystem were invented, using prime numbers as their basis.\nThe increased practical importance of computerized primality testing and factorization led to the development of improved methods capable of handling large numbers of unrestricted form. The mathematical theory of prime numbers also moved forward with the Green–Tao theorem (2004) that there are arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions of prime numbers, and Yitang Zhang's 2013 proof that",
"-26.955410414608195"
],
[
"Unusual number Relation to prime numbers All prime numbers are unusual.\nFor any prime p, its multiples less than p² are unusual, that is p, ... (p-1)p, which have a density 1/p in the interval (p,p²).",
"-26.943319723941386"
],
[
"integers. The first few prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11. There is no such simple formula as for odd and even numbers to generate the prime numbers. The primes have been widely studied for more than 2000 years and have led to many questions, only some of which have been answered. The study of these questions belongs to number theory. An example of a still unanswered question is, whether every even number is the sum of two primes. This is called Goldbach's conjecture.\nThe question, whether every integer greater than one is a product of",
"-26.571341477683745"
],
[
"Industrial-grade prime Industrial-grade primes (the term is apparently due to Henri Cohen) are integers for which primality has not been certified (i.e. rigorously proven), but they have undergone probable prime tests such as the Miller-Rabin primality test, which has a positive, but negligible, failure rate, or the Baillie-PSW primality test, which no composites are known to pass.\nIndustrial-grade primes are sometimes used instead of certified primes in algorithms such as RSA encryption, which require the user to generate large prime numbers. Certifying the primality of large numbers (over 100 digits for instance) is significantly harder than showing they are industrial-grade primes.",
"-26.537314650158805"
],
[
"Prime omega function In number theory, the prime omega functions and count the number of prime factors of a natural number Thereby counts each distinct prime factor, whereas the related function counts the total number of prime factors of honoring their multiplicity (see arithmetic function). For example, if we have a prime factorization of of the form for distinct primes (), then the respective prime omega functions are given by and . These prime factor counting functions have many important number theoretic relations.",
"-26.475484524678905"
],
[
"Provable prime In number theory, a provable prime is an integer that has been calculated to be prime using a primality-proving algorithm. Contrast with probable prime, which is likely (but not certain) to be prime, based on the output of a probabilistic primality test. In principle, every prime number can be proved to be prime in polynomial time by using the AKS primality test. In practice, other methods which guarantee that their result is prime, but which do not work for all primes, are useful for the random generation of provable primes.",
"-26.368351814569905"
],
[
"prime numbers among the first N integers is roughly log(N). History of the proof of the asymptotic law of prime numbers Based on the tables by Anton Felkel and Jurij Vega, Adrien-Marie Legendre conjectured in 1797 or 1798 that π(a) is approximated by the function a / (A log a + B), where A and B are unspecified constants. In the second edition of his book on number theory (1808) he then made a more precise conjecture, with A = 1 and B = −1.08366. Carl Friedrich Gauss considered the same question at age 15 or 16 \"in the year",
"-26.357083127979422"
],
[
"Formula for primes In number theory, a formula for primes is a formula generating the prime numbers, exactly and without exception. No such formula which is efficiently computable is known. A number of constraints are known, showing what such a \"formula\" can and cannot be.",
"-26.21443063247716"
],
[
"Probable prime In number theory, a probable prime (PRP) is an integer that satisfies a specific condition that is satisfied by all prime numbers, but which is not satisfied by most composite numbers. Different types of probable primes have different specific conditions. While there may be probable primes that are composite (called pseudoprimes), the condition is generally chosen in order to make such exceptions rare.\nFermat's test for compositeness, which is based on Fermat's little theorem, works as follows: given an integer n, choose some integer a that is not a multiple of n; (typically, we choose a in the",
"-26.20877289091004"
],
[
"number of primes with less than a million digits is finite. However, the vast majority of known primes are not megaprimes.",
"-26.09523397445446"
],
[
"primes in only one way, except for a rearrangement of the primes, has been answered to the positive: this proven claim is called fundamental theorem of arithmetic. A proof appears in Euclid's Elements. Other classes of integers Many subsets of the natural numbers have been the subject of specific studies and have been named, often after the first mathematician that has studied them. Example of such sets of integers are Fibonacci numbers and perfect numbers. For more examples, see Integer sequence. Algebraic, irrational and transcendental numbers Algebraic numbers are those that are a solution to a polynomial equation with integer",
"-25.941570561844856"
],
[
"Prime ideal In algebra, a prime ideal is a subset of a ring that shares many important properties of a prime number in the ring of integers. The prime ideals for the integers are the sets that contain all the multiples of a given prime number, together with the zero ideal.\nPrimitive ideals are prime, and prime ideals are both primary and semiprime. Uses One use of prime ideals occurs in algebraic geometry, where varieties are defined as the zero sets of ideals in polynomial rings. It turns out that the irreducible varieties correspond to prime ideals. In the modern abstract",
"-25.86329401587136"
],
[
"gives the list of all prime numbers\n> || The infinite list of all prime numbers.\n\nThe list of potential prime numbers starts as all integers from 2 onwards;as each prime is returned, all the following numbers that can exactly bedivided by it are filtered out of the list of candidates.> primes = sieve [2..]> sieve (p:x) = p : sieve [n | n <- x; n mod p ~= 0]\nHere, we have some more examples\nmax2 :: num -> num -> num\nmax2 a b = a, if a>b\n = b, otherwise\n\nmax3 :: num ->",
"-25.801976872375235"
],
[
"themselves and the number one, then a knows that 8683317618811886495518194401279999999 is prime (since this number is only divisible by itself and the number one). That is to say, under the modal interpretation of knowledge, when a knows the definition of a prime number, a knows that this number is prime. It should be clear at this point that a is not human. This shows that epistemic modal logic is an idealized account of knowledge, and explains objective, rather than subjective knowledge (if anything).",
"-25.718976939329877"
],
[
"Table of prime factors The tables contain the prime factorization of the natural numbers from 1 to 1000.\nWhen n is a prime number, the prime factorization is just n itself, written in bold below.\nThe number 1 is called a unit. It has no prime factors and is neither prime nor composite.\nSee also: Table of divisors (prime and non-prime divisors for 1 to 1000)",
"-25.70627506238816"
],
[
"of primes is infinite. Proof by construction Filip Saidak gave the following proof by construction, which does not use reductio ad absurdum or Euclid's Lemma (that if a prime p divides ab then it must divide a or b).\nSince each natural number (> 1) has at least one prime factor, and two successive numbers n and (n + 1) have no factor in common, the product n(n + 1) has more different prime factors than the number n itself. So the chain of pronic numbers:\n1×2 = 2 {2}, 2×3 = 6 {2, 3}, 6×7 = 42 {2,3, 7}, 42×43 = 1806 {2,3,7, 43},",
"-25.675579764530994"
],
[
"Prime element In mathematics, specifically in abstract algebra, a prime element of a commutative ring is an object satisfying certain properties similar to the prime numbers in the integers and to irreducible polynomials. Care should be taken to distinguish prime elements from irreducible elements, a concept which is the same in UFDs but not the same in general. Definition An element p of a commutative ring R is said to be prime if it is not the zero element or a unit and whenever p divides ab for some a and b in R, then p divides a or p",
"-25.440448532404844"
],
[
"a number, and some of them included it as the first prime number. In the mid-18th century Christian Goldbach listed 1 as prime in his correspondence with Leonhard Euler; however, Euler himself did not consider 1 to be prime. In the 19th century many mathematicians still considered 1 to be prime, and lists of primes that included 1 continued to be published as recently as 1956.\nIf the definition of a prime number were changed to call 1 a prime, many statements involving prime numbers would need to be reworded in a more awkward way. For example, the fundamental theorem of",
"-25.394872985270922"
],
[
"In abstract algebra, objects that behave in a generalized way like prime numbers include prime elements and prime ideals. History The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, from around 1550 BC, has Egyptian fraction expansions of different forms for prime and composite numbers. However, the earliest surviving records of the explicit study of prime numbers come from ancient Greek mathematics. Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC) proves the infinitude of primes and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, and shows how to construct a perfect number from a Mersenne prime. Another Greek invention, the Sieve of Eratosthenes, is still used to construct lists of primes.\nAround",
"-25.359972845908487"
],
[
"Prime-counting function In mathematics, the prime-counting function is the function counting the number of prime numbers less than or equal to some real number x. It is denoted by π(x) (unrelated to the number π).",
"-25.33726804779144"
],
[
"Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of special forms, such as Mersenne numbers. As of December 2018 the largest known prime number has 24,862,048 decimal digits.\nThere are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC. No known simple formula separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes within the natural numbers in the large can be statistically modelled. The first result in that direction is the prime number theorem, proven at the end of the 19th century, which says that the probability of a randomly chosen number being prime is inversely proportional to its number",
"-25.305169886734802"
],
[
"of prime factors of a given number), Smarandache–Wellin numbers (the concatenations of the first prime numbers), and the Champernowne and Copeland–Erdős constants (the real numbers formed by the decimal representations of the positive integers and the prime numbers, respectively).",
"-25.27068922261242"
],
[
"Harvey Dubner Harvey Dubner is a retired engineer and mathematician living in New Jersey, noted for his contributions to finding large prime numbers. In 1984, he and his son Robert collaborated in developing the 'Dubner cruncher', a board which used a commercial finite impulse response filter chip to speed up dramatically the multiplication of medium-sized multi-precision numbers, to levels competitive with supercomputers of the time, though nowadays his focus has changed to efficient implementation of FFT-based algorithms on personal computers.\nHe has found many large prime numbers of special forms: repunits, prime Fibonacci and Lucas numbers, twin primes, Sophie Germain",
"-25.11829096148722"
],
[
"the implement indicates an understanding of decimals or prime numbers. Though these propositions are in doubt, it is considered likely by some scholars that the tool was used for simple mathematical procedures or to construct a numeral system.\nThe third column has been interpreted as a \"table of prime numbers\", but it is more likely to be a coincidence. Historian of mathematics Peter S. Rudman argues that prime numbers were probably not understood until about 500 BC, and were dependent on the concept of division, which he dates to no earlier than 10,000 BC. \nAlexander Marshack speculated that the Ishango bone",
"-25.07847669062903"
],
[
"finding all prime numbers up to any given limit. It does so by iteratively marking as composite, i.e., not prime, the multiples of each prime, starting with the multiples of 2. The multiples of a given prime are generated starting from that prime, as a sequence of numbers with the same difference, equal to that prime, between consecutive numbers. This is the sieve's key distinction from using trial division to sequentially test each candidate number for divisibility by each prime. Works Eratosthenes was one of the most pre-eminent scholarly figures of his time, and produced works covering a vast area",
"-25.040183496952523"
],
[
"numbers than they are for 1. By the early 20th century, mathematicians began to agree that 1 should not be listed as prime, but rather in its own special category as a \"unit\". Open questions Many conjectures revolving about primes have been posed. Often having an elementary formulation, many of these conjectures have withstood proof for decades: all four of Landau's problems from 1912 are still unsolved. One of them is Goldbach's conjecture, which asserts that every even integer greater than 2 can be written as a sum of two primes. As of 2014, this conjecture has been",
"-24.930833693879322"
],
[
"that the principal ideal generated by a prime element is a prime ideal, are an important tool and object of study in commutative algebra, algebraic number theory and algebraic geometry. The prime ideals of the ring of integers are the ideals (0), (2), (3), (5), (7), (11), ... The fundamental theorem of arithmetic generalizes to the Lasker–Noether theorem, which expresses every ideal in a Noetherian commutative ring as an intersection of primary ideals, which are the appropriate generalizations of prime powers.\nThe spectrum of a ring is a geometric space whose points are the prime ideals of the ring. Arithmetic geometry",
"-24.88902019568195"
],
[
"Consecutive primes in arithmetic progression refers to at least three consecutive primes which are consecutive terms in an arithmetic progression. Note that unlike an AP-k, all the other numbers between the terms of the progression must be composite. For example, the AP-3 {3, 7, 11} does not qualify, because 5 is also a prime.\nFor an integer k ≥ 3, a CPAP-k is k consecutive primes in arithmetic progression. It is conjectured there are arbitrarily long CPAP's. This would imply infinitely many CPAP-k for all k. The middle prime in a CPAP-3 is called a balanced prime. The largest known as",
"-24.87912121420959"
],
[
"a prime, which is useful for the quadratic sieve method of integer factorization.\nIn 1974, Shanks and John Wrench did some of the first computer work on estimating the value of Brun's constant, the sum of the reciprocals of the twin primes, calculating it over the twin primes among the first two million primes.",
"-24.846175401296932"
],
[
"long-standing question and placed PRIMES in P. However, PRIMES is not known to be P-complete, and it is not known whether it lies in classes lying inside P such as NC or L. It is known that PRIMES is not in AC⁰. Number-theoretic methods Certain number-theoretic methods exist for testing whether a number is prime, such as the Lucas test and Proth's test. These tests typically require factorization of n + 1, n − 1, or a similar quantity, which means that they are not useful for general-purpose primality testing, but they are often quite powerful when the tested number n is",
"-24.818328903376823"
],
[
"John B. Cosgrave Dr. John B. Cosgrave (born 5 January 1946) is an Irish mathematician specialising in number theory. Educated at Royal Holloway College, London, he lectured in Carysfort College (Blackrock, Dublin) and St Patrick's College of Education (Drumcondra). Other In January 1999, while preparing some work for his students, he identified a highly structured prime number with exactly two thousand digits. Dubbing this prime a millennium prime, he wrote an email about it to a niece and nephew, which was subsequently published by Floating Landscapes, the publishing house of the cartographer Tim Robinson. He donated his author royalties to",
"-24.802187753055478"
],
[
"Truncatable prime In number theory, a left-truncatable prime is a prime number which, in a given base, contains no 0, and if the leading (\"left\") digit is successively removed, then all resulting numbers are prime. For example, 9137, since 9137, 137, 37 and 7 are all prime. Decimal representation is often assumed and always used in this article.\nA right-truncatable prime is a prime which remains prime when the last (\"right\") digit is successively removed. 7393 is an example of a right-truncatable prime, since 7393, 739, 73, and 7 are all prime.\nA left-and-right-truncatable prime is a prime which remains prime if",
"-24.719826723332517"
],
[
"can be expressed symbolically under the dataflow paradigm as\n primes = [2, 3, ...] \\ [[p², p²+p, ...] for p in primes],\nusing list comprehension notation with \\ denoting set subtraction of arithmetic progressions of numbers.\nPrimes can also be produced by iteratively sieving out the composites through divisibility testing by sequential primes, one prime at a time. It is not the sieve of Eratosthenes but is often confused with it, even though the sieve of Eratosthenes directly generates the composites instead of testing for them. Trial division has worse theoretical complexity than that of the sieve of Eratosthenes in generating",
"-24.622019777765672"
],
[
"question 'Is 15 a prime number?' and A knows what a prime number is and B doesn't; the sentence then doesn't have a meaning for B.",
"-24.565008733832656"
],
[
"prime is congruent to 1 mod 24, given that the prime is above 3.\nThe factorial of an integer ends in 0, given that the integer is above 4.",
"-24.557922041232814"
],
[
"in the integers.\nBeing prime is relative to which ring an element is considered to be in; for example, 2 is a prime element in Z but it is not in Z[i], the ring of Gaussian integers, since 2 = (1 + i)(1 − i) and 2 does not divide any factor on the right. Connection with prime ideals An ideal I in the ring R (with unity) is prime if the factor ring R/I is an integral domain.\nA nonzero principal ideal is prime if and only if it is generated by a prime element. Irreducible elements Prime elements should not",
"-24.424317960685585"
],
[
"Prime model In mathematics, and in particular model theory, a prime model is a model which is as simple as possible. Specifically, a model is prime if it admits an elementary embedding into any model to which it is elementarily equivalent (that is, into any model satisfying the same complete theory as ). Cardinality In contrast with the notion of saturated model, prime models are restricted to very specific cardinalities by the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem. If is a first-order language with cardinality and a complete theory over then this theorem guarantees a model for",
"-24.37019351910567"
],
[
"2,147,483,647 Barlow's prediction At the time of its discovery, 2,147,483,647 was the largest known prime number. In 1811, Peter Barlow, not anticipating future interest in perfect numbers, wrote (in An Elementary Investigation of the Theory of Numbers):\nEuler ascertained that 2³¹ − 1 = 2147483647 is a prime number; and this is the greatest at present known to be such, and, consequently, the last of the above perfect numbers [i.e., 2³⁰(2³¹ − 1)], which depends upon this, is the greatest perfect number known at present, and probably the greatest that ever will be discovered; for as they are merely curious, without being useful, it is",
"-24.271680371552065"
],
[
"11881 = 109², and S₄₄₁ = 1164241 = 1079² (sequence A054318 in the OEIS).\nA star prime is a star number that is prime. The first few star primes (sequence A083577 in the OEIS) are\n13, 37, 73, 181, 337, 433, 541, 661, 937.\nThe term \"star number\" or \"stellate number\" is occasionally used to refer to octagonal numbers.",
"-24.241515056521166"
],
[
"4, 9 and 14.\nAs five is a prime number, only the reciprocals of the powers of five terminate, although its location between two highly composite numbers (4 and 6) guarantees that many recurring fractions have relatively short periods. Notation It is possible that the Iñupiaq have very high visual perceptual skills and this might be the connection why the numeral system is also very symbolic visually.\nA complication came with writing the number 20. Since it was a base for the system, 20 should be written with a symbol for one and zero but the Iñupiaq language does not have a",
"-24.173033855622634"
],
[
"number is prime by testing every possible nontrivial factor. Although much more efficient methods of primality testing are known, the existence of any effective method is enough to establish decidability. Decidability A decision problem A is decidable or effectively solvable if A is a recursive set. A problem is partially decidable, semidecidable, solvable, or provable if A is a recursively enumerable set. Problems that are not decidable are undecidable. For those it is not possible to create an algorithm, efficient or otherwise, that solves them.\nThe halting problem is an important undecidable decision problem; for more examples, see list",
"-24.127406410116237"
],
[
"divides b. Equivalently, an element p is prime if, and only if, the principal ideal (p) generated by p is a nonzero prime ideal. (Note that in an integral domain, the ideal (0) is a prime ideal, but 0 is an exception in the definition of 'prime element'.)\nInterest in prime elements comes from the Fundamental theorem of arithmetic, which asserts that each nonzero integer can be written in essentially only one way as 1 or −1 multiplied by a product of positive prime numbers. This led to the study of unique factorization domains, which generalize what was just illustrated",
"-24.118618992128177"
],
[
"Pythagorean prime A Pythagorean prime is a prime number of the form 4n + 1. Pythagorean primes are exactly the odd prime numbers that are the sum of two squares; this characterization is Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares.\nEquivalently, by the Pythagorean theorem, they are the odd prime numbers p for which √p is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with integer legs, and they are also the prime numbers p for which p itself is the hypotenuse of a primitive Pythagorean triangle. For instance, the number 5 is a Pythagorean prime; √5 is the hypotenuse of a",
"-24.114205921447137"
],
[
"Cunningham number In mathematics, specifically in number theory, a Cunningham number is a certain kind of integer named after English mathematician A. J. C. Cunningham. Primality Establishing whether or not a given Cunningham number is prime has been the main focus of research around this type of number. Two particularly famous families of Cunningham numbers in this respect are the Fermat numbers, which are those of the form C⁺(2,2ᵐ), and the Mersenne numbers, which are of the form C⁻(2,n).\nCunningham worked on gathering together all known data on which of these numbers were prime. In 1925 he published tables which",
"-24.100440300651826"
],
[
"the tenth Mersenne prime for GIMPS.\nOn January 25, 2013, Cooper found his third Mersenne prime of 2⁵⁷ ⁸⁸⁵ ¹⁶¹ − 1.\nOn September 17, 2015 (but not actually noticed until January 7, 2016), Cooper discovered yet another Mersenne prime, 2⁷⁴ ²⁰⁷ ²⁸¹ - 1, which was the largest known prime number at 22,338,618 decimal digits. Areas of research Cooper's own work has mainly been in elementary number theory, especially work related to digital representations of numbers. He collaborated extensively with Robert E. Kennedy. They have worked with Niven numbers, among other results, showing that no 21 consecutive integers can all be",
"-23.988090850703884"
],
[
"Prime gap As an arithmetic function The gap gₙ between the nth and (n + 1)st prime numbers is an example of an arithmetic function. In this context it is usually denoted dₙ and called the prime difference function. The function is neither multiplicative nor additive.",
"-23.959281365503557"
],
[
"the trivial factors are not possible for prime n, so all factors are of the form 2kn + 1. In general, all factors of (bⁿ − 1)/(b − 1) are of the form 2kn + 1, where b ≥ 2 and n is prime, except when n divides b − 1, in which case (bⁿ − 1)/(b − 1) is divisible by n itself.\nCunningham numbers of the form bⁿ − 1 can only be prime if b = 2 and n is prime, assuming that n ≥ 2; these are the Mersenne numbers. Numbers of the form bⁿ + 1 can only be prime if b is even and n is a power of 2, again assuming n ≥ 2; these are the",
"-23.898603738925885"
],
[
"infinitely many prime values is conjectured to take infinitely many prime values.",
"-23.84884370128566"
],
[
"generated by a prime element is a prime ideal, it is not true in general that an ideal generated by an irreducible element is an irreducible ideal. However if is a GCD domain and is an irreducible element of , then as noted above is prime, and so the ideal generated by is a prime ideal of .",
"-23.820888222617214"
],
[
"Prime constant Irrationality The number is easily shown to be irrational. To see why, suppose it were rational.\nDenote the th digit of the binary expansion of by . Then, since is assumed rational, there must exist , positive integers such that\n for all and all .\nSince there are an infinite number of primes, we may choose a prime . By definition we see that . As noted, we have for all . Now consider the case . We have , since is composite because . Since",
"-23.80646508418431"
],
[
"primes whereas Goldbach's conjecture and Lemoine's conjecture deal with such sums only individually. This conjecture and the open questions about numbers at levels two and three are of interest in their own right because of the issues they raise within this fascinating and often baffling additive realm of the prime numbers.\" Role in modern triangle geometry Lemoine has been described by Nathan Altshiller Court as a co-founder (along with Henri Brocard and Joseph Neuberg) of modern triangle geometry, a term used by William Gallatly, among others. In this context, \"modern\" is used to refer to geometry developed from the late",
"-23.792685903783422"
],
[
"to be prime, the index n cannot be congruent to 4 or 5 (modulo 6). Also, for a positive integer m, the Woodall number W₂ᵐ may be prime only if 2ᵐ + m is prime. As of January 2019, the only known primes that are both Woodall primes and Mersenne primes are W₂ = M₃ = 7, and W₅₁₂ = M₅₂₁.",
"-23.76692649596953"
],
[
"Prime signature The prime signature of a number is the multiset of exponents of its prime factorization. The prime signature of a number having prime factorization is .\nFor example, all prime numbers have a prime signature of {1}, the squares of primes have a prime signature of {2}, the products of 2 distinct primes have a prime signature of {1,1} and the products of a square of a prime and a different prime (e.g. 12,18,20,... ) have a prime signature of {2,1}.",
"-23.741601588611957"
],
[
"Megaprime A megaprime is a prime number with at least one million decimal digits (whereas titanic prime is a prime number with at least 1,000 digits, and gigantic prime has at least 10,000 digits).\nAs of December 2018, 449 (probable) megaprimes are known, including 421 definite primes and 28 probable primes. The first to be found was the Mersenne prime 2⁶⁹⁷²⁵⁹³−1 with 2,098,960 digits, discovered in 1999 by Nayan Hajratwala, a participant in the distributed computing project GIMPS.\nThe term bevaprime has been proposed as a term for a prime with at least 1,000,000,000 digits.\nIn fact, \"almost all\" primes are megaprimes, as the",
"-23.741281782160513"
],
[
"prime, then φ(p) = p − 1. In 1932 D. H. Lehmer asked if there are any composite numbers n such that φ(n) | n − 1. None are known.\nIn 1933 he proved that if any such n exists, it must be odd, square-free, and divisible by at least seven primes (i.e. ω(n) ≥ 7). In 1980 Cohen and Hagis proved that n > 10²⁰ and that ω(n) ≥ 14. Further, Hagis showed that if 3 divides n then n > 10¹⁹³⁷⁰⁴² and ω(n) ≥ 298848. Carmichael's conjecture This states that there is no number n with the property that",
"-23.690559573296923"
],
[
"result is now known as the prime number theorem. Another important 19th century result was Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions, that certain arithmetic progressions contain infinitely many primes.\nMany mathematicians have worked on primality tests for numbers larger than those where trial division is practicably applicable. Methods that are restricted to specific number forms include Pépin's test for Fermat numbers (1877), Proth's theorem (c. 1878), the Lucas–Lehmer primality test (originated 1856), and the generalized Lucas primality test.\nSince 1951 all the largest known primes have been found using these tests on computers. The search for ever larger primes has generated interest outside",
"-23.665251640588394"
],
[
"Bertrand's postulate Prime number theorem The prime number theorem (PNT) implies that the number of primes up to x is roughly x/ln(x), so if we replace x with 2x then we see the number of primes up to 2x is asymptotically twice the number of primes up to x (the terms ln(2x) and ln(x) are asymptotically equivalent). Therefore the number of primes between n and 2n is roughly n/ln(n) when n is large, and so in particular there are many more primes in this interval than are guaranteed by Bertrand's Postulate. So Bertrand's postulate is comparatively weaker than",
"-23.6556897831033"
],
[
"exist a set of primes, {p₁, p₂, ..., pₜ}, such that N = p₁ᵏ + p₂ᵏ + ... + pₜᵏ, where t is at most some constant value?\nThe case, k=1, is a weaker version of the Goldbach conjecture. Some progress has been made on the cases k=2 to 7. Heuristic justification By the prime number theorem, the number of k-th powers of a prime below x is of the order x1/ᵏ/log x.\nFrom this, the number of t-term expressions with sums ≤x is roughly xᵗ/ᵏ/(log x)ᵗ.\nIt is reasonable to assume that for some sufficiently large number t this is x-c, i.e., all numbers up to x are t-fold sums of",
"-23.64960127120139"
],
[
"for odd primes p. It obeys the same rules as the Jacobi symbol (i.e., reciprocity and the supplementary formulas for () and () and multiplicativity of the \"numerator\".)\nProblem: Given that 9907 is prime, calculate ().",
"-23.633840748691"
],
[
"neither a perfect power nor −4k⁴ with k positive integer, then there are infinity many base b repunit primes. History Although they were not then known by that name, repunits in base 10 were studied by many mathematicians during the nineteenth century in an effort to work out and predict the cyclic patterns of repeating decimals.\nIt was found very early on that for any prime p greater than 5, the period of the decimal expansion of 1/p is equal to the length of the smallest repunit number that is divisible by p. Tables of the period of reciprocal of primes",
"-23.63162613598979"
],
[
" 20 15 6 \n 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 Prime numbers, contra proof via factors Determine the number of prime numbers (prime # is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself) up to some number N. Ken Iverson is credited with the following one-liner APL solution to",
"-23.626639960806642"
],
[
"32 × 15. Put another way, they have fairly regular bit patterns. Mersenne and Fermat primes A prime number that is one less than a power of two is called a Mersenne prime. For example, the prime number 31 is a Mersenne prime because it is 1 less than 32 (2⁵). Similarly, a prime number (like 257) that is one more than a positive power of two is called a Fermat prime—the exponent itself is a power of two. A fraction that has a power of two as its denominator is called a dyadic rational. The numbers that",
"-23.604701186879538"
],
[
"would be represented by combining characters for simpler thoughts. Leibniz saw that the uniqueness of prime factorization suggests a central role for prime numbers in the universal characteristic, a striking anticipation of Gödel numbering. Granted, there is no intuitive or mnemonic way to number any set of elementary concepts using the prime numbers.\nBecause Leibniz was a mathematical novice when he first wrote about the characteristic, at first he did not conceive it as an algebra but rather as a universal language or script. Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of \"algebra of thought\", modeled on and including",
"-23.58117389099789"
],
[
"of the topic dates to at least November 1969 issue of Mathematics Magazine, where truncatable primes were called prime primes by two co-authors (Murray Berg and John E. Walstrom).",
"-23.564799968444277"
],
[
"probable primes.\nSince 1999, four further probably prime repunits have been found, but it is unlikely that any of them will be proven prime in the foreseeable future because of their huge size.\nThe Cunningham project endeavours to document the integer factorizations of (among other numbers) the repunits to base 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, and 12. Demlo numbers Kaprekar has defined Demlo numbers as concatenation of a left, middle and right part, where the left and right part must be of the same length (up to a possible leading zero to the left) and must add up to a",
"-23.558615382375137"
],
[
"is_prime(n):\n // n is prime, omit multiples of its square; this is sufficient \n // because square-free composites can't get on this list\n for c ≤ limit, c ← n² × (60 × w + x) where w ∈ {0,1,...}, x ∈ s:\n is_prime(c) ← false// one sweep to produce a sequential list of primes up to limit:output 2, 3, 5for 7 ≤ n ≤ limit, n ←",
"-23.509060791460797"
],
[
"shattered in the 1970s, when it was publicly announced that prime numbers could be used as the basis for the creation of public key cryptography algorithms.\nThese applications have led to significant study of algorithms for computing with prime numbers, and in particular of primality testing, methods for determining whether a given number is prime.\nThe most basic primality testing routine, trial division, is too slow to be useful for large numbers. One group of modern primality tests is applicable to arbitrary numbers, while more efficient tests are available for numbers of special types. Most primality tests only tell whether their argument",
"-23.501515139170806"
],
[
"Prime (symbol) Designation of units The prime symbol ( ′ ) is commonly used to represent feet (ft) and arcminutes (arcmin). However, for convenience, a ( ' ) (single quote mark) is commonly used.\nThe double prime ( ″ ) represents inches (in) and arcseconds (arcsec). However, for convenience, a ( \" ) (double quotation mark) is commonly used.\nThus, 3′ 5″ could mean 3 feet and 5 inches (of length), or 3 minutes and 5 seconds (of arc). As an angular measurement, 3° 5′ 30″ means 3 degrees, 5 arcminutes and 30 arcseconds.\nThe triple prime ( ‴ ) in watchmaking represents a ligne or 1/12 of an inch. It is also occasionally found in historical astronomical",
"-23.47082294995198"
],
[
"one is a multiple of a prime number. More generally, a subsequence of the prime numbers forms a Behrend sequence if and only if the sum of reciprocals of diverges.\nThe semiprimes, the products of two prime numbers, also form a Behrend sequence. The only integers that are not multiples of a semiprime are the prime powers. But as the prime powers have density zero, their complement, the multiples of the semiprimes, have density one. History The problem of characterizing these sequence was described as \"very difficult\" by Paul Erdős in 1979.\nThese sequences were named \"Behrend sequences\" in 1990",
"-23.468002888460433"
],
[
"prime number theory, working on the Riemann zeta function and allied functions. Apart from prime number theory, he made substantial contributions to the theory of transcendental number theory, in which he is known for his proof of the six exponentials theorem, achieved independently of Serge Lang. He also contributed to many other areas of number theory.\nIn 1978 he founded the Hardy–Ramanujan journal, and published it on behalf of the Hardy–Ramanujan society until his death.",
"-23.38745161378756"
],
[
"theory of primes in Europe dates to the Renaissance and later eras.\nIn 1796, Adrien-Marie Legendre conjectured the prime number theorem, describing the asymptotic distribution of primes. Other results concerning the distribution of the primes include Euler's proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges, and the Goldbach conjecture, which claims that any sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes. Yet another conjecture related to the distribution of prime numbers is the Riemann hypothesis, formulated by Bernhard Riemann in 1859. The prime number theorem was finally proved by Jacques Hadamard and Charles de la Vallée-Poussin",
"-23.381027876093867"
],
[
"regular primes, integer prime numbers connected with the failure of unique factorization in the cyclotomic integers.\nThe question of how many integer prime numbers factor into a product of multiple prime ideals in an algebraic number field is addressed by Chebotarev's density theorem, which (when applied to the cyclotomic integers) has Dirichlet's theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions as a special case. Group theory In the theory of finite groups the Sylow theorems imply that, if a power of a prime number divides the order of a group, then it has a subgroup of order . By Lagrange's theorem, any",
"-23.35337547105155"
],
[
"(cf. wheel factorization), so that the list will start with the next prime, and all the numbers in it below the square of its first element will be prime too.\nThus, when generating a bounded sequence of primes, when the next identified prime exceeds the square root of the upper limit, all the remaining numbers in the list are prime. In the example given above that is achieved on identifying 11 as next prime, giving a list of all primes less than or equal to 80.\nNote that numbers that will be discarded by a step are still used while marking the",
"-23.334331415593624"
],
[
", one of the two factors and is less than or equal to the square root of . Another optimization is to check only primes as factors in this range.\nFor instance, to check whether 37 is prime, this method divides it by the primes in the range from 2 to √37, which are 2, 3, and 5. Each division produces a nonzero remainder, so 37 is indeed prime.\nAlthough this method is simple to describe, it is impractical for testing the primality of large integers, because the number of tests that it performs grows exponentially as a function of",
"-23.323195587610826"
],
[
"relatively prime to n is written as (Z/nZ)×; it forms a group under the operation of multiplication. This group is not always cyclic, but is so whenever n is 1, 2, 4, a power of an odd prime, or twice a power of an odd prime (sequence A033948 in the OEIS). \nThis is the multiplicative group of units of the ring Z/nZ; there are φ(n) of them, where again φ is the totient function. For example, (Z/6Z)× = {1,5}, and since 6 is twice an odd prime, this is a cyclic group. In contrast, (Z/8Z)× = {1,3,5,7} is a",
"-23.170647781531443"
],
[
" ⍝ There are twenty-five prime numbers in the range up to 100.\nExamining the converse or opposite of a mathematical solution is frequently needed (integer factors of a number): Prove for the subset of integers from 1 through 15 that they are non-prime by listing their decomposition factors. What are their non-one factors (#'s divisible by, except 1)?\n ⎕CR 'ProveNonPrime'Z←ProveNonPrime R⍝Show all factors of an integer R - except 1 and the number itself,⍝ i.e., prove Non-Prime. String 'prime' is returned for",
"-23.142140452633612"
],
[
"N − 1. It does not matter whether B is prime.\nWe merely need to verify that no prime that divides A also divides B, that is, that A and B are relatively prime.\nThen, for every prime factor p of A, find an which fulfills conditions (6) and (7) of the corollary.\nIf such s can be found, the Corollary implies that N is prime.\nAccording to Koblitz, = 2 often works.",
"-23.115421931783203"
],
[
"prime numbers are odd, with one exception: the prime number 2. All known perfect numbers are even; it is unknown whether any odd perfect numbers exist.\nGoldbach's conjecture states that every even integer greater than 2 can be represented as a sum of two prime numbers.\nModern computer calculations have shown this conjecture to be true for integers up to at least 4 × 10¹⁸, but still no general proof has been found. Group theory The parity of a permutation (as defined in abstract algebra) is the parity of the number of transpositions into which the permutation can be decomposed. For example",
"-23.108601258136332"
],
[
"Safe prime Applications These primes are called \"safe\" because of their relationship to strong primes. A prime number q is a strong prime if q + 1 and q − 1 both have some large prime factors. For a safe prime q = 2p + 1, the number q − 1 naturally has a large prime factor, namely p, and so a safe prime q meets part of the criteria for being a strong prime. The running times of some methods of factoring a number with q as a prime factor depend partly on the size of the",
"-23.10172313672956"
],
[
"that for large enough N, the probability that a random integer not greater than N is prime is very close to 1 / log(N). Consequently, a random integer with at most 2n digits (for large enough n) is about half as likely to be prime as a random integer with at most n digits. For example, among the positive integers of at most 1000 digits, about one in 2300 is prime (log(10¹⁰⁰⁰) ≈ 2302.6), whereas among positive integers of at most 2000 digits, about one in 4600 is prime (log(10²⁰⁰⁰) ≈ 4605.2). In other words, the average gap between consecutive",
"-23.069687378709204"
],
[
"simplified by instead considering only prime values of k. This is because if for a composite where p is prime, then this can simply be rewritten as . Because of this result, the minimal value of k must necessarily be prime.\nIf the full factorization of n is known, say where the are distinct primes, then n is a perfect power if and only if where gcd denotes the greatest common divisor. As an example, consider n = 2⁹⁶·3⁶⁰·7²⁴. Since gcd(96, 60, 24) = 12, n is a perfect 12th power (and a perfect 6th power,",
"-23.03435543901287"
],
[
"share some properties with primes, such as asymptotic behaviour according to the prime number theorem; also, a version of Goldbach's conjecture has been extended to them. There are infinitely many lucky numbers. However, if Lₙ denotes the n-th lucky number, and pₙ the n-th prime, then Lₙ > pₙ for all sufficiently large n.\nBecause of these apparent connections with the prime numbers, some mathematicians have suggested that these properties may be found in a larger class of sets of numbers generated by sieves of a certain unknown form, although there is little theoretical basis for this conjecture. Twin lucky",
"-23.02258693164913"
],
[
"arithmetic would need to be rephrased in terms of factorizations into primes greater than 1, because every number would have multiple factorizations with different numbers of copies of 1. Similarly, the sieve of Eratosthenes would not work correctly if it handled 1 as a prime, because it would eliminate all multiples of 1 (that is, all other numbers) and output only the single number 1. Some other more technical properties of prime numbers also do not hold for the number 1: for instance, the formulas for Euler's totient function or for the sum of divisors function are different for prime",
"-23.00939508869851"
],
[
"is prime or not. Routines that also provide a prime factor of composite arguments (or all of its prime factors) are called factorization algorithms.\nPrime numbers are also used in computing for checksums, hash tables, and pseudorandom number generators. Trial division The most basic method of checking the primality of a given integer is called trial division. This method divides by each integer from 2 up to the square root of . Any such integer dividing evenly establishes as composite; otherwise it is prime.\nIntegers larger than the square root do not need to be checked because, whenever",
"-22.98334724828601"
],
[
"primes are invertible modulo and it follows that there is a morphism Thus it is possible to define congruence subgroups in , whose level is always coprime to all primes in .",
"-22.978541341028176"
],
[
"U.S. prime rate Uses The prime rate is used often as an index in calculating rate changes to adjustable rate mortgages (ARM) and other variable rate short term loans. It is used in the calculation of some private student loans. Many credit cards with variable interest rates have their rate specified as the prime rate (index) plus a fixed value commonly called the spread.",
"-22.900528747091812"
],
[
"As 65,537 is prime, there are 32,767 regular forms generated by Schläfli symbols {65537/n} for all integers 2 ≤ n ≤ 32768 as .",
"-22.829002450598637"
],
[
"Woodall number History Woodall numbers were first studied by Allan J. C. Cunningham and H. J. Woodall in 1917, inspired by James Cullen's earlier study of the similarly-defined Cullen numbers. Woodall primes Woodall numbers that are also prime numbers are called Woodall primes; the first few exponents n for which the corresponding Woodall numbers Wₙ are prime are 2, 3, 6, 30, 75, 81, 115, 123, 249, 362, 384, … (sequence A002234 in the OEIS); the Woodall primes themselves begin with 7, 23, 383, 32212254719, … (sequence A050918 in the OEIS).\nIn 1976 Christopher Hooley showed that almost all Cullen numbers",
"-22.70072869757132"
],
[
"Mersenne prime Perfect numbers Mersenne primes Mₚ are also noteworthy due to their connection with perfect numbers. In the 4th century BC, Euclid proved that if 2ᵖ − 1 is prime, then 2ᵖ ⁻ ¹(2ᵖ − 1) is a perfect number. This number, also expressible as , is the Mₚth triangular number and the 2ᵖ ⁻ ¹th hexagonal number. In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler proved that, conversely, all even perfect numbers have this form. This is known as the Euclid–Euler theorem. It is unknown whether there are any odd perfect numbers. Searching for Mersenne primes Fast algorithms for finding",
"-22.698416863393504"
],
[
"Strong pseudoprime In number theory, a probable prime is a number that passes a primality test.\nA strong probable prime is a number that passes a strong version of a primality test.\nA strong pseudoprime is a composite number that passes a strong version of a primality test.\nAll primes pass these tests, but a small fraction of composites also pass, making them \"false primes\".\nUnlike the Fermat pseudoprimes, for which there exist numbers that are pseudoprimes to all coprime bases (the Carmichael numbers), there are no composites that are strong pseudoprimes to all bases. Properties of strong pseudoprimes A strong pseudoprime to base",
"-22.653734276478644"
]
] |
v9t7z | Mulholland Drive (film) | [
"Well you've got it pretty much. The most widespread interpretation is that the first part of the story (Betty) is a dream, dreamed by Diane. The second part is real but full of flashbacks, so it can be confusing. Basically, in chronological order: Diane comes to Hollywood hoping to become a famous actress. She meets Camilla and falls in love with her. The truth is that she's a failed star as you said, and Camilla is actually toying with her. So she hires a hitman to kill Camilla. She then dreams the perfect life for her and Camilla (as Betty and Rita) which is the whole first hour or so of the movie. Then she wakes up, full of guilt and regret, and kills herself when confronted with her inner demons. The movie makes much more sense if you watch it knowing this. Through the story of Diane, it's a piece about the Hollywood life and how it corrupted and destroyed a naïve young woman.",
"How many times have you been told not to watch these channels when your mother and father aren't home? They are scrambled for a reason. Where the Hell was the babysitter? This is no movie for a five year old.",
"It's the essence of the all the David Lynch work, there is not a only way to understand his films. Make your own interpretations. Watch him talk about his movies and you figured it out how he's working",
"You will *get* the movie once you realize it was intended to be a TV series like Twin Peaks, which was then cut together to 140 min. There was no way it could make sense after that. The greatest trick the devil ever pulled was persuading us that it should.",
"- YAY! Hollywood is awesome! - Oops! No it isn't. You're actually a failed actress/girlfriend so you've shot yourself in the head and you've been hallucinating. - Don't do drugs.",
"I just watched it as well. I believe Mulholland drive is about a young woman who comes to Hollywood to become an actress, at the start her name is betty(blonde). The brunette is her alter ego type character who is confused at the start but guides Betty to adapt to the corruption and fakeness of Hollywood, which explains the theatre scene where we are shown the need for illusion as a movie star. As the movie star persona takes over, the innocent blonde girl suffers and becomes jealous of her her alter ego (everyone knowing her movie star personality and not her true personality, as we see at the fancy dinner near the end where the blonde is like a helpless bystander). She and the director both came to Hollywood to make art but find success only when they go along with the corruption. The dead body is a vision of the death of her innocence later in the film. I'm not sure about the hobo, he may just represent the hidden underbelly of hollywood: giving up your innocence in order to become a movie star, which would explain why he was in procession of the blue box which transforms the actress into a star earlier in the film. There isn't much importance in deciphering what is real or fake, dream/awake in my opinion, its more of a commentary on this internal struggle and corruption of art.",
"I saw this in Seattle really high. I walked into the wrong theater halfway through a showing. I sat through it and stuck around to watch the first part I'd missed. I had no idea what was going on. I've since seen it as intended and I can honestly say I have no better understanding.",
"I'd love to answer this question, but when I watched it I got up to the bit where the horrible monster jumps out from behind the wall, got really scared, and turned it off. I'm a massive wuss.",
"I once watched Inland Empire - 3 hours of wtf"
] | [
[
"Since its release, Mulholland Drive has received \"both some of the harshest epithets and some of the most lavish praise in recent cinematic history\". On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 83% based on 173 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"David Lynch's dreamlike and mysterious Mulholland Drive is a twisty neo-noir with an unconventional structure that features a mesmerizing performance from Naomi Watts as a woman on the dark fringes of Hollywood.\" On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average",
"-33.84309217124246"
],
[
"The concept for the series turned into David Lynch's groundbreaking film Mulholland Drive. In David Lynch: The Man from Another Place, Dennis Lim states that \"While working on Twin Peaks, Lynch and Frost also toyed with the idea of a spin-off series for Sherilyn Fenn's character, Audrey Horne, that would transplant the backwoods femme fatale to Hollywood. They planned to call it Mulholland Drive. While Lynch began to adapt the idea into a feature script, he abandoned it in order to make Lost Highway. Theme music Angelo Badalamenti composed the leitmotifs Audrey's Dance, Audrey's Prayer, and Audrey for the character.",
"-32.13843438127515"
],
[
"another tale about broken dreams in Hollywood, and early in the film Rita is shown crossing Sunset Boulevard at night. Apart from both titles being named after iconic Los Angeles streets, Mulholland Drive is \"Lynch's unique account of what held Wilder's attention too: human putrefaction (a term Lynch used several times during his press conference at the New York Film Festival 2001) in a city of lethal illusions\". The title of the film is a reference to iconic Hollywood culture. David Lynch lives near Mulholland Drive, and stated in an interview, \"At night, you ride on the top of the",
"-31.93040238498179"
],
[
"Drive and Back to Mulholland Drive, and several interviews with people involved in making the film. It is the second David Lynch film in this line of Blu-rays after The Elephant Man.\nOn July 15, 2015, The Criterion Collection announced that it would release Mulholland Drive, newly restored through a 4K digital transfer, on DVD and Blu-ray on October 27, 2015, both of which include new interviews with the film's crew and the 2005 edition of Chris Rodley's book Lynch on Lynch, along with the original trailer and other extras. It was Lynch's second film to receive a Criterion Collection release",
"-31.80740939383395"
],
[
"that arise from the film. Stephen Holden of The New York Times writes, \"Mulholland Drive has little to do with any single character's love life or professional ambition. The movie is an ever-deepening reflection on the allure of Hollywood and on the multiple role-playing and self-invention that the movie-going experience promises ... What greater power is there than the power to enter and to program the dream life of the culture?\" J. Hoberman from The Village Voice echoes this sentiment by calling it a \"poisonous valentine to Hollywood\".\nMulholland Drive has been compared with Billy Wilder's film noir classic Sunset Boulevard (1950),",
"-31.58656373761187"
],
[
"location mostly used the same short stretch of road, at the very top of the Rock, shot from numerous different angles. The beach defences seen at the foot of the Rock in the initial shot were also added solely for the film, to an otherwise non-military area. The action involving the Land Rover switched from Gibraltar, to Beachy Head in the UK for the shot showing the vehicle actually getting airborne. Trial runs of the stunt with the Land Rover, during which Bond escapes by parachute from the tumbling vehicle, were filmed in the Mojave Desert, although the final cut",
"-30.479401487042196"
],
[
"failure, stating that \"in many ways, it's Lynch at his most daring, emotional, and personal\". Writing for Little White Lies, William Carroll considered the film a prelude to Mulholland Drive due to its \"Los Angeles' iconic topography\", and felt that it deserves to be regarded as one of the director's best works. Similarly, Daily Vanguard editor Victoria Castellanos remarked that the film \"serves as a wonderful companion to Mulholland Drive and Inland Empire, and in many ways is more surreal and emotional than some of Lynch's other films\".\nAs a cult film, Lost Highway was included in The A.V. Club's \"The",
"-30.353223035950577"
],
[
"the film. CG supervisor Jason Crosby pointed out that their studio was mainly selected for the highway sequence after the crew realized real logs only bounced about an inch off the road when dropped from a logging truck. \"They were concerned about how they would make the shot happen, not knowing if CG would work. The timing was great because we had just finished a test shot of our CG logs bouncing on the freeway. We sent a tape to Vancouver and after seeing it the crew was convinced that any of the log shots could be done with CG,\"",
"-30.343844131435617"
],
[
"Mulholland Drive History The main portion of the road, from Cahuenga Pass in Hollywood westward past Sepulveda Pass, was originally called Mulholland Highway and was opened in 1924. It was built by a consortium of developers investing in the Hollywood Hills. DeWitt Reaburn, the construction engineer responsible for the project, said while it was being built, \"The Mulholland Highway is destined to be one of the heaviest traveled and one of the best known scenic roads in the United States.\" Geography The 21-mile (34 km) long mostly two-lane, minor arterial road loosely follows the ridgeline of the eastern Santa Monica",
"-30.245762569567887"
],
[
"[9] Filming location A World War II scene in the 2007 movie Atonement with Keira Knightley and James McAvoy was produced in this road as was a scene from Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1. The road was also used as part of the car chase scene from the James Bond film Skyfall.",
"-29.817600655231217"
],
[
"Ben Hur (1907 film) Development The film was directed by Canadian director Sidney Olcott and Frank Oakes Rose. At fifteen minutes long, only a small portion of the story was put on screen. The focus of the piece was the chariot race, which was filmed on a beach in New Jersey with local firemen playing the charioteers and the horses that normally pulled the fire wagons pulling the chariots.\nIn 1908, perhaps seeking to capitalize on the publicity of the case and the film, Harper & Brothers published a lavishly designed and illustrated book, The Chariot Race from Ben-Hur, which excerpted",
"-29.647849194749142"
],
[
"enigma.\" Soundtrack The soundtrack of Mulholland Drive was supervised by Angelo Badalamenti, who collaborated on previous Lynch projects Blue Velvet and Twin Peaks. Badalamenti, who was nominated for awards from the American Film Institute (AFI) and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) for his work on the film, also has a cameo as an espresso aficionado and mobster.\nReviewers note that Badalamenti's ominous score, described as his \"darkest yet\", contributes to the sense of mystery as the film opens on the dark-haired woman's limousine, that contrasts with the bright, hopeful tones of Betty's first arrival in Los Angeles,",
"-29.089508112927433"
],
[
"humor essayist Robert Benchley provides some wry commentary that is interspersed throughout the movie (Benchley died several months before the film's release). There are also jabs at Paramount Pictures (the studio that originally released the film) and a reference to Frank Sinatra, not to mention many instances of \"breaking the fourth wall\" and general wackiness. During Crosby's fake incantation at the beginning of the film include the phrase \"presto-sturgando\", which is a reference to Paramount writer-director Preston Sturges.\nIn her autobiography, Dorothy Lamour said that the release of Road to Utopia may have been delayed by Paramount to not jeopardize",
"-28.929686882416718"
],
[
"on today,\" Neville said.\nParts of the film were shot in the Hampstead district of London, and a house in South Hill Park was used as the exterior of Greer's home. Until his death, South Hill Park was the home of Anthony Minghella, the film director and father of Max Minghella. All Saint's Road was also used as a substitute for King's Road. Release delays In August 2008, controversy surrounding Miller's personal life led to a delay in the film's release.\nIn July 2009, \"creative differences\" led Beeban Kidron to quit during post-production; her husband, screenwriter Lee Hall, had left the production",
"-28.61762597402776"
],
[
"Trailer Park Boys History In 1998, director Mike Clattenburg wrote and directed a short film titled One Last Shot, which was shot in black-and-white. The film followed the exploits of two friends, Rob (Robb Wells) and Gary Williams or GW (John Paul Tremblay), although it is not based in the same setting as Trailer Park Boys. It was the first time Robb, John Paul and John Dunsworth worked together. In the 1999 feature film Trailer Park Boys, the character Julian states to the camera that he wanted his life to be documented after receiving a telephone psychic's prediction",
"-28.608126232866198"
],
[
"Ham Churchyard' (\"the largest in England\" noted the narrator Paul Scofield) opposite Beckton Alps. Asylum, a 2000 film of Iain Sinclair and Chris Petit for Channel 4, was partially shot at Beckton Alps while it was still a dry-ski slope.\nIn the final hour or so of Full Metal Jacket, Stanley Kubrick's 1987 movie portraying the Vietnam War, Matthew Modine (Private Joker), Adam Baldwin (Animal Mother) and their platoon go into Huế, a Vietnamese city, to clear it of Viet Cong and snipers. Kubrick had the whole gasworks selectively demolished and the art department then dressed the 'set' with latticework and",
"-28.591315038560424"
],
[
"published in 2002, along with a documentary film of the same name and subject. It describes a series of trips he took tracing the M25, London's outer-ring motorway, on foot. Sinclair followed this with Edge of the Orison in 2005, a psychogeographical reconstruction of the poet John Clare's walk from Dr Matthew Allen's private lunatic asylum, at Fairmead House, High Beach, in the centre of Epping Forest in Essex, to his home in Helpston, near Peterborough. Sinclair also writes about Claybury Asylum, another psychiatric hospital in Essex, in Rodinsky's Room, a collaboration with the artist Rachel Lichtenstein.\nSinclair's book Ghost Milk",
"-28.57857610564679"
],
[
"London Road (film) Production The film was shot in Bexley in London. A number of cast members from the original production reprise their roles in the film, including Fleetwood, Burt, Moore, Shaeffer, Thornley, Fowler, and Holder. Release The live film premiere was screened in cinemas across the UK as part of National Theatre Live on 9 June 2015 and was released on 12 June 2015. Critical reception London Road received generally positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports 76% of 67 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 6.8/10. The site's critical",
"-28.52763269020943"
],
[
"eight-day cross country drive. The movie tells the story of a troubled man who videotapes women discussing their lives and sexuality, and his impact on the relationship of a married couple. Soderbergh submitted the film to the Cannes Film Festival where it won a variety of awards, including the Palme d'Or. Its critical performance led it to become a worldwide commercial success, grossing $36.7 million on a $1.2 million budget. The film was considered to be the most influential catalyst of the 1990s Independent Cinema movement. At age 26, Soderbergh became the youngest solo director and the second youngest director to win",
"-28.511334093484038"
],
[
"Principal photography on the film began in March 2017 in Whannell's hometown of Melbourne; The chase scene taking place on the southern section of the Craigieburn bypass Hume Freeway (M31) and is actually going the opposite direction to what would have been normal traffic flow to appear that it was filmed in a left hand drive country. Editing took place in Sydney. Release After premiering on 10 March 2018 at South by Southwest and winning the Midnighters Award, the film was released on 1 June in the United States, and 14 June in Australia by Blumhouse Tilt.\nUpgrade is setup for",
"-28.382700041343924"
],
[
"nightmares and fantasies, nonlinear story lines, camera work, sound and lighting, he presents a film that challenges viewers to suspend belief of what they are experiencing. Many of the characters in Mulholland Drive are archetypes that can only be perceived as cliché: the new Hollywood hopeful, the femme fatale, the maverick director and shady powerbrokers that Lynch never seems to explore fully. Lynch places these often hackneyed characters in dire situations, creating dream-like qualities. By using these characters in scenarios that have components and references to dreams, fantasies and nightmares, viewers are left to decide, between the extremes, what is",
"-28.349778835920006"
],
[
"Sierra Highway, near Acton. The film is about an unseen truck driver who stalks and attempts to kill an innocent motorist trapped in the truck's game. It prominently shows the desert portions of Sierra Highway. With Duel's status, one of the trucks used in the film is still on the road and in the process of being restored. The current owner has driven the truck along Sierra Highway for nostalgia, enjoying the terrified looks he receives from passing motorists who recognize it. Other movies have since been filmed in the vicinity, including scenes in The Terminator.",
"-28.347262492825394"
],
[
"Road to Utopia Production Filmed from December 1943 to March 1944, the film is the only Road to … film without a real place in its title, though Alaska with its gold mines is referred to as \"Utopia\" several times in the film. Bob Hope, Bing Crosby and Dorothy Lamour starred, as they did in all but one of the series. The film is also the only \"Road\" film that did not take place in modern times though the film begins and ends with the cast made up to look older who flashback to the past. \nAs a “narrator”,",
"-28.300232472261996"
],
[
"drove to Melbourne via Cape York, Einasleigh, Hughenden, Tambo, Roma, Toowoomba, and Brisbane, arriving in Melbourne at the end of September 1915 having covered 7,000 miles in seven months. He then drove from Melbourne to Swan Hill and Menindee to finish the movie of the Burke and Wills' track. The film was called 'Across Australia: In the Tracks of Burke and Wills' and was released by The Co-Operative Film Exchange Ltd of Melbourne, and opened in Melbourne at Hoyt's Olympia Theatre on Christmas Day 1915.\nAs a publicity stunt, Birtles was commissioned by Barlow Motors, the Melbourne agent for the Bean",
"-28.273039028339554"
],
[
"Tate's Cairn Highway Tate's Cairn Highway (Chinese: 大老山公路; pinyin: Dàlǎoshān Gōnglù; Cantonese Yale: daai5 lou5 saan1 gung1 lou6), opened on June 26, 1991, is a dual-3 lane expressway in Hong Kong. It links Tate's Cairn Tunnel and Ma Liu Shui Interchange, forming a part of Route 2 (formerly known as Route 6). \nFrom the Ma Liu Shui Interchange, where it connects with Route 9, the highway crosses the estuary of the Shing Mun River. It then turns southwards, interchanging at Shek Mun with a distributor road (Tai Chung Kiu Road), and reaches Siu Lek Yuen, where the highway splits its",
"-28.27177681279136"
],
[
"to that of Baja California, where most of the story takes place), mostly in wilderness and small villages. Critics Bob Porfiero and Alain Silver, in a review and analysis of the film, praised Lupino's use of shooting locations. They wrote, \"The Hitch-Hiker's desert locale, although not so graphically dark as a cityscape at night, isolates the protagonists in a milieu as uninviting and potentially deadly as any in film noir.\"",
"-28.244988273065246"
],
[
"in 1961. During its design it was known as Link Road 17/7. The scheme lies over the geological West Manchester Fault.\nIt would be the first elevated main road to be built outside London, and the UK's second aerial motorway after the Hammersmith flyover. The road is 3,232 ft (985 m) long and has 28 spans of 105 ft (32 m), and two spans of 60 ft (18 m).\nThe spans are made out of precast concrete, with hollow box-units post-tensioned to form a spine beam. Each of the 105 ft spans is made out of 14 precast concrete hollow box-units 7 ft 3in long. Freyssinet (named",
"-28.21112976630684"
],
[
"to be no more than a \"little side road\" for his career, expecting it to be released directly to video. Reception A trailer of Taken was released on 20 June 2008. The film saw its release on 27 February in France, 9 April in China and 26 September in UK in the year of 2008. It was released on 30 January in United States and 22 August in Japan in the year of 2009. The film was released under the title of 96 Hours in Germany, Io vi troverò (I Will Find You) in Italy and Заложница (Hostage) in Russia.",
"-28.197105144168745"
],
[
"the first trailer, with Cobie Smulders introducing the footage. The official Jack Reacher Twitter account announced that a full trailer would be released on June 22, 2016. A browser game, titled Jack Reacher: Never Stop Punching, was also released to promote the film.\nIn September 2015, Paramount set Jack Reacher: Never Go Back a release date of October 21, 2016. Home media Jack Reacher: Never Go Back was released on Digital HD on January 17, 2017, and on Blu-ray, Ultra HD Blu-ray and DVD on January 31, 2017.\nBy May 2018, the film had made $14.5 million in domestic region",
"-28.17834540785043"
],
[
"Eastwood County Road The Eastwood County Road was a planned freeway route in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, intended to link the Kissing Point Road at Dundas to Epping Road at North Ryde, via Eastwood.",
"-28.16686677976395"
],
[
"ending An alternate ending of the film was featured on the DVD release. In this version, Eddie Rodney Fleming is seen hitchhiking along a desolate road. A car stops and Barry Walls (Caton) offers him a ride. Fleming accepts and they drive away, followed at a distance by Steele (Martin) on his motorcycle, no doubt intending to enforce some vigilante justice. Box office The Interview grossed $556,263 at the box office in Australia. Home media The Interview was released on DVD by Umbrella Entertainment in July 2011. The DVD is compatible with all region codes and includes special features such",
"-28.127434226189507"
],
[
"The film was partially scripted and amateur actors played the main roles. The resulting film offended the TMPD, which refused to use it. Reception The film won several foreign and domestic awards in 1964. The film critic Chris Fujiwara, commenting about the DVD, called On the Road: A Document \"a breakthrough film . . . Constantly imaginative and vigorous in depicting movement but never fetishising it in a facile or celebratory way, On the Road has the working-class speed and grimness of an early-1930s Warner Bros film, at the same time reshaping stray observational surprises in the manner of Beat",
"-28.118354340054793"
],
[
"Road Movie trilogy Conception Director Wim Wenders didn't conceive of the three films as a trilogy, and they were first labelled as one by U.S. critic Richard Roud. However, U.S. filmmaker Michael Almereyda writes that \"they are unified by shared themes, an exacting formal rigor, and the presence of Rüdiger Vogler.\" Almereyda remarks that Wenders' earliest feature films, Summer in the City and The Goalkeeper's Fear of the Penalty, also involved \"aimless journeys,\" but the Road Movie trilogy was distinct as \"travel not only propels the story but also absorbs and reshapes it.\" The films were also made on small",
"-28.071593222746742"
],
[
"Vukovar, jedna priča Plot The film takes place in Vukovar, a city on the border between Serbia and Croatia, in a country which used to be called SFR Yugoslavia, on the eve of the country's breakup. It is a typical love story, between a Croat woman Ana (Mirjana Joković) and a Serb man Toma (Boris Isaković), who marry one another with the blessing of both families right before the Battle of Vukovar. Their harmonic community is brutally broken apart with the start of a civil war. Not only they but everyone around them, against their will, are brought into the",
"-28.068478517627227"
],
[
"where both boys live are approximately 1,200 metres apart, being located next to Berkhamsted Castle. They are the two most exclusive residential roads in the town. The film also shot at the Richborough Power Station in Sandwich, which was then disused. The film includes a vintage clip of Jan Pinkava winning the BBC Screen Test competition. The minor role of Danny, an acolyte of Didier, a glamorous French exchange student, is played by Stanley Kubrick's grandson, Sam Kubrick-Finney. The film includes excerpts from First Blood and is endorsed by Sylvester Stallone, the star of the Rambo franchise. Critical reception Son",
"-27.989718338340026"
],
[
"a profanity-laden rant at him, which would eventually become Mr. Eddy's road rage scene. Lost Highway also features the final motion picture performance of Richard Pryor. Filming and editing Lost Highway was shot in Los Angeles, California, in about 54 days, from November 29, 1995, to February 22, 1996. Some of the film's exterior and driving scenes were shot in Griffith Park, while the scenes of the Lost Highway Hotel were filmed at the Amargosa Opera House and Hotel in Death Valley. Lynch owns the property that was used for Fred and Renee's mansion, which is located on the same",
"-27.967071547580417"
],
[
"TV shows.\nHankley Common was used in the James Bond films The World Is Not Enough, Die Another Day, and Skyfall. The sets depicted a pier in the Caspian Sea where James Bond was attacked by a helicopter saw, a chase scene through the Korean Demilitarized Zone on hovercraft, and as the site of James Bond's ancestral Scottish mansion respectively.\nHankley Common has been popular with fictional time travellers having featured in Doctor Who and the Silurians and in Blackadder Back and Forth.\nIn the fourth series of Ultimate Force, the Drop Zone huts and surrounding area were used to shoot a Colombian",
"-27.952484579989687"
],
[
"totalling 186 minutes including a \"What happened last night\" recap and second credit roll. Lynch disavowed this version and had his name removed from the credits, Alan Smithee being credited instead. This version (without recap and second credit roll) has occasionally been released on DVD as Dune: Extended Edition. Several longer versions have been spliced together. Although Universal has approached Lynch for a possible director's cut, Lynch has declined every offer and prefers not to discuss Dune in interviews. Release Dune premiered in Washington, D.C., on December 3, 1984, at The Kennedy Center and was released worldwide on December 14.",
"-27.949381582726346"
],
[
"using the starkly beautiful street scenes in Not Wanted and the gorgeous, ever-present loneliness of empty highways in The Hitch-Hiker to set her characters apart.\nTime Out Film Guide wrote of the film, \nAbsolutely assured in her creation of the bleak, noir atmosphere – whether in the claustrophobic confines of the car, or lost in the arid expanses of the desert – Lupino never relaxes the tension for one moment. Yet her emotional sensitivity is also upfront: charting the changes in the menaced men's relationship as they bicker about how to deal with their captor, stressing that only through friendship can",
"-27.902335490332916"
],
[
"to take place along a road on the perimeter of the Grangemouth Refinery in Grangemouth, Scotland. The location was chosen for the length of the road which is crucial to the shot. A few days later Paramount announced the film would be released on December 21, 2012. Later in the same month, filming began in Glasgow. The location manager for the film said Glasgow had been chosen because of its architecture, wide roads, and grid layout. Scenes were also filmed aboard the Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship RFA Argus, before the Glasgow shoot. The ship was turned into the \"USS Madison\",",
"-27.882797435071552"
],
[
"motorway bridge and the exhaust tower, and the final crash-landing. For the later sequences, stunt dummies fixed to the Tiger Moth's wings and undercarriage represent the characters of Alan, Tin-Tin, Parker, Brains and the White Ghost agents, while Hughes doubles for Penelope in the cockpit. The location filming was based at Wycombe Air Park.\nThe M40 motorway, which was nearing completion at the time of production, doubled for the fictitious M104. In the run-up to the filming of the plane's near-miss with the bridge between Junctions 4 and 5, at Lane End on the High Wycombe Bypass, the Ministry of Transport",
"-27.857174998207483"
],
[
"filmed her movie The Invasion in downtown Baltimore, opposite Daniel Craig.\nScenes in \"Runaway Bride\" with Julia Roberts and Richard Gere were filmed at Gill's Garage on West Joppa Road. Ruxton Road Ruxton Road is a 1½-mile road, bearing the name of the area, and is the main west-east road running through the area. The road is mostly lined with upscale housing, but also has an interchange with the Jones Falls Expressway (exit 12). The road begins as a physical continuation to Old Court Road (though an extension to Old Court exists following a left turn), and ends at Bellona Avenue",
"-27.83255952235413"
],
[
"del Monte, Sulmona, Castelvecchio Calvisio, Calascio and Campo Imperatore in the Province of L'Aquila (Abruzzo); in Rome, and in Östersund, Jämtland and other locations. As the Clooney character drives from Rome to Castel del Monte, there is an impressively long drive through the 4600-meter long San Domenico Tunnel (Galleria San Domenico) that is between the exits of Pescina and Cocullo on the A25 highway that connects Rome to Torano and Pescara. The car driven by Jack in the movie is a Fiat Tempra with Pescara licence plates.\nThe film's \"most romantic moment\", according to director Anton Corbijn—when Jack takes Clara to",
"-27.828550579200964"
],
[
"to lend Novak to Vertigo if Stewart would agree to co-star with Novak in Bell, Book and Candle, a Columbia production released in December 1958. Initial on-site principal photography Vertigo was filmed from September to December 1957. Principal photography began on location in San Francisco in September 1957 under the working title From Among the Dead (the literal translation of D'entre les morts). The film uses extensive location footage of the San Francisco Bay Area, with its steep hills and tall, arching bridges. In the driving scenes shot in the city, the main characters' cars are almost always pictured heading",
"-27.81326732598245"
],
[
"scenes set in the floor. Swinden noted that the traders were \"interesting guys\" to work with, and told the producers the story was \"very close to home.\" The producers borrowed two expensive cars, more prominently an Aston Martin DB9 convertible, which were driven by Armitage and Norris. Armitage was asked to drive the car for only 10 yards, but the actor ended up getting carried away by wheel-spinning and driving the car around a city block. Another car was a Bentley used for Denham's suicide. Because it was on loan, Firth's options on acting as if he was trying to",
"-27.808224151129252"
],
[
"used for Sanchez's lavish villa, and the La Rumorosa Mountain Pass in Tecate was used as the filming site for the tanker chase during the climax of the film. Sanchez's Olympiatec Meditation Institute was shot at the Otomi Ceremonial Center in Temoaya. Other underwater sequences were shot at the Isla Mujeres near Cancún.\nIn August 1988, production moved to the Florida Keys, notably Key West. Seven Mile Bridge towards Pigeon Key was used for the sequence in which the armoured truck transporting Sanchez, following his arrest, is driven off the edge. Other locations there included Ernest Hemingway House, Key West International",
"-27.8081598531935"
],
[
"Sacro GRA Synopsis The film depicts life along the Grande Raccordo Anulare, the ring-road highway that circles Rome. Rosi spent over two years in filming, while the film's editing required eight months of work. According to the director, the film was inspired by Italo Calvino's novel Invisible Cities (1972), in which the explorer Marco Polo is imagined describing his travels to the Emperor of China Kublai Khan.",
"-27.807357563258847"
],
[
"Drive, Laurel Canyon Boulevard, Sunset Boulevard, Beverly Drive, and Coldwater Canyon Drive, Leno makes several references to Lelouch's classic film.\nIn 2010, Jeremy Clarkson used the film as a basis for the opening scene of his DVD/Blu-ray The Italian Job.\nIn 2013, Phoenix used the film as a backdrop for live shows during the song \"Love Like a Sunset Part I\".\nOn 17 February 2017, Ford Motor Company in association with Claude Lelouch released a 360 degree view remake of the film using a Ford Mustang. Unlike the original, the 2017 version contains several cut scenes and does not show the entire (original)",
"-27.769533939659595"
],
[
"in humorous but appreciative reviews of B-movies and cult films, which he calls \"drive-in movies\" (as distinguished from \"indoor bullstuff\"). In addition to his usual parody of urbane, high-brow movie criticism, his columns characteristically include colorful tales of woman-troubles and high-spirited brushes with the law, tales which inevitably conclude with his rush to catch a movie at a local drive-in, usually with female companionship. Briggs revealed in an interview with James Rolfe that he intended the character to have an ambiguous sounding name and initially thought of calling himself \"Bubba Rodriguez\", but was told that the name Rodriguez would",
"-27.755848320259247"
],
[
"documentary to fit both soundtracks.\nRoad to Perdition was released on Blu-ray Disc on August 3, 2010, featuring a widescreen transfer, a DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 soundtrack, and all of the features from the DVD release.",
"-27.75491439597681"
],
[
"the films, such as Leeds Bridge or Roundhay Garden Scene. Actually, all current online versions (e.g., GIF, FLV, SWF, OGG, WMV, etc.) are derived from the NMPFT files. However, Leeds Bridge is believed to be the original title, as the traffic sequence was referred to as such by Frederick Mason, one of Le Prince's mechanics. Man Walking Around a Corner (16-Lens Camera) The only existing images from Le Prince's 16-lens camera are a sequence of 16 frames of a man walking around a corner. This appears to have been shot onto a single glass plate (which has since broken), rather",
"-27.754473076973227"
],
[
"screenplay. In September, Lew Landers was tagged to direct the film, while Maury Cohen was selected to handle the production. In mid-September, it was announced that John Beal and Sally Eilers would join the cast, followed shortly by the addition of Harry Carey, Lee Patrick, Frank Thomas, Ed Gargan, Paul Guilfoyle, and Herman Brix. The picture was filmed during September, and by the 22nd was being edited. At the beginning of October RKO changed the title of the film from Highway to Hell to Danger Patrol. In early November it was announced that RKO would be releasing Danger Patrol on",
"-27.7384265774308"
],
[
"there wasn't an agreement with Loggia and Close, we had always designed the project to go either as a sequel or on its own terms.\"\nThe film was distributed by Columbia Pictures between in the United States and Canada, with Rank Film Distributors handling foreign distribution. The film was produced by Martin Ransohoff who formed with Columbia, Rank Film Distributors and Vestron Video in 1986.\nThe male lead went to Burt Reynolds who had just made Switching Channels for Ransohoff. \"Joe is a ballsy character,\" said Reynolds, \"kind of like Dirty Harry gone amok. He's around the edge of having a nervous",
"-27.71348861370643"
],
[
"film uses many of the classic road movie motifs such as break downs, fuel stops and long stretches of empty road, with a cinematography that is conventionally modern. Release The film premiered on 1 May 2008 in Australia. It was part of the Brooklyn International Film Festival in June 2008 and the Munich Film Festival on 28 June 2008.",
"-27.644323755434016"
],
[
"The Highwayman (TV series) Synopsis The movie and subsequent series follow the adventures of \"The Highwayman\", one of a mysterious group, presumably of U.S. Marshals, conducting crime-fighting missions and solving bizarre mysteries. Each Highwayman in this group is equipped with a high-tech, multi-function truck.\nThe pilot movie used a different opening narration, also voiced by William Conrad:\nThey say he came into this world from someplace off the clock.\n\nAnd his mother was an ice-cold wind; his pa a fiery rock.\n\nIt's told that on some starless nights his rig could up and glow,\n\nAnd folks who say they saw it coming swear they didn't",
"-27.632814179029083"
],
[
"around Elizabeth Bay and Potts Point, and at Spencer's Wonderland City studio in Bondi.\nFilming took six weeks. The original director was George Musgrove, but he soon realised he was out of his depth, and Longford – who had written the screenplay – took over. (However advertising would claim that \"the whole of the production has been carried out under the personal supervision of Mr George Musgrove\".)\nAccording to a later report, when Longford wanted to \"film a landing, he begged permission to land at Crecy,",
"-27.622561744428822"
],
[
"it was still a slum, a fact which is central to the film. The principal street location of the film was Testerton Street, and its Southern junction with Barandon Street, although its Northern junction with Blechyden Street, where Grenfell Tower currently stands, is visible in some shots. Kidulthood (2006) and Adulthood (2008), written and directed by British filmmaker Noel Clarke, were partially filmed on the estate.",
"-27.62249069245445"
],
[
"few yards short of the estate church, where the walker is instructed to return the way they came. There is no access through to the public road a short distance further on. Cultural references Compton Wynyates inspired the Croft Manor in the Tomb Raider series.\nIn 1955 the splendid view of the manor from the drive opened the Rank Organisation film \"The Black Tent\". (Technicolor/Vistavision).\nIn 1969, Compton Wynyates appeared in the film Carry On Camping as a monastery. (Coincidentally these establishing shots are said to have come from the earlier Black Tent footage.)\nIn 1977, Compton Wynyates served as a filming",
"-27.61140275037178"
],
[
"documentary, producer Deeley was unsatisfied with the four written endings and conceived the current ending as a literal cliffhanger appropriate to an action film which left an opportunity for a sequel. The documentary describes how helicopters would save the bus seen on the cliff at the end of the first film. The grateful gang would soon discover that it is the Mafia that has saved them, and the sequel would have been about stealing the gold bullion back from them.\nIn interviews in 2003 and 2008, Michael Caine revealed that the ending would have had Croker \"crawl up, switch on the",
"-27.581738336390117"
],
[
"of Things. The Road Movie trilogy established Wenders' prominence in international cinema and has attained minor cult film status among Wenders and Müller fans.\nA number of issues, such as rights issues concerning the soundtracks of the films, have made the three Road Movie films hard to find on video in the United States. However, in 2016 The Criterion Collection released the films on DVD and Blu-ray as Wim Wenders: The Road Trilogy.",
"-27.578271631155076"
],
[
"by pack horse and foot. A second unit under Carl Kayser was brought out to location to assist production.\nAfter six months on location, the unit moved to the studios of Cinesound Productions in Bondi. They filmed there for two months then returned to Queensland for a further five months. In March 1948 they returned to the Bondi studio and reshot several scenes. Shooting took eighteen months in total. Charles Chauvel then shot an alternative ending in the Blue Mountains. This ending was eventually discarded.\nWhile Chauvel was filming in Sydney, his home was robbed. Reception The movie had cost so much",
"-27.567929614502646"
],
[
"that collectively give the film its consistent tone\". Drive's title sequence is hot-pink, which was inspired by Risky Business (1983). Refn has also indicated that the film's romance was partly inspired by the films of writer-director John Hughes.\nRefn's inspiration for Drive came partly from reading Grimms' Fairy Tales, and his goal was to make \"a fairy tale that takes Los Angeles as the background,\" with The Driver as the hero. To play with the common theme of fairy tales, The Driver protects what is good while at the same time killing degenerate people in violent ways. Refn said Drive turns",
"-27.564698507107096"
],
[
"set in Bonnie Doon, and a very small portion of it was shot there.\nThe name Kerrigan was chosen for the family so that tow trucks for the film could be borrowed from an existing Melbourne tow-truck company with that name. The company still operates today.\nIn January 2011, 3491 Maintongoon Road, Bonnie Doon was listed for sale. The property appeared in the film as the Kerrigan family holiday house. The property's real estate agent reported that many people called and after requesting the vendor's asking price, replied with a quote from the movie: \"Tell him he's dreamin'.\" Alternative versions In the",
"-27.543183688248973"
],
[
"feature film since Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, which was released in 1992 as a prequel to the television series Twin Peaks. He came across the phrase \"lost highway\" in the book Night People by Barry Gifford. Because Lynch knew Gifford very well and had previously adapted his novel Wild at Heart into a film by the same name, he told the writer that he loved it as a title and the two agreed to write a screenplay together. Originally, both men had their own different ideas of what Lost Highway should be and ended up rejecting each other's",
"-27.540726900246227"
],
[
"1987 pilot movie starred Sam J. Jones. The lead character is more mysterious than any of the other Highwaymen in that his real name is never revealed (he is only known as \"The Highwayman\" or \"Highway\"). He drives a large, black, computerized truck with a bullet-shaped cabin, which is the nose of a concealed helicopter (an Aérospatiale Gazelle) which can detach from the rest of the truck. The truck can also operate in \"stealth mode\" to become invisible. A concealed futuristic sports car (a Lotus Esprit) can emerge from the truck's rear. Some elements of the futuristic dashboard",
"-27.540363553001953"
],
[
"of the California Division of Highways' Bridge Department. In popular culture Actor Clint Eastwood bought five parcels totaling 283 acres (115 ha) on the south side of Malpaso Creek during the 1960s. He named his production company The Malpaso Company after the location. The company was established in 1967 by Eastwood's financial adviser Irving Leonard for the film Hang 'Em High, using profits from the Dollars Trilogy. He later bought more land until he owned 650 acres (260 ha). The land stretched from the eastern side of Highway 1 to the coastal ridge. In 1995, Monterey County bought the land from",
"-27.53427655994892"
],
[
"The Rock n' Roll Cops Plot This film follows its lead character, Detective Jake Blade (played by Shaw) who is pursuing the Russian crime lord Rinaldi (played by Smith). \nThis film is traditional of Scott Shaw's directorial work in that it follows a non-linear storyline that it riddled with strange dialogue and unexpected edits, where the central characters leave behind the storyline and interact solely by the presentation of visual images in association with Techno music. This film also possesses the obvious references to Blaxploitation Cinema apparent in virtually all Scott Shaw films. Hollywood Similar to many Scott Shaw",
"-27.522748574043362"
],
[
"2002 movie Virginia's Run starring Gabriel Byrne and Joanne Whalley. John Dunsworth plays a local cop while John Paul Tremblay and Robb Wells play active and verbal townsmen similar to their Trailer Park Boys characters. Actors are credited as the cop for John Dunsworth, J.P. for John Paul Tremblay (credits as J.P. Tremblay), and Robb Wells as Rob. The movie was filmed in Shelburne, Nova Scotia. Trailer Park Boys: The Movie The second Trailer Park Boys movie to be produced (the first being the original black and white production that sparked the series), Trailer Park Boys: The Movie (also known",
"-27.520899646840917"
],
[
"The Crooked Road Production The film was shot in Yugoslavia over two months. Reception The New York Times said the film \"bounces along nicely\".",
"-27.50682059886458"
],
[
"Warninglid in West Sussex to three lanes, removing an accident prone bend, were given the go ahead. Work started in autumn 2011 and the scheme was completed and opened in October 2014, with a better-than-expected improvement to safety. London to Brighton Veteran Run The 53-mile (85 km) road from London to Brighton forms the basis of the route of the annual London to Brighton Veteran Car Run. This is featured in the film Genevieve, although most of the rural motoring scenes were shot in Buckinghamshire. The A23 is also used for various other London to Brighton events, although in many",
"-27.500849474366987"
],
[
"Woolworth's in Palmdale\" the next shot shows them driving up a dirt road through a Tehachapi wind farm. Similarly, Terminal Velocity (1994) has a fight sequence filmed on top of a hill in one of the farms.\nHerbie: Fully Loaded (2005) shot a sequence at a wind farm and on Oak Creek Road, which winds through several farms.\nOther movies filmed in Tehachapi include Face to Face (2001), Fault (2002), Batman: Revenge (2003), The Gentleman Don La Mancha (2004), I.F.O. (Identified Flying Object) (1985), Motor Mansions (2005), The Legend of Mary Worth (2006), The Grapes of Wrath (film) (1940), featuring the scene",
"-27.496010928727628"
],
[
"on Mars (2013). Total filming time for the film lasted approximately 70 days.\nA special Mars rover model was built for the filming; the movie cast and team presented the rover model to Jordan in return for the hospitality they had received. The rover is now exhibited in Jordan's Royal Automobile Museum.\nWeir avoided writing Watney as lonely and depressed in his novel. While Watney's humor is preserved in the film, Scott also depicted the character's isolation in the vast, dusty Martian landscape. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: \"The scenes back on Earth provide a hectic, densely populated counterweight to",
"-27.475700181967113"
],
[
"make any sense. There's no purpose or logic to events. Lynch is playing a big practical joke on us.\" Film theorist Ray Carney notes, \"You wouldn't need all the emotional back-flips and narrative trap doors if you had anything to say. You wouldn't need doppelgangers and shadow-figures if your characters had souls.\"\nLater, Mulholland Drive was named the best film of the decade by the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, Cahiers du cinéma, IndieWire, Slant Magazine, Reverse Shot, The Village Voice and Time Out New York, who asked rhetorically in a reference to the September 11 attacks, \"Can there be another",
"-27.46651419866248"
],
[
"Van Nuys Blvd. (film) Plot The film tells the story of a small-town boy who hears about the wild nights of cruising Van Nuys Boulevard in California. He drives out there to check it out, and gets involved with drag racers, topless dancers and bikers.\nBecause director William Sachs' style is often rather surrealist, a number of comedic scenes of a police officer on a beach, being handcuffed to his car, show a gradually more and more surrealist tone as the film progresses. In the course of the film, he gets approached by a mysterious biker stealing his possessions, a dog",
"-27.462741528463084"
],
[
"film Drive with \"...this abstruse, neon-dunked nightmare that spits in the face of coherence and flicks at the earlobes of good taste\".\nPeter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave it five out of five stars, calling it gripping and praising the \"pure formal brilliance\" of every scene and frame, though he notes that it will \"have people running for the exits, and running for the hills\" with its extreme violence. In an alternative review published in The Guardian, John Patterson was highly critical of the film, citing its lack of originality and the low degree of focus on plot: \"Somewhere in here",
"-27.45170489031989"
],
[
"than an extended chase sequence. The shots are neat and well-framed but aren't grand enough to explore the natural beauty, a cardinal sin when treating any road movie.\"\nGibran Khalil of DAWN said, \"Instead of embodying the spirit of a road trip film by evoking a smooth sense of movement, Lahore Se Aagey feels more like a collection of short sketches. I'll admit that it looks like the LSA team had a ball making the movie.\"\nThe both critics rated the film 2/5.\nShubham Bahukhandi of Dekh News rated 3.5/5 and praised its direction, while said that it has the worst screenplay ever",
"-27.450058456219267"
],
[
"next to last, as well as the final Road film in which Dorothy Lamour's role would be the female lead. Nine years later, The Road to Hong Kong instead featured Joan Collins, with a cameo by Lamour. Filming started on April 21, 1952 and continued until July of the same year.\nRoad to Bali was a co-production of Bing Crosby Enterprises, Hope Enterprises and Paramount. Filming The giant squid that threatens Bob Hope in an underwater scene was previously seen attacking Ray Milland in the Paramount production Reap the Wild Wind (1942), directed by Cecil B. DeMille. The erupting volcano climax",
"-27.435948423168156"
],
[
"Jaywalking: On the Road to Nowhere, originally broadcast in 1974 which, according to an ATV press release at the time, won an award for Best Programme in the Sociological Film the San Francisco International TV and Film Festival that year. 2011 MACE released From ATVLand in Colour a 2 disc DVD documentary which tells the story of the affectionately known ‘ATVLand’ – the ATV Centre in Birmingham, from its beginnings to its ultimate closure in 1997 and beyond, celebrating the programmes that came from the studios throughout its working life. The DVD includes a mix of rare archive footage of",
"-27.4265719592222"
],
[
"stagecoach beneath an unfinished modern freeway overpass. \"All that stuff came from the Warner Bros. film studios lot,\" Tom Johnston said. \"It must've been a lot of work for the guys who brought up the horse team and the carriage and the clothes. It was fun to do - they had coffins out there, all kinds of crazy stuff.\" The photography was done by Michael and Jill Maggid. The setting for the cover was located at the Newhall Pass interchange of the Interstate 5 and California State Route 14 freeways near Sylmar, California that collapsed during the 1971 San Fernando",
"-27.403310655827227"
],
[
"untitled film about Van Helsing, but there have been no updates on the film since 2010. At the Mountains of Madness On July 28, 2010, del Toro announced that he would direct a film adaptation of H. P. Lovecraft's At the Mountains of Madness for Universal Pictures, with Canadian film director James Cameron as producer. The movie was originally set up as a DreamWorks project in 2004, but was later cancelled. Cameron suggested casting Tom Cruise in the lead role and releasing the film in 3-D.\nIn June 2010, del Toro said that the adaptation probably would not happen at all.",
"-27.399288174361573"
],
[
"introspection (often on themes such as national identity), and depicting the road trip as a search on the part of the characters.\nThe German filmmaker Wim Wenders explored the American themes of road movies through his European reference point in his Road Movie trilogy in the mid-1970s. They include Alice in the Cities (1974), The Wrong Move (1975), and Kings of the Road (1976). All three films were shot by cinematographer Robby Müller and mostly take place in West Germany. Kings of the Road includes stillness, which is unusual for road movies, and quietness (except for the rock soundtrack).",
"-27.39301635218908"
],
[
"Shotover Shotover is a hill and forest in Oxfordshire, England.\nShotover Hill is 3 miles (4.8 km) east of Oxford. Its highest point is 557 feet (170 m) above sea level. Shotover Road The road between London and Oxford used to pass over the top of Shotover Hill. The road was made into a turnpike under the 1719 Stokenchurch Turnpike Act. Shotover Park Shotover Park and garden were begun in about 1714 for James Tyrrell of Oakley. Tyrell died in 1718 and the house was completed by his son, General James Tyrell. There is no known record of the name of the architect.",
"-27.387218534888234"
],
[
"train wreck scene in The Fugitive was filmed 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Sylva in the town of Dillsboro. The scene of Harrison Ford walking on railroad tracks in an old tunnel was also close by in Cowee Tunnel. The town was also the site of filming for the 2017 film Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri.",
"-27.3454722877359"
],
[
"the 2009 Cinequest Film Festival and also screened at the Reel Women International Film Festival in Los Angeles. Going Attractions: The Definitive Story of the American Drive-in Movie The production of Going Attractions: The Definitive Story of the American Drive-in Movie was a lengthy process for Wright. Growing up outside of Chicago, Wright loved to go to the drive-in with her family in the summer. When drive-ins began to close down, Wright became fascinated with the abandoned structures. This motivated April to begin shooting the documentary, which took seven years to complete. During this time, Wright performed",
"-27.343527691497002"
],
[
"him along to \"nowhere special\". The two friends ride off into the sunset — in a chauffeured limousine. Production The idea for the film came from a story outline written by Andrew Bergman that he originally intended to develop and produce himself. \"I wrote a first draft called Tex-X\" (a play on Malcolm X's name), he said. \"Alan Arkin was hired to direct and James Earl Jones was going to play the sheriff. That fell apart, as things often do.\" Brooks was taken with the story, which he described as \"hip talk—1974 talk and expressions—happening in 1874 in the Old",
"-27.324855241080513"
],
[
"co-winner Joel Coen for The Man Who Wasn't There. It drew positive reviews from many critics and some of the strongest audience reactions of Lynch's career. Box office Universal Pictures released Mulholland Drive theatrically in 66 theaters in the United States on October 12, 2001, grossing $587,591 over its opening weekend. It eventually expanded to its widest release of 247 theaters, ultimately grossing $7,220,243 at the U.S. box office. TVA Films released the film theatrically in Canada on October 26, 2001. In other territories outside the United States, the film grossed $12,892,096 for a worldwide total of $20,112,339. Critical reception",
"-27.31175946732401"
],
[
"shot at Zion-Mount Carmel Highway, Zion Lodge, Checkerboard Mesa, the Narrows, the Hanging Gardens, the bridge over the Virgin River, and the Cave Route below the Cerberus Gendarme. Additional scenes were also shot in Monument Valley at the Tyrolean Transfer, where a rope had been rigged by climber Eric Bjornstad, who noted that Eastwood was not only very fit but very capable when it came to performing physical stuntwork like this. Scenes were also shot at Rock Door mesa above Goulding's Lodge, where Eastwood and company stayed. After completing principal photography in late September 1974 in Carmel-by-the-Sea and Monterey in",
"-27.28806873205758"
],
[
"venue for several films. Hopewell long planned a hotel project, Mega Tower Hotel at the east of the street but received opposition from the surrounding residents and environmental groups. It is because the project would also involve demolition of the historical building of the famous haunted house, Nam Koo Terrace (南固臺) and felling of various climbing fig trees. The lower part between Johnston Road and Queen's Road East is designated to become a pedestrianised street after the completion of a major Urban Renewal Authority project.\nThe hotel project has been recently modified. In the modified planning, Nam Koo Terrace",
"-27.27778988747741"
],
[
"Verax (film) Plot The film has four parts. The first depicts Central Intelligence Agency employees discussing the Snowden case. The second involves a newspaper journalist corresponding with Snowden. The third involves Hong Kong police officers and Chinese Ministry of State Security employees discussing and trying to find Edward Snowden. The fourth involves the characters waiting for Snowden to appear, and when Snowden reveals himself in the media. The end of the film includes extracts of Snowden's interview with The Guardian. The final captions state that Snowden departed Hong Kong on 23 June. The film features The Mira, the Hong Kong",
"-27.264206760388333"
],
[
"2003. The cars were designed to show characterisation and detail in the world, including the characters' feelings of guilt, loss, and their attempts to recycle the remains of civilisation. Both the Doof Wagon and the Doof Warrior's guitar are fully functional – none of his scenes were rendered in CGI. The War Rig and the Doof Wagon were based on the three-axle 6x6 and four-axle Tatra 815, although they were thoroughly rebuilt.\nCinematographer John Seale came out of retirement to shoot Fury Road. He replaced Dean Semler, the cinematographer of the previous two films, after Semler left. Seale outfitted his camera",
"-27.25124270118249"
],
[
"at Amboseli and Hell's Gate, with the remainder of the picture filmed on soundstages in the United Kingdom. One scene in the film was set in Shanghai, but it was shot on a set and not on location.\nThe film also featured the new 2003 Jeep Wrangler Rubicon, first seen when Lara parachutes into the moving vehicle in Africa and takes over the wheel from Kosa. As part of Jeep's advertising campaign, it was specially customised for the film by Jeep's design team along with the film's production designers, with three copies constructed for filming. 1,001 limited-run Tomb Raider models",
"-27.246221050896565"
],
[
"film. This was later confirmed by Warner Bros., which also stated that the film would be loosely based on real-life events surrounding Ed and Lorraine Warren. In January 2012, Vera Farmiga and Patrick Wilson were cast to star in the film. That month, Ron Livingston and Lili Taylor were also confirmed for roles in the film, which at that time was developing under the working title of The Untitled Warren Files Project. The film's title was temporarily changed to The Warren Files based on a suggestion by Wan, but was later reverted to The Conjuring prior to the commencement of",
"-27.221081413459615"
],
[
"for the fictional RAF Sutton Craddock bomber airfield. The riverbank where Robertson's character romances Maria Perschy was Hurley Lock on the river Thames and was also used in a similar early scene in the Bond film From Russia with Love. Some scenes were filmed at Staverton Airport, Gloucestershire, and the nearby Churchdown Hill could be seen in some shots. The pub in which the aircrew relax was The Three Compasses in Aldenham, Watford, which still exists as a pub today.\nThe Lairig Ghru pass in the Cairngorms was used for the training flight sequences and scenes with the Norwegian resistance. Special",
"-27.212191553662706"
],
[
"lot alongside the highway at 2354 Beach Boulevard (Pacific Coast Highway), Malibu and near the ocean; for the rest of the series, the trailer is at Paradise Cove (address 29 Cove Road), adjacent to a pier and a restaurant (\"The Sand Castle\", now known as the \"Paradise Cove Beach Cafe\"). In the television movies from 1994 to 1999, Rockford is still living and working at the same Paradise Cove location, but in a much newer trailer that has been extensively enlarged and remodeled.\nIn contrast to most television private eyes, Rockford wears low-budget \"off the rack\" clothing and does his best",
"-27.208148441306548"
],
[
"Crossroads of Laredo Crossroads of Laredo is a Western film compiled by extant silent footage of the unfinished Streets of Laredo (c. 1948), the first known film project of Ed Wood. It lasts 23 minutes. Wood was the director, the writer, and one of the actors of the film. The film includes a music score by Ben Weisman and narration by Cliff Stone.\nThe footage of the original were located by Brett Thompson, John Crawford Thomas, and Dolores Fuller. They were responsible for editing the film and adding narration. The film was released alongside the documentary The Haunted World of Edward",
"-27.19607407087142"
],
[
"road movie Vanishing Point, notable for its on-location filming across the southwest United States, used several sections of US 50 as part of the driving sequences.\nIn 1991, Stephen King drove along US 50 as part of a cross country trip. He stopped at Ruth, a small town near Ely. Studying the town, King fantasized about the fate of the residents. King then heard a local legend about how the ghosts of Chinese miners, who died while trapped in a cave-in, can be seen crossing Highway 50 to haunt the city of Ruth. King merged these details into his own story, including references to",
"-27.18705624213908"
],
[
"The drive-in was located near the intersection of Burwood Highway and McComas Grove, in a natural amphitheatre setting, provided by the Gardiners Creek Valley. The screen was located on a high point on the other side of the creek from the viewing area. The first film publicly screened was On the Riviera, starring Danny Kaye and Gene Tierney. The drive in was very popular in its early years, often causing traffic jams in the local area. A playground was provided for children, which included a motorised carousel.\nFollowing a decline in audience numbers over a number of years, the drive-in closed",
"-27.185142847389216"
],
[
"bulk on Shepperton's 'H' Stage, pick-ups on Pinewood's Bond Stage and on the Bluebell Railway who are owners of a 423 unit (3417 \"Gordon Pettitt\") which is similar design to the 421, and background plates shot from a freight train. The Last Passenger production team visited Kent & East Sussex Railway in November 2011 to shoot the carriage fire scenes at the end of the film. The level crossing crash scene was filmed using CGI, but the location was at Milford in Surrey, a bit of a distance from the Hastings Line.\nIn an interview about the film, editor Joe Walker",
"-27.163384673185647"
],
[
"The Highwayman (poem) Plot The poem, set in 18th-century rural England, tells the story of an unnamed highwayman who is in love with Bess, a landlord's daughter. Betrayed to the authorities by Tim, a jealous ostler, the highwayman escapes ambush when Bess sacrifices her life by shooting her chest to warn him. Learning of her death, he dies in a futile attempt at revenge, shot down on the highway. In the final stanza, the ghosts of the lovers meet again on winter nights. Background The poem was written on the edge of a desolate stretch of land known as",
"-27.15937527801725"
],
[
"directed by King Vidor, and a few television episodes of Bonanza. The \"Duel in the Sun\" reference is known to be false. Spahn Ranch is also often cited as the filming location for the B-movie The Creeping Terror.\n\"Spahn Movie Ranch\" is featured in the Quentin Tarantino movie Once Upon a Time in Hollywood, set in 1969 at the time of the Manson Family murders. The scenes for the movie were actually filmed at the nearby Corriganville Park in Simi Valley, which was also a Movie ranch at one time.\nIn the movie, a character played by Brad Pitt checks on his",
"-27.141664550727"
]
] |
2roz9j | Why do some Muslims get offended about pictures of Mohammad? | [
"In Islam, portraits and photos of their figures is forbidden. Check out a mosque sometime. . No photos but lots of geometrical art and Arabic calligraphy.",
"Well, portraits or Mohammed were forbidden to prevent Muslims from worshipping Mohammed instead of God. And about what's happening nowadays, I was talking to my Dad about all this stuff and he put it like that these cartoons make him feel like the rest of the work is making fun of us, the normal Muslims. And that's because most of the pictures he saw on the front page were relatively offensive. We don't approve of any of the violence either. But we feel like the whole religion shouldn't be facing the backlash of just a few extremists.",
"Sunni Muslims believe that visually depicting their Prophet or their God is dangerously close to idolatry. Drawings of Muhammed, especially cartoons, are considered by many to be extremely disrespectful to all Muslims.",
"It's not in the Quran but it's said in the Hadith that any representation of something with a soul is forbidden although from my experience even among incredibly devout or strict Muslims this isn't enforced. The idea is that you're representing a creation of god imperfectly.",
"From what I learned it was by his request saying that he and his image where not nearly as important since he merely the voice of Allah",
"Because they are childish morons who need to grow up",
"I know this has been stated before, but Islam forbids any depiction of any person or animal (be it the Prophet Mohammad or yourself), ie no paintings, no statues, no likenesses of any kind. You won't see people or animal designs on prayer rugs or in mosques, because either Islamic scholars or Mohammad himself (I can't remember witch) didn't want Muslims to warship idols. When television came to the middle east, many conservative Muslims protested for this reason.",
"Just to note that offence over depictions of religious figures isn't limited to Islam; To give 2 examples here's [Christians being offended over the \"Piss Christ\" sculpture]( URL_0 ) and [Buddhists getting offended over tattoos of Buddha]( URL_1 ).",
"Because they're idiots. Just like the fundamentalist Christians, they're not representative of the religion. We should think of them as terrorists who happen to have chosen Islam as an excuse to fuck about, rather than Muslims.",
"Drawings of Mohammed were made illegal around 16-17th century. There is nothing in the Qu'ran stating it is not allowed."
] | [
[
"stylised or do not show Muhammad's face. Within Muslim communities, views about pictorial representations have varied: Shi'a Islam has been generally tolerant of pictorial representations of human figures while Sunni Islam generally forbids any pictorial representation of living beings, albeit with some variation in practice outside a religious context. Some contemporary interpretations of Islam, such as those followed by adherents of Wahhabism, are entirely aniconistic and condemn pictorial representations of any kind. Insulting Muhammad In Muslim societies, insulting Muhammad is considered one of the gravest of all crimes. According to Ana Belen Soage of the University of Granada, \"The Islamic",
"-35.27549907017965"
],
[
"1.1% Jains as the other major religious groups. Depiction of Muhammad Depictions of Muhammad have long been an issue of concern in the Muslim religion, and many consider it to be blasphemous. While written and oral descriptions are universally accepted by Islam, the Hadith (a supplemental teaching of the Quran) prohibits Muslims from creating any visual representation Muhammed. The biggest concern in this tradition is that an image could promote idolatry. This tradition has been long lasting and the few depictions that do exist throughout Islamic history, Muhammad is veiled or he is represented by symbols such as",
"-34.431778641883284"
],
[
"and Muhammad, Islamic religious art is focused on the word. Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not images or sculptures. Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%). While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past, Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare. They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since",
"-34.31738474970916"
],
[
"drawings but did not call for protests. Al-Sistani suggested that militant Muslims were partly to blame for distorting Islam's image.\nIn the United Arab Emirates, the periodical Al-Ittihad published an opinion piece which argued that,\nThe world has come to believe that Islam is what is practiced by Bin Laden, Zawahiri, Zarqawi, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Salafis, and others who have presented a distorted image of Islam. We must be honest with ourselves and admit that we are the reason for these drawings.\nFormer Iranian president Mohammad Khatami, who is also the theorist of Dialogue Among Civilizations, strongly criticized the Danish cartoons for",
"-33.40999992832076"
],
[
"the artists have denied representing Muhammad as a terrorist, many Muslims felt that a bomb in a turban, with a lit fuse and the Islamic creed written on the bomb suggested a connection between Muhammad and terrorism.\nSome Liberal Muslims, mainly in Europe, have supported the republication of the images so that individual Muslims can make up their own minds and welcomed the debate on the issues that the cartoons have raised.\nIt has also been pointed out that cartoons in the Arab and Islamic press \"demonizing\" Jews and Israelis are common.\nLouay M. Safi, scholar and Muslim American leaders argued that the",
"-33.365221163709066"
],
[
"why I draw you.\" He was to collect an award of $12,500. Though images of Muhammad are not explicitly banned by the Quran, prominent Islamic views oppose human images, especially those of prophets. Such views have gained ground among certain militant Islamic groups.\nThe event featured speeches by Pamela Geller, president of the AFDI, and Geert Wilders, a Dutch lawmaker and outspoken critic of Islam. Congressmen Keith Ellison and André Carson had tried unsuccessfully to block Wilders from entering the United States. At the time of the attack, the \"First Annual Muhammad Art Exhibit and Contest\" exhibit was attended by approximately",
"-33.128281822253484"
],
[
"mosque and were drafted by Mohammed Mandi Al Tamimi of the UAE, Farouk Haddad of Syria and Mohammed Allam of Jordan. Controversy In 2013, US-based singer Rihanna received negative criticism for taking photographs, with the Mosque in the background, during a private visit. During the incident she was reported to have posed in a manner deemed offensive and provocative. Staff asked her to leave following the incident.\nMore recently, Selena Gomez was criticised by Instagram users for posing for pictures at the mosque with her ankle shown.",
"-32.58444169925497"
],
[
"(CAIR), which had previously tweeted out the video as an example of discrimination against Muslims, demanded an apology from Saleh and Akbar stating \"Muslims are already under the microscope and to do this just to gain some cheap publicity is totally unacceptable. There should be no attempt to justify it; they should just apologize and ask people to forgive them for their irresponsible actions.\"\nIn another YouTube video, Saleh claimed to have flown inside a suitcase in the baggage hold on a Tigerair flight from Melbourne to Sydney. However, Melbourne Airport security footage proved the incident was a hoax after they",
"-32.518852860084735"
],
[
"\"because Muhammad created a new community, the religion that was its raison d'être had to meet the political needs of its adherents.\"\nIn 2012 a film titled Innocence of Muslims and alternatively The Real Life of Muhammad and Muhammad Movie Trailer was released by Nakoula Basseley Nakoula. A Vanity Fair article described the video as \"Exceptionally amateurish, with disjointed dialogue, jumpy editing, and performances that would have looked melodramatic even in a silent movie, the clip is clearly designed to offend Muslims, portraying Mohammed as a bloodthirsty murderer and Lothario and pedophile with omnidirectional sexual appetites.\" Reacting to the release of",
"-32.323658274021"
],
[
"that's their decision not to show the image of Muhammad or not — it's Parker and Stone\", he said. \"Like little whores, they'll sit there and grab the bucks. They'll sit there and they'll whine and they'll take their shot at Jesus. That's their stock in trade.\" In response to these criticisms, Parker and Stone agreed with these groups, noting that while images of Muhammed were forbidden, it instead appeared to be “open season” on Jesus, hence their depiction to illustrate the hypocrisy of the network. The duo subsequently made Donohue a villain in the 2007 episode \"Fantastic Easter Special\".\nThe",
"-32.29001667746343"
],
[
"against the Pope and the worshippers of Idols [the Muslims mistakenly thought that Catholic Christians worshipped images of the saints and Christ, not understanding the Catholic principle of image veneration as elaborated in church councils]; they also told them not to hate the Muslims because they are the sword of God in the world against the idol-worshippers. That is why they side with the Muslims.\n— Al-Hajari, The Book of the Protector of Religion against the Unbelievers \nHe then met with Erpenius there, as well as with the future explorer Peter Nuyts. In the series of Moroccan envoys to the Dutch Crown,",
"-32.28433685400523"
],
[
"Torah and the New Testament. In another scene, the Muhammad is seen speaking to the donkey known as Ya'fur in Islamic tradition. Reviews A Vanity Fair article described the video as \"Exceptionally amateurish, with disjointed dialogue, jumpy editing, and performances that would have looked melodramatic even in a silent movie, the clip is clearly designed to offend Muslims, portraying Mohammed as a bloodthirsty murderer and Lothario and pedophile with omnidirectional sexual appetites.\"\nReuters said \"it portrays Mohammad as a fool, a philanderer and a religious fake and in one clip posted on YouTube, he was shown in an apparent sexual act",
"-32.20493634069862"
],
[
"Muslims are in practice treated as a group based on their religion, and that the cartoons were intended to represent all of Islam and all Muslims in a negative way, not just Muhammad. Erik Bleich said that while the cartoons did essentialise Islam in a potentially racist way, they ranged from offensive to pro-Muslim so labelling them as a group was problematic. The Economist said Muslims were not targeted in a discriminatory way, since unflattering cartoons about other religions or their leaders are frequently printed. For Noam Chomsky, the cartoons were inspired by a spirit of \"ordinary racism under",
"-32.138000603663386"
],
[
"depicting Muhammad In December 1999, the German news magazine Der Spiegel printed on the same page pictures of \"moral apostles\" Muhammad, Jesus, Confucius, and Immanuel Kant. Few weeks later, the magazine received protests, petitions and threats against publishing depictions of Muhammad. The Turkish TV-station Show TV broadcast the telephone number of an editor who then received daily calls. A picture of Muhammad had been published by the magazine once before in 1998 in a special edition on Islam, without evoking similar protests.\nIn 2008, several Muslims protested against the inclusion of Muhammad's depictions in the English Wikipedia's Muhammad article. An online",
"-32.00046317465603"
],
[
"and unverified—she has a history of posting misleading videos. Describing herself on her Twitter account as \"faithful to God and Britannia\", she had made over 15,000 tweets since opening the account in mid-2016. One of the videos (titled \"Muslim migrant beats up Dutch boy on crutches!\") purported to show an assault by a Muslim immigrant. According to the Dutch embassy in the US, the teenage perpetrator was \"born and raised in the Netherlands\"; and the embassy later confirmed that he was not Muslim. Another video (\"Muslim Destroys a Statue of Virgin Mary!\") was filmed during the Syrian Civil War in",
"-31.742081279749982"
],
[
"Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which do present still and moving representations of living beings) have an exceptional impact on public opinion, sometimes, as in the case of Al-Jazira, with a global reach, beyond the Arabic speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes and coins, in streets and offices (e.g.: presidents like Nasser and Mubarak, Arafat, Al-Asad or Hezbollah's Nasrallah and ayatollah Khomeini). Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to be found in most Muslim countries (Saddam Hussain's are infamous",
"-31.57286103462684"
],
[
"Muhammad, which was responded to with reactions of violent riots, global protests and death threats toward the artists. As a result of those incidents, many publications and television studios have refused to broadcast images of Muhammad whatsoever, which was the inspiration behind Tom Cruise's efforts to harvest Muhammad's apparent immunity to satire and ridicule. Parker and Stone addressed the Muhammad issue in their two-part tenth season episode \"Cartoon Wars\", during which they attempt to show an image of the prophet, only to reveal that Comedy Central has forbidden any such image from being broadcast on their network. However, Muhammad had",
"-31.472945805755444"
],
[
"as terrorists in media, so we should look into backgrounds and reasons for an activity before labelling people.\" \nHe criticizes the portrayal of Muslims in films saying, \"Hundreds of movies were made in Hollywood to malign the image of Islam that a non-Muslim gets scared when he heard a Muslim saying 'Allah Akbar', thinking that he is going to kill him. If anyone really wants to know how good Islam is, he or she has to study its authentic sources; the glorious Quran and Hadith rather than looking to its followers (Muslims) as is the case with a motorist whose",
"-31.405409356113523"
],
[
"over depictions of Muhammad, questionning issues relating to the religious offense to minorities in secular countries. A key case was the 1989 fatwa against English author Salman Rushdie for his 1988 book entitled The Satanic Verses, the title of which refers to an account that Muhammad, in the course of revealing the Quran, received a revelation from Satan and incorporated it therein until made by Allah to retract it. Several translators of his book into foreign languages have been murdered. In the UK, many supporters of Salman Rushdie and his publishers advocated unrestricted freedom of expression and the abolition of",
"-31.350572142982855"
],
[
"are part of our society, not strangers. The cartoons are including, rather than excluding, Muslims.\" The publication of the cartoons was also accompanied by an editorial titled 'Truslen fra mørket ('The Threat from the Darkness) condemning Islamic spiritual leaders \"who feel entitled to interpret the prophet's word, and cannot abide the insult that comes from being the object of intelligent satire.\" In October 2005, Politiken, another leading Danish newspaper, published its own poll of thirty-one of the forty-three members of the Danish cartoonist association. Twenty-three said they would be willing to draw Muhammad. One had doubts, one would not",
"-31.30608501128154"
],
[
"The footage of Muhammad was compared to other iconic images of children under attack: the boy in the Warsaw ghetto (1943), the Vietnamese girl doused with napalm (1972), and the firefighter carrying the dying baby in Oklahoma (1995). Catherine Nay, a French journalist, argued that Muhammad's death \"cancels, erases that of the Jewish child, his hands in the air before the SS in the Warsaw Ghetto.\"\nPalestinian children were distressed by the repeated broadcasting of the footage, according to a therapist in Gaza, and were re-enacting the scene in playgrounds. Arab countries issued postage stamps bearing the images. Parks and streets",
"-31.272241931641474"
],
[
"Muslims promote the idea that if we \"insult\" him (despite the fact that he's dead), that we should be killed.\" The website says that Mohammad was a \"false prophet\" and that the \"Islamic ideology itself is clearly one of hatred and violence, which is declaring war against the entire non-Islamic world... it is determined to dominate the world, just as Nazism was.\" The website came out against plans to build an Islamic cultural center near Ground Zero in New York, and said this was the reason why. \"Because Islam is a hateful and violent ideology which preaches hate and violence",
"-31.17639901652001"
],
[
"Yemen and he could see the gates of Sana. According to Muslim historians, these prophesies were fulfilled in subsequent times. Visual representation In Islam, although nothing in the Quran explicitly bans images, some supplemental aḥādīth (Arabic: أَحَادِيث, 'traditions') explicitly ban the drawing of images of any living creature. Hence, Muslims generally avoid visual depictions of Muhammad or any other prophet such as Moses or Abraham. Most Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets of Islam should be prohibited and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad. The key concern is that the use of images can encourage",
"-31.152254606888164"
],
[
"they refused and instead taunted Muhammad by claiming his God is poor. Islamic tradition says that the Quran verse 3:118 was revealed because of the comments. It states:\nO you who believe! do not take for intimate friends from among others than your own people; they do not fall short of inflicting loss upon you; they love what distresses you; vehement hatred has already appeared from out of their mouths, and what their breasts conceal is greater still; indeed, We have made the communications clear to you, if you will understand.\nQuran 3:12 and 3:13 is also related to this event.",
"-31.071584563178476"
],
[
"publication in September 2005 of 12 cartoons depicting Islam and Muhammad. The most notorious of these showed Muhammed with a bomb in his turban. This drew protests from Muslims living in Denmark, followed in early 2006 by protests throughout the Muslim world.\nThe newspaper has been accused of misusing freedom of speech by Muslim groups and a number of ethnic Danish intellectuals. The Muhammad cartoons controversy resulted in withdrawal of the ambassadors of Libya, Saudi Arabia and Syria from Denmark, as well as consumer boycotts of Danish products in a number of Islamic countries.\nThe newspaper has apologised for offending Muslims, but",
"-30.944117195438594"
],
[
"idea, not only because depicting Mohammed \"is inconsiderate of the sensibilities of others\", but also because \"it defines those others—Muslims—as being outside of our culture, unworthy of the courtesy we readily accord to insiders.\" Bill Walsh of Bedford Minuteman wrote critically of the initiative, which seemed \"petulant and childish\" to him: \"It attempts to battle religious zealotry with rudeness and sacrilege, and we can only wait to see what happens, but I fear it won’t be good.\" Janet Albrechtsen wrote in The Australian, \"As a cartoon, it was mildly amusing. As a campaign, it's crass and gratuitously offensive.\" Writing for",
"-30.92847037652973"
],
[
"bin Fahd, Muhammad Al-Munajid, Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan, and Saleh al-Maghamsi and thousands of Saudi clerics viewed the series negatively. Traditional historicitic and depictional controversy In the events of the Islamic prophet Muhammad's living era, Muhammad himself, his children and wives were not depicted but many direct actions of him have been shown redirected from any other sahaba near to him for the restrictions and limitations of Muhammad's visual depiction in the Islamic world. Although in a sequence before the death of Abu Bakr, there was a shadow depiction of Aisha shown silently conversing with her father. The dress",
"-30.89289267687127"
],
[
"within the meaning of the relevant international human rights instruments\" although \"some of the more controversial pictures may nevertheless be judged 'gratuitously offensive' to the religious beliefs of Muslims in accordance with the applicable case-law of the European Court of Human Rights.\" This means that the Danish authorities probably could have prohibited the drawings' dissemination if they had chosen to. Randall Hansen said that the cartoons were clearly anti-Islamic, but that this should not be confused with racism because a religion is a system of ideas not an inherent identity. Tariq Modood said that the cartoons were essentially racist because",
"-30.858129827684024"
],
[
"and a Qur'an in the other\". Commissioner Elliot Cohen described Condell's comments as \"insulting, degenerating and racist\".\nCondell then accused Cohen of being \"motivated by his own narrow personal and political agenda which has nothing to do with [Condell] or the video clip\". The video was initially sent to them by fellow Peace and Justice Commissioner Jonathan Wornick, who said it \"tries to expose intolerance in the Muslim world\", such as \"the intolerance of radical Islamists who say if you insult Allah, you should have your head cut off\". Condell said that its popularity proves \"there is an enthusiastic audience for",
"-30.587914549396373"
],
[
"Aniconism in Islam Theological views The Quran, the Islamic holy book, does not explicitly prohibit the depiction of human figures; it merely condemns idolatry. Interdictions of figurative representation are present in the hadith, among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter part of the period when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, they need to be interpreted in order to be applied in any general manner.\nSunni exegetes of tafsir, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions against producing and",
"-30.562919397372752"
],
[
"Koeppel replied that he did not consider the caricatures of Muhammad in the same vein. Islamic governments and NGOs The public anger was accompanied by a condemnation from Arabic and Islamic governments as well as Islamic non-governmental organizations (NGOs).\nThe Justice and Islamic Affairs Minister of the United Arab Emirates, Mohammed Al Dhaheri, called it \"cultural terrorism, not freedom of expression\", according to the official WAM news agency. \"The repercussions of such irresponsible acts will have adverse impact on international relations.\"\nIn Tunisia, Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri, president of the Islamic Organization for Education, Science and Culture (ISESCO, the Islamic world's counterpart to",
"-30.53090840106597"
],
[
"the Muslims, wrapped in the garb of treachery and knavery. Such writings have resulted in creating the Dutch mental-image of Muslims as poly-haremic, licentious, barbaric and mis-managers.\"\nWhat is remarkable in such impassioned criticism is that it finds nothing wrong in the notion of No-go areas in today's world based upon one's religious affiliation. On the other hand, the mindset behind it actively seeks justification for condemning those who dare defy it. In fact according to L.I. Graf, there was no other possibility for Snouck Hurgronje to be admitted to Mecca without becoming a practicing Muslim:\n\"Wel bestond voor SH natuurlijk geen",
"-30.424249784089625"
],
[
"asked people not to follow the calls from those proposing to publish caricatures of Muhammad in all countries, especially in Ukraine, where mutual understanding and friendship between Ukrainians is very important against the background of the information and armed war against our country. He thought that not without reason Khodorkovsky had called for the publication of caricatures of Muhammad. S. Ismagilov asked journalists to be correct, not to incite resentment within the country over the crimes of individuals and expressed willingness to explain the position of Islam and answer questions. Political career S.Ismagilov participated in parliamentary election for the Verkhovna",
"-30.2775616615545"
],
[
"Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among others) as People of the Book since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have a divine origin. Christians however neither recognize the Qur'an as a genuine book of divine revelation, nor agree with its assessment of Jesus as a mere prophet, on par with Muhammad, nor for that matter accept that Muhammad was a genuine prophet.\nMuslims, for their part, believe that parts of the Gospels, Torah and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten, misinterpreted, or distorted by their followers. Based on that perspective, Muslims view",
"-30.252576878854597"
],
[
"by other Muslims, on the grounds that the artifacts are idolatrous or shirk. However, sometimes those who profess aniconism will practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Talibans from the Kandahar photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography).\nFor Shia communities, portraits of the major figures of Shiite history are important elements of religious devotion. In Iran, portraits of Muhammad and of Ali, printed on pieces of cloth or woven into carpets, are called temsal (\"likenesses\") and can be bought around shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself. In Pakistan, India and Bangladesh portraits",
"-30.224660900305025"
],
[
"Jyllands-Posten published an article entitled \"Muhammeds ansigt\" (\"The face of Muhammad\") incorporating the cartoons. The article consisted of the 12 cartoons and an explanatory text, in which Rose wrote:\nModern, secular society is rejected by some Muslims. They demand a special position, insisting on special consideration of their own religious feelings. It is incompatible with contemporary democracy and freedom of speech, where one must be ready to put up with insults, mockery and ridicule. It is certainly not always attractive and nice to look at, and it does not mean that religious feelings should be made fun of at any",
"-30.164411660574842"
],
[
"the most righteous. They believe in God as a single entity, not as the Trinity accepted by the vast majority of Christians. Neither do Muslims accept Jesus' crucifixion. Since Muslims believe only in the worship of a strictly monotheistic God who never assumed human flesh, they do not accept the use of icons, and see this as shirk (idolatry). Muslim influence played a part in the initiation of iconoclasm and their conquests caused the iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire. For the same reason, they do not worship or pray to Muhammad, Jesus, or any other prophets; only to God.\nAdherents of",
"-30.03863359769457"
],
[
"of Muhammad. The cover of a 2011 issue retitled Charia Hebdo (French for Sharia Weekly), featured a cartoon of Muhammad, whose depiction is forbidden in some interpretations of Islam. The newspaper's office was fire-bombed and its website hacked. In 2012, the newspaper published a series of satirical cartoons of Muhammad, including nude caricatures; this came days after a series of violent attacks on U.S. embassies in the Middle East, purportedly in response to the anti-Islamic film Innocence of Muslims, prompting the French government to close embassies, consulates, cultural centres, and international schools in about 20 Muslim countries. Riot police surrounded",
"-30.011449010344222"
],
[
"by Muslims who objected to her statements. The Prosecutor's office decided not to initiate a case, because her critique did \"not put forth any conclusions in respect to Muslims and their worth as a group is not denied\". Film with Theo van Gogh Working with writer and director Theo van Gogh, Hirsi Ali wrote the script and provided the voice-over for Submission (2004), a short film that criticised the treatment of women in Islamic society. Juxtaposed with passages from the Qur'an were scenes of actresses portraying Muslim women suffering abuse. An apparently nude actress dressed in a semi-transparent burqa was",
"-30.0044286751654"
],
[
"website published a video which falsely claimed a Muslim migrant beat up a Dutch boy on crutches. \nGeller denies she is anti-Muslim, saying \"I love Muslims. I help them.\" She has said the only \"moderate Muslim is a secular Muslim\", and that when Muslims pray, they are cursing Jews and Christians. She has claimed that Muslims practice bestiality. Geller has said that \"Islam is the most anti-Semitic, genocidal ideology in the world\". She has said terrorists don't spring from \"perversions of Islam but from the religion itself\". \nShe has been criticized by the Anti-Defamation League, Council on American-Islamic Relations and",
"-29.93887891707709"
],
[
"depict Muhammad as a \"sexual pervert\" for the consummation of his marriage to Aisha when she was nine or ten years old at the time. In one clip, Muhammad is shown with an erection, taking the girl to a mosque adorned with a Nazi swastika, in preparation of her deflowering. Following calls from the Minister of Justice, Ernst Hirsch Ballin, to not increase tension in society, Jami decided against its release. He spoke of his fears that the Dutch police would be unable to adequately protect his safety, and of the possibility of a fatwa calling for his death being",
"-29.92544590635225"
],
[
"Criticism of Muhammad Ex-Muslim Atheist/Agnostic criticism Many early former Muslims such as Ibn al-Rawandi, Al-Ma'arri, and Abu Isa al-Warraq were famous religious skeptics, polymaths, and philosophers that criticized Islam, the alleged authority and reliability of the Qu'ran, Muhammad's morality, and his claims to be a prophet.\nThe Quran also mentions critics of Muhammad; for example Quran 25:4-6 says the critics complained that Mohammad was passing off what others were telling him as revelations:\nThose who disbelieve say, \"This is nothing but a lie that he made up, and others have helped him at it...Tales of the ancients; he wrote them down; they",
"-29.789264420978725"
],
[
"Muhammad Although depictions of Muhammad are often forbidden, the few that exist often include images of angels. Specifically, the Archangel Gabriel is frequently shown alongside the prophet. For example, in The Timurid Book of the Prophet Muhammad’s Ascension, the Archangel Gabriel appears to the Prophet Muhammad in Mecca to announce his ascension. Kneeling before Muhammad, Gabriel is shown with colorful wings and a crown. Later in The Timurid Book, Muhammad is shown with Gabriel meeting a group of angels in heaven. In the Jami' al-tawarikh, a Persian history from the 14th century, Muhammad is depicted beside al-Buraq, whose tail is",
"-29.762202540616272"
],
[
"Reactions to Innocence of Muslims Context of reactions The late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen several major incidents of the Islamic world taking offence at pictorial or written representation of Muhammad and his teachings. In practice people have been brought to trial, killed or had a fatwa called on them for a wide range of acts that have been cited as blasphemous, including depicting Mohammad either in writing or in some other manner that was perceived as insulting. Background A trailer for a movie called Innocence of Muslims, described by Reuters as depicting the Islamic prophet, Muhammad \"as",
"-29.661416184622794"
],
[
"of Ali can be found on notoriously ornate trucks, buses and rickshaws. Contrary to the Sunni tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shiite tombs. A curiosity in Iran is an Orientalist photography supposed to represent Muhammad as a young boy. The Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwā declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect. Circumvention methods Medieval Muslim artists found various ways to represent especially sensitive figures such as Muhammad. He is sometimes shown with a",
"-29.6298227327934"
],
[
"dirty movie or video, the internet pornography. That is becoming a real problem... And if this is a difficulty for you, then do talk to someone about it in confidence. You see, it is the intending to look in order to have that arousal that Jesus has in his sights.\" Islam In Islam, intentional lascivious glances are forbidden. Lascivious thoughts are disliked, for they are the first step towards adultery, rape and other antisocial behaviors. Prophet Muhammad also stressed the magnitude of the \"second glance\", as the first glance towards an attractive member of the opposite sex could be just",
"-29.606398725751205"
],
[
"images of Muhammad next to cards identifying him by name. Schapira also obtained, from a Palestinian journalist, what appeared to be footage of him arriving at the hospital on a stretcher. During an emotional public funeral in the Bureij refugee camp, Muhammad was wrapped in a Palestinian flag and buried before sundown on the day of his death, in accordance with Muslim tradition.\nJamal was taken at first to the Al-Shifa Hospital in Gaza. Dr. Ahmed Ghadeel said Jamal had received multiple wounds from high-velocity bullets striking his right elbow, right thigh and the lower part of both legs; his femoral",
"-29.470619979780167"
],
[
"was ok and he personally apologised to the cartoonist Westergaard. Westergaard responded by saying \"I met a man who has converted from being an Islamist to become a humanist who understands the values of our society. To me, he is really sincere, convincing and strong in his views.\" A spokesman for the Islamic Society of Denmark said \"It is still not OK to publish drawings of Muhammad. We have not changed our position.\" Charlie Hebdo controversies and attacks The French satirical weekly newspaper Charlie Hebdo was taken to court for publishing the cartoons; it was acquitted of charges that it",
"-29.41590709378943"
],
[
"were named in Muhammad's honour, and Osama bin Laden mentioned him in a \"warning\" to President George Bush after 9/11. The images were blamed for the 2000 Ramallah lynching and a rise in antisemitism in France. One image could be seen in the background when journalist Daniel Pearl, an American Jew, was beheaded by al-Qaeda in February 2002.\nSections of the Jewish and Israeli communities, including the Israeli government in 2013, described the statements that IDF soldiers had killed the boy as a \"blood libel,\" a reference to the centuries-old allegation that Jews sacrifice Christian children for their blood. Comparisons were",
"-29.414313993416727"
],
[
"not the true Islam.\" Professor Clive Williams, who teaches at Macquarie University's Centre for Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, believes Mohammad's extremist videos should be taken off the internet.",
"-29.411944715830032"
],
[
"like Muhammad, the only prophet that Muslims do not share with Jews and Christians, was perceived as the last in a long list of humiliations and assaults: it is probably not a coincidence that the more violent demonstrations were held in countries like Syria, Iran and Libya, whose relations with the West are tense.\" Yusuf al-Qaradawi, a prominent Islamic theologian, called for a day of anger from Muslims in response to the cartoons. He supported calls for a UN resolution that \"categorically prohibits affronts to prophets—to the prophets of the Lord and His messengers, to His holy books, and to",
"-29.402672259675455"
],
[
"allegations made by Islamic organisations including the Tamil Nadu Muslim Munnetra Kazagham (TMMK), while negotiations are still in progress. TMMK leader M. H. Jawahirullah claimed, \"There is a danger that the public may view any Muslim with a beard as a terrorist waiting for an opportunity to plant a bomb\". Kamal Haasan released a protest note, criticising them for using an \"icon bashing\" tactic in order to politically profile themselves. Contrary to Jawahirullah, he also stated, that the movie would be giving Muslims a sense of pride. Haasan took the matter to the Madras High Court, seeking an immediate rollback",
"-29.371112319349777"
],
[
"zealots who would deny that others at other times and places perceived and illustrated Muhammad in different ways.\"\nBoston College professor Jonathan Laurence, co-author of Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, has said that he told the Press that it should reproduce the original Jyllands-Posten newspaper page that included the cartoon. \"I was consulted by the press about the decision whether or not to publish. I suggested that they publish the newspaper page in its entirety as documentary evidence of the episode being discussed,\" he told The Times. \"I actually know another professor who was",
"-29.32833568235219"
],
[
"mistrust of Islam\".\nIn 2018, Conservative MP Michael Fabricant apologised for tweeting a photoshopped image depicting a balloon caricature of Sadiq Khan (mimicking the Trump baby balloon during the president's visit to the UK) having sex with a pig. The image was condemned by Hope not Hate as well as Warsi. Labour MP Wes Streeting raised the issue with the government's chief whip. No action was taken against Fabricant.\nIn October 2018, recently selected London Mayoral candidate Shaun Bailey was accused of Islamophobia and Hinduphobia after it was reported that had written a pamphlet in 2005, entitled No Man’s Land, for the",
"-29.30966634536162"
],
[
"website, on a page tiled \"Religious apartheid in Saudi Arabia\", a picture of a sign showing Muslim-only and non-Muslim roads.\nIn 2007, there were news reports that according to Saudi policy for tourists it was not permissible to bring non-Muslim religious symbols and books into the kingdom as they were subject to confiscation, and that the U.S. State Department disputed this, saying that the regulation restrictions were no longer in place. The 2007 U.S The U.S State Department International Religious Freedom (IRF) report detailed several cases in which bibles were confiscated in Saudi Arabia, but said that there were fewer reports",
"-29.27457109023817"
],
[
"in homes or carried with oneself, while in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh they notoriously ornate trucks, buses and rickshas. Contrary to the Sunni tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shi'ite tombs. A curiosity in Iran is a Orientalist photography supposed to represent Prophet Muhammad as a young boy. The Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwa declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the Prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect.\nPast – Neither is the representation of living beings in Islamic countries a modern phenomenon",
"-29.18274505645968"
],
[
"utensils and pure silk spreads in the household in order to avoid luxurious lifestyles in the home. Statues are also prohibited in homes, and Muslims are prohibited from participating in making statues because of the idea of negating the Oneness of Allah. Shirk It is considered a sin for a Muslim to worship anyone other than Allah, which is known as shirk.\nThe following is a Quranic verse on shirk:\nSay: I am forbidden to worship those on whom ye call instead of God. Say: I will not follow your desires, for then should I go astray and I should not",
"-29.173894562452915"
],
[
"goes on to suggest his \"visions\" came as a result of epileptic seizures and the interventions of a renegade Nestorian monk named Sergius. Later presentations The depiction of Islam in the Travels of Sir John Mandeville is also relatively positive, though with many inaccurate and mythical features. It is said that Muslims are easily converted to Christianity because their beliefs are already so similar in many ways, and that they believe that only the Christian revelation will last until the end of the world. The moral behaviour of Muslims at the time is shown as superior to that of Christians,",
"-29.169843774754554"
],
[
"about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.\nThe earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad. During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events. Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a \"broader",
"-29.14523863210343"
],
[
"early work, while feeling the singer remained \"as flashy\" and confident as ever. Reception Contemporary critics universally commended the music video for its themes and production values. The video was both heralded and criticized for confronting women's rights in Saudi Arabia; the portrayal of women wearing the niqab driving cars is strictly prohibited in Saudi Arabia, while some media outlets accused the video of propagating Arab stereotypes. Claire Suddath of Time agreed that at first glance, the video appeared to be a political statement on women drivers in Saudi Arabia and a stylish, aesthetically pleasing piece, stating that the video",
"-29.13769995587063"
],
[
"all Muslims if they saw another Muslim under attack.\"\nIn response to the Quebec City mosque shooting he promoted the controversial view that, rather than being the act of a lone shooter, the involvement of an accomplice had been covered up by the Canadian government and police.\nAccording to the National Post he has also said \"Islam is riddled with termites ... and if we don’t cleanse ourselves with truth, the stench of our lies will drive us mad\", and that there are \"hateful sermons in almost every mosque\" in Canada – Fatah himself does not attend a mosque and encourages Muslim parents",
"-29.133716048905626"
],
[
"said that followers of other religions also did not accept the notion that terrorism is associated with Muslims, and that \"this is an auspicious development for restoring peace among different cultures in the world.\"\nUnited Arab Emirates Foreign minister, Abdullah Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, condemned the film as being critical and insulting to Muhammad.\nThe Yemeni parliament condemned the film, calling it inflammatory, discriminatory towards Muslims, and promoting religious violence and hatred, whilst stressing the need to respect all religions, cultures, and civilizations without prejudice. Europe In Denmark, Kurt Westergaard, the cartoonist from one of the Jyllands-Posten cartoons of Muhammed, has expressed",
"-29.075484878674615"
],
[
"In the original video, Ahok says, \"Ladies and gentlemen […] you have been deceived by the use of Al Maidah 51 [of the Quran]\", while in the accompanying texts, Buni wrote, \"Ladies and gentlemen [Muslim voters] have been deceived by Al Maidah 51.\"\nThe videos went viral and Basuki was criticised in social media such as Facebook and Twitter. A Change.org petition criticising him gained tens of thousands of signatures. Several organizations, including the Islamic Defenders Front (Indonesian acronym: FPI) and a local chapter of the Indonesian Ulema Council, reported Basuki to the police, accusing him of having violated Indonesia's Law",
"-29.064040224882774"
],
[
"terms of its relationships with its neighbours\". In response to these accusations, Bassma Kodmani published a response explaining that the video was fabricated in order to hurt her reputation as it took her answers out of context and cut everything that she said in defense of the rights of Arabs, Muslims and Palestinians. She described this video as nothing more than an attempt of the government to destabilize the Syrian National Council.",
"-29.051530272932723"
],
[
"at least 2001 until the cartoon crisis. Aniconism The Qur'an condemns idolatry, and this has led some Islamic scholars to interpret it as prohibiting figurative representation; this is known as aniconism. However, since Islam has many centres of religious authority, opinion and tradition about this is not uniform. In popular practice today there is no general injunction against pictorial representation of people outside of religious contexts. Generally, images of Muhammad have been prohibited throughout history. In practice, images of Muhammad have been made on many occasions, generally in a restricted and socially regulated way; for example, they are often",
"-29.034447509562597"
],
[
"scripture, nor did you inscribe one with your right hand. Otherwise the falsifiers would have had [cause for] doubt\", is thought to indicate that Muhammad was illiterate and had not read any earlier scriptures.\nThe Quran disclaims any superhuman characteristics for Muhammad but describes him as a man possessing the highest moral excellence (Quran 68:5 \"And thou dost, surely, possess sublime moral excellences\"). God made him a good example or a \"goodly model\" for Muslims to follow (68:4, and 33:21). full of sympathy for Muslims (\"Grievous to him is what you suffer; [he is] concerned over you and to the believers",
"-29.032379096955992"
],
[
"the picture. [Through the media] it lands at the government, who then act surprised at the existence of ex-Muslims in Malaysia and that something needs to be done. (...) A lot of people, especially those involved in the photos, are now going into hiding because we don't know what's gonna happen. (...) Of course [I'm afraid too].\"\nIn November 2017 the government and the Internet regulator Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission had demanded that Atheist Republic's page and similar atheist pages on Facebook be taken down. However, Facebook refused to do so because the pages did not violate any of the",
"-28.99450380401686"
],
[
"that certain fanatical Muslims displayed, but the foundation for such ills in the Koran and core Islamic texts. The Jerusalem Post writes, \"Sina, who runs Faith Freedom International – an Internet forum dedicated to debunking Islam – considers himself 'probably the biggest anti-Islam person alive.' His latest book is titled, Understanding Muhammad: A Psychobiography of Allah's Prophet. In it, Sina suggests that Muhammad suffered from a series of mental disorders, including narcissistic personality disorder, temporal lobe epilepsy and obsessive compulsive disorder. 'These disorders,' he says, 'can explain the phenomenon known as Islam... which is nothing but one man's insanity.'\"\nThrough his",
"-28.991915812017396"
],
[
"of the 14-minute video were uploaded to YouTube in July 2012, under the titles The Real Life of Muhammad and Muhammad Movie Trailer. Videos dubbed in Arabic were uploaded during early September 2012. Anti-Islamic content had been added in post-production by dubbing, without the actors' knowledge.\nWhat was perceived as denigrating of the Islamic prophet Muhammad resulted in demonstrations and violent protests against the video to break out on 11 September in Egypt and spread to other Arab and Muslim nations and to some western countries. The protests have led to hundreds of injuries and over 50 deaths. Fatwas calling for",
"-28.962312763324007"
],
[
"Expert Finder, pointing out that despite aniconism the depiction of Muhammad is not wholly forbidden in Islam, and so in principle it should be possible for non-Muslims to draw him as well, although stating, \"What should be an issue, however, are all possible implications between visual representation and bigotry.\" He also defended the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution in the way that it's an important right of all Americans. Threat on Molly Norris's life, forced into hiding On July 11, 2010, it was reported that the Yemeni-American al-Qaeda cleric Anwar al-Awlaki had put Molly Norris on a hitlist. In",
"-28.959360934677534"
],
[
"Muhammad was \"an absolute wild-eyed fanatic ... a robber and a brigand.\" On the July 14, 2005 broadcast of The 700 Club, he claimed that \"Islam, at its core, teaches violence.\"\nOn the March 13, 2006 broadcast of The 700 Club Robertson stated that Muslims want global domination and that the outpouring of rage elicited by cartoon drawings of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad \"just shows the kind of people we're dealing with. These people are crazed fanatics, and I want to say it now: I believe it's motivated by demonic power. It is Satanic and it's time we recognize what we're",
"-28.940789984655567"
],
[
"should not keep using phrases such as \"the corrupt culture of the west\" etc. in our words. As it's also said in the Holy Koran, \"Do not insult the gods of others, otherwise you are indirectly insulting your God\".\n— February 15, 2006. Bewilderment Certain secular Muslims have expressed bewilderment at the reaction these cartoons have provoked. A Danish member of parliament, Muslim Naser Khader stated, \"My impression from different Arabic media is that the dominant position – perhaps surprising for some – can be summarised as follows: We cannot as Muslims dictate that non-Muslims comply with the allegedly prohibited depiction",
"-28.93852340709418"
],
[
"attacks against Muslims, particularly Muslim women who wear the hijab. Many blamed the attacks on the divisive rhetoric surrounding the debate, and accused the PQ of exploiting the debate for political gain.\nIn 2015, then Prime Minister Stephen Harper, while answering questions about terrorism suspects, said \"it doesn't matter what the age of the person is, or whether they're in a basement, or whether they're in a mosque or somewhere else.\" The remarks were seen as casting mosques as \"venues of terrorism\", by the NCCM, who expressed concerns about increased attacks on mosques as a result of this perception. The leader",
"-28.92236070265062"
],
[
"the fact that a Holocaust survivor like Tommy Lapid reacted to the image of a Palestinian woman foraging in the rubble by thinking of his grandmother who died in Auschwitz. The use of cartoons insulting Muslims by depicting Muhammad as a bomber is defended as \"freedom of speech\", while using the Holocaust in drawings is deplored as \"hatred against the Jews\".\nLatuff was included in Simon Wiesenthal Center's 2012 Top Ten Anti-Israel/Anti-Semitic Slurs list, which he considered \"a joke worthy of a Woody Allen movie\". He also claimed that Zionist lobbying groups try to associate him with well-known extremists and racists",
"-28.911049933783943"
],
[
"on March 28, 2008, condemning the film for reinforcing prejudices by implying that all Muslims are terrorists. The Committee said that the portrayal of Muslims in this manner was counterproductive, and that the Dutch Jewish community, along with the Dutch Muslim community and all of Dutch society, has a duty to combat all religious-based terrorism, and to protect everyone against those who wish to overthrow democracy or promote religious hatred.\nPolitician, and former Muslim, Ehsan Jami had intended to release an animated cartoon entitled The Life of Mohammed on April 20, 2008. The film, critical of Islam and Muhammad, was to",
"-28.902017891909054"
],
[
"process where individuals are putting on a religious identity. It's all about being a Muslim, you shed the rest of it or you downplay the rest of it and you try to make everyone else as pious as yourself. And this would be, looking back at San Bernardino, the telltale signs. These changes that the family, the friends, the close circle of relatives should have observed.\" Muhammad Hirsi Ali criticises the central Islamic prophet on morality and personality traits (criticisms based on biographical details or depictions by Islamic texts and early followers of Muhammad). In January 2003 she told the",
"-28.854076960444218"
],
[
"depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to Western security and values. Benn and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and Muslims are \"closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as barbaric, irrational, primitive and sexist.\"\nThere have been various instances in the media about how the Muslim community are often misrepresented to society, mostly in a way that centers heavily on terrorism, and paints Islam with a very broad brush. This is something that is seen in two major magazines, Newsweek and Time, which have been covering relations between the U.S. and Afghanistan over the last decade. Both of",
"-28.83486571907997"
],
[
"suis Palestinian\" while watching the Republican marches, which together with other comments drew condemnation from his party leader, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg.\nOn 16 January 2015, protests against the continued creation of cartoons depicting Muhammad turned violent in several countries, including Algeria, Nigeria and Pakistan. Protesters shouted \"I am not Charlie, I am Muhammad\" and President of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated that the cartoons had nothing to do with freedom of expression, but rather with \"terrorising the freedom of others.\" In the city of Zinder, 4 died and 45 were wounded battling police.\nIn response to the issue of Charlie",
"-28.833278620208148"
],
[
"be willing because of fear of possible reprisals, and six artists would not be willing because they respected the Muslim ban on depicting Muhammad. Description of the cartoons The 12 cartoons were drawn by 12 professional cartoonists in Denmark. Four of the cartoons have Danish texts, one deliberately evades the issue and depicts a school child in Denmark named Muhammad rather than the Islamic prophet, one is based on a Danish cultural expression, and one includes a Danish politician. Response The immediate responses to the publication included newspaper sellers refusing to distribute that day's paper. In the following days, the",
"-28.807604675123002"
],
[
"so hypocritical against our own thoughts, if we said, 'Okay, well let's not make fun of them because they might hurt us. Okay, we'll rip on the Catholics because they won't hurt us, but we won't rip on [Muslims] because they might hurt us.'\" The Muhammad subplot in \"200\", like the \"Cartoon Wars\" episodes, advocates for free speech and speaks out against censorship, both of Muhammad's image and any subject considered taboo. \"200\" also demonstrates the double standard in the handling of offensive images of Muhammad and other religious figures, particularly in the scene in which Muhammad is censored altogether,",
"-28.774915820293245"
],
[
"that \"All this behavior has nothing to do with Islam... But it is actually a conspiracy planned by Zionism and some Christians with Zionist orientations and it aims at undermining and giving a bad image of Islam.\" He further added that media portrayal of the attack the Our Lady of Salvation Church in Baghdad was \"a conspiracy against Arabs and the pre-dominantly Muslim Arab world that aims at depicting Arabs and Muslims in Arab countries as terrorist and fundamentalist murderers in order to deny them their rights and especially those of the Palestinians.”\nIn March 2011 Patriarch Gregory said “we Christians",
"-28.765777402208187"
],
[
"to the show. The group's spokesman, Ibrahim Hooper, said, \"People are pretty tired of this whole 'Let's insult the prophet Muhammad thing.'\" Revolution Muslim entry The website for the organization Revolution Muslim, a New York-based organization, posted an entry that included a warning to creators Parker and Stone that they risk retribution for their depictions of Muhammad. It said that they \"will probably wind up like Theo van Gogh for airing this show.\" Filmmaker Theo van Gogh was murdered by an Islamist in 2004 for making a short documentary on the violence against women in some Islamic societies. The posting",
"-28.76277886866592"
],
[
"Party, Lars Hedegaard, gave an interview in which he declared that Muslims \"rape their own children. It is heard of all the time. Girls in Muslim families are raped by their uncles, their cousins or their fathers.\" He also stated that \"Whenever it is prudent for a Muslim to hide his true intentions by lying or making a false oath in his own or in Islam’s service, then it is ok to do it.\"\nSøren Krarup a fellow party member, said that Hedegaard's remarks were justified, though they could have been more \"carefully\" stated. He instead blamed the controversy on a",
"-28.748708700411953"
],
[
"of the prophet.\" One Arab journalist based in Brussels wrote that \"It is perplexing that a few crude cartoons can spark an international crisis overshadowing war, political oppression and economic and social injustice. It has hurt the image of Muslims and reflects poorly on their tolerance.\" Support for free speech Khaled Diab argues that Muslims cannot impose their own values on people of other faiths. Freedom of expression should permit people to express whatever opinions they have, even if they are offensive, he argues. Yet responsibility, respect, and sensitivity should lead mainstream media outlets to assess the effect the material",
"-28.714699353004107"
],
[
"are sometimes even decorated with images. These images are usually important islamic landmarks, such as the Kaaba, but they are never animate objects. This is because the drawing of animate objects is forbidden in islam.\nWhen praying, a niche, representing the mihrab of a mosque, at the top of the mat must be pointed to the Islamic center for prayer, Mecca. All Muslims are required to know the qibla or direction towards Mecca from their home or where they are while traveling. The Transylvanian miracle: Islamic rugs in Protestant Churches The Saxon Lutheran Churches, parish storerooms and museums of Transylvania safeguard",
"-28.708120760740712"
],
[
"response to the 2015 Charlie Hebdo shooting Chinese state-run media attacked Charlie Hebdo for publishing the cartoons insulting Muhammad, with the state-run Xinhua advocated limiting freedom of speech, while another state-run newspaper Global Times said the attack was \"payback\" for what it characterised as Western colonialism and accusing Charlie Hebdo of trying to incite a clash of civilizations.\nDifferent Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government in regards to religious freedom. Religious freedom is present for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build Mosques, and have their children attend Mosques, while more controls are",
"-28.684164999052882"
],
[
"Los Angeles, the Jewish Journal weekly changed its masthead that week to Jewish Hebdo and published the offending Muhammad cartoons.\nThe Guardian reported that many Muslims and Muslim organisations criticised the attack while some Muslims support it and other Muslims stated they would only condemn it if France condemned the killings of Muslims worldwide\". Zvi Bar'el argued in Haaretz that believing the attackers represented Muslims was like believing that Ratko Mladić represented Christians. Al Jazeera English editor and executive producer Salah-Aldeen Khadr attacked Charlie Hebdo as the work of solipsists, and sent out a staff-wide e-mail where he argued: \"Defending freedom",
"-28.6572732408531"
],
[
"Democrat parliamentary candidate Maajid Nawaz, a secular Muslim, posted a \"Jesus and Mo\" image on his Twitter account. The image depicts Jesus saying \"Hey\" and Mohammed saying \"How ya doin'\". Shafiq then posted on Twitter \"We will notify all muslim organisations in the UK of his despicable behaviour and also notify Islamic countries.\" Shafiq further Tweeted \"Ghustaki Rasool Quilliam,\" so linking Nawaz's anti-extremist think tank with an Urdu term which means \"defamer of the prophet\", which under Islamic law is a crime that carries a death penalty. Maajid Nawaz has since received a number of death threats. Shafiq",
"-28.657105558319017"
],
[
"Muhammad, Fatima, Ali, Hasan and Husayn implying they are only members of \"Ahl al-Bayt\". Under this dogma, only Muhammad's direct lineage holds a spiritual leadership and governorship over the Muslim community. In contrast, the Sunnis believe Muhammad was not referring solely to the five people in the room. Instead, Sunnis hold any muslim of good faith can attain spiritual leadership and governorship. The discrepancy between the two interpretations stems from Umm Salama's narration of the verse of purification and Hadith of Cloak.\nSome exegesis, including Amina Wadud interpret the first line, \"stay quietly in your houses, and make not a dazzling",
"-28.633380790241063"
],
[
"animals. Muhammad has been described as being more bashful than a maiden.\nModesty in dressing has particularly been emphasized. According to Islamic Law, known as sharia, Muslims are required to cover their body parts with proper dressing. Sharia has also laid down specific guidelines for men and women regarding their dressing. Covering everything from 'navel to knee' is mandatory for men. In some Muslim societies, women wear the niqab, a veil that covers the whole face except the eyes, or the full burqa, a full-body covering garment that occasionally does cover the eyes. Following is the most frequently cited verse of",
"-28.609606630867347"
],
[
"Medieval Christian views on Muhammad Overview In contrast to the views of Muhammad in Islam, the Christian image stayed highly negative for over a millennium. Early Middle Ages The earliest written Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from Byzantine sources, written shortly after Muhammad's death in 632. In the anti-Jewish polemic the Teaching of Jacob, a dialogue between a recent Christian convert and several Jews, one participant writes that his brother \"wrote to [him] saying that a deceiving prophet has appeared amidst the Saracens\". Another participant in the Doctrina replies about Muhammad: \"He is deceiving. For do prophets come with sword",
"-28.576679293997586"
],
[
"Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam Image veneration Sunnis are particularly critical of the \"love of visual imagery evident in Shia popular devotionalism\" and regularly cite this characteristic (often referred to as 'Shia iconography') as proof of Shia deviance or heresy.\nThe Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwā declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect. The Occultation In the tradition of Twelver Shia Islam, the twelfth and final Shia Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is also considered by Twelver Shia to be the prophesied redeemer",
"-28.561338262748905"
],
[
"Muslims as 'the Mothers of all Believers'.\nOther issues many Muslims have found offensive include Abraham being called a \"bastard\" for casting Hagar and Ishmael in the desert; and a character named Salman the Persian who serves as one of the Prophet's scribes, an apparent reference to the story, controversial among Muslims, of a Meccan convert by the name of Ibn Abi Sarh, who left Islam after the Prophet failed to notice small changes he had made in the dictation of the Qur'an.\nDaniel Pipes identified other more general issues in the book likely to have angered pious Muslims: A complaint in",
"-28.559955560718663"
],
[
"price, but that is of minor importance in the present context. ... we are on our way to a slippery slope where no-one can tell how the self-censorship will end. That is why Morgenavisen Jyllands-Posten has invited members of the Danish editorial cartoonists union to draw Muhammad as they see him.\n— Flemming Rose, \nLater, Rose explained his intent further in The Washington Post: \"The cartoonists treated Islam the same way they treat Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and other religions. And by treating Muslims in Denmark as equals they made a point: We are integrating you into the Danish tradition of satire because you",
"-28.54903532145545"
],
[
"Sunni scholars, Muslims of the past should be considered companions if they had any contact with Muhammad, and they were not liars or opposed to him and his teachings. If they saw him, heard him, or were in his presence even briefly, they are companions. All companions are assumed to be just (udul) unless they are proven otherwise; that is, Sunni scholars do not believe that companions would lie or fabricate hadith unless they are proven liars, untrustworthy or opposed to Islam.\nSome Quranic references are important to Sunni Muslim views of the reverence due to all companions; It sometimes admonishes",
"-28.54154212283902"
],
[
"web site, Sina lists references to Muhammad's actions and offers $50,000 to anyone who can disprove his charge that Muhammad was \"a narcissist, a misogynist, a rapist, a pedophile, a lecher, a torturer, a mass murderer, a cult leader, an assassin, a terrorist, a madman and a looter\". When asked why he fights Islam, he replied, \"When I read the Quran and felt blood dripping from every verse of it, when I saw that Islam reduces humans into beasts and makes monsters out of good people, when it became clear to me that there is NOTHING good in Islam and",
"-28.506614056415856"
],
[
"name of Islam are not equally condemned by Muslims.\nVarious commentators across the political spectrum view the Muslim reaction to the cartoons, be it the actual violence or the non-violent justification for the violence, as evidence of what Samuel Huntington predicted in his 1993 book, The Clash of Civilizations, namely, \"…the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic…the dominating source of conflict will be cultural…\"\nDaniel Pipes argues that the pattern of events shows Muslim hypocrisy and supremacism:\n...will Westerners accede to a double standard by which Muslims are free to insult Judaism, Christianity,",
"-28.506433563190512"
],
[
"critical of Mohammed called 'The Innocence of Muslims'. The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt have put out an arrest warrant for seven Copt Christians in Canada and America for their alleged involvement in the making of the film, which also led to worldwide riots by Muslims. In March 2013 the al Qaeda English-language magazine Inspire published a poster stating \"Wanted dead or alive for crimes against Islam\" with a prominent image of Terry Jones.\nIran's news agency, Press TV, reported on April 8, 2013, that Terry Jones plans another Quran burning event on September 11, 2013. On April 11, Press TV published",
"-28.480391344754025"
],
[
"friend, so a non-Muslim could be your associate but they can't be a friend. They're not your friend because they don't understand your religious principles and they cannot because they don't understand your faith.\" He later contextualized his comment, explaining that Muslim people, including him, invariably have friends, neighbors and colleagues who are non-Muslims, but that does not mean that non-Muslims should influence Muslims' religious or moral decisions.\nYasin has lectured to students at universities as a guest speaker and on debate panels. He also addresses crowds at events aimed at young people. Yasin has made statements describing western civilization's academic",
"-28.466441020311322"
],
[
"Not all of the cartoons submitted in response to his invitation featured images of Muhammed. Two of them caricatured Bluitgen, one mocked Jyllands-Posten itself, while others caricatured Danish politicians. The most famous of the cartoons, by Kurt Westergaard, depicted Muhammad with a bomb in his turban.\nIn February 2006, Rose wrote an essay for the Washington Post entitled \"Why I Published Those Cartoons.\" He noted that Kurt Westergaard had previously drawn outrageous cartoons of Jesus and the Star of David, neither of which had led to \"embassy burnings or death threats\". Rose asked: \"Has Jyllands-Posten insulted and disrespected Islam?...When I visit",
"-28.45046927081421"
]
] |
3ln11h | Why are human eyes usually blue, brown or green as opposed to any other colors? | [
"The stroma (top layer of the iris) is what determines eye color. For those with no melanin (pigment that makes eyes or skin a warm brown), the only color comes from the Tyndall effect of light scattering in the iris. This creates a blue color, like water with glacial flour or dirty smoke. When the stroma has a little melanin, it looks green because this blue combines with the the orangey brownish melanin. When it has a lot of melanin, the brown color takes over completely.",
"The most unsatisfying but efficient answer is probably that there hasn't been a genetic mutation for a different eye color that has persisted. It can happen though. Blue is actually a relatively recent addition being traced back to a single mutation about 6000 years ago. It's possible that pigments that produce other colors would carry some sort of disadvantage either directly to one's eyesight, or at least they drastically lowered their suitability to potential mates. I'm assuming you're counting Hazel as a shade of brown btw Outside your list there is also occasionally gray eyes.",
"Follow-up to that: how can my eyes \"change color?\" I have a blue/grey look most of the time, but my eyes get more grey and foggy when I'm sick.",
"Hey! Finally!!! Anyone know how a person gets reddish-brown eyes with amber rings? Those are my eyes and I often get asked what color they are, to which I just say \"brown\", but people often correct me, saying no....they're like....goldish...or the color of watered cola....yesterday someone described them as \"indian red\" (she says its a crayon color...idk) My mother has brown eyes and my dad has green. My sisters have blue-grey and green eyes. edit: sorry for the delay! URL_0 edit: someone says amber but I think amber eyes are lighter than mine. I think mine are just both light and dark brown at the same time. Depending on the type of light reflecting on them they lean more towards red-brown or more towards yellow-brown. for reference this was taken in the evening yesterday. My hair is auburn. I dyed it to match my eyes :)",
"Everyone tells me I have yellow demon eyes or \"baby shit\" coloured eyes. Never know whether to take either as an insult or compliment"
] | [
[
"eye's iris and the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris. In humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black. The appearance of blue, green, and hazel eyes results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, an optical effect similar to what accounts for the blueness of the sky. The irises of the eyes of people with blue eyes contain less dark melanin than those of people with brown eyes, which means that they absorb less short-wavelength blue light, which is instead reflected out to the viewer.",
"-35.2931926465244"
],
[
"have amber eyes as a common color, whereas in humans this color occurs less frequently. Blue There is no blue pigmentation either in the iris or in the ocular fluid. Dissection reveals that the iris pigment epithelium is brownish black due to the presence of melanin. Unlike brown eyes, blue eyes have low concentrations of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which lies in front of the dark epithelium. Longer wavelengths of light tend to be absorbed by the dark underlying epithelium, while shorter wavelengths are reflected and undergo Rayleigh scattering in the turbid medium of the stroma. This",
"-34.26913895615144"
],
[
"to ten different classes of visual pigment in their eyes. By comparison, humans have three with maximum sensitivities in the blue (442 nm), green (543 nm) and yellow (570 nm). It is the differential responses of these receptor cells that enable color vision.\nIt has been known for a long time that a light attracts fish, shrimp and insects at night. But what is the best color for a light attractor? Based on the biology of visual receptors discussed above, the light should be blue or green — the space colors of fish and members of their food chain. However, while blue or green",
"-33.92953079205472"
],
[
"presence of a brighter color contrast. Yellow, orange, red, or rose objects are still perceived as such if the general illumination level is low, despite reflecting the same amount of red or orange light as a brown object would in normal lighting conditions. Brown eyes In humans, brown eyes result from a relatively high concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is most common in East",
"-33.92703400211758"
],
[
"an eye that is light brown/amber near the pupil and charcoal or dark green on the outer part of the iris (or vice versa) when observed in sunlight.\nDefinitions of the eye color hazel vary: it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with light brown or gold, as in the color of a hazelnut shell.\nHazel eyes occur throughout Caucasoid populations, in particular in regions where blue, green and brown eyed peoples are intermixed. Red and violet The eyes of people with severe forms of albinism may appear red under certain lighting conditions owing to the extremely low quantities of melanin, allowing",
"-33.33872237819014"
],
[
"absorbing at 600 nm. The amount of red light emerging from the pupil depends on the amount of melanin in the layers behind the retina. This amount varies strongly between individuals. Light-skinned people with blue eyes have relatively low melanin in the fundus and thus show a much stronger red-eye effect than dark-skinned people with brown eyes. The same holds for animals. The color of the iris itself is of virtually no importance for the red-eye effect. This is obvious because the red-eye effect is most apparent when photographing dark-adapted subjects, hence with fully dilated pupils. Photographs taken with infrared light",
"-33.10548048838973"
],
[
"research purposes, Seddon et al. developed a graded system based on the predominant iris color and the amount of brown or yellow pigment present. There are three pigment colors that determine, depending on their proportion, the outward appearance of the iris, along with structural color. Green irises, for example, have blue and some yellow. Brown irises contain mostly brown. Some eyes have a dark ring around the iris, called a limbal ring.\n\nEye color in non-human animals is regulated differently. For example, instead of blue as in humans, autosomal recessive eye color in the skink species Corucia zebrata is black, and",
"-33.08115271606948"
],
[
"amounts of yellow and brown color in the iris. Green As with blue eyes, the color of green eyes does not result simply from the pigmentation of the iris. The green color is caused by the combination of: 1) an amber or light brown pigmentation in the stroma of the iris (which has a low or moderate concentration of melanin) with: 2) a blue shade created by the Rayleigh scattering of reflected light. Green eyes contain the yellowish pigment lipochrome.\nGreen eyes probably result from the interaction of multiple variants within the OCA2 and other genes. They were present in south",
"-33.06830385199282"
],
[
"concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed.\nDark brown eyes are dominant in humans and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is common in Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa and the Americas. The majority of people in the world overall have brown eyes to dark brown eyes.\nLight or medium-pigmented brown eyes can also be commonly found in South Europe, among the Americas, and parts of Central",
"-33.01262755168136"
],
[
"color is halfway between white and black. Red's complement is green which is also halfway between white and black. With red and green, the retina's qualitatively divided activity consists of two equal halves.\nRed and green are two completely equal qualitative halves of the retina's activity. Orange is 2/3 of this activity, and its complement, blue, is only 1/3. Yellow is ¾ of the full activity, and its complement, violet, is only ¼.\nThe range of all colors contains a continuous series of innumerable shades that blend into each other. Why are red, green, orange, blue, yellow, and violet given names and",
"-32.99557653191732"
],
[
"pheomelanin (also known as lipochrome), is dominant within the iris. Pheomelanin is also found on individuals with green eyes in much smaller amounts. This is because green eyes have a strong presence of both melanin and pheomelanin. Often in poor lighting, one may mistake amber eyes for brown. This also happens when viewed from far away or in pictures with poor lighting as well. However, in natural or well lit areas, it is very easy to tell the difference between the two colors. Another common mistake people make is referring to amber eyes as hazel. Although similar, hazel eyes",
"-32.94582877516223"
],
[
"due to the deposition of the yellow pigment called lipochrome in the iris (which is also found in green eyes). Amber eyes should not be confused with hazel eyes; although hazel eyes may contain specks of amber or gold, they usually tend to comprise many other colors, including green, brown and orange. Also, hazel eyes may appear to shift in color and consist of flecks and ripples, while amber eyes are of a solid gold hue. Even though amber is considered to be like gold, some people have russet or copper colored amber eyes that many people mistake for hazel,",
"-32.82405667146668"
],
[
"Green eyes There is no green pigment in green eyes; like the color of blue eyes, it is an optical illusion; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma, given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin, with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light. Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe. They can also be found in Southern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. In Iceland, 89% of women and 87% of men have either blue or green",
"-32.73724859813228"
],
[
"a blue-green can be brightened but retain the same hue. The system is not perfect, as it does not distinguish yellow from a red-green mixture, but can powerfully detect subtle environmental changes.\nThe existence of cells sensitive to three different wavelength ranges (most sensitive to yellowish green, cyanish-green, and blue – not red, green and blue) was first shown in 1956 by Gunnar Svaetichin. In 1983 it was validated in human retinas in an experiment by Dartnall, Bowmaker, and Mollon, who obtained microspectrophotopic readings of single eye cone cells. Earlier evidence for the theory had been obtained by looking at light",
"-32.527749726199545"
],
[
"often called blue, green, and red, but more accurately known as short, medium, and long wavelength-sensitive cone subtypes. It is a lack of one or more of the cone subtypes that causes individuals to have deficiencies in colour vision or various kinds of colour blindness. These individuals are not blind to objects of a particular colour, but are unable to distinguish between colours that can be distinguished by people with normal vision. Humans have this trichromatic vision, while most other mammals lack cones with red sensitive pigment and therefore have poorer dichromatic colour vision. However, some animals have four spectral",
"-32.519818212022074"
],
[
"that individuals with temporally eccentric pupils see red in front of blue, while with nasally eccentric pupils the relief is reversed.\" Einthoven first explained chromatic aberration in the eye, which means that the eyes will not focus all the colors at the same time. Depending on the wavelength, the focal point in the eyes varies. He concluded that the reason why people see red in front of blue is because light with different wavelengths project onto different parts of the retina. When the vision is binocular, a disparity is created, which causes depth perception. Since red is focused temporally, it",
"-32.40560856962111"
],
[
"not just due to the white colour of the human sclera, which many other species share, but also to the fact that the human iris is relatively small and comprises a significantly smaller portion of the exposed eye surface compared to other animals. It is theorized that this adaptation evolved because of our social nature as the eye became a useful communication tool in addition to a sensory organ. It is believed that the conspicuous sclera of the human eye makes it easier for one individual to identify where another individual is looking, increasing the efficacy of this particular form",
"-32.37583442479081"
],
[
"Cooperative eye hypothesis The cooperative eye hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the appearance of the human eye. It suggests that the eye's distinctive visible characteristics evolved to make it easier for humans to follow another's gaze while communicating or while working together on tasks. Differences in primate eyes Unlike other primates, human beings have eyes with a distinct colour contrast between the white sclera, the coloured iris, and the black pupil. This is due to a lack of pigment in the sclera. Other primates have pigmented sclerae that are brown or dark in colour. There is also a higher",
"-32.25141742188134"
],
[
"red are all \"red\" but \"blue\" and \"red\" focal colors are different). This is to say that infants respond to different hues of color in much the same way as adults do, demonstrating the presence of color vision at an age younger than previously expected. Kessen, Bornstein and Weiskopf therefore claim that the ability to perceive the same distinct focal colors is present even in small children. Gladstone and Geiger In their paper Language and thought: Which side are you on anyway?, Regier et al. discuss the presence of a universalist perspective on the color debate in the",
"-32.126157146383775"
],
[
"the autosomal dominant color is yellow-green.\nAs the perception of color depends on viewing conditions (e.g., the amount and kind of illumination, as well as the hue of the surrounding environment), so does the perception of eye color. Changes in eye color Most new-born babies who have European ancestry have light-colored eyes. As the child develops, melanocytes (cells found within the iris of human eyes, as well as skin and hair follicles) slowly begin to produce melanin. Because melanocyte cells continually produce pigment, in theory eye color can be changed. Adult eye color is usually established between 3 and 6 months",
"-32.07666432810947"
],
[
"with age. However, when an optician examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present.\"\nBecause individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.\nThe human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate \"red eye\", due to the red of the",
"-32.02445513312705"
],
[
"to the Icelandic Sagas. Even in modern times, tribal societies whose language appears to have changed little over time also lack a word for blue. As they can distinguish the said color in tests designed for visual acuity, this absence suggests that the difference in perception might lie in the mind rather than the eyes.",
"-31.898078007783624"
],
[
"must be considered an acquired characteristic. Eye color It is fairly common for mammalian eyes to change color in the first years of life. This happens, with human infants and kittens being some well-known examples, because the eyes of the baby, just like the rest of its body, are still developing. This change can be as simple as blue to brown, or can involve multiple color changes in which neither the child's parents nor his/her doctors know when the changes will stop and what the final eye color will be.\nChanges in eye color signal changes in the arrangement and concentration",
"-31.80004867259413"
],
[
"amulets. Blue has been considered especially effective against the evil eye, possibly owing to the relative rarity of the color among Semitic peoples and because blue is so rare in the plant and animal world.\nIn the Torah, the Israelites were commanded to make tassels, tzitzit, on the corners of their garments, and to weave within these tassles a \"twisted thread of blue-violet (Tekhelet).\" The oral law requires that this blue thread be made from a dye extracted from a sea creature known in rabbinic literature as the Ḥilazon. Maimonides claimed that this blue was the color of \"the clear noonday",
"-31.71265417896211"
],
[
"scattering and selective absorption from the posterior epithelium. If melanin is deposited substantially, there will be brown or black color, if not, they will remain blue or gray.\nAll the contributing factors towards eye color and its variation are not fully understood. Autosomal recessive/dominant traits in iris color are inherent in other species but coloration can follow a different pattern. Amber eyes Amber colored eyes are extremely rare in humans. They consist of a solid orange/gold color that may contain lighter shades of the same pigment within the iris. This is an unusual occurrence that happens when the yellow pigment called",
"-31.70378222706495"
],
[
"results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, a phenomenon similar to that which accounts for the blueness of the sky called Rayleigh scattering. Neither blue nor green pigments are ever present in the human iris or ocular fluid. Eye color is thus an instance of structural color and varies depending on the lighting conditions, especially for lighter-colored eyes.\nThe brightly colored eyes of many bird species result from the presence of other pigments, such as pteridines, purines, and carotenoids. Humans and other animals have many phenotypic variations in eye color. The genetics of eye color are complicated, and",
"-31.655594564278317"
],
[
"distinguish the full range of the colors of the spectrum visible to humans, but many kinds of mammals, such as dogs and cattle, have dichromacy, which means they can see blues and yellows, but cannot distinguish red and green (both are seen as gray). Bulls, for instance, cannot see the red color of the cape of a bullfighter, but they are agitated by its movement. (See color vision).\nOne theory for why primates developed sensitivity to red is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and inedible vegetation. This may have driven further adaptations by species taking",
"-31.626639110734686"
],
[
"through night vision devices always show very bright pupils because, in the dark, the pupils are fully dilated and the infrared light is not absorbed by any ocular pigment.\nThe role of melanin in red-eye effect is demonstrated in animals with heterochromia: only the blue eye displays the effect. The effect is still more pronounced in humans and animals with albinism. All forms of albinism involve abnormal production and/or deposition of melanin.\nRed-eye effect is seen in photographs of children also because children's eyes have more rapid dark adaption: in low light a child's pupils enlarge sooner, and an enlarged pupil accentuates",
"-31.598626926424913"
],
[
"but the iris pigment epithelium is not, mammalian eyes appear blue. Melanin in the pigment epithelium is critical for visual acuity and contrast.\nLoss of melanogenesis function is linked to the gene that encodes tyrosinase. Certain alleles of this gene, TYR, at the Color locus, cause oculocutaneous albinism type 1 in humans and the familiar red-eyed albino conditions in mice and other mammals. In other vertebrates Other vertebrates, such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, produce a variety of non-melanin pigments. Disruption of melanin production does not affect the production of these pigments. Non-melanin pigments in other vertebrates are produced by",
"-31.59271912114491"
],
[
"the region of the OCA2 gene among blue-eyed people suggests they may have a single common ancestor.\nAs of 2016, the earliest light-pigmented and blue-eyed remains of Homo sapiens were found in 7,700 years old Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from Motala, Sweden.\nA 2002 study found that the prevalence of blue eye color among the white population in the United States to be 33.8% for those born from 1936 through 1951 compared with 57.4 percent for those born from 1899 through 1905. As of 2006, one out of every six people, or 16.6% of the total population, and 22.3% of whites, has blue",
"-31.52037300067059"
],
[
"green and blue are better received than red and yellow, strongly saturated colors are more common to be chosen, and bright colors are the favor. \nFurthermore, plenty of variables, such as gender and age, have notable effects on individuals' colors' preferences; gender of humans influences conformance and force of colors tendency, and young people are more enjoyable in warm colors including orange and red rather than intense colors such as green which are preferred by older adults. Moreover, several personal characteristics related to colors; outgoing people are more partial to warm colors, and on the other hand, introverts engage in intense",
"-31.44079450785648"
],
[
"light eyes are in a significant excess compared to the levels found in the general population, while, in the UK, models with brown or intermediate eyes were in significant excess over their frequency in the general population. This suggests that eye color rarity plays a role in sexual attraction, people with rare eye colors being perceived as being more attractive. Some research indicates that eye color variation is greater in women than in men, which may reflect sexual selection of mates with rare eye colors. Selection though imprinting of parental eye color In contrast to the phenomenon of selection for",
"-31.259130240534432"
],
[
"Eye color Eye color is a polygenic phenotypic character determined by two distinct factors: the pigmentation of the eye's iris and the frequency-dependence of the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris.\nIn humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black, depending on the concentration of melanin in the iris pigment epithelium (located on the back of the iris), the melanin content within the iris stroma (located at the front of the iris), and the cellular density of the stroma. The appearance of blue and green, as well as hazel eyes,",
"-31.172748841228895"
],
[
"entirely overlaid with broad dark cinnamon-brown striping. Both juveniles and adults have a barred tail, with 3 to 5 dark brown or black bars. Adults always have a white eye stripe or supercilia, which tends to be broader in northern Eurasian and North American birds. In North America, juveniles have pale-yellow eyes, and adults develop dark red eyes usually after their second year, although nutrition and genetics may affect eye color as well. In Europe and Asia, juveniles also have pale-yellow eyes while adults typically develop orange-colored eyes, though some may have only brighter yellow or occasionally ochre or brownish",
"-31.172375251640915"
],
[
"color is determined by multiple genes. So far, as many as 15 genes have been associated with eye color inheritance. Some of the eye-color genes include OCA2 and HERC2. The earlier belief that blue eye color is a simple recessive trait has been shown to be incorrect. The genetics of eye color are so complex that almost any parent-child combination of eye colors can occur. However, OCA2 gene polymorphism, close to proximal 5′ regulatory region, explains most human eye-color variation. Ancient DNA and eye color in Europe People of European descent show the greatest variety in eye color of any",
"-31.0817190897651"
],
[
"of age, though this can be later. Observing the iris of an infant from the side using only transmitted light with no reflection from the back of the iris, it is possible to detect the presence or absence of low levels of melanin. An iris that appears blue under this method of observation is more likely to remain blue as the infant ages. An iris that appears golden contains some melanin even at this early age and is likely to turn from blue to green or brown as the infant ages.\nChanges (lightening or darkening) of eye colors during early childhood,",
"-31.02242745796684"
],
[
"Asia (Middle East and South Asia). Gray Like blue eyes, gray eyes have a dark epithelium at the back of the iris and a relatively clear stroma at the front. One possible explanation for the difference in the appearance of gray and blue eyes is that gray eyes have larger deposits of collagen in the stroma, so that the light that is reflected from the epithelium undergoes Mie scattering (which is not strongly frequency-dependent) rather than Rayleigh scattering (in which shorter wavelengths of light are scattered more). This would be analogous to the change in the color of the sky,",
"-30.935643955366686"
],
[
"but cannot distinguish red. Research indicates that their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, in which certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear more green.\nDichromatic vision is the result of the animal having two types of cones in their eyes: a short-wavelength-sensitive cone (S) that is optimal at 428 nm (blue), and a middle-to-long wavelength sensitive cone (M/L) which sees optimally at 539 nm, more of a yellowish color. This structure may have arisen because horses are most active at dawn and dusk, a time when the rods of the eye are especially useful.\nThe horse's limited ability",
"-30.865716085769236"
],
[
"more light than normal to reflect off the retina and out of the eye. Because of this, the pupillary reflex is much more pronounced in albino individuals, and this can emphasize the red eye effect in photographs. Selection for rare iris colors A study compared the frequency of eye color in commercial advertising models in Brazil and the UK, these countries were chosen because they have inverted frequencies of eye-coloration, with Brazil having an excess of brown and the UK an excess of light-colored eyes. Models are chosen for their attractiveness, and it was found that, in Brazil, models with",
"-30.845525198907126"
],
[
"Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect Lightness Even when they have the same luminance, colored lights seem brighter to human observers than white light does. The way humans perceive the brightness of the lights will be different for everyone. When the colors are more saturated, our eyes interpret it as the color's luminance and chroma. This makes us believe that the colors are actually brighter. An exception to this is when the human observer is red-green colorblind, they cannot distinguish the differences between the lightness of the colors. Certain colors do not have significant effect, however, any hue of colored lights still seem brighter",
"-30.831767642404884"
],
[
"can be a calming color, and symbolize reliability. In the Catholic Church, the Virgin Mary is most often depicted wearing blue, to symbolize being \"full of grace\" by divine favor. Blue is widely used for baby boys' clothes or bedrooms, although the reason blue is so strongly associated with boys is debated. Yellow Yellow is a primary color. It is a color often associated with sunshine or joy. It is sometimes used in association with cowardice or fear, i.e., the phrase \"yellow-bellied\". Children tend to like this color, and it is used to market products to children; it is also",
"-30.812057688250206"
],
[
"of melanin within the iris tissues. Although the processes determining eye color are not fully understood, it is known that inherited eye color is determined by multiple genes. Environmental or acquired factors can alter these inherited traits.\nThe human iris can be seen in a number of various colors. There are three true colors in human eyes that determine the outward appearance: brown, yellow, and grey. The amount of each color an individual has determines the appearance of the eye color.\nCentral heterochromia appears to be prevalent in irises containing low amounts of melanin.\nA famous case of a person with central heterochromia",
"-30.751986875286093"
],
[
"of red–green, blue–yellow, and light–dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue–yellow opponency, but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.\nVisual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via",
"-30.721437110798433"
],
[
"the adnexa. Eye color Although usually dark brown, the iris may be a variety of colors, including blue, hazel, amber, and green. Blue eyes are not uncommon and are associated with white markings or patterns. The white spotting patterns most often linked to blue eyes are splashed white, frame overo, and sometimes sabino. In the case of horses with white markings, one or both eyes may be blue, or part-blue.\nHomozygous cream dilutes, sometimes called double-dilutes, always have light blue eyes to match their pale, cream-colored coats. Heterozygous or single-dilute creams, such as palominos and buckskins, often have light brown eyes.",
"-30.6988426267053"
],
[
"have a stronger presence of melanin with two very distinct colors within the iris (usually green/brown) and often contain many speckles or blotches of mixed hues. Different colors in the two eyes Heterochromia (also known as a heterochromia iridis or heterochromia iridum) is an ocular condition in which one iris is a different color from the other iris (complete heterochromia), or where the part of one iris is a different color from the remainder (partial heterochromia or sectoral heterochromia). Uncommon in humans, it is often an indicator of ocular disease, such as chronic iritis or diffuse iris melanoma, but may",
"-30.68660794419702"
],
[
"appears to be in front. However, under monocular vision, this phenomenon is not observed.\nHowever, Bruecke objected to Einthoven's theory on grounds that not all people see red as closer than blue. Einthoven explained that this negative chromostereopsis is probably due to eccentrically positioned pupils because shifting the pupil can change the position of where light wavelengths focus in the eye. Negative chromostereopsis was further studied by Allen and Rubin who suggested that changing the angle between the pupillary center and visual axis can change the direction of chromostereopsis. If the pupillary center is located temporal to the visual axis, red",
"-30.637501025688834"
],
[
"is sufficient to produce eyeshine that is highly visible to humans (despite our inferior night vision). Eyeshine occurs in a wide variety of colors including white, blue, green, yellow, pink and red. However, since eyeshine is a type of iridescence, the color varies with the angle at which it is seen and the minerals which make up the reflective tapetum-lucidum crystals.\nWhite eyeshine occurs in many fish, especially walleye; blue eyeshine occurs in many mammals such as horses; green eyeshine occurs in mammals such as cats, dogs, and raccoons; and red eyeshine occurs in coyote, rodents, opossums and birds.\nAlthough human eyes",
"-30.588046555174515"
],
[
"Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa, Americas, etc. as well as parts of Eastern Europe and Southern Europe. The majority of people in the world overall have dark brown eyes. Light or medium-pigmented brown eyes are common in Europe, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India, as well as some parts of the Middle East. (See eye color). Brown hair Brown is the second most common color of human hair, after black. It is caused by higher levels of the natural dark pigment eumelanin, and lower levels of the pale pigment pheomelanin. Brown eumelanin is more common among Europeans,",
"-30.555290865784627"
],
[
"almost half of both men and women as their favourite colour. The same surveys also showed that blue was the colour most associated with the masculine, just ahead of black, and was also the colour most associated with intelligence, knowledge, calm and concentration. Shades and variations Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Hues of blue include indigo and ultramarine, closer to violet; pure blue, without any mixture of other colours; Cyan, which is midway in the spectrum between blue and green, and the other blue-greens turquoise, teal, and aquamarine.\nBlue also varies in",
"-30.475212102697697"
],
[
"disrupted by albinism. Abnormal eye development and appearance Melanin functions in the normal development of various parts of the eye, including the iris, retina, eye muscles, and optic nerve. The absence of melanin results in abnormal development of eyes and leads to problems with focusing, and depth perception. The eyes of albino animals appear red because the colour of the red blood cells in the retina can be seen through the iris, which has no pigment to obscure this. Some albino animals may have pale-blue eyes due to other colour generating processes. Albino vertebrates exposed to intense",
"-30.440380366460886"
],
[
"Blue and Lutino). The natural, or 'normal' color is green. There are two types of blue, one blue winged and the second is bright blue wings and bright blue head.",
"-30.40901334467344"
],
[
"in that it is darker than white and brighter than black. The difference between grays and colors, though, is as follows. Light is activity of the retina. Darkness is retinal inactivity. Grays appear when the intensity or strength of the retina's activity is lessened. Colors appear when the whole activity of the retina is divided into partial complementary poles according to ratios. With the merely quantitative, intensive division of the retina's activity, there is only a gradual (by degrees) diminution of the intensity or strength of the retina's full activity. No fractional division of activity in ratios occurs. This lessening",
"-30.35983674414456"
],
[
"Blue in Judaism Blue in Judaism is used to symbolise divinity, because blue is the color of the sky and sea. It can also represent equilibrium, since its hue suggests a shade midway between white and black, day and evening. History From ancient times, blue has been considered a lucky color among the peoples of the Middle East and North Africa. Not unlike their Arab neighbors, Jews of this region have painted their doorposts, heads, and other parts of their bodies with blue dyes; have ornamented their children with blue ribbons and markings; and have used this color in protective",
"-30.353338912362233"
],
[
"mammals, this is because the majority of mammals have only one pigment, melanin. Many animals have pigments other than melanin, and some also have structural colours. Some definitions of albinism, whilst taking most taxa into account, ignore others. So, \"a person or animal with very pale skin, white hair or fur, and pink eyes caused by a medical condition that they were born with\" and \"a person or animal with white skin and hair and pink eyes\" do not include feathers, scales or cuticles of birds, fish and invertebrates. Nor do they include plants. Some definitions",
"-30.27355372882448"
],
[
"from the red toward the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. For that reason bees cannot distinguish red from black (colorless), but they can distinguish the colors white, yellow, blue and violet. Color pigments which reflect UV radiation expand the spectrum of colors which can be differentiated. For example, several blossoms which may appear to humans to be of the same yellow color will appear to bees as having different colors (multicolored patterns) because of their different proportions of ultraviolet.\nFrisch's investigation of a bee's powers of orientation were significant. He discovered that bees can recognize the desired compass direction in three",
"-30.252268213953357"
],
[
"men, and as intelligent by 81 percent. Brown skin A majority of people in the world have skin that is a shade of brown, from a very light honey brown or a golden brown, to a copper or bronze color, to a coffee color or a dark chocolate brown. Skin color and race are not the same; many people classified as \"white\" or \"black\" actually have skin that is a shade of brown. Brown skin is caused by melanin, a natural pigment which is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes. Skin pigmentation in humans evolved to primarily regulate",
"-30.24413416677271"
],
[
"green, barely discernible for most people. The Himba have created a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark shades (zuzu in Himba), very light (vapa), vivid blue and green (buru) and dry colors as an adaptation to their specific way of life.\nPerception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented. For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects)",
"-30.189866834989516"
],
[
"colour is a light, buttery yellow to a pale orange. Their eyes are green and their pupils are black. Their belly colour is mother-of-pearl, the same as it is for normals.\nT-Albinos (Tyrosinase negative albinos) are very similar to the T+ in appearance. They are usually red in body colour with white body markings and a bright white belly. The eyes are green with red pupils.\nAnerythristic Characterized by a grey/blue overtone, some mild yellow colour is not uncommon on the sides, similar to Anery corn snakes. The markings on the body are similar to that of the normals, pale cream/white in",
"-30.15643405605806"
],
[
"color is actually the activity of the eye's retina. It is a sensation. The external body is perceived as the cause of the sensation of color. We say, \"The body is red.\" In reality, though, color exists only in the retina of the eye. It is separate from the external object. Color is a mere sensation in the sense organ. The external object is perceived by the intellect's understanding as being the cause of sensations. § 2 Newton, Goethe, and all other color theorists began by investigating light and colored bodies in order to find the cause of color. They",
"-30.091045222827233"
],
[
"abnormally vascularised iris. Despite the wide range of colors, the only pigment that contributes substantially to normal human iris color is the dark pigment melanin. The quantity of melanin pigment in the iris is one factor in determining the phenotypic eye color of a person. Structurally, this huge molecule is only slightly different from its equivalent found in skin and hair. Iris color is due to variable amounts of eumelanin (brown/black melanins) and pheomelanin (red/yellow melanins) produced by melanocytes. More of the former is found in brown-eyed people and of the latter in blue and green-eyed people. Genetic and physical",
"-30.043625301099382"
],
[
"blue all within the same eye, without any sign of eye disease.\nOne eye with a white or bluish-white iris is also known as a walleye. Iridology Iridology (also known as iridodiagnosis) is an alternative medicine technique whose proponents believe that patterns, colors and other characteristics of the iris can be examined to determine information about a patient's systemic health. Practitioners match their observations to iris charts which divide the iris into zones corresponding to specific parts of the human body. Iridologists see the eyes as \"windows\" into the body's state of health.\nIridology is not supported by quality research studies and",
"-30.031044299917994"
],
[
"the living eye except when viewed with light from which red has been filtered. Function Structures in the macula are specialized for high-acuity vision. Within the macula are the fovea and foveola that both contain a high density of cones, which are nerve cells that are photoreceptors with high acuity.\nIn details, the normal human eye contains three different types of cones, with different ranges of spectral sensitivity. The brain combines the signals from neighboring cones to distinguish different colors. There is only one type of rod, but the rods are more sensitive than the cones, so in dim light",
"-30.014112683595158"
],
[
"most common places where pigmentation is visible are the nose, lips, gums, feet, tail, and the rims of the eyes, which may be black, brown, light yellow-brown (\"liver\", caused by having two genes for chocolate), or several other colours. A Labrador can carry genes for a different colour, for example a black Labrador can carry recessive chocolate and yellow genes, and a yellow Labrador can carry recessive genes for the other two colours. DNA testing can reveal some aspects of these. Less common pigmentations (other than pink) are a fault, not a disqualification, and hence such dogs are still permitted",
"-30.00535923219286"
],
[
"effect in the blue eye, but not in the other eye. This is due to the combined effect of the (normal) presence of a tapetum lucidum in both eyes and the absence of melanin in the blue eye. The tapetum lucidum produces eyeshine in both eyes, but in the non-blue eye a layer of melanin over the tapetum lucidum selectively removes some colors of light.",
"-29.986391824684688"
],
[
"common in Tabby cats as well as the Chinchilla Longhair and its shorthaired equivalents are notable for their black-rimmed sea-green eyes. Hazel Hazel eyes are due to a combination of Rayleigh scattering and a moderate amount of melanin in the iris' anterior border layer. Hazel eyes often appear to shift in color from a brown to a green. Although hazel mostly consists of brown and green, the dominant color in the eye can either be brown/gold or green. This is how many people mistake hazel eyes to be amber and vice versa. This can sometimes produce a multicolored iris, i.e.,",
"-29.983007680013543"
],
[
"so important as that the colour should be even and extend to the belly or undercut and no eye circles. In fact, a self colour free from chinchillation on cheeks and hind feet. Eyes hazel.\nDescription of terms used:\nFlecking or Mealiness - Individual hairs more than one colour in selfs. e.g. Blacks should be black at the tip of the fur, that colour carrying down the fur as far as possible, then merging into blue. In flecked or mealy exhibits the individual fur would be black, then dark grey, then a deeper shade before merging into blue at the base.\nChinchillation -",
"-29.846043449651916"
],
[
"Humans and primates are unique as they possess trichromatic color vision, and are able to discern between violet [short wave (SW)], green [medium wave (MW)], and yellow-green [long wave (LW)]. Mammals other than primates generally have less effective two-receptor color perception systems, allowing only dichromatic color vision; marine mammals have only a single cone type and are thus monochromats. Honey- and bumblebees have trichromatic color vision, which is insensitive to red but sensitive in ultraviolet to a color called bee purple.\nOther animals, such as tropical fish and birds, have more complex color vision systems than humans. There is evidence that",
"-29.841609768845956"
],
[
"eyes; both colours cause a different outcome.",
"-29.750550117343664"
],
[
"colors. Researchers prove that humans who have high optimum stimulation level are more likely to choose red colors rather than blue.\nStudies, which refer to the link between colors and particular individual responses, includes notions of size affected by colors, personal evaluations, and beliefs influenced by colors of goods packaging and sale surroundings. It also contains physiological responses which are suggested by a numerous of studies that warm colors and high saturated colors create stronger physical stimulation, emotional responses produced by different colors, and behavioral reactions which connect with the choices of products. Hypotheses According to literature, colors' components affect personal",
"-29.65943632100243"
],
[
"associated with heat, blue with cold, and green with an agreeable temperature. Red is associated with dry, blue with wet, and green, in the middle, with dampness. Red is the most active color, blue the most passive; green, in the middle, is the color of neutrality and calm, sometimes used in architecture and design for these reasons. Blue and green together symbolize harmony and balance. Jealousy and envy Green is often associated with jealousy and envy. The expression \"green-eyed monster\" was first used by William Shakespeare in Othello: \"it is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds",
"-29.65357061184477"
],
[
"the halobacteria.\nAnimals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment. Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment. Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment. For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light. Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially. Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet.",
"-29.642532757570734"
],
[
"the English word \"green\"). However, in Japan, although the traffic lights have the same colors that other countries have, the green light is described using the same word as for blue, aoi, because green is considered a shade of aoi; similarly, green variants of certain fruits and vegetables such as green apples, green shiso (as opposed to red apples and red shiso) will be described with the word aoi.\nSimilarly, languages are selective when deciding which hues are split into different colors on the basis of how light or dark they are. English splits some hues into several distinct colors according",
"-29.6203255460714"
],
[
"the blood vessels to show through. In addition, flash photography can sometimes cause a \"red-eye effect\", in which the very bright light from a flash reflects off the retina, which is abundantly vascular, causing the pupil to appear red in the photograph. Although the deep blue eyes of some people such as Elizabeth Taylor can appear violet at certain times, \"true\" violet-colored eyes occur only due to albinism. Medical implications Those with lighter iris color have been found to have a higher prevalence of age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) than those with darker iris color; lighter eye color is also associated",
"-29.579494241334032"
],
[
"is the same frequency-dependence of scattering that accounts for the blue appearance of the sky. The result is a \"Tyndall blue\" structural color that varies with external lighting conditions.\nIn humans, the inheritance pattern followed by blue eyes is considered similar to that of a recessive trait (in general, eye color inheritance is considered a polygenic trait, meaning that it is controlled by the interactions of several genes, not just one). In 2008, new research tracked down a single genetic mutation that leads to blue eyes. \"Originally, we all had brown eyes,\" said Eiberg. Eiberg and colleagues suggested in a study",
"-29.5776238462131"
],
[
"MC1R, ASIP, OCA2, and TYR. There is evidence that as many as 16 different genes could be responsible for eye color in humans; however, the main two genes associated with eye color variation are OCA2 and HERC2, and both are localized in Chromosome 15. Analysis of blood proteins Before the discovery of DNA, scientists used blood proteins (the human blood group systems) to study human genetic variation. Research by Ludwik and Hanka Herschfeld during World War I found that the incidence of blood groups A and B differed by region; for example, among Europeans 15 percent were group B and",
"-29.533934630919248"
],
[
"existence and into the open, although most species kept their relatively poor color vision. Exceptions occur for some marsupials (which possibly kept their original color vision) and some primates—including humans. Primates, as an order of mammals, began to emerge around the beginning of the Paleogene Period.\nPrimates have re-developed trichromatic color vision since that time, by the mechanism of gene duplication, being under unusually high evolutionary pressure to develop color vision better than the mammalian standard. Ability to perceive red and orange hues allows tree-dwelling primates to discern them from green. This is particularly important for primates in the detection of",
"-29.529809015686624"
],
[
"the background “space” color and one or more visual pigments offset from this blue-green region, say, in the red or ultraviolet region of the spectrum. This imparts a clear survival advantage to these animals because they can detect not only changes in light intensity but also contrasts in color. Many fish, for example, have two color receptors, one in the blue region of the spectra (425-490 nm) and the other in the near UV (320-380 nm). Insects and shrimp, members of the fish food chain, have blue, green (530 nm) and near UV receptors. In fact, some aquatic animals have up",
"-29.462287551141344"
],
[
"shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white. Darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue; while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. (For a more complete list see the List of colours). Types For more, see section Pigments and dyes., Blue pigments were originally made from minerals such as lapis lazuli, cobalt and azurite, and blue dyes were made from plants; usually woad in Europe, and Indigofera tinctoria, or true indigo, in Asia and Africa. Today most blue pigments and dyes",
"-29.461645239032805"
],
[
"white people is why the olm is called human fish in some languages. However, its skin retains the ability to produce melanin, and will gradually turn dark when exposed to light; in some cases the larvae are also colored. Its pear-shaped head ends with a short, dorsoventrally flattened snout. The mouth opening is small, with tiny teeth forming a sieve to keep larger particles inside the mouth. The nostrils are so small as to be imperceptible, but are placed somewhat laterally near the end of the snout. The regressed eyes are covered by a layer of skin. The olm breathes",
"-29.455167013642495"
],
[
"Brown (racial classification) Brown or light-brown is a racial and ethnic term. Like black people and white people, it is a metaphor for race based solely on human skin color. In racialist ideas, the color brown and the term brown people were used to describe a series of hypothesized racial groups that included South Asians, Southeast Asians, people from the Horn of Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, and Latin Americans. Bronze skin tones are commonly also placed under the brown racial classification, in Mexico (and Southwestern United States) and the Philippines the term is associated with mestizo",
"-29.37680569535587"
],
[
"professional. Aniridia Aniridia is a congenital condition characterized by an extremely underdeveloped iris, which appears absent on superficial examination. Ocular albinism and eye color Normally, there is a thick layer of melanin on the back of the iris. Even people with the lightest blue eyes, with no melanin on the front of the iris at all, have dark brown coloration on the back of it, to prevent light from scattering around inside the eye. In those with milder forms of albinism, the color of the iris is typically blue but can vary from blue to brown. In severe forms of",
"-29.37462196769775"
],
[
"blue as a reference to \"Heavens-Father-God\" and to the ideals of \"liberty and cleanliness, the unbound space\"; whereas green is a stand-in for \"Mother Earth\". Balogh also notes that the two stripes can be deciphered \"without any particular cultural background knowledge\" as being the sky, implicitly a symbol of \"freedom and transcendence\", and the earth; she views the red as a reference to blood, with its dual meaning: \"blood is the symbol of life, on the one hand, and the blood spilled on wars and destruction.\"\nAs sociologist Oana Marcu argues, the reference to \"perpetual movement\" signified that the Romanies were",
"-29.195303569649695"
],
[
"albinism, there is no pigment on the back of the iris, and light from inside the eye can pass through the iris to the front. In these cases, the only color seen is the red from the hemoglobin of the blood in the capillaries of the iris. Such albinos have pink eyes, as do albino rabbits, mice, or any other animal with a total lack of melanin. Transillumination defects can almost always be observed during an eye examination due to lack of iridial pigmentation. The ocular albino also lacks normal amounts of melanin in the retina as well, which allows",
"-29.143592246749904"
],
[
"has a black half-collar edged with white on its nape from which it gets its name. The short legs are red and the bill is black. The iris is red, but from a distance the eyes appear to be black, as the pupil is relatively large and only a narrow rim of reddish-brown iris can be seen around the black pupil. The eye is surrounded by a small area of bare skin, which is either white or yellow. The two sexes are virtually indistinguishable; juveniles differ in having a poorly developed collar, and a brown iris. Taxonomy There are two",
"-29.134793588949833"
],
[
"with at least six colour distinctions (the other two being black and white). These colours roughly correspond to the sensitivities of the retinal ganglion cells. (The retinal ganglia process colour by positioning it within a blue to yellow range, and separately positioning it within a red to green range.)",
"-29.130368161015213"
],
[
"predators. Albino animals have characteristic pink or red eyes because the lack of pigment in the iris allows the blood vessels of the retina to be visible. Familiar albino animals include in-bred strains of laboratory animals (rats, mice and rabbits), but populations of naturally occurring albino animals exist in the wild, e.g. Mexican cave tetra. Albinism is a well-recognized phenomenon in molluscs, both in the shell and in the soft parts. It has been claimed by some, e.g. that \"albinism\" can occur for a number of reasons aside from inheritance, including genetic mutations, diet, living conditions, age, disease,",
"-29.112123370883637"
],
[
"light is desirable it is not essential. Even if the eyes of fish or members of its food chain have color receptors most sensitive to the blue or green, these same receptors have a broad but decreased sensitivity to other colors. So, if a fishing light source is intense enough, other light colors will also attract. For example, a sodium vapor light with its characteristic yellow color will attract fish — if intense enough. A fishing light attractor can also be white light because a portion of its total energy is in the blue to green region.\nThe perfect fishing light",
"-29.100271567353047"
],
[
"do not contribute to the color of the human eye, but interference phenomena are important in the brilliantly colored iris pigment cells (iridophores) in many animals. Interference effects can occur at both molecular and light microscopic scales, and are often associated (in melanin-bearing cells) with quasi-crystalline formations which enhance the optical effects. Interference is recognised by characteristic dependence of color on the angle of view, as seen in eyespots of some butterfly wings, although the chemical components remain the same.\nWhite babies are usually born blue-eyed since there is no pigment in the stroma, and their eyes appear blue due to",
"-29.09534937349963"
],
[
"cells in their retinas giving them good night vision while making them colorblind. The remaining seven species had in addition to rods a single type of cone photoreceptor sensitive to green and, seeing only in shades of grey and green, are believed to be effectively colorblind. The study indicates that an object's contrast against the background, rather than colour, may be more important for object detection. Other examples Small fish often school together for safety. This can have visual advantages, both by visually confusing predator fishes, and by providing many eyes for the school regarded as a body. The \"predator",
"-29.064562561979983"
],
[
"introduced to the colour pink, dolls, dresses, and playing house where they are taking care of the dolls as if they were children. The norm of blue is for boys and pink is for girls is cultural and has not always historically been around. These paths set by parents or other adult figures in the child's life set them on certain paths. This leads to a difference in personality, career paths, or relationships. Throughout life, males and females are seen as two very different species who have very different personalities and should stay on separate paths.\nResearcher Janet Hyde found that,",
"-29.04190698984894"
],
[
"rather than the traditional blue or white milky seas effect seen by the rest of the world. It is not known whether this difference depends on the area, or simply a perception of a cyanic colour as being green. Etymology The phenomenon is known as mareel in Shetland. This term is derived from the Norn word *mareld, which is itself derived from the Old Norse word mǫrueldr, which is a compound of marr (mere, sea) and eldr (fire).",
"-29.032735065047746"
],
[
"puberty, pregnancy, and sometimes after serious trauma (like heterochromia) do represent cause for a plausible argument stating that some eyes can or do change, based on chemical reactions and hormonal changes within the body.\nStudies on Caucasian twins, both fraternal and identical, have shown that eye color over time can be subject to change, and major demelanization of the iris may also be genetically determined. Most eye-color changes have been observed or reported in the Caucasian population with hazel and amber eyes. Amber Amber eyes are of a solid color and have a strong yellowish/golden and russet/coppery tint. This may be",
"-29.00502345705172"
],
[
"and tuxedo cats) prevents melanin (pigment) granules from reaching one eye during development, resulting in a cat with one blue eye and one green, yellow, or brown eye. The condition only rarely occurs in cats that lack both the dominant white and the white spotting gene. Kittens As with some other newborn mammals, all cats are blue-eyed as kittens, and may change as the newborn ages. The differences in an odd-eyed kitten's eye color might not be noticeable, save upon close inspection. Odd-eyed kittens have a different shade of blue in each eye. The color of the odd eye changes",
"-28.973391304083634"
],
[
"single color that was a mixture of the primaries:\n[The] experiments of Professor J. D. Forbes, which I witnessed in 1849… [established] that blue and yellow do not make green, but a pinkish tint, when neither prevails in the combination…[and the] result of mixing yellow and blue was, I believe, not previously known.\n— James Clerk Maxwell, Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness (1855), Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh\nMaxwell took this a step further by using a circular scale around the rim with which to measure the ratios of the primaries, choosing vermilion (V), emerald",
"-28.959157701174263"
],
[
"preferred the longer wavelength (red and yellow) to the short-wavelength (blue and green) stimuli, while adults had the opposite. However, both adults and infants preferred colored stimuli over non-colored stimuli. This study suggested that infants had a general preference for colored stimuli over non-colored stimuli at birth, though infants were not able to distinguish the different colored stimuli prior to the age of three months.\nResearch into the development of color vision using infant female Japanese monkeys indicates that color experience is critical for normal vision development. Infant monkeys were placed in a room with monochromatic lighting limiting their access to",
"-28.861954099673312"
],
[
"from the blue given by the Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by small gas molecules when the sky is clear, to the gray caused by Mie scattering of large water droplets when the sky is cloudy. Alternatively, it has been suggested that gray and blue eyes might differ in the concentration of melanin at the front of the stroma.\nGray eyes are most common in Northern and Eastern Europe. Gray eyes can also be found among the Algerian Shawia people of the Aurès Mountains in Northwest Africa, in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. Under magnification, gray eyes exhibit small",
"-28.849155102390796"
],
[
"have normal colouring in their eyes. It is distinguished biologically from albinism in that it causes a reduced pigmentation in all skin types, and not just melanin. Myth and legend White deer hold a place in the mythology of many cultures. The Celtic people considered them to be messengers from the otherworld; they also played an important role in other pre-Indo-European cultures, especially in the north. The Celts believed that the white stag would appear when one was transgressing a taboo, such as when Pwyll trespassed into Arawn's hunting grounds. Arthurian legend states that the creature has a perennial ability",
"-28.81667934777215"
],
[
"amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite, which would protect and give vigor to the deceased. It also symbolized the sea, which was called the \"Very Green.\"\nIn Ancient Greece, green and blue were sometimes considered the same color, and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees. The philosopher Democritus described two different greens: cloron, or pale green, and prasinon, or leek green. Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black, symbolizing the earth, and white, symbolizing water. However, green was not counted among the four classic colors of",
"-28.794433256902266"
],
[
"red and orange fruit, as well as nutrient-rich new foliage, in which the red and orange carotenoids have not yet been masked by chlorophyll.\nAnother theory is that detecting skin flushing and thereby mood may have influenced the development of primate trichromate vision. The color red also has other effects on primate and human behavior, as discussed in the color psychology article.\nToday, among simians, the catarrhines (Old World monkeys and apes, including humans) are routinely trichromatic—meaning that both males and females possess three opsins, sensitive to short-wave, medium-wave, and long-wave light—while, conversely, only a small fraction of platyrrhine primates (New World",
"-28.7912953660707"
],
[
"our perception of orange. Thus, the orange appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously but to different degrees.\nUse of the three primary colors is not sufficient to reproduce all colors; only colors within the color triangle defined by the chromaticities of the primaries can be reproduced by additive mixing of non-negative amounts of those colors of light. History of RGB color model theory and usage The RGB color model is based on the Young–Helmholtz theory of trichromatic color vision, developed by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz in",
"-28.72543989084079"
]
] |
2vvciy | Why haven't we made ski boots that don't hurt yet? | [
"Normal shoes will adapt to your feet after a while. Ski boots shouldn't adapt, they should brace your foot. You can get the inner shoe shaped to fit your foot. it costs like $300-500. But a far cheaper thing that people don't know about is that you can take your boot to a (good) ski shop and they can stretch your off-the-shelf boot where it hurts your foot. About half an inch or so. It's usually like $30-80. It works out great for many people. Edit: but they ski boots are not as bad as they used to be, right?",
"You haven't spent enough money for a comfortable pair",
"We have. If your boots hurt they're not the right ones for you.",
"They do. Spend the money and go see a boot fitter. If after a break in period your feet still have hot spots go see the same boot fitter and they'll usually make adjustments for free. Source: I have two comfortable pairs of ski boots.",
"Former boot tech here. In a previous life, I fitted ski boots for a living. How many pairs? I suppose I've worked on over 200 pairs of boots. I've also been a skier for 30 years, and snowboarder for perhaps 15 years. Here are my views on the subject at hand...ski boots and the fitting there of. In normal life, people wear shoes...normally runners or dress shoes. They are soft, light and flexible and are available in many sizes...usually length and sometimes width. They are made this way because feet come in a HUGE array of sizes...I've never seen 2 sets the same...and believe me, I've seen a lot. A soft shoe, while perhaps not a perfect fit to a foot, can bend, twist and adapt itself to the foot it is on. The main purpose of a shoe for most of us is to protect the very bottom of the foot when we *walk* or *run*. Not a difficult challenge. Now for skiing, you need to basically attach a 170-190cm long board to each foot. There is a *lot* of load that needs to be dealt with here...a ski provides a lot of leverage. You can't use a canvas or plastic shoe to provide this...you need to move up to stronger materials. Ski boots are made from injection molded plastic. They need to be to transfer the energy of the skier to the skis. The boot is *rigid* but the foot inside is *not*. So the challenge here is to make the inside of the boot match the foot as closely as possible, and still be able to transfer load effectively. This is the challenge! Let's look at the extremes. Let's say you took a huge boot (several sizes too big), and filled it with soft foam. Nice and comfortable for sure, but the foam will *not transfer load*. Let's look at the other extreme...a small boot...several sizes too small. You can mash your foot in there, and the energy transfer will be great, but this boot will hurt like hell, you will have cold feet, and likely hate life. Ok? The trick then, is to get the hard outer part (the shell) to fit as closely as possible. The inside part (the liner) needs to help take up the space where things are a bit big, and provide some insulation against the cold, and manage moisture (foot sweat). Making a mold for a shell is *very expensive*. Each manufacturer uses biometric data (foot sizes) from large population samples to size their shells. Some data leads to wider shells, some narrower. Some fit feet with higher arches, some with lower. When I was in the business, Dachstein and Koflach tended to fit wide feet, while any of the Italian boots (Munari, I think...) fit narrow feet. These days, things are probably different. Also, know that the boot shell does not change for every boot size... there are normally 2 or 3 boot sizes per shell size. The shell changes dramatically at the \"jump\"... the liners will just have more or less padding. The best fit will happen when the shell all by itself fits closely, with only the smallest possible liner. The lesson here is to fit the shell first...with no liner. If your boot fitter does not fit the shell first, seek another fitter. Some liners are better than others. Some are heat moldable over time, some have variable density foam. In the end, the more performance oriented the skier, the tighter (and probably less comfortable) the fit needs to be. A common trick used by shops is to sell a boot that is too large. Nice and comfy in the store, but the skier will hate it on the hill... they try to crank all the buckles down to take up volume, and it does not work. Almost all boots I've ever fitted could use a modification. Grind the boot board down to drop it and create more space. Dremel out the toe box a bit to make room for fat toes. Cut the back down to allow better circulation for big calves. A note on cold feet. Your feet are cold because of a crappy fit, not because the \"boots are cold\". The key to warm feet is circulation, not insulation. Any pressure point on the surface blood vessels will hinder blood getting in and out of the foot. A note on putting boots on. Stand up. You don't ski sitting down, do you? Open the boot and make sure the liner and tongue are straight. Put in your foot in one smooth motion. Buckle the top buckles first (a bit) and flex the boot as much as you can. This drives the heel back into the boot. Do this a few more times, and tighten the buckles on the top. Flex forward, and do the toe buckles now. There should be minimal pressure on the toe buckles...just enough to keep the shell from flexing open. Final note, wear one pair of ski socks...preferably on the thinner side. Don't wear two pairs thinking you will be warmer...remember what I said about circulation? Feel free to comment or question. tl; dr: Ski boots are doing a much harder job than running shoes, and have to be made accordingly. Don't expect them to fit like Nikes. Edits: fixed typos, added paragraphs breaks.",
"Ski boots aren't made for comfort. They're made to brace your ankles so that they don't snap when the skis go a different direction than the rest of your body. To make them comfortable, they'd have to be softer and looser, which means your ankle would be much more breakable.",
"as others have said they have if you're willing to spend the money and go to the correct place. If you only rent boots chances are they will hurt but if you buy a pair they wont and will work out cheaper in the long run. Renting a pair of boots can easily cost £50-100 for a week, lets say you get a deal and pay £50 for a week, you can easily buy a pair for £300 and an extra £100 for custom fitting so £400 in total, so if you go for a week a year in 8 years they will have paid for themselves and still have a lot of use in them (my current boots have done 20+ weeks ones before did 30+). If I have convinced you to buy a pair DO NOT LOOK FOR A PAIR in the nicest way you don't know what you want or what you are looking for. If you buy a pair which match your ski outfit you will probably buy the wrong ones. Go to a ski shop which have a large selection of boots and ideally research who has the best reviews for boot fitting. Go to the shop and instead of looking at the boots ask for their boot technician and explain you want a pair of boots (sometimes you will have to book an appointment, if it's far from where you live might be worth calling ahead). The boot tech should look at your feet and ask you about your skiing style and experience. They should then give you a selection of boots which they think will fit your feet and your skiing style. Once you have selected your boot they can then Mould the liners to your feet and if necessary stretch the boot as well. They should also advise you on if a custom insole is necessary and if so what type, I have high arches so this made a huge difference, this can be an extra £60-80 it's worth it. Once all this is done you should find your boots a lot more comfy and warm and should help you improve your skiing :) any questions let me know! Source: used to be a ski instructor spent over a year in the mountains, I'll happily finish skiing go to apres, have dinner and go to a club in my ski boots.",
"Ski instructor here, either get your boot properly fitted, or stop your bitchin. < 3 happy valentines day",
"They have made *more* comfortable boots but just without pain is asking too much. They have to be stiff enough to not fail when having hundreds of pounds of lateral torsion put on them. Also, you're probably wearing them to tight or they could be the wrong size.",
"LPT: dont wear thick socks with your ski boots. They will just pinch your feet and cut off circulation. Wear thin liner type socks just to help wick away moisture. Its your boots that keep your feet warm, not your socks.",
"I suggest you look into geting Full Tilts. Everyone who has them loves how comfortable they are. They seem to be catered more towards freestyle and park skiers but they are way more than that.",
"You need to get ski boots from a professional boot fitter. This is not from some guy at the boot section of Sport Chalet who knows nothing and certainly not from the internet. You want a guy who fits boots as a career. Every brand of ski boot has a totally different fit and only certain brands are shaped appropriately for your feet. If you get boots picked out and adjusted for you by a boot fitter worth his snuff your boots will be snug yet very comfortable. A lot of quality boots these days will also have a liner which you sort of \"cook\" and then put on so they mold to the shape of your foot for an even more precise fit. Here's a little guide to buying boots. If your fitter is legit he will sort you out, but it's good to have some basic knowledge so you can tell if a fitter knows what he is doing at a basic level at least . There are some red flags which should make you simply walk out of a place. URL_0 Getting boots fit is free usually with purchase, however it generally means paying MSRP which sucks since you can get all your other gear way below MSRP. But for your boots, it's worth it. My $700 custom fit Lange boots are not uncomfortable at all.",
"We totally have. Some shells are even moldable now. My guess would be you have never had a properly fitted boot. I spend 12 hours a day 6 months a year in ski boots. A well fit and molded boot should be like a slipper. Good boot fitting is worth every penny. Especially if it's what you do for a living. Investigate a service like Surefoot. Mostly it comes down to your foot, the brand, the mold last, and a bunch of different factors.Find a good boot fitter, feed them beer. It's totally possible.",
"Not an explanation but a tip: try using some decent insoles (like superfeet) and buy your own boots so you get to wear them in (well as much as you can ski boots).",
"Hey OP, boots are an overlooked and key part of any ski/snowboard set up. If your boots hurt, they are probably not fit to your foot well. If your boot is fitted correctly, you should have no major pressure points, good circulation (probably the number one cause of pain and coldness is bad circulation), and you should not have to crank the hell out of your buckles to feel snug. Any quality shop should be able to get you a decent custom foot bed for $50-100. This will go a looooong way to help, because instead of trying feel snug against a flat squishy factory footbed, you will snugging down against a semi rigid foot bed shaped like the bottom of your foot. You can also remove pressure points by *lighltly* sanding the liner if it is a removable one. To be frank, I am not up to speed on the latest liner tech...so depends quite a bit kon your boot. Don't lean on your boots when standing, lean on your poles, this will take pressure off your shins and help blood flow. The shins are over looked, but alot of foot cramping is because you want your heel to feel secure and not slippy. The thing is if your boots fit well, you won't feel slippy, you won't overcrank your buckles, and your sweet blood will flow. Do not wear more than one pair of socks, this is an easy friction surface, that's why you find the outer sock all packed into the toe and falling off at the end of they day. Again, a well fit boot and a good light to mid weight weight sock is better than a sloppy boot and compensation through filler and tightening. TL:DR rental boots will always suck.",
"Higher end Solomon boots come with heat moldable shells. Where I work, we heat mold for free if you buy boots. They're comfy as shit. We also sell Full Tilt boots which includes Intuition liners, which are an aftermarket liner that typically costs 200$. Intuition liners are heat moldable and come with extra addable ankle support and they're like wearing a dream. To get the extra comfort, pull out your basic boot sole and replace them with arch supports called Super Feet. At the end of thr day, your feet feel just fine. Source: work in ski shop",
"Full tilt ski boots URL_0 Source: im a semi-pro freeskier",
"If they hurt, you don't have properly fitted boots.",
"Here are the factors that affect your boot fit: Size you wear Shape of your foot and leg (wide/narrow, high arch/flat feet, long calves/short calves, Morton's toes, etc.) Thickness of socks you wear Flexibility of your foot, and how much your foot splays when full weight is on it. Level of skier, style of skiing, terrain you like to ski, weather you like to ski in Number of days you ski per season Whether or not you know how to buckle your boots correctly Whether or not you invest in custom footbeds People who have never had problems with boots either have very easy feet to fit, have been fit by an expert fitter, or don't ski very athletically or very many days per season. People who always have problems with boots either have never been properly fit, or have very difficult feet to fit. When you buy from a good ski shop and are fit by an expert fitter, it typically includes as many free adjustments throughout the lifetime of the boot as it takes to get things right (cash tips always good). An expert fitter will not just measure your foot, but look at it, flex it, study your stance, and ask you questions about your skiing. And, with any new boot, you need to give it 8-10 days on the slopes with a little pain/discomfort to let the boot pack out naturally. If after that you're still not right, take it back and ask your fitter to get it right. (Pro tip: take baby steps when adjusting hot spots. Big adjustments can cause a counter issue that makes things worse instead of better: lift the heel too dramatically, now your pinkie toes are jammed. Grind out the pinkie toe too much, now you're banging in the toe box.) So, one thing at a time, and ski on the adjustment a few days to get a feel for whether it's right before you take it in again. Sometimes things just need to pack out and settle in. The most common mistake people make is buckling down too tightly to keep their foot snug in a too-big boot. This cuts off circulation, your feet get cold, your calves get bruised, your toenails get bruised, you hate to ski. For 4 buckle boots: the most important buckles are the second and third. When putting on your boot, stand up. Start with the power strap, then buckle the second buckle down from the cuff. Now buckle the top buckle, then the third and the toe. NOW GO BACK AND DO IT ALL AGAIN. Adjust the power strap again. Tighten/loosen all other buckles in same order. You should be able to pop open each buckle without too much effort; it should be snug but not tight. With 3 buckle boots, same process, but the cuff and second buckle are most important. Never tuck your pants, long underwear into your boots. The only thing that should be in your boot are your feet and your socks (and toe warmers if you need them). Long underwear should be pulled up over your knee when you're putting on your boot, and then pulled down to cover the top of the sock after your boots are buckled. Oh, there's so much more I could say about this, but I'll just say \"custom footbeds\" one more time and stop for now.",
"Ok, ski instructor here, my chance to shine. Lots of people saying pay money for comfortable boots. They are missing the point a little. Top end race boots hurt. They are painful. Ever seen a racer's feet? Or a ski instructor's? Rather hideous. The reason for this, in contrast to say a snowboarding boot, is that the boots have to be stiff. They have to be made of a firm plastic in order to ski well. In fact the more high end the skiing the stiffer and firmer the boot will be (freestyle being the exception). Race boots are really hard to flex, the plastic is designed too not change to much in heat or cold and the whole boot is meant to be as tight as you can stand without doing medical damage. Of course there is room to move with in this. You can get the right boot to begin with that is more likely to fit your foot shape (wide last, narrow or wide ankles and calves that sort of thing). You can then get them molded or the inners injected and molded. A holiday skier should not be in pain, but nor will they ever feel like a slipper. To be clear again; the best top end boots in terms of performance will never be a comfortable fit. The most you can hope for in really well performing boots is that they don't damage your feet. Source: I spend hundreds of pounds/euros/CHF and thousands of hours in boots.",
"Boot fitter here. The easy answer is that we have. A bunch of companies (like Salomon, Atomic, and Fischer) have relatively quick custom molding techniques that allow for the actual plastic boot shell to be matched perfectly to your foot. Moreover, ski manufacturers are getting a lot better at material science, allowing them to make the plastic stiff where it needs to be (on the sides) and relatively flexible elsewhere. Ski boots won't ever be as comfortable as skate shoes, but if you're in a properly fit boot then there's no reason for it to hurt. I also like to give a few tips for making your own boots way more comfortable: 1. Never wear more than 1 pair of socks. More than that and you'll wind up trapping moisture and making yourself far colder. 2. If it takes more than the pressure of one thumb to close a buckle, it's too tight and you're cutting off your own blood flow, making yourself colder and less comfortable. 3. Buckle from top to bottom, and kick your heel back into your boot's heel pocket. Modern ski boots have a tight heel pocket that adds a lot of support, but if you clamp down your toes first and don't allow your foot to settle back properly, you'll wind up with your toes jammed in the front, and all kinds of blisters.",
"They do. You just need to buy a good pair that fits you well and let them mold to your feet. Mine have a velvet like material that is extremely comfortable. The only pain you should be experiencing is in your shins after hitting big jumps, but that's normal. Also, protip: it really helps if you shave the bottom portion of your legs if your a frequent skier. The boots get so tight around your socks that any time the boot flexes it will feel like your leg hair is getting yanked out. My legs are super hairy and I ski every other day so it makes a huge difference for me and the other guys I ski with. Plus it's not like anyone sees your legs in the winter anyway. It's a really common thing among good skiers. And if you are using rental boots, you are just asking for pain. Do some research, try some on, get the right amount of stiffness you need, then you'll be able to ski all day without taking a break.",
"It depends where they are hurting, many new boots (even ones that have been fitted) hurt because the foam on the inner of the boot has not been squashed, this means that there is more pressure being put onto your foot. This is something you usually just have to grit your teeth and push through. However it may also be that the shell of the boot is too small, or may not be a comfortable shape for your foot, this can be solved by taking your boots to a ski shop where they can either grind or blow out the shells to make more room, and will usually do so for free. It is also a good idea to have a sole made for the inside of your boots as it can help reduce pain and stress on your knees if you are flat footed. Source: been skiing since I was 2 years old, and racing competitively in FIS races since the age of 10, and have had many race boots fitted over that time.",
"Ski tech here, this question is asked by 80 percent of the people that come into my shop and the answers pretty simple, you're wearing the wrong boots. People who buy boots online or rent equipment will usually get an Ill fitting product. A boot fitter can adjust for your skier type, find a flex and last that is good for you, as well as find a boot that fits your needs. You'd be surprised how many cankle moms come in complaining that their 130 flex boot with a 99 last is hurting them. It's like getting a 2 seater Porsche when you have a whole family to bus around",
"Your boots don't fit you, I've done several seasons as a ski instructor which means 8 hours a day in ski boots 6 days a week for the entire winter, my boots don't hurt at all. Go to a shop and try on **EVERY SINGLE PAIR THEY HAVE** then pick the most comfortable of them all, consider nothing else about the boot comfort is the only thing you should care about. The key is finding a boot that's the right shape for your foot, because ski-boots won't change shape over time like shoes will, so if its not right from the beginning it will never be right. Forget renting boots.",
"They do make ski boots that are comfortable but you need to see a boot fitter to get them fitted to your feet and you need to be willing to spend a good amount of money on them. I just bought a new pair and while they were quite expensive ($600) they are very comfortable with a custom fitted intuition liner and will likely last a long time. My previous boots were second, possibly third hand hand-me-downs that were so old the liner was basically useless and the were 2.5 sizes too big. TL;DR. Get the correct size boots and get them custom fitted by a good boot fitter",
"Decent boots have heat-molded liners that conform to your foot when you first buy them, and these days the shells are being made with newer construction techniques that enable them to be shaped more closely to a human ankle. Do not, I repeat DO NOT go buy a new liner for 500 bucks like RespawnerSE said. The right answer here is from Jweeze: you just have to pony up and get brand new boots. Dalbello has been making big strides in comfort technology in the last five or so years. Take $600 to an actual ski shop with industry professionals and you'll find what you're looking for.",
"Take your current boots to a GOOD ski shop. Not a big box store like Dick's sporting goods or the like. Explain to them where the boots make your feet hurt. They will either be able to point you to a boot that fits your foot shape better (personally I cannot wear Salomon or Lange boots...but I love my Atomics). Or they will be able to get you a boot that is close and then heat and reshape the boot a little to make it fit your foot better.",
"Speaking as someone who just bought new ski boots for the first time in eight years this year, and has size 14 extra wide feet they have! Fischer Vacuum Fit ski boots! They're the most comfortable things I've ever had on my feet! The ski shop will heat them up then the boots are cooled and fitted to your feet using air pressure. I had to get my left boot refitted three times to get it right, but it was worth it!",
"Your feet hurt because your boots do not fit. My skiboots feel like my feet are sitting in velvet because I have gone to a boot fitter, received a proper shell and liner for my foot shape. Don't order ski or snowboard boots online, get them at a GOOD store who will spend time measuring your feet and getting a proper fits for your feet.",
"Ski boots have to provide a very firm mechanical coupling to your very skeleton so that you can effectively control the ski. This requirement is pretty contrary to comfort, so I am not sure how much they can really do for a reasonable price.",
"Sounds like you didn't have proper fitting boots. If you get the shell molded and a custom foot bed it makes all the difference. Go to a boot fitter. They will pick out a boot that fits your gate and foot.",
"Go to a boot fitter and have orthotics made. I do this on my snowboard boots which are 100x more comfortable to begin with. Ski boot is supposed to hold your foot in place.",
"I've had the same pair of boots for almost ten years. Very comfortable, and I've never had an issue. The comfy boots are out there. You just haven't found a pair for yourself yet",
"Ummm they have.... You need to buy a pair and get measured up. I can ski in mine for 4 days in a row and don't have any problems at all.",
"It's down to luck if you happen to get the perfect ones. I had the luck but they still hurt in the getting use to after summer phase.",
"I always assumed that they have but as a casual I always hire low end ones that aren't broken in to my feet.",
"no expert, but its probably about safety. its pretty easy to snap an angle or leg if you fall on skis",
"[Try moldable insoles designed for ski boots?]( URL_0 ) Same as the $300 ones you'd get through a doctor",
"Went skiing last weekend, had the exact same ELI5......but was too lazy to post it. Upvote for sticktoitiveness",
"In the words of skis bums, \"stop being a pussy and get out of the back seat\"",
"ski boots dont hurt if you go to a bootfitter and get the right pair, derp.",
"Try telemark or cross country skis both of those can be perfectly comfortable without molding.",
"Everyone here is talking about ski boots And I'm just sitting here feeling poor",
"Snowboard boots are way more comfortable. Big part of why I switched.",
"Because most people are doing it wrong. Try this instead, URL_0 ",
"Because you haven't found ski boots that fit you properly.",
"The government wants you to be alert while skiing.",
"Paraphrasing /u/RespawnerSE ; we have, they're just very expensive.",
"Because I didn't know that you were interested."
] | [
[
"design fell from popularity in the 1990s due to their shunning by racers in search of a closer fit. Recent improvements to front-entry and mid-entry boots, primarily in the areas of comfort and ease of entry/exit, have diminished the popularity of rear-entry designs even in recreational roles, though mid-range models remain common as rental boots. Three-piece Three-piece (or \"open-throat\") boots were first developed by Mel Dalebout (around 1969), who introduced a rigid magnesium boot shell in that year (Brixia did the same thing with their aluminum shell at around the same time). The big advantage was that the main shell",
"-26.703261541682878"
],
[
"only one boot, not a pair, and Chris stopped work on the design.\nAround the same time, Bob Lange started work on a new ski boot design using plastics in place of leather. It took several years of development before he had a suitable design, and widespread sales started in the winter of 1965-66. These early designs were very stiff and offered a tremendous improvement in control, but they became even more uncomfortable than the leather designs they replaced when the inner liner lost its elasticity around pressure points. The area around the leg cuff and especially the ankle would wear",
"-26.416106441713055"
],
[
"manufacturers took steps to address issues of fit by introducing taller, better fitting styles this was ultimately blamed for their decline in popularity. Where protection from the elements was needed, Russian boots were increasingly replaced by fashionable variants of the rubber Wellington boot. Mass popularity was also seen as a barrier to chic women adopting boots as a fashion item. Although they were still popular as late as the beginning of the 1930s, within a few years Russian boots had fallen out of favor. It was not until the 1950s that boots were again regarded as fashion items for",
"-25.73621543488116"
],
[
"many skiers prefer lightweight, fatter models that may be heavier but do not sacrifice performance in deep snow, which is a common desire for skiing off-piste. This tradeoff is common in backcountry skis, but manufacturers attempt to narrow this gap each year. Skins Ski skins allow skis to travel uphill. A narrow strip of nylon or mohair fabric designed to mimic sealskin and allow skis to be slid forward, uphill, but not backwards, downhill. Synthetic skins typically grip better while mohair skins made from Angora Goat hair slide better. Commonly, skins are attached to skis or a splitboard with a",
"-25.081945137368166"
],
[
"users do not wear protective gear because the shoes are worn for everyday use (unlike more specialized sporting equipment such as inline skates).",
"-24.908604384152568"
],
[
"shoes have won appeal for their ethical origins from eco-friendly recycled materials, simple elegance, and adaptability to various circumstances. Manufacture The manufacture of furlanes is generally more complex than that of slippers. The upper part is the most sophisticated part.",
"-24.901519477090915"
],
[
"them to market. These have since been released under the new Full Tilt brand. Roxa, the Italian boot maker who produces Flexon for K2, also sells the boot under their own name. Numerous companies are now producing three-piece designs. Before Flexon Today's plastic ski boots evolved from leather designs that in turn evolved from conventional winter hiking boots. These all followed the same basic layout; the boot was built on top of a semi-stiff sole of leather or (for a stiffer boot) wood. The upper shell consisted of single layer or multiple layers of leather and stiffeners that were formed",
"-24.731091577006737"
],
[
"ski designs, consisting largely of a sheet of plywood. A contemporary ski's torsion box design greatly improved torsional stiffness and would allow even greater sidecut to be effective. But in spite of the snowboard demonstrating that modern skis could carry much wider sidecuts, and that such a sidecut resulted in excellent turn performance, little came of this development. The snowboard market was ignored by the major ski companies through the 1970s and 80s.\nExperiments with slightly greater sidecut on skis did appear during this period, including the Head Yahoo and especially the Atomic Powder Plus. Further developments followed due to",
"-24.674160641348863"
],
[
"the hills himself, selling them out of the back of his station wagon. By the end of the year, 300 pairs of the $85 skis were sold. One last problem needed to be solved; the mirror-like topsheet was distracting in the sun, so a thin sheet of black plastic was added to the top. The result was the Head Standard, which would remain largely unchanged for over a decade.\nOn the slopes, skiers found they could turn the ski far easier than wooden designs. Head later noted that \"...lightness is not what makes a ski better. In trying to build a",
"-24.168702466020477"
],
[
"style of sheepskin boot. In many other countries, however, UGG boots are a well-known brand of footwear owned by Deckers. The boots are made of twin-faced sheepskin with fleece on the inside and with a tanned outer surface, often with a synthetic sole. The boots originated in Australia and New Zealand, initially as utilitarian footwear worn for warmth and comfort. UGG boots emerged as a fashion trend in the United States in the late 1990s and as a world-wide trend in the late 2000s. Trademark law in the United States The Lanham Act is the primary federal trademark statute of",
"-24.117783224130108"
],
[
"variety of skis with differing sidecuts, and older designs were derisively dismissed as \"skinny skis\". These older designs clogged the discount racks, and top-of-the-line models from the previous year could now be purchased for $29.95. It became clear that skis should have always been shaped this way, and one designer later noted that \"It turned out that everything we thought we knew for forty years was wrong.\"\nBy the 1997/98 season every ski company was producing parabolic designs, and only parabolic designs. In spite of fire-sale prices on older designs, parabolics accounted for 70% of all ski sales by 1999. Over",
"-24.071754667266987"
],
[
"and skiing conditions. Atomic developed the LiveFit (2009), a ski boot which automatically adapts to the shape of the foot. Since 2009, Atomic's skis have also been available with various Rocker technologies. Atomic has recently developed Memory Fit, a heat fitting technology that adapts the boot to the users foot, which can be found on two of the market's top selling boots.\nAtomic is also committed to the development of more environmentally-friendly production methods: the factory in Altenmarkt uses a wood pellet heating system during the manufacturing process. The \"Renu\" line comprises skis and boots largely made of recyclable and renewable",
"-24.01770565455081"
],
[
"contemporary ski's torsion box design greatly improved torsional stiffness and would allow even greater sidecut to be effective. But in spite of the snowboard demonstrating that modern skis could carry much wider sidecuts, and that such a sidecut resulted in excellent turn performance, little came of this development. The snowboard market was ignored by the major ski companies through the 1970s and 80s.\nExperiments with slightly greater sidecut on skis did appear during this period, including the Head Yahoo and especially the Atomic Powder Plus. Further developments followed due to changes in competitive giant slalom, as the gates were moved",
"-23.997824635211146"
],
[
"dominating the world market. History There are different claims to the origins of the ugg boot style. Artisanal sheepskin boots were known in rural Australia during the 1920s, and were reportedly worn by shearers as they found them resistant to wool yolk (Lanolin), which would rot their ordinary boots. However, the date of commercial manufacturing began remains unclear. The boots were reportedly being manufactured in 1933 by Blue Mountains Ugg Boots of New South Wales. Frank Mortel of Mortels Sheepskin Factory has stated that he began manufacturing the boots in the late 1950s. Surfer Shane Stedman of Australia has stated",
"-23.907402897675638"
],
[
"Taylor and Neil Robinson, who assured Head that he would love to use his skis if they did not break. Throughout that winter Head would make a ski pair and send it out to Robinson, who returned it to Head after it broke. Head figured out the flaws of his design, came up with modifications, sent the new ski pair to Robinson, and the process repeated. By the end of the winter of 1947, Head came up with skis that were as strong as wooden skis but were half the weight.\nIn order to make his skis more efficient,",
"-23.850814111239742"
],
[
"and strongest available.\nThe party's ski boots, specially designed by Amundsen, were the product of two years' testing and modification in search of perfection. The party's polar clothing included suits of sealskin from Northern Greenland, and clothes fashioned after the style of the Netsilik Inuit from reindeer skins, wolf skin, Burberry cloth and gabardine. The sledges were constructed from Norwegian ash with steel-shod runners made from American hickory. Skis, also fashioned from hickory, were extra long to reduce the likelihood of slipping into crevasses. The tents—\"the strongest and most practical that have ever been used\"—had built-in floors and required a single",
"-23.79115827118585"
],
[
"Ugg boots Ugg boots are a unisex style of sheepskin boot originating in Australia and New Zealand. The boots are typically made of twin-faced sheepskin with fleece on the inside, a tanned outer surface and a synthetic sole. The term, ugg boots, originated from Australia, initially for utilitarian footwear worn for warmth, and which were often worn by surfers during the 1960s. In the 1970s, the boots were introduced to the surf culture of the United Kingdom and the United States. Sheepskin boots became a fashion trend in the U.S. in the late 1990s and as a worldwide trend in",
"-23.711880594906688"
],
[
"not built up to dangerous levels. Although it did not release the boot from the ski, it did release the force from the boot. To mount it, the boot was fastened to a metal plate, which was in turn cut into the upper surface of the ski in a mortise joint about a centimetre deep. The system was difficult to install, weakened the ski, and also heavy.\nBeyl wanted a sexy name for the company, and took one from a US photo magazine. Look was formed in Nevers, France in 1948. The system saw limited sales, but was in use on",
"-23.673377683175204"
],
[
"sheepskin boots, which were made from sheepskin sourced from Jackson's Tannery in Geelong, Victoria. Seeing the popularity of the boots among American surfers, Australian surfer Brian Smith, then living in Santa Monica, California, bought boots from Country Leather but was unhappy with the brand and decided to register UGG as his own trademark. Family friends invested $20,000 into the new venture and the group set up Ugg Imports. Due to other business commitments, in 1979 Jensen handed over his share of the company to Smith. In 1987 Smith registered Ugg Holdings Inc. and in 1985 registered a U.S. trademark on",
"-23.628425564245845"
],
[
"need to provide mechanical support only in the fore and aft directions. These typically consist of an external frame, generally L shaped, which the snowboarder steps into and then fastens down using straps over the boot. The boot itself is not as responsible for transmitting forces, and can be much softer than a typical downhill boot. When the sport was first introduced, normal winter boots were used, but today it is much more common to use semi-stiff snowboarding boots. Some specialty disciplines use harder boots with step-in bindings more similar to downhill systems, but these are not widely used outside",
"-23.54685912997502"
],
[
"\"female-friendly\" ski equipment. Thoren's position was that women's physical characteristics are completely different from those of men, so just shorter skis will not suffice. Thoren has made many appearances in Geiger's ski stores, urging women to demand and ski manufacturers to design better equipment.\nGeiger's has been active in America's Best Bootfitters, a worldwide association of independent ski and snowboard retailers that offers certification in the science of fitting ski and snowboard boots. These boots are a substantial investment (up to as much as $1,000/pair) and are integral to good, safe skiing.\nExecutive Vice President and Co-owner Gordon Geiger is very active",
"-23.508522703297785"
],
[
"shoes that could be quickly removed if embers landed in the shafts. Engineer boots were overtaken in the shoe market during World War II by the production of lace-up combat boots and demand dramatically decreased. Widespread use Both Chippewa and Wesco heavily increased sales of engineer boots in the late 1940s. There was a post-war production boom for the boots, with high demand coming from returning veterans and bikers. The latter adopted engineer boots because the laceless design would not interfere with motorcycle drive belts, the shafts were well insulated from heat, and they provided full lower leg protection in",
"-23.507713264949416"
],
[
"used heavier leather in its construction, and had several minor changes from the 1917 Boot, including a thicker sole and improved waterproofing. Due to the boots' greater size, they were known as \"little tanks\" by the soldiers who received them.",
"-23.30260695177276"
],
[
"subject to wear; Nava's soft plate and boot eliminated both problems.\nNava first showed the system in April 1983 in Italy, and started sales in the winter of 83/84, and Canada in 1985. Frank Vener, an American who marketed a number of European brands in the US, started Nava Leisure USA and started sales in February 1986. There were two models, the Sansicario sold for $495 while the Cortina sold for $595, both well at the high end of the market.\nEarly reviews were generally positive. Reviewers noted how easy it was to ski all day long without the discomfort of normal",
"-22.940534837936866"
],
[
"Hanson Industries (ski boots) Flo-fit Alden Hanson Sr. was the chief scientist at Dow Chemical during the 1950s and '60s. He led development of a Silly Putty-like plastic known as \"Flo-fit\" and started looking for applications. Alden's son Chris used some in an effort to make a better ski boot, which at the time were simple leather boots that were extremely uncomfortable and quickly wore out. Chris built a fiberglass shell that fitted over the entire foot area of the boot to provide support, and then filled the gap with Flo-fit to provide cushioning between the two. The prototype was",
"-22.919313584261545"
],
[
"Tailwheel aircraft are also more suitable for fitting with skis in wintertime.",
"-22.869851787385414"
],
[
"them tending to sink in soft snow. This left powder skiing and off-piste skis among the few markets not being served by parabolic designs. Several skis aimed at the powder market had appeared over the years, including the Volant Chubb and other \"fat-boy skis\" from the early to mid 1990s.\nFree skier Shane McConkey was skiing on the Elan designs in 1996, but found they sank in the snow. As an experiment to get more \"float\" on the snow, he tried mounting ski bindings on waterskis while skiing in Alaska. He began working with Volant on skis that combined their metal-based",
"-22.768852159453672"
],
[
"require the use of such boots in some settings, and may mandate certification of such boots and the display of such certification directly on the boots. The markings on the boot label will indicate the national or international standards that the boot was intended to meet, and identify the level of protection offered for impact, penetration, electric shock, and chemical hazards. Safety shoes are effective in keeping the feet of industrial workers safe from sharp and heavy objects while working in factories. Footwear for use in chemical processing or semiconductor manufacturing may also be rated to dissipate static electricity while",
"-22.76793424661446"
],
[
"prevents snow or debris from gathering between the tread of the tire and the inner side of the woven fabric.\nWhen winter tires aren’t enough, snow socks help to enhance the grip on snowy roads. Sizing and deployment Snow socks are sold in pairs and come in sizes that are specific to a range of tire codes. Snow sock sizes are available for different motor vehicle classes, but most snow sock brands focus on cars and pickup trucks rather than semi-trailer trucks or larger vehicles. Since the largest variation of snow socks is in the market for cars and pickup trucks,",
"-22.7003495494464"
],
[
"wide or low-profile tires are often covered. Buses, semi-trailer trucks or larger vehicles require snow sock models that can support the heavier axle load and larger wheel dimensions. Some brands also offer snow socks for specialized vehicles such as forklifts or airport ground support equipment (e.g. pushback tugs or loaders).\nDriving with snow socks usually reduces the maximum allowable speed to between 30 km/h (20mph) and 50 km/h (30 mph) depending on the snow sock brand, snow sock size and vehicle class. These restrictions are normally stated in the product's or vehicle's owner’s manual. Neither snow socks nor snow chains are",
"-22.635553752463238"
],
[
"the mid-2000s. In Australia, they are worn predominantly as slippers and often associated with \"daggy\" fashion sense and \"bogan\" culture.\nPrior legal disputes between some manufacturers of sheepskin boots arose as to distinguish whether \"ugg\" is a protected trademark, or a generic term and thus ineligible for trademark protection. There are more than 70 registered trademarks that include the term \"ugg\" in various logos and designs in Australia and New Zealand, as the term is considered a generic reference to a type of shoe. Outside Australia and New Zealand, UGG is a brand manufactured by the California-based Deckers Outdoor Corporation, with",
"-22.47581376913513"
],
[
"Red Wing Shoes Products Though Red Wing Shoes is known primarily for their leather boots intended for heavy work, in recent years the company has expanded its line-up to include athletic-styled work shoes and footwear designed for specific job applications (such as slip-resistant shoes designed for the service industry and boots ideal for the mining industry that utilize a metatarsal guard). The company produces Oxfords, chukkas, hiking boots, and logger styles, as well as 6-inch and 8-inch work boots. While the core of Red Wing's focus is on work boots, in 2008 Red Wing Shoes added a Heritage catalog and",
"-22.422812056727707"
],
[
"used for racing because it uses two connection points so that the skier has more stability and control over the ski. As these boots are intended for travel over generally flat terrain, they are optimized for light weight and efficiency of motion.\nTelemark refers to a specific technique for making downhill turns on Nordic equipment. This has resulted in highly specialized equipment designed for better performance in a downhill setting. Until 1992 Telemark boots were basically heavy leather boots with the front of the sole adapted to the 75mm Nordic Norm. The introduction of the New Telemark Norm (NTN) binding",
"-22.421494020120008"
],
[
"that would reliably release a ski boot in a fall, but remain in place for normal skiing maneuvers. While laid up in the hospital, he had an inspiration for a new design, which became the Saf-Ski, the world's first ski safety bindings. The bindings made it to Europe for use by the 10th Mountain Division in World War II.\nAfter the war, the design caught on and became popular around the world into the 1960s. Hvam sold and rented thousands of pairs until the early 1970s, when insurance premiums for sale of the bindings became too expensive and the Saf-Ski",
"-22.275668646667327"
],
[
"more quickly, however they do not need to be dressed. Applications Common applications include: steering rack components, transmission components, fuel injector components, camshaft lobes, hydraulic cylinder rods, bearing races, needle rollers, and sharpening stones and wheels.\nIt has been proven that superfinishing certain parts makes them more durable. For example, if the teeth in a gear are superfinished they will last up to four times as long.",
"-22.266987546754535"
],
[
"In Russia light vehicles and buses must be equipped with snow M+S or 3PMSF tires on all axles from December through February and have a minimum tread depth of 4 millimetres (0.2 in).\nAll prefectures of Japan, except for the southernmost prefecture of Okinawa, require the motorized vehicles to be fitted with winter tires or tire chains if the road is icy or slushy. If tread grooves of snow tires are worn off for more than 50% of its original depth, tires must be replaced to meet the legal requirements. Drivers will be fined for failing to comply with the snow tire",
"-22.26491197856558"
],
[
"to 1900, there were very similar models made in North America, like the Donaghue from USA. Recreational skates Inexpensive skates for recreational skaters usually resemble either figure skates or hockey skates, but recreational ice skates resembling inline skates with a molded plastic boot are also available. These recreational skates are commonly rented from ice rinks by beginners who do not own their own skates. In the non-American English-speaking world they are sometimes called 'death wellies' by skaters who own their own equipment because of their appearance and their reputation for giving the wearer blisters. People who own their own",
"-22.21377174858935"
],
[
"in interviews that he invented the ugg boot. Perth sheepskin boot manufacturers Bruce and Bronwyn McDougall of Uggs-N-Rugs have manufactured the boots since the late 1970s.\nThe origin of the term \"ugg\" is also unclear. Stedman registered the trademark \"UGH-BOOTS\" in Australia in 1971, and in 1982 registered the \"UGH\" trademark. Frank Mortel claims that he named his company's sheepskin boots \"ugg boots\" in 1958 after his wife commented that the first pair he made were \"ugly.\" Some accounts have suggested that the term grew out of earlier variations, such as the \"fug boots\" worn by United Kingdom Royal Air",
"-22.202275005987758"
],
[
"equipment similar in appearance to their ice hockey counterparts for safety but partly also to help block more of the goal area. However, such goalie equipment used in street hockey is generally lighter than that used in ice hockey due to the reduced weight and density of the ball (or puck) that is typically used in street hockey as compared to the hard vulcanized rubber puck used in ice hockey.\nA street hockey stick is similar to an ice hockey stick in shape and size, but made of materials that will better stand up to use on asphalt or a",
"-22.155476008643745"
],
[
"skiing much easier and reinforced edges to withstand rails. Eric Pollard designed the first two symmetrical skis, the Anthem and the Invader. Pollard now has his own pro model skis from Line skis called the EP Pro (Mr. Pollard's Opus - 2012), the Elizabeth and the Sir Francis Bacon. Some new powder and all-mountain skis are created with 'reverse camber' (aka 'rocker') meaning that the tips and tails are bent up slightly to make powder landings easier.",
"-22.13284616792589"
],
[
"needed to be solved. Skis of the 1970s were largely identical in shape to those of the 1800s.\nSkis with narrower waist profiles had been experimented with, but had never become widely used. In 1939, Dick Durrance ordered a custom ski from Thor Groswold's factory in Denver with a 7 mm sidecut, and this became a new standard for slalom skis. During the winter of 1948/49, Jerry Hiatt and Thor's son Jerry decided to experiment with even bigger sidecuts. Taking a pair of the company's standard hickory Rocket skis, they cut away wood until they produced a 15 millimetres (0.59 in) sidecut. When",
"-22.051999336558538"
],
[
"brand and marketing, with terms such as \"full rocker\", \"all mountain rocker\", \"hybrid\" and others. Gender-specificity Skis were once unisex, but today skis are designed to suit both men and women. Compared to men's skis, women's skis are built for smaller, less powerful frames, and have a waist that’s farther forward to better match a woman’s relatively lower center of gravity relative to a man. Sidecut Sidecut is the subtle hourglass shape of the ski, viewed from the top. Skis have had some sidecut since before 1808, when it was invented by Norwegian artisans. Since that time, the straight ski",
"-22.036694216076285"
],
[
"by the 1930 and 1936 Pattern boot followed by the introduction of the Sidcot suit and more ordinary knee-length fleece-lined boots were then used. Arctic pilots needed especially warm wear and continued to use heavy suspender boots of sheepskin in place of trousers. Both clothing and boots were electrically heated as the technology for this became available.\nIn Australia, a soft, slip-on sheepskin boot was developed which were known as ugg boots (There are a number or derivations given for this name, including a cartoon character, shorthand for \"ugly\", and the \"fug\" boots worn in World War I).",
"-22.000782744027674"
],
[
"who were previously issued with the Gore-Tex boot.\nUnlike the predecessor Gore-Tex boots, which were neatly padded and waterproof, the Frontier designers removed the padding, added an ankle support strip, and added two \"water outlets\", making the boot very uncomfortable.\nWith the change, the waterproof feature was also gone, resulting in criticism from the reserve conscripts who were previously issued with the Gore-Tex boots which were waterproof. However, it allowed the water to drain out of the boot after a river-crossing. Also, the boot become more ventilated (and \"cooling\") once the padding was removed.\nDurability was also an issue in both the 2nd",
"-21.93034978453943"
],
[
"and torsional stiffness of a ski along its length. Hexcel, a manufacturer of aluminium honeycomb sheet, became well known for its branded skis, using this same advanced material.\nSporting uses may be every bit as demanding as aerospace needs. Particularly in cycling, materials may be loaded more highly than in aerospace use, the risk of possible failure being seen as more acceptable than for aircraft.\nMany uses of aerospace materials for sporting goods have been as the result of a 'peace dividend'. After World War II, Hiduminium alloy appeared in bicycle brake components as its maker sought to expand new markets to",
"-21.883646029687952"
],
[
"After a five-year research project, the SX series of ski boots was introduced in the beginning of the 1980s. The boot was the result of collaboration with the French designer Roger Tallon.\nThe SX91 ski boot was launched in 1984, the result of collaboration with the young French designer Roger Pitiot. The boot contained a number of innovations such as the sliding forward-flex control.\nSalomon's dedicated design center is in Annecy, France.",
"-21.80947790103005"
],
[
"that did not require much (or any) sidecut, and did not experiment with other designs as styles changed. Snowboards had to invent their equipment and techniques fresh, and found the deep sidecut was best through experimentation.\nAlpine skis were for many years shaped similarly to cross-country skis, simply shorter and wider. Experiments with deeper sidecuts had been carried out with limited success, but the much deeper sidecuts of snowboards led to further experiments. In 1993 the Elan SCX introduced a radical sidecut design that dramatically improved performance of alpine skis. Other companies quickly followed the Elan SCX design, and it was",
"-21.7945495186068"
],
[
"parabolic skis. Plus, since the classic snowboard has a nonuniform flex, mainly characterized as insignificant flex between the riders feet, then the DES has more than twice as much edge control. Other advantages are also defined: seamless edge-to-edge transition, smoother ride, no toe/heel drag, better tip/tip flex and less chance of catching the leading edge. Disadvantages These systems' combined board weight can be roughly the same weight as a single snowboard. Since the total system weight also includes a mechanism, then these systems are likely to always be heavier than the classic snowboard due to the added",
"-21.62544209648331"
],
[
"Bunny boots Type I The black pairs, called Mickey Mouse boots (due to their oversized appearance resembling the feet of the eponymous cartoon mouse), weigh 44 oz. (1.25 kg) apiece, are rated for temperatures down to −20 °F (−28.9 °C) and are made with oil/diesel resistant rubber. They are less common and predate the post-Korea white pairs (\"bunny boots\") which are still issued today. Type II The white \"Bunny boot\" is an improved version of the Type I \"Mickey Mouse boot\", designed for use in even more extreme cold weather, and is rated all the way down to −65 °F (−53.8 °C). Given the",
"-21.583458103443263"
],
[
"selected as the new ADF combat boots, they were comfortable in hot weather provided good support. However these were found to fail prematurely and were never issued on a large scale.\nAs a result, Redback were tasked with once again providing a range of combat boots to the ADF including a General Purpose boot, a Jungle Style boot and a Flame Resistant boot. These boots are being issued on a very limited basis and are currently undergoing limited testing. However early reports are not favourable with complaints of failing eyelets and lack of water resistance. Danners are still being retained as",
"-21.464934182120487"
],
[
"Indoor Often called Spinning shoes, after the company that popularized fitness club classes led by an instructor using stationary bicycles. A few companies have developed shoe models intended to cater to the indoor cyclist, including Nike, Lake, SIDI, Specialized, Exustar and others. These shoes have not been widely accepted due to their limited availability and a fragmented consumer market. US retail prices as of 2010 are generally under $90, with the normal range of sizes available. Winter Cycling shoes with insulated, over-the-ankle coverage have been available for a number of years from Lake, Sidi, Northwave, Exustar, Gaerne and others. ",
"-21.425715789635433"
],
[
"materials were scarce and it was then when the company introduced the concept of using old car tyres as a soling for boots.\nGradually since then the methods of manufacturing footwear have changed as petroleum based products such as glues, rubbers and plastics have replaced the traditional ones of leather, nails and threads. More modern machinery has been introduced than can directly mould soles to the bottom of boots and can easily pull leather over a last.\nAt the end of 1987 the company moved from Unley to Hilton. The move allowed production to be carried out in a more modern, fit-for-purpose",
"-21.41355697135441"
],
[
"Head made several other changes, like substituting plywood for honeycomb plastic, covering the bottom of the ski with polyethylene to avoid the problem of icy bottoms and adopting continuous steel edges to harden the edges of the ski. The new improved skis were almost as heavy as the conventional wooden skis, but were stronger and easier to control. Head skis helped to popularize alpine skiing in the U.S.; the innovative equipment made turning significantly easier.\nIn 1950, Head founded the Head Ski Company, which became very successful. Within a couple of years it was the major supplier of",
"-21.409822356952645"
],
[
"major source for parts to keep Flexon boots working. Skiers like Seth Morrison built up large stocks of spare parts to keep their boots on the hill. After Flexon In 2004, K2 Sports bought the original Flexon moulds, planning to enter the boot business. However, they initially did nothing with the design. In 2006, K2 purchased Line Skis, and Line decided to immediately re-launch the Flexon under the new brand-name, Full Tilt. Immediate turned out to be a relative term, and the new boots did not reach the market until early 2006 in Japan, Canada at the end of that",
"-21.40461989166215"
],
[
"deicing boots, the company built a large indoor facility in Akron to replicate bad weather and icing on aircraft wings. Ice bridging 'Ice bridging' is the theory that activating boots early may lead to a condition where slushy ice is pushed into a hollow shell around the inflated boot, then freezes in place. This shell can then no longer be dislodged by any further operation of the boot. Bridging was described by the aviation writer Ernest Gann in his memoir Fate Is the Hunter.\nThe bridging theory is now disputed. In 2008 the NTSB issued an alert that pilots should,",
"-21.388021720988036"
],
[
"more modern materials, such as rubber, foam, plastic, leather, suede, and even fabric. Thongs made of polyurethane have caused some environmental concerns; because polyurethane is a number 7 resin, they can't be easily discarded, and they persist in landfills for a very long time. In response to these concerns, some companies have begun selling flip-flops made from recycled rubber, such as that from used bicycle tires, or even hemp, and some offer a recycling program for used flip flops.\nBecause of the strap between the toes, flip-flops are typically not worn with socks. In colder weather, however, some people wear flip-flops",
"-21.27782549239589"
],
[
"late fifties provided a good grip to gloved fingers.\nCar speeds were quite slow due to very icy conditions [see also lake effect snow]. It was not something to be encouraged but was widely practiced. Motorcycle skitching In motorcycle skitching, the driver of the motorcycle flips their legs over the saddle and drags their feet on the ground while holding onto the handlebars. This is similar to ghost-riding in motor vehicles. Motorcycle skitching requires metal plates on the soles of the rider's shoes to protect them from the road surface. Dangers Because skitching is often done in traffic, on inadequate equipment",
"-21.257571016583825"
],
[
"why having four different titles on one bottle was confusing for a consumer.\nMuddy Boots got the importance of brand essence but had got their design and structure wrong. With almost unanimous results, their market research on the packaging proved that too much of the beefburger was shown and that it was squashed and unappealing.\nIt was back to the drawing board for both of them.\nWith the help of two London design agencies, they both had brand emersions and new concepts designed.\nThey were then set the challenge of pitching their products to the customers in a large London Tesco store. \nAt the",
"-21.256735577356608"
],
[
"car: it was ordinary sport scuba gear.\nAfter about 1990 the rapid growth in the number of sport diving rebreather brands has clouded this distinction, while advanced sport divers increasingly tackle longer, deeper, riskier dives using equipment once available only to armed forces or professionals. This means that even \"less-lethal\" techniques for trapping them underwater, disorienting them, or (especially) forcing them to the surface would be an ever-increasing risk to civilian divers' lives.\nIn former times, civilian diving was only for work, and needed standard diving dress and large, readily visible surface support craft. Sport scuba diving has changed that.\nAnother result of",
"-21.236766366884694"
],
[
"slogan for luxury goods, particularly for cars and sporting goods. Bicycles, golf clubs, sailing yachts and even torches are all sold on the basis of their high-performance materials, whether these are relevant or not. Since their appearance in 1979, Maglite have advertised their use of 6061 aluminium for their torch bodies, one of the first to make a deliberate feature of aerospace materials for a non-performance reason.\nSome sporting uses have been for the material's actual qualities. Many ski makers have produced skis wholly from cloth and resin composite materials, using the tailorability of such construction to vary the stiffness, damping",
"-21.151540857594227"
],
[
"16 March 2011. Both boots received two initial launch colourways: Plum Red/White/Volt and Marine Blue/Platinum/Orange.\nThis update of Nike's lightweight football boots transpired to be largely cosmetic; rather than any new innovations being added to the Mercurial Vapor and Superfly (as the Nike SENSE adaptive traction system was with the Superfly II), the sole, studs, last and weight all remained the same on both football boots.\nThe only change came in the form of a new graphical design on the upper, which was designed to make the boots even more visible on the pitch.\nWhilst many players were seen training and playing in",
"-21.124904000782408"
],
[
"Swiss company Raichle-Molitor; the company introduced it in 1979 as the Flexon, which became very popular among downhill racers and mogul skiers. The Flexon was extremely popular among professional skiers, especially for moguls and freestyle, but a series of business blunders put Raichle out of business in the late 1990s. Several companies produce three-piece designs today, often referred to as \"cabrio\" boots (after convertible-top cabriolet vehicles), and they are once again becoming popular models.\nThe design closely resembles a conventional front-entry design, with separate foot and leg sections riveted at the ankle. However, the overlapping flaps of these designs are cut",
"-21.10571657196124"
],
[
"a lighter aluminum-based alloy. Marugg later sold the device to parking lot owners, hotels and ski resorts, as well as a Jumbo version for farm equipment and larger vehicles. The Smithsonian Institution now has a copy of Marugg's boot on display in Washington, D.C. By 1970 Marugg had sold 2,000 boots. Although the patent ran out in 1976 and modern car and truck wheels necessitated a redesign, Marugg's daughter kept up the business until 1986. Clancy Systems International, later bought the rights to the boot. The boot allowed Denver to maintain one of the largest collection rates for parking fines",
"-21.009719164503622"
],
[
"favoring a smoother surface and wetter, warmer snow favoring a textured surface. Wax solvents Wax can be dissolved by non-polar solvents like mineral spirits. However, some commercial wax solvents are made from citrus oil, which is less toxic, harder to ignite, and gentler on the ski base. Health Ski wax may contain chemicals with potential health affects including perfluorinated chemicals. Levels of perfluorinated carboxylic acids, especially perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), have been shown to increase in ski wax technicians during the ski season. Environment When skiing, the friction between the snow and skis causes wax to abrade and remain in the",
"-21.003494587464957"
],
[
"Deckers, some Australian manufacturers formed the Australian Sheepskin Association to fight the corporation's claim, arguing that \"ugg\" is a generic term referring to flat-heeled, pull-on sheepskin boots. One of these manufacturers, Perth's Uggs-N-Rugs, who had been manufacturing ugg boots since 1978 and selling them online since 1996, appealed to Australian trademark regulators. The officer who heard the case stated that the \"evidence overwhelmingly supports the proposition that the terms (ugg, ugh and ug boots) are interchangeably used to describe a specific style of sheepskin boot and are the first and most natural way in which to describe these goods.\" In",
"-20.97457667173876"
],
[
"environments as the deep sea floor, and the surfaces of the Moon and Mars. Snowmobiles once used cleated tracks, but racing snowmobiles are banned from using cleated track for safety reasons and instead use rubber tracks.\nProtrusions molded into rubber tractor tire treads are known as lugs, as are cleats for round wheels, which perform a similar function. Unlike metal grousers, these rubber tire treads or crawler-track shoes/pads may be more suitable for driving on roads.",
"-20.964784949319437"
],
[
"standard are recorded on the boot as levels which help the user determine a good boot for their risk. For example the requirements of a trials bike rider are quite different from those of a courier - impact protection vs abrasion.\nIt is important to note that most of the motorcycle footwear on the market is non CE marked and will not meet these standards. This includes many products that look like they offer protection against impacts and abrasions for example, most of these are illegally making claims of safety. The standards are put in place for the buyer's safety and",
"-20.959506665898516"
],
[
"no longer uses Flywire but uses a thin layer of microfibre that has a suede finish, which is said to have been for control. Not only does the new Mercurials provide light weight and traction, now it also provides control.\nThese boots have also been released in the Miracle, Glide, and Victory versions, all version III (three). Although it appears that all three of the lower versions have at least a little bit of fiberglass on their sole plate, except for the Victory versions, it is actually just a sticker to improve marketing ability. The sticker on Miracle version has a",
"-20.95172346552863"
],
[
"being produced.\nOver time the name of these skis changed. Originally termed parabolic by their designer Jurij Franko, the term carver soon became common as these skis were being sold largely on their ability to allow even beginners to perform the efficient carved turn. This changed again to shaped ski by the early 2000s, as the design was applied to a wider variety of ski types and some level of parabolic shaping became universal from training skis to downhill racers. Variations Different types of skis have different sidecuts. Skis with drastic sidecuts tend to make quicker sharper turns and have",
"-20.889745487671462"
],
[
"realized in retrospect that \"It turns out that everything we thought we knew for forty years was wrong.\" Since then, \"shaped\" skis have dominated alpine ski design. Early ski designs Early modern skis, made in Telemark, Norway by Sondre Norheim, were handmade from a single piece of hardwood and featured a relatively modest sidecut of about 4 to 5 mm. After this, advances were made in materials and construction, but in terms of shape, skis of the 1970s were largely identical to those of the 1800s.\nIn 1939, Dick Durrance ordered a custom ski from Thor Groswold's factory in Denver with",
"-20.85207152852672"
],
[
"of downhill skiing. The design evolved from existing leather boot through several steps.\nIn 1956, the Swiss factory Henke introduced the buckle boot, using over-center levered latches patented by Hans Martin to replace laces. Laces spread the load across a number of eyelets in the leather, whereas the buckles concentrated the load at only a few points. To spread it back out again, the boots featured C-shaped flaps that stretched over the opening where the laces would be, to the side where the buckles were located. These had the added advantage of also helping block snow from entering the front of",
"-20.84750610797346"
],
[
"Nava System The Nava System was a ski binding and custom ski boot offered for sale in the 1980s. The system used a combination of flexible sole plate to keep the boot centered, and a spring-loaded plastic arm on the rear binding that was used to transmit sideways motions of the leg to the ski. This eliminated the need for a hard shell on the boot; the Nava boot was soft and resembled a knee-high winter boot. In spite of numerous endorsements by racing stars, the system never caught on and sales ended by the late 1980s. History The system",
"-20.804763236097642"
],
[
"is called skredstång in Swedish. Modern skis Around 1850, artisans in Telemark, Norway, invented the cambered ski. This ski arches up in the middle, under the binding, which distributes the skier's weight more evenly across the length of the ski. Earlier plank-style skis had to be thick enough not to bow downward and sink in the snow under the skier’s weight. This new design made it possible to build a thinner, lighter ski, that flexed more easily to absorb the shock of bumps, and that maneuvered and ran faster and more easily. The design also included a sidecut that narrowed",
"-20.802220862620743"
],
[
"reports from 2005-2006 due to their tussle with Deckers Outdoor Corporation and their registered trademarks. In early 2006 Uggs-N-Rugs was successful in having the Australian trademarks for ug, ugh and ugg removed from the register for non-use. IP Australia (the Australian trade marks office) declared that the words are interchangeable and used generically to describe sheepskin boots. As part of their action the McDougalls provided volumes of evidence showing the term (and its derivatives) being used in a generic sense. In addition, they showed that Deckers Outdoor Corporation failed to use their trademark properly and consistently. This battle was portrayed",
"-20.785580496725743"
],
[
"introduction of the so-called \"Moon Shoe\" in 1972, so named because the waffle tread was said to resemble the footprints left by astronauts on the moon. Further refinement resulted in the \"Waffle Trainer\" in 1974, which helped fuel the explosive growth of Blue Ribbon Sports/Nike. While Bowerman was experimenting with shoe design, he worked in a small, unventilated space, using glue and solvents with toxic components that caused him severe nerve damage. The nerve damage to his lower legs left him with significant mobility problems; as Kenny Moore notes in his book Bowerman and the Men of Oregon, Bowerman had",
"-20.775762784527615"
],
[
"skateboarding is and that's what Mark is.\nMuska has named a variety of influences in regard to his shoe design work, such as Louis Vuitton and the Nike \"Jordan\" range, further explaining that he has attempted to merge the aesthetics of the fashion and sneaker cultures. In an interview to promote the third Skytop model, Muska elaborated on his future direction:\n\nPersonally design-wise, I’m definitely all over the place and I’m thinking of so many new and exciting designs, but it’s hard for me to find places to sell a lot of the stuff, because it will be too crazy for what",
"-20.767551469056343"
],
[
"adversely affect aerodynamic properties. This is why sports cars typically have very low clearances, while off-road vehicles and SUVs have higher ones. Two well-known extremes of each are the Ferrari F40 and the Hummer.\nFor armored fighting vehicles (AFV), ground clearance presents an additional factor in a vehicle's overall performance: a lower ground clearance means that the vehicle minus the chassis is lower to the ground and thus harder to spot and harder to hit. The final design of any AFV reflects a compromise between being a smaller target on one hand, and having greater battlefield mobility on the other. Very",
"-20.76008575978358"
],
[
"in-flight de-icing. The rubber coverings are periodically inflated, causing ice to crack and flake off. Once the system is activated by the pilot, the inflation/deflation cycle is automatically controlled. In the past, it was thought such systems can be defeated if they are inflated prematurely; if the pilot did not allow a fairly thick layer of ice to form before inflating the boots, the boots would merely create a gap between the leading edge and the formed ice. Recent research shows “bridging” does not occur with modern boots. Electric systems Some aircraft may also use electrically heated resistive elements embedded",
"-20.753082838535192"
],
[
"the high demand during the Polish-Soviet war in 1920.\nMany Model Ts were converted into vehicles which could travel across heavy snows with kits on the rear wheels (sometimes with an extra pair of rear-mounted wheels and two sets of continuous track to mount on the now-tandemed rear wheels, essentially making it a half-track) and skis replacing the front wheels. They were popular for rural mail delivery for a time. The common name for these conversions of cars and small trucks was \"snowflyers\". These vehicles were extremely popular in the northern reaches of Canada, where factories were set up to",
"-20.73020028607425"
],
[
"test reports on skis. To avoid upsetting advertisers, none of the reports were negative. Due to the timing of new model releases, the skis being tested and the conditions under which they were being tested did not typically match the skis and conditions that the readers would be experiencing. Pfeiffer was followed as editor by John Jerome and then Al Greenberg.\nIn 1985, Ziff Davis sold Skiing and other magazines to the broadcaster CBS, and in 1987 CBS sold the magazines to Peter Diamandis. Later that year, Skiing magazine was bought for $25 million by the Times Mirror company, which also",
"-20.729371867186273"
],
[
"Force pilots during World War I.\nThe 1970s saw the emergence of advertising using the UGG and UGH terms both in trade names and as a generic term in Australia. The Macquarie Dictionary of the Australian language first included a definition for \"ugg boot\" as a generic term for sheepskin boots in its 1981 edition. (After Stedman complained to the editors of Macquarie, a trademark notation was added to subsequent editions indicating that \"UGH\" was a trade mark).\nIn the 1970s, ugg boots became popular among competitive surfers. After movie theatres in Sydney banned ugg boots and ripped jeans, the footwear became",
"-20.722884351722314"
],
[
"production method, producing the aluminum-based Volant Huckster. In 1998 he was testing the Huckster with his friend Scott Gaffney, who reported that his bent Chubbs skied better than the new design because the tips didn't sink in the snow. McConkey took the design and used it to produce the radical Volant Spatula in 2002, which featured not only a banana-like reverse-camber but also a negative sidecut radius. On firm snow the skis were difficult to turn at all, but in powder the tips and tails bent up to produce the curved shape that caused them to carve. McConkey moved to",
"-20.646068865018606"
],
[
"some paraplegic ski chairs.\nDeuce Snowboards introduced a modern version of the DES that has undergone extensive engineering design and testing. According to Deuce Snowboards, the DES is the next evolutionary step of the snowboard, but it appears that they are evolving the ski sport as well.\nThere are various other attempts, which typically, were only patented, and were likely not technically or production viable. For example, one was a more modern version like the Deuce Snowboard, it was fundamentally based on a gear mechanism, instead of a four-bar mechanism on which the Deuce DES, and possibly, the SwingBo are",
"-20.60169155948097"
],
[
"and Rossignol.\nIn the spring of 1993, a number of pre-production SCX skis were sent to instructors in the US for practical experimentation. They invariably reported dramatic results, with intermediate skiers able to produce carving turns easily, even in poor conditions that experts would normally find difficult. Realizing they had a winning design, the Elan team started designing a series aimed at the training market, including a 163 cm long design for the instructors, and a 143 cm long version for students and junior racers. This was much shorter than most skis of the era, further differentiating them from other skis on the",
"-20.55691839310748"
],
[
"a skateboard, allowing the skateboard to move through the snow. The \"Ski\" portion of the snow skate is made of a hard plastic with rubber straps that went over the skateboard wheels to hold them together. Other mentionable early snowskate brands were The \"Skeeter\" and the \"Snodad\". Designs of this early era ranged from two skiblades on the lower deck (Like the Skeeter) to four blades on the lower deck. Sometimes, the early snowskates used metal runners, similar to ice skate blades, enabling the snowskater to use the momentum to ride well.\nThe \"Snodad\" came about much later in time.",
"-20.536332188874894"
],
[
"advances in technology in the Nordic camp allowed for the development of special skis for skating and ski jumping. Asymmetrical skis This type of ski was used at least in northern Finland and Sweden until the 1930s. On one leg, the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. The bottom of the short ski was either plain or covered with animal skin to aid this use, while the long ski supporting the weight of the skier was treated with animal fat in similar manner to modern ski waxing. Early",
"-20.52031946751231"
],
[
"changes in competitive giant slalom, as the gates were moved further apart and resulted in much more turning. K2 responded with the GS Race with a 10 mm sidecut, and several similar designs followed. In spite of reports that these skis were easier to turn, they were considered specialty items and the designs offered only to the race and performance markets.\nOne particularly notable experiment was made at Olin during the early 1980s. In 1984, one of the Olin executives asked ski designer Frank Meatto if it were possible to make a beginner's ski that would make skiing easier to learn. Meatto",
"-20.465541591416695"
],
[
"Advantages From Deuce Snowboards and anecdotal accounts of the SwingBo, the DES is predominantly about offering the \"grip\" that the classic snowboard lacks. This is audibly known by skiers as the scraping noise that is associated with snowboarders. This improved grip is also described as better control, which improves carve technique (shredding) and reduces stopping distance. Deuce Snowboards claims that the better carve is not only due to the additional edge, but also to the fact that the mechanism attaches to the longitudinal center, thus fully and uniformly flexing the boards similar to the design intent of",
"-20.45927232574104"
],
[
"have a recess in the bottom of the sole for fitting the smaller cleats and therefore it does not protrude, while conventional clipless road pedals are designed for road cycling shoes which have smooth soles with large protruding cleats, which are awkward for walking. The SPD range, in addition to other off-road refinements, were designed to be used with treaded soles that more closely resemble rugged hiking boots. SPD pedals and shoes soon established themselves as the market standard in this sector, although many other manufacturers have developed alternatives which may be less prone to being clogged by mud or",
"-20.459067619391135"
],
[
"their ability to manufacture enough to meet demand. Entries from Nordica and the three-part designs from Raichle propelled the rear-entry design to the forefront, making up about 80% of the market in 1987. After Hanson After selling the company, the Hanson brothers continued to work with the Flo-fit material, founding the Flolite company and offering a number of products outside the ski industry. These included boot inserts, bike seats and wheel chair cushions, among others.\nDuring the 2000s, Denny re-entered the ski boot market with the Apex ski boot. The Apex consists of two entirely separate parts, a semi-stiff boot that",
"-20.453261806003866"
],
[
"but they’re also crazy comfortable\", while Connie Loizos of Tech Crunch compared the sneakers to Vans. Kavita Varma-White of Today described Rothy's as the \"perfect travel shoe\", writing that she was \"immediately impressed by the shoe's comfort and sturdiness\" and noting the \"flair for detail\" in the design of the navy and white sneakers she bought. Lauren Hubbard of Town & Country noted that like their grown-up counterparts, the children's shoes were \"machine washable (so your kids can be as tough on them as they want)\".\nMegan O'Neill of Parade noted a new trend among celebrities, in that many are now",
"-20.427233696434996"
],
[
"during his experience as an aircraft engineer. In a warehouse he rented from Albert Gunther Inc in an alley off of Biddle Street in downtown Baltimore, he used a technique known as metal sandwich construction. The first skis he made consisted of two light layers of aluminum bonded to sidewalls of thin plywood, with a center filling of honeycomb plastic. Although these skis were very light, they all broke quite quickly during trials. Head did not give up on his idea, and was encouraged by several professional skiers, including 1939 World Champion Emile Allais and ski instructors Clif",
"-20.423175252668443"
],
[
"the sidecut would normally add. Hiatt and Groswold's experiment required such a deep sidecut that the waist had little vertical stiffness, another problem for the design. Snowboards arrive A radical change in design did not occur until the mid-1970s introduction of the first modern snowboards. With no previous designs to set the mould, snowboard designers had to experiment to find the right layout. The 1975 Burton Backhill had a 17 millimetres (0.67 in) sidecut, giving the board a very short turning radius. The Backhill was extremely low-tech in comparison to contemporary ski designs, consisting largely of a sheet of plywood. A",
"-20.41039091613493"
],
[
"to the carp and therefore lack some attraction. Also, since in order to keep freezer baits fresh they need to be frozen soon after being rolled, not only will the ingredients used be of a much higher quality than in shelf lives but the ingredients used to make them will not lose much of their nutrients and attraction before being used in a fishing situation (much like frozen vegetables). Due to these facts freezer baits are often much more expensive than their shelf life counterparts.\nThe most commonly used set-up anglers use to present a boilie is a hair rig (the",
"-20.399344936922716"
],
[
"everything used by freeskiers is designed specifically for use in freeskiing rather than ordinary skiing. Types of skis There are three kinds of newschool skis: powder, all-mountain and park (twin tip). Powder Powder skis, also called big-mountain or backcountry skis, have a wide waist width, making them ideal for places with heavy powder. The extra surface area helps skiers to float above premium powder. However, they can be difficult to use on slopes with less snow or groomed trails, especially for beginning to moderate skiers. Experienced skiers sometimes buy powder skis as an alternate pair, to be used when conditions",
"-20.3951428579021"
],
[
"225 Ski-Doos; four years later, 8,210 were sold. Bombardier slowed down promotion of the Ski-Doo line to prevent it from dominating the other company products, while still dominating the snowmobile industry against competitors Polaris Industries and Arctic Cat.\nIn 1963, Roski was created in Roxton Falls, Quebec as a manufacturer of composite parts for the Ski-Doo. In the 1960s, V-8 engines were added.\nOn February 18, 1964, J. Armand Bombardier died of cancer at age 56. Until then, he oversaw all areas of operation and controlled the research department, making all the drawings himself. The younger generation took over, led by Armand's",
"-20.382672822808672"
],
[
"design improved on this design by allowing the skis to carve their edges into the snow as traditional snowplanes's rear skis will skid laterally during a turn. The major advancement of the Kristi tilt ski system apparently made no impact on the commercial or amateur snowplane industry as it did not appear to be used in practical application. Perhaps because of the mechanical complexity of the original design, no snowplanes are known to exist that employ the \"Christi Ski Action\" concept. Kristi's track driven vehicles Kristi was technically interesting, but the company failed to produce quantities of snowcats",
"-20.35220120724989"
],
[
"while still holding a good edge. This combination was so impressive that it became known as \"The Cheater\" for the way it allowed beginners to turn like pros. The Standard, and models that followed it, were so successful that half the downhill skis in the US in the 1960s were Heads. Early attempts A number of metal skis were introduced over the years, among them the 1942 All Magnesium, a post-war run of 1,000 Truflex aluminum skis (made of Metalite, a sandwich of aluminum and balsa wood) from Chance Vought, the stainless steel Chris Ski, the TEY Alu-60 (later known",
"-20.3264918247296"
],
[
"out quickly and could draw blood.\nIn 1968, Alden Hanson started negotiations with Bob Lange to add Flo-fit to Lange's boot designs. Lange proved interested, and hired Chris, an industrial designer, and his brother Denny (Alden Hanson Jr.), a salesman for Head Skis, to help design a system to incorporate the newly christened \"Lange-flo\" into their boot lineup. However, Chris proved more interested in developing a new boot design than working on Lange-flo, and Lange dismissed them both in 1969.\nHowever, the liners ended up failing when the Lange-flo interacted with the vinyl in cold weather. This allowed the Lange-flo to squeeze",
"-20.26920525742753"
],
[
"the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. The bottom of the short ski was either plain or covered with animal skin to aid this use, while the long ski supporting the weight of the skier was treated with animal fat in similar manner to modern ski waxing. Early record of this type of skis survives in works of Olaus Magnus. He associates them to Sami people and gives Sami names of savek and golos for the plain and skinned short ski. Finnish names for these are lyly and",
"-20.245663215813693"
]
] |
1hfuuc | why don't babies have wrinkly skin when they are born, considering they spend 9 months in fluids? | [
"\"Vernix caseosa, also known as vernix, is the waxy or cheese-like white substance found coating the skin of newborn human babies. Vernix starts developing on the baby in the womb around 18 weeks into pregnancy.\" - URL_0 or \"What's that cheesy stuff that's all over newborn babies?\"",
"Like doc_daneeka said, wrinkled skin is cause by a central nervous system response. It's been known for decades that people with nerve damage in the limbs don't get wrinkled skin from exposure to fluid. That being said, my best guess would be that infants have yet to develop that particular response to the external stimuli. Again, only speculation.",
"From what I recall/was told, babies have a special secretion on their skin while that protects the skin from becoming wrinkled or extra dry. According to my parents, I was born rather late (4ish weeks due to my first-time mom messing up the \"when was your last period\" question) and that coating of secretion had started to wear off. After I was born I had horribly dry skin, and developed cracks in my skin at wrists, ankles, and under my toes. At least, this is what some peds doc told my parents who then told me at some point......",
"Water (or other liquids) don't cause skin to wrinkle, in general. That's a reflex action limited to the palms of the hands, fingers, soles of the feet, and toes. It's quite possible that babies do come out wrinkled in those areas. I'm not sure, and google isn't helpful here.",
"Wrinkles aren't caused by fluid balance, osmosis, or any such thing. Wrinkles occur as a evolutionary trait that helped humans grip things better when in water - thus why our palms and bottom of our feet get wrinkly. Those parts get wrinkled to increase friction when in water. It's not about being in a fluid itself. The human body when in a womb knows it has no biological need at the time for increased grip.",
"While we're on the topic of child birth, how can a baby survive in the womb without oxygen? May seem like a dumb question but I don't get how a baby can survive in fluid for 9 months then in a second be surrounded by oxygen.",
"Our first kid came 12 days late and he was definitely wrinkled. Then over the next three weeks most of his body began flaking/peeling skin.... Yum."
] | [
[
"Epidermolytic hyperkeratosis Presentation Epidermolytic hyperkeratosis is a skin disorder that is present at birth. Affected babies may have very red skin (erythroderma) and severe blisters. Because newborns with this disorder are missing the protection provided by normal skin, they are at risk of becoming dehydrated and developing infections in the skin or throughout the body (sepsis).\nAs affected individuals get older, blistering is less frequent, erythroderma becomes less evident, and the skin becomes thick (hyperkeratotic), especially over joints, on areas of skin that come into contact with each other, or on the scalp or neck. This thickened skin is usually darker",
"-36.74951229512226"
],
[
"soon after birth; but newer reports confirm that washing skin surface after birth reduces evaporative water losses compared to surface of newborns in which vernix is left in situ. Vernix is hydrophobic. Vernix is believed to assist in the development of the human intestinal microbiota. Secretion The sebum in vernix is produced in utero by the sebaceous glands around the 20th week of gestation. Vernix appears primarily in full term infants, while premature and postmature births generally do not display any.\nPostdates desquamation (flakey skin in babies born >42 weeks) is thought to be due to loss of vernix. Functions",
"-36.31579272542149"
],
[
"colouring of amniotic fluid, which is caused by the buildup of bilirubin. Splenomegaly, cardiomegaly and hepatomegaly may occur in the baby. Excessive tissue fluid may accumulate in the stomach, lungs or scalp. These are typically signs of hydrops fetalis. \nAfter birth, the symptoms of the child are similar to that of incompatible blood transfusion in adults. The baby may have pale skin due to anaemia. The yellowing of the umbilical cord, skin and eyes, also known as jaundice, may arise within 24 to 36 hours of birth. Signs of hydrops fetalis such as the enlargement of spleen, heart and liver,",
"-35.12387457100158"
],
[
"is a temporary condition. Females (and even males) may actually discharge milk from their nipples (sometimes called witch's milk), or a bloody or milky-like substance from the vagina. In either case, this is considered normal and will disappear with time. Umbilical cord The umbilical cord of a newborn is bluish-white in color. After birth, the umbilical cord is normally cut, leaving a 1–2 inch stub. The umbilical stub will dry out, shrivel, darken, and spontaneously fall off within about 3 weeks. This will later become a belly-button after it heals. Occasionally, hospitals may apply triple dye to the umbilical stub to",
"-34.34962351387367"
],
[
"the infant's body to prevent the infant from having body odor when they reach adolescence. Squeezing the infant's nipples does this. This milk is present in newborns due to the high level of the mother's hormones from the womb and breastfeeding, causing them to lactate for a period of time. There are no visible negative side effects caused by the act of squeezing the nipples of the infant.",
"-33.590790752656176"
],
[
"substance covers the surface of the skin of the infant. This is characterized by aggregating membranes in the upper layer of skin on epidermal cells. Desquamating skin Red endemic skin as well as spongy and desquamating (peeling) skin are consistent with this syndrome. Respiratory problems After premature delivery, the baby often has neonatal asphyxia from breathing amnionic debris mainly composed of shedding skin cells. Neonatal refers to the very young infant and amniotic fluid refers to the liquid environment the baby is bathed in inside the uterus. Eosinophilia Eosinophils are a kind of a white blood cell which help protect",
"-33.49583669152344"
],
[
"milk from the mother, the pup is more likely to quadruple its initial weight before weaning. The mother seal also loses a tremendous amount of weight while nursing.",
"-33.36655125742254"
],
[
"off or \"shed\" 2 to 4 weeks after birth, revealing the underlying skin disorder.\nThe condition can resemble but is different from harlequin type ichthyosis. Long term course The appearance can be caused by several skin diseases, and it is most often not associated with other birth defects. In most cases, the baby develops an ichthyosis or ichthyosis-like condition or other rare skin disorder.\nMost cases (approximately 75%) of collodion baby will go on to develop a type of autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis (either lamellar ichthyosis or congenital ichthyosiform erythrodema).\nIn around 10% of cases the baby sheds this layer of skin and",
"-33.29895503586158"
],
[
"newborn's vulva may be swollen or enlarged as a result of having been exposed, via the placenta, to her mother's increased levels of hormones. The labia majora are closed. These changes disappear over the first few months. During childhood before puberty, the lack of estrogen can cause the labia to become sticky and to ultimately join firmly together. This condition is known as labial fusion and is rarely found after puberty when oestrogen production has increased. Puberty Puberty is the onset of the ability to reproduce, and takes place over two to three years, producing a number of changes. The",
"-33.24903130851453"
],
[
"Baby oil Baby oil is a skin-care product for infants.\nThe skin of an infant, especially a premature one, is sensitive, thin and fragile. Its neutral pH on the surface significantly reduces the protection against excessive bacterial growth. The epidermis and dermis are thinner than those of adults and the epidermal barrier is not yet fully developed. Consequences can for example be dry skin, infections, peeling, blister formation and poor thermoregulation. The application of different oils to the skin of the newborn is routinely practiced in many countries. In general, these oils are used for cleansing, to maintain the skin's moisture",
"-33.1577218020102"
],
[
"the child in the birth canal, which coves the skin, and enters the baby’s eyes, ears, nose, and mouth. These microbes often travel down into the gut after being swallowed. It is said that these microbes are important in the postnatal development of the immune system of the baby.\nIn the event that a C-section is done before labour starts or before a woman’s water breaks, the infant won't come into contact with maternal vaginal fluid or bacteria. Instead, they come in contact with skin microbes, a very different set of species. These differences, in turn, have been associated with increased",
"-33.12879528745543"
],
[
"made from a five month old fetus (the 'oldest' of the aborted fetuses thus far), seems to have a positive effect on Mrs. Li's libido, yet it also causes her skin to exhibit a fishy smell. Eventually, Mei has to move out when the authorities are about to capture her. Mrs. Li, now two months pregnant despite being declared infertile earlier, is still desperate for a rejuvenation and chooses to abort her own fetus, presumably to make it into dumplings. Cut A successful film director has to face a night of misery when a man who appeared in five of",
"-33.02192429761635"
],
[
"prior to birth. Infants born with Fraser syndrome often have eyes that are malformed and completely covered by skin. Also the child is born with fingers and toes that are fused together along with abnormalities within the urine tract. As this disorder relates to vaginal atresia, infants born with Fraser syndrome are also born with malformations in their genitals. McKusick-Kaufman syndrome A female with McKusick-Kaufman syndrome has vaginal atresia that is often present with imperforate anus, heart defects, hydrometrocolpos, and/or polydactyly, The female will still develop secondary sexual characteristics. Treatment There are several methods of treatment for individuals with",
"-33.004956062999554"
],
[
"a small chin, and, in some cases, an opening in the roof of the mouth called a cleft palate. The abdomen is enlarged, and excess fluid may build up in the body before birth (a condition called hydrops fetalis).\nAs a result of these serious health problems, infants are usually premature and stillborn or die shortly after birth from respiratory failure. Some infants have lived for a time, however, with intensive medical support. Babies who live past the newborn period are usually reclassified as having spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita, a related disorder on the spectrum of abnormal bone growth.",
"-32.7719610693166"
],
[
"sinovaginal bulbs (where Müllerian ducts meet the urogenital sinus), and normally becomes perforate before or shortly after birth.\nThe hymen has no nerve innervation. In newborn babies, still under the influence of the mother's hormones, the hymen is thick, pale pink, and redundant (folds in on itself and may protrude). For the first two to four years of life, the infant produces hormones that continue this effect. Their hymenal opening tends to be annular (circumferential).\n\nPast neonatal stage, the diameter of the hymenal opening (measured within the hymenal ring) widens by approximately 1 mm for each year of age. During puberty, estrogen causes",
"-32.73964013706427"
],
[
"on the ground. Infants are born with dark-brown hair. They consume their first solid food at five to six weeks old, and can forage independently from their mothers by seven weeks. A mother carries her infant on her belly for its first four weeks. After this time, the mother carries her infant on her back, as well. Infants continue to be carried past a year. A mother and her infant tend to avoid other troop members, and the mother may socialize again very slowly. However, alloparenting has been observed, usually by females which have not had infants of their own.",
"-32.682809405829175"
],
[
"woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely, late, or in the case of stillbirth, do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infant's immune system, and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of",
"-32.44338080345187"
],
[
"was true for humans. It is generally accepted that newborn babies are sterile at birth and very sensitive to bad bacteria before they establish a microbial flora of their own. This flora should preferably come from their mother. Ivan was quite sure about that Lactobacillus reuteri was one of these bacteria that the mother should transfer to her offspring, whether a chicken, a human baby or any other mammal.\nIvan analysed breast milk from many mothers in the USA where he lived and also from South American mothers in Lima, Peru, without finding any L. reuteri. However, he was still convinced",
"-32.43152551833191"
],
[
"the baby. A piece of cloth was tied around the newborn's waist for six week to protect the navel area which was thought to easily rupture due to its weakness. The newborn’s hair could not be cut during the first few weeks of life for fear of death before six months of age. If a child whose hair was cut too early did not die, it was feared that the child would become a thief later in life. If someone stepped over the child, this would stunt the newborn’s growth. The day of the week on which the child was",
"-32.391553048277274"
],
[
"feeding, when the baby has infrequent feeds or has problems suckling the milk out of the breast.\nThe presence of cracks or sores on the nipples increases the likelihood of infection. Tight clothing or ill-fitting bras may also cause problems as they compress the breasts. There is a possibility that infants carrying infectious pathogens in their noses can infect their mothers; the clinical significance of this finding is still unknown.\nMastitis, as well as breast abscess, can also be caused by direct trauma to the breast. Such injury can occur for example during sports activities or due to seat belt injury.\nMastitis",
"-32.37023919535568"
],
[
"infant is being born, the vagina undergoes significant changes. A gush of blood from the vagina may be seen right before the baby is born. Lacerations to the vagina that can occur during birth vary in depth, severity and the amount of adjacent tissue involvement. The laceration can be so extensive as to involve the rectum and anus. This event can be especially distressing to a new mother. When this occurs, fecal incontinence develops and stool can leave through the vagina. Close to 85% of spontaneous vaginal births develop some form of tearing. Out of these, 60–70% require suturing. Lacerations",
"-32.34036202693824"
],
[
"lingers for several months after birth, thus providing the newborn with a carbon copy of the mother's long-term humoral immunity to see the infant through the crucial first months of extrauterine life. IgM, however, cannot cross the placenta, which is why some infections acquired during pregnancy can be hazardous for the fetus.\nFurthermore, the placenta functions as a selective maternal-fetal barrier against transmission of microbes. However, insufficiency in this function may still cause mother-to-child transmission of infectious diseases. Other The placenta also provides a reservoir of blood for the fetus, delivering blood to it in case of hypotension and vice versa,",
"-32.333260809711646"
],
[
"Prelabor rupture of membranes Signs and symptoms Most women will experience a painless leakage of fluid out of the vagina. They may notice either a distinct \"gush\" or a steady flow of small amounts of watery fluid in the absence of steady uterine contractions. Loss of fluid may be associated with the baby becoming easier to feel through the belly (due to the loss of the surrounding fluid), decreased uterine size, or meconium (fetal stool) seen in the fluid. Infection Infection and inflammation likely explains why membranes break earlier than they are supposed to. In studies, bacteria have been found",
"-32.32169004547177"
],
[
"or fruity breath odor due to ketones, and seizures in advanced cases. Pregnancy toxemia appears to be most common in hot climates. Other serious complications during pregnancy can include a prolapsed uterus, hypocalcaemia, and mastitis.\nFemales that do not give birth may develop an irreversible fusing of the pubic symphysis, a joint in the pelvis, due to calcification which may occur between 6 and 10 months of age. If they become pregnant after this has happened, the birth canal will probably not widen sufficiently and this may lead to dystocia and death as they attempt to give birth. Calcification of the",
"-32.29777976567857"
],
[
"pass, and to transform the fat packed rigid skin at the opening to the birth canal into paper thin stretchy elastic skin, all without using the baby's head. \nIf the external skin (perineal skin) opening has been stretched before birth, to 10 cm, then there is no reason to perform an episiotomy to increase the diameter of the opening of the birth canal. Tearing is less likely as the external skin at the opening has been stretched already and is lax, whilst the underlying muscular pelvic floor has not been damaged. Episiotomy permanently damages the pelvic floor muscle, as the",
"-32.162434102152474"
],
[
"in the skin as a baby grows in the womb. Dermoid cysts are present at birth (congenital) and are common. It can be months or years before a dermoid cyst is noticed on a child because the cysts grow slowly.\nDermoid cyst symptoms are minor and the cysts are usually painless. They are not harmful to a child’s health. If they become infected, the infection must be treated and the cyst should be removed. It is easier to remove cysts and prevent scars if the cyst is removed before it gets infected. Differential diagnosis A small dermoid cyst on the ",
"-32.08650541183306"
],
[
"the size of the growth. Since Bhagat had no placenta, the growth had connected directly to his blood supply. In an extremely unusual case, a 2-year-old boy became pregnant with his parasitic twin inside his stomach feeding off him like a normal fetus would feed on its mother. The boy required a Caesarean section. It is virtually impossible that the fetus could survive this process due to being underdeveloped.",
"-31.971555803262163"
],
[
"not a reliable indicator that a female has been vaginally penetrated because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event. Furthermore, in rare cases, some girls are born without hymens.\nThe hymen is a ring of fleshy tissue that sits just inside the vaginal opening. Normal variations range from thin and stretchy to thick and somewhat rigid. The only variation that may require medical intervention is the imperforate hymen, which either completely prevents the passage of menstrual fluid or slows it significantly. In either case, surgical intervention may be needed to allow menstrual fluid to",
"-31.962791042635217"
],
[
"Although exposure to amniotic fluid is eliminated after birth, breast fed babies have continued contact with cues from the mother’s nipple and areola area. This causes breast odors to become more familiar and attractive, while amniotic fluid loses its positive value. Maternal breast odors are individually distinctive, and provide a basis for recognition of the mother by her offspring. Role of olfaction in maternal bonding and subsequent development As demonstrated by animals in the wild (the great apes, for example), the offspring is held by the mother immediately after birth without cleaning and is continually exposed to the familiar odor",
"-31.885660047410056"
],
[
"the buttocks in a breech birth) of the baby is pushed against the cervix, which gradually dilates until is fully dilated at 10 cm diameter. At some time, the amniotic sac bursts and the amniotic fluid escapes (also known as rupture of membranes or breaking the water). In stage two, starting when the cervix is fully dilated, strong contractions of the uterus and active pushing by the mother expels the baby out through the vagina, which during this stage of labour is called a birth canal as this passage contains a baby, and the baby is born with umbilical cord",
"-31.772410881720134"
],
[
"of their child, making suffocation more likely. When using a pouch sling, wearers should be sure to keep the baby's face elevated and clearly visible. Wraps Wraps (sometimes called \"wraparounds\" or \"wraparound slings\") are lengths of fabric (usually between 2 metres and 6 metres, or 2.5-7 yards long, and 15-30 inches wide), which are wrapped around both the baby and the wearer and then tied. There are different carrying positions possible with a wrap, depending on the length of the fabric. A baby or toddler can be carried on the wearer's front, back or hip. With shorter wraps it is",
"-31.68055369128706"
],
[
"postpartum chills, after the birth.\nMost authorities suggest the infant be placed in skin-to-skin contact with the mother for 1–2 hours immediately after birth, putting routine cares off until later.\nUntil recently babies born in hospitals were removed from their mothers shortly after birth and brought to the mother only at feeding times. Mothers were told that their newborn would be safer in the nursery and that the separation would offer the mother more time to rest. As attitudes began to change, some hospitals offered a \"rooming in\" option wherein after a period of routine hospital procedures and observation, the",
"-31.646510074089747"
],
[
"coating that keeps skin supple and moist. The sebum builds overly, between every 2–3 days for the average adult. Those with delicate skin such as children may experience a longer interval. Sebum also imparts a protective coating to hair strands. For babies, the sebaceous gland production is not at peak, thus daily washing is not typically needed. Common ingredients Most contain sodium trideceth sulfate, which is formulated to act as a low-irritation cleansing agent.\nAlternatively, baby shampoo may be formulated using other classes of surfactants, most notably non-ionics which are much milder than any charged anionics used.",
"-31.63075968764315"
],
[
"Perineal tear Cause In humans and some other primates, the head of the term fetus is so large in comparison to the size of the birth canal that delivery may result in some degree of trauma.\nAs the head passes through the pelvis, the soft tissues are stretched and compressed. The risk of severe tear is greatly increased if the fetal head is oriented occiput posterior (face forward), if the mother has not given birth before or if the fetus is large.\nA surgical incision on the perineum skin called an episiotomy was historically used routinely in order to reduce perineal",
"-31.621045638632495"
],
[
"females the uterus and upper vagina may be absent. Other abnormalities include anal atresia, absence of the rectum and sigmoid colon, esophageal and duodenal atresia, and a single umbilical artery. Presence of a diaphragmatic hernia is also common in these fetuses/infants. Additionally, the alveolar sacs of the lungs fail to properly develop as a result of the reduced volume of amniotic fluid. Labor is often induced between 22 and 36 weeks of gestation (however, some of these pregnancies may go to term) and unaborted infants typically survive for only a few minutes to a few hours. These infants will eventually",
"-31.59159554040525"
],
[
"to grow in the infant's intestines, which protects the mucosal barrier of the infant's stomach. This prevents harmful pathogens from harming the infant's intestinal lining. The infant's digestive mucosa is unable to produce antibodies until they are about four to six months old, which makes the infant susceptible to many infections. However, breast milk provides the antibodies needed for the infant to stay protected until they are able to produce their own antibodies. Breast milk also stimulates a microbiota, which results in the production of IgA. IgA is an immunoglobulin that is a first line of defense to protect the",
"-31.542019119719043"
],
[
"uterus to the vagina. The elasticity of the vagina allows it to stretch to many times its normal diameter in order to deliver the child.\nVaginal births are more common, but if there is a risk of complications a caesarean section (C-section) may be performed. The vaginal mucosa has an abnormal accumulation of fluid (edematous) and is thin, with few rugae, a little after birth. The mucosa thickens and rugae return in approximately three weeks once the ovaries regain usual function and estrogen flow is restored. The vaginal opening gapes and is relaxed, until it returns to its approximate pre-pregnant state",
"-31.51575658848742"
],
[
"of SIDS, occur less frequently for infants who are breastfed when compared to babies that are not breastfed, thus reducing the risk. Also, breast milk provides necessary nutrition for the infant's brain to develop. This allows the brain of the baby to mature quickly enough so that he or she will have the response to gasp for air when needed. Lastly, breastfed babies tend to sleep for shorter periods at a time and awaken more easily. Research has shown that babies who sleep shorter and awaken from their sleep easily tend to have a lower risk of SIDS. Conclusively, most",
"-31.465079668327235"
],
[
"on, children may develop symptoms related to problems with blood flow and an enlarged heart. They may experience dizziness or shortness of breath, fainting or near-fainting episodes, chest pain, abnormal tiredness or fatigue, headaches, or nosebleeds. They have cold legs and feet or have pain in their legs with exercise (intermittent claudication).\nIn cases of more severe coarctations, babies may develop serious problems soon after birth because not enough blood can get through the aorta to the rest of their body.\nArterial hypertension in the arms with low blood pressure in the lower extremities is classic. In the lower extremities, weak pulses",
"-31.314974990207702"
],
[
"risks of asthma, allergies, obesity, and immune deficiencies. Thus, these differences appear more often in infants after a caesarean delivery than after a vaginal delivery, according to certain epidemiological data.\nThe purpose behind the practice of vaginal seeding or micro birthing is that it allows an infant delivered via caesarean section to come in contact with microbes from the birth canal. The expectation is that this may boost their gut bacteria and lessen the danger of health issues normally associated with caesarian infants. It contributes to the seeding of the infant gut. Evidence It is unclear whether vaginal seeding has long",
"-31.274865352315828"
],
[
"the female's behavior transitions to support of her future offspring. Females hold the embryos in the womb without a placenta. Instead, the embryos absorb nutrients from a yolk sac, and after the sac is depleted, the mother provides uterine \"milk\".\nAfter birth, the offspring generally disassociate from the mother and swim away, having been born with the instinctual abilities to protect and feed themselves. In a very small number of species, like the freshwater whipray (Himantura chaophraya), the mother \"cares\" for her young by having them swim with her until they are one-third of her size.\nAt the Sea Life London Aquarium,",
"-31.26935449964367"
],
[
"unheard of. When they are born, the puppies only weigh a few ounces (about 100 grams) and are small enough to fit in the palm of an adult's hand. They can get leg and heart problems from an early age. Cleft palate One issue that is typically fatal for the puppies is having a cleft palate. It results in the puppy not receiving nourishment from the mother and eventually starvation. It is uncommon but, depending on the size of the cleft, it is possible for the puppy to survive whereas it becomes older surgery can be done",
"-31.265269795898348"
],
[
"Pyloric stenosis Signs and symptoms Babies with this condition usually present any time in the first weeks to months of life with progressively worsening vomiting. The vomiting is often described as non-bile stained (\"non bilious\") and \"projectile vomiting\", because it is more forceful than the usual spitting up (gastroesophageal reflux) seen at this age. Some infants present with poor feeding and weight loss but others demonstrate normal weight gain. Dehydration may occur which causes a baby to cry without having tears and to produce less wet or dirty diapers due to not urinating for hours or for a",
"-31.236448118113913"
],
[
"growth of harmful bacteria. Without protein, the baby cannot produce the immunity that its body desperately needs, resulting in a higher risk of disease and malnutrition. Breast milk provides the best source of protein for an infant.\nAnother immunoglobulin breast milk provides to the infant is known as IgG. IgG provides passive immunity from the mother to the infant. This means that antibodies for common childhood diseases like diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis, and rubella are passed onto the infant naturally, if the mother was vaccinated for this in her lifetime. The infant is then protected for about 3 months, just enough time",
"-31.169497061287984"
],
[
"others, particularly caucasian infants, may have very fine hair or may even be bald. Amongst fair-skinned parents, this fine hair may be blonde, even if the parents are not. Infants hair color and texture change. Red can give way to blond. Curly can go straight and baby's thick, dark hair could make its reappearance a lot sparser and lighter. The scalp may also be temporarily bruised or swollen, especially in hairless newborns, and the area around the eyes may be puffy. Skin Immediately after birth, a newborn's skin is often grayish to dusky blue in color. As soon as the",
"-31.16703238734044"
],
[
"infants caused by the rupture of fragile blood vessels within the germinal matrix of premature babies. The germinal matrix is a highly vascularized area within an unborn infant's brain from which brain cells, including neurons and glial cells, originate. Infants are at most risk to germinal matrix hemorrhages when they are born prematurely, before 32 weeks. The stresses exposed after birth, along with the fragile blood vessels, increase risk of hemorrhage. Signs and symptoms include flaccid weakness, seizures, abnormal posturing, or irregular respiration.\nCADASIL is an inherited disorder caused by mutations in the Notch 3 gene located on chromosome 19. The",
"-31.13449693887378"
],
[
"group. Gestation is usually 3.5–4 months but can be as long as 7 months when there's delayed embryonic development. The female gives birth while perching and the newborn emerges unaided, head first. The mothers will eat the placenta. Mothers carry their pups when they are one day old but later leave them in the roosting area for the day. The female’s nipples become enlarged during lactation. Young are weaned by 15 days. Young gain a full, permanent set of teeth at 40 days and can fly by 50 days when their forearms are fully developed. Females are sexually",
"-31.096447340445593"
],
[
"sphincter are not well understood, however there is evidence that the foetus does defecate routinely into the amniotic cavity even in the absence of distress. The presence of fetal intestinal enzymes have been found in the amniotic fluid of women who are as early as 14–22 weeks pregnant. Thus, suggesting there is free passage of the intestinal contents into the amniotic fluid. \nMotilin is found in higher concentrations in post-term than pre-term foetal gastrointestinal tracts. Similarly, intestinal parasympathetic innervation and myelination also increases in later gestations. Therefore, the increased incidence of MAS in post-term pregnancies may reflect the maturation",
"-31.095282755122753"
],
[
"in the vagina during pregnancy. The juvenile remains in the nest for some time. Both parents care for the young, masticating food and bringing it to their offspring in their mouths, their cheeks swelling to the size of tangerines.",
"-31.056897923583165"
],
[
"most dangerous of the three because it can be basically anything small enough to be inhaled. This may also be due to the fact that brain growth begins within the first month of conception. Low-birth weight (LBW), and preterm delivery A previous study conducted in the Los Angeles Basin of Southern California reported a consistent association between levels of CO and particulate matter during the first trimester and the last six weeks prior to birth and risk of preterm birth. Prematurity in babies is accompanied by an array of health complications. Children born prematurely are at highest risk for developing",
"-31.049002403509803"
],
[
"Baby shampoo Baby shampoo /ˈbā-bē/ /ʃæmˈpuː/ is a hair care product that is used for the removal of oils, dirt, skin particles, dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that gradually build up in hair; specially formulated for use on infants and young children by means of substituting chemicals which are purportedly less irritating to the eyes than those commonly found in regular shampoo. Purpose Scalp skin of babies is characterized by subdued sebaceous gland production, due to hormonal levels. The sebaceous gland secretes sebum, a waxy ester, which maintains the acid mantle of the scalp and provides a",
"-31.02486780358595"
],
[
"midline to form the hard palate. This condition manifests as a cleft palate. Later in gestation (at around 12 to 14 weeks), extension of the neck of the fetus releases the pressure on the mandible, allowing it to grow normally from this point forward. At birth however, the mandible is still much smaller (hypoplastic) than it would have been with normal development. After the child is born, the mandible continues to grow until the child reaches maturity. Genetic basis Alternatively, PRS may also be caused by a genetic disorder. In the case of PRS which is due to a genetic",
"-30.972300021909177"
],
[
"delicatessen meats, and cheese.\nNeonatal infection can also occur in term and post-term infants. Infections that develop one month after the birth of the infant are more likely due to Gram-positive bacteria and coagulase positive staphylococci.\nAcquired maternal infection and subsequent inflammation from Ureaplasma urealyticum is accompanied by a strong immune response and is correlated with the need for prolonged mechanical ventilation.\nClostridium tetani can cause a generalised form of tetanus in the neonate. This usually occurs when the mother has not been vaccinated against tetanus and the baby has not acquired passive immunity. The umbilical cord region is the most susceptible.\nOther bacterial",
"-30.946350852493197"
],
[
"Menkes disease Signs and symptoms Affected infants may be born prematurely. Signs and symptoms appear during infancy, typically after a two- to three-month period of normal or slightly slowed development that is followed by a loss of early developmental skills and subsequent developmental delay. Patients exhibit hypotonia (weak muscle tone), failure to thrive, hypothermia (subnormal body temperature), sagging facial features, seizures, and metaphyseal widening. Hair appears strikingly peculiar: kinky, colorless or silvery, and brittle. There can be extensive neurodegeneration in the gray matter of the brain. Arteries in the brain can also be twisted with frayed and split inner walls.",
"-30.926910258363932"
],
[
"and usually four or five young are born per litter. From time to time, it is possible for the female to give birth to up to seven young at one time. When the young are born, they weigh about 2 grams. The young dormice open their eyes at two weeks, and start eating solid food a week later. During the dependency period, the mother provides food, milk, grooming, and protection to the young. They leave the nest after about another three weeks and become sexually mature in the following year.\nThere has not been much evidence for paternal care. However, it",
"-30.925679238513112"
],
[
"vagina at birth. The most prevalent pathogen causing CAP in newborns is Streptococcus agalactiae, also known as group-B streptococcus (GBS). GBS causes more than half of CAP in the first week after birth. Other bacterial causes of neonatal CAP include Listeria monocytogenes and a variety of mycobacteria. CAP-causing viruses may also be transferred from mother to child; herpes simplex virus (the most common) is life-threatening, and adenoviridae, mumps and enterovirus can also cause pneumonia. Another cause of CAP in this group is Chlamydia trachomatis, acquired at birth but not causing pneumonia until two to four weeks later; it usually presents",
"-30.913063331274316"
],
[
"is poor.\nDuring pregnancy, pressure from the fetus on the abdomen and hormonal changes cause the hemorrhoidal vessels to enlarge. The birth of the baby also leads to increased intra-abdominal pressures. Pregnant women rarely need surgical treatment, as symptoms usually resolve after delivery. Pathophysiology Hemorrhoid cushions are a part of normal human anatomy and become a pathological disease only when they experience abnormal changes. There are three main cushions present in the normal anal canal. These are located classically at left lateral, right anterior, and right posterior positions. They are composed of neither arteries nor veins, but blood vessels called sinusoids,",
"-30.904422060004435"
],
[
"continue delivery, but this is often difficult to do. Nuchal cord After the baby crowns, the umbilical cord may be found to be wrapped around the neck or body of the baby, which is known as nuchal cord. This is common, occurring in up to 37% of term pregnancies, and most do not cause any long-term problems. This wrapped cord should be slipped over the head so it is not pulled during delivery. If the wrap is not removed, it can choke the baby or can cause the placenta to detach suddenly which can cause severe maternal bleeding and loss",
"-30.866370174335316"
],
[
"can also cause vaginal rugae to disappear. The absence of vaginal rugae may also be an indicator of pelvic organ prolapse. Vaginal rugae disappear in those with an estrogen deficiency. Childbirth Vaginal rugae can disappear during the second stage of labor. After a vaginal birth the rugae are not visible and the walls of the vagina are smooth. By the third week postpartum the vagina has become much smaller and the rugae begin to reform on the vaginal walls. Six weeks after birth, the rugae have returned to approximately the same size as they were before the birth. The number",
"-30.8575637221511"
],
[
"mother. They also cannot regulate their body temperature for the first three weeks, so kittens born in temperatures less than 27 °C (81 °F) can die from hypothermia if their mother does not keep them warm. The mother's milk is very important for the kittens' nutrition and proper growth. This milk transfers antibodies to the kittens, which helps protect them against infectious disease. Newborn kittens are unable to produce concentrated urine, and so have a very high requirement for fluids. Kittens open their eyes about seven to ten days after birth. At first, the retina is poorly developed and vision is poor.",
"-30.827236641314812"
],
[
"the head and face, from pressure against the mother’s pelvis or pressure caused by forceps or a vacuum device (see ventouse) used in delivery. Bone fractures Bone fractures can occur during a difficult delivery. Fracture of the clavicle is the most common birth injury. Meconium aspiration syndrome Meconium is a sticky substance that usually makes up the child’s first bowel movement. If the fetus is stressed before or during delivery, the meconium may be released and may mix with the amniotic fluid. If it gets into the child's airways or lungs, it can cause meconium aspiration syndrome. Serious cases may",
"-30.82224765654246"
],
[
"its own shortly after birth. Not long after, the placenta eventually falls off on its own. The person assisting the birth may also sever the umbilical cord. Parental care A human baby is nearly helpless and the growing child requires high levels of parental care for many years. One important type of early parental care is lactation, feeding the baby milk from the mother's mammary glands in her breasts.",
"-30.780972414417192"
],
[
"which continues for around nine months as the foetus develops. When the foetus has developed to a certain point, pregnancy is concluded with childbirth, involving labor. During labor, the muscles of the uterus contract and the cervix dilates over the course of hours, and the baby passes out of the vagina. Human infants are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care. Infants rely on their caregivers for comfort, cleanliness, and food. Food may be provided by breastfeeding or formula feeding.\nThe female reproductive system has two functions: to produce egg cells, and to protect and nourish the fetus until",
"-30.7807563279639"
],
[
"children up until about the age of four. These may have been due to increased risk from disease once the protective antibodies in a mother's milk ended after weening. There was also greater exposure to hard and soft tissue trauma, and subsequent infection, as children became more mobile by crawling and toddling. Iron deficiency anaemia was common among children, probably caused by long-term breastfeeding by mothers that were themselves deficient in minerals. Common childhood diseases included measles, diphtheria and whooping-cough, while parasites were also common. The most badly affected individuals rarely made it beyond the age of 25, thus many",
"-30.778694412554614"
],
[
"days; births can occur at any time of year. The infant's fur is silver at birth, but turns pale or gold after a few days. After that, the fur starts to darken, and the infant takes on the adult coloration at about 3 months old.\nThe infant is carried under its mother, clinging to its mother's chest, for the first 2 or 3 weeks of its life. After that, it is carried on its mother's back. At about 3 months the mother will usually start to push the infant off, but will still carry the infant some of the time until",
"-30.774348781131266"
],
[
"are probably the most common complaint after the birth. They are generally reported by the second day after delivery but improve within 5 days. Pain beyond the first week, severe pain, cracking, fissures or localized swelling is not normal. The mother should see a doctor for further evaluation. Sore nipples, a common cause of pain, often come from the baby not latching on properly. Factors include too much pressure on the nipple when not enough of the areola is latched onto and an improper release of suction at the end of the feeding. Improper use of breast pumps or topical",
"-30.76316625711297"
],
[
"beneficial for both the mother and baby. A review done by the World Health Organization found that skin-to-skin contact between mothers and babies after birth reduces crying, improves mother–infant interaction, and helps mothers to breastfeed successfully. They recommend that neonates be allowed to bond with the mother during their first two hours after birth, the period that they tend to be more alert than in the following hours of early life. Postnatal period The postnatal period, also referred to as the puerperium, begins immediately after delivery and extends for about six weeks. During this period, the mother's body",
"-30.725657338101882"
],
[
"around. Nevertheless, infanticide does occur in these groups, and is suggested that such practices serve to return a female to estrous and gain the opportunity to mate.\nFemales usually give birth to a single infant, although twins do occur. Most births occur during the night. Infants are born with thin, dark brown or black hair and pale skin. Infants spend their first week attach themselves to their mothers' chests and mostly just suckle or sleep. They do not move much in terms of locomotion for the first two weeks of their life. As they approach their sixth week of life, infants",
"-30.710020364029333"
],
[
"underwear, or bath towels, and from non-sexual touching during routine care such as diapering. Genital warts in children are less likely to be caused by HPV subtypes 6 and 11 than adults, and more likely to be caused by HPV types that cause warts elsewhere on the body (\"cutaneous types\"). Surveys of pediatricians who are child abuse specialists suggest that in children younger than 4 years old, there is no consensus on whether the appearance of new anal or genital warts, by itself, can be considered an indicator of sexual abuse. Diagnosis The diagnosis of genital warts is most often",
"-30.70337792596547"
],
[
"mother, Barbary macaques from all age and sex groups participate in alloparental care of infants. Male care of infants has been of particular interest to research because high levels of care from males is uncommon in groups where paternity is highly uncertain. Males even act as true alloparents of infant macaques by carrying them and caring for them for hours at a time as opposed to just demonstrating more casual interactions with the infants. Female social status plays a role in female alloparental interactions with infants. Higher ranking females have more interactions whereas younger, lower ranking females have less access",
"-30.69258652359713"
],
[
"pulselessness 6% of the time, and breech presentation 3% of the time Breech presentation Normally, the head is the first part of the body to present out of the birth canal. However, other parts such as the buttocks or feet can present first, which is referred to as breech presentation. Risk for breech presentation may increase with multiple pregnancies (more than one baby), when there is too little or too much fluid in the uterus, or if the uterus is abnormally shaped. Babies in breech presentation can be delivered vaginally depending on the experience of the provider and if the",
"-30.67204277359997"
],
[
"until the female raises her tail and calls out prior to copulation.\nGestation lasts for about two months, and results in the birth of a litter of up to six young, with three being typical. The young are initially blind and weigh 27 to 52 grams (0.95 to 1.83 oz). They open their eyes at seven days, begin to take solid food at twelve days, and are fully weaned by the end of their first month. Litter mates frequently spar with one another, and disperse to establish their own burrow systems after around two months, by which time they have already reached",
"-30.670445310883224"
],
[
"and cortisol—are also involved, but their roles are not yet well understood. Although biochemical markers indicate that Secretory Activation begins about 30–40 hours after birth, mothers do not typically begin feeling increased breast fullness (the sensation of milk \"coming in the breast\") until 50–73 hours (2–3 days) after birth.\nColostrum is the first milk a breastfed baby receives. It contains higher amounts of white blood cells and antibodies than mature milk, and is especially high in immunoglobulin A (IgA), which coats the lining of the baby's immature intestines, and helps to prevent pathogens from invading the baby's system. Secretory IgA also",
"-30.620200608100276"
],
[
"done to determine whether the individual has this syndrome and reduces the chances of misdiagnoses with other cutaneous diseases. Treatment The infant is intubated post delivery to stabilize the respiratory problems experienced. Often the skin condition becomes less severe resolving itself to flaky dry skin as the individual grows. No intervention is usually required and the condition becomes less severe as the patient grows. The dry skin symptoms can be managed with topical ointments or creams and the individual remains otherwise healthy. Prognosis There are no life-threatening complications after the perinatal period (around the time of birth) and the skin",
"-30.591009604220744"
],
[
"too close to the tip of the nipple. This poor attachment can cause sore and cracked nipples and a reluctance of the mother to continue to breastfeed. After the birth of the infant, the milk supply increases based upon the continuous and increasing stimulation of the nipple by the infant. If the baby increases nursing time at the nipple, the mammary glands respond to this stimulation by increasing milk production. Pain Nipple pain can be a disincentive for breastfeeding. Sore nipples that progress to cracked nipples is of concern since many woman cease breastfeeding due to the pain. In some",
"-30.58448542001861"
],
[
"almost at birth due to his connection with/being a Divine Power. They also state that for members \"the skull enlarges and expands into a fine rounded shape\" due to their faith, making them more intelligent. They state their women suffer from no morning sickness when pregnant and that their childbirth is naturally without pain.",
"-30.56691601726925"
],
[
"during the first two months of an infant's life, breast-fed infants with a higher chance. Male and female infants are affected equally. Treatment Hospitalization for the diseased person is suggested because of the controlled environment because it may prevent nutritional deficiencies and skin infections. A decrease in severity of symptoms usually happens after a few weeks when treated redness and scaliness usually do not recur. In 10 percent of cases, the result of uncontrolled infections or severe electrolyte loss may be fatal. Epidemiology The cause of this disease is unknown; some infants may have a severe case, others",
"-30.541634524590336"
],
[
"gives birth around one month later. After birth the newborn young climbs unaided by its mother from the birth canal to the pouch.\nWhen it reaches the pouch, the underdeveloped joey suckles the teat of one of the four mammary glands while the others recede. The joey remains attached to the teat for 100–125 days, after which it ceases its attachment but remains in the pouch and continues to suckle, but more intermittently. The joey begins to leave the pouch and eat grass at around 200 days when it is more developed. It still suckles, more forcefully but less regularly. By",
"-30.48668043743237"
],
[
"keratinization of skin is complete. Then the relationship between fluid and fetal growth stops. It reaches a plateau of 800ml by the 28-week gestational age. The amount of fluid declines to roughly 400 ml at 42 weeks. There is about 500 cc to1L of amniotic fluid at birth. Rupture of membranes The forewaters are released when the amnion ruptures. This is commonly known as the time when a woman's \"water breaks\". When this occurs during labour at term, it is known as \"spontaneous rupture of membranes\". If the rupture precedes labour at term, however, it is referred to as",
"-30.47420810465701"
],
[
"do not make it to reproductive age, so cannot be a parent. Carriers (N/J) do not display symptoms and have normal skin.\nMutations in the genes LAMB3, LAMC2, and COL17A1, are the cause of JEB. These genes are associated with the protein responsible for skin attachment to the underlying layers, laminin 332. When the genes undergo mutations, the protein is altered, making it dysfunctional. As a result, the skin is very fragile and may be damaged by even minor trauma.\nAnother protein, called type XVII collagen, is affected by a mutation in COL17A1. Due to this mutation, the defective protein is not",
"-30.467819959216285"
],
[
"the fetus to settle or \"drop\" into the pelvis. As the fetus settles into the pelvis, pain from the sciatic nerves, increased vaginal discharge, and increased urinary frequency can occur. While these symptoms are likelier to happen after labor has begun for women who have given birth before, they may happen ten to fourteen days before labor in women experiencing labor for the first time.\nThe fetus begins to lose the support of the cervix when contractions begin. With cervical dilation reaching a diameter of more than 10 cm (4 in) to accommodate the head of the fetus, the head moves from the",
"-30.461002064912464"
],
[
"since she does not store fat. The father has no part in helping raise the cub.\nWhen the cub is first born, it is pink, blind, and toothless, weighing only 90 to 130 grams (3.2 to 4.6 ounces), or about th of the mother's weight, proportionally the smallest baby of any placental mammal. It nurses from its mother's breast six to 14 times a day for up to 30 minutes at a time. For three to four hours, the mother may leave the den to feed, which leaves the cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns grey where",
"-30.4152663180721"
],
[
"to have very low birth weight is controversial, and a decision concerning the route and time of delivery probably needs to be made on a case by case basis. Neonatal care After delivery, plastic wraps or warm mattresses are useful to keep the infant warm on their way to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). In developed countries premature infants are usually cared for in an NICU. The physicians who specialize in the care of very sick or premature babies are known as neonatologists. In the NICU, premature babies are kept under radiant warmers or in incubators (also called isolettes),",
"-30.406219852273352"
],
[
"process of\nchildbirth is not finished until the baby has safely transferred from placental to mammary nutrition.\" They advise that the newborn be placed skin-to-skin with the mother, postponing any routine procedures for at least one to two hours. The WHO suggests that any initial observations of the infant can be done while the infant remains close to the mother, saying that even a brief separation before the baby has had its first feed can disturb the bonding process. They further advise frequent skin-to-skin contact as much as\npossible during the first days after delivery, especially if it was interrupted",
"-30.36186863866169"
],
[
"cause (perinatal) infection. Often, microorganisms that produce minor illness in the mother are very dangerous for the developing embryo or fetus. This can result in spontaneous abortion or major developmental disorders. For many infections, the baby is more at risk at particular stages of pregnancy. Problems related to perinatal infection are not always directly noticeable. During childbirth Babies can also become infected by their mothers during birth. Some infectious agents may be transmitted to the embryo or fetus in the uterus, while passing through the birth canal, or even shortly after birth. The distinction is important because when transmission is",
"-30.330111530071008"
],
[
"no reproductive purpose, such as playful and same-sex mounting, and females will attempt to initiate copulation even after they have conceived. Gestation usually last 166–200 days or slightly more. Females tend to give birth at night or in the early morning. The mothers then eat the placenta and lick their infants clean. The young begin to eat solid foods at six weeks and are weaned at seven months old. The nose of a young male grows slowly until reaching adulthood. The mother will allow other members of her group to hold her infant. When a resident male in a one-male",
"-30.319645373616368"
],
[
"an infant was born, the umbilical cord was cut and tied, and then the baby was washed, rubbed with salt and oil, and wrapped with strips of cloth. These strips kept the newborn child warm and also ensured that the child's limbs would grow straight. Ezekiel 16:4 describes Israel as unswaddled, a metaphor for abandonment.\nDuring Tudor times, swaddling involved wrapping the new baby in linen bands from head to foot to ensure the baby would grow up without physical deformity. A stay band would be attached to the forehead and the shoulders to secure the head. Babies would be swaddled",
"-30.309448616142618"
],
[
"with a distended abdomen, had a small hernia. He was dehydrated and like many babies in that region, underfed, for mothers are often unable to obtain the adequate protein diet so necessary for a good flow of breast milk. Besides, she was still suckling another child of about two-and-a-half years.\n\"I reduced the size of the hernia, but it was obvious that if it was not operated on it would recur and eventually strangulate. In that case, unless the mother was able to walk the 10 miles or so to the river and then bring the baby by canoe to the",
"-30.30799585999921"
],
[
"the body and also with age. Body contouring is the removal of this excess skin and fat from numerous areas of the body, restoring the appearance of skin elasticity of the remaining skin, enhancing the contouring an tone of the body. Abdominoplasty Also known as a tummy tuck, this form of surgery removes the excess skin and fat from the abdominal area. Commonly the surgery will also restore the muscles which have been weakened and/or separated by carrying excess weight for long periods of time. Sclerotherapy Common in women due to the hairless trend within society, numerous women seek medical",
"-30.30664113431476"
],
[
"in sebum production, because the skin notices the scalp skin is lacking sufficient moisture. In cases of scalp disorders, however, this may not be the case. For babies and elderly, the sebaceous gland production is not at peak, thus daily washing is not typically needed. Split ends Split ends, known formally as trichoptilosis, happen when the protective cuticle has been stripped away from the ends of hair fibers.\nThis condition involves a longitudinal splitting of the hair fiber. Any chemical or physical trauma, such as heat, that weathers the hair may eventually lead to split ends. Typically, the damaged hair fiber",
"-30.298111996729858"
],
[
"just after they had given birth, demonstrated that low maternal age, high body mass index, weight gain over 15 kg (33 pounds) and higher neonatal birth weight were independently correlated with the occurrence of striae. Teenagers were found to be at the highest risk of developing severe striae.\nThese off-color blemishes are symptoms of pregnancy caused by the tearing of the dermis, resulting in atrophy and loss of rete ridges. These scars often appear as reddish or bluish streaks on the abdomen, and can also appear on the breasts and thighs. Some of these striae disappear with time, while others remain as",
"-30.297980895382352"
],
[
"of rugae after childbirth decreases. In women who have not given birth, the rugae are more prominent than in those who have given birth multiple times.",
"-30.24951800145209"
],
[
"feed. Almost immediately, the mother's sexual cycle starts again. Another egg descends into the uterus and she becomes sexually receptive. Then, if she mates and a second egg is fertilised, its development is temporarily halted. Meanwhile, the neonate in the pouch grows rapidly. After approximately 190 days, the baby (called a joey) is sufficiently large and developed to make its full emergence out of the pouch, after sticking its head out for a few weeks until it eventually feels safe enough to fully emerge. From then on, it spends increasing time in the outside world and eventually, after around 235 days, it",
"-30.236075836626696"
],
[
"be damaged, so if she has children, they could be infertile due to the exposure in their mother's womb.",
"-30.234193462412804"
],
[
"effective for maintaining favorable moisture levels in baby skin (in comparison to not using baby lotion).\nIn February 2013 Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing published a research by academics at The University of Manchester that showed that washing newborn babies with Johnson’s Baby Top-to-Toe wash is just as safe as using water alone. Research has been sponsored by Johnson & Johnson \"but carried out under strict, independent scientific protocols, including blind testing and peer review\".",
"-30.218418510747142"
],
[
"primarily during or after birth, medical intervention can help prevent infections in the infant.\nDuring birth, babies are exposed to maternal blood, body fluids, and to the maternal genital tract without the placental barrier intervening. Because of this, blood-borne microorganisms (hepatitis B, HIV), organisms associated with sexually transmitted disease (e.g., Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis), and normal fauna of the genitourinary tract (e.g., Candida albicans) are among those commonly seen in infection of newborns. Virulence versus symbiosis In the spectrum of optimal virulence, vertical transmission tends to evolve benign symbiosis. It is, therefore, a critical concept for evolutionary medicine. Because a",
"-30.200517359015066"
],
[
"the vaginal wall and near the pudendal nerve. Because the pudendal nerve carries motor and sensory fibers that innervate the pelvic muscles, a pudendal nerve block relieves birth pain. The medicine does not harm the child, and is without significant complications. Infections, diseases, and safe sex Vaginal infections or diseases include yeast infection, vaginitis, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and cancer. Lactobacillus gasseri and other Lactobacillus species in the vaginal flora provide some protection from infections by their secretion of bacteriocins and hydrogen peroxide. The healthy vagina of a woman of child-bearing age is acidic, with a pH normally ranging between",
"-30.198242764919996"
],
[
"Ichthyosis prematurity syndrome Signs and symptoms The symptoms associated with the disorder are often confused for other dermatological disorders. The symptoms below are ones specifically associated with IPS. Premature birth Pregnancies that have a foetus affected with this syndrome are complicated because of polyhydramnion. Complications arise because of opaque amnionic fluid resulting from the shedding of skin. As a result, ultrasounds are difficult to conduct. Triggered by the harsh environment in the uterus, delivery results around 30– 34 weeks of gestation (pregnancy) and the baby is born in prematurely. Thick caseous layer of skin A white layer of thick scaly",
"-30.187653180677444"
],
[
"Gastroschisis Signs and symptoms There are no signs during pregnancy. About sixty percent of infants with gastroschisis are born prematurely. At birth, the baby will have a relatively small (<4 cm) hole in the abdominal wall, usually just to the right of the belly button. Some of the intestines are usually outside the body, passing through this opening. In rare circumstances, the liver and stomach may also come through the abdominal wall. After birth these organs are directly exposed to air. Causes The cause of gastroschisis is not known. There may be genetic causes in some cases, and",
"-30.172259408747777"
],
[
"as an individual goes through the various stages of sexual and reproductive development. Neonatal In neonates, vaginal discharge sometimes occurs in the first few days after birth. This is due to exposure to estrogen while in utero. Neonatal vaginal discharge may be white or clear with a mucous texture, or it may be bloody from normal transient shedding of the endometrium. Pediatric The vagina of girls before puberty is thinner and has a different bacterial flora. Vaginal discharge in pre-pubertal girls is minimal with a neutral to alkaline pH ranging from 6 to 8. The composition of the bacterial population",
"-30.163654839037918"
]
] |
8l98i8 | If corporations are legal "persons", why are they taxed at a special corporate tax rate, instead of the (usually) higher income tax rate? | [
"You are I are plumbers. We each bill 300K worth of plumbing work each year. We each spend 50K on materials each year. We each have 100K of business expenses each year. You are incorporated, I am not. How much tax should each of us pay? The same. Since I am not incorporated I take the 150K I made in profit and pay tax on it like income at my personal rate. Lets say I end up paying 50K in tax. Since you are incorporated you pay corporate tax on the 150K, and then distribute the remainder to yourself as a shareholder. That's dividend income and as a person you are going to pay tax on it. The government plays with the personal dividend rate, and the corporate tax rate with the (rough) idea that it should add up to the same as the personal tax rate for regular income. That's why, primarily, corporate tax rates are different from personal tax rates - the government knows the money is going to be taxed again when passed on to shareholders.",
"Because law differentiates between natural persons and persons-as-legal-entities. Corporate \"personhood\" is important in some ways...like if I need to sue a business, the fact that it's a person just means it's an entity I can sue as a whole. The biggest problems people have with it surround the fact that a corporate person has better abilities to do some things than natural persons, like immortality. A business can be passed from one generation to the next. Corporate tax benefits are intended to help boost an economy, but the extent to which they are successful is hard to measure.",
"I'm surprised so many people took this as \"what is the legal explanation behind corporate personhood\" instead of your actual question. The answer is that this income is double taxed \\- it's taxed to the corporation at a lower rate, and then is ALSO taxed to the individual when the corporate income eventually reaches them in the form of dividends \\(remember that corporations are owned by individuals \\- shareholders\\). Here's an explanation: [ URL_1 ]( URL_0 )",
"Personhood doesn't mean that a corporation has exactly the same legal rights as a person...you can't marry a corporation or elect one to office, for example. It is just a convenient fiction we use to allow corporations to do some person-like things, like own assets or legal responsibilities. In most, if not all cases, different rules apply to corporate personhood than to natural persons.",
"Because ultimately, the money will be taxed AGAIN when it eventually exits the company - to people. And if it doesn't exit the company - then it will be used to produce more goods which shouldn't be taxed as income anyway.",
"Generally speaking, a lower corporate tax rate makes foreign direct investment more attractive. For example, the irish corporate tax rate is relatively low compared to the rest of the world, so Apple decides to declare its income there, and Ireland enjoys the revenue generated by that tax. If ireland had a higher income tax rate, then companies would 'shop' for lower taxes elsewhere, and the point of raising the tax rate (to increase tax revenue) would have been lost. Compare this to regular people, sure they can go emigrate due to high taxes (for example, French Actor Gerard Depardieu did this when France raised its income tax a while ago), but its harder for a person to do so, and most people just won't.",
"Policy reason: double taxation. A corporation's income ends up going somewhere (be it dividends, income for workers, etc.), which is all subject to taxation as well (capital gains, income tax, etc.). Unless it's reinvested. And reinvestment is arguably something you want to incentivize because it's the basis of growth. Also incentivize foreign investors (you'd rather do business in a region with lower corporate tax rates, all else equal).",
"A better question is, why can't I dissolve my personhood and start fresh as a new person?",
"Corporations are not legal persons, that is a complete and total misunderstanding of the law that was pushed by activists about a decade ago. *Corporate personhood* is a legal doctrine that allows certain legal entities to have some of the rights and obligations enjoyed by natural humans. Corporate personhood permits a company to be a party to a contract on its own, to engage in legal proceedings (sue, be sued), to be subject to regulatory oversight and criminal law, etc... Corporate personhood greatly simplifies our legal system, nothing more.",
"Just FYI, corporations don't inherently *have to* pay the \"special\" rate, they can be organized as so-called \"pass-through\" companies, in which the taxes are paid by the individuals who own the company at the \"normal\" rate. Obviously, people pick whatever model means they pay less in taxes, so you'll find people complaining that this is *also* a way in which corporations avoid paying.",
"Taxes are a weird sort of tool. Lets say you are the Mayor of city 'X'. You have a job problem, people that live in the city aint got one. Tax revenue is utter shit because unemployed people don't really pay taxes. Company 'Evil Empire' swings by and they say, 'We want to build a factory and employee 10,000 people. But let it be known, there is nothing special about city 'X', Cities 'Y' and 'Z' have the exact same problem as you - we are only going to build one factory. So you say, 'Okie Dokie. If you build we will let you run your factory tax free for 10 years'. The neat thing is that those 10,000 people - at least those within city limits - are now employed and as such are paying more in taxes then what they did before. So for the next 10 years tax revenue goes up, but year 11 it really goes up cause the agreement has aged out! Taxes are a tool. I think by seperating types of taxes it allows people to do things like this. -------------- Having said all those words, I am a supporter or destroying our current tax structure and redoing it from the ground up. I am simply describing how things work, not necessarily endorsing it.",
"The point of it is to help businesses grow, since businesses have a lot of expenditures that normal people don’t have to worry about (rent for the business, R & D, wages, etc.). In Canada, even though corporate tax is lower than the personal tax amount, people who own the corporation aren’t (supposed to be) able to spend it on personal things. So the corporation has to “pay” its owners, which is subject to regular tax rate. The weird gray area that happens is what constitutes as a “corporate expenditure”.",
"Part of why I think lower corporate rates are justifiable is because corporations are already under a double taxation regime. They’re taxed once when they make a profit, and then when profits are distributed to the beneficial shareholders (who are all the corporation is composed of), the shareholders are taxed again. This is at least how a C-Corp roughly works in the US, but it seems like you may be from elsewhere so I’m not sure.",
"One of the drawbacks of a corporation is double taxation. First he corporation is taxed, and then all the shareholders are also taxed, so the same income is taxed twice.",
"The ELI5 is that they get special tax treatment because the government thinks they'll make better use of their profit than you will with yours. Why does the government think that? Likely due to scientific studies, gut feel, and lots and lots of lobbying. Now, you touched on an important point, that there's no constitutional *mandate* that corporations get a better tax rate than natural persons. This is important because it leads to a solution to campaign finance reform. The government has long-standing and constitutionally-vetted laws where certain types of legal entities (charities and other non-profit organizations) are given favorable tax status in exchange for *not making political speech* along with other distinctions. That doesn't restrict their rights; they are welcome to make political speech, but then the government will treat them like everyone else and tax them. That could just as easily be applied to corporations and other trade groups. Tell companies that they can have a special reduced tax rate and trade speech (advertisements, research papers, data sheets) *or* the regular tax rate and full speech, and most every legal entity will choose the reduced tax rate as that aligns with their fiduciary duty to their shareholders.",
" > but I suppose my question is now what policy reasons justify taxing corporations 20% of 100k instead of 50% of a human's 100k. A common argument for corporations being taxed at a lower rate is that you are still double taxing: the company for earning the money, and then at either the investor level, when money is distributed to them, or at the employee level, on their income taxes. (side note: there are incorporation methods that don't tax investors that are steadily becoming more popular). Another argument is that money that's going to the government could instead be used to do things like invest in operations or hire new employees, which has a better effect on the economy. This is _sometimes_ true, for companies that still have room to grow.",
"The owners of the corporation get the money that passes through the corporation and then they are taxed on it as personal income. If you own a corporation your money is being taxed twice: once at the corporate level and then once again at the personal level. So if you have a corporate that makes $10,000,000, you would get taxed 21% of income at the corporate level, and then once again on the personal level at 35% or whatever that tax bracket is.",
"In my opinion a corporation is not a person - and shouldn’t be taxed. Individual people making money out of the corporation, employees, board members, investors, should be taxed based on the income they receive. Other than that, I agree with the fictionhood aspect of corporations, such as being able to sue them or charge them for violating law, but you can’t exactly throw a corporation in jail, so I don’t think we should call them people, but legal entities.",
"In order to create a succesful corporation you need to have earned money. That money was taxed. Ypu could have just spent the money, but ypu decided to create a company, which is risky, and only if that ends up being successful (aka creating value) is there profit to tax. Taximg that at the same rate would discourage further investment. That being said, corporate tax should be lower than it is...",
"People who invest in corporations are taxed twice. Corporate profits are taxed first at the company level, a rate of 21%, then when an investor wants to take funds out, in the form of dividends or capital gains, a second tax is levied at either 0, 15%, or 20% depending on your income level. So, for high income earners, the total tax on corporate profits is 41%.",
"Because you really really cannot tax a corporation. A corporate tax is a tax on people, period. The corporate taxes are carried by a) consumers in the form of higher prices b) employees in the form of lower salaries and/or c) owners in the form of lower dividends. Corporate tax is an easier sell politically than higher taxes for people.",
"Because the corporation is just a middle man. The tax will be passed on to consumers, workers, and *maybe* shareholders."
] | [
[
"imposed in the U.S. at the federal, most state, and some local levels on the income of entities treated for tax purposes as corporations. Shareholders of a corporation wholly owned by U.S. citizens and resident individuals may elect for the corporation to be taxed similarly to partnerships, as an S Corporation. Corporate income tax is based on taxable income, which is defined similarly to individual taxable income.\nShareholders (including other corporations) of corporations (other than S Corporations) are taxed on dividend distributions from the corporation. They are also subject to tax on capital gains upon sale or exchange of their shares",
"-31.768102069821907"
],
[
"rate, but provide different rates of tax depending on income levels or size of the company.\nThe United States taxes corporations under the same framework of tax law as individuals, with differences related to the inherent natures of corporations and individuals or unincorporated entities. Individuals are not formed, amalgamated, or acquired; and corporations do not incur medical expenses except by way of compensating individuals.\nMost systems tax both domestic and foreign corporations. Often, domestic corporations are taxed on worldwide income while foreign corporations are taxed only on income from sources within the jurisdiction. Taxable income The United States defines taxable",
"-31.19392833695747"
],
[
"federal law principles in their tax laws to some extent. Federal taxable income equals gross income (gross receipts and other income less cost of goods sold) less tax deductions. Gross income of a corporation and business deductions are determined in much the same manner as for individuals. All income of a corporation is subject to the same federal tax rate. However, corporations may reduce other federal taxable income by a net capital loss and certain deductions are more limited. Certain deductions are available only to corporations. These include deductions for dividends received and amortization of organization expenses. Some states",
"-31.189764277194627"
],
[
"a corporate income tax of 20% over profits from companies (called First Category Tax), the system is ultimately designed to tax individuals. Therefore, corporate income taxes paid constitute a credit towards two personal income taxes: the Global Complementary Tax (in the case of residents) or the Additional Tax (in the case of non-residents). The Global Complementary Tax is payable by those that have different sources of income, while those receiving income solely from dependent work are subject to the Second Category Tax. Both taxes are equally progressive in statutory terms, with a top marginal rate of 40%. Income arising from",
"-31.018285656697117"
],
[
"value added tax is levied on sales of goods and services (including imports) at a rate of 19%, with a few exemptions. The income tax revenue comprises different taxes. While there is a corporate income tax of 20% over profits from companies (called First Category Tax), the system is ultimately designed to tax individuals. Therefore, corporate income taxes paid constitute a credit towards two personal income taxes: the Global Complementary Tax (in the case of residents) or the Additional Tax (in the case of non-residents). The Global Complementary Tax is payable by those that have different sources of income, while",
"-30.167056660051458"
],
[
"profit income and on capital. These make up a relatively small portion of total tax revenue. Tax is paid on corporate income at the corporate level before it is distributed to individual shareholders as dividends. A tax credit is provided to individuals who receive dividend to reflect the tax paid at the corporate level. This credit does not eliminate double taxation of this income completely, however, resulting in a higher level of tax on dividend income than other types of income. (Where income is earned in the form of a capital gain, only half of the gain is",
"-29.961544300982496"
],
[
"their investment earnings. Corporate taxes A company tax is paid by companies and corporations on their profits. Unlike personal income taxes which use a progressive scale, company tax is calculated at a flat rate of 30% (25% for small businesses, which are defined as companies with revenue of less than $2 million per year). Tax is paid on corporate income at the corporate level before it is distributed to shareholders as dividends.\nA tax credit (called a franking credit) is available to resident shareholders who receive the dividends to reflect the tax already paid at the corporate level (a process known",
"-29.836257161572576"
],
[
"in a unified manner on all types of income while individuals are taxed in differing manners depending on the nature or source of the income. Many jurisdictions impose tax at both an entity level and at the owner level on one or more types of enterprises. These jurisdictions often rely on the company law of that jurisdiction or other jurisdictions in determining whether an entity's owners are to be taxed directly on the entity income. However, there are notable exceptions, including U.S. rules characterizing entities independently of legal form.\nIn order to simplify administration or for other agendas, some governments have",
"-29.82598553877324"
],
[
"a one percent tax on the net income of all corporations, superseding a previous federal tax that had only applied to corporate net incomes above $5,000. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the income tax in the cases of Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co. and Stanton v. Baltic Mining Co. Impact and aftermath Working with progressive Republicans, Congressional Democrats won passage of the Revenue Act of 1916, which reinstated the federal estate tax, established a tax on the production of munitions, raised the top income tax rate to fifteen percent, and raised the corporate income tax from one",
"-29.784135573310778"
],
[
"such by default), paid a low rate tax in the foreign country, then repatriated its income to the US by paying qualified dividends to its owner, the total proportion of tax paid on income might actually be less, as qualified dividends are only taxed at 15%. However, this treatment is only available for dividends from corporations in certain countries, and is set to sunset in 2010 under the Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act of 2005.\nForeign owners of US corporations also benefit from the ability to have entities normally treated as flow-through instead be taxed as corporations by the IRS.",
"-29.560564514249563"
],
[
"because any profits distributed to shareholders will eventually be taxed twice. One solution, followed by as in the case of the Australian and UK tax systems, is for the recipient of the dividend to be entitled to a tax credit to address the fact that the profits represented by the dividend have already been taxed. The company profit being passed on is thus effectively taxed only at the rate of tax paid by the eventual recipient of the dividend.\nIn other systems, dividends are taxed at a lower rate than other income (for example, in the US), or shareholders are taxed",
"-29.549784094211645"
],
[
"the most advantages. Tax advantages The amount of tax a corporation pays is based on the amount of profits so they could merge with a corporation making a loss in order to reduce their tax burden. However this has been discouraged. Increase in size Corporate synergies due to mergers result in larger firm size which is perceived as more attractive to some investors as well as a larger firm gives competitive advantage in an industry as higher market share allows firms to be more dominant and able control the market more. Disadvantages with Corporate Synergy Managerial biases conflicts with the",
"-29.452858125087005"
],
[
"Corporate tax in the United States State and local income taxes Nearly all of the states and some localities impose a tax on corporation income. The rules for determining this tax vary widely from state to state. Many of the states compute taxable income with reference to federal taxable income, with specific modifications. The states do not allow a tax deduction for income taxes, whether federal or state. Further, most states deny tax exemption for interest income that is tax exempt at the federal level.\nMost states tax domestic and foreign corporations on taxable income derived from business activities apportioned to",
"-29.449140323209576"
],
[
"that only \"corporate profits\" could be taxable — are citing a case where the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the income of a non-corporate taxpayer is taxable. Neither the United States Supreme Court nor any other federal court has ever ruled that under the Internal Revenue Code the term \"income\" means only the income of a corporation for federal income tax purposes.\nSome tax protesters have cited the Supreme Court case of Flint v. Stone Tracy Co. for the argument that only corporate profits or income can be taxed, using the following quotation:\nExcises are taxes laid upon the manufacture, sale or",
"-29.353754633455537"
],
[
"on foreign income of resident corporations until it is remitted to the country. Individuals versus enterprises Many tax systems tax individuals in one manner and entities that are not considered fiscally transparent in another. The differences may be as simple as differences in tax rates, and are often motivated by concerns unique to either individuals or corporations. For example, many systems allow taxable income of an individual to be reduced by a fixed amount allowance for other persons supported by the individual (dependents). Such a concept is not relevant for enterprises.\nMany systems allow for fiscal transparency of certain forms of",
"-29.35354279988678"
],
[
"any taxpayer, including individuals and corporations, as well as entities that themselves do not pay tax, such as partnerships, in which case it may be called “net profit”.\nMost systems require that all income realized (or derived) be included in taxable income. Some systems provide tax exemption for some types of income. Many systems impose tax at different rates for differing types (e.g., capital gains or salaries) or levels of income (e.g., graduated rates). In the United States, gross income includes all income realized from whatever source, but excludes particular tax exempt items, such as municipal bond interest.",
"-29.294898961292347"
],
[
"of this distinction, capital is taxed much more lightly than labor.\nUnder the U.S. system, individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts are subject to income tax. Partnerships are not taxed; rather, their partners are subject to income tax on their shares of income and deductions, and take their shares of credits. Some types of business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships.\nTaxpayers are required to file tax returns and self assess tax. Tax may be withheld from payments of income (e.g., withholding of tax from wages). To the extent taxes are not covered by withholdings, taxpayers must make",
"-29.274351210464374"
],
[
" This results in a dual level of tax. Most systems require that income tax be withheld on distribution of dividends to foreign shareholders, and some also require withholding of tax on distributions to domestic shareholders. The rate of such withholding tax may be reduced for a shareholder under a tax treaty.\nSome systems tax some or all dividend income at lower rates than other income. The United States has historically provided a dividends received deduction to corporations with respect to dividends from other corporations in which the recipient owns more than 10% of the shares. For",
"-29.23111544526182"
],
[
"income for a corporation as all gross income, i.e. sales plus other income minus cost of goods sold and tax exempt income less allowable tax deductions, without the allowance of the standard deduction applicable to individuals.\nThe United States' system requires that differences in principles for recognizing income and deductions differing from financial accounting principles like the timing of income or deduction, tax exemption for certain income, and disallowance or limitation of certain tax deductions be disclosed in considerable detail for non-small corporations on Schedule M-3 to Form 1120.\nThe United States taxes resident corporations, i.e. those organized within the country,",
"-29.131170197739266"
],
[
"will be taxed instead as earned income. If an individual gets more than 150,000 € in dividends from non-listed limited companies, the tax-exempt percentage will only be 15% for the amount that exceeds 150,000 €. The effective tax rate for a dividend that does not exceed 8% of the value of a stock will be 7.5% - 8.5%. Due to the effect of net assets, dividends of debted private companies will usually have their dividends taxed as earned income. Corporate taxes The corporate income tax rate is 20.0%. The corporate tax was fully paid as dividend tax before 2004, but",
"-28.99327234031807"
],
[
"tax business income of a corporation differently than nonbusiness income.\nPrinciples for recognizing income and deductions may differ from financial accounting principles. Key areas of difference include differences in the timing of income or deduction, tax exemption for certain income, and disallowance or limitation of certain tax deductions. IRS rules require that these differences be disclosed in considerable detail for non-small corporations on Schedule M-3 to Form 1120. Tax credits Corporations, like other businesses, may be eligible for various tax credits which reduce federal, state or local income tax. The largest of these by dollar volume is the federal",
"-28.96684445772553"
],
[
"enterprise. For example, most countries tax partners of a partnership, rather than the partnership itself, on income of the partnership. A common feature of income taxation is imposition of a levy on certain enterprises in certain forms followed by an additional levy on owners of the enterprise upon distribution of such income. For example, the U.S. imposes two levels of tax on foreign individuals or foreign corporations who own a U.S. corporation. First, the U.S. corporation is subject to the regular income tax on its profits, then subject to an additional 30% tax on the dividends paid to foreign",
"-28.927736154641025"
],
[
"January 1, 2014. Under current law, a corporation that meets certain requirements may elect to be taxed as an S corporation, which generally pays no corporate-level tax, unlike a C corporation. For corporations that convert from C corporations to S corporations, or S corporations that receive assets under certain conditions from C corporations, there is a corporate-level tax on certain built-in gains of certain assets, with a 10-year recognition period under current law. This legislation makes permanent the five-year recognition period for S corporation built-in gains that was generally in effect for taxable years from 2011 through 2013. The legislation",
"-28.907086777035147"
],
[
"is the amount they pay in taxes. That tax is eventually spent back on the people. Such corporations \nhave the capacity to grow at a very fast rate and this eventually leads them to employing more people(lowering the employment burden on the government). Their profit maximisation motive also means that they will work on their productivity and will contribute to the GDP of any country they are living in. A higher GDP often leads to a higher living standard. To the business As the corporation only works for its own interest it gets the opportunity to isolate itself from all",
"-28.877096159019857"
],
[
"1969 Act prepared by Congress's Staff of the Joint Committee on Internal Revenue Taxation described the reason for the AMT as follows:\nThe prior treatment imposed no limit on the amount of income which an individual or corporation could exclude from tax as the result of various tax preferences. As a result, there were large variations in the tax burdens placed on individuals or corporations with similar economic incomes, depending upon the size of their preference income. In general, those individual or corporate taxpayers who received the bulk of their income from personal services or manufacturing were taxed at relatively higher",
"-28.809866549563594"
],
[
"incomes, depending upon the size of their preference income. In general, those individual or corporate taxpayers who received the bulk of their income from personal services or manufacturing were taxed at relatively higher tax rates than others. On the other hand, individuals or corporations which received the bulk of their income from such sources as capital gains or were in a position to benefit from net lease arrangements, from accelerated depreciation on real estate, from percentage depletion, or from other tax-preferred activities tended to pay relatively low rates of tax. In fact, many individuals with high incomes who could benefit",
"-28.80173132616619"
],
[
"tax rates than others. On the other hand, individuals or corporations which received the bulk of their income from such sources as capital gains or were in a position to benefit from net lease arrangements, from accelerated depreciation on real estate, from percentage depletion, or from other tax-preferred activities tended to pay relatively low rates of tax. In fact, many individuals with high incomes who could benefit from these provisions paid lower effective rates of tax than many individuals with modest incomes. In extreme cases, individuals enjoyed large economic incomes without paying any tax at all. This was true for",
"-28.78706533811055"
],
[
"U.S. has a true \"income tax,\" which is a direct tax on [.] the income of a corporation... but not on the total income. [T]he corporation is permitted to deduct both the cost of any goods sold -- whether produced or purchased for resale -- and general and administrative expenses like wages, advertising, interest expense, depreciation, etc... Once you've settled onto that net income number, a 35% income tax is assessed.\n— Nitti January 26, 2017. Forbes\nTo encourage companies to export, the border adjustment tax system would \"adjust\" the company's tax to account for the exported sales by removing the amount of",
"-28.728844862489495"
],
[
"they are individual income tax and corporate income tax. Many rules and provisions are the same for individual income tax and corporations, especially in terms of income elements and the determination of net income. However individual income tax and corporate income tax are regulated by different laws. Banking and Insurance Transaction Tax The transactions and services performed by banks and insurance companies are subject to the tax. Taxpayers consist of banks, bankers and insurance companies. Regardless of the nature of the transaction, they are all subject to BITT. Taxes will be levied on the money they collect as interest, commission",
"-28.627409899054328"
],
[
"may reduce or eliminate this tax. This tax applies to a \"dividend equivalent amount,\" which is the corporation's effectively connected earnings and profits for the year, less investments the corporation makes in its U.S. assets (money and adjusted bases of property connected with the conduct of a U.S. trade or business). The tax is imposed even if there is no distribution. Consolidated returns Corporations 80% or more owned by a common parent corporation may file a consolidated return for federal and some state income taxes. These returns include all income, deductions, and credits of all members of the controlled",
"-28.594929437735118"
],
[
"dividends paid to shareholders. For example, the overall U.S. tax on corporate profits of 35% is less than or similar to that of European countries such as Germany, Ireland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, which have lower corporate tax rates but higher taxes on dividends paid to shareholders.\nMany large multinational companies retain untaxed profits in tax haven jurisdictions which offer no or very low corporate taxes, as well as other tax benefits.",
"-28.540053202596027"
],
[
"be based on assets, capital, wages, or some alternative measure of taxable income. Often the alternative tax functions as a minimum tax.\nUnited States federal income tax incorporates an alternative minimum tax. This tax is computed at a lower tax rate (20% for corporations), and imposed based on a modified version of taxable income. Modifications include longer depreciation lives assets under MACRS, adjustments related to costs of developing natural resources, and an addback of certain tax exempt interest. The U. S. state of Michigan previously taxed businesses on an alternative base that did not allow compensation of",
"-28.468516332563013"
],
[
"of personal income tax, the marginal tax rate to which the return on unincorporated capital is subject. There is no integration of the corporate and personal income taxes so any dividends are taxed twice.\nHarberger's conclusion, seen as surprising at the time, is that the corporate income tax lowers the after-tax marginal product of all owners of capital equally. Since labor and new capital were free change sectors without cost, each factor got paid exactly its \"value of marginal product\" and because constant returns to scale are assumed, the total payment to each factor exactly equals the total value the factor",
"-28.447856685299485"
],
[
"covered the tax due from the individual on the dividend paid. If, however, the individual was subject to tax at a higher rate (known as \"surtax\"), he (not the company) would be liable to pay the additional tax.\nIn addition to income tax, companies were also subject to a profits tax, which was deducted from company profits when determining the income tax liability. It was a differential tax, with a higher tax rate on dividends (profits distributed to shareholders) than on profits retained within the company. By penalising the distribution of profits, it was hoped companies would retain profits for investment,",
"-28.443246120703407"
],
[
"Indeed, the tax in this case was imposed retroactively; the statute was enacted in August 1909 but was made effective retroactively to January 1, 1909. Corporate profits One argument repeatedly made by tax protesters is that the income of individuals is not taxable because income should mean only \"corporate profits\" or \"corporate gain\". This is the Merchants' Loan argument, named after the case of Merchants' Loan & Trust Company, as Trustee of the Estate of Arthur Ryerson, Deceased, Plaintiff in Error v. Julius F. Smietanka, formerly United States Collector of Internal Revenue for the First District of the State of",
"-28.384901718585752"
],
[
"for money or property. However, certain exchanges, such as in reorganizations, are not taxable.\nMultiple corporations may file a consolidated return at the federal and some state levels with their common parent. Corporate tax rates Federal corporate income tax is imposed at 21% from 2018. Dividend exclusions and certain corporation-only deductions may significantly lower the effective rate. Deductions for corporations Most expenses of corporations are deductible, subject to limitations also applicable to other taxpayers. See relevant deductions for details. In addition, regular U.S. corporations are allowed a deduction of 100% of dividends received from 10% or more foreign subsidiaries,",
"-28.366828732985596"
],
[
"Instead of a corporation paying the U.S. tax rate (35%) for income earned in any country (less a credit for taxes paid to that country), each subsidiary pays the tax rate of the country in which it is legally established. In other words, under a territorial tax system, the corporation saves the difference between the generally higher U.S. tax rate and the lower rate of the country in which the subsidiary is legally established. Bloomberg journalist Matt Levine explained the concept, \"If we're incorporated in the U.S. [under the old global tax regime], we'll pay 35 percent taxes on our",
"-28.327984142815694"
],
[
"be classified for U.S. tax purposes as a corporation or a flow-through entity somewhat independently of its classification for foreign purposes. Under these \"check-the-box\" rules, shareholders may be able to elect to treat their shares income, deductions, and taxes of a foreign corporation as earned and paid by themselves. This permits U.S. individuals to obtain credits for foreign taxes paid by entities they own, which credits might otherwise not be available.\nArtificial arrangements to avoid CFC status may be ignored in some jurisdictions under legislative provisions or court-developed law, such as substance over form doctrines.\nEuropean civil law may provide opportunities for",
"-28.325977155356668"
],
[
"many localities impose a tax on the income of corporations. Tax rates vary by state and locality, and may be fixed or graduated. Most rates are the same for all types of income. State and local income taxes are imposed in addition to federal income tax. State income tax is allowed as a deduction in computing federal income, but is capped at $10,000 per household since the passage of the 2017 tax law. Prior to the change, the average deduction exceeded $10,000 in most of the Midwest, most of the Northeast, as well as California and Oregon.\nState and local taxable",
"-28.316158201836515"
],
[
"asset or capital measures. In addition, some states impose a tax on capital of corporations or on shares issued and outstanding. The U. S. state of Michigan previously taxed businesses on an alternative base that did not allow compensation of employees as a tax deduction and allowed full deduction of the cost of production assets upon acquisition. Tax returns Corporations subject to U.S. tax must file federal and state income tax returns. Different tax returns are required at the federal and some state levels for different types of corporations or corporations engaged in specialized businesses. The United",
"-28.30359801251325"
],
[
"to employees (such as company cars) and on tax liabilities met on behalf of employees via a \"PAYE Settlement Agreement\".\nThere are separate arrangements for self-employed persons, who are normally liable to Class 2 flat rate NIC and Class 4 earnings-related NIC, and for some voluntary sector workers. Capital gains tax Capital gains are subject to tax at 18 or 28 percent (for individuals) or at the applicable marginal rate of corporation tax (for companies).\nThe basic principle is the same for individuals and companies - the tax applies only on the disposal of a capital asset, and the amount of the",
"-28.30149922380224"
],
[
"burden of employees is represented by the personal income tax rate. It increases labor cost for corporations. The lower the income tax rate the more attractive the country thus is for a corporation. R&D incentives R&D investments represent a large expenditure and affect the future product offering. Thus, R&D incentives are crucial for many enterprises. Some countries offer tax incentives, for resident companies conducting R&D, which supports companies to reduce their after tax R&D cost. Taxation of capital gains A double taxation is caused by the taxation of capital gains, as capital gains contain past company profits and expected future",
"-28.23493986792164"
],
[
"also subject to tax on dividends received from corporations. By contrast, partnerships are not subject to income tax, but their partners calculate their taxes by including their shares of partnership items. Corporations owned entirely by U.S. citizens or residents (S corporations) may elect to be treated similarly to partnerships. A limited liability company and certain other business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships. States generally follow such characterization. Many states also allow corporations to elect S corporation status. Charitable organizations are subject to tax on business income.\nCertain transactions of business entities are not subject to",
"-28.171403091284446"
],
[
"tax Many jurisdictions tax the income of individuals and business entities, including corporations. Generally, the authorities impose tax on net profits from a business, on net gains, and on other income. Computation of income subject to tax may be determined under accounting principles used in the jurisdiction, which may be modified or replaced by tax-law principles in the jurisdiction. The incidence of taxation varies by system, and some systems may be viewed as progressive or regressive. Rates of tax may vary or be constant (flat) by income level. Many systems allow individuals certain personal allowances and other non-business reductions to",
"-28.118913925194647"
],
[
"distributed.\nThe United States does not generally require withholding tax on the payment of dividends to shareholders. However, withholding tax is required if the shareholder is not a U.S. citizen or resident or U.S. corporation, or in some other circumstances (see Tax withholding in the United States). Earnings and profits U.S. corporations are permitted to distribute amounts in excess of earnings under the laws of most states under which they may be organized. A distribution by a corporation to shareholders is treated as a dividend to the extent of earnings and profits (E&P), a tax concept similar to retained",
"-28.06500879061059"
],
[
"While tax rules vary widely, there are certain basic principles common to most income tax systems. Tax systems in Canada, China, Germany, Singapore, the United Kingdom, and the United States, among others, follow most of the principles outlined below. Some tax systems, such as India, may have significant differences from the principles outlined below. Most references below are examples; see specific articles by jurisdiction (e.g., Income tax in Australia). Taxpayers and rates Individuals are often taxed at different rates than corporations. Individuals include only human beings. Tax systems in countries other than the USA treat an entity as a corporation",
"-28.04904958151201"
],
[
"corporate taxpayers and registered individual entrepreneurs, is known as General taxation system. Three alternative tax systems replace the above taxes with a simplified procedure:\nImputed taxation applies to specific, typically small business, activities involving trading with general public in cash: small retail and food service outlets, hotels, repair shops, taxi companies, etc. Imputed tax, uses rates set by local authorities (per square meter of shop space, per vehicle etc.) All eligible businesses use imputed taxation. The law is also mandatory for eligible parts of larger corporations, even if they are individually insignificant. For example, a cafeteria of a large steel mill",
"-28.04751990560908"
],
[
"50% of amounts included in income under section 951A and 37.5% of foreign branch income. \nSome deductions of corporations are limited at federal or state levels. Limitations apply to items due to related parties, including interest and royalty expenses. Estates and trusts Estates and trusts may be subject to income tax at the estate or trust level, or the beneficiaries may be subject to income tax on their share of income. Where income must be distributed, the beneficiaries are taxed similarly to partners in a partnership. Where income may be retained, the estate or trust is taxed.",
"-28.038446406368166"
],
[
"paid by everyone and the amount a person is taxed remains constant regardless of income or owned assets. It does not create excess burden because these taxes do not alter economic decisions. Because the tax remains constant, an individual's incentives and a firm's incentives will not fluctuate, as opposed to a graduated income tax that taxes people more for earning more.\nLump-sum taxes can be either progressive or regressive, depending on what the lump sum is being applied to. A tax placed on car tags would be regressive because it would be the same for everyone regardless of the type of",
"-28.031648900960136"
],
[
"tax law requires individuals to reduce the foreign income tax by the ratio of the rate differential on dividends (39.6% less 20%) to the maximum individual tax rate (39.6%). Some countries have at times allowed shareholders a credit against the shareholder's tax for taxes paid by the corporations. Several countries allow corporations who own significant shares of other corporations to claim a foreign tax credit for a portion of the foreign income taxes paid by the owned corporation when the shareholding corporation receives a dividend. Effect of FTC on worldwide tax burden Assume that Carpet Ltd is a UK resident",
"-27.97578498959774"
],
[
"forms the fourth-largest source of government revenue (after income, NIC, and VAT). Prior to the tax's enactment on 1 April 1965, companies and individuals paid the same income tax, with an additional profits tax levied on companies. The Finance Act 1965 replaced this structure for companies and associations with a single corporate tax, which borrowed its basic structure and rules from the income tax system. Since 1997, the United Kingdom's Tax Law Rewrite Project has been modernising the United Kingdom's tax legislation, starting with income tax, while the legislation imposing corporation tax has itself been amended; the rules governing income",
"-27.921123193373205"
],
[
"domestic corporations. No international laws limit the ability of a country to tax its nationals and residents (individuals and entities). However, treaties and practicality impose limits on taxation of those outside its borders, even on income from sources within the country.\nMost jurisdictions tax foreign corporations on business income within the jurisdiction when earned through a branch or permanent establishment in the jurisdiction. This tax may be imposed at the same rate as the tax on business income of a resident corporation or at a different rate.\nUpon payment of dividends, corporations are generally subject to withholding tax only",
"-27.89637534751091"
],
[
"the original $100 of profit as income, in the shareholder's hands, like the company was merely a conduit.\nThus company profits going to eligible shareholders are taxed just once. Profits are either retained by the company and taxed there at the corporate rate, or paid out later as dividends and instead they're taxed at the shareholder's rate.\nDividends may still be paid by a company when it has no franking credits (perhaps because it has been making tax losses), this is called an unfranked dividend. Or it may pay a franked portion and an unfranked portion, known as partly franked. An unfranked",
"-27.87777589124744"
],
[
"the federal income tax. Amendments to various provisions affecting corporations have been in most or all revenue acts since. Corporate tax provisions are incorporated in Title 26 of the United States Code, known as the Internal Revenue Code. The present rate of tax on corporate income was adopted in the Tax Reform Act of 1986.\nIn 2010, corporate tax revenue constituted about 9% of all federal revenues or 1.3% of GDP. Taxable income Determinations of what is taxable and at what rate are made at the federal level based on U.S. tax law. Many but not all states incorporate",
"-27.844203758984804"
],
[
"company, profits are taxed at the standard corporate income tax rate of 25%. At the shareholder level, the profit distributions are usually subject to withholding tax of 25% for corporations and 27.5% for other recipients.\nThere also exists a minimum tax (Mindestkörperschaftssteuer) for both limited liability companies (LLC) and joint-stock companies that is equal to 5% of their registered capital. i.e. €1,750 and €3,500 annually. Banks and insurance companies are subject to a different amount - €5,452. For new firms, there is a decreased tax of €1,092 in the first year of their existence. Value added tax (VAT) An Austrian customer",
"-27.83970412571216"
],
[
"The Conservative Chancellor Lord Barber set a single VAT rate (10%) on most goods and services. Income tax UK income tax has changed over the years. Originally it taxed a person's income regardless of who was beneficially entitled (that is, regardless of whether they had a legal obligation to pass it on to another person) to that income, but now a person owes tax only on income to which he or she is beneficially entitled. Most companies were taken out of the income tax net in 1965 when corporation tax was introduced. These changes were consolidated by the Income and",
"-27.74956036772346"
],
[
"tax years 2004–2010, the United States also has imposed a reduced rate of taxation on dividends received by individuals.\nSome systems currently attempt or in the past have attempted to integrate taxation of the corporation with taxation of shareholders to mitigate the dual level of taxation. As a current example, Australia provides for a “franking credit” as a benefit to shareholders. When an Australian company pays a dividend to a domestic shareholder, it reports the dividend as well as a notional tax credit amount. The shareholder utilizes this notional credit to offset shareholder level income tax.\nA previous system",
"-27.679906982230023"
],
[
"reporting the member's distributive share of the LLC's income or loss that is then reported on the member's individual income tax return. On the other hand, income from corporations is taxed twice: once at the corporate entity level and again when distributed to shareholders. Thus, more tax savings often result if a business formed as an LLC rather than a corporation.\nAn LLC with either single or multiple members may elect to be taxed as a corporation through the filing of IRS Form 8832. After electing corporate tax status, an LLC may further elect to be treated as a regular",
"-27.655291066148493"
],
[
"Illinois. The argument is essentially that \"income\" for federal income tax purposes means only the income of a corporation — not the income of a non-corporate taxpayer — because the United States Supreme Court in that case, in discussing the meaning of income, mentioned a statute enacted in 1909 that taxed the income of corporations.\nThe Court in Merchants' Loan was specifically interpreting a 1916 statute imposing income taxes on individuals and estates (among other kinds of entities), and not the 1909 corporate tax statute. The taxpayer in Merchants' Loan was not a corporation but was the \"Estate of Arthur",
"-27.637903353373986"
],
[
"as having been directly imposed on the US owner, thus giving rise to the tax credit.\nFor US owners with foreign subsidiaries, choosing to have a subsidiary treated as a disregarded entity is not always the most beneficial tax-planning choice, however. For example, if a US taxpayer owns a disregarded foreign entity, its income will be taxed at the owner's ordinary US income tax rates, less the foreign tax already paid. This may result in every marginal dollar being taxed at the highest rate. However, if the foreign entity had elected to be taxed as a corporation (or been classified as",
"-27.614471694742406"
],
[
"tax, where company profits were taxed as profits, and dividend payments were then taxed as income, remained unchanged until 1973, when a partial imputation system was introduced for dividend payments. Unlike the previous imputation system, the tax credit to the shareholder was less than the corporation tax paid (corporation tax was higher than the standard rate of income tax, but the imputation, or set-off, was only of standard rate tax). When companies made distributions, they also paid the advance corporation tax (known as ACT), which could be set off against the main corporation tax charge, subject to certain limits (the",
"-27.61389824800426"
],
[
"shareholders (the branch profits tax). The foreign corporation will be subject to U.S. income tax on its effectively connected income, and will also be subject to the branch profits tax on any of its profits not reinvested in the U.S. Thus, many countries tax corporations under company tax rules and tax individual shareholders upon corporate distributions. Various countries have tried (and some still maintain) attempts at partial or full \"integration\" of the enterprise and owner taxation. Where a two level system is present but allows for fiscal transparency of some entities, definitional issues become very important. Source of income Determining",
"-27.590724416892044"
],
[
"a company pays in company tax can be claimed by the shareholder as franking credit, with no net revenue flowing to the government. (There are exceptions which include profits retained by the company that are never paid as dividends, and payments to international investors.)\nWhen gross company tax is reported by Treasury, it is unclear whether the number generally includes the effect of the corresponding franking credits.\nOne effect is that this has reduced the effectiveness of tax incentives for corporations. If a corporation was given a tax break then its incomes thus released from taxation would not generate franking credits",
"-27.57156835583737"
],
[
"payments between related Controlled Foreign Corporations (CFCs), or from American companies to related CFCs, may be \"treated as Subpart F income\" (subject to current taxation as if they were profits in the hands of the ultimate American owner of the corporate structure), in an effort to limit the ability of American citizens and corporations to defer US tax on the income of foreign corporations they control. However, payments between an American-owned foreign entity which is taxed as a corporation, and a foreign subsidiary of that entity which itself has elected to be treated as a disregarded entity, are not treated",
"-27.55277953541372"
],
[
"with 13.4% of pre-tax national income, paid 22.3% of federal taxes. In 2013 the Tax Policy Center projected total federal effective tax rates of 35.5% for the top 1%, 27.2% for the top quintile, 13.8% for the middle quintile, and −2.7% for the bottom quintile. The incidence of corporate income tax has been a matter of considerable ongoing controversy for decades. State and local taxes vary widely, but are generally less progressive than federal taxes as they rely heavily on broadly borne regressive sales and property taxes that yield less volatile revenue streams, though their consideration does not eliminate the",
"-27.48465738574305"
],
[
"who do not pay capital gains taxes directly may wind up paying them through changed prices as the actual payers pass through the cost of paying the tax. Another factor complicating the use of capital gains taxes to address income inequality is that capital gains are usually not recurring income. A taxpayer may be \"high-income\" in the single year in which he or she sells an asset or invention.\nDebate on tax rates is often partisan; the Republican Party tends to favor lower rates, whereas the Democratic Party tends to favor higher rates. Existence of the tax The existence",
"-27.474630496406462"
],
[
"that case, the taxpayer's argument—that the IRS had no ability to impose a tax on the taxpayer because he was a citizen \"of the several states,\" but not a \"federal U.S. citizen\"—was ruled to be frivolous.\nVariations of the argument that an individual is a \"sovereign\" have been rejected in tax cases such as United States v. Hart, Risner v. Commissioner, Maxwell v. Snow, Rowe v. Internal Revenue Serv., Cobin v. Commissioner, and Glavin v. United States.\nThe argument that an individual who received Form W-2 wages or other compensation is not subject to federal income tax because the individual has \"neither",
"-27.46213696396444"
],
[
"for all income-earnings bands has been 16%. According to the income-tax returns of 2008, 14,6% of taxpayers was charged for 64,5% of the total tax burdens. Before the new Corporate income tax regime, the Corporate tax was fixed at 16% of the positive rateable value, with an additional tax called solidarity tax of 4%, the measure of which is calculated based on the result before tax of the company (the solidarity tax has been in use since September, 2006). The actual rateable value might be different is the two cases. From January 2011, under the new Corporate income tax regime",
"-27.442264280747622"
],
[
"shareholders. Subsequently, these shareholders pay tax on the income received in the form of dividend. However, in the Loan-Out corporation format, the creator of the corporation is typically the sole shareholder. To avoid paying tax twice, at the corporate and personal income tax levels, the Loan-Out corporation will pay out it's profits to the sole shareholder as a salary and/or bonus. Since the payment is treated as a salary expense, it is tax deductible as it is a typical part of business operations, rather than the elective payment of a dividend, minimising company profit to or near zero. Unreasonable Compensation",
"-27.416072779917158"
],
[
"the entity does not pay taxes on its income. Instead, the owners of the entity pay tax on their \"distributive share\" of the entity's taxable income, even if no funds are distributed by the partnership to the owners. Federal tax law permits the owners of the entity to agree how the income of the entity will be allocated among them, but requires that this allocation reflect the economic reality of their business arrangement, as tested under complicated rules. United Kingdom In general, a partnership is treated under Section 111 Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988 and Section 848 Income Tax",
"-27.382419515255606"
],
[
"the basic rate allowance, no further tax would be paid. The number of new companies being formed in 2002–2003 reached 325,900, an increase of 45% on 2001–2002.\nThe fact that individuals operating in this manner could potentially pay no tax at all was felt by the government to be unfair tax avoidance, and the 2004 Budget introduced a Non-Corporate Distribution Rate. This ensured that where a company paid below the small companies' rate (19% in 2004), dividend payments made to non-corporates (for example, individuals, trusts and personal representatives of deceased persons) would be subject to additional corporation tax, bringing the corporation",
"-27.37793805889669"
],
[
"Two states with a tax only on interest and dividend income of individuals, are New Hampshire and Tennessee. \n State and local taxes are generally deductible in computing federal taxable income. Federal and many state individual income tax rate schedules differ based on the individual's filing status. Income Taxable income is gross income less adjustments and allowable tax deductions. Gross income for federal and most states is receipts and gains from all sources less cost of goods sold. Gross income includes \"all income from whatever source\", and is not limited to cash received. Income from illegal activities is taxable",
"-27.35379476635717"
],
[
"is imposed at the same rate as the tax on business income of a resident corporation.\nThe U.S. also imposes a branch profits tax on foreign corporations with a U.S. branch, to mimic the dividend withholding tax which would be payable if the business was conducted in a U.S. subsidiary corporation and profits were remitted to the foreign parent as dividends. The branch profits tax is imposed at the time profits are remitted or deemed remitted outside the U.S.\nIn addition, foreign corporations are subject to withholding tax at 30% on dividends, interest, royalties, and certain other income. Tax treaties",
"-27.3162462876644"
],
[
"on their worldwide income, and nonresident, foreign corporations only on their income from sources within the country. Hong Kong taxes resident and nonresident corporations only on income from sources within the country. Distribution of earnings Most systems that tax corporations also impose income tax on shareholders of corporations when earnings are distributed. Such distribution of earnings is generally referred to as a dividend. The tax may be at reduced rates. For example, the United States provides for reduced amounts of tax on dividends received by individuals and by corporations. \nThe company law of some",
"-27.314067487081047"
],
[
"Court before taking effect). The Revenue Act of 1913 imposed a one percent tax on incomes above $3,000, with a top tax rate of six percent on those earning more than $500,000 per year. Approximately three percent of the population was subject to the income tax. The bill also included a one percent tax on the net income of all corporations, superseding a previous federal tax that had only applied to corporate net incomes above $5,000. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the income tax in the cases of Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co. and Stanton v. Baltic",
"-27.29255192488381"
],
[
"individuals;\nThis federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation is allowed to own property and enter contracts. It can also sue and be sued and held liable under both civil and criminal law. As well, because the corporation is legally considered the \"person\", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's debts and damages beyond their investment in the corporation. Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions. Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences",
"-27.29047809279291"
],
[
"Companies of the United States with untaxed profits Companies of the United States with untaxed profits deals with those U.S. companies whose offshore subsidiaries earn profits which are retained in foreign countries to defer paying U.S. corporate tax. The profits of United States corporations are subject to a federal corporate tax rate of 21%. In principle, the tax is payable on all profits of corporations, whether earned domestically or abroad. However, overseas subsidiaries of U.S. corporations are entitled to a tax deferral of profits on active income until repatriated to the U.S., and are regarded as untaxed. When repatriated, the",
"-27.268011038569966"
],
[
"equal tax treatment of all companies. The change had relatively little impact on incorporation rates as the British Virgin Islands imposes virtually no form of direct taxation. Corporate personality In the British Virgin Islands a company has separate legal personality from its members (unlike, for example, a partnership registered under the Partnership Act, 1996). The liability of the members of a company is limited to their shares or the amount of their guarantee. Similarly, directors or officers of a company are not normally liable for the company's debts except insofar as they may otherwise be liable for",
"-27.22889830007108"
],
[
"Controlled foreign corporation Motivations The tax law of many countries, including the United States, does normally not tax a shareholder of a corporation on the corporation's income until the income is distributed as a dividend. Prior to the first U.S. CFC rules, it was common for publicly traded companies to form foreign subsidiaries in tax havens and shift \"portable\" income to those subsidiaries. Income shifted included investment income (interest and dividends) and passive income (rents and royalties), as well as sales and services income involving related parties (see transfer pricing). U.S. tax on this income was avoided until the tax",
"-27.178774337051436"
],
[
"tax their members.\nThe middle income worker's tax wedge is 46% and effective marginal tax rates are very high. Value-added tax is 24% for most items. Capital gains tax is 30-34% and corporate tax is 20%, about the EU median. Property taxes are low, but there is a transfer tax (1.6% for apartments or 4% for individual houses) for home buyers. There are high excise taxes on alcoholic beverages, tobacco, automobiles and motorcycles, motor fuels, lotteries, sweets and insurances. For instance, McKinsey estimates that a worker has to pay around 1600 euro for another's 400 euro service - restricting service supply",
"-27.178249407210387"
],
[
"this argument, have been officially identified as legally frivolous federal tax return positions for purposes of the $5,000 frivolous tax return penalty imposed under Internal Revenue Code section 6702(a). Cases indicating definition of income is irrelevant At least two federal courts have indicated that Congress may constitutionally tax an item as \"income,\" regardless of whether that item is \"income\" within the meaning of the Sixteenth Amendment. In Penn Mutual Indemnity Co. v. Commissioner, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit stated:\nIt did not take a constitutional amendment to entitle the United States to impose an income tax.",
"-27.17606255193823"
],
[
"rate there is no longer any incentive for a rational taxpayer to earn any income, thus the revenue raised will be 100% of nothing. If both a 0% rate and 100% rate of taxation generate no revenue, it follows from the extreme value theorem that there must exist at least one rate in between where tax revenue would be a maximum. The Laffer curve is typically represented as a graph which starts at 0% tax, zero revenue, rises to a maximum rate of revenue raised at an intermediate rate of taxation and then falls again to zero revenue at a",
"-27.173555584198766"
],
[
"starting rate to zero, with marginal relief applying in the same way. This caused a significant increase in the number of companies being incorporated, as businesses that had operated as self-employed, paying income tax on profits from just over £5,000, were attracted to the corporation tax rate of 0% on income up to £10,000. Previously self-employed individuals could now distribute profits as dividend payments rather than salaries. For companies with profits under £50,000 the corporation tax rate varied between 0% and 19%. Because dividend payments come with a basic rate tax credit, provided the recipient did not earn more than",
"-27.168903137542657"
],
[
"Dividends received deduction The dividends-received deduction (or \"DRD\"), under U.S. federal income tax law, is a tax deduction received by a corporation on the dividends it receives from other corporations in which it has an ownership stake. Impact This deduction is designed to reduce the consequences of alleged triple taxation. Otherwise, corporate profits would be taxed to the corporation that earned them, then to the corporate shareholder, and then to the individual shareholder. While Congress allowed for double taxation on corporations, it did not intend a triple - and potentially infinitely-tiered - tax to apply to corporate profits at every",
"-27.151104203308932"
],
[
"so that companies would invest them in the U.S.\nIn comparing corporate taxes, the Congressional Budget Office found in 2005 that the top statutory tax rate was the third highest among OECD countries behind Japan and Germany. However, the U.S. ranked 27th lowest of 30 OECD countries in its collection of corporate taxes relative to GDP, at 1.8% vs. the average 2.5%.\nU.S. corporate after-tax profits were at record levels during the third quarter of 2012, at an annualized $1.75 trillion. U.S. federal corporate income tax revenues have declined relative to profits, falling from approximately 27% in 2000 to 17% in 2012.",
"-27.130942882882664"
],
[
"Finance Act 1965 The Finance Act 1965 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which introduced two major new UK taxes. Corporation tax created a separate system for taxing the income of corporations, where previously they had paid income tax in the same way as private individuals. Capital gains tax is charged on the disposal of assets, and is based on any \"real gain\" made from the disposal. If the income comes within income tax, capital gains is not chargeable. Capital gains tax does not apply to corporations, but an identical provision, known as chargeable gains, is",
"-27.125574032310396"
],
[
"where lower income tax units pay a greater fraction of income in tax) has a negative Suits index. A theoretical tax where the richest person pays all the tax has a Suits index of 1, and a tax where the poorest person pays everything has a Suits index of −1. Tax preferences (credits and deductions) also have a Suits index. Income tax By definition, a flat income tax has a Suits index of zero. However, almost all income tax systems allow for some amount of income to be earned without tax (an exemption amount) to avoid collecting tax",
"-27.120928869291674"
],
[
"tax paid up to 19%. For example, a company making £10,000 profit, and making a £6,000 dividend distribution to an individual and £4,000 to another company would pay 19% corporation tax on the £6,000. Although this measure substantially reduced the number of small businesses incorporating, the Chancellor in the 2006 Budget said tax avoidance by small businesses through incorporation was still a major issue, and scrapped the starting rate entirely. Taxable profits and accounting profits The starting point for computing taxable profits is profits before tax (except for a life assurance company). The rules for calculating corporation tax generally ran",
"-27.117957698530518"
],
[
"to ordinary income) in 1972 and later years. The alternative tax rate on corporate long-term capital gains income is increased to 28 percent in 1970 and 30 percent in 1971 and later years.\"\nThe Act also included for the first time an Alternative Minimum Tax, set at 10%. The change was explained as follows: \nThe prior treatment imposed no limit on the amount of income which an individual or corporation could exclude from tax as the result of various tax preferences. As a result, there were large variations in the tax burdens placed on individuals or corporations with similar economic",
"-27.115013344970066"
],
[
"level in two or three generations as a share of G.D.P. or that corporate tax revenues as a share of G.D.P. are the lowest among all major countries. One hears only that the statutory corporate tax rate in the United States is high compared with other countries, which is true but not necessarily relevant. The economic importance of statutory tax rates is blown far out of proportion by Republicans looking for ways to make taxes look high when they are quite low.\" Budget deficits: \"spending problem\" or \"revenue problem\"? Prominent Republican Congressmen have suggested that the federal deficits should be",
"-27.114215725567192"
],
[
"imposed on corporations. Rates of tax and the taxable base for corporations may differ from those for individuals or for other taxable persons. Social-security contributions Many countries provide publicly funded retirement or health-care systems. In connection with these systems, the country typically requires employers and/or employees to make compulsory payments. These payments are often computed by reference to wages or earnings from self-employment. Tax rates are generally fixed, but a different rate may be imposed on employers than on employees. Some systems provide an upper limit on earnings subject to the tax. A few systems provide that the tax is",
"-27.105203474638984"
],
[
"the state on a formulary basis. Many states apply a \"throw back\" concept to tax domestic corporations on income not taxed by other states. Tax treaties do not apply to state taxes.\nUnder the U.S. Constitution, states are prohibited from taxing income of a resident of another state unless the connection with the taxing state reach a certain level (called “nexus”). Most states do not tax non-business income of out of state corporations. Since the tax must be fairly apportioned, the states and localities compute income of out of state corporations (including those in foreign countries) taxable in the",
"-27.10251499339938"
],
[
"2013 tax law the top 1% will be paying the highest average tax rates since 1979, while other income groups will remain at historic lows.\nU.S. taxation has historically been generally progressive, especially the federal income taxes, though by most measures it became noticeably less progressive after 1980. It has sometimes been described as among the most progressive in the developed world, but this characterization is controversial. The highest 10% of income earners pay a majority of federal taxes, and about half of all taxes. Payroll taxes for Social Security are a flat regressive tax, with no tax charged on income",
"-27.09238119330257"
],
[
"C corporation is treated as a dividend for U.S. income tax purposes. \"Earnings and profits\" is a tax law concept similar to the financial accounting concept of retained earnings. Exceptions apply to treat certain distributions as made in exchange for stock rather than as dividends. Such exceptions include distributions in complete termination of a shareholder's interest and distributions in liquidation of the corporation.",
"-27.05486408714205"
],
[
"is earned. Defining when income occurs Since a central tenet of the flat tax is to minimize the compartmentalization of incomes into myriad special or sheltered cases, a vexing problem is deciding when income occurs. This is demonstrated by the taxation of interest income and stock dividends. The shareholders own the company and so the company's profits belong to them. If a company is taxed on its profits, then the funds paid out as dividends have already been taxed. It's a debatable question if they should subsequently be treated as income to the shareholders and thus",
"-27.026255127770128"
],
[
"The basis for allowing corporations to assert such protections under the U.S. Constitution is that they are organizations of people, and the people should not be deprived of their constitutional rights when they act collectively. Thus, treating corporations as having legal rights allows corporations to sue and to be sued, provides a single entity for easier taxation and regulation, simplifies complex transactions that would otherwise involve, in the case of large corporations, thousands of people, and protects the individual rights of the shareholders as well as the right of association.\nGenerally, corporations are not able to claim constitutional protections that would",
"-27.003842453181278"
],
[
"tax (which only applies to inherited wealth greater than $11 million for a married couple) benefits only the heirs of the very rich (such as Trump's children), and there is a reduced tax rate for people who report business income on their individual returns (as Trump does). If Trump's tax plan had been in place in 2005 (the one recent year in which his tax returns were leaked), he would have saved $31 million in taxes from the alternative minimum tax cut alone. If the most recent estimate of the value of Trump's assets is correct, the repeal of the",
"-26.987523744959617"
],
[
"Individuals and corporations pay U.S. federal income tax on the net total of all their capital gains. The tax rate depends on both the investor's tax bracket and the amount of time the investment was held. Short-term capital gains are taxed at the investor's ordinary income tax rate and are defined as investments held for a year or less before being sold. Long-term capital gains, on dispositions of assets held for more than one year, are taxed at a lower rate. Payroll taxes In the United States, payroll taxes are assessed by the federal government, many states, the District of",
"-26.974659979576245"
],
[
"of up to 4 percent and 0.5 percent respectively. Motoring taxation Motoring taxes include: fuel duty (which itself also attracts VAT), and Vehicle Excise Duty. Other fees and charges include the London congestion charge, various statutory fees including that for the compulsory vehicle test and that for vehicle registration, and in some areas on-street parking (as well as associated charges for violations). Corporate Tax Corporation tax is a tax levied in the United Kingdom on the profits made by companies and on the profits of permanent establishments of non-UK resident companies and associations that trade in the EU.\nCorporation tax",
"-26.971668681013398"
],
[
"on the investment (the cost base of the shares) are taxed as \"ordinary income\" when distributed to personal shareholders. When added to the 28% company taxation, this gives a total maximum marginal tax rate on dividends of 48.16% (0.28+0.72*0.28). The 2014 corporate tax rate is 27% giving a marginal tax rate on dividends of 46.71%.\nThe part of the dividend that is not exceeding a risk-free return on the investment, is not taxed on the hand of the shareholder, and is thus subject to the 28% company taxation only. If the dividend for one year is less than the calculated risk-free",
"-26.965612367232097"
]
] |
3akwjo | Why do commentators/voice actors from old footage from the 40s 50s and 60s sound so different than reporters' voices today? | [
"I believe what you're referring to the \"transatlantic accent\" which was taught in boarding schools up through the early 60's (also many actors and the like learned the accent to be more marketable, as it was seen as an upper-class/well-educated way of speaking).",
"Old recording equipment had different sensitivity to frequencies we can hear. Just like standard phone conversations sound of lower quality when broadcast on the radio.",
"Here's a good article on the topic of the mid-Atlantic accent. Though the author prefers calling it \"that weirdo announcer-voice\" It's especially good on describing how it disappeared. URL_0 ",
"They practiced a lot of elocution. They thought of it as being proper and more sophisticated. No one really practiced this way of speech anymore."
] | [
[
"long before that time. The American radio broadcaster Howard Stern has also used voice-overs in this way. Educational or descriptive device The voice-over has many applications in non-fiction as well. Television news is often presented as a series of video clips of newsworthy events, with voice-over by the reporters describing the significance of the scenes being presented; these are interspersed with straight video of the news anchors describing stories for which video is not shown.\nTelevision networks such as The History Channel and the Discovery Channel make extensive use of voice-overs. On NBC, the television show Starting Over used Sylvia Villagran",
"-32.941688789229374"
],
[
"with the voice-over technique. The golden age of first-person narration was during the 1940s. Film noir typically used male voice-over narration but there are a few rare female voice-overs.\nIn radio, voice-overs are an integral part of the creation of the radio program. The voice-over artist might be used to remind listeners of the station name or as characters to enhance or develop show content. During the 1980s, the British broadcasters Steve Wright and Kenny Everett used voice-over artists to create a virtual \"posse\" or studio crew who contributed to the programmes. It is believed that this principle was in play",
"-32.76315356515988"
],
[
"The Loudest Voice Premise The Loudest Voice tells the story of Roger Ailes, who molded Fox News into one of the most powerful, influential media networks in history. The series focuses primarily on the past decade in which Ailes became one of the most prominent figures in modern American conservatism, while flashing back to defining events in Ailes’ life, including the 9/11 attacks, the U.S. presidential election, 2008 and U.S. presidential election, 2016, and the sexual harassment accusations and settlements that ended his career. Development On October 19, 2016, it was announced that Blumhouse Television was developing a television miniseries",
"-32.458754032384604"
],
[
"case of interviews recorded outside the studio and some current affairs program, the interpreter interprets what he or she hears on a TV monitor. Background noise can be a serious problem. The interpreter working for the media has to sound as slick and confident as a television presenter.\nMedia interpreting has gained more visibility and presence especially after the Gulf War. Television channels have begun to hire staff simultaneous interpreters. The interpreter renders the press conferences, telephone beepers, interviews and similar live coverage for the viewers. It is more stressful than other types of interpreting as the interpreter has to deal",
"-32.31040155678056"
],
[
"front of the opening of a lift in a public car park. Old News News stories from the past week are made to look like a news story from the 1960s or earlier, with the story shown in black and white and the picture quality degraded. The sound is replaced with a voice over using the same tone used in 1960s TV news with the voice over often having nothing related to the news story. Guy Williams Television Segment The show's third presenter, Guy Williams, is usually sent out by Jono and Ben to report on a big event from",
"-32.01664415150299"
],
[
"courthouse and, on a whim, went to audition as a singer. Someone noticed his voice and asked him to speak through a microphone. He was given an audition and hired as a staff announcer on the spot. Sportscasting Radio broadcasting of sporting events was a new thing in the 1920s. The announcers were a rotating group of newspaper writers. At the time baseball was America's most popular sport, and the reporters were at the games to write stories about them for print newspapers. Their descriptions were matter-of-fact, boring at best, had a lot of dead air, and were given in",
"-31.916648138896562"
],
[
"NBC's short-lived \"behind-the-scenes\" series Behind The Mike (1940–41) occasionally featured reconstructions of announcers' gaffes and flubs as part of the \"Oddities in Radio\" segment, and movie studios had been producing so-called \"gag reels\" of outtakes (usually for employee-only viewing) since the 1930s. United Kingdom Jonathan Hewat (1938–2014), who had a vast personal collection of taped broadcasting gaffes, was the first person in the UK to broadcast radio bloopers, on a bank holiday show on BBC Radio Bristol at the end of the 1980s.\nHe subsequently produced and presented a half-hour show on that station called So You Want to Run",
"-31.88576333076344"
],
[
"same off-screen narrator,\nwhich made the Front Page Challenge footage less appealing to young people than the multiple sound bites featured by CBC Newsworld, which began 24-hour newscasts throughout Canada on July 31, 1989. CBC Newsworld offered sound bite interviews with people who had witnessed events or were knowledgeable about them. Young viewers using remote controls stuck with the multiple sound bites and ignored the Front Page Challenge narrator's summaries of the news stories, according to the book by Alex Barris published in 1999.\nWhen Front Page Challenge ceased production in 1995, it was the longest continually running non-news program in Canadian",
"-31.882327274943236"
],
[
"in their fifties. Only put on callers sounding in the 45–64 range. I don't want to hear really elderly voices. Only talk about things that are positive and appealing to people in this age range. Only do caller round ups about people in this age range.\" This was reprinted the following month in the Southern Daily Echo, following which a BBC spokesperson commented \"Out of context these notes sound harsh and we apologise if they offend anyone.\" BBC Sounds BBC Local Radio is available as a listen-again service on BBC Sounds.\nEngland Unwrapped was launched in",
"-31.62465297774179"
],
[
"violent, racist and lived on benefits.\nThe BBC’s commissioning editor, Richard Klein, stated that the commissioning of the series was in response to a report which showed that white working class voices rarely made it onto TV, and that when they were shown, they were portrayed as \"chavs\" and \"white trash\".",
"-31.46120561074349"
],
[
"voices spoke with an authoritative \"announcer's\" intonation, resembling public oration, often dropping about a musical fifth on the last word of a sentence. Garroway was one of the broadcasters who introduced conversational style and tone to television, beginning some broadcasts as though the viewer were sitting in the studio with him, as in this November 20, 1957, introduction for the Today show: \"And how are you about the world today? Let's see what kind of shape it's in; there is a glimmer of hope.\"\nPioneering NBC president Sylvester \"Pat\" Weaver chose Garroway as the host of his new morning news-and-entertainment experiment,",
"-31.306760510898243"
],
[
"dedicated entirely to slow motion shots, microphones are present on the sidelines and near the field to pick up both the sounds of the games as well as the talk on the sidelines, and narrators with deep, powerful, baritone voices are preferred. Narrators have generally been from the Philadelphia metropolitan area, with well-known announcers such as Jefferson Kaye, Harry Kalas, John Facenda, Andy Musser, Jack Whitaker, William Woodson, and current announcer Scott Graham all having narrated NFL Films presentations at various points in time. J.K. Simmons was tapped to narrate the company's one-hour recap of the 16-0 regular season",
"-31.265430847763128"
],
[
"We were public servants and it never occurred to any of us at the time to think of ourselves as personalities or, heaven forbid, stars.\"\nThose early television newsreaders sounded as if they had just come out of a BBC finishing school. Was that how you were asked to talk?\n\"Everything was live back then so nothing was recorded. So I am pretty thankful there were no recordings kept because we would have sounded rather too precious. We were told to speak rather nicely. I think probably we were a bit stiff.\"\nIn 2000, in a television special commemorating 40 years of television",
"-31.064903920865618"
],
[
"interview format with no studio audience present, similar to his old Tomorrow show of the 1970s, or to Charlie Rose show and Later, which had abandoned the format the previous year and had followed Late Night under Letterman on NBC. Though the show lacked a studio audience, Snyder still frequently gave extended conversational monologues, many of which contained jokes that prompted audible laughter from the off-camera production staff. Without the need for an audience, the show originated from the intimate Studio 58 at CBS Television City.\nThroughout most of the show's run, it was also simulcast over some CBS Radio stations,",
"-30.980070410412736"
],
[
"Dick Martin, who went on to host their own show, Laugh In.\nIn 1957, Gallop was asked about the difference in switching from radio to television announcing. He said that while the salaries in television announcing were even more lucrative than in radio, the amount of time and work involved for television shows was much greater than for radio ones. Gallop stressed that veteran radio announcers were still actively employed because of their announcing experience and that a handsome face on the television screen needed to have that experience coupled with it. Singer As a young man, Gallop took voice lessons.",
"-30.85467530801543"
],
[
"Janis. Voiceover talent Voiceover talent included Gregory Abbott (1900–1981), lead voice for the presentation of news and the only narrator to stay until the series ended in 1957. Bill Slater was a narrator for many years. Other narrators included Gabriel Heatter (who introduced the voiceover talent in a special issue release of Paramount News in the early 1930s, Gregory Abbott being among those introduced), Vincent Connoly, Maurice Joyce, Dennis James (later a TV game show and variety show host), Gilbert Martyn, and Frank Gallop among others.\nThe sports segments were narrated by Bill Slater in the early years and from 1948",
"-30.84845639806008"
],
[
"News presenter Overview The role of the news presenter developed over time. Classically, the presenter would read the news from news \"copy\" which he may or may not have helped write with a or news writer. This was often taken almost directly from wire services and then rewritten. Prior to the television era, radio-news broadcasts often mixed news with opinion and each presenter strove for a distinctive style. These presenters were referred to as commentators. The last major figure to present commentary in a news broadcast format in the United States was Paul Harvey.\n\nWith the development of the 24-hour",
"-30.835005168046337"
],
[
"York Times called it \"Whimper of the Jungle\"), the show closed on the 28th. Much and, eventually, most of her work came from radio, the prime home entertainment medium of the 1930s and 40s. The tens of thousands of broadcast hours, especially those featuring dramatic presentations, required a constant supply of voice professionals who were called upon to perform in multiple shows within the course of a single day, thus making the list of credits for a hard working performer such as Ethel Owen run into the thousands. One of her most-consistent regular assignments was on the long-running",
"-30.762058623717166"
],
[
"radio shows of the early 1930s\", adding that \"the radio dialogue was so witty and outrageous, [an] innocent form of original comedy – as well as serious drama\". Rob White of the British Film Institute said the show \"glitter[s] with a thousand-and-one sockeroos.\" Rediscovery of the show The episodes of Flywheel, Shyster, and Flywheel were recorded, but for many years it was thought the recordings had not been preserved. At the time of the broadcasts, pre-recorded shows were frowned upon by advertisers and audiences. However, in 1988, Michael Barson, who worked in the United States Copyright Office at the Library",
"-30.74861002455873"
],
[
"Top 40 radio era, because of their ability to introduce new music to the radio audience and promote or control which songs would be given airplay.\nAlthough radio personalities who specialized in news or talk programs such as Dorothy Kilgallen and Walter Winchell existed since the early days of radio, exclusive talk radio formats emerged and multiplied in the 1960s, as telephone call in shows, interviews, news, and public affairs became more popular. In New York, WINS (AM) switched to a talk format in 1965, and WCBS (AM) followed two years later. Early talk radio personalities included Bruce Williams and Sally",
"-30.747161738487193"
],
[
"sound mix was often very poor, with a curious quality that made it sound like everything had been 'phased'). The programme would start with a 45-minute magazine section consisting of interviews, fashion items and comedy appearances by a wide range of alternative artistes such as Frank Sidebottom, Vic Reeves (before his association with Bob Mortimer), Foffo Spearjig and even French & Saunders. During this section Yates would become known for conducting rather flirtatious interviews: in 1985, for example, she prompted Sting to remove his trousers.\nThe main presenters were supported, for the first two series, by five newcomers who were picked",
"-30.67134331420675"
],
[
"those from lower socioeconomic brackets.\nBell's analysis of the newsreaders' speech revealed that they spoke differently based on the intended radio audience. He identified relationships in the frequency of sociolinguistic variables, such as postvocalic [t], which corresponded to the speech of the radio audiences. Bell proposed that because the topic of speech (identical news topics), speaker, and speech activity were the same, the most plausible way of accounting for the variation was that the newscasters were attuning their speech to what they perceived to be the norms for the respective radio audiences. Referee design In addition to audience design, Bell introduces",
"-30.55575756696635"
],
[
"Peter Jennings Reporting: Who Is Ross Perot? and a subsequent 90-minute town forum with Perot and a studio audience in June. On September 9, 1992, ABC announced that it would be switching the format of its political coverage to give less recognition to staged sound bites. \"We're aware that a lot of you are turned off by the political process and that many of you put at least some of the blame on us,\" Jennings told viewers on World News Tonight. \"We'll only devote time to a candidate's daily routine if it is more than routine. There will be less",
"-30.458249392278958"
],
[
"Booth interviews with celebrities, politicians, advertisers, promoters, retired drivers, and other famous personalities in attendance were used to fill the downtime of the broadcast. On other occasions, telegrams might be received from celebrities listening at home, and Collins would read some of them on-air for the listeners. Starting in 1971, Collins made an effort to curtail booth interviews, in order to improve the flow of the race, and to assuage listeners' complaints. Collins also had a popular custom of signing-off the broadcast by reciting poetry or other literary vignettes.\nWhen Paul Page entered the booth in 1977, he swiftly changed the",
"-30.451985056177364"
],
[
"himself, including his dog, Maggie. During Fridays Tony would discuss movies with either Stephen Hunter or Joe Barber of WTOP. His love of the music in 1960s inspired a radio segment called Old Guy Radio. His other-stuff talk makes his talk show much more interesting when there is no big sports event. In essence, his non-sports talk becomes a talk show version of his Washington Post Style Section columns. A collection of memorable clips of witty, sarcastic, or funny sayings from famous movies, television shows, callers, interviewees, and cast members have been turned into sound",
"-30.421377031103475"
],
[
"to early BBC television was that she helped to bridge the gap between hearing and non-hearing viewers. She did this by addressing the television camera and using sign language as she spoke.\nKeysell was a mime teacher for the Royal National Institute for the Deaf (RNID) and in 1968 was awarded a Winston Churchill Fellowship to study with the National Theatre of the Deaf in the USA. On her return she set up a company also named the National Theatre of the Deaf. The American company threatened to sue and the name was promptly changed to British Theatre of the Deaf",
"-30.40795617751428"
],
[
"in recent years following the advent of satirical journalism and citizen journalism, both of which relocate the interpretation of truth outside traditional professional journalism, but the place anchormen and anchorwomen hold in American media remains consistent. \"Just about every single major news anchor since the dawn of the medium after World War II has been aligned with show business,\" says Frank Rich, writer-at-large for New York Magazine, in a polemic against commoditized news reporting, \"reading headlines to a camera in an appealing way is incentivized over actual reporting\". Brian Williams, an anchor for NBC Nightly News, evidences this lapse in",
"-30.388621866877656"
],
[
"journalist and Factory Records supremo Tony Wilson who became the show's first in-vision anchor in the early 80s. Guest presenters were used on rare occasions, among them Jonathan Dimbleby, Sandy Gall, Martyn Gregory, Sue Lawley and Lynn Faulds Wood. Perhaps its most celebrated guest presenter was the distinguished American anchorman Walter Cronkite, who came out of retirement to cover the 1983 UK general election for the series.\nA small group of narrators delivered the vast majority of WIA's voice-overs. The two original narrators were Derek Cooper, later to become well known as a broadcaster and writer about food, and Wilfrid Thomas.",
"-30.32737775365422"
],
[
"and gossip from \"celebrity insiders, onlookers, pals and lunchers\" from tabloid magazines.\nMartin and the others created various comedy sketches that included the edited recordings of politicians such as then politicians John Howard, Peter Costello and Kim Beazley musical parodies, advertisements and other sketches. Soundbites also featured regularly, with humorous comments, sounds, or sayings from politicians or the popular media included in various jokes, interviews, and songs.\nThe show contained frequent references to Karl Stefanovic being a robot. Talkback Mountain Talkback Mountain was a segment in the show where a number of listeners called in to briefly discuss a chosen topic with",
"-30.21334355574072"
],
[
"there were some newsreaders (unspecified; but not within Radio 4) who \"clearly have no understanding of what they are reading\" and that thereby the quality of the broadcast suffered. Donaldson had a distinctive form of Received Pronunciation \"BBC accent\" - one of the few left on British radio in the 21st century - and his delivery incorporated idiosyncratic pauses in the middle of sentences. In the 1980s his voice was used on the pre-recorded warning that a nuclear attack had been launched on the British Isles during the Cold War, which would have been transmitted on television and radio from",
"-30.16399624898986"
],
[
"Master's Voice by the Band of the Royal Air Force, conducted by Squadron Leader R.P. O'Donnell, M.V.O. In 1940 the opening and closing parts of this recording were chosen to introduce and close the BBC's daily news programme Radio Newsreel (initially, Radio News Reel), which was broadcast on both the Home Service in Britain and the Overseas Service (later the World Service). As such it became one of a group of tunes, including Lillibullero and Eric Coates' Calling All Workers, that became inextricably associated with the BBC's output during the war. Radio Newsreel, with its theme, continued until 1970 in",
"-30.11066733172629"
],
[
"employing dramatic elements mixed with natural-sound audio, news interviews and current music. Mavridis developed the style that mimicked talking to pre-recorded interviews and newsmakers.\nBillboard magazine's Radio and Records described Mavridis's original iCast format as transforming \"the traditional role of a reporter into more of an audio guide with an edge who leads the listener through a news story's chain of interrelated actualities.\"\nEach show opened with the big story of the day, usually in a mock-conversation format, inserting pre-taped interviews and field reports to create the illusion of a conversation. The second segment is usually another major story of the day",
"-30.083199302316643"
],
[
"made a six-part radio series in 1947, adapted and produced by Felix Felton. Paul Bultitude was played by Ronald Simpson, and his mischievous son Dick by John Clark. Dr. Grimstone was played by veteran radio actor Ralph Truman. An early example of creative sound effects before the days of tape meant that when the father succeeds in his wish to be just like his son going off to school, juvenile actor John Clark had to talk to himself. So he had to pre-record the father's dialogue on the 15 inch disks used at that time, and leave gaps for the son's",
"-30.071681312445435"
],
[
"of accuracy review in news stations: \"That Cipriano, a self-described “not-too-bright guy,” can beat professional call screeners so often suggests they don’t do it often enough in the race for color, drama and “breaking news.”\nIn a 1996 interview, Cipriano explained he had a 16-setting voice changer for use in tricking producers into letting him call onto their shows.",
"-30.070795424224343"
],
[
" Unlike its most famous competitor 20/20 as well as traditional local and national news programs, the 60 Minutes journalists never share the screen with (or speak to) other 60 Minutes journalists on camera at any time. This creates a strong psychological sense of intimacy between the journalist and the television viewer. Reporting tone 60 Minutes blends the probing journalism of the seminal 1950s CBS series See It Now with Edward R. Murrow (a show for which Hewitt served as the director for its first few years) and the personality profiles of another Murrow program, Person to Person. In",
"-30.04379570708261"
],
[
"fame as the voice of NFL Films, was the station's main anchorman from shortly after it signed on until 1973. At the time he retired, he had been a main anchor longer than anyone in Philadelphia; he has since been passed by WPVI's Jim Gardner.\nSoon after joining the station, Facenda sold the Bulletin on the idea of a local 11 p.m. newscast—the first in the country. It aired for the first time on September 8. In 1950, WCAU became the first station with a four-man news team. The 6 p.m. newscast was anchored by Facenda, with Philadelphia radio legend Phil",
"-30.025650203911937"
],
[
"sent to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art for speech lessons. They were unsuccessful. My accent is part of who I am and I work for an international broadcaster—it's a good reflection of the newsroom, which is very international.\"",
"-29.971280378915253"
],
[
"he was pressured to keep the show from relying on long segments of dialogue, though he personally felt that the dialogue was an important factor to the show. Production Much of the voice recording was done with multiple actors in the recording booth at one time. This was a new method for Edwards, and he explained that he did it to \"allow for those messy, unrehearsed moments that can happen when the actors 'bump into each other' a little more.\"\nMark Keefer, who had previously collaborated with Edwards on Hoodwinked!, served as the sound designer and re-recording mixer on the series,",
"-29.924081400822615"
],
[
"on the microphone.\nSergeant Wilson's lines have been written to be spoken in a Cockney accent which doesn't suit him too well. The rest of the men play-up to their usual roles. The BBC sound effects team are unable to make it to the broadcast because their van has broken down, and so the platoon are forced to imitate the required coastal noises (namely wind, waves and seagulls, the latter being Private Pike's only contribution) themselves.\nLater, the platoon is ready and waiting to go on the air, but strangely nothing seems to be happening; not even the BBC engineer knows what",
"-29.922051048117282"
],
[
"the presidency of Ronald Reagan, who was famous for short, memorable phrases like, \"Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!\" in reference to the Berlin Wall.\nDuring the 1988 United States presidential election, candidate Michael Dukakis highlighted the prominent role of sound bites and spin doctors in political campaigns by running a commercial that mocked contender George H.W. Bush's handlers' frustration over the gaffes of his vice presidential running-mate Dan Quayle. Journalism In journalism, sound bites are used to summarize the position of the speaker, as well as to increase the interest of the reader or viewer in the piece. In both",
"-29.895065002404408"
],
[
"only one in which the sound of the human voice – angry, boring, repetitive, excitable, but occasionally passionate, revealing and unforgettable – overcame the patina of artifice with which television habitually polishes and tidies up its speakers. Only on After Dark could we have heard the rolling Russian timbre of Tatyana Tolstaya... or seen Clare Short squirm as Tony Howard wondered why, if she was so protective about her private life, she'd talked on radio to Anthony Clare.... Only After Dark had the leisurely pace that made possible the exchange between the Holocaust survivor Rabbi Hugo Gryn and Yasser Arafat's PR voice",
"-29.86893041411531"
],
[
"it is done correctly, the average listener (and even many professionals) cannot tell the difference. Time checks can even be added which can make the broadcast sound absolutely live. Controversy Voice-tracking is a hotly contested issue within radio circles. Claims have been made recently that claim that the sense of locality is lost, especially when a station employs a disc jockey who has never set foot in that station's town. There is also concern about voice-tracking taking away job opportunities and providing fewer opportunities for disc jockeys in the amounting radio homogenization.\nStill, supporters of voice-tracking contend that a professional presentation",
"-29.868079898762517"
],
[
"appearing as though they were created by Germany. Targeting American troops in the Pacific, the Japanese government broadcast the \"Zero Hour\" program, which included news from the U.S. to make the soldiers homesick. But by the end of the war, Britain had the largest radio network in the world, broadcasting internationally in 43 different languages. Its scope would eventually be surpassed (by 1955) by the worldwide Voice of America programs, produced by the United States Information Agency.\nIn Britain and the United States, television news watching rose dramatically in the 1950s and by the 1960s supplanted radio as the public's primary",
"-29.836128739174455"
],
[
"where not all the reporters in a press pool can access the interviewee. Rules A whole set of etiquette and mores has developed amongst journalists governing the use of mult boxes. Because it is often difficult to get a good sound recording from a digital recorder for later broadcast or transcription for newspaper reporting, journalists have developed informal rules for their use. For example, the media should treat the sound engineer well, because while reporters can be selfish and competitive with each other, and the equipment can go wrong in many ways, the engineer allows all of them",
"-29.804243455088"
],
[
"network's money troubles. He now owns a successful voice-over business, where he does network spots for CBS and is the announcer for the FOX sketch comedy show Mad TV. Original line-up in 1980: Tim Moore-mornings; Mike Daniels-middays; Bob Harper-afternoons; Carey Carlson-nights; John Borders-voice tracked 10p-6a; Bob White-morning news; Cindy Smith-afternoon news. Other personalities in the 80's: Rob Hazelton, Jim Owen, Chet Jessick, Mark Cage, Mike Sommers; Christopher Knight.\nThe departure of the Captain would be the start of many defections by high-profile personalities, including \"Storm\" Kennedy, Keith Michaels, Lisa Knight, and Ron Pritchard, who programmed the station for most of the",
"-29.79421536033624"
],
[
"Alan Kalter Career Kalter, nicknamed \"Big Red\" and \"TV's Uncle Jerry\", began his stint as the \"voice\" of the Late Show with David Letterman on September 5, 1995. He announced the guests at the top of each show and the one-liner during the Worldwide Pants title card after the credits and regularly acted in comedic sketches.\nKalter has done hundreds of voiceovers for national radio and television commercials and was also the lead continuity voice for the USA Network throughout much of the 1980s (his voice was still heard on USA into the mid-2010s for the network's paid programming disclaimer, until a",
"-29.74256944246008"
],
[
"agencies. Conclusion Broadcast journalism did not develop until the mid 1930s. Relationships between the older print media and the newer medium of radio were not friendly, and the journalists of the time needed considerable diplomatic skills in dealing with the wire services and their own employers. By the beginning of the next decade the effectiveness and reliability of broadcast journalism was confirmed by the coverage of World War II.",
"-29.740420220881788"
],
[
"Cleveland to Philadelphia in 1965 the station's then-news director, Al Primo, created the Eyewitness News format. In this format, which was meant to be faster in pace than the standard newscast format (in which an anchor simply read headlines), a reporter in the field would be the \"eyewitness\" to a news event to the anchor in the studio and the viewer at home. The anchors became personalities instead of presenters with the introduction of banter, or \"happy talk\" as it was named by Al Primo. Anchors would give their own personal comments in between stories to let viewers know their",
"-29.71029697553604"
],
[
"generally considered to be non-partisan and are not driven by the hosts' personalities, unlike the majority of contemporary North American talk radio programs. However, accusations of partisan activity by specific callers, such as political staffers calling in the guise of \"regular joes\", have been made from time to time.\nDuring the late 1990s, the VOCM network experimented with syndicated talk programming in the form of the Dr. Laura Schlessinger show, which aired on tape delay in the early evening. As with most Canadian stations airing the program, it was quietly dropped shortly after a Canadian Broadcast Standards Council ruling admonishing the",
"-29.686143202270614"
],
[
"getting ready to fly everyone on the set had to be quiet, so he could talk to people via the radio. Gemmell said \"It's quite something standing with 30 people spread out across a field in total silence for a good 10 minutes, then hearing in the distance the rumble of a plane engine getting louder and louder.\" She also praised the make-up department for getting her wig to stay on during filming. Gemmell added that the second series was tough to film especially for the team behind the scenes. Broadcasting The first series consisted of five episodes lasting 45",
"-29.664062082749297"
],
[
"had as much power as Cronkite did at his height.\" Enjoying the cult of personality surrounding Cronkite in those years, CBS allowed some good-natured fun-poking at its star anchorman in some episodes of the network's popular situation comedy All in the Family, during which the lead character Archie Bunker would sometimes complain about the newsman, calling him \"Pinko Cronkite.\"\nCronkite trained himself to speak at a rate of 124 words per minute in his newscasts, so that viewers could clearly understand him. In contrast, Americans average about 165 words per minute, and fast, difficult-to-understand talkers speak close to 200 words per",
"-29.64458671025932"
],
[
"signals. Audio journalism A common set-up for journalists is a battery operated cassette recorder with a dynamic microphone and optional telephone interface. With this set-up, the reporter can record interviews and natural sound and then transmit these over the phone line to the studio or for live broadcast.\nElectronic formats used by journalists have included DAT, MiniDisc, CD and DVD. Minidisc has digital indexing and is re-recordable, reusable medium; while DAT has SMPTE timecode and other synchronization features. In recent years, more and more journalists have used smartphones or iPod-like devices for recording short interviews. The other alternative is using small",
"-29.583440837450325"
],
[
"Interpretive journalism History In his book Interpretative Reporting (1938) Curtis D. MacDongall wrote that during the beginning of the First World War most Americans were taken by surprise and were unable to understand the reasons why it started. This led to changes in the style of reporting.\nDuring the 1920s events such as the Great Depression and the Nazi threat to global stability caused audiences to be no longer content with the five W's of journalism. In 1923, Time magazine launched as the first major publication to provide readers with a more analytical interpretation of the news. Many papers responded with",
"-29.574383582348673"
],
[
"a \"Communicator\" for the NBC Radio show Monitor on Sunday afternoons from 1955 – 1960. Perry Como Gallop was the announcer for Perry Como's 1950s – 1960s television shows. At The Perry Como Show's premiere on September 17, 1955, the first voice heard was that of Gallop, saying, \"We assume everyone can read, so we will not shout at you.\" While serving as the announcer for Milton Berle's radio show, Gallop had been the one delivering the comedy lines; on the Perry Como Show, it was just the opposite, with Como getting the \"last word\" on Gallop. At",
"-29.568611112204962"
],
[
"device The commercial use of voice-over in television advertising has been popular since the beginning of radio broadcasting.\nIn the early years, before effective sound recording and mixing, announcements were produced \"live\" and at-once in a studio with the entire cast, crew and, usually, orchestra. A corporate sponsor hired a producer, who hired writers and voice actors to perform comedy or drama.\nManufacturers will often use a distinctive voice to help them with brand messaging, often retaining talent to a long-term exclusive contract.\nThe industry expanded very rapidly with the advent of television in the 1950s, and the age of highly produced serial",
"-29.568291216768557"
],
[
"was voted as the favourite male voice. His voice was described, by the paper's radio critic Paul Donovan, as smoother than that of the favourite female Jane Garvey and as \"evoking an earlier, more formal BBC\". In September 2015, he played a vintage radio announcer in the BBC Radio 4 drama Dead Girls Tell No Tales.\nIn April 2016 Soanes played Derek Nimmo in the radio drama All Mouth and Trousers, by Mark Burgess, the story behind the making of the television comedy series All Gas and Gaiters. The reviews for the programme were generally positive with The Sunday Times' Paul",
"-29.511140300310217"
],
[
"Kathy O' Connor (Dayton's first female news reporter) and Retha Phillips among others. Nance and Phillips were also 2007 inductees into the Dayton Broadcasters Hall of Fame. In the early 1960s it was at first a top of the hour \"rip and read\" newscast from wire services with an echoed voice shouting the dateline location at the beginning of a story (replaced in 1965 by a tone chord simulating an electronic telegraph key sounder). The newscast was also upgraded by world news actualities from Metromedia Radio, a predecessor of UPI Audio Network who bought the news-feed service in 1971. By",
"-29.465789617286646"
],
[
"Alan Black (broadcaster) Alan Black (15 January 1943 – 5 March 2007) was known as one of the presenters of BBC's Sounds of the Seventies.\nAfter having worked as a disc jockey for a series of commercial radio stations in the mid-1960s, Black joined the BBC in July 1968, with a programme on BBC Radio 1: Midday Spin. He also presented In Concert, on BBC Radio 2, and the What's New programme with Anne Nightingale.",
"-29.4487383710657"
],
[
"listeners because of his relaxed, urbane style.\nBy this time the programme was benefiting from publicity gained after it became known that Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was a regular listener. Ministers thus became keen to go on the programme, but the tough, confrontational interviewing they encountered led to accusations that the BBC was biased. Criticism was particularly directed against Redhead, who was often seen as being on the left. Chancellor Nigel Lawson accused him of having been a Labour voter all his life during a live interview, in 1988. The style of the male interviewers was analysed and contrasted with the",
"-29.443386844417546"
],
[
"in broadcasts as \"John Brown declined to be interviewed on camera, but said\" or simply \"a spokesperson said\".\nSome interview subjects are uncomfortable being recorded. Some are afraid that they will be inarticulate and feel like fools if the interview is broadcast. Others might be uncooperative or distrust the motives or competence of the journalist, and wish to prevent them from being able to broadcast an unflattering sound bite or part of the interview out of context. Professional public relations officers know that having the reporter repeat their words, rather than being heard directly on the air, will blunt the effect",
"-29.441735048400005"
],
[
"NBC Talknet History Prior to the late 1970s, AM radio was still largely dominated by all-music formats. Many individual radio stations had introduced some talk programming to their lineups, but it was almost universally locally produced. The concept of national talk radio, broadcast over a radio network, had not been tried. In 1978, Larry King began broadcasting six hours of talk programming nightly on the Mutual Broadcasting System. His success in the field proved to radio programmers that there was an audience for both late-night talk programming and national talk radio programming. NBC and ABC were quick to enter the",
"-29.434522265044507"
],
[
"into the 2000s, with everyone from Broadway stars to NFL football players to politicians coming to Studio 6B to be interviewed.\nLive at Five was originally cancelled in September 1991 and replaced by a traditional newscast known as News 4 New York at 5, anchored by Simmons and Chuck Scarborough. This format did not stay long, however – Simmons was paired with Matt Lauer for a new iteration of Live at Five, originating from the Window on the World studios used for NBC's Today. Shortly afterwards, Live at Five was moved back to 30 Rockefeller Center and adopted a more traditional",
"-29.432235218535425"
],
[
"BBC News 1950s Television news, although physically separate from its radio counterpart, was still firmly under radio news' control – correspondents provided reports for both outlets–and that first bulletin, shown on 5 July 1954 on the then BBC television service and presented by Richard Baker, involved his providing narration off-screen while stills were shown. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a recorded commentary by John Snagge (and on other occasions by Andrew Timothy).\nIt was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story.",
"-29.38138173200423"
],
[
"taped, syndicated \"Entertainers\" MOR format, using live announcers in some dayparts. \nIn 1985, Roger Tees took over as news director and hired anchors, Jeff Scott, Greg Gaston, Carla Contento Kenny, and Vince Scanlon, along with sports director Jim Wise and sports anchor Greg Toland. When the all-news/talk anchors departed for other positions in larger markets, ratings plummeted. By 1988, the WFPG call letters, which had remained in use on a co-owned FM station, had returned to the AM facility. \nFor much of the 1990s, syndicated talk programs such as Bob Grant, Mike Gallagher, and Art Bell were mainstays of",
"-29.38000557183841"
],
[
"interviews or voice-overs, consisting solely of the actual TV footage on June 17, 1994. This was the date of the O.J. Simpson slow-moving police chase, and the other important sports stories of that day that were mostly ignored, due to the American public's fascination with Simpson. Personal life Morgen lives in Rockaway, Queens, New York with his wife, Debra Eisenstadt, and three children.",
"-29.332479869539384"
],
[
"long-time announcer on many radio shows, including Bob Hope's. The Blue Network gave him and partner Don Prindle a comedy series, Niles and Prindle, which is referenced in the special as being scheduled for a debut the following month. It was said to involve two friends \"who argued about everything\", and had a brief run in 1945. It was certainly unusual for the Blue Network to attempt to convert a long-time announcer into a featured comedy star, and in this sense, \"Niles and Prindle\", if not unique (given that Graham McNamee was the \"Perfect Foil\" to Ed Wynn), it",
"-29.31197188969236"
],
[
"to be a celebrity? Wide Wide World's cameras profile some of the era's stars, including Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward. Stars of the art world are also shown, and Garroway muses about what, exactly, makes a celebrity.\nMay 25, 1958 - \"The Sound of Laughter\" Features clips and commentary by Bob Hope, Steve Allen, Smith and Dale, Robert Benchley, Mort Sahl, Claude Rains, Al Capp and Peter Ustinov.",
"-29.289142123772763"
],
[
"in their character's name with different companies. Radio personality Radio talk shows are also called aniradio. Initially the vast majority was aired by local broadcast stations only, but after the communication boom of the 1990s the metropolitan radio stations began to also employ them. Some such programs aired for over ten years. This was the result of fans who regard radio talks as a way to get to know the voice actors as human beings rather than just voices for the characters they play.\nDue to lower costs and the increase in the number of listeners, more and more of these",
"-29.27268827871012"
],
[
"and closed captioning for personal TVs. With other options available for entertainment and communication, the need for deaf clubs grew smaller. It was no longer the only option for getting in touch with other members of the deaf community.\nHowever, others attribute the decline of deaf clubs to the end of World War II and a change in the job market. During WWII there was high demand for factory laborers and a promise of high pay. Many deaf Americans left their homes to move to bigger cities with the hope of obtaining a factory job. This huge influx of workers into new",
"-29.270535412826575"
],
[
"the recording machine. Many airchecks were made to record DXing reception, which often included fading, static and interference. Uses DJs use airchecks to critique themselves, sometimes with the Program Director listening along with them to provide suggestions for improvements. Announcers keep some of their airchecks as \"audio snapshots\" of their career. \nAirchecks are also recorded at radio stations to send to clients to show how their live commercials, remote breaks or contests sounded.\nSome airchecks of older radio programs are highly prized by collectors, due to their nostalgia value. For example, baby boomers often enjoy listening to airchecks recorded from Top",
"-29.26352840736945"
],
[
"in June of that year, would become the permanent anchor for the NBC Nightly News; Holt is the first African-American to be named as the sole weeknight anchor of a major network news broadcast. Today's television news Today, electronic news gathering has enabled reporters to capture video and audio at greater ease and edit the footage faster than when film was used. Journalists have also employed microwave and satellite.\nTelevision news programming in the U.S. can be separated into categories: local news, network news, and cable news. Local news Many local broadcast television stations have in-house news departments that produce their",
"-29.260252952444716"
],
[
"developed a comforting rapport with the American public. The Fireside Chats enabled the President to communicate directly to the public through one of the most popular media outlets of the time. Politicians would continue to use the radio in World War II, in which the radio was used primarily for news transmissions and the spread of propaganda. One example of radio propaganda came from Iva Toguri D'Aquino, Ruth Hayakawa, June Suyamawho, and Myrtle Lipton collectively known as Tokyo Rose. These women hosted anti-American programming intended to lower American soldiers' morale and illustrate the use of governments' use of the media",
"-29.25931721692905"
],
[
"as the voice-over narrator to tell a story.\nLive sports broadcasts are usually shown as extensive voice-overs by sports commentators over video of the sporting event.\nGame shows formerly made extensive use of voice-overs to introduce contestants and describe available or awarded prizes, but this technique has diminished as shows have moved toward predominantly cash prizes. The most prolific have included Don Pardo, Johnny Olson, John Harlan, Jay Stewart, Gene Wood and Johnny Gilbert.\nVoice-over commentary by a leading critic, historian, or by the production personnel themselves is often a prominent feature of the release of feature films or documentaries on DVDs. Commercial",
"-29.24709412708762"
],
[
"types. Virtually all stations also had programs of interest to women, and children's sessions. From the outset, A Class stations' peak-hour evening programs often consisted of live broadcasts from various theatres, including concerts dramas, operas, musicals, variety shows, and vaudeville. The first dramas especially written for radio were heard in the mid-1920s.\nThe standard accent used by actors and announcers was \"Southern English\", an upper-class British version that emulated the BBC. The actual Australian accent was acceptable only in low comedy, as in the long-running \"Dad and Dave from Snake Gully\" program.\nBy the 1930s, the ABC was transmitting a number of",
"-29.24542690484668"
],
[
"it pioneered \"702 eye-witness news\", broadcasting full news bulletins every hour and headlines on the half-hour. Some of the other popular presenters were Mike Mills on the afternoon show; former Ireland, Lions and Transvaal rugby player, John Robbie, who began as a late night talk show host, with Talk at Ten, then Talk at Nine (currently hosted by Aubrey Masango), eventually moving to the main morning talk show; former Manchester United goalkeeper, Gary Bailey, and many others who popularised the station. Also heard on Radio 702 in the early 1980s was American Top 40 with Casey Kasem.\nUp until the",
"-29.23451205829042"
],
[
"\"voice\", or narrator, of the show was John Facenda, known to Philadelphians for decades reporting the news on radio and television, as well as nationally known as the voice of NFL Films. NFL Films' Ed Sabol referred to Facenda as \"The Voice of God\" (Facenda is in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio). His wordsmithing and dramatic baritone delivery were highlights of the shows and did much to boost Facenda's stock and mystique. Various announcers narrated the show between 1995 and 2005. Beginning in 2006, under Macy's, Julie Andrews became the show's narrator. Also in 2006, the",
"-29.234430735512433"
],
[
"end of the 1960s. The station also had specialty shows playing jazz and big band music. \"The Voice of Sports\" While WHDH was never \"all sports\", it was easily Boston's top sports station during the 1950s through the end of the 1960s. It referred to itself \"The Voice of Sports\", a sub-branding of the station's overall imaging as the Voice of the City.\nFor 30 consecutive years (1946-75), WHDH was the flagship station of the Boston Red Sox, featuring play-by-play announcers such as Jim Britt, Ford C. Frick Award-winning Curt Gowdy, Ken Coleman and Ned Martin. From 1946 through 1949, it",
"-29.231878725986462"
],
[
"focused on this particular episode because of its quality treatment of racist issues. Hinds commented on this saying there was \"a moment in Hollywood where our [colored people's] voice is coming to prominence\".",
"-29.219635632056452"
],
[
"a television version of the radio commentary series created by Gary Burbank. Burbank – whose segments as the \"middle American\" archetype character began airing on the channel that same month – had long maintained a close relationship with certain executives working at that time for the Tribune Company, who approached him about bringing the segments to television. The commentary was aired in the form of a series of 90-second segments that aired on WGN America until November 2011, usually during simulcasts of WGN-TV newscasts.\nAs part of WGN America's restructuring, the channel began to develop original programming – some of which",
"-29.204485939408187"
],
[
"Robert Dougall Television news Dougall's radio work took a back seat when he returned to London in 1951 to work as a television newsreader. (He is thought to have been the only person from the BBC's early radio service who had an enduring career in television.) Between 1946 and 1955, the BBC news was merely voiced over a photograph of Big Ben, a measure sanctioned by Chief News Editor Tahu Hole to reinforce the absolute impartiality for which the Corporation was renowned. However, the coming of commercial television and ITN in 1955 prompted the BBC to have its newsreaders perform",
"-29.202363349468214"
],
[
"commentary, largely because during this period, it was not unusual for long stretches of the race to see little or no action. Turn reporters typically did not \"call\" the race live, in-part due to the limitations of the equipment. Rather, when incidents occurred on the track, the information would be relayed on cue cards to Collins, and the reporters would be called upon to summarize the details of what had happened. A unique individual, Collins was characterized by his contemporaries as a perfectionist and a proud person. The Collins era was also noted for its popular culture and social appeal.",
"-29.18854857844417"
],
[
"from Fordham University. Future Yankees television announcer Michael Kay and New York Giants radio voice Bob Papa were among the Fordham attendees who later announced for Sports Phone. Some Sports Phone announcers who provided updates to southern locations, including Papa, applied pseudonyms in an effort \"to sound less ethnic.\"",
"-29.176081055213217"
],
[
"time was negative, some listeners believed the BBC's commitment to accurate pronunciation was in decline.\nLater in the decade, she moved to daytime television co-presenting Open Air and continued with voiceover work when it ended. Susan Rae began working on the BBC World Service around 2000, returning to BBC Radio 4 in 2003.\nShe has done voice-overs for many Discovery Channel shows including some episodes of Forensic Detectives (Discovery Channel TV show), some episodes of The FBI Files; and Street Crime UK for Bravo. In 2007, she presented Eastern Skies for Anglia Television. Personal life Rae lives in London. She is a",
"-29.169321295696136"
],
[
"only had only one voice deliver messages in a given train car with both voices split among the system's fleet.\nThe original edition of Train Call, which ran from the airports opening in 1995 until 2007 and also recorded by Jim Green, featured the voices of local radio broadcaster Pete Smythe and former KCNC-TV anchor Reynelda Muse, who is notable for being the first woman and first African American to anchor a television news program in Colorado. A different set of sound effects accompanied the original voices which mostly came from bells and woodwind instruments and were based on western folk",
"-29.16376618852155"
],
[
"into a smaller amount of time, reducing advertising costs, and/or allowing more information to be included in a given radio or TV advertisement. It is usually most noticeable in the information-dense caveats and disclaimers presented (usually by legal requirement) at the end of commercials—the aural equivalent of the \"fine print\" in a printed contract. This practice, however, is not new: before electronic methods were developed, spokespeople who could talk extremely quickly and still be understood were widely used as voice talents for radio and TV advertisements, and especially for recording such disclaimers. Education Time-compressed speech has educational applications",
"-29.158708421415213"
],
[
"service middle of the road (MOR) radio stations in America, placing an emphasis on its colorful air personalities. During the 1970s and into the early 1980s there was: Gary Todd (mornings), brought in from KOL Seattle; Jerry Baker (9-11am) who was also the voice of Indiana (University) Hoosiers basketball and the Indiana Pacers; Paul Page, the voice of the Indianapolis 500 on radio then later on television, and who served as an award-winning newsman at WIBC in the early 1970s, reporting from the first Indy traffic helicopter (known as the \"Ten Seven-Oh Whirlybird\") until a serious crash nearly",
"-29.14119433891028"
],
[
"use actual WKBW disc jockeys and news reporters as actors. Other changes reflected the changing state of the industry: instead of the old-time radio programming fare of the 1930s, WKBW's War of the Worlds broadcast was interwoven into the station's top 40 programming. Production Initially, a script was written for the news reporters to act out; however, upon hearing the rehearsals, it was evident that the news reporters (except Irv Weinstein, a professional radio actor at the beginning of his career) were not adept at scripted radio acting. So instead, Kaye wrote an outline based on the events that were",
"-29.128229474968975"
],
[
"being Lynne Reid Banks), and helped to pioneer the use of so-called Vox pop reports in the United Kingdom – whereby one conducts interviews with ordinary members of the public in the street.\nAlthough Mandell was the UK's first regular female television news presenter, her tenure lasted only a few months. By January 1956 ITV was experiencing financial difficulties, and the budget for its news strand was reduced, meaning the Midday News was dropped. However, Mandell continued to be seen on screen throughout the 1950s, usually fronting weekend news bulletins, and she was a regular reporter. Then later in her career",
"-29.10892323639564"
],
[
"Leslie Mitchell (broadcaster) Leslie Scott Falconer Mitchell (4 October 1905 – 23 November 1985) was a British announcer who was heard on newsreel soundtracks, radio and television. He was the first voice heard on BBC Television at its inception on 2 November 1936, and also made the first announcement on Associated-Rediffusion, the first ITV company, on 22 September 1955. His voice was perhaps most recognised, however, from his long association with British Movietone News, for whose newsreels he commentated during the Second World War and for many years afterwards. Early life Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, Mitchell's parents separated while he",
"-29.091194617329165"
],
[
"media critic Richard Deitsch wrote “Along with the quality of their voices, what stands out here is the diligence and professionalism that each man delivers daily. Names are correctly pronounced, setups are done intelligently. It’s a pleasure to listen to radio professionals who care about quality.” \nWilson was also named “Comeback Talent of the Year” for 2010 by TalkingTVSports. Steve Sampsell wrote: “Simply put, Wilson is a sports-radio professional. He’s diligent, sounds good and works hard. He cares and he prepares.” In December, 2011, the ESPN Radio anchors were named as “Best National Voices for 2011”",
"-29.081469908793224"
],
[
"lame excuse as to why he has failed.\nFordie's Interviews Each week, Fordie pretends to interview a famous person, yet actually uses soundbites from old interviews and fills in his part himself. He has 'interviewed' Gordon Brown, David Cameron, David Attenborough, the England football team, and even Jon. Guest comedian Every week, Jon Richardson invited a guest comedian to join him in the studio.\nSome of guest comedians appeared on the show were:\nStephen K Amos,\nJarred Christmas,\nArnab Chanda (who announced his retirement from comedy while on the show),\nRufus Hound,\nJosie Long,\nMichael McIntyre,\nSarah Millican,\nLloyd Langford,\nDan Atkinson,\nAl Pitcher,\nRich Hall (AKA Otis Lee Crenshaw),\nPaul Sinha,\nAndrew Bird,\nJohn (Nobbler)",
"-29.07285334745393"
],
[
"broadcast 60 Minutes displays this purported superfluousness of anchors, insofar as it has no central figurehead in favor of many correspondents with similarly important roles. Up-and-coming news networks like Vice Magazine's documentary-style reporting also eschew traditional news broadcast formatting in this way, suggesting an emphasis on on-site reporting and deemphasizing the importance of the solitary anchor in the news medium. In her essay, \"News as Performance\", Margaret Morse posits this connection between anchor persona newsroom as an interconnected identity fusing many aspects of the newsroom dynamic:\nFor the anchor represents not merely the news per se, or a particular network or",
"-29.07084929724806"
],
[
"civilians to keep clear of military targets. The station changed name to \"Voice of Britain\". The station was turned over to the BBC at the end of March 1957 (see British East Mediterranean Relay Station).",
"-29.02336039947113"
],
[
"monologue (where the voice talent portrays a character, as opposed to an announcer), jingles, and combinations of these. Studies show that the quality of the commercials is as important to listeners, generally, as the number of ads they hear. Research and rates Radio stations today generally run their advertising in clusters or sets, scattered throughout the broadcasting hour. Studies show that the first or second commercial to air during a commercial break has higher recall than those airing later in the set.\nNielsen Audio is one of the primary providers of ratings data in the United States. Most radio stations",
"-29.020818965659828"
],
[
"a voiceover performer through the 1990s.\nHe was best known as the \"Why Not?\" man when he joined the cast of the NBC Sunday night variety show that Allen began hosting to compete against Ed Sullivan on CBS. The catch-phrase began as a stalling ad-lib to an interview question; then it caught on. Allen used it for television commercials and saw novelty toys, a book and a record spin off from the \"Why not?\" phenomenon. In its day, fans were shouting \"Why not?\" as often as Mad Magazine's famous \"What? Me Worry?\"\nHis brother, Bradley Bolke, was also a voice actor best",
"-28.99973273494288"
],
[
"voice overs can be recorded in home studios because of technology becoming so affordable, high paying jobs are no longer sourced exclusively through traditional voice talent agents. History Since the decline in viewership in theaters, from the 1950s to 1960s, a monumental shift occurred in how studios produced films and reduced the cost of exclusive and expensive actors. After the shift, actors and actresses were working for the studios but were not owned by one major studio entity, and so were able to work with other studios. This shift has meant that agents were now seen as a necessity instead",
"-28.97785620833747"
],
[
"Radio during the Golden Age began to fully develop programs with sound effects, music, dialogue, and narration. Some voice actors would play multiple characters in a story performed live on the air, and some radio shows were performed in front of a live audience. This allowed the show to gauge real audience reaction like applause and laughter for comedy shows. Programming during the Golden Age included comedies, dramas, westerns, horror and suspense shows, science fiction, soap operas, sports, and news. Big players In the heyday of radio, NBC and CBS built their empire using the mass media and emphasizing the",
"-28.977519066771492"
],
[
"the view that BBC presenters on the day had concentrated too much on interviews with celebrities and that they were insufficiently prepared to add depth to the TV commentary. The actor and writer Stephen Fry was of the opinion that the coverage was \"mind-numbingly tedious\", while Ben Dowell in The Guardian singled out the lack of television coverage given to the composers and performers who were commissioned to write music and perform on the Thames barges. Poet Laureate Carol Ann Duffy and composers Orlando Gough and Gavin Greenaway also expressed their frustration about the coverage. BBC creative director",
"-28.97707785415696"
],
[
"shot on film, often using hand-held cameras, in a documentary style. Four video cameras recorded the show-within-a-show which gives a brighter, less grainy picture and helps distinguish the talk show from the back-stage scenes. The talk show was staged with realistic music, lighting and set design. It was recorded in front of an actual live studio audience during the first season and then occasionally during later episodes.\nThe show had a few catchphrases used throughout its entire run. The most common was \"Hey now\", a phrase Hank repeats in the opening credits of the fictional talk show and whenever he greets",
"-28.973327180807246"
],
[
"event. Newsroom Voice of America's central newsroom has hundreds of journalists and dozens of full-time domestic and overseas correspondents, who are employees of the U.S. government or paid contractors. They are augmented by hundreds of contract correspondents and stringers throughout the world, who file in English or in one of VOA's other radio and television broadcast languages.\nIn late 2005, VOA shifted some of its central-news operation to Hong Kong where contracted writers worked from a \"virtual\" office with counterparts on the overnight shift in Washington, D.C., but this operation was shut down in early 2008. Shortwave frequencies By December 2014,",
"-28.97301399207572"
]
] |
2uvs66 | How is it legal for Hershey's to block Cadbury's chocolate from entering the US? | [
"It's not Hershey's blocking Cadbury's. It's Cadbury's blocking Cadbury's because they've sold the rights to Hershey. Cadbury's signed a contract with Hershey's stating that Hershey's would manufacture chocolate in the US and sell it in the US under the Cadbury's name. Hersheys paid Cadbury's a sum of money for this privilege. In return Hershey's gets to use the Cadbury's name and advertizing. In addition Cadbury's agrees not to sell it's own chocolate within the United States. The problem here is that people are importing Cadbury's from the UK and selling it in the US. If Cadbury's does not take steps to prevent this then Hershey's could sue them for breaching the contract mentioned above. Since Cadbury's actually likes that contract (because of all the money Hershey's pays them) then don't like these chocolate importers. So they attempt to block it. It's not Hershey's doing the blocking. It's Cadbury honoring the commitment they made when they signed that contract.",
"Hershey and Cadbury signed a contract allowing Hershey the exclusive right to make and sell Cadbury chocolate in the US.",
"Dan opens a lemonade stand on his block. You open a lemonade stand on your block. Dan's lemonade is wildly successful, and people on your block want it. So you pay Dan so that you can make your lemonade and sell it as \"Dan's Lemonade\" on your block and make money for yourself. Then, Bill from your block starts driving to Dan's block and buying \"Dan's Lemonade\" from Dan, driving it back to your block, and selling it in a stand right next to yours. You paid Dan to able to make \"Dan's Lemonade\" so that you could be the person to sell it on your block, but Bill just bought it from Dan's block and came to sell it on your block.",
"Since there's no top level comment that explains this, I'll collate some of the correct answers from other comments: First of all, Hershey's is not trying to block *all* Cadbury's chocolate. They're going after a specific importer who imports the majority of UK chocolate. Secondly, the way they're allowed to do this isn't exactly through a contract they have with Cadbury's. Yes, they have exclusive rights to manufacture Cadbury's chocolate for distribution in the United States. That isn't the important part—the important part is that they have exclusive rights in the United States to Cadbury's *trademarks*. For all intents and purposes, this means that Hershey's owns the trademarks in the United States. Now for the explanastion: What's happening here is that there's a company importing Cadbury's chocolate from the UK to the United States and then marketing it as Cadbury's chocolate. Hershey's, since they own the rights to Cadbury's trademarks in the US, is suing them for trademark infringement to block the importation of the \"counterfeit goods\". TL;DR: Hershey's is the only company allowed to call themselves Cadbury's in the US, and they're suing the importer of the \"counterfeit\" chocolate bars.",
"Owner of a [Imported Candy distribution company]( URL_0 ) here, and so far, Hershey has only got one Importer, to stop importing Cadbury's + a few others that look like American candy bars (toffee crisp, for example). They can do this because they own the US distribution rights but, if you wanna be tricky, you can still get them from Canada.",
"Hershey's has an exclusive license to sell Cadbury's chocolate (or at least stuff they call Cadbury's chocolate) in the US. They paid a lot of money for those rights. Cadbury made this decision and went for it. Now, people are trying to import Cadbury's chocolate and sell it. That is actually against trademark law.",
"They changed the recipe in Creme Eggs ( URL_0 ) It is going to lose them a large amount of business. Lots of people are very unhappy with the new american style rubbish, follow #cremeegggate",
"As a Canadian I'm curious if we get real Cadbury or Hershey Cadbury?",
"Hershey owns the rights to distribute Cadbury in the US. After the rights to do so were sold to them, Cadbury can't come in and compete under the same label. Conceivably, Cadbury could buy the rights to distribute other candy in the US, but not Cadbury-brand; likewise, Cadbury could, hypothetically, buy the rights to distribute Hershey in the UK, in which case Hershey could not sell Hershey-brand candy there (buuut, it could buy the rights to sell *other* candy in the UK). **tl,dr:** brand ownership in multinational corporations is handled by-country, it's not an \"overall\" thing.",
"Cadbury's was bought out by Kraft Foods (an American company) several years ago now, and anybody from the UK and from my generation will tell you that most Cadbury products aren't what they used to be. The taste of the chocolate became weaker and the textures dissapeared from some of our favourites like Cadbury's Roses. The brand is still strong and kids will always buy it, but for those of us born in the 70's and 80's, it's a travesty. I haven't bought their products for a few years now. For me personally, it tastes like sugared milk. There's no richness to it anymore.",
"Well son, you see, we live in a world where the more money you have, the less the rules apply to you. Corporations do a lot of things that aren't fair, and seem like they should be obviously illegal. The sorry truth is that the world isn't fair, and laws only apply to you if you can't pay the price to ignore them. Think of life like Disneyland, most of us will wait in line to go on the rides, but the rich will pay to jump the line. This may be unfair, but the sorry truth is this, if you could afford it, you'd pay to jump the line to. Money is power, and power corrupts. Did that help at all?",
"IANAL- In order for this to a be a big concern, shouldn't Hershey have to show that these imports did in fact hurt their profit margin? Shouldn't Hershey have to prove that it was Cadbury doing the actual importing. Furthermore, how is clearing customs? If cargo is checked on the way into the country, shouldn't it be a big red flag that a million chocolate eggs are being brought IN? If the government is going to take tax money to perform this task, isn't this case a blatant show that they are failing at the most based task they are supposed to be doing?",
"From what I understand, Hershey's came to an agreement with the importer in question. That importer imported the vast majority of Cadbury UK's product that was sold in the US. Saying that Hershey's blocked Cadbury's chocolate is incorrect; Hershey convinced the importer to stop importing Cadbury's chocolate. Hershey's may or may not have the legal right to block imports of Cadbury's chocolate, but I'm sure their press release implied that Hershey's successfully banned Cadbury's chocolate, which is what the press picked up on.",
"They haven't blocked the import...sort of. They have the license to manufacture Cadbury products in the US, and can claim that UK versions coming in to the US violate that licensing agreement. The end result is much the same, but it's the threat of legal action preventing the importation more than some sort of direct control on the importation and selling of them.",
"LY5: Hershey's paid Cadbury not to sell their chocolate in America. Shops and importers want Cadbury chocolate so bring it in themselves but Hershey's doesn't like that so ask the courts to stop them.",
"Cadbury sold their rights to Hershey's. Wow that was easy.",
"Okay so now I'm curious. There's a tiny little store here in Orlando called The British Shoppe. They mostly sell three things: British convenience foods (things that come in cans, jars or bottles, nothing perishable), more tea flavors than have ever been discovered by mankind, and a giant wall o' grossly overpriced British candy (I'm not kidding, a small bag of Jelly Babies is like $9.00). The candy is a huge portion of their sales, and easily 50% of the selection is imported Cadbury's. Is this decision going to completely and utterly fuck them?",
"So I'm curious to know, last year I sent a package to a friend in the US, little gifts and what not. But I also sent her British Cadbury chocolate, you know since our chocolate is better and I did hear about the Hershey version tasting baaad. So I figured why not. Now I'm wondering could I do this again, or would that be against their agreement, even though what I am sending is private and a gift. not enough to go selling of course.",
"One of the biggest differences between products from the US and most of the rest of the world be it sweets, pop, ketchup etc. is most the world uses \"Sucrose, commonly named table sugar or sugar, is a cane and beet sugar\" In the US it is cheaper to use Fructose derived from from corn Syrup due to heavy farm subsidies. Living in a border area I notice the taste difference all the time.",
"I have a question. Is this on the news a lot in Briton? I doubt most Americans are even aware of this but something pops up on the front page at least once a week.",
"Canadian here. Anyone know if the Cadbury Dairy Milk bars I buy here are from the UK? or does a similar situation exist with Hershey's in Canada?",
"So when my mom goes back home every year and brings back a selections box she is smuggling them?????",
"They struck up an agreement with the importer, where the importer agreed to stop importing.",
"Prior agreement between the two companies? And yeah, Cadbury is way better than Hershey's"
] | [
[
"the International Labor Rights Forum. The purpose of the Raise the Bar Campaign is to pressure Hershey to commit \"to take immediate action to eliminate forced and child labor … from Hershey's cocoa supply\"; \"to sourcing 100% Fair Trade Certified™ cocoa beans by 2012 for at least one of its top five selling chocolate bars … making at least one additional top five selling bar 100% Fair Trade Certified™ every two years thereafter\"; and that \"the majority of Hershey's cocoa across all products will be Fair Trade Certified™ by 2022.\" Pressure was particularly directed at Whole Foods Market to cease",
"-25.41611157149964"
],
[
"States with sales of $2.603 billion, and is the fourth-best-selling candy brand globally with sales of $2.679 billion—only $76 million (2.8%) of its sales are from outside the United States market. Cadbury's In 1988, Hershey's acquired the rights to manufacture and distribute many Cadbury-branded products in the United States (except gum and mints, which are part of Mondelēz International). In 2015, they sued a British importer to halt imports of British Cadbury chocolate, angering consumers. A merger between Mondelēz and Hershey's was considered but abandoned in 2016 after Hershey's turned down a $23 billion cash-and-stock bid. Krave Jerky In",
"-25.3606001846274"
],
[
"attorney general had the case dismissed for being outside their jurisdiction.\nWhen none of the companies he contacted showed any interest in producing chocolate bars made differently, he started manufacturing his own chocolate, and in November introduced a milk chocolate bar made entirely from 'slave-free' cocoa.\nOn February 6, 2007, a court ruling in Amsterdam officially acknowledged that Tony's Chocolonely chocolate was produced in a slave-free manner. A Dutch importer for Swiss-brand chocolates unsuccessfully sued the team behind Tony's Chocolonely for reputation damage, claiming that \"slave-free chocolate is impossible to produce\".\nWhen a hazelnut milk chocolate bar was added to the lineup in",
"-24.742892486632627"
],
[
"a deal with Forrest Mars to create a hard sugar-coated chocolate that would be called M&M's (for Mars and Murrie). Murrie had 20% interest in the confection, which used Hershey chocolate during the rationing era during World War II. In 1948, Mars bought out Murrie's interest and became one of Hershey's main competitors. 21st century In June 2006, Philadelphia city councilman Juan Ramos called for Hershey's to stop marketing \"Ice Breakers Pacs\", a kind of mint, due to the resemblance of its packaging to a kind that was used for illegal street drugs.\nIn September 2006, ABC News",
"-24.22117977628659"
],
[
"opened on May 22, 1965, in Oakdale, California. In February and April 2007, Hershey's announced that their Smiths Falls and Oakdale plants would close in 2008, being replaced in part by a new facility in Monterrey, Mexico. The Oakdale factory closed on February 1, 2008. Hershey chocolate factory in São Roque, Brazil, was opened in August 2002.\nHershey also has plants in Stuarts Draft, Virginia; Lancaster, Pennsylvania; Hazleton, Pennsylvania; Memphis, Tennessee; Robinson, Illinois, and Guadalajara, Mexico.\nVisitors to Hershey can experience Hershey's Chocolate World visitors center and its simulated tour ride. Public tours were once operated in the Pennsylvania and California factories,",
"-23.997822742152493"
],
[
"GAF's business because the dealer declined to sign an agreement to conform to the statute. As New York officials moved to prosecute the company for trading without a license, GAF brought suit against the state, in the person of Baldwin and other officials. In 1934, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York issued a split decision, holding that GAF had the right to resell the milk in \"original packaging\", but not that which had been repackaged in individual bottles. Both parties appealed to the Supreme Court. Opinion of the Court In a unanimous decision, the",
"-23.88149421691196"
],
[
"in the U.S. \"hushed up\" the allegations. According to an article in Bloomberg, Wal-Mart's \"probe of possible bribery in Mexico may prompt executive departures and steep U.S. government fines if it reveals senior managers knew about the payments and didn't take strong enough action, corporate governance experts said.\" Eduardo Bohorquez, the director of Transparencia Mexicana, a \"watchdog\" group in Mexico, urged the Mexican government to investigate the allegations. Wal-Mart and the US Chamber of Commerce had participated in a campaign to amend FCPA; according to proponents, the changes would clarify the law, while according to opponents, the changes would weaken",
"-23.851646408997112"
],
[
"a subsidiary. Hershey sold the company for $1 million in 1900 to the American Caramel Company, but kept the Hershey Chocolate Company because he felt that there was a large market for chocolate confections. P.C. Wiest Co. The American Caramel Company grew out of an industry established by Peter C. Wiest in 1867. He was a pioneer in the manufacture of caramels and soon developed a successful business. In 1878, Daniel F. Lafean became a partner and the firm of P. C. Wiest & Company was organized. The original proprietor retired from the business and in 1895 The P. C.",
"-23.509788807001314"
],
[
"Beton, joined the Pernod Ricard group in 1984.\nIn 2000, the Orangina brand was acquired by Cadbury Schweppes along with Pernod Ricard's other soda businesses, after an attempt to sell to Coca-Cola was blocked on anti competitive grounds. In 2006, Cadbury plc decided to concentrate on the chocolate business and sought buyers for its soda business. As the number three soda producer globally, neither of the bigger two (Coca-Cola or PepsiCo) could buy it, so eventually the company was split up to sell. North America In the United States, the brand is owned by Dr Pepper Snapple Group Inc (now Keurig",
"-23.364346822811058"
],
[
"of Prestige Brands. Hershey's kept Luden's 5th Avenue bar. In 1988, Hershey's acquired the rights to manufacture and distribute many Cadbury-branded products in the United States (except gum and mints, which are part of Mondelēz International). In 1996, Hershey purchased the American operations of the Leaf Candy Company from Huhtamäki.\nIn 1999, the Hershey Pasta Group was divested to several equity partners to form the New World Pasta company (now part of Ebro Foods).\nOn July 25, 2002, it became public knowledge that the Hershey Trust Company was seeking to sell its controlling interest in the Hershey Foods Corporation. The value",
"-23.19576105445958"
],
[
"Foods had reached a deal and that Kraft would purchase Cadbury for £8.40 per share, valuing Cadbury at £11.5bn (US$18.9bn). Kraft, which issued a statement stating that the deal will create a \"global confectionery leader\", had to borrow £7 billion (US$11.5bn) in order to finance the takeover.\nThe Hershey Company, based in Pennsylvania, manufactures and distributes Cadbury-branded chocolate (but not its other confectionery) in the United States and has been reported to share Cadbury's \"ethos\". Hershey had expressed an interest in buying Cadbury because it would broaden its access to faster-growing international markets. But on 22 January 2010, Hershey announced that it",
"-23.176096297487675"
],
[
"market for fountain-dispensed soft drinks in the United States.\nIn June 2005, Coca-Cola in Europe formally agreed to end deals with shops and bars to stock its drinks exclusively after a European Union investigation found its business methods stifled competition.\nIn November 2005, Coca-Cola's Mexican unit - Coca-Cola Export Corporation - and a number of its distributors and bottlers were fined $68 million for unfair commercial practices. Coca-Cola is appealing the case. \"Channel stuffing\" settlement On July 7, 2008, Coca-Cola Co compromised to pay $137.5 million to settle an October 2000 shareholder lawsuit. Coca-Cola was charged in a U.S. District Court for",
"-23.038940399012063"
],
[
"Dagoba products as a consequence of the giant chocolate maker's refusal to address child labor in its supply chain\". The same day, Hershey's announced it would \"source 100 percent certified cocoa for its global chocolate product lines by 2020 and accelerate its programs to help eliminate child labor in the cocoa regions of West Africa\".\nIn 2019, Hershey announced that they could not guarantee that their chocolate products were free from child slave labor, as they could trace only about 50% of their purchasing back to the farm level. The Washington Post noted that the commitment taken in 2001 to eradicate",
"-23.003587711165892"
],
[
"in 2006, M&M's became the official chocolate of NASCAR.\nIn 2007, M&M's introduced a limited-edition raspberry flavor called \"M&M's Razzberry Chocolate Candies\".\nAlso in 2007, M&M's produced a 50-foot, smiling Lady Liberty M&M statue to kick off a campaign encouraging Americans to create their own M&M characters at mms.com. The website allows for people to log in and create their own character from scratch. They can choose features such as the color, shape, hair, and accessories.\nIn 2008, two limited-edition varieties of the candy were introduced – \"Wildly Cherry\" M&M's, and, as a marketing tie-in with the film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom",
"-22.93952314296621"
],
[
"that a lawsuit for false advertising claims could be pursued against Coca-Cola, saying \"Competitors may bring Lanham Act claims like POM's challenging food and beverage labels regulated by the FDCA.\" Legal analysts anticipate several more years of litigation on issues not argued in the Supreme Court, such as cause and magnitude of financial or brand injury to POM Wonderful resulting from the Minute Maid product. The Greatest Movie Ever Sold The company, product, executives and owner Lynda Resnick were featured in a 2011 documentary about product placement, marketing and advertising in movies and TV shows. The film was entitled",
"-22.854947608633665"
],
[
"2017 Cadillac Fairview sued Starbucks over Teavana closures in Canada. \nHowever, on January 18, 2018, Simon and Starbucks reached an agreement that would close the remaining 77 Teavana stores in Simon malls, ending the tea shop's existence as independent storefronts after nearly 21 years in business. Competitors Apart from generic tea brands (such as Lipton, Red Rose Tea, and Tetley), Teavana's competitors include DavidsTea, Nuovo Tea, Stash Tea Company, T2, The Wellness Group (TWG), Harney & Sons, Tea at Sea, Argo Tea, Art of Tea, and Oolong Tea Collective. Between partners Teavana partnered with a few charities and organizations to",
"-22.839429285289953"
],
[
"Court case, Apple Inc. v. Pepper heard in the 2018-2019 which relates to whether consumers of third-party mobile applications through a marketplace can bring anti-trust actions against the owner of the marketplace. The Court determined that consumers that purchased apps through Apple's iOS app store were direct purchasers and had standing to sue Apple for antitrust actions, despite Apple's insistence that consumers were buying apps from developers.",
"-22.726517152867018"
],
[
"Miracle Network, Ronald McDonald House, and United Way (UW). In 2016, the company donated more than $486,200 to those organizations. Cocoa purchase Hershey has been criticized for not having programs to ensure sustainable and ethical cocoa purchase, lagging behind its competitors in fair trade measures.\nThe \"Raise the Bar, Hershey!\" campaign was launched in September 2010 by Global Exchange, Green America, the Oasis Trust, and the International Labor Rights Forum. The purpose of the Raise the Bar Campaign was to pressure Hershey to commit \"to take immediate action to eliminate forced and child labor [...] from Hershey's cocoa supply\"; \"to sourcing",
"-22.719865492443205"
],
[
"territory to Dublin Dr Pepper, sued the Dublin Dr Pepper Bottling Company. Dr Pepper Snapple Group, the third-largest U.S. soda company with 2010 revenue of $5.6 billion, accused the Dublin bottler of trademark dilution and stealing sales from other Dr Pepper bottlers by selling outside its approved territory. Among the suit's demands were that the bottler remove \"Dublin\" from its \"Dr Pepper\" labels and stop selling the soda beyond a 44-mile radius around Dublin. On 11 January 2012, the Dr Pepper Snapple Group acquired the rights to the Dublin Dr Pepper franchise. Discontinuation On 12 January 2012, it was announced",
"-22.631825995507825"
],
[
"traced to a piece of satire written by Australian weblogger Andrew Winkler. Starbucks stores in both London and Beirut have been attacked by pro-Palestinian protesters as a result. Tax avoidance In October 2012, Starbucks faced criticism after a Reuters investigation found that the company reportedly paid only £8.6 million in corporation tax in the UK over 14 years, despite generating over £3 billion in sales—this included no tax payments on £1.3 billion of sales in the three years prior to 2012. It is alleged that Starbucks was able to do this by charging high licensing fees to the UK branch",
"-22.547840505005297"
],
[
"Pillsbury and Nestlé merged their U.S. and Canadian ice cream operations into a joint venture called Ice Cream Partners. General Mills subsequently bought Pillsbury in 2001 and succeeded to its interest in the joint venture.[17][18] In 2001 Nestlé exercised its contractual right to buy General Mills' interest in Ice Cream Partners, which included the right to a 99-year license for the Häagen-Dazs brand.[19][20] Pursuant to that license, the Dreyer's subsidiary of Nestlé has produced and marketed Häagen-Dazs products in the United States and Canada.\nIn 1989, the British company Grand Metropolitan (later Diageo) purchased the food maker, and during this ownership",
"-22.39932996054995"
],
[
"States antitrust law.\nIn May 1994, the United States Department of Justice filed suit on the grounds that Pilkington had created a cartel by exercising control over the markets in which its licensees could sell float glass and construct float-glass manufacturing plants, and over the customers within each market to which each licensee could serve. It was claimed this was a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act, because Pilkington's patents had expired and any trade secrets which it might have had in the process used by the licensees had long since become publicly known. On the same day, the government and",
"-22.352441966999322"
],
[
"company from seeking new marketing authorizations in the U.S on August 28, 2009. The import ban was subsequently lifted on May 6, 2011. On February 29, 2012, Apotex filed a claim to the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes seeking arbitration with the U.S.A. In the filing, Apotex cited unfair treatment by FDA which constituted a violation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Apotex further claimed that the action of FDA 'decimated its business'. On August 26, 2014, NAFTA tribunal rejected Apotex's claim.\nFDA inspected the same plants again in 2013 and issued",
"-22.25291466658939"
],
[
"Frappuccino. In 1991, when it was first planning to expand into Los Angeles, Starbucks tried to purchase Coffee Bean, but Hyman turned them down. The opening of Starbucks stores in Los Angeles unexpectedly helped Coffee Bean's business, by driving curious customers to the area.\nIn 1996, the Hymans sold the Asian franchise rights to Singaporean brothers Victor Sassoon and Sunny Sassoon. The Sassoons quickly expanded the company in the US and internationally, opening the first outlet in Singapore in 1996, and in Malaysia the following year. Within two years, they had opened 29 stores in Singapore and Malaysia, almost as many",
"-22.179889812978217"
],
[
"which ended in Pennsylvania in 1973 as soon as Hershey's Chocolate World opened, and later in California following the September 11, 2001, attacks, due to security concerns.\nOn September 18, 2012, Hershey opened a new and expanded West Hershey plant. The plant was completed at a budget of $300 million.\nOn March 9, 2018 Hershey broke ground to expand its Kit Kat manufacturing facility in Hazle Township, Pennsylvania. The expansion project has a $60 million budget and is expected to create an additional 111 jobs at the facility. Other sales and acquisitions In 1969, Hershey received a license from Rowntree's to manufacture",
"-22.10801668386557"
],
[
"The American Bottling Company History By 1998 Dr Pepper/Seven Up, a subsidiary of Cadbury Schweppes, was hindered by its bottling and distribution systems; owning no private bottling plants, it was dependent on independent bottlers or those controlled by Coca-Cola or Pepsi to bottle its beverages, and those two giant competitors also had better distribution systems and more influence with retail and fast-food chains.\nIn February 1998 Cadbury Schweppes and U.S. private equity firm Carlyle Group formed a joint venture named the American Bottling Company, initially consisting of the merger of two leading independent bottling groups in the Midwest: Beverage American and",
"-22.08296511566732"
],
[
"however, tell the developers they were \"welcome to resubmit\" after changing the app, though there was \"not much hope that it could survive in anything like its current incarnation\".\nIn November 2014, Apple removed the marijuana social networking app MassRoots, with the reason given that it \"encourage[d] excessive consumption of alcohol or illegal substances.” In February 2015, MassRoots was reintroduced into the store after Apple changed its enforcement guidelines to allow cannabis social apps in the 23 states where it is legal.\nIn September 2015, it was discovered that \"hundreds\" of apps submitted and approved on App Store were using XcodeGhost, a",
"-22.05337583576329"
],
[
"American businesses in Israel. Based on information put out by Starbucks, no information pointed towards caving into anti-Israel pressure. Bill O’Shea, Starbucks VP of Business Development in Europe, Middle East and Africa, released a letter stating that Starbucks chose to close their Israel locations due to business reasons, not political. Reemergence attempt In September 2005 Starbucks hired MAN Properties Real Estate Consultants to explore their options to return to Israel. Starbucks was looking for a managing partner to team up with in Israel for themergence.",
"-22.05335110078886"
],
[
"lawsuits Several class action suits across Canada have been launched against the Purdue group of companies and affiliates. Claimants argue the pharmaceutical manufacturers did not meet a standard of care and were negligent in doing so. These lawsuits reference earlier judgments in the United States, which held that Purdue was liable for wrongful marketing practices and misbranding. Since 2007, the Purdue companies have paid over CAN$650 million in settling litigation or facing criminal fines. Germany The drug is in Appendix III of the Narcotics Act (Betäubungsmittelgesetz or BtMG). The law allows only physicians, dentists, and veterinarians to prescribe oxycodone and",
"-21.99426028275957"
],
[
"the other side stole trade secrets. On April 21, 2011, a federal jury returned a verdict supporting MGA. On August 5, 2011, Mattel was also ordered to pay MGA $310 million for attorney fees, stealing trade secrets, and false claims rather than the $88.5 million issued in April.\nIn July 2012, MGA Entertainment sued Lady Gaga for $10 million for causing, according to the BBC, \"'deliberate' delays to the release of a doll based on her image.\"\nThe Ninth Circuit vacated without prejudice the $170 million judgment from 2008 against Mattel on procedural grounds in January 2013. On January 13, 2014, MGA",
"-21.96758923784364"
],
[
"Peaberry's poor financial practices and alleged that the company had not shown a profit since 1998. They further claimed that most of the stores owned by the company failed to break even. The franchisees also stopped paying royalties in February 2008. A Denver district judge ruled against the franchisees later that year and also decided that they owed the unpaid royalties to Peaberry. The franchisees are appealing the ruling.\nIn September 2009, Peaberry Coffee, Inc. closed all of its corporate owned locations. Several stores which were previously franchises are now operated independently. These stores include: the Denver Tech Center location, the",
"-21.966676879317674"
],
[
"separate entities: one focusing on its main chocolate and confectionery market; the other on its US drinks business. The demerger took effect on 2 May 2008, with the drinks business becoming Dr Pepper Snapple Group. In December 2008 it was announced that Cadbury was to sell its Australian beverage unit to Asahi Breweries. 2007–2010 In October 2007, Cadbury announced the closure of the Somerdale Factory, Keynsham, formerly part of Fry's. Between 500 and 700 jobs were affected by this change. Production transferred to other plants in England and Poland.\nIn 2008 Monkhill Confectionery, the Own Label trading division of Cadbury Trebor",
"-21.92987394426018"
],
[
"the charges brought on by the United States were \"unfair\". U.S. business restrictions In August 2018, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 (NDAA 2019) was signed into law, containing a provision that banned Huawei and ZTE equipment from being used by the U.S. federal government, citing security concerns. Huawei filed a lawsuit over the act in March 2019, alleging it to be unconstitutional because it specifically targeted Huawei without granting it a chance to provide a rebuttal or due process.\nOn 15 May 2019, the Department of Commerce added Huawei and 70 foreign subsidiaries and \"affiliates\" to its",
"-21.89857035118621"
],
[
"response to Starbucks' reintroduction of its original logo (featuring a topless siren), Dice led his group and its 3,000 members in boycotting the coffee chain: \"The Starbucks logo has a naked woman on it with her legs spread like a prostitute […] It's extremely poor taste, and the company might as well call themselves Slutbucks.\" Starbucks had more than 6,000 locations in 2008.\nAs the founder of The Resistance, Dice told KFSN-TV of his group's intention to disrupt theater showings of 2009's Angels & Demons because the film \"is a fraud, aimed at covering up the existence of a secret",
"-21.87805571014178"
],
[
"subject to several lawsuits surrounding Trump Vodka. Bruni Glass sued over unpaid bills and, as a result, melted in a furnace 500,000 Trump Vodka mini-bottles ready for shipment. Donald Trump also sued Drinks Americas for unpaid royalties, but the case was dismissed for lack of subject matter jurisdiction. Israel Trump Vodka started being sold unofficially in Israel by H. Pixel International based on a signed deal with Drinks Americas, but Trump brought a lawsuit against the company for copyright infringement, as they did not have his agreement to use his image in advertising or the brand. However, Trump later dropped",
"-21.792547159482638"
],
[
"unsuccessfully that the ordinance “forced the tobacco company to pull its advertising out of drugstores, interfering with its constitutional right to communicate with its customers”. In addition to the lawsuit from Philip Morris, on September 8, 2008, Walgreens had more success when it sued the City and County of San Francisco in Superior Court of the State of California, claiming “unconstitutional discrimination” because the Walgreens location would not be allowed to sell cigarettes under the new ordinance whereas grocery and big box stores with pharmacies would be allowed to continue to sell. After a number of legal appeals, Walgreens",
"-21.76078757637879"
],
[
"has acquired secondary meaning or that it is otherwise a protectable trademark\" under U.S. law.\nIn June 2010, Wal-Mart and the Smiley Company founded by Loufrani settled their 10-year-old dispute in front of the Chicago federal court. The terms remain confidential. In 2016, Wal-Mart brought back the smiley face on its website, social media profiles, and in selected stores.",
"-21.723321324330755"
],
[
"Boston. Puckett signed a lease for the first location to be in the large Pillsbury Center office building. However, soon afterward the building's landlord decided not to sign the lease, because another of the building's retail tenants had exclusive rights to selling coffee in the building and had threatened to sue them. As a result, the financing for the store fell through because it was dependent on that specific site. Puckett opted to start looking for an available location in the suburbs, and the first Caribou Coffee shop was started in Edina, Minnesota, a suburb of Minneapolis, in December 1992.\nIn",
"-21.72188113327138"
],
[
"a year-long campaign by the human rights organization Global Exchange, Starbucks decided to carry fair-trade coffee in its stores. Since September 2009 all Starbucks Espresso beverages in UK and Ireland are made with Fairtrade and Shared Planet certified coffee.\nA 2005 study done in Belgium concluded that consumers' buying behavior is not consistent with their positive attitude toward ethical products. On average 46% of European consumers claimed to be willing to pay substantially more for ethical products, including fair-trade products such as coffee. The study found that the majority of respondents were unwilling to pay the actual price premium of 27%",
"-21.675466105134547"
],
[
"against Dunkin' Donuts Brands, Inc. in New York and New Jersey. The suits allege that the doughnut retailer has been unlawfully assessing a surcharge, noted on receipts as a \"sales tax,\" on products the company cannot lawfully charge tax on. Fighting Indefinite Detention in Hedges v. Obama Carl Mayer served as co-lead counsel to the plaintiffs in Hedges v. Obama, a lawsuit filed January 13, 2012 against the Obama administration and members of the U.S. Congress by a group including former New York Times reporter and columnist Christopher Hedges, challenging the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 (NDAA).",
"-21.67370004458644"
],
[
"of its locations in Israel, citing \"on-going operational challenges\" and a \"difficult business environment.\"\nThe Starbucks location in the former imperial palace in Beijing closed in July 2007. The coffee shop had been a source of ongoing controversy since its opening in 2000 with protesters objecting that the presence of the American chain in this location \"was trampling on Chinese culture.\"\nIn July 2008, the company announced it was closing 600 underperforming company-owned stores and cutting U.S. expansion plans amid growing economic uncertainty. On July 29, 2008, Starbucks also cut almost 1,000 non-retail jobs as part of its bid to re-energize the",
"-21.631703363840643"
],
[
"the company would change the recipe for its signature chocolate and the conditions at Cadbury's food factories.\nAdditionally, there are several American restaurant and café chains like McDonalds, Burger King, KFC, Domino's Pizza, Pizza Hut, Krispy Kreme, and Starbucks that have enterprises on the other side of the Atlantic. A small number of British chains like Pret a Manger, YO! Sushi and Itsu have operations in the U.S., principally around New York City. The British catering company Compass Group has several catering contracts in the States, including for the federal government and US military.\nSince the 2016 EU referendum, there",
"-21.610417280957336"
],
[
"holding companies\" under the GLBA and, therefore, never exercised any new powers available through Glass–Steagall \"repeal.\" They joined Jonathan R. Macey and Peter J. Wallison in noting many GLBA critics do not understand that Glass–Steagall's restrictions on banks (i.e., Sections 16 and 21) remained in effect and that the GLBA only repealed the affiliation provisions in Sections 20 and 32. The American Bankers Association, former President Bill Clinton, and others have argued that the GLBA permission for affiliations between securities and commercial banking firms \"helped to mitigate\" or \"softened\" the financial crisis by permitting bank holding companies to acquire troubled",
"-21.552822691322945"
],
[
"2020 and to have a revenue increase of 3 percent for stores open a year or longer.\nIn September 2019, the New York attorney general alleged in a lawsuit that Dunkin' mishandled a series of \"brute force\" cyberattacks that were directed at customers using the Dunkin' mobile app. These attacks took place in early 2015 and thousands of usernames and passwords stolen. The state lawsuit alleges that Dunkin’ employees knew about these attacks, but failed to take appropriate action. The New York Attorney General Letitia James alleges the Massachusetts-based company \"glazing over\" the cyberattacks. A Dunkin’ spokesperson said the restaurant chain",
"-21.533361190071446"
],
[
"Beverage LLC to market \"Grumppuccino\" iced coffee beverages.\nIn December 2015, Grumpy Cat Limited filed a lawsuit against Grenade Beverage LLC citing trademark infringement when the beverage company expanded its line of Grumpy Cat coffee offerings beyond what was originally agreed upon, producing and marketing a Grumpy Cat roasted ground coffee even after being specifically told in writing via email that they were not approved to do so.\nIn January 2018, the California Federal Court jury sided with Grumpy Cat Limited and ordered Grenade Beverage Company to pay $710,000 in damages for copyright and trademark infringement, as well as a $1 nominal",
"-21.519420618935328"
],
[
"of lawsuits that started in 2005. Merchants charged that the two main credit card processing companies, MasterCard and Visa, used their monopoly power to levy excessive fees in a class-action lawsuit involving the National Retail Federation and major retailers such as Wal-Mart. In December 2013, a federal judge approved a $5.7 billion settlement in the case that offered payouts to merchants who had paid credit card fees, the largest antitrust settlement in U.S. history. Some large retailers, such as Wal-Mart and Amazon, chose to not participate in this settlement, however, and have continued their legal fight against the credit card",
"-21.518677310552448"
],
[
"target U.S. consumers with ads to illegally import prescription drugs from Canadian pharmacies.\nOpponents stated that it violated the First Amendment, is Internet censorship, would cripple the Internet, and would threaten whistle-blowing and other free speech actions.\nIn October, 2011, co-sponsor Representative Bob Goodlatte (R-VA), chairman of the House Judiciary Committee's Intellectual Property sub-panel, told The Hill that SOPA is a rewrite of the Senate's bill that addresses some tech-industry concerns, noting that under the House version of the legislation copyright holders won't be able to directly sue intermediaries such as search engines to block infringing websites and would instead need a",
"-21.51565337611828"
],
[
"ice cream making, chocolate bar manufacturing, sugar refining, milling, and paper and tissue making. In 1989, the company sold its White Swan tissue division to Scott Paper Ltd. for $110 million. While Weston's had acquired the Canadian operations of Cadbury in 1987 and merged them with William Neilson Limited, after attempting to break into emerging markets, by selling chocolate bars in Mexico, it finally sold its chocolate operations to Cadbury Schweppes in 1996. In 1998, long time holding E. B. Eddy was sold to Domtar in a cash-and-stock deal worth (CAN) $800 million.\nMeanwhile, under Loblaw president Richard Currie,",
"-21.50730803819897"
],
[
"to the district court, it was impossible for anyone to obtain glassware-making machinery except by virtue of a license from Hartford. Owens consistently refused to sell or license its suction machinery. The result was that no new concern could engage in the manufacture of glass containers except with the consent of Hartford, and that kept newcomers out of the industry. Proceedings in district court The United States sued the leading manufacturers of glass containers for violating the antitrust laws by \"unlawfully conspiring, monopolizing, attempting to monopolize, and by unlawfully contracting, combining, and conspiring to restrain interstate and foreign trade and",
"-21.501437513188648"
],
[
"the expense of small local retailers. Tesco served him with writs for criminal defamation and civil libel. The case was subsequently dismissed.\nIn Thailand another controversy arose when the Royal Thai Police alleged that Thai soldiers operating as Tesco security intimidated a rural boy into poisoning chocolates as revenge for having their contracts revoked by the company. The Cayman Islands In February 2008, a six-month investigation by The Guardian revealed that Tesco has developed a complex taxation structure involving offshore bank accounts in the tax haven of the Cayman Islands.\nThe Guardian claimed that this arrangement would enable Tesco to avoid an",
"-21.485750697131152"
],
[
"the company had paid bribes via local fixers to officials throughout Mexico in exchange for construction permits, information, and other favors, which gave Walmart a substantial advantage over competitors. Walmart investigators found credible evidence that Mexican and American laws had been broken. Concerns were also raised that Walmart executives in the United States had \"hushed up\" the allegations. A follow-up investigation by The New York Times, published December 17, 2012, revealed evidence that regulatory permission for siting, construction, and operation of nineteen stores had been obtained through bribery. There was evidence that a bribe of US$52,000 was paid to change",
"-21.47617407017242"
],
[
"Canada Dry doubled its worldwide drinks market share, and it took a 30 percent stake in Dr Pepper. As a result of these acquisitions, Cadbury Schweppes became the third largest soft drinks manufacturer in the world. In August 1988, the company sold its U.S. confectionery operations to Hershey's for $284.5 million cash plus the assumption of $30 million in debt.\nSnapple, Mistic and Stewart's (formerly Cable Car Beverage) were sold by Triarc to Cadbury Schweppes in 2000 for $1.45 billion. In October of that same year, Cadbury Schweppes purchased Royal Crown from Triarc. In 2003, Cadbury Schweppes acquired Adams, the US chewing",
"-21.471838341618422"
],
[
"introduce legislation to change defamation laws. MacJoy (Philippines) In 2004, McDonald's sued Cebu-based fast food restaurant MacJoy for using a very similar trade name. In its defense, MacJoy insisted that it was the first user of the mark under the title \"MACJOY & DEVICE\" for its business in Cebu City which started in 1987, six years after McDonald's opened its first outlet in the same city. MacJoy stated that the requirement of “actual use” in commerce in the Philippines before one may register a trademark pertains to the territorial jurisdiction on a national scale and is not merely confined to",
"-21.45700890404987"
],
[
"the chain Xingbake in Shanghai, China for trademark infringement, because the chain used a green-and-white circular logo with a name that sounded phonetically similar to the Chinese for Starbucks. Starbucks did not open any stores after first registering its trademark in Russia in 1997, and in 2002 a Russian lawyer successfully filed a request to cancel the trademark. He then registered the name with a Moscow company and asked for $600,000 to sell the trademark to Starbucks, but was ruled against in November 2005.\nIn 2003, Starbucks sent a cease-and-desist letter to \"HaidaBucks Coffee House\" in Masset, British Columbia, Canada. The",
"-21.422268386450014"
],
[
"Hershey's began U.S. distribution of Kit Kat in 1970 and followed in 1971 with Rolo. \nIn 1971, Rowntree Mackintosh acquired Menier Chocolate of France. In the same year, the board attempted to diversify the business, and made a bid for Bovril, but lost out to James Goldsmith's Cavenham Foods. In 1972, Hoadley's Chocolates of Australia was acquired by Rowntree's. This company had invented such products as the Violet Crumble and Polly Waffle.\nThe Yorkie and Lion chocolate bars were introduced in 1976. In 1978, the Hershey contract was renegotiated, giving Hershey the rights to the Kit Kat and Rolo brands in",
"-21.35668025589257"
],
[
"government \"should consider a ban on the use of Huawei inverters in the United States and work with state and local regulators to raise awareness and mitigate potential threats\" and urged them \"to work with all federal, state and local regulators, as well as the hundreds of independent power producers and electricity distributors nation-wide to ensure our systems are protected.\"\nIn March 2019, Rubio and Bob Menendez introduced a bill granting Puerto Rican taxpayers equal access to the child tax credit (CTC) used by parents in other parts of the United States through an amendment to the federal tax code.\nIn May",
"-21.35291898943251"
],
[
"(Safeway, Tesco, Asda, Morrisons and Sainsburys) and a number of dairy companies to fix the price of milk, butter and cheese. In December 2007, Asda, Sainsburys and the former Safeway admitted that they acted covertly against the interests of consumers while publicly claiming that they were supporting 5,000 farmers recovering from the foot-and-mouth crisis. They were fined a total of £116 million. Corporate tax structure In May 2007, it was reported that Tesco had moved the head office of its online operations to Switzerland. This allows it to sell CDs, DVDs and electronic games through its web site without charging value-added",
"-21.347081265121233"
],
[
"as Visa, MasterCard, Discover, American Express, and PayPal were in process of terminating processing payments to mugshot websites and related removal sites. Ten days later CNN Money reported, that according to American Express, it had severed all ties; and that other companies were still in the process of cutting ties with the mugshot industry. Litigation On December 3, 2012, a case was filed in the Lucas County Court Of Common Pleas, in Ohio, against 14 mugshot publishers. On December 27, 2013, a settlement was reached and Judge Zouhary signed an order dismissing the litigation with prejudice after the mugshot websites",
"-21.321928006342205"
],
[
"Starbucks awarding regional licences to Maxims in Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore and Vietnam.\nOn 15 June 2018 protestors targeted Maxim's headquarters in a demonstration that also highlighted Maxim's being a regional licensee for Starbucks. Overpricing In October 2013, China Central Television accused Chinese Starbucks of over-pricing. The report compared the price of a tall (12 fl. oz., 354 mL) latte in Beijing, Chicago, London, and Mumbai. It was found that Beijing stores charged the most while Mumbai stores charged the least. It was also found that a tall latte cost 4 Chinese yuan (approx. USD $0.67) to make, but it sold",
"-21.289823120445362"
],
[
"the H.B. Reese Candy Company with the Hershey Chocolate Corporation in a tax-free stock-for-stock merger. In 2019 after 56 years of stock splits, the Reese brothers' original 666,316 shares of Hershey common stock represented 16 million Hershey shares valued at over $2.5 billion that paid annual cash dividends of $49.4 million. In 1969, only 6 years after the Reese/Hershey merger, Reese's Peanut Butter Cups became The Hershey Company's top seller.\nThe H.B. Reese Candy Company is maintained as a subsidiary of Hershey because the Reese plant workforce is not unionized, unlike the main Hershey plant. In 2012, Reese's was the best-selling",
"-21.25883772360976"
],
[
"the group filed a class action lawsuit against Levi Strauss & Co. in 1993, claiming that the closure of the plant was a form of discrimination against some employees who had filed workers' compensation claims. The lawsuit was dismissed; an appeal was also defeated. United States District Judge H.F. Garcia dismissed the case 'with prejudice,' meaning that it could not be refiled, and charged the attorney representing Fuerza Unida $5000 for \"filing a frivolous claim.\"\nAt one point a satellite office for the group was planned in San Francisco, near the Levi's company headquarters.\nFor several years running after the initial layoff,",
"-21.230777917415253"
],
[
"federal and state agencies as part of an attempt to ease regulatory burdens on trucking and the agri-community.\nIn July 2019, Rubio was a cosponsor of the Defending America’s 5G Future Act, a bill that would prevent Huawei from being removed from the \"entity list\" of the Commerce Department without an act of Congress and authorize Congress to block administration waivers for U.S. companies to do business with Huawei. The bill would also codify President Trump’s executive order from the previous May that empowered his administration to block foreign tech companies deemed a national security threat from conducting business in the",
"-21.228733646508772"
],
[
"watchdog Autorité de la concurrence stated that \"it appears that Nespresso may have abused its dominant position by tying the purchase of its capsules to that of its coffee machines, with no fair justification, de facto ousting rival capsule makers\". The company agreed to no longer limit the guarantee on its single-serving coffee machines by imposing the condition that customers only use its own Nespresso pods, and to remove warnings against the use of third-party pods.",
"-21.19239873815968"
],
[
"the acquisition of Cadbury.\nOn 19 January 2010, it was announced that Cadbury and Kraft Foods had reached a deal and that Kraft would purchase Cadbury for £8.40 per share, valuing Cadbury at £11.5bn (US$18.9bn). Kraft, which issued a statement stating that the deal will create a \"global confectionery leader\", had to borrow £7 billion (US$11.5bn) in order to finance the takeover.\nThe Hershey Company, based in Pennsylvania, manufactures and distributes Cadbury-branded chocolate (but not its other confectionery) in the United States and has been reported to share Cadbury's \"ethos\". Hershey had expressed an interest in buying Cadbury because it would broaden its",
"-21.191415712237358"
],
[
"antitrust action against big banks that has recovered more than $1 million from financial institutions including Wachovia and JPMorgan.\nIn 2015, Parker sued the giant chemical company Monsanto to hold it accountable for years of contamination of Oakland's storm water system and the San Francisco Bay. Parker's office also filed a federal lawsuit against Wells Fargo to recover damages caused by predatory and discriminatory mortgage lending practices by the bank against African American and Latino borrowers.\nParker co-sponsored a gun safety ordinance to reduce theft of firearms from vehicles. The law makes it a crime to leave firearms, magazines or ammunition unsecured",
"-21.158749117523257"
],
[
"June 3, 2014 opening of its Las Vegas location, Hershey then rebranded all other visitor centers worldwide under the Hershey's Chocolate World name.\nIn July 2016, it was announced that Hershey's Chocolate World would expand to a new location in Times Square and open in late 2017.",
"-21.13006843382027"
],
[
"£300,000 for misleading customers regarding the sale of strawberries. Trading Standards in Birmingham brought the case stating that £1.99 strawberries on sale in Sheldon, Birmingham, had not been for sale at £3.99 long enough. Tesco admitted misleading customers into believing that the strawberries on sale were genuinely \"half price\". Trading relations with suppliers Tesco is also censured by those who think that it infringes upon the interests of farmers and smaller suppliers. The company responds by claiming that it follows industry-best practice and sources locally where it can to meet customer demand. In March 2005 the Office of Fair",
"-21.12504733732203"
],
[
"bill that would prevent Huawei from being removed from the \"entity list\" of the Commerce Department without an act of Congress and authorize Congress to block administration waivers for U.S. companies to do business with Huawei. The bill would also codify President Trump's executive order from the previous May that empowered his administration to block foreign tech companies deemed a national security threat from conducting business in the United States. Iran In 2013, Cotton introduced legislative language to prohibit trade with relatives of individuals subject to U.S. sanctions against Iran. According to Cotton, this would include \"a spouse and any",
"-21.123444431475946"
],
[
"Criticism of Starbucks Starbucks, an American coffee company and coffeehouse chain, has been the subject of multiple controversies. European tax avoidance In October 2012, Starbucks faced criticism after a Reuters investigation found that the company reportedly paid only £8.6 million in corporation tax in the UK over 14 years, despite generating over £3 billion in sales—this included no tax payments on £1.3 billion of sales in the three years prior to 2012. It is alleged that Starbucks was able to do this by charging high licensing fees to the UK branch of the business, allowing them to declare a £33",
"-21.103347618394764"
],
[
"100% Fair Trade Certified cocoa beans by 2012 for at least one of its top five selling chocolate bars [...] making at least one additional top five selling bar 0% Fair Trade Certified every two years thereafter\"; and that \"the majority of Hershey's cocoa across all products will be Fair Trade Certified by 2022\". Pressure was particularly directed at Whole Foods Market, which announced on October 3, 2012, that it would cease carrying Hershey's Scharffen Berger line. The Campaign stated, \"Whole Foods' decision follows more than 40 natural food retailers and coops publicly expressing concern about carrying Scharffen Berger and",
"-21.074156194539682"
],
[
"entity list under the Export Administration Regulations, citing the company having been indicted for \"knowingly and willfully causing the export, re-export, sale and supply, directly and indirectly, of goods, technology and services (banking and other financial services) from the United States to Iran and the government of Iran without obtaining a license from the Department of Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC)\". This restricts U.S. companies from doing business with Huawei without a government license.\nVarious U.S.-based companies immediately froze their business with Huawei to comply with the regulation, including Google—which removes its ability to certify future devices and updates",
"-21.051962343568448"
],
[
"public protests from former Marshall Field's customers and Chicago Mayor Daley, Federated chairman Terry J. Lundgren announced in September 2005 that Macy's would look into moving production back to Chicago. In making the announcement, Lundgren noted that Macy's would look into \"our contractual obligations\" to determine if the chocolate production could be moved back to the Windy City; however, Lundgren stressed that he was not making any promises regarding moving all or part of the production back to Chicago.\nUnfortunately, the demand for Marshall Field's Frango mints was far greater than demand for Macy's Frangos. No longer a unique",
"-21.04528387141181"
],
[
"to consumers who overpaid or did not receive their goods.\nBill McCollum, Florida Attorney General said, \"We think that overall, this is a very deceptive trade practice.\"\nThe Tennessee Attorney General filed a civil lawsuit for alleged deceptive practices against BlueHippo companies, as well as proposing an injunction requiring greater disclosures in advertising and prior to obtaining further payments, as well as the freezing of $2.5 million in cash. West Virginia also sued BlueHippo.\nA class action lawsuit was filed against BlueHippo in the District Court of Ottawa County State of Oklahoma on January 23, 2007. This case was transferred to the United",
"-21.03049548479612"
],
[
"lawsuit was settled on December 17, 2012. Massachusetts Alcoholic Beverages Control Commission In March 2011, the Massachusetts Alcoholic Beverages Control Commission notified Groupon that it was in violation of state law that prohibits discounting of alcoholic beverages. Groupon notified Massachusetts subscribers of a temporary suspension in the use of its discount vouchers for alcohol at participating restaurants. UK Office of Fair Trading investigation During 2011 there were reported breaches of British advertising regulations to the Advertising Standards Authority. In December 2011 the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) launched an investigation into Groupon after the firm broke regulations 48 times in",
"-21.02877190860454"
],
[
"coffee that have been named in the complaint. Recent developments In the 1990s, a company called Kona Kai Farms, in Berkeley, California, was sued on behalf of Kona coffee growers. In October 1996, federal officials in San Francisco indicted Kona Kai Farms executive Michael Norton on wire fraud and money laundering charges. He was found to have put Central American coffee into bags with labels indicating it was Kona coffee since 1993.\nIn 2000 Michael Norton pleaded guilty to one count of wire fraud and one count of tax evasion. In 2007 his two sons were arrested in a multimillion-dollar medical",
"-21.007188896968728"
],
[
"all BlackBerry smartphones be banned from being imported into the United States for infringing upon five of Motorola's patents. Their patents for \"early-stage innovations\", including UI, power management and WiFi, are in question. RIM countersued later the same day, alleging anti-competitive behaviour and that Motorola had broken a 2003 licensing agreement by refusing to extend licensing terms beyond 2008. The companies settled out of court on June 11, 2010. Eatoni On December 5, 2011, Research In Motion obtained an order granting its motion to dismiss plaintiff Eatoni's claims that RIM violated Section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act",
"-20.9872946680116"
],
[
"the first year. Closing In 2002, within a year of Starbucks Israel opening, Delek was already shopping its stake.\nBefore its closing, Starbucks had six locations in Tel Aviv, with 120 employees. Additionally they had previously planned on opening a location in Jerusalem but withdrew the plans due to fear of terror attacks. On March 31, 2003, Starbucks announced that they would be closing their stores in Israel.\nStarbucks closing caused many controversies over rumors that the stores were closing due to political reasons. Many rumors began circulating on the internet that they were closing as part of an Arab boycott of",
"-20.981428157363553"
],
[
"then, The Coca-Cola Company has been using \"minimum inventories of raw material\" to make their signature drinks at two production plants in Venezuela. Information On July 6, 2006, a Coca-Cola employee and two other people were arrested and charged with trying to sell trade secret information to the soft drink maker's competitor PepsiCo for $1.5 million. The recipe for Coca-Cola, perhaps the company's most closely guarded secret, was never in jeopardy; instead, the information was related to a new beverage in development. Coca-Cola executives verified that the trade secret documents in question were genuine and proprietary to the company. At least",
"-20.97030789013661"
],
[
"taxpayer is unable to open a bank account. Federal regulation Washington's governor and United States Senators have attempted to preserve U.S. Department of the Treasury FinCEN rules in place since 2014 allowing banks to do regulated transactions with the industry, despite conflicting laws on legality at the Federal level. Alternatives to banks Some Washington cannabis business, particularly at point of sale, is conducted in cryptocurrency. Some use Square point-of-sale system, although it has also been reported that PayPal and Square will terminate accounts from cannabis-related businesses.",
"-20.969511602095736"
],
[
"(hired by NRDC to publicize their report on Alar) claiming that unfair business practices (product disparagement in particular) cost them $100 million. The suit was moved from state to federal court at the request of CBS. U.S. District Judge William Fremming Nielsen ruled in 1993 that the apple growers had not proved their case, and it was subsequently dismissed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.\nElizabeth Whelan and her organization, the American Council on Science and Health (ACSH), which had received $25,000 from Alar's manufacturer, stated that Alar and its breakdown product UDMH had not",
"-20.96787660079326"
],
[
"criticism made by the defendant was 'in good faith by way of fair comment on any person or thing subjected to public criticism'.\nIn November 2007, Tesco sued a Thai academic and a former minister for civil libel and criminal defamation, insisting that the two pay £1.6 million and £16.4 million plus two years' imprisonment respectively. They have been alleged to have misstated that Tesco's Thai market amounts to 37% of its global revenues, amongst criticism of Tesco's propensity to put small retailers out of business.\nIn August 2013, Tesco was fined £300,000 after admitting that it misled customers over the pricing of \"half",
"-20.954168270152877"
],
[
"CEH and the Environmental Health Coalition reached a legal settlement with the companies, including subsidiaries of Mars and Hershey, calling for the companies to reduce the lead levels in their products.\nLater in 2004, CEH again joined the Attorney General in a lawsuit against companies, including popular mall stores such as Claire's Boutique, Hot Topic and Zumiez, and department stores such as Target, Macy's and Nordstrom, that sold costume jewelry marketed to children, teens and adult containing high levels of lead. In 2006, seventy-one companies, including Target, Kmart, Macy's, Nordstrom, Sears, Disney Stores and others, agreed to a legal",
"-20.947435024412698"
],
[
"due to its undeveloped \"land bank\", and breaching planning laws. Litigation The Tesco supermarket chain is involved in litigation such as the Ward v Tesco Stores Ltd and Tesco Supermarkets Ltd v Nattrass cases. Tesco have been criticized for aggressively pursuing critics of the company in Thailand. Writer and former MP Jit Siratranont faced up to two years in jail and a £16.4 million libel damages claim for saying that Tesco was expanding aggressively at the expense of small local retailers. Tesco served him with writs for criminal defamation and civil libel. The Thai court dismissed the case, ruling that the",
"-20.936500347841502"
],
[
"on customers' shopping habits. Customer cases In 2013, Helen Dewdney (also known as The Complaining Cow) brought what is thought to be the first customer legal case against Tesco. She took Tesco to the Small Claims Court after being unable to redeem voucher codes for £80. Tesco told her to use her credit card and said that it would reimburse her but the company did not. She won the case. Local opposition to new stores and corporate expatiation Tesco's expansion has not been without criticism and, in some cases, active opposition.\nIn April 2011, longstanding opposition to a Tesco Express store",
"-20.92577389383223"
],
[
"chain on Twitter and (falsely) claimed that the stores did not accept cash.",
"-20.90885426026216"
],
[
"banks launching the convenient Swish smartphone-to-phone payment system in 2012, and the launch of iZettle for small merchants to accept credit cards in 2011. Legal status Under Massachusetts law stating back to 1978, no retailer may \"discriminate against a cash buyer by requiring the use of credit\". \nIt was the only state to have such a law until March 2019, when New Jersey passed similar legislation; car rentals, parking garages, and airport stores have carve-outs under the legislation. The bill came shortly after the city of Philadelphia passed a similar law. San Francisco has also banned cashless stores. Reduced business",
"-20.90398134064162"
],
[
"problem was counterfeits of reputable vendors' products, some even claiming the company's name such as with American Paper Optics which published information detailing the differences between its glasses and counterfeits.\nAndrew Lund, the owner of a company which produces eclipse glasses, noted that not all counterfeit glasses were necessarily unsafe. He stated to Quartz that the counterfeits he tested blocked the majority of harmful light spectrum, concluding that \"the IP is getting ripped off, but the good news is there are no long-term harmful effects.\" As one example, the Springdale Library in metropolitan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, accidentally passed out dozens of pairs",
"-20.881129509129096"
],
[
"Sainsbury and Safeway that stores increased the price of milk as a result of collusion. Dairy Crest and Wiseman allegedly acted as middle men, passing on sensitive information about prices to their supposed rivals. Britain's biggest store chain Tesco, and Morrisons, are accused of collusion too, but vigorously deny they took part. The allegations against Tesco involve cheese as well as milk and butter.\nIf the OFT proves its case, the retailers could theoretically face fines of up to 10 per cent of their worldwide turnover, which in Tesco's case would amount to £4.3bn. The Office of Fair Trading told Sainsbury's,",
"-20.871894159761723"
],
[
"Criticism of Microsoft Immigration and Customs Enforcement ties On September 14, 2019, Microsoft's flagship store was shut down by protestors as part of a direct action organized by Close the Camps NYC. The action was in response to Microsoft's $19.4 million contract with U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). Microsoft's relationship with the immigration enforcement agency was revealed by executive Tom Keane, through a company blog post that describes ICE's use of the company's high-security cloud storage product Azure Government. He went on to say the company is \"proud to support\" the work of ICE.\" Microsoft, contradicting this internal",
"-20.868195931765513"
],
[
"in 2006. Starbucks lost a trademark infringement case against a smaller coffee vendor in South Korea that operates coffee stations under the name Starpreya. The company, Elpreya, says Starpreya is named after the Norse goddess, Freja, with the letters of that name changed to ease pronunciation by Koreans. The court rejected Starbucks's claim that the logo of Starpreya is too similar to their own logo. A bar owner in Galveston, Texas, USA won the right to sell \"Star Bock Beer\" after a lawsuit by Starbucks in 2003 after he registered the name, but the 2005 federal court ruling also stated",
"-20.868004483229015"
],
[
"all its members asking for donations to establish a defense fund for the lawsuit.\nAs of 16 July 2012 the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board (TTAB) rendered its decision to Brown's opposition of the PGR, Inc's registration. They stated: \"The record further reflects that during Brown's tenure as Executive Director, despite his use of personal funds, he was acting in his official capacity when ordering the collateral merchandise to sell on the online store. Consumers who bought the goods prior to Brown's departure and the subsequent creation of \"Twister's Store\" were led to believe the goods originated from the PGR. Hence, Brown cannot",
"-20.866014413462835"
],
[
"systems. Confrontation with Walmart over high fees In June 2016, the Wall Street Journal reported that Walmart threatened to stop accepting Visa cards in Canada. Visa objected saying that consumers should not be dragged into a dispute between the companies. In January 2017, Walmart Canada and Visa reached a deal to allow the continued acceptance of Visa. Dispute with Kroger over high credit card fees In March 2019, U.S. retailer Kroger announced that its 250-strong Smith's chain would stop accepting Visa credit cards as of April 3, 2019 due to the cards’ high ‘swipe’ fees. Kroger’s California-based Foods Co stores",
"-20.855500650941394"
],
[
"claims that the repeal of the Glass–Steagall Act was a key factor in the 2008 financial crisis. Enacted just after the 1930s Great Depression, the Glass–Steagall Act separated commercial and investment banking. The law was repealed by Congress in 1999 during the Clinton presidency while Rubin was Treasury Secretary.\nWriter Nassim Nicholas Taleb noted that Rubin \"collected more than $120 million in compensation from Citibank in the decade preceding the banking crash of 2008. When the bank, literally insolvent, was rescued by the taxpayer, he didn't write any check—he invoked uncertainty as an excuse.\"\nAccording to Bloomberg Businessweek, Rubin pursued a romantic interest",
"-20.855336921551498"
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[
"awareness of their product and a foothold in the market – a large sunk cost that will prevent some firms entering.\nMonsanto engaged in preemptive deterrence when it signed contracts with Coke and Pepsi. Because Monsanto locked in the consumers of Coke and Pepsi through its contracts, it made entry into the soda market less desirable because potential entrants would have less consumers and, in turn, less profit. Furthermore, if another firm decided to enter the market and obtain contracts with other soda brands, it would be less likely to attract as many customers as Monsanto because customers are loyal to",
"-20.82979723686003"
],
[
"Hershey's Chocolate World History Hershey's Chocolate World was built as a replacement of the Hershey chocolate plant tour, which had reached its capacity and no longer was able to handle the large numbers of visitors per year. The facility opened on June 30, 1973, and took inspiration from World's Fair pavilions. Through its first year of operations, Chocolate World had over 1.4 million visitors.\nOn June 1, 1986, the visitor's center welcomed its 20 millionth visitor.\nA $4.5 million update to the chocolate-making tour ride opened in 1988, featuring a curious robot for a host named CP-1. It was phased out within",
"-20.820755567547167"
],
[
"that country. The company had opened many stores in Mexico in the late 1990s and early 2000s, attempting to widely establish itself before competitors could. Sergio Cicero, a lawyer who had been responsible for obtaining those permits and was bitter about being passed over for the position of general counsel with Walmart México provided the company's corporate general counsel's office with evidence showing that the company had made large payments to gestores, workers who deal with bureaucracies on behalf of citizens and businesses, with coded indications that the money was being passed on to officials to expedite permits.\nCompany officials hired",
"-20.819068279088242"
],
[
"questions on the app and recording a report on their iPhone, Lemonade’s claims bot set a world record by reviewing, approving and paying the claim in three seconds. Behavioral economics Lemonade uses behavioral economics research to displace fraud and conflict while aligning interests to remove motivation for not paying claims and keeping the inclination to defraud an insurer in check. Integration of these principles are found in Lemonade’s policy purchase and claims processes, with users signing their name on a digital pledge of honesty at the start of the claims process - rather than the end - and speaking into",
"-20.81068674431299"
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[
"lawsuit claiming that SoBe had copied its bottle design or stolen trade secrets. Then Judge Sonia Sotomayor ruled in SoBe's favor denying a preliminary injunction. Legal action proceeded and persisted on the federal and state level until 2007, long after the company had been sold to PepsiCo. In 2007, the court dismissed all AriZona claims on summary judgement\nIn 2001, Bello was named Ernst and Young's National Entrepreneur of the Year in the Consumer Products category for his accomplishments at SoBe. Other business activity Upon leaving Pepsi, Bello formed JoNa Ventures, a family investment vehicle that included among other endeavors investment",
"-20.770094314175367"
],
[
"General of Anti Profiteering (DGAP) found Tata Starbucks guilty of profiteering ₹45.1 million (US$650,000) by not reducing the goods and services tax (GST) charged on coffee. The GST Council had reduced the tax rate on restaurants from 18% to 5% from 17 November 2017. However, the DGAP found that Tata Starbucks had raised the base price of one coffee variant such that its retail price remained the same even after the tax rate was reduced. The case is pending before the National Anti-Profiteering Authority (NAA), which will issue the final verdict. International presence The Tata Group and Starbucks Corporation also",
"-20.75464422704181"
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[
"with state intelligence when warranted. Huawei executives have consistently denied these allegations, having stated that the company has never received any requests by the Chinese government to introduce backdoors in its equipment, would refuse to do so, and that Chinese law did not compel them to do so.\nHuawei has also been accused of various instances of intellectual property theft against parties such as Nortel, Cisco Systems, and T-Mobile US (where a Huawei employee had photographed a robotic arm used to stress-test smartphones and taken a fingertip from the robot).",
"-20.753723815818375"
]
] |
42tb8b | Why are eye colors only blue, green or brown and not other colors like purple, orange or yellow? | [
"Eye color comes from the amount of a specific pigment/dye in your iris called *melanin*. Melanin is a brown pigment found in many places throughout your body, including your hair and skin. The more melanin in your skin, the darker it is. With a few exceptions (I'll get to them later), every eye color comes from a different level of melanin in the topmost layer of the iris. The more melanin, the darker and browner the eye. The less melanin, the lighter and bluer the eye. Green eyes are just blue with a slight tinge of brown. Hazel eyes are a moderate amount of brown. The reason that no melanin = blue is the same reason the sky is blue. It's an optical effect called [Rayleigh scattering]( URL_0 ). The light waves get mixed up and \"scattered\" by the tiny transparent molecules of the top layer of the iris. Blue light is scattered more than other colors, making the whole area appear blue. There isn't actually any blue pigment in the eye (or in the sky); it's all an optical illusion. There are eye colors that are outside this blue < - > brown spectrum, though. These are amber (gold-ish), gray, and violet. Amber eyes come from a different pigment called lipochrome. Gray eyes are \"cloudy\" blue eyes. The molecules in the iris have banded together into larger \"clumps\". The optical effect of this is the same as water molecules clumping together into water droplets and forming a cloud, creating a gray sky. Violet eyes occur only in albinos. There is so little pigment in the iris (not just the topmost layer is pigment-less, but the lower layers as well) that light can actually shine through from inside the eye. This gives you an eerie highlight of the blood vessels running through it, which can appear red or violet depending on the lighting conditions.",
"What determines your eye color is primarily influenced by the presence of melanin in the eye. To put it very simply, melanin effectively makes things darker. Although, the colors you mentioned do exist rarely. * Brown Eyes: These are the easiest, tons of melanin! The melanin darkens the eyes to a brown shade. * Green Eyes: Melanin is present but, in smaller amounts than you would see in brown eyes. One interesting thing is that melanin still creates brown pigment, there is no actual green pigment in green eyes. The reason that the eyes appear green is because of the way light scatters after being reflected by the eye. * Blue Eyes: Very little melanin (but, not necessarily none). There is still no blue pigment, appearance of blue eyes is caused by the same light scattering mentioned for green eyes. Now for the rarer colors, including the ones you mentioned! * Hazel Eyes: Hazel isn't an agreed upon color but, hazel eyes are usually between brown and green in terms of melanin production. The light scattering explains a lot about how people with hazel eyes tend to seemingly have blue or green eyes depending on lighting. * Grey Eyes: Very little melanin, like blue Eyes but, also thought to contain collagen deposits in the colored part of the eye that influences how the light is scattered. * Amber/Golden Eyes: This would be the orange/yellow eyes that you mentioned. Animals have this a lot more than we do but, it's not unknown in humans. It's caused by a pigment called 'Lipochrome', the eyes also have melanin but, not as much as someone with brown eyes would have. * Red Eyes: Severe albinism can cause you to have near zero melanin. This can result in eyes appearing to be red in the right light. This is caused by the underlying blood vessels showing through. * Violet Eyes: Violet or Purple eyes can also be caused by albinism/near zero melanin. There is a theory that a separate genetic trait called 'Alexandrias Genesis' can cause violet eyes. Elizabeth Taylor is thought to have potentially had this trait, but, others believe it may have just been a trick of the lighting. There are a tremendous amount of positive traits connected to 'Alexandrias Genesis' that make it seem like pseudoscience, it is most likely just a very mild case of albinism. **tl;dr**: Eye color is primarily determined by melanin which works on a scale of less brown - > more brown. Extra colors are caused by light scattering combined with the brown of the melanin but, some other factors exist to produce rarer eye colors.",
"I saw an African American female back in the early 70's at a department store that had gray eyes. I've never seen anything so beautiful",
"There's only one color that's ever present in people's eyes and that's brown- it's the same pigment that makes people's skin dark. Blue eyes are caused by the same effect that makes the sky look blue. Eyes look green (or hazel) because of the same light-scattering if they have a little, but not a lot, of pigment in them. People with brown eyes have a lot of pigment.",
"Eyes are blue, the move through different colors towards dark brown the more melanin is in them. They are blue for a similar reason the sky is blue. Melanin is also what makes skin darker.",
"Black eyes. I'm a black woman with eyes so dark people almost always think they're black. But they are in fact brown, just a lot darker than brown eyes seen on white people."
] | [
[
"have amber eyes as a common color, whereas in humans this color occurs less frequently. Blue There is no blue pigmentation either in the iris or in the ocular fluid. Dissection reveals that the iris pigment epithelium is brownish black due to the presence of melanin. Unlike brown eyes, blue eyes have low concentrations of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which lies in front of the dark epithelium. Longer wavelengths of light tend to be absorbed by the dark underlying epithelium, while shorter wavelengths are reflected and undergo Rayleigh scattering in the turbid medium of the stroma. This",
"-33.99871369716129"
],
[
"eye's iris and the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris. In humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black. The appearance of blue, green, and hazel eyes results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, an optical effect similar to what accounts for the blueness of the sky. The irises of the eyes of people with blue eyes contain less dark melanin than those of people with brown eyes, which means that they absorb less short-wavelength blue light, which is instead reflected out to the viewer.",
"-33.737003864429425"
],
[
"amounts of yellow and brown color in the iris. Green As with blue eyes, the color of green eyes does not result simply from the pigmentation of the iris. The green color is caused by the combination of: 1) an amber or light brown pigmentation in the stroma of the iris (which has a low or moderate concentration of melanin) with: 2) a blue shade created by the Rayleigh scattering of reflected light. Green eyes contain the yellowish pigment lipochrome.\nGreen eyes probably result from the interaction of multiple variants within the OCA2 and other genes. They were present in south",
"-32.74545191525249"
],
[
"presence of a brighter color contrast. Yellow, orange, red, or rose objects are still perceived as such if the general illumination level is low, despite reflecting the same amount of red or orange light as a brown object would in normal lighting conditions. Brown eyes In humans, brown eyes result from a relatively high concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is most common in East",
"-32.55707645295752"
],
[
"color is halfway between white and black. Red's complement is green which is also halfway between white and black. With red and green, the retina's qualitatively divided activity consists of two equal halves.\nRed and green are two completely equal qualitative halves of the retina's activity. Orange is 2/3 of this activity, and its complement, blue, is only 1/3. Yellow is ¾ of the full activity, and its complement, violet, is only ¼.\nThe range of all colors contains a continuous series of innumerable shades that blend into each other. Why are red, green, orange, blue, yellow, and violet given names and",
"-32.10086402186789"
],
[
"an eye that is light brown/amber near the pupil and charcoal or dark green on the outer part of the iris (or vice versa) when observed in sunlight.\nDefinitions of the eye color hazel vary: it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with light brown or gold, as in the color of a hazelnut shell.\nHazel eyes occur throughout Caucasoid populations, in particular in regions where blue, green and brown eyed peoples are intermixed. Red and violet The eyes of people with severe forms of albinism may appear red under certain lighting conditions owing to the extremely low quantities of melanin, allowing",
"-32.04872290948697"
],
[
"research purposes, Seddon et al. developed a graded system based on the predominant iris color and the amount of brown or yellow pigment present. There are three pigment colors that determine, depending on their proportion, the outward appearance of the iris, along with structural color. Green irises, for example, have blue and some yellow. Brown irises contain mostly brown. Some eyes have a dark ring around the iris, called a limbal ring.\n\nEye color in non-human animals is regulated differently. For example, instead of blue as in humans, autosomal recessive eye color in the skink species Corucia zebrata is black, and",
"-31.814164303952566"
],
[
"due to the deposition of the yellow pigment called lipochrome in the iris (which is also found in green eyes). Amber eyes should not be confused with hazel eyes; although hazel eyes may contain specks of amber or gold, they usually tend to comprise many other colors, including green, brown and orange. Also, hazel eyes may appear to shift in color and consist of flecks and ripples, while amber eyes are of a solid gold hue. Even though amber is considered to be like gold, some people have russet or copper colored amber eyes that many people mistake for hazel,",
"-31.77740194490616"
],
[
"pheomelanin (also known as lipochrome), is dominant within the iris. Pheomelanin is also found on individuals with green eyes in much smaller amounts. This is because green eyes have a strong presence of both melanin and pheomelanin. Often in poor lighting, one may mistake amber eyes for brown. This also happens when viewed from far away or in pictures with poor lighting as well. However, in natural or well lit areas, it is very easy to tell the difference between the two colors. Another common mistake people make is referring to amber eyes as hazel. Although similar, hazel eyes",
"-31.726450354763074"
],
[
"effect in the blue eye, but not in the other eye. This is due to the combined effect of the (normal) presence of a tapetum lucidum in both eyes and the absence of melanin in the blue eye. The tapetum lucidum produces eyeshine in both eyes, but in the non-blue eye a layer of melanin over the tapetum lucidum selectively removes some colors of light.",
"-31.399851372130797"
],
[
"concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed.\nDark brown eyes are dominant in humans and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is common in Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa and the Americas. The majority of people in the world overall have brown eyes to dark brown eyes.\nLight or medium-pigmented brown eyes can also be commonly found in South Europe, among the Americas, and parts of Central",
"-31.295214403027785"
],
[
"Asia (Middle East and South Asia). Gray Like blue eyes, gray eyes have a dark epithelium at the back of the iris and a relatively clear stroma at the front. One possible explanation for the difference in the appearance of gray and blue eyes is that gray eyes have larger deposits of collagen in the stroma, so that the light that is reflected from the epithelium undergoes Mie scattering (which is not strongly frequency-dependent) rather than Rayleigh scattering (in which shorter wavelengths of light are scattered more). This would be analogous to the change in the color of the sky,",
"-31.238541610640823"
],
[
"more light than normal to reflect off the retina and out of the eye. Because of this, the pupillary reflex is much more pronounced in albino individuals, and this can emphasize the red eye effect in photographs. Selection for rare iris colors A study compared the frequency of eye color in commercial advertising models in Brazil and the UK, these countries were chosen because they have inverted frequencies of eye-coloration, with Brazil having an excess of brown and the UK an excess of light-colored eyes. Models are chosen for their attractiveness, and it was found that, in Brazil, models with",
"-31.03459318424575"
],
[
"our perception of orange. Thus, the orange appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously but to different degrees.\nUse of the three primary colors is not sufficient to reproduce all colors; only colors within the color triangle defined by the chromaticities of the primaries can be reproduced by additive mixing of non-negative amounts of those colors of light. History of RGB color model theory and usage The RGB color model is based on the Young–Helmholtz theory of trichromatic color vision, developed by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz in",
"-30.817179625912104"
],
[
"absorbing at 600 nm. The amount of red light emerging from the pupil depends on the amount of melanin in the layers behind the retina. This amount varies strongly between individuals. Light-skinned people with blue eyes have relatively low melanin in the fundus and thus show a much stronger red-eye effect than dark-skinned people with brown eyes. The same holds for animals. The color of the iris itself is of virtually no importance for the red-eye effect. This is obvious because the red-eye effect is most apparent when photographing dark-adapted subjects, hence with fully dilated pupils. Photographs taken with infrared light",
"-30.757956475950778"
],
[
"the adnexa. Eye color Although usually dark brown, the iris may be a variety of colors, including blue, hazel, amber, and green. Blue eyes are not uncommon and are associated with white markings or patterns. The white spotting patterns most often linked to blue eyes are splashed white, frame overo, and sometimes sabino. In the case of horses with white markings, one or both eyes may be blue, or part-blue.\nHomozygous cream dilutes, sometimes called double-dilutes, always have light blue eyes to match their pale, cream-colored coats. Heterozygous or single-dilute creams, such as palominos and buckskins, often have light brown eyes.",
"-30.72788973740535"
],
[
"of age, though this can be later. Observing the iris of an infant from the side using only transmitted light with no reflection from the back of the iris, it is possible to detect the presence or absence of low levels of melanin. An iris that appears blue under this method of observation is more likely to remain blue as the infant ages. An iris that appears golden contains some melanin even at this early age and is likely to turn from blue to green or brown as the infant ages.\nChanges (lightening or darkening) of eye colors during early childhood,",
"-30.43037317181006"
],
[
"to ten different classes of visual pigment in their eyes. By comparison, humans have three with maximum sensitivities in the blue (442 nm), green (543 nm) and yellow (570 nm). It is the differential responses of these receptor cells that enable color vision.\nIt has been known for a long time that a light attracts fish, shrimp and insects at night. But what is the best color for a light attractor? Based on the biology of visual receptors discussed above, the light should be blue or green — the space colors of fish and members of their food chain. However, while blue or green",
"-30.425752825762174"
],
[
"Eye color Eye color is a polygenic phenotypic character determined by two distinct factors: the pigmentation of the eye's iris and the frequency-dependence of the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris.\nIn humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black, depending on the concentration of melanin in the iris pigment epithelium (located on the back of the iris), the melanin content within the iris stroma (located at the front of the iris), and the cellular density of the stroma. The appearance of blue and green, as well as hazel eyes,",
"-30.39691130653955"
],
[
"scattering and selective absorption from the posterior epithelium. If melanin is deposited substantially, there will be brown or black color, if not, they will remain blue or gray.\nAll the contributing factors towards eye color and its variation are not fully understood. Autosomal recessive/dominant traits in iris color are inherent in other species but coloration can follow a different pattern. Amber eyes Amber colored eyes are extremely rare in humans. They consist of a solid orange/gold color that may contain lighter shades of the same pigment within the iris. This is an unusual occurrence that happens when the yellow pigment called",
"-30.382788277813233"
],
[
"shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white. Darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue; while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. (For a more complete list see the List of colours). Types For more, see section Pigments and dyes., Blue pigments were originally made from minerals such as lapis lazuli, cobalt and azurite, and blue dyes were made from plants; usually woad in Europe, and Indigofera tinctoria, or true indigo, in Asia and Africa. Today most blue pigments and dyes",
"-30.368516567170445"
],
[
"a blue-green can be brightened but retain the same hue. The system is not perfect, as it does not distinguish yellow from a red-green mixture, but can powerfully detect subtle environmental changes.\nThe existence of cells sensitive to three different wavelength ranges (most sensitive to yellowish green, cyanish-green, and blue – not red, green and blue) was first shown in 1956 by Gunnar Svaetichin. In 1983 it was validated in human retinas in an experiment by Dartnall, Bowmaker, and Mollon, who obtained microspectrophotopic readings of single eye cone cells. Earlier evidence for the theory had been obtained by looking at light",
"-30.33529045112664"
],
[
"actual complement of orange is azure – a colour that is one quarter of the way between blue and green on the colour spectrum. The actual complementary colour of true blue is yellow. Orange pigments are largely in the ochre or cadmium families, and absorb mostly greenish-blue light.\n(See also shades of orange). Orange natural objects The orange colour of carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, oranges, and many other fruits and vegetables comes from carotenes, a type of photosynthetic pigment. These pigments convert the light energy that the plants absorb from the sun into chemical energy for the plants' growth. The carotenes",
"-30.332798618008383"
],
[
"common in Tabby cats as well as the Chinchilla Longhair and its shorthaired equivalents are notable for their black-rimmed sea-green eyes. Hazel Hazel eyes are due to a combination of Rayleigh scattering and a moderate amount of melanin in the iris' anterior border layer. Hazel eyes often appear to shift in color from a brown to a green. Although hazel mostly consists of brown and green, the dominant color in the eye can either be brown/gold or green. This is how many people mistake hazel eyes to be amber and vice versa. This can sometimes produce a multicolored iris, i.e.,",
"-30.202577652729815"
],
[
"Blue and Lutino). The natural, or 'normal' color is green. There are two types of blue, one blue winged and the second is bright blue wings and bright blue head.",
"-30.154331732788705"
],
[
"in that it is darker than white and brighter than black. The difference between grays and colors, though, is as follows. Light is activity of the retina. Darkness is retinal inactivity. Grays appear when the intensity or strength of the retina's activity is lessened. Colors appear when the whole activity of the retina is divided into partial complementary poles according to ratios. With the merely quantitative, intensive division of the retina's activity, there is only a gradual (by degrees) diminution of the intensity or strength of the retina's full activity. No fractional division of activity in ratios occurs. This lessening",
"-30.130933567998"
],
[
"results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, a phenomenon similar to that which accounts for the blueness of the sky called Rayleigh scattering. Neither blue nor green pigments are ever present in the human iris or ocular fluid. Eye color is thus an instance of structural color and varies depending on the lighting conditions, especially for lighter-colored eyes.\nThe brightly colored eyes of many bird species result from the presence of other pigments, such as pteridines, purines, and carotenoids. Humans and other animals have many phenotypic variations in eye color. The genetics of eye color are complicated, and",
"-29.928097797786904"
],
[
"entirely overlaid with broad dark cinnamon-brown striping. Both juveniles and adults have a barred tail, with 3 to 5 dark brown or black bars. Adults always have a white eye stripe or supercilia, which tends to be broader in northern Eurasian and North American birds. In North America, juveniles have pale-yellow eyes, and adults develop dark red eyes usually after their second year, although nutrition and genetics may affect eye color as well. In Europe and Asia, juveniles also have pale-yellow eyes while adults typically develop orange-colored eyes, though some may have only brighter yellow or occasionally ochre or brownish",
"-29.909082283105818"
],
[
"have a stronger presence of melanin with two very distinct colors within the iris (usually green/brown) and often contain many speckles or blotches of mixed hues. Different colors in the two eyes Heterochromia (also known as a heterochromia iridis or heterochromia iridum) is an ocular condition in which one iris is a different color from the other iris (complete heterochromia), or where the part of one iris is a different color from the remainder (partial heterochromia or sectoral heterochromia). Uncommon in humans, it is often an indicator of ocular disease, such as chronic iritis or diffuse iris melanoma, but may",
"-29.842934494721703"
],
[
"Green eyes There is no green pigment in green eyes; like the color of blue eyes, it is an optical illusion; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma, given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin, with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light. Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe. They can also be found in Southern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. In Iceland, 89% of women and 87% of men have either blue or green",
"-29.747759229154326"
],
[
"of red–green, blue–yellow, and light–dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue–yellow opponency, but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.\nVisual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via",
"-29.42768264404731"
],
[
"turquoise pattern along its sides, while the longear sunfish tends to have spotting on its sides, still in turquoise. Each fish also has \"war paint\" all the way from the mouth to the edge of the gill flap in the same color as the speckles or spots. Both also contain olive sides and bright orange bellies. These few differences between Lepomis peltastes and Lepomis megalotis leave these fish incredibly hard to distinguish from one another. In all other aspects, these fish look near identical.\nThe northern sunfish is usually regarded as a subspecies of the longear sunfish due to little and/or",
"-29.37850832476761"
],
[
"black brown, dark brown, dark lilac, and dark purple, although a yellow flowered form can be found. It is thought to be the darkest-coloured iris in Israel, and in Jordan is often called 'black iris'.\nLike other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals: 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls', and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'. The wide falls are recurved, and measure\n6–7.5 cm (2–3 in) long and 3–4.5 cm (1–2 in) wide. They have a broad, brownish-black or black signal patch in the middle. In the middle of the falls, extending from the claw (the narrow",
"-29.307152010165737"
],
[
"the eye is dark in the male, but sometimes pale reddish in females. The female has a more yellowish bill with black on the basal half and on the casque.\nThe juveniles lack the casque, and the bare skin around the eye is dull orange. Distribution The species is found mainly on the plains up to about 2000 feet. It is found from the foothills of the Himalayas southwards, bounded to the west by the Indus system and to the east by the Ganges Delta. It may make local movements in the drier western region. It is found even in cities",
"-29.164500257873442"
],
[
"colour is a light, buttery yellow to a pale orange. Their eyes are green and their pupils are black. Their belly colour is mother-of-pearl, the same as it is for normals.\nT-Albinos (Tyrosinase negative albinos) are very similar to the T+ in appearance. They are usually red in body colour with white body markings and a bright white belly. The eyes are green with red pupils.\nAnerythristic Characterized by a grey/blue overtone, some mild yellow colour is not uncommon on the sides, similar to Anery corn snakes. The markings on the body are similar to that of the normals, pale cream/white in",
"-29.119157829671167"
],
[
"of the whole of light. Schopenhauer's theory, however, claims that yellow is ¾ as bright as white. Orange is 2/3, red is ½, green is ½, blue is 1/3, and violet is ¼ as bright as white. The external cause of color is a diminished light that imparts just as much light to the color as it imparts darkness to the color's complement. Unlike Goethe, for Schopenhauer the primary phenomenon, or limit of explanation, is not an external cause, but the \"organic capacity of the retina to let its nervous activity appear in two qualitatively opposite halves, sometimes equal, sometimes",
"-29.041387381614186"
],
[
"pale blue spots and pale blue spots occur amongst the orange lines.",
"-29.026137259759707"
],
[
"professional. Aniridia Aniridia is a congenital condition characterized by an extremely underdeveloped iris, which appears absent on superficial examination. Ocular albinism and eye color Normally, there is a thick layer of melanin on the back of the iris. Even people with the lightest blue eyes, with no melanin on the front of the iris at all, have dark brown coloration on the back of it, to prevent light from scattering around inside the eye. In those with milder forms of albinism, the color of the iris is typically blue but can vary from blue to brown. In severe forms of",
"-29.024740093642322"
],
[
"in various shades. The most common, are white, or creamy white. Or white tinged with blue. Other forms found include pale blue, lilac, lavender or blue-purple, the purple forms may not hybrids. The white forms are very similar to Iris albicans.\nLike other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'. The falls are obovate, rounded or cuneate (wedge-shaped), 6.5–9.5 cm (3–4 in) long and 2.5–3.9 cm (1–2 in) wide. They often have blue markings, and yellow-green veining, especially on the hafts (section of petal near",
"-29.01842483197106"
],
[
"has a black half-collar edged with white on its nape from which it gets its name. The short legs are red and the bill is black. The iris is red, but from a distance the eyes appear to be black, as the pupil is relatively large and only a narrow rim of reddish-brown iris can be seen around the black pupil. The eye is surrounded by a small area of bare skin, which is either white or yellow. The two sexes are virtually indistinguishable; juveniles differ in having a poorly developed collar, and a brown iris. Taxonomy There are two",
"-29.00943612708943"
],
[
"well as the Ukrainian State defined that the upper half would be light-blue, while the lower would be yellow. During 1918 it was taken into consideration that light blue would lose its shade under sun, therefore it was decided to make the colour darker.\nAlready in the 1918 draft of Constitution of the Ukrainian People's Republic the order of colours was defined as blue and yellow. The same order could be found in legislative acts of the West Ukrainian People's Republic for November 1918 and the Republic of Carpathian Ukraine on March 15, 1939. The argument on the order of colours",
"-28.994622380452256"
],
[
"eyes have curved and long bristles around the eye but not behind it that resemble eyelashes (an adaptation to protect their eyes when creeping through grass and vegetation) and the iris is reddish brown. They have a short and pale whitish streak over and below the eye and a thin line of black feathers in line with the commisure of the bill that reaches under the eye. A dark bare patch of skin around the eye that tapers behind it exaggerates the size of the eye. The legs are grey.\nThey have zygodactyle feet and are forage on the ground, on",
"-28.98479813360609"
],
[
"blue all within the same eye, without any sign of eye disease.\nOne eye with a white or bluish-white iris is also known as a walleye. Iridology Iridology (also known as iridodiagnosis) is an alternative medicine technique whose proponents believe that patterns, colors and other characteristics of the iris can be examined to determine information about a patient's systemic health. Practitioners match their observations to iris charts which divide the iris into zones corresponding to specific parts of the human body. Iridologists see the eyes as \"windows\" into the body's state of health.\nIridology is not supported by quality research studies and",
"-28.947139944066294"
],
[
"with age. However, when an optician examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present.\"\nBecause individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.\nThe human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate \"red eye\", due to the red of the",
"-28.896155544905923"
],
[
"\"electric purple\" (a color also directly on the line of purples), shown below. Some common confusion exists concerning the color names \"purple\" and \"violet\". Purple is a mixture of red and blue light, whereas violet is a spectral color.\nOn the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, violet is on the curved edge in the lower left, while purples are on the straight line connecting the extreme colors red and violet; this line is known as the line of purples, or the purple line. Dyes The most famous purple dye in the ancient world was Tyrian purple, made from a type of sea",
"-28.811807747973944"
],
[
"Ranoidea chloris Description The red-eyed tree frog is a uniform bright green above, occasionally with yellow spots, and bright yellow on the underside. The front sides of the arms and legs are green, while the underside is yellow or white. The thighs may be blue/purple to blue/black in colour in adults. It has golden eyes at the centre, which change to red towards the edge of the eye. The intensity of the eye colour is variable between frogs. The tympanum is visible, and a mature frog reaches a size of 65 mm.\nThe tadpoles are generally grey or brown, and can have",
"-28.786898800055496"
],
[
"of color.\" Saint Thomas Aquinas had written that purple looked different next to white than it did next to black, and that gold looked more striking against blue than it did against white; the Italian Renaissance architect and writer Leon Battista Alberti observed that there was harmony (coniugatio in Latin, and amicizia in Italian) between certain colors, such as red–green and red–blue; and Leonardo da Vinci observed that the finest harmonies were those between colors exactly opposed (retto contrario), but no one had a convincing scientific explanation why that was so until the 18th century.\nIn 1704, in his treatise on",
"-28.763657574334502"
],
[
"and blue because the red stood for the element of fire whereas the blue would represent the element of water. Coincidentally, red and blue are also the colors recognized world-wide to signify emergency services; therefore, red and blue being the best choice of color to recognize an international holiday. The ribbon is traditionally worn on the lapel-otherwise known as the fold of fabric on a shirt- but is not limited to that certain spot. Some people may also put it on their cars visors, hats, hang them in windows or off of car mirrors, or even hang them from trees",
"-28.713224289444042"
],
[
"Iris (anatomy) Development The stroma and the anterior border layer of the iris are derived from the neural crest, and behind the stroma of the iris, the sphincter pupillae and dilator pupillae muscles as well as the iris epithelium develop from optic cup neuroectoderm. Eye color The iris is usually strongly pigmented, with the color typically ranging between brown, hazel, green, gray, or blue. Occasionally, the color of the iris is due to a lack of pigmentation, as in the pinkish-white of oculo-cutaneous albinism, or to obscuration of its pigment by blood vessels, as in the red of an",
"-28.713073281618563"
],
[
"from the red toward the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. For that reason bees cannot distinguish red from black (colorless), but they can distinguish the colors white, yellow, blue and violet. Color pigments which reflect UV radiation expand the spectrum of colors which can be differentiated. For example, several blossoms which may appear to humans to be of the same yellow color will appear to bees as having different colors (multicolored patterns) because of their different proportions of ultraviolet.\nFrisch's investigation of a bee's powers of orientation were significant. He discovered that bees can recognize the desired compass direction in three",
"-28.696819645952928"
],
[
"but the iris pigment epithelium is not, mammalian eyes appear blue. Melanin in the pigment epithelium is critical for visual acuity and contrast.\nLoss of melanogenesis function is linked to the gene that encodes tyrosinase. Certain alleles of this gene, TYR, at the Color locus, cause oculocutaneous albinism type 1 in humans and the familiar red-eyed albino conditions in mice and other mammals. In other vertebrates Other vertebrates, such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, produce a variety of non-melanin pigments. Disruption of melanin production does not affect the production of these pigments. Non-melanin pigments in other vertebrates are produced by",
"-28.661820293826167"
],
[
"or that of its complementary color. The other color appearance parameters are colorfulness, saturation (also known as intensity or chroma), lightness, and brightness.\nUsually, colors with the same hue are distinguished with adjectives referring to their lightness or colorfulness, such as with \"light blue\", \"pastel blue\", \"vivid blue\". Exceptions include brown, which is a dark orange.\nIn painting color theory, a hue is a pure pigment—one without tint or shade (added white or black pigment, respectively). Hues are first processed in the brain in areas in the extended V4 called globs. Specialized hues The hues exhibited by caramel colorings and beers",
"-28.597188281768467"
],
[
"single color that was a mixture of the primaries:\n[The] experiments of Professor J. D. Forbes, which I witnessed in 1849… [established] that blue and yellow do not make green, but a pinkish tint, when neither prevails in the combination…[and the] result of mixing yellow and blue was, I believe, not previously known.\n— James Clerk Maxwell, Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness (1855), Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh\nMaxwell took this a step further by using a circular scale around the rim with which to measure the ratios of the primaries, choosing vermilion (V), emerald",
"-28.58864277806424"
],
[
"spectrum. However, deuteranopes do not suffer from dimming issues. For example, purple colors are not seen as being opposite to other colours in the spectrum but instead appear to be similar.\nTritanopes are missing the short wavelength sensitive opsins and see short wavelength colours in a green hue and dim compared to other colours. They may also see some short wavelength colours as black. Other perception problems include distinguishing yellow from pink or purple colours being perceived as shades of red. Food Foraging Researchers have found that trichromacy has advantages over dichromacy or anomalous trichromacy at further distances. This is believed",
"-28.56994775145722"
],
[
"\"Orange\" has a separate etymology and is not related to that of the color.\nPrior to this word's being introduced to the English-speaking world, saffron already existed in the English language. Crog also referred to the saffron colour, so that orange was also referred to as ġeolurēad (yellow-red) for reddish orange, or ġeolucrog (yellow-saffron) for yellowish orange. Alternatively, orange things were sometimes described as red such as red deer, red hair, the Red Planet and robin redbreast. History and art In ancient Egypt, artists used an orange mineral pigment called realgar for tomb paintings, as well as other uses. It was",
"-28.526539493745076"
],
[
"from the blue given by the Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by small gas molecules when the sky is clear, to the gray caused by Mie scattering of large water droplets when the sky is cloudy. Alternatively, it has been suggested that gray and blue eyes might differ in the concentration of melanin at the front of the stroma.\nGray eyes are most common in Northern and Eastern Europe. Gray eyes can also be found among the Algerian Shawia people of the Aurès Mountains in Northwest Africa, in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. Under magnification, gray eyes exhibit small",
"-28.48262042790884"
],
[
"factors determining iris color Iris color is a highly complex phenomenon consisting of the combined effects of texture, pigmentation, fibrous tissue and blood vessels within the iris stroma, which together make up an individual's epigenetic constitution in this context. A person's \"eye color\" is actually the color of one's iris, the cornea being transparent and the white sclera entirely outside the area of interest.\nMelanin is yellowish-brown to dark brown in the stromal pigment cells, and black in the iris pigment epithelium, which lies in a thin but very opaque layer across the back of the iris. Most human irises also",
"-28.479628611596127"
],
[
"Orange bluet Identification This species of bluet stands out from other many bluets because of its orange color. On male orange bluets, the thorax is orange with a thick, black stipe along the back and black shoulder stripes. His abdomen is mostly black with some orange rings, orange below, and orange near the tip. His large eyes are orange on a black head; small orange postocular spots are connected across the back of the head by an orange bar. On female orange bluets, the thorax is similar looking to the male thorax only the color is dull yellow instead of",
"-28.422954840614693"
],
[
"tan, pale brown. There are occasionally blended or bi-toned flowers, such as white and purple forms. The blue forms, have a darker centre patch, or veined with purple. The yellow forms can be pale yellow with greenish-brown veining, they also have bracts that are not so intensely purple stained.\nThe yellow forms of Iris junonia, and yellow forms of Iris imbricata are similar in form to the yellow forms of Iris purpureobractea, also forms of Iris germanica in the Taurus mountains near Egirdir are very similar to the iris.\nLike other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer",
"-28.374075432948302"
],
[
"not just due to the white colour of the human sclera, which many other species share, but also to the fact that the human iris is relatively small and comprises a significantly smaller portion of the exposed eye surface compared to other animals. It is theorized that this adaptation evolved because of our social nature as the eye became a useful communication tool in addition to a sensory organ. It is believed that the conspicuous sclera of the human eye makes it easier for one individual to identify where another individual is looking, increasing the efficacy of this particular form",
"-28.37262692017248"
],
[
"composition are blue, green and red, the blue will appear to be more distant, and the red closer to the viewer. The cooler a colour is, the more distant it seems. Astronomy Blue giants are hot and luminous stars with surface temperatures exceeding 10,000 K. The largest blue supergiant stars are extremely massive and energetic, and are usually unstable. They are generally short-lived, either exploding in a supernova or periodically shedding their outer layers to become red giants. Blue eyes Blue eyes do not actually contain any blue pigment. Eye colour is determined by two factors: the pigmentation of the",
"-28.330331582343206"
],
[
"a recognizable breed, and they are featured in many jokes and cartoons, particularly The Far Side by Gary Larson. Eye color Light-colored dachshunds can sport amber, light brown, or green eyes; however, kennel club standards state that the darker the eye color, the better. Dapple and double dapple dachshunds can have multi coloured “wall” eyes with fully blue, partially blue or patched irises due to the effect of the dapple gene on eye pigmentation expression. “Wall” eye is permissible according to DCA standards but undesirable by AKC standards. Piebald-patterned dachshunds will never have blue in their eyes, unless the",
"-28.319935403356794"
],
[
"catalogs are not consistent with each other. Although there are a great many named colors, the selection used by philatelists is limited to several dozen, modified by adjectives such as \"dark\", \"light\", \"pale\", \"bright\" and \"deep\". In addition, two color names may be combined, as in \"gray green\" or \"brown orange\", where the first name indicates the direction of modification to the second color. Thus \"brown orange\" is a duller and darker orange, while \"orange brown\" has a tinge to it that is more orange than would be seen with a \"yellow brown\" or \"red brown\". This system becomes less",
"-28.295312690985156"
],
[
"of melanin within the iris tissues. Although the processes determining eye color are not fully understood, it is known that inherited eye color is determined by multiple genes. Environmental or acquired factors can alter these inherited traits.\nThe human iris can be seen in a number of various colors. There are three true colors in human eyes that determine the outward appearance: brown, yellow, and grey. The amount of each color an individual has determines the appearance of the eye color.\nCentral heterochromia appears to be prevalent in irises containing low amounts of melanin.\nA famous case of a person with central heterochromia",
"-28.27706654096255"
],
[
"comparative study of color terms in the world's languages, green is only found as a separate category in languages with the fully developed range of six colors (white, black, red, green, yellow, and blue), or more rarely in systems with five colors (white, red, yellow, green, and black/blue). (See distinction of green from blue) These languages have introduced supplementary vocabulary to denote \"green\", but these terms are recognizable as recent adoptions that are not in origin color terms (much like the English adjective orange being in origin not a color term but the name of a fruit). Thus, the Thai",
"-28.26793892153364"
],
[
"often called blue, green, and red, but more accurately known as short, medium, and long wavelength-sensitive cone subtypes. It is a lack of one or more of the cone subtypes that causes individuals to have deficiencies in colour vision or various kinds of colour blindness. These individuals are not blind to objects of a particular colour, but are unable to distinguish between colours that can be distinguished by people with normal vision. Humans have this trichromatic vision, while most other mammals lack cones with red sensitive pigment and therefore have poorer dichromatic colour vision. However, some animals have four spectral",
"-28.245480054476502"
],
[
"uniforms.\nThe National Basketball Association, the premier basketball league in the United States and Canada, also has blue as one of the colours on their logo, along with red and white also, as did its female equivalent, the WNBA, until March 28, 2011, when the latter adopted an orange and white logo. Former NBA player Theodore Edwards was nicknamed \"Blue\". Fifteen NBA teams feature the colour in their uniforms.\nThe National Football League, the premier American football league in the United States, also uses blue as one of three colours, along with white and red, on their official logo. Thirteen NFL teams",
"-28.242985616845544"
],
[
"the iris pigment epithelium. The iris pigment epithelium prevents damaging light scattering within the eye. Blue-eyed humans and mammals have little or no pigment in the stroma, but retain pigment in the iris pigment epithelium. If pigment is missing from both the stroma and the iris pigment epithelium, the only pigment in the eye is the hemoglobin in blood vessels. This accounts for the reddish appearance of eyes in some types of albinism.\nIn research mammals, such as mice, albinism is more strictly defined. Albino mice occur due to a recessive mutation of the C gene. No such mutation exists in",
"-28.236843251601385"
],
[
"occur in hues ranging from green-blue to gray-blue, with the primary hue necessarily being blue. Green and gray are the normal secondary hues that can be found in blue diamonds. Blue diamonds are considered most beautiful and valuable when there is no secondary color present but rather are a pure blue color. However, a pure blue diamond of light color may be considered less valuable than a green-blue or gray-blue diamond whose color is more vivid. The characteristic of color is very complex in blue diamonds for this reason. Most pure blue diamonds are Type IIb, meaning they contain either",
"-28.225020756508457"
],
[
"the upper image overlaps black, it is seen as violet. Where it overlaps white, it is seen as blue. As the lower image overlaps black, it is seen as orange. Where it overlaps white, it is seen as yellow. This shows how colors are produced when the image mixes with either lightness or darkness, in accordance with Goethe's assertions. § 11 In the operation of a healthy eye, three kinds of division of retinal activity often occur at once. (1) The quantitative intensive division unites with the qualitative division resulting in a loss of color energy and a deviation toward",
"-28.164916884561535"
],
[
"but cannot distinguish red. Research indicates that their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, in which certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear more green.\nDichromatic vision is the result of the animal having two types of cones in their eyes: a short-wavelength-sensitive cone (S) that is optimal at 428 nm (blue), and a middle-to-long wavelength sensitive cone (M/L) which sees optimally at 539 nm, more of a yellowish color. This structure may have arisen because horses are most active at dawn and dusk, a time when the rods of the eye are especially useful.\nThe horse's limited ability",
"-28.15269792750769"
],
[
"rather than the traditional blue or white milky seas effect seen by the rest of the world. It is not known whether this difference depends on the area, or simply a perception of a cyanic colour as being green. Etymology The phenomenon is known as mareel in Shetland. This term is derived from the Norn word *mareld, which is itself derived from the Old Norse word mǫrueldr, which is a compound of marr (mere, sea) and eldr (fire).",
"-28.126104976676288"
],
[
"is usually given equal status to red, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, pink, gray, white and black (all abstract colors) in membership among the basic color terms of English. Based solely on current usage of the word, it would be impossible to distinguish whether the fruit is called an orange because of its color, or the color is so called after the fruit. (This problem is also illustrated by violet and indigo.)\nIn Italian there is an adjective arancione different of and derived from the fruit name arancio. In Portuguese, it is usual to distinguish the fruit laranja from the color",
"-28.120802551682573"
],
[
"distinguish the full range of the colors of the spectrum visible to humans, but many kinds of mammals, such as dogs and cattle, have dichromacy, which means they can see blues and yellows, but cannot distinguish red and green (both are seen as gray). Bulls, for instance, cannot see the red color of the cape of a bullfighter, but they are agitated by its movement. (See color vision).\nOne theory for why primates developed sensitivity to red is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and inedible vegetation. This may have driven further adaptations by species taking",
"-28.11343180850963"
],
[
"as well as blue and yellow. Physiological evidence There has been considerable effort in neuroscience to establish physiological mechanisms correlating to the existence of unique hues. For some time it was thought that the opponent process was explained through two chromatic mechanisms inherent in the way signals from the three cone types (Long, Medium, and Short wavelengths) on the retina are processed. The first mechanism represents the red-green L-M process. The blue-yellow process was thought to be based on a similar (L+M)-S process. Recent research has shown that this (L+M)-S process does correspond to yellow as a unique hue. ",
"-28.10074718153919"
],
[
"However, the dominant coloration goes from white to black, passing through a whole range of related nuances such as cream, pink, yellow, red, and brown, usually with circular eye spots darker than the background color and/or with saddles and blotches. Some specimens can easily be confused with Antennarius maculatus.\nThese characteristics can help to separate the two close species: usually, A. maculatus has red or orange margins on all fins, and sometimes a spike of the saddle blotch starts posterior to the eye, numerous warts on the skin, andfew or no ocellis; A. pictus has also three eye spots on its",
"-28.098336540992022"
],
[
"complementary colour to orange. As many painters of the 19th century discovered, blue and orange reinforce each other. The painter Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo that in his paintings, he was trying to reveal \"the oppositions of blue with orange, of red with green, of yellow with violet ... trying to make the colours intense and not a harmony of grey\". In another letter he wrote simply, \"there is no orange without blue.\" Van Gogh, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and many other impressionist and post-impressionist painters frequently placed orange against azure or cobalt blue, to make both colours appear brighter.\nThe",
"-28.047598258090147"
],
[
"is sufficient to produce eyeshine that is highly visible to humans (despite our inferior night vision). Eyeshine occurs in a wide variety of colors including white, blue, green, yellow, pink and red. However, since eyeshine is a type of iridescence, the color varies with the angle at which it is seen and the minerals which make up the reflective tapetum-lucidum crystals.\nWhite eyeshine occurs in many fish, especially walleye; blue eyeshine occurs in many mammals such as horses; green eyeshine occurs in mammals such as cats, dogs, and raccoons; and red eyeshine occurs in coyote, rodents, opossums and birds.\nAlthough human eyes",
"-28.03970622649649"
],
[
"(the result of crossing a blue and golden, having a purple coloration).",
"-27.955008366450784"
],
[
"is the same frequency-dependence of scattering that accounts for the blue appearance of the sky. The result is a \"Tyndall blue\" structural color that varies with external lighting conditions.\nIn humans, the inheritance pattern followed by blue eyes is considered similar to that of a recessive trait (in general, eye color inheritance is considered a polygenic trait, meaning that it is controlled by the interactions of several genes, not just one). In 2008, new research tracked down a single genetic mutation that leads to blue eyes. \"Originally, we all had brown eyes,\" said Eiberg. Eiberg and colleagues suggested in a study",
"-27.948317127564223"
],
[
"disrupted by albinism. Abnormal eye development and appearance Melanin functions in the normal development of various parts of the eye, including the iris, retina, eye muscles, and optic nerve. The absence of melanin results in abnormal development of eyes and leads to problems with focusing, and depth perception. The eyes of albino animals appear red because the colour of the red blood cells in the retina can be seen through the iris, which has no pigment to obscure this. Some albino animals may have pale-blue eyes due to other colour generating processes. Albino vertebrates exposed to intense",
"-27.94211766609442"
],
[
"though hazel tends to be duller and contains green with red/gold flecks, as mentioned above. Amber eyes may also contain amounts of very light gold-ish gray.\nThe eyes of some pigeons contain yellow fluorescing pigments known as pteridines. The bright yellow eyes of the great horned owl are thought to be due to the presence of the pteridine pigment xanthopterin within certain chromatophores (called xanthophores) located in the iris stroma. In humans, yellowish specks or patches are thought to be due to the pigment lipofuscin, also known as lipochrome. Many animals such as canines, domestic cats, owls, eagles, pigeons and fish",
"-27.88325773520046"
],
[
"announced that the Leafs had changed their colour scheme to blue and white, which they have worn ever since. While the Leafs say that blue represents the Canadian skies and white represents snow, it is also true that top-level Toronto teams have worn blue since the Toronto Argonauts adopted blue as their primary colour in 1873. Another theory is that Smythe changed the colours as a nod to his high school alma mater, Upper Canada College, whose teams have worn blue and white since 1829 and the University of Toronto whose teams have also worn blue and were called the",
"-27.79702275509044"
],
[
"Orange clownfish Description Amphiprion percula can grow to be 11 cm (4.3 in) in length, but is on average 8 cm (3.1 in), and can be recognized by three white lines across their bright orange bodies, with no distinction in color between sexes. The anterior white bar is placed just behind the eye, the middle bar goes straight down the middle of the fish, and the posterior bar occurs near the caudal fin. An anterior projecting bulge also exists on the middle bar. In addition to the white coloring, black edging outlines each fin with varying thickness. This species can be mistaken for the",
"-27.773936248966493"
],
[
"and tuxedo cats) prevents melanin (pigment) granules from reaching one eye during development, resulting in a cat with one blue eye and one green, yellow, or brown eye. The condition only rarely occurs in cats that lack both the dominant white and the white spotting gene. Kittens As with some other newborn mammals, all cats are blue-eyed as kittens, and may change as the newborn ages. The differences in an odd-eyed kitten's eye color might not be noticeable, save upon close inspection. Odd-eyed kittens have a different shade of blue in each eye. The color of the odd eye changes",
"-27.766367433359846"
],
[
"color is determined by multiple genes. So far, as many as 15 genes have been associated with eye color inheritance. Some of the eye-color genes include OCA2 and HERC2. The earlier belief that blue eye color is a simple recessive trait has been shown to be incorrect. The genetics of eye color are so complex that almost any parent-child combination of eye colors can occur. However, OCA2 gene polymorphism, close to proximal 5′ regulatory region, explains most human eye-color variation. Ancient DNA and eye color in Europe People of European descent show the greatest variety in eye color of any",
"-27.72463570185937"
],
[
"amber itself can range from a whitish color through a pale lemon yellow, to brown and almost black. Other uncommon colors include red amber (sometimes known as \"cherry amber\"), green amber, and even blue amber, which is rare and highly sought after.\nYellow amber is a hard fossil resin from evergreen trees, and despite the name it can be translucent, yellow, orange, or brown colored. Known to the Iranians by the Pahlavi compound word kah-ruba (from kah \"straw\" plus rubay \"attract, snatch\", referring to its electrical properties), which entered Arabic as kahraba' or kahraba (which later became the Arabic word for",
"-27.69576578369015"
],
[
"albinism, there is no pigment on the back of the iris, and light from inside the eye can pass through the iris to the front. In these cases, the only color seen is the red from the hemoglobin of the blood in the capillaries of the iris. Such albinos have pink eyes, as do albino rabbits, mice, or any other animal with a total lack of melanin. Transillumination defects can almost always be observed during an eye examination due to lack of iridial pigmentation. The ocular albino also lacks normal amounts of melanin in the retina as well, which allows",
"-27.684133183036465"
],
[
"and the iris has a golden or coppery color. Males have a characteristic dark blotch or V marking on the back of the head that often connects to the dorsal zigzag pattern. The ground color for males varies and includes many different shades of gray, sometimes yellowish or pinkish gray, or yellowish brown. The dorsal zigzag is dark gray or black, the edge of which is sometimes darker. A row of indistinct, dark (occasionally yellowish) spots runs along each side, sometimes joined in a wavy band.\nFemales have a similar color pattern, except that it is less distinct and contrasting. They",
"-27.674794410617324"
],
[
"liver and in other tissues, including the iris of the eye. This results in the formation of Kayser–Fleischer rings, which are dark rings that encircle the periphery of the iris. Coloration of the sclera Eye color outside of the iris may also be symptomatic of disease. Yellowing of the sclera (the \"whites of the eyes\") is associated with jaundice, and may be symptomatic of liver diseases such as cirrhosis or hepatitis. A blue coloration of the sclera may also be symptomatic of disease. In general, any sudden changes in the color of the sclera should be addressed by a medical",
"-27.66572883198387"
],
[
"must be considered an acquired characteristic. Eye color It is fairly common for mammalian eyes to change color in the first years of life. This happens, with human infants and kittens being some well-known examples, because the eyes of the baby, just like the rest of its body, are still developing. This change can be as simple as blue to brown, or can involve multiple color changes in which neither the child's parents nor his/her doctors know when the changes will stop and what the final eye color will be.\nChanges in eye color signal changes in the arrangement and concentration",
"-27.66480128791227"
],
[
"of the day is mainly a result of scattering of light and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. The blue color of the sky is caused by Rayleigh scattering of the sunlight from the atmosphere, which tends to scatter blue light more than red light.\nFor colors based on black-body theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures, while red occurs at lower, cooler, temperatures. This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in which red represents hot, and blue cold. Fixtures Lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions",
"-27.64540451692301"
],
[
"the background “space” color and one or more visual pigments offset from this blue-green region, say, in the red or ultraviolet region of the spectrum. This imparts a clear survival advantage to these animals because they can detect not only changes in light intensity but also contrasts in color. Many fish, for example, have two color receptors, one in the blue region of the spectra (425-490 nm) and the other in the near UV (320-380 nm). Insects and shrimp, members of the fish food chain, have blue, green (530 nm) and near UV receptors. In fact, some aquatic animals have up",
"-27.598493814948597"
],
[
"blue, green, and yellow respectively.",
"-27.595454313937807"
],
[
"blue colour of Blue John remains uncertain. Microscopic analysis has failed to find any impurities such as potassium permanganate or hydrocarbons which could produce a purple-blue colour. It is now thought that the colour may be a physical phenomenon due to crystal lattice dislocation. If the regular arrangement of atoms in the fluorite molecules are disturbed or dislocated, then this may yield the blue colour in Blue John. The cause of these dislocations is unknown, but one possibility is that it is due to colloidal calcium, i.e. excess of calcium atoms needed to form fluorite. Blue John can be decolourised",
"-27.57074630324132"
],
[
"with at least six colour distinctions (the other two being black and white). These colours roughly correspond to the sensitivities of the retinal ganglion cells. (The retinal ganglia process colour by positioning it within a blue to yellow range, and separately positioning it within a red to green range.)",
"-27.526624379723216"
],
[
"orange, with dark-red rosettes extending from their flat carapace to the ambulatory legs. Often, they have red-tipped claws and legs, but may also show no red coloration.",
"-27.517979862517677"
],
[
"brown with dark patches along the middle of the back. The dark patches are interrupted by pale blotches that often blend together to form a continuous stripe from above the arm to the groin. A dark brown bar is present between the eye and the ear, but no dark stripe is present between the nostril and the eye as in many other dragons. The lips and lower jaw tend to be of a lighter coloration than the rest of the head. Jacky dragons are also characterized by a bright yellow lining in their mouths. .\nSpecimens have been seen with orange-red",
"-27.504625112604117"
],
[
"greens, and yellows. Blue does not appear to feature. Natural dyes produce variations in color, which are particularly obvious on older Bibibaffs.",
"-27.50450395385269"
],
[
"golden traces, olive-tan anteriorly. Two small golden glands are at each side of the eye. Iris is golden with small black flecks. Tympanum is cream-coloured. Ventral surfaces are uniformly gray. Skin of dorsum, limbs, flanks and venter smooth, but some specimens have scattered tubercles posterior to the sacral region and on flanks.\nTadpoles have a ventrally located oral disc. They have brown, golden glittered dorsum and pinkish tail with brown and golden spots in the dorsoanterior portion. Ventrally they are translucent, with two very conspicuous silver marks at anterior portion. There is also a golden mark on dorsal fin, just behind",
"-27.489865679410286"
]
] |
4j298z | Why isn't getting checked for cancerous tumors, or tumors in general, a routine process? | [
"The problem is that there are very many downsides to routine checks. Too many downsides, in fact. First of all, we do not have the resources to preform routine checks on everybody. In many places, there are already long waiting lists when people need certain types of scans or care. If we tie up our limited amount of scanning equipment and personnel that can use these machines and interpret the results with millions of people who don't even need them, the waiting lists will only get longer and longer. Secondly, body scans are not magic. They can detect if there are irregularities in your body. They cannot immediately detect whether this irregularity is something to be concerned about or not. Most of us have irregularities in our bodies that are absolutely nothing to worry about, just a result of how we aren't perfect beings and don't grow perfectly. If everybody gets routinely scanned, all of these irregularities are going to pop up and doctors will pretty much be obligated to investigate them further. Even though 99% of them are absolutely not any danger to you. That means more tests (so again, more strain on our limited resources) and also means more stress Which brings me to point three: quality of life. Basically, routine scans do not improve quality of life. In rare rare rare rare exceedingly rare cases, they might detect something slightly earlier than it would otherwise have been detected. In most cases it is going to detect harmless irregularities, which will lead to people having to undergo more (and sometimes painful testing), which they will have to wait longer for due to the longer wait lists, which all accumulates in a huge increase in stress. All to tell you something they knew already, namely that there is nothing wrong with you. Basically, the very marginal benefits of a system like this do not outweigh the much more common adverse effects (all the extra stress and pain of tests that people will experience and the added wait time to everybody else who *does* need these tests and might be in a worst position due to the long wait), so we don't do it.",
"Several scenarios. One. You don't find any tumours. That's because you haven't got any. Doesn't mean you won't get one I'm the next month or year. But since a doctor has told you then you feel safe. But you shouldn't. You don't have a tumour TODAY. Two. You find a tumour. Great. Except not all positives will be right so you just gave a lot of people drugs, worry and surgery who did not need it! Three. You don't find any tumour, but you missed it. So that's a waste and false security for the patient. Four. You find a tumour and they have cancer. The rarest of all the outcomes. Also it's hard to find a tumour when there are no symptoms. How many people had to be screened and at what cost? And what about the increase in radiation exposure or the minor surgery to have a look? Both have risks and you cause more harm in doing the screening than the number of people caught *who wouldn't have been caught later when they had symptoms*. It's also very hard looking for rare events in a huge population. And quite counterintuitive. It's actually a fascinating area URL_1 URL_0 ",
"Finding them can be difficult and/or expensive. Why don't doctors run a full scan of every conceivable system and perform every test? It's too expensive, painful and time consuming. We don't have the technology to be proactive, so often we have to be reactive.",
"Diagnostic imaging physicist here. This is a lot more complex of an issue than it sounds. For starters, checking women that are middle age and older for breast cancer IS a routine process. Women over 50 are recommended to have mammograms (breast x-rays) every six months. Any kind of program like that is called \"screening\", and since it involves radiation, there are a LOT of legal guidelines. In the US it's regulated by the FDA, a purview enabled by the Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA). I do safety checks on mammography machines, and let me tell you, they are a real pain in the butt. Not because mammography is complicated - it isn't, compared to other types of diagnostic imaging - it's because the FDA takes any program where (usually) healthy people are exposed to radiation on purpose VERY seriously. And frankly, they should. There needs to be a definite trade-off between early breast cancer detection and any harm that might occur to patients, not just from radiation but from the stress of having to go through a biopsy when it turns out to be negative anyway. So let's say we were to start screening for something else. We would need to impose all the safety guidelines, regulations, and checks on that type of imaging as well. This is starting to happen for lung cancer, a few screening programs are already in place nationwide. Like for mammography, these have to be scrutinized to a ridiculous degree in order to be FDA (or state, in some cases) approved. This increases cost per scan, and also substantially increases throughput on CT machines. So to do it, you can't already be booked solid with emergency patients, inpatients and what have you. No problem, you say, let's not use radiation. Let's use MRI or ultrasound instead. Those don't emit (ionizing) radiation. MRI is most likely a straight-up no go. Depending on the equipment and the anatomy of interest, those exams might be 20-60 minutes each (mammograms and chest CTs take 5 or less). Most MRI scanners already have near-constant throughput, so adding hundreds more patients per week is not going to happen. As for ultrasound, since they can only penetrate into the body a few centimeters, it's difficult to examine large body parts with them. Plus, ultrasound is useless on air-filled structures like the lungs (air reflects ultrasound) and is problematic with water-filled structures like the bladder (which block ultrasound). So what would you screen with ultrasound, then? Pregnant mothers? Yep, we already do that. Those considerations aside, let's say we did screening anyway - a full body CT for everyone who wants one. That's a lot of radiation, for starters. Plus it'll take radiologists a long time to scrutinize hundreds of full body scans (radiologists are already accused of missing breast cancers because of the ridiculously high throughput needed when reviewing mammograms). And even if you find anything, there's a huge chance it'll just be benign. You end up worrying the patient, exposing them to a ton of radiation, and subjecting them to biopsies or even surgery for nothing. Independent CT clinics offering full body scans used to be commonplace, but aren't anymore, for precisely those reasons. The worst outcome of all would be a patient that actually had cancer, and then a scan missed it. They might develop symptoms later, and then ignore them, because the scan turned up negative, right? It's a false sense of security. Bottom line, it sounds like a good idea, but it's just not worth it. It's much better to restrict scans to people with risk factors and/or symptoms.",
"Because there's no easy/quick/cheap way to do it. The sorts of machines that we have that can do full-body scans that would be able to catch a wide range of tumors are expensive to build/buy/operate, and already in high demand. It would cost a fortune to regularly scan everyone, when statistically only a very tiny percentage of 'normal' healthy people are likely to have tumors.",
"There's no easy way to detect a tumor. MRI can do it, but you need to know where to look; just scanning your brain costs thousands of dollars, a full body MRI is prohibitively expensive except in the most extreme of cases. As well, with most forms of cancer, more obvious symptoms manifest themselves before the cancer becomes lethal. Skin cancer produces a distinctive rash, breast and testicular cancer create easily-felt lumps, bladder cancer leads causes blood in the urine, etc. The most common and deadly of cancers are among the most obvious, so simply paying attention to your own body and keeping an eye out for unusual changes is very nearly as good as a full body MRI.",
"Well because lots of tumors can only be detected through x-rays and mri's, etc. But if you scan your body every year the radiation would slowly make you sick and ironically will damage your dna and rna which will then create defective cells that become cancer. Thats how the discoverers of x-ray's died, of cancer after their bodies became riddled with tumors. So the best we can do is tell people to be aware of their symptoms and obviously check your body for any strange lumps, etc. Us women are actually supposed to do a thorough breast examination every month on our own at home to check for lumps."
] | [
[
"tested on a live sample of the actual patient's tumor, rather than on the patient. This reduces the likelihood of treatment with ineffective drugs and their associated side effects, and it increases the likelihood of finding a treatment that will work against the patient's tumor. For patients whose tumors have also undergone molecular testing, such as next-generation sequencing, the selection of potential drugs is further guided by any and all applicable results. In the event the cancer progresses or recurs, Champions also banks, or stores, each successful TumorGraft for potential future patient use.",
"-31.67337748609316"
],
[
"tests involve the detection of cancers. Screening is more likely to detect slower-growing tumors (due to longer pre-clinical sojourn time) that are less likely to cause harm. Also, those aggressive cancers tend to produce symptoms in the gap between scheduled screening, being less likely to detected by screening. So, the cases screening often detects automatically have better prognosis than symptomatic cases. The consequence is those more slow progressive cases are now classified as cancers, which increases the incidence, and due to its better prognosis, the survival rates of screened people will be better than non-screening even if screening makes no",
"-31.244769624361652"
],
[
"be screened to find one cancer, and too many men would have treatment for cancer that would not progress. Low-risk prostate cancer does not always require immediate treatment, but may be amenable to active surveillance. A PSA test cannot 'prove' the existence of prostate cancer by itself; varying levels of the antigen can be due to other causes. Digital rectal examination During a digital rectal examination (DRE), a healthcare provider slides a gloved finger into the rectum and presses on the prostate, to check its size and to detect any lumps on the accessible side. If the examination suggests anomalies,",
"-31.1394666130509"
],
[
"difficult to treat in later stages. Accurate detection of cancer is also important because false positives can cause harm from unnecessary medical procedures. Some screening protocols are currently not accurate (such as prostate-specific antigen testing). Others such as a colonoscopy or mammogram are unpleasant and as a result some patients may opt out. Active research is underway to address all these problems. Research funding Cancer research is funded by government grants, charitable foundations, and pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies.\nIn the early 2000s, most funding for cancer research came from taxpayers and charities, rather than from corporations. In",
"-30.962292434060146"
],
[
"Cancer screening Medical uses The goal of cancer screening is to provide useful health information which can guide medical treatment. A good cancer screening is one which would detect when a person has cancer so that the person could seek treatment to protect their health. Good cancer screening would not be more likely to cause harm than to provide useful information. In general, cancer screening has risks and should not be done except with a medical indication.\nDifferent kinds of cancer screening procedures have different risks, but good tests share some characteristics. If a test detects cancer, then that test result",
"-30.332486174113"
],
[
"Cancer staging Considerations Correct staging is critical because treatment (particularly the need for pre-operative therapy and/or for adjuvant treatment, the extent of surgery) is generally based on this parameter. Thus, incorrect staging would lead to improper treatment.\nFor some common cancers the staging process is well-defined. For example, in the cases of breast cancer and prostate cancer, doctors routinely can identify that the cancer is early and that it has low risk of metastasis. In such cases, medical specialty professional organizations recommend against the use of PET scans, CT scans, or bone scans because research shows that the risk of getting",
"-30.124239851389575"
],
[
"cancers are indolent and would never progress to a clinically meaningful stage if left undiagnosed and untreated during a man's lifetime. On the other hand, a subset are potentially lethal, and screening can identify some of these within a window of opportunity for cure. Thus, the concept of PSA screening is advocated by some as a means of detecting high-risk, potentially lethal prostate cancer, with the understanding that lower-risk disease, if discovered, often does not need treatment and may be amenable to active surveillance.\nScreening for prostate cancer is controversial because of cost and uncertain long-term benefits to patients. Horan echos",
"-30.103842496775542"
],
[
"be useful for monitoring the progress of sex-cord tumors, along with mullerian inhibiting substance. AFP can also be used to monitor Sertoli-Leydig tumors. In dysgerminomas, lactate dehydrogenase and its two isozymes (LDH-1 and LDH-2) are used to test for recurrence.\nWomen with ovarian cancer may not need routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because it is unlikely to detect a recurrence, improve survival, and because it has its own costs and side effects. However, CT imaging can be used if desired, though this is not",
"-29.60944119017222"
],
[
"of the common, moderately radioresponsive tumors are routinely treated with curative doses of radiation therapy if they are at an early stage. For example: non-melanoma skin cancer, head and neck cancer, breast cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, cervical cancer, anal cancer, and prostate cancer. Metastatic cancers are generally incurable with radiation therapy because it is not possible to treat the whole body.\nBefore treatment, a CT scan is often performed to identify the tumor and surrounding normal structures. The patient receives small skin marks to guide the placement of treatment fields. Patient positioning is crucial at this stage as the patient",
"-29.603691621363396"
],
[
"follow-up screening is typically much more expensive than initial screening, more false positives (that must receive follow-up) means that fewer women may be screened for a given amount of money. Thus as sensitivity increases, a screening program will cost more or be confined to screening a smaller number of women. Overdiagnosis The central harm of mammographic breast cancer screening is overdiagnosis: the detection of abnormalities that meet the pathologic definition of cancer but will never progress to cause symptoms or death. Dr. H. Gilbert Welch, a researcher at Dartmouth College, states that \"screen-detected breast and prostate cancer survivors are more",
"-29.564110084145796"
],
[
"Exploratory surgery Exploratory surgery and cancer Sometimes, cancer is located in a place where standard tests cannot detect it. In this case, doctors must go into surgery and look for the cancerous mass manually. This procedure, which is what is commonly associated with exploratory surgery, is not used for treatment at all. Instead, it is used chiefly to identify the location of the tumor and the extent of its damage. If a tumor is found, a biopsy is performed and tests are run to see what type of cancer was found. Exploratory surgery in animals Because animals cannot voice their",
"-29.436924974186695"
],
[
"health conditions.\nEngagement with screening procedures is also of importance with regard to cancer prevention and in some cancers an underutilized resource. Fear and anxiety are barriers for some to getting screened for cancer. However, cancer screening presents the opportunity to catch tumors that are present in very early stages and avoid intensive, systemic treatments in favor or more acute and localized treatments with a higher cancer of cure (e.g., surgical resection).\nBehavioral modification is also relevant to improving the quality of life of those who are living with cancer. For example, a common and debilitating symptom of cancer is fatigue. However,",
"-29.372425792487775"
],
[
"and make tumors easier to identify.\nIf a tumor is found, a neurosurgeon must perform a biopsy on it. This simply involves the removal of a small amount of tumor tissue, which is then sent to a neuropathologist for examination and grading. The biopsy may take place before surgical removal of the tumor or the sample may be taken during surgery. Grading of the tumor sample is a method of classification that helps the doctor to determine the severity of the astrocytoma and to decide on the best treatment options. The neuropathologist grades the tumor by looking for atypical cells,",
"-29.330341681765276"
],
[
"antigen (PSA) level are usually the first investigations done to check for prostate cancer. PSA values are difficult to interpret, because a high value might be present in a person without cancer, and a low value can be present in someone with cancer. The next form of testing is often the taking of a biopsy to assess for tumour activity and invasiveness. Because of the significant risk of overdiagnosis with widespread screening in the general population, prostate cancer screening is controversial. If a tumour is confirmed, medical imaging such as an MRI or bone scan may be done to check",
"-29.3007219266874"
],
[
"tumor is secreting hormones or other circulating chemicals. A biopsy of the tumor may be required to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment Because ganglioneuromas are benign, treatment may not be necessary, as it would expose patients to more risk than leaving it alone. If there are symptoms or major physical deformity, treatment usually consists of surgery to remove the tumor. Prognosis Most ganglioneuromas are noncancerous, thus expected outcome is usually good. However, a ganglioneuroma may become cancerous and spread to other areas, or it may regrow after removal.\nIf the tumor has been present for a long time and has pressed on",
"-29.29425167023146"
],
[
"benefits. The purpose of screening is to diagnose ovarian cancer at an early stage, when it is more likely to be treated successfully.\nScreening with transvaginal ultrasound, pelvic examination, and CA-125 levels can be used instead of preventive surgery in women who have BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. This strategy has shown some success. Prevention People with strong genetic risk for ovarian cancer may consider the surgical removal of their ovaries as a preventive measure. This is often done after completion of childbearing years. This reduces the chances of developing both breast cancer (by around 50%) and ovarian cancer (by about 96%)",
"-29.238204127905192"
],
[
"should be in the hands of a multidisciplinary team including specialists in several aspects of oncology, and is, therefore, best conducted in larger centers. Surgery Surgery with the intention of a cure is only possible in around one-fifth (20%) of new cases. Although CT scans help, in practice it can be difficult to determine whether the tumor can be fully removed (its \"resectability\"), and it may only become apparent during surgery that it is not possible to successfully remove the tumor without damaging other vital tissues. Whether or not surgical resection can be offered depends on various factors, including",
"-29.224911385244923"
],
[
"a large population of patients and find the small number most likely to have a serious condition. These patients are then referred for further, usually more invasive, testing. Thus a screening exam is not intended to be definitive; rather it is intended to have sufficient sensitivity to detect a useful proportion of cancers. The cost of higher sensitivity is a larger number of results that would be regarded as suspicious in patients without disease. This is true of mammography. The patients without disease who are called back for further testing from a screening session (about 7%) are sometimes referred to",
"-29.183304624792072"
],
[
"in the breast, and potential seeding of the tumor (causing displacement of cancer cells due to the procedure that can start new tumors elsewhere). Another potential adverse effect occurs when taking a biopsy of an area of microcalcification. If the entire area of microcalcification is removed, it is then very difficult to find the suspicious area in the future for treatment. A marker is placed in the suspicious area to help localize the proper area for possible removal at a later date, if this is removed during biopsy, it can be difficult to make sure that the correct area was",
"-29.08534024632536"
],
[
"are not associated with a radiation risk, and MRI scans are being evaluated for their use in cancer screening. There is a significant risk of detection of what has been called incidentalomas - benign lesions that may be interpreted as a cancer and be subjected to potentially dangerous investigations.",
"-29.067461080281646"
],
[
"with a genetic predisposition may benefit from screening. This high risk group has benefited with earlier detection.\nOvarian cancer has low prevalence, even in the high-risk group of women from the ages of 50 to 60 (about one in 2000), and screening of women with average risk is more likely to give ambiguous results than detect a problem which requires treatment. Because ambiguous results are more likely than detection of a treatable problem, and because the usual response to ambiguous results is invasive interventions, in women of average risk, the potential harms of having screening without an indication outweigh the potential",
"-28.8978511151181"
],
[
"level the tumor is usually treated by excision that includes wide margins of healthy-looking tissue, followed by thorough biopsy and additional excision if necessary. The prognosis for a stage 1 tumor excision is usually fairly positive, but if the tumors progress to levels 2 and 3, prognosis is worse because tumor cells have likely spread to other locations. These locations can either be nearby tissues or system-wide locations that include the lungs, kidneys, and liver. In these cases prognosis is grim and chemotherapy and radiation are the only methods of controlling the cancer.\nSpindle cell sarcoma can develop for a variety",
"-28.88396147322419"
],
[
"functional, this is almost never done, as the affected testicle usually contains pre-cancerous cells spread throughout the entire testicle. Thus removing the tumor alone without additional treatment greatly increases the risk that another cancer will form in that testicle.\nSince only one testis is typically required to maintain fertility, hormone production, and other male functions, the afflicted testis is almost always removed completely in a procedure called inguinal orchiectomy. (The testicle is almost never removed through the scrotum; an incision is made beneath the belt line in the inguinal area.) In the UK, the procedure is known as a radical",
"-28.839986376086017"
],
[
"Epithelial dysplasia Screening Some tests which detect cancer could be called \"screening for epithelial dysplasia\". The principle behind these tests is that physicians expect dysplasia to occur at the same rate in a typical individual as it would in many other people. Because of this, researchers design screening recommendations which assume that if a physician can find no dysplasia at certain time, then doing testing before waiting until new dysplasia could potentially develop would be a waste of medical resources for the patient and the healthcare provider because the chances of detecting anything is extremely low.\nSome examples of this in",
"-28.741041104352917"
],
[
"In general, they conclude that based on recent research, \"it is uncertain whether the benefits associated with PSA testing for prostate cancer screening are worth the harms associated with screening and subsequent unnecessary treatment.\" Breast cancer screening Recommendations to attend to mammography screening vary across countries and organizations, with the most common difference being the age at which screening should begin, and how frequently or if it should be performed, among women at typical risk for developing breast cancer. Some other organizations recommend mammograms begin as early as age 40 in normal-risk women, and take place more frequently, up to",
"-28.733234554011688"
],
[
"the removal of only the tumor, or the entire organ. A single cancer cell is invisible to the naked eye but can regrow into a new tumor, a process called recurrence. For this reason, the pathologist will examine the surgical specimen to determine if a margin of healthy tissue is present, thus decreasing the chance that microscopic cancer cells are left in the patient.\nIn addition to removal of the primary tumor, surgery is often necessary for staging, e.g. determining the extent of the disease and whether it has metastasized to regional lymph nodes. Staging is a major determinant of prognosis",
"-28.693460356415017"
],
[
"who do not have any signs or symptoms. Screening is not recommended in women who are at average risk, as evidence does not support a reduction in death and the high rate of false positive tests may lead to unneeded surgery, which is accompanied by its own risks. The Pap test does not screen for ovarian cancer.\nOvarian cancer is usually only palpable in advanced stages. Screening is not recommended using CA-125 measurements, HE4 levels, ultrasound, or adnexal palpation in women who are at average risk. Risk of developing ovarian cancer in those with genetic factors can be reduced. Those",
"-28.633615921917226"
],
[
"such procedures outweighs the possible benefits. Some of the problems associated with overtesting include patients receiving invasive procedures, overutilizing medical services, getting unnecessary radiation exposure, and experiencing misdiagnosis. Pathologic Pathologic staging, where a pathologist examines sections of tissue, can be particularly problematic for two specific reasons: visual discretion and random sampling of tissue. \"Visual discretion\" means being able to identify single cancerous cells intermixed with healthy cells on a slide. Oversight of one cell can mean mistaging and lead to serious, unexpected spread of cancer. \"Random sampling\" refers to the fact that lymph nodes are cherry-picked from patients and",
"-28.586380734865088"
],
[
"detection test (e.g., PSA and/or prostate biopsy) had not been performed. Treatment of men who would otherwise not have known about their cancer in the absence of PSA testing and biopsy are over treated. Over treatment exacts a cost to the health care system and potential harm to a patient (decrease in quality of life), with no benefit. Over treatment is most likely to occur when a low grade prostate cancer is detected, especially in an older man. Data from various sources suggest that in the PSA range where many men are undergoing prostate biopsy today (PSA 2-4 ng/ml), 15-25% will",
"-28.568111466694972"
],
[
"more prone to risks in development. Examinations such as CSF analysis and spinal MRIs are used to investigate the effectiveness of treatment in preventing metastasis.\nA method for eliminating tumorous mass is surgery, where the best outcome would be total resection, meaning the complete removal of the tumor. Along with the surgery, several measures that contribute to a safe procedure can be taken: urine exams, transfusion, and the constant supervision of arterial pressure. Possible problems that arise from the surgery include hemorrhage, brain edema, and hemiparesis. MRIs are typically done after 1 or 2 days of postoperative in order to inspect",
"-28.422826434030867"
],
[
"with other indicators of disease (i.e. radiology and/or symptoms) to improve diagnostic accuracy. The challenge in such an approach is that the disparate prevalence of ovarian cancer means that even testing with very high sensitivity and specificity will still lead to a number of false positive results, which in turn may lead to issues such as performing surgical procedures in which cancer is not found intraoperatively. Genomics approaches have not yet been developed for ovarian cancer.\nCT scanning is preferred to assess the extent of the tumor in the abdominopelvic cavity, though magnetic resonance imaging can also be used. CT scanning",
"-28.40095630075848"
],
[
"signs of tumor progression, and they may need to begin treatment within three years. Men that choose active surveillance avoid the risks of surgery, radiation, and other treatments. The risk of disease progression and metastasis (spread of the cancer) may be increased, but this increase risk appears to be small if the program of surveillance is followed closely, generally including serial PSA assessments and repeat prostate biopsies every 1–2 years depending on the PSA trends.\nStudy results in 2011 suggest active surveillance is the best choice for older 'low-risk' patients. Surgery Surgical removal of the prostate, or prostatectomy, is a common",
"-28.355917502529337"
],
[
"However, disease-specific mortality might be biased in favor of screening. In the example of breast cancer screening, women overdiagnosed with breast cancer might receive radiotherapy, which increases mortality due to lung cancer and heart disease. The problem is those deaths are often classified as other causes and might even be larger than the number of breast cancer deaths avoided by screening. So the non-biased outcome is all-cause mortality. The problem is that much larger trials are needed to detect a significant reduction in all-cause mortality. In 2016, researcher Vinay Prasad and colleagues published an article in BMJ titled \"Why cancer",
"-28.286635288652178"
],
[
"tumor is surrounded completely by a margin of non-cancerous tissue, and that arteries and airways to portions of the lung that are not being removed are preserved intact. In addition, patients who have had pre-operative chemotherapy or radiation for lung cancer or previous chest surgeries may not be candidates for VATS due to scarring around the major blood vessels that makes dissection via VATS difficult. Cases in which a lung tumor invades the chest wall and an en bloc resection of ribs must be performed to achieve negative resection margins generally are felt to abrogate the value of",
"-28.271063808442705"
],
[
"them have a high rate of false positives and lead to invasive procedures that are unlikely to benefit the patient. Risk-based screening Risk-based screening uses risk assessment of a woman’s five-year and lifetime risk of developing breast cancer to issue personalized screening recommendations of when to start, stop, and how often to screen. In general, women with low risk are recommended to screen less frequently, while screening is intensified in those at high risk. The hypothesis is that focusing screening on women most likely to develop invasive breast cancer will reduce overdiagnosis and overtreatment. The first clinical trial testing the",
"-28.084695052772076"
],
[
"Dr. Samuel S. Epstein claims that in women ages 40 to 49, 1 in 4 of cancer is missed at each mammography. Researchers have found that breast tissue is denser among younger women, making it difficult to detect tumors. For this reason, false negatives are twice as likely to occur in pre-menopausal mammograms (Prate). This is why the screening program in the UK does not start calling women for screening mammograms until age 50.\nThe importance of these missed cancers is not clear, particularly if the woman is getting yearly mammograms. Research on a closely related situation has shown that small",
"-27.966717555005744"
],
[
"should also lead to options for treatment. Good tests come with a patient explanation of why that person has high enough risk of cancer to justify the test. Part of the testing experience is for the health care provider to explain how common false positive results are so that the patient can understand the context of their results. If multiple tests are available, then any test should be presented along with other options. Breast cancer Breast cancer screening is the medical screening of asymptomatic, apparently healthy women for breast cancer in an attempt to achieve an earlier diagnosis. The assumption",
"-27.96029932215788"
],
[
"while on surveillance. This misclassification of disease at diagnosis may be reduced in the future with improvements in imaging and biopsy tissue assessment that go beyond the Gleason score. The future of active surveillance Improvements in prostate imaging, biomarker discovery, and genetic profiling of prostate cancers will very likely change the approach to management of men diagnosed with localized prostate cancer. Currently, active surveillance is underutilized (in part) because of the dual concerns that a cancer has been misclassified on a prostate biopsy, and the inability to define biologically which cancers have an aggressive phenotype. Thus, there is both over",
"-27.934248623809253"
],
[
"Of those, about 2–10% have cancer, while 20–30% have adenomas. Screening methods for colon cancer depend on detecting either precancerous changes such as certain kinds of polyps or on finding early and thus more treatable cancer. The extent to which screening procedures reduce the risk of gastrointestinal cancer or deaths depends on the rate of precancerous and cancerous disease in that population. gFOBT (guaiac fecal occult blood test) and flexible sigmoidoscopy screening have each shown benefit. Other colon cancer screening tools such as iFOBT (immunochemical fecal occult blood test) or colonoscopy are also included in guidelines.\nIn 2009 the American College",
"-27.93275521920259"
],
[
"are several treatment options that may be considered, depending on the size and specific location of the tumor. For small tumors, caught early, observation can be initially used as long as good vision is maintained. However, it is important to note that in the study conducted by You et al. all of the patients whose tumors were initially observed needed further treatment and enucleation as their conditions declined. For tumors that are initially more aggressive, larger in size or suspected as cancerous, local resection and enucleation are also options. Radiation therapy, however, cannot be used in this instance as schwannomas",
"-27.88349871522223"
],
[
"years of screening, while 10 healthy women will undergo unnecessary breast cancer treatment. Additionally, 200 women will suffer from significant psychological stress due to false positive results. Newman points out that screening mammography does not reduce death overall, but causes significant harm by inflicting cancer scare and unnecessary surgical interventions. The Nordic Cochrane Collection notes that advances in diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer may make breast cancer screening no longer effective in decreasing death from breast cancer, and therefore no longer recommend routine screening for healthy women as the risks might outweigh the benefits.\nOften women are quite distressed to",
"-27.88174944173079"
],
[
"Testicular cancer Causes A major risk factor for the development of testis cancer is cryptorchidism (undescended testicles). It is generally believed that the presence of a tumor contributes to cryptorchidism; when cryptorchidism occurs in conjunction with a tumor then the tumor tends to be large. Other risk factors include inguinal hernias, Klinefelter syndrome, and mumps orchitis. Physical activity is associated with decreased risk and sedentary lifestyle is associated with increased risk. Early onset of male characteristics is associated with increased risk. These may reflect endogenous or environmental hormones.\nHigher rates of testicular cancer in Western nations",
"-27.805973922320845"
],
[
"Breast cancer screening Breast exam Breast examination (either clinical breast exams (CBE) by a health care provider or by self exams) were once widely recommended. They however are not supported by evidence and may, like mammography and other screening methods that produce false positive results, contribute to harm. The use of screening in women without symptoms and at low risk is thus controversial.\nA 2003 Cochrane review found screening by breast self-examination is not associated with lower death rates among women who report performing breast self-examination and does, like other breast cancer screening methods, increase harms, in terms",
"-27.80350513014764"
],
[
"cancer in a particular patient (BRCA positive, positive family history, palpable mass), mammography may still be important. Often, the radiologist will try to avoid mammography by using ultrasound or MRI imaging.\nThere is a body of evidence that clearly shows that there is over-diagnosis of cancer when women are screened. These cancers would never have affected these women in their lifetimes. An estimate of this over-diagnosis is 10 breast cancers diagnosed and unnecessarily treated per life saved when 2,000 women are screened for 10 years.\nWhile screening between ages 40 and 50 is still controversial, the preponderance of the evidence indicates that",
"-27.794992335824645"
],
[
"Overdiagnosis Overdiagnosis and the variability of cancer progression Cancer screening is the effort to detect cancer early, during its pre-clinical phase — the time period that begins with an abnormal cell and ends when the patient notices symptoms from the cancer. It has long been known that some people have cancers with short pre-clinical phases (fast-growing, aggressive cancers), while others have cancers with long pre-clinical phases (slow-growing cancers). And this heterogeneity has an unfortunate implication: namely, screening tends to disproportionately detect slow-growing cancers (because they are accessible to be detected for a long period of time) and disproportionately",
"-27.787069241669087"
],
[
"allow tumors to be treated in a more targeted way using bigger doses of radiation, yet having better treatments results with less side effects.",
"-27.749437688529724"
],
[
"cells are recognized by the immune system as damaged and are consequently targeted for elimination”. For a tumor to progress it requires conditions within the body and surrounding area to be growth-promoting. Almost all people have suitable immune cells to fight off tumors in the body. Studies have shown that the immune system even has the ability to prevent precancerous cells from growing and arbitrate the regression of established tumors. The dangerous thing about cancer cells is they have the ability to inhibit the function of the immune system. Although a tumor may be in its beginning stage and very",
"-27.72801167165744"
],
[
"also take samples of the suspected mass for histopathological analysis to confirm or rule out cancer. The most definitive method of cancer diagnosis is through open surgical biopsy. Most stomach tumors are malignant with evidence of spread to lymph nodes or liver, making treatment difficult. Except for lymphoma, surgery is the most frequent treatment option for stomach cancers but it is associated with significant risks.",
"-27.72254431086003"
],
[
"found that the examination is associated with increased participation in cancer screening.\nSome employers require mandatory health checkup before hiring a candidate even though it is now well known that some of the components of the prophylactic annual visit may actually cause harm. For example, lab tests and exams that are performed on healthy patients (as opposed to people with symptoms or known illnesses) are statistically more likely to be “false positives” — that is, when test results suggest a problem that doesn’t exist. Disadvantages cited include the time and money that could be saved by targeted screening (health economics argument),",
"-27.70711628967547"
],
[
"The American Dental Association recommends that providers remain alert for signs of cancer during routine examinations. Oral cancer screening is also recommended by some groups of dental hygienists. Other cancers There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against screening for skin cancer, and bladder cancer. Routine screening is not recommended for testicular cancer, and ovarian cancer. Whole body imaging Full body CT scans are available for cancer screening, but this type of medical imaging to search for cancer in people without clear symptoms can create problems such as increased exposure to ionizing radiation. However, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans",
"-27.680541515219375"
],
[
"or abnormal connections, may also present as a tumor. Examples are arteriovenous fistulae or aneurysms (with or without thrombosis), biliary fistulae or aneurysms, sclerosing cholangitis, cysticercosis or hydatid cysts, intestinal duplications, and pulmonary inclusions as seen with cystic fibrosis. It can be dangerous to biopsy a number of types of tumor in which the leakage of their contents would potentially be catastrophic. When such types of tumors are encountered, diagnostic modalities such as ultrasound, CT scans, MRI, angiograms, and nuclear medicine scans are employed prior to (or during) biopsy or surgical exploration/excision in an attempt to avoid such severe complications.\nThe",
"-27.656188132394163"
],
[
"be either benign, meaning not cancerous, or malignant, meaning cancerous; while the benign tumors typically need little treatment to no treatment, the malignant tumors can cause serious problems and can potentially be life-threatening. Different methods are used to determine if the tumor is malignant and whether it has spread to other organs. Methods used to determine malignancy include fine needle aspirate, biopsy, or complete removal. To determine if the tumor has metastasized, a rectal examination or an ultrasound can be performed; the most frequent location for metastasis include the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, the abdominal wall, the lungs, and blood",
"-27.654917665058747"
],
[
"standard of care. Availability of samples also plays a critical role in determining which tumor types to study and the order in which tumor projects are started. The more common the tumor is, the more likely that samples will be accrued quickly, resulting in common tumor types, such as colon, lung and breast cancer becoming the first tumor types entered into the project, before rare tumor types.\nTCGA Targeted Tumors: lung squamous cell carcinoma, kidney papillary carcinoma, clear cell kidney carcinoma, breast ductal carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma, cervical cancer (squamous), colon adenocarcinoma, stomach adenocarcinoma, rectal carcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, Head and neck",
"-27.645922557581798"
],
[
"the contrary, where the frozen section diagnosis was a borderline tumor, neither confirming not ruling out cancer, the diagnosis was less accurate. The review suggests that in such situations of uncertainty, surgeons may choose to perform additional surgery in this group of women at the time of their initial surgery in order to reduce the need for a second operation, as on an average one out of five of these women were subsequently found to have cancer.",
"-27.552263205085183"
],
[
"more likely to be diagnosed by screening tests, but improvements in diagnosing more cases of indolent cancer may not translate into better patient outcomes after the implementation of screening programs. A related concern is overdiagnosis, the tendency of screening tests to diagnose diseases that may not actually impact the patient's longevity. This problem especially applies to prostate cancer and PSA screening.\nSome cancer researchers have argued that negative cancer clinical trials lack sufficient statistical power to discover a benefit to treatment. This may be due to fewer patients enrolled in the study than originally planned. Organizations State and regional cancer registries",
"-27.54199484316632"
],
[
"not recommend a population screening program for prostate cancer (a program that offers testing to all men of a certain age group) as evidence does not support such a program. For men who decide to be tested it contains guidance on matters such as what age to start testing; how frequently to be tested; when to stop testing; the PSA level which should prompt further investigation; family history; and the role of the digital rectal examination. Support A central part of Prostate Cancer Foundation of Australia's activities is to support men and their families affected by prostate cancer through the",
"-27.53870287151949"
],
[
"the diagnosis of Wilms’ tumor is confirmed by a tissue sample. In most cases, a biopsy is not done first because there is a risk of cancer cells spreading during the procedure. Treatment in North America is nephrectomy or in Europe chemotherapy followed by nephrectomy. A definitive diagnosis is obtained by pathological examination of the nephrectomy specimen. Epidemiology Wilms tumor is the most common malignant renal tumor in children. There are a number of rare genetic syndromes that have been linked to an increased risk of developing Wilms Tumor. Screening guidelines vary between countries; however health care professionals are recommending",
"-27.53186916319828"
],
[
"to the particular tumor type. Although surgeons are able to remove parts of a single lymph node from the body to screen, it is impossible to remove every lymph node and other organs (lungs, liver, bones, etc.) to look for spread. Doctors must assume that the tumor cells have likely spread to other regions of the body if micrometastases are present in one of the lymph nodes. The presence or absence of micrometastases is crucial in choosing the right treatment option for cancer patients. \nThe detection of micrometastases in the sentinel lymph nodes (SLN) is the primary indicator",
"-27.488691266815295"
],
[
"others include radiation and active surveillance (i.e. \"watchful waiting\"). For intermediate and high risk prostate cancers, radical prostatectomy is often recommended in addition to other treatment options. Radical prostatectomy is not recommended in the setting of known metastases when the cancer has spread through the prostate, to the lymph nodes or other parts of the body. Prior to decision making about the best treatment option for higher risk cancers, imaging studies using CT, MRI or bone scans are done to make sure the cancer has not spread outside of the prostate. Contraindications These would be same as the contraindications for",
"-27.484938122172025"
],
[
"addition to efficiently finding most deadly cancers, screening programs also find most non-life-threatening, asymptomatic breast cancers and pre-cancers, and miss some fast growing, aggressive, dangerous cancers. According to H. Gilbert Welch of the Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice, \"I'm certainly not asking anyone to stop getting mammograms. I am asking my profession to tell women the truth about overdiagnosis\" (Beck 2012, Article). Welch said that research on screening mammography has taken the \"brain-dead approach that says the best test is the one that finds the most cancers\" rather than the one that finds dangerous cancers (Aschwanden 2009).\nClinicians",
"-27.47523055430065"
],
[
"Chemotherapy is not usually used as primary treatment but may be used in advanced cases with spread to the bones, liver or lungs. It may also be given at a lower dose together with radiation therapy.\nWomen with vulvar cancer should have routine follow-up and exams with their oncologist, often every 3 months for the first 2–3 years after treatment. They should not have routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because it is unlikely to detect a recurrence or improve survival and is associated with",
"-27.44285909710873"
],
[
"a standard of care, but has generated information on subgroup molecular characteristics that can be used in the future for stratified or personalized therapies. Screening As of 2010 there is insufficient evidence to determine if screening for bladder cancer in people without symptoms is effective or not.\nIn 2013 a preliminary, small study of 98 samples of urine, all from men—24 who had cancer, and 74 with bladder-related problems but no cancer yet used a gas chromatograph to successfully examine the vapor from heated urine samples to identify cancer. Prevention A 2008 study commissioned by the World Health Organisation concluded that",
"-27.442339936707867"
],
[
"new cancer medications block specific molecular processes. Such tests could allow easier targeting of therapy to tumor. Precancerous conditions For easily detected and accessed sites, any suspicious lesions may be assessed. Originally, this was skin or superficial masses. X-ray, then later CT, MRI, and ultrasound along with endoscopy extended the range. Analysis of biopsied material After the biopsy is performed, the sample of tissue that was removed from the patient is sent to the pathology laboratory. A pathologist specializes in diagnosing diseases (such as cancer) by examining tissue under a microscope. When the laboratory (see Histology) receives the biopsy sample,",
"-27.402309501056152"
],
[
"for the presence of tumour metastases in other parts of the body.\nProstate cancer that is only present in the prostate is often treated with either surgical removal of the prostate or with radiotherapy or by the insertion of small radioactive particles (brachytherapy) Cancer that has spread to other parts of the body is usually treated with hormone therapy, to deprive a tumour of sex hormones (androgens) that stimulate proliferation. This is often done through the use of GnRH analogues or agents that block the receptors that androgens act at, such as bicalutamide; occasionally, surgical removal of the testes may be",
"-27.39139566839731"
],
[
"The underlying idea is that initially advanced cancers, previously too extensive for surgery, may have responded to chemotherapy and radiation so much that they now may be operative candidates. Rather than immediately proceeding to thoracotomy based on CT or PET results, which could lead to an “open and close” thorax surgery, restaging, including invasive staging, may deselect non-responders, missed on imaging tests alone. If the initial mediastinal staging included a mediastinoscopy, most surgeons try to avoid a repeat mediastinoscopy after radiation treatment because of scarring. Although restaging by PET and CT scanning may help to provide targets for biopsies,",
"-27.388118194663548"
],
[
"performed by urologists; radiation therapy is administered by radiation oncologists; and chemotherapy is the work of medical oncologists. In most patients with testicular cancer, the disease is cured readily with minimal long-term morbidity. While treatment success depends on the stage, the average survival rate after five years is around 95%, and stage 1 cancer cases, if monitored properly, have essentially a 100% survival rate. Testicle removal The initial treatment for testicular cancer is surgery to remove the affected testicle (orchiectomy). While it may be possible, in some cases, to remove testicular cancer tumors from a testis while leaving the testis",
"-27.385696694153012"
],
[
"some cancer forms can harm the placenta and make the drug pass over it anyway. Some forms of skin cancer may even metastasize to the child's body.\nDiagnosis is also made more difficult, since computed tomography is infeasible because of its high radiation dose. Still, magnetic resonance imaging works normally. However, contrast media cannot be used, since they cross the placenta.\nAs a consequence of the difficulties to properly diagnose and treat cancer during pregnancy, the alternative methods are either to perform a Cesarean section when the child is viable in order to begin a more aggressive cancer treatment, or, if the",
"-27.380303005913447"
],
[
"be rotated allowing multiple samples to be collected through a single skin incision. This method has become more popular than FNA, CNB, and surgical biopsies due to the benefits of low invasiveness while still obtaining a larger tissue sample. Taking more tissue helps reduce sampling error since breast lesions are often heterogeneous (cancer cells are spread unevenly) and therefore cancer can be missed if not enough tissue is taken. VABB can be guided by stereotactic (most popular), ultrasound, and MRI, and can yield as much as 2g of tissue sample. The vacuum assisted biopsy category also includes automated rotational core",
"-27.370021404651652"
],
[
"10,000 invited to screening. False negatives Mammograms also have a rate of missed tumors, or \"false negatives.\" Accurate data regarding the number of false negatives are very difficult to obtain because mastectomies cannot be performed on every woman who has had a mammogram to determine the false negative rate. Estimates of the false negative rate depend on close follow-up of a large number of patients for many years. This is difficult in practice because many women do not return for regular mammography making it impossible to know if they ever developed a cancer. In his book The Politics of Cancer,",
"-27.362252524282667"
],
[
"biopsy) and hysterectomy remove the whole area containing the cells that could become pre-cancerous or develop into cervical cancer. Testing in resource-poor areas Many resource-poor areas cannot provide regular screening, and must rely on infrequent screening. A study of cervical cancer screening of 131,746 women in rural India found that a single DNA test reduced the number of advanced cervical cancers and deaths over 8 years, while a single acetic acid examination or a single Pap screening did not. However, the DNA test cost US $30–40, which was unaffordable in many regions, it is time-consuming, and requires a sophisticated laboratory",
"-27.355275189922395"
],
[
"will have to be set-up in the identical position during treatment. Many patient positioning devices have been developed for this purpose, including masks and cushions which can be molded to the patient.\nThe response of a tumor to radiation therapy is also related to its size. Due to complex radiobiology, very large tumors respond less well to radiation than smaller tumors or microscopic disease. Various strategies are used to overcome this effect. The most common technique is surgical resection prior to radiation therapy. This is most commonly seen in the treatment of breast cancer with wide local excision or mastectomy",
"-27.319932779864757"
],
[
"in 2015 were not conclusive, there was some evidence that screening may save lives in the long-term. As a result, the trial has been extended and will publish definitive results at the end of 2019. One major problem with screening is no clear progression of the disease from stage I (noninvasive) to stage III (invasive) is seen, and it may not be possible to find cancers before they reach stage III. Another problem is that screening methods tend to find too many suspicious lesions, most of which are not cancer, but malignancy can only be assessed with surgery. The ROCA",
"-27.297725720543895"
],
[
"nature of tumors. Considering the invasive nature, psychological stress, and the financial burden resulting from repeated tumor biopsies in patients, biomarkers that could be judged through minimally invasive procedures, such as blood draws, constitute an opportunity for progression in precision medicine.\nLiquid biopsy is an option that is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative to solid tumor biopsy. This is simply a blood draw that contains circulating tumor cells (CTCs) which are shed into the bloodstream from solid tumors. Patients with metastatic cancer are more likely to have detectable CTCs in the bloodstream but CTCs also exist in patients with localized",
"-27.269496056345815"
],
[
"cord-stromal tumors. Examination Diagnosis of ovarian cancer starts with a physical examination (including a pelvic examination), a blood test (for CA-125 and sometimes other markers), and transvaginal ultrasound. Sometimes a rectovaginal examination is used to help plan a surgery. The diagnosis must be confirmed with surgery to inspect the abdominal cavity, take biopsies (tissue samples for microscopic analysis), and look for cancer cells in the abdominal fluid. This helps to determine if an ovarian mass is benign or malignant.\nOvarian cancer's early stages (I/II) are difficult to diagnose because most symptoms are nonspecific and thus of little use in diagnosis; as",
"-27.26557598105137"
],
[
"doctors can now treat various kind of tumors as every tissue can be easily diagnosed and introspected to study the defects and cause. Thus, we see that the ultimate scanning and visualization done by 3D ultrasound has developed better ways of treating the patients with problems like cancer, tumors and transplants. Vascular imaging Blood vessels and arteries movements are not easy to track because of their distribution due to which capturing a real-time picture becomes difficult. Diagnosis is widely used in every kind of treatment and with the 3D US, it is now possible to track dynamic movement of blood",
"-27.264956461698603"
],
[
"to recent improvements in breast cancer treatment, and the risks of false positives from breast cancer screening leading to unnecessary treatment, \"it therefore no longer seems reasonable to attend for breast cancer screening\" at any age. Breast density Breasts are made up of breast tissue, connective tissue, and adipose (fat) tissue. The amount of each of the three types of tissue varies from woman to woman. Breast density is a measurement of relative amounts of these three tissues in a woman's breasts, as determined by their appearance on an X-ray image. Breast and connective tissues are radiographically",
"-27.220955301796494"
],
[
"sensitive test for detecting pituitary tumors and determining their size. MRI scans may be repeated periodically to assess tumor progression and the effects of therapy. Computed Tomography (CT scan) also gives an image of the pituitary, but it is less sensitive than the MRI.\nIn addition to assessing the size of the pituitary tumor, doctors also look for damage to surrounding tissues, and perform tests to assess whether production of other pituitary hormones is normal. Depending on the size of the tumor, the doctor may request an eye exam with measurement of visual fields. Treatments The goal of treatment is to",
"-27.17142752950531"
],
[
"cells) and deposited material (such as type I collagen and hyaluronic acid). This creates a tumor microenvironment that is short of blood vessels (hypovascular) and so of oxygen (tumor hypoxia). It is thought that this prevents many chemotherapy drugs from reaching the tumor, as one factor making the cancer especially hard to treat. Exocrine cancers Pancreatic cancer is usually staged following a CT scan. The most widely used cancer staging system for pancreatic cancer is the one formulated by the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) together with the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC). The AJCC-UICC",
"-27.138785269558866"
],
[
"don't present specific tumor markers. Treatment Typically none is required, but they can be treated surgically if symptomatic.",
"-27.08791616446979"
],
[
"of immune surveillance in cancer pathogenesis. For over 50 years, scientists have argued about the role of the immune system in preventing the initiation of cancer. The original immune surveillance hypothesis proposed that tumor cells arise naturally and are normally eradicated by the immune system. Tumors would, therefore, only arise if the tumor could develop a mechanism to evade the immune system, or if the immune system were compromised. This hypothesis was directly tested in a landmark paper published by Osias Stutman (1974). In this paper, Stutman tested whether athymic, nude mice which lack an",
"-27.082263595366385"
],
[
"any cancerous cells that may exist outside of the affected testicle. The type of adjuvant therapy depends largely on the histology of the tumor (i.e. the size and shape of its cells under the microscope) and the stage of progression at the time of surgery (i.e. how far cells have 'escaped' from the testicle, invaded the surrounding tissue, or spread to the rest of the body). If the cancer is not particularly advanced, patients may be offered careful surveillance by periodic CT scans and blood tests, in place of adjuvant treatment.\nBefore 1970, survival rates from testicular cancer were low. Since",
"-27.061359761006315"
],
[
"with risks to the patient. Therefore, multiple biopsies to monitor disease progression are rare and diagnostic biopsies are relied on for genetic information. This can be problematic because of tumor heterogeneity and tumor evolution. Firstly, biopsies only sample one portion of the tumor, and because tumors are heterogeneous, this will not cover the full genetic landscape of the tumor. Secondly, after treatment tumors evolve and there may be new mutations not represented in the diagnostic sample.\nBiopsy-free tumor genotyping, by way of CAPP-Seq and ctDNA, addresses many of these issues. A simple blood test is non-invasive and much safer and easier",
"-27.061137275035435"
],
[
"their factories to perform monthly breast self-exam, and the other half were not. The women taught self-exam detected more benign (normal or harmless lumps) or early-stage breast disease, but equal numbers of women died from breast cancer in each group.\nBecause breast self-exam is not proven to save lives, it is no longer routinely recommended by health authorities for general use. It may be appropriate in women who have a particularly high risk of developing breast cancer. Some charitable organizations, whose donations depend on promoting fear of breast cancer, still promote this technique as a one-size-fits-all, universal screening approach,",
"-27.052234827989224"
],
[
"Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommended against prostate-specific antigen (PSA) based screening for prostate cancer finding, \"there is a very small potential benefit and significant potential harms\" and concluding, \"while everyone wants to help prevent deaths from prostate cancer, current methods of PSA screening and treatment of screen-detected cancer are not the answer.\"\nMore recently, Fenton's 2018 review (conducted for the USPSTF) focused on the two highest quality randomized control studies of the costs and benefits of PSA screening, and the findings illustrate the complex issues associated with cancer screening. Fenton reports that the screening of 1,000 men every four years",
"-27.03494968040468"
],
[
"gross tumor volume while radiation among the neighboring normal tissues is decreased or avoided completely. This results in better tumor targeting, lessened side effects, and improved treatment outcomes than even 3DCRT.\n3DCRT is still used extensively for many body sites but the use of IMRT is growing in more complicated body sites such as CNS, head and neck, prostate, breast, and lung. Unfortunately, IMRT is limited by its need for additional time from experienced medical personnel. This is because physicians must manually delineate the tumors one CT image at a time through the entire disease site which can take much longer",
"-27.005964929325273"
],
[
"Lung cancer screening Risks of Screening Research has found that regular early screening with two other clinically available tests – sputum cytology and chest radiograph (CXR) — does not have an overall benefit. There is evidence suggesting that regular screening of high-risk smokers and former smokers may reduce the mortality in this particular group of people. More research is necessary to determine the relative risks and benefits for the general public and people who have a low risk of lung cancer.\nCT screening has been associated with a high rate of falsely positive tests which may result in unneeded treatment. For each",
"-26.985541268939414"
],
[
"be used to monitor response to treatment, particularly in serous cell cancer or advanced disease. Periodic MRIs or CT scans may be recommended in advanced disease and women with a history of endometrial cancer should receive more frequent pelvic examinations for the five years following treatment. Examinations conducted every three to four months are recommended for the first two years following treatment, and every six months for the next three years.\nWomen with endometrial cancer should not have routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising. Imaging without these indications is discouraged because",
"-26.973142005688715"
],
[
"markers are used primarily to monitor the result of a treatment (e.g. chemotherapy). If levels of AFP go down after treatment, the tumor is not growing. In the case of babies, after treatment AFP should go down faster than it would normally. A temporary increase in AFP immediately following chemotherapy may indicate not that the tumor is growing but rather that it is shrinking (and releasing AFP as the tumor cells die). Nonseminomatous germ cell tumor In the context of evidence-based medicine, AFP is validated at the highest level as a tumor marker for use in patients",
"-26.969013816127756"
],
[
"it may be preferable to CT.\nFor more advanced stages of testicular cancer, and for those cases in which radiation therapy or chemotherapy was administered, the extent of monitoring (tests) after treatment will vary on the basis of the circumstances, but normally should be done for five years in uncomplicated cases and for longer in those with higher risks of relapse. Fertility A man with one remaining testis may maintain fertility. However, sperm banking may be appropriate for men who still plan to have children, since fertility may be adversely affected by chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy. A man who loses",
"-26.94532026673005"
],
[
"is that early detection will improve outcomes. A number of screening tests have been employed, including clinical and self breast exams, mammography, genetic screening, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. The use of mammography in universal screening for breast cancer is controversial as it may not reduce all-cause mortality and for causing harms through unnecessary treatments and medical procedures. Many national organizations recommend it for most older women. Cervical cancer Cervical screening by the Pap test or other methods is highly effective at detecting and preventing cervical cancer, although there is a serious risk of overtreatment in young women up",
"-26.93384432899984"
],
[
"the same list are often triaged; the author of this paragraph waited only a little over 3 months to see a dermatologist because of a skin problem that itched slightly once a week and was not at all urgent (in the early 2000s) in Halifax, Nova Scotia, while cumulative waiting times (including referral to medical test to appointment with a surgeon to radiation or cancer surgery) for cancer patients can be 2–3 months in areas with long waiting times. Waiting lists for cancer treatment are prioritized by level of urgency, but the triage process (while generally accurate) can occasionally assign a",
"-26.89924870505456"
],
[
"women (called screening mammography).\nMammography is not very useful in finding breast tumors in dense breast tissue characteristic of women under 40 years. In women over 50 without dense breasts, breast cancers detected by screening mammography are usually smaller and less aggressive than those detected by patients or doctors as a breast lump. This is because the most aggressive breast cancers are found in dense breast tissue, which mammograms perform poorly on.\nThe presumption was that by detecting cancer in an earlier stage, women will be more likely to be cured by treatment. This assertion, however, has been challenged by recent reviews",
"-26.897872412315337"
],
[
" In their 2018 recommendations, the USPSTF estimates that 20%-50% of men diagnosed with prostate cancer following a positive PSA screening have cancer that, even if not treated, would never grow, spread, or harm them \nMost North American medical groups recommend individualized decisions about screening, taking into consideration the risks, benefits, and the patients' personal preferences. Lung cancer Screening studies for lung cancer have only been done in high risk populations, such as smokers and workers with occupational exposure to certain substances. In the 2010s recommendations by medical authorities are turning in favour of lung cancer screening, which is likely",
"-26.880265337313176"
],
[
"the U.S., state and local health departments respond to more than 1,000 inquiries about suspected cancer clusters each year. It is possible that a suspected cancer cluster may be due to chance alone; however, only clusters that have a disease rate that is statistically significantly greater than the disease rate of the general population are investigated. Given the number of inquiries it is likely that many of these are due to chance alone. It is a well-known problem in interpreting data that random cases of cancer can appear to form clumps that are misinterpreted as a cluster.\nA cluster is less",
"-26.849564766831463"
],
[
"that are likely to be effective against the cancer. With sarcomas, staging requires a determination of whether the tumor has grown into surrounding tissues (\"local invasion\"), as well as imaging to determine whether it has spread (a process known as \"metastasis\") to lymph nodes (forming \"nodal metastases\") or to other tissues or organs in the body (forming \"distant metastases\"). \nThe most common imaging tools used for staging bone sarcomas are MRI or CT to evaluate the primary tumor, contrast-enhanced CT of the chest to evaluate whether the cancer has spread (i.e., metastasized) to the lungs, and radioisotope bone scan to",
"-26.849305172516324"
],
[
"faecal occult blood testing between the ages of 60 and 74 years. Prostate cancer When screening for prostate cancer, the PSA test may detect small cancers that would never become life-threatening, but once detected will lead to treatment. This situation, called overdiagnosis, puts men at risk for complications from unnecessary treatment such as surgery or radiation. Follow up procedures used to diagnose prostate cancer (prostate biopsy) may cause side effects, including bleeding and infection. Prostate cancer treatment may cause incontinence (inability to control urine flow) and erectile dysfunction (erections inadequate for intercourse). As a result, in 2012, the U.S. Preventative",
"-26.8199934753211"
],
[
"their destruction by the complement system.\nClearly, some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers. Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface, thus avoiding detection by killer T cells. Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response; for example by secreting the cytokine TGF-β, which suppresses the activity of macrophages and lymphocytes. In addition, immunological tolerance may develop against tumor antigens, so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells.\nParadoxically, macrophages can promote tumor growth when tumor cells send out cytokines that attract macrophages,",
"-26.81406656344916"
],
[
"have responded that they are unwilling to consider the possibility of leaving potential deadly cancers alone because it is \"far-riskier\" than the alternative. Eric Winer, director of the breast cancer program at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, says, \"I don't know anyone who offers women the option of doing nothing\" (Beck 2012, Article). Further complicating the issue of early diagnosis is the fact that it is currently impossible to distinguish malicious cancers from benign ones. Otis Brawley, a top official for the American Cancer Society, says that \"even if we overdiagnose 1 in 5, we have numerous studies showing that",
"-26.791235790253268"
],
[
"blood of more than 80 percent of patients with metastatic cancers and about 47 percent of those with localized tumors. The test does not indicate the tumor site(s) or other information about the tumor. The test did not produce false positives.\nSuch tests may also be useful to assess whether malignant cells remain in patients whose tumors have been surgically removed. Up to 30 percent are expected to relapse because some tumor cells remain. Initial studies identified about half the patients who later relapsed, again without false positives.\nAnother potential use is to track the specific DNA mutations driving a tumor. Many",
"-26.787889360857662"
],
[
"are still not well understood but different biological pathways involved in cancer have been studied suggesting that physical activity reduces cancer risk by helping weight control, reducing hormones such as estrogen and insulin, reducing inflammation and strengthening the immune system. Medication The concept that medications can be used to prevent cancer is attractive, and evidence supports their use in a few defined circumstances. In the general population, NSAIDs reduce the risk of colorectal cancer however due to the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects they cause overall harm when used for prevention. Aspirin has been found to reduce the risk of",
"-26.742553942880477"
]
] |
7nhcgs | How do icy-hot gels work? | [
"A lot of answers are saying \"menthol cools\", but that's wrong. Menthol produces the *sensation* of cooling without *actually* cooling, by activating the nerve receptors that would normally react to cold temperatures.",
"The active ingredients in Icy Hot formulations are menthol or a combination of menthol and methyl salicylate. The ingredients cause a cooling sensation followed by a warming sensation that distracts you from the pain by blocking pain signals sent to the brain. The cooling sensation dulls the pain while the warming sensation relaxes it away.",
"Just like how hot peppers and spicy food taste \"hot\" some chemicals can make your skin feel cold. There temperature isn't changing, but your skin feels like it is. These hot/cold sensations can interfere with pain receptors so they're an effective analgesic (substance that makes you hurt less) for muscle and joint pain. Deeper dive, [cold recpectors]( URL_0 )",
"There is a particular family of receptors that react to compounds like menthol and capcasin. They transmit temperature signals as well as pain signals. They submit the information of heating or cooling from external sources to your brain. You brain, therefore interprets the binding of menthol or capcasin as a cooling/heating event on your extremities or skin. The relationship to pain is not well understood, but these receptors can also transmit pain signals. It is thought that loading these receptors up with the temperature-related compounds keep them from transmitting a pain signal as they are now more actively transmitting the temperature specific signals to the brain.",
"Follow-up question: is it possible to burn yourself with an overapplication of menthol?",
"As people have said the chemicals stimulate the nerve ending in the area. The way this blocks pain is by bombarding those same nerve endings with signals that tell you its hot or cold, instead of pain. This is because the nerve can basically only send one type of signal at a time, and will send the strong signal first. If you're interested in understanding pain pathways look at ascending and descending pain pathways, for a deeper understanding.",
"The creams such as Deep-heat are called counter-irritants. They cause the skin to react to a chemical inside the gel/cream. This only affects the surface of the skin, and causes a heating effect on the area",
"It’s basically a chemical burn/reaction with your skin. Doesn’t actually do anything except makes you think it’s doing something."
] | [
[
"gel that can be activated by twisting the package, thus triggering a chemical reaction. The pack can be put in a pot of boiling water to convert the chemical reaction back and allow it to be reused. While these products are commonly called \"hand warmers\", they can be placed in boots or, with special garments such as vests, in cloth pockets on the inside of the garment. The warmth produced by these tends to be lowest among the above heating methods. Related Product Base on the heating systems, heated jacket manufacturer developed some related products like: heated gloves, heated cusion,",
"-34.18395516113378"
],
[
"cooled or the external environment also heats the tubing, a single long tube may not be enough because the liquid becomes saturated with heat and cannot cool any further. Making the liquid much colder is not an option since it leads to uncomfortable coldness where the liquid enters the tubes. Instead, multiple parallel tubes are used to increase the volume of liquid available to absorb heat.\nSkin coverage and tubing density can vary depending on the application. The garment may simply be a short-sleeved shirt, or it may be a full-body suit covering the arms and legs. Where the heat removal",
"-32.76685910427477"
],
[
"gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum protein, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used. Low melting and gelling temperature agaroses The melting and gelling temperatures of agarose can be modified by chemical modifications, most commonly by hydroxyethylation, which reduces the number of intrastrand hydrogen bonds, resulting in lower melting and setting temperatures than standard agaroses. The exact temperature is determined by the degree of substitution, and many available low-melting-point (LMP) agaroses can remain fluid at 30–35 °C (86–95 °F) range. This property allows enzymatic manipulations to be",
"-32.38821537583135"
],
[
"on a support and evaporating the organic solvent or water carrier, usually in a hot air dryer. The dry adhesive may be further heated to initiate a cross-linking reaction and increase molecular weight. 100% solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase molecular weight and form the adhesive (radiation cured PSA); or they may be high-viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity enough to allow coating, and then cooled to their final form (hot melt PSA, HMPSA). Composition PSAs are usually based on an elastomer compounded with a suitable tackifier",
"-32.164572773326654"
],
[
"to one minute. Hot melt adhesives can also be applied by dipping or spraying, and are popular with hobbyists and crafters both for affixing and as an inexpensive alternative to resin casting.\nIn industrial use, hot melt adhesives provide several advantages over solvent-based adhesives. Volatile organic compounds are reduced or eliminated, and the drying or curing step is eliminated. Hot melt adhesives have long shelf life and usually can be disposed of without special precautions. Some of the disadvantages involve thermal load of the substrate, limiting use to substrates not sensitive to higher temperatures, and loss of bond strength at higher",
"-32.085542004249874"
],
[
"heating pads, hand warmers, and hot ice. Sodium acetate trihydrate crystals melt at 136.4 °F/58 °C (to 137.12 °F/58.4 °C), dissolving in their water of crystallization. When they are heated past the melting point and subsequently allowed to cool, the aqueous solution becomes supersaturated. This solution is capable of cooling to room temperature without forming crystals. By pressing on a metal disc within the heating pad, a nucleation center is formed, causing the solution to crystallize back into solid sodium acetate trihydrate. The bond-forming process of crystallization is exothermic. The latent heat of fusion is about 264–289 kJ/kg. Unlike some types of heat packs, such",
"-31.702896773262182"
],
[
"in place (unless incorrectly oversized or not properly shrunk) by its tight fit.\nSome types of heat-shrink contain a layer of thermoplastic adhesive on the inside to help provide a good seal and better adhesion, while others rely on friction between the closely conforming materials. Heating non-adhesive shrink tube to very near the melting point may allow it to fuse to the underlying material as well.\nHeatshrink tubing is sometimes sold in pre-cut lengths, with a solder blob at the center of the length, as this configuration is specified by Daimler-Benz for automotive electrical repairs.\nOne application that has used heatshrink in large",
"-31.57170255872188"
],
[
"out at much lower temperatures than the traditional melting methods. It involves the creation of a solution (sol), which is composed of metal-organic and metal salt precursors. A gel is then formed through hydrolysis and condensation reactions, and it undergoes thermal treatment for drying, oxide formation, and organic removal. Because of the lower fabrication temperatures used in this method, there is a greater level of control on the composition and homogeneity of the product. In addition, sol-gel bioglasses have much higher porosity, which leads to a greater surface area and degree of integration in the body.\nThe third method is microwave",
"-31.529721841099672"
],
[
"through which biomolecules can pass. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state. The melting temperature is different from the gelling temperature, depending on the sources, agarose gel has a gelling temperature of 35–42 °C and a melting temperature of 85–95 °C. Low-melting and low-gelling agaroses made through chemical modifications are also available.\nAgarose gel has large pore size and good gel strength, making it suitable as an anticonvection medium for the electrophoresis of DNA and large protein molecules. The pore size of a 1% gel has been estimated from",
"-31.479784480965463"
],
[
"which gels at around −12 °C (10 °F), is currently being investigated as a means of improving cold weather starting. However, oils with lower gelling points tend to be less saturated (leading to a higher iodine number) and polymerize more easily in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. Material compatibility Polymerization also has been consequentially linked to catastrophic component failures such as injection pump shaft seizure and breakage, injector tip failure leading to various and/or combustion chamber components damaged. Most metallurgical problems such as corrosion and electrolysis are related to water based contamination or poor choices of plumbing (such as copper or Zinc)",
"-31.45716466891463"
],
[
"long time, so there is less need for clamps. Hot Hot adhesives, also known as hot melt adhesives, are thermoplastics applied in molten form (in the 65–180 °C range) which solidify on cooling to form strong bonds between a wide range of materials. Ethylene-vinyl acetate-based hot-melts are particularly popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials they can join. A glue gun (shown at right) is one method of applying hot adhesives. The glue gun melts the solid adhesive, then allows the liquid to pass through its barrel onto the material, where it",
"-31.398615250713192"
],
[
"finding increased use in spinal fusion devices and reinforcing rods. It is extensively used in the aerospace, automotive, and chemical process industries. PEEK seals and manifolds are commonly used in fluid applications. PEEK also performs well in applications where continuous high temperatures (up to 500 °F/260 °C) are common. Because of this and its low thermal conductivity, it is also used in FFF printing to thermally separate the hot end from the cold end. Processing options PEEK melts at a relatively high temperature (343 °C / 649.4 °F) compared to most other thermoplastics. In the range of its melting temperature it can be processed",
"-31.12952418642817"
],
[
"requirement is low, the tubing may be spaced several centimeters apart across the garment surface. Where there is a very large amount of heat to remove, the tubing can be arranged in a dense grid with no gaps between the tubes. Heat exchanger For portable earthbound applications, the heat exchanger for cooling the liquid can be very low-tech, consisting simply of a container for holding ice, and an electric pump to circulate water from the container through the tubing. The return water is cooled by the melting ice and again pumped through the tubes. Regulation of flow is done by",
"-31.037362355564255"
],
[
"to an environment with a lower temperature.\nCoolants are fluids used to cool objects, prevent freezing and prevent erosion in machines.\nAir cooling is the process of cooling an object by exposing it to air. This will only work if the air is at a lower temperature than the object, and the process can be enhanced by increasing the surface area or decreasing the mass of the object.\nAnother common method of cooling is exposing an object to ice, dry ice, or liquid nitrogen. This works by convection; the heat is transferred from the relatively warm object to the relatively cold coolant.\nLaser cooling",
"-30.843151636740004"
],
[
"shapes, the warm film will be physically pushed down partially into the cavity by a \"plug-assist\" feature. Plug-assist results in a blister cavity with more uniform wall distribution and is typically used when the cavity size and shape is larger than a small tablets and cables. Cold forming In the case of cold forming, an aluminum-based laminate film is simply pressed into a mold by means of a stamp. The aluminum will be elongated and maintain the formed shape. In the industry these blisters are called cold form foil (CFF) blisters. The principal advantage of cold form foil blisters is",
"-30.637123318680096"
],
[
"is converted with ammonia to carboxylic acid amide. These pectins are more tolerant of varying calcium concentrations that occur in use.\nTo prepare a pectin-gel, the ingredients are heated, dissolving the pectin. Upon cooling below gelling temperature, a gel starts to form. If gel formation is too strong, syneresis or a granular texture are the result, while weak gelling leads to excessively soft gels.\nAmidated pectins behave like low-ester pectins but need less calcium and are more tolerant of excess calcium. Also, gels from amidated pectin are thermo-reversible; they can be heated and after cooling solidify again, whereas conventional pectin-gels will afterwards",
"-30.562068336366792"
],
[
"the inclusion of polymers which stabilize protein (e.g. PEG).\nOther products fabricated with this process include various ceramic membranes for microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, pervaporation, and reverse osmosis. If the liquid in a wet gel is removed under a supercritical condition, a highly porous and extremely low density material called aerogel is obtained. Drying the gel by means of low temperature treatments (25-100 °C), it is possible to obtain porous solid matrices called xerogels. In addition, a sol–gel process was developed in the 1950s for the production of radioactive powders of UO₂ and ThO₂ for nuclear fuels, without generation of large quantities of",
"-30.54066205280833"
],
[
"to a liquid state. Properties Agarose is available as a white powder which dissolves in near-boiling water, and forms a gel when it cools. Agarose exhibits the phenomenon of thermal hysteresis in its liquid-to-gel transition, i.e. it gels and melts at different temperatures. The gelling and melting temperatures vary depending on the type of agarose. Standard agaroses derived from Gelidium has a gelling temperature of 34–38 °C (93–100 °F) and a melting temperature of 90–95 °C (194–203 °F), while those derived from Gracilaria, due to its higher methoxy substituents, has a gelling temperature of 40–52 °C (104–126 °F) and melting temperature of 85–90 °C (185–194 °F).",
"-30.505289023858495"
],
[
"to the front. This allows the plastic beads to melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel and lowers the risk of overheating which may cause degradation in the polymer.\nExtra heat is contributed by the intense pressure and friction taking place inside the barrel. In fact, if an extrusion line is running certain materials fast enough, the heaters can be shut off and the melt temperature maintained by pressure and friction alone inside the barrel. In most extruders, cooling fans are present to keep the temperature below a set value if too much heat is generated. If forced air",
"-30.43594274937641"
],
[
"liquid electrolytes used in conventional wet cells and AGMs, which makes them suitable for use in extreme conditions.\nThe only downside to the gel design is that the gel prevents rapid motion of the ions in the electrolyte, which reduces carrier mobility and thus surge current capability. For this reason, gel cells are most commonly found in energy storage applications like off-grid systems. \"Maintenance free\", \"sealed\" and \"VRLA\" Both gel and AGM designs are sealed, do not require watering, can be used in any orientation, and use a valve for gas blowoff. For this reason, both designs can be called maintenance",
"-30.336537151772063"
],
[
"aluminium, to create a series of finned chambers. Separate hot and cold fluid streams flow through alternating layers of the heat exchanger and are enclosed at the edges by side bars.\n Heat is transferred from one stream through the fin interface to the separator plate and through the next set of fins into the adjacent fluid. The fins also serve to increase the structural integrity of the heat exchanger and allow it to withstand high pressures while providing an extended surface area for heat transfer.\nA high degree of flexibility is present in plate-fin heat exchanger design as they can operate",
"-30.331903597223572"
],
[
"Heat-shrink tubing Use The unshrunk tubing is fitted on the wire before making the connection, then slid down to cover the joint after it is made. If the fit is tight, silicone lubricant can be applied without compromising the heat-shrink material. The tubing is then shrunk to wrap tightly around the joint by heating in an oven or with a hot air gun or other source of hot gas flow. Convenient but less consistent methods for shrinking the tube include a soldering iron held close to but not touching the tube, or the heat from a lighter. Uncontrolled heat can",
"-30.252990742919792"
],
[
"gels have been used in Tissue Engineering. This involves mixing at room temperature the thermoresponsive polymer in solution with the cells and then inject the solution to the body. Due to the temperature increase (to body temperature) the polymer creates a physical gel. Within this physical gel the cells are encapsulated. Tailoring the temperature that the polymer solution gels can be challenging because this depend by many factors like the polymer composition, architecture as well as the molar mass. Cloud point Experimentally, the phase separation can be followed by turbidimetry. There is no universal approach for determining the cloud point",
"-30.24169100218569"
],
[
"metal cations, while the second is cross-linked with covalent bonds. This hydrogel is then paired with a pNIPAM network for toughening and thermal actuation. In lab testing, this gel showed a shape recovery of 41%-49% when the temperature increased 20–60 °C (68–140 °F), and then was restored to 20 °C. A fluid controlling smart valve printed from this material was designed to close when touching hot water and open when touching cold water. The valve successfully stayed open in cold water and reduced the flow rate of hot water by 99%. This new type of 4D-printed hydrogel is more mechanically robust than other",
"-30.173077371553518"
],
[
"contained water and recreates a supersaturated solution. Once the pad has returned to room temperature it can be triggered again. Triggering the pad before it has reached room temperature results in the pad reaching a lower peak temperature, as compared to waiting until it had completely cooled. High specific-heat capacity materials Heating packs can also be made by filling a container with a material that has a high specific heat capacity, which then gradually releases the heat over time. A hot water bottle is the most familiar example of this type of heating pad.\nA microwavable heating pad",
"-30.15277229534695"
],
[
"in cosmetics, food processing, and lubrication. Those gels are used in drug delivery, to trap active enzymes and bacteria inside them. Furthermore, the basis of certain technologies, producing valves, clutches, and dampers, rely on the multi-responsive nature of metallogels to electric and magnetic stimuli.\nA recent study on metal organic gels involving Cadmium and Zinc ion shows promising results to absorb dyes, which emulates the ability of natural systems to get rid of toxic material that are difficult to decompose.",
"-30.13771659741178"
],
[
"bond mechanically to the substrate to form a coating. The critical velocity needed to form bonding depends on the material's properties, powder size and temperature. Metals, polymers, ceramics, composite materials and nanocrystalline powders can be deposited using cold spraying.\nSoft metals such as Cu and Al are best suited for cold spraying, but coating of other materials (W, Ta, Ti, MCrAlY, WC–Co, etc.) by cold spraying has been reported.\nThe deposition efficiency is typically low for alloy powders, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used.",
"-30.095380553219"
],
[
"would not continue to diffuse into the center of the sphere, therefore would not create a gel center. Longer storage time could be obtained for this product accordingly.\nBoth the liquid for consumption and the alginate bath should be left to stand after preparing to eliminate air bubbles. Air bubbles inside the liquid could result in the inability of the flavourful liquid to sink when dropping into the alginate bath, creating uneven skin and weak spots in the skin. Important factors for Reverse Spherification There are two factors that need to be or can be adjusted for successful Reverse Spherification. The",
"-30.071972918405663"
],
[
"still warm may have the same effect and it is generally preferable for surfaces to cool below about 40°C before opening to traffic. The preferred method of compaction is to use heavy, non-vibrating, steel-wheeled rollers. If these are not available, vibrating rollers may be used but vibration\nshould be kept to a minimum to avoid fracture of coarse aggregate particles, or drawing of binder to the surface of the mix. The use of polymer modified binder may decrease mix workability and necessitate increased compactive effort to achieve high standards of compacted density. Achieving high standards of compacted density",
"-30.006298370833974"
],
[
"water. Swelling (and de-swelling) distinguishes NC gels from conventionally-made hydrogels (OR gels) as it is a property that OR gels lack. The swelling property of NC gels allows them to collect the surrounding aqueous solution instead of being dissolved by it, which helps make them good candidates for drug delivery carriers. Stimulus sensitivity Nanocomposite hydrogels are observed to be temperature sensitive and will change temperature when their surrounding is altered. Inorganic salts, when absorbed, will result in changing the hydrogels to a lower temperature whereas cat-ionic surfactant will shift the temperature the other way. The temperature of these hydrogels are",
"-29.98924700905627"
],
[
"Gelation is influenced by temperature, polymer concentration, and solvent properties. Temperature regulates the structure of the fiber network: low gelation temperature results in formation of nanoscale fiber networks while high gelation temperature leads to the formation of a platelet-like structure. Polymer concentration affects fiber properties: an increase in polymer concentration decreases porosity and increases mechanical properties such as tensile strength. Solvent properties influence morphology of the scaffolds. After gelation, gel is placed in distilled water for solvent exchange. Afterwards, the gel is removed from the water and goes through freezing and freeze-drying. It is then stored in a desiccator until",
"-29.983209257145063"
],
[
"Chemical Disposable chemical pads employ a one-time exothermic chemical reaction. One type, frequently used for hand warmers, is triggered by unwrapping an air-tight packet containing slightly moist iron powder and salt or catalysts which rusts over a period of hours after being exposed to oxygen in the air. Another type contains separate compartments within the pad; when the user squeezes the pad, a barrier ruptures and the compartments mix, producing heat such as the enthalpy change of solution of calcium chloride dissolving.\nThe most common reusable heat pads contain a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate in water. Crystallization is triggered",
"-29.967255343319266"
],
[
"and new-generation adhesives that are formulated to provide performance under more-demanding pipeline conditions. Polyolefin Backing Heat-shrinkable means just that, heat them up and they shrink, or more correctly, they recover in length. A heat-shrinkable sleeve starts out with a thick extruded poly olefin sheet (polyethylene or polypropylene) that is formulated to be cross-linkable. After extruding the thick sheet, it is taken to the \"beam\" where it is passed under a unit that subjects the sheet to electron irradiation. The irradiation process cross-links the polyolefin. This improves the molecular structure such that the polyolefin will work as",
"-29.93318825296592"
],
[
"as NASA does. The resulting aerogels are very effective thermal insulators because of their high porosity with very small pores (in the nanometre range). Conduction of heat through the gas phase is poor, and as the structure greatly inhibits movement of air molecules through the structure, heat transfer through the material is poor, as can be seen in the image at right where heat from a Bunsen burner transfers so poorly that crayons resting on the aerogel do not melt. Due to their low density, aerogels have also been used to capture interstellar dust particles with minimal heat changes in",
"-29.89706134557491"
],
[
"by any means. Application of further heating will not “melt” the coating and thus it is known as a “thermoset” coating. History Since their introduction as a protective coating in early 1960s, FBE coating formulations had gone through vast improvements and developments. Today, various types of FBE coatings, which are tailor made to meet various requirements are available. FBEs are available as stand-alone coatings as well as a part in multi-layers. FBE coatings with different properties are available to suit coating application on the main body of pipe, internal surfaces, girth welds as well as on fittings. Surface preparation—blast cleaning",
"-29.896890248404816"
],
[
"a package of silica gel desiccant. Another technique is to insert a hypodermic needle into the opening of a tube. After using the glue, residual glue soon clogs the needle, keeping moisture out. The clog is removed by heating the needle (e.g. with a lighter) before use. The polymerisation is also temperature-dependent: storage below freezing point of water, 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K), stops the reaction, so keeping it in the freezer is also effective. Behaviours Cyanoacrylates are mainly used as adhesives. They require some care and knowledge for effective use: they do not bond some materials; they do not fill spaces,",
"-29.885041682493465"
],
[
"temperatures, and wind conditions. Chemical Chemical reaction-based garments have cloth pouches or pockets, where single-use packages of chemical hand warmers can be inserted. The warmers are about the size of a package of cards, and they contain chemicals which produce heat. One traditional hand warmer is a small metal box containing charcoal which, when lit, burns very slowly and produces a mild heat. Disposable heat packs typically contain cellulose, iron, water, activated carbon, vermiculite, and salt. When these packs are exposed to air, an exothermic chemical reaction occurs, which provides several hours of heat. Another chemical heating pad uses a",
"-29.878017013630597"
],
[
"Heating pad A heating pad is a pad used for warming of parts of the body in order to manage pain. Localized application of heat causes the blood vessels in that area to dilate, enhancing perfusion to the targeted tissue. Types of heating pads include electrical, chemical and hot water bottles.\nSpecialized heating pads (mats) are also used in other settings. Heat mats in plant propagation stimulates seed germination and root development; they operate at cooler temperatures. Heat mats also are available in the pet trade, especially as warming spots for reptiles such as lizards and snakes. Electrical Electric pads",
"-29.87377978733275"
],
[
"not add mechanical strength to the bond between heat source and heat sink. It will have to be coupled with a mechanical fixation mechanism such as screws, applying pressure between the two, spreading the thermal grease onto the heat source. Composition Thermal grease consists of a polymerizable liquid matrix and large volume fractions of electrically insulating, but thermally conductive filler. Typical matrix materials are epoxies, silicones, urethanes, and acrylates; solvent-based systems, hot-melt adhesives, and pressure-sensitive adhesive tapes are also available. Aluminum oxide, boron nitride, zinc oxide, and increasingly aluminum nitride are used as fillers for these types of adhesives. The",
"-29.873044394254975"
],
[
"air handlers outside, or systems that must cool below the freezing temperature of water. In geothermal heating/cooling systems, ethylene glycol is the fluid that transports heat through the use of a geothermal heat pump. The ethylene glycol either gains energy from the source (lake, ocean, water well) or dissipates heat to the sink, depending on whether the system is being used for heating or cooling.\nPure ethylene glycol has a specific heat capacity about one half that of water. So, while providing freeze protection and an increased boiling point, ethylene glycol lowers the specific heat capacity of water mixtures",
"-29.835938551579602"
],
[
"subject discusses the use of hydrogels for nucleus pulposus replacement, cartilage replacement, and synthetic tissue models. Applications Many substances can form gels when a suitable thickener or gelling agent is added to their formula. This approach is common in manufacture of wide range of products, from foods to paints and adhesives.\nIn fiber optics communications, a soft gel resembling hair gel in viscosity is used to fill the plastic tubes containing the fibers. The main purpose of the gel is to prevent water intrusion if the buffer tube is breached, but the gel also buffers the fibers against mechanical damage when",
"-29.816834314056905"
],
[
"Liquid cooling and ventilation garment A liquid cooling garment (LCG) is a form-fitting garment that is used to remove body heat from the wearer in environments where evaporative cooling from sweating and open-air convection cooling does not work, or the wearer has a biological problem that hinders self-regulation of body temperature.\nA liquid cooling and ventilation garment (LCVG) has additional crush-resistant ventilation ducts, which draw moist air from the wearer's extremities, keeping the wearer dry. In a fully enclosing suit where exhaled breathing air can enter the suit, the exhaled air is moist and can lead to an uncomfortable feeling of",
"-29.807875819620676"
],
[
"which emits an oscillating electromagnetic field. As the container passes under the induction coil (sealing head) the conductive aluminum foil liner begins to heat due to eddy currents. The heat melts the wax, which is absorbed into the pulp backing and releases the foil from the cap. The polymer film also heats and flows onto the lip of the container. When cooled, the polymer creates a bond with the container resulting in a hermetically sealed product. Neither the container nor its contents are negatively affected, and the heat generated does not harm the contents.\nIt is possible to overheat the foil",
"-29.75459084950853"
],
[
"Concentric tube heat exchanger Concentric tube Heat Exchangers are used in a variety of industries for purposes such as material processing, food preparation, and air-conditioning. They create a temperature driving force by passing fluid streams of different temperatures parallel to each other, separated by a physical boundary in the form of a pipe. This induces forced convection, transferring heat to/from the product. Theory The thermodynamic behaviour of concentric tube heat exchangers can be described by both empirical and numerical analysis. The simplest of these involve the use of correlations to model heat transfer; however the accuracy of these predictions varies",
"-29.750033125150367"
],
[
"with axons in the trigeminal (V) nerve, accounts for its use in numerous toiletries including toothpaste, shaving lotions, facial creams and the like.\nAnother molecular component of cold transduction is the temperature dependence of so-called leak channels which pass an outward current carried by potassium ions. Some leak channels derive from the family of two-pore (2P) domain potassium channels. Amongst the various members of the 2P-domain channels, some close quite promptly at temperatures less than about 28°C (e.g. TRAAK, TREK). Temperature also modulates the activity of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. The Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase is a P-type pump that extrudes 3Na⁺ ions in",
"-29.748356556519866"
],
[
"the surface area available for heat exchange with the surroundings, a radiator will have multiple fins, in contact with the tube carrying liquid pumped through the radiator. Air (or other exterior fluid) in contact with the fins carries off heat. If air flow is obstructed by dirt or damage to the fins, that portion of the radiator is ineffective at heat transfer. Heating Radiators are commonly used to heat buildings. In a central heating system, hot water or sometimes steam is generated in a central boiler and circulated by pumps through radiators within the building, where this heat is",
"-29.73928591416916"
],
[
"such as deposition time and nucleation potential.\nSol-gel process is a commonly used solution-based process which can produce glass and ceramic materials of different shapes. In this process, the reactants (usually metal salts or metal organic compounds) go through a series of hydrolysis and condensation reactions and form colloidal or polymeric sols, followed by an aging process to convert the sols into gels. Then gels are then desiccated drying under supercritical conditions and converted into aerogel. This is a cheap technique avoiding the requirement of high temperature, enabling fine controls in chemical composition as well as lowest concentration of dopants. But",
"-29.70842935622204"
],
[
"heat transfer between the heat source and the cooling fluid by way of conducting the heat current in an optimal manner. The two most attractive advantages of this method are that no additional pumping power and no extra heat transfer surface area, that is quite different from fins (extended surfaces). Surface color The heat transfer from the heat sink occurs by convection of the surrounding air, conduction through the air, and radiation.\nHeat transfer by radiation is a function of both the heat sink temperature, and the temperature of the surroundings that the heat sink is optically coupled with. When both",
"-29.68236662587151"
],
[
"cause uneven shrinkage, physical damage and insulation failure, and these methods are not recommended by heatshrink suppliers. If overheated, heat-shrink tubing can melt, scorch or catch fire like any other plastic. Heating causes the tubing to contract to between half and one sixth of its original diameter, depending on the material used, providing a snug fit over irregularly shaped joints. There is also longitudinal shrinking, usually unwanted and to a lesser extent than narrowing, of typically around 6%. The tubing provides good electrical insulation, protection from dust, solvents and other foreign materials, and mechanical strain relief, and is mechanically held",
"-29.607956889783964"
],
[
"the coolant as a liquid. Use of NaK overcomes this. The Dounreay Fast Reactor is an example.\nThe Soviet RORSAT radar satellites were powered by a BES-5 reactor, which was cooled with NaK. In addition to the wide liquid temperature range, NaK has a very low vapor pressure, which is important in the vacuum of space.\nAn unintended consequence of the usage as a coolant on orbiting satellites has been the creation of additional space debris. NaK coolant has leaked from a number of satellites, including Kosmos 1818 and Kosmos 1867. The coolant self-forms into frozen droplets of solid sodium-potassium of",
"-29.603320702764904"
],
[
"has also been proposed in a form of nanosurgery to separate one tissue from another—for example a tumor from the tissue in which it has grown. Heat transfer An external magnetic field imposed on a ferrofluid with varying susceptibility (e.g., because of a temperature gradient) results in a nonuniform magnetic body force, which leads to a form of heat transfer called thermomagnetic convection. This form of heat transfer can be useful when conventional convection heat transfer is inadequate; e.g., in miniature microscale devices or under reduced gravity conditions.\nFerrofluids of suitable composition can exhibit extremely large enhancement in thermal conductivity",
"-29.581117203397298"
],
[
"thermal radiation may be minimized by silvering flask surfaces facing the gap but can become problematic if the flask's contents or surroundings are very hot; hence vacuum flasks usually hold contents below the boiling point of water. Most heat transfer occurs through the neck and opening of the flask, where there is no vacuum. Vacuum flasks are usually made of metal, borosilicate glass, foam or plastic and have their opening stoppered with cork or polyethylene plastic. Vacuum flasks are often used as insulated shipping containers.\nExtremely large or long vacuum flasks sometimes cannot fully support the inner flask from the neck",
"-29.575212575909973"
],
[
"heat generation and thus the gel temperature is much lower than with TBE/TAE buffers, therefore the voltage can be increased to speed up electrophoresis so that a gel run takes only a fraction of the usual time. Downstream applications, such as isolation of DNA from a gel slice or Southern blot analysis, work as expected with lithium boric acid gels. \nSB buffer containing sodium borate is similar to lithium borate and has nearly all of its advantages at a somewhat lower cost, but the lithium buffer permits use of even higher voltages due to the lower conductivity of lithium ions",
"-29.574581518456398"
],
[
" The melting and gelling temperatures may be dependent on the concentration of the gel, particularly at low gel concentration of less than 1%. The gelling and melting temperatures are therefore given at a specified agarose concentration.\nNatural agarose contains uncharged methyl groups and the extent of methylation is directly proportional to the gelling temperature. Synthetic methylation however have the reverse effect, whereby increased methylation lowers the gelling temperature. A variety of chemically modified agaroses with different melting and gelling temperatures are available through chemical modifications.\nThe agarose in the gel forms a meshwork that contains pores, and the",
"-29.553886272013187"
],
[
"of getting the desired outcome are, for the removal of impurities from a mixture or, for the isolation of solids from a mixture.\nHot filtration method is mainly used to separate solids from a hot solution. This is done in order to prevent crystal formation in the filter funnel and other apparatuses that comes in contact with the solution. As a result, the apparatus and the solution used are heated in order to prevent the rapid decrease in temperature which in turn, would lead to the crystallization of the solids in the funnel and hinder the filtration process.\nOne of the most",
"-29.480810455454048"
],
[
"buffers. The hydrogels also can adhere to various plastics due to hydrophobic interactions. Both findings suggest the use of these hydrogels as a sealant for vessels containing corrosive acids. No commercial applications currently exist for implementation of this technology. Derivatives Drying of hydrogels under controlled circumstances may yield xerogels and aerogels. A xerogel is a solid that retains significant porosity (15-50%) with a very small pore size (1–10 nm). In an aerogel, the porosity is somewhat higher and the pores are more than an order of magnitude larger, resulting in an ultra-low-density material with a low thermal conductivity and an almost",
"-29.462357547308784"
],
[
"(above the crystalline melting point of the material) by the end user, the tubing shrinks back to its original extruded size.\nThe material is often cross-linked through the use of electron beams, peroxides, or moisture. This cross-linking creates the memory in the tubing so that it is able to shrink back to its original extruded dimensions upon heating, producing a material called heat-shrink tubing.\nFor outdoor use, heat-shrink tubing often has a UV stabiliser added. Types Heat-shrink tubing is available in a variety of colors for color-coding of wires and connections. In the early twenty-first century heat-shrink tubing started to be used",
"-29.439471562218387"
],
[
"Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger Introduction The most important technologies for indirect heat transfer use tubes (shell-and-tube exchangers) or flat surfaces (plate exchangers). Their goal is to exchange the maximum amount of heat per unit area by generating as much turbulence as possible below given pumping power limits. Typical approaches to achieve this consist of corrugating the tubes or plates or extending their surface with fins.\nHowever, these geometry conformation technologies, the calculation of optimum mass flows and other turbulence related factors become diminished when fouling appears, obliging designers to fit significantly larger heat transfer areas. There are",
"-29.43720498002949"
],
[
"usually operate from household current and must have protection against overheating.\nA moist heating pad is used dry on the user's skin. These pads register temperatures from 76 to 82 °C (169 to 180 °F) and are intended for deep tissue treatment and can be dangerous if left on unattended. Moist heating pads are used mainly by physical therapists but can be found for home use. A moist cloth can be added with a stupe cover to add more moisture to the treatment.\nAn electric heating pouch is similar in form to an electric heating pad, but is curved to wrap around a joint.",
"-29.430026329835528"
],
[
"Tub Products, Inc.\nSince its inception, the ThermoSpas has been known for development and use of technology such as a patented control therapy system that allows each person in a hot tub to have a personalized therapeutic experience in addition to various filtration systems that help purify water used in a hot tub. Products ThermoSpas sells pre-designed hot tubs as well as personally designed hot tubs for personal use. In addition to personal hot tubs, ThermoSpas is known for healing spas and swim spa trainers. It is also attributed as the first to develop a healing spa specifically for arthritis sufferers,",
"-29.429636097629555"
],
[
"Thermally conductive pad In computing and electronics, thermal pads (also called thermally conductive pad or thermal interface pad) are a pre-formed square or rectangle of solid material (often paraffin wax or silicone based) commonly found on the underside of heatsinks to aid the conduction of heat away from the component being cooled (such as a CPU or another chip) and into the heatsink (usually made from aluminium or copper). Thermal pads and thermal compound are used to fill air gaps caused by imperfectly flat or smooth surfaces which should be in thermal contact; they would not be needed between perfectly",
"-29.423651946628524"
],
[
"are typically assembled in this way. Alternatively, the enveloped part may be cooled before assembly such that it slides easily into its mating part. Upon warming, it expands and interferes. Cooling is often preferable as it is less likely than heating to change material properties, e.g., assembling a hardened gear onto a shaft, where the risk exists of heating the gear too much and drawing its temper.",
"-29.35851847473532"
],
[
"exchange fins in areas where cooling due to air expansion is a problem, such as around the second stage valve seat on some regulators.\nCold water kits can be used to reduce the risk of freezing inside the regulator. Some regulators come with this as standard, and some others can be retrofitted. Environmental sealing of the diaphragm main spring chamber using a soft secondary diaphragm and hydrostatic transmitter or a silicone, alcohol or glycol/water mixture antifreeze liquid in the sealed spring compartment can be used for a diaphragm regulator. Silicone grease in the spring chamber can be used on a piston",
"-29.342599953641184"
],
[
"platelets are plasma-sprayed onto an aluminium foil. This allows tight folding of the heat-shield through 180°, whilst still maintaining thermal protection.\nZircoflex is 0.25mm thick and lightweight at 460g/m². The heat-shield is useful at temperatures up to 500 °C. Composite Coatings Zircotec offers a plasma-sprayed ceramic coating specifically for composite materials. Commonly used on CFRP, this coating protects against heat, fire and abrasion.",
"-29.30229580940795"
],
[
"ceramic, and metallic nanomaterials can be incorporated within the hydrogel structure to obtain nanocomposites with tailored functionality. Nanocomposite hydrogels can be engineered to possess superior physical, chemical, electrical, and biological properties. Properties Many gels display thixotropy – they become fluid when agitated, but resolidify when resting.\nIn general, gels are apparently solid, jelly-like materials. It is a type of non-Newtonian fluid.\nBy replacing the liquid with gas it is possible to prepare aerogels, materials with exceptional properties including very low density, high specific surface areas, and excellent thermal insulation properties. Animal-produced gels Some species secrete gels that are effective in parasite control.",
"-29.30195848242147"
],
[
"with any combination of gas, liquid, and two-phase fluids. Heat transfer between multiple process streams is also accommodated, with a variety of fin heights and types as different entry and exit points available for each stream.\nThe main four type of fins are: plain, which refer to simple straight-finned triangular or rectangular designs; herringbone, where the fins are placed sideways to provide a zig-zag path; and serrated and perforated which refer to cuts and perforations in the fins to augment flow distribution and improve heat transfer.\nA disadvantage of plate-fin heat exchangers is that they are prone to fouling due to their",
"-29.203620575601235"
],
[
"area of the sphere is: \nSolving in a similar manner as for a cylindrical shell (see above) produces: Splat cooling Splat cooling is a method for quenching small droplets of molten materials by rapid contact with a cold surface. The particles undergo a characteristic cooling process, with the heat profile at for initial temperature as the maximum at and at and , and the heat profile at for as the boundary conditions. Splat cooling rapidly ends in a steady state temperature, and is similar in form to the Gaussian diffusion equation. The temperature profile,",
"-29.196570592961507"
],
[
"Heat transfer through fins Fins are extensions on exterior surfaces of objects that increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the object by increasing convection. This is achieved by increasing the surface area of the body, which in turn increases the heat transfer rate by a sufficient degree. This is an efficient way of increasing the rate, since the alternative way of doing so is by increasing either the heat transfer coefficient (which depends on the nature of materials being used and the conditions of use) or the temperature gradient (which depends on the conditions of use). Clearly,",
"-29.179679086548276"
],
[
"the aerogel to tune their wetting properties towards non-polar liquids/oils. The authors demonstrated that it is possible to switch the wettability behaviour of the cellulose surfaces between super-wetting and super-repellent, using different scales of roughness and porosity created by the freeze-drying technique and change of concentration of the nanocellulose dispersion. Structured porous cellulose foams can however also be obtained by utilizing the freeze-drying technique on cellulose generated by Gluconobacter strains of bacteria, which bio-synthesize open porous networks of cellulose fibers with relatively large amounts of nanofibrils dispersed inside. Olsson et al. demonstrated that these networks can be further impregnated with",
"-29.15432583367783"
],
[
"GELID Solutions History GELID Solutions was founded in 2008 by Gebhard Scherrer and VC Tran.\nIn 2009, GELID Solutions launched the GC-Extreme thermal compound which is fully compatible to extreme overclocking and subzero liquid nitrogen cooling. The GC-Extreme thermal compound is reportedly used by famous enthusiast overclockers, such as Matei Mihatoiu, Winner of MSI Master Overclocking Arena EMEA 2011, and Lau Kin Lam, Winner of G.Skill OC World Cup 2015.\nIn 2013, GELID Solutions manufactured the world's first cooling unit for routers, switches, media players and many other small form-factor devices, the IcyPad. In 2014, the company launched the first 6-channel fan",
"-29.14723099472758"
],
[
"often used in combination with underfloor heating installation.\nLiquid flow screed is self-levelling. No vibration is necessary to remove bubbles and densify the liquid mass.\nDue to the easy consolidation thickness can sometimes be reduced in comparison to conventional screeds. This minimises heat storage leading to a floor that reacts quickly to user requirement hence raising the efficacy of underfloor heating. Screed coats A development in the UK is the delivery, mixing, and pumping of screed from a single vehicle. Where previously screed jobs required a separate pump to administer the screed, these new machines can now administer the screed directly from",
"-29.139885954908095"
],
[
"Undertank heater This is a heating device created by the pet industry for husbandry of reptiles and amphibians. It is a flat piece of metal and plastic similar to a heating pad which adheres to the underside of a glass aquarium or terrarium, which then must be slightly elevated to avoid pinching the cord.\nPlugged in, undertank heaters provide even warmth under the pad. A substrate must be used, and the device should always be connected to a thermostat or rheostat to prevent it from overheating and burning the animals.\nAquaria can also be heated by the use of",
"-29.117864494444802"
],
[
"Each layer is a composite structure of two sublayers, one of a high thermal conductivity material and another of a low thermal conductivity material. When a hot fluid flows through the cell, heat from the fluid is transferred to the cell wells, and stored there. When the fluid flow reverses direction, heat is transferred from the cell walls back to the fluid.\nA third type of regenerator is called a \"Rothemuhle\" regenerator. This type has a fixed matrix in a disk shape, and streams of fluid are ducted through rotating hoods. The Rothemuhle regenerator is used as an air preheater in",
"-29.114084244909463"
],
[
"gel, and it contains approximately 91 to 98% weight of water, depending on the species, combined with a small amount of high molecular weight glycoproteins (Denny, 1984). In Helix aspersa these glycoproteins reach weights of 82, 97 and 175 kDa.\nMany mollusks, both marine and terrestrial species, when inactive, use the secretion to stick to various surfaces. However, it is unexpected that a gel so diluted that it can commonly act as a lubricant, can also have such strong adhesive properties. In Helix aspersa there are two types of secretion. One type is translucent and not adhesive, the kind that the",
"-29.102900043682894"
],
[
"several types of fouling, including particulate accumulation, precipitation (crystallization), sedimentation, generation of ice layers, etc.\nAnother factor posing difficulties to heat transfer is viscosity. Highly viscous fluids tend to generate deep laminar flow, a condition with very poor heat transfer rates and high pressure losses involving a considerable pumping power, often exceeding the exchanger design limits. This problem becomes worsened frequently when processing non-newtonian fluids.\nThe dynamic scraped surface heat exchangers (DSSHE) have been designed to face the above-mentioned problems. They increase heat transfer by: removing the fouling layers, increasing turbulence in case of high viscosity flow, and avoiding the",
"-29.10200303808233"
],
[
"heat transfer, and assess the feasibility of using metallic nanoparticles as a supplemental fuel. The Canadian Government (through NSERC funding) is also a partner in the DASS Engine project. Surface nano-coatings on heat exchangers Coating a solid body with nano-particles has been shown in the scientific literature to enhance the convective heat transfer rate from solid bodies. Several mechanisms have been proposed, including the increase in the overall surface area associated with nano-coating. Essentially, it is possible that the nanoparticles act as small scale fins, which are known to improve heat exchanger effectiveness. Since these nano-scale fins are small, the",
"-29.087523724127095"
],
[
"be some debris extracted. Another danger is the introduced heat: Some molecules like DNA, RNA, or protein don't allow to be heated too much or at all for the goal of being isolated as purely as possible.\nFor transport without contact. There are three different approaches. Transport by gravity using an upright microscope (called GAM, gravity-assisted microdissection) or transport by laser pressure catapult; the most recent generation utilizes a technology based on laser induced forward transfer (LIFT). With cut-and-capture, a cap coated with an adhesive is positioned directly on the thinly cut (5-8 μm) tissue section, the section itself resting on a",
"-29.046180845914932"
],
[
"Rocky Mountain states. Alternative Portable Cooler Dispensers In the coil cooler, a stainless steel coil is covered with water and ice, in which the liquid is made run through. At the contact with the cold coil, the beverage becomes cold. On the flip side, the cold plate works making the beverage run across an ice covered aluminum cold plate. When the plate makes contact with the ice, the plate become cold provoking the liquid that runs over it becomes cold too.\nA portable ice maker and water dispenser is a device that produces ice, and release chill water by a small",
"-28.993002104136394"
],
[
"more soluble metallic soap, i.e., zinc stearate. Retarders and inhibitors In order for good quality vulcanization to take place, the rubber, sulfur, accelerants, activators and other compounds must be fully mixed to give a homogeneous liquid. In practise this can involve melting the sulfur (melting point 115 °C) and at these temperatures vulcanization can begin prematurely. This is often undesirable, as the mixture may still need to be pumped and moulded into its final form before it sets solid. Premature vulcanization is often called \"scorch\" and can be prevented by the addition of retarders or inhibitors, which increase the induction period",
"-28.970607960014604"
],
[
"cooling but also help determine sheet thickness and surface texture (in case of structured rolls; i.e. smooth, levant, haircell, etc.). A common processing defect known as nerve may occur when contact time between the rollers and extrudate is too brief, resulting in insufficient cooling time.\nCoextrusion is common in sheet and film extrusion, allowing for speedy production of multi-layered parts. This is accomplished by joining multiple polymer melts in either the manifold or approach stage. Layers of different thicknesses may be formed by introducing melts at different flow rates or different manifold sizes. Blown film extrusion The",
"-28.966848193318583"
],
[
"Fluid warmer A fluid warmer is a medical device used in healthcare facilities for warming fluids, crystalloid, colloid, or blood product, prior to being administered (intravenously or by other parenteral routes) to body temperature levels in order to prevent hypothermia in physically traumatized or surgical patients. Infusion Fluid Warmers are FDA regulated medical devices, product code LGZ. They are unclassified devices with special considerations and require 510(k) clearance to be legally marketed in the United States. There are two primary categories of fluid warmers- those that warm fluids before use, typically warming cabinets, and those that actively warm fluids while",
"-28.947153306100518"
],
[
"the fins heats the air. Differences from other electric heaters Electric heating elements made of resistance wire also have a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity, but do not increase their resistance enough to be self-regulating; they are typically used with the wires red-hot. The ceramic, on the other hand, increases its resistance sharply at the Curie temperatures of the crystalline components, typically 120 degrees Celsius, and remains below 200 degrees Celsius, providing a significant safety advantage.",
"-28.942546540638432"
],
[
"hydrophobic character. DEAE is an anion exchange matrix that is produced from a positive side group of diethylaminoethyl bound to cellulose or Sephadex.\nAgarose gel based medium contain large pores as well but their substitution ability is lower in comparison to dextrans. The ability of the medium to swell in liquid is based on the cross-linking of these substances, the pH and the ion concentrations of the buffers used.\nIncorporation of high temperature and pressure allows a significant increase in the efficiency of ion chromatography, along with a decrease in time. Temperature has an influence of selectivity due to its effects on",
"-28.941841839288827"
],
[
"of the effect of the composition of the gel. A system that forms nicely for one set of components, might fail altogether and require a different set of conditions if the gel is switched, say, from agar to gelatin. The essential feature of the gel required is that thermal convection in the tube be prevented altogether.\nMost systems will form rings in the absence of the gelling system if the experiment is carried out in a capillary, where convection does not disturb their formation. In fact, the system does not have to even be liquid. A tube plugged",
"-28.929780989536084"
],
[
"that can fit into sulci or on the gyri of the section of interest of the cerebral cortex. A pump draws methanol from a reservoir, and the fluid flows through a dry ice bath to be cooled. The cooled methanol flows through Teflon tubing into the cryoloop’s metal tubing, which is secured by passing through a threaded post. A thermocouple connector receives the wires from a microthermocouple at the base of the loop (where the inflow and outflow tubes meet) that measures the tubing temperature. The post, the thermocouple connector, and heat-shrink Teflon tubing, which envelopes the microthermocouple wires and",
"-28.892599020677153"
],
[
"for that distribution system. Thermal shock Some packages, particularly glass, can be sensitive to sudden changes in temperature: Thermal shock. One method of testing involves rapid movement from cold to hot water baths, and back. Handles Package handles (and hand holes in packages) assist carrying and handling packages. Objective laboratory procedures are frequently used to help determine performance. Fixtured ‘’hands’’ of various designs are used to hold a handle (sometimes two handles for a box). Most common are “jerk testing’’ by modified drop test procedures or use of the constant pull rates of a",
"-28.88557208230486"
],
[
"heat-activated sealant on the inside of each end of the tubing, allowing the connection to also be made waterproof.\nHeat-shrink end caps, closed at one end, are used to insulate the exposed cut ends of insulated wires. Main Standards and certificates UL224-2010\nSAE AS23053\nASTM D 2671\nASTM D3150",
"-28.84735223662574"
],
[
"As the name implies, SQUIDs are made from superconducting material. As a result, they need to be cooled to cryogenic temperatures of less than 90 K (liquid nitrogen temperatures) for high temperature SQUIDs and less than 9 K (liquid helium temperatures) for low temperature SQUIDs. For magnetic current imaging systems, a small (about 30 µm wide) high temperature SQUID is used. This system has been designed to keep a high temperature SQUID, made from YBa₂Cu₃O₇, cooled below 80K and in vacuum while the device under test is at room temperature and in air. A SQUID consists of two Josephson tunnel junctions",
"-28.810350974203175"
],
[
"the surfactant tends to break down over time (a few years), and eventually the nano-particles will agglomerate, and they will separate out and no longer contribute to the fluid's magnetic response.\nThe term magnetorheological fluid (MRF) refers to liquids similar to ferrofluids (FF) that solidify in the presence of a magnetic field. Magnetorheological fluids have micrometre scale magnetic particles that are one to three orders of magnitude larger than those of ferrofluids.\nHowever, ferrofluids lose their magnetic properties at sufficiently high temperatures, known as the Curie temperature. Normal-field instability When a paramagnetic fluid is subjected to a strong vertical magnetic field,",
"-28.76975888403831"
],
[
"changing the shape of the bodies is more convenient. Fins are therefore a very popular solution to increase the heat transfer from surfaces and are widely used in a number of objects. The fin material should preferably have high thermal conductivity. In most applications the fin is surrounded by a fluid in motion, which heats or cools it quickly due to the large surface area, and subsequently the heat gets transferred to or from the body quickly due to the high thermal conductivity of the fin. For optimal Heat transfer performance with minimal cost, the dimensions and shape of the",
"-28.765207139549602"
],
[
"and a gelling agent. These nitroparaffins typically make up most of the water gel explosive. Different types of gelling agents are used to create the water gel explosive. One agent is insoluble in water, but able to gel with nitromethane. The gel used for nitromethane is cyanoethylether, a derivative of galactomannan gum. Other agents are water-soluble and are used for the aqueous salt solution. As referenced in the first paragraph, water-soluble gums and gel modifiers like guar can be used for the gelling of aqueous solutions. When the salt solution and nitroparaffin are gelled, the entire mixture",
"-28.756727261061314"
],
[
"Heat-shrinkable sleeve Heat-shrinkable sleeve (or commonly \"shrink sleeve\") is a corrosion protective coating for pipelines in the form of a wraparound or tubular sleeve that is field-applied. History The first heat-shrinkable sleeves were introduced as polyethylene pipeline coatings started to replace bituminous or tape coatings in the oil and gas industry. At the time, the processing for polyethylene to make the sleeve backing was new technology and the adhesives used in sleeves were much the same as those used on pipeline coating.\nThe technology used to make sleeves has advanced significantly since then, with new methods of cross-linking the polyolefin backings",
"-28.74600958422525"
],
[
"Valco Melton Business Profile Established in 1952 and renamed in 2008, Valco Melton is a leading supplier of fluid dispensing systems, and compatible spare parts for industrial sealing applications, including boxes, cartons, packaging, coatings tissue and textiles. Popular for producing standard adhesives found in packaging, Valco Melton’s hot melt and glue systems are also used for applications like lotions, perfumes, and dispensers for lubricants and food products. IMPACT the Community The Valco Melton team has a 'pact' to give back to the community worldwide. Being happy is most important and members of this corporation do that by helping out with",
"-28.73786382516846"
],
[
"is sealed at the ends and the resistance alloy is not nichrome. Convection heaters In a convection heater, the heating element heats the air in contact with it by thermal conduction. Hot air is less dense than cool air, so it rises due to buoyancy, allowing more cool air to flow in to take its place. This sets up a convection current of hot air that rises from the heater, heats up the surrounding space, cools and then repeats the cycle. These heaters are sometimes filled with oil. They are ideally suited for heating a closed space. They operate silently",
"-28.717882169876248"
],
[
"constructed as thin fins, such that the surface area of the metal columns is large relative to the amount of oil and element which provides the warmth. A large surface area allows more air to be in contact with the heater at any point in time, allowing for the heat to be transferred more effectively, which results in a surface temperature which is safe enough to touch. The relatively large specific heat capacity of the oil and metal parts means this type of heater takes a few minutes to heat up and cool down, providing a short-term thermal store. Efficiency",
"-28.71574933777447"
],
[
"a cocurrent flow exchange mechanism. \n\nTwo tubes have a liquid flowing in the same direction. One starts off hot at 60 °C, the second cold at 20 °C. A thermoconductive membrane or an open section allows heat transfer between the two flows.\nThe hot fluid heats the cold one, and the cold fluid cools down the warm one. The result is thermal equilibrium: Both fluids end up at around the same temperature: 40 °C, almost exactly between the two original temperatures (20 and 60 °C). At the input end, there is a large temperature difference of 40 °C and much heat transfer; at the output end,",
"-28.71553616313031"
],
[
"A mixture of acrylic acid, water, cross-linking agents and UV initiator chemicals are blended and placed either on a moving belt or in large tubs. The liquid mixture then goes into a \"reactor\" which is a long chamber with a series of strong UV lights. The UV radiation drives the polymerization and cross-linking reactions. The resulting \"logs\" are sticky gels containing 60-70% water. The logs are shredded or ground and placed in various sorts of driers. Additional cross-linking agent may be sprayed on the particles' surface; this \"surface cross-linking\" increases the product's ability to swell",
"-28.71372678654734"
],
[
"(stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, aluminium, hydroxyapatite for medical implants, etc.). Cold spraying Cold spraying (or gas dynamic cold spraying) was introduced to the market in the 1990s. The method was originally developed in the Soviet Union – while experimenting with the erosion of the target, which was exposed to a two-phase high-velocity flow of fine powder in a wind tunnel, scientists observed accidental rapid formation of coatings. \nIn cold spraying, particles are accelerated to very high speeds by the carrier gas forced through a converging–diverging de Laval type nozzle. Upon impact, solid particles with sufficient kinetic energy deform plastically and",
"-28.700873985965927"
],
[
"passed through it. It is based on the Peltier effect.\nA thermal diode or thermal rectifier is a device that causes heat to flow preferentially in one direction. Heat exchangers A heat exchanger is used for more efficient heat transfer or to dissipate heat. Heat exchangers are widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, power generation, and chemical processing. One common example of a heat exchanger is a car's radiator, in which the hot coolant fluid is cooled by the flow of air over the radiator's surface.\nCommon types of heat exchanger flows include parallel flow, counter flow, and cross flow.",
"-28.696937591739697"
],
[
"the gels are self-assembled and properly formed. However, this method has not shown favorable results with the additions of several transition metals, along with the use of lanthanides, in a acetonitrile nitrile solution of the ligand. In these studies, the ligand used is a 2,6-Bis(1′-alkylbenzimidazolyl)pyridine, due to its commercial abundance and the wide variety of synthetic pathways that allow the functionalization of this ligand, and therefore the chemical tuning of the metallogel. Therefore, under controlled heating and cooling conditions, the addition of a source of transition metals to the solution containing the ligand, along with lanthanide ions yielded stable gels,",
"-28.68509899446508"
]
] |
3mqbb8 | Ok. Now we know that there is water on mars, what does this mean for the future and how can we benefit from this discovery? Can humans live on mars? | [
"This does not really change things for humans. We already knew there was water on Mars, we just weren't sure of any liquid water. The surface is still generally too cold, and too low pressure, for a human to survive. You'd need an enclosed environment, and if you had one of those you could just melt water ice from the planet.",
"One of things it might change is making it more *difficult* to explore Mars or live on it. More widespread liquid water near or on the surface increases the risk of cross-contamination: either wiping out existing ecosystems on Mars before we even get a chance to discover them, or accidentally colonizing Mars with a new ecosystem from Earth, with microbes from our robot landers. Right now we're already using techniques to avoid that: sterilizing our probes before they launch, and only landing in areas where Earth life *probably* couldn't survive. But we've already discovered our sterilization techniques aren't good enough, and this means our idea of where Earth life could survive on Mars might not be good enough either.",
"Well, we have known there was water on Mars since about 1976. Just, it was only known to exist in vapor and solid form. Now we know it's also present in liquid form, kept so through large amounts of salt. Doesn't really change the picture for human habitation.",
"Mars manned exploration ideas are sort of a romantic throwback in an era of remote-controlled robots. Anything you might hope to find exploring mars by sending people there can be done far more cost-effectively (not to mention safely) by robots. And if your goal is just to set up a colony, there's no particular advantage to trying to live on Mars that you wouldn't get by trying to live on the moon. Although Mars has some interesting geology including water, it's 500X further away and that makes it much harder. (By comparison, the people who discovered the New World back in the day had experience travelling that far, just in other directions.) Just living in earth orbit for the time required to get to Mars introduces [undesirable physiological changes]( URL_0 ) in astronauts, including vision problems and loss of muscle mass and bone density.",
"Does anyone ever [search for their question]( URL_0 ) first..."
] | [
[
"to the inner surfaces. There's been a lot of speculation about the occurrence of water on Mars. We don't know but it could be associated with this mineral.\"\nJanice Bishop, a Mars specialist from the Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence Institute also told the BBC that: \"All life forms as we know it require liquid water so if we can actually find periods of time or places on the planet where there was standing water then the chance of life having formed increase greatly.\"",
"-33.187571158654464"
],
[
"Liquid water Liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as humans know it, as habitability is a function of a multitude of environmental parameters. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars except at the lowest elevations for minutes or hours. Liquid water does not appear at the surface itself, but it could form in minuscule amounts around dust particles in snow heated by the Sun. Also, the ancient equatorial ice sheets beneath the ground may slowly sublimate or melt, accessible from the surface via caves.\nWater on Mars exists almost exclusively as water ice,",
"-32.5781569963583"
],
[
"sites, so its authors also support the hypotheses of either short-lived atmospheric water vapour deliquesence, or dry granular flows. They conclude that liquid water on today's Mars may be limited to traces of dissolved moisture from the atmosphere and thin films, which are challenging environments for life as we know it. Habitability assessments Since the Viking landers that searched for current microbial life in 1976, NASA has pursued a \"follow the water\" strategy on Mars. However, liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as we know it because habitability is a function of a multitude of",
"-32.54701434158778"
],
[
" Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.",
"-31.72742476715939"
],
[
"a supply of water that was present for a substantial amount of time. Therefore, a prominent goal of the MEP is to look for places where water is, was, or could possibly be, such as dried up riverbeds, under the planetary surface, and in Mars' polar ice caps.\nAside from water, life also needs sources of energy to survive. The abundance of superoxides makes life on the surface of Mars very unlikely, which essentially rules out sunlight as a possible source of energy for life. Therefore, alternative sources of energy must be searched for, such as geothermal and chemical energy. These",
"-31.448711423043278"
],
[
"atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life.\nThe lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a challenge: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, poor insulation against bombardment of the solar wind and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimes to a gaseous state). Mars is nearly, or",
"-31.10516362843373"
],
[
"has been estimated that the primordial oceans on Mars would have covered between 36% and 75% of the planet. On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.\nAnalysis of Martian sandstones, using data obtained from orbital spectrometry, suggests that the waters that previously existed on the surface of Mars would have had too high a salinity to support most Earth-like life. Tosca et al. found that the Martian water",
"-31.064098604656465"
],
[
"of a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 km (0.93 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and extending sideways about 20 km (12 mi), the first known stable body of water on the planet.\nUnderstanding the extent and situation of water on Mars is vital to assess the planet’s potential for harboring life and for providing usable resources for future human exploration. For this reason, \"Follow the Water\" was the science theme of NASA's Mars Exploration Program (MEP) in the first decade of the 21st century. Discoveries by the 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Exploration Rovers (MERs), Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), and Mars Phoenix lander have",
"-30.944626979500754"
],
[
"REMS, scientists could in 2015 prove that there are conditions for presence of liquid water on Mars. According to the conclusions, salts in the ground surface on Mars can absorb water vapor from the environment.\nThe research was presented in Nature Geoscience with Javier Martín-Torres, Professor of Atmospheric Science at Luleå University of Technology as lead author.",
"-30.77636140060349"
],
[
"and minerals It is widely accepted that Mars had abundant water very early in its history, but all large areas of liquid water have since disappeared. A fraction of this water is retained on modern Mars as both ice and locked into the structure of abundant water-rich materials, including clay minerals (phyllosilicates) and sulfates. Studies of hydrogen isotopic ratios indicate that asteroids and comets from beyond 2.5 astronomical units (AU) provide the source of Mars' water, that currently totals 6% to 27% of the Earth's present ocean. Water in weathering products (aqueous minerals) The primary rock type on the surface",
"-30.693381159871933"
],
[
"institute, asserts that although an overwhelming majority of the planet's surface is composed of water, 97% of this water is constituted of saltwater; the fresh water used to sustain humans is only 3% of the total amount of water on Earth. Therefore, Smith believes that the competition for water in an overpopulated world would pose a major threat to human stability, even going so far as to postulate apocalyptic world wars being fought over the control of thinning ice sheets and nearly desiccated reservoirs. Nevertheless, 2 billion people have supposedly gained access to a safe water source since 1990 who",
"-30.4966796435765"
],
[
"rover studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\nMany lines of evidence indicate that water ice is abundant on Mars and it has played a significant role in the planet's geologic history. The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft imagery, remote sensing techniques (spectroscopic measurements, radar, etc.), and surface investigations from landers and rovers. Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous outflow channels carved by floods, ancient river valley networks, deltas, and lakebeds; and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface",
"-30.445824923377586"
],
[
"as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\nThis international team used ESO’s Very Large Telescope, along with instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different forms of water in Mars’s atmosphere over a",
"-30.398054521931044"
],
[
"water on Mars in the form of images, and with its neutron spectrometer, it proved that much of the ground is loaded with water ice. Mars has enough ice just beneath the surface to fill Lake Michigan twice. In both hemispheres, from 55° latitude to the poles, Mars has a high density of ice just under the surface; one kilogram of soil contains about 500 grams (18 oz) of water ice. But close to the equator, there is only 2% to 10% of water in the soil. Scientists think that much of this water is also locked up in the chemical",
"-30.240053483830707"
],
[
"The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have been influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that liquid water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiter's moon Europa.\nGroundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the",
"-30.178707077284344"
],
[
"by the Mars Exploration Rover mission indicate it had some long-term standing water in at least one location, but its extent is not known. The Opportunity Mars rover photographed bright veins of a mineral leading to conclusive confirmation of deposition by liquid water.\nOn 9 December 2013, NASA reported that the planet Mars had a large freshwater lake (which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life) based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus near Mount Sharp in Gale Crater. Liquid water on comets and asteroids Comets contain large proportions of water ice, but are generally thought",
"-30.171894344326574"
],
[
"ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.",
"-30.081699410860892"
],
[
"or an ancient streambed — that had neutral acidity and not too salty. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from Curiosity studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life. The confirmation that liquid water once flowed on Mars, the existence of nutrients, and the previous discovery of a past magnetic field that protected the planet from cosmic and solar radiation, together strongly suggest that Mars could have had the environmental factors to support life. The assessment of past habitability is not in itself",
"-30.04017207896686"
],
[
"and evidence for geyser-like water flows within the last decade have made Mars the most likely extraterrestrial environment for finding liquid water, and therefore alien life, in the Solar System. Moreover, some geologic evidence suggests that Mars could have been warm and wet on a global scale in its distant past. Intense geologic activity has reshaped the surface of the Earth, erasing evidence of our earliest history. Martian rocks can be even older than Earth rocks, though, so exploring Mars may help us decipher the story of our own geologic evolution including the origin of life on",
"-30.023077081306837"
],
[
"the Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS) on board the Mars Odyssey had discovered huge amounts of water over vast areas of Mars. Mars has enough ice just beneath the surface to fill Lake Michigan twice. In both hemispheres, from 55 degrees latitude to the poles, Mars has a high density of ice just under the surface; one kilogram of soil contains about 500 g of water ice. But, close to the equator, there is only 2 to 10% of water in the soil. Scientists believe that much of this water is locked up in the chemical structure of minerals,",
"-29.74226308974903"
],
[
"Water on terrestrial planets of the Solar System The origin and development of water on terrestrial planets, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the closely related Earth's Moon, varies with each planetary body, with the exact origins remaining unclear. Additionally, the terrestrial dwarf planet Ceres is known to have water ice on its surface. Mars A significant amount of surface hydrogen has been observed globally by the Mars Odyssey GRS. Stoichiometrically estimated water mass fractions indicate that—when free of carbon dioxide—the near surface at the poles consists almost entirely of water covered by a thin veneer of fine material. This is reinforced",
"-29.63113787828479"
],
[
"give the answer.\nIt was once thought that Mars might have dried up from something more Earth-like. The initial discovery of a cratered surface made this seem unlikely, but further evidence has changed this view. Liquid water may have existed on the surface of Mars in the distant past, and several basins on Mars have been proposed as dry sea beds. The largest is Vastitas Borealis; others include Hellas Planitia and Argyre Planitia.\nThere is currently much debate over whether Mars once had an ocean of water in its northern hemisphere, and over what happened to it if it did. Recent findings",
"-29.595002598594874"
],
[
"been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting, by the Curiosity rover at Gale, an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times, before the lakebed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost.\nOn October 8, 2015, NASA confirmed that lakes and streams existed",
"-29.38521466495149"
],
[
"Chronology of discoveries of water on Mars To date, interplanetary spacecraft have provided abundant evidence of water on Mars, dating back to the Mariner 9 mission, which arrived at Mars in 1971. This article provides a mission by mission breakdown of the discoveries they have made. For a more comprehensive description of evidence for water on Mars today, and the history of water on that planet, see Water on Mars. Mariner 9 Mariner 9 imaging revealed the first direct evidence of water in the form of river beds, canyons (including the Valles Marineris, a system of canyons over about 4,020",
"-29.03573061322095"
],
[
"lower layers of Mount Sharp.\nOn November 4, 2018, geologists presented evidence, based on studies in Gale Crater by the Curiosity rover, that there was plenty of water on early Mars. Mars Express The Mars Express Orbiter, launched by the European Space Agency, has been mapping the surface of Mars and using radar equipment to look for evidence of sub-surface water. Between 2012 and 2015, the Orbiter scanned the area beneath the ice caps on the Planum Australe. Scientists determined by 2018 that the readings indicated a sub-surface lake bearing water about 20 kilometres (12 mi) wide. The top of the lake",
"-28.98427875121706"
],
[
"that it may have implications for liquid water still being on Mars. Through their research, scientists came to the conclusion that if Lake Vostok existed before the perennial glaciation began, that it is likely that the lake did not freeze all the way to the bottom. Due to this hypothesis, scientists say that if water had existed before the polar ice caps on Mars, it is likely that there is still liquid water below the ice caps that may even contain evidence of life.\n\"Chaos terrain\", a common feature on Europa's surface, is interpreted by some as regions where the subsurface",
"-28.95949011007906"
],
[
"had observed features on Mars he called canali (Italian for \"channels\"). A misunderstanding that \"canals\" implied water, fueled belief that the planet was inhabited. The theory of an inhabited planet with flowing water was disproved by data provided by Russian and American probes such as the two Viking missions which found a dead, frozen world where water could not exist in a fluid state. World of Barsoom A million years before the narrative commences, Mars was a lush world with oceans. As the oceans receded, and the atmosphere grew thin, the planet has devolved into a landscape of partial",
"-28.79465095285559"
],
[
"Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water to deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to that ratio on Earth. The amount of Martian deuterium is eight times the amount that exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the former presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that these results have not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet",
"-28.62236203541397"
],
[
"of early Earth. On its surface, scientists have discovered the first liquid lakes outside Earth, but these lakes seem to be composed of ethane and/or methane, not water. Some scientists think it possible that these liquid hydrocarbons might take the place of water in living cells different from those on Earth. After Cassini data was studied, it was reported on March 2008 that Titan may also have an underground ocean composed of liquid water and ammonia.\nMeasuring the ratio of hydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, \"...low H₂/CH₄",
"-28.569241068005795"
],
[
"\"Esperance\", suggested that water in the past may have had a neutral pH. This was later confirmed in further studies, supporting the notion that ancient Mars was a \"water-rich world with conditions amenable for life\". As of June 20, 2013 (Sol 3344), Opportunity's total odometry was reported at 36.84 km (22.89 mi), while en route to 'Solander Point.' June 21, 2013 marked five Martian years on the 'red planet'. The project manager, noting the harsh conditions of the planet, has said each day is \"a gift\". 2014 Opportunity started off 2014 on the western ridge of Endeavour crater, providing elevated",
"-28.25784273428144"
],
[
"of Mars was once covered by water, though the water on Mars is no longer oceanic (much of it residing in the ice caps). The possibility continues to be studied along with reasons for their apparent disappearance. Astronomers now think that Venus may have had liquid water and perhaps oceans for over 2 billion years. Natural satellites A global layer of liquid water thick enough to decouple the crust from the mantle is thought to be present on the natural satellites Titan, Europa, Enceladus and, with less certainty, Callisto, Ganymede and Triton. A magma ocean is thought to be present",
"-28.229833324090578"
],
[
"Lakes on Mars In summer 1965, the first close-up images from Mars showed a cratered desert with no signs of water. However, over the decades, as more parts of the planet were imaged with better cameras on more sophisticated satellites, Mars showed evidence of past river valleys, lakes and present ice in glaciers and in the ground. It was discovered that the climate of Mars displays huge changes over geologic time because its axis is not stabilized by a large moon, as Earth's is. Also, some researchers maintain that surface liquid water could have existed for periods of time due",
"-28.22338889387902"
],
[
"evidence, however, supports the existence of liquids below the surface of several moons and dwarf planets elsewhere in the Solar System. Some are speculated to be large extraterrestrial \"oceans\". Liquid water is thought to be common in other planetary systems, despite the lack of conclusive evidence, and there is a growing list of extrasolar candidates for liquid water. Liquid water in the Solar System As of December 2015, the confirmed liquid water in the Solar System outside Earth is 25–50 times the volume of Earth's water (1.3 billion cubic kilometers). Mars Water on Mars exists today almost exclusively as ice,",
"-28.00763037017896"
],
[
"all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.",
"-27.974886389740277"
],
[
"Water on Mars Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere. What was thought to be low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil, also called recurrent slope lineae, may be grains of flowing sand and dust slipping downhill to make dark streaks. The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap. Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate conditions.",
"-27.92360568298318"
],
[
"identified include thiophenes, benzene, toluene, and small carbon chains, such as propane or butene.\nOn November 4, 2018, geologists presented evidence, based on studies in Gale by the Curiosity rover, that there was plenty of water on early Mars.",
"-27.89491979648301"
],
[
"an ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth and derived from telescopic observations. Eight times as much deuterium was inferred at the polar deposits of Mars than exists on Earth (VSMOW), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. The representative atmospheric value obtained from the maps (7 VSMOW) is not affected by climatological effects as those measured by localized rovers, although the telescopic measurements are within",
"-27.875916388093174"
],
[
"water activity at Gale crater on Mars, reported the existence of a daily cycle of water exchange between the atmospheric boundary layer and the ground, including a phase during which the water remains in a transient liquid state. This is possible thanks to the presence in the soil of perchlorates, a highly hygroscopic kind of chlorine salts which seem to be ubiquitous over the Martian surface. These salts have the capability of catching water vapour from the environment up to the point of becoming solved in it forming concentrated solutions or brines. It is an extreme case of hygroscopy",
"-27.82302479163627"
],
[
"in the locations they studied all had water activity, aw ≤ 0.78 to 0.86—a level fatal to most Terrestrial life. Haloarchaea, however, are able to live in hypersaline solutions, up to the saturation point.\nIn June 2000, possible evidence for current liquid water flowing at the surface of Mars was discovered in the form of flood-like gullies. Additional similar images were published in 2006, taken by the Mars Global Surveyor, that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars. The images showed changes in steep crater walls and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water coursed",
"-27.731386170256883"
],
[
"planet Mars. Such a finding, along with previous discoveries that water may have been present on ancient Mars, further supports the possible early habitability of Gale Crater on Mars.\nHydrogen is present as water (H₂O) ice and in hydrated minerals. Carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere and sometimes as dry ice at the poles. An unknown amount of carbon is also stored in carbonates. Molecular nitrogen (N₂) makes up 2.7 percent of the atmosphere. As far as we know, organic compounds are absent except for a trace of methane detected in the atmosphere. On 16 December 2014, NASA",
"-27.688223946413927"
],
[
"water recovery systems. Similar systems would be needed on Mars, but would need to be much more efficient, since regular robotic deliveries of water to Mars would be prohibitively expensive (the ISS is supplied with water four times per year). Some experts have argued for setting up open-air settlements by using special construction methods, like excavating deep into the Martian crust to depths where air pressures may be sufficient to allow humans to survive without pressurized suits. Potential access to in-situ water (frozen or otherwise) via drilling has been investigated by NASA. Effects on human health Mars presents a hostile",
"-27.672078301926376"
],
[
"Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity found a great deal of evidence for past water on Mars. The Spirit rover landed in what was thought to be a large lake bed. The lake bed had been covered over with lava flows, so evidence of past water was initially hard to detect. On March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed \"Humphrey\".\nAs Spirit traveled in reverse in December 2007, pulling a seized wheel behind, the wheel scraped off the upper layer of soil, uncovering a patch of white ground rich",
"-27.643846022901926"
],
[
"that could only have formed in liquid water. Numerous geomorphic features suggest the presence of ground ice (permafrost) and the movement of ice in glaciers, both in the recent past and present. Gullies and slope lineae along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars, although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past.\nAlthough the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago, the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing, probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms.",
"-27.605858375613025"
],
[
"where water can exist on the surface, is based on the properties of both the Earth and Sun. Under this model, Earth orbits roughly at the centre of this zone or in the \"Goldilocks\" position. Earth is the only planet in the universe confirmed to possess large bodies of surface water. Venus is on the hot side of the zone while Mars is on the cold side. Neither are known to have persistent surface water, though evidence exists that Mars did have in its ancient past, and it is speculated that the same was the case for Venus. Thus extrasolar",
"-27.566076454881113"
],
[
"200 kilometers and maybe more. I have already pointed out that, in the absence of rain on Mars, these channels are probably the main mechanism by which the water (and with it organic life) can spread on the dry surface of the planet.\" Relatives His niece, Elsa Schiaparelli, became a noted designer or maker of haute couture.",
"-27.343463292447268"
],
[
"of Mars water\", \"as well as the current north-south asymmetry of the seasonal ice cap albedos.\" The atmosphere of Mars is currently \"a nonlinear pump of water into the northern hemisphere of Mars.\"",
"-27.295438441946317"
],
[
"at even lower latitudes. Future colonists on Mars will be able to tap into these ice deposits, instead of having to travel to much higher latitudes. Another major advantage of LDAs over other sources of Martian water is that they can easily be detected and mapped from orbit. Lobate debris aprons are shown below from the Phlegra Montes which are at a latitude of 38.2 degrees north. The Phoenix lander set down at about 68 degrees north latitude, so the discovery of water ice in LDAs greatly expands the range of water easily available on Mars.",
"-27.1157742341602"
],
[
"that evidence exists for an ancient Martian ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean, or approximately 19% of the Martian surface. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth. Eight times as much deuterium was found at Mars than exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the presence",
"-27.108352252398618"
],
[
"comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes form in the presence of water. In 2004, Opportunity detected the mineral jarosite. This forms only in the presence of acidic water, which demonstrates that water once existed on Mars. More recent evidence for liquid water comes from the finding of the mineral gypsum on the surface by NASA's Mars rover Opportunity in December 2011. It is estimated that the amount of water in the upper mantle of Mars, represented by hydroxyl ions contained within the minerals of Mars's geology, is equal to or",
"-27.091213644089294"
],
[
"is widely thought to have existed on Mars in the past, and now can occasionally be found as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil. The origin of the potential biosignature of methane observed in Mars' atmosphere is unexplained, although hypotheses not involving life have also been proposed.\nThere is evidence that Mars had a warmer and wetter past: dried-up river beds, polar ice caps, volcanoes, and minerals that form in the presence of water have all been found. Nevertheless, present conditions on Mars' subsurface may support life. Evidence obtained by the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater in 2013",
"-26.966907730442472"
],
[
"throwing doubt on the burgeoning theory that the atmosphere of Mars is similar to that of the Earth. Previous detections of water in the atmosphere of Mars were explained by unfavorable conditions, and Campbell determined that the water signature came entirely from the Earth's atmosphere. Although he agreed that the ice caps did indicate there was water in the atmosphere, he did not believe the caps were sufficiently large to allow the water vapor to be detected. At the time, Campbell's results were considered controversial and were criticized by members of the astronomical community, but they were confirmed by American",
"-26.959081243207038"
],
[
"south pole). In March 2015, a team of scientists published results showing that this region was highly enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, by seven times as much as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\nThis international team used ESO's Very Large",
"-26.89188819733681"
],
[
"thought that liquid water may exist in the Martian subsurface. Research suggests that in the past there was liquid water flowing on the surface, creating large areas similar to Earth's oceans. However, the question remains as to where the water has gone. There are a number of direct and indirect proofs of water's presence either on or under the surface, e.g. stream beds, polar caps, spectroscopic measurement, eroded craters or minerals directly connected to the existence of liquid water (such as Goethite). In an article in the Journal of Geophysical Research, scientists studied Lake Vostok in Antarctica and discovered",
"-26.809083231375553"
],
[
"is found frozen in its polar ice caps, and newly carved gullies recently observed on Mars suggest that liquid water may exist, at least transiently, on the planet's surface. At the Martian low temperatures and low pressure, liquid water is likely to be highly saline. As for Europa and Enceladus, large global oceans of liquid water exist beneath these moons' icy outer crusts. This water may be warmed to a liquid state by volcanic vents on the ocean floor, but the primary source of heat is probably tidal heating. On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of \"clay-like minerals\"",
"-26.77714433489018"
],
[
"and help unravel the history of liquid water on Mars. The types of clay minerals and their abundances give clues about the nature of the water that was present, whether fresh or salty, acidic or neutral pH, whether it might have been icy or warm, and whether the water was present for a long period of time. These are key questions to understand how habitable the surface environment was in the distant past. Camera/telescope SuperCam's optical camera acquires high-resolution color images of samples under study, which also help determine the surface geology. This camera can also study how atmospheric",
"-26.75947414408438"
],
[
"suggest the presence of water in the present and in the past of Mars. All samples heated in the gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GSMS) gave off water. However, the way the samples were handled prohibited an exact measurement of the amount of water. But, it was around 1%. General chemical analysis suggested the surface had been exposed to water in the past. Some chemicals in the soil contained sulfur and chlorine that were like those remaining after sea water evaporates. Sulfur was more concentrated in the crust on top of the soil, than in the bulk soil beneath. So it",
"-26.704627895778685"
],
[
"of water at its melting point; under average Martian conditions, pure water on the Martian surface would freeze or, if heated to above the melting point, would sublime to vapor. Before about 3.8 billion years ago, Mars may have had a denser atmosphere and higher surface temperatures, allowing vast amounts of liquid water on the surface, possibly including a large ocean that may have covered one-third of the planet. Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars' history. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from the Curiosity",
"-26.6883694131393"
],
[
"mission team members announced on 2 March that data returned from the rover showed that these rocks were once \"drenched in water\", and on 23 March that it was concluded that they were laid down underwater in a salty sea. This represented the first strong direct evidence for liquid water on Mars at some time in the past.\nTowards the end of July 2005, it was reported by the Sunday Times that the rovers may have carried the bacteria Bacillus safensis to Mars. According to one NASA microbiologist, this bacteria could survive both the trip and conditions on Mars. A book",
"-26.65532262718625"
],
[
"of water on the surface of Earth is a product of its atmospheric pressure and a stable orbit in the Sun's circumstellar habitable zone, though the origin of Earth's water remains unknown.\nThe main methods currently used for confirmation are absorption spectroscopy and geochemistry. These techniques have proven effective for atmospheric water vapour and ice. However, using current methods of astronomical spectroscopy it is substantially more difficult to detect liquid water on terrestrial planets, especially in the case of subsurface water. Due to this, astronomers, astrobiologists and planetary scientists use habitable zone, gravitational and tidal theory, models of planetary differentiation and",
"-26.65453534736298"
],
[
"this remains a topic of active research. Because the gullies are so young, this would suggest that liquid water has been present on Mars in its very recent geological past, with consequences for the potential habitability of the modern surface.\nOn July 10, 2014, NASA reported that gullies on the surface of Mars were mostly formed by the seasonal freezing of carbon dioxide (CO₂), and not by that of liquid water as considered earlier. Formation After being discovered, many hypotheses were put forward to explain the gullies. However, as in the usual progression of science, some ideas came to be more",
"-26.574684624443762"
],
[
"the rocks, named \"Cumberland\", analyzed by the Curiosity rover. Human colonization of Mars Some of the main reasons for colonizing Mars include economic interests, long-term scientific research best carried out by humans as opposed to robotic probes, and sheer curiosity. Surface conditions and the presence of water on Mars make it arguably the most hospitable of the planets in the Solar System, other than Earth. Human colonization of Mars would require in situ resource utilization (ISRU); A NASA report states that \"applicable frontier technologies include robotics, machine intelligence, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, 3-D printing/additive manufacturing, and autonomy. These technologies combined with",
"-26.57188013380801"
],
[
"is believed that the water remains liquid, even at the temperature of -68 degrees Celsius because there is likely much dissolved salt that lowers the freezing point. The lake is about 20 kilometers across and at least 10 centimeters deep It could contain 10 billion liters of liquid water. There could very well be many small bodies of water under the ice cap; however, they are difficult to detect with MARSIS. Also, the raw date coverage needed for these detections is limited—only a few percent of the area has a full set of data. Spiders During",
"-26.486535833624657"
],
[
"polar cap ice is about eight times as enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, as water in Earth's oceans. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times as large as that stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time may have formed an ocean in the low-lying Vastitas Borealis and adjacent lowlands (Acidalia, Arcadia and Utopia planitiae). Had the water ever all been liquid and on the surface, it would have covered 20% of the planet and in places would have been almost a mile deep.\nThis international team used ESO’s Very Large Telescope, along with",
"-26.424836763791973"
],
[
"a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Spacecraft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Cultural significance A large part of the popular movie The Martian takes place in the Oxia Palus quadrangle.",
"-26.408450254966738"
],
[
"More than 21 million km³ of ice have been detected at or near the surface of Mars, enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of 35 meters (115 ft). Even more ice is likely to be locked away in the deep subsurface.\nSome liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today, but limited to traces of dissolved moisture from the atmosphere and thin films, which are challenging environments for known life. No large standing bodies of liquid water exist on the planet's surface, because the atmospheric pressure there averages just 600 pascals (0.087 psi), a figure slightly below the vapor pressure",
"-26.357764346030308"
],
[
"presence of a delta is exciting; it means water was there for a time, maybe for many years. Primitive organisms may have developed in such lakes; hence, some craters may be prime targets for the search for evidence of life on the Red Planet. Channels There is enormous evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars. Images of curved channels have been seen in images from Mars spacecraft dating back to the early seventies with the Mariner 9 orbiter. Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve",
"-26.324740637326613"
],
[
"presence of water over the past billion years. However, there is no reason to suppose that Venus was an exception to the processes that formed Earth and gave it its water during its early history, possibly from the original rocks that formed the planet or later on from comets. The common view among research scientists is that water would have existed for about 600 million years on the surface before evaporating, though some such as David Grinspoon believe that up to 2 billion years could also be plausible. This longer timescale for the persistence of oceans is also supported by GCM simulations",
"-26.2939562369138"
],
[
"presence of iddingsite on Mars would suggest that liquid water once existed there, and might enable scientists to determine when there was last liquid water on the planet. Norway Norway is the main source of olivine in Europe, particularly in an area stretching from Åheim to Tafjord, and from Hornindal to Flemsøy in the Sunnmøre district. There is also olivine in Eid municipality. About 50% of the world's olivine for industrial use is produced in Norway. At Svarthammaren in Norddal olivine was mined from around 1920 to 1979, with a daily output up to 600 metric tons. Olivine was also",
"-26.281395416124724"
],
[
"ancient water On September 27, 2012, NASA scientists announced that the Curiosity rover found evidence for an ancient streambed suggesting a \"vigorous flow\" of water on Mars. \nOn December 3, 2012, NASA reported that Curiosity performed its first extensive soil analysis, revealing the presence of water molecules, sulfur and chlorine in the Martian soil. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life. Evidence for ancient habitability In March 2013, NASA reported Curiosity found evidence",
"-26.218719893659"
],
[
"liquid water early in the planet's geologic history. This primordial ocean, dubbed paleo-ocean and Oceanus Borealis, would have filled the Vastitas Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere, a region which lies 4–5 km (2.5–3 miles) below the mean planetary elevation, about 3.8 billion years ago. Evidence for this ocean includes geographic features resembling ancient shorelines, and the chemical properties of the Martian soil and atmosphere. However, for such an ocean to have existed, early Mars would have required a magnetosphere, a denser atmosphere, and warmer climate to allow liquid water to remain at the surface. Observational evidence Features first shown by the",
"-26.1680806177028"
],
[
"of Mars The geology of Mars is differentiable from that of Earth by, among other things, its extremely large volcanoes and lack of crust movement. A goal of the MEP is to understand these differences from Earth along with the way that wind, water, volcanoes, tectonics, cratering and other processes have shaped the surface of Mars. Rocks can help scientists describe the sequence of events in Mars' history, tell whether there was an abundance of water on the planet through identifying minerals that are formed only in water, and tell if Mars once had a magnetic field (which would point",
"-26.099598292261362"
],
[
"Curiosity on the way to Glenelg, was a mugearite and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks.\nOn December 9, 2013, NASA reported that Mars once had a large freshwater lake inside Gale Crater, that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found",
"-26.049167869357916"
],
[
"Steele was able to prove that the hydrocarbons did not come from biological origins, but rather from volcanic activity on Mars. Steele is currently investigating a new Martian meteorite, which contains more water than any other Martian meteorite found before, as well as hydrocarbons. Similar to his 2012 discovery, Steele was able to determine that the hydrocarbons did not result from contamination, but from a non-biological process, helping to answer important questions about the origin of life. Collectively, his investigations have helped inform discussion about thee potential habitability of Mars. Awards In 2012, the Royal Society of London awarded Steele",
"-26.02674849977484"
],
[
"water is in jeopardy. Today approximately one billion people lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation. It will get worse. By 2025 more than half of the people of the world will face water vulnerability. The Water Bottle Project creates an art object that reminds us we need to take action.",
"-25.990141872840468"
],
[
"in Antarctica showed that this lake could have existed before the Antarctic glaciation, and that a similar scenario could potentially have occurred on Mars. In July 2018, scientists from the Italian Space Agency reported the detection of such a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and spanning 20 kilometres (10 mi) horizontally, the first evidence for a stable body of liquid water on the planet. The evidence for this Martian lake was deduced from a bright spot in the radar echo sounding data of the MARSIS radar on board the European Mars Express orbiter,",
"-25.96790312154917"
],
[
"evidence provided by martian meteorites. The water is likely too minimal to support life.",
"-25.95993379290303"
],
[
"lake environment in ancient times on Mars became the drier environment in more modern times.\nOn August 5, 2017, NASA celebrated the fifth anniversary of the Curiosity rover mission landing, and related exploratory accomplishments, on the planet Mars. (Videos: Curiosity's First Five Years (02:07); Curiosity's POV: Five Years Driving (05:49); Curiosity's Discoveries About Gale Crater (02:54))\nOn June 7, 2018, NASA's Curiosity made two significant discoveries in Gale. Organic molecules preserved in 3.5 billion-year-old bedrock and seasonal variations in the level of methane in the atmosphere further support the theory that past conditions may have been conducive to life. It is possible",
"-25.959504312486388"
],
[
"to the conclusion that climatic conditions in the distant past allowed for free-flowing water on Mars. The morphology of some crater impacts on Mars indicate that the ground was wet at the time of impact. Geomorphic observations of both landscape erosion rates and Martian valley networks also strongly imply warmer, wetter conditions on Noachian-era Mars (earlier than about four billion years ago). However, chemical analysis of Martian meteorite samples suggests that the ambient near-surface temperature of Mars has most likely been below 0 °C (32 °F) for the last four billion years.\nSome scientists maintain that the great mass of the Tharsis volcanoes",
"-25.954657996699098"
],
[
"found at even lower latitudes. Future colonists on Mars will be able to tap into these ice deposits, instead of having to travel to much higher latitudes. Another major advantage of LDAs over other sources of Martian water is that they can easily detected and mapped from orbit. Lobate debris aprons are shown below from the Phlegra Montes, which are at a latitude of 38.2 degrees north. The Phoenix lander set down at about 68 degrees north latitude, so the discovery of water ice in LDAs greatly expands the range of easily available on Mars. It is far easier",
"-25.899995861233037"
],
[
"detection of a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and spanning 20 kilometres (12 mi) horizontally, the first evidence for a stable body of liquid water on the planet. Because the temperature at the base of the polar cap is estimated at 205 K (−68 °C; −91 °F), scientists assume that the water may remain liquid by the antifreeze effect of magnesium and calcium perchlorates. The 1.5-kilometre (0.93 mi) ice layer covering the lake is composed of water ice with 10 to 20% admixed dust, and seasonally covered by a 1-metre (3 ft 3 in)-thick layer of CO\n2 ice. Europa",
"-25.879060553153977"
],
[
"Evidence of water on Mars found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Recurring slope lineae Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes (also called recurring slope lineae, recurrent slope lineae and RSL) are thought to be salty water flows occurring during the warmest months on Mars. Indeed, there is much photographic and spectroscopic evidence that water does today flow on parts of Mars.\nSome researchers have proposed that the flow is aided by the water boiling in thin Martian atmosphere. Boiling water would cause soil particles to bounce and help them to flow down slopes.\nIn a study published in Icarus in",
"-25.870051261561457"
],
[
"from Mars. Some of them contain evidence that they were exposed to water when on Mars. Some Martian meteorites called basaltic shergottites, appear (from the presence of hydrated carbonates and sulfates) to have been exposed to liquid water prior to ejection into space. It has been shown that another class of meteorites, the nakhlites, were suffused with liquid water around 620 million years ago and that they were ejected from Mars around 10.75 million years ago by an asteroid impact. They fell to Earth within the last 10,000 years. Martian meteorite NWA 7034 has one order of magnitude more water than most",
"-25.858624183543725"
],
[
"to have been lost during ancient times, before the lakebed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost.\nOn April 13, 2015, Nature published an analysis of humidity and ground temperature data collected by Curiosity, showing evidence that films of liquid brine water form in the upper 5 cm of Mars's subsurface at night. The water activity and temperature remain below the requirements for reproduction and metabolism of known terrestrial microorganisms.\nOn October 8, 2015, NASA confirmed that lakes and streams existed in Gale crater 3.3 – 3.8 billion years ago delivering sediments to build up the",
"-25.847344920883188"
],
[
"show large quantities of water ice at both poles (July 2005) and at middle latitudes (November 2008). The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31, 2008.\nLandforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water has existed on the planet's surface. Huge linear swathes of scoured ground, known as outflow channels, cut across the surface in about 25 places. These are thought to be a record of erosion caused by the catastrophic release of water from subsurface aquifers, though some of these structures have been hypothesized to result from the action of glaciers or lava.",
"-25.833368202511338"
],
[
"an estimate as to when there has been liquid water on Mars. Potassium-argon dating of the meteorite samples showed that Mars had water on its surface anywhere from 1300 Ma to 650 Ma ago. Composition Iddingsite is a mineral that lacks a definite chemical composition, so exact compositions cannot be calculated. An approximated composition for a hypothetical end product of iddingsite has been calculated as being SiO₂ = 16%, Al₂O₃ = 8%, Fe₂O₃ = 62% and H₂O = 14%. Throughout the alteration process of olivine, there is a decrease in SiO₂, FeO and MgO and an increase in Al₂O₃ and",
"-25.802057313529076"
],
[
"determined to be three times that found for terrestrial water. This makes it very unlikely that water found on Earth came from comets such as comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko according to the scientists.\nThe asteroid 24 Themis was the first found to have water, including liquid pressurised by non-atmospheric means, dissolved into mineral through ionising radiation. Water has also been found to flow on the large asteroid 4 Vesta heated through periodic impacts. Extrasolar habitable zone candidates for water Most known extrasolar planetary systems appear to have very different compositions to the Solar System, though there is probably sample bias arising from the",
"-25.718412096543034"
],
[
"is thought to have been a very warm and wet climate on Mars. Scientists have not reached a consensus on how exactly which geomorphological features can be attributed to shorelines and other markers of water flow and which may have been caused by other phenomena such as volcanic flow.\nGiven the orbital and solar conditions of early Mars, a greenhouse effect would have been necessary to boost surface temperatures at least 65 K in order for these surface features to have been carved by flowing water. A much denser, CO₂-dominated atmosphere has been proposed as a way to produce such a",
"-25.685005817285855"
],
[
"pure water ice, so they would be a great source of water for future colonists on Mars Fractures forming blocks In places large fractures break up surfaces. Sometimes straight edges are formed and large cubes are created by the fractures.",
"-25.676456419954775"
],
[
" Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars. Pedestal craters A pedestal crater is a crater with its ejecta sitting above the surrounding terrain and thereby forming a raised platform (like a pedestal). They form when an impact crater ejects material which forms an erosion-resistant layer, thus causing the immediate area to erode more slowly than the rest of",
"-25.673896858934313"
],
[
"known as deliquescence.\nThe eutectic temperature of these brines allows its permanence in liquid state under the registered Martian environmental conditions in the study area of Curiosity, close to the equator, where they are the least favourable for this to happen. Therefore, it is expected that the phenomenon is more intense in terms of duration of the liquid phase in higher latitudes.\nThe presence of liquid water on present day Mars entails transcendent consequences in a number of aspects of the planet's exploration. Firstly, it casts a new light on the comprehension of Martian environment, and can be the key to understand",
"-25.642837803810835"
],
[
"the southern polar ice cap, and extending horizontally about 20 km (12 mi), the first known stable body of water on Mars.",
"-25.63426293694647"
],
[
"in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had a lot of water. Deltas often require deep water over a long period of time to form. Also, the water level needs to be stable to keep sediment from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below, are pictures of a few. Craters Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually",
"-25.602639963064576"
],
[
"have produced long-lasting lakes at many places on the planet. Rock layers indicate that a huge lake was filled and evaporated many times. The evidence was many deltas that were stacked upon each other.\nGale Crater is considered to be a closed-basin lake, as channels lead into it, but none lead out.\nMinerals called clays and sulfates are formed only in the presence of water. They also may preserve signs of past life. The history of water at Gale, as recorded in its rocks, is giving Curiosity lots of clues to study as it pieces together whether Mars ever could have been",
"-25.582038486201782"
],
[
"associations between exposure of people to blue space and mental health and physical activity.\nOne-fifth of the world’s population, 1.2 billion people, live in areas of water scarcity. Climate change and water-related disasters will place increasing demands on urban systems and will result in increased migration to urban areas. Cities require a very large input of freshwater and in turn have a huge impact on freshwater systems. Urban and industrial water use is projected to double by 2050.\nIn 2010 the United Nations declared that access to clean water and sanitation is a human right. New solutions for improving the sustainability of",
"-25.564434597210493"
],
[
"not interacted with liquid water of any form, perhaps for as long as 600 Myr. If it had, the highly soluble Ca(ClO\n4)\n2 in contact with liquid water would have formed only CaSO\n4. This suggests a severely arid environment, with minimal or no liquid water interaction.\nScientists have proposed that carbonate globules found in meteorite ALH84001, which is thought to have originated from Mars, could be fossilized microbes extant on Mars when the meteorite was blasted from the Martian surface by a meteor strike some 15 million years ago. This proposal has been met with skepticism, and an exclusively inorganic origin for",
"-25.555136595619842"
],
[
"from a time period during which Mars is suspected to have supported liquid water.\nIn October 2011 it was reported that isotopic analysis indicated that the carbonates in ALH84001 were precipitated at a temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) with water and carbon dioxide from the Martian atmosphere. The carbonate carbon and oxygen isotope ratios imply deposition of the carbonates from a gradually evaporating subsurface water body, probably a shallow aquifer meters or tens of meters below the surface.",
"-25.552161239116685"
],
[
"its history, and especially on ancient Mars. Many of these flows carved the surface, forming valley networks and producing sediment. This sediment has been redeposited in a wide variety of wet environments, including in alluvial fans, meandering channels, deltas, lakes, and perhaps even oceans. The processes of deposition and transportation are associated with gravity. Due to gravity, related differences in water fluxes and flow speeds, inferred from grain size distributions, Martian landscapes were created by different environmental conditions. Nevertheless, there are other ways of estimating the amount of water on ancient Mars (see: Water on Mars). Groundwater has been implicated",
"-25.544917779334355"
],
[
"of the Great Basin of the western USA during the Last Glacial Maximum.\nResearch from 2010 suggests that Mars also had lakes along parts of the equator. Although earlier research had showed that Mars had a warm and wet early history that has long since dried up, these lakes existed in the Hesperian Epoch, a much later period. Using detailed images from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, the researchers speculate that there may have been increased volcanic activity, meteorite impacts or shifts in Mars' orbit during this period to warm Mars' atmosphere enough to melt the abundant ice present in the ground.",
"-25.532465551805217"
],
[
"valley networks, even though the mid-late Noachian global conditions were probably icy. Local warming of the environment by volcanism and impacts would have been sporadic, but there should have been many events of water flowing at the surface of Mars. Both the mineralogical and the morphological evidence indicates a degradation of habitability from the mid Hesperian onward. The exact causes are not well understood but may be related to a combination of processes including loss of early atmosphere, or impact erosion, or both.\nThe loss of the Martian magnetic field strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this",
"-25.525402930536075"
],
[
"from Mars' frequent dust storms. The total ice volume determine by this study indicated that there was approximately 2.2×10⁵ cubic kilometres (5.3×10⁴ cu mi), or enough water, if melted, to fully cover the Mars surface with a 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) layer of water. The work was corroborated by a separate study that used recorded gravity data to estimate the density of the Planum Boreum, indicating that on average, it contained up to 55% by volume of water ice.\nMany features that look like the pingos on the Earth were found in Utopia Planitia (~35-50° N; ~80-115° E) by examining photos from HiRISE. \nPingos",
"-25.503917605703464"
]
] |
1xatn9 | Why do I feel a tingling feeling in my genitals when I feel I think about falling from a really high place? Like a sky scraper. | [
"this always gets asked and no one has a concrete answer. I heard on a documentary that its actually your balls/ovaries tucking into your body to protect themselves presumably from physical trauma. But I cant find anything on the internet to validate. Its a quick physical movement that causes the feel. Similar to falling when the balls or ovaries are actually moving. If you are in free fall long enough like in a space shuttle your body stops because they cant go tucking in any further or your body realizes they no longer need protecting. TL;DR your balls protecting themselves by tucking into your body",
"The dartos muscle, which is in the skin of the scrotum, is controlled by the sympathetic (fight or flight) division of the nervous system. When your brain thinks you're about to fall off a cliff, the whole sympathetic nervous system flares up, including the dartos muscle which causes that weird feeling in your scrotum.",
"AIUI, it's actually imagining a common physical reaction to falling. The same way you can have a dream where you're falling - except you're awake and imagining this scenario. So the next question I suppose is why you get this feeling when you fall for real. Presumably it has to do with the temporary weightlessness your body experiences and your genital area is sensitive. A car going fast over a hump in the road can create the same effect sometimes. Fear of heights is instinctive afaiaa - pretty much everyone has it. It's the one thing in a game or movie that actually affects me - i.e I can sit and watch horror films etc with no reaction at all - I don't get scared watching them. But if I fall in a game I sometimes experience the sensation of falling for real and the mere thought of being somewhere precarious and high up can make me shudder.",
"Everyone has two parts of their nervous system that are constantly battling. Parasympathetic (energy uptake) and Sympathetic (energy expenditure). The sensations of *tingling genitals* or *heart dropping* or even *butterflies in my stomach* is the sudden burst of energy your body just sent through to the sympathetic system (energy expenditure, or fight/flight). Engaging the sympathetic nervous system pretty much stops the parasympathetic from working. Things the sympathetic controls are (but not limited to) lungs (for more oxygen); heart (for more blood to take the oxygen to muscles); guts (to close all sphincters and prevent digestion); adrenal glands (to pump epinephrine); bladder (to evacuate bowls); genitals (to induce labor, secrete gametes, or ejaculate) and even hair (to make it stand on end) The best thing to describe it is your body says \"stop using energy on digestion\" and \"**GO**\" to every other damn thing that'll get you away from that ledge.",
"I get the female version of this. I call it Minge Twinge.",
"I don't know, but my guess would be that it's your body reminding you of what pain is by sending a tingly feeling in your tender spots. Thus, reminding you not to do something stupid. So you lean over a balcony, your body's like \"screw that... hey... self... remember how sensitive your nuts are? Yeah, don't lean over too far - this could hurt...\"",
"You know what's fucked up? When I was a kid my cousin told me this only happens to you if you have a small dick. Whenever my friends went to an amusement park and they asked me if I felt that tingle, I was like \"fuck no, my dick is huge\" it was a hard knock life",
"Sometimes when I climb stairs really quickly I get this feeling. It's not really my balls but like a feeling in my lower back. It sort of feels orgasmic. Is this the same thing?",
"Intense fear or stress is a powerful diuretic (according to author Matt Stone, anyway). I wonder if it's a more urethral response to keep you from peeing yourself, rather than a genital response.",
"The external cremaster muscle contracts in fight/flight scenarios. You can also make it happen by stroking your inner thigh. reference for fight/flight (sorry for the graphic pic): URL_0 cremasteric reflex: URL_1 ",
"This stopped happening to me when I was around 10 or so, for some reason. And yes, I have been in intense drops/falls (on roller coasters) since then.",
"I'm not sure if it's related but the chemical response in your brain related to fear is distinctly similar to that which arouses you. Ergo; bdsm etc.",
"I always thought it was part of our flight response. Blood is being re-routed away from that part of our bodies to more vital escape-focused parts.",
"In Scotland we have a word for that feeling when you see something painful or that feeling of falling, we say it 'gies us the grue'",
"When I went skydiving, I was surprised NOT to get this sensation. Raised railroad crossing at moderate speed on the other hand? Ohhhh boy!",
"Is it a fizzing sensation just behind your penis? James May has that problem.",
"It's all of your potential future children screaming at you to be careful",
"anyone else's balls just tingled whilst thinking about it?"
] | [
[
"The Tingler Plot A pathologist, Dr. Warren Chapin (Price), discovers that the tingling of the spine in states of extreme fear is due to the growth of a creature that every human being seems to have, called a \"tingler\", a parasite attached to the human spine. It curls up, feeds and grows stronger when its host is afraid, effectively crushing the person's spine if curled up long enough. The host can weaken the creature and stop its curling by screaming.\nMovie theater owner Oliver Higgins (Coolidge), who shows exclusively silent films, is an acquaintance of Dr. Chapin. Higgins's wife Martha (Evelyn),",
"-34.0544086403097"
],
[
"as rotation and these momenta continue as the person falls, causing a sensation of dysphoria. The faller doesn't fall straight down but spins, flips, etc. due to these residual momenta and also due to the asymmetric forces of air resistance on their asymmetric body. While velocity continues to increase, the downward acceleration due to gravity remains constant. Increasing drag force may even cause a feeling of ascent.\nThe vestibular apparatus also detects spatial orientation with respect to visual input. A similar sensation of falling can be induced when the eyes detect rapid apparent motion with respect to the environment. This",
"-33.851229388907086"
],
[
"footnoted the possibility that this fear may be derived from a lack of ingenuity allowing one to ornamentally distance the copulatory organs from the excretory organs. Such a condition can affect both men and women. For others, symptoms include what characterizes a panic attack. It does not necessarily have to be induced by an uncovered penis, but may also result from seeing the manbulging outline or curvature of the penis, perhaps through clothes consisting of thin fabric. In more extreme cases it has been likened to the fight or flight response ingrained within the human body wherein an individual ceases",
"-33.46390904861619"
],
[
"that he suddenly felt his finger lift. This was obviously strange to him, because under normal circumstances he was, like all of us, the person who decides on how the body moves. In this case he was not. Not only that, but somebody else in his head was responding to an external request that he had not heard. As far as Hilgard was concerned, the person who responded was the hidden observer.\nOne of Hilgard's subjects made the following interesting statement about what she experienced, making particular reference to what she sensed was her higher self: The hidden observer is cognizant",
"-33.216311468102504"
],
[
"that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix, and that these reported orgasms are genital orgasms caused by nipple stimulation, and may be directly linked to the genital sensory cortex (\"the genital area of the brain\"). Fondling breasts and pat-downs Even in places where the public display of affection is considered acceptable, fondling or touching a woman's breasts in public is generally considered groping and an assault, and is commonly regarded as unacceptable. This is especially the case if the woman has not expressly consented. Touching a",
"-33.02571717101091"
],
[
"observe their own tingling feeling), whereas erythema is a sign (anyone can confirm that the skin is redder than usual). Symptoms and signs are often nonspecific, but often combinations of them are at least suggestive of certain diagnoses, helping to narrow down what may be wrong. In other cases they are specific even to the point of being pathognomonic.\nThe term is sometimes also applied to physiological states outside the context of disease, as for example when referring to \"symptoms of pregnancy\". Many people use the term sign and symptom interchangeably. Types Symptoms may be briefly acute or a more prolonged",
"-32.75632363969635"
],
[
"flush and the swelling of nipples in both men and women.\nUnpleasant side effects of sex-related vasocongestion accompanied by sexual inactivity may lead to the cramp-like pain of \"blue balls\" in males and an unpleasant pelvic \"heaviness\" in women, similar to the start of the menstruation cycle.",
"-32.66479745299148"
],
[
"catch semen. This, along with learned pressure, such as a specific hand speed may have subsequently altered sensory patterns in the genitalia. However, others have attributed it to normal masturbation that is excessive. For females experiencing death grip syndrome, besides overly strenuous masturbation, it has also been attributed to excessively using high power settings of a vibrator or a showerhead with too much water pressure. Although men with the indisposition may still experience an erection, it may embroil a relationship negatively due to a sense of being sexually incompatible with a partner due to lasting too long, and subsequent side-effects",
"-32.648049661074765"
],
[
"much research to be done on the brain-gut connection, research thus far has indeed shown that your stomach does indeed churn differently when you are emotionally aroused, and this could be the basis of the gut feeling that many people describe experiencing. Gender differences In recent years, some research has been done about gender differences in the perception and experience of disgust. One such study, upon presenting both male and female subjects with video clips designed to trigger disgust and found that although women reported feeling more disgust than men at these stimuli, the physiological responses did not show",
"-32.580137385462876"
],
[
"of nerves, commonly caused by leaning or resting on parts of the body such as the legs (often followed by a pins and needles tingling sensation). Other causes include conditions such as hyperventilation syndrome and panic attacks. A cold sore outside the mouth (not a canker sore inside the mouth) can be preceded by tingling because a cold sore is caused by herpes simplex virus. The varicella zoster virus (shingles) also notably may cause recurring pain and tingling in skin or tissue along the distribution path of that nerve (most commonly in the skin, along a dermatome pattern, but",
"-32.51080153754447"
],
[
"initial responding, where the main effects are lightheadedness or slight dizziness, in addition to possible tingling sensations in the extremities or other parts of the body. The \"high\" is characterized by feelings of euphoria and exhilaration characterized by mild psychedelia, as well as a sense of disinhibition. If the individual has taken a sufficiently large dose of cannabis, the level of intoxication progresses to the stage of being “stoned,” and the user may feel calm, relaxed, and possibly in a dreamlike state. Sensory reactions may include the feeling of floating, enhanced visual and auditory perception, visual illusions, or the perception",
"-32.508652715041535"
],
[
"The tingler causes the body of Martha to rise from the bed, staring at her husband. Higgins is so terrified that he is unable to scream. The screen fades, and Dr. Chapin's voice says, \"Ladies and gentlemen, just a word of warning. If any of you are not convinced that you have a tingler of your own, the next time you are frightened in the dark ... don't scream\". Production The financial success of House on Haunted Hill was reason enough for Columbia to produce The Tingler. Price was on board again, with Hickman playing his assistant and newcomer Lincoln",
"-32.24677932330815"
],
[
"Exploding head syndrome Signs and symptoms Individuals with exploding head syndrome hear or experience loud imagined noises as they are falling asleep or waking up, have a strong, often frightened emotional reaction to the sound, and do not report significant pain; around 10% of people also experience visual disturbances like perceiving visual static, lightning, or flashes of light. Some people may also experience heat, strange feelings in their torso, or a feeling of electrical tinglings that ascends to the head before the auditory hallucinations occur. With the heightened arousal, people experience distress, confusion, myoclonic jerks, tachycardia, sweating,",
"-31.928239584041876"
],
[
"North American edition alters passages describing Lyra's incipient sexuality. The text in the UK edition includes this passage in the chapter \"Marzipan\":\nAs Mary said that, Lyra felt something strange happen to her body. She found a stirring at the roots of her hair: she found herself breathing faster. She had never been on a roller-coaster, or anything like one, but if she had, she would have recognised the sensations in her breast: they were exciting and frightening at the same time, and she had not the slightest idea why. The sensation continued, and deepened, and changed, as more parts of",
"-31.73066548492443"
],
[
"felt tight and as if it was burning, although there was little visible inflimation [sic]. After approximately an hour, the pain had subsided to the point where I was more aware of a sensation of tingling like when you stick your tongue on a 9V battery. After an additional half hour, the pain and tingling had subsided to the point where my thumb felt like it had a sealed paper cut on it -- where moving my thumb felt odd but keeping it still was without much sensation. Several hours later, this too had subsided and I felt nothing. At",
"-31.615250493407075"
],
[
"lamenting that his arm (on which he wears the Owl Cave ring) feels \"tingly.\" Jade takes her payment and proceeds to shower; Dougie gets out of bed and falls down, as Mr. C continues to hold his mouth. He crawls through the house, attempting and failing to alert Jade; he proceeds to move towards an electric socket, which exercises a force on him. As red curtains faintly appear in front of him, Dougie vomits and is transported away with a loud noise, which upsets Jade. The red curtains fade away, Mr. C vomits garmonbozia and oil, and passes out. Inside",
"-31.594337749353144"
],
[
"Some women experience intense pleasure from stimulation of the urethral sponge and others find the sensation irritating. The urethral sponge surrounds the clitoral nerve, and since the two are so closely interconnected, stimulation of the clitoris may stimulate the nerve endings of the urethral sponge and vice versa. Some women enjoy the rear-entry position of sexual intercourse for this reason, because the penis is often angled slightly downward and can stimulate the front wall of the vagina, and in turn the urethral sponge. Relation with the G-spot The urethral sponge is an area in which the G-spot (Gräfenberg Spot) may",
"-31.57503760504187"
],
[
"up and wonders why she didn't feel anything until much later. Esther wonders too, but seems unconcerned about any cosmetic damage. He asks her jokingly, \"Are you sure it's your leg?\"\nThe next day, Esther, in the bath, is fascinated by the folds of skin around her thigh. Her Boyfriend Vincent (Laurent Lucas) finds out about her injury after walking in on her taking off her dressings. He is concerned as to why she didn't feel anything until later too and even decides to test if she can feel anything by lightly touching her arm when she is not looking. She",
"-31.543717812775867"
],
[
"with a pleasing aesthetic shape, with a texture similar to a natural breast, but which feels completely or mostly numb for the woman herself. This loss of sensation, called somatosensory loss or the inability to perceive touch, heat, cold, and pain, sometimes results in women burning themselves or injuring themselves without noticing, or not noticing that their clothing has shifted to expose their breasts. \"I can't even feel it when my kids hug me,\" said one mother, who had nipple-sparing breast reconstruction after a bilateral mastectomy. The loss of sensation has long-term medical consequences, because it makes",
"-31.45216197100308"
],
[
"the test he identified that the feeling of friction only appears when there is an insulating barrier between the conductive surface and the sliding finger. He concluded that the finger gets electrically polarized, and this induced charge creates a force between that finger and the surface. He named this phenomenon \"electrically induced vibrations\".",
"-31.18438179176883"
],
[
"penis, making it extremely sensitive to touch. The clitoral glans, which is a small, elongated erectile structure, has only one known function—sexual sensations. It is the main source of orgasm in women. Thick secretions called smegma collect in the clitoris.\nThe vaginal opening and the urethral opening are only visible when the labia minora are parted. These opening have many nerve endings that make them sensitive to touch. They are surrounded by a ring of sphincter muscles called the bulbocavernosus muscle. Underneath this muscle and on opposite sides of the vaginal opening are the vestibular bulbs, which help the vagina grip",
"-31.126690791425062"
],
[
"describe it as one form of a syndrome of \"semen-loss anxiety\" which also occurs in other Eastern cultures as jiryan and shen-k'uei, as well as in Western cultures.\nChlamydia infection might also be related to it because of similar symptoms in case of infection of the urethra (urethritis), which is usually symptomatic, causing a white discharge from the penis with or without pain on urinating (dysuria).",
"-31.098316132920445"
],
[
"effect is nearly immediate — Alex loses the pleasurable feeling every pilot-spec gets during the neural connection with the ship. Also, he understands that this feeling, like the usual pleasures of sex — are simply shadows of the true feeling which he has been denied. Still not understanding what it means to love, Alex begins to feel sorrow and the feeling of enormous loss.\nBefore landing on the planet Zodiac, the crew finds out that a crime has taken place on board the ship — Zei-so has been brutally murdered. The ship remains in orbit and receives two visitors: a detective-spec",
"-30.99570127230254"
],
[
"interview with Nintendo Dream, he stated that the character Purlo is his reference to Tingle in Twilight Princess. According to Aonuma, Purlo's appearance \"is the result of wondering what a realistic Tingle would look like\". Characteristics Tingle is a short, paunchy 35-year-old man who is obsessed with \"forest fairies\" and dresses up in a green costume, slightly resembling that of Link. He also wears tight red shorts and a necklace with a clock that is permanently stuck at four o'clock. Tingle is normally seen floating around on his red balloon drawing and selling maps for his father, who runs the",
"-30.958912672036604"
],
[
"and I was happy and I feel myself jumpin' in the bed. Then I found out later that it wasn't just my body jumpin', it was my spirit too. For some reason or other, somethin' was happenin' there that day. It tol' me where to look at. And then my paintings started selling. I sold a painting to a guy for little or nothing. He sold it to someone an' he tried to find me. An one day I was handin' out flyers and he saw one and he called me. It's strange how my name got to his door.",
"-30.94918520266583"
],
[
"libido — may experience enough sexual arousal for an erection to result from a passing thought, or just the sight of a passerby. Once erect, his penis may gain enough stimulation from contact with the inside of his clothing to maintain and encourage it for some time.\nAs sexual arousal and stimulation continues, it is likely that the glans or head of the erect penis will swell wider and, as the genitals become further engorged with blood, their color deepens and the testicles can grow up to 50% larger. As the testicles continue to rise, a feeling of warmth may develop around",
"-30.853424109722255"
],
[
"“When I met him, I was really wasted and I fell off a bin and had to go A&E because I sprained my wrist, so I put in the line, ‘Broke my bones playing games with you’. And then I got this rash, but it wasn’t like a sexual rash – honestly! – I had really bad eczema. That’s where the line, ‘I itch all night, I itch for you’ comes from.” There’s a faint hint of embarrassment hanging in the air. “I’m sweating a lot right now,” says Olly. \n\"Take Shelter\" was released as the album's second single on",
"-30.777815632522106"
],
[
"motors attached to the user's abdomen. HaptiShiver sends “shivers up and down your spine” through a row of vibration motors. HaptiTemper sends “chills up and down your spine” through both cold airflow from a fan and the cold side of a Peltier element. HaptiTemper is also intended for simulation of warmth on the human skin to evoke either pleasant feeling or aggression Explicit emotion elicitation HaptiTickler directly evokes joy by tickling the user's ribs. It includes four vibration motors reproducing stimuli similar to human finger movements Affective computing Affective computing can be used to measure and to recognize emotional information",
"-30.755368220445234"
],
[
"inflicted also on another boy. However, Jack becomes aware of the softness of Jenny's breasts, and sees her looking at him—which makes him start feeling that they are doing is \"a mean thing\". He resists the impulse to touch her breasts again and convinces Les to let her go.\nNow feeling shy, the boys go behind bushes to dress, though Jenny already saw them naked. For her part she quickly washes off the mud and gets dressed. Les immediately goes away, but Jack lingers, feeling apprehensive of the punishment awaiting him once Jenny tells of what he and Les had done",
"-30.743475165450945"
],
[
"people (usually the carotid baroreceptors in older males). This can lead to bradycardia, dizziness and fainting (syncope) from touching the neck (often whilst shaving). This is an important cause to exclude in men having pre-syncope or syncope symptoms.",
"-30.734047279605875"
],
[
"had tightness in the stomach, tingling in pretibial areas, and developed a purplish hue in the face indicating blood circulation problems. He vomited after 3 minutes.\nAnother subject given 4 mg complained of “chest oppression” and that “a load is pressing down from above and my body feels heavy.” The subject also reported “numbness of the entire body” and “a pleasant Martini feeling-my body is taking charge of my mind”. The subject reported he saw red spots passing before his eyes and red-purple spots on the floor, and the floor seemed very close to his face. Within 2 minutes these visual effects",
"-30.650025050264958"
],
[
"to be intimate with their male partner and is unable to visit mixed gender establishments where people are likely to wear more revealing clothing, such as a gym, beach, cinema or livingrooms with a switched on monitor. The fear can recur through any of the senses including accidental touch, sight, hearing the word penis or thinking about an erection. The phobia may have developed from a condition such as dyspareunia, a trauma (usually sexual) that occurred during childhood, but can also have a fortuitous origin. In literature covering human sexuality, it is used as an adjective only to negatively allude",
"-30.641440629493445"
],
[
"Palmomental reflex The palmomental reflex (PMR) is a primitive reflex consisting of a twitch of the chin muscle elicited by stroking a specific part of the palm. It is present in infancy and disappears as the brain matures during childhood but may reappear due to processes that disrupt the normal cortical inhibitory pathways. Therefore, it is an example of a frontal release sign. Eliciting and observing response The thenar eminence is stroked briskly with a thin stick, from proximal (edge of wrist) to distal (base of thumb) using moderate pressure. A positive response is considered if there is a single",
"-30.603239209071035"
],
[
"partner's head. The partner may also orally play with the penis by licking, sucking, kissing or otherwise playing with the tongue and lips. Fellatio may also include the oral stimulation of the scrotum, whether licking, sucking or taking the entire scrotum into the mouth. During the act, semen may be ejaculated into the partner's mouth and sometimes on their face. Intentional ejaculation onto the partner's face is known as a facial.\nIt is difficult for some people to perform fellatio, due to their sensitivities to the natural gag reflex. Different people have different sensitivities to the reflex, but some people",
"-30.532970495987684"
],
[
"touches the substrate and contract the posterior region. If stimulated, it moves nervously and quickly, hence the name irritata (Latin for irritated). Distribution The only known place of occurrence of S. irritata is the São Francisco de Paula National Forest in southern Brazil.",
"-30.50919902898022"
],
[
"my head, I rolled over and I couldn’t feel anything from my neck down. That’s what scared me the most. My body was just tingling.\" Clarke gave a \"thumbs-up\" sign as he was wheeled off the court en route to Miami Valley Hospital where it was confirmed he had a sprained neck, no fractures, and no spinal cord damage. Derenbecker was assessed a flagrant foul. After the game, Derenbecker described his interaction with Butler's Coach Stevens during the post-game handshake: \"I said 'Coach, please tell Rotnei it was not on purpose.' And he said, 'Matt, I know",
"-30.50432709993038"
],
[
"Frisson Frisson (French for 'shiver'), also known as aesthetic chills, musical chills, and colloquially as a skin orgasm, is a psychophysiological response to rewarding auditory and/or visual stimuli that induces a pleasurable or otherwise positively-valenced affective state and transient paresthesia (skin tingling or chills), sometimes along with piloerection (goose bumps) and mydriasis (pupil dilation). The sensation commonly occurs as a mildly to moderately pleasurable emotional response to music with skin tingling; piloerection and pupil dilation do not necessarily occur in all cases. The psychological component (i.e., the pleasurable feeling) and physiological components (i.e., parasthesia, piloerection, and pupil dilation) of the",
"-30.47284031493473"
],
[
"a dildo in the vagina. Hite and Chalker state that the tip of the clitoris and the inner lips, which are also very sensitive, are not receiving direct stimulation during penetrative intercourse. Because of this, some couples may engage in the woman on top position or the coital alignment technique to maximize clitoral stimulation. For some women, the clitoris is very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful.\nMasters and Johnson argued that all women are potentially multiply orgasmic, but that multiply orgasmic men are rare, and stated that \"the female is capable of rapid return to orgasm immediately following",
"-30.460366568819154"
],
[
"we find out, he can't feel physical sensation. The relationship ends after Minnion is attacked and nearly killed during one of Nathan's investigations (involving the Dark Man). Jess decides to return to Montreal, unable to cope with being drawn into the dangers inherent in Wuornos's line of work. After she leaves, Nathan discovers that he is able to feel the touch of Audrey Parker, and though he keeps the discovery to himself, he begins to find excuses to be in physical contact with her.\nNathan attends a surprise birthday party for Parker at a hotel on a nearby island called",
"-30.425235268980032"
],
[
"done to me before. In fact, he was doing even more, but I no longer felt the strong sensation of pleasure that radiated from an unknown and yet familiar part of my body. ... It was as if I could not longer recall the exact spot from which it used to arise, or as though a part of me, of my being, was gone and would never return.\"\nAfter the death of her mother and father, Firdaus is taken in by her uncle, who sends her to primary school. Firdaus loves school. She maintains a close relationship with her",
"-30.409714838373475"
],
[
"she can feel a warning buzz and a touch sparks her hand away from it. Rowan feels nothing, which the sailor tells her is a side effect of her being a Steerswoman. They dare the young lad to touch it, and he is sparked as well. When they've nearly arrived, they find the body of the boy next to the chest. He's tried to open it, and was killed by the protection spell.\nRowan makes it to the Academy and fills her fellow Steerswomen in. They agree that she needs to continue to investigate, but in",
"-30.376021255229716"
],
[
"as being recognized by its ridges and slightly rougher texture compared to the more cushion-like vaginal cavity walls around it. Fingering this spot, and in effect possibly stimulating the Skene's gland, is commonly cited as a method that may lead to female ejaculation.\nSome women have cited the \"come hither\" approach as a significant catalyst to orgasm. This technique involves the middle finger, sometimes additionally the index or ring finger, making a hand gesture like \"come here\" with the palm facing upwards towards her pubic bone. Medical professionals suggest washing the hands before contact with the vagina, to ensure proper hygiene,",
"-30.298137382131245"
],
[
"from reaching the brain, leading to unconsciousness. How this might lead to instantaneous unconsciousness is not explained. In this earliest of Star Trek reference books, the pinch is referred to as the \"Spock Pinch.\"\nIn the Star Trek: Voyager episode \"Cathexis\", the Doctor inspects a crewmember who was found unconscious and observes an extreme trauma to the trapezius neck bundle, \"as though her nerve fibers have been ruptured\"; and it is later revealed that the person was the victim of a nerve pinch. Use within the franchise Along with Spock, various other characters in the Star Trek franchise have used the",
"-30.27379606262548"
],
[
"her alone to be with her boyfriend, sitting helplessly in the exact spot the cart was set to impact. Eddie throws himself with all his might towards the girl, intending to pull her to safety. Eddie feels an exploding impact, sees a blinding flash, feels a little girl's hands in his own, and then nothingness.\nEddie then finds himself awake and uninjured and realizes that he feels young and much more energetic. He also felt calm when he landed. He meets a man known simply as \"the Blue Man\" who suffered from argyria caused by silver nitrate poisoning and worked at",
"-30.253404244431295"
],
[
"as smaller. The resulting image is that of a distorted human body, with disproportionately huge hands, lips, and face.\nIn the sensory homunculus, below the areas handling sensation for the teeth, gums, jaw, tongue, and pharynx lies an area for intra-abdominal sensation. At the very top end of the primary sensory cortex, beyond the area for the toes, it has traditionally been believed that the sensory neural networks for the genitals occur. However, more recent research has suggested that there may be two different cortical areas for the genitals, possibly differentiated by one dealing with erogenous stimulation and",
"-30.240694312378764"
],
[
"been made that it enhances sexual feeling that has been lost due to circumcision. The reason for this is the added pressure of the jewelry on the glans during intercourse, which may also lead to quicker ejaculations in some sexual positions. During vaginal intercourse, the piercing usually results in greater stimulation for the partner. A centrally placed dydoe works especially well in stimulating the g-spot, as the ball at the head is placed near to where the top ball of an apadravya would be placed. An apadravya is generally considered the most pleasurable piercing for partners during vaginal intercourse.",
"-30.239937239413848"
],
[
"induction of gustatory sensations by means of an anodal electrical direct current. Patients usually report sour or metallic sensations similar to those associated with touching both poles of a live battery to the tongue. Although electrogustometry is widely used, there seems to be a poor correlation between electrically and chemically induced sensations. Diagnostic tools Certain diagnostic tools can also be used to help determine the extent of dysgeusia. Electrophysiological tests and simple reflex tests may be applied to identify abnormalities in the nerve-to-brainstem pathways. For example, the blink reflex may be used to evaluate the integrity of the trigeminal nerve–pontine",
"-30.237626408284996"
],
[
"people can relax enough to accommodate an object as big as a fist being inserted into the anus.\nIn a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the inserted penis rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and",
"-30.20913146698149"
],
[
"to recognize how they felt shortly before their \"point of no return\", the moment ejaculation felt imminent and inevitable. Sensing it, they were to signal their partner, who squeezed the head of the penis between thumb and index finger, suppressing the ejaculatory reflex and allowing the man to last longer. \nThe squeeze technique worked, but many couples found it cumbersome. From the 1970s to the 1990s, sex therapists refined the Masters and Johnson approach, largely abandoning the squeeze technique and focused on a simpler and more effective technique called the \"stop-start\" technique. During intercourse, as the man senses he is",
"-30.187092155960272"
],
[
"as well as in blood pressure, feeling hot and flushed and perhaps experiencing tremors. A sex flush may extend over the chest and upper body.\nIf sexual stimulation continues, then sexual arousal may peak into orgasm. After orgasm, some women do not want any further stimulation and the sexual arousal quickly dissipates. Suggestions have been published for continuing the sexual excitement and moving from one orgasm into further stimulation and maintaining or regaining a state of sexual arousal that can lead to second and subsequent orgasms. Some women have experienced such multiple orgasms quite spontaneously.\nWhile young women may become sexually aroused",
"-30.158772124102143"
],
[
"I watch Jason Kidd play, initially it's like seeing a girl walk into a bar who's just drop-dead gorgeous, but then when he throws up one of those bricks, it's like the gorgeous girl taking off her jacket and you see she has tiny mosquito bites for tits.\" Ben Mathis-Lilley found Simmons' sexism \"intrusively abhorrent\", stating that \"I actually stopped bothering to copy down the most egregious comments and figured I'd just note when Simmons mentioned a woman for any reason other than evaluating her appeal as something to put a penis in. I'm open to correction on this, but",
"-30.095315006568853"
],
[
"Charu feels each other's feeling. Charu feels a hit that Chandru experiences during a robbery incident. Chandru feels a cut to his finger when Charu cuts her finger. They see each other's vision and hear each other's hearings.\nEventually Chandru and Charu are able to see each other through a mirror. Their relationship starts as a friendship and then love.\nChandru's friend Vinesh murders a girl which is known only to Chandru. Vinesh wants to kill Chandru. Charu's family friend Prasath abducts Charu out of lust. The climax is about how Chandru and Charu overcome their problems with Vinesh and Prasath through",
"-29.981512507234584"
],
[
"her to have an orgasm as a result of the tickling. He attempts to cover this up from his siblings. Shortly after this, the family celebrates Jack's 16th birthday in their mother's bedroom. He is reluctant to contribute to the small party by singing, but when Julie does a handstand, Jack stares at her underwear, then shares an intimate moment with her by singing Greensleeves. \nAlthough the rest of the family assume they are having fun, Julie recognizes what he is doing, and plays along. This, along with another incident when Julie, while sunbathing in the garden, persuades Jack to",
"-29.949985399656725"
],
[
"that, his thighs; and passing upwards in this way he showed us that he was growing cold and rigid. And then again he touched him and said that when it reached his heart, he would be gone. The chill had now reached the region about the groin, and uncovering his face, which had been covered, he said – and these were his last words – \"Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Pay it and do not neglect it.\" \"That,\" said Crito, \"shall be done; but see if you have anything else to say.\" To this question he made no",
"-29.934021092922194"
],
[
"on the outside of the nerve. Therefore, one could have mydriasis (a \"blown\" pupil) as a result of parasympathetic fiber compression before lid ptosis and the \"down and out\" position are seen.",
"-29.925684188892774"
],
[
"Sysoi, a lay brother, that his mother indeed had come to visit him, bringing with her Katya, an eight-year old niece. This brings him great joy, he spends the night in reveries... But he is unable to sleep also because his conditions worsens, and he seems to be in a fever.\nMeeting the mother and a child, Pyotr feels happy and elated, but strange feeling creeps in: it seems as if the old woman is too timid, too respectful in his presence, while feeling apparently totally relaxed and merry while chatting with the old Sysoi. During the next several days Pyotr",
"-29.91995479486104"
],
[
"above the waist, vibration sensation was lost in the sternum, and markedly reduced proprioception or sensation about the self's orientation. Many people suffering from the neurological effects of copper deficiency complain about very similar or identical symptoms as the patient. This numbness and tingling poses danger for the elderly because it increases their risk of falling and injuring themselves. Peripheral neuropathy can become very disabling leaving some patients dependent on wheel chairs or walking canes for mobility if there is lack of correct diagnosis. Rarely can copper deficiency cause major disabling symptoms. The deficiency will have to be present for",
"-29.901987596381332"
],
[
"bump to the head. Breath-holding attacks have been recognized for centuries. However, it is only relatively recently that their pathophysiology has begun to be understood, and in consequence, their separation from reflex anoxic seizures has been recognized. Indeed, the distinction between the two may not be complete.\nAlthough minor bumps to the head are reported as the most common precipitants to reflex anoxic seizures, many other stimuli may also be involved. Doctors emphasized the importance of minor injuries and sudden fright. They noted that occipital blows to the head appeared to be particularly provocative. Pain, especially from emotion (surprise, fear, annoyance,",
"-29.84451727353735"
],
[
"Carpal tunnel syndrome Signs and symptoms People with CTS experience numbness, tingling, or burning sensations in the thumb and fingers, in particular the index and middle fingers and radial half of the ring finger, because these receive their sensory and motor function (muscle control) from the median nerve. Ache and discomfort can possibly be felt more proximally in the forearm or even the upper arm. Less-specific symptoms may include pain in the wrists or hands, loss of grip strength, and loss of manual dexterity.\nSome suggest that median nerve symptoms can arise from compression at the level of the thoracic outlet",
"-29.81607978377724"
],
[
"Flushing (physiology) Sex flush Commonly referred to as the sex flush, vasocongestion (increased blood flow) of the skin can occur during all four phases of the human sexual response cycle. Studies show that the sex flush occurs in approximately 50–75% of females and 25% of males, yet not consistently. The sex flush tends to occur more often under warmer conditions and may not appear at all under lower temperatures.\nDuring the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also",
"-29.807242287613917"
],
[
"not have a 'sensed presence' experience, but instead felt at times 'slightly dizzy', 'quite strange' and had sensations in his limbs and changes in his breathing. He summarised his experience as follows: \"It pretty much felt as though I was in total darkness, with a helmet on my head and pleasantly relaxed\". Persinger explained Dawkins' limited results in terms of his low score on a psychological scale measuring temporal lobe sensitivity.\nIn contrast, the experimental psychologist, and former parapsychology researcher, Susan Blackmore said: \"When I went to Persinger's lab and underwent his procedures I had the most extraordinary experiences I've ever",
"-29.79225196389598"
],
[
"going. I know we have made a Tingle game in the past, but maybe at some point down the road.\" He later joked that \"it's like romance: You meet someone and you're like, 'Oh god, I can't stand that person.' And then three weeks later, you're madly in love – it's that turn, that quick whip, that motivates [me] a little bit.”",
"-29.791814105934463"
],
[
"a sensation of being pushed sharply to the floor from behind. The phenomenon is thought to be triggered by a sudden mechanical disturbance of the otolithic membrane that activates motoneurons in the vestibulospinal tract.\nOtolithic function can also be compromised after unilateral vestibular neurectomy. The illusion is that during centrifugal stimulation, a small luninous bar, fixed with respect to the observer, appears to be roll-tilited by the same amount that the observer feels to be roll-tilted. This illusion is felt symmetrically in normal patients, but after vestibular neuroectomy, patients perceive a reduce illusion when the force is directed toward their operated",
"-29.770892746048048"
],
[
"He and Ji-eun later talk to the woman, who remains unharmed, and she tells them that the experience was not painful, likening the sensation to an electric shock. The events prove to them that Hyun-joo is telling the truth.\nSome time later, Ji-eun visits Hyun-joo who is now living in England. Curious to know how it feels being bitten by a vampire, she asks Hyun-joo to suck her blood. Choosing the inside of her thigh, Hyun-joo begins to feed on her friend. Production Kim Jee-woon wrote and directed Coming Out as part of a project to distribute three digital short films",
"-29.74347157307784"
],
[
"on the female's dorsum, other males retreat. During what is called the precopulatory phase, the male rubs the female's mesothorax with his first two pairs of legs. The male then strokes her antennae with his own to persuade her to copulate. Simultaneously, he rubs her eyes with his front legs. Every stroking motion is recognizable to humans as a high-pitched humming sound, which soon turns into buzzing as the male attempts to copulate. In an attempt to copulate, the male moves backward (on the female) and tries to insert his genitalia into the female's genital chamber, during which he drums",
"-29.703205262921983"
],
[
"an awful feeling. I sometimes feel that I’m being haunted. Like there are people around me sometimes that I don’t see. There is a God, I can tell you that.\" In media The crash was featured on an episode of the American television program Why Planes Crash, broadcast on The Weather Channel.",
"-29.657306759327184"
],
[
"Cremasteric reflex The cremasteric reflex is a superficial (i.e., close to the skin's surface) reflex observed in human males.\nThis reflex is elicited by lightly stroking or poking the superior and medial (inner) part of the thigh—regardless of the direction of stroke. The normal response is an immediate contraction of the cremaster muscle that pulls up the testis ipsilaterally (on the same side of the body).\nThe reflex utilizes sensory and motor fibers from two different nerves. When the inner thigh is stroked, sensory fibers of the ilioinguinal nerve are stimulated. These activate the motor fibers of the genital branch of the",
"-29.65404842335556"
],
[
"After sometime, the two lovers are seen by Gillian kissing, making her scream in surprise and envy. This surprised Cat and David and the two fell down the stairs, breaking one of their arms. Wacky used this to let Cat know that he loves her. One night Wacky's shirt got wet because of the rain, so he put it inside the dryer and he tried to tell Cat what he felt but David interfered. At David's car, he told Cat that he wants Wacky out of her life because it makes him uncomfortable, so she confessed her feelings for",
"-29.635545368091698"
],
[
"several nerves supplying sensation to these areas. Branches also supply sensation to the anal canal. By providing sensation to the penis and the clitoris, the pudendal nerve is responsible for the afferent component of penile erection and clitoral erection. It is also responsible for ejaculation.\nBranches also innervate muscles of the perineum and the pelvic floor; namely, the bulbospongiosus and the ischiocavernosus muscles respectively, the levator ani muscle (including the Iliococcygeus, pubococcygeus, puborectalis and either pubovaginalis in females or puboprostaticus in males) the external anal sphincter (via the inferior anal branch), and male or female external urethral sphincter.\nAs it functions",
"-29.626828952896176"
],
[
"That Feeling, You Can Only Say What It Is in French Plot summary As the story progresses, a woman (Carol) begins to have déjà vu of the same car ride on their second honeymoon with the same bloody outcome every time. It never ends. It is implied, but never said, that they have crashed on the plane to their honeymoon location and they may be in Hell or Purgatory.",
"-29.612062614032766"
],
[
"governments and courts of law to measure sexual orientation. An unusual aversion to the erect penis is sometimes referred to as phallophobia. Spontaneous or random erections Spontaneous erection, also known as involuntary, random or unwanted erection, is commonplace and a normal part of male physiology. Socially, such erections can be embarrassing if they happen in public or when undesired. Erections can occur spontaneously at any time of day, and if clothed may cause a bulge which (if required) can be disguised or hidden by wearing close-fitting underwear, a long shirt, or baggier clothes. Erectile dysfunction Erectile dysfunction (also known",
"-29.58991904067807"
],
[
"feeling of numbness or a tingling, pain rarely occurs in the hand. Complaints of pain tend to be more common in the arm, up to and including the elbow area, which is probably the most common site of pain in an ulnar neuropathy. Pathophysiology In regards to the pathophysiology of ulnar neuropathy:the axon, and myelin can be affected. Within the axon, fascicles to individual muscles could be involved, with subsequent motor unit loss and amplitude decrease. Conduction block means impaired transmission via a part of the nerve. Conduction block can mean myelin damage to the involved area, slowing of conduction",
"-29.578592704652692"
],
[
"your bones; share it fairly with your lover, say pleasant, naughty things the while. And if Nature has withheld from you the sensation of pleasure, then teach your lips to lie and say you feel it all. Unhappy is the woman who feels no answering thrill. But, if you have to pretend, don't betray yourself by over-acting. Let your movements and your eyes combine to deceive us, and, gasping, panting, complete the illusion.\nPeople can also fake orgasms for reasons of display or presentation, such as during phone sex or in pornography.\nFeminists have asserted that women faking orgasms is a sign",
"-29.565532324013475"
],
[
"Jay Traver Her Condition Ekbom syndrome, aka delusory parasitosis, is the belief by an individual that their body is infested with invisible bugs, mites, or other insects even though they are not. The individuals perceive the insects as different sensations (i.e. stinging, burning, itching, crawling, etc.) and also visualize the insects crawling on top of or underneath of their skin. ES is a rare condition, with an estimation of only 25,000 sufferers in the United States. \"Although the sufferers of this disease may feel the sensations, it has been concluded that the hallucinations were caused by the brain trying to",
"-29.52927728535724"
],
[
"I'm like, \"I'm an actress! Why am I getting a feeling like I want to cry? This is weird! I did enough crying when I was there [on set]. I don't know why I'm still feeling this way\". I think it was because it was the first time I was ever physically touched by him. As a little girl, as Jamie, he never got me, ever. Now as an adult, I don't have my clothes on, doing scenes I've never done before as an actor, and I'm actually being attacked. Even though I should know the guy by now, it's",
"-29.509478148422204"
],
[
"experimenter looking at them, over a period of 100 possible staring periods. The subjects' answers were correct 50.2% of the time, a result that Coover called an \"astonishing approximation\" of pure chance. Coover concluded that although the feeling of being stared at was common, experimentation showed it to be \"groundless\". He suggested that the \"tingling\" sensation described by Titchener was an example of motor automatism.\nA 1983 experiment using closed-circuit television cameras to watch the subjects reported a 74% success rate, although later research suggested that the randomness of the sequences had not been controlled for. An attempt to recreate this",
"-29.498811392404605"
],
[
"that hangs behind the penis. It holds and protects the testicles. It also contains numerous nerves and blood vessels. During times of lower temperatures, the Cremaster muscle contracts and pulls the scrotum closer to the body, while the Dartos muscle gives it a wrinkled appearance; when the temperature increases, the Cremaster and Dartos muscles relax to bring down the scrotum away from the body and remove the wrinkles respectively.\nThe scrotum remains connected with the abdomen or pelvic cavity by the inguinal canal. (The spermatic cord, formed from spermatic artery, vein and nerve bound together with connective tissue passes into the",
"-29.475789598509436"
],
[
"as \"Tender Kisses\" in appearance and the general look of sadness. One scene focuses on a man, unconscious, who has a door on his chest indicating the door to his heart. A woman standing over him has a window on her chest and reaches into the window to retrieve and flower and places it into the doorway on the man's chest.",
"-29.46718832847546"
],
[
"feel repulsed whenever he touches, smells or tastes his lovely wife. Ady attempts to bluff her way out of the situation but is forced to admit the truth: she and Barbara are aliens whose ship crash-landed on Earth some time ago. To humans, they are repulsive creatures in their natural form (apparently, of aquatic origin), but since they are stranded on Earth with no way to leave, they decided to try to blend in and live out the rest of their lives as human women. Unfortunately, their ability to trick someone's senses wears off, as the victim grows a resistance,",
"-29.45577514328761"
],
[
"urination urge only\", while 4 people responded that they experienced \"both a defecation and a urination urge\".\nThe defecation urge that is experienced has been explained to have characteristics such as \"a kind of heaving sensation in the rectal passage\", \"a dull convulsive pain in the gut\", \"a filling-up sensation in the lower abdominal area\", and \"a focusing of all nervous energy on the anal area\", and the intensity of the sensation has been variously described with expressions such as \"enough to make one scared about going to a bookstore again\", \"hellish\", and \"Armageddon-class\". Even in cases where the subject",
"-29.441450550497393"
],
[
"away. Finally, she slaps him coyly. The \"lady\" then apologizes for her aggressiveness by fellating her partner.\nThe \"lady\" then lies face-down on the sofa with her buttocks in the air. It is revealed that she has no underwear on. The gentleman caller then copulates the \"lady\" anally (although no penetration is actually shown). After a minute or so, the gentleman withdraws and sits back on the sofa. The \"lady\" gyrates her buttocks in the air. This induces him to mount her anally again. Both individuals reach orgasm, and the gentleman caller walks off-camera.\nThe \"lady\" stands and raises her skirts to",
"-29.415755723923212"
],
[
"the temporomandibular joint. There is usually large joint effusion and swelling, but only mild or moderate pain. Without treatment, swelling and pain typically resolve over time but periodically return. Baker's cysts may form and rupture. In some cases, joint erosion occurs.\nChronic neurologic symptoms occur in up to 5% of untreated people. A peripheral neuropathy or polyneuropathy may develop, causing abnormal sensations such as numbness, tingling or burning starting at the feet or hands and over time possibly moving up the limbs. A test may show reduced sensation of vibrations in the feet. An affected person may feel as if wearing",
"-29.412301497053704"
],
[
"They have a polished surface and they look something like amber or like obsidian but they're yellowish and not as heavy. The wind blows them. They slide along.\n[6:16:37] If I turn, the whole thing seems enormously flat. I mean, if I get the feeling that if a man stood on those sands, I think he would sink into them [laughs]. Maybe that's where that liquid feeling comes from.\nSwann's transcript contained in \"Mind-Reach: Scientists Look at Psychic Ability\" by Russell Targ & Harold Putoff is slightly different from Swann's later version. There is no mention of sand and he also",
"-29.39132815785706"
],
[
"into the topic had concluded.\nCertain types of psychiatric disorders such as delusion can be transmitted between people who are intimately close such as mothers and daughters or romantic couples by way of a kind of \"false belief\". In his book \"Why Do People Feel the Need to Go When They're In a Bookstore?\" (2012, Arimine Shoten), the gastroenterological surgeon Masayoshi Ido touches on the Mariko Aoki phenomenon by stating that the \"past experience and future expectation of having experienced a defecation urge\", the \"supporting of this by knowledge that many others have had the same experience\", and a \"false",
"-29.383464216138236"
],
[
"of this is to produce a quiet rising or falling ping. This effect is used in Helmut Lachenmann's Toccatina.",
"-29.292215265833875"
],
[
"Seeing it dip from that peak even a little is inevitably going to feel a tad disappointing.\"",
"-29.27842960301132"
],
[
"and a whitish or whitish-gray cottage cheese-like discharge. Symptoms of infection of the male genitalia (balanitis thrush) include red skin around the head of the penis, swelling, irritation, itchiness and soreness of the head of the penis, thick, lumpy discharge under the foreskin, unpleasant odour, difficulty retracting the foreskin (phimosis), and pain when passing urine or during sex. Skin Signs and symptoms of candidiasis in the skin include itching, irritation, and chafing or broken skin. Invasive infection Common symptoms of gastrointestinal candidiasis in healthy individuals are anal itching, belching, bloating, indigestion, nausea, diarrhea, gas, intestinal cramps, vomiting, and gastric",
"-29.268915855966043"
],
[
"especially on the face, becomes hot to the touch. This is the origin of the alternative term \"hot flush\", since the sensation of heat is often accompanied by visible reddening of the face. Excessive flushing can lead to rosacea.\nThe hot-flash event may be repeated a few times each week or every few minutes throughout the day. Hot flashes may begin to appear several years before menopause starts and last for years afterwards. Some women undergoing menopause never have hot flashes. Others have mild or infrequent flashes. The worst sufferers experience dozens of hot flashes each day. In addition, hot flashes",
"-29.25819838491043"
],
[
"she feels the strength of her elements and the tingle of her new marks and is confident in Nyx and the power she has been given. Afterwards, she heads to her dorm and finds that Erik witnessed her exchange with Neferet. He wants to believe her, but is still hurt because of Zoey cheating on him. Tiredly, with Nala in tow, Zoey heads to bed, but not before hearing her goddess whisper, \"Believe in yourself, Daughter, and get ready for what is to come.\"",
"-29.253983220314694"
],
[
"leave the hotel and be lost to him.\nOne night, a dream filled with orgiastic Dionysian imagery reveals to him the sexual nature of his feelings for Tadzio. Afterwards, he begins staring at the boy so openly and following him so persistently that Aschenbach feels the boy's guardians have finally noticed, and they take to warning Tadzio whenever he approaches too near the strange, solitary man. But Aschenbach's feelings, though passionately intense, remain unvoiced; he never touches Tadzio, or even speaks to him; and while there is some indication that Tadzio is aware of his admiration, the two exchange nothing more",
"-29.22581101923788"
],
[
"cheek. She then goes insane from the shock. Variations In other versions, a young girl is asleep while a spider crawls across her face and rests on her cheek for a few moments. The next morning, she asks her mother about the red spot on her cheek and the mother responds, \"It looks like a spider bite. It will go away, just don't scratch it.\" As time passes, the spot grows into a small boil. She confronts her mother again and complains that it is getting larger and that it's sore. The mother replies, \"That happens sometimes, it's coming to",
"-29.212544779264135"
],
[
"and tell each other how they truly feel.\nLater that afternoon, Valerie confides to Simon how nervous she is about being looked at by the audiences at Nationals and on MTV 3. Simon suggests she find something that covers her, like a wet suit. Nationals The Acafellas strut on stage singing The Jackson Five's “I Want You Back”. They sound fantastic, but Philip stops the song and confesses publicly that he is actually the reason that the boys failed their drug test at Regionals; he used his stepmother's home botox kit to help him hit the high notes. He apologizes to",
"-29.179739862793213"
],
[
"the vibrating vagina has a personality of its own and commits \"suicide\" when Justin rejects it.\nA Real Sex-esque skit where a girl admits to having sex with two black men on camera. Two guys, Barry and Leon (Kevin Hart and Jermaine Williams), create a woman on their computer, only for her to run wild.\nJessica (Rheagan Wallace), in an attempt to become horny, puts her vibrating cell phone in her vagina, only for it to fall in. Len (Ben Feldman) wakes up to find a girl and another guy (Jamie Kennedy) in his bed, and his parents home as well; the",
"-29.146215034168563"
],
[
"feel numb. At Brown's direction, he pushes a needle through the skin on the back of his hand.\nPhil is next asked to jump off a cliff into water, despite his fear of both heights and open water. At Brown's encouragement, and use of the Turbine app noise, Phil is able to stand at the edge of the platform, but after two attempts is still unable to jump. Brown next brings Phil in for the results of a DNA test—Phil is surprised to find that little of it is from the UK or America. Brown then gets Phil to stare into",
"-29.14479363708233"
],
[
"pause comes, have you, perchance, then guessed\n\nThe fury of Desire's madding tongue.\n\nThat lashes this frail fresh still, yet unstrung\n\nFrom recent onslaughts of its parapets?\n\nHow heavily upon my nipples lain\n\nHas yearning for the fullness of your lips;\n\nAnd for the absence of your touch, bleak pain?\n\nIf with such things thought has not come to grips,\n\nI pray a shaft of light implode your brain\n\nBefore to some perversion this love slips.\nThe Naked Frame received a favorable review from J. Saunders Redding in the Afro-American (Baltimore). Around that same time, Oden was introduced to the work of Richard Wilbur and joined a small group studying",
"-29.130707808595616"
],
[
"bizarre behavior continues much to Edie's discomfort. During the night, Edie finds he is out of bed and goes down to the kitchen to find him talking to himself, but is unaware he is seeing Lila and Paige again. She touches his shoulder and he turns around quickly and smacks her arm accidentally. The next morning, she demands an explanation. He explains he has had his previous wife on his mind, but she was not aware he was previously married. She gives him the rest of the day to pack his bags, and she throws him out of the house.",
"-29.117994239059044"
],
[
"Mexico, and a lot of crew members said, 'I got a feeling about this'. It's like catching lightning, this kind of success -- it only happens once in your life, finding someone like Mr. T and having him and the show become the phenomenon they have\".\nFrank Lupo persuaded Ashley to play a cameo in the show's second two-hour special, as a backer for a bogus horror movie proposed by series regular Dirk Benedict, called The Beast of the Yellow Night. A few seconds from that episode, showing Benedict with his arm around Ashley,can be glimpsed in the series' opening credits",
"-29.08147142812959"
],
[
"as \"beyond the power of epileptic fits or natural disease to effect\" by John Hale, the minister of the nearby town of Beverly. The girls screamed, threw things about the room, uttered strange sounds, crawled under furniture, and contorted themselves into peculiar positions, according to the eyewitness account of Reverend Deodat Lawson, a former minister in Salem Village.\nThe girls complained of being pinched and pricked with pins. A doctor, historically assumed to be William Griggs, could find no physical evidence of any ailment. Other young women in the village began to exhibit similar behaviors. When Lawson preached as a guest",
"-29.036448090919293"
],
[
"stare\".\nThere are also known to be cases of not simply a defecation urge but also symptoms such as abdominal pain or diarrhea. There are also said to be cases where what presents is not an urge to defecate but an urge to urinate, or need to urinate frequently. Results from a survey of 30 people reported that, of 18 people who responded that they \"have an experience of [being in a bookstore and] going to the bathroom and using the toilet\", 7 people responded that they \"experienced a defecation urge only\" and another 7 that they \"experienced a",
"-29.014087464354816"
],
[
"Anal wink The anal wink, anal reflex, perineal reflex, or anocutaneous reflex is the reflexive contraction of the external anal sphincter upon stroking of the skin around the anus.\nA noxious or tactile stimulus will cause a wink contraction of the anal sphincter muscles and also flexion. The stimulus is detected by the nociceptors in the perineal skin to the pudendal nerve, where a response is integrated by the spinal cord sacral segments S2-S4.\nThe absence of this reflex indicates that there is an interruption of the reflex arc, or damage to the spinal cord,which may be in the sensory afferent limb",
"-29.009755584425875"
]
] |
2c4zmh | Why do fight scenes in older movies look so fake compared to newer movies? Isn't it just choreography? Not CGI (mostly). | [
"Because that was good enough for audiences of the day. Most people have little exposure to real fighting, and up until the 60's, the only martial art they were likely to have seen was boxing. Movies followed these expectations, and most fights were stand up punching. With the rise of the Hong Kong movie industry, and martial arts stars like Bruce Lee, audience expectations changed. Stand up punching seemed slow and ponderous, so it was necessary to mix in some more sophisticated fighting. Also, the way audiences viewed their movie heros changed. You used to have John Wayne cowboy type leads, who were better than everyone else by virtue of being special. He won his fight because he was always stronger, tougher, and luckier than mere supporting roles, that all the reason the audience needed. Today's heroes are usually a little more nuanced. If they are going to win a fight against a bigger, stronger opponent, the movie has to show how he outsmarts or outskills the big lug.",
"If you mean older western movies, it's because it's BAD choreography. Watch some old chinese movies and you'll see some frighteningly realistic stuff. Jackie Chan talked about it in some documentary how americans and europeans were completely incapable of staging a good fight scene for most of the 20th century.",
"Hi, I do professional fight choreography. The last century has seen a lot of innovation in staged violence. Prior to the advent of film as a medium staged combat was only really used for theater, and the main type of serious violence that plays had been using for centuries was fencing. (pummeling someone would have been more slapstick, and likely would have just used an actual slapstick for the fight) This meant that the fight choreographers of the early to mid 1900's were educated in how to put together a sword fight, with any hand to hand combat as a bit of an afterthought. (there would also be firearms used, but that was more of an armorer's department, rather than a fight choreographer). In the 1900's brawling became the primary way to have physical violence outside of gunplay, as swords were no longer a modern weapon. Unfortunately we did not have the stage combat \"technology\" to choreograph these fights well. The blocking techniques used in film also did not lend themselves to good fight scenes. (the scene of shatner punching the alien: look at how close their heads are to one another, there is no room for a realistic punch) In film people's faces are generally closer than people naturally get to each other, so that they can both be in the same frame. With the advances in stage violence over the last 60ish years we now have some good western brawler choreography styles to use for knock-down drag-out fights, which also works well for simulating domestic violence, and we have a new generation of fight choreographers who can do a brawl as well as they can do a sword duel.",
"In addition to kouhoutek's great answer, it's also related to technology. Specifically, old films have deteriorated, especially in terms of sound quality. Old films are often poorly rendered into video format for television, and as a result the \"sound design\" is much flatter and less effective than it would have been in a theatrical run of the original movie. Sound actually makes a huge impression on how you perceive action, and can even convince you to \"see\" things that aren't there (like, for example, a punch that would shatter a normal person's skull if it were real). Additionally, modern sound recording and production for films is light years more sophisticated, both in terms of equipment and in terms of technique, than it was in the 40's-70's. Plus, modern sound is recorded with video mastering in mind, so it's already designed to sound good both in the theater and on TV. [From Russia With Love]( URL_0 ) (1963) had some pretty good fight scenes. All in all this is a very \"realistic\" style of fight choreography of two people chaotically pulling every dirty trick they can to win a fight in the dark. But again, the hokiest thing about this scene is the sound design... not so much the dynamics of volume & depth which seem ok in this case, but simply the recorded sounds they used. That one punch to the chin uses a sound that could have come from a cartoon.",
"How can you even compare them with as many times as they change the camera angles these days? While kinda on topic, why so many dark scenes? In the old days I can understand. Maybe to help cover mistakes, and to make up for lack of resources at the time. But these days? Sure let's go see a movie that'll probably give us motion sickness, if they ever turn up the lights enough to see what's going on. Directors using those 2 tricks are pathetic.",
"Not sure if someone added this. But the new standard of quick cutting and camera shaking makes fight scenes appear more intense then they are a lot of the times",
"Have you seen James Caan as \"Sonny Corleone\" beating up his brother-in-law in \"the Godfather\"? THAT was some convincing butt-kicking!"
] | [
[
"\"cinematic\" style, reminiscent of the way the fights in the other Rocky films were shot. However, unlike the other films in the series, the fight is less choreographed and more improvised than previous installments and is closer to an actual boxing match than a choreographed fight. This is a departure from the previous films, where every punch, feint, and step was carefully scripted and practiced.\nAccording to the behind-the-scenes documentary portions of the film's DVD, there were slight continuity problems during the filming of the fight. This was said to have been due to the fact that real punches were thrown",
"-36.1706942114979"
],
[
"taken into account. Despite these concerns, he opined that it was a \"great reason to go to the movies because it's an experience you just can't recreate on an iPhone or a laptop.\" In some sequences the image shows a fine mesh pattern and some blurring. That is not interference or a production fault, but indicates that that sequence is a flashback and to simulate an older form of video representation technology. Stunt work on the film was designed and coordinated by 87Eleven, who also designed and trained fight sequences for 300 and Watchmen. Olivia Wilde described it as an",
"-34.522929406768526"
],
[
"Some reenactment battles take the form of a competition, where the two \"armies\" try to defeat each other within the actions permitted by the combat rules.\nBattles in film are not inhibited by such restrictions, due to the possibilities of cutting and closeup. They are fully choreographed, and are not performed in a single go but divided into individual sequences. Combat as interactive martial art The Society for Creative Anachronism fighting is based on Medieval fighting on foot, in the spirit of tournament fighting with wooden swords. The armor is handmade and based on historical artifacts. Unlike most reenactment events, the",
"-34.41608870148775"
],
[
"of professional stunt crews in the past. However, reactions to action films containing significant amounts of CGI have been mixed, as films that use computer animations to create unrealistic, highly unbelievable events are often met with criticism. While action has long been a recurring component in films, the \"action film\" genre began to develop in the 1970s along with the increase of stunts and special effects. Common action scenes in films are generally, but not limited to, explosions, car chases, fistfights, and shootouts.\nThis genre is closely associated with the thriller and adventure genres, and they may also contain elements of",
"-33.301571141353634"
],
[
"set pieces as \"spectacular, almost non-stop sequence of grisly hand-to-hand combat scenes\" and \"No martial arts here, but skillfully realistic fighting with spears and machetes, guns and cannons, which spare no one.\" However Young also states that \"no matter how ingeniously it is varied, the non-stop fighting becomes oppressive in the long run\" and the film's best scenes are in its \"quieter moments\". Alan Harris gave the film three out of five stars and states \"This is an extremely bloodthirsty film, with more beheadings than any other movie I can name, and scenes of carnage for most of its two",
"-32.91581798729021"
],
[
"in Europe. But because of the movie's limited budget, the director moved the movie to Thailand, where it's cheaper to shoot. They used CGI to add the sand around Horus's city, which is supposed to be in a desert.\nThey had 400 extras for the battle scenes, but most of the fighting was done with the main cast plus just 12 stunt men, who played multiple roles in different costumes so they could be in all of the battles. The rest of the extras weren't trained to fight, so they stayed in the background, and careful observers can",
"-32.87722360575026"
],
[
"of the characters, including Bahamut itself, took the staff a long time to complete in order to give the scene a sense of flow. Nomura stated that the team decided not to worry about making the fight sequences realistic, as they felt this would restrict their ability to give the film a \"cool look\". Therefore, they worked by creating their \"own rules.\" Motion capture was used for many of the film's battle scenes; maneuvers that were not physically possible for live actors to perform were constructed digitally.\nWhile designing the characters, the staff discovered that it was impossible to directly translate",
"-32.581151016405784"
],
[
"moments, but that the \"comedic moments were not only funny but also true to the series, and the fight scenes were excellent one and all.\" He particularly praised the animation as the best of the series, due to technological advancements since the early 1990s, and declared that the highlight of the movie was how in the end the villain was undoubtedly the winner over Goku in a \"complete reversal of the standard DBZ formula\". Otaku USA's Matt Schley agreed that it is a comedy heavy film \"more reminiscent of the original Dragon Ball than Z\". He speculates that the viewer's",
"-32.30481983581558"
],
[
"and amount of character development and focus almost exclusively on the action, while other martial arts films have more creative and complex plots and characters along with action scenes. Films of the latter type are generally considered to be artistically superior films, but many films of the former type are commercially successful and well received by fans of the genre. One of the earliest Hollywood movies to employ the use of martial arts was the 1955 film Bad Day at Black Rock.\nMartial arts films contain many characters who are martial artists and these roles are often played by actors who",
"-32.04366241057869"
],
[
"many clips from the film, just stills taken from specific scenes. Why would they do this when all other movie-based games use real-time sequences, if not actual clips from the film? […] This could come as a disappointment to players expecting to re-live the movie's magic through a game. During the gameplay, you'll be entertained by amusing dialogue, but the still picture movie sequences are a bore.\" Bedigian concluded that young children would enjoy the game, except for \"the frustration\" of its driving levels due to its controls, which he wrote, \"aren't very accurate, causing a lot of unnecessary screw",
"-31.94440648291493"
],
[
"classic action movies, it was criticized for the lack of variety in gameplay and challenges and for quickly becoming repetitive.",
"-31.875516818021424"
],
[
"movies similar to Battles, but always turned them down wanting to move on to films he found interesting.\nAmerican director William Friedkin stated that Fukasaku's trait of never redeeming bad characters and not catering to have the good guys win in the end was a \"profound influence\" on himself. He went on to claim that this is something one cannot do today in American films.\nA restored version of the film, from a 4K 35mm print original negative to 2K digital by Toei Labo Tech, was screened at the Cannes Classics section of the 2015 Cannes Film Festival.",
"-31.841245589457685"
],
[
"from the use of CGI in the film as well as planning the scenes via storyboarding, insisting on shooting the scenes right away. In a separate interview, however, Miike said that some CGI were used, albeit minimal. Over half of the thirteen actors playing the assassins were reportedly inexperienced in sword fighting and horseback riding, and Miike wanted them to be just that, explaining, \"If the actors had been skilled from the beginning, and had been in several samurai movies before, the way they approached the action would've been different; they probably would've ended up being something they were doing",
"-31.827273663016967"
],
[
"medium-budget genre movie, it also fused with tent-pole pictures in other genres. For example, 2009's Star Trek had several science fiction tropes and concepts like time travel through a black hole. However, most of the film was structured around action sequences, many of them quite conventional (hand-to-hand, shooting). While the original Star Wars featured some of this kind of fighting, there was just as much emphasis on star-ship chases and dogfights in outer space. The newer films featured more lightsaber duels, sometimes more intense and acrobatic than the originals. Some fan films also have similar duel scenes like those the",
"-31.692095092570526"
],
[
"in the writing and much less reliance on CG and film speed trickery to make the fights seem flashier (and faker). There are just too many little things that feel off for the big, eye-catching things to really stay with you.\"\nThe Sci-Fi Movie Page awarded the film two stars out of five. Film critic Tim Janson stated: \"First time Director Aleksander Bach makes the mistake in thinking that more characters with special abilities makes for a better film. Unfortunately this is not the case. There’s little attempt at developing any of the characters as more than one-dimensional cutouts.\" Future In",
"-31.627385232988672"
],
[
"memory. A show which involves fight choreography will typically be trained and supervised by a professional fight choreographer and may also include a fight captain, who runs fight calls and ensures that actors are remaining safe throughout the duration of the show.\nThe fighting styles in movies set in the Medieval or Renaissance period may be unrealistic and historically inaccurate. Most fight choreographers use a mix between Asian martial arts and sports fencing to re-enact fight scenes. This generally due to the look of the fighting asked for by the director. If the director wants the story to flow a certain",
"-31.526369698425697"
],
[
"sequence to the previous one by saying, \"I don't think any one of these versions is going to be better or worse than the other. They're just going to be different. This particular one was in a smaller room, so it was a little bit more complicated.\" The sequence, which took \"three or four hours of sprints and sprints and sprints\" to get right, not only accommodated the actors and camera crew in the small, \"intimate\" room, but the producers and showrunners as well, as they wished to \"witness the action scene unfold.\"\nKevin Tancharoen noted that \"On shows like Daredevil",
"-31.50203629079624"
],
[
"worse. From the movements of the characters to the visual effects - like two arrows going at each other - it looks like a pirated and outdated version of MS Paint was used to create the film.\" and added, \"The movements of the characters are awkward and jerky, making it look like the mythical heroes learned how to walk from Godzilla. The battle scenes are not only badly drawn and animated, they're also boring.\" and concluded, \"This new Mahabharata isn't so much a kid-friendly version as one made for dummies, by dummies.\"\nTaran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated the film 3",
"-31.455530837578408"
],
[
"said that \"I had a limit on the running time of the picture. We shot many scenes that—for a regular feature—were too tangential to keep the main story progressing properly. We thought it might be good sometime to do a longer version with these other things in, because a lot of the characters that are missing in the finished movie had been filmed. They're part of the picture, they're just not necessary for the main story.\" According to Lynch, had the film included these scenes, it \"wouldn't have been quite so dark. To me it obeyed the laws of Twin",
"-31.428360277235697"
],
[
"attempts to make sure the actors are used as much as possible when performing fight scenes, unless the scenes are particularly dangerous. The fast shooting schedule forces Chartrand to rely on guest stars who can perform their own stunts, because of the limited time to find a \"good double\" for the actor.\nPhysical effects were not an issue for the series regulars. Allison Mack performed her own stunts for the scene in \"Hothead\" where her character's office is set on fire, and again in \"Kinetic\", when she was cabled off and dangled 50 ft (15 m) above the ground. For \"Nicodemus\", the stunt",
"-31.302914559229976"
],
[
"Universal and I refuse to let happen. It has always been my firm conviction that films should speak for themselves and that knowing too much about how they are made diminishes the magic of watching them.\" Visual effects Leterrier cited Andy Serkis' motion capture portrayals of Gollum and King Kong in The Lord of the Rings and King Kong, respectively, as the standard he was aiming for. Norton and Roth filmed 2500 takes of different movements the monsters would make (such as the Hulk's \"thunder claps\"). Phosphorescent face paint applied to the actors' faces and strobe lighting would help record",
"-31.28765688959902"
],
[
"stuntwork. Films such as The Matrix and Mission: Impossible 2 have shown how CGI and stunts can be integrated for maximum effect. But—if for no other reason than safety—it is doubtful that the records established by Hooper and Sharky's Machine will be broken anytime soon. A new subgenre of eastern martial arts films exists which emphasize the actors performing their own stunts, deliberately using wide angles and unbroken shots to show each stunt in its entirety. Examples of actors doing their own stunts include Jackie Chan and Tony Jaa.",
"-31.275716250383994"
],
[
"there is room to work at a safe distance. Realism in fight choreography Fight choreography can vary widely from true realism to outright fantasy depending upon the requirements of a particular production. One of the biggest reasons that theatrical fight directors often do not aim for strict realism is that the live audience could not easily follow the 'story' of the action if bodies and blades were moving in the ways trained fighters would move them. For example, a production of Cyrano de Bergerac, by Edmond Rostand, using 17th-Century rapiers, might show Cyrano making lots of circular cut attacks. But",
"-31.25900618538435"
],
[
"to push the lighting and the environments to create the look and feel of an alternate reality.\" The animators that worked on the fight sequences were inspired by Hong Kong action films. Animation director Kim Ooi explains said that because of CGI they were able to \"push and stylize beyond the limits of live action.\" Imagi used Maya with Pixar's RenderMan for the production pipeline's back-end. Casting Jim Cummings was the only past TMNT actor to appear in this film, where he had previously contributed voice-work in the 1987 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles series. The film also features three voice",
"-31.19206230646887"
],
[
"The fourth film goes too far the other way, lacking the energy of its predecessors, but regardless, the films are a lot of fun. With lashings of gore, high-quality martial arts sequences with wacky flourishes thrown in to the mix, they’ll be sure to please fans of Japanese genre movies.\"",
"-31.19065231679997"
],
[
"a few sets and characters into a generation-spanning look at a society where benevolence and malevolence are so finely interwoven that it’s hard to know what to fight against.\" Murray found that, in 90-minute film form, it \"doesn’t fully work\"; both the beginning and end of the film were \"strong\", but in between, the film seemed padded with \"cheesy-looking sex and fight scenes, and with a doubling-back narrative structure\" that was confusing, and looked like an \"attempt to save money by reusing footage.\"\nKevin Thomas wrote in the Los Angeles Times \"Many of Nikolic's concerns and motifs are familiar yet",
"-31.132331298980716"
],
[
"degrees Fahrenheit). Abbess described this as the hardest scene to shoot. Initially intending to make Gabriel without computer-generated effects, Abbess also tried to reproduce bullet time on a low budget by using giant props on strings, though he eventually decided CGI were more successful.\nThe style of fighting in Gabriel was intended to be a \"stylised version of pub brawling.\" Shane Abbess intended for each of Gabriel's successive fights with the Fallen to be \"a whole different experience,\" and strove to shoot each one differently. The lack of time meant there was little time for the performers to rehearse fight scenes:",
"-31.088324560561887"
],
[
"from Day of the Dead.\nThe film's fight sequences were influenced by Asian cinema. \"We watched a lot of Thai movies this time around because of the movies (Powell) has done,\" says Anderson. \"He did The Last Samurai as well. He has worked with a lot of Japanese stuntmen and he has worked with a lot of Hong Kong stuntmen. But we felt the area that hadn't been mined by western cinema much was that whole kind of high impact Thai style of fighting. So we just watched a lot of action sequences from a lot of Thai movies. There were",
"-31.02040084579494"
],
[
"Variety called the film \"a technical dazzler with a surprisingly humane streak\", stating \"if They Shall Not Grow Old is head-spinning for its jolting animation of creakily shot battle scenes—tricked out with ingeniously integrated sound editing and seamlessly re-timed from 13 frames a second to 24 — its greatest revelation isn’t one of sound and fury. Rather, it's the film's faces that stick longest in the mind. Through the exhaustive transformation completed by Jackson's team, visages that were all but indistinguishably blurred in the archives take on shape, character and creases of worry, terror and occasional hilarity. In conjunction with",
"-30.98420444279691"
],
[
"their lack of budget constraints allowing more artistic freedom to be taken with the action and effects than that seen in the feature film. Back story, inside jokes, and running gags are further flushed out in the animations than what could be used in the film.\nA number of notable videogame voice actors have guest starred in the series as well, including Mortal Kombat's John Turk (who took over the ninja roles portrayed by Pesina), and David Humphrey, the original voice of Shadow the Hedgehog.\nThe animations take place before the events of the movie, similar to two made-for-DVD animated prequels: Van",
"-30.954377839869267"
],
[
"was shown, the monster was smoother and slower than in the original shot. Kaiju films also used a form of puppetry interwoven between suitmation scenes which served for shots that were physically impossible for the suit actor to perform. From the 1998 release of Godzilla, American-produced kaiju films strayed from suitmation to computer-generated imagery (CGI). In Japan, CGI and stop-motion have been increasingly used for certain special sequences and monsters, but suitmation has been used for an overwhelming majority of kaiju films produced in Japan of all eras.",
"-30.94880315055343"
],
[
"criticism, they felt that the film's action was substandard, the fight choreography weak, and certain scenes were \"ruined by pretentious visual manipulation\". They offered that Disturbance \"is a good-looking movie\", but that its visual prowess could not hide the fact of the film's low budget. They conceded that use of color and shadow \"are utilized strikingly\" and \"make for good eye candy, even if they are not overly endowed with thespian qualities\", and offered that Paul Sloan has \"a magnetic presence onscreen\" and Hayley DuMond delivers \"an impressive emotional scene toward the end,\" and summarize that \"As far as low-budget",
"-30.918218340048043"
],
[
"much \"filler\". Theron Martin of Anime News Network (ANN) praised the movie for its humor, use of main and supporting cast, the introduction of Beerus and Whis and the overall light-hearted nature and plot. But also criticized the movie for its inconsistent animation, uninspiring fight scenes and use of CGI, stating, \"Ultimately Battle of Gods is entirely a movie for long-established fans, as it has too many in-jokes that those not familiar with wide swaths of the franchise would get. It is not a stellar addition to the franchise but is a worthwhile and at least moderately entertaining one, provided",
"-30.877822875365382"
],
[
"or aerial image animation cameras, which enabled more accurate positioning, and more realism into interaction of actors and fictional characters. Often, every frame of the live action film was traced by rotoscoping, so that the animator could add his drawing in the exact position. With the rise of computer animation, combining live action and animation became common. Criticism of techniques The Star Wars prequels and The Lord of the Rings trilogy, for example, include substantial amounts of animation, though this has not been critically recognized as such due to the realism of the animation. However, some critics like Roger Ebert",
"-30.8528529133946"
],
[
" Mondo films like Faces of Death mix real and fake footage freely, and they gain their cult following through the outrage and debate over authenticity that results. Like \"so bad it's good\" cult films, old propaganda and government hygiene films may be enjoyed ironically by more modern audiences for the camp value of the outdated themes and outlandish claims made about perceived social threats, such as drug use. Academic Barry K. Grant states that Frank Capra's Why We Fight World War II propaganda films are explicitly not cult, because they are \"slickly made and have proven their",
"-30.838211179117934"
],
[
"War is hardly made into any historical war films intended for entertainment use in these countries. However, reference about the ongoing war as a background setting is heavily used as a setpiece to drive the storyline on. For example, Hong Kong martial arts films have used the \"cartoon villain\" portrayal of Japanese soldiers or generals being defeated by the Chinese lead character in an attempt to stop the Japanese from using biological weapons or stealing Chinese treasures (films like Fist of Fury, Millionaire's Express and Fist of Legend). Some films that depict Japanese war crimes were also made, such as",
"-30.774851558817318"
],
[
"may not be open to the public, are fought like real battles with each side devising strategies and tactics to defeat their opponent(s). They have no script, a basic set of agreed-upon rules (physical boundaries, time limit, victory conditions, etc.), and onsite judges or referees, and so could be considered a form of live action role-playing game. Tactical battles might also be considered a form of experimental archaeology. Reenactment and media Motion picture and television producers often turn to reenactment groups for support; films like Gettysburg, Glory and Gods and Generals benefited greatly from the input of reenactors, who arrived",
"-30.70023960627441"
],
[
"For example, both the dead bodies of Amanda True and Randolph are shown with eyes closed in the TV episode; in the movie, their eyes are open and Randolph's death is more brutal. In some fight scenes, the movie version contains more violent images compared to the episodes (e.g., a bloody face in the London bar, greater violence in the Japanese temple). Margo De Fanzini's initial nudity is seen in both versions, but is more pronounced in the movie.\nOther changes were made for apparently no reason other than artistic. For example: there is a scene that",
"-30.635310141416994"
],
[
"the good fight.\nShe later reflected:\nHow do I think the balance between genre constraints and creative freedom influenced my work? There was always a struggle in my mind between the two. I would have covered the same topics, but made the films very differently, if I had not had these constraints. I knew it then. But I tried not to be discouraged and... I tried to do the best I could... While I do not object to violence or nudity in principle, the reason audiences came to see these low-budget films without stars was because they delivered scenes that you could",
"-30.614704255596735"
],
[
"and Jurassic Park (1993). Since then techniques have developed to the stage that the difference between CGI and real life cinematography is seldom obvious. Filmmakers can blend both types of images seamlessly with virtual cinematography. The Matrix (1999) and it's two sequels are usually regarded as breakthrough films in this field.\nDue to the complexity of human body functions, emotions and interactions, movies with important roles for fully 3D-animated realistic-looking human characters have been rare. The more realistic a CG character becomes, the more difficult it is to create the nuances and details of a living person, and the greater the",
"-30.60453111682"
],
[
"out of four and wrote that it \"gets old fast unless you have an insatiable appetite for seeing actors beaned with salamis and butted with sabres.\" Gary Arnold of The Washington Post called it \"a lot of title for very little entertainment\" and a \"strenuous throwaway production.\" Linda Gross of the Los Angeles Times called it \"a silly, slapstick spaghetti spoof of swashbuckling adventure movies\" and \"a badly-dubbed hodge-podge\" which \"lacks a deft historical perspective so even the artful battle footage by photographer Giovanni Bergamini looks like it belongs in another kind of movie.\" Maurizio Cavagnaro of the Genoese newspaper",
"-30.56868357177882"
],
[
"artists to create. Although the film was shot on highly detailed sets, visual effects and CGI was incorporated in post-production to enhance the imagery for the scenes that were impossible to shoot in live action.\nThe effects included the creation of interior architecture, backgrounds, set extensions and war weapons; changes to lighting and time of day, weather effects and the multiplication of army soldiers. The opening night-time war scene, which had 300 visual effects shots, was filmed in bright daylight then converted into night. Arrows flying over the battlefield were created using CGI whereas the army, soldiers and horses were multiplied.",
"-30.567269785591634"
],
[
"prequel trilogy. It was action with a science fiction twist. The trend with films such as The Matrix and The Dark Knight series, is that hand-to-hand fighting and Asian martial-arts techniques are now widely used in science fiction and superhero movies.\nSylvester Stallone's The Expendables used nostalgia for a perceived golden age of action films by casting 1980s action stars alongside new actors in the genre such as Jason Statham.\nIn The Fast and the Furious series, the action film staple of the car chase is the central plot driver as it had been in Smokey and the Bandit films in the",
"-30.50622959903194"
],
[
"to film them in closeup is only one example of the total lack of talent or effort with which the picture is made...the movie is a kind of no-talent competition in which the acting, the script, the direction and the camera-work vie for last place.\" More recently, in more positive vein, BFI Screenonline said, \"Extravagant, colourful and thoroughly preposterous, At the Earth's Core is utterly without pretension but has the exuberant charm of the best of its decade.\" \nThe film was featured in the season finale of the revived Mystery Science Theater 3000, the show's eleventh season overall, released on",
"-30.49914972917759"
],
[
"present their accordant skills on the screen. Since silent movies were no proper medium for long dialogues, the classic stories about heroes who would defend their honour with sword in hand were simplified and sheer action would gain priority. This was the birth of a new kind of film hero: the swashbuckler.\nFour of the most famous instructors for swashbuckling swordplay are William Hobbs, Anthony De Longis, Bob Anderson and Peter Diamond.\nThe larger-than-life heroics portrayed in some film franchise adventures (most notably the Indiana Jones movies) set in the modern era have been described as swashbuckling. Film The genre has, apart",
"-30.492957835223933"
],
[
"reality TV that turns a high-school milieu dominated by cliques and childish relationships into a war zone.\" British critic Jonathan Ross stated that \"if you want to catch a wildly original and super-cool slice of entertainment before it gets remade and ruined by the Americans, then I suggest you try hard not to miss it\" and concluded that \"it's a wildly imaginative example of just what can be achieved in a teen movie.\" In 2009, filmmaker Quentin Tarantino praised Battle Royale as the best film he had seen in the past two decades, stating that, \"If there’s any movie that’s",
"-30.478113653342007"
],
[
"integrated into the costume itself, increasing their realism. The animatronics were usually puppeteered by an operator with a remote control. However, their use dropped due to the advent of CGI, which was often cheaper to implement. For example, the suit used in the television series Harry and the Hendersons cost USD $1 million.\nNevertheless, despite the fluidity of CGI animals and monsters, purely visual effects are often panned, or, at least, not preferred by discerning film viewers. It is extremely difficult to mimic realistic lighting, leading to most CGI creatures and characters looking obviously fake when placed alongside real environments, especially",
"-30.452699988047243"
],
[
"stunt-fighting. That's a whole other thing. I'm not really punching out the stunt guy, nor are they hitting me, so it's learning this dance, really, within the fight. It's how to pull back, how to take a hit and make it look real. \nAs with many Marvel projects, secrecy was a big issue. For instance, it was a challenge keeping Samuel L. Jackson's cameo in \"0-8-4\" a surprise due to \"this age of tweets and spoilers\". The showrunners had been exposed to this while working on The Avengers, but with their own series they were able to see \"all",
"-30.441489335729102"
],
[
"quality\", though fans will likely forgive its faults, as they did the first film. Leydon, though describing it as \"a patchwork quilt of outtakes from its four predecessors\", also cited the appeal to fans to revisit their favorite characters. Though recognizing the film's narrative weakness, Michele Galgana of Screen Anarchy wrote, \"Still, it's impossible to overlook the fun that you see all these guys having, and their hearts are all in the right place.\"\nSimon Abrams of Roger Ebert.com gave the film two and a half stars saying the \"CGI-intensive action scenes are distractingly ugly-looking. The camerawork is also",
"-30.434157461288123"
],
[
"feeling in battles. If they had gone with a more traditional battle system, then it would have quickly lost its cinematic quality due to the prevalence of close combat. Likewise, they wanted the cinematic feel to persist throughout the whole game rather than restricted to cutscenes. A major challenge was to strike a balance between accessibility and difficulty when developing for a player base that might be made of up of both action game and RPG players. This resulted in the addition of strategy elements. Another wish was to create something new and fresh in the RPG market. When creating",
"-30.335225766029907"
],
[
"same situation\", but wrote that Battle Royale gives \"even harder choices for its school-uniformed characters.\" He concluded that, \"Some will be uncomfortable or appalled, and the mix of humour and horror is uneasy, but this isn't a film you'll forget easily. And, seriously, what would you do?\"\nThe Guardian critic Peter Bradshaw gave the film four stars in September 2001, choosing it as the best film of the week. He praised Takeshi Kitano's performance as the teacher and some of the scenes as \"a stunningly proficient piece of action film-making, plunging us into a world of delirium and fear.\" He notes",
"-30.32975239092775"
],
[
"Martial arts film Martial arts films are a subgenre of action films, which feature numerous martial arts fights between characters. These fights are usually the films' primary appeal and entertainment value, and often are a method of storytelling and character expression and development. Martial arts are frequently featured in training scenes and other sequences in addition to fights. Martial arts films commonly include other types of action, such as hand-to-hand combat, stuntwork, chases, and gunfights. History As with other action films, martial arts films are dominated by action to varying degrees; many martial arts films have only a minimal plot",
"-30.307598700957897"
],
[
"noted \"there's an impressive degree of variation and anthropological detail in the weaponry and fighting techniques, from the numerous implied decapitations (the Seediq's chief m.o.) to the guerrilla assaults in the tropical terrain they know so well.\" Chang however criticized the film's use of special effects as \"generally substandard throughout\" and writes the \"occasional shots of CGI rainbows -- that title is unfortunately literal -- send the film momentarily spiraling into camp.\"\nDeborah Young of The Hollywood Reporter describes the film as \"stunning to look at, authentic to a fault and a little tedious to follow\", and praised the action",
"-30.29024855280295"
],
[
"the special effects. That’s what we've been doing for 50 years. And that’s why Hollywood doesn’t do it. So on the first meeting, I told everybody that we stick to the special effects, and the live action instead of CGI. So it’s a CGI-monster-Hollywood Godzilla versus our man-made live-action monsters.\"\nFilming included on-location shooting in New York City and Sydney, Australia. Music The film's soundtrack was composed by Keith Emerson, Nobuhiko Morino, and Daisuke Yano. It features the song We're All to Blame by Sum 41 during the battle between Godzilla and Zilla. The band was billed in the opening credits.",
"-30.27120660644141"
],
[
"gun play and a surprising array of stunts including deep water scuba shoots, sky diving, and some military fighter action,\" with \"an array of interesting characters,\" and concluded that it was \"a respectable independent action film with elements of sci-fi and horror thrown in.\"\nNic Baisley of Film Snobbery wrote \"The fairly wide variety of locations used in the movie also add that sense of realism to the story that is generally left out in some films. The use of multiple locations adds a lot of free production value to an otherwise obviously low-budget film. Other things in this film that",
"-30.22338949733239"
],
[
"depicted extensive battle scenes with hundreds of characters. By using the rotoscope, Bakshi could trace highly complex scenes from live-action footage and transform them into animation, thereby taking advantage of the complexity live-action film can capture without incurring the exorbitant costs of producing a live-action film.\"\nI was told that at Disney the actor was told to play it like a cartoon with all that exaggeration. In Lord of the Rings, I had the actors play it straight. The rotoscope in the past has been used in scenes and then exaggerated. The action becomes cartoony. The question then comes up that",
"-30.184578696731478"
],
[
"another reviewer of Anime News Network, said that the film's pace is \"anything but smooth\" and that the battles are \"cobbled together\". She commented that the film is \"syrupy good fun\" for those who are fans of the series, but noted that for non-fans it will hold only \"limited appeal\". Although Todd Douglass Jr. of DVD talk said that \"you really have to be affirmed in One Piece lore in order to full [sic] appreciate [it]\" and commented that it felt \"incomplete and unbalanced\", he still recommended the film, stating that it is \"short on story but ... a",
"-30.17354126223654"
],
[
"moves and just a general feel that we thought we could infuse the movie with. You know, that kind of bone crunch where you really feel the impact. We tried to bring that into the movie, which is also good for 3D because obviously 3D makes it harder to sell those kind of fake phony punches because you see the distance between the fist and the face. So that kind of Thai style of fighting where you actually make contact is a lot stronger.\" Casting Returning from the previous film are: Milla Jovovich as Alice, Sienna Guillory (Jill Valentine) and",
"-30.13698235987249"
],
[
"were the only two of the main actors who participated in the shoot. However, the main problem with filming in Moscow was of the 30 plus degree heat, and the actors had to wear winter coats because the episodes were set during the colder months. Stunts The producers allow the cast to perform many of their own stunts. In filming fight sequences, they were carefully choreographed beforehand so the actors could participate themselves. The guns featured on the series are real. In scenes where guns are included, an armourer is on hand throughout the entirety of the sequence to see",
"-30.125845067203045"
],
[
"development, fearing it would be difficult to achieve in a film. In earlier scripts, there were more scenes involving the pirates and mermaids that were similar to those with the dwarfs in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Ultimately, these scenes were cut for pacing reasons. The film concept was also a bit darker at one point than that of the finished product; for example, there were scenes involving Captain Hook being killed by the crocodile, the Darling family mourning over their lost children and Pan and the children discovering the pirates' treasure loaded with booby traps. Live-action reference As",
"-30.116933636811154"
],
[
"out of 5, writing, \"Duvall gives his best performance in ages\" in a \"tough, muscular, satisfying movie\".\nIn particular, the gun fighting scenes were intentionally filmed in giant wide shots and were praised for their intense realism by a number of critics and yet were the reason the film earned an R Rating. Kevin Carr of FilmThreat.com said on the gun action in Open Range: \"After The Matrix redefined action in the late 1990s, every crummy action sequence tries to repeat the power of 'bullet time' often with little success. The action in Open Range is filmed real time, grabbing the",
"-30.05742484048824"
],
[
"these kinds of films from that era, while viewers who aren’t into martial arts efforts or weren’t fans of the original should heed caution.\"",
"-30.042547955628834"
],
[
"British Columbia. The crew used two cameras simultaneously for each scene, which allowed for two different angles to be filmed of the same sequence. The series usually has a dark atmosphere, though production purposefully created a contrasting appearance for certain episodes. \"Hollywood Babylon\" details the filming of a fake horror movie, and the use of two filming styles helped make a distinction; scenes of the fake film used more saturated colors, while scenes for the actual episode were \"down to reality\". To depict the perfect world of \"What Is and What Should Never Be\", the usual shadows and \"moody lighting\"",
"-30.04214483582473"
],
[
"in that version of the script. So it becomes a kind of assembly line of changing actors. You shoot a master shot and then you shoot all three or five versions of however many characters there are. When you do the close-ups, the cast always have to be on call because even if they’ve been killed off, they have to survive in at least one version. It frankly can get a little wearying – you can get very easily confused as a director as to where you are in any given scene. When the writer, Richard C Matheson, wrote the",
"-30.023006587958662"
],
[
"Kinberg was considered as a replacement. Later that month, it was announced that Chris Weitz had signed to write the script for the film. In March 2015, the title was announced.\nEdwards stated that the style of the film would be similar to that of a war film, stating, \"It's the reality of war. Good guys are bad. Bad guys are good. It's complicated, layered; a very rich scenario in which to set a movie.\" Assuming that Disney would not allow a dark ending, Edwards had the main characters surviving in the original version of the script, but the producers opted",
"-30.02140762041381"
],
[
"Andy Whitfield says that some fight scenes were rehearsed for only \"three minutes before the cameras rolled.\" The hallway fight between Gabriel and Asmodeus was an example of this; the actors learned and executed a 98-move fight sequence in only an hour. Abbess states that stunt co-ordinator Kyle Rowling was \"instrumental\" to the quality of the action scenes. Post-production The first cut of Gabriel was \"self indulgent\" and three hours long. This version was screened for some executives in Hollywood who recommended that film be cut down to under two hours \"because we're an MTV audience these days.\" In mid-2006",
"-30.015651566704037"
],
[
"cascading unrelated scenarios, poor lighting and automatic dialogue replacement, cheap camera angles, and scratches; to make it look like an old film. But critics thought had Roden used 35mm instead of a digital camera, it could've been something else rather than making it look like a second rate copycat of Blairwitch, which failed to have extensive screenings and international distribution.\nHowever, Roden opined it was experimental. Showing a collection of scary scenes patterned from old school Filipino horror movies was the best of its intention. Audience focusing on the characters relation to the story in the movie itself was never recommended",
"-30.015526947856415"
],
[
"Twister, Pompeii, San Andreas, Into the Storm, The 5th Wave, and The Hurricane Heist. Martial arts A subgenre of the action film, martial arts films contain numerous hand-to-hand combats between characters. They are usually the films' primary appeal and entertainment value and are often the method of storytelling, character expression, and development. Martial arts films contain many characters who are martial artists. These roles are often played by actors who are real martial artists. If not, actors usually fervently train in preparation for their roles. Another method of going around this issue is that the action director may",
"-29.90719816616911"
],
[
"scene utilised music and other technical enhancements, Pothan wanted the climactic fight to look more natural: \"I felt it would be better to film it without its cinematic nature. To be able to relate to the scene, it had to look natural. Fahadh and Sujith had a tough time while shooting\". The scene was filmed in four days on muddy grounds near the Cheruthoni and Idukki Dams. The film's appooppan thadi (milkweeds) were artificial; about 1,000 were made from lightweight materials. In a scene where Crispin cuts them down, most blew upward like real milkweeds and the scene had to",
"-29.8940295385255"
],
[
"reality, but it would have kind of this heightened sense of craziness – even to which genres we were picking, which was a split hybrid between Elvis movies and the World War II movies.\nDavid Zucker said they had been working on the script since Airplane! \"but we just couldn't figure out how to do it. We made repeated attempts to combine a rock and roll movie with a World War II movie but it was very difficult to do... We already had ideas for scenes we wanted to do and we tried to fit in plot around those scenes\". A",
"-29.878300648124423"
],
[
"days. That kind of thing doesn’t happen, and we fully understood why. Most films don’t call for heavy effects makeup, 75% night shoots, remote locations, living animals, bitter cold, shooting in water, gunshots, driving stunts...and child actors. Add an extremely low budget and 12 days of shooting on top of all of that. It’s pure madness\".\nThough the events of the film are completely fictional, Sims loosely based the characters of \"D\" and \"Frank\" off of himself and his grandfather who took him hunting as a child, and while the film takes place in a distinct cultural part of Arkansas, five",
"-29.874299548813724"
],
[
"the well-designed action sequences are crisp, relevant and lack the fun element that was noticed in the previous Chhota Bheem editions. The dialogues too sound bland and unimpressive.\nVisually, the film is brilliantly mounted. Each frame is colourful and appealing and the voices of the ace cast are matched perfectly. The animation, along with the 3D effects, are spectacular with all characters faithfully created, appealing to look at and truly vivacious except for the wispy pink dragon which seems more out of place in this cinematic universe.\nOverall, for a theatre released film, fatigue seems to be setting into this series.",
"-29.85530935567749"
],
[
"a higher visual quality than the original release, is 25 minutes longer than the original cut of the film, and also contains roughly one thousand revised scenes. Themes expanded in Advent Children Complete include Cloud's development, Denzel's background, and a more in-depth view of the Turks and Rufus Shinra. The film's staff wanted to add links to the other titles in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII that had been released since the original film. There is more violence in this version, specifically more blood during the fights, as the staff wanted to bring a \"dirtier\" look to the film,",
"-29.849763266196533"
],
[
"the tension (horror movies almost always play as comedies). With Survive! though, the audience tends to be a little more sober, a little more thoughtful. Maybe that's because we realize that underlying this rather dumb, uninspired, even crude film is a true story of such compelling power that we're forced to think and respond.\"",
"-29.833651225926587"
],
[
"for the portrayal of characters.\nSome movie tie-in games, such as Electronic Arts' The Lord of the Rings and Star Wars games, have also extensively used film footage and other assets from the film production in their cutscenes. Another movie tie-in, Enter the Matrix, used film footage shot concurrently with The Matrix Reloaded that was also directed by the film's directors, the Wachowskis. Pre-rendered cutscenes Pre-rendered cutscenes are animated and rendered by the game's developers, and take advantage of the full array of techniques of CGI, cel animation or graphic novel-style panel art. Like live-action shoots, pre-rendered cutscenes are often presented",
"-29.810609714506427"
],
[
"of Culture.\nFilming took place between October 2009 and February 2010, as the weather conditions allowed, both in Bangkok and the northeast of Thailand, Isan. The movie was shot with 16 mm film instead of digital video both for budgetary reasons and to give the film a look similar to that of classic Thai cinema.\nI was old enough to catch the television shows that used to be shot on 16 mm film. They were done in studio with strong, direct lighting. The lines were whispered to the actors, who mechanically repeated them. The monsters were always in the dark to hide the",
"-29.803297960039345"
],
[
"animation to tape before being shipped back to the United States.\nDirector David Silverman said that unlike the TV series where \"you [have] to pick and choose\", the film gave them the opportunity to \"lavish that attention [on] every single scene\". The characters have shadows, unlike in the show. Silverman and the animators looked to films such as The Incredibles, The Triplets of Belleville, and Bad Day at Black Rock for inspiration, as they were \"a great education in staging because of how the characters are placed\". They also looked for ideas for a dream sequence, in Disney films such as",
"-29.798536884598434"
],
[
"The King of Fighters franchise, comparing it favourably in contrast to the live-action film that received negative reviews. IGN France reviewer was disappointed by the first three episodes, citing varying quality of graphics and his opinion inadequate sound, even as he enjoyed the mix of action and Chinese humor. The series was well received in China, winning the China Games Billboard 2018 award for most popular game-based animation.",
"-29.795927413520985"
],
[
"main battle sequence taking place in the same area, and thus sought to remedy this by lowering ticket prices. Critical reaction The film received mainly mixed reviews. Monster Zero called the film \"a curiously uninvolving effort\" that \"disappoints in nearly all aspects of the production\". American Kaiju criticized the \"wildly uneven pacing\", \"uneven special effects\", and \"exceedingly lumpy story\", but added that \"most of the special effects are pretty fair\" and \"the monster battles are mostly fun.\" DVD Cult said, \"It does have some great destruction scenes and monster battles; two things that make these films worthwhile to begin with.",
"-29.77571939813606"
],
[
"as a sequel because the films and themes they have picked are relatable. However, lack of freshness can reduce this franchise to a formula too.\"",
"-29.772930413135327"
],
[
"the Western genre, spy-movies, as well as urban-action films, were starting to parody themselves, and with the growing revolution in CGI (computer generated imagery), the \"real-world\" settings began to give way to increasingly fantastic environments. This new era of action films often had budgets unlike any in the history of motion pictures. The success of the many Dirty Harry and James Bond sequels had proven that a single successful action film could lead to a continuing action franchise. Thus, the 1980s and 1990s saw a rise in both budgets and the number of sequels a film could generally have. This",
"-29.767828550102422"
],
[
"Because of the expanded budget, Zemeckis told the screenwriters to rewrite their script, because \"there is nothing that you could write that would cost me more than a million dollars per minute to film. Go wild!\" In particular, the entire fight with the dragon was rewritten from a talky confrontation to a battle spanning the cliffs and the sea. Animation Sony Pictures Imageworks created the animation for the film with visual effects supervisor Jerome Chen overseeing creative and technical development for the project. Animation supervisor Kenn MacDonald explained that Zemeckis used motion capture because \"Even though it feels like live",
"-29.729710110623273"
],
[
"yet but we'll put the action in later. Because that's us animating the characters to the camera. So we would do that animation with the characters—grappling, punching or flying away—and we would take the real guys up until the point until they were supposed to do that and we'd cut. Then we'd put an environment camera there and take the environment. And then a camera for reference of the actors and get each moment. So then we had a set of high-res stills for the environment and the characters. Then, in post, we take the digi-doubles and animate them according",
"-29.72579803253757"
],
[
"entries in the series. Still, the filmmakers and actors are clearly dedicated to making a quality product, avoiding the complacency that often plagues action sequels.\" Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, saying: \"Moments after Dom has gone rogue and apparently wants to kill them, they're making jokes. As they're racing through the streets of New York City or skidding along the ice in Russia, killing bad guys and narrowly avoiding getting killed themselves, they're crackin' wise. Even within this ludicrous universe, it's jarring to hear these supposedly smart folks, who refer to",
"-29.696285424859525"
],
[
"wartime films had been largely forgotten, as \"losers do not get reruns\", yet they were so subtle and skilful that Frank Capra thought Chocolate and Soldiers unbeatable. Heroes were typically low-ranking officers, not samurai, calmly devoted to his men and his country. These films did not personalise the enemy and therefore lacked hatred, though Great Britain could figure as the \"cultural enemy\". For Japanese film-makers, war was not a cause but more like a natural disaster, and \"what mattered was not whom one fought but how well\". Asian enemies, especially the Chinese, were often portrayed as redeemable and even possible",
"-29.67556449829135"
],
[
"rehearsed everyday from 3 am to 7 am before they were filmed. A team of 250 stuntmen and 5,000 extras were used for all the battle scenes, which were filmed for 20–30 days at a stretch. Ashutosh wanted the climax to be perfect because of which the extras, who were people from nearby villages and were used for Akbar's and Hussain's armies, would often get tired standing in the same position for an entire day. Some of them would not be present the next day. As a result, Dewan placed the 250 stuntmen in the front rows of both armies",
"-29.661142499709968"
],
[
"than a realistic one. He also felt it should not look like the popular Pixar movies such as The Incredibles, because he wanted the film and characters to have its own unique style. Lucas also decided to create the animated film and series from a live-action perspective, which Winder said set it apart from other CGI films. Essentially, it \"meant using long camera shots, aggressive lighting techniques, and relying on editing instead of storyboards.\" Animators also reviewed designs from the original 2003 Clone Wars series when creating the animation style for the film and the new series. In charge was",
"-29.65704529589857"
],
[
"several times so that the fight in the projection box corresponds with the fight on the screen. Kent is knocked out, and the film is a huge success. Background Hercules Returns is a screen adaptation of the popular Australian live comedy show Double Take, conceived and performed by Des Mangan with Sally Patience. The Double Take show, which began in Sydney in 1986, is part of the \"dub parody\" genre, in which ostensibly serious films are deliberately re-voiced in a satirical or spoof manner. Well-known examples of this genre include the 1960s Jay Ward TV series Fractured Flickers and Woody",
"-29.652417870267527"
],
[
"is an age-old revenge tale that offers nothing new and so, the proceedings are predictable, most of the time.\" The Hindu wrote \"The screenplay is Arjun's. So is the direction. And the action hero thrills his fans with stunts aplenty. Yet fights alone, however well choreographed, cannot make a film watchable. You need a well-narrated story — something \"Ezhumalai\" lacks. Most of the time action waits for no reason and seems to need no logic.\" Sify wrote that \"the film caters strictly to the frontbenchers\".",
"-29.649987218632305"
],
[
"same amount of shooting time so \"the scope of it is much bigger. It's set in a period, there are more actors involved, the scale's bigger, there are three fight scenes—we've never had that in any of [the previous One-Shots].\" Atwell agreed to the project after watching Item 47, and due to her love for the character and potential \"to show off some of her skill sets\" that were not seen in the film. Atwell worked for three days with the stunt team to rehearse the pre-choreographed fight sequences for the short. D'Esposito elaborated on the decision to focus on",
"-29.649572524998803"
],
[
"stars and wrote, \"If you like the genre check this out; it's a refreshing take on an old storyline that's surprisingly entertaining and smart.\" Gordon Sullivan of DVD Verdict wrote, \"Though it has some good ideas—having actors play themselves, tying the film into the real world, making zombies slightly less threatening, and making a zombie film with \"real\" zombies—these additions to the formula aren't utilized effectively.\"",
"-29.648969165224116"
],
[
"audience and showing them that when this kind of stuff happens in real life, it happens faster than you think it would.\" A review on Moviola stated that the film has \"one of the most exciting final gunfights ever filmed\". IGN, USA Today, Total Film and Guns & Ammo all also say the shootout scene is one of the best of all time. Awards The film won the 2004 Western Heritage Award, and was nominated for a Golden Satellite Award, an MTV Movie Award (Diego Luna), a Motion Picture Sound Editors Award as well as a Taurus Award for stunt",
"-29.63782918083598"
],
[
"the 1970s. The film production retains many aspects from the stage version such as production design and music, but adds new scenes not featured in the original stage play. The film's plot, setting, and style echo those of the Hammer Horror films, which had their own instantly recognizable style (just as Universal Studios' horror films did). The originally proposed opening sequence was to contain clips of various films mentioned in the lyrics, as well as the first few sequences shot in black and white, but this was deemed too expensive and scrapped. Costumes, make-up, and props In the stage productions,",
"-29.61884576990269"
],
[
"control the camera. Filmmakers are often encouraged to follow traditional cinematic conventions, such as avoiding wide fields of view, the overuse of slow motion, and errors in visual continuity. Unlike live action, machinima involves less expensive, digital special effects and sets, possibly with a science-fiction or historical theme. Explosions and stunts can be tried and repeated without monetary cost and risk of injury, and the host environment may allow unrealistic physical constraints. University of Cambridge experiments in 2002 and 2003 attempted to use machinima to re-create a scene from the 1942 live-action film Casablanca. Machinima filming differed from traditional cinematography",
"-29.589435738576867"
],
[
"is a flawed but mildly entertaining regurgitation of Greek mythological elements, but it's also an example of how poorly executed 3D can hamstring a would-be spectacle.\nPeter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film 1 star out of four, stating \"The film is a sham, with good actors going for the paycheck and using beards and heavy makeup to hide their shame.\" In a review for the Chicago Tribune, Turan complained that the film is worse in 3D; he went on further to explain that the action scenes are \"more of a distraction than an enhancement\", with the battle scenes being",
"-29.586786741554533"
],
[
"way to portray characters battling through the use of their thoughts; Carroll also enjoyed the use of \"Di-Swords\" in action scenes, but thought that it occurred too rarely. Beveridge similarly liked the detailed visuals for the special abilities some characters use. Santos and Carroll both disliked the character designs, calling them bland and stereotypical; Beveridge, however, liked them, and appreciated their \"solid feel\". Santos, Carroll and Meek disliked the animation, with the former two citing off-model characters, frozen crowds, static conversation scenes and a lack of fluidity, and Meek calling it \"a black mark on Madhouse's usually stellar record\". Rose,",
"-29.58635965862777"
],
[
"from Shelob to the cave troll to have more realistic size, proportions, and shapes. For some scenes, such as the crossing of the Bridge of Khazad-dûm as it collapses, the entire cast was replaced for a few seconds by digital doubles; the laser scanning technology helped make these doubles look like the real characters/actors.\nAlso, a motion capture demonstration was created by the HITLabNZ, in which visitors wielding colored foam weapons could move against a green screen and watch an Orc, Elf, or Gondorian Soldier move the same way they did. In the making of the films, especially for the motion",
"-29.58505710686586"
],
[
"film's better moments \"don't merely balance out the weaker ones—they topple them.\" Colin Kennedy of Empire magazine said that despite problems with pacing and writing, \"there is still much pleasure to be had watching our full-blown Jedi guides in action.\" He praised the visuals and Liam Neeson's performance, and said that the duel between Darth Maul and the Jedi was \"the saga's very best lightsaber battle\".\nEmpire magazine ranked The Phantom Menace on its list of \"500 Greatest Movies of All Time\", while Entertainment Weekly and Comcast included the film on their lists of the worst movie sequels. James Berardinelli wrote,",
"-29.57568359276047"
],
[
"to skirt legal trouble and yet ride on the publicity of major blockbusters. Until the Hobbit case, mockbuster production houses have been able to achieve soundalike titling to such an extent that even actors in the movies have been confused about which movie they are starring in. Some actors starring in the original have gone on to become fans of the mockbuster model. Kel Mitchell was the star in the mockbuster Battle of Los Angeles, the mockbuster to the original Battle: Los Angeles. His friend was in the original and they began promoting both movies together. Kel has since then",
"-29.563930910968338"
],
[
"Movie Battles Gameplay Movie Battles II is a team based shooter game, in which the player joins the Imperial/Separatist forces or the Rebel/Republic forces. Both teams usually have objectives which can be completed to win the round. The player also gets a number of points which he can spend on upgrades for his character. Any players who are killed before the end of the round become spectators. They may follow certain players who are still alive or free-roam in the spectator cam, similar to other first-person shooters, such as Battlefield 2.\nThe lightsaber combat in Movie Battles is changed from the",
"-29.547989975166274"
]
] |
2023uz | Why do I avoid going to bed at night, almost like I'm procrastinating sleep. | [
"Some of it is a subconscious desire to avoid morning responsibility. For me it is a desire to just do things that I would not otherwise have time for during the day. Like surfing the web, or playing games, or reading stuff on Reddit are all things I like to stay up late doing, even though I know my body is going to wake up early in the morning. The mental stimuli keeps me going, and because I am deriving enjoyment and excitement out of it and therefore I keep myself up later because of that and in-spite of the fact that I know I should go to bed earlier.",
"I feel the same way.. But for me I think it has more to do with not wanting to get up and go to work in the morning than not wanting to go to sleep at night. As much as I love sleeping, I know that the sooner I fall asleep, the sooner I will wake up and have to get out of bed. The funny part is that if I went to bed earlier it probably wouldn't be as hard to get out of bed in the morning.",
"I read an article on Cracked that said your brain sees your future self as a different person; to the point where the consequences for your present actions will only affect your future (different) self. It explains why we go to bed late knowing we'll be tired the next morning, why we drink knowing we'll feel terrible the next morning and why we fap to certain depravities knowing we'll feed bad about it just moments later.",
"The \"putting off tomorrow\" reason was the one I told myself forever until I started studying to become a sleep technician. The minute I found out about [Delayed sleep-phase disorder (DSPD)]( URL_0 ) I realized that's what I had. TL;DR Your brain is in its own time zone.",
"My five-year-old says \"But daddy ... going to sleep is *boooring*\" Which is probably not too far from the truth.",
"It's your body being tired but your brain is far from exhausted and wants to keep doing things. Try taking on tasks that require more mental tasking throughout the day. When your mind is tired like your body, it won't care about that next episode of your netflix binge.",
"This is going to sound really immature, but sometimes I think that I stay up because I feel at my age it is suitable to be staying up to a certain late hour. I feel like parents go to bed at 11:00 and grandparents at like 9:00, and as a 21 year old it is the acceptable for me to stay up to 3:00ish. I feel like it's what the little kid version of me would of wanted",
" > ...there's just some magical force stopping me from going to bed. It might be the [blue light]( URL_1 ) from your screen. Get [f.lux]( URL_0 ) software. It really has made a difference for me.",
"I always feel like I could be getting something else done in the time that I'm \"doing nothing\" by sleeping. Weird?",
"More time sleeping = less time spent doing fun stuff.",
"I do this as well. I always just think about it as not being able to give up on the day yet. It isn't so much that there is anything in particular that I'm doing and enjoying so much that I don't want to go to sleep, I just don't want to call it yet.",
"I started tracking my sleep.... this has helped me realize how little sleep I'm getting. You can use an app like SleepBot for android do it."
] | [
[
"spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to",
"-34.33813241808093"
],
[
"attempting to sleep, it is a good idea to create a comfortable sleeping environment by eliminating daytime noise and light.",
"-32.63765170183615"
],
[
"quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time",
"-32.606916577096854"
],
[
"time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep. Genetics Heritability estimates of insomnia vary between 38% in males to 59% in females. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 3 genomic loci and 7 genes that influence the risk of",
"-31.145050015416928"
],
[
"healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking",
"-30.9209146863941"
],
[
"will frequently advise that these hours of sleep are obtained at night instead of through napping, because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation, under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep. Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing, with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive. There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule. Activities Exercise is an activity that can facilitate or inhibit sleep quality; people who exercise experience better",
"-30.6437045537823"
],
[
"noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\nThere is support",
"-30.56902897492546"
],
[
"down to sleep will continue to detect that they are lying down hours later when they awaken.",
"-30.559585286110632"
],
[
"go to sleep or stay awake as it likes but it is staying in the bed until morning (remember Proust at the opening of Swann’s Way?), we sit there with it, reading to it and singing to it and distracting it with swirling night lights until it decides it feels like going to sleep, all the while thinking to ourselves, Go the fuck to sleep, kid.\"\nAccording to Mark Rotella, an editor at Publishers Weekly (and father of two), this is one of the books \"that are less earnest about raising your child. They help parents step back and laugh at",
"-30.29098772504949"
],
[
"restlessness. Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime, requiring effort to metabolize it all, and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime. Lastly, limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions due to urinations. Sleep environment Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time",
"-30.12180513193016"
],
[
"This may or may not be permitted, depending on the employer's policies. Some employers may prohibit sleeping, even during unpaid break time, for various reasons, such as the unprofessional appearance of a sleeping employee, the need for an employee to be available during an emergency, or legal regulations. Employees who may endanger others by sleeping on the job may face more serious consequences, such as legal sanctions. For example, airline pilots risk loss of their licenses.\nIn some industries and work cultures sleeping at work is permitted and even encouraged. Such work cultures typically have flexible schedules, and variant work loads",
"-29.99481176341942"
],
[
"any other safety-critical activity), may not be because natural sleep rarely overcomes an ordinary person without warning.\nIn many countries, it is presumed that someone who is less than fully conscious cannot give consent to anything. This can be relevant in cases of sexual behavior, euthanasia or patients giving informed consent with regard to starting or stopping a treatment.",
"-29.899637231137604"
],
[
"is that by not voluntarily making oneself go to sleep, it relieves the performance anxiety that arises from the need or requirement to fall asleep, which is meant to be a passive act. This technique has been shown to reduce sleep effort and performance anxiety and also lower subjective assessment of sleep-onset latency and overestimation of the sleep deficit (a quality found in many insomniacs). Sleep hygiene Sleep hygiene is a common term for all of the behaviors which relate to the promotion of good sleep. These behaviors are used as the basis of sleep interventions and are the primary",
"-29.875006280373782"
],
[
"hours at which people of rank go to bed, renders it wholly unnecessary to force a sleep in public places.\" This followed with a joke in a later journal: a \"gentleman, lately arrived in town, has been for several days past afflicted with a lethargy, owing to the perusal of three chapters in Hawkins's Life of Johnson.\" A third stated: the branches of willow trees planted in Lichfield \"should be lopped off, and tied in bundles, ... and properly applied to the naked backs of his various biographers, taking care, that the largest bundle be appropriated unto the use and",
"-29.77045049665321"
],
[
"relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher",
"-29.509451439487748"
],
[
"about moving in with his sick mother-in-law. What kind of man are you? A small thing, I know. I'll watch the rest, because it's enthralling enough for me to want to know what happens, or rather what happened. But I won't be lying awake at night thinking about it.\"",
"-29.483126081875525"
],
[
"in sexual activity at night, so therefore night-time brings the highest danger of infidelity. Due to females investing more in the relationship, women receive more benefits from sleeping with their mate during the night. Keeping close proximity with a partner acts as a mate guarding technique as it minimises the likelihood of unfaithfulness by the male, and also assures their partner of her fidelity. As a result of the paternal confidence, the male is also more likely to stay and provide resources. In one study it was found that 73.7% of participants said that females are more likely to want",
"-29.48049042839557"
],
[
"such environmental modifications include using the bed for sleep or sex only, not for activities such as reading or watching television; waking up at the same time every morning, including on weekends; going to bed only when sleepy and when there is a high likelihood that sleep will occur; leaving the bed and beginning an activity in another location if sleep does not result in a reasonably brief period of time after getting into bed (commonly ~20 min); reducing the subjective effort and energy expended trying to fall asleep; avoiding exposure to bright light during nighttime hours, and eliminating daytime",
"-29.242569548499887"
],
[
"influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep",
"-29.237788122627535"
],
[
"1.5/5 stars and wrote that it \"is more likely to put you to sleep than keep you on the edge of your seat\".",
"-28.89140278983723"
],
[
"to go to bed early in the evening and wake earlier in the morning than younger adults. Furthermore, the elderly often wake several times throughout the night and have difficulty falling asleep. They are prone to taking numerous naps during the day. Furthermore, constant lighting in assisted living facilities has been demonstrated to impair sleep ability.\nIn persons with Alzheimer's Disease, sleep disturbances are much more frequent and tend to be more severe. These patients exhibit intermittent sleep throughout the 24-hour day, instead of consolidated sleep at night and wakefulness during the day.\nPoor sleep is one of the largest",
"-28.846434504133867"
],
[
"awakenings in at least a few nights per week due to their cell phones' ringers. Among those with the cell phone ringers on, being awakened by their cell phone was correlated to difficulty sustaining sleep.\nAccording to the article, \"Interrupted Sleep: College Students Sleeping with Technology\" by Elizabeth B. Dowdell and Brianne Q. Clayton, sleep-deprived college students performed significantly worse than peers who had adequate sleep on the cognitive task work and that the sleep-deprived students were not aware of the extent to which sleep deprivation negatively affects their ability to complete cognitive tasks. Insufficient sleep while in college may be",
"-28.75262469991503"
],
[
"naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions",
"-28.55848134489497"
],
[
"The elderly woman tells him that all five of them have been assigned to be in one bed by Social Security. She goes on to explain to him that, with the current situation, no one can afford a private beds anymore because they are now luxury items. She advises the bed owner not to kick at night because her ailing brother Albert, who wears a cloth cap and long underwear of which one pant-leg is empty and pinned up to the rear flap, is sleeping at the foot of the bed. She believes that the man is lucky because",
"-28.507641067670193"
],
[
"he have stayed in bed?\" \nJames Thurber, in his book Fables for our Time, ended the Fable of the Shrike: \"Early to rise and early to bed, makes a Shrike healthy, and wealthy, and dead\". Criticisms Such recommendations may cast individuals with different natural sleep patterns as lazy or unmotivated when it is a much different matter for a person with a longer or delayed sleep cycle to get up earlier in the morning than for a person with an advanced sleep cycle. In effect, the person accustomed to a later wake time is being",
"-28.45768531388603"
],
[
"It's us against the wealthy plain and simple. It's time to wake up. WAKE UP.",
"-28.356398909032578"
],
[
"to fall asleep while eating snacks, which attracts animals into his bedroom, though he seems incredulous or apathetic to this. His bathroom is described as disgusting, when asked if they would rather endure a dangerous and painful stunt (ex. stick a wasp up your nose) or shower in Bill's bathroom, his friends always choose the former. When assigned tasks to get his house ready for a family reunion after Nancy and Peggy are assigned the bathroom, both are horrified and desperately try to change assignments. He also has a foot fetish, finding Peggy's unnaturally over-sized feet very appealing, and even",
"-28.349778757692548"
],
[
"the morning. The reliance on technology, specifically in the bedroom, which should be associated with sleep, created the difficulty with separating waking and sleeping activities. When measuring the amount of sleep during the week compared to the weekend, students with four or more technological devices in their bedroom had significantly less sleep compared to those with three or fewer devices. Since many students do not utilize sleep mode or do not disturb or silence their phones at night, each notification and alert from their phones disrupts their sleep in terms of sleep quality and duration of sleep. Caffeine A study",
"-28.313919042091584"
],
[
"at the right type of day.\nNightlights are also helpful in reducing falls and injuries and, at the same time, help the elderly to maintain sleep. Falls are a major concern with the elderly; they threaten their independence and risk further health complications. Lighting systems can help seniors maintain balance and stability. Furthermore, sleep deprivation can contribute to decreased postural control. Nightlights that accent horizontal and vertical spaces, such as soft lighting above a doorway or at the foot of a bed, can reduce the risk of falls without disturbing sleep.",
"-28.262821025811718"
],
[
"do the exact opposite of what they have been doing in bed: They shall stay awake and avoid falling asleep. The goal of this method is to decrease performance anxiety which may inhibit sleep onset. Paradoxal Intention has been shown to be an effective treatment for sleep initiation insomnia but might not be effective for sleep maintenance or mixed insomnia. Indication CBT-I is indicated when the following criteria is met:\n1.The patient must complain about difficulties initiating or maintaining sleep. These difficulties must cause a significant distress and/or impact daily functioning. Complaints of non-restorative sleep without troubles of initiating or",
"-28.25445735804533"
],
[
"focuses on Japanese culture, writes that sleeping at work is considered a sign of dedication to the job, such that one has stayed up late doing work or worked to the point of complete exhaustion, and may therefore be excusable.",
"-28.19211258154246"
],
[
"their hotel for a nap instead. \"Sure enough I wake up from a nap and have a bunch of text messages. I turn on the TV ... it was just a twist of fate. It's definitely something that's hard to think about it. Thank goodness we didn't go\", said O'Brien.",
"-28.184120241407072"
],
[
"as the body attempts to reset its internal sleep clock. Bright light therapy, which is often used to help early morning wakers reset their natural sleep cycle, can also be used with sleep restriction therapy to reinforce a new wake schedule. Although applying this technique with consistency is difficult, it can have a positive effect on insomnia in motivated patients.\nParadoxical intention is a cognitive reframing technique where the insomniac, instead of attempting to fall asleep at night, makes every effort to stay awake (i.e. essentially stops trying to fall asleep). One theory that may explain the effectiveness of this method",
"-28.111862519872375"
],
[
"inability to fall asleep and experience marked decrease in sleep efficiency. There may also be some changes in circadian rhythms. Studies are ongoing about what causes these changes and how they may be reduced to ensure comfortable sleep of old adults. Brain activity during sleep Understanding the activity of different parts of the brain during sleep can give a clue to the functions of sleep. It has been observed that mental activity is present during all stages of sleep, though from different regions in the brain. So, contrary to popular understanding, the brain never completely shuts down during sleep. Also,",
"-28.079438070337346"
],
[
" A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The",
"-28.072101298268535"
],
[
"night for a period of time following daytime continence. Older children may have problems with bladder control (primarily at night) and may wear diapers while sleeping to control bedwetting. Approximately 16% of children in the U.S. over the age of 5 wet the bed. If bedwetting becomes a concern, the current recommendation is to consider forgoing the use of a diaper at night as they may prevent the child from wanting to get out of bed, although this is not a primary cause of bedwetting. This is particularly the case for children over the age 8. Training pants Manufacturers have",
"-28.065657852253935"
],
[
"the demands of society. It is often due to a psychosocial stressor (an event in a person's environment that causes stress or discomfort), especially for adolescents. The delayed sleep-wake cycle leads to chronic sleep deprivation and habitually late sleeping hours. Individuals with this type often have difficulty changing their sleeping patterns to an earlier and more socially acceptable time. Their actual sleep, once it begins, is normal. It is the timing of their sleeping and waking that is persistently delayed.\nThe jet lag type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is characterized by disruptions arising from a mismatch between a person's circadian",
"-28.05261573730968"
],
[
"sleep, however, especially when purely behavioral criteria are used to define sleep. For example, zebrafish, tilapia, tench, brown bullhead, and swell shark become motionless and unresponsive at night (or by day, in the case of the swell shark); Spanish hogfish and blue-headed wrasse can even be lifted by hand all the way to the surface without evoking a response. On the other hand, sleep patterns are easily disrupted and may even disappear during periods of migration, spawning, and parental care. Behavioural sleep Instead of examining brain activity for sleep patterns, an alternate approach is to examine any rest/activity cycles that",
"-27.973659363167826"
],
[
"Effects of sleep deprivation on college students Sleep Hygiene Inadequate sleep hygiene is one primary cause as to why college students experience sleep deprivation. Sleep hygiene is defined as habits or practices that allow for healthy amounts of sleep on a daily basis. Good sleep hygiene habits include keeping a consistent sleep schedule, having a quiet sleep environment, and avoiding consuming caffeine and alcohol before sleeping. Many students have inadequate sleep hygiene that leads to sleep deprivation. Technology The blue light that is emitted from the screens of phones, computers and other devices stops the production of melatonin, the hormone",
"-27.969223265114124"
],
[
"up during a single night. Poor sleep quality disrupts the cycle of transition between the different stages of sleep. Subjective sleep quality in turn refers to a sense of being rested and regenerated after awaking from sleep. A study by A. Harvey et al. (2002) found that insomniacs were more demanding in their evaluations of sleep quality than individuals who had no sleep problems.\nHomeostatic sleep propensity (the need for sleep as a function of the amount of time elapsed since the last adequate sleep episode) must be balanced against the circadian element for satisfactory sleep. Along with corresponding messages",
"-27.868199837343127"
],
[
"than three times as likely to involve driver drowsiness as those that occurred during the day.\nThe reason that collisions involving drowsy driving are more or less likely to happen at different times of the day may have to do with circadian rhythms (the biological time clock). The biological master clock in the hypothalamus is the suprachiasmatic nucleus or SCN. It provides the main control of the circadian rhythms for sleep, body temperature and other functions. The reason night time driving is so risky is because sleep becomes an irresistible urge especially from about midnight until 6 a.m. A sleepy period",
"-27.86301000851745"
],
[
"with irritability: people who get angry shortly before sleeping tend to suffer from sleep drunkenness. \nAccording to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, hypersomniac patients often take long naps during the day that are mostly unrefreshing. Researchers found that naps are usually more frequent and longer in patients than in controls Furthermore, 75% of the patients report that short naps are not refreshing, compared to controls. Diagnosis \"The severity of daytime sleepiness needs to be quantified by subjective scales (at least the Epworth Sleepiness Scale) and objective tests such as the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT).\" ",
"-27.781033362291055"
],
[
"up several times throughout the night, punctuating their sleep with periods of wakefulness, perhaps lasting several hours.\nThe boundaries between sleeping and waking are blurred in these societies. Some observers believe that nighttime sleep in these societies is most often split into two main periods, the first characterized primarily by deep sleep and the second by REM sleep.\nSome societies display a fragmented sleep pattern in which people sleep at all times of the day and night for shorter periods. In many nomadic or hunter-gatherer societies, people will sleep on and off throughout the day or night depending on what is happening.",
"-27.77452381598414"
],
[
"mortality. There are no benefits to oversleeping and it can result in sleep inertia, which is the feeling of drowsiness for a period of time after waking. There are two phases of sleep: rapid eye movement (REM) and Non-REM sleep (NREM).\nREM sleep is the less restful stage in which you dream and experience muscle movements or twitches. Also during this stage in sleep, a person's heart rate and breathing are typically irregular. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. The body's blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are generally significantly decreased compared to",
"-27.7580414970289"
],
[
"sleep for creative problem solving by thinking of a problem right before we fall asleep, as well as possible tools needed to solve the issue (not the solution itself). This may improve the chance of dreaming about the problem without the normal restraints. When waking up, participants can take notes of the dreams to see if new solutions towards solving have arisen.\nThe third and last method to boost creativity in adults, is also related to randomness. Onarheim claims that as adults we tend to associate one word with other words and things. When faced with a problem we can make",
"-27.74919808350387"
],
[
"the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to",
"-27.730981496338245"
],
[
"while sleeping, he added.\nCo-sleeping also increases the risks of suffocation and strangulation. The soft quality of the mattresses, comforters, and pillows may suffocate the infants. Some experts, then, recommend that the bed should be firm, and should not be a waterbed or couch; and that heavy quilts, comforters, and pillows should not be used. Another common advice given to prevent suffocation is to keep a baby on its back, not its stomach. Parents who roll over during their sleep could inadvertently crush and/or suffocate their child, especially if they are heavy sleepers, over-tired or over-exhausted and/or obese. There is also",
"-27.702725095907226"
],
[
"to go home.\nThe bedroom where he is to stay, on the first floor, is a peaceful contrast to the atmosphere below, but he is aware of possible dangers. He locks the door of his room and lies on the bed, which is a four-poster bed, with his winnings under the pillow. He cannot sleep. He tries to distract his mind by studying the items in the room, which include a wash-stand, chairs and a picture on the wall; thus a convincing image of the room is given to the reader. The moonlight in the room brings to his mind a",
"-27.6971334740374"
],
[
"as of 2019. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies. Personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in the UK, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. Sleep Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in",
"-27.69189078509953"
],
[
"sleep probably serve different and unknown functions. Moreover, the preservation theory needs to explain why carnivores like lions, which are on top of the food chain and thus have little to fear, sleep the most. It has been suggested that they need to minimize energy expenditure when not hunting. Waste clearance from the brain During sleep, metabolic waste products, such as immunoglobulins, protein fragments or intact proteins like beta-amyloid, may be cleared from the interstitium via a glymphatic system of lymph-like channels coursing along perivascular spaces and the astrocyte network of the brain. According to this model, hollow tubes between",
"-27.689773631398566"
],
[
"rotating shift schedules, especially schedules that gradually change, exhibit sleep disturbance and wake period sleepiness. Insufficient sleep time, family and social expectations, and alcohol use worsen this problem.\nIndividuals with the unspecified type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder also exhibit daytime and evening sleepiness or insomnia, especially those people who have a non-24-hour sleep pattern. People with irregular sleep patterns have difficulty knowing when they will fall asleep and wake up. Causes The delayed sleep phase type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is marked by a delay of the sleep-wake cycle as it relates to",
"-27.687333899055375"
],
[
"when these activities are necessary. Also, daydreaming can make the time doing boring tasks go faster in people's perception. Psychological studies Freudian psychology interpreted daydreaming as expression of the repressed instincts similarly to those revealing themselves in nighttime dreams. Like nighttime dreams, daydreams, also, are an example of wish-fulfilment (based on infantile experiences), and are allowed to surface because of relaxed censorship. He pointed out that, in contrast to nighttime dreams, which are often confusing and incoherent, there seems to be a process of \"secondary revision\" in fantasies that makes them more lucid, like daydreaming. The state of daydreaming is",
"-27.677255406939366"
],
[
"which the child sleeps. Windows should be closed and potentially dangerous items should be removed from the bedroom, and additionally, alarms can be installed and the child placed in a downstairs bedroom.\nHypnosis could be efficient. Sleepers could become less sensitive to their sleep terrors.\nOne technique is to wake up just before the sleep terrors begin. When they appear regularly, this method can prevent their appearance.\nPsychotherapy or counseling can be helpful in many cases. There is some evidence to suggest that night terrors can result from lack of sleep or poor sleeping habits. In these cases, it can be helpful to",
"-27.667231087375512"
],
[
"and anxiety, which may make sleep more difficult and of inferior quality. This is the well-known first night effect. Complete adaptation to the sleep laboratory may take four days or longer, which is longer than the duration of most laboratory studies. Also, the content of dreams at the laboratory has been observed to be different from dreams at home. Similarly, the laboratory environment may alter the content of dreams recalled from spontaneous awakenings at the end of a night's sleep, as indicated by high frequency of laboratory references in morning spontaneous awakenings in REM and NREM dream reports).",
"-27.66240688556718"
],
[
"meaning that the heat would move from the surface of the body and that's why one might need a blanket during night. During the day the heat would move to the surface of the body and the body temperature raise.\nIn any cases that one is forced to get less sleep (having to study for an exam, being under mental pressure or having to finish a project) the brain and the body would get warmer and drier so in order to control the excessive warmness or dryness in the body one should cut back on warm and dry food stuff. Additionally",
"-27.61580681434134"
],
[
"could be that the higher threshold for sensory interruption during REM sleep allows the brain to travel further along unrealistic and peculiar trains of thought.\nSome dreaming can take place during non-REM sleep. “Light sleepers” can experience dreaming during stage 2 non-REM sleep, whereas “deep sleepers”, upon awakening in the same stage, are more likely to report “thinking” but not “dreaming”. Certain scientific efforts to assess the uniquely bizarre nature of dreams experienced while asleep were forced to conclude that waking thought could be just as bizarre, especially in conditions of sensory deprivation. Because of non-REM dreaming, some sleep researchers have",
"-27.582678968683467"
],
[
"from becoming either corrupt or incomplete. It also explains why it is important to forget dreams most of the time. Dreaming and depression It is well known that depressed people spend far more of their sleep time in REM sleep than non-depressed people, entering it earlier – and it has been shown, experimentally, that depressed people show improvement when deprived of REM sleep. This accords with Griffin’s theory, as depressed people spend much of their waking time arousing themselves physiologically through rumination and worry. All this arousal has to be discharged in dreams. Dreaming takes up a large amount of",
"-27.577593756548595"
],
[
"as the military or police. Hunting is another good example. Sleep Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's snoring may have sound-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.\nTo determine the comfort of earplugs used for sleeping, it is important to try them on while actually lying down. The pressure on the ear between the head and pillow may cause significant discomfort. Furthermore, just tilting the head back or to",
"-27.563568652280082"
],
[
"to sleep, reducing the ability to stay asleep and to achieve restful sleep. For individuals with allergies or asthma, additional considerations must be given to potential triggers in the bedroom environment. Medications that might improve ability to breathe while sleeping may also impair sleep in other ways, so there must be careful management of decongestants, asthma controllers, and antihistamines. Implementation Sleep hygiene strategies include advice about timing of sleep and food intake in relationship to exercise and sleeping environment. Recommendations depend on knowledge of the individual situation; counselling is presented as a form of patient education.\nAs attention to the role",
"-27.540145249164198"
],
[
"if the sufferer does not eat a proper diet, does not get the appropriate amount or quality of sleep (e.g., because of sleep apnea), or is enduring stressful events. Adults who have experienced sexual abuse are more likely to receive a diagnosis of sleep disorders, including night terrors. Overall, though, adult night terrors are much less common and often respond best to treatments that rectify causes of poor quality or quantity of sleep. Differential diagnosis We have to distinguish night terrors from nightmares. In fact, in nightmares there are almost never vocalization or agitation, and if there are any, they",
"-27.53632895150804"
],
[
"one at night. Frequently I'd have to do both. A few times I worked so hard that I actually threw up from the exertion. But I was young then. I didn't get tired easily. And I never complained about the working conditions. I thought that's just how it was supposed to be. Now I know that's wrong. But at the time I had no clue. Whatever they'd give me, I'd do. And as soon as I was done working I could just fall asleep. They'd say, 'Go to sleep', and I'd go right to sleep.\nThe hard work of the cast",
"-27.485895035413705"
],
[
"On Dreams Content Aristotle explains that during sleep there is an absence of external sensory stimulation. While sleeping with our eyes closed, the eyes are unable to see, and so in this respect we perceive nothing while asleep. He compares hallucinations to dreams, saying \"...the faculty by which, in waking hours, we are subject to illusion when affected by disease, is identical with that which produces illusory effects in sleep.\" When awake and perceiving, to see or hear something incorrectly only occurs when one actually sees or hears something, thinking it to be something else. But in sleep, if it",
"-27.472149900859222"
],
[
"in order to see the screen better. From this, neck and back pains and problems increase, commonly referred to as repetitive strain injuries. Using electronics before going to bed makes it difficult for people to fall asleep, which has a negative effect on human health. Sleeping less prevents people from performing to their full potential physically and mentally and can also “increase rates of obesity and diabetes,” which are “long-term health consequences”. Obesity and diabetes are more commonly seen in students and in youth because they tend to be the ones using electronics the most. “People who frequently use their",
"-27.465595713096263"
],
[
"but we'll stay woke up longer.\")\nLead Belly uses the phrase near the end of the recording of his 1938 song, \"Scottsboro Boys\", while explaining about the namesake incident, saying \"I advise everybody to be a little careful when they go along through there, stay woke, keep their eyes open\". Erykah Badu and modern activist usage The first modern use of the term woke appears in the song \"Master Teacher\" from the album New Amerykah Part One (4th World War) (2008) by soul singer Erykah Badu. Throughout the song, Badu sings the phrase: \"I stay woke.\" Although the phrase did not",
"-27.438418846002605"
],
[
"awake, too much time is spent sleeping, or a combination of both. Uninterruptible sleep An uninterruptible sleep state is a sleep state that won't handle a signal right away. It will wake only as a result of a waited-upon resource becoming available or after a time-out occurs during that wait (if specified when put to sleep). It is mostly used by device drivers waiting for disk or network IO (input/output).\nWhen the process is sleeping uninterruptibly, signals accumulated during the sleep will be noticed when the process returns from the system call or trap.\nIn Unix-like systems the command 'ps -l' uses",
"-27.379058061167598"
],
[
"Waking up early Waking up early is a productivity method - rising early and consistently so as to be able to accomplish more during the day. This method has been recommended since antiquity and is now recommended by a number of personal development gurus. The philosopher Aristotle said, \"It is well to be up before daybreak, for such habits contribute to health, wealth, and wisdom.\" Commentary Within the context of religious observances, spiritual writers have called this practice \"the heroic minute\", referring to the sacrifice which this entails.\nBenjamin Franklin is quoted to have said: \"Early to bed and early to",
"-27.281604917407094"
],
[
"110 young people can go to bed at night knowing they have an angel in Irena Medavoy\".",
"-27.276227590471535"
],
[
"in other sources the book would receive a translation into Jamaican patois, entitled Go de Rass to Sleep. Themes According to Mansbach, the frustrations he wrote about \"are not permissible to talk about. We're not completely honest because we don't want to be bad parents.\" Macy Halford said this frustration elicited a response peculiar to modern parents:\n\"Whatever the cause, it is definitely the case that, when faced with a kid who refuses to go to sleep, we get annoyed, like all parents before us, but, rather than just abandoning the child to the dark and telling it that it can",
"-27.25777695884608"
],
[
"to the cognitive and motor deficits that may be present. Napping When a person is sleep deprived, re-entering sleep may provide a viable route to reduce mental and physical fatigue but it can also induce sleep inertia. In order to limit sleep inertia, one should avoid waking from the deeper stages of slow-wave sleep. The onset of slow-wave sleep occurs approximately 30 minutes after falling asleep, therefore a nap should be limited to under 30 minutes to prevent waking during slow-wave sleep and enhancing sleep inertia. Furthermore, self-awakening from a short nap was shown to relieve disorientation of sleep inertia",
"-27.231939312125178"
],
[
"taking a short nap during the day (20 minutes) especially in warm climates and seasons is highly recommended to them.\nBesides, those with cold and wet Mizaj should not sleep much as long sleep would increase wetness in the body. People with phlegmatic temperament should cut down on food items cold and wet temperament to sleep shorter and get up easily and not having trouble waking up. They had better wake up once or twice during the night so that wetness would not build up in their bodies. Age range Although each person is born with a fixed and unique temperament,",
"-27.225747744800174"
],
[
"Wakefulness Wakefulness is a daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness in which an individual is conscious and engages in coherent cognitive and behavioral responses to the external world. Being awake is the opposite of the state of being asleep in which most external inputs to the brain are excluded from neural processing. Effects upon the brain The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\nAnother effect of wakefulness is the reduction of",
"-27.19751937869296"
],
[
"of total sleep deprivation). Mean body temperature falls continually during this period.\nIt has been suggested that acute REM sleep deprivation can improve certain types of depression when depression appears to be related to an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters. Although sleep deprivation in general annoys most of the population, it has repeatedly been shown to alleviate depression, albeit temporarily. More than half the individuals who experience this relief report it to be rendered ineffective after sleeping the following night. Thus, researchers have devised methods such as altering the sleep schedule for a span of days following a REM deprivation period and",
"-27.191851653718913"
],
[
"is referred to as Process S. The balance between sleeping and waking is regulated by a process called homeostasis. Induced or perceived lack of sleep is called sleep deprivation.\nProcess S is driven by the depletion of glycogen and accumulation of adenosine in the forebrain that disinhibits the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus, allowing for inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system.\nSleep deprivation tends to cause slower brain waves in the frontal cortex, shortened attention span, higher anxiety, impaired memory, and a grouchy mood. Conversely, a well-rested organism tends to have improved memory and mood. Neurophysiological and functional imaging studies have demonstrated that",
"-27.188338912586914"
],
[
"compared with that which is exhibited in daily life, is open to debate. However, the comparative literature strongly suggests that shorter, polyphasically-placed sleep is the rule, rather than the exception, across the entire animal kingdom (Campbell and Tobler, 1984; Tobler, 1989). There is little reason to believe that the human sleep/wake system would evolve in a fundamentally different manner. That people often do not exhibit such sleep organization in daily life merely suggests that humans have the capacity (often with the aid of stimulants such as caffeine or increased physical activity) to overcome the propensity for sleep when it is",
"-27.119191977850278"
],
[
"partner or parent who led patients to seek medical attention. Sleep Because of the abnormal writhing movements, often patients’ sleep patterns are disrupted. This may be due to RMD’s comorbidity with sleep apnea, which has been observed in some patients\n. Many find that their sleep is not refreshing and are tired or stressed the following day, despite getting a full nights rest. However, other patients report that their sleep patterns are infrequently interrupted due to RMD episodes and do not report being excessively sleepy during the next day as scored on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Thus, as can be seen,",
"-27.11568929288478"
],
[
"the participants are addicted to social media, the less satisfied they are with life. Some parents restrict their children's access to social media for these reasons. Sleep disturbances According to a study released in 2017 by researchers from the University of Pittsburgh, the link between sleep disturbance and the use of social media was clear. It concluded that blue light had a part to play—and how often they logged on, rather than time spent on social media sites, was a higher predictor of disturbed sleep, suggesting \"an obsessive 'checking'\". The strong relationship of social media use and sleep disturbance has",
"-27.078529864287702"
],
[
"age group, Seriously, Just Go To Sleep is a real children's book for a parent to read to his or her child, and the word \"fuck\" was replaced by the parent in the story expressing frustration with the stubborn child in a more G-rated way. For example, \"I know you're not thirsty, that's bullshit. Stop lying. Lie the fuck down, my darling, and sleep\" was changed to \"I know you're not thirsty. You just had a drink. Stop goofing around now, and sleep.\"\nThe book was translated into many other languages, and in February 2014, it was announced on Facebook and",
"-27.0743111067859"
],
[
"that she at least put on her pajamas, wash her face, brush her teeth. The little girl keeps repeating that she is not tired but climbs into bed and under the sheets since that is where she is the most comfortable. She then proceeds to ask her parents if everything thing goes to sleep. The parents then proceed to go through a list of animals and their habits of sleeping. They discuss the family dog, the cat, bats, snails, bears, and whales. The little girl proclaims that she knows an animal that sleeps a lot. We then finally come across",
"-27.067832329004887"
],
[
"partner. In almost all societies, sleeping partners are strongly regulated by social standards. For example, a person might only sleep with the immediate family, the extended family, a spouse or romantic partner, children, children of a certain age, children of specific gender, peers of a certain gender, friends, peers of equal social rank, or with no one at all. Sleep may be an actively social time, depending on the sleep groupings, with no constraints on noise or activity.\nPeople sleep in a variety of locations. Some sleep directly on the ground; others on a skin or blanket; others sleep on platforms",
"-27.065797367307823"
],
[
"that controls the sleep-wake cycle of the circadian rhythm. Reducing the amount of melatonin produced makes it harder to fall and stay asleep. In a 2011 poll conducted by the National Sleep Foundation, it reported that approximately 90% of Americans used technology in the hour before bed. The poll noted that young adults and teenagers were more likely to use cell phones, computers, and video game consoles. Additionally, the authors of the poll found that technology use was connected to sleep patterns. 22% of participants reported going to sleep with cell phone ringers on in their bedroom and 10% reported",
"-27.039625741672353"
],
[
"during the eviction. The activists claimed the laws, which prohibit the use of \"bedding, sleeping bags, or other sleeping matter,\" are immoral and that they're obligated to challenge them. The occupiers claim that sleep is human right and is essential for mental, physical and emotional health, citing that human beings need to spend nearly a third of their lives sleeping. Prohibiting sleep by making it illegal for people to protect themselves and their belongings from the elements causes sleep deprivation; it is inhumane, unconstitutional, and amounts to torture. The activists said the prayer vigil would continue until \"bedding matter\" was",
"-27.029596638436487"
],
[
"discrepancy between subjective and objective reports, clinicians may conclude that the perception of poor sleep is primarily illusionary.\nAlternatively, some people may report excessive daytime sleepiness or chronic disabling sleepiness, while no sleep disorder has been found to exist. Methods of diagnosing sleepiness objectively, such as the Multiple Sleep Latency Test do not confirm the symptom—\"true\" sleepiness is not observed despite the complaint. (It may be speculated that such reports of daytime sleepiness may be a result of the nocebo response —the reverse of the placebo effect—due to patient expectations of adverse effects from their subjective perception of poor sleep.)\nFinally, on",
"-27.00962596575846"
],
[
"their own bedroom. A pre-lucid dream may ensue. More commonly, dreamers will believe they have awakened, and then either wake up for real in their own bed or \"fall back asleep\" in the dream.\nA common false awakening is a \"late for work\" scenario. A person may \"wake up\" in a typical room, with most things looking normal, and realize he or she overslept and missed the start time at work or school. Clocks, if found in the dream, will show time indicating that fact. The resulting panic is often strong enough to jar the person awake for real (much like",
"-27.00944397458443"
],
[
"sleep time of fourteen hours.\nThough sleep is a primarily biological process, it can be treated as a behavior. This means that it can be altered and managed through practice and can be learned by the child. Healthy sleep habits can be established during the first four months to lay a foundation for healthy sleep. These habits typically include sleeping in a crib (instead of a car seat, stroller, or swing), being put down to sleep drowsy but awake, and avoiding negative sleep associations, such as nursing to sleep or using a pacifier to fall asleep, which may be hard to",
"-26.994985329918563"
],
[
"the cortex via the hypothalamus. During NREM sleep this system is inhibited by GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area and parafacial zone, as well as other sleep-promoting neurons in distinct brain regions. Sleep function The need and function of sleep are among the least clearly understood areas in sleep research. When asked, after 50 years of research, what he knew about the reason people sleep, William C. Dement, founder of Stanford University's Sleep Research Center, answered, \"As far as I know, the only reason we need to sleep that is really, really solid is because we get sleepy.\" It",
"-26.95260419713304"
],
[
"temperature: a very excited person often has an elevated temperature.\nWearing more clothing slows daily temperature change and raises body temperature. Similarly, sleeping with an electric blanket raises the body temperature at night.\nSleep disturbances also affect temperatures. Normally, body temperature drops significantly at a person's normal bedtime and throughout the night. Short-term sleep deprivation produces a higher temperature at night than normal, but long-term sleep deprivation appears to reduce temperatures. Insomnia and poor sleep quality are associated with smaller and later drops in body temperature. Similarly, waking up unusually early, sleeping in, jet lag and changes",
"-26.933675566120655"
],
[
"the morning has been proven to be effective. A prolongation of slow-wave sleep increases glymphatic clearance of metabolic waste products, which can lead to improvements of sleep disorders. Furthermore, studies showed ameliorated sleep pattern due to acupuncture of patients with TBI. Sleep apnea due to TBI can be treated through positive airway pressure, which helps with the development of a regular breathing pattern during sleep and prevents waking up. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia also have been shown to effectively improve sleep in TBI patients. It aims to improve sleep habits and behaviors by identifying and changing the thoughts and",
"-26.724746016669087"
],
[
"the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace. Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after",
"-26.705106009409064"
],
[
"his journal of September 24, 1891, and is the subject of a letter to The Lady magazine of October 29, 1891: \nAny one who has tried, as I have often done, the process of getting out of bed at 2 a.m. in a winter night, lighting a candle, and recording some happy thought which would probably be otherwise forgotten, will agree with me it entails much discomfort. All I have now to do, if I wake and think of something I wish to record, is to draw from under the pillow a small memorandum book containing my Nyctograph, write a",
"-26.694535783688025"
],
[
"rhythm sleep disorders. Naps The siesta habit has recently been associated with a 37% lower coronary mortality, possibly due to reduced cardiovascular stress mediated by daytime sleep. Short naps at mid-day and mild evening exercise were found to be effective for improved sleep, cognitive tasks, and mental health in elderly people.\nMany people experience a temporary drop in alertness in the early afternoon, commonly known as the \"post-lunch dip\". While a large meal can make a person feel sleepy, the post-lunch dip is mostly an effect of the circadian clock. People naturally feel most sleepy at two times of the day",
"-26.659952572896145"
],
[
"very difficult to diagnose because doctors can't exactly tell if a person has sleep apnea in a regular routine visit. Additionally the patient himself may not even realize he has sleep apnea because it occurs during sleep, so a partner or roommate is usually the first to notice symptoms. \nThere are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep",
"-26.636560221784748"
],
[
"between tasks and default brain states, and also distinguishes between background and foreground processing. Being awake allows the person to not only be aware of themselves and the world, but also to have conscious motor coordination and understand the difference between need and want that comes from secondary consciousness. Difference between sleep and dream There is a difference between being just asleep and in a state of mind called dreaming. Sleeping can be described as the lack of conscious awareness of the outside world, meaning large portions of the brain that receive and interpret signals are deactivated during this time,",
"-26.631525457924"
],
[
"hormonal balance, temperature regulation and maintaining heart rate. Preservation The \"Preservation and Protection\" theory holds that sleep serves an adaptive function. It protects the animal during that portion of the 24-hour day in which being awake, and hence roaming around, would place the individual at greatest risk. Organisms do not require 24 hours to feed themselves and meet other necessities. From this perspective of adaptation, organisms are safer by staying out of harm's way, where potentially they could be prey to other, stronger organisms. They sleep at times that maximize their safety, given their physical capacities and their habitats.\nThis theory",
"-26.597179904980294"
],
[
"the day, you will dream about it at night as well.",
"-26.560422586859204"
],
[
"morning can lengthen daytime sleep; however, some studies have shown that nighttime sleepiness may be unaffected. Zopiclone has been shown to be ineffective in increasing sleep in shift workers.",
"-26.541676958622702"
],
[
"a quarter of them have previously shown symptoms of DSPS.\nThe term free-running sleep has occasionally been used by non-scientists to indicate intentional facilitation of the natural sleep/wake cycle. In this context, free-running sleep means that a person chooses to sleep when sleepy and to awaken spontaneously (specifically without an alarm clock or reference to the time of day).",
"-26.537489394802833"
],
[
"hypersomnia or excessive sleepiness should only go to bed to sleep or for sexual activity. All other activities such as eating or watching television should be done elsewhere. For those patients, it is also important to go to bed only when they feel tired, than trying to fall asleep for hours. In that case, they probably should get out of bed and read or watch television until they get sleepy. Epidemiology Hypersomnia affects approximately 5% - 10% of the general population, \"with a higher prevalence for men due to the sleep apnea syndromes\".",
"-26.503606640384533"
],
[
"sleepiness rating. When scientists deprived subjects of sleep, they found sleep latency levels could drop below 1, i.e., subjects could fall asleep in less than a minute. The amount of sleep loss was directly linked to changes in sleep latency scores.\nThe studies eventually led Dement and Carskadon to conclude that \"the brain keeps an exact accounting of how much sleep it is owed\". Not getting enough sleep during any given period of time leads to a phenomenon called sleep debt, which lowers sleep latency scores and makes sleep-deprived individuals fall asleep more quickly. Home testing of sleep latency For home-testing",
"-26.46749155515863"
],
[
"Sleep Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body, characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, reduced muscle activity and inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and reduced interactions with surroundings. It is distinguished from wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, but more reactive than coma or disorders of consciousness, with sleep displaying very different and active brain patterns.\nSleep occurs in repeating periods, in which the body alternates between two distinct modes: REM sleep and non-REM sleep. Although REM stands for \"rapid eye movement\", this mode of sleep",
"-26.46561994194417"
],
[
"writers. Superimposed on this basic rhythm is a secondary one of light sleep in the early afternoon.\nThe brain exhibits high levels of the pituitary hormone prolactin during the period of nighttime wakefulness, which may contribute to the feeling of peace that many people associate with it.\nThe modern assumption that consolidated sleep with no awakenings is the normal and correct way for human adults to sleep, may lead people to consult their doctors fearing they have maintenance insomnia or other sleep disorders. If Ekirch's hypothesis is correct, their concerns might best be addressed by reassurance that their sleep conforms to historically",
"-26.4467836140102"
]
] |
q5hsx | - Why is it that can some countries can have nuclear weapons while others can't, and who gets to decide? | [
"Pretty much everyone got together and agreed to A. Stop building nukes B. Get rid of the nukes they have (this has been progressing slowly) C. Share nuclear technology for energy purposes. The big countries benefit from number 1- no new nukes, so the balance of power swings more towards them. Less powerful countries like 3- they get free technology and don't have to rediscover nuclear power on their own if they want to have their own reactors. Not everyone signed the treaty- in particular, India, Pakistan, and Isreal. The first 2 have publicly shown that they have developed nukes, and everyone is pretty sure about Israel. Iran *did* sign, which is why the UN is allowed to care about their nuclear program.",
"A few countries developed them many years ago and now they have them. They don't want anyone else to have them because then they would have less power. That's pretty much it.",
"The ones who have nuclear weapons. It's that simple."
] | [
[
"not allow nations to access nuclear energy. These countries allow themselves to use nuclear weapons and announce that they will not hesitate to use these arms against other nations. This can lead to a collective effort. The international community would like to set in motion a real move to enjoy nuclear technology for peaceful purposes and for national development. We are witnessing big threats by possessors of nuclear weapons. They are boldly threatening to use nukes. Any use of nuclear weapons to harm humanity is condemned.\" The Deputy Foreign Minister for Education and Research, Mohammad Bagher Khorramshad accusing the West",
"-32.82166329130996"
],
[
"non-nuclear weapon state the 'inalienable right' to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power. A \"number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons\". A 2009 United Nations report said that:\nThe revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons.\nAccording to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not",
"-32.73799792985665"
],
[
"a nuclear weapon in war is the United States, which dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. \nThere are eight countries that have declared they possess nuclear weapons and are known to have tested a nuclear weapon, only five of which are members of the NPT. The eight are China, France, India, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.\nIsrael is considered by most analysts to have nuclear weapons numbering in the low hundreds as well, but maintains an official policy of nuclear ambiguity, neither denying nor confirming",
"-32.65919268480502"
],
[
"impact of nuclear weapons rather than on the security dimension that a minority of states attributes to them. Since all states have to abide by international humanitarian law at all times, it is questionable whether nuclear weapons can ever be used lawfully, in view of their indiscriminate and disproportionate effects, and the need to refrain from attacks that do not fit these requirements, in line with the principle of precaution. In 1996, the International Court of Justice stated in its advisory opinion on nuclear weapons that \"it is difficult to envisage how any use of nuclear weapons could be compatible",
"-31.62132197531173"
],
[
"and the goal of a \"world without nuclear weapons\" was advocated by United States President Barack Obama in an April 2009 speech in Prague. A CNN poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.\nSome analysts have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia. Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common before their",
"-31.184659427497536"
],
[
"America and in our country there are nuclear weapons — terrible weapons that can kill millions of people in an instant. But we do not want them to be ever used. That's precisely why the Soviet Union solemnly declared throughout the entire world that never will it use nuclear weapons first against any country. In general we propose to discontinue further production of them and to proceed to the abolition of all the stockpiles on Earth.\nIt seems to me that this is a sufficient answer to your second question: 'Why do you want to wage war against the whole world",
"-30.67379660854931"
],
[
"nuclear weapons’ deployment above everything else. Although 8 states are exempted from ban on nuclear weapons, 5 nations retain a de jure status of a “nuclear weapon state.” These states are the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the People’s Republic of China, France and Russia—all of whom had already tested nuclear weapons before the NPT was signed. NWS’s right to possess a nuclear arsenal is countered by Article VI of the treaty, which says that they have a legal obligation to eventually disarm. They also criticized NWS countries for failing to meet their obligation to disarm, in addition",
"-29.879792638181243"
],
[
"on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 22,000 warheads among them and have shown a reluctance to disarm further.\nAs noted above, the International Court of Justice, in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that \"there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving",
"-29.630609235959128"
],
[
"with other countries without the consent of the others, an early attempt at nonproliferation. After the development of the first nuclear weapons during World War II, though, there was much debate within the political circles and public sphere of the United States about whether or not the country should attempt to maintain a monopoly on nuclear technology, or whether it should undertake a program of information sharing with other nations (especially its former ally and likely competitor, the Soviet Union), or submit control of its weapons to some sort of international organization (such as the United Nations) who would use",
"-29.628193464595824"
],
[
"international law at the time, whether in an extreme circumstance of self-defence in which the very survival of a State would be a stake, the threat or use of nuclear weapons would necessarily be unlawful in all possible cases. However, the court's opinion unanimously clarified that the world's states have a binding duty to negotiate in good faith, and to accomplish, nuclear disarmament.",
"-29.440756908152252"
],
[
"2016. It has been pointed out that as long as Japan enjoys the benefits of a \"nuclear-ready\" status held through surrounding countries, it will see no reason to actually produce nuclear arms, since by remaining below the threshold, although with the capability to cross it at short notice, Japan can expect the support of the US while posing as an equal to China and Russia.\nOn 29 March 2019, President Donald Trump suggested that Japan should develop their own nuclear weapons, because it's too expensive for the US to protect Japan and several other countries have it already in Asia such",
"-29.43850143373129"
],
[
"to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes.\nFive states are recognized by NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.\nThese five NWS agree not to transfer \"nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices\" and \"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce\" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the",
"-29.42006678855978"
],
[
"nuclear weapons:\nToday, some 26,000 nuclear weapons remain in the arsenals of the nine nuclear powers, with thousands on hair-trigger alert. Although U.S., Russian, and British nuclear arsenals are shrinking in size, those in the four Asian nuclear nations—China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea—are growing, in large part because of tensions among them. This Asian arms race also has possibilities of bringing Japan into the nuclear club.\nDuring Barack Obama's successful U.S. presidential election campaign, he advocated the abolition of nuclear weapons. Since his election he has reiterated this goal in several major policy addresses. In 2010, the Obama administration negotiated",
"-29.284884119173512"
],
[
"has the capacity to address or provide the short and long term humanitarian assistance and protection needed in case of a nuclear weapon explosion. Moreover, it would not be possible to establish such capacities, even if\nattempted. (...)\nWe need to take into account that, in the past, weapons have been eliminated after they have been outlawed. We believe this is the path to achieve a world without nuclear weapons. In our view, this is consistent with our obligations under international law, including those derived from the NPT as well as from Common Article 1 to the Geneva Conventions. (...) The broad-based",
"-29.23450053628767"
],
[
"fear of nuclear war grows, the United States and its allies must never allow themselves to get into the position where they must choose between (a) not responding to local aggression and (b) applying force in a way which our own people or our allies would consider entails undue risk of nuclear devastation. However, the United States cannot afford to preclude itself from using nuclear weapons even in a local situation, if such use ... will best advance U.S. security interests. In the last analysis, if confronted by the choice of (a) acquiescing in Communist aggression or (b) taking measures",
"-29.159212480124552"
],
[
"nuclear weapons would have to be used to defeat a Soviet invasion.\nAt the 16th NATO summit in April 1999, Germany proposed that NATO adopt a no-first-use policy, but the proposal was rejected. United Kingdom In March 2002, the secretary of state for defence Geoff Hoon stated that the UK was prepared to use nuclear weapons against \"rogue states\" such as Iraq if they ever used \"weapons of mass destruction\" against British troops in the field. This policy was restated in February 2003. In April 2017 Defence Secretary Michael Fallon confirmed that the UK would use nuclear weapons in a \"pre-emptive",
"-29.1477861898602"
],
[
"with nuclear weapons), de-stabilize international or regional relations, or infringe upon the national sovereignty of states.\nFour countries besides the five recognized Nuclear Weapons States have acquired, or are presumed to have acquired, nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel. None of these four is a party to the NPT, although North Korea acceded to the NPT in 1985, then withdrew in 2003 and conducted announced nuclear tests in 2006, 2009, 2013, 2016, and 2017. One critique of the NPT is that the treaty is discriminatory in the sense that only those countries that tested nuclear weapons before 1968 are",
"-29.097236157394946"
],
[
"have doubled their nuclear arsenal, while the other nuclear powers under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons have cut their forces in half. A Pentagon report raises the possibility of China moving towards a more vigorous nuclear doctrine that will allow first use of nuclear weapons in times of war. While it is not expected that China will give up the current \"no first use\" policy in the near future, the Pentagon report raises concerns that \"this issue has been and will continue to be debated in China. It remains to be seen, how the introduction of more",
"-28.85555458869203"
],
[
"states that they will \"uphold the principles of counterattack in self-defense and limited development of nuclear weapons\", but \"has never entered, and will never enter into a nuclear arms race with any country\". It goes on to describe that China will never undertake a first strike, or use nuclear weapons against a non-nuclear state or zone. US strategists, however, suggest that the Chinese position may be ambiguous, and nuclear weapons may be used both to deter conventional strikes/invasions on the Chinese mainland, or as an international political tool – limiting the extent to which other nations can coerce China politically,",
"-28.788745273079257"
],
[
"will successfully be able to acquire nuclear weapons. The article written by Dong-Jong Joo and Erik Gartzke discusses how the economy of a country determines whether they will successfully acquire nuclear weapons. Iran Former Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has been a frequent critic of the concept of \"nuclear apartheid\" as it has been put into practice by several countries, particularly the United States. In an interview with CNN's Christiane Amanpour, Ahmadinejad said that Iran was \"against 'nuclear apartheid,' which means some have the right to possess it, use the fuel, and then sell it to another country for 10 times",
"-28.684154818416573"
],
[
"hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route. (West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) Non-signatories Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon",
"-28.54137067424017"
],
[
"reversed their previous position and asserted that instead of making the world safer, nuclear weapons had become a source of extreme concern.\nSince the 1970s, some countries have built their own second-strike capability of massive deterrence in the event of a military attack with weapons of mass destruction. \nTwo examples of this second-strike capability are the Samson Option strategy of Israel, and the Dead Hand system of Russia.\nDuring the era of nuclear weapons testing many local communities were affected, and some are still affected by uranium mining, and radioactive waste disposal. Other technologies The international nuclear fusion project International Thermonuclear Experimental",
"-28.477678200062655"
],
[
"without force.\nOnly one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. The former Soviet republics of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the collapse of the USSR.\nProponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war, especially accidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present nuclear peace and deterrence and would lead to increased global instability. Various American elder statesmen, who were in office during the Cold War period, have been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. These officials include",
"-28.45791322446894"
],
[
"is significant that although we could have them, we don't\".\nEarlier, Shinzō Abe had said that Japan's constitution did not necessarily ban possession of nuclear weapons, so long as they were kept at a minimum and were tactical weapons, and Chief Cabinet Secretary Yasuo Fukuda had expressed a similar view. De facto nuclear state While there are currently no known plans in Japan to produce nuclear weapons, it has been argued Japan has the technology, raw materials, and the capital to produce nuclear weapons within one year if necessary, and many analysts consider it a de facto nuclear state for this",
"-28.369949751300737"
],
[
"the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty and other nuclear treaties. He specifically notes that in The Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty, the possession of nuclear weapons by the five major nuclear powers is lawful until disarmament and that inherent in possession of nuclear weapons is deterrence and deterrence, by its nature, implies threat of use.\nThe policy of deterrence differs from that of the threat to use nuclear weapons by its generality but if a threat of possible use did not inhere in deterrence, deterrence would not deter. If possession by the five nuclear Powers is lawful until achievement of nuclear disarmament; if",
"-28.264392941375263"
],
[
"1960, Israel has never officially acknowledged its construction or possession of nuclear weapons. In addition to this policy, on May 18, 1966, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol told the Knesset that \"Israel has no atomic weapons and will not be the first to introduce them into our region,\" a policy first articulated by Shimon Peres to U.S. President John F. Kennedy in April 1963. In November 1968, Israeli Ambassador to the U.S. Yitzhak Rabin informed the U.S. State Department that its understanding of \"introducing\" nuclear weapons meant testing, deploying or making them public, while merely possessing the weapons did not constitute",
"-28.09836693291436"
],
[
"In 1961 the Mexican government argued that use of nuclear weapons could not be justified under the right to self-defence in the UN charter. Six years later the country would sign the Treaty of Tlatelolco in which Mexico and several other Latin American countries agreed not to manufacture nuclear weapons and to limit its nuclear technology for peaceful purposes only.\nIn 2000, Mexico was one of 7 nations launching a declaration \"Towards a Nuclear Weapon Free World: The Need for a New Agenda\" calling for further action to implement the provisions of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.\nIn April",
"-28.06372194760479"
],
[
"its nuclear status.\nSouth Africa developed a small nuclear arsenal in the 1980s but disassembled them in the early 1990s, making it the only country to have fully given up an independently developed nuclear weapons arsenal. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine inherited stockpiles of nuclear arms following the break-up of the Soviet Union, but relinquished them to the Russian Federation.\nCountries where nuclear weapons are deployed through nuclear sharing agreements include Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey. Ethics and international legal status Some commentators classify some or all the uses of nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons during wartime as a war crime",
"-28.053376538911834"
],
[
"Going back through history we can see how this has taken place. When the United States demonstrated that it had nuclear power capabilities after the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Russians started to develop their program in preparation for the Cold War. With the Russian military buildup, France and the United Kingdom perceived this as a security threat and therefore they pursued nuclear weapons (Sagan, pg 71). Even though proliferation causes proliferation, this does not guarantee that other states will successfully develop nuclear weapons because the economic stability of a state plays an important role on whether the state",
"-27.935088858765084"
],
[
"but if it's a 1-in-4 or 1-in-5 chance, that's too high.\" Argument about nuclear armament of South Korea and Japan An argument emerged in both South Korea and Japan about the nuclear option, driven by worry that the United States might hesitate to defend the countries if doing so might provoke a missile launched from the North at major U.S. cities. In South Korea, polls show that 60 percent of the population favors building nuclear weapons, and that nearly 70 percent want the United States to reintroduce tactical nuclear weapons, which were withdrawn in 1991. In October, Hong Jun-pyo, one",
"-27.908070847130148"
],
[
"to an attack by conventional forces; for example, the doctrine of massive retaliation threatened to launch US nuclear weapons in response to Soviet attacks.\nA successful nuclear deterrent requires that a country preserve its ability to retaliate, either by responding before its own weapons are destroyed or by ensuring a second strike capability. A nuclear deterrent is sometimes composed of a nuclear triad, as in the case of the nuclear weapons owned by the United States, Russia, the People's Republic of China and India. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, have only sea- and air-based nuclear weapons. Proportionality",
"-27.9043225296773"
],
[
"UN proposal, 2011 IAEA forum), the Korean Peninsula, Central Europe, South Asia, South-east Asia, and the Arctic.\nAll countries without nuclear weapons, except South Sudan, are parties to the Non-Proliferation Treaty, as are the 5 NPT-sanctioned nuclear weapon states. Europe The UK, France, and the USA share a nuclear umbrella with the 25 other members of NATO, and the 6 European Union states not part of NATO (Austria, Cyprus, Ireland, Malta, Sweden, Finland) are part of the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy.\nThe other European countries west of the former Soviet Union\nare small Western European states and surrounded by and aligned",
"-27.873190946993418"
],
[
"Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, in which it found that 'the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict'.\nRidding the world of nuclear weapons has been a cause for pacifists for decades. But more recently mainstream politicians and retired military leaders have advocated nuclear disarmament. In January 2007 an article in The Wall Street Journal, authored by Henry Kissinger, Bill Perry, George Shultz and Sam Nunn. These men were veterans of the cold-war who believed in using nuclear weapons for deterrence. But they now",
"-27.746506049414165"
],
[
"and the United States are often referred to as great powers by academics due to \"their political and economic dominance of the global arena\". These five nations are the only states to have permanent seats with veto power on the UN Security Council. They are also the only state entities to have met the conditions to be considered \"Nuclear Weapons States\" under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, and maintain military expenditures which are among the largest in the world. However, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of these powers or what",
"-27.661728547886014"
],
[
"remove itself from active participation in international politics in order to maintain its national security. It holds that because there are no threats to the American homeland, the United States does not need to intervene abroad. Stressing a particular understanding of nuclear weapons, the authors describe how proponents believe the destructive power of nuclear weapons and retaliatory potential of the United States assure the political sovereignty and territorial integrity of the United States, while the proliferation of such weapons to countries like Britain, France, China and Russia prevents the emergence of any competing hegemon on the Eurasian landmass. The United",
"-27.587035092437873"
],
[
"a major step in the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons. Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon states were prohibited from, among other things, possessing, manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of total nuclear disarmament.\nThe Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans all nuclear explosions in any environments. Tools such as muon tomography can help to stop the spread of nuclear material before it is armed into a weapon.\nThe New START treaty signed by the US and Russia aims to reduce the nuclear arsenal by as much as a third.",
"-27.525560012087226"
],
[
"logic and civilization\" would not need nuclear weapons, and that countries that seek nuclear weapons are those that want to solve all problems by the use of force. In a 2008 interview Ahmadinejad elaborated that countries striving to obtain nuclear weapons are not politically progressive nations and those who possess them and continually make new generations of such bombs are \"even more backward\".\nIn April 2006, Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had successfully refined uranium to a stage suitable for the nuclear fuel cycle. In a speech to students and academics in Mashhad, he was quoted as saying that Iran's conditions had",
"-27.51407803047914"
],
[
"and were adopted as a parliamentary resolution in 1971, though they have never formally been entered into law. They continue to reflect the attitudes of both government and the general public, who remain staunchly opposed to the manufacture or use of nuclear weapons.\nThe Japan Self-Defense Forces have never made any attempt to manufacture or otherwise obtain nuclear arms, and no nuclear weapons are known to have been introduced into the Japanese Home Islands since the end of World War II. While the United States does not maintain nuclear bases within its military installations on the Home Islands, it is believed",
"-27.48836812132504"
],
[
"arsenal, an option that would be realized in the event that Iran obtains nuclear warheads. UN member states According to the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN), a coalition of non-governmental organizations, leading proponents of a nuclear-weapon-ban treaty include Ireland, Austria, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, South Africa and Thailand. All 54 nations of Africa (all but one of which have either signed or ratified the 1996 Treaty of Pelindaba establishing a nuclear-weapon-free-zone in the continent) and all 33 nations of Latin America and the Caribbean (already in a nuclear-weapon-free-zone under the 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco) had subscribed to common",
"-27.48820515559055"
],
[
"in the development of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but ultimately opted not to sign it.\nWe must develop this atomic energy quite apart from war – indeed I think we must develop it for the purpose of using it for peaceful purposes. ... Of course, if we are compelled as a nation to use it for other purposes, possibly no pious sentiments of any of us will stop the nation from using it that way.\n— Jawaharalal Nehru, First Prime Minister of India, \nIn 1954, Homi Jehangir Bhabha steered the nuclear programme in the direction of weapons design and production. Two important",
"-27.481119513249723"
],
[
"of nuclear weapons And long-range rockets. Nuclear weapons Since the realization of mutually assured destruction (MAD), the nuclear option of all-out war is no longer considered a survivable scenario. During the Cold War in the years following World War II, both the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a nuclear arms race. Each country and their allies continually attempted to out-develop each other in the field of nuclear armaments. Once the joint technological capabilities reached the point of being able to ensure the destruction of the Earth x100 fold, then a new tactic had to be",
"-27.465821962221526"
],
[
"when their atomic bomb project was politicised for [absolute] political gain. Without a comprehensive [nuclear and political] policy, things do not work, and no country can go developed its nuclear project without having some kind of framework in which to operate. We had to develop a political strategy to launch our project without arousing great deal of suspicion and opposition at the international level, because no body in the world wanted to see Pakistan to become nuclear power. But we had no choice [as mentioned by Bhutto in 1965]. I can tell you...... that it is not only the Western",
"-27.426779332308797"
],
[
"for elimination. Around two-thirds of the world's nations have pledged to work together \"to fill the legal gap\" in the existing international regime governing nuclear weapons, and view a nuclear-weapon-ban treaty as one option for achieving this objective.\nNuclear weapons – unlike chemical weapons, biological weapons, anti-personnel landmines and cluster munitions – are not prohibited in a comprehensive and universal manner. The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 contains only partial prohibitions, and nuclear-weapon-free zone treaties prohibit nuclear weapons only within certain geographical regions. Overview of provisions The preamble of the treaty explains the motivation by the \"catastrophic consequences\" of a use",
"-27.402241429653714"
],
[
"has nuclear readiness but does not have a bomb,\" Primakov said.\nIn February 2012, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin said that Russia opposes Iran developing nuclear-weapons capability. \"Russia is not interested in Iran becoming a nuclear power. It would lead to greater risks to international stability.\", Putin said. United Kingdom The United Kingdom is part of the EU3+3 (UK, France, Germany, US, China and Russia) group of countries that are engaged in ongoing discussions with Iran.\nThe UK is therefore one of the countries that has stated that Iran would be provided with enriched fuel and support to develop a modern nuclear",
"-27.35241684311768"
],
[
"ensure compliance with global nuclear disarmanent. Iran and many other nations without nuclear weapons have said that the present situation whereby Nuclear Weapon States monopolise the right to possess nuclear weapons is \"highly discriminatory\", and they have pushed for steps to accelerate the process of nuclear disarmament.\nIran has criticized the European Union because it believes it has taken no steps to reduce the danger of nuclear weapons in the Middle East. Iran has called on the state of Israel to sign the NPT, accept inspection of its nuclear facilities, and place its nuclear facilities under IAEA safeguards. Iran has proposed",
"-27.35039142961614"
],
[
"our tactical maritime and airborne nuclear capabilities. We have terminated our nuclear capable Lance missiles and artillery. We have the smallest nuclear capability of any recognised nuclear weapon state accounting for less than one per cent of the global inventory. And we are the only nuclear weapon state that relies on a single nuclear system.\nThe subsequent vote was won overwhelmingly, including unanimous support from the opposition Conservative Party. The Government's position remained that it was abiding by the NPT in renewing Trident, and Britain has the right to possess nuclear weapons, a position reiterated by Tony Blair on 21",
"-27.300327304255916"
],
[
"that signed the Nuclear Free World Policy:\n1. We, the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, Slovenia, South Africa and Sweden have considered the continued threat to humanity represented by the perspective of the indefinite possession of nuclear weapons by the nuclear-weapon states as well as by those three nuclear-weapons-capable states that have not acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and the attendant possibility of use or threat of use of nuclear weapons. The seriousness of this predicament has been further underscored by the recent nuclear tests conducted by India and Pakistan.\nThese countries are weary of",
"-27.282254390767775"
],
[
"mentally retarded. We think they are stupid because the era of nuclear bombs is over. [Why] for example, should Iran continue its efforts and tolerate all international treasures only to build a nuclear bomb, or a few nuclear bombs that are useless? They can never be used!\"\n\nOn 22 February 2012, in a meeting in Tehran with the director and officials of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI) and nuclear scientists, Leader of the Islamic Revolution Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenei said: \n \"The Iranian nation has never pursued and will never pursue nuclear weapons. There is no doubt that the",
"-27.22928730193962"
],
[
"\"culture, logic and civilization\" would not need nuclear weapons, and that countries that seek nuclear weapons are those which want to solve all problems by the use of force. In a 2008 interview Ahmadinejad elaborated that countries striving to obtain nuclear weapons are politically backward nations and those who possess them and continually make new generations of such bombs are \"even more backward\".\nIn April 2006, Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had successfully refined uranium to a stage suitable for the nuclear fuel cycle. In a speech to students and academics in Mashhad, he was quoted as saying that Iran's conditions had",
"-27.185727632720955"
],
[
"initial strike\" in \"the most extreme circumstances\". Fallon stated in a parliamentary answer that the UK has neither a 'first use' or 'no first use' in its nuclear weapon policy so that its adversaries would not know when the UK would launch nuclear strikes. United States The United States has refused to adopt a no first use policy and says that it \"reserves the right to use\" nuclear weapons first in the case of conflict. The US doctrine for the use of nuclear weapons was revised most recently in the Nuclear Posture Review, released April 6, 2010. The 2010",
"-27.183116427564528"
],
[
"plans to renew its nuclear arsenal as a \"serious setback\" to international disarmament efforts. Britain's parliament backed Prime Minister Tony Blair's plans to renew the country's Trident missile nuclear weapons system.\n\"Britain does not have the right to question others when they're not complying with their obligations\" referring to the obligation by the U.K., United States, Russia and France to disarm under the NPT accord and \"It is very unfortunate that the UK, which is always calling for non-proliferation not only has not given up the weapons but has taken a serious step toward further development of nuclear weapons,\" Iran's envoy",
"-27.112988084118115"
],
[
"realize the core truth of the post–Cold War era that, if the strategic reality, as described by the words of Ronald Reagan, is that \"Nuclear war cannot be won and must not be fought\", then large nuclear weapons stockpiles have no positive use, are expensive, and can lead to dangerous destabilization. The possibility of a peace with honor of strategic equals between Russia and the US may now be possible. Historical analysis Neither side sought nuclear conflict, even though it threatened to break out on multiple occasions. What both sides had, however, was a deep and continuing fear that the",
"-27.05368968716357"
],
[
"New START, as well as non-binding agreements such as SALT I and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives of 1991. Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia.\nNuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Treaty",
"-27.03182725061197"
],
[
"become a route leading to a nuclear weapon or a public annex to a \"secret\" weapons program. The concern over Iran's nuclear activities is a case in point.\nAs of April 2012 there were thirty one countries that have civil nuclear power plants, of which nine have nuclear weapons, with the vast majority of these nuclear weapons states having first produced weapons, before commercial fission electricity stations.\nMoreover, the re-purposing of civilian nuclear industries for military purposes would be a breach of the Non-proliferation treaty, to which 190 countries adhere.\nA fundamental goal for global security is to minimize the nuclear proliferation risks",
"-27.03088720049709"
],
[
"of conventional and nuclear weapons at all levels? The reason simply is that, through the defence policy pursued by Britain, the United States and NATO, we have shown our determination to defend ourselves from aggression and potential domination by the deployment of cruise missiles, by the introduction of Trident and by the maintenance of our defence commitment by increasing it by 3 per cent. every year during the past five years..\"\nHe underlined the fact that, \"We tell the Soviet Union that we shall negotiate disarmament, because that is what we want, but we shall negotiate only from strength. That is",
"-26.95195422368124"
],
[
"weapons and when they got them, and how many nuclear warheads they have in any given year. All nine nuclear-armed states are featured: the United States, Russia, China, India, Pakistan, France, Britain, Israel, and North Korea.\nIn the 21st Century, articles have covered threats to humanity from a variety of sources. The potential dangers of nuclear weapons and energy, military and political developments in the Post-Cold War world, political unrest in the Middle East (and its attendant potential for proliferation risks of nuclear and chemical weapons), myriad negative consequences of climate change, cyber warfare, and changes wrought by emerging technologies",
"-26.94150049140444"
],
[
"force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons.\nThe United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that since the end of the Cold War it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons. U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear",
"-26.904325845069252"
],
[
"can be 'educated'.\"\nThroughout Sato's administration Japan continued to discuss the nuclear option. It was suggested that tactical nuclear weapons, as opposed to larger strategic weapons, could be defined as defensive, and therefore be allowed by the Japanese Constitution. A White Paper commissioned by future Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone opined that it would be possible that possessing small-yield, purely defensive nuclear weapons would not violate the Constitution, but that in view of the danger of adverse foreign reaction and possible war, a policy would be followed of not acquiring nuclear weapons \"at present\". Extension of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty In 1995 the",
"-26.896756872185506"
],
[
"\"[t]here is in neither customary nor international law any comprehensive and universal prohibition of the threat or use of nuclear weapons.\" However, by a split vote, it also found that \"[t]he threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict.\" The Court stated that it could not definitively conclude whether the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in an extreme circumstance of self-defense, in which the very survival of the state would be at stake.",
"-26.833764559822157"
],
[
"constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\". Twelve other countries are known to operate uranium enrichment facilities. Iran states that \"the failure of certain Nuclear- Weapon States to fulfill their international obligations continue to be a source of threat for the international community\". Iran also states that \"the only country that has ever used nuclear weapons still maintains a sizable arsenal of thousands of nuclear warheads\" and calls for a stop to the transfer of technology to non-NPT states. Iran has called for the development of a follow-up committee to",
"-26.821552431443706"
],
[
"why governments, including in the US, supported nuclear weapons was that \"enormous economic and financial interests are vested in the continuation and elaboration of nuclear armaments. I believe, however, that the crucial explanation lies in another direction: the nuclear hypothesis provides governments with an excuse for not doing what they have no intention of doing anyhow, but for reasons which they find it inconvenient to specify\".\nOn 2 June, Powell spoke against the stationing of US cruise missiles in the UK and claimed the United States had an obsessive sense of mission and a hallucinatory view of international relations: \"The American",
"-26.800776706426404"
],
[
"each other in warfare, but fought proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Angola, the Middle East, Nicaragua and Afghanistan and spent substantial amounts of money and manpower on gaining relative influence over the third world.\nA study published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution in 2009 quantitatively evaluated the nuclear peace hypothesis, and found support for the existence of the stability–instability paradox. The study determined that while nuclear weapons promote strategic stability, and prevent large scale wars, they simultaneously allow for more lower intensity conflicts. When a nuclear monopoly exists between two states, and their opponent does not, there is a greater",
"-26.681385185889667"
],
[
"must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\".\nU.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuading the then West Germany not to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with the Warsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S.",
"-26.64885663574387"
],
[
"retaliation. Legality The United Kingdom is one of the five nuclear-weapon states legally recognised as such under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). As of 2018, nine countries have nuclear weapons. After the UK government announced its plans to refurbish its Trident missiles and build new submarines to carry them, it published a white paper on The Future of the United Kingdom's Nuclear Deterrent, in which it stated that the renewal is fully compatible with the United Kingdom's treaty commitments and international law. At the start of the House of Commons debate to authorise the replacement of",
"-26.61266190232709"
],
[
"be devastating to themselves, thus in theory restraining them from attacking the other.\nBoth Soviet and American experts hoped to use nuclear weapons for extracting concessions from the other, or from other powers such as China, but the risk connected with using these weapons was so grave that they refrained from what John Foster Dulles referred to as brinkmanship. While some, like General Douglas MacArthur, argued nuclear weapons should be used during the Korean War, both Truman and Eisenhower opposed the idea.\nBoth sides were unaware of the details of the capacity of the enemy's arsenal of nuclear weapons. The Americans suffered",
"-26.609629554208368"
],
[
"islands several times over. For us to use the weapon would therefore be equivalent to more than suicide: it would be genocide—the extinction of our race—in the literal and precise meaning of that much abused expression. Would anybody in their senses contemplate that this ought to be our choice or would be our choice?\"\nPowell further stated that the continental nations held the nuclear weapon in such esteem that they had conventional forces \"manifestly inadequate to impose more than brief delay upon an assault from the East. The theory of nuclear deterrence states that, should Warsaw Pact forces score substantial military",
"-26.58731460745912"
],
[
"party to declare whether it had nuclear weapons of their own or deployed on its territory, including the elimination or conversion of related facilities.\nArticle 3 requires parties that do not possess nuclear weapons to maintain their existing IAEA safeguards and, if they have not already done so, to accept safeguards based on the model for non-nuclear-weapon states under the NPT.\nArticle 4 sets out general procedures for negotiations with an individual nuclear armed state becoming party to the treaty, including time limits and responsibilities. If that state has eliminated its nuclear weapons before becoming a party to the treaty, an unspecified",
"-26.57855849841144"
],
[
"and will not surrender the right of its people to peaceful use of nuclear energy. Our motto is \"Nuclear energy for all, nuclear weapons for none\". We will insist on this motto and know that breaking the monopoly of few western countries in production of nuclear energy in the framework of NPT is good for all sovereign nations, including member states of the Non-Aligned Movement. 2007 The New York Times reported in 2007 that Iran's nuclear program had spurred interest in establishing nuclear power programs by a number of neighboring countries, including Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Egypt. According to the",
"-26.516001076437533"
],
[
"of the nuclear-armed countries are parties to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Article VI of the NPT requires that parties \"pursue negotiations in good faith\" aimed at \"complete disarmament.\" The lawsuits contend that the other four countries, while not bound to the NPT, are obligated by customary international law to pursue nuclear disarmament.\nPresenting evidence that all nine nuclear-armed countries continue to update and enhance their nuclear arsenals while failing to take disarmament negotiations seriously, the lawsuits allege that each nuclear-armed country is in breach of its international obligations. The case filed in the U.S. Federal District Court is particularly historic,",
"-26.464259382453747"
],
[
"the Eurasian land mass. In 1993, Russia dropped a pledge against first use of nuclear weapons made in 1982 by Leonid Brezhnev. In 2000, a Russian military doctrine stated that Russia reserves the right to use nuclear weapons \"in response to a large-scale conventional aggression\". China China became the first nation to propose and pledge NFU policy when it first gained nuclear capabilities in 1964, stating \"not to be the first to use nuclear weapons at any time or under any circumstances.\" During the Cold War, China decided to keep the size of its nuclear arsenal small, rather than",
"-26.428065345797222"
],
[
"policies that would allegedly make nuclear weapons more usable in the post–Cold War environment. To date the U.S. Congress has refused to fund many of these policies. However, some feel that even considering such programs harms the credibility of the United States as a proponent of nonproliferation. Recent developments Eliminating nuclear weapons has long been an aim of the pacifist left. But now many mainstream politicians, academic analysts, and retired military leaders also advocate nuclear disarmament. Sam Nunn, William Perry, Henry Kissinger, and George Shultz have called upon governments to embrace the vision of a world free of nuclear",
"-26.42778958484996"
],
[
"the organization. Role of elite countries There has been criticism that the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States), who are all nuclear powers, have created an exclusive nuclear club whose powers are unchecked. Unlike the General Assembly, the United Nations Security Council does not have true international representation. This has led to accusations that the UNSC only addresses the strategic interests and political motives of the permanent members, especially in humanitarian interventions: for example, protecting the oil-rich Kuwaitis in 1991 but poorly protecting resource-poor Rwandans in 1997.",
"-26.41620338114444"
],
[
"government funds to create such weapon, coupled with the fact that having such weapon would only escalate tensions between the two countries.\nIn 2019, Juan Ponce Enrile reiterates his earlier claims in 2016 that the Philippines should have developed nuclear weapons to assert its claims, particularly in reinforcing the Philippines v. China international arbitration ruling, regarding its territorial disputes with China. Defense secretary Delfin Lorenzana in response to Enrile's statement said that the Philippines is not planning to develop nuclear weapons due to the country's limited technological capabilities as well as legal obligations such as being a signatory to the Non-Proliferation",
"-26.393494900432415"
],
[
"the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals.\nOther observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament. No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which",
"-26.378648679092294"
],
[
"preferable to war.\nThe question is why two rational states cannot find an X that satisfies both sides, even though one must always exist and war is the worst feasible payoff for both sides. Information problems One obvious reason is that each state simply believes it is more powerful than it really is. For example, two states that each believe they are infinitely powerful would have a difficult time bargaining with each other. War, then, can erupt with incomplete information regarding the distribution of power.\nBut Fearon points out that this is not a completely rational explanation for war. Recall that war",
"-26.298780749668367"
],
[
"which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. A testing ban imposes a significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country. The Treaty requires the ratification by 44 specific states before it can go into force; as of 2012, the ratification of eight of these states is still required.\nAdditional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles, the United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States and Russia. These include treaties such as SALT II (never ratified), START I (expired), INF, START II (never ratified), SORT, and",
"-26.264933873841073"
],
[
"Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons First pillar: Non-proliferation Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon.\nUnder Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards",
"-26.261239242216107"
],
[
"world were educated in nuclear science and then dispatched home, where many later pursued secret weapons programs in their home country.\nEfforts to conclude an international agreement to limit the spread of nuclear weapons did not begin until the early 1960s, after four nations (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France) had acquired nuclear weapons (see List of states with nuclear weapons for more information). Although these efforts stalled in the early 1960s, they renewed once again in 1964, after China detonated a nuclear weapon. In 1968, governments represented at the Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee (ENDC) finished",
"-26.256364503875375"
],
[
"capable and survivable nuclear systems in greater numbers will shape the terms of this debate or affect Beijing's thinking about nuclear options in the future.\" India India's nuclear weapons policy is that of \"no first use\" and \"minimum credible deterrence,\" which means that the country will not use nuclear weapons unless they are attacked first, but the country does have the capability to induce the second strike. Before 2016, India already possessed land-based ballistic missiles and aircraft that are nuclear-capable. India's land-based arsenal includes the Prithvi-1 with a range of 150 to 600 kilometers, the Agni-1 with a range of",
"-26.241806516074575"
],
[
"same time, it issued a negative security assurance. China stated that despite its willingness to use nuclear weapons, it \"[should] not in any way be construed as endorsing the use of nuclear weapons.\" The dichotomy of such a position has led for calls to make more use of protocols attached to NWFZ (nuclear-weapon-free zone) treaties, instead of generalized security assurances.",
"-26.230239155469462"
],
[
"of two of the principal powers of the region, Brazil and Argentina, to the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty, due to its perceived discriminatory nature.\nWhile Colombia is the only state in the region to have fully accepted the United States vision of the war on terror, most states in the region already have anti-terrorism measures in place, usually in conjunction with policies designed to fight organised crime, which is the main local threat (for example, the 3+1 Group, the Inter-American Convention Against Terrorism, the Declaration of San Carlos).\nAll of the states in the region have already presented their compliance reports to the",
"-26.137869777623564"
],
[
"of a country's resources such as in World War II logistically impractical and strategically irrelevant. Such weapons are developed and maintained with relatively modest peacetime defense budgets.\nBy the end of the 1950s, the ideological stand-off of the Cold War between the Western World and the Soviet Union had resulted in thousands of nuclear weapons being aimed by each side at the other. Strategically, the equal balance of destructive power possessed by each side situation came to be known as Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), considering that a nuclear attack by one superpower would result in nuclear counter-strike by the other. This",
"-26.08000549089047"
],
[
"constitution, Japan, as the only nation to have experienced the devastation of nuclear attacks, expressed early its abhorrence of nuclear arms and its determination never to acquire them. The Atomic Energy Basic Law of 1956 limits research, development, and use of nuclear power to peaceful uses only. Beginning in 1956, national policy embodied \"three non-nuclear principles\"—forbidding the nation to possess or manufacture nuclear weapons or to allow them to be introduced into its territories. In 1976 Japan ratified the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (adopted by the United Nations Security Council in 1968) and reiterated its intention never",
"-26.06144050799776"
],
[
"February 2007. Only the United Kingdom has expressed its opposition to the establishment of a new legally binding treaty to prevent the threat or use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear states, through its vote in the United Nations General Assembly in 1998.\nThe United Kingdom decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations.",
"-26.042308567964938"
],
[
"court ruled that these laws would also apply to the use of nuclear weapons.(paragraph 86) The Court decided not to pronounce on the matter of whether the use of nuclear weapons might possibly be legal, if exercised as a last resort in extreme circumstances (such as if the very existence of the state was in jeopardy).(paragraph 97) Split decision The only significantly split decision was on the matter of whether \"the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict\", not including \"in an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in",
"-26.006008286727592"
],
[
"offensive military forces, and in 1967 it adopted the Three Non-Nuclear Principles, ruling out the production, possession, or introduction of nuclear weapons. Despite this, the idea that Japan might become a nuclear power has persisted. After China's first nuclear test in 1964, Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Satō said to President Lyndon Johnson when they met in January 1965, that if the Chinese Communists had nuclear weapons, the Japanese should also have them. This shocked Johnson's administration, especially when Sato added that \"Japanese public opinion will not permit this at present, but I believe that the public, especially the younger generation,",
"-25.904993498523254"
],
[
"once all other countries agreed not to develop or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons. Fearing that Congress would reject the proposal, Truman turned to the well-connected Bernard Baruch to represent the U.S. position to the United Nations. The Baruch Plan, largely based on the Acheson-Lilienthal Report, was not adopted due to opposition from Congress and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union would develop its own nuclear arsenal, testing a nuclear weapon for the first time in August 1949.\nThe United States Atomic Energy Commission, directed by David E. Lilienthal until 1950, was in charge of designing and building nuclear weapons under a",
"-25.892754376400262"
],
[
"be used and so cannot assess with any accuracy the results that can be achieved.\"\nThe Americans preferred that the British not develop atomic weapons at all, but as that was not possible, they decided that partnership was preferable to losing influence with the United Kingdom. The British sought an independent, domestic nuclear deterrent that by itself could persuade the USSR to not attack, in part because they feared that America might not be willing to defend Europe with its nuclear missiles once the USSR could attack the United States itself, or during wartime not prioritize targets that threatened the United",
"-25.87378506863024"
],
[
"as hard as we possibly can, and the Iranians, to cease and desist on the development of a nuclear weapon and we should not preclude any option that we may have to deal with it.\" He also said, \"I believe that we have the power to deter Iran, should it become nuclear.\"\n\"There are ways to live with a nuclear Iran,\" Abizaid said, \"Let's face it, we lived with a nuclear Soviet Union, we've lived with a nuclear China, and we're living with (other) nuclear powers as well.\"",
"-25.87345257063862"
],
[
"a terrorist group getting an atomic weapon, but real progress depends on countries keeping the promises they made\". Organizational reactions Sam Nunn, a former U.S. senator who tutored Mr. Obama on nuclear proliferation issues said he believed \"we are now closer to cooperation than catastrophe.\" Graham Allison, an expert on nuclear terrorism at Harvard University, made the case that if countries \"lock down all nuclear weapons and bomb-usable material as securely as gold in Fort Knox, they can reduce the likelihood of a nuclear 9/11 to nearly zero.\"\nPaul Stares, Director of the Center for Preventive Action at the Council on",
"-25.85637422418222"
],
[
"Advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons Request of the World Health Organization An advisory opinion on this issue was originally requested by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 3 September 1993:\nIn view of the health and environmental effects, would the use of nuclear weapons by a state in war or other armed conflict be a breach of its obligations under international law including the WHO Constitution?\nThe ICJ considered the WHO's request, in a case known as the Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict (General List No.",
"-25.847550753271207"
],
[
"weapons from great distances across the globe to their targets. Eventually, Britain, France, and China would also develop nuclear weapons. It is believed that Israel developed nuclear weapons as well.\nOne major event that nearly brought the world to the brink of war was the Cuban Missile Crisis. In the 1950s a revolution in Cuba had brought the only Communist regime in the Western Hemisphere to power. In 1962, the Soviets began constructing missile sites in Cuba and sending nuclear missiles. Because of its close proximity to the U.S., the U.S. demanded the Soviets withdraw missiles from Cuba. The U.S. and",
"-25.841595898702508"
],
[
"East need a country like China. Israel needs China's power.\"\nIn March 2012, Chinese Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi said that \"China is opposed to any country in the Middle East, including Iran, developing and possessing nuclear weapons.\", adding that Iran nonetheless has the right to pursue nuclear activities for peaceful purposes. France On 16 February 2006 French Foreign Minister Philippe Douste-Blazy said \"No civilian nuclear programme can explain the Iranian nuclear programme. It is a clandestine military nuclear programme.\"\nIn January 2007, former French President Jacques Chirac, speaking \"off the record\" to reporters from The New York Times, indicated that if Iran",
"-25.80371408816427"
],
[
"Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, and Portugal have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power. Belgium, Germany, Spain and Switzerland are phasing-out nuclear power.\nGlobally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased.\nItaly is the only country that has permanently closed all of its functioning nuclear plants. Lithuania and Kazakhstan have shut down their only nuclear plants, but plan to build new ones to replace them, while Armenia shut down its only nuclear plant but subsequently restarted it. Austria never",
"-25.796118788421154"
],
[
"pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.\nThe ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament.\nCritics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in the post–Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of",
"-25.72750282031484"
],
[
"the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of European countries' defence budget and 50 per cent of their military capacity. Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council. Most EU member states opposed the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty.\nFollowing the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that \"the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO\". To",
"-25.708646068931557"
],
[
"prominent figures who have called for the abolition of nuclear weapons are \"the philosopher Bertrand Russell, the entertainer Steve Allen, CNN’s Ted Turner, former Senator Claiborne Pell, Notre Dame president Theodore Hesburgh, South African Bishop Desmond Tutu and the Dalai Lama\".\nOthers have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia. Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have created a nuclear peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common prior to their invention at",
"-25.706252694886643"
],
[
"and there is a chance to reverse the country's nuclear policy in 2012 because South Korea is facing a presidential election. In 2014, a professor of atomic engineering at Seoul National University stated that \"The public has totally lost trust in nuclear power\".\nIn 2015, Teddy Cho, a prominent anti-nuclear activist, stated that \"nuclear power is only an excuse to develop more nuclear technology. Even if that's not the case, nuclear energy itself has also proven to be very dangerous to the environment.\" He went on to say that nuclear energy was a terrible thing in our community and must be",
"-25.6620416988153"
],
[
"anniversary of former Prime Minister AB Vajpayee on 16 August 2019, said that India's no first use policy might change depending upon the \"circumstances.\" Vajpayee's government conducted the Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998. Countries pledging to use nuclear weapons only defensively Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France say that they will use nuclear weapons against either nuclear or non-nuclear states only in the case of invasion or other attack against their territory or against one of their allies. Historically, NATO military strategy, taking into account the numerical superiority of Warsaw Pact conventional forces, assumed that tactical",
"-25.64666262199171"
],
[
"servicemen are advised not to travel abroad. After the 1962 war, nearly all the remaining countries of the globe have renounced possession of nuclear weapons. The United States alone retains an atomic arsenal.\nWestern Europe survived the war largely unscathed. NATO collapsed almost as soon as hostilities commenced, and France and a reunited Germany now preside over the continent. The United Kingdom remains an ally of the U.S., and actually assists in post-war reconstruction efforts in U.S. states hit hardest by the war. The British, in the period after 1962, has managed to regain much of its pre-1939 colonial confidence in",
"-25.62063805409707"
]
] |
3br75b | Why are passwords shorter than 8 characters easy to crack? (According to Snowden) | [
"When you add a character to a password, the number of possible permutations goes up exponentially. Lets assume we have a simple password requirement - only upper case letters. Below are the number of possible passwords based on character count - 1 character - 26^1 - 26 combinations - 2 characters - 26^2 - 676 combinations - 3 characters - 26^3 - 17,576 combinations - 4 characters - 26^4 - 456,976 combinations - 5 characters - 26^5 - 11,881,376 combinations - 6 characters - 26^6 - 308,915,776 combinations - 7 characters - 26^7 - 8,031,810,176 combinations - 8 characters - 26^8 - 208,827,064,576 combinations So, even in our simple system, an 8 character password has over 200 billion possible combinations. ~~This is getting beyond a computer's ability to brute force (just keep trying combinations until it gets it right) ability.~~ While this is still within the average computer's ability to crack, you can see how even in our simple system, more characters becomes more difficult *Edit: Look, I am not suggesting that an eight-character, upper case letters only password is a good idea or even used by most systems. I was just creating an easy to understand, ELI5 example of entropy.",
"Short passwords have small degrees of entropy. Smaller degree of entropy means that they're easier to guess randomly. Adding numbers and symbols does increase entropy, but it's still way less effective than simply adding more characters. There's an xkcd that explains this pretty well, and I'm sure it will be posted 100 times in this thread because of that fact.",
"Most of these answers are correct but I'm going to try to put it in more ELI5 terms: If a password is long, then there's more possibilities for what that password might be. If it's short, there's less possibilities for what is could be. If it's TOO short, then a hacker can just write a program that tries every single possible password until it stumbles across the right one on accident. This is called a \"brute force attack\". Right now, passwords less than 8 characters are short enough that most regular computers can brute-force them relatively quickly. 8 or more characters and there's too many possible combinations; current-day computers would take a ridiculously long time to brute-force them.",
"Longer passwords result in exponentially larger sets of combinations brute force hacking programs would need to push through. 8 Characters > 645,753,531,245,761 (645 Trillion) Combinations 9 Characters > 45,848,500,718,449,031 (45 Quadrillion) Combinations 10 Characters > 3,255,243,551,009,881,201 (3 Quintillion) Combinations",
"think of it like a lock with the numbers you spin around, theres only 3 or 4 sets of 0-9, so you may simply try each and every possibility, sooo 000-999. it may take a few hours but you will find the answer eventually. but with computers they may test every combination of letters, numbers, and symbols (!@#$%^ & *), at a very fast pace. so if a password is short you may test every possible answer until you find the correct one in a short enough time that it is still in use, and you do not spend so much money/resources than the password will provide. (meaning if you spend $1000 in time/money/resources, when you get the password, you must be able to use the password to get more than $1000 back) otherwise its just not worth the effort. now just because a password is short or really long doesn't make it safer it requires a balance. a password like abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz may seem long complex and easy to remember but a dictionary attack would almost instantly crack this password ( dictionary attacks are common first step in password cracking ). and a password like A!B@C#D%, even though its so short it may be harder to crack than a longer password because it is not in a pre-built dictionary (i presume for argument sake), if it is not in the dictionary (most passwords aren't) then you must either try every possibility like (000,001,002,003,004,005) to eventually find the correct answer. or find another way of overcoming the password security.",
"Every answer I've seen is correct, but maybe a little more complicated than you're looking for. Let's keep it simple and pretend you can only use the digits from 0 to 9 for your password: * If you only use one digit, your password only has 10 possible values: 0, 1, 2, ..., 9. * If you use two digits, your password has 100 possible values: 00, 01, 02, ..., 99. * If you use three digits, you get 1000 possible values: 000, 001, 002, ..., 999. * and so on. So each character in your password can have ten values, and every time you add another digit the number of possible combinations gets 10 times bigger. That's not a coincidence! Let's try it again, but using *only* lowercase letters and nothing else: * One letter gives you 26 possible values: a, b, c, ..., z. * Two letters gives you 26*26=676 possible values: aa, ab, ac, ..., zx, zy, zz. * Three letters bumps that up to 26\\*26\\*26=17,576 values: aaa, aab, aac, ..., zzx, zzy, zzz. * and so on. Now, if you're only using lowercase letters, an 8 digit password can have 208,827,064,576 possible different combinations. Does that sound like a lot? I wrote a little program that can count that high in 37 seconds on my laptop. To a computer - especially a whole bunch of computers working together - that's not very many combinations at all. But remember, adding a single letter makes it take 26 times longer! That would take 972 seconds on the same laptop. Another letter would take it 7 hours. Making it 11 letters long would take 7.6 days. 12 letters? 198 days. 13 letters would take 14 years. Bumping your password up to 16 letters would take my laptop 248,000 years, and AppleCare wouldn't even cover that. Whoa! Using 26 letters makes the time it takes to try all combinations get big a lot faster than if we're using only numbers. What if... we used uppercase letters, lowercase letters, the numbers from 0-9, and all the punctuation you can get by pressing shift and then all the numbers from 0-9? That would give each character in your password 72 possible combinations. If you made a password by picking 1 of those 72 at random, and you did that 8 times, it'd take my laptop 15 days to guess it. That's a lot better than the 37 seconds it would take if you only used lowercase letters. But hold onto your seat: if your password was 16 characters long, it would take my little laptop 29,691,578,198,499 **years** to guess it! That's over 2,000 times longer than the whole universe is old! So yeah, the time it takes to guess your password grows exponentially with its length. That's totally true. But most people don't appreciate what exponential growth really means, and exactly how quickly it goes from \"I could crack that pretty easily\" to \"wow, we better invent a whole second universe filled with computers if we want to crack it in under a gazillion centuries\".",
"Here's an example I can think of. Let's say you have an apple, an orange, and a banana. You can sort these in any order you like to be your password, but if someone tries to sort them they only have to try a little bit to figure out what order you sorted them in. Now lets say you have 10 bananas, 10 oranges, and 10 apples. If you sort them it's going to take a lot longer to figure out what order you sorted them in.",
"Something I must post in every discussion about passwords: At the places where I am prompted for a password, can we please include the same text as the password creation requirements? Almost 100% of my \"lost\" passwords were remembered the second I logged in to set a new one and saw the criteria.",
"Lets say I have a lock on my bike. It has 10 numbers on the dial. If you want to steal my bike, you just have to try each number until you find the unlocking number (7). This doesn't take very long, maybe just a few seconds. I want to keep my bike, so I get a lock where you have to guess two correct numbers in the right order, and it won't give you any way to know you have one of the numbers right until you get them both right. So now you have to do a LOT more guessing, so my bike is safer. You try them until you get to 73, which unlocks it. That took you a few minutes. Now, my bike is really nice, so I'm going to get a lock with three numbers to guess! You have to guess and guess and guess until you finally get to 190. You did your guessing in numerical order (1, 2, 3, etc.) so it only took about 10 minutes, but if you would have guessed randomly it would probably have taken quite a bit longer. I like to leave my bike parked in unlit alleys downtown for days at a time, so I've invested in an eight-level lock. This time you have millions of numbers to guess, so instead you just get a bolt cutter and break my lock.",
"This is how password security works: I'm going to give you an empty box and some coloured cubes. Your job is to create a pattern inside the box (so I can't see) and my job is to guess the pattern you created. I'll start by giving you one red cube. Go on, place it inside the box in any order you want. Done? Great! I'm going to guess that your pattern is... red! Am I right? Yay! Well, that wasn't very fair, was it? Ok, I'll give you another cube. A blue one this time. Go on, place them inside your box. Ready? great! Now, let's see... is your pattern red - > blue? No? Well, is it now blue - > red? It is? Great! I'm GREAT at this game. What? Not fair still? Ok then, have a green cube. Ok, so I'm now guessing it could be: * Red - > Blue - > Green * Red - > Green - > Blue * Blue - > Red - > Green * Blue - > Green - > Red * Green - > Red - > Blue * Green - > Blue - > Red It is one of those? Ha! You can't beat me! What? You want ALL the cubes? But there's 9 of them! That's a lot of combinations... sit tight' this will take a while and I'm a stubborn fella. wait, what? You're only giving me 3 chances and after that I have to wait an hour before I can try again!? That's not very fair... What? you're increasing your number of cubes to 52? But that's impossible to guess in a few minutes! Are you... are you mixing stuff?! It was CUBES only! No spheres, pyramids or legos! I'm not playing this game anymore... --------- You see? I want to know your password, but you won't tell me what it is, so I have to guess. However, I have an advantage: I know, in advance, what are the elements of your password. In the above example, it's coloured cubes. I know you only have red, green and blue, so the amount of combinations is easily guessable. The more options you add, the hardest it gets to guess. This is because there are many possible combinations and orders you could use. Tech-heads call this \"high entropy\". It just means \"lots of possibilities\". In the real world, it's more complicated than that: * Passwords can have PLENTY of characters (at the very least, 52: all lowercase and uppercase letters), so from the start, you have a lot of possibilities to play with, even if your password is only 2 elements in length (still, easy to guess by a computer). * Passwords can be encrypted. This is just french for \"modified in a revertible way\". To decrypt (revert) your password, a spy would probably need to know how exactly it was encrypted in the first place, may require a key or know some secret you kept well hidden somewhere else. * Passwords don't have to be a single word or gibberish. You could use the chorus of your favourite song, a tongue twister, random words that sound funny together or some other easy thing to remember, but is really hard to guess. My main password is a 28 letter sentence to which I've added a few uppercases, some symbols and a few modifications (like writing \"bcz\" instead of \"because\"). It's pretty hard to guess. * Passwords are usually protected by a security guard. Unless stolen, this security guard will keep a strict protocol for anyone trying to guess your password: he won't let more than a few attempts, he'll stop anyone trying TOO fast, he'll let you know someone is failing too many times at guessing your password and ask you to change it, he'll become suspicious and ask the guesser some question to make sure it's a human and not a computer, etc. etc. So, by making your password long enough, you're making life so much harder to anyone trying to guess it it just becomes worthless to attempt to guess.",
"The comments I've seen so far are wrong. Yes, length helps but none of you touch on exactly why 8 is key. The reason why he mentions 8 characters specifically is due to how Windows hashes passwords. See the section on Weaknesses here: URL_0 tl;dr: due to how Windows stores password hashes, 8 is just above the threshold to require another hash.",
"Because there's only ~260 million common passwords shorter than 8 characters, and even if you asked this question from a smartphone it can count to 260million in a quarter second. It takes longer than a quarter second because testing a password is a littler harder than counting, but not much.",
"Allow me to paraphrase OP. \"Why do long things take longer to do than short things?\"",
"While the rest of the comments have explained the how and why of shorter passwords being cracked, they haven't touched on the logistical side of doing so. They're easy because they're shorter, simple enough concept to grasp, ansuz07 explains it well. I'm attempting to put the cost into real world dollars here, so instead of just numbers you can see the real costs associated with it. What they don't touch on is that for a couple dollars you can use amazon's servers to crack one of those passwords in under an hour (Something like 2 and a half minutes), and for about 1000 dollars(For anyone wondering I managed to get a pair of 7990's for 200 bucks on ebay) I built a machine that could do it in under 30 seconds (making a bunch of assumptions about how the password is stored here, but the scenario I've assumed (unsalted MD5) is unfortunately rather common). Even if you expand it to all 128 possible characters available, and have an 8 character password, using the numbers provided by oclHashcat (one of the applications that allows you to brute force passwords) with my setup it would only take about a month to crack your password. And I'm just a dude who stays at home and does this for fun. With 24 of my hash cracking machines, I could crack it in under a day. Plus, this doesn't touch on the fact people have publicly accessible tables full of all passwords less than 8 characters that take seconds to search to see if your password is in them.",
"Think of it this way, if you are trying to guess a password, it is about the maximum possible number of passwords that your password can be. A-Z = 26 upper case letters a-z = 26 lower case letters 0-9 = 10 possible digits symbols(~`!@#$%^ & *()_-+={}[]\\|:;\"',. < > ?/) = about 32. If your password is 1 character long, and could be any of 94 possible characters. 2 characters = 94 * 94 or 94^2 = 8836 3 = 94^3 = 830584 So as you can see, the number of possibilities grow exponentially. This is why passwords often require at least 1 upper case, 1 lower, 1 number and 1 symbol, to increase the guess space. But length also matters. The length is determined by how powerful computers currently are. In 10 years when computers are even more powerful, 8 characters might not be enough, because at that point passwords can be guessed even faster. That being said, newer complicated security measures like custom salts per each user will hopefully remove the need for individual users to increase their password exponentially. It is also important to mention that this assumes a purely random password. Humans often base passwords off of real words reduces the guessing space. And when they appear random, like \"yhnujm\" if you look at the keyboard pattern for this password, you'll see it is anything but random.",
"it takes far less time to test every possible character than it does to test an additional character. If there are 26 letters in the alphabet, and each can be either uppercase or lower case, then we have 2(26) possible characters for a one character password. If you can test one character a second, then it'll take 2(26)=54 seconds to test all. We'll call this 54 character-seconds. But if the password could be 2 characters, then it'll take 1.48 character-minutes to test all possibilities; 26 character, 2 states, 2 character password is 2(2(26))=2(54)=108=108/60 - 60/60=1 48/60=1.48 char-minutes. Therefore the number of possible characters takes seconds but each addition character in the password takes at least minutes",
"For each digit in a basic password, there are 26 possible letters, 2 cases and 10 possible numbers. So that's a total of 62 possible characters. For a 8 digit password, that's 2.18x10^14 possible combinations. Or 62^8. That would take an impossible amount of time for a person, a shorter, but still long time for a home PC. For a government supercomputer, it would still take a while, but you could still get in. For every character, you can multiply the number of possible combinations by 62, so a 9 digit password would take 62 times as long to crack.",
"Because of brute force attacks. Brute force attacks work by trying all possible combinations. A person trying all 208,827,064,576 combinations of 8 characters will take over six and a half years at one combo per second working non stop. But a $5000 computer with 3 GPUs can do it in a matter of days. This page from 2013 cites 8 million tries per second using 128 GPUs. That would be under 7.5 hours. URL_0 Consider hardware keeps getting faster and cheaper and the future doesn't look very private.",
"Simplest ELI5 answer I can think of. Imagine the dialing pad on your phone. Guess my phone number it's only 1 digit. How many guesses did it take you? Guess my girlfriends phone number, it's 2 digits. How many guesses did it take you? Guess my bank pin, it's 4 digits. How many guesses did it take you?",
"Also, NT LM Hashes on older versions of Windows broke up the password into 7 character chunks for hashing. Having a minimum of 8 characters ensured that you needed to break at least two hashes to guess the password. URL_0 ",
"Edward Snowden told Glen Greenwald to assume that the NSA could \"brute force\" the password at 1,000,000,000,000 guesses per second. At that rate it can crack an 8 character password in under a second.",
"It was explained to me by Ars Technica in a single image: URL_0 Even if your kid doesn't know what \"brute force\" and \"keyspace\" are, the graph is pretty self-explanatory. [Source]( URL_1 )",
"How long would it take to crack a completely random 20+ character password. I use [Qwertycard]( URL_0 ) for all my passwords",
"This is a stupid question. \"Why are longer passwords more difficult to crack than shorter passwords!?!?11\""
] | [
[
"90 billion keys per second. In 2010, the Georgia Tech Research Institute developed a method of using GPGPU to crack passwords, coming up with a minimum secure password length of 12 characters. Easy to remember, hard to guess Passwords that are difficult to remember will reduce the security of a system because (a) users might need to write down or electronically store the password using an insecure method, (b) users will need frequent password resets and (c) users are more likely to re-use the same password. Similarly, the more stringent requirements for password strength, e.g. \"have a mix of",
"-24.79568686982384"
],
[
"period of time and stretching isn't applicable. A 2010 Georgia Tech Research Institute study based on unstretched keys recommended a 12-character random password, but as a minimum length requirement.\nThe upper end is related to the stringent requirements of choosing keys used in encryption. In 1999, an Electronic Frontier Foundation project broke 56-bit DES encryption in less than a day using specially designed hardware. In 2002, distributed.net cracked a 64-bit key in 4 years, 9 months, and 23 days. As of October 12, 2011, distributed.net estimates that cracking a 72-bit key using current hardware will take about 45,579 days",
"-24.755443566275062"
],
[
"trick known to attackers.\nResearch detailed in an April 2015 paper by several professors at Carnegie Mellon University shows that people's choices of password structure often follow several known patterns. As a result, passwords may be much more easily cracked than their mathematical probabilities would otherwise indicate. Passwords containing one digit, for example, disproportionately include it at the end of the password. Incidents On July 16, 1998, CERT reported an incident where an attacker had found 186,126 encrypted passwords. By the time they were discovered, they had already cracked 47,642 passwords.\nIn December 2009, a major password breach of the Rockyou.com website",
"-24.245605620759306"
],
[
"cracking could prove successful if both the encryption key and encoded password are sniffed from a network. For this reason it is recommended that a password of at least 8 characters be used. On the other hand, there is also an 8-character limit on some versions of VNC; if a password is sent exceeding 8 characters, the excess characters are removed and the truncated string is compared to the password.\nUltraVNC supports the use of an open-source encryption plugin which encrypts the entire VNC session including password authentication and data transfer. It also allows authentication to be performed based on NTLM",
"-23.530254046432674"
],
[
"at least those based on prime factorization, must be much longer in order to be secure; see key size for more details.\nAs a general rule, modern symmetric encryption algorithms such as AES use key lengths of 128, 192 and 256 bits.",
"-22.973662397358567"
],
[
"keys exponentially more difficult to crack than shorter ones. Brute force attacks can be made less effective by obfuscating the data to be encoded, something that makes it more difficult for an attacker to recognise when he has cracked the code. One of the measures of the strength of an encryption system is how long it would theoretically take an attacker to mount a successful brute force attack against it.",
"-22.90419851182378"
],
[
"by the ADC team at Imperva, revealing that even some military personnel used passwords as weak as \"1234\".\nOn July 18, 2011, Microsoft Hotmail banned the password: \"123456\".\nIn July 2015, a group calling itself \"The Impact Team\" stole the user data of Ashley Madison. Many passwords were hashed using both the relatively strong bcrypt algorithm and the weaker MD5 hash. Attacking the latter algorithm allowed some 11 million plaintext passwords to be recovered. Prevention The best method of preventing a password from being cracked is to ensure that attackers cannot get access even to the hashed password. For example, on the",
"-22.592991330180666"
],
[
"to passwords and one-time passwords. They concluded that security keys are more usable and deployable than one-time passwords, and more secure than both passwords and one-time passwords.",
"-22.55652731168084"
],
[
"using standard DES hardware.) Passwords were limited to a maximum of eight ASCII characters. While it was a great advancement for its time, CRYPT(3) is now considered inadequate. The iteration count, designed for the PDP-11 era, is too low, 12 bits of salt is an inconvenience but does not stop precomputed dictionary attacks, and the 8 character limit prevents the use of stronger passphrases.\nModern password-based key derivation functions, such as PBKDF2, use a cryptographic hash, such as SHA-2, a longer salt (e.g. 64 bits) and a high iteration count (tens or hundreds of thousands).\nIn 2009, a memory-intensive key strengthening algorithm,",
"-22.425611739512533"
],
[
"passwords have been used since ancient times.\nIn 2012, Bonneau et al. evaluated two decades of proposals to replace passwords by systematically comparing web passwords to 35 competing authentication schemes in terms of their usability, deployability, and security. (The cited technical report is an extended version of the peer-reviewed paper by the same name.) They found that most schemes do better than passwords on security while every scheme does worse than passwords on deployability. In terms of usability, some schemes do better and some schemes do worse than passwords.\nGoogle used the evaluation framework of Bonneau et al. to compare security keys",
"-22.33516133541707"
],
[
"other precomputation attacks do not work against passwords that contain symbols outside the range presupposed, or that are longer than those precomputed by the attacker. However, tables can be generated that take into account common ways in which users attempt to choose more secure passwords, such as adding a number or special character. Because of the sizable investment in computing processing, rainbow tables beyond fourteen places in length are not yet common. So, choosing a password that is longer than fourteen characters may force an attacker to resort to brute-force methods.\nSpecific intensive efforts focused on LM hash, an older hash",
"-22.18319598416565"
],
[
"found. However, password-cracking programs can enter multiple random passwords with the same speed, so use of CSPs does not slow down password recovery at all. Weak passwords can still be recovered fast enough even if a custom CSP is on.\nIn Office 2007 (Word, Excel and PowerPoint), protection was significantly enhanced since a modern protection algorithm named Advanced Encryption Standard was used. At present there is no software that can break this encryption. With the help of the SHA-1 hash function, the password is stretched into a 128-bit key 50,000 times before opening the document; as a result, the time required",
"-21.84616083711444"
],
[
"single technology matches their combination of cost, immediacy and convenience\" and that \"passwords are themselves the best fit for many of the scenarios in which they are currently used.\"\nFollowing the work of Herley and van Oorschot, Bonneau et al. systematically compared web passwords to 35 competing authentication schemes in terms of their usability, deployability, and security. (The technical report is an extended version of the peer-reviewed paper by the same name.) Their analysis shows that most schemes do better than passwords on security, some schemes do better and some worse with respect to usability, while every scheme does worse than",
"-21.836426327819936"
],
[
"password must be repeatedly changed, mnemonics are useless because the user would not remember which mnemonic to use. Furthermore, the use of mnemonics (leading to passwords such as \"2BOrNot2B\") makes the password easier to guess.\nAdministration factors can also be an issue. Users sometimes have older devices that require a password that was used before the password duration expired. In order to manage these older devices, users may have to resort to writing down all old passwords in case they need to log into an older device.\nRequiring a very strong password and not requiring it be changed is often better. However,",
"-21.76642197696674"
],
[
"of the system, certainly from a security viewpoint. This is partly because users are more willing to tell another person (who may not be authorized) a shared password than one exclusively for their use. Single passwords are also much less convenient to change because many people need to be told at the same time, and they make removal of a particular user's access more difficult, as for instance on graduation or resignation. Separate logins are also often used for accountability, for example to know who changed a piece of data. Password reuse It is common practice amongst computer users",
"-21.700374838452262"
],
[
"to crack it is vastly increased.\nExcel and Word 2010 still employ AES and a 128-bit key, but the number of SHA-1 conversions has doubled to 100,000 further increasing the time required to crack the password.\nOffice 2013 (Access, Excel, OneNote, PowerPoint, Project, and Word) uses 128-bit AES, again with hash algorithm SHA-1 by default.\nOffice 2016 (Access, Excel, OneNote, PowerPoint, Project, and Word) uses 256-bit AES, the SHA-1 hash algorithm, and CBC (Cipher Block Chaining) by default. Excel Worksheet and Macro protection The protection for worksheets and macros is necessarily weaker than that for the entire workbook as the software itself must",
"-21.624838386836927"
],
[
"BLAKE2b is faster than SHA-3, SHA-2, SHA-1, and MD5. Although BLAKE nor BLAKE2 have not been standardized as SHA-3 it has been used in many protocols including the Argon2 password hash for the high efficiency that it offers on modern CPUs. As BLAKE was a candidate for SHA-3, BLAKE and BLAKE2 both offer the same output sizes as SHA-3 – including a configurable output size. Attacks on cryptographic hash algorithms There is a long list of cryptographic hash functions but many have been found to be vulnerable and should not be used. For instance, NIST selected 51 hash functions as",
"-21.61358091357397"
],
[
"use longer phrases as passwords (and advises websites to raise the maximum password length) instead of hard-to-remember passwords with \"illusory complexity\" such as \"pA55w+rd\". A user prevented from using the password \"password\" may simply choose \"Password1\" if required to include a number and uppercase letter. Combined with forced periodic password changes, this can lead to passwords that are difficult to remember but easy to crack.\nPaul Grassi, one of the 2017 NIST report's authors, further elaborated: \"Everyone knows that an exclamation point is a 1, or an I, or the last character of a password. $ is an S or a",
"-21.498816906823777"
],
[
"password until it succeeds. More common methods of password cracking, such as dictionary attacks, pattern checking, word list substitution, etc. attempt to reduce the number of trials required and will usually be attempted before brute force. Higher password bit strength exponentially increases the number of candidate passwords that must be checked, on average, to recover the password and reduces the likelihood that the password will be found in any cracking dictionary.\nThe ability to crack passwords using computer programs is also a function of the number of possible passwords per second which can be checked. If a hash of the target",
"-21.44439299334772"
],
[
"algorithm used. Cryptologists and computer scientists often refer to the strength or 'hardness' in terms of entropy.\nPasswords easily discovered are termed weak or vulnerable; passwords very difficult or impossible to discover are considered strong. There are several programs available for password attack (or even auditing and recovery by systems personnel) such as L0phtCrack, John the Ripper, and Cain; some of which use password design vulnerabilities (as found in the Microsoft LANManager system) to increase efficiency. These programs are sometimes used by system administrators to detect weak passwords proposed by users.\nStudies of production computer systems have consistently shown that a large",
"-21.441772733094695"
],
[
"that allows more passwords to be printed on a single page, with the same password entropy. In addition, an average human spy needs over 30 seconds to write a 12-character random string into short-term memory, which provides a good protection against brief looks that an attacker might have on a password list. Lists of short words on the other hand are much faster to memorize. OTPW can handle arbitrary password generation algorithms, as long as the length of the password is fixed. In the current version, the otpw-gen program can generate both base-64 encoded (option -p) and 4-letter-word encoded (option",
"-21.32957478699973"
],
[
"each half of the password to be attacked separately at exponentially lower cost than the whole, as only different 7-character password pieces are possible with the same character set. By mounting a brute-force attack on each half separately, modern desktop machines can crack alphanumeric LM hashes in a few hours. In addition, all lower case letters in the password are changed to upper case before the password is hashed, which further reduces the key space for each half to .\nThe LM hash also does not use cryptographic salt, a standard technique to prevent pre-computed dictionary attacks. ",
"-21.322510451223934"
],
[
"has improved over the years—for example, average length was up to eight characters from under seven in previous surveys, and less than 4% were dictionary words.) \"The Password is dead\" That \"the password is dead\" is a recurring idea in computer security. It often accompanies arguments that the replacement of passwords by a more secure means of authentication is both necessary and imminent. This claim has been made by numerous people at least since 2004. Notably, Bill Gates, speaking at the 2004 RSA Conference predicted the demise of passwords saying \"they just don't meet the challenge for anything",
"-21.272271238965914"
],
[
"Vista, the protocol is disabled by default, but continues to be used by some non-Microsoft SMB implementations. Security weaknesses Although it is based on DES, a well-studied and formerly secure block cipher, the LM hash is not a true one-way function as the password can be determined from the hash because of several weaknesses in its design: Firstly, passwords are limited to a maximum of only 14 characters, giving a theoretical maximum keyspace of with the 95 ASCII printable characters.\nSecondly, passwords longer than 7 characters are divided into two pieces and each piece is hashed separately; this weakness allows",
"-21.255966674129013"
],
[
"feeds the salt, password, and current intermediate hash value back into the underlying MD5 hash function. The user's password hash is the concatenation of the salt value (which is not secret) and the final hash. The extra time is not noticeable to users because they have to wait only a fraction of a second each time they log in. On the other hand, stretching reduces the effectiveness of brute-force attacks in proportion to the number of iterations because it reduces the number of attempts an attacker can perform in a given time frame. This principle is applied in MD5-Crypt and",
"-21.105923516966868"
],
[
"or 124.8 years. Due to currently understood limitations from fundamental physics, there is no expectation that any digital computer (or combination) will be capable of breaking 256-bit encryption via a brute-force attack. Whether or not quantum computers will be able to do so in practice is still unknown, though theoretical analysis suggests such possibilities. Password managers A reasonable compromise for using large numbers of passwords is to record them in a password manager program, which include stand-alone applications, web browser extensions, or a manager built into the operating system. A password manager allows the user to use hundreds of different",
"-21.00531995727215"
],
[
"A time–memory tradeoff cryptanalysis attack, such as a rainbow table, is therefore feasible. In addition, any password that is shorter than 8 characters will result in the hashing of 7 null bytes, yielding the constant value of 0xAAD3B435B51404EE, hence making it easy to identify short passwords on sight. In 2003, Ophcrack, an implementation of the rainbow table technique, was published. It specifically targets the weaknesses of LM encryption, and includes pre-computed data sufficient to crack virtually all alphanumeric LM hashes in a few seconds. Many cracking tools, e.g. RainbowCrack, L0phtCrack and Cain, now incorporate similar attacks and make cracking",
"-20.881982672155573"
],
[
"would provide good cryptographic strength for the password hash, but it is designed to be quite quick to calculate relative to the strength it provides. The crypt() scheme is designed to be expensive to calculate, to slow down dictionary attacks. The printable form of MD5 password hashes starts with $1$.\nThis scheme allows users to have any length password, and they can use any characters supported by their platform (not just 7-bit ASCII). (In practice many implementations limit the password length, but they generally support passwords far longer than any person would be willing to type.) The",
"-20.85675734654069"
],
[
"that correlate with personal information such as names or nicknames are more at risk than ones that are cryptic or anonymous, particularly on social and recreational sites. Password Strength A password is a mandatory security measure that accompanies usernames. The use of personal data to construct passwords i.e. family members’ names, pet’s names or birth dates increases the risk to confidential information and are easier to crack than long complicated passwords so password strength is a key strategy for protecting personal information. A password can be weak or strong:a weak password is cutekittens, a strong password is ?lACpAs56IKMs.\nAccording to Microsoft",
"-20.81529876613058"
],
[
"some systems make available a specially hashed version of the password, so that anyone can check its validity. When this is done, an attacker can try passwords very rapidly; so much stronger passwords are necessary for reasonable security. (See password cracking and password length equation.) Stricter requirements are also appropriate for accounts with higher privileges, such as root or system administrator accounts. Enforcing a policy The more complex a password policy, the harder it may be to enforce, due to user difficulty in remembering or choosing a suitable password.\nMost companies will require users to familiarize themselves with any password policy,",
"-20.684871488600038"
],
[
"be used to encrypt files larger than 4 GB due to its small block size.\nA reduced-round variant of Blowfish is known to be susceptible to known-plaintext attacks on reflectively weak keys. Blowfish implementations use 16 rounds of encryption, and are not susceptible to this attack. Nevertheless, Bruce Schneier has recommended migrating to his Blowfish successor, Twofish.",
"-20.607682840840425"
],
[
"markets. In 1999, US allowed 56-bit encryption to be exported without key escrow or any other key recovery requirements.\nThe advent of commerce on the Internet and faster computers raised concerns about the security of electronic transactions initially with 40-bit, and subsequently also with 56-bit encryption. In February 1997, RSA Data Security ran a brute force competition with a $10,000 prize to demonstrate the weakness of 56-bit encryption; the contest was won four months later. In July 1998, a successful brute-force attack was demonstrated against 56-bit encryption with Deep Crack in just 56 hours.\nIn 2000, all restrictions on key length were",
"-20.58515522419475"
],
[
"off in Windows 2000, Windows XP and NT. Users can also prevent a LM hash from being generated for their own password by using a password at least fifteen characters in length.\n--\nNTLM hashes have in turn become vulnerable in recent years to various attacks that effectively make them as weak today as LanMan hashes were back in 1998.",
"-20.49786722380668"
],
[
"change a password. Passwords may also be reflective of personality. Those who are more uptight or security-oriented may choose longer or more complicated passwords. Those who are lax or who feel more secure in their everyday lives may never change their password. The most common password is Password1, which may point to convenience over security as the main concern for internet users. History The use and memorization of both nonsense and meaningful alphanumeric material has had a long history in psychology beginning with Hermann Ebbinghaus. Since then, numerous studies have established that not only are both meaningful and nonsense “words”",
"-20.45153858678532"
],
[
"for easily crackable passwords. On a file-by-file basis, password cracking is utilized to gain access to digital evidence to which a judge has allowed access, when a particular file's permissions are restricted. Time needed for password searches The time to crack a password is related to bit strength (see password strength), which is a measure of the password's entropy, and the details of how the password is stored. Most methods of password cracking require the computer to produce many candidate passwords, each of which is checked. One example is brute-force cracking, in which a computer tries every possible key or",
"-20.440900521702133"
],
[
"because a required password is unknown, the player must jump to another plotline and learn the password there before returning to the original one. Characters and setting Virtue's Last Reward features nine main characters who are kidnapped by an unknown individual called Zero. The player character Sigma is joined by Phi, a girl with a \"no-nonsense attitude\"; Dio, a rude and insensitive man; Tenmyouji, an elderly man; Quark, an energetic young boy; Luna, a kind and quiet woman; Clover, an unpredictable girl who appeared in Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors; Alice, a commanding and focused woman; and K, a",
"-20.283883327094372"
],
[
"Passwords and PIN-based authentication Passwords and PINs are categorized as \"something you know\" method. A combination of numbers, symbols, and mixed cases are considered to be stronger than all-letter password. Also, the adoption of Transport Layer Security (TLS) or Secure Socket Layer (SSL) features during the information transmission process will as well create an encrypted channel for data exchange and to further protect information delivered. Currently, most security attacks target on password-based authentication systems. Public-key authentication This type of authentication has two parts. One is a public key, the other is a private key. A public key is issued by",
"-20.271202353877015"
],
[
"still used today, having been incorporated into many national and organizational standards. However, its 56-bit key-size has been shown to be insufficient to guard against brute force attacks (one such attack, undertaken by the cyber civil-rights group Electronic Frontier Foundation in 1997, succeeded in 56 hours.) As a result, use of straight DES encryption is now without doubt insecure for use in new cryptosystem designs, and messages protected by older cryptosystems using DES, and indeed all messages sent since 1976 using DES, are also at risk. Regardless of DES' inherent quality, the DES key size (56-bits) was thought to be",
"-20.25301910022972"
],
[
"risk.\nIn 2019, the United Kingdom's NCSC analysed public databases of breached accounts to see which words, phrases and strings people used. Top of the list was 123456, appearing in more than 23 million passwords. The second-most popular string, 123456789, was not much harder to crack, while others in the top five included \"qwerty\", \"password\" and 1111111. Password creation Passwords are created either automatically (using randomizing equipment) or by a human; the latter case is more common. While the strength of randomly chosen passwords against a brute-force attack can be calculated with precision, determining the strength of human-generated passwords is challenging.\nTypically,",
"-20.23879588925047"
],
[
"of accounts that have passwords based on the algorithm, after searching just 1.6 million passwords. This is due to the non-uniformity in the distribution of passwords generated, which can be addressed by using longer passwords or by modifying the algorithm. Bash Here is a code sample that uses /dev/urandom to generate a password with a simple Bash function.This function takes password length as a parameter, or uses 16 by default:\nfunction mkpw() { LC_ALL=C tr -dc '[:graph:]' < /dev/urandom | head -c ${1:-16}; echo; } Java Here is a code sample (adapted from the class PasswordGenerator) that uses SecureRandom to generate",
"-20.146576557075605"
],
[
"effective and who therefore still use normal Unix passwords everywhere. Passwords locking In contrast to the suggestion made in RFC 1938, OTPW does not lock more than one one-time password at a time. If it did this, an attacker could easily exhaust its list of unlocked passwords and force it to either not login at all or use the normal Unix login password. Therefore, OTPW locks only one single password and for all further logins a triple-challenge is issued. If more than 100 unused passwords remain available, then there are over a million different challenges and an attacker has very",
"-20.14320704585407"
],
[
"that achieved a brute force attack speed of 350 billion guesses per second, allowing them to check password combinations in 5.5 hours. Using ocl-Hashcat Plus on a Virtual OpenCL cluster platform, the Linux-based GPU cluster was used to \"crack 90 percent of the 6.5 million password hashes belonging to users of LinkedIn.\"\nDespite their capabilities, desktop CPUs are slower at cracking passwords than purpose-built password breaking machines. In 1998, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) built a dedicated password cracker using ASICs, as opposed to general purpose CPUs. Their machine, Deep Crack, broke a DES 56-bit key in 56 hours, testing over",
"-20.076229469821556"
],
[
"measurably long time: as much as two or three seconds in some cases. The login program in early versions of Unix executed the crypt function only when the login name was recognized by the system. This leaked information through timing about the validity of the login name, even when the password was incorrect. An attacker could exploit such leaks by first applying brute-force to produce a list of login names known to be valid, then attempt to gain access by combining only these names with a large set of passwords known to be frequently used. Without any information on",
"-20.071477147052065"
],
[
"such as the Columbine High School massacre, when new censorship laws were being introduced in the United States. The game has two hidden passwords that can be found by picking up a necklace in one level and reaching the highest rank in the multiplayer mode. Rare had originally intended these details to allow access to password-protected sections of promotional websites and use them for an alternate reality game, but the idea was never realised.\nRare added 16x9 widescreen support to the game and licensed Dolby surround sound. The game features full voice acting for all in-game and cutscene dialogue. Nintendo wanted",
"-20.054489481262863"
],
[
"Office XP. A standard encryption algorithm with a 40-bit key is used by default, but enabling a CSP enhances key length and thus makes decryption process more continuous. This only applies to passwords that are required to open document because this password type is the only one that encrypts a password-protected document.",
"-20.008900150074624"
],
[
"The Easy difficulty is easy for young players, as there is only one predetermined Gruzzle in the level. The Hard difficulty, however, often has as many or more Gruzzles as there are words to find and 20 books must be collected to reveal the mystery word. This makes the game challenging even for adults.",
"-19.95597441314021"
],
[
"data containing many large variables. The less the algorithm encrypts, the more easily players may notice patterns, such as an increment by one every level. They can then exploit these patterns to cheat or even beat the game. With a little luck, even a long password can be discovered by chance, as was the case for the infamous JUSTIN BAILEY code from Metroid.\nWhile any save information is convertible into password form, it is practical only for game progress consisting of fewer or smaller variables. Overlong passwords needed by games such as RPGs with many large variables eventually cancels out the",
"-19.93574663126492"
],
[
"from deterring shoulder surfing to more sophisticated physical threats such as video cameras and keyboard sniffers. Passwords should be chosen so that they are hard for an attacker to guess and hard for an attacker to discover using any of the available automatic attack schemes. See password strength and computer security for more information.\nNowadays, it is a common practice for computer systems to hide passwords as they are typed. The purpose of this measure is to prevent bystanders from reading the password; however, some argue that this practice may lead to mistakes and stress, encouraging users to choose",
"-19.92515859168634"
],
[
"algorithm used by Microsoft, are publicly available. LM hash is particularly vulnerable because passwords longer than 7 characters are broken into two sections, each of which is hashed separately. Choosing a password that is fifteen characters or longer guarantees that an LM hash will not be generated. Common uses Nearly all distributions and variations of Unix, Linux, and BSD use hashes with salts, though many applications use just a hash (typically MD5) with no salt. The Microsoft Windows NT/2000 family uses the LAN Manager and NT LAN Manager hashing method (based on MD4) and is also unsalted, which makes it",
"-19.915268508018926"
],
[
"variation patterns on a consistent theme to keep their passwords memorable. Because of these issues, there is some debate as to whether password aging is effective. Changing a password will not prevent abuse in most cases, since the abuse would often be immediately noticeable. However, if someone may have had access to the password through some means, such as sharing a computer or breaching a different site, changing the password limits the window for abuse. Number of users per password Allotting separate passwords to each user of a system is preferable to having a single password shared by legitimate users",
"-19.893036993336864"
],
[
"algorithms were never designed for password hashing and are thus not considered secure anymore. Modern, slower and thus more secure hashes such as PBKDF2, scrypt or other KDFs have not yet been implemented in Office.\nThere is specialized software designed to recover lost Microsoft Office passwords on pre-AES encryption.\nUltimately, the security of a password-protected document is dependent on the user choosing a password of sufficient complexity. If the password can be determined through guesswork or social engineering, the underlying cipher is not important.",
"-19.870836088375654"
],
[
"they're immune to critical hits, but they're vulnerable to the cleric's turn undead power.\" They also thank Ray Harryhausen for people knowing what fighting skeletons ought to look like.\nScreen Rant compiled a list of the game's \"10 Most Powerful (And 10 Weakest) Monsters, Ranked\" in 2018, calling the tiny skelton one of the weakest, saying \"[skeletons] go all the way down to Tiny-sized creatures, which means that it is possible for your party of adventurers to fight a group of skeletons that are the same size as action figures.\" Other publishers The skeleton is fully detailed under the \"walking dead\"",
"-19.84952307171625"
],
[
"Equivalent Privacy) used a short, 24-bit IV, leading to reused IVs with the same key, which led to it being easily cracked. Packet injection allowed for WEP to be cracked in times as short as several seconds. This ultimately led to the deprecation of WEP. SSL 2.0 IV In cipher-block chaining mode (CBC mode), the IV must, in addition to being unique, be unpredictable at encryption time.\nIn particular, the (previously) common practice of re-using the last ciphertext block of a message as the IV for the next message is insecure (for example, this method was used by SSL 2.0).\nIf",
"-19.828626860980876"
],
[
"an estimated 30-bit strength, according to NIST. 2³⁰ is only one billion permutations and would be cracked in seconds if the hashing function is naive. When ordinary desktop computers are combined in a cracking effort, as can be done with botnets, the capabilities of password cracking are considerably extended. In 2002, distributed.net successfully found a 64-bit RC5 key in four years, in an effort which included over 300,000 different computers at various times, and which generated an average of over 12 billion keys per second. \nGraphics processors can speed up password cracking by a factor of 50 to 100",
"-19.785547672276152"
],
[
"of cracking strategies, algorithm with brute force and dictionary attacks proving to be the most productive.\nThe increased availability of computing power and beginner friendly automated password cracking software for a number of protection schemes has allowed the activity to be taken up by script kiddies.",
"-19.775180716067553"
],
[
"accounts, deliberately choose easy-to-remember passwords that are too vulnerable to cracking, or rely on written records of their passwords.\nMany sites, in an attempt to prevent users from choosing easy-to-guess passwords, add restrictions on password length or composition which contribute to password fatigue. In many cases, the restrictions placed on passwords actually serve to decrease the security of the account (either by preventing good passwords or by making the password so complex the user ends up storing it insecurely, such as on a post-it note). Some sites also block non-ASCII or non-alphanumeric characters.\nPassword fatigue will typically affect users, but can also",
"-19.74752990982961"
],
[
"the minimum for strong security with symmetric encryption algorithms. 128-bit keys are commonly used and considered very strong. See the key size article for a more complete discussion.\nThe keys used in public key cryptography have some mathematical structure. For example, public keys used in the RSA system are the product of two prime numbers. Thus public key systems require longer key lengths than symmetric systems for an equivalent level of security. 3072 bits is the suggested key length for systems based on factoring and integer discrete logarithms which aim to have security equivalent to a 128 bit symmetric cipher. Elliptic",
"-19.745842579810414"
],
[
"software. However, executable compression has become less popular because of increased storage capacity on computers. It has its use in the demoscene where demos have to stay within a size limit like 64 kilobytes to enter some competitions. Only very sophisticated compression formats, which add to load time, keep an executable small enough to enter these competitions.",
"-19.74042577086948"
],
[
"proposed Data Encryption Standard, largely because its 56-bit key length was too short to prevent brute-force attack. An audio recording survives of their review of DES at Stanford in 1976 with Dennis Branstad of NBS and representatives of the National Security Agency. Their concern was well-founded: subsequent history has shown not only that NSA actively intervened with IBM and NBS to shorten the key size, but also that the short key size enabled exactly the kind of massively parallel key crackers that Hellman and Diffie sketched out. When these were ultimately built outside the classified world (EFF DES cracker),",
"-19.65744142147014"
],
[
"key stretching as part of their function; see crypt(3) for an example. PBKDF2 is for generating an encryption key from a password, and not necessarily for password authentication. PBKDF2 can be used for both if the number of output bits is less than or equal to the internal hashing algorithm used in PBKDF2, which is usually SHA-2 (up to 512 bits), or used as an encryption key to encrypt static data. Strength and time These examples assume that a personal computer can do about 65,000 SHA-1 hashes in one second. Thus a program that uses key stretching can use 65,000",
"-19.65097539499402"
],
[
"being (72,057,594,037,927,936). 56-bit encryption has its roots in DES, which was the official standard of the US National Bureau of Standards from 1976, and later also the RC5 algorithm. US government regulations required any users of stronger 56-bit symmetric keys to submit to key recovery through algorithms like CDMF or key escrow, effectively reducing the key strength to 40-bit, and thereby allowing organisations such as the NSA to brute-force this encryption. Furthermore, from 1996 software products exported from the United States were not permitted to use stronger than 56-bit encryption, requiring different software editions for the US and export",
"-19.64421607737313"
],
[
"Multi-factor authentication schemes combine passwords (as \"knowledge factors\") with one or more other means of authentication, to make authentication more secure and less vulnerable to compromised passwords. For example, a simple two-factor login might send a text message, e-mail, automated phone call, or similar alert whenever a login attempt is made, possibly supplying a code which must be entered in addition to a password. More sophisticated factors include such things as hardware tokens and biometric security. Password rules Most organizations specify a password policy that sets requirements for the composition and usage of passwords, typically dictating minimum length, required categories",
"-19.620412666779885"
],
[
"fraction of all user-chosen passwords are readily guessed automatically. For example, Columbia University found 22% of user passwords could be recovered with little effort. According to Bruce Schneier, examining data from a 2006 phishing attack, 55% of MySpace passwords would be crackable in 8 hours using a commercially available Password Recovery Toolkit capable of testing 200,000 passwords per second in 2006. He also reported that the single most common password was password1, confirming yet again the general lack of informed care in choosing passwords among users. (He nevertheless maintained, based on these data, that the general quality of passwords",
"-19.601227962761186"
],
[
"uppercase and lowercase letters and digits\" or \"change it monthly\", the greater the degree to which users will subvert the system.\nIn \"The Memorability and Security of Passwords\", Jeff Yan et al. examines the effect of advice given to users about a good choice of password. They found that passwords based on thinking of a phrase and taking the first letter of each word are just as memorable as naively selected passwords, and just as hard to crack as randomly generated passwords. Combining two unrelated words is another good method. Having a personally designed \"algorithm\" for generating obscure passwords is another",
"-19.59532712586224"
],
[
"two strings, “hello” and “8571935789325698” can be hashed to the same hash value, “89232323”. This would be effective for an attacker to know because when passwords are stored into a database with their appropriate hashes, the hacker could use the password “8571935789325698” which would allows the hacker to login successfully despite the actual password being “hello”. Although hackers would require time to brute force different passwords to find a hash collision, these hackers could alternatively wait until computational power increases enough to make cracking these hashing collisions faster. In the meantime, they can search around for servers",
"-19.572276616323506"
],
[
"you really want to secure.\" In 2011 IBM predicted that, within five years, \"You will never need a password again.\" Matt Honan, a journalist at Wired, who was the victim of a hacking incident, in 2012 wrote \"The age of the password has come to an end.\" Heather Adkins, manager of Information Security at Google, in 2013 said that \"passwords are done at Google.\" Eric Grosse, VP of security engineering at Google, states that \"passwords and simple bearer tokens, such as cookies, are no longer sufficient to keep users safe.\" Christopher Mims, writing in the Wall Street Journal said",
"-19.534098974370863"
],
[
"curve cryptography may allow smaller-size keys for equivalent security, but these algorithms have only been known for a relatively short time and current estimates of the difficulty of searching for their keys may not survive. As early as 2004, a message encrypted using a 109-bit key elliptic curve algorithm had been broken by brute force. The current rule of thumb is to use an ECC key twice as long as the symmetric key security level desired. Except for the random one-time pad, the security of these systems has not been proven mathematically as of 2018, so a theoretical breakthrough could",
"-19.523388368543237"
],
[
"in order to ensure that an attacker would be forced to crack each password independently as opposed to being able to target the entire password database simultaneously.\nIn detail, the user's password is truncated to eight characters, and those are coerced down to only 7-bits each; this forms the 56-bit DES key. That key is then used to encrypt an all-bits-zero block, and then the ciphertext is encrypted again with the same key, and so on for a total of 25 DES encryptions. A 12-bit salt is used to perturb the encryption algorithm, so standard DES implementations can't be",
"-19.49193323671352"
],
[
"early versions of Wired Equivalent Privacy. In 1992, IBM designed the CDMF algorithm to reduce the strength of 56-bit DES against brute force attack to 40 bits, in order to create exportable DES implementations. Obsolescence All 40-bit and 56-bit encryption algorithms are obsolete, because they are vulnerable to brute force attacks, and therefore cannot be regarded as secure. As a result, virtually all Web browsers now use 128-bit keys, which are considered strong. Most Web servers will not communicate with a client unless it has 128-bit encryption capability installed on it.\nPublic/private key pairs used in asymmetric encryption (public key cryptography),",
"-19.47998407459818"
],
[
"Crack (password software) Legal issues arising from using Crack Randal L. Schwartz, a notable Perl programming expert, in 1995 was prosecuted for using Crack on the password file of a system at Intel, a case the verdict of which was eventually expunged.\nCrack was also used by Kevin Mitnick when hacking into Sun Microsystems in 1993. Network distributed password cracking As password cracking is inherently embarrassingly parallel Crack v4.0a introduced the ability to use a network of heterogeneous workstations connected by a shared filesystem as parts of a distributed password cracking effort.\nAll that was required for this was to provide Crack",
"-19.461642568407115"
],
[
"a password NOT to contain any word in an online dictionary, or list of names, or any license plate pattern from any state (in the US) or country (as in the EU). If patterned choices are required, humans are likely to use them in predictable ways, such a capitalizing a letter, adding one or two numbers, and a special character. This predictability means that the increase in password strength is minor when compared to random passwords. Usability and implementation considerations Because national keyboard implementations vary, not all 94 ASCII printable characters can be used everywhere. This can present a problem",
"-19.453930650808616"
],
[
"simple password-based symmetric encryption system, which is documented in the ZIP specification, and known to be seriously flawed. In particular, it is vulnerable to known-plaintext attacks, which are in some cases made worse by poor implementations of random-number generators.\nNew features including new compression and encryption (e.g. AES) methods have been documented in the ZIP File Format Specification since version 5.2. A WinZip-developed AES-based standard is used also by 7-Zip and Xceed, but some vendors use other formats. PKWARE SecureZIP also supports RC2, RC4, DES, Triple DES encryption methods, Digital Certificate-based encryption and authentication (X.509), and archive header encryption.\nFile name encryption",
"-19.435664508549962"
],
[
"to eavesdrop more easily. The British proposed a key length of 48 bits, while the West Germans wanted stronger encryption to protect against East German spying, so the compromise became a key length of 56 bits. In general, a key of length 56 is times easier to break than a key of length 128. DES Challenges The widely used DES encryption algorithm was originally planned by IBM to have a key size of 128 bits; NSA lobbied for a key size of 48 bits. The end compromise were a key size of 64 bits, 8 of which were parity",
"-19.43039269154542"
],
[
"7z Encryption The 7z format supports encryption with the AES algorithm with a 256-bit key. The key is generated from a user-supplied passphrase using an algorithm based on the SHA-256 hash function. The SHA-256 is executed 2¹⁸ (262144) times, which causes a significant delay on slow PCs before compression or extraction starts. This technique is called key stretching and is used to make a brute-force search for the passphrase more difficult. Current GPU-based, and custom hardware attacks limit the effectiveness of this particular method of key stretching, so it is still important to choose a strong password.\nThe 7z",
"-19.425261129566934"
],
[
"Soft hyphen In computing and typesetting, a soft hyphen (ISO 8859: 0xAD, Unicode U+00AD SOFT HYPHEN, HTML: ­ ­) or syllable hyphen (EBCDIC: 0xCA), abbreviated SHY, is a code point reserved in some coded character sets for the purpose of breaking words across lines by inserting visible hyphens. Two alternative ways of using the soft hyphen character for this purpose have emerged, depending on whether the encoded text will be broken into lines by its recipient, or has already been preformatted by its originator. Text to be formatted by the recipient The use of SHY characters in text that",
"-19.412576334027108"
],
[
"test over a hundred million passwords per second using password cracking tools running on a general purpose CPU and billions of passwords per second using GPU-based password cracking tools (See: John the Ripper benchmarks). The rate of password guessing depends heavily on the cryptographic function used by the system to generate password hashes. A suitable password hashing function, such as bcrypt, is many orders of magnitude better than a naive function like simple MD5 or SHA. A user-selected eight-character password with numbers, mixed case, and symbols, with commonly selected passwords and other dictionary matches filtered out, reaches",
"-19.40725966519676"
],
[
"for accounts on different systems, those will be compromised as well.\nMore secure systems store each password in a cryptographically protected form, so access to the actual password will still be difficult for a snooper who gains internal access to the system, while validation of user access attempts remains possible. The most secure don't store passwords at all, but a one-way derivation, such as a polynomial, modulus, or an advanced hash function.Roger Needham invented the now common approach of storing only a \"hashed\" form of the plaintext password. When a user types in a password on such a system, the password",
"-19.382205742644146"
],
[
"with 4t-bit signatures. For example, a 128-bit security level would require 512-bit (64-byte) signatures. The security is limited by discrete logarithm attacks on the group, which have a complexity of the square-root of the group size.\nIn Schnorr's original 1991 paper, it was suggested that since collision resistance in the hash is not required, then therefore shorter hash functions may be just as secure, and indeed recent developments suggest that a t-bit security level can be achieved with 3t-bit signatures. Then, a 128-bit security level would require only 384-bit (48-byte) signatures, and this could be achieved by truncating the size of",
"-19.370621076988755"
],
[
"Microsoft Office password protection Microsoft Office password protection is a security feature to protect Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint) documents with a user-provided password. As of Office 2007, this uses modern encryption; earlier versions used weaker systems and are not considered secure.\nOffice 2007–2013 employed 128-bit key AES password protection which remains secure. Office 2016 employed 256-bit key AES password protection which also remains secure.\nThe Office 97–2003 password protection used 40-bit key RC4 which contains multiple vulnerabilities rendering it insecure. History of Microsoft Encryption password In Excel and Word 95 and prior editions a weak protection algorithm is used that",
"-19.367579744779505"
],
[
"answer by constantly shifting password. Those solutions abruptly reduce the timeframe for brute forcing (attacker needs to break and use the password within a single shift) and they reduce the value of the stolen passwords because of its short time validity.\nIn 2013 a long-term Password Hashing Competition was announced to choose a new, standard algorithm for password hashing. Software There are many password cracking software tools, but the most popular are Aircrack, Cain and Abel, John the Ripper, Hashcat, Hydra, DaveGrohl and ElcomSoft. Many litigation support software packages also include password cracking functionality. Most of these packages employ a mixture",
"-19.36432976461947"
],
[
"in 2004, had a minimum thickness of 0.38 inches (10 mm) and a maximum of 0.8 inches (20.3 mm).\nSince the release of the MacBook Air, other thinner laptops have been released, such as the Dell Adamo, launched in March 2009, which is a constant 0.65 inches (17 mm) thick. Apple subsequently removed the claim of being \"the world's thinnest notebook\" from their marketing materials. Second generation (Tapered and dual USB) On October 20, 2010, Apple released a redesigned 13.3-inch model with a tapered enclosure, higher screen resolution, improved battery, a second USB port, stereo speakers, and standard solid state storage. A 11.6-inch model",
"-19.361692747450434"
],
[
"crackable passwords. Because many users re-use passwords for multiple sites, the use of a salt is an important component of overall web application security. Some additional references for using a salt to secure password hashes in specific languages (PHP, .NET, etc.) can be found in the external links section below.",
"-19.358011120348237"
],
[
"an average filename length of 8 bytes and a per-filename header of 4 bytes, this would be less than 350.) Applications which made heavy use of multiple same-directory hard links, such as git, GNUS, GMame and BackupPC were later observed to fail after hitting this limit. The limit was eventually removed (and as of October 2012 has been merged pending release in Linux 3.7) by introducing spillover extended reference items to hold hard link filenames which could not otherwise fit. Checksum tree and scrubbing CRC-32C checksums are computed for both data and metadata and stored as checksum items",
"-19.34310816967627"
],
[
"is not needed, in versions of Windows NT (including Windows 2000, Windows XP and later), a passphrase can be used as a substitute for a Windows password. If the passphrase is longer than 14 characters, this will also avoid the generation of a very weak LM hash. Unix support In recent versions of Unix-like operating systems such as Linux, OpenBSD, NetBSD, Solaris and FreeBSD, up to 255-character passphrases can be used.",
"-19.32044025959476"
],
[
"56-bit encryption In computing, 56-bit encryption refers to a key size of fifty-six bits, or seven bytes, for symmetric encryption. While stronger than 40-bit encryption, this still represents a relatively low level of security in the context of a brute force attack. Description The US government traditionally regulated encryption for reasons of national security, law enforcement and foreign policy. Encryption was regulated from 1976 by the Arms Export Control Act until control was transferred to the Department of Commerce in 1996.\n56-bit refers to the size of a symmetric key used to encrypt data, with the number of unique possible permutations",
"-19.236580110853538"
],
[
"passwords. All items in such lists are considered weak, as are passwords that are simple modifications of them. For some decades, investigations of passwords on multi-user computer systems have shown that 40% or more are readily guessed using only computer programs, and more can be found when information about a particular user is taken into account during the attack. Password guess validation Systems that use passwords for authentication must have some way to check any password entered to gain access. If the valid passwords are simply stored in a system file or database, an attacker who gains sufficient access to",
"-19.23238107643556"
],
[
"5. If we use these well-known tricks, we aren’t fooling any adversary. We are simply fooling the database that stores passwords into thinking the user did something good.\" Password cracking Attempting to crack passwords by trying as many possibilities as time and money permit is a brute force attack. A related method, rather more efficient in most cases, is a dictionary attack. In a dictionary attack, all words in one or more dictionaries are tested. Lists of common passwords are also typically tested.\nPassword strength is the likelihood that a password cannot be guessed or discovered, and varies with the attack",
"-19.216665350773837"
],
[
"first crack at the next one.\nThe rules regarding cluegiving were the same as on all previous versions of Password, with the exception of two instances exclusive to Password Plus. Beginning with the April 23, 1979 edition of Password Plus and continuing until the series went off air in 1982, two rules were put into place. The first disallowed any password's direct opposite as a legal clue (such as \"loose\" for \"tight\"). The second expanded a penalty already present in the game. When the series began, if the cluegiver being given the option to play or pass did not decide in",
"-19.186580860274262"
],
[
"with individual passcodes to initiate the process, with countdown timers that can allow characters to escape. Passwords in 1970s and 1980s movies are noticeably unfit for purposes of such major impact, considering accounts with even low level security in modern times have far more complex password requirements, as the writers of the era did not anticipate the complexity level of computer generated brute-force attacks and security issues.",
"-19.17499117407715"
],
[
"In addition, whereas weak passwords may be broken via rainbow tables, TPM causes the much-simpler Windows PINs to be resilient to brute-force attacks. While this is not a security vulnerability and can be easily mitigated by using SecureBoot option in BIOS tools like Kon-Boot an be used in order to bypass Windows 10 authentication (including both local passwords, online (LIVE), PIN passwords). \nWhen Windows 10 was first introduced, multi-factor authentication was provided by two components: Windows Hello and Passport (not to be confused with the Passport platform of 1998). Later, Passport was merged into Windows Hello.\nThe enterprise version of Windows",
"-19.16624996162136"
],
[
"considerably slower than comparing the same single hash to every password.\nAnother (lesser) benefit of a salt is as follows: two users might choose the same string as their password, or the same user might choose to use the same password on two machines. Without a salt, this password would be stored as the same hash string in the password file. This would disclose the fact that the two accounts have the same password, allowing anyone who knows one of the account's passwords to access the other account. By salting the passwords with two random characters, even if two accounts use",
"-19.150618864339776"
],
[
"attackers from efficiently mounting offline attacks against multiple user accounts simultaneously. The algorithms are also much slower to execute which drastically increases the time required to mount a successful offline attack.\nMany hashes used for storing passwords, such as MD5 and the SHA family, are designed for fast computation and efficient implementation in hardware. As a result, they are ineffective in preventing password cracking, especially with methods like rainbow tables. Using key stretching Algorithms, such as PBKDF2, to form password hashes can significantly reduce the rate at which passwords can be tested.\nSolutions like a security token give a formal proof",
"-19.139822586497758"
],
[
"on HP-UX, Digital Unix, and OSF/1. The main difference between it and DES is that BigCrypt uses all the characters of a password, not just the first 8, and has a variable length hash.\nCrypt16 is the minor modification of DES, which allows passwords of up to 16 characters. Used on Ultrix and Tru64. GNU/Linux The GNU C Library used by almost all GNU/Linux distributions provides an implementation of the crypt function which supports the DES, MD5, and (since version 2.7) SHA-2 based hashing algorithms mentioned above.\nUlrich Drepper, the glibc maintainer, rejected bcrypt support since it isn't approved by NIST. macOS",
"-19.137987392721698"
],
[
"a password that allows the other game to be played as a sequel. They were developed by Flagship in conjunction with Nintendo, with supervision from Miyamoto. After the team experimented with porting the original The Legend of Zelda to the Game Boy Color, they decided to make an original trilogy to be called the \"Triforce Series\". When the password system linking the three games proved too troublesome, the concept was reduced to two games at Miyamoto's suggestion. These two games became Oracle of Ages, which is more puzzle-based, and Oracle of Seasons, which is more action-oriented.\nWhen Nintendo revealed the GameCube",
"-19.12882679811446"
],
[
"processor for that time. Such a device will crack a 6 letter single-case password in one day. Note that the work can be distributed over many computers for an additional speedup proportional to the number of available computers with comparable GPUs. Special key stretching hashes are available that take a relatively long time to compute, reducing the rate at which guessing can take place. Although it is considered best practice to use key stretching, many common systems do not.\nAnother situation where quick guessing is possible is when the password is used to form a cryptographic key. In such cases, an",
"-19.023101966187824"
],
[
"Because of this and other concerns, such password capabilities were considered a vulnerability in NLTSS. A design was done to protect against this vulnerability, the Control by Public Key Encryption mechanism. This mechanism wasn't put into production in NLTSS both because of its significant performance cost and because users weren't aware of the vulnerability from password capabilities. Modern advances in cryptography would make such protection for capabilities practical, especially for Internet/Web capabilities (e.g. see YURLs or WideWORD).\nA design issue with NLTSS that wasn't considered until years after it was removed from production was its open network architecture.",
"-19.022033844084945"
],
[
"and comparing the result of each guess to the actual password hashes. If the attacker finds a match, they know that their guess is the actual password for the associated user.\nPassword cracking tools can operate by brute force (i.e. trying every possible combination of characters) or by hashing every word from a list; large lists of possible passwords in many languages are widely available on the Internet. The existence of password cracking tools allows attackers to easily recover poorly chosen passwords. In particular, attackers can quickly recover passwords that are short, dictionary words, simple variations on dictionary words or that",
"-19.01722601032816"
],
[
"40-bit encryption 40-bit encryption refers to a key size of forty bits, or five bytes, for symmetric encryption; this represents a relatively low level of security. A forty bit length corresponds to a total of 2⁴⁰ possible keys. Although this is a large number in human terms (about a trillion), it is possible to break this degree of encryption using a moderate amount of computing power in a brute-force attack, i.e., trying out each possible key in turn. Description A typical home computer in 2004 could brute-force a 40-bit key in a little under two weeks, testing a million keys",
"-19.012495306742494"
],
[
"will present two different encrypted volumes given different passwords.\nHowever, it is possible that two filenames on two different secondary volumes will be encrypted to the same filename. In this case, any other file will be overwritten with a new file being created. Note that this refers only to the encrypted filenames, not the unencrypted filenames. This danger can be averted by creating one directory per secondary volume and storing files in the only visible directory after a secondary volume is mounted.\nAlso, if the password is changed, the volume key will be re-encoded with the new password. This will cause secondary",
"-19.00056554132607"
],
[
"on the live site were hashed using the bcrypt algorithm. A security analyst using the Hashcat password recovery tool with a dictionary based on the RockYou passwords found that among the 4,000 passwords that were the easiest to crack, \"123456\" and \"password\" were the most commonly used passwords on the live website. An analysis of old passwords used on an archived version showed that \"123456\" and \"password\" were the most common. Due to a design error where passwords were hashed with both bcrypt and MD5, 11 million passwords were eventually cracked.\nClaire Brownell suggested that the Turing test could be possibly",
"-18.97620719531551"
]
] |
6g1bnx | Why is it that the constant orbit of electrons around the nucleus of an atom is not classed as an example of perpetual motion? | [
"When people talk about \"perpetual motion machines\" they don't mean the literal \"moving forever\" they mean a system that runs forever but you can keep extracting energy from, or generates more energy than was put in without any other loss. a rock could orbit another rock and both could hurtle through a vacuum forever. No work is being done no energy is being taken from the system. So it's happy to just keep moving forever. but if you want to make those rocks do some work or touch them in any way they will stop moving or slow down. same with an Atom, while there might be \"movement\" of sorts inside that motion does not perpetually generate energy.",
"\"perpetual motion\" isn't disallowed, inertia means something moving will move forever unless a force changes that. People mean \"motion that self regenerates when slowed\" when they mean perpetual motion. But at the same time electrons don't actually orbit the way people draw them in cartoons, electrons aren't really little balls, it's just easier to think of them that way sometimes.",
"Like explained in another post already, electrons aren't \"orbiting the core\" like planets orbit the sun. As said, they would emit electromagnetic waves constantly and end up falling into the core once their energy was radiated away; if they kept moving though, they would indeed be an actual ''perpetual movement machine'' (meaning they would basically generate energy from nothing). This problem arises because in most schools, you are taught to think of electrons as an actual particle (a classical concept), when in actuality they are quantummechanical objects i.e. excitations of their respective fields (probability \"waves\"/fuctions with partly \"particle-like\" properties so to speak). We can't measure their \"velocity\" and locality at the same time (or rather, the more precise you measure one, the less precise the other measurement gets), thus we assign them probabillities. We can calculate these probabilities and we find that they have a 0% chance of being in the atom's core, everywhere else however, that probability is not 0, even though it is infinitly small, on Venus for example, it may still be there. To get around that we calculate the arrea that has a 90%-99% chance of being and call them orbitals (basically what you get taught as the different \"shells\" of an atom in school (it's somewhat more complex than that, but that's *basically* it)). These orbitals are basically the \"room\" you speak of when refering to an atom minus the room taken up by the core (less that 0.1%). As such, \"electrons\" aren't really moving, but are *dislocated* in a large cloud of their probable positions around the atom's core. You can collapse this *cloud* into a single position by measuring them, but as stated above, you are unable to attain their \"velocity\" then.",
"One reason is that electrons don't really orbit around the nucleus the way planets orbit around the sun. That's a convenient fiction that was once thought by physicists to be true, but hasn't been since around the beginning of the last century. I guess it is still taught in schools because the real theory is rather strange and hard to explain to an adolescent. It's hard to explain to an adult. One of the problems with the \"planetary model\" of atoms is that electrons are a charged particle. If they orbited around the nucleus like that, they would constantly be emitting electromagnetic radiation. They don't do that. So the model was clearly flawed. Along came the quantum mechanical model of the atom. It was realized that electrons in an atom don't occupy a particular position within the atom, they are more like a wave with a particular volume of space within the atom that they are *likely* to be found in. But that volume doesn't have a sharp boundary. An electron in your nose has a very very very very small chance of suddenly being on Mars. The electrons aren't static, so I guess you could call what they do \"perpetual motion\". They also aren't really in motion, though. They just might be here and might be there. It isn't really what people mean when they refer to a perpetual motion machine. **TL;DR** - Atoms are weird."
] | [
[
"the nucleus of an atom which cannot be explained by classical mechanics. Orbital Angular Momentum When quantum mechanics refers to the orbital angular momentum of an electron, it is generally referring to the spatial wave equation that represents the electron's motion around the nucleus of an atom. Electrons do not \"orbit\" the nucleus in the classical sense of angular momentum, however the mathematical representation of L = r × p still leads to the quantum mechanical version of angular momentum. Just as in classical mechanics, the law of conservation of angular momentum still holds. Spin An electron has no charge",
"-31.415467059923685"
],
[
"its nucleus, following an early conjecture of Niels Bohr (this is the source of the term \"orbital\"). However, electrons don't actually orbit nuclei in any meaningful sense, and quantum mechanics are necessary for any useful understanding of the electron's real behavior. Solving the classical two-body problem for an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is misleading and does not produce many useful insights.",
"-31.355218121781945"
],
[
"field theory. The higher-energy electron states (2s, 2p, 3s, etc.) are stationary states according to the approximate Hamiltonian, but not stationary according to the true Hamiltonian, because of vacuum fluctuations. On the other hand, the 1s state is truly a stationary state, according to both the approximate and the true Hamiltonian. Comparison to \"orbital\" in chemistry An orbital is a stationary state (or approximation thereof) of a one-electron atom or molecule; more specifically, an atomic orbital for an electron in an atom, or a molecular orbital for an electron in a molecule.\nFor a molecule that contains only a single electron",
"-30.926160332164727"
],
[
"since it is moving (on average) most rapidly at that point, giving it maximal momentum.\nA mental \"planetary orbit\" picture closest to the behavior of electrons in s orbitals, all of which have no angular momentum, might perhaps be that of a Keplerian orbit with the orbital eccentricity of 1 but a finite major axis, not physically possible (because particles were to collide), but can be imagined as a limit of orbits with equal major axes but increasing eccentricity.\nBelow, a number of drum membrane vibration modes and the respective wave functions of the hydrogen atom are shown. A correspondence can be considered",
"-29.812196472572396"
],
[
"using the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as \"orbiting\" the proton in analogy to the Earth's orbit of the Sun. However, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. Because of the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances from the proton, and therefore only certain allowed energies.\nA more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum mechanical treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation, Dirac",
"-29.786440279800445"
],
[
"between our solar system and an atom in which electrons orbit the nucleus. But now the analogy is deeper and mathematically and physically supported: it comes from the suggestion that chaotic planetary orbits on very long time scales have preferred sizes, the roots of which go to fractal space-time and generalized Newtonian equation of motion which assumes the form of the quantum Schrödinger equation.\nHowever, as Nottale acknowledges, this general approach is not totally new:\nThe suggestion to use the formalism of quantum mechanics for the treatment of macroscopic problems, in particular for understanding structures in the solar system, dates back to",
"-29.634892868984025"
],
[
"numbers, and their energies (see below), explain the electron configuration of the atoms and the periodic table.\nThe stationary states (quantum states) of the hydrogen-like atoms are its atomic orbitals. However, in general, an electron's behavior is not fully described by a single orbital. Electron states are best represented by time-depending \"mixtures\" (linear combinations) of multiple orbitals. See Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method.\nThe quantum number n first appeared in the Bohr model where it determines the radius of each circular electron orbit. In modern quantum mechanics however, n determines the mean distance of the electron from the nucleus;",
"-29.60976956144441"
],
[
"momentum was convincingly argued at least 19 years earlier by Niels Bohr, and the Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka published an orbit-based hypothesis for electronic behavior as early as 1904. Explaining the behavior of these electron \"orbits\" was one of the driving forces behind the development of quantum mechanics. Early models With J. J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, it became clear that atoms were not the smallest building blocks of nature, but were rather composite particles. The newly discovered structure within atoms tempted many to imagine how the atom's constituent parts might interact with each other. Thomson theorized",
"-29.590281699114712"
],
[
"between orbitals with the same principal quantum number n, this is not true for the outer electrons of other atoms.\nIn the old quantum theory prior to quantum mechanics, electrons were supposed to occupy classical elliptical orbits. The orbits with the highest angular momentum are 'circular orbits' outside the inner electrons, but orbits with low angular momentum (s- and p-orbitals) have high orbital eccentricity, so that they get closer to the nucleus and feel on average a less strongly screened nuclear charge. The n + ℓ energy ordering rule A periodic table in which each row corresponds to one value of",
"-29.287975833984092"
],
[
"most often shown independent of each other, the orbitals coexist around the nucleus at the same time. Also, in 1927, Albrecht Unsöld proved that if one sums the electron density of all orbitals of a particular azimuthal quantum number ℓ of the same shell n (e.g. all three 2p orbitals, or all five 3d orbitals) where each orbital is occupied by an electron or each is occupied by an electron pair, then all angular dependence disappears; that is, the resulting total density of all the atomic orbitals in that subshell (those with the same ℓ) is spherical. This",
"-29.084387995884754"
],
[
"model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon of screening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit.\nFor example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit at Z = 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge of Z = 3 minus",
"-29.011981301300693"
],
[
"Stationary state Spontaneous decay Spontaneous decay complicates the question of stationary states. For example, according to simple (nonrelativistic) quantum mechanics, the hydrogen atom has many stationary states: 1s, 2s, 2p, and so on, are all stationary states. But in reality, only the ground state 1s is truly \"stationary\": An electron in a higher energy level will spontaneously emit one or more photons to decay into the ground state. This seems to contradict the idea that stationary states should have unchanging properties.\nThe explanation is that the Hamiltonian used in nonrelativistic quantum mechanics is only an approximation to the Hamiltonian from quantum",
"-28.86605783016421"
],
[
"force in the relativistic setting. Atomic physics A classical electron orbiting a nucleus experiences acceleration and should radiate. Consequently, the electron loses energy and the electron should eventually spiral into the nucleus. Atoms, according to classical mechanics, are consequently unstable. This classical prediction is violated by the observation of stable electron orbits. The problem is resolved with a quantum mechanical description of atomic physics, initially provided by the Bohr model. Classical solutions to the stability of electron orbitals can be demonstrated using Non-radiation conditions and in accordance with known physical laws.",
"-28.723867217995576"
],
[
"This occurs in particular if the average nucleus has some symmetry.\nThe concept of shells allows one to understand why some nuclei are bound more tightly than others. This is because two nucleons of the same kind cannot be in the same state (Pauli exclusion principle). So the lowest-energy state of the nucleus is one where nucleons fill all energy levels from the bottom up to some level. A nucleus with full shells is exceptionally stable, as will be explained.\nAs with electrons in the electron shell model, protons in the outermost shell are relatively loosely bound to the nucleus if there",
"-28.700057163790916"
],
[
"necessary to keep the planet in orbit.\nThis model, although appealing, doesn't hold true in the real world. Synchrotron radiation would cause the orbiting electron to lose orbital energy and spiral inward since the vector quantity of acceleration of the particle multiplied by its mass (the value of the force required to keep the electron in circular motion) would be less than the electrical force the proton applied to the electron.\nOnce the electron spiralled into the nucleus the electron would combine with a proton to form a neutron, and the atom would cease to exist. This model is clearly wrong. Bohr",
"-28.69915609220334"
],
[
"orbiting around the same nucleus may have coupled angular momenta. Due to the conservation of angular momentum and the nature of the angular momentum operator, the total angular momentum is always the sum of the individual angular momenta of the electrons, or\nSpin-Orbit interaction (also known as spin-orbit coupling) is a special case of angular momentum coupling. Specifically, it is the interaction between the intrinsic spin of a particle, S, and its orbital angular momentum, L. As they are both forms of angular momentum, they must be conserved. Even if energy is transferred between the two, the total angular momentum, J,",
"-28.63714300801803"
],
[
"the time-dependent equivalent Heisenberg equation is convenient when studying an atom driven by an external electromagnetic wave.\nIn the processes of absorption or emission of photons by an atom, the conservation laws hold for the whole isolated system, such as an atom plus a photon. Therefore the motion of the electron in the process of photon absorption or emission is always accompanied by motion of the nucleus, and, because the mass of the nucleus is always finite, the energy spectra of hydrogen-like atoms must depend on the nuclear mass. And since hydrogen atoms have a nucleus of only one proton, the",
"-28.62247132725315"
],
[
"is often referred to as the old quantum theory. Shell model (heavier atoms) Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time.\nHeavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr's idea was that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. After that orbit is full, the next level would have to be used. This gives the atom a shell structure, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit.\nThis",
"-28.588763570718584"
],
[
"(e.g. atomic hydrogen or H₂⁺), an orbital is exactly the same as a total stationary state of the molecule. However, for a many-electron molecule, an orbital is completely different from a total stationary state, which is a many-particle state requiring a more complicated description (such as a Slater determinant). In particular, in a many-electron molecule, an orbital is not the total stationary state of the molecule, but rather the stationary state of a single electron within the molecule. This concept of an orbital is only meaningful under the approximation that if we ignore the electron-electron instantaneous repulsion terms in the",
"-28.49344594447757"
],
[
"of quantum mechanics to atomic structure by proposing what is now known as the Bohr model of the atom, where electrons exist only in strictly defined circular orbits around the nucleus similar to rungs on a ladder. The Bohr Model is a planetary model in which the negatively charged electrons orbit a small, positively charged nucleus similar to the planets orbiting the Sun (except that the orbits are not planar) - the gravitational force of the solar system is mathematically akin to the attractive Coulomb (electrical) force between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons.\nIn 1913, Henry Moseley,",
"-28.311325981448135"
],
[
"probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.\nEach atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through",
"-28.273151398985647"
],
[
"classical equations of motion. These simulations, though, assume that the forces on the electrons are derived solely by the ground adiabatic surface. Solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation numerically incorporates all these effects, but is computationally unfeasible when the system has many degrees of freedom. \nTo tackle this issue, one approach is the mean field or Ehrenfest method, where the molecular dynamics is run on the average potential energy surface given by a linear combination of the adiabatic states. This was applied successfully for some applications, but has some important limitations. When the difference between the adiabatic states is large, then",
"-28.234003371948347"
],
[
"classical charged object cannot sustain orbital motion because it is accelerating and therefore loses energy due to electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, the Saturnian model turned out to have more in common with modern theory than any of its contemporaries. Bohr atom In 1909, Ernest Rutherford discovered that the bulk of the atomic mass was tightly condensed into a nucleus, which was also found to be positively charged. It became clear from his analysis in 1911 that the plum pudding model could not explain atomic structure. In 1913 as Rutherford's post-doctoral student, Niels Bohr proposed a new model of the atom, wherein",
"-28.04679957634653"
],
[
"stability is a decrease in the screening of electron-nuclear attractions, so that the unpaired electrons can approach the nucleus more closely and the electron-nuclear attraction is increased.\nAs a result of Hund's rule, constraints are placed on the way atomic orbitals are filled in the ground state using the Aufbau principle. Before any two electrons occupy an orbital in a subshell, other orbitals in the same subshell must first each contain one electron. Also, the electrons filling a subshell will have parallel spin before the shell starts filling up with the opposite spin electrons (after the first orbital gains a second",
"-27.904765418265015"
],
[
"in 1926, Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom (Wave Mechanics) that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms rather than point particles.\nA consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time; this became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927. In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa.\nThis model was",
"-27.887569634171086"
],
[
"was derived from spectroscopic analysis of the atom in combination with the Rutherford atomic model. The lowest quantum level was found to have an angular momentum of zero. Orbits with zero angular momentum were considered as oscillating charges in one dimension and so described as \"pendulum\" orbits. In three-dimensions the orbits become spherical without any nodes crossing the nucleus, similar (in the lowest-energy state) to a skipping rope that oscillates in one large circle.",
"-27.82771554464125"
],
[
"Unitary transformation (quantum mechanics) In quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation describes how a system changes with time. It does this by relating changes in the state of system to the energy in the system (given by an operator called the Hamiltonian). Therefore, once the Hamiltonian is known, the time dynamics are in principle known. All that remains is to plug the Hamiltonian into the Schrödinger equation and solve for the system state as a function of time.\nOften, however, the Schrödinger equation is difficult to solve (even with a computer). Therefore, physicists have developed mathematical techniques to simplify these problems and",
"-27.797157922912447"
],
[
"arranged symmetrically at the eight corners of a cube (see: cubical atom). In 1919 chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that the periodic table could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells around the nucleus. In 1922, Niels Bohr updated his model of the atom by assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example 2, 8 and 18) corresponded to stable \"closed shells\".\nPauli looked for an explanation for these numbers, which were at first only empirical. At the same time he was",
"-27.763457787921652"
],
[
"function at all. This is the case when electron correlation is large.\nFundamentally, an atomic orbital is a one-electron wave function, even though most electrons do not exist in one-electron atoms, and so the one-electron view is an approximation. When thinking about orbitals, we are often given an orbital visualization heavily influenced by the Hartree–Fock approximation, which is one way to reduce the complexities of molecular orbital theory. History The term \"orbital\" was coined by Robert Mulliken in 1932 as an abbreviation for one-electron orbital wave function. However, the idea that electrons might revolve around a compact nucleus with definite angular",
"-27.759552376592183"
],
[
"of atomic orbitals, centered at each nucleus within the molecule (linear combination of atomic orbitals ansatz). The physically best motivated basis set are Slater-type orbitals (STOs),\nwhich are solutions to the Schrödinger equation of hydrogen-like atoms, and decay exponentially far away from the nucleus. It can be shown that the molecular orbitals of Hartree-Fock and density-functional theory also exhibit exponential decay. Furthermore, S-type STOs also satisfy Kato's cusp condition at the nucleus, meaning that they are able to accurately describe electron density near the nucleus. However, hydrogen-like atoms lack many-electron interactions, thus the orbitals do not accurately describe electron state correlations.\nUnfortunately,",
"-27.756561939255334"
],
[
"inner electrons shielding the nucleus potential).\nTaking into account the spin of the electron adds a last quantum number, the projection of the electron's spin angular momentum along the z-axis, which can take on two values. Therefore, any eigenstate of the electron in the hydrogen atom is described fully by four quantum numbers. According to the usual rules of quantum mechanics, the actual state of the electron may be any superposition of these states. This explains also why the choice of z-axis for the directional quantization of the angular momentum vector is immaterial: an orbital of given ℓ and m′ obtained",
"-27.66880439122906"
],
[
"obviously be different with a different order of orbital filling. Shortcomings of the Aufbau principle The Aufbau principle rests on a fundamental postulate that the order of orbital energies is fixed, both for a given element and between different elements; in both cases this is only approximately true. It considers atomic orbitals as \"boxes\" of fixed energy into which can be placed two electrons and no more. However, the energy of an electron \"in\" an atomic orbital depends on the energies of all the other electrons of the atom (or ion, or molecule, etc.). There are no \"one-electron solutions\" for",
"-27.657645364874043"
],
[
" If electrons 'move' about the electron cloud in strict paths the same way planets orbit the sun, then electrons would be required to do so at speeds which far exceed the speed of light. However, there is no reason that one must confine one's self to this strict conceptualization, that electrons move in paths the same way macroscopic objects do. Rather one can conceptualize electrons to be 'particles' that capriciously exist within the bounds of the electron cloud. Inside the atomic nucleus, the protons and neutrons are also probably moving around due to the electrical repulsion of",
"-27.432235851534642"
],
[
"electron; mathematically, the two theories had an underlying common form. Yet the two men disagreed on the interpretation of their mutual theory. For instance, Heisenberg accepted the theoretical prediction of jumps of electrons between orbitals in an atom, but Schrödinger hoped that a theory based on continuous wave-like properties could avoid what he called (as paraphrased by Wilhelm Wien) \"this nonsense about quantum jumps\". Uncertainty principle Suppose it is desired to measure the position and speed of an object – for example a car going through a radar speed trap. It can be assumed that the car has a definite",
"-27.410196814438677"
],
[
"be zero (cf. Weyl quantization.) Thus typically, quantum commutators (equivalently, Moyal brackets) reduce to Poisson brackets, in a group contraction.\nIn quantum mechanics, due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, an electron can never be at rest; it must always have a non-zero kinetic energy, a result not found in classical mechanics. For example, if we consider something very large relative to an electron, like a baseball, the uncertainty principle predicts that it cannot really have zero kinetic energy, but the uncertainty in kinetic energy is so small that the baseball can effectively appear to be at rest, and hence it appears to",
"-27.3655737064837"
],
[
"Orbital stability In mathematical physics and the theory of partial differential equations, the solitary wave solution of the form is said to be orbitally stable if any solution with the initial data sufficiently close to forever remains in a given small neighborhood of the trajectory of .",
"-27.24274553064606"
],
[
"of both a wave and a particle. For example, it can be refracted like a wave, and has mass like a particle.\nA consequence of describing electrons as waveforms is that it is mathematically impossible to simultaneously derive the position and momentum of an electron. This became known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle after the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, who first described it and published it in 1927. This invalidated Bohr's model, with its neat, clearly defined circular orbits. The modern model of the atom describes the positions of electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron can potentially",
"-27.205660652580264"
],
[
"Orbital motion (quantum) Quantum orbital motion involves the quantum mechanical motion of rigid particles (such as electrons) about some other mass, or about themselves. Typically, orbital motion in classical motion is characterized by orbital angular momentum (the orbital motion of the center of mass) and spin, which is the motion about the center of mass. In quantum mechanics, there are analogous forms of spin and angular momentum, however they differ fundamentally from the models of classical bodies. For example, an electron (one of the main particles of concern in quantum mechanics) exhibits very quantum mechanical behavior in its motion around",
"-27.115436548832804"
],
[
"led to the discovery of stable isotopes. Bohr model In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon. This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable (given that normally, charges in acceleration, including circular motion, lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation, see synchrotron radiation) and why elements absorb and",
"-27.099961015043846"
],
[
"equation or even the Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton. The most complicated treatments allow for the small effects of special relativity and vacuum polarization. In the quantum mechanical treatment, the electron in a ground state hydrogen atom has no angular momentum at all—illustrating how the \"planetary orbit\" differs from electron motion. Elemental molecular forms There exist two different spin isomers of hydrogen diatomic molecules that differ by the relative spin of their nuclei. In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two protons are parallel and form a triplet state",
"-27.075507598288823"
],
[
"instance, electrons may be considered (to a certain probability) to be located somewhere within a given region of space, but with their exact positions unknown. Contours of constant probability density, often referred to as \"clouds\", may be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where the electron might be located with the most probability. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle quantifies the inability to precisely locate the particle given its conjugate momentum.\nAccording to one interpretation, as the result of a measurement, the wave function containing the probability information for a system collapses from a given initial state to a particular eigenstate.",
"-27.0496082828613"
],
[
"electron and proton is pushed and pulled (by Coulomb's law) by all the other electrons and protons in the solid (which may themselves be in motion). It is these strong interactions that make it very difficult to predict and understand the behavior of solids (see many-body problem). On the other hand, the motion of a non-interacting classical particle is relatively simple; it would move in a straight line at constant velocity. This is the motivation for the concept of quasiparticles: The complicated motion of the real particles in a solid can be mathematically transformed into the much simpler motion of",
"-27.033846791804535"
],
[
"into one of negative mass. Apparently, an electron could not be confined within a nucleus by any potential well. The meaning of this paradox was intensely debated at the time. \nBy about 1930 it was generally recognized that it was difficult to reconcile the proton–electron model for nuclei with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics. This relation, Δx⋅Δp ≥ ½ħ, implies that an electron confined to a region the size of an atomic nucleus typically has a relativistic kinetic energy not less than 40 MeV. This energy is much larger than the binding energy of",
"-26.957401968567865"
],
[
"its dependence of its position reaches the minimum (the most absolute value) inside the nucleus, and vanishes when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity, roughly in an inverse proportion to the distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-independent Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy state",
"-26.952334855167464"
],
[
"cannot exist an atom in such a quantum state that two electrons within [it] have the same set of quantum numbers.\"\nA year later, Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit identified Pauli's new degree of freedom with the property called spin whose effects were observed in the Stern–Gerlach experiment. Dirac wave equation In 1928, Paul Dirac extended the Pauli equation, which described spinning electrons, to account for special relativity. The result was a theory that dealt properly with events, such as the speed at which an electron orbits the nucleus, occurring at a substantial fraction of the speed of light. By using the simplest",
"-26.95092216494959"
],
[
"orbits with fixed angular momentum and energy, its distance from the nucleus (i.e., their radii) being proportional to its energy. Under this model an electron could not spiral into the nucleus because it could not lose energy in a continuous manner; instead, it could only make instantaneous \"quantum leaps\" between the fixed energy levels. When this occurred, light was emitted or absorbed at a frequency proportional to the change in energy (hence the absorption and emission of light in discrete spectra).\nBohr's model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen; it couldn't predict those of multielectron",
"-26.871752406688756"
],
[
"research into quantum mechanics led to new developments in atomic theory and small changes to the periodic table. The Bohr model was developed during this time, and championed the idea of electron configurations that determine chemical properties. Bohr proposed that elements in the same group behaved similarly because they have similar electron configurations, and that noble gases had filled valence shells; this forms the basis of the modern octet rule. This research then led Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli to investigate the length of periods in the periodic table in 1924. Mendeleev asserted that there was a fixed periodicity of eight,",
"-26.849160123980255"
],
[
"energy surface. In practical calculations the surface is usually fitted in terms of some analytic functions. In the second step of the Born–Oppenheimer approximation the part of the full Coulomb Hamiltonian that depends on the electrons is replaced by the potential energy surface. This converts the total molecular Hamiltonian into another Hamiltonian that acts only on the nuclear coordinates. In the case of a breakdown of the Born–Oppenheimer approximation—which occurs when energies of different electronic states are close—the neighboring potential energy surfaces are needed, see this article for more details on this.\nThe nuclear motion Schrödinger equation can be",
"-26.822564213385704"
],
[
"nucleus, then it will be seen that the many modes of the vibrating disk form patterns that trace the various shapes of atomic orbitals. The basic reason for this correspondence lies in the fact that the distribution of kinetic energy and momentum in a matter-wave is predictive of where the particle associated with the wave will be. That is, the probability of finding an electron at a given place is also a function of the electron's average momentum at that point, since high electron momentum at a given position tends to \"localize\" the electron in that position, via the properties",
"-26.793178539781366"
],
[
"electrons orbited the nucleus with classical periods, but were only permitted to have discrete values of angular momentum, quantized in units h/2π. This constraint automatically permitted only certain values of electron energies. The Bohr model of the atom fixed the problem of energy loss from radiation from a ground state (by declaring that there was no state below this), and more importantly explained the origin of spectral lines.\nAfter Bohr's use of Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect to relate energy levels in atoms with the wavelength of emitted light, the connection between the structure of electrons in atoms and the",
"-26.737291297642514"
],
[
"other astronomers, but Kepler—with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories—treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them.\nAmong many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He then tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) \"The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances.\" Although he gives the date of this epiphany (March 8, 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion. However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely",
"-26.66192472318653"
],
[
"Schrödinger equation Time-dependent equation The form of the Schrödinger equation depends on the physical situation (see below for special cases). The most general form is the time-dependent Schrödinger equation (TDSE), which gives a description of a system evolving with time:\nwhere is the imaginary unit, is the reduced Planck constant, (the Greek letter psi) is the state vector of the quantum system, is time, and is the Hamiltonian operator. The position-space wave function of the quantum system is nothing but the components in the expansion of the state vector in terms of the position eigenvector .",
"-26.66110849614779"
],
[
"model In 1913 Niels Bohr refined the Rutherford model by stating that the electrons existed in discrete quantized states called energy levels. This meant that the electrons could only occupy orbits at certain energies. The laws of quantum physics apply here, and they don't comply with the laws of classical newtonian mechanics.\nAn electron which is completely free from the atom has an energy of 0 joules (or 0 electronvolts). An electron which is described as being at the \"ground state\" has an energy which is equal to the ionization energy of the atom. The electron will reside in this energy",
"-26.659826966526452"
],
[
"in closed shells can be reduced to the simple rule of one electron per state if the electron states are defined using four quantum numbers. For this purpose he introduced a new two-valued quantum number, identified by Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck as electron spin. Advanced quantum theory According to the spin–statistics theorem, particles with integer spin occupy symmetric quantum states, and particles with half-integer spin occupy antisymmetric states; furthermore, only integer or half-integer values of spin are allowed by the principles of quantum mechanics.\nIn relativistic quantum field theory, the Pauli principle follows from applying a rotation operator in imaginary",
"-26.648459471121896"
],
[
"which implies that the atomic nucleus is built up in \"shells\" in a manner similar to the structure of the much larger electron shells in atoms. In both cases, shells are just groups of quantum energy levels that are relatively close to each other. Energy levels from quantum states in two different shells will be separated by a relatively large energy gap. So when the number of neutrons and protons completely fills the energy levels of a given shell in the nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon will reach a local maximum and thus that particular configuration will have a",
"-26.645843269885518"
],
[
"Kepler orbit In celestial mechanics, a Kepler orbit (or Keplerian orbit) is the motion of one body relative to another, as an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, which forms a two-dimensional orbital plane in three-dimensional space. A Kepler orbit can also form a straight line. It considers only the point-like gravitational attraction of two bodies, neglecting perturbations due to gravitational interactions with other objects, atmospheric drag, solar radiation pressure, a non-spherical central body, and so on. It is thus said to be a solution of a special case of the two-body problem, known as the Kepler problem. As a theory in",
"-26.614385419117752"
],
[
"Momentum operator Origin from De Broglie plane waves The momentum and energy operators can be constructed in the following way. Hermiticity The momentum operator is always a Hermitian operator (more technically, in math terminology a \"self-adjoint operator\") when it acts on physical (in particular, normalizable) quantum states.\n(In certain artificial situations, such as the quantum states on the semi-infinite interval [0,∞), there is no way to make the momentum operator Hermitian. This is closely related to the fact that a semi-infinite interval cannot have translational symmetry—more specifically, it does not have unitary translation operators. See below.)",
"-26.518530774890678"
],
[
"Kepler elements An osculating orbit and the object's position upon it can be fully described by the six standard Kepler orbital elements (osculating elements), which are easy to calculate as long as one knows the object's position and velocity relative to the central body. The osculating elements would remain constant in the absence of perturbations. Real astronomical orbits experience perturbations that cause the osculating elements to evolve, sometimes very quickly. In cases where general celestial mechanical analyses of the motion have been carried out (as they have been for the major planets, the Moon, and other planetary satellites), the orbit",
"-26.513817420287523"
],
[
"the action of a physical system under a continuous symmetry represents a fundamental conservation law. For example, invariance under translation leads to conservation of momentum, and invariance in time leads to conservation of energy.\nQuantities can be invariant under some common transformations but not under others. For example, the velocity of a particle is invariant when switching from rectangular coordinates to curvilinear coordinates, but is not invariant when transforming between frames of reference that are moving with respect to each other. Other quantities, like the speed of light, are always invariant. Importance Invariants are important in modern theoretical physics, and many",
"-26.480344929062994"
],
[
"and statement of a periodic law, i.e., \"all the properties of bodies are periodic functions of their atomic weights,\" citing the inversion of tellurium and iodine, which breaks the order of monotonically increasing atomic weights. He went so far as to say \"I think that it is time to show clearly that there is nothing [here] which merits the name of law or system.\" Rethinking periodicity in terms of atomic number eliminates the problem, and the criticism was beside the point, since the notion of a periodic law had already saturated the field of chemistry.\nAlthough he had never trained as",
"-26.400616534599976"
],
[
"same coordinates in which the atom is in motion, because doing so would violate uncertain principle, but to describe its position relative to the nucleus. As a result, more can be said about the general case from this: in general, it is permissible, even in quantum theory, to have a system with well-defined position in one reference frame and well-defined motion in some other reference frame. Superselection rules Superselection rules, in short, are postulated rules forbidding the preparation of quantum states that exhibit coherence between eigenstates of certain observables. It was originally introduced to impose additional restriction to quantum theory",
"-26.393045635079034"
],
[
"equation. The resulting partial differential equation is solved for the wave function, which contains information about the system. Time-independent equation The time-dependent Schrödinger equation described above predicts that wave functions can form standing waves, called stationary states. These states are particularly important as their individual study later simplifies the task of solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation for any state. Stationary states can also be described by a simpler form of the Schrödinger equation, the time-independent Schrödinger equation (TISE).\nwhere is a constant equal to the energy level of the system. This is only used when the Hamiltonian itself is not",
"-26.33719444759481"
],
[
"they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory. The atomic radii decrease across the Periodic Table because as the atomic number increases, the number of protons increases across the period, but the extra electrons are only added to the same quantum shell. Therefore, the effective nuclear charge towards the outermost electrons increases, drawing the outermost electrons closer. As a result, the electron cloud contracts and the atomic radius decreases. History In 1920, shortly after it had become possible to determine the sizes of atoms using X-ray crystallography, it was suggested that all atoms of the same",
"-26.314284020569175"
],
[
"motion of the planets and how this motion nearly perfectly matches musical harmonies. Finally, after a discussion on astrology in book five, Kepler ends Harmonices by describing his third law, which states that for any planet the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit is proportional to the square of its orbital period.\nIn the final book of Harmonices, Kepler explains how the ratio of the maximum and minimum angular speeds of each planet (its speeds at the perihelion and aphelion) is very nearly equivalent to a consonant musical interval. Furthermore, the ratios between these extreme speeds of the",
"-26.286781171147595"
],
[
"on whether real or complex versions of the atomic orbitals are employed. Shapes of orbitals Simple pictures showing orbital shapes are intended to describe the angular forms of regions in space where the electrons occupying the orbital are likely to be found. The diagrams cannot show the entire region where an electron can be found, since according to quantum mechanics there is a non-zero probability of finding the electron (almost) anywhere in space. Instead the diagrams are approximate representations of boundary or contour surfaces where the probability density | ψ(r, θ, φ) |² has a constant value, chosen so that there is a certain",
"-26.271629919638144"
],
[
"all electrons with the same value of n lie at the same average distance. For this reason, orbitals with the same value of n are said to comprise a \"shell\". Orbitals with the same value of n and also the same value of ℓ are even more closely related, and are said to comprise a \"subshell\". Quantum numbers Because of the quantum mechanical nature of the electrons around a nucleus, atomic orbitals can be uniquely defined by a set of integers known as quantum numbers. These quantum numbers only occur in certain combinations of values, and their physical interpretation changes depending",
"-26.26865129447833"
],
[
"coarse-scale steady state may not imply a steady state for the fine-scale system, since individual molecules or particles do not stop moving when the gas density or pressure become stationary. Equation-free modeling circumvents such problems by using short bursts of appropriately initialized fine-scale simulation. Restriction The restriction operator often follows directly from the specific choice of the macroscale variables. For example, when the microscale model evolves an ensemble of many particles, the restriction typically computes the first few moments of the particle distribution (the density, momentum, and energy). Lifting The lifting operator is usually much more involved. For example, consider",
"-26.230914160842076"
],
[
"to rest. In fact, however, kinetic energy is retained by particles even at the lowest possible temperature. The random motion corresponding to this zero-point energy never vanishes as a consequence of the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics.\nThe uncertainty principle states that no object can ever have precise values of position and velocity simultaneously. The total energy of a quantum mechanical object (potential and kinetic) is described by its Hamiltonian which also describes the system as a harmonic oscillator, or wave function, that fluctuates between various energy states (see wave-particle duality). All quantum mechanical systems undergo fluctuations even in their ground",
"-26.21673613920575"
],
[
"The fact that the physics of a system is unchanged if it is rotated by any angle about an axis implies that angular momentum is conserved. In quantum mechanics Angular momentum in quantum mechanics differs in many profound respects from angular momentum in classical mechanics. In relativistic quantum mechanics, it differs even more, in which the above relativistic definition becomes a tensorial operator. Uncertainty In the definition , six operators are involved: The position operators , , , and the momentum operators , , . However, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not possible for all six",
"-26.215022049102117"
],
[
"mechanics, but not the Schrödinger equation; after Pauli's publication, it became known mainly as the Runge–Lenz vector. Constants of motion and superintegrability The seven scalar quantities E, A and L (being vectors, the latter two contribute three conserved quantities each) are related by two equations, A ⋅ L = 0 and A² = m²k² + 2 mEL², giving five independent constants of motion. (Since the magnitude of A, hence the eccentricity e of the orbit, can be determined from the total angular momentum L and the energy E, only the direction of A is conserved independently; moreover, since A",
"-26.166621612588642"
],
[
"somewhat analogous to electrons forming electron shells within an atom. The noble gases are unreactive due to their having full electron shells; thus it was theorized that elements with full nuclear shells – having so-called \"magic\" numbers of protons or neutrons – would be stabilized against radioactive decay. A doubly magic isotope, having magic numbers of both protons and neutrons, would be especially stabilized. Heiner Meldner calculated in 1965 that the next doubly magic isotope after lead-208 would be flerovium-298 with 114 protons and 184 neutrons, which would form the centre of a so-called \"island of stability\". This island of",
"-26.148648071917705"
],
[
"of quantum mechanics. The Klein paradox, discovered by Oskar Klein in 1928, presented further quantum mechanical objections to the notion of an electron confined within a nucleus. Observed properties of atoms and molecules were inconsistent with the nuclear spin expected from the proton–electron hypothesis. Both protons and electrons carry an intrinsic spin of ½ ħ. Isotopes of the same species (i.e. having the same number of protons) can have both integer or fractional spin, i.e. the neutron spin must be also fractional (½ ħ). However, there is no way to arrange the spins of an electron and a proton (supposed to",
"-26.14568823261652"
],
[
"reflects that the other electrons remain in three lone pairs and that the bond order is 1.\nThe more electronegative atom is the more energetically excited because it more similar in energy to its atomic orbital. This also accounts for the majority of the electron negativity residing around the more electronegative molecule. Applying the LCAO-MO method allows us to move away from a more static Lewis structure type approach and actually account for periodic trends that influence electron movement. Non-bonding orbitals refer to lone pairs seen on certain atoms in a molecule. A further understanding for the energy level refinement can",
"-26.092603832400073"
],
[
"momentum operators to the states, rather than rotating the states. But this is fundamentally the same thing, because of the close mathematical relation between rotations and angular momentum operators.) In terms of representation theory To state these observations more precisely and to prove them, it helps to invoke the mathematics of representation theory. For example, the set of all possible 4d orbitals (i.e., the 5 states m = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 and their quantum superpositions) form a 5-dimensional abstract vector space. Rotating the system transforms these states into each other, so this is an example of a \"group representation\", in this case, the 5-dimensional",
"-26.077358732261928"
],
[
"Hamiltonian as a simplifying assumption, we can decompose the total eigenvector of a many-electron molecule into separate contributions from individual electron stationary states (orbitals), each of which are obtained under the one-electron approximation. (Luckily, chemists and physicists can often (but not always) use this \"single-electron approximation.\") In this sense, in a many-electron system, an orbital can be considered as the stationary state of an individual electron in the system.\nIn chemistry, calculation of molecular orbitals typically also assume the Born–Oppenheimer approximation.",
"-26.023985483625438"
],
[
"the mathematical theories of the planetary orbits that form the basis of ephemerides, quadratic and higher order secular terms do occur, but these are mostly Taylor expansions of very long time periodic terms. The reason that tidal effects are different is that unlike distant gravitational perturbations, friction is an essential part of tidal acceleration, and leads to permanent loss of energy from the dynamic system in the form of heat. In other words, we do not have a Hamiltonian system here. Angular momentum and energy The gravitational torque between the Moon and the tidal bulge of Earth causes the Moon",
"-26.017071857771953"
],
[
"has one electron. The magnitude of the angular momentum for a circular orbit is:\nThe total energy of the atom is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies, that is:\nVelocity can be eliminated from the kinetic energy term by setting the Coulomb attraction equal to the centripetal force, giving:\nSolving the angular momentum for v and substituting this into the expression for kinetic energy, we have:\nThis establishes the dependence of the radius on n. That is:\nNow the energy can be found in terms of Z, e, and r. Using the new value for the kinetic energy in the total",
"-25.963434517580026"
],
[
"angular momentum. For these modes, waves in the drum head tend to avoid the central point. Such features again emphasize that the shapes of atomic orbitals are a direct consequence of the wave nature of electrons. Relativistic effects For elements with high atomic number Z, the effects of relativity become more pronounced, and especially so for s electrons, which move at relativistic velocities as they penetrate the screening electrons near the core of high-Z atoms. This relativistic increase in momentum for high speed electrons causes a corresponding decrease in wavelength and contraction of 6s orbitals relative to 5d orbitals (by comparison",
"-25.935661220515613"
],
[
"is not simply the kinetic minus the potential energy of a particle. Also, it is not straightforward to handle multiparticle systems in a manifestly covariant way, it may be possible if a particular frame of reference is singled out. Quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, action and quantum-mechanical phase are related via Planck's constant, and the principle of stationary action can be understood in terms of constructive interference of wave functions.\nIn 1948, Feynman discovered the path integral formulation extending the principle of least action to quantum mechanics for electrons and photons. In this formulation, particles travel every possible path between the",
"-25.921682111773407"
],
[
"in modern physics. Indeed, this principle is one of the great generalizations in physical science. It is best understood within quantum mechanics, particularly in Richard Feynman's path integral formulation, where it arises out of destructive interference of quantum amplitudes.\nMaxwell's equations can also be derived as conditions of stationary action. Modern extensions The action principle can be generalized still further. For example, the action need not be an integral, because nonlocal actions are possible. The configuration space need not even be a functional space, given certain features such as noncommutative geometry. However, a physical basis for these mathematical",
"-25.912991962060914"
],
[
"dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such \"static\" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics, it is described by a static, spherically symmetric wave function surrounding the nucleus (Fig. 1) (however, only the lowest angular momentum states, labeled s, are spherically symmetric.)\nThe Schrödinger equation acts on the entire probability amplitude, not merely its absolute value. Whereas the absolute value of the probability amplitude encodes information about probabilities, its phase encodes information about the interference between quantum",
"-25.854227021176484"
],
[
"space with no periodic motion. Greek astronomy Since 600 BCE, Greek thinkers noticed the periodic fashion of the Solar System. Many theories were announced during this period. Parmenides claimed that the Solar System is spherical and moonlight is actually a reflection of sunlight. \n \nAnaxagoras suggested that the Moon is closer to the Earth than the Sun, comets are formed by collisions of planets and that the motion of planets is controlled by the nous (mind). Pythagoras's students thought the motion of planets is caused by a fire at the centre of the universe that powers them and Earth orbits",
"-25.848817808343483"
],
[
"section, the quantum dynamics of particles were inferred, leading to Schrödinger's equation, a departure from Newtonian mechanics. The solution of this equation for atoms led to the explanation of the Balmer series for atomic spectra and consequently formed a basis for all of atomic physics and chemistry.\nThis is not the only occasion in which Maxwell's equations have forced a restructuring of Newtonian mechanics. Maxwell's equations are relativistically consistent. Special relativity resulted from attempts to make classical mechanics consistent with Maxwell's equations (see, for example, Moving magnet and conductor problem).",
"-25.844319597817957"
],
[
"conservation were not relevant to Maupertuis, who was concerned only with light.) Euler used this principle to derive the equations of motion of a particle in uniform motion, in a uniform and non-uniform force field, and in a central force field. Euler's approach is entirely consistent with the modern understanding of Maupertuis's principle described above, except that he insisted that the action should always be a minimum, rather than a stationary point.\nTwo years later, Maupertuis cites Euler's 1744 work as a \"beautiful application of my principle to the motion of the planets\" and goes on to apply the",
"-25.83844915116788"
],
[
"momentum, and thus a Bohr orbiting electron was seen to orbit in a circle at a multiple of its half-wavelength (this physically incorrect Bohr model is still often taught to beginning students). The Bohr model for a short time could be seen as a classical model with an additional constraint provided by the 'wavelength' argument. However, this period was immediately superseded by the full three-dimensional wave mechanics of 1926. In our current understanding of physics, the Bohr model is called a semi-classical model because of its quantization of angular momentum, not primarily because of its relationship with electron wavelength, which",
"-25.80163289938355"
],
[
"Lindblad equation. Motivation In the canonical formulation of quantum mechanics, a system's time evolution is governed by unitary dynamics. This implies that there is no decay and phase coherence is maintained throughout the process, and is a consequence of the fact that all participating degrees of freedom are considered. However, any real physical system is not absolutely isolated, and will interact with its environment. This interaction with degrees of freedom external to the system results in dissipation of energy into the surroundings, causing decay and randomization of phase. These effects are the reasons quantum mechanics is difficult to observe on",
"-25.801299060578458"
],
[
"limit thereof. This picture also simplifies considerations\nof quantization, the deformation extension from classical to quantum mechanics.\nThe quantum harmonic oscillator is an exactly solvable system where the different representations are easily compared. There, apart from the Heisenberg, or Schrödinger (position or momentum), or phase-space representations, one also encounters the Fock (number) representation and the Segal–Bargmann (Fock-space or coherent state) representation (named after Irving Segal and Valentine Bargmann). All four are unitarily equivalent. Time as an operator The framework presented so far singles out time as the parameter that everything depends on. It is possible to formulate mechanics in such a way",
"-25.779211018303613"
],
[
"and in certain conditions, electrons are able to move from one configuration to another by the emission or absorption of a quantum of energy, in the form of a photon.\nKnowledge of the electron configuration of different atoms is useful in understanding the structure of the periodic table of elements. This is also useful for describing the chemical bonds that hold atoms together. In bulk materials, this same idea helps explain the peculiar properties of lasers and semiconductors. Notation Physicists and chemists use a standard notation to indicate the electron configurations of atoms and molecules. For atoms, the notation consists of",
"-25.702995609259233"
],
[
"Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas).\nIn the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing",
"-25.70094810804585"
],
[
"that most physical laws on a large scale are due to chaos on a small scale. He calls this principle \"order-from-disorder.\" As an example he mentions diffusion, which can be modeled as a highly ordered process, but which is caused by random movement of atoms or molecules. If the number of atoms is reduced, the behaviour of a system becomes more and more random. He states that life greatly depends on order and that a naïve physicist may assume that the master code of a living organism has to consist of a large number of atoms.\nIn chapter II and III,",
"-25.692732056195382"
],
[
"classical mechanics, it also does not take into account the effects of general relativity. Keplerian orbits can be parametrized into six orbital elements in various ways.\nIn most applications, there is a large central body, the center of mass of which is assumed to be the center of mass of the entire system. By decomposition, the orbits of two objects of similar mass can be described as Kepler orbits around their common center of mass, their barycenter. Introduction From ancient times until the 16th and 17th centuries, the motions of the planets were believed to follow perfectly circular geocentric paths as",
"-25.682035846912186"
],
[
"steadily lose energy and spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a small fraction of a second. The second problem was that the planetary model could not explain the highly peaked emission and absorption spectra of atoms that were observed.\n \nQuantum theory revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20th century, when Max Planck and Albert Einstein postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amounts known as quanta (singular, quantum). In 1913, Niels Bohr incorporated this idea into his Bohr model of the atom, in which an electron could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular",
"-25.674877572921105"
],
[
"impose the condition that electrons in the same shell have the same radial part, and to restrict the variational solution to be a spin eigenfunction. Even so, calculating a solution by hand using the Hartree–Fock equations for a medium-sized atom was laborious; small molecules required computational resources far beyond what was available before 1950. Hartree–Fock algorithm The Hartree–Fock method is typically used to solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation for a multi-electron atom or molecule as described in the Born–Oppenheimer approximation. Since there are no known analytic solutions for many-electron systems (there are solutions for one-electron systems such as hydrogenic atoms",
"-25.6693647413922"
],
[
"same amount, then this is always a symmetry: describes the complete laws of physics in our universe, which are independent of location. As a consequence, conservation of momentum is universally valid.\nOn the other hand, perhaps and refer to just one particle. Then the translation operators are exact symmetries only if the particle is alone in a vacuum. Correspondingly, the momentum of a single particle is not usually conserved (it changes when the particle bumps into other objects), but it is conserved if the particle is alone in a vacuum.\n\nSince the Hamiltonian commutes with the translation operator",
"-25.66846172331134"
],
[
"Island of stability Nuclide stability The composition of an atomic nucleus is determined by the number of protons Z and the number of neutrons N, which sum to mass number A. The atomic number Z determines the position of an element in the periodic table, while the approximately 3300 known nuclides are commonly represented in a chart with Z and N for its axes and the half-life for radioactive decay indicated for each unstable nuclide (see figure). As of 2019, 252 nuclides are observed to be stable (having never been observed to decay); generally, as the number of protons increases,",
"-25.663575163009227"
],
[
"systems of more than one electron, only a set of many-electron solutions that cannot be calculated exactly (although there are mathematical approximations available, such as the Hartree–Fock method).\nThe fact that the Aufbau principle is based on an approximation can be seen from the fact that there is an almost-fixed filling order at all, that, within a given shell, the s-orbital is always filled before the p-orbitals. In a hydrogen-like atom, which only has one electron, the s-orbital and the p-orbitals of the same shell have exactly the same energy, to a very good approximation in the absence of external electromagnetic",
"-25.64090925601704"
],
[
"particle's position is known, the less precisely its momentum is known, and vice versa.\nThe Schrödinger equation describes the (deterministic) evolution of the wave function of a particle. However, even if the wave function is known exactly, the result of a specific measurement on the wave function is uncertain. Nonrelativistic quantum mechanics The quantum mechanics of particles without accounting for the effects of special relativity, for example particles propagating at speeds much less than light, is known as nonrelativistic quantum mechanics. Following are several forms of Schrödinger's equation in this context for different situations: time independence and dependence, one and three",
"-25.634678074071417"
],
[
"physical situation there corresponds a conservation law (and conversely). This deep connection requires that the action principle be assumed. Quantum mechanics and quantum field theory In quantum mechanics, the system does not follow a single path whose action is stationary, but the behavior of the system depends on all permitted paths and the value of their action. The action corresponding to the various paths is used to calculate the path integral, that gives the probability amplitudes of the various outcomes.\nAlthough equivalent in classical mechanics with Newton's laws, the action principle is better suited for generalizations and plays an important role",
"-25.62738892865491"
],
[
"proton. The nucleus parity will be a product of theirs, while the nucleus spin will be one of the possible results of the sum of their angular momenta (with other possible results being excited states of the nucleus).\nThe ordering of angular momentum levels within each shell is according to the principles described above - due to spin-orbit interaction, with high angular momentum states having their energies shifted downwards due to the deformation of the potential (i.e. moving from a harmonic oscillator potential to a more realistic one). For nucleon pairs, however, it is often energetically favorable to be at",
"-25.607861972194087"
],
[
"electrons orbiting a nucleus, wrote \"... individual electrons describe corresponding parts of their orbits in times shorter for the [rest] system in the ratio :\". Emil Cohn (1904) specifically related this formula to the rate of clocks. In the context of special relativity it was shown by Albert Einstein (1905) that this effect concerns the nature of time itself, and he was also the first to point out its reciprocity or symmetry. Subsequently, Hermann Minkowski (1907) introduced the concept of proper time which further clarified the meaning of time dilation. Velocity time dilation Special relativity indicates that, for an observer in",
"-25.60338603379205"
]
] |
5dh34s | why is California shutting down its last nuclear power plant, I thought nuclear power was a good thing? | [
"The big reason is that it's near a fault line. No matter how safe you make it, it's hard to tell how much damage an earthquake could actually do. And despite how good it is, there's still a very negative perception of it just because of the word nuclear. Too many people seem to think that it's akin to a nuclear weapon when they're not really similar at all.",
"Currently operating nuclear power plants were build to an old design, based on the design for nuclear submarine propulsion. This design prioritized \"a lot of power in a small space\" over other things that would make it much safer in the event of a mistake or a natural disaster (earthquake, tsunami). So countries are gradually turning off some of these old plants out of fear of another Chernobyl, or another Fukushima.",
"Earthquakes. Our knowledge of seismic issues has significantly increased since these plants were built in the 60s, and they can't really stand up to a \"Bit One\" quake (or it's just too close to the margins). Plus, all power plants require upgrades to keep running; nuclear upgrades to the newer codes are very expensive, and power companies often see the cost of the upgrade is too high and just doesn't pencil out. If the Federal Government stepped in and offered a ton of money to build new generation nuclear plants at the proper seismic standards, CA would take it. But they aren't, because it is real expensive and Republicans don't want to send billions into California.",
"Quite honestly, to me it really sucks because all the practical generation will now be natural gas which will, of course add smog. \"renewable\" are only a tiny percentage of the energy mix and try turning a light on at night with solar or when the wind isn't blowing. The backbone will always be petroleum based, until we run out that is, then all bets are off (I'm going with Road Warrior).",
"Diablo Canyon (the plant in question) is close to the coast. The Fukushima disaster raised concerns about that kind of site. The cost to build a new nuclear plant in litigious California makes it not as cost effective as solar there (the weather is very nice in CA).",
"Another factor that has not been brought up here, but was mentioned on the NPR story about the closure, is that the plant was providing too high of a base level of energy into the local grid to make use of the energy being provided by renewables. They claimed that the energy from renewable sources was actually being wasted because the supply exceeded demand.",
"Economical reasons. Nuclear power isnt really profitable anymore. The plants are extremly expensive, the maintenance is high due to security concerns, the fuel is costly and needs a lot of processing and the waste has no real solution. Solar power is simply cheaper. Coal and gas are cheaper aswell",
"Politics and anti-nuclear environmental groups. Economics aren't helping either. Despite people saying earthquakes, the reality is Diablo Canyon is the most seismically protected plant in the country by far, and has a full time earthquake engineering staff evaluating fault lines and making plant improvements when necessary.",
"Environmentalists don't realize that Diablo Canyon is going to be replaced with natural gas. It would cost over $80 billion and I don't even know how many acres of land to build enough solar to replace the lost generation and thats ignoring solars lack of reliability.",
"I know in Illinois a lot of the nuclear plants are shutting down because they are economically uncompetitive now. With how cheap natural gas is, if no one wants to buy your more expensive electricity then there's no reason to stay open.",
"How are they going to make up for the lost power?",
"In the 40's-60's the world had a can-do attitude and as soon as they could do a thing, they did it. So, when they figured out how to make fission power plants, they made them; nevermind that they required active cooling to prevent meltdown. The time between man splitting the atom and utility scale power plants it not a long time at all. These plants maybe weren't the best designs and maybe not safe at all. Fast forward to Chernobyl and fissile energy got a big black eye and basically all development and education related to fissile energy production stopped. There was a pretty large knowledge loss as people educated and experienced in the design of nuclear power plants grew old while no new plants/people were brought in. After Chernobyl, they tried to make existing plants safer. The outcome was a lot like old airports post 9/11. A mess, but more or less secure. Unfortunately, this reputation built up by old designs for being unsafe is preventing the world from moving forward with perfectly safe newer designs. Somehow anti-nuclear has gotten momentum with environmentalists that don't seem to realize that it isn't renewables vs nuclear but coal vs nuclear. By being anti-nuclear, they are pro coal. There are currently new reactor designs that could safely burn the waste from old reactors for decades and decades and designs that could burn fresh fuel much more safely. The problem is, they can't build the new reactors because no one wants a new reactor built anywhere near them (despite coal plants releasing more radiation). Also, over the top safety regulations for older plant designs are stifling new design. Imagine if every car on the road needed a guy with a flag to walk in front of it, that was a real regulation for early cars and the same level of nonsense exists for nuclear energy.",
"I've read that plants using Thorium would be much safer and cheaper than those using Plutonium. Does anyone know if that's true?"
] | [
[
"the expansion of nuclear power.\" California has banned the approval of new nuclear reactors since the late 1970s because of concerns over waste disposal, and some other U.S. states have a moratorium on construction of nuclear power plants. Between 1975 and 1980, a total of 63 nuclear units were canceled in the United States. Anti-nuclear activities were among the reasons, but the primary motivations were the overestimation of future demand for electricity and steadily increasing capital costs, which made the economics of new plants unfavorable.\nThe proliferation of nuclear weapons became a presidential priority issue for the Carter Administration in the",
"-35.08195415737828"
],
[
"nuclear energy in their state. In 1976, California passed legislation which prevented new nuclear power plants from being built until an approved means of disposing of fuel-rod waste was approved. This legislation, which was also renewed in 2005, effectively put a moratorium on nuclear power plants in California, since no fuel-rod waste measure was ever approved. Soon afterwards, other states passed similar laws limiting nuclear energy influence in their state. This California legislation was reaffirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1983 when it ruled that, \"It did not conflict with federal authority because it addressed legitimate state issues of",
"-34.34497295552865"
],
[
"mounting concern over the shutdown, the top U.S. nuclear official, Gregory Jaczko, toured the facility with Senator Dianne Feinstein, a Democrat, and U.S. Representative Darrell Issa, a Republican. In June, 2013, the company announced it would permanently shut down operations at the plant, the beginning of a multi-year decommissioning process at the site. Energy production mix At least 21% of the fuel Southern California Edison uses to generate power comes from clean energy (half of that nuclear power, the other half renewable energy sources ranging from biomass to wind). The group is a major player in Southern California where",
"-33.68403662822675"
],
[
"said that this was not the time to build new nuclear plants, not because of political opposition or the threat of cost overruns, but because of the low price of natural gas. John Rowe, head of Exelon, said “Shale [gas] is good for the country, bad for new nuclear development\".\nIn 2013, four older reactors were permanently closed: San Onofre 2 and 3 in California, Crystal River 3 in Florida, and Kewaunee in Wisconsin. The state of Vermont tried to shut Vermont Yankee, in Vermont, but the plant was closed by the parent corporation for economic reasons in December 2014. New",
"-33.504177595041256"
],
[
"to determine - as a matter of economics - whether a nuclear plant vis-a-vis a fossil fuel plant should be built. The decision of California to exercise that authority does not, in itself, constitute a basis for pre-emption. 33 Therefore, while the argument [461 U.S. 190, 223] of petitioners and the United States has considerable force, the legal reality remains that Congress has left sufficient authority in the States to allow the development of nuclear power to be slowed or even stopped for economic reasons. Given this statutory scheme, it is for Congress to rethink the division of",
"-33.174899997829925"
],
[
"able to restart without extensive additional repairs\".\nIn August 2012, Southern California Edison announced plans to lay off one-third, or 730, of the plants employees; the company said that the downsizing had been planned more than two years before. Rochelle Becker of the Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility said the layoffs showed that the company was not honest about their plans for the power plant.\nIn September 2012, Allison Macfarlane, the NRC Chairwoman, said that the plant would be down for a prolonged period, and that Unit 3 would be defueled in September 2012 because the unit had been significantly damaged. Due to",
"-32.273514614702435"
],
[
"live near nuclear power plants also tend to be largely more in support of nuclear power than the general public.\nDecreasing public support is seen as one of the causes for the premature closure of many plants in the United States. Prospects of a nuclear renaissance As of 2017, the US Energy Information Administration projects that US nuclear generating capacity will decline 23 percent from its 2016 level of 99.1 GW, to 76.5 GW in 2050, and the nuclear share of electrical generation to go from 20% in 2016 down to 11% in 2050. Driving the decline will be retirements of",
"-32.24808443989605"
],
[
"aspects and radiological hazards of nuclear power plants.\nLater, more consequential Supreme Court cases related to the politics of nuclear power include Metropolitan Edison Co. v. People Against Nuclear Energy (1983), decided the same year, and Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee Corp. (1984). Critical response The majority opinion did not question California's assertion that the moratorium was justified because the lack of a permanent disposal method for high level waste made nuclear generation uneconomic. It has been noted that existing plants and plants constructed after the Supreme Court decision have continued to economically operate by expanding current waste storage facilities. In addition, by",
"-32.050503662991105"
],
[
"to engage in such inquiry here when it is clear that the States have been allowed to retain authority over the need for electrical generating facilities easily sufficient to permit a State so inclined to halt the construction of new nuclear plants by refusing on economic grounds to issue certificates of public convenience in individual proceedings. In these circumstances, it should be up to Congress to determine whether a State has misused the authority left in its hands.\nTherefore, we accept California's avowed economic purpose as the rationale for enacting 25524.2. Accordingly, the statute lies outside the occupied field of nuclear",
"-31.954747886164114"
],
[
"nuclear power plants were taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some of Japan's 50 nuclear reactors to service. Shinzo Abe’s government seeks to restart the nuclear power plants that meet strict new safety standards and is emphasizing nuclear energy's importance as a base-load electricity source. As of November 2014, two reactors at Sendai are likely to restart in early 2015. In August 2015, Japan successfully restarted one nuclear reactor at the Sendai Nuclear Power",
"-31.30660806549713"
],
[
"made little sense making costly and politically difficult repairs now that would not make a return on investment before 2022.\nCalifornia Senator Dianne Feinstein signaled approval of the decision to permanently close the plant, stating \"I firmly believe this is the right thing to do for the more than 7 million Californians who live within 50 miles of San Onofre.\" However, Representative Darrell Issa, whose voting district includes the nuclear station, was more downbeat, saying \"our communities now face the loss of employment for more than a thousand highly skilled workers and an essential local source of low-cost, clean energy.\" Issa",
"-31.303593581687892"
],
[
"all costs.'\" Instead, Congress had given the states authority to decide whether to build a nuclear plant or one using traditional fuel sources. \"California's decision to exercise that authority does not, in itself, constitute a basis for preemption.\"\nFinally, it is strongly contended that 25524.2 frustrates the Atomic Energy Act's purpose to develop the commercial use of nuclear power. It is well established that state law is pre-empted if it \"stands as an obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of the full purposes and objectives of Congress.\" [461 U.S. 190, 221] Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U.S. at 67;",
"-31.22718858369626"
],
[
"ordered), 21% were permanently and prematurely closed due to reliability or cost problems, while another 27% have completely failed for a year or more at least once. The surviving U.S. nuclear plants produce ~90% of their full-time full-load potential, but even they are not fully dependable. Even reliably operating nuclear plants must shut down, on average, for 39 days every 17 months for refueling and maintenance, and unexpected failures do occur too.\nA cover story in the February 11, 1985, issue of Forbes magazine commented on the overall management of the nuclear power program in the United States:\nThe failure of the",
"-31.08776910515735"
],
[
"both gas and coal power, but well behind wind, solar, geothermal and hydroelectricity.\nThe United States wants New Zealand to repeal its nuclear-free legislation, which would then allow U.S. warships carrying nuclear weapons to visit New Zealand ports. Pressure from the United States increased in 2006, with U.S. trade officials linking the repeal of the ban of American nuclear ships from New Zealand's ports to a potential free-trade agreement between the two countries. In 2004, then opposition leader Don Brash refused to confirm or deny that he told visiting US senators the nuclear ban would be repealed \"by lunchtime\" if he",
"-31.075735440652352"
],
[
"energy and eventual shut-down of Japan's nuclear plants. Japan's nuclear power plants were completely shut down by May 2012, leaving Japan without nuclear-generated electricity for the first time since 1970. Several of the plants were only brought back online after the DPJ was no longer in government. The LDP government led by Shinzo Abe gradually reopened the nuclear plants, starting with Sendai Nuclear Power Plant in Kyushu on August 2015. The restart has been slow due to legal challenges and heavy domestic opposition. Lists of ministers Democratic\n People's New\n Independent\n\nR = Member of the House of Representatives\nC = Member of the House",
"-31.049729748629034"
],
[
"the largest nuclear power facility in the world.\nThe next month, April 1978, a year before the Three Mile Island accident, Governor Brown stated he would never sign a bill allowing construction of a nuclear power plant in California. Soon afterwards the California Energy Commission voted to halt the construction of the two Sundesert units in the \"absence of federally demonstrated and approved technology for permanent disposal of radioactive wastes\". The Sundesert project was cancelled in May 1978. Aftermath Political response to the crucial California Energy Commission vote to deny the Sundesert plant a permit was considerable from both parties. The",
"-30.967763255583122"
],
[
"the United States was eroded sharply following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, with support for building nuclear power plants in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, according to a CBS News poll. Only 43 percent of those polled 10 days after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States.\nA Gallup poll in the US in March 2015 found support for nuclear power at 51%, with 43% opposed. This was the lowest level of support for nuclear since 2001, and significantly down",
"-30.96280876128003"
],
[
"of the nation's total electric energy consumption. For many years, no new nuclear plants have been built in the US. However, since 2005 there has been a renewed interest in nuclear power in the US. This has been facilitated in part by the federal government with the Nuclear Power 2010 Program of 2002. and the Energy Policy Act. As of March 9, 2009, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission had received applications for permission to construct 26 new nuclear power reactors However, as of 2013 most of the new applications had been abandoned due to the low cost of electricity generated",
"-30.923294918145984"
],
[
"to abandon atomic energy. As of October 2011, only 11 nuclear power plants are operating. There have been electricity shortages, but Japan survived the summer without the extensive blackouts that had been predicted. An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, says \"public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged\" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. Jordan Jordan has signed memorandums of understanding with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Japan, China, and South Korea. In December 2009, Jordan Atomic Energy Commission",
"-30.89605907126679"
],
[
"developed detailed plans for 2 nuclear power plants with 8 reactors, but in November 2016 decided to abandon nuclear power plans as they were \"not economically viable because of other cheaper sources of power.\" Japan Once a nuclear proponent, Prime Minister Naoto Kan became increasingly anti-nuclear following the Fukushima nuclear disaster. In May 2011, he closed the aging Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant over earthquake and tsunami fears, and said he would freeze plans to build new reactors. In July 2011, Kan said that \"Japan should reduce and eventually eliminate its dependence on nuclear energy ... saying that the Fukushima accident",
"-30.732885105535388"
],
[
"dormant for many years, although legislation continued until 1992. Although nuclear plants were still quite active and even improving production and safety practices, construction of new plants ended in the late 1980s. This was acceptable to many utility companies, because most of the plants were licensed to operate on 20–40 year contracts, despite an unfavorable political climate. Over time, numerous polls showed a steady increase in public support and decrease in opposition, except for a temporary drop in numbers after the September 11 attacks and the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. According to a Gallup poll in 2009, 59% of the",
"-30.703885891562095"
],
[
"with state laws.\nAs a result, both Pacific Gas and Electric Company and parent company PG&E Corporation filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy around January 29 following the California required 15-day bankruptcy waiting period. Public Safety Power Shutoff On October 8, 2019, on the midst of wildfire season, PG&E preemptively shut off power to almost all Bay Area counties except San Francisco due to risk of causing another wildfire leaving almost 800,000 customers without power for time projected to be up to 5 days. The company is planning to do the shutdown in phases starting 12 midnight. Community Pipeline Safety Initiative (CPSI)",
"-30.648692796070463"
],
[
"shale gas boom has lowered electricity generation costs placing severe pressure on the economics of operating older existing nuclear power plants. Analysis by Bloomberg shows that over half of U.S. nuclear plants are running at a loss. The Nuclear Energy Institute has estimated that 15 to 20 reactors are at risk of early closure for economic reasons. Nuclear operators in Illinois and New York have obtained financial support from regulators, and operators in Connecticut, New Jersey, Ohio and Pennsylvania are seeking similar support. Some non-nuclear power generating companies have filed unfair competition lawsuits against these subsidies, and have raised the",
"-30.63622173271142"
],
[
"been growing acceptance of nuclear power in the United States was eroded sharply following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, with public support for building nuclear power plants in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, according to a CBS News poll. Only 43 percent of those polled after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States.\nActivists who were involved in the U.S. anti-nuclear movement's emergence (such as Graham Nash and Paul Gunter), suggest that Japan's nuclear crisis may rekindle an interest in",
"-30.6302296963986"
],
[
"Commission a formal notice of its intention to shut down the plant on September 30, 2019, unless the Pennsylvania legislature rescues the nuclear industry, which is currently struggling to compete as newfound natural gas resources have driven down electricity prices. Exelon Generation's Senior Vice President Bryan Hanson noted that once Three Mile Island was closed, it could never be reopened for use again. Hanson explicitly stated the reason for the shutdown is because of the unprofitability of Unit 1. Unit 1 has lost the company over 300 million dollars over the last half-decade despite it being one of Exelon's best-performing",
"-30.59615214567748"
],
[
"of respondents feel that all nuclear power plants should be closed down. Stressing the climate change benefits of nuclear energy positively influences 10% of people to be more supportive of expanding the role of nuclear power in the world, but there is still a general reluctance to support the building of more nuclear power plants.\nThere is little support across the world for building new nuclear reactors, a 2011 poll for the BBC indicates. The global research agency GlobeScan, commissioned by BBC News, polled 23,231 people in 23 countries from July to September 2011, several months after the Fukushima nuclear disaster.",
"-30.579036720038857"
],
[
"reduced to 1990 levels by 2020. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed Executive Order S-3-05 in June 2005 that declared California is vulnerable to climate change impacts resulting in loss of Sierra snowpack for water supply and rising sea levels threatening coastal real estate and habitat. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger also signed Executive Order S-21-09 in September 2009 requiring 33% of electricity sold in the California come from renewable resources by 2020 to curb greenhouse gas emissions. This assembly of legislation and evidence of environmental impact led to California enacting requirements for lead agencies to consider greenhouse gas emissions in their CEQA reviews.\nCalifornia",
"-30.511230926960707"
],
[
"force. There is no indication that California utilities are contemplating such construction; the state legislature is not obligated to address purely hypothetical facets of a problem.\nThird, petitioners note that there already is a body, the California Public Utilities Commission, which is authorized to determine on economic grounds whether a nuclear powerplant should be constructed. 26 While California is certainly free to make these decisions on a case-by-case basis, a State is not foreclosed from reaching the same decision through a legislative judgment, applicable to all cases. The economic uncertainties engendered by the nuclear waste disposal problems are not factors",
"-30.449433932175452"
],
[
"Shellenberger, Mark Lynas) signed an open letter to California Governor Jerry Brown, Tony Earley, CEO of Pacific Gas & Electric, and California state officials, urging that the plant not be closed. They argued that Diablo is an asset for California in achieving global warming goals since it does not emit greenhouse gases like a natural gas power plant, which are a major contributor to global warming. Closure in 2024–2025 On June 21, 2016, PG&E announced a Joint Proposal with Friends of the Earth, the Natural Resources Defense Council, Environment California, the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Local 1245, Coalition of",
"-30.275556358901667"
],
[
"couldn’t economically meet the NRC's new tightened standards, shifted electricity generation to coal-fired power plants. In 1977, following the first oil shock, U.S. President Jimmy Carter made a speech calling the energy crisis the \"moral equivalent of war\" and prominently supporting nuclear power. However, nuclear power could not compete with cheap oil and gas, particularly after public opposition and regulatory hurdles made new nuclear prohibitively expensive.\nIn 2006 The Brookings Institution, a public policy organization, stated that new nuclear units had not been built in the United States because of soft demand for electricity, the potential cost overruns on nuclear",
"-30.270762827480212"
],
[
"power plants in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. Support had been at an all-time high of 69 percent in 1977, according to polling by the New York Times and CBS News. 43 percent of those polled after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States. This represents a decline from a high of 57 percent in July 2008.\nActivists who were involved in the U.S. anti-nuclear movement's emergence (such as Graham Nash and Paul Gunter) suggest that Japan's nuclear crisis may",
"-30.269140865549616"
],
[
"operating commercial nuclear power plants, but will mean the loss of 2256 MW of generation that produced over 18,000 GWh of electricity per year.\nThe company operated the Humboldt Bay Power Plant, Unit 3 in Eureka, California. It is the oldest commercial nuclear plant in California and its maximum output was 65 MWe. The plant operated for 13 years, until 1976 when it was shut down for seismic retrofitting. New regulations enacted after the Three Mile Island accident, however, rendered the plant unprofitable and it was never restarted. Unit 3 is currently in decommissioning phase. Based on PG&E's schedule of planned decommissioning",
"-30.258295175706735"
],
[
"the 48 California state parks proposed for closure in January 2008 by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger as part of a deficit reduction program. The closures were ultimately avoided by cutting hours and maintenance system-wide.",
"-30.22851218865253"
],
[
"1976 that mandated that a solution be found to the problem of safe disposal of nuclear waste before further nuclear plants could be constructed. Attempts to exempt the Sundesert plant from the law failed in what was then called the California Assembly's Resources, Land Use and Energy Committee.\nAdditionally, statewide public disapproval of nuclear power had increased significantly. In March 1978 in California’s Kern County, voters for the first time in United States history emphatically rejected a nuclear power plant, the proposed four-reactor San Joaquin Nuclear Project, by a 70% to 30% margin. If approved and constructed, it would have been",
"-30.095482311211526"
],
[
"scenic oceanside Corral Canyon, in 1970.\nHowever, by the early 1970s, the future of nuclear energy in California was projected to expand on a major scale, with numerous proposals on the drafting boards of the state’s utility companies.\nIn the mid- and late 1970s, plans envisioned as future United States energy policy by the Carter Administration called for hundreds of new nuclear plants to be built nationwide. But under Governor Jerry Brown who was elected in 1975, California was heading in the opposite direction. Proposal and rejection In 1976, after purchasing the necessary parcel of land the previous year, San Diego Gas",
"-29.95847628795309"
],
[
"California Utility Employees, and Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility to increase investment in energy efficiency, renewables and storage, while phasing out nuclear power. Critics objected to the proposal, pointing out PG&E had selected parties to the proposal without any public notice or input. Specifically, the operating licenses for Diablo Canyon Units 1 and 2 would not be renewed when they expire on November 2, 2024 and August 26, 2025, respectively. PG&E's application to close Diablo Canyon, including the Joint Proposal, was approved by the California Public Utilities Commission in January 2018. In February, PG&E withdrew its application to the Nuclear",
"-29.924846229609102"
],
[
"with an Edison executive in Poland, where the two had negotiated the terms of the San Onofre settlement leaving San Diego taxpayers with a $3.3 billion bill to pay for the closure of the plant. The investigation was closed amidst Harris' 2016 run for the US Senate position, which opened when Barbara Boxer retired. Environmental impact Total greenhouse gas emissions from power plants in California increased by 35% from 2011 to 2012, according to figures from the California Air Resources Board, which per the World Nuclear News is partly due to the early closure of San Onofre. Decommissioning, 2014–present Decommissioning",
"-29.898602162311363"
],
[
"announced that its Swedish nuclear power plants, including the newer reactors, were operating at a loss due to low electricity prices and Sweden's nuclear output tax. It warned that if it was forced to shut the plants down, there would be serious consequences to Sweden's electricity supply, and argued that the nuclear output tax should be scrapped.\nIn October 2016 Vattenfall began litigation against the German government for its 2011 decision to accelerate the phase-out of nuclear power. Hearings are taking place at the World Bank's International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in Washington, D.C. and Vattenfall is",
"-29.887560435570776"
],
[
"in the U.S. dropping slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. Only 43 percent of those polled after the Fukushima nuclear emergency said they would approve building new power plants in the United States. A Washington Post-ABC poll conducted in April 2011 found that 64 percent of Americans opposed the construction of new nuclear reactors. A survey sponsored by the Nuclear Energy Institute, conducted in September 2011, found that \"62 percent of respondents said they favor the use of nuclear energy as one of the ways to provide electricity in the United States,",
"-29.82399842829909"
],
[
"legislating California's energy commodity trading deregulation. Despite warnings from prominent consumer groups which stated that this law would give energy traders too much influence over energy commodity prices, the legislation was passed during December 2000.\nAs the periodical Public Citizen reported, \"Because of Enron's new, unregulated power auction, the company's 'Wholesale Services' revenues quadrupled—- from $12 billion in the first quarter of 2000 to $48.4 billion in the first quarter of 2001.\"\nAfter passage of the deregulation law, California had a total of 38 Stage 3 rolling blackouts declared, until federal regulators intervened during June 2001. These blackouts occurred as a result of a",
"-29.75029639049899"
],
[
"similar majority of 70 percent says the United States should 'definitely build more' nuclear energy facilities [in 2010].\" According to Ann Bisconti, PhD, \"This unprecedented support for nuclear energy is being driven largely by people's concerns for meeting future energy demand and environmental goals, but it coincides with statements by President Obama and other national leaders who have voiced strong support for more nuclear power plants.\" 2011 Fukushima accidents and public policy impact What had been growing acceptance of nuclear power in the United States was eroded sharply following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, with public support for building nuclear",
"-29.677729424409335"
],
[
"development, Griffin observed in 2010 that \"We had to keep all the operations very secretive because once someone else found out what you were up to it was trouble.\" Stopping a freeway and a nuclear power plant Griffin also helped stop a planned freeway from the Golden Gate Bridge through West Marin to Sonoma County, which would have enabled construction along its route. The freeway was touted by then California Governor Edmund G. Brown as part of a plan to locate 150,000 new residents on the Northern California coast, including substantial housing development in what was to eventually become Point",
"-29.670113136434793"
],
[
"Sundesert Nuclear Power Plant Background Opposition to nuclear power plants in California began in 1958 over the proposed Bodega Bay Nuclear Power Plant near the small fishing town of Bodega Bay, California. The six-year controversy pitted utility company Pacific Gas and Electric against local activists opposed to the location of the nuclear plant. According to nuclear power historian Thomas Wellock, this successful fight by the activists, the first in the history of nuclear power, led directly to the eventual growth of California’s anti-nuclear movement. A second battle by state environmentalists stopped a nuclear facility proposed for Malibu, California, in the",
"-29.649401889531873"
],
[
"went into \"safe mode\" to prevent damage in the case of an overload. This put much of the nuclear power offline until those plants could be slowly taken out of \"safe mode\". In the meantime, all available hydro-electric plants (as well as many coal- and oil-fired plants) were brought online, bringing some electrical power to the areas immediately surrounding the plants by the morning of August 15. Homes and businesses both in the affected area and in nearby areas were requested to limit power usage until the grid was back to full power. Water supply Some areas lost water pressure",
"-29.608935855154414"
],
[
"90% of their full-time full-load potential, but even they must shut down (on average) for about 1 out of each 18 months for scheduled refueling and maintenance. To cope with such intermittence by nuclear (and centralized fossil-fuelled) power plants, utilities install a \"reserve margin\" of roughly 15% extra capacity spinning ready for instant use.\nLovins also argues that nuclear plants have an additional disadvantage: for safety, they must instantly shut down in a power failure, but due to the inherent nuclear-physics of the systems, they can't be restarted quickly. For example, during the Northeast Blackout of 2003, nine operating U.S. nuclear",
"-29.582387333968654"
],
[
"nuclear power and convenience of installing a nuclear plant due to the country's energy crisis. New debates When the issue was reopened, opinions were heard from experts, politicians, media and the military. According to Diva Puig, a consultant in nuclear energy for Latin America of the IAEA, “the discussion about nuclear energy (...) must not exclude any sectors of society”. Justo Laiz, director of CIN, agreed with her, opining that “I do not agree that this issue be discussed only on a political point of view” because “energy issues should be part of scientific discussions and decisions”.\nAbout the possibility of",
"-29.546211712411605"
],
[
"nuclear power plants.\nIn 2019, the Department of National Defense expressed its support for the revival of the nuclear power plant. The Philippine Nuclear Research Institute also urged the government to revive the power plant.",
"-29.523271001467947"
],
[
"nuclear power phase-out, and \"Moratorium Plus\", for an extension of the earlier-decided moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down. The results were: Moratorium Plus: 41.6% Yes, 58.4% No; Electricity without Nuclear: 33.7% Yes, 66.3% No.\nThe program of the \"Electricity without Nuclear\" petition was to shut down all nuclear power stations by 2033, starting with Unit 1 and 2 of Beznau nuclear power stations, Mühleberg in 2005, Gösgen in 2009, and Leibstadt in 2014. \"Moratorium Plus\" was for an extension of the moratorium for another ten years, and additionally a condition to stop the present",
"-29.445600046077743"
],
[
"rekindle an interest in the movement in the United States. The aim, they say, is \"not just to block the Obama administration’s push for new nuclear construction, but to convince Americans that existing plants pose dangers\".\nPublic opinion appears to have been aroused with regard to the re-licensing application of the Diablo Canyon Power Plant. Nuclear Regulatory Commission officials had already planned to conduct a series of public meetings in January, February and March 2011 as public attention in San Luis Obispo County turned towards the question of whether the plant should be re-licensed subsequent to public disclosure of a third",
"-29.43106415985676"
],
[
"Ohi facility. On September 14, 2013, those reactors were shut down, leaving all 50 Japanese commercial nuclear reactors closed.\nAn energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, says \"public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged\" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. It also omits a section on nuclear power expansion that was in last year's policy review. Extra staff members for Kiev embassy On 30 October 2011 the Japanese government took up the plan to increase the 30 members of the staff at the",
"-29.42851905222051"
],
[
"Japan must reduce its dependence on nuclear energy, breaking with a decades-old Japanese government drive to build more nuclear power plants in the country. \"We must scrap the plan to have nuclear power contribute 53 percent (of electricity supply) by 2030 and reduce the degree of reliance on nuclear power,\" Kan told a government panel. Kan said Japan should abandon plans to build 14 new reactors by 2030. He wants to \"pass a bill to promote renewable energy and questioned whether private companies should be running atomic plants\". In 2012, Kan said the Fukushima disaster made it clear to him",
"-29.40346739400411"
],
[
"calling on the government to abandon plans to build a nuclear power plant in their area. Specific concerns included the dangers posed by nuclear waste and the location of the country on the Pacific Ring of Fire, with geological activity (such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions) hazardous to nuclear reactors.",
"-29.377986286999658"
],
[
"had demonstrated the dangers of the technology\". In August 2011, the Japanese government passed a bill to subsidize electricity from renewable energy sources. A 2011 Japanese Cabinet energy white paper says \"public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged\" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. As of August 2011, the crippled Fukushima nuclear plant is still leaking low levels of radioactivity and areas surrounding it could remain uninhabitable for decades.\nBy March 2012, one year after the disaster, all but two of Japan's nuclear reactors were shut down; some were",
"-29.36718392907642"
],
[
"Takahama-4 restarted. United States The United States is, as of 2013, undergoing a practical phase-out independent of stated goals and continued official support. This is not due to concerns about the source or anti-nuclear groups, but due to the rapidly falling prices of natural gas and the reluctance of investors to provide funding for long-term projects when short term profitability of turbine power is available.\nThrough the 2000s a number of factors led to greatly increased interest in new nuclear reactors, including rising demand, new lower-cost reactor designs, and concerns about global climate change. By 2009, about 30 new reactors were",
"-29.362776490161195"
],
[
"for $294 million to Pinnacle West Capital Corp (of Arizona Public Service). The move was the direct result of a new California law requiring utility companies to exit coal-fired power production (even the renewing of contracts is disallowed), and forces Edison to purchase more power from the market.\nSan Onofre Nuclear Generating Station\nUnit 2 shut in early January 2012 for refueling and replacement of the reactor vessel head.\nBoth reactors at San Onofre have been shut since January 2012 due to premature wear found on tubes in massive steam generators installed in 2010 and 2011.\nIn April 2012, in a sign of",
"-29.342190963216126"
],
[
"in U.S. nuclear power plants’ preparedness for unforeseen natural disasters. \"You can't control mother nature,\" he reasoned.\" \nThe article continued to quote the U.S. Nuclear Energy Foundation to the effect that too much stock is being put into the fear surrounding Fukushima power plant. On a policy level, United States officials were wary. U.S. Energy Secretary Steven Chu told Congress that the Obama administration intends to hold the course on underwriting new nuclear power plants. \"The people in the United States, U.S. territories, are in no danger”, Chu said during a Fox News Sunday broadcast. \"It's unlikely they will be",
"-29.3293517655693"
],
[
"other utilities, the Southern Company in Atlanta and JEA in Jacksonville, both sent letters of commitment to show that they were serious about purchasing a plant; however, no plants were ever built. Cancellation Although OPS did not have Federal approval to build the plants in the 1970s, the biggest reason why OPS was not successful was the 1973 oil crisis. Less oil available resulted in higher oil prices, which encouraged conservation and less demand for electricity. PSE&G did not need the additional capacity from the nuclear generators they had ordered, so PSE&G requested a two-year delay. After the embargo ended,",
"-29.316085833939724"
],
[
"completely without nuclear-produced electrical power for the first time since 1970. Despite protests, on 1 July 2012 unit 3 of the Ōi Nuclear Power Plant was restarted. As of September 2012, Ōi units 3 and 4 are Japan's only operating nuclear power plants, although the city and prefecture of Osaka have requested they be shut down.\nThe United States-Japan Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan is a bilateral agreement aimed at putting in place a framework for the joint research and development of nuclear energy technology, which was signed on April 18, 2007. It is believed that the agreement is the",
"-29.27443533242331"
],
[
"Arizona that caused widespread problems in western Arizona and eastern California. In time, SDG&E's system was drawing from the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station (SONGS) considerably more power than was being produced, pulling it from Los Angeles, and a \"safety net\" system cut it off from the nuclear plant. Once this happened, SDG&E's system rapidly collapsed due to mismatch of generation and load, unable to drop load faster than generation was lost. SDG&E implemented their system restoration plan and cautioned its customers to expect a prolonged outage. The outage appears to have been caused by the actions of an employee",
"-29.250613783384324"
],
[
"coal generation by 2007. However, for various operational and demand reasons this was not possible until 2014, when the last coal was burned in OPG's stations.\nThe company also endured significant criticism concerning the slow return to operation of some of its nuclear generating stations which had been shut down by the Northeast blackout of 2003. The problem was that all but one of the reactors were tripped and allowed to poison out, preventing an early reconnection to the electricity grid. Once shut down, all nuclear reactors take several days to return to service.\nAnother source of criticism was the",
"-29.24532870898838"
],
[
"to not pursue re-opening the plant. The same year, they successfully pressured MidAmerican Energy Company to abandon its plans to build new nuclear power reactors in Iowa; it instead announced a new $1.9 billion investment to expand to its wind generation fleet.\nAfter Friends of the Earth campaigned against the genetically engineered Arctic Apple, in 2013 McDonald's and Gerber pledged not to sell or use the product. The organization has also consistently protested the construction of the Keystone XL Pipeline. This campaign, along with the efforts of other protestors and environmental organizations, helped to pressure the Obama administration to order",
"-29.22130062553333"
],
[
"an extension of the earlier decided moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down. The results were: Moratorium Plus: 41.6% Yes, 58.4% No; Electricity without Nuclear: 33.7% Yes, 66.3% No. The program of the \"Electricity without Nuclear\" petition was to shut down all nuclear power stations by 2033, starting with Unit 1 and 2 of Beznau nuclear power stations, Mühleberg in 2005, Gösgen in 2009, and Leibstadt in 2014. \"Moratorium Plus\" was for an extension of the moratorium for another 10 years, and additionally a condition to stop the present reactors after 40 years of",
"-29.21000936382916"
],
[
"safety related.\" Reassessment of Nuclear Energy in California: A Policy Analysis of Proposition 15 and its Alternatives, p. 18 (1976) (Reassessment Report) (emphasis in original). The Committee explained that the lack of a federally approved method of waste disposal created a \"clog\" in the nuclear fuel cycle. Storage space was limited while more nuclear wastes were continuously produced. Without a permanent means of disposal, the nuclear waste problem could become critical, [461 U.S. 190, 214] leading to unpredictably high costs to contain the problem or, worse, shutdowns in reactors. \"Waste disposal safety,\" the Reassessment Report notes, \"is not directly",
"-29.174642266269075"
],
[
"safety regulation. 28 [461 U.S. 190, 217] \nResponse to first argument. From the time the federal act was passed in 1954 until the present, White explained, Congress had maintained a system of dual regulation over nuclear plants: the federal government held control over safety issues, whereas the states exercised \"their traditional authority over economic questions such as the need for additional generating capacity, the type of generating facilities to be licensed, land use, and ratemaking.\" The Court held that 25524.2 was directed toward economics, rather than safety, in its purpose and thus was fully within California's authority.\nResponse to second",
"-29.16604974132497"
],
[
"Nuclear Power 2010 Program The \"Nuclear Power 2010 Program\" was launched in 2002 by President George W. Bush in order to restart orders for nuclear power reactors in the U.S. by providing subsidies for a handful of Generation III+ demonstration plants. The expectation was that these plants would come online by 2010, but it was not met.\nIn March 2017, the leading nuclear-plant maker, Westinghouse Electric Company, filed for bankruptcy due to losing over $9 billion in construction losses from working on two nuclear plants. This loss was partly caused by safety concerns due to the Fukushima disaster, Germany's Energiewende, the",
"-29.165465008933097"
],
[
"because it is becoming too costly to operate. The nuclear industry's profits have been squeezed out by utilities who are buying cheaper energy from natural gas power plants. “Given the financial challenges our merchant power plants face from sustained wholesale power price declines and other unfavorable market conditions, we have been assessing each asset,” Chief Executive Officer Leo Denault said in the statement. “Market conditions require us to also close the FitzPatrick nuclear plant.”\nIn 2016, Cuomo directed the Public Service Commission to consider ratepayer-financed subsidies similar to those for renewable sources to keep nuclear power stations profitable in the competition",
"-29.139861744391965"
],
[
"of nuclear power. Platts has reported that \"the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world\".\nThe World Nuclear Association has reported that nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since 1999. Several previous international studies and assessments, suggested that as part of the portfolio of other low-carbon energy technologies, nuclear power will continue to play a role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Historically, nuclear power usage is estimated to have prevented the",
"-29.138905346155298"
],
[
"\"construction of new merchant nuclear power plants in competitive markets uneconomical now and for the foreseeable future\". In early 2013 UBS noted that some smaller reactors operating in deregulated markets may become uneconomic to operate and maintain, due to competition from generators using low priced natural gas, and may be retired early. The 556 MWe Kewaunee Power Station is being closed 20 years before license expiry for these economic reasons. In February 2014 the Financial Times identified Pilgrim, Indian Point, Clinton and Quad Cities power stations as potentially at risk of premature closure for economic reasons.\nAs of 2017, the U.S.",
"-29.08596889890032"
],
[
"the plant was permanently shut down in December 2012. It should remain dormant 40 more years before being dismantled.\nFollowing the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) ordered all reactor operators to revisit their safety plans and report on potential improvements by the end of April 2011. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) later conducted a review of the CNSC's response to the events at Japan's Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, and concluded that it was \"prompt, robust and comprehensive, and is a good practice that should be used by other regulatory bodies\". Planned massive refurbishment In",
"-29.072019702609396"
],
[
"evident desire of Congress to prevent safety from being [461 U.S. 190, 222] compromised by promotional concerns does not translate into an abandonment of the objective of promoting nuclear power. The legislation was carefully drafted, in fact, to avoid any antinuclear sentiment. 32 The continuing commitment to nuclear power is reflected in the extension of the Price-Anderson Act's coverage until 1987, Pub. L. 94-197, 2-14, 89 Stat. 1111-1115, as well as in Congress' express preclusion of reliance on natural gas and petroleum as primary energy sources in new powerplants, Powerplant and Industrial Fuel Use Act of 1978, 92",
"-29.04098753051585"
],
[
"and some shifted their weekends to weekdays to smooth power demand. Converting to a nuclear-free gas and oil energy economy would cost tens of billions of dollars in annual fees. One estimate is that even including the disaster, more years of life would have been lost in 2011 if Japan had used coal or gas plants instead of nuclear.\nMany political activists have called for a phase-out of nuclear power in Japan, including Amory Lovins, who claimed, \"Japan is poor in fuels, but is the richest of all major industrial countries in renewable energy that can meet the entire long-term",
"-28.989959748927504"
],
[
"hailed by Energy Secretary Steven Chu as \"the first new nuclear power plant to break ground in decades\". It is expected to create up to 3,500 jobs during the construction phase, and 800 once operational. However in March 2017 Westinghouse Electric Company, who are building the plant, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy because of $9 billion of losses from its two U.S. nuclear construction projects. The U.S. government had given $8.3 billion of loan guarantees on the financing of the four nuclear reactors being built in the U.S., and it is expected a way forward to completing the plant can",
"-28.97296897752676"
],
[
"150 MW, scheduled to begin production in 2014.\nAs of September 2012, the Los Angeles Times reported that \"Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda acknowledged that the vast majority of Japanese support the zero option on nuclear power\", and Prime Minister Noda and the Japanese government announced plans to make the country nuclear-free by the 2030s. They announced the end to construction of nuclear power plants and a 40-year limit on existing nuclear plants. Nuclear plant restarts must meet safety standards of the new independent regulatory authority.\nOn 16 December 2012, Japan held its general election. The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) had a clear",
"-28.93111783962013"
],
[
"did 25524.2 in any way conflict with national policy, even with a decision by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to allow continued licensing of reactors despite concerns regarding waste disposal. Again, the NRC's authority, as that of a federal nuclear regulatory agency, was in the realm of safety, leaving states to make economic determinations regarding nuclear power. White wrote, :And as there is no attempt on California's part to enter the field of developing and licensing nuclear waste disposal technology, a field occupied by the Federal Government, 25524.2 is not preempted any more by the NRC's obligations in the waste",
"-28.915038007689873"
],
[
"Nuclear renaissance in the United States Between 2007 and 2009, 13 companies applied to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for construction and operating licenses to build 31 new nuclear power reactors in the United States. However, the case for widespread nuclear plant construction has been hampered due to inexpensive natural gas, slow electricity demand growth in a weak US economy, lack of financing, and safety concerns following the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011.\nMost of the proposed 31 reactors have been canceled, and as of August 2017 only two reactors are under construction. In 2013, four reactors were permanently closed: San Onofre",
"-28.88497233844828"
],
[
"with California budget crisis, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger proposed the temporary closure (for at least 2 years) of 220 parks. The closures were ultimately avoided by cutting hours and maintenance system-wide.",
"-28.87100059504155"
],
[
"previous moratorium, although it removed the controversial article related to the nuclear criminal offense.\nEven though majority of people and politicians still support moratorium on usage of nuclear energy, past couple of years are marked with an increasing public campaign pointed towards repeal of the 1995 Law, or, at least, its limitation to 10 years, after which it would be possible to build nuclear reactors in Serbia. Spain In 1964, Spain began construction on its first of three nuclear reactors and completed construction in 1968.\nCurrently, Spain has eight nuclear reactors producing 20% of the country's electricity or 7,442 net MWe. Sweden",
"-28.857969459611923"
],
[
"new nuclear power plants nor extending the life spans of outdated ones. In May 2012, nuclear power plants which were sitting idle in the wake of the Fukushima disaster were restarted in order to help Japan's immediate demands for energy, despite protests including hundreds of people. Trans-Pacific Partnership After becoming Prime Minister, one of Noda's most important initiatives was pursuing the entry of Japan into the negotiations for the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership, which he announced on 11 November 2011. This proved controversial and was widely discussed in Japanese society. Senkaku Islands The Tokyo Metropolitan Government under Governor Shintaro Ishihara",
"-28.847255995075102"
],
[
"environmental and anti-nuclear activists gathered at Southern California Edison's Irvine headquarters calling for the San Onofre plant to be decommissioned. Initial shutdown Unit 2 was shut down in early January 2012 for routine refueling and replacement of the reactor vessel head. On January 31, 2012, Unit 3 suffered a radioactive leak largely inside the containment shell, with a release to the environment below allowable limits, and the reactor was shut down per standard procedure. On investigation, the replacement steam generators from 2011 in both units were found to show premature wear on over 3,000 tubes, in 15,000 places. Plant officials",
"-28.806853315065382"
],
[
"economists is clear: \"nuclear reactors are simply not competitive\".\nIn December 2010, The Economist reported that the demand for nuclear power was softening in America. In recent years, utilities have shown an interest in about 30 new reactors, but the number with any serious prospect of being built as of the end of 2010 was about a dozen, as some companies had withdrawn their applications for licenses to build. Exelon has withdrawn its application for a license for a twin-unit nuclear plant in Victoria County, Texas, citing lower electricity demand projections. The decision has left the country's largest nuclear operator without",
"-28.780563015607186"
],
[
"power plant to be decommissioned, on October 24, 2016. Another five aging reactors were permanently closed in 2013 and 2014 before their licenses expired because of high maintenance and repair costs at a time when natural gas prices have fallen: San Onofre 2 and 3 in California, Crystal River 3 in Florida, Vermont Yankee in Vermont, and Kewaunee in Wisconsin, and New York State is seeking to close Indian Point in Buchanan, 30 miles from New York City.\nMost reactors began construction by 1974; following the Three Mile Island accident in 1979 and changing economics, many planned projects were canceled. More",
"-28.756012879224727"
],
[
"policy. Again, the company made no effort to identify those responsible. 2008 shutdown In 2008, Tokyo Electric, forced to shut the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant after an earthquake, posted its first loss in 28 years as oil and gas costs soared. Nuclear accidents On 11 March 2011 several nuclear reactors in Japan were badly damaged by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.\nThe Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant lost external electric power, experienced the failure of one of its two cooling pumps, and two of its three emergency power generators. External electric power could only be restored two days after the",
"-28.738138558968785"
],
[
"all other options.\"\nFederal officials also ruled out nuclear devices due to environmental and political risks, as doing so would be a violation of Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty that the United States has signed. Admiral Thad Allen stated, \"since we don't know the condition of that well bore or the casings, I would be cautious about putting any kind of kinetic energy on that well head, because what you may do is create open communication between the reservoir and the sea floor.\" Allen also said that the result could be oil seeping through cracks and through the seafloor, \"and then be",
"-28.722286998905474"
],
[
"Trillo-1 and Vandellos-2. All of the other five units of this series were halted in the middle of construction after a moratorium stopping further construction passed in 1994. Capacity of the nuclear fleet has still increased since then due to power uprates.\nThere are no plans for either expansion or accelerated closure of nuclear plants. A leak of radioactive material from the Ascó I nuclear power plant in November 2007 sparked protests. The country's government has pledged to shut down its eight nuclear reactors once wind and solar energy become viable alternatives such as in neighbouring country Portugal. Fuel cycle ENUSA",
"-28.719145039664"
],
[
"for the six-unit nuclear power plant is the coastal district of Gujarat; however, the site may be moved to the southeastern state of Andhra Pradesh, due to opposition from the local community. Westinghouse's parent company Toshiba decided in 2017 to withdraw from the construction of nuclear power plants, following financial difficulties, leaving the proposed agreement in doubt. Operations In March 2019 Sanmen Unit 2 was shut down because of a reactor coolant pump defect. A replacement pump has been shipped from the U.S. by Curtiss-Wright. There have been previous problems with these pumps, with several pumps returned from China. The",
"-28.689091044885572"
],
[
"293 to 152, bolstering the Prime Minister's position.\nIn July 2011, Kan said that Japan must reduce its dependence on nuclear energy, breaking with a decades-old Japanese government drive to build more nuclear power plants in the country. \"We must scrap the plan to have nuclear power contribute 53 percent (of electricity supply) by 2030 and reduce the degree of reliance on nuclear power,\" Kan told a government panel. Kan said Japan should abandon plans to build 14 new reactors by 2030. He wants to \"pass a bill to promote renewable energy and questioned whether private companies should be running atomic",
"-28.658581877010874"
],
[
"York State is seeking to close Indian Point Nuclear Power Plant, in Buchanan, 30 miles from New York City, despite this reactor being the primary contributor to Vermont's green energy fund.\nThe additional cancellation of five large reactor upgrades (Prairie Island, 1 reactor, LaSalle, 2 reactors, and Limerick, 2 reactors), four by the largest nuclear company in the U.S., suggest that the nuclear industry faces \"a broad range of operational and economic problems\".\nIn July 2013, economist Mark Cooper named some nuclear power plants that face particularly intense challenges to their continued operation. Cooper said that the lesson for policy makers and",
"-28.65285977208987"
],
[
"Choice, Gore argues that nuclear power was once \"expected to provide virtually unlimited supplies of low-cost electricity\", but the reality is that it has been \"... an energy source in crisis for the last 30 years.\" Worldwide growth in nuclear power has slowed in recent years, with no new reactors and an \"actual decline in global capacity and output in 2008.\" In the United States, \"... no nuclear power plants ordered after 1972 have been built to completion.\"\nOf the 253 nuclear power reactors originally ordered in the United States from 1953 to 2008, 48 percent were canceled, 11 percent were prematurely shut",
"-28.641475521872053"
],
[
"not compel a utility to develop a nuclear plant, compliance with both it and 25524.2 is possible. Moreover, because the NRC's regulations are aimed at insuring that plants are safe, not necessarily that they are economical, 25524.2 does not interfere with the objective of the federal regulation.\nNor has California sought through 25524.2 to impose its own standards on nuclear waste disposal. The statute accepts that it is the federal responsibility to develop and license such technology. As there is no attempt on California's part to enter this field, one which is occupied by the Federal Government, we do not find",
"-28.63822167415492"
],
[
"environmental considerations have led Ontario to announce that it will maintain existing nuclear capacity by replacing older reactors with new ones. Canada has never had any serious accidents related to nuclear power, CANDU reactors are a particularly safe design. Canada is planning new reactors. Mexico Mexico has one nuclear power plant, which consists of two boiling water reactors. In February 2007, contracts with Iberdrola and Alstom were signed to update the reactors by 2010. A committee has been established to recommend on new nuclear plants and the most recent proposal is for one unit to come on line by 2015",
"-28.607950257250195"
],
[
"with seven more to follow it by 2025.\nAfter a time was thought to stop the use of nuclear energy then Mexico finally decided in 2007 by repowering the Laguna Verde Nuclear Power Station, which has two reactors of 683MW each, after the upgrading, reactors are increase their production to 817MW each, accounting 4.6% of the electricity production. On May 14, 2010 Energy Secretary Georgina Kessel announced that Mexico provides full development of nuclear energy in its energy mix as an alternative to discourage the use of fossil fuels and increase the generation of clean electricity.\nIn November 2011, Mexico abandoned plans",
"-28.594696727646806"
],
[
"the Onagawa nuclear power plant may demonstrate that it is possible for nuclear facilities to withstand the greatest natural disasters, and to retain public trust. The plant was shut down following the earthquake and tsunami, in accordance with standard legally mandated procedure after such an event, but despite the IAEA finding that the plant had survived the quake remarkably undamaged, the three units remain in cold shutdown. Whereas the mishaps at Fukushima I radically changed public opinion on safety and risks, Tohoku Electric seems to have preserved much of its pre-disaster goodwill in the area of Onagawa. While the tsunami",
"-28.592716113926144"
],
[
"revision. Yes California argues that this not a major revision, based on the California Supreme Court's test in Legislature v. Eu that a revision \"must necessarily or inevitably appear from the face of the challenged provision that the measure will substantially alter [California's] basic governmental framework\".\nThe Legislative Analyst's report also noted the tens of millions of dollars that would have to be spent by state and local governments to hold an additional statewide election in March 2019.\nWere California to actually become its own separate nation, the major economic and budgetary impacts for both the current state and local governments are",
"-28.59104646263586"
],
[
"until 1 July 2012, Japan had no operating nuclear power plants.\nOn 17 April 2013, a shipment of MOX nuclear fuel to Japan left the port of Cherbourg in northern France, for the first time since the Fukushima disaster, destined for Takahama nuclear plant. \nMOX fuel contains around 7% plutonium. Court decision forbids restart As of 16 April 2015, the Takahama reactors were ordered to remain offline by a Japanese court, which cited continued safety concerns. \nThe Fukui District Court rejected a \"stay\" on its original ruling that, despite approval to restart the plants from Japan's governmental Nuclear Regulation Authority (an",
"-28.587613923256868"
],
[
"proliferate in California, there is debate and concern over who takes on the POLR responsibility if a CCA fails. If incumbent utilities are no longer in the business of providing power, it may no longer be feasible for them to provide this backstop. Individual CCAs differ on whether they want to or are capable of taking on this responsibility.\nThe CPUC has released a study called the “Green Book,” which is reminiscent of the agency’s “Blue” and “Yellow” Books in 1993, which led to California’s deregulation and subsequent energy crisis in the early 2000s. The substance of the “Green Book”",
"-28.57922164024785"
],
[
"Marcus Ruiz Evans of Yes California wrote that, \"No one is going to pull money out of California if it secedes, no one is going to invade, no one is going to stop trading – there is too much money invested here, too many deals already going on. The world will not let the California economy be disrupted.\"\nAt a forum held by the campaign in Los Angeles on February 13, 2017, led by Evans and Marinelli, they argued that California annually loses about $70 billion by subsidizing other states and military overseas, which could instead be used elsewhere. Marinelli also stated",
"-28.568983652796305"
],
[
"have been reduced significantly if mass production began, due to economies of scale. There is also discussion about electric cars threatening dealer profits since they have so few service requirements—no tuneups, no oil changes, and less frequent brake jobs because of regenerative braking. U.S. government While not overtly political, the film documents that the federal government of the United States under the Presidency of George W. Bush joined the auto-industry suit against California in 2002. This pushed California to abandon its ZEV mandate regulation. The film notes that Bush's chief of staff Andrew Card had recently been head of the",
"-28.543834960029926"
],
[
"Pakistan, Russia, Slovakia, South Korea, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom and the United States of America. At least 100 older and smaller reactors will \"most probably be closed over the next 10-15 years\".\nCountries that wish to shut down nuclear power plants must find alternatives for electricity generation; otherwise, they are forced to become dependent on imports. Therefore, the discussion of a future for nuclear energy is intertwined with discussions about fossil fuels or an energy transition to renewable energy. Austria A nuclear power station was built during the 1970s at Zwentendorf, Austria, but its start-up was prevented by a",
"-28.515414519206388"
],
[
"list of Nuclear power by country with China leading at 23. Globally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased. China has stated its plans to double nuclear generation by 2030. India also plans to greatly increase its nuclear power.\nSeveral countries have enacted laws to cease construction on new nuclear power stations. Several European countries have debated nuclear phase-outs and others have completely shut down some reactors. Three nuclear accidents have influenced the slowdown of nuclear power: the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States, the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in",
"-28.485707286934485"
],
[
"Promise, economics professor, John Quiggin, comments that it presents the environmental rationale for nuclear power, but that reviving nuclear power debates is a distraction, and the main problem with the nuclear option is that it is not economically viable. Quiggin says that we need more efficient energy use and more renewable energy commercialization.",
"-28.485080061676854"
]
] |
2ohse7 | What would NASA(or equivalent) do if an astronaut refused to come back down from the space station? | [
"If they went rouge and killed everyone we'd just stop resupplying it",
"I'm sure there's haldol, ativan or some other strong sedative in the med kit. The other astronauts could jump his ass and sedate him.",
"I think it's called Space Dementia. The other astronaut had to tie up Steve Buscemi.",
"The space station can be controlled remotely by houston and the russian one. Plus they go thru a rigourous and tedious pych test. The crew cabin is the size of a tractor trailer rig and all the people are russians or ex military. They could take the crazy man down.",
"There are no weapons on board for obvious reasons, although IIRC some Russian astronauts have brought guns to space in the past in case they have to deal with a bear on their return to Earth. The official guidelines suggest that the other crew members should physically subdue the person and then tie them up with duct tape/bungee cords and use tranquilizers if necessary.",
"I guarantee there is a thick binder in Houston with specific instructions to deal with this exact thing....Yep, found it. [Mental Breakdown In Space]( URL_0 )",
"If you don't get down here right now you're grounded! Bitch please.",
"They probably have some type of plan already prepared for this just in case one of the astronauts started to go crazy. More than likely it would involve the other astronauts subduing the deranged one and sedating them until they could safely be sent back down to earth."
] | [
[
"holding her back and allowing a Caucasian Astronaut to take her place!\" Jeanette Epps stated that she could not comment on her brother's post or the reason why she was pulled off the mission, but did state that she has no medical condition or family problem preventing her from flying, and that her training had been successful. The Washington Post stated that \"Last-minute crew changes are not unusual at NASA.\"",
"-35.184802436153404"
],
[
"emergency extra-vehicular activity (EVA) would have been required. While there was no astronaut EVA training for maneuvering to the wing, astronauts are always prepared for a similarly difficult emergency EVA to close the external tank umbilical doors located on the orbiter underside, which is necessary for reentry in the event of failure. Similar methods could have reached the shuttle left wing for inspection or repair.\nFor the repair, the CAIB determined that the astronauts would have to use tools and small pieces of titanium, or other metal, scavenged from the crew cabin. These metals would help protect the wing structure and",
"-34.54381571849808"
],
[
"getting back to Earth alive.\nNo EVAs were planned on the next three Gemini flights. The next EVA was planned to be made by David Scott on Gemini VIII, but that mission had to be aborted due to a critical spacecraft malfunction before the EVA could be conducted. Astronauts on the next three Gemini flights (Eugene Cernan, Michael Collins, and Richard Gordon), performed several EVAs, but none was able to successfully work for long periods outside the spacecraft without tiring and overheating. Cernan attempted but failed to test an Air Force Astronaut Maneuvering Unit which included a self-contained oxygen system.\nOn November",
"-34.513390050826274"
],
[
"to perform well with the help of new Deputy Press Secretary Annabeth Schott. Military shuttle leak storyline In the episode \"Things Fall Apart,\" the International Space Station develops a critical oxygen leak. With no civilian shuttles available to perform a rescue mission in time, a three-person crew finds itself trapped aboard the ISS. While the president contemplates rescue options, C.J. becomes aware of the possibility that a secret military space shuttle could be prepared in time to rescue the crew. However, this would involve revealing the shuttle's existence, particularly as one of the ISS crew is a Russian military officer.",
"-34.14645507041132"
],
[
"crew then worked to undertake some further detailed inspection of the orbiter and unloaded the P5 truss segment from the payload bay, handing it off successfully from the shuttle robotic arm to the station arm. The astronauts scheduled for Day 4's EVA, Robert Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang, ended their day by entering the airlock for a \"campout\" sleep session to prepare for the EVA by purging their bodies of nitrogen in a lower-pressure environment. Such a practice is common in order for the astronauts to avoid getting decompression sickness. 12 December (Flight day 4 – EVA #1) Flight day 4",
"-33.778725382115226"
],
[
"their attempts fail, using up too much fuel and causing the ISS to enter a decaying orbit where it will burn up in Earth's atmosphere. Pilot Sho Murakami informs the crew that they need to use the station's remaining fuel to get back into a safe orbit, although this allows Calvin to re-enter the station. The crew plan to make Calvin dormant by sealing themselves into one module and venting the atmosphere from the rest of the station.\nAfter the crew finalize preparations to do so, Hugh enters cardiac arrest. The crew then discover that Calvin has been feeding off Hugh's",
"-33.62189405862591"
],
[
"the safety of the crew... I'm not concerned with our safety.\" The main reason for fixing it, he noted, would be to assist with processing once the orbiter was back at the Kennedy Space Center.\nDuring the Mission Management Team briefing, Kirk Shireman, Deputy International Space Station Program Manager, reported that the External Stowage Platform installation went well; the new CMG was working well, and handover of attitude control directly from the shuttle to the station was completed without problems. In addition, a new Russian computer was installed on the station, and testing of the system would be performed in late",
"-33.61131652905897"
],
[
"agents manage to get her out of her overturned car and, despite being injured, she manages to get back to the base.\nThe shuttle has moved into direct sunlight and Mission Control is unable to rotate it into a safe position, putting the astronauts' lives in danger. Generoo believes that the uplink is being sabotaged. Belt orders the uplink to be cut, allowing the astronauts to rotate the craft manually. Over the objections of Generoo and the agents, he orders the mission to proceed and lies to the press about its progress. Belt tells Mulder that the shuttle program may be",
"-33.546034841871005"
],
[
"was reluctant to terminate the EVA at the allotted time, and had to be ordered back into the spacecraft. While he was outside, a spare thermal glove floated away through the open hatch of the spacecraft, becoming an early piece of space debris in low Earth orbit, until it burned up upon re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. There was a mechanical problem with the hatch mechanism, which made it difficult to open and to relatch, which added to the time constraint of the spacewalk, and could have threatened the lives of both men if McDivitt had been unable to get",
"-33.424207190138986"
],
[
"future astronauts. The EVA concluded at 03:07 UTC on the morning of 13 December, and lasted for 6 hours and 36 minutes in total.\nDuring the spacewalk, after taking a close look at imagery gathered on the first three days of the flight, mission managers determined that the shuttle's heat shield would support a safe return to Earth. They also decided a more detailed inspection that had been scheduled for later in the mission would not be necessary.\nThree more spacewalks, one of which was unplanned, were required to reconfigure and redistribute power on the station, so that the solar arrays installed",
"-33.230084278213326"
],
[
"space until November 30, 2009.\nAfter working through the checklists to safely power down the orbiter for about an hour, the crew got out of Atlantis and into the Crew Transport Vehicle. Exiting the vehicle without Stott, they performed the traditional walk-around of the shuttle and met with employees from NASA. Speaking briefly to the press following the walk-around, Commander Hobaugh said \"We really had truly an amazing mission\". He went to add, \"We had no hitches. It was not us, it was not any single group, but it was just an incredible team from all around the nation\".\nPost-landing Crew Conference",
"-32.99031038052635"
],
[
"a deal with the astronauts that they would not hide information from her, and she would not betray their confidence, unless, she thought it may jeopardize them or the mission. She was the only nurse assigned to the Astronauts. O'Hara became close to the astronauts and their families. Before every launch she performed the pre-flight physicals including height, weight, temperatures, blood pressure measurements. The astronauts would not agree to let anyone else but O'Hara draw blood before launch.\nO'Hara also helped set up the portable hospital at the Grand Bahama Island to support post flight examination and, if needed, treat injured",
"-32.77021397498902"
],
[
"though it never exceeded the safety limits, the EVA was called off with both astronauts returning into the station. This left one old battery in a temporary flexible stowage position. The rest of the batteries will be installed in a future EVA with the rest of the EVAs being under replanning. 23 July (Flight Day 9) The Kibo robotic arm was inaugurated operationally with it being used to install experiments on to the Japanese exposed facility. The three experiments, transferred from the Japanese cargo pallet, consisted of Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image, Inter-orbit Communication System and Space Environment Data Acquisition",
"-32.73071233148221"
],
[
"to carry the crew to space, an insane USAF general driven by shallow militarism and hatred for space exploration tries to shoot down the shuttle during lift off. Despite damage sustained from an anti-satellite missile fired from a restored X-15, Endeavour successfully makes it into orbit, and the five crew members begin their six-year journey to Saturn by following the gravity-assisted Interplanetary Transport Network.\nEn route, one crew member dies after a solar storm. The use of a CELSS greenhouse for life support provides a continuous food supply, and the astronauts rely on vegetables, grain and fruit from the greenhouse as",
"-32.618133462267"
],
[
"in the event that the orbiter is not able to land until Saturday.\nAfter evaluating the imagery sent down from the late inspection, the ground team officially cleared the orbiter's thermal protection system for re-entry. Initially, NASA had planned on releasing Endeavour from its stand-by status following the late inspection, but managers on the ground decided to wait until Atlantis had performed the de-orbit burn before standing down the STS-400 rescue mission officially.\nBefore going to sleep, the crew took a phone call from President Barack Obama, who congratulated them on their successful mission, joked with them, asking if they could see",
"-32.609281231765635"
],
[
"NASA on December 30, 2008, made further recommendations to improve a crew's survival chances on future space vehicles, such as the then planned Orion spacecraft. These included improvements in crew restraints, finding ways to deal more effectively with catastrophic cabin depressurization, more \"graceful degradation\" of vehicles during a disaster so that crews will have a better chance at survival, and automated parachute systems. Fears of terrorism After the shuttle's breakup, there were some initial fears that terrorists might have been involved, but no evidence of that has ever surfaced. Security surrounding the launch and landing of the space shuttle had",
"-32.58486996399006"
],
[
"looking out at the window.\nSpaceflight history author David Hitt disputed that the crew purposefully ended contact with mission control in a book written along with former astronauts Owen K. Garriott and Joseph P. Kerwin. Effects At the time, only the crew of Skylab 3 had spent six weeks in space. It was unknown what had happened psychologically. NASA carefully worked with crew's requests, reducing their workload for the next six weeks. The incident took NASA into an unknown realm of concern in the selection of astronauts, still a question as humanity considers human missions to Mars or returning to the",
"-32.496189646888524"
],
[
"speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other. Gene Kranz wrote, \"The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong.\" The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson.",
"-32.486587874474935"
],
[
"to ensure astronaut safety: \"The beauty of Flight Rules is that they create certainty when we have to make tough calls.... In real time, the temptation to take a chance is always higher. However, the flight rules were unequivocal: the Shuttle had to return to Earth.\"\nUpon landing, mission managers decided that Columbia did not need to be processed per a typical end of mission maintenance flow. Instead, they called for an unprecedented reflight of the same mission, once the normal processing could be completed (refill the propellant tanks and other consumables like oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and water, change out the",
"-32.4216869478696"
],
[
"the craft's service propulsion system (SPS); after considerable troubleshooting, the astronauts did a test burn of the system that also served as a midcourse correction. This occurred about 028:40:00 into the mission. Fearing that the light meant the SPS might unexpectedly fire, the astronauts avoided using the control bank with the faulty light, bringing it online only for major burns, and controlling it manually. After the mission returned, the malfunction proved to be caused by a tiny bit of wire trapped within the switch.\nAfter purging and renewing the LM's atmosphere to eliminate any contamination, the astronauts entered the LM about",
"-32.41077782353386"
],
[
"ISS. The subsequent two and a half-year suspension of the U.S. Space Shuttle program, followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, were major obstacles.\nThe Space Shuttle program resumed flight on 26 July 2005, with the STS-114 mission of Discovery. This mission to the ISS was intended both to test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster and deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the external tank, leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.\nBetween the Columbia disaster and",
"-32.33836645470001"
],
[
"back out of the partnership. A large part of this \"cover-up\" was the seeming impression that the American astronauts were not in fact \"partners\" aboard the station, but were instead \"guests\". NASA staff did not find out for several hours about the fire and collision and found themselves kept out of decision-making processes. NASA became more involved when Russian mission controllers intended to place blame for the accident entirely on Vasily Tsibliyev. It was only after the application of significant pressure from NASA that this stance was changed.\nAt various times during the program, NASA managers and personnel found themselves limited",
"-32.204609188038376"
],
[
" Jerry Bostick and other Flight Dynamics Officers (FIDOs) were anxious both to shorten the time, and to get Apollo 13 down in the Pacific Ocean, where the main recovery forces were located. There was a relatively quick option that would shave 36 hours off the return time, but it would involve jettisoning the SM, which would expose the CM's heat shield to space for the return journey, something it had not been designed to endure. The FIDOs also proposed other solutions. After a meeting involving a number of NASA officials and engineers, the senior individual present,",
"-32.16623393888585"
],
[
"landing, the astronauts decided to stay in the capsule, not wanting to open the hatch before the arrival of the recovery ship. The crew spent an uncomfortable half-hour in a spacecraft not designed to be a boat. Due to unexpected smoke from the thrusters, the astronauts decided to deviate from the post landing checklist and to keep their helmets on with the face plates closed for some time after splashdown. USS Intrepid recovered the craft and crew. The Gemini III mission was supported by the following United States Department of Defense resources: 10,185 personnel, 126 aircraft and 27 ships. Insignia",
"-32.12075677367102"
],
[
"on the morning of August 29 and began spilling out.\nThe NASA Johnson Space Center was closed to employees and visitors due to the flooding until September 5. Only the critical mission control staff remain and reside in the control rooms to monitor procedures of the International Space Station. Deep East Texas and Beaumont to Port Arthur area Anyone who chooses to not [evacuate] cannot expect to be rescued and should write their social security numbers in permanent marker on their arm so their bodies can be identified. The loss of life and property is certain. GET OUT OR DIE!\n— Jacques Blanchette, Tyler",
"-32.10201505233999"
],
[
"the crew's return to Earth, creating a one-star observation system that would allow astronauts to determine their location with accuracy. In a 2010 interview, Johnson recalled, \"Everybody was concerned about them getting there. We were concerned about them getting back.\" Later in her career, Johnson worked on the Space Shuttle program, the Earth Resources Satellite, and on plans for a mission to Mars. Personal life In 1939, Katherine (then Coleman) married James Francis Goble. They had three daughters: Constance, Joylette, and Katherine. In 1953, she and James moved their family to Newport News to pursue a new job opportunity. In",
"-31.969972308550496"
],
[
"EVA repairs of a spacecraft were made by Charles \"Pete\" Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and Paul J. Weitz on May 26, June 7, and June 19, 1973, on the Skylab 2 mission. They rescued the functionality of the launch-damaged Skylab space station by freeing a stuck solar panel, deploying a solar heating shield, and freeing a stuck circuit breaker relay. The Skylab 2 crew made three EVAs, and a total of ten EVAs were made by the three Skylab crews. They found that activities in weightlessness required about 2½ times longer than on Earth because many astronauts suffered spacesickness early in",
"-31.953990090061893"
],
[
"that particular mission. Once completed, the crew would then reenter the Orion, seal itself off from the ISS, and then undock from the station.\nOnce the Orion reached a safe distance from the ISS, the Command Module (after having jettisoned the disposable service module) would re-enter in the same manner as all NASA spacecraft prior to the Shuttle, using the ablative heat shield to both deflect heat from the spacecraft and to slow it down from a speed of 28,000 km/h (17,500 mph or Mach 23) to 480 km/h (300 mph or Mach 0.5). After reentry was completed, the forward assembly would be jettisoned, and",
"-31.95170114262146"
],
[
"a sticking solar array, enabling the retraction of another six sections of the P6 array. At the end of the EVA there were another 11 \"bays\", or 35% left to retract. Upon completion of the EVA, the astronauts returned to the ISS via the Quest airlock.\nAnother significant event during the EVA was the loss of 'Suni' Williams' digital camera. At the post-EVA press conference it was suggested that a tether got snagged and caused the camera release button to break off allowing the camera to fall out of its holder. Images were lost but it was determined there was no",
"-31.944764827843755"
],
[
"with astronaut corps After John Glenn's flight, Kraft had vowed that he would no longer allow his decisions as flight director to be overruled by anyone outside Mission Control. The mission rules, whose drafting had been overseen by Kraft, stated that \"the flight director may, after analysis of the flight, choose to take any necessary action required for the successful completion of the mission.\" For Kraft, the power that the flight director held over every aspect of the mission extended to his control over the actions of the astronauts. In his 1965 interview with Time, he stated:\n[T]he guy on the",
"-31.901632711174898"
],
[
"Avionics cables. The joint crew also completed more transfer, mostly transfer for return to Earth in the MPLM and Space Shuttle mid-deck. The ISS crew also replaced a bolt on the Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) so that the MPLM won't get stuck, and also to ensure correct capture of the HTV. 6 September (Flight Day 10 – Off duty) Flight day 10 saw the joint crews transfer samples from the space station to the shuttle freezer known as Glacier. The samples will be returned to Earth for examination by scientists who will develop ways to prevent bone and muscle loss",
"-31.880536109034438"
],
[
"the help of Lockheed, set up a backup fairing and demonstrated the problem to McDonnell personnel and to George Mueller, NASA's Office of Manned Space Flight administrator.\nThe crew then did some planned rendezvous practice that involved them moving away from the ATDA by firing their thrusters and then practicing approaching from below the target. They then got some much needed food and rest.\nDuring the flight, neither astronaut had much time to eat due to the busy schedule or to document their food consumption, it could not be determined how much of the difficulties Cernan experienced during the EVA were due",
"-31.87216600740794"
],
[
"lacked the capability to return the astronauts to Earth; this was the first time space travelers had flown in a vehicle that could not take them home. McDivitt and Schweickart entered the LM early, having obtained permission to do so without wearing their helmets and gloves, making it easier to set up the LM. When Scott in Gumdrop pushed the button to release the LM, it initially hung on the latches at the end of the docking probe, but he hit the button again and Spider was released. After spending about 45 minutes near Gumdrop, Spider went into a slightly",
"-31.78543299040757"
],
[
"with the piece of space debris.\nTransferring expedition crews\nBy 14 March, the expedition crews had completed the change over, but until the shuttle undocked, Shepherd officially remained commander of the station. The morning of the 14th the astronauts' wake-up call was the song \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\" by The Clash, at the request of Shepherd's wife. Shepherd, a former Navy SEAL, said during the change over ceremony: \"May the good will, spirit and sense of mission we had enjoyed on board endure. Sail her well.\" The commander of Discovery, Jim Wetherbee, said \"For Captain Shepherd and his crew,",
"-31.704593219794333"
],
[
"Space Agency's Mission Control announced that the ISS crew had loaded Progress M-04M with garbage and readied the spacecraft for undocking. The command for undocking was issued at 11:13 UTC, and three minutes later Progress M-04M separated from the Zvezda module. Cosmonauts Skvortsov and Kornienko monitored the undocking with photo and video cameras focusing on the Progress docking mechanism to confirm that there were no missing or damaged O-ring seals on the docking interface.\nThe spacecraft stayed in an autonomous flight for two months after undocking and take part in the Reflection geophysical experiment to study reflective characteristics of the freighter's",
"-31.683709880395327"
],
[
"Accordingly, the station's program was rescued. Additionally, he placed a materials exposure experiment on the exterior of the space station to be retrieved by a subsequent crew. The EVA lasted 1 hour and 28 minutes.\nIt was later revealed that a potentially dangerous incident occurred during the EVA. Once Grechko was back in the airlock, Romanenko asked to look outside, so Grechko moved aside and Romanenko pushed hard against the airlock. He did not have his safety tether attached and began to float away from the station and thrash about. Grechko grabbed his commander by his untethered safety line and pulled",
"-31.647931597864954"
],
[
"10, continuing transfer operations, and doing some troubleshooting on a communication system between the shuttle and station. The two crews took some time out to have a joint news conference with US and Canadian news agencies, and took the official combined crew portrait. When asked by reporters on the ground whether the crew agreed with NASA's decision to return without repairing the damage to Endeavour's underside, Commander Kelly replied, \"We agree absolutely 100 percent with the decision to not repair the damage.\"\nDuring the mission status briefing, Lead Flight Director Matt Abbott discussed the ongoing preparations and plans with regards to",
"-31.64624544722028"
],
[
"Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini's attitude control. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position.\nA few people in the Astronaut Office, including Walter Cunningham, felt that Armstrong and Scott \"had botched their first mission\". There was",
"-31.638023316394538"
],
[
"just one, the leaks posed a possible risk to other systems.\nNASA first considered bringing the crew home immediately. However, because the astronauts were safe on the station with ample supplies and because plans for a rescue flight existed, the mission continued while the Saturn IB rocket AS 208 with CSM 119 was assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building at Launch Complex 39 for possible use. It was at one point rolled out to LC-39B.\nNASA announced on August 4, 1973 that Skylab 3 and Skylab 4 backup crewmen Vance Brand and Don Lind would fly any rescue mission; they had immediately",
"-31.636943362886086"
],
[
"day of the EVA was also their last in space. On their 45th revolution of the Earth, the crewmen fired the retro-rockets that slowed them down so that they would reenter. This time the computer worked perfectly, meaning they landed only 700 meters from the planned landing site and were close enough to see the prime recovery ship, USS Wasp. The splashdown happened closer to the recovery ship than any other crewed spacecraft.\nPostflight medical examination found that Stafford had lost five pounds of weight and Cernan up to 13 pounds, 10.5 of them during the EVA. Stafford later stated that",
"-31.617881061858498"
],
[
"out NASA manager Linda Ham for exhibiting this attitude. In 2013, Hale recalled that Director of Mission Operations Jon C. Harpold shared with him before Columbia's destruction a mindset which Hale himself later agreed was widespread at the time, even among the astronauts themselves:\nYou know, there is nothing we can do about damage to the [thermal protection system]. If it has been damaged it's probably better not to know. I think the crew would rather not know. Don't you think it would be better for them to have a happy successful flight and die unexpectedly during entry than to stay",
"-31.543203358072788"
],
[
"(such as docking) which would be performed manually by shuttle pilots were all carried out automatically, and cosmonauts had their pay docked if they made any errors during their flights. Americans learned aboard Skylab and earlier space missions that this level of control was not productive and had since made mission plans more flexible. The Russians, however, would not budge, and many felt that significant work time was lost because of this.\nFollowing the two accidents in 1997, astronaut Jerry Linenger felt that the Russian authorities attempted a cover-up to downplay the significance of the incidents, fearing that the Americans would",
"-31.541048084851354"
],
[
"two astronauts still at the lander, who have meanwhile discovered that they are gradually losing air pressure and have realised that there must be an air leak somewhere. Sanchez urges them to join her, as there is enough oxygen and water in the valley for them to survive until the rescue ship arrives. Filming locations The scenes set on the surface of Mars were filmed on Lanzarote, and the interior scenes were filmed at Panavision Studios in Hollywood. To save costs, they used the Space Shuttle interior set previously used for Space Cowboys.",
"-31.512518032075604"
],
[
"for the astronauts during their return to Earth. Its descent stage engine was used to replace the crippled CSM Service Propulsion System engine, and its batteries supplied power for the trip home and recharged the Command Module's batteries critical for reentry. The astronauts splashed down safely on April 17, 1970. The LM's systems, designed to support two astronauts for 45 hours (including twice depressurization and repressurization causing loss of oxygen supply), actually stretched to support three astronauts for 90 hours (without depressurization and repressurization and loss of oxygen supply).\nHover times were maximized on the last four landing missions by using",
"-31.50693788321223"
],
[
"the crew members reported that their life in space was not as difficult as they expected prior to launch, despite a 20% increase in interpersonal problems during the second half of the missions. It was recommended that future crew members be allowed to control their individual schedules as much as possible. On-orbit and post-spaceflight psychiatric issues A number of psychiatric problems have been reported during on-orbit space missions. Most common are adjustment reactions to the novelty of being in space, with symptoms generally including transient anxiety or depression. Psychosomatic reactions also have occurred, where anxiety and other emotional states",
"-31.501277681571082"
],
[
"and made ready for deorbit burn to return to Earth. During descent, the spacecraft experienced a computer software problem combined with a sensor problem. This caused their landing to be delayed by a full day. The Descent Module, where they spent this 24-hour period, had no sanitary facilities. They would not have been able to redock with Mir because they had discarded the docking system along with the orbital module. Reentry occurred as normal on September 7. Following this incident, the Soviets decided that on future missions, they would retain the orbital module until after deorbit burn, as they had",
"-31.496629344997928"
],
[
"from the astronauts' blood and thus prevent decompression sickness. Members of both crews also conducted two in-flight interviews with media on the ground, including PBS NewsHour, National Public Radio, Associated Press, Reuters and Fox News. The crew also answered questions that were relayed up to them by Miles O'Brien for Google. 20 May (Flight Day 5 – EVA 1) The first spacewalk of the STS-134 mission was completed on flight day 5. Drew Feustel and Greg Chamitoff completed the installation of a new set of MISSE experiments, and also started installing a new wireless video system, but were stopped when",
"-31.493681756430306"
],
[
"that there was an emergency \"giving the astronauts a go/no go decision (to land or not to land)\". Jack Garman, a NASA computer engineer in mission control, recognized the meaning of the errors that were presented to the astronauts by the priority displays and shouted, \"Go, go!\" and they continued. Paul Curto, senior technologist who nominated Hamilton for a NASA Space Act Award, called Hamilton's work \"the foundation for ultra-reliable software design\".\nHamilton later wrote of the incident:\nThe computer (or rather the software in it) was smart enough to recognize that it was being asked to perform more tasks than it",
"-31.43807493440545"
],
[
"crew to alert them that the managers had decided to make a 24-hour delay to EVA-1, originally scheduled for Flight Day 4, and that Stanley Love would replace Hans Schlegel for EVA-1 on Monday. During the post-MMT briefing, Mission Management Chairman John Shannon explained there was a \"crew medical issue\", but it would not impact the mission objectives. For reasons of medical privacy, Shannon said NASA can not disclose which crewmember is affected, and no details would be given as to the nature of the issue, but Shannon said it was not something to be concerned about. Unconfirmed news reports",
"-31.43007313553244"
],
[
"as there was a lot of worry about the safety of the mission, as this was the first time humans would fly on an untested vehicle. These included worries about the SRB's and the Space Shuttles thermal protection system.\nAnother feature of the mission mentioned in Hail Columbia, is the escape system used by crew. As the Space Shuttle did not have a launch escape system, if anything were to go wrong on the pad, the crew would have to evacuate and use the slide wire, which was a zip line that took the crew from the Fixed Service Structure down",
"-31.35583563839009"
],
[
"of the crew were stowing items no longer needed during the flight. During the early part of the day Stephen Robinson and Terry Virts also stowed and deactivated the Space Shuttle robotic arm. The entire crew also took time out of their day to conduct an in-flight interview with CNN, CNN Español and Univision. 22 February (Flight Day 15: Landing) Space Shuttle Endeavour and her STS-130 crew awoke on flight day 15 to begin getting ready for landing. The landing preparations included closing the payload bay doors, activating the Auxiliary Power Units and getting into their launch and entry suits.",
"-31.303499812434893"
],
[
"Before return to Earth, the Commander Robert L. Gibson thought to himself \"We are going to die.\" due to the extensive damage to her wing. Due to the secretive nature of the Atlantis's payload, the crew was forced to use a more secure encrypted transmission, which had more than likely been received at a low quality. NASA engineers thought the damage was just light and shadows, and as a result the crew was infuriated. During reentry, Guy Garder the pilot for the mission, returned the Shuttle safely. Upon inspection the Shuttle's bottom right wing was seen to be severely damaged",
"-31.286666164407507"
],
[
"for the launch area threatens to cancel the mission. High winds cause a scrub of the launch in time to save all three Ironman astronauts. However, the eye of the storm passes over the Cape 90 minutes later during a subsequent launch window, permitting a launch with Dougherty aboard in time to reach the ship while at least some of the crew survives.\nInsufficient oxygen remains for all three astronauts to survive until Dougherty arrives. There is possibly enough for two. Pruett and his crew then debate what to do. Stone tries to reason that they can somehow survive by taking",
"-31.25461916839413"
],
[
"non-ISS mission) resulted in a two-and-a-half-year suspension of the US Space Shuttle program. Another one-year suspension following STS-114 (because of continued foam shedding on the external tank) led to some uncertainty about the future of the International Space Station. All crew exchanges between February 2003 and July 2006 were carried out using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft; a STS-114 visit in July 2005 was purely logistical. Starting with Expedition 7, caretaker crews of just two astronauts were launched, in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a space shuttle for over three",
"-31.23306913289707"
],
[
"transmitters for communications, to be turned on last, just before reentry, rather than first. The call was a calculated risk. Without the instrumentation system, the crew and controllers would not know for certain if the cold startup had been successful until the last possible moment before reentry. However without the change, the capsule would have exhausted its battery supply before splashdown. The procedure was a success, and the crew was recovered safely. Later career After the Apollo Lunar Surface program ended, Aaron remained at NASA in the Spacecraft Software DIvision rising through the ranks of technical assistant to the chief",
"-31.225444424315356"
],
[
"the orbiter's reentry and landing, it would likely have sent Columbia into the Pacific Ocean; NASA later developed the Remote Control Orbiter system to permit mission control to land a shuttle.\nNASA investigators determined that on-orbit repair by the shuttle astronauts was possible but overall considered \"high risk\", primarily due to the uncertain resiliency of the repair using available materials and the anticipated high risk of doing additional damage to the Orbiter. Columbia did not carry the Canadarm, or Remote Manipulator System, which would normally be used for camera inspection or transporting a spacewalking astronaut to the wing. Therefore, an unusual",
"-31.224024303257465"
],
[
"feared that it may have been damaged by the main engine, potentially leaving the crew stranded with five days of supplies while it would take ten days for the orbit to decay. One option to return the crew if the backup engine was inoperable would have been to use attitude control thrusters to slow the Soyuz below orbit velocity, but it was not known if there was enough propellant to do this, and the landing point would have been unpredictable even if it had worked. Another option was to move the station to the Soyuz. The station could have been",
"-31.213168735790532"
],
[
"shut down once a certain voltage threshold had been crossed, and with only two of three fuel cells working, that invoked another Flight Rule which required the mission be terminated early (loss of a second fuel cell would require severe and dangerous powerdowns, though the shuttle operates normally on two). Payload Specialist Dr. Linteris described the mission as \"an exercise in crisis management. The main buss alarm was going off continually.\"\nAstronaut Chris Hadfield served as CAPCOM for STS-83. He cited NASA's decision to terminate the mission as a positive example of applying the Flight Rules body of knowledge",
"-31.18097735340416"
],
[
"from the landing site.\nThe crew should have started their sleep period, but due to the delays now had to finish housekeeping chores. Mainly these centered around turning back on the SIM instruments which had been turned off during the rendezvous and docking and orientating the spacecraft for their proper use. Just before the sleep period, Deke Slayton, who was effectively the astronauts' boss, radioed the crew and told them to take a Seconal sedative. The crew decided against this.\nDoctors on the ground had become worried when they saw that Scott's and Irwin's EKG had developed a bigeminy rhythm. Caused by",
"-31.104346751817502"
],
[
"cancelled if the mission is not completed successfully.\nBelt returns home and has another flashback. As he lies in bed in agony, an astral presence leaves his body and flies out the window, heading into the sky. The astronauts then report hearing a thump outside the shuttle and begin to experience an oxygen leak. Belt fixes the situation, but orders the mission to proceed. The payload is successfully deployed, but a crew member reports seeing a ghostlike entity outside the ship. Meanwhile, the agents examine NASA records and find evidence that Belt played a role in other failed missions, including the",
"-31.079594585113227"
],
[
"\"considered this mission the most successful to date; everything had gone perfectly except for some overexpenditure of hydrogen peroxide fuel,\" However, then problems occurred and Kraft wrote in his 2001 memoir “He was completely ignoring our request to check his instruments... I swore an oath that Scott Carpenter would never again fly in space.\"\nUnnoticed by ground control or pilot, however, the overexpenditure of fuel was caused by an intermittently malfunctioning pitch horizon scanner (PHS) that later malfunctioned at reentry. Still, NASA later reported that Carpenter had:\nexercised his manual controls with ease in a number of [required] spacecraft maneuvers and had",
"-31.063515615300275"
],
[
"and themselves to Endeavour during the final EVA. They would have been standing by in case the RMS system should malfunction. The damaged orbiter would have been commanded by the ground to deorbit and go through landing procedures over the Pacific, with the impact area being north of Hawaii. On flight day five, Endeavour would have had a full heat shield inspection, and land on flight day eight.\nThis mission could have marked the end of the Space Shuttle program, as it is considered unlikely that the program would have been able to continue with just two remaining orbiters, Discovery and",
"-30.98083907441469"
],
[
"and themselves to Endeavour during the final EVA. They would have been standing by in case the RMS system should malfunction. The damaged orbiter would have been commanded by the ground to deorbit and go through landing procedures over the Pacific, with the impact area being north of Hawaii. On flight day five, Endeavour would have had a full heat shield inspection, and land on flight day eight.\nThis mission could have marked the end of the Space Shuttle program, as it is considered unlikely that the program would have been able to continue with just two remaining orbiters, Discovery and",
"-30.98083907441469"
],
[
"told them they were hired because the government forced NASA to, \"but we don't have a job for you, not any of you\". He offered to accept their resignations, and promised ground assignments if they did not quit, but warned them to not \"fool\" themselves that they would fly in space. Consequently, the men named themselves the \"XS-11\", or \"Excess Eleven\".\nAssignments for the group were further delayed by the requirement to complete a full year of Air Force Undergraduate Pilot Training to become qualified as jet pilots like the Group 4 scientists before them; however, unlike the previous scientist-astronaut group,",
"-30.973004007799318"
],
[
"canceled the mission in favour of flying a Shuttle mission to perform the repairs/upgrades. NASA cited excessive risks and new-found confidence in the Space Shuttle external tank as reasons for the cancellation.\nDextre was the subject of an April Fool's Day joke article on April 1, 2008 on NASA's APOD website.\nDextre was also featured in the new $5 Canadian Polymer bank note together with Canadarm2, which Commander Chris Hadfield helped reveal aboard the International Space Station.",
"-30.968401589547284"
],
[
"landing was canceled as a result of the oxygen tank explosion, his team played a key role in the safe return of the astronauts. Assistant Administrator for Legislative Affairs Gerry was responsible for coordinating and orchestrating all NASA liaison activities with Congress. He served as the principal advisor to the Administrator and other NASA officials on matters involving relations with the Congress as well as state and local governments. Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Flight (Operations) Gerry was responsible for early Space Transportation Systems (STS) operations planning, the development of user policies, and the establishment of pricing policies. These",
"-30.965648926212452"
],
[
"Expedition 24 Ammonia pump module On 31 July 2010, the Expedition 24 crew was awoken by an alarm on the station. The alarm was caused by a cooling pump that had failed and caused a Remote Power Controller to trip and cut power to some of the International Space Station (ISS). Astronauts Tracy Caldwell Dyson and Doug Wheelock performed some steps to assist ground controllers in re-powering some of the station components such as two main power buses and one Control Moment Gyroscope. After the steps had been completed Capcomm James Kelly told the crew they could go back",
"-30.95875220542075"
],
[
"causing the coolant in the system to fill her suit. She blindly makes her way back to the airlock; however, she and the crew realize that if she re-enters, Calvin will also be able to re-enter the ISS. Hence, she refuses to open the hatch and stops David from helping her do so; this keeps Calvin out of the station for the time being but also causes her to drown and die in her spacesuit.\nCalvin then attempts to re-enter the station through its maneuvering thrusters. The crew try to fire the thrusters to blast Calvin away from the spacecraft, but",
"-30.93267660809215"
],
[
"July 2005, NASA announced that STS-114 would be extended for one day, so that Discovery's crew could help the ISS crew maintain the station while the shuttle fleet was grounded. The extra day was also used to move more items from the shuttle to the ISS, as uncertainty mounted during the mission as to when a shuttle would next visit the station. The orbiter's arrival also gave the nearly 200-ton space station a free altitude boost of about 4,000 feet (1,220 m). The station loses about 100 feet (30 m) of altitude a day.\nThe shuttle hatch was closed the night",
"-30.931554651004262"
],
[
"module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. Cruise back to Earth and reentry The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would reenter Earth's atmosphere two-and-half days after TEI and splash down in the Pacific.\nOn Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth television broadcast. This time, they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they finished broadcasting, they found a small present from Slayton in the food locker:",
"-30.882939548369905"
],
[
"from our mistakes.\" Said Stefanyshyn-Piper of the incident, \"that definitely was not the high point of the EVA. It was very disheartening to watch it float away.\" Retirement from NASA In July 2009, Stefanyshyn-Piper retired from NASA's Astronaut Corps to return to her Navy duties.\nFellow astronaut Steven Lindsey, Chief of the Astronaut Office at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, stated on her retirement: \"Heide has been an outstanding astronaut, contributing significantly to the Space Shuttle and Space Station programs. In particular, her superb leadership as lead spacewalker during the STS-126 mission resulted in restoring full power generation capability",
"-30.860243852017447"
],
[
"safely power down the orbiter, the crew performed the traditional walk-around of the shuttle and met with employees from NASA. Speaking briefly to the press following the walk around, Altman joked, \"I didn't realize it was going to be so hard to get back to the Earth! We're all thrilled to have the mission complete.\"\nDuring the post-landing briefing, Associate Administrator for Space Sciences Ed Weiler declared the mission a total success, and after noting the rocky road that it took to get the mission completed, said he considered the mission to be Hubble's Great American Comeback story, chapter two.\nThis mission...was",
"-30.859591622443986"
],
[
"crews work days saw the two crews say goodbye in a farewell ceremony and close the hatches between the shuttle and ISS. Once the hatches were closed, the Pressurized Mating Adapter 2 was depressurized, in advance of undocking. The shuttle crew setup and checked out the rendezvous tools before going to bed. 8 September (Flight Day 12 – Undocking) On flight day 12, Space Shuttle Discovery successfully undocked from the International Space Station at 19:26 UTC. After undocking, the shuttle backed out and performed a fly around of the ISS. The Space Shuttle then performed two separation burns using its",
"-30.816844807734014"
],
[
"orbiter, and exit from it without help after a 16-day flight. Astronauts on 40 shuttle flights (STS-32 through STS-72) participated in 36 EDOMP investigations. The results of these investigations were used to make rules and recommendations for 16-day flights. Several types of exercise devices (i.e. a treadmill, a cycle ergometer, and a rower) were among the devices and procedures developed to prevent the de-conditioning of the body that occurs during space flight. The crew transport vehicles, in which astronauts are now transported after landing, were built to enhance medical capabilities at the landing site, as well as crew comfort and",
"-30.79402911895886"
],
[
"STS-134 Background The Space Shuttle had been scheduled to be retired from service after STS-133, but controversy over the cancellation of several International Space Station components, most notably the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, in order to meet deadlines for the retirement of the shuttle, caused the United States Government to consider ordering an additional mission. On 19 June 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed the NASA Authorization Act of 2008, giving NASA funding for one additional mission to \"deliver science experiments to the station\".\nThe same mandate was included in the U.S. Senate version of the NASA Authorization Act that",
"-30.756870959303342"
],
[
"the Russian segment while attempts were made to identify the fault. Meanwhile, the shuttle was cleared for reentry. 20 July (Flight Day 6, EVA 2) Astronauts Wolf and Marshburn began EVA 2 at 15:27 UTC out of the Quest airlock. The EVA was to transfer the spare components brought by the shuttle from the ICC-VLD to External Stowage Platform-3. The spares were handled by Wolf riding the station's robotic arm to the P3 truss stowage platform where he and Marshburn attached them for long term storage. The purpose of the spares was to provide redundancy to the station in the",
"-30.747066427284153"
],
[
"a critical objective of the servicing mission, as three had failed, one was offline due to electrical issues, and the other two had also been experiencing issues with performance. Ground controllers at Goddard Space Flight Center confirmed that all six gyroscopes and the new battery passed preliminary tests.\nThe problems with seating the second RSU set the spacewalkers back in the timeline by approximately two hours, but after Altman asked Massimino and Good how they felt, they replied they were doing well and felt fine to continue. Flight controllers on the ground evaluated the consumables for the two spacesuits, and decided",
"-30.69723159004934"
],
[
"the breaker was reset and pump reactivated. Joe Tanner and Heide Stefanyshyn-Piper began their spacewalk at 10:00 UTC after a 45-minute delay\nDuring the 6-hour and 42-minute spacewalk, the astronauts carried out numerous maintenance and repair tasks including removal of hardware used to secure the P3/P4 radiator during launch. Ground Flight Controllers subsequently unfurled the radiator, increasing the ability of the station to dissipate heat into space. Also, completed during this spacewalk was the retrieval of a materials exposure experiment from the outside of the ISS, maintenance on the P6 truss, installation of a wireless TV aerial and the replacement of",
"-30.688369710289408"
],
[
"controls an Orbital Construction Pod, a small ship with mechanical arms that an astronaut can use to move large equipment. Being careless here could have consequences as the pod or equipment may become damaged, and it may run out of fuel and become stranded until another pod can rescue it. Consequences were not limited to equipment damage: Stranded astronauts in pods could die when oxygen ran out. Other crew hazards included solar flares, which could kill astronauts on the station or shuttle if precautions (using an emergency module in station design) were not taken. Crew died in",
"-30.66544886410702"
],
[
"all the TCDT tasks, the crew returned to the Johnson Space Center on 15 October 2010.\nFlying aboard NASA T-38 training jets, the six astronauts returned to Kennedy Space Center on 28 October 2010 for final pre-launch preparations.\nOn 15 January 2011, Timothy Kopra, scheduled as the lead spacewalker for the mission at the time, was injured in a bicycle accident near his Houston-area home, reportedly breaking his hip. He was replaced by Stephen Bowen on 19 January 2011. The replacement did not affect the targeted launch date. This is to date the closest to a scheduled launch that a",
"-30.657231031917036"
],
[
"docked to the ISS on her final mission, STS-134. During this mission, the crew of Endeavour installed on the station's exterior the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and several spare parts to aid in station operations after the retirement of the Space Shuttle. STS-134 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station.\nEndeavour and her crew, consisting of Mark Kelly, Gregory Johnson, Michael Fincke, Roberto Vittori, Andrew Feustel, and Gregory Chamitoff, returned to Earth on 1 June 2011, at 6:34 UTC. STS-134 was the second-to-last mission of the Space Shuttle. Soyuz TMA-02M docking The remainder of the Expedition 28 crew",
"-30.608902101346757"
],
[
"tape to bypass a suspect valve in the Regenerative Carbon Dioxide Removal System that had threatened to cut short the mission.\nMission Management Team considered, but decided against, extending the mission one day because the science community indicated an extended flight was not necessary and weather conditions were expected to deteriorate after planned landing on Sunday, 3 May.\nSTS-90 Mission Specialist Kathryn Hire was Kennedy Space Center's first employee to be chosen as an astronaut candidate.\nSTS-90 was the first shuttle flight known to carry a bat on the solid booster. A bat suffered a similar fate during STS-119.",
"-30.59853349326295"
],
[
"the next mission to the ISS. Ross also freed another antenna on Zarya, similar to the one Newman freed on EVA-2. The spacewalkers also tested the redesigned SAFER jet packs, to be used in the event an astronaut became separated from the spacecraft during a spacewalk. After the EVA, Pilot Rick Sturckow depressurized the vestibule between Endeavour and PMA-2 to prepare for the undocking of the two spacecraft on Flight Day 11. 13 December (Flight Day 11, Undocking) On Flight Day 11, Space Shuttle Endeavour undocked from the International Space Station. At 3:25 pm EST, Pilot Rick Sturckow backed Endeavour 450",
"-30.59141428169096"
],
[
"that even NASA used them. The computer failure meant that the capsule would not be able to perform a closed-loop lifting reentry as planned.\nReentry came on the 62nd revolution. An open-loop rolling reentry (as used in Mercury) had to be used because of the computer failure. The astronauts began rolling the spacecraft at 65 nautical miles (120 km) altitude to increase its stability. They started slowing the roll rate at 89,000 feet (27 km) and stopped it by 39,000 feet (12 km). The drogue parachute deployed shortly after this, and the main deployed at 10,600 feet (3.2 km). A malfunctioning thruster caused the roll",
"-30.57295127538964"
],
[
"were to perform a spacewalk, the first of the Shuttle program, to test newly developed space suits. The space suits were developed as cheaper and less complicated alternatives to the Apollo versions. The test was delayed by one day due to Lenoir succumbing to motion sickness. Then an underperforming oxygen regulator in Lenoir's suit and a broken recirculation fan in Allen's caused them to cancel the extravehicular activity (EVA) entirely. It was the first time in the history of the space program that an EVA had been cancelled due to space suit issues.\nThe STS-5 crew successfully concluded the 5-day orbital",
"-30.562507232869393"
],
[
"conducted a fly-by of the ISS, so pictures could be taken. Saying goodbye to the ISS and its crew, commander Kelly said \"We wish them the best with their expedition and we hope we left them a better, more capable space station than when we arrived. Sayonara.\"\nAfterwards the crew of Discovery conducted the late inspection of the shuttle's Thermal Protection System that was unable to be performed as usual on Flight Day 2, due to the size of the Kibo Pressurized Module. 12 June (Flight day 13) Flight day 13 was a rare off-duty day. The only major projects were",
"-30.543784947542008"
],
[
"was given, meaning that the danger has passed and the crew can reboard the station. This kind of incident has happened several times, and the crew would perform a debris avoidance maneuver should the situation arise. 2011–2012 – Failure of Main Bus Switching Unit #1 and Replacement EVA The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. In late 2011 MBSU-1, while still routing power correctly, ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health, and was scheduled",
"-30.530397520400584"
],
[
"and retreat into their Soyuz spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. This partial station evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012 and 16 June 2015. End of mission According to the Outer Space Treaty, the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched. Natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean area were considered as",
"-30.47720105390181"
],
[
"arrived and the crew stored everything for reentry. The retro-rockets worked perfectly after 14 days in space. They landed within 6.4 nautical miles (11.9 km) of the targeted landing point.\nThe crewmen were somewhat weakened by their time in space, but both were in good health and were up and about after a good night's sleep on the recovery ship USS Wasp. They were also in good spirits: during recovery, they joked to Mission Control about getting married after having spent so long together in space.\nThe Gemini 7 and 6A missions were supported by the following U.S. Department of Defense resources: 10,125",
"-30.43064481613692"
],
[
"Astronaut Crew Quarters in that vehicle. The remaining six crew members briefly examined the orbiter, doing the traditional post-flight \"walkaround\", posed for photos, and then returned to the crew quarters in the Astrovan.\nDuring the post-landing briefing, NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin reported that the International Space Station was approximately 60% completed following STS-118. Griffin also stressed the importance of space exploration, and added that the damaged tile on the underside of the orbiter did very well during re-entry.\nAssociate Administrator for Spaceflight Operations William H. Gerstenmaier reported the damage was actually less than what the arc jet testing produced, a situation",
"-30.421875088883098"
],
[
"be declared, the orbiter powered down and teams would evacuate the area. A convoy of 25 specially designed vehicles and 150 trained engineers and technicians approached the orbiter. Purge and vent lines were attached to remove toxic gases from fuel lines and the cargo bay about 45–60 minutes after landing. A flight surgeon boarded the orbiter for initial medical checks of the crew before disembarking. Once the crew left the orbiter, responsibility for the vehicle was handed from the Johnson Space Center back to the Kennedy Space Center.\nIf the mission ended at Edwards Air Force Base in California, White Sands",
"-30.409184582313173"
],
[
"shuttle has already approached too close to the planet to escape, and she is forced to dock at an abandoned space station under heavy missile fire. The shuttle is sent on a suicide plunge into the atmosphere as a decoy, but this does not fool the Rangers, who dispatch several shuttles to destroy the station once and for all.\nThe expert system aboard decides to help Brun and Hazel. Brun has it send a message to the Fleet SAR that she is aboard the station and not dead, and squads of neuro-enhanced space marines arrive on the station just after the",
"-30.405753192404518"
],
[
"Shuttle Endeavour conducted a late inspection of the orbiter's Thermal Protection System. On most previous flights, this inspection was performed after the shuttle undocked from the ISS. However, in this case it was done early, because the Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS) was to be left on board the ISS after Endeavour's departure. The joint Expedition 28/STS-134 crew held a news conference with reporters on the ground at NASA centers around the country and ISS partner agencies. Commander Mark Kelly also spoke to reporters from four Tucson, Arizona television stations. Later in the crew day, the joint crew held an",
"-30.396886399248615"
],
[
"characterized the damage, and that we will have a very successful re-entry\". He stated that over 200 people were involved in the decision, representing over 30 organizations, including NASA Ames Research Center, NASA's Langley Research Center, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, KSC, JSC, and that all the groups combined came to the same decision.\nShannon reported that the glove issue encountered during EVA three had been discussed, and stated that analysis would be continued, in advance of EVA four on Saturday. The crew does have a spare set of gloves, if needed.\nShannon reported on a micro-meteoroid debris strike discovered on the commander's window",
"-30.37293906256673"
],
[
"and to prepare for an early departure from Aquarius. Fortunately, Lili degenerated to the point where it was no longer a threat, so the crew was able to remain the full five days.\nHill led the Columbia accident investigation team responsible for detecting and locating early debris during re-entry; obtaining and analyzing all data collected by government agency sensors during entry; and coordinating radar testing with the Air Force Research Laboratory. He also led the team that developed on-orbit inspection and repair techniques for the Space Shuttle and was the lead Flight Director for its return to flight on mission STS-114.",
"-30.36394632604788"
],
[
"A few minutes after liftoff, it exploded spectacularly, lighting up the night sky. The astronauts were stunned. Shepard turned to Glenn and said: \"Well, I'm glad they got that out of the way.\"\nGlenn remained an officer in the Marine Corps after his selection, and was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. The task force moved to Houston, Texas, in 1962, and became part of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center. A portion of the astronauts' training was in the classroom, where they learned space science. The group also received hands-on training, which included",
"-30.35902763507329"
],
[
"but deemed impractical due to \"limited utility, technical complexity and excessive cost in dollars, weight or schedule delays\".\nAfter the loss of Challenger, the question was re-opened, and NASA considered several different options, including ejector seats, tractor rockets, and emergency egress through the bottom of the orbiter. NASA once again concluded that all of the launch escape systems considered would be impractical due to the sweeping vehicle modifications that would have been necessary and the resultant limitations on crew size. A system was designed to give the crew the option to leave the shuttle during gliding flight, but this system would",
"-30.358421645388262"
],
[
"using Russian unmanned Progress ships, and crews were exchanged using Russian-manned Soyuz spacecraft, and forced to operate on a skeleton crew of two.\nLess than a year after the accident, President Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration, calling for the space shuttle fleet to complete the ISS, with retirement by 2010 following the completion of the ISS, to be replaced by a newly developed Crew Exploration Vehicle for travel to the Moon and Mars. NASA planned to return the space shuttle to service around September 2004; that date was pushed back to July 2005.\nOn July 26, 2005, at 10:39 EST,",
"-30.353323106799508"
],
[
"a huge honor to break a record like this, but it is an honor for me back to be representing all the folks at NASA'.\nOn May 12, 2017, Whitson performed her ninth career EVA with Jack Fischer. After a short delay due to leaking equipment, they replaced an avionics box on the starboard truss called an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier (ELC), a storage platform. The duration was 4 hours and 13 minutes, and it was the 200th EVA to be performed on the ISS.\nOn May 23, 2017, Whitson performed her tenth career EVA with Fischer. They replaced a backup multiplexer-demultiplexer (MDM)",
"-30.35169034721912"
],
[
"EVA procedure review for the fourth and final spacewalk of STS-134. Astronauts Mike Fincke and Greg Chamitoff spent the night in the Quest Airlock with the air pressure reduced to 10.2 Psi, so as to avoid decompression sickness during their spacewalk. The crew and flight controllers on the ground opted not to use the In-suit Light Exercise (ISLE) protocol that was tested during EVA 3 earlier in the mission, opting instead to go with the standard campout protocol, since it was discovered that ISLE used more carbon-dioxide scrubbing capability. They wanted to save this capability, since a CO₂ sensor in",
"-30.349261052219845"
]
] |
71ptiq | If there is water on Mars, why can’t one of the rovers be directed to the suspected source and simply confirm or deny speculations? | [
" > why can’t one of the rovers be directed to the suspected source and simply confirm or deny speculations? Rovers are extremely slow, you can't just drive them to wherever you want. [Opportunity travelled 45km in all its 12 years on Mars]( URL_0 ) We know (for a long time now) that there is indeed [water (ice) on Mars]( URL_1 ), no need to send a probe there just to confirm it.",
"It was a rover than let us know there's water on mars, and completely by accident! One rover, called Spirit, was sent to mars to look around, and one of it's back wheels broke. But that didn't stop the rover, it carried on driving, dragging a little trench in the dirt behind it. In that trench we noticed shiny white stuff, which could be snow. So the rover turned around to get a proper look at it, and Bingo it was snow! Spirit has a partner, called Opportunity, but it's aaaaaall the way on the other side of mars. Using both rovers to look around, we made sure we weren't seeing imaginary things. It seems that if you dig almost anywhere on mars for long enough, you'll find some snow and ice mixed into the dirt. And we thought mars was a dry ball of dust all these years. Turns out, it's a very soggy ball of dirt instead.",
"Because the water is not in a form of lake or a block of ice. It is more like permafrost. Wet martian soil that is permanently frozen deeper under the surface. It thaws a little during martian summer and wetness can be observed flowing down martian hills. Again not a river just water soaked into soil. Soil stays mostly put and the water flows down through the gaps between soil grains. Martian hills are hard to traverse for rovers and their equipment is designed to take relatively shallow surface samples. Also what needs to be addressed is public opinion on what qualifies as proof of liquid water on Mars. Scientists can show graphs, spectrometer findings and maps constructed by orbital probes and say that this is strong evidence but public will remain skeptical. What public wants is a picture of a lake but that is not what they will get."
] | [
[
"were reported on Mount Sharp near the Curiosity rover. Overview Research indicates that in the past there was liquid water flowing on the surface of Mars, creating large areas similar to Earth's oceans. However, the question remains as to where the water has gone.\nThe Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft launched in 2005 designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The spacecraft is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The HiRISE camera onboard the MRO is at the forefront of the ongoing RSL studies as it helps chart the features with images of closely",
"-30.515422075637616"
],
[
"mission team members announced on 2 March that data returned from the rover showed that these rocks were once \"drenched in water\", and on 23 March that it was concluded that they were laid down underwater in a salty sea. This represented the first strong direct evidence for liquid water on Mars at some time in the past.\nTowards the end of July 2005, it was reported by the Sunday Times that the rovers may have carried the bacteria Bacillus safensis to Mars. According to one NASA microbiologist, this bacteria could survive both the trip and conditions on Mars. A book",
"-30.41106155552552"
],
[
"below the shallow surface. The ground truth for its measurements came on July 31, 2008, when NASA announced that the Phoenix lander confirmed the presence of water on Mars, as predicted in 2002 based on data from the Odyssey orbiter. The science team is trying to determine whether the water ice ever thaws enough to be available for microscopic life, and if carbon-containing chemicals and other raw materials for life are present.\nThe orbiter also discovered vast deposits of bulk water ice near the surface of equatorial regions. Evidence for equatorial hydration is both morphological and compositional and is",
"-28.503952241153456"
],
[
"the surface of Mars. Both have met and exceeded all their science objectives. Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites. Martian dust devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers' solar panels, and thus increased their lifespan. Spirit rover (MER-A) was active until 2010, when it stopped sending data because it got stuck in a sand dune and was unable to reorient itself to recharge its batteries.\nOn 10 March 2006, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) probe arrived in orbit to conduct a",
"-28.097242322051898"
],
[
"NASA on June 10 2018 and its mission was declared complete on February 13 2019.\nThe Spirit rover landed in what was thought to be a huge lake bed. However, the lake bed had been covered over with lava flows, so evidence of past water was initially hard to detect. As the mission progressed and the Rover continued to move along the surface more and more clues to past water were found.\nOn March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed \"Humphrey\". Raymond Arvidson, the McDonnell University Professor and chair of",
"-28.03699558696826"
],
[
"of the planet once harbored water.\nThe Opportunity rover was directed to a site that had displayed large amounts of hematite from orbit. Hematite often forms from water. The rover indeed found layered rocks and marble- or blueberry-like hematite concretions. Elsewhere on its traverse, Opportunity investigated aeolian dune stratigraphy in Burns Cliff in Endurance Crater. Its operators concluded that the preservation and cementation of these outcrops had been controlled by flow of shallow groundwater. In its years of continuous operation, Opportunity sent back evidence that this area on Mars was soaked in liquid water in the past.\nThe MER rovers found evidence",
"-27.97918299259618"
],
[
"nature, and compositional and microscopic-imagery analysis showed this to be primarily with composition of Jarosite, a ferrous sulfate mineral that is characteristically an evaporite that is the residue from the evaporation of a salty pond or sea.\nThe mission has provided substantial evidence of past water activity on Mars. In addition to investigating the \"water hypothesis\", Opportunity has also obtained astronomical observations and atmospheric data.\nThe extended mission took the rover across the plains to a series of larger craters in the south, with the arrival at the edge of a 25-km diameter crater, Endeavour Crater, eight years after landing. The orbital",
"-27.93880034436006"
],
[
"Water is close to its boiling point even at the deepest points in the Hellas basin, and so cannot remain liquid for long on the surface of Mars in its present state, except after a sudden release of underground water.\nSo far, NASA has pursued a \"follow the water\" strategy on Mars and has not searched for biosignatures for life there directly since the Viking missions. The consensus by astrobiologists is that it may be necessary to access the Martian subsurface to find currently habitable environments. Cosmic radiation In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe discovered that Mars had no global magnetic",
"-27.76016480906401"
],
[
"been instrumental in answering key questions about water's abundance and distribution on Mars. The ESA's Mars Express orbiter has also provided essential data in this quest. The Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, MRO, and Mars Science Lander Curiosity rover are still sending back data from Mars, and discoveries continue to be made. Historical background The notion of water on Mars preceded the space age by hundreds of years. Early telescopic observers correctly assumed that the white polar caps and clouds were indications of water's presence. These observations, coupled with the fact that Mars has a 24-hour day, led astronomer William Herschel",
"-27.589805440802593"
],
[
"9 orbiter. Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars. Other features in Eridania quadrangle File:ESP 055104 1385pyramid.jpg|Layered feature in a crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program",
"-27.388097031856887"
],
[
"is hypothesized to be the result of a flow of ground water, either before the deposition of the eroded sediments or else in relatively recent geologic history.\nAccording to NASA, an estimated 20,000 to 40,000 heat-resistant bacterial spores were on Curiosity at launch, and as much as 1,000 times that number may not have been counted. Rover's role in the landing system Previous NASA Mars rovers became active only after the successful entry, descent and landing on the Martian surface. Curiosity, on the other hand, was active when it touched down on the surface of Mars, employing the rover suspension system",
"-27.36861899041105"
],
[
"to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. In 2002, it was announced that the probe's gamma-ray spectrometer and neutron spectrometer had detected large amounts of hydrogen, indicating that there are vast deposits of water ice in the upper three meters of Mars' soil within 60° latitude of the south pole.\nOn June 2, 2003, the European Space Agency's Mars Express set off from Baikonur Cosmodrome to Mars. The Mars Express craft consists of the Mars Express Orbiter and the stationary lander Beagle 2. The lander carried a digging device and the smallest mass spectrometer",
"-26.704478799627395"
],
[
" To bring the craft down safely, a 12-mile wide, smooth, flat circle was needed. Geologists hoped to examine places where water once ponded, and to examine its sediment layers. The site eventually settled on for the Mars Science Laboratory was Gale Crater in the Aeolis quadrangle, and a successful landing took place there in 2012. The rover is still operational as of early 2019. NASA scientists believe Gale Crater’s floor rocks are indeed sedimentary, formed in pooled water. Kasei Valles One of the most significant features of the Lunae Palus region, Kasei Valles, is one of",
"-26.620605552219786"
],
[
"Mars, when probes were first sent to Mars. The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Space craft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Some valles on Mars (Mangala Vallis, Athabasca Vallis, Granicus Vallis, and Tinjar Valles) clearly begin at graben. On the other hand, some of the large outflow channels begin in rubble-filled low areas called chaos or chaotic terrain. It has been suggested that massive",
"-26.447175287758"
],
[
"This represents a great deal of frozen water. It would be equal to 200 meters of water spread over the entire planet, if one assumes 20% pore space.\nThe Phoenix lander confirmed the existence of large amounts of water ice in the northern regions of Mars. This finding was predicted by theory and was measured from orbit by the Mars Odyssey instruments, so the idea that rampart crater size shows the depth to ice was confirmed by other space probes. The image below from the Phoenix lander shows ice that was exposed by the descent engines.\nThey are normally",
"-26.34527930830518"
],
[
"from Mars. Some of them contain evidence that they were exposed to water when on Mars. Some Martian meteorites called basaltic shergottites, appear (from the presence of hydrated carbonates and sulfates) to have been exposed to liquid water prior to ejection into space. It has been shown that another class of meteorites, the nakhlites, were suffused with liquid water around 620 million years ago and that they were ejected from Mars around 10.75 million years ago by an asteroid impact. They fell to Earth within the last 10,000 years. Martian meteorite NWA 7034 has one order of magnitude more water than most",
"-26.194130705902353"
],
[
"to Mars, but with the length of the journey, the crew decide that the only way to get home is to find water on Mars.\nThankfully, MR4 has landed within a hundred miles of the polar ice cap so the group set off, Brown too, believing there to be life on Mars. Encountering Lichens, crevasses and other perils, Brown is devastated when he discovers no intelligent life and feels cheated by the others. In doing so, he intends to leave the others behind on the planet. However, lichens manage to infiltrate MR4, stopping Brown and giving the Rocket crew a chance",
"-26.076035804115236"
],
[
"locations could occur kilometers below the surface in a hypothetical hydrosphere, or it could occur near the sub-surface in contact with permafrost.\nThe Curiosity rover is assessing Mars' past and present habitability potential. The European-Russian ExoMars programme is an astrobiology project dedicated to the search for and identification of biosignatures on Mars. It includes the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter that started mapping the atmospheric methane in April 2018, and the 2020 ExoMars rover that will drill and analyze subsurface samples 2 meters deep. NASA's Mars 2020 rover will cache dozens of drilled core samples for their potential transport to Earth laboratories",
"-25.970414801995503"
],
[
"its website. (On Monday [September 28, 2015], scientists announced that signs of liquid water could be seen in photographs taken on Mars by a camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, timing that suggests NASA certainly has the whole cross-promotion thing down.)\" Jim Erickson, NASA project manager, said the film would show moviegoers \"the risks and rewards\" of humans traveling to Mars.\nIn October 2015, NASA presented a new web tool to follow Watney's trek across Mars and details of NASA's next steps, as well as a health hazards report for a real-world human journey to Mars. Marketing 20th Century Fox launched",
"-25.941035564879712"
],
[
"and sampling rocks around it. Newspapers around the world carried images of the lander dispatching the rover to explore the surface of Mars in a way never achieved before.\nUntil the final data transmission on 27 September 1997, Mars Pathfinder returned 16,500 images from the lander and 550 images from the rover, as well as more than 15 chemical analyses of rocks and soil and extensive data on winds and other weather factors. Findings from the investigations carried out by scientific instruments on both the lander and the rover suggest that Mars was at one time in its past warm and",
"-25.904858383117244"
],
[
"that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. River valleys observed by Viking orbiters The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars. Huge river valleys were found in many areas. They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Mars Science Laboratory Hypanis Vallis, in the Lunae Palus quadrangle, was one of the sites proposed as a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory, popularly known as the Mars Curiosity",
"-25.84960554225836"
],
[
"in the locations they studied all had water activity, aw ≤ 0.78 to 0.86—a level fatal to most Terrestrial life. Haloarchaea, however, are able to live in hypersaline solutions, up to the saturation point.\nIn June 2000, possible evidence for current liquid water flowing at the surface of Mars was discovered in the form of flood-like gullies. Additional similar images were published in 2006, taken by the Mars Global Surveyor, that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars. The images showed changes in steep crater walls and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water coursed",
"-25.664471334050177"
],
[
"protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic rays. The probe was able to calculate the atmospheric pressure on the planet to be about 0.6 kPa (compared to Earth's 101.3 kPa), meaning that liquid water could not exist on the planet's surface. After Mariner 4, the search for life on Mars changed to a search for bacteria-like living organisms rather than for multicellular organisms, as the environment was clearly too harsh for these.]]. Viking orbiters Liquid water is necessary for known life and metabolism, so if water was present on Mars, the chances of it having supported life may have been",
"-25.622810366170597"
],
[
"all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.",
"-25.60288612858858"
],
[
"screen of TEGA. On June 17, it was announced that no water was found in this sample; however, since it had been exposed to the atmosphere for several days prior to entering the oven, any initial water ice it might have contained could have been lost via sublimation. Mars Descent Imager The Mars Descent Imager (MARDI) was intended to take pictures of the landing site during the last three minutes of descent. As originally planned, it would have begun taking pictures after the aeroshell departed, about 8 km above the Martian soil. Before launch, testing of the assembled spacecraft uncovered a",
"-25.481256361177657"
],
[
"of a sample, the mass spectrometer detected water vapor when the sample temperature reached 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K). Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure and temperature, except at the lowest elevations for short periods.\nPerchlorate (ClO₄), a strong oxidizer, was confirmed to be in the soil. The chemical, when mixed with water, can lower the water freezing point in a manner similar to how salt is applied to roads to melt ice.\nWhen Phoenix landed, the retrorockets splashed soil and melted ice onto the vehicle. Photographs showed the landing had left blobs of material",
"-25.418217888800427"
],
[
"goal was accomplished, and by 2016 it was decided to not only enter Endevaour crater but also explore, for the first time in history what is thought to be a water carved gully on Mars (update:2016).\nUpon arriving at Endeavour, Opportunity almost immediately began discovering Martian phenomena not previously observed. On sol 2692 (August 22, 2011) the rover began examining Tisdale 2, a large ejecta block. \"This is different from any rock ever seen on Mars,\" said Steve Squyres, principal investigator for Opportunity at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. \"It has a composition similar to some volcanic rocks, but there's",
"-25.384429830804947"
],
[
"of the locations are in the Cebrenia quadrangle. These locations are 55.57° N, 150.62° E; 43.28° N, 176.9° E; and 45° N, 164.5° E. Two others are in the Diacria quadrangle: 46.7° N, 176.8° E and 46.33° N, 176.9° E.\nThis discovery proves that future colonists on Mars will be able to obtain water from a wide variety of locations. The ice can be dug up, melted, then taken apart to provide fresh oxygen and hydrogen for rocket fuel. Hydrogen is the powerful fuel used by the space shuttle main engines. Curiosity In 2012, the NASA's rover Curiosity discovered solid evidence",
"-25.337120247946586"
],
[
"Aureum Chaos. Clay minerals need water to form, so the area may once have contained large amounts of water. Scientists are interested in determining what parts of Mars contained water because evidence of past or present life may be found there.\nOn April 1, 2010, NASA released the first images under the HiWish program, with the public suggesting places for HiRISE to photograph. One of the eight locations was Aureum Chaos. The first image below gives a wide view of the area. The next two images are from the HiRISE image. Layers Many places on Mars show",
"-25.306040140010737"
],
[
"as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\nThis international team used ESO’s Very Large Telescope, along with instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different forms of water in Mars’s atmosphere over a",
"-25.294223768636584"
],
[
"flow\" of water on Mars. In particular, analysis of the now dry streambed indicated that the water ran at 3.3 km/h (0.92 m/s), possibly at hip-depth. Proof of running water came in the form of rounded pebbles and gravel fragments that could have only been weathered by strong liquid currents. Their shape and orientation suggests long-distance transport from above the rim of the crater, where a channel named Peace Vallis feeds into the alluvial fan.\nEridania Lake is a theorized ancient lake with a surface area of roughly 1.1 million square kilometers. Its maximum depth is 2,400 meters and its volume is 562,000 km³. It",
"-25.277043281275837"
],
[
"which Mars Orbiter Camera images show contain gullies: Dao Vallis and Reull Vallis. These gullies are also low enough for liquid water to be transient around Martian noon, if the temperature were to rise above 0 Celsius.\nHellas Planitia is antipodal to Alba Patera. It and the somewhat smaller Isidis Planitia together are roughly antipodal to the Tharsis Bulge, with its enormous shield volcanoes, while Argyre Planitia is roughly antipodal to Elysium, the other major uplifted region of shield volcanoes on Mars. Whether the shield volcanoes were caused by antipodal impacts like that which produced Hellas, or if it is mere",
"-25.265605645399773"
],
[
"Exploration of Mars Current status On June 10, 2018, Opportunity rover fell silent, leaving Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory mission with six orbiters surveying the planet: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, MAVEN, and the Trace Gas Orbiter, which have contributed massive amounts of information about Mars. The stationary lander InSight is investigating the deep interior of Mars. No sample return missions have been attempted for Mars and an attempted return mission for Mars' moon Phobos (Fobos-Grunt) failed in 2011.\nFive more missions are in the late stages of development and fabrication, and will be launched",
"-25.2350283291089"
],
[
"Mars in the Ares 4 MAV. While working on the rover, Watney accidentally shorts out the electronics of Pathfinder, losing the ability to communicate with Earth (except for spelling out Morse code with rocks).\nAfter Watney leaves for Schiaparelli, NASA discovers that a dust storm is approaching his path, but has no way to warn him. The rover's solar cells will be less and less able to recharge, endangering both the rendezvous and his immediate survival (if there is not enough power to run his life-support equipment). While crossing Arabia Terra, Watney becomes aware of the darkening sky and improvises a",
"-25.19218559685396"
],
[
"just reduced shipments of water to Mars, putting the Scavengers out of work. When Hamish Sankov, the head of the Martian colony, learns of Hilder's plan to desist all water shipments to Mars, he authorizes Long's plan to travel to Saturn and tow a fragment of ice from the rings to Mars.\nA fleet of 25 Scavenger ships makes the trip. Reaching the rings, the Scavengers choose a fragment approximately one cubic mile in volume, carve it into a rough cylinder, embed their spaceships in it, and fly it back to Mars, using the fragment's ice as reaction mass, in five",
"-25.163959997182246"
],
[
"the possibility of flowing water during the warmest months on Mars.\nOn September 24, 2014, Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation, reached Mars orbit. ISRO launched MOM on November 5, 2013, with the aim of analyzing the Martian atmosphere and topography. The Mars Orbiter Mission used a Hohmann transfer orbit to escape Earth's gravitational influence and catapult into a nine-month-long voyage to Mars. The mission is the first successful Asian interplanetary mission.\nThe European Space Agency, in collaboration with Roscosmos, launched the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter and Schiaparelli lander on March 14, 2016. While the Trace Gas",
"-25.12305942212697"
],
[
"Phoenix (spacecraft) History While the proposal for Phoenix was being written, the Mars Odyssey Orbiter used its gamma-ray spectrometer and found the distinctive signature of hydrogen on some areas of the Martian surface, and the only plausible source of hydrogen on Mars would be water in the form of ice, frozen below the surface. The mission was therefore funded on the expectation that Phoenix would find water ice on the arctic plains of Mars. In August 2003 NASA selected the University of Arizona \"Phoenix\" mission for launch in 2007. It was hoped this would be the first in a new",
"-25.09565232641762"
],
[
"probability but cannot yet be ruled out.\nThere are no immediate plans for a Mars sample-return, but it remains a high priority for NASA and the ESA because of its great potential biological and geological interest. The European Space Foundation report cites many advantages of a Mars sample-return. In particular, it would permit extensive analyses on Earth, without the size and weight constraints for instruments sent to Mars on rovers. These analyses could also be carried out without the communication delays for experiments carried out by Martian rovers. It would also make it possible to repeat experiments in multiple laboratories with",
"-25.07774859596975"
],
[
"from large amounts of water, the two Viking orbiters and the two landers caused a revolution in our knowledge about water on Mars. Huge outflow channels were found in many areas. They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Large areas in the southern hemisphere contained branched valley networks, suggesting that rain once fell. Many craters look as if the impactor fell into mud. When they were formed, ice in the soil may have melted, turned the ground into mud, then the mud flowed across the surface.",
"-25.00848959220457"
],
[
" Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars. Pedestal craters A pedestal crater is a crater with its ejecta sitting above the surrounding terrain and thereby forming a raised platform (like a pedestal). They form when an impact crater ejects material which forms an erosion-resistant layer, thus causing the immediate area to erode more slowly than the rest of",
"-24.99717046227306"
],
[
"southwest.\nA primary aim of the Mars 2020 mission is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12-mile (20 km) wide, smooth, flat circular area is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded. They would like to examine sediment layers.\nIn November 2018, Jezero crater was selected as the planned landing site for the Mars 2020 rover mission.",
"-24.96415685606189"
],
[
"search for a \"habitable zone\" in the Martian regolith where microbial life could exist, the other main goal being to study the geological history of water on Mars. The lander has a 2.5 meter robotic arm that was capable of digging shallow trenches in the regolith. There was an electrochemistry experiment which analysed the ions in the regolith and the amount and type of antioxidants on Mars. The Viking program data indicate that oxidants on Mars may vary with latitude, noting that Viking 2 saw fewer oxidants than Viking 1 in its more northerly position. Phoenix landed further north still.\nPhoenix's",
"-24.936927577480674"
],
[
"landed on Mars to explore the Martian surface and geology, and searched for clues to past water activity on Mars. They were each launched in 2003 and landed in 2004. Communication with Spirit stopped on sol 2210 (March 22, 2010). JPL continued to attempt to regain contact until May 24, 2011, when NASA announced that efforts to communicate with the unresponsive rover had ended. Opportunity arrived at Endeavour crater on 9 August 2011, at a landmark called Spirit Point named after its rover twin, after traversing 13 miles (21 km) from Victoria crater, over a three-year period. After a planet",
"-24.878222655032005"
],
[
"\"water flowed through underground fractures in the rock.\"\nOpportunity had driven more than 34 km (21 mi) by November 22, 2011 (sol 2783), as preparations were made for the coming Martian winter. It moved to terrain that positioned it about 15 degrees to the north, an angle more favorable for solar energy production during the Martian winter. Greeley Haven In January 2012 the rover returned data from Greeley Haven, named after the geologist Ronald Greeley, while enduring its fifth Martian winter. It studied the Martian wind, which has been described as \"the most active process on Mars today\", and conducted a radio science",
"-24.816939612239366"
],
[
"some morphological features of the surface, such as the so-called Recurrent Slope Lineae (RSLs). In addition, the discovery has posed the necessity for taking special precautions to avoid biological contamination of the planet with terrestrial organisms carried on board the spacecrafts to be sent in the next missions, since the availability of liquid water multiply the possibilities for them to survive and thrive in certain places. Finally, water can be a valuable in-situ resource at the disposal of a crew which is eventually sent to Mars someday.\nHowever, the brines themselves have not been monitored yet, and a quantification of the",
"-24.685435506515205"
],
[
"able to collect samples down to a depth of 2 metres (6.6 ft), away from the destructive radiation that bathes the surface. Mars 2020 Rover The Mars 2020 rover, planned to launch in 2020, is intended to investigate an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars, investigate its surface geological processes and history, including the assessment of its past habitability, the possibility of past life on Mars, and potential for preservation of biosignatures within accessible geological materials. In addition, it will cache the most interesting samples for possible future transport to Earth. Titan Dragonfly NASA's Dragonfly lander/aircraft concept is proposed to launch",
"-24.670611054927576"
],
[
"panoramas of the surrounding region. Research on data from Mars orbiters identified interesting minerals on the outcrop. Some communication and difficulties the previous month delayed investigating these rocks, but on the positive side, the wait, along with a cleaning event over January 1, allowed for more electrical power to be available. The rover is tilted towards the Sun to help it get more power, and it is expected that it can remain active during the Martian winter. Pinnacle Island On January 17, NASA reported that a rock, named \"Pinnacle Island\", that was not in a rover image taken on Sol",
"-24.65921690851792"
],
[
"This rock outcrop, along with several others further eastward, including \"Link\" and \"Hottah\", suggest the \"vigorous\" flow of water in an ancient streambed.\nAn area of top scientific interest for Curiosity lies at the edge of the landing ellipse and beyond a dark dune field. Here, orbiting instruments have detected signatures of both clay minerals and sulfate salts. Scientists studying Mars have several hypotheses about how these minerals reflect changes in the Martian environment, particularly changes in the amount of water on the surface of Mars. The rover will use its full instrument suite to study these minerals and how they",
"-24.6555934427779"
],
[
"Scalloped topography Detection of underground ice On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.\nThe calculations for the volume of water ice in the region were based on measurements from the ground-penetrating radar instrument on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, called SHARAD.\nFrom the data obtained from SHARAD, dielectric permittivity, or the dielectric constant was determined. That was found from the amount of penetration of the radar to a reflector at the bottom",
"-24.622332589002326"
],
[
"is for Opportunity to reach Solander Point before winter reaches the Martian southern hemisphere as the area has ground tilted to the north allowing the rover to stay active during the winter months. In addition Solander Point has a large geological stack for Opportunity to explore.\nIn April 2013, the rover passed through a three-week-long solar conjunction, when communication with Earth was blocked because of the Sun. The rover arm was positioned on a rock during that time so the APXS could collect data.\nOn May 16, 2013, NASA announced that Opportunity had driven further than any other NASA vehicle on a",
"-24.615450821467675"
],
[
"hundred meters from the rover, and is the location of the suspected fluid-carved, possibly water, gullies that have never been investigated from the surface before. One of the MER-B goals is to drive down to this gully and examine it. Imaging Schiaparelli's descent In October 2016 the ESA Schiaparelli lander attempted to land near Endeavour crater, and the two teams worked together for Opportunity to possibly image the lander during its descent. Opportunity did take pictures of the area of the sky the lander was coming down in although the lander was not identified at that time; the nature of",
"-24.608207671059063"
],
[
"neared the surface, huge amounts would break out of the ground and carve the valleys we see today. There is much evidence for an ocean on Mars. Places have been photographed that could be where the ground collapsed when water left an subterranean rivers to flow out of chaotic regions. One of the first theories for the source of the water was based on old Viking Orbiter pictures. It was thought that these outflows came from a global cryosphere-confined aquifer that collected water from south polar meltwater. The cryosphere would have formed during the Hesperian",
"-24.560813009971753"
],
[
"soil beneath the dusty surface.\nThe orbiter entered Mars orbit on 25 December 2003, and Beagle 2 should have entered Mars' atmosphere the same day. However, attempts to contact the lander failed. Communications attempts continued throughout January, but Beagle 2 was declared lost in mid-February, and a joint inquiry was launched by the UK and ESA that blamed principal investigator Colin Pillinger's poor project management. Nevertheless, Mars Express Orbiter confirmed the presence of water ice and carbon dioxide ice at the planet's south pole. NASA had previously confirmed their presence at the north pole of Mars.\nSigns of the Beagle 2 lander",
"-24.527286483484204"
],
[
"effort would require three additional vehicles: an orbiter, a fetch rover, and a Mars ascent vehicle (MAV). NASA proposals In September 2012, NASA announced its intention to further study several strategies of bringing a sample of Mars to Earth – including a multiple launch scenario, a single-launch scenario and a multiple-rover scenario – for a mission beginning as early as 2018.\nDozens of samples would be collected and cached by the Mars 2020 rover, and would be left on the surface of Mars for possible later retrieval. A \"fetch rover\" would retrieve the sample caches and deliver them to a Mars",
"-24.284169265360106"
],
[
"It is also one of several proposed landing sites for the Mars 2020 Rover.\nHolden and Eberswalde, craters in Margaritifer Terra, are thought to have formerly held lakes because they contain deltas and iron/magnesium smectite minerals which need water to form. The Uzboi-Landon-Morava (ULM) system of paths for water flow is found in Margaritifer Terra.\nMargaritifer Terra was named in 1979, after the Pearl Coast, south India. Part of it is found in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle and part in the Oxia Palus quadrangle. Layers Some of the images from this region display layers. Many places on Mars show",
"-24.282131499843672"
],
[
"January 2004. It examined rock and soil for evidence of the area's history of water. On 7 July 2003, a second rover, MER-B (Opportunity) was launched. It landed on 24 January 2004 in Meridiani Planum (where there are large deposits of hematite, indicating the presence of past water) to carry out similar geological work.\nDespite a temporary loss of communication with the Spirit Rover (caused by a file system anomaly ) delaying exploration for several days, both rovers eventually began exploring their landing sites. The rover Opportunity landed in a particularly interesting spot, a crater with bedrock outcroppings. In fast succession,",
"-24.269511322770995"
],
[
"(CRISM) on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). The ice was found in a total of 5 locations. One of the locations (Site 5) is in the Diacria quadrangle at about 46° N, 182° E (Arcadia Planitia).\nThis discovery is significant because it shows the presence of subsurface ice at latitudes further south than expected and proves that future colonists on Mars will be able to obtain water from a wide variety of locations. The ice can be dug up, melted, and then taken apart to provide fresh oxygen and hydrogen for rocket fuel. Hydrogen is the",
"-24.266869774408406"
],
[
"NASA announced that the LCROSS mission had discovered large quantities of water ice on the Moon around the LCROSS impact site at Cabeus. Robert Zubrin, president of the Mars Society, relativized the term 'large': \"The 30 m crater ejected by the probe contained 10 million kilograms of regolith. Within this ejecta, an estimated 100 kg of water was detected. That represents a proportion of ten parts per million, which is a lower water concentration than that found in the soil of the driest deserts of the Earth. In contrast, we have found continent sized regions on Mars, which are 600,000 parts per million,",
"-24.258128467481583"
],
[
"the entire mission. The Rover was similar in size to the two NASA rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) that successfully landed on Mars in January 2004, and had similar mobility functionality.\nThe Scouts were to act as remote extensions of the main Rover craft, and contained power systems, video cameras and limited local communication systems that could only communicate directly with the Rover. The Scouts were about six by twelve inches and were deployed from the Rover after the Rover performed a soft landing on the surface of the Moon. The Scouts could be used in a reconnaissance function",
"-24.184774024703074"
],
[
"identified 55 important future science investigations related to the exploration of Mars. In 2008, they concluded that about half\nof the investigations \"could be addressed to one degree or another by MSR\", making MSR \"the single mission that would make the most progress towards the entire list\" of investigations. Moreover, it was found that a significant fraction of the investigations cannot be meaningfully advanced without returned samples.\nOne source of Mars samples is what are thought to be Martian meteorites, which are rocks ejected from Mars that made their way to Earth. Of over 61,000 meteorites that have been found on Earth,",
"-24.16809953984921"
],
[
"Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) is a visible-infrared spectrometer aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter searching for mineralogic indications of past and present water on Mars. The CRISM instrument team comprises scientists from over ten universities and led by principal investigator Scott Murchie. CRISM was designed, built, and tested by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. Objectives CRISM is being used to identify locations on Mars that may have hosted water, a solvent considered important in the search for past or present life on Mars. In order to",
"-24.05945950144087"
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[
"at the surface of Mars. In May 2009, the Spirit rover became stuck when it drove over a patch of soft ferric sulfate that had been hidden under a veneer of normal-looking soil.\nBecause iron sulfate has very little cohesion, the rover's wheels could not gain sufficient traction to pull the body of the rover out of the iron sulfate patch. Multiple techniques were attempted to extricate the rover, but the wheels eventually sank so deeply into the iron sulfate that the body of the rover came to rest on the martian surface, preventing the wheels from exerting any force on",
"-24.03484878386371"
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[
"liquid water on the Martian surface. A delegation of scientists showed pictures and data revealing a stratified pattern and cross bedding in the rocks of the outcrop inside a crater in Meridiani Planum, landing site of MER-B, Opportunity. This suggested that water once flowed in the region. The irregular distribution of chlorine and bromine also suggests that the place was once the shoreline of a salty sea, now evaporated.\nOn April 8, 2004, NASA announced that it was extending the mission life of the rovers from three to eight months. It immediately provided additional funding of US$15 million through September, and $2.8 million",
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],
[
"Martian surface geology. The mission's scientific objective was to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission was part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program, which includes three previous successful landers: the two Viking program landers in 1976; and Mars Pathfinder probe in 1997. Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The US$720 million spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, launched August 12, 2005,",
"-23.98020985831681"
],
[
"the mystery of Mars' missing water. All of the instruments take measurements of the surface, atmosphere and interplanetary media, from the main spacecraft in polar orbit, which will allow it to gradually cover the whole planet.\nThe total initial Mars Express budget excluding the lander was €150 million. The prime contractor for the construction of Mars Express orbiter was EADS Astrium Satellites. Launch The spacecraft was launched on June 2, 2003 at 23:45 local time (17:45 UT, 1:45 p.m. EDT) from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, using a Soyuz-FG/Fregat rocket. The Mars Express and Fregat booster were initially put into a 200 km Earth",
"-23.974154701725638"
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[
"the nightside ionosphere on Mars. Mars 7 probe separated prematurely from the carrying vehicle due to a problem in the operation of one of the onboard systems (attitude control or retro-rockets) and missed the planet by 1,300 kilometres (8.7×10⁻⁶ au). Mariner program In 1964, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory made two attempts at reaching Mars. Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were identical spacecraft designed to carry out the first flybys of Mars. Mariner 3 was launched on November 5, 1964, but the shroud encasing the spacecraft atop its rocket failed to open properly, dooming the mission. Three weeks later, on November 28,",
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[
"were found in 2013 by the HiRISE camera on NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the Beagle 2's presence confirmed in January 2015, several months after Pillinger's death. The lander appears to have successfully landed but not deployed all of its power and communications panels. Mars Exploration Rovers Shortly after the launch of Mars Express, NASA sent a pair of twin rovers toward the planet as part of the Mars Exploration Rover mission. On 10 June 2003, NASA's MER-A (Spirit) Mars Exploration Rover was launched. It successfully landed in Gusev Crater (believed once to have been a crater lake) on 3",
"-23.918939180090092"
],
[
"its drawbacks. Human Exploration of Mars Argox, or half-Argox/half-Nitrox is a possible Oxygen mixture for Human exploration of Mars due to the relative abundance of Argon in the Martian atmosphere. The Martian atmosphere is composed of approximately: 95% CO2, 1.9% Argon, 1.9% Nitrogen. While it is possible for humans to breathe pure oxygen, a pure oxygen atmosphere was implicated in the Apollo 1 fire. As such, Mars habitats may have a need for additional gases. One possibility is to take nitrogen and argon from the atmosphere of Mars; however, they are hard to separate from each other. As a",
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[
"power levels suitable for driving. That September, Opportunity reached the rim of Victoria crater, and Spaceflight Now reported that NASA had extended mission for the two rovers through September 2007. On February 6, 2007, Opportunity became the first spacecraft to traverse ten kilometers (6.2 miles) on the surface of Mars.\nOpportunity was poised to enter Victoria Crater from its perch on the rim of Duck Bay on June 28, 2007, but due to extensive dust storms, it was delayed until the dust had cleared and power returned to safe levels. Two months later, Spirit and Opportunity resumed driving after hunkering down",
"-23.844989983015694"
],
[
"Mars 3 were physically tethered probes; Sojourner was dependent on the Mars Pathfinder base station for communication with Earth; MER-A & B and Curiosity were on their own. As of August 2019, Curiosity is still active, while Spirit, Opportunity, and Sojourner completed their missions before losing contact.",
"-23.832807274528022"
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[
"on Mars, but given the recent Curiosity rover findings, past Martian life seems possible. Objectives The Mars 2020 rover will explore a site likely to have been habitable. It will seek signs of past life, set aside a returnable cache with the most compelling rock core and soil samples, and demonstrate technology needed for the future human and robotic exploration of Mars.\nA key mission requirement is that it must help prepare NASA for its long-term Mars sample-return mission and crewed mission efforts. The rover will make measurements and technology demonstrations to help designers of a future human expedition understand any",
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[
"telescopes. Even world class telescopes such as the Hale telescope, equipped with adaptive optics, did not detect the plume. The plume may have still occurred but at a small scale not detectable from Earth.\nBoth impacts were also monitored by Earth-based observatories and by orbital assets, such as the Hubble Space Telescope.\nWhether or not LCROSS would find water had been stated to be influential in whether or not the United States government pursues creating a Moon base. On November 13, 2009, NASA confirmed that water was detected after the Centaur impacted the crater. Spacecraft The LCROSS mission took advantage of the",
"-23.78027149211266"
],
[
"send NASA's major Mars rover, the Mars Science Laboratory. Holden Crater made the cut to be among the top four, although Gale Crater was chosen as the final landing site. Holden Crater is believed to have once been a lake.\nThe aim of the Mars Science Laboratory is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12 mile wide, smooth, flat circle is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once",
"-23.774535213364288"
],
[
"and 45° N, 164.5° E. Two others are in the Diacria quadrangle: 46.7° N, 176.8° E and 46.33° N, 176.9° E.\nThis discovery proves that future colonists on Mars will be able to obtain water from a wide variety of locations. The ice can be dug up, melted, then taken apart to provide fresh oxygen and hydrogen for rocket fuel. Hydrogen is the powerful fuel used by the space shuttle main engines. Rootless cones So-called \"Rootless cones\" are caused by explosions of lava with ground ice under the flow. The ice melts and turns into a vapor that expands in an",
"-23.760889179015066"
],
[
"Mars. Spacecraft exploration Numerous channels eroded into the flanks of the crater's central mound could give access to the layers for study. Gale is the landing site of the Curiosity rover, delivered by the Mars Science Laboratory spacecraft, which was launched 26 November 2011 and landed on Mars inside the crater Gale on the plains of Aeolis Palus on 6 August 2012. Gale was previously a candidate landing site for the 2003 Mars Exploration Rover mission, and has been one of four prospective sites for ESA's ExoMars.\nIn December 2012, scientists working on the Mars Science Laboratory mission announced that an extensive soil",
"-23.727796003979165"
],
[
"lies in that to launch the amount of consumables (oxygen, food and water) even a small crew would go through during a multi-year Mars mission, it would take a very large rocket with the vast majority of its own mass being propellant. This is where multiple launches and assembly in Earth orbit come from. However even if such a ship stocked full of goods could be put together in orbit, it would need an additional (large) supply of propellant to send it to Mars. The delta-v, or change in velocity, required to insert a spacecraft from Earth",
"-23.667757759685628"
],
[
"Mars rover A Mars rover is a motor vehicle that travels across the surface of the planet Mars upon arrival. Rovers have several advantages over stationary landers: they examine more territory, they can be directed to interesting features, they can place themselves in sunny positions to weather winter months, and they can advance the knowledge of how to perform very remote robotic vehicle control.\nThere have been four successful robotically operated Mars rovers, all managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory: Sojourner, Opportunity, Spirit and Curiosity. On January 24, 2016, NASA reported that current studies on Mars by Curiosity and Opportunity (the",
"-23.665850494755432"
],
[
"which land via an airbag-protected capsule, slowed by parachutes and retrorockets, and dropped from a height that allows rocket exhaust to avoid the surface. Mars Pathfinder's Sojourner rover and the Mars Exploration Rovers each used this landing technique successfully. The Phoenix Scout lander descended to the surface with retro-rockets, however, their fuel was hydrazine, and the end products of the plume (water, nitrogen, and ammonia) were not found to have affected the soils at the landing site. Future missions The question of life on Mars will probably not be resolved entirely until future missions to Mars either conclusively",
"-23.652110199269373"
],
[
"Uzboi-Landon-Morava The Uzboi-Landon-Morava (ULM) outflow system is a long series of channels and depressions that may have carried water across a major part of Mars. It starts with channels that drain into the Argyre basin in the Argyre quadrangle. Water ponded in the Argyre basin, then the overflow is believed to have traveled northward through Uzboi Vallis, into Landon basin, through Morava Valles, to the floor of Margaritfier basin. Some of the water may have helped to carve Ares Vallis. Altogether, the total area drained for this watershed may have been about 11 X 10⁶ km² or",
"-23.648613183991984"
],
[
"decomposition within the RCM. This waste gas is also used for gas bearings (dry lubrication) of all moving parts as well as the circulation controlled \"blowing\" of the wings for stability control and navigation. Mars entomopter Flight in the atmosphere of Mars is difficult. Aerial Mars rovers using a conventional fixed wing would have to fly at over 250 mph just to stay aloft in the rarefied Mars atmosphere. This makes landing on the rocky surface almost impossible, thereby precluding sample inspection/gathering. Also, the high speed flight means that dwell time on any particular area will be difficult—a negative feature that",
"-23.648400229634717"
],
[
"weeks.\nOn Mars, Hilder's allies are pressing Sankov to terminate all water exports to the Martian colony. When he hears from the returning Scavengers, Sankov signs. Two days later, the Scavengers land their ice-spacecraft in full view of the press, and Sankov announces that the fragment they brought holds 200 times the amount of water that Earth had been sending to Mars annually, and that if Earth cannot afford to lose any more water, the Martians will sell some of theirs. Long takes this situation as confirmation that Martians, instead of Terrestrials, shall colonize the remaining Solar System. Influence",
"-23.610819040623028"
],
[
"is a Mars rover under development by NASA with a launch planned for 2020. It is intended to investigate an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars, investigate its surface geological processes and history, including the assessment of its past habitability and potential for preservation of biosignatures within accessible geological materials.",
"-23.605477193603292"
],
[
"Spirit Mars rover and lander arrived successfully on the surface of Mars on 04:35 Ground UTC on January 4, 2004. This was the start of its 90-sol mission, but solar cell cleaning events would mean it was the start of a much longer mission, lasting until 2010. Landing site: Columbia Memorial Station Spirit was targeted to a site that appears to have been affected by liquid water in the past, the crater Gusev, a possible former lake in a giant impact crater about 10 km (6.2 mi) from the center of the target ellipse at 14.5718°S 175.4785°E.\nAfter the airbag-protected landing craft settled",
"-23.587862826272612"
],
[
"Mars 2020 Mission overview The mission will seek signs of habitable conditions on Mars in the ancient past, and will also search for evidence—or biosignatures—of past microbial life. The rover is planned for launch in 2020 on an Atlas V-541, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory will manage the mission. The mission is part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program.\nThe Science Definition Team proposed that the rover collect and package as many as 31 samples of rock cores and surface soil for a later mission to bring back for definitive analysis on Earth. In 2015 they expanded the concept, planning to",
"-23.576075019911514"
],
[
"on the Moon in 1977. The mission was canceled due to lack of launcher availability and funding, although the rover was built. Marsokhod The Marsokhod was a heavy Soviet rover (hybrid, with both controls telecommand and automatic) aimed at Mars, part of the Mars 4NM and scheduled to commence after 1973 (according to the plans of 1970). It was to be launched by a N1 rocket, which never flew successfully. Sojourner The Mars Pathfinder mission included Sojourner, the first rover to successfully deploy on another planet. NASA, the space agency of the United States, launched Mars Pathfinder",
"-23.546959898492787"
],
[
"is some indication that deltas may be concentrated around the edges of the putative former northern ocean of Mars. Groundwater By 1979 it was thought that outflow channels formed in single, catastrophic ruptures of subsurface water reservoirs, possibly sealed by ice, discharging colossal quantities of water across an otherwise arid Mars surface. In addition, evidence in favor of heavy or even catastrophic flooding is found in the giant ripples in the Athabasca Vallis. Many outflow channels begin at Chaos or Chasma features, providing evidence for the rupture that could have breached a subsurface ice seal.\nThe branching valley networks of Mars",
"-23.5371528310352"
],
[
"2012 UTC. It is larger and more advanced than the Mars Exploration Rovers, with a movement rate up to 90 m (300 ft) per hour. Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the make-up of rocks at a distance of 7 m (23 ft). On February 10, 2013, the Curiosity rover obtained the first deep rock samples ever taken from another planetary body, using its on-board drill. The same year, it discovered that Mars's soil contains between 1.5% and 3% water by mass (albeit attached to other compounds and thus not freely accessible). Observations by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter had previously revealed",
"-23.53683150501456"
],
[
"Telescope, along with instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different forms of water in Mars's atmosphere over a six-year period. Ice cap From observations with the Shallow Radar instrument (SHARAD) onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, researchers determined that the total volume of water ice in the northern ice cap is 821000 cubic kilometers. That is equal to 30% of the Earth's Greenland ice sheet, or enough to cover the surface of Mars to a depth of 5.6 meters Dunes Sand dunes have been found in many",
"-23.49670301313745"
],
[
"Swedish warship Mars Wreck location On 19 August 2011, it was announced that the shipwreck of Mars was possibly found by a team of divers, at a depth of 75 meters and around 18.5 kilometers north of Öland, after several years of research. Although not examined by archaeologists yet, in a statement by technical diver Richard Lundgren, it was announced that \"Everything suggests that it is indeed the Mars that we have found\".\nOn 1 November 2011, it was announced that the shipwreck had been confirmed to be Mars. According to Richard Lundgren, one of the divers who discovered the wreck,",
"-23.489692640665453"
],
[
"Phobos, along with the joint Chinese Yinghuo-1 Mars orbiter in November 2011, which went into Earth orbit successfully, but failed to launch to Mars. Mars Science Laboratory The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) (and Curiosity rover), launched in November 2011, landed on Aeolis Palus, between Peace Vallis and Aeolis Mons (\"Mount Sharp\"), in Gale Crater on Mars on 6 August 2012, 05:17 UTC. The landing site was in Quad 51 (\"Yellowknife\") of Aeolis Palus near the base of Aeolis Mons. The landing site was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the center of the rover's planned target site after a 563,000,000 km (350,000,000 mi)",
"-23.463736766774673"
],
[
"short moves straightforward totaling 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in). Adirondack was chosen over another rock called \"Sashimi\", which was closer to the rover, as Adirondack's surface was smoother, making it more suitable for the Rock Abrasion Tool (aka \"RAT\").\nSpirit made a small depression in the rock, 45.5 millimetres (1.79 in) in diameter and 2.65 millimetres (0.104 in) deep. Examination of the freshly exposed interior with the rover's microscopic imager and other instruments confirmed that the rock is volcanic basalt. Humphrey rock On March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed \"Humphrey\". Raymond Arvidson,",
"-23.43371599330567"
],
[
"Glenelg, Mars Glenelg, Mars (or Glenelg Intrigue) is a location on Mars near the Mars Science Laboratory (Curiosity rover) landing site (\"Bradbury Landing\") in Gale Crater marked by a natural intersection of three kinds of terrain. Name The location was named Glenelg by NASA scientists for two reasons: all features in the immediate vicinity were given names associated with Yellowknife in northern Canada, and Glenelg is the name of a geological feature there. Furthermore, the name is a palindrome, and as the Curiosity rover is planned to visit the location twice (once coming, and once going) this was an appealing",
"-23.416265331441537"
],
[
"have taken too long to drive the rovers using remote control. The rover was planned to be placed on the surface after landing by a manipulator arm and to move in the field of view of the television cameras and stop to make measurements every 1.5 meters. The rover tracks in the Martian soil would also have been recorded to determine material properties. Because of the crash landing of Mars 2 and the communication failure (15 seconds post landing) of Mars 3, neither rover was deployed. Lunokhod 3 The Soviet rover was intended to be the third roving remote-controlled robot",
"-23.4154190816771"
],
[
"much more zinc and bromine than we've typically seen. We are getting confirmation that reaching Endeavour really has given us the equivalent of a second landing site for Opportunity.\" (See also Cape York (Mars))\nIn December the Homestake formation was analyzed, which was concluded to be formed of gypsum. Using three of the rover's instruments - the Microscopic Imager, the Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer and the Panoramic Camera's filters - researchers determined the deposit to be hydrated calcium sulfate, or gypsum, a mineral that does not occur except in the presence of water. This discovery was called \"slam dunk\" evidence that",
"-23.393817058517016"
],
[
"twin, after traversing 21 km (13 mi) from Victoria crater, over a three-year period. Endeavour is 23 km (14 mi) wide and offers scientists new terrain to explore, including older rocks than encountered heretofore, and clay minerals that may have formed in the presence of water. The rover's deputy principal investigator, Ray Arvidson, said it will probably not enter Endeavour crater as it appears to contain material observed previously. The rocks on the rim are older than any previously studied by Opportunity. \"I think there's much more interest in driving around the perimeter of the rim,\" said Arvidson. The rover survived so long this",
"-23.387464981147787"
],
[
"had vaporized over the course of four days, strongly implying that the bright clumps were composed of water ice which sublimated following exposure. Even though dry ice also sublimates under the conditions present, it would do so at a rate much faster than observed.\nOn July 31, 2008, NASA announced that Phoenix confirmed the presence of water ice on Mars. During the initial heating cycle of a new sample, the Thermal and Evolved-Gas Analyzer's (TEGA) mass spectrometer detected water vapor when the sample temperature reached 0 °C.\nLiquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure, except",
"-23.384098643320613"
],
[
"Trace Gas Orbiter, launched on March 2016, will implement this approach and will focus on detection, characterization of spatial and temporal variation, and localization of sources for a broad suite of atmospheric trace gases on Mars and help determine if their formation is of biological or geological origin. The Mars Orbiter Mission is also attempting —since late 2014— to detect and map methane on Mars' atmosphere. A press commentary argued that, if there was life at the Viking lander sites, it may have been killed by the exhaust from the landing rockets. That is not a problem for missions",
"-23.37591123956372"
],
[
"to a Mars ascent vehicle (MAV). In July 2018 NASA contracted Airbus to produce a \"fetch rover\" concept. The MAV would launch from Mars and enter a 500 km orbit and rendezvous with a new Mars orbiter. The sample container would be transferred to an Earth entry vehicle (EEV) which would bring it to Earth, enter the atmosphere under a parachute and hard-land for retrieval and analyses in specially designed safe laboratories. Mission timeline The mission has a current launch window of 17 July to 5 August 2020, where the positions of Earth and Mars are optimal for traveling to Mars.",
"-23.344414449005853"
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[
"imperative to prevent the introduction to Mars of contaminants from Earth; according to Fobos-Grunt Chief Designer Maksim Martynov, the probability of the probe accidentally reaching the surface of Mars was much lower than the maximum specified for Category III missions, the type assigned to Fobos-Grunt and defined in COSPAR's planetary protection policy (in accordance with Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty). On Phobos The planned landing site at Phobos was a region from 5°S to 5°N, 230° to 235°E. Soil sample collection would begin immediately after the lander touched down on Phobos, with collection lasting 2–7 days. An emergency mode",
"-23.31104545641574"
],
[
"silica-rich deposits on Mars, but taken together it was clear that further study of the region was needed. Following conjunction, NASA directed the Curiosity rover back to the area where the readings had been taken and discovered that large amounts of tridymite were present. How they were formed remains a mystery.",
"-23.310618486604653"
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] |
3wyefk | How do music royalties work? Does a composer get a check every week or month for life? And typically how much for a hit song? | [
"Here was my experience: Every time my songs were played on the radio or on TV somewhere, I got a little bit of money - cents to dollars - depending on the use. One song was played enough times that it put me in a higher royalty bracket so I was paid more (1.5x the normal rate, I believe) per use. If played enough times, that money can really add up even if you're paid at the normal rate. I had a (brief) Top 40 Rock song in the mid 90s. To date, I've probably made $10,000 in performance royalties from it. Checks would come quarterly. At its peak, these checks used to be in the high hundreds to low thousands. These days, they're about 75 cents, if there's a check to cut in the first place. :-) EDIT: Reddit, you amaze me. Thanks for the love. EDIT#2: [Removed questionable link] Sorry! EDIT #3: Dammit Reddit! Thanks for the gold, kind Redditor. :-) EDIT#4: Thanks so much for all of this. Seriously. But my wife will kill me if I keep responding so I have to step away. Maybe an AMA one of these days?",
"Just a funny little anecdote. In Disney's *The Emperor's New Groove* Patrick Warburton (David Puddy, Joe Swanson, and Brock Samson, depending on your age) plays a royal bodyguard named Kronk. There is a scene in which Kronk is sneaking around transporting the unconscious body of Emperor Kuzco in a sack, which he throws over a waterfall,[(See here.)]( URL_0 ) all while humming/scatting a little tune. Apparently, and I'm trying but I can't find my source on this, so forgive me (or back me up:) Patrick is infamously tone deaf, and was supposed to be humming something similar to the Mission Impossible theme. (Or Disney's knock-off soundalike version.) He botched the job so poorly that he was credited with an original composition ('Kronk's Sneaky Theme?' I have no idea) and Disney legal had him sign over royalties to them.",
"Composers and songwriters are paid by performing rights organizations or PROs for short. There are three in the US and one in every other country. They are ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC. I have included their websites at the end of this post if you want to go directly there to learn more. Basically, radio, tv, restaurants/bar, the web, etc. (Anywhere music is played AND money is made) must pay a fee to each of these companies. A songwriter can only be signed to one of these companies. They gather the money and distribute the royalties. Most songwriters are paid quarterly. They are generally paid three quarters behind so it can take some time to be paid for your songs. Also, songwriters need to register their songs in order to be paid. It is free to join SESAC if you meet with a rep. It is a very small fee ($50) or something close to that for ASCAP or BMI and can be done online. Also, it is hard to say for a #1 - depends on the genre But it will be substantial. Keep in mind, most songs are written by several people and those people often have publishers so it can be quite complicated and that number will be split and split again. You can learn more at URL_1 , URL_2 , and URL_0 . To answer the other question below. These companies either use their own in house monitoring service to see which and when songs are played. Or they may use Nielsen Soundscan which is pretty much the industry standard. There are also companies that monitor the internet and pay songwriters for plays they find online and then pay songwriters either on their own or through one of the performing right companies mentioned above. One is called TuneSat, but there are others too. Hope this helps!",
"and also how do the people in charge of royalties know how much a radio station plays the song? I get it when there's stuff on the system as it can just link straight up online but when stations play records or CDs is there a way of counting plays?",
"As someone whose rent is paid by this, here's my ELI5.. TL;DR: here are two types of strictly royalties as far as composers/writers go. Mechanicals and performance. If you're an artist or producer there's also artist royalties, producer royalties, and neighboring rights. Mechanicals: these are easy. The rate is set by the government and is paid on a per-sale basis at $0.091 per song sold, and that amount is divided up amongst the songwriters (so if there are two writers, each one of them gets $0.0455 for every song sold). They're collected and administered by either the record labels (who receive the gross money for the sale and pay everyone out) or in the case of cover songs, a company called the Harry Fox Agency. These payments are usually semiannual but sometimes quarterly. Performance: this is a much wider net. Is your song in a TV show? Every time it plays you'll receive SOME money - how much is up to a complex formula based system put in place by the \"Performance Rights Organizations\" (i.e. ASCAP, BMI, SESAC, GMR, etc). I've made anywhere from 3 cents to over a thousand on a single TV play (depending on how long they use it, what time of day, how many people watch the show, what network, etc). Radio plays are also paid to the writers per play, and can be up to $15 per station per play. So if your song is getting 2000 spins a week (i.e. a hit song), that's $30k per week to split amongst the writers. Not bad. The PRO's all have different pay schedules, but to make things easy let's say they're basically quarterly. Streaming comes through both lanes depending on if you're published and how the song is released. Spotify/Pandora will usually come through the PRO (sometimes the former through the route of the mechanical). The rub with these services is that the music labels will license the song to them extra cheap in exchange for stock on the company or large non-specific advances that they don't have to pass along to the artists/writers - no bueno. Which is why artists/writers are complaining about streaming while the corporate side is suspiciously silent.. And lastly if you are the artist you'll get an additional artist royalty from the label once you've made back the money they spent on you (or making your album). Producers are entitled to a similar royalty, albeit much smaller. And then there's this thing called \"neighboring rights\" in other countries where the people who performed on the song (musicians, producers, artists) and the label owners get an additional performance royalty for that - but that is for another day.",
"I worked for a radio station about a zillion years ago, when it was two turntables and a microphone, and we were required to keep track of what we played. With a pencil and a logbook. I assumed it was so the artist would get paid, but I don't know for sure. The DJ had a lot of discretion over what he played, so they couldn't rely upon a predetermined setlist. Or maybe they just wanted to make sure we weren't playing lousy music. But I think it was the royalty thing.",
"Ok, I can provide a brief overview here but I'm sure lawyers and others more directly involved in the music business will have more to add and provide greater accuracy. With every recorded song there are two copyrights, one for the composer and one for the recording artist. Sometimes those rights belong to the same person, sometimes not. Anyway, composers and recording artists both have groups that represent them and collect royalties on their behalf. The problem is that there are multiple types of rights that can be licensed to a song or composition. For example, if you want to publicly perform a composition, you'll have to get with a performing rights organization (PRO) (or rather, the venue you perform at will). Want to burn your cover to a CD? You'll need a mechanical license but that's a different organization. You can see a flow chart of the process here: URL_0 Bear in mind that the chart is based on the UK so some terms are slightly different though the principle, to my understanding, is largely the same. Theoretically, these various groups who hold all of these different rights pay the artists they represent, usually quarterly. How they determine the payment is usually by how much the songs they created are used. How that is determined varies from group to group. For example, record labels know pretty well exactly how many copies of a CD are sold or how many times a song is streamed on Spotify. But how many times a song is performed in a club? Well, that's a bit more difficult. To that end PROs rely on bars and restaurants to provide reporting forms on what they played. Few, in my experience, do, so it ends up being like Nielsen, where a small number of clubs are used to determine what clubs at large are playing. Like I said though, methods vary depending on the rights at issue. All of that being said, music licensing is a giant mess that leaves no one happy. This is one of the reasons it's a major topic for copyright reform in the U.S. over the next few years. I know it's not very ELI5, but hopefully it helps some. Edit: To answer the question about how long it goes on, it goes until the copyright in the work expires. So yes, the person will receive checks until their death and then their estate will continue to get such checks for quite a long period of time afterward.",
"Fun fact: Simon Cowell's X Factor/ idol artists (one direction etc) almost all include musical samples played by Cowell (eg a single tambourine hit) on their records, so that Cowell personally receives PRS as a performer. Source: am in industry and know a writer for Olly Murs/1D fun fact 2 while we're on the subject, there is a music production company that specialises in quite literally adding 'the one direction kick drum' to other people's work. They get paid a shocking amount for this.",
"There are two components of a song that are distinct and separate and understanding how they are different is essential. 1. The composition that a song writer composes and puts down in sheet music. This is the copyright and the royalty recipient is the songwriter. He is often represented by a Publisher. 2. A recording of such a composition. This is the master and the royalty recipient is the artist. He is often represented by a Label. The terminology is important. While \"artist\" seems like a fair way to describe someone who writes songs, it will cause confusion if you try to apply it that way in this kind of discussion. So songwriter-copyright-publisher and then artist-master-label is the way it is. Both the songwriter and the artist receive royalties but they are quite different in how they are calculated and handled. Sometimes the writer and the artist are the same person, probably more often they are not, but even if they are, they will get checks from two different entities. Think about \"singer songwriter\" as a genre, it's referring to someone who does both. Let's invent a writer and an artist for these examples - Joe Melody is a gifted songwriter and composer, and Bob Crooner is a singer with a killer voice. Joe Melody is represented by a Publisher, and Bob Crooner is represented by a Label. Each of those entities is responsible for tracking the usage of their intellectual property, gathering the income and distributing it to Joe and Bob. There are so many different revenue streams it's hard to break down who gets what from where but I'll try. I guess I will go by platform, and keep it simple. There is plenty of nuance and exception that will bog us down. CD, LP, Cassette or other physical format, and also digital permanent download: Crooner records an album of 10 of Melody's songs. His label gets him in a studio and manufactures a CD and gets it on Amazon and they also get the album on iTunes. On Crooner's behalf, his Label has requested from Melody's Publisher licenses to use the written songs. To keep it brief, these licenses are free and require only that Crooner notify Melody that it is happening. This license binds Crooner to pay Melody 9.1c for every sale he makes of him singing Melody's song. This rate is set by the government and the Label is responsible for paying it to the Publisher. The Label will administer this whole deal. So a track gets sold on iTunes. iTunes receives 0.99c and the Crooner's Label a month or two later gets their 0.70c. Crooner's label then owes Melody's Publisher 9.1c. So what happens to the other 0.60c and what does Crooner get? That depends. Because at first music could not be recorded and taken away to listen to again, we have a very well developed government mandated ruleset for compositions, but not for the master recordings. They were a relatively late development, and the free market has found its own level. Basically Crooner and the Label agree on a percentage of income that allows for both to earn something. Crooner agrees to a 15% royalty. Does that seem low? It's not really. Out of the 0.60c the Label is left with it needs to do a lot of things, including recoup the costs of the studio time, artwork, manufacturing, promotion etc. and also pay their rent and staff. The bargaining power of each party will ebb and flow over time and contracts will be renegotiated every couple of years. Three to five years is a normal range for a contract. If Crooner signs for 15% of net income on a three year contract and he really takes off as a singer, when the contract expires he can ask for more or shop around if he wants. Radio Play Crooner's song comes on the radio in your car. Crooner gets nothing. Melody's and his Publisher are members of a Performance Rights Organisation which arranges paid licenses with anybody who wishes to publicly play music and distributes fees to the songwriters based on how much airplay a song gets. This PRO will pay Melody his share direct and Melody's Publisher their share direct, this is not something the Publisher manages. How much it is depends on the PRO and what kind of deal they made with whoever is playing the music. Remember how I said Crooner gets nothing? That's just the way it is in the US right now. Luckily for Crooner, terrestrial radio is becoming a smaller piece of the pie. He will get performance royalties as an artist for digital radio and digital streaming services like Sirius, Pandora or Spotify. Melody is already set up to receive his songwriter royalty. For streaming it is set at 10% of net income, not 9.1c. A lot of streaming plays, especially if they are ad-supported might bring in a fraction of a cent. I'm going to stop here to see if I am getting at the info you want. I'm happy to expand and answer other questions. I've been in the business of operating label and publisher concerns for 15 years. ETA: the royalty cycle is either quarterly or half yearly and you can expect to get paid 45-90 days after the end of a period for any income processed during said period. e.g. Jan-Jun might be a pay period, and everyone would received checks mid August or end September.",
"I actually do this for a living, in a few different projects: my band Canopy Climbers ( URL_0 ), my licensing projects Tiny Houses ( URL_1 ) and Monobox ( URL_2 ). Most all royalties are handled through my PRO (performing rights organization), and in my case that is SESAC. Most pay out quarterly via check or direct deposit, although I think SESAC can do monthly as well, at least for publishing royalties. Those royalties will keep coming as long as it continues being licensed, played on radio, etc. So essentially, you get paid for the entirety of the songs life. I can't speak to a hit song on radio, but I can speak to having songs placed on tv. These can range any where from $500-$25,000+, including both up front payment and backend royalties. Until we got management, we were licensing songs based on back-end royalties only, meaning no upfront payment, only the royalties received after the show airs. Now we get smaller front end payments as well as backend royalties (thanks management!). We've been placed several times on MTV, E! Network, Style Network, and then online in a buncha different places. How much the royalty is depends on several factors. Is is just an instrumental transition piece? Is it vocal-up, meaning a lead vocal singing in the placement? How long is it? The longer the placement, the more the royalty rate, as well as vocal up vs. no vocal. Also, the more the show airs, the more you are paid as it is paid per show. Would be glad to answer any other questions. Still kinda new at this but I'll do my best.",
"I actually know this one! My stepfather was a recording artist. His royalty checks came monthly, they were small as he did not sell a lot of records in his later years. He passed away 6 years ago, now my mom gets them",
"All the answers on here talking mostly about Performance Rights Organizations like ASCAP, BMI and SESAC, which take care of songs being played on the radio and live. However, if you're signed to a record label or a publishing company, and your songs are selling or people are covering your songs, you will be paid by the respective company. For example, if you sign to Big Cool Records, they'll give you an up front advance, some money to record the album, and they'll spend a bunch on marketing, etc. and manufacturing the album. Every time al album sells, based on how much royalty you negotiated with them (between 10-20%), money will be added to your account within the label. Once they recoup all the money they've spent on you (essentially making that advance you got a loan), you will be paid based on your royalty. Those checks come in once a quarter (4 times a year). If it's a hit song, you will recoup your account quicker and get paid sooner but that depends on how deep in debt you are with the label and how big the song is and how much it is selling (real sales - like on iTunes and in stores) Feel free to PM me if you have any more questions! Source: I'm a music lawyer",
"I was in an indie band that toured a lot but never had a hit song (mostly college radio and specialty market radio), but which had music licensed for several TV shows and films, the highest profile of which was probably the TV show How I Met Your Mother. This was probably six years ago and I still receive quarterly checks on this. The checks have remained consistent mostly because the show continues to play on different channels internationally. The amounts have declined over time somewhat, but annually I would say royalties total about $3,000. However, I should note that I control both the writing \"side\" and the publishing \"side\" of our music. When you are paid royalties on music, the royalties are split between the writer(s) who are credited with composing the song and the publishers, who control use of the recording. It is common for bands to sell their publishing rights in exchange for up front money, or for record labels to control and/or own the publishing for bands they release. It would not be unusual for a song to have three to five \"writers\" and have the publishing controlled by a label or publishing company. In this case any individual band member would see a greatly reduced cut. Speaking from a musician standpoint, licensing is the best because you don't have to \"do anything\" and the money just comes in. Of course, they are few and far between, especially for a no-to-almost-no name band like mine was!",
"Music royalties are fun - and slightly crazy. :) Quick credentials, I'm a director at a music licensing company that represents over 600 amazing artists. Here's a basic rundown. There are multiple \"royalties\" beyond just performance royalties, here's a description of each one: 1. Like mentioned below, there are organizations called PROs which are \"Performance Royalty Organizations\" - in the US that would be BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC. When a music artist creates a new song they register it with their PRO and that PRO collects royalties from radio stations, streaming sites/apps, and television plays from commercials or programming. That is \"performance royalties\" and usually are cents or partial cents per play - very low revenue. Which is why articles come out about artists being upset about Spotify and other streaming sites because they make so little compared to album sales. 2. Sync licensing is another portion of music royalties. When a commercial, YouTube video, Netflix show, or other content is created the filmmaker or production company must license the music that is going in the video content. This is a huge deal and allows musicians and bands to make significant revenue on the front end of content creation. Then when those films or videos go out they have time periods associated with the license that they can renew after 6 months or a year so for example the artist continues to make money as a tv commercial keeps running. 3. There is also mechanical licensing which is required if a music artist wants to cover and record a song that they did not write. So if I wanted to cover a Coldplay song and record it, then I would need to purchase a mechanical license. That way the original author gets revenue from that. One other note - it's important to understand the difference between the different types of ownership: 1. Master owner - a person who own part of the recording (think MP3, CD, the actual noise on a recording) 2. Publishing Owner - a person who owns part of the publishing 3. Writership Owner - a person who wrote the song Each of those owners get paid based on how much they own. Some people own 100% of their songs, while others might only own 50% of the publishing while their record label owns 100% of the master and 50% of the publishing. TL;DR: Yes, a song writer gets a payment each month from their representation like a PRO or their licensing representation which might be their label or a music licensing company. Feel free to ask questions. I tried to write this on my phone quickly, haha.",
"**Can we extend this question to television?** My particular interest is in **how long** do royalties continue? Is [Robert Clary]( URL_0 ) still collecting from reruns of Hogan's Heroes? Is Carol Burnett still picking up a check from MeTV airing old episodes of her show? Going back to the early B & W 1960s, is Ron Howard still getting beer money from The Andy Griffith Show? If so, **how much** would you guess such 30-, 40- and even 50-year old shows earn for their stars?",
"You mean a hit song now? Or a hit song when there was actually some money in the music business? Back then people actually paid for music, and even if you only had one or two good songs, a single hit could sell an entire album which would sell for about $12-15. There were big cuts being taken from that from the record company, reproduction costs etc, but the performance percentage earned artists something, and writers could still make money too. All of that is gone now. People don't buy CD's and most people get music for free on youtube. There are some legit services like spotify but the % is so low that you have to be a household name to make any decent money. Places like iTunes are a bit better but similar, and if you do get lucky enough to have a lot of people download your stuff, it is most likely just one or two songs - not a whole album. The reason most people don't care is because they still see people like Bieber in his Ferrari and assume pop stars are as rich as ever. But it's not true. The likes of Gaga and Bieber are not musicians or bands, but rather products that are sold with a huge company behind them. A company like that will put a million dollars down to promote a pop star like that, because they will get 50 million back. The problem is that all the smaller (real) artists and bands who used to maybe have a top 40 single in the past, do not make any way near enough money to survive anymore. In the past there was enough money in the business for bands like that to survive. Nowadays they make nothing from their music at all, and are in fact expected to just give it away for free because they need people to hear it and hear about the band. If you are lucky you will get people to buy tickets to your show and then you might make some money, although even then, many venues don't pay the performer at all unless they reach a certain threshold. tl-dr, big corporate machines like Rhianna and whatnot, are still making huge amounts of money. But everyone else makes nothing from music now. And for that reason, nobody is being signed, and in fact A & R departments don't even exist anymore. Nobody is out there visiting all the clubs and looking for the next big thing. Someone might pay some attention if you somehow go viral on youtube, but that is extremely rare.",
"I am a songwriter. Here is your basic breakdown of how you would make money. Say I write a song that gets cut (recorded) by an Artist that is decently well known. The first I would need to do is register with BMI, ASCAP, SESAC, or one of the smaller ones. We will use BMI for an example. What they do is take a very small fee with the promise of going out and collecting the money you are owed from record labels, radio stations, etc. Yes, money does come in the mail and you get it roughly every quarter. If you are doing well you might get more. That's what we like to call \"mailbox money\". The amount of money you make on a \"hit\" song has a lot of variables. For instance if you are self published or have an admin deal then you are making 90-100% of your money on a song. If you have a co publishing deal you make 50% of your money and the publisher makes 50%. There's also writing splits. In places like LA where people are assholes their lawyers negotiate really rough splits. You can see 5 names on a song but what you may not know is one of those guys is only getting 2 1/2 %. This stuff happens literally everyday. Nashville is a more respectable place where generally who ever is in the song. Gets an equal share. EDIT: If anyone has any questions about anything or I missed anything let me know and I would be happy to answer.",
"Back when the Dr. Demento Show was syndicated to about 50 radio stations one of my songs was played 3 times in a quarter. I eagerly awaited my ASCAP statement for that quarter and was confused when I got one that said that none of my songs had been played. Armed with a complete list of radio stations that carried the show and the playlist for the 3 shows in question I called them and asked what was going on. They said apparently none of the stations that carried the show had gotten sampled at that time and there was nothing they could do. So despite the fact that I could provide them with a list of radio stations, dates, and times to the minute when my songs were played I got no money. Remember that next time you hear about ASCAP suing a bar for playing music without an ASCAP license because they \"want to make sure their artists get paid.\" No, they don't. If they did they'd actually count the plays. We have computers, people. It's really not that hard. tl;dr: Me: \"150 spins on the radio!\" ASCAP: \"LOL NOPE!\"",
"The composer gets paid by performance collection agencies like BMI and ASCAP, and by Harry Fox Agency, which collects mechanical royalties (sales of CDs LPs Tapes, etc.) For many years I received no check or $0.98. After I was performed more it began to average $100 a quarter. One time one of my tunes was used as a theme song for a network TV talk show for a week. I think I got about $2000 for that. I had one major hit. A famous rapper sampled one bar of a funk track that I had composed back in the '70s. in one 18 month period, I received about $150,000. It was one tune on a CD of 7 or 8 tunes. I as composer, got half of the royalties for that song, about 4 or 5 famous rappers, split the other half. Now 15 or 20 years later, I still get 15 or 20 cents a quarter for that song. But now my quarterly checks average from $50 to $1000. Edit: spell",
"I am a registered artist with one of the big 3 PROs, but I have no idea how any of this works because my band never became popular :(.",
"In my experience the singer takes all the royalties and doesn't pay the musicians for anything because it's a privilege to work with him.",
"You mention composer, but there are actually two types of music royalties. The composer receives what is referred to as the publishing royalty. This royalty is collected for the underlying written work or composition of a song. The second type of royalty is the artist royalty, which is collected for the exploitation of the master recording. These 'masters' are usually owned by record labels who share a percentage of their sales with their recording artists. To make the most money as a musician you need to both write and record your own music. Since you mention composer specifically, I'll address that issue. As a composer/songwriter, you'll collect on a quarterly basis from your publisher (i.e. Sony/ATV, Warner/Chappell, or UMPG). These publishers collect on your behalf for all exploitation of your works, whether that be CD sales/downloads, radio play, streaming, or sync licensing for use in TV/Film. Your publisher is all associated to PRO, who licenses and collects fees for the performance of your works from radio, concert halls, bars/restaurants, and pretty much any other public place where music may be played. The PRO will pay your publisher, who will then pass that money on to you. Publishers pay their composers on a quarterly basis and keep an administration fee. The more popular you works are, the more money you'll get paid. As for how much money a hit song can make, the sky is the limit. As a composer, you will collect more based on the share of the song that you wrote. Most songs are not written by a single person. With that said, the best way to make money is to get as many sync licenses as you can. TV and film producers are usually willing to pay a pretty penny for the right song in their movie, show or commercial. On the flip side, royalty rates for streaming are so low, you'll need to millions upon millions of views to start to make some decent coin. Mechanical royalties, which are publishing royalties for the sale of a CD or permanent download, have also declined substantially as music sales in the traditional sense are much lower than they used to be. I'm happy to answer any other questions you may have as I've been in this business for over 10 years.",
"Well depends on what kind of royalty. Two types 1. Royalty from the publisher(songwriter's version of a label, most of the time paired up with labels or extensions of labels) These are paid bi-annually. You get 9.1 for every song you have on a album for each sale, unless you have a controlled composition clause, which means the performer of the song also had some writing of the song, which most of the time is less. 2. Performance rights organization. These are paid out every financial quarter, so end of March, June, September and December. There are two bigger public ones, BMI and ASCAP, and two private ones, which are invitation only which are SESAC and these brand new one I can't think of the name...These are the big money ones which know whenever your song is played on the radio you get paid. Depending on how popular it is on the radio it can be at a high tier than other, therefor a bigger payout. I have plenty of songwriter friends, and one, back in 1981 got his first check from BMI for 80k, and that's in 1980s dollars, and still gets enough payouts each month from them to pay a mortgage on a house he says, don't know how much that means to him, but probably at least a few thousand. Another friend, he's only like 24, but be wrote a song by a certain country duo, and in the first quarter it was a 210k payout, but was split with two other songwriters. His songwriting pay outs let him be able to jump start his own career which is pretty common. Brantley Gilbert who i don't really know, but we run in the same circles did the same thing, he wrote like a bunch of Jason Alden songs, which financed his own career before it really started, he also. This is also sometimes called \"passing down\" which a more popular country artist will have a single which a less popular artist wrote, to help them financially, and it's all part of the good ol boys club.",
"When you write a song that you want to earn royalties from, you register the song with whatever Performing Rights Organization you are signed up with (ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC are the big ones in America but there are hundreds worldwide). When you register the song, you attribute 200% of the ownership. 100% for the \"writer's share\" and 100% for the \"publishing share.\" So, if you have an ideal set agreement with whoever is exploiting your music you own 100% of the writers share as well as 100% of the publishing share (however, many libraries take the publishing share and sometimes part of the writer's as well). If a piece of music is placed in a television show or movie, for example, it is listed on a cue sheet (a document that is submitted with every episode of every show and film detailing what song is used, who wrote it, who published it, and what kind of use it is - Background Instrumental, Background Vocal, etc.). This is sent to your PRO who keeps track of how many times an episode/film/commercial aired and other royalty-generating means, looks at the cue sheet and sees for how long your music played, and pays it accordingly. You get a check every quarter (3 months) directly from your PRO. This is a pretty rough break down of it but hopefully it is helpful for those unfamiliar. I mostly work with TV/Film music, but I think radio play works in a similar way. Source: I work for a music publisher",
"A decade ago, I was part of a comedy troupe ( URL_0 ) and we at one point recorded some radio sketches, in hopes of making a \"record\" (like old skool Python). Anyways, last year I was informed about Sound Exchange. A company that started up to collect royalties for artists. Turned out SIRIUS XM had been playing our sketches for 10 years (legally and all that) but no one was collecting the royalties...so once we signed up with Sound Exchange, we got a cheque for $15k (!). Now I get like. $100 every 6 months. So that's cool.",
"For ad supported models like pandora, royalties for all record labels are collected by a holding company known as SoundExchange. The rate paid by pandora is based on # of sings streamed. The per song rate is currently $.14 per 100 songs streamed. Pandora pays about $400mn per year in these fees. The rate is set every five years. AND you won't believe this - but this rate decision actually happens. TOMORROW!!!!!!!!! Source: This shit is my job - and this decision is wildly fucking important for pandoras stock price. Google CRB pandora.",
"more complicated question: why is it so expensive now to produce sample heavy hip hop beats? in the 80's and 90's all this extremly famous funk, jazz and soul was used for hip hop, now those records are expensive to re-release and those kind of samples are more rare. does it have to do with the original artists wanting more money? As an artist, am I taking a lot less money using beat samples? Are there legal obstacles that make it inefficient?",
"So this thread reminded me that I'm a member of ASCAP, and I logged into my account for the first time in years. I have 12 \"works\" registered from an album that was released on a label in 2008, but nothing for all the singles, remixes, etc. that've been released on different labels since. My question is- do I need to be submitting my own releases to ASCAP or is it a label's responsibility?",
"You probably won't see this but Courtney Love wrote a letter about 15 years ago about what piracy is. It explains how recording contracts work. URL_0 ",
"a bit late to the tale but here goes. there are or at least were a few different types of royalties back in the pre internet days. Radio stations would pay differing levels of royalties depending on the size of their audience. If you had a hit record on radio 1 (the uk national broadcaster broadcasting to millions) the payment, i believe, could be up to £45 per play. The collecting agency would take the payments from the radio station and take their cut which wasn't too much but lets say it was £5. The rest was passed to your publishing company who you signed your deal with (who should not only collect your money and pass on your cut but should actively try and place your music on to say tv, film, compilation albums etc). A typical publishing deal would be a 70/30 split in your favou, so they'd take £12 and pass on £28 to you. If there were four writers you'd get £7 each. It can get tricky though because there are royalties for the music and royalties for the lyrics. if you were to license your song to say an advert as my friend once did (a vodka advert for smirnoff, check out dylan rhymes - naked and ashamed) then there's two separate fees involved. The advert has to buy not only the music rights to use it (which are owned by the record company) but also the publishing rights. so they could pay the record co £10k of which you'd get a cut depending on your deal and the publishing co would get paid £10k and you'd get £7k as per the split. EVERY time that advert is played you would get a publishing royalty for it, depending on the audience size. there are also royalties for other things. If sheet music is produced of it then again you would get a royalty from that. Here's the interesting royalty which not many new about, mechanical royalties. these are paid to the producer (s) who may not necessarily be a part of the band. this royalty was paid for EACH AND EVERY physical copy that was made of a record or cd. I can't recall the amount, maybe 10%?, but it was worked out on the distributor price (which back in the day would have been circa £2.20 per 12\" record). It would have been collected in the UK by the MCPS, the mechanical copyright protection society. So there would have been 22p per copy in mechanical royalties. I believe the MCPS took 10% so lets say 2p. that leaves 20p and again, 70/30 split, the producer would come out with 14p. Now imagine that that album sold 10 million copies. you can see how that adds up very quickly to £1.4m. Just from one album. The producer probably didn't come up with any of the music creativity but would have crafted it all in to a song (ie, radio edits of 3m30s can be quite tricky to create from a full 5m30s song). Basically, the amount of money from royalties can be huge which is why Michael Jackson sold his Beatles publishing catalogue for $400m. Also, there was one occasion i recall that annie lennox had one of her songs played over 3000 times in one week on UK radio (details were published in Music Week). Publishing is HUGE. The guy who was Pink Floyds publisher owns/owned the Royal Berkshire Polo Club!! Hope this helps! EDIT: In the UK there is also a collecting agency called the PRS, the performance rights society. In theory, every time a song is played in a nightclub, the club should be making a playlist of what was played and pay out a royalty for each song. When people in the UK will see PRS stickers in shops etc, it's because music isn't free. If you want to have music in your shop to entertain your customers as they shop, you have to pay for it. again, you'd end up with a cut of that. I think nowadays shops get around it somehow by having their own instore radio stations. you'd also get a royalty if your song is used as telephone \"hold\" music. and as ring tones, and in birthday cards, fucking everywhere actually.",
"Streaming and piracy have destroyed royalties though. My best friend wrote some #1 hits on Atlantic Records in the late 90s and very early 2000s. His royalties were roughly $500,000 usd a year. Around 2010 to now, between piracy and streaming his royalties have dropped to about $50,000 usd a year. Granted his songs aren't #1 anymore but he's been in this business for over 40 years and knows the trends very well and even years after a song is no longer a hit, your royalties don't drop 90 percent even a decade later. He's semi-retired because there's no more money in music so it's pointless to even do the work. People are just gonna steal it anyway. He did tell me though that what little work or writing he does is gear towards rock. He told me that among major labels that rock music is seen as a better choice than EDM or dance music because even though EDM is ridiculously popular at the moment, almost every EDM listener steals music. Stealing is much less common among rock music. So for example, if you write a EDM hit, you might have 1,000,000 listeners but almost every one of them will steal it instead of buying. It just seems to be the general behavior of EDM listeners. But if you write a rock hit, while rock is much less popular at the moment, you might only have 100,000 listeners but odds are very high that a huge portion of them will buy it. So you'll sell more songs to 100,000 rock fans than you will to 1,000,000 EDM fans. Hell, Steve Aoki and AVCII have been caught in their youtube vids using pirated software. I mean, they're filthy rich and can't even be assed to pay for the stuff they use...why would their listeners pay?",
"I'm a media composer and write for a lot of trailers, commercials and tv shows. We usually get paid royalties every quarter (3 months). The amount is dependent on many variables, for example, the viewership, whether it's network or cable, time of day and what territory it's based in. However, some clients license your music through a \"buy-out,\" which allows them to just pay you a single (usually heftier) fee so they don't have to keep fulfilling royalty payments. I haven't written any \"hit songs\" but I've written music for quite large clients. I did an Ikea commercial about 5 years ago that still pay me every quarter. But for an example, I recently wrote music for a big kids animated movie trailer which screened on UK television for 2 weeks. I got approximately $8,000 for those two weeks of broadcasts so it **can** be a very lucrative business. (That's not including the fee I got to write the music.) I've written music for BBC shows and even shows like Kitchen Nightmares. BBC paid almost double in royalties beause it's network. The money is collected by your respective Rights Society, either PRS, ASCAP, BMI, etc. It's hard to wrangle in this business because fees, viewership figures and plays are all behind a curtain. You just have to trust your royalty society and their admin. Buyouts can be risky, too. I have a friend who had a client offer him 25K for a track for a beer commercial. My friend accepted without a second thought and a week later saw the commercial during the superbowl...he lost out on an insane amount of money because he accepted the buyout and didn't ask questions! That was a hard lesson that day...",
"Finally, an excuse for my first post! I work for a European PRO (performing rights society) and from my experience, each pro collects license revenue from music users and distributes this revenue to the composers and publishers in the form of royalties. A PRO will license music usage in their own territory from radio stations, television broadcasters, live venues/festivals, restaurants, shops, businesses, record labels and also online platforms like YouTube, Spotify, iTunes and Amazon. Once a PRO receives the music reporting from these users, royalties are distributed to the composers and publishers based on a distribution schedule. The amount a composer/publisher gets is based on where the music is used and how large that license revenue is. For example, you will get paid more from a larger radio station per minute then from a smaller station which pays a smaller license fee. Once we have received the reporting for your music usage, a matching system will usually link this information to the song registrations we have on a database which are then linked to a composer or publishers account. Music usage in that PRO can usually take between 4-6 months to distribute but if your music gets broadcast overseas, it can take aslong as 2 years to receive this income from other performing right societies. I've probably missed out a load of useful info so let me know if you have a further questions!",
"For actors, in the UK and Ireland at least, you used to get royalties after doing any TV or film. Now, you get a bit more money to buy you out of the royalties. My dad still gets royalties every year from a movie he did in the 70s. It was a small part. He'll usually get €0.50 if it's shown in South Africa or somewhere. He gets around €90.00 every year for a Christmas special he did in the 90s. It's not much, but it buys a present every year and it's better than a kick up the arse.",
"Label owner here - We get a monthly payment from our distributor, which we then pass onto artists, less our fee. (60/40% Artist / Label split). It's always collected a few months behind but includes everything from itunes sales to youtube / spotify streams. If we've landed any synchronizations (music used in tv, video, movies and advertising etc) then we'll have separate terms for that. By no means are we a large label, but we do pull in about £500 a month from sales and streams.",
"If anyone is interested in seeing how much a published artist makes in a year, Zoe Keating [made all of her 2013 financials public]( URL_1 ). She also put out [6 months of income in 2011-2012]( URL_0 ). If it's TL;DR for you - she makes the lion's share of her money from Album sales, via iTunes and Bandcamp. I'm sure performance income helps out a lot, and she doesn't state if this is gross or net... still interesting, though.",
"It kinda sucks because streaming services should be better for artists. I've probably bought less than 20 CDs in my life, most of them at discounted prices. I used to just listen to the radio or get music from friends(perhaps not legally). Now I spend over NZ$100 a year on music in the form of music streaming services. By the time I die I'll have spent thousands. If I was still buying CDs it'd only be hundreds.",
"Random related factabout James Brown's drummer. The dude tears it up in \"Funky Drummer\" and the world forgets about it until the 80's when someone rhymes over it. Hip hop is born. This drum track goes on to be the most sampled portion of a song in music history and the drummer, an old man today, has never seen a dime for it. Look up \"rhythm of the funky drummer\" for the full story.",
"I have a friend who's grandpa is a violinist for movies and TV shows. He played for Family Guy, Futurama, Pirates of the Caribbean, etc. He basically told me what /u/dirtyfacedkid said, but he also gets paid by the hour during the actual recording sessions. He told me he gets around $200 an hour and afterwards he receives royalties after the movie/tv show is released.",
"My friend is the co-founder of Timex Social Club and song writer who put out [Rumors]( URL_0 ) in 1986. They opened for the RUN-DMC 'Raising Hell' tour that same year. Despite being a #1 R & B hit in 1986, the amount he gets from royalties isn't enough to buy a loaf of bread most months.",
"A guy I work with was on SNL in the 80s. He did a few movies around that time too, and he gets a check for about $0.12 - $0.25 a month. So to answer your question, (even though this is movie biz vs music biz) yes. [Gary Kroeger IMDB]( URL_0 )",
"Kinda relevant. The same goes for PPV fights (WWE, UFC, Boxing, Etc.) I once saw a job on craigslist that wanted you to go to bars and be \"undercover\" and see if a place is broadcasting the PPV, and charging an additional cover.",
"What I have learned from this thread: 1. Turn a song you write and perform into a meme 2. ??? 3. Profit Rick Astley lucked out for sure.",
"Could an artist (or friend of the artist) just put their song/album on repeat on spotify and rake in money?"
] | [
[
"the time they receive their payments. They are \"getting reporting quarterly, or six-monthly, on sales that happened six months ago.\" Caldas explained that \"royalty statements could be a year old\".\nIn February 2015, Music Business Worldwide reported on a French study between music trade body SNEP and EY that concluded that major labels kept 73% of Spotify Premium payouts, while writers/publishers received 16%, and artists received 11%. Mike Masnick of Techdirt wrote: \"Sure, in the past, it may have been reasonable for the labels to take on large fees for distribution, but that's when it meant manufacturing tons of plastic and",
"-26.710750660975464"
],
[
"Recording artist royalties Recording artist royalties are a vital part of an artist's income and are gained through the digital and retail sale of their music along with the use of their music in streaming services, broadcasting, and in other forms of media such as TV shows and films.",
"-25.735519089445006"
],
[
"has given him a steady income over the past 20 years. Being a lyricist is just a part-time for Lau because this career is not steady and for each song, a lyricist can only receive from HKD$1500–5000. This is only for those who have taken the advance payment, meaning that taking $5000 before receiving the rest of royalties. He tried not to receive “advance” for two years but realized cannot sustain his life by writing a song for a few hundred dollars. Unlike famous singers, lyricists cannot count on the royalties of several classics while they have to produce a",
"-25.046307379045174"
],
[
"to nothing).\" In 2009, Swedish musician Magnus Uggla pulled his music from the service, stating that after six months he had earned \"what a mediocre busker could earn in a day\".\nNorwegian newspaper Dagbladet reported in 2009 that the record label Racing Junior earned only NOK 19 ($3.00 USD) after their artists had been streamed over 55,100 times. According to an infographic by David McCandless, an artist on Spotify would need over four million streams per month to earn the U.S. minimum monthly wage of $1,160. In October 2011, U.S. independent label Projekt Records stated: \"In the world I want to",
"-24.803677785064792"
],
[
"I have done six songs in ten days, but that is rather beyond my average rate. I probably write from twelve to fifteen songs a year, but I do not work constantly. Sometimes for a month I will not touch pen to paper, and then I will make up for lost time by working almost continuously for the next month. It is hard to say just how I write. I will read a little poem, perhaps, and then the melody comes, and, do you know, that particular melody is always thereafter connected with that poem. I might put the poem",
"-24.80103220991441"
],
[
"usually for a one-time fee. This can initiate negotiations, whose points of interest usually include things like how the work is being used, the length of the segment, the prominence of the cue (whether used as background music, or as the title track during the credits), and the overall popularity and importance of the song or recording. Sync licensing fees can range anywhere from free, to a few hundred dollars, to millions of dollars for popular recordings of songs: in the last case, the producer must pay for both the use of the master and the composition.",
"-24.437012745591346"
],
[
"Spotify removed all time limits for Free users on all platforms, including on computers, which previously had a 10-hour monthly listening limit after a 6-month grace period.\nIn April 2018, Spotify began to allow Free users to listen on-demand to whatever songs they want for an unlimited number of times, as long as the song is on one of the user's 15 personalized discovery playlists.\nAs of April 2019, all service users are limited to 10,000 songs in their library, after which they will receive an \"Epic collection, friend\" notification, and will not be able to save more music to their library.",
"-24.06049297831487"
],
[
"is based on several factors, for instance, media exposure, personal fame and the type of music. Nobody can guarantee a musician can get the amount of money that he expects.",
"-23.935119010609924"
],
[
"saying they have been paid to play the songs. \"For as little as $30, a band can buy 1,000 plays on the music-streaming service, slotted in between established artists. The artists themselves choose what other music they'd like to be played next to.\"",
"-23.7273301811656"
],
[
"You Write the Songs Format Each week three amateur songwriters had their original song performed by the shows regular singers, all of whom were alumni of Star Search, the songs were then judged by a rotating celebrity panel with the winners advancing toward a $100,000 grand prize.\nAmong the celebrities who appeared as judges were Smokey Robinson, Whitney Houston, Melissa Manchester, and Neil Sedaka. Host Ben Vereen",
"-23.699317989929114"
],
[
"site at least once every 60 days and renew their license by signing in or downloading a song, and the songs would work for sixty days after the last license renewal. In the event that the license should expire, it could always be renewed at a later date to restore function to the tracks. For songs that were on portable devices, the device had to be synced with a computer once every 60 days to keep the songs active. In addition to music, Spiralfrog had 5000+ music videos also available for free at 300kbit/s streaming or 1000kbit/s if",
"-23.477281124680303"
],
[
"the time, compared to iTunes, the average listener spends $60 annually on music, whereas Spotify Premium users spend twice that amount. According to Wallach in 2012: \"The growth of the platform is proportional to the royalty pay out, and since inception, we’ve already doubled the effective per play rate.\" Thom Yorke In July 2013, Radiohead singer Thom Yorke and producer Nigel Godrich removed their band Atoms for Peace and Yorke's solo music from Spotify. In a tweet, Yorke stated: \"Make no mistake—new artists you discover on #Spotify will not get paid. Meanwhile, shareholders will shortly be rolling in it. Simples.\"",
"-23.288451672939118"
],
[
"royalty payments for the songs he had written. He testified that he had not been paid any royalties between 1989 and 2009. A jury in Los Angeles awarded him $5 million in damages in January 2015, but in December the award was overturned because, the appellate court ruled, the trial judge had not told the jury to take into account the fact Stone had assigned his royalties to a production company in exchange for a 50% ownership stake. In May 2016, Stone's attorneys appealed that decision. Personal life Stone married model-actress Kathy Silva on June 5, 1974 during a sold-out",
"-23.248805886498303"
],
[
"job revolves around music clearance alone.\nWhen it comes to royalty collections, a music supervisor will sometimes be in charge of arranging this source of the selected artist's revenue. Royalties for music placements are paid out by Performance Rights Organizations (such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC in the United States). In order to detect the placements an artist has made with visual media, these companies need to be aware of their placement. Depending on the type of project (ad placement, television show, etc.). the music supervisor will have to either make sure the artist is credited properly, send video clips of",
"-23.223977986563114"
],
[
"offer songwriting diplomas and degrees with music business modules. Since songwriting and publishing royalties can be substantial sources of income, particularly if a song becomes a hit record; legally, in the US, songs written after 1934 may be copied only by the authors. The legal power to grant these permissions may be bought, sold or transferred. This is governed by international copyright law.\nSongwriters can be employed to write either the lyrics or the music directly for or alongside a performing artist, or they present songs to A&R, publishers, agents and managers for consideration. Song pitching can be done on a",
"-23.190837379719596"
],
[
"ten mediocre songs. And with our schedules and Roger’s studio, going in to bust out five songs at a time keeps the frequency of music into the fan’s hands at a peak.\"",
"-23.1604191455408"
],
[
"$200,000, averaging $18,000 for each of the eleven songs which were included on Loud; the camp consisted of forty writers and producers. Daniels confirmed that Rock City received $15,000 and Sham $20,000 for their part in the production of \"Man Down\". He said that \"to get that twelve minutes of inspiration from a top songwriting team is expensive — even before you take into account the fee for the songwriters\". A cost of $53,000 for \"Man Down\" was already incurred prior to Rihanna entering the studio with a vocal producer. Although Makeba Riddick did not serve as the song's vocal",
"-23.029175011635743"
],
[
"each day would start at twelve PM, and last until six. Some songs were played ten times, while some others had two or three versions made, but usually the first take was chosen to be featured on the final product. The only tracks that were done in one take were \"Backwell\" and \"Battery Point\". Barrow said about the lyric writing, \"I never wrote anything down. And what you hear is what happened in the [recording] room. Non-traditional vocals, really. I’m not a very lyrical person, and I’m definitely not a singer. I felt a little weird about it.\" The album",
"-23.023110161389923"
],
[
"to have their work performed by adventurous musicians specifically looking to champion new music. While a constraint, the one-minute miniature format allows for the composer to write a short composition with greater ease than a longer work. Fifteen Minutes of Fame encourages experimentation and opportunities to write for instrumentation that are not commonly available. With the significantly larger number of works selected being 15 and the frequency Fifteen Minutes of Fame is produced, it becomes a huge resource for composers to have their work played and receive greater exposure.\nThe one-minute miniatures for Fifteen-Minutes-of-Fame are written by composers from all over",
"-22.99069750623312"
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[
"license agreeing to pay us royalties and I thought the problem was solved. Over the years we have had legal action concerning the song, but today, that is over, and the song is now acknowledged to be Preston Foster's.\n Again according to Rabinowitz, royalties from the song amounted to between $20,000 and $30,000 a year in the 2000s. He said \"Every six months I send Preston a check... He's basically still making a living from this song.\" Foster later set up GetIt Records in Jamaica, New York, and released singles under his own name and",
"-22.957693658981952"
],
[
"staff writer effectively means that, during the term of the songwriter's contract with the publisher, all their songs are automatically published by that company and cannot be published elsewhere.\nIn the Nashville country music scene, there is a strong staff writer culture where contracted writers work normal \"9-to-5\" hours at the publishing office and are paid a regular salary. This salary is in effect the writer's \"draw\", an advance on future earnings, which is paid on a monthly basis and enables them to live within a fixed budget. The publisher owns the copyright of songs written during the term of the",
"-22.946829644584795"
],
[
"of new material that had never been published before. The authors and composers of these songs were paid as much as $7.00 for each song, which would be the only monetary compensation that they would get.",
"-22.92353035241831"
],
[
"award is given to song with the largest increase in detections. A song with six or more spins in its first week is awarded an \"airplay add\". If a song is tied for the most spins in the same week, the one with the biggest increase that previous week will rank higher, but if both songs show the same amount of spins regardless of detection the song that is being played at more stations is ranked higher. Songs that fall below the top 20 and have been on the chart after 26 weeks are removed and go to recurrent status.",
"-22.803428055893164"
],
[
"three months of the year and is in high rotation, it would often peak higher than a song that had been in medium rotation for a number of months. However, if a popular song is only in low to medium rotation during the later part of the year, it would often chart very low or not at all on the year end countdown, only to appear very high on the countdown of the following year. Public Controversy On August 28, 1987, Epic Records sued WHTZ for playing Michael Jackson's song \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\" the day before",
"-22.686182783843833"
],
[
"new music on Fridays since Global Release Day on July 10, 2015. The final weekly charts are published on the Monday following the previous tracking week. (For example, for a tracking week beginning on Friday, January 1 and ending on Thursday, January 7, the final weekly charts would be published on Monday, January 11.)\nA song must be sold for at least $0.49 for that sale to be logged for a given tracking week; units sold for less than the minimum price requirement in the first three months of release will not be considered for weekly charts. A \"song unit\" is",
"-22.641894724569283"
],
[
"in a year and a half or two years upward of a half-million dollars\". Some of the former attendees who have gone on to writes successful songs include: Jon Vezner (Where've You Been – Kathy Mattea); Tia Sillers (I Hope You Dance – LeAnn Womack); Barry Dean (Pontoon – Little Big Town); and Lance Carpenter (Love Me Like You Mean It – Kelsea Ballerini). Festival sponsors Sponsors of the event have included American Songwriter Magazine, Folk Alliance International, corporate donors and performing-rights organizations such as BMI, SESAC and ASCAP. NSAI Senior Director of Operations Jennifer Turnbow said, \"We offer artistic",
"-22.616127976492862"
],
[
"track from that tour to receive an official release.\nIn December 2006, Record Collector magazine ranked Songs by George Harrison 122nd in its list of \"The 250 Most Valuable Records of Our Time\", with an estimated value of £800 for the book and disc set. Dale Allison describes it as \"obscure, hard-to-get, and very expensive\".",
"-22.547354486305267"
],
[
"Lyricist Royalties A lyricist's income derives from royalties received from original songs. Royalties may range from 50% of the song if it was written primarily with the composer, or less if they wrote the song in collaboration. Songs are automatically copyrighted as soon as they are in tangible forms, such as a recording or sheet music. However, before a song is published or made public, its author or publisher should register it with the Copyright Office at the U.S. Library of Congress to better protect against copyright infringement. Collaboration Collaboration takes different forms. Some composers and lyricists work closely together",
"-22.43597663450055"
],
[
"untrue, full stop [...] We pay royalties -- sound and publishing -- for all tracks on Spotify, and for everything we playlist. We do not own rights, we’re not a label, all our music is licensed from rightsholders and we pay them -- we don’t pay ourselves\". However, in another report, the Music Business Worldwide publication discussed the situation, including the artists' lack of social media profiles, lack of managers, lawyers and industry relationships, the listing of owning all their own rights, the lack of appearance on other streaming services, Spotify's denial to comment regarding questions of the artists' frequent",
"-22.391846580430865"
],
[
"million performances list and received an award for selling a million copies of sheet music. The song was also covered by Curtis Mayfield among many others.\n\"Times of Your Life\", written with Lane and performed by Paul Anka, had reached number one on the Adult Contemporary chart (3–10 January 1976).\nAnother Nichols-Williams song, \"Out in the Country\" by Three Dog Night (later covered by R.E.M.), reached the Top Ten. Six months later, \"Rainy Days and Mondays\" was another gold record by The Carpenters and Nichols' third gold record in a single year.\nOther hits were The Carpenters' \"I Won't Last a Day Without",
"-22.336656001250958"
],
[
"statutes which would have classified all \"sound recordings\" as \"works for hire\", effectively assigning artists' copyrights to record labels.\nBook authors may sell their copyright to the publisher. Alternatively, they might receive as a royalty a certain amount per book sold. It is common in the UK for example, for authors to receive a 10% royalty on book sales.\nSome photographers and musicians may choose to publish their works for a one-time payment. This is known as a royalty-free license. Based on net receipts Methods of calculating royalties changed during the 1980s, due to the rise of retail chain booksellers, which demanded",
"-22.321202274237294"
],
[
"adopted a simple formula of a 2.5% royalty rate multiplied by the amount of revenue generated by the performance of musical works from ASCAP's repertory. For Yahoo!, the district court took into account the fact that musical performances did not account for all of the revenue generated by its website. It thus estimated a \"music-use-adjustment factor\" (MUAF), consisting of the amount of time users spent streaming music divided by the amount of time all of Yahoo!'s online services were used. The court then multiplied the MUAF by Yahoo!'s total revenue in order to estimate the total revenue generated from musical",
"-22.3070520341862"
],
[
"Thomas), was present during the sessions, and stated that a writing camp typically involves the label hiring ten recording studios for two weeks at the cost of $25,000 per day. Daniels revealed that it is where songwriters have lyrics but no music, and where producers have music but no lyrics.\nSinger-songwriters and producers Taio Cruz, Alex da Kid, Sean Garrett, Ne-Yo, Rico Love, Timbaland, Shontelle, David Guetta, and Drake contributed to the album. \"DJ Got Us Fallin' in Love\" was written for Rihanna, but the song was rejected and was subsequently sent to Usher. With regard to \"What's My Name?\", Rihanna",
"-22.27279966488277"
],
[
"its second week, and spent five further weeks in the top 100 singles. In total, the single spent a total of ten weeks in the top 200 singles. Seven month after its release, the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for more than 100,000 paid downloads (excluding cellphone downloads).",
"-22.25883192392962"
],
[
"carefully disclaimed by the record companies so as to not violate payola laws and the playing of the song, as it is paid for, cannot be applied to song popularity charts, as has happened in the early 2000s with some forms of this concept. Brokered time through agencies Oftentimes broadcasters will seek the help of an ad agency to secure a brokered radio show. Agencies such as I Buy Time in Dallas, Texas or Bayliss Media Group in Los Angeles, California have the knowledge on how to negotiate a lower per-hour rate than what may be quoted by the radio",
"-22.25785082837683"
],
[
"Music for help generating the resources necessary to produce the record, ultimately raising $5k USD from fans (15% of the money received after the $5k goal was reached went to the charity Food From the Heart) and further funding the project with $20k SGD of her own money.\nIn an interview with Music Weekly, Bevlyn explained the album's concept: “I realised that the majority of my songs are usually inspired by the people I know in my life, as opposed to ‘fiction-writing’. The songs were inspired by my friends who practically grew up together with me (“Touch Of An Angel”), songwriting",
"-22.241026202915236"
],
[
"the BBC reported that \"Yesterday\" remained the fourth most successful song of all-time in terms of royalties paid, having amassed a total of £19.5 million in payments.",
"-22.236991147277877"
],
[
"final recording, at the time of The Key: \nIt takes me very little time to write the song. Ten, fifteen minutes at the most. But to arrange the song, I need to take all day. The song is written with whatever rhythm I've come up with, and I put the arrangement on top of that. I can keep it a little more to what I think it should be than if I allowed somebody else to do it. I sit at home with my little Portastudio, and I work up the bass part, record it; work up the guitar part,",
"-22.208916603238322"
],
[
"and can be a maximum of up to two hours in length.\nIn September 2016, Spotify introduced Daily Mix, a series of (up to six) playlists that have \"near endless playback\" and mixes the user's favourite tracks with new, recommended songs. New users can access Daily Mix after approximately two weeks of listening to music through Spotify. Daily Mixes were only available on the Android and iOS mobile apps at launch, but the feature was later expanded to Spotify's computer app in December 2016.\nIn July 2018, Spotify introduced a new beta feature that gives artists, labels and teams an easy way",
"-22.18008345113776"
],
[
"song receives 20% of the votes, thus it will receive 20% of the available points. The public vote will count for 50% of the final result, while the other 50% will come from the professional juries.",
"-22.177840411197394"
],
[
"and the Nokia Music Store, all of which charged users a monthly fee. The data that these services supplied was compiled into a record chart of the 500 most-played tracks—each week also featured top-line market statistics.\nWhen first launched, the Official Subscription Plays Chart tracked between 3 million and 3.5 million digital plays per week (with a weekly average of more than 3.2 million), across a library of approximately 340,000 unique tracks. The first song to top the chart was \"I Kissed a Girl\" by Katy Perry. As well as songs that were charting high in the companion UK Singles Chart,",
"-22.172297005425207"
],
[
"the most streams received by a song in a single day by a female artist on Spotify, with 8.19 million streams globally, and continued to break this record daily until November 9, when it received 9.6 million streams. The record was broken by Mariah Carey's \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" the following month. \"Thank U, Next\" surpassed 100 million streams in Spotify eleven days after its release on November 14, 2018, becoming the fastest song to do so, until Grande's next single, ”7 Rings” broke the record again reaching 100 million streams on Spotify nine days after the",
"-22.141704188485164"
],
[
"later made the album available to stream on competing services. In July 2017, West terminated his contract with Tidal, claiming that the service owed him $3 million. Finances and royalties One artist has stated that artist royalties per track from Aspiro/Tidal are currently over three times than those paid by Spotify, but that royalties may decrease to provide a sufficient return on investment. Jay-Z commented in an interview to Billboard that artists would be paid more by being streamed on Tidal than with Spotify, stating \"Will artists make more money? Even if it means less profit for our bottom line?",
"-22.050693980650976"
],
[
"Radio (Robbie Williams song) Chart performance \"Radio\" became Williams' sixth number one single in the UK Singles Chart, selling 41,734 in its first week. To date the song has sold 100,000 copies in the UK. The song also topped the charts in Portugal and Denmark and reached the top ten across Europe and Latin America. In Australia, the single charted at number twelve and after seven weeks on the charts, the single was certified Gold.\nThe song was Williams's last UK number-one for eight years until \"Candy\" took the top spot in November 2012.",
"-22.047901025194733"
],
[
"work out the song before all nine notes are revealed - then the prize for that round is lost and the players go on to the next round.\nThe cash values for correctly identifying the song in the first three rounds are $300 in round 1, $600 in round 2, and $1,200 in round 3, with a maximum possible total of $2,100. The team with the most money at the end of the game wins the game and goes on to play for double their main game cash winnings. Bonus round The winning team attempts to win double their cash winnings",
"-22.045098374481313"
],
[
"Songs chart in the same week and spent a total of three weeks on the chart.",
"-22.010187005194894"
],
[
"commented that it was just because \"we're cheaper\". Although exact figures are not known, Les Watkins, a music lawyer from Los Angeles, estimated that \"a song by an emerging artist could fetch up to $20,000 or $30,000\" and this is jointly split between record label and the songwriter/publisher. He stated that \"once lawyers, managers, and the rest of the entourage get their piece, the artist may only see a fraction of the payout.\" The Bait Shop The Bait Shop is introduced in the second season as a new night club and concert venue on the pier. It was an undeniable",
"-21.974675175377342"
],
[
"the way of music, jingles and advertising.\" But she says it took nearly a decade, when her son's friends from school came to her door to meet her, for the song's popularity to fully sink in.\nIn the 1970s, CBC began using the tune as the standard introduction for the show and Claman was entitled to music-use licence payments of between $2,000 and $10,000 each year. After she was advised by her agent in 1993 to license the song, she earned approximately $500 per broadcast. Legal action In November 2004, Dolores Claman and her publisher initiated legal action against CBC for",
"-21.93356077745557"
],
[
"stating in a 2009 interview with the PhillyBurbs online newspaper: \"I cannot write songs on a nine-to-five basis. At the risk of sounding pretentious, my songs come from somewhere else and I have to wait for them, so it's not up to me when I receive them. When the songs start to come, they all come at the same time. I may get 20 songs in three to four days and then it all stops again.\" 2000–2003: Return to music (Man, Hometown 2001, Aquarian Nation & the It Bites reunion) In 2000, inspired by watching a televised Shakti concert (featuring",
"-21.891269417799776"
],
[
"from an on-screen list.\nA music ringtone feature was introduced in the United States on September 5, 2007. Users can create custom ringtones from songs purchased from the iTunes Store for a small additional fee. The ringtones can be three to 30 seconds long from any part of a song, can fade in and out, pause from half a second to five seconds when looped, or loop continuously. All customizing can be done in iTunes, or with Apple's GarageBand software 4.1.1 or later (available only on Mac OS X) or third-party tools.\nWith the release of iOS 6, which was released on",
"-21.88022613004432"
],
[
"carefully to make Spotify the most artist-friendly company that has ever existed. ... We’re very interested in a high level of letting artists directly connect to their fans and manage that relationship and deliver value to their fans, and vice versa. We want to do that really elegantly, at a scale that's never existed before.\nIn a June interview with Hypebot, Wallach reported that $180 million of royalties was paid out in 2011 and 70% of Spotify's revenue consisted of royalty payments. Spotify's growth meant that the per-stream royalty rate doubled between the service's inception and mid-2012. He said that, at",
"-21.85951701333397"
],
[
"such as Cherry Garcia (Jerry Garcia), One Sweet Whirled (Dave Matthews Band) and Phish Food (Phish). All royalties from the sale of \"If I Had 1,000,000 Flavours\" are donated to the ABC Canada Literacy Foundation, a Toronto-based organization that promotes reading to children at home. Live performances Several live changes have been common in performances. The post-chorus banters mentioned earlier are ad libbed at every performance and far more lengthy than the album versions. Due to these banters, the song is typically the longest song in a concert (it typically falls at the end of the main set or as",
"-21.839569517644122"
],
[
"Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2017 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2017, the list was published on December 11, calculated with data from December 3, 2016 to November 25,",
"-21.767014762503095"
],
[
"from revenue of $244 million, while it was expected to generate a net loss of $40 million from revenue of $500 million in 2012.\nAnother source of income was music purchases from within the app. This service was removed in January 2013.\nIn May 2016, Spotify announced \"Sponsored Playlists\", a monetisation opportunity in which brands are able to specify the audiences they have in mind, with Spotify matching the marketer with suitable music in a playlist.\nThat September, Spotify announced that it had paid a total of over $5 billion to the music industry. In June 2017, as part of renegotiated licenses with",
"-21.762382216984406"
],
[
"Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2016 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2016, the list was published on December 8, calculated with data from December 5, 2015 to November 26,",
"-21.75649757883002"
],
[
"UK Singles Chart. All royalty proceeds from the first month of the single's release were donated to the BRIT Trust charity.\nSheet music for the Florence and the Machine version of You Got The Love was published by Wise Publications in the Florence and the Machine 'Lungs' songbook on 3 November 2009. Further productions \"Rock the House\", which sampled the vocals of Miami house artist Nicole, entered the Top 75 of the UK Singles Chart in 1991. Other notable The Source productions include 'Sanctuary of Love', released on Hooj Choons in 1993, and 'Clouds', a cover of the Chaka Khan track,",
"-21.751999783169595"
],
[
"and replenishes over time, when stamina drink items are used, or when paid items called Star Jewels are used.\nAt the end of each song, a result screen is displayed to player, and his or her performance is rated with a letter grade, a numerical score, and a percentage that represents his or her accuracy. The player is awarded an amount of in-game money for his or her performance, while each idol also receive a number of fans and affection points. Affection points are specific to each specific idol, and by reaching the maximum possible value, the individual idol's statistics points",
"-21.74118739090045"
],
[
"1988. At $1,000 a day, it was the most the band had paid to record an album up to that point, but it was close to where members Moore, Kim Gordon and Lee Ranaldo lived.\nDue to the amount of preparation the band put into composing its music, the recording process was largely efficient. The session became rushed near the end, as Paul Smith, head of the band's British label Blast First, had set a mastering date of August 18. As a result of the time pressure, Gordon was not happy with some of her resulting vocal takes. The band spent",
"-21.7356384160812"
],
[
"as good an illustration as any of the profound simplicity of Williams' love songs. An embryonic version of the song exists as a lyric sheet in the Alabama Department of Archives and History with words quite dissimilar to the finished recording, suggesting that songwriting wasn't quite the spontaneous act that Williams later made it out to be in interviews; in 1952 he declared to Pathfinder, \"People don't write music. It's given to you; you sit there and wait and it comes to you. If a song takes longer than thirty minutes or an hour, I usually throw it",
"-21.709305299795233"
],
[
"of Russia, and Time magazine of the U.S. Rolling Stone noted that Spotify still streams the Cage composition 4′33″—a performance piece in which musicians refrain from playing their instruments.\nA similar concept emerged in June 2015 via a website known as Eternify, by the band Ohm & Sport, which allowed users to play the first 30 seconds of any Spotify song on a loop, thus accumulating royalty payments for the artist. Royalties and Sleepify Tour On July 22, 2014, Billboard reported that Vulfpeck received royalty payments totaling $19,655 with an additional $1,100 forthcoming. The payment calculation was based on a rate",
"-21.696489059948362"
],
[
"years for musical compositions with or without lyrics. \nThis article was codified as article L. 123-4 of the Intellectual property code in 1992. \nIn 1997, the exploitation right term of posthumous works was reduced to 25 years, if the work was first made available to the public after the 70 years following the year of the author's death, as a consequence of the implementation of the EU Directive 93/98/EEC. However, Article 10 of that directive states that : where a term of protection, which is longer than the corresponding term provided for by this Directive, is already running in a Member",
"-21.675630039622774"
],
[
"Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2018 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2018, the list was published on December 4, calculated with data from December 2, 2017 to November 17,",
"-21.668908847495914"
],
[
"Billboard Music Award Awards process Unlike other awards, such as the Grammy Award, which determine nominations as a result of the highest votes received by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, the Billboard Music Awards finalists are based on album and digital songs sales, streaming, radio airplay, touring, and social engagement. These measurements are tracked year-round by Billboard and its data partners, including \nNielsen Music and Next Big Sound. The 2018 awards are based on the reporting period of April 8, 2017 through March 31, 2018. Awards are given for the top album, artist and single in a",
"-21.66299376278039"
],
[
"20 singles. Hipgnosis Songs Fund Mercuriadis is the founder of Hipgnosis Songs Fund Limited, a music IP investment company. In a 2019 interview with the journal Thought Economics, he said: \"I have always believed that hit songs and music, art in general, has real value to it. What people don’t really recognise is that when a song becomes a proven song, the earnings pattern to it becomes very predictable and reliable, and is therefore investable. And these songs are as valuable as gold, or oil.\" The company raised more than US $300 million to fund the acquisition of",
"-21.651554024399957"
],
[
"Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2015 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2015, the list was published on December 9, calculated with data from December 6, 2014 to November 28,",
"-21.64488104992779"
],
[
"on an impulse; I write it as I feel it. If I was just writing bullshit songs trying to make a hit, yeah, I could give you a song six months in advance. Nigga, I'm doing my album in a month's time. I'm writing it...recording it, going to write another one, really feeling the music for some months and then go in the studio for like a month and a half and do it. Everybody don't work like that.\"\nIn July 2013, Tech elaborated further on how the quick schedule for his albums kept him from securing features he wanted on",
"-21.623050600923307"
],
[
"2011, users have to register for free to listen to a song, otherwise just a 30-second preview is provided. Registration is also required for advanced features such as making playlists, and purchasing music. Due to technical problems, however, a small minority of visitors are getting full tracks for nothing.\nThe site also has an editorial section titled the 'Magazine', which has featured interviews with artists and occasionally runs competitions, such as the recent Metro Station competition. Financial performance On 6 October 2010, We7 posted losses of £3.6 million. The company claimed that market conditions, the collapse of the banking sector and",
"-21.601665939146187"
],
[
"by three copyright royalty judges. Though the compulsory license allows one to make and distribute physical copies of a song for a set royalty, the owner of the copyright in the underlying musical composition can still control public performance of the work or transmission over the radio. If the underlying musical work is well known, the work can be licensed for public performance through a performance rights organization such as ASCAP, BMI, or SESAC.\nAccording to Register of Copyrights, Marybeth Peters, use of the section 115 license prior to the 1995 enactment of the Digital Performance Right in Sound Recordings Act",
"-21.59334784693783"
],
[
"of royalties within the firm), or all rights to the song were purchased outright for a flat fee (including rights to put someone else's name on the sheet music as the composer). An extraordinary number of Jewish East European immigrants became the music publishers and song writers on Tin Pan Alley – the most famous being Irving Berlin. Songwriters who became established producers of successful songs were hired to be on the staff of the music houses.\n\"Song pluggers\" were pianists and singers who represented the music publishers, making their living demonstrating songs to promote sales of sheet music. Most music",
"-21.554513872571988"
],
[
"to this CD. I'm not about to give you only three songs worth listening to. $15 is lunch money for a lot of kids. With Witness Tha Realest, I'm a holla at you. I'm going to give you something that you can knock for a while man … value for your dollar is long overdue in today's music market.\nWitness Tha Realest Mixtape, was released in November 2006 which consisted of some leftovers from the original Witness Tha Realest studio album scheduled for release on July 15, 2004. This, however, changed due to the absence of a distribution company.\nTha Realest worked",
"-21.541984107272583"
],
[
"long, long, long ago.\" Background and release \"The Last Song I'll Write for You\" was written by Cook, Andy Skib, and Daniel James, and was produced by John Fields. It was released to digital retailers on May 4, 2012 before Cook premiered the song on the May 10, 2012 episode of the eleventh season of American Idol. Commercial performance The single sold 15,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting and peaking at number 45 on the Billboard Pop Digital Songs chart. Critical reception Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly says \"the slow-burn hook on this self-released breakup ballad is",
"-21.53299179134774"
],
[
"form. ... Any sound or visual recording shall be considered as a reproduction for the purposes of this Convention. This means a composer has performing rights and control over how derivative works should be used, and the rights are retained at least 50 years after death, or even longer. Even if a song is a traditional arrangement in the public domain, performing rights can still be violated. Where they exist, performers rights may have a shorter duration than full copyright; for example, the Rome Convention sets a minimum term of twenty years after the performance. This created a market for bootleg",
"-21.510783154517412"
],
[
"songs without approval. Firrantello was seeking punitive damages of at least US$1 million and asked that no further copies of the songs be made, sold or performed.",
"-21.44559435217525"
],
[
"modulations.\"\nThe single scores an average of 4.50 out of 5 on Rate Your Music.",
"-21.44112095591845"
],
[
"Plow to the End of the Row Overview After attending Belmont University in Nashville, Young worked for two years in various jobs on Music Row. \"No one was interested in my music\", she says. \"I was working in the music business offices, and everyone around me was doing what they wanted to do. It was driving me crazy because I knew I could do it, but you can't save up the money to do a record when you're making seven or eight bucks an hour\". Young was also determined to retain ownership of the rights to",
"-21.436135403317166"
],
[
"song was released every week. Unlike other records, they were sold at newsstands. Previous issues could be obtained by mail order. Retailing for 15 cents each, later raised to 20 cents, Hit of the Week records were by far the lowest-priced records in the US at that time.\nThe first regular issue was released in February 1930. By the summer of 1930, up to half a million copies of each week's issue were produced. But as the Depression worsened, sales slumped. In March 1931 the company went into receivership and in May it was purchased by the Erwin, Wasey & Company",
"-21.428548002964817"
],
[
"producer, Daniels cited her as an example of how the process works and how much she would charge. It is the responsibility of the vocal producer to tell a singer how to sing the song correctly to achieve the desired sound. Daniels said that Riddick's fee varies from $10,000 to $15,000, and that the final part of the process is for the song to be mixed and mastered, which incurs a similar fee. He estimated the final cost of writing, producing, vocal producing, mixing and mastering \"Man Down\" to be $78,000. When combined with the marketing and promotional costs, the",
"-21.42612082848791"
],
[
"album art to all users. Limit on music library Spotify limits users' music libraries to 10,000 songs. This has caused negative publicity on several occasions and \"years of user complaints\". Derek Mead of Motherboard wrote in March 2016 that the limit was \"insane\", and suggested that Spotify, after raising \"another billion dollars\" in funding, should \"fix the service's most asinine limitation\". Chris Welch of The Verge wrote in May 2017 that \"It’s time for Spotify to stop capping how much music you can save\", further questioning \"Why is there such an arbitrary cap?\" Welch's article also highlighted the \"thousands of",
"-21.421051317622187"
],
[
"raise $7,000 to enter upon earning a Masters of Music in composition and work with David Lang for a year. The project dates ran from August 2011 to May 2012.",
"-21.407502555055544"
],
[
"breakthrough, Wilson had taken over from his father Murry, and he was the sole producer of all their recordings between 1963 and 1967.\nA beatmaker is a songwriter who creates and composes music or beats for a song, often laying the groundwork or 'musical bed'. Then a composer who specializes in melody will create the top-line for the track. Tools typically used are keyboards, drum machines, softsynths and digital audio workstations. Beat makers or composers aren't necessarily record producers by definition or acting role since they generally do not work directly with an artist in a recording studio that oversees the",
"-21.39756073403987"
],
[
"Write You a Song Chart performance The album debuted at No. 14 on the Billboard 200 chart, and No. 3 on the Top Country Albums chart, with 17,000 copies sold in its debut week. As of February 2016, the album has sold 85,000 copies in the U.S.",
"-21.37242601532489"
],
[
"been working on another song, which was held back from inclusion on the record as he felt that it was not sufficiently complete. The song \"Good Vibrations\" set a new standard for musicians and for what could be achieved in the recording studio. Recorded in multiple sessions and in numerous studios, the song eventually cost $50,000 (equivalent to $386,103 in 2018) to record within a six-month period. In October 1966, it was released as a single, giving the Beach Boys their third US number-one hit after \"I Get Around\" and \"Help Me, Rhonda\". It sold over a million copies.\nSometime after",
"-21.354673554189503"
],
[
"who pays them via annual fees to the performing rights societies, not the producer who uses the music in their production.\nSome companies offer truly royalty-free music which is not registered with any performance rights organisation (also known as \"royalty collection agencies\"). These companies license music to their customers on a non-exclusive basis where it can be used in perpetuity without any usage reporting. The music is licensed by the customers according to an accepted license agreement, and they cannot sell it or license it to others. Because of advancing technology, it is becoming easier for independent musicians to set up",
"-21.34606776406872"
],
[
"music stores, Andy announced that he would donate all of the royalties he earned off of the track to cancer research in Olivia's name.",
"-21.32576178779709"
],
[
"Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2005 The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by Billboard magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical and digital sales, as well as airplay and streaming. At the end of a year, Billboard will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2005, the list was published on December 20, calculated with data from December 4, 2004 to November 26,",
"-21.317024293355644"
],
[
"Cross Sylvester Cross, president of American Music, Inc. published thousands of songs during the 1940s, in most cases for a fee of about $60. Although the company was charging songwriters to record and publish their music, they did have hundreds of hit songs. Sylvester Cross a real estate developer by trade ran American Music as his secondary business. After his death his wife quickly sold his publishing company to Hill and Range Songs. Artists Among the artists who recorded for the label were Jewel Akens, Eddie Cochran, Carol Kaye, Bobby Edwards, Jimmy Bowen, Tom Tall, Donna Loren, Bob Denton, Terry",
"-21.297248591843527"
],
[
"his liking. He began cutting classes and taking the train up to Tin Pan Alley, where he tried to get some of his songs heard by local music publishers. In his senior year, when he was just 10 units short of graduation, Sunbeam Music Publishing offered him a 16-week job writing songs for $50 a week (equivalent to about US$414 per week, in 2018 dollars), and he dropped out of college to accept it. The 1960s After his 16 weeks at Sunbeam Music were up, he was not rehired, and began writing and singing his own songs for demo purposes.",
"-21.287770752125653"
],
[
"the official World Music Awards website, the award is rare; it is \"not presented every year\" and an artist can be presented with the award only for selling \"over 100 million albums during their career\". 2003–2007: A New Day... In early 2002, Dion announced a three-year, 600-show contract to appear five nights a week in an entertainment extravaganza, A New Day..., at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas. This move was generally seen as risky, but journalist Miriam Nunzio wrote that it was \"one of the smartest business decisions in years by any major recording artist\". Dion conceived the",
"-21.27795222252462"
],
[
"Hits, \"he told the idea to his music publisher, Freddy Bienstock, who was visiting him in Germany... Mr. Bienstock, who many times found songwriters for Presley, returned to his New York office, where he found songwriters, Mr. [Aaron] Schroeder and Wally Gold, the only people in that day. The two wrote lyrics in half an hour. Selling more than 20 million records, the song became number one in countries all around and was Presley's best selling single ever... a song [they] finished in 20 minutes to a half hour was the biggest song of [their] career.\"\nBarry White credited this song",
"-21.27387554832967"
],
[
"song are the life of Jesus, thankfulness, and worship. Composition \"Here I Am to Worship\" is a slow worship ballad with a length of five minutes and fifteen seconds. The song is set in common time and has a tempo of 75 beats per minute. It is written in the key E Major. The verses follow the chord progression E - B - F♯m - A - E - B - A, the chorus follows the progression E - B - C♯m - A, and the bridge follows the progression B - E - A.\nThis song has been re-written in",
"-21.2540864974726"
],
[
"Billboard Music Award for Top Selling Song The Billboard Music Award for Top Selling Song winners and nominees. As of 2018, no artist has won the award multiple times.",
"-21.2443408499621"
],
[
"does not alter the sound of the note. There are also no freestyle drum fills in the songs for activating Beatlemania; instead the player continues to perform the correct note sequence before being presented with a note to activate Beatlemania.\nThroughout the song, players receive points for every note hit, and this is totalled up and displayed at the end of the song, along with a percentage of how many notes they hit, and a rating: 1 to 5 stars. If the score is close to perfect, normally requiring at least 98% of the notes, the rating is five 'gold' stars,",
"-21.24368589176447"
],
[
"Billboard Music Award for Top Radio Songs Artist The Billboard Music Award for Top Radio Songs Artist winners and nominees. Rihanna has won the award the most times.",
"-21.22419039079614"
],
[
"songs were previewed on both Wogan and on BBC Radio 2. 182 songs were submitted and at no time during the judging phase were the names of either the composers, authors or publishers divulged.\nOn the first listening phase, 7 sessions at 26 songs per session were heard. Every song entered was played for 150 seconds each and voted upon. Eight judges comprising music publishers' professional staff and members of the record buying public represented by staff of PRS and MCPS. When adding the votes, the MPA office checked whether any member of the panel had any interest in the songs",
"-21.215661102382"
],
[
"a proposal to do so in exchange for a fee. The early 20th century versions of this business involved setting the words to music and printing up sheet music from inexpensively engraved plates.\nIn producing the recordings, musicians often recorded dozens of songs per recording session using minimal resources, often in one take. Some of the companies recorded new vocals over pre-recorded music backing tracks, using the same music tracks hundreds of times. The recordings were then duplicated on 45 RPM vinyl singles or on individual cassette tapes, or they were released on compilation LPs with dozens of other songs by",
"-21.206933833367657"
],
[
"6 months, last year or overall. Main problems and uprising solutions Since the generated music charts depend on what the users register and on the tags from their music files, Last.fm made up a system based on the listens of the users which corrects a song's tag if it differs from what most people registered. On the other hand, the system has errors, like not noticing the difference between two artists with the same name or not taking track length into consideration. Artists with many short tracks will have many more listens than artists with a few but very long",
"-21.183632582309656"
],
[
"(music users), and only to registered members of the society. Royalties are paid twice per year for the preceding year. After music users submit logs and playlists to JACAP, these are used to ascertain the rights owners in the works who are then compensated for the use of their creation through the fees collected. JACAP pays over royalties after administration expenses are deducted. To date, JACAP has paid out over $180 million to members International reciprocal agreements JACAP has reciprocal agreements with its overseas affiliates and through these agreements represents over 2 million creators of music. JACAP members",
"-21.158241905039176"
],
[
"is missed. After successfully completing a song, the performance of each player and the band as a whole is rated on a 5-star scale. The best performance by a player for each song in the player's library is tracked separately based on instrument, Basic or Pro mode, and difficulty, then is used to provide and compare leaderboard statistics at the end of the song.\nThe overall goal of the band is to successfully complete a song and earn as many points as possible by using their selected controllers to play the notes shown on the screen at the proper time; or,",
"-21.11420221424487"
],
[
"label make their music available to download for free, and invite listeners to make a small donation if they want to. Between donations and ticket sales for live shows, Quote Unquote Records has been successfully recording music and expanding the number of bands on their label for the past twelve years. Where does the money come from Proposals have included targeted levies on internet connections, blank CDs, digital media players, etc. (many of these goods are levied various countries' existing private copying schemes); income taxation; or optional payments by users.\nIn terms of economic theory, consumer \"opt in\" regimes are very",
"-21.101737408549525"
],
[
"sometimes passed to other artists, who may wait months or years to record it, or just a hook from it, and all for the singer's own glory. The show tries to elevate the traditional role of the songwriter in the process of creating music from \"unpleasant secret\" to being the celebrated \"magic ingredient\".",
"-21.099688217422226"
]
] |
1alz8v | Why the name Richard is shortened into Dick? | [
"It was once popular to create rhyming nicknames. So Richard becomes Rick, which then becomes Dick. This is the same reason that William becomes Bill.",
"This question could have been answered by Google. There are lots of explanations. ELI5 is for asking questions where you've done the research but still don't understand the concept.",
"Have you ever met a Richard you've liked?",
"Richard here: I can verify that we're all dicks",
"My middle name is Dirk which is interchangable as Dick in the netherlands. And my first name is Ritch. So my name is actually Dick Dick?",
"Little off topic but why did people call John F. Kennedy; Jack Kennedy? How is Jack a nickname for John?",
"I know a guy whos legal name is Dick, He goes by Rich.",
"My name is Richard, but most people call me Rick. Only people who still find humor in the word \"dick\" call me Dick as a joke.",
"But how does Francisco get to Paco? I guess should know, but I don't.",
"I go by Ted but my real name is Edward, from some reason this puzzles people. I dont know why, you put a T in front of Ed and it's Ted",
"Theodore all the way to Ted seems like a weird one too. (Edward- > Ed- > Ted explains the OTHER Teds in the same vein as this post)",
"Another reason all these nicknames happened: At one point in England there were very few first names in use. Still, in England, they use phrases like \"our Arthur\" to distinguish the Arthur in your department from the three other Arthurs in the company. Anyway. If your wife is Elizabeth, your mother is Elizabeth, your sister is Elizabeth and your mother-in-law is Elizabeth (something like this happened) you need a quick way of keeping them straight. Liz, Eliza, Beth, Bess, and then the ones down the lane are Betsy, Lizzie, and so forth. Margaret, Maggie, Marge, Margie ... I imagine at some point you call a Margaret \"Peg\" because you're out of ideas. This theory also explains Mary- > Molly, John- > Jack and other such things. (source: somewhere in the book Longitude. It was something like a guy named John Smith with a wife, sister and mother named Elizabeth and a brother-in-law and father-in-law named John. )",
"[*\"And if someone asks to see it, I show 'em a little dick, Not my penis, the short guy named Richard, we call him Rick, (What up, Rick?) He's actually kind of a dick.\"*]( URL_0 )",
"Better question. If your name happens to be Richard, why choose to go with Dick? Like [this guy]( URL_0 )",
"My Mongolian friend, Batjargal, tells me the shorthand of his name (Bachka) is similar to the Richard/Dick shorthand",
"Here's a question, was the word 'dick' (meaning penis) around before the word 'dick' (meaning Richard)?",
"My name is WALOOON and I go by DICK."
] | [
[
"the original name in 2002 and Flintshire County Council reversed their renaming after a few weeks. Derivative meaning The word dick is used in the sense of \"nothing\", a figurative use of the sense \"penis\" (similar to the use of fuck and shit in a similar sense), as in \"Nowadays you don't mean dick to me\" (Amy Winehouse, 2008, cited by Green, 2008). Other slang Dick is used as a slang term for detective, as in \"Hiring a private dick to help locate her natural mother\" (The Guardian, 1999, cited by Green, 2008). This meaning may derive from the Gipsy",
"-29.60488618279851"
],
[
"what the German word \"dick\" meant in English. Heinz Ganss replied: \"large\". \"Oh\", replied the Welshman and paraphrased: \"king size\". Ganss stuck to that and thus his stage name remained \"King Size Dick\" ('big and fat'), with no intended phallic connotation. In the Colognian dialect, the German adjective dick [dɪk] translates to deck [dek²] as opposed to Dick which in Colognian, like in English, is also regarded a variation of the Christian name \"Richard\". Back home, his nickname and stage name remained \"Dick\", even in the Colognian dialect.",
"-28.298649764459697"
],
[
"people are at times given the nickname Dick, from the German adjective which means 'fat'. Another example of the use of the German adjective as a nickname is for the comedy duo of Laurel and Hardy, which Germans often refer to as \"Dick und Doof\", meaning 'fat and stupid'. Thus the adjective dick became a nickname for Ganss. During one of the social gatherings in Wales, someone asked Heinz Ganss his name. He replied \"Dick\", referring to the German adjective for 'fat', or 'large', or 'bigger'. The person who asked him presumed that this was a German word and asked",
"-25.345418414910682"
],
[
"Mr. Dick Mr. Dick, whose full name is Richard Babley, is a character in the Charles Dickens novel, David Copperfield. He has childish traits and an obsession with work on his memorial from which he is constantly distracted by thoughts of King Charles' head. He may represent Dickens' difficult role as the author of this work, which alluded to Dickens' own traumatic childhood.",
"-23.976231129030566"
],
[
"Dick is a rough character, a killer as evil as his name implies, like the other henchmen, and this is his rough solution to his perceived societal problem. There is some disagreement with the interpretation that one of Shakespeare's sympathetic characters would make a joke suggesting that killing lawyers would make the world better. Henry VI, Part 2, Act IV, Scene 2 JACK CADE. Valiant I am.\nSMITH [aside]. A must needs; for beggary is valiant.\nJACK CADE. I am able to endure much.\nDICK [aside]. No question of that; for I have seen him whipp'd three market-days together.\nJACK CADE. I fear",
"-23.808536262871712"
],
[
"word \"dick\" or variations thereof. In context and as used in the complained of broadcasts, these were epithets intended to denigrate or criticize their subjects. Their use in this context was not sufficiently explicit or graphic and/or sustained to be patently offensive.\nThe name of the traditional British dessert spotted dick has occasionally been perceived as potentially embarrassing, prompting hospital managers at Gloucestershire NHS Trust (in 2001) and the catering staff at Flintshire County Council (in 2009) to rename the pudding Spotted Richard on menus, as many customers made \"immature comments\" about the pudding. Gloucestershire NHS Trust restored",
"-23.760231604932414"
],
[
"Becoming Dick Plot Richard Breggs (Harland Williams) is a struggling actor living in an apartment with his girlfriend. After a conversation with a friend, Richard decides that he is too much of a \"nice guy\" and that the key to success is to act like a jerk. After his new obnoxious personality lands him a part in a play, Richard thinks he is on his way to being a success. He goes to sleep in his apartment and wakes up in a mansion. It is four years later, but Richard doesn't remember anything that has happened in the elapsed time,",
"-23.454232433388825"
],
[
"his own parents' murder. After Dick discovered that Wayne was Batman, the two worked together to capture Zucco. Dick chose the codename \"Robin\" because that is what his mother had called him.\nAs depicted in a possible future during the episode \"Artifacts\", Dick Grayson gives up the \"Robin\" name and costume to become Nightwing. Barbara and Batman still persist in calling him by his original codename. Batman did this more out of habit, and Barbara did it as a flirting sort of way to annoy Dick. The police department who discover the Batcave in the beginning of the episode call Robin",
"-22.241216400910616"
],
[
"and asks Don who Dick is. Don responds: \"That's me\", and brushes the question off by claiming it's his nickname. Over the course of the weekend, Don decides that he is in love with Megan and proposes to her the morning after their return. \nPeggy and Ken, meanwhile, save the company by signing new work with Topaz Pantyhose. Betty and Henry move out of the Drapers' Ossining home after Betty fires their nanny/housekeeper over her refusal to help Betty break up the budding friendship between Sally and Glen, a neighborhood boy who warns Sally of the dangers of parents who",
"-22.10575917621145"
],
[
"Fugging History of name Fugging was first referred to as Fucking in 1195 in a local monastery's parish records. Its name was later changed from Fucking to Fugging for an unknown reason by 1836. While it is not known why the village changed its name, it has been speculated by its current mayor that because Fugging is closer to Vienna than the other village of Fucking is, it would have likely had more English-speaking visitors who might have raised questions regarding its name, which is also an English vulgar slang word for sexual intercourse. The village's placename signs are firmly",
"-22.03604506346204"
],
[
"Dick-a-Dick had fallen in love with a local white woman, who was reported to have agreed to marry him, but Hayman opposed the marriage and forced Dick-a-Dick to continue the tour. Referred to as \"amiable and curious\", Dick-a-Dick had a friendly disposition and was well-liked, with Charles Lawrence years later remembering him with real affection. Post-England tour After returning from the cricket tour of England, his health deteriorated and he travelled back to his traditional country and the Ebenezer Mission. He was thought to have worked as a drover and fencer along the Murray River.\nWhite locals recognised Dick-a-Dick as a",
"-21.77670181618305"
],
[
"names Puck may also be called \"Robin Goodfellow\" or \"Hobgoblin\", in which \"Hob\" may substitute for \"Rob\" or may simply refer to the \"goblin of the hearth\" or hob. The name Robin is Middle English in origin, deriving from Old French Robin, the pet form for the name Robert. The earliest reference to \"Robin Goodfellow\" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1531. \nAnthony Munday mentions Robin Goodfellow in his play The Two Italian Gentlemen, 1584, and he appears in Skialtheia, or a Shadowe of Truth in 1598. William Shakespeare may have had access to the manuscript of Lewes",
"-21.764440930374576"
],
[
"the initials 'RD', a reference to his nickname \"Dickie\" (as in \"dickie bird\").",
"-21.72648089368522"
],
[
"Short Dick Man Background This single, which involves a woman mocking the size of a man's penis, was also released in a toned down version replacing the word \"dick\" with \"short\" (the song was also released under the censored title \"Short Short Man\"). Co-writer Manfred Mohr told the Los Angeles Times that the point of the song was to attract attention. \"We figured there were all these songs by men bashing women and treating women like sex objects. So we decided a song that turned the tables on men might attract some attention.\" According to the vocalist Sandra Gillette, the",
"-21.691456591073802"
],
[
"the word \"dick\" in a sexual context. These included, for example, the State University of New York's WSUC-FM, in Cortland, New York, which in 1993 was fined for broadcasting a rap titled \"I'm Not Your Puppet\", which referenced \"shoving my dick up this bitch's behind\" in one lyric, and stated in another, \"I pulled out my dick, popped it in her mouth, and she sucked it.\" In the same report, however, the FCC noted that in 1990, it had ruled that WFBQ (FM)/WNDE (AM) in Indianapolis had not engaged in indecency when it broadcast the line \"So you talk to",
"-21.578689643334656"
],
[
"Richard's Things Richard's Things is a 1980 British drama film directed by Anthony Harvey and starring Liv Ullmann, Amanda Redman and Peter Burton. It is written by Frederic Raphael and based on his novel of the same name. It entered the 37th Venice International Film Festival. Plot On the death of the title character Richard, his widow discovers he had a secret long-term mistress. Despite the initial awkwardness between the two women, they soon begin to bond - and have a lesbian relationship.",
"-21.516602337687345"
],
[
"due to an accidental bump on the head that gave him amnesia. It turns out that he is now a famous TV star, known for being obnoxious, selfish, and difficult to work with. Richard (now known as Dick) realizes that while his new personality gave him success, it also caused him to lose his girlfriend and best friend. He sets about trying to right the wrongs of the past 4 years. Production The film was shot in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.",
"-21.460468429302637"
],
[
"have both our names on the cover. Mary's family always called me Richard due to having another Dick in the family. I am Richard, Mary was Mary, and Dick Francis was the two of us together.\nFrancis's manager (and co-author of his later books) was his son Felix, who left his post as teacher of A-Level Physics at Bloxham School in Oxfordshire in order to work for his father. Felix was the inspiration behind a leading character, a marksman and physics teacher, in the novel Twice Shy. The older son, Merrick, was a racehorse trainer and later ran his own horse",
"-20.99985894864585"
],
[
"meanings listed: acdc, barney, blag, butch, camp, khazi, cottaging, hoofer, mince, ogle, scarper, slap, strides, tod, [rough] trade.\nThe Polari word naff, meaning inferior or tacky, has an uncertain etymology. Michael Quinion states that it is probably from the sixteenth-century Italian word gnaffa, meaning \"a despicable person\". There are a number of false etymologies, many based on acronyms—Not Available For Fucking, Normal As Fuck—though these are backronyms. More likely etymologies include northern UK dialect naffhead, naffin, or naffy, a simpleton or blockhead; niffy-naffy, inconsequential, stupid, or Scots nyaff, a term of contempt for any unpleasant or objectionable person. An alternative etymology",
"-20.95120937907359"
],
[
"Trelawny struggled with spelling as a young man. He often spelled phonetically. This caused him significant difficulties when he tried to correspond with his friends. His spelling indicated a strong Westcountry accent. His parents were concerned about this, particularly his habit of occasionally misspelling his own name. His problem with spelling might have been due to dyslexia, evidence for which has been provided by one of Trelawny's biographers. After he left the Navy he read voraciously. He often read Shakespeare's plays and attended the theatres in Covent Garden. He began incorporating references to Shakespeare in his personal letters. He also",
"-20.899352568836548"
],
[
"the old woman, called Mrs. Taggart, bluntly announces they must leave because her son would not accept either of them. However, once Dick manages to communicate Mrs. Taggart agrees to let Anne stay in a remote loft whilst Dick makes do with sleeping in the barn.\nDuring the night, Dick is awakened by a voice in the night who calls his name repeatedly. He knows the voice cannot be from one of the Five and cannot understand how he would know his name. Dick is given a message - “Two Trees”. “Gloomy Water”. “Saucy Jane” “And Maggie knows” - together with",
"-20.759497435918092"
],
[
"while Dick drags them on another bicycle adventure, which he had meticulously planned for fourteen years. In a reversal, George had married a series of wealthy men whom she cuckolded, with, among others, one of her stepsons (her continuing penchant for bestiality with the latest Timmy is also implied); whereas Anne has become a strongly opinionated vegan spinster and is suspected by Dick of being a \"dyke\" – an accusation made against George by Toby in the original Five Go Mad in Dorset. George and Julian have been committed to an alcoholics' sanatorium, the latter owes a large debt to African",
"-20.726347112633448"
],
[
"\"Dick\"—his mother's maiden name and a well-known Scottish surname. The Royal Dick School of Veterinary Studies, the United Kingdom's leading veterinary school, was founded by William Dick, one of Howard's collateral ancestors.\nHoward is married to Mary Howard, an architectural historian and a winner of the Charles E. Peterson Prize of the Historia American Buildings Survey. He has one daughter, Jennifer, a writer and editor. He is fond of his several cats, opera, classical music, skiing, travel, and his two grandchildren, Lela and Finn.",
"-20.643472065359674"
],
[
"her song \"Ran Tan Waltz\", her second non-album B-side. This song is performed as a tragicomedy, where Bush portrays a man bemoaning his bad luck in life being married to a wayward mother. This song uses the word \"dick\" in the first verse as cacophemism for a penis. Bush has stated that she doesn't typically use such harsh language or write such sexually explicit material, but that she considered the song \"good naughty fun.\"",
"-20.51781426105481"
],
[
"are used for drinking mate by sucking into them), etc. Among young people, almost every word can be turned into mean \"dick\": -\"¿Me pasás el encendedor?\" -\"¡Acá tengo un encendedor para vos!\" (-\"Can you give me the lighter?\" -\"I have a lighter for you right here!\"). Concha / Chucha / Chocha Concha (lit.: \"mollusk shell\" or \"inner ear\") is an offensive word for a woman's vulva or vagina (i.e. something akin to English cunt) in Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Mexico. In the rest of Latin America and Spain however, the word is only used with its literal",
"-20.489717778857084"
],
[
"the unknown.\" Packaging The title is a tongue-in-cheek pun on male masturbation (\"take off your pants and jack it\"). Previous titles had included If You See Kay (a pun on the spelling of \"fuck\") and Genital Ben, accompanied by a bear on the cover of the album (a reference to Gentle Ben). Stressed at being at a loss for a name, DeLonge asked guitar tech Larry Palm for suggestions. The album's title was coined by Palm, who was snowboarding on a rainy day. Inside the lodge, Palm was congregating with friends when a young kid walked in completely drenched, to",
"-20.440643607470747"
],
[
"following year, Hall had his name legally changed to \"Dick Wickenburg Hall\". As to why the new name was selected, Hall had never liked his given name and had gone by \"Dick\" as a child. The addition of \"Wickenburg\" was done to satisfy Hall's desire to have a middle name and in honor of Henry Wickenburg. The new name was shortened in common use to \"Dick Wick Hall\".\nWhile the Hall's newspaper was turning into a failure, they purchased an interest in a gold mine in the Harcuvar Mountains. The mine, the Glory Hole Mine, was successful",
"-20.421024251105337"
],
[
"The writers came up with Dick's name through referring to the character as \"a dick\".\nThe episode featured several guest stars, including socialite Paris Hilton as Logan's girlfriend, Caitlin. Hilton was already a celebrity when the episode aired. Fans often treat her guest appearance as out of character for the show. Ratings \"Credit Where Credit's Due\" was watched by 2.21 million viewers in its initial broadcast, ranking 113 of 116 in the weekly rankings. Reviews The episode received mixed to positive reviews. Television Without Pity gave the episode a \"B+\".\nRowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club commented negatively on Paris Hilton's guest",
"-20.409075614072208"
],
[
"of law is limited. Dick is very arrogant and often disregards others in order to make his life more convenient. Most of his time is spent in his office drinking glasses of sherry, watching golf on the television and not doing any work. He sees his position in the firm as bringing the work in which is completed by Stella, Bob or Colin. Dick's last appearance in the series was in \"Indecision.\" In \"A Question Of Pants\" it was revealed that Dick had taken early retirement and therefore Stella became the sole senior partner of the firm. Stella Phelps Stella",
"-20.383712359425658"
],
[
"Dick later stated he had written an apology letter to Stern.\nIn October 2017, Dick was fired from a role in the independent film Raising Buchanan due to allegations of inappropriate behavior which, according to The Hollywood Reporter, \"included groping people's genitals, unwanted kissing/licking and sexual propositions of at least four members of the production\". While he denied most of the allegations, he said \"I might have kissed somebody on the cheek to say goodbye and then licked them. That's my thing – I licked Carrie Fisher at a roast. It's me being funny.\" It would later be revealed that in",
"-20.315861745518987"
],
[
"Dickey (garment) A dickey (alternatively written as dickie or dicky; sometimes known in American English as a tuxedo front or tux front) is a type of false shirt-front - originally known as a detachable bosom - designed to be worn with a tuxedo or men's white tie, usually attached to the collar and then tucked into the waistcoat or cummerbund. Better dickeys have a trouser tab at the end to secure them down, preventing the dickey from popping out. The rigid plastic dickey came into fashion in the latter years of the 19th century, and was one of the first",
"-20.250928000346903"
],
[
"public, Dick believes it is simply for a positive public image. Due to Bruce's actions as Batman, Alfred became Dick's only confidant. Eventually Dick would run off and attempt to avenge his parents himself, once again saved by Batman who later reveals himself to be Wayne. Bruce decides to train Grayson himself, eventually becoming Robin, the boy wonder. During Dick's training the two develop a father-son bond and eventually stop Two-Face, The Hangman and Tony Zucco, their collaborator.\nDick enjoys his first year as Robin, regarding the job as an adventure until a confrontation with Two-Face serves as a rude awakening",
"-20.204560680646637"
],
[
"Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star Plot Dickie Roberts is a former child star who shot to fame on a TV sitcom called The Glimmer Gang with his spoonerism catchphrase \"This is Nuckin' Futs!\". His career subsequently halted after his 6th birthday. Since his heyday, he has been reduced to parking cars at a Morton's restaurant and appearing on Celebrity Boxing, where he is matched with Emmanuel Lewis. In the public eye and to his girlfriend Cyndi (who apparently leaves him during a roadside incident), Dickie is washed up.\nAfter talking to an old friend, Leif Garrett, Dickie is absolutely convinced that",
"-20.198883879591904"
],
[
"of the gothic novel, through the combination with the historical romance genre.\nThe historical romance classification is also eluded, because despite Honor's early reference to the reader expectation of the marriage and children of the protagonist, Honor never mothers Richard's children, but rather acts as a substitute mother for Dick, while he is rejected by his father. Homosexuality Some critics, including Horner and Zlosnik, suggest that Dick may be homosexual and that this is an aspect of his father's rejection of him throughout the novel. Characters in the novel portrayed as dominantly masculine, including Richard, suggest connections between being foreign and",
"-20.17837490635702"
],
[
"Dirty Dick Nathaniel Bentley (c. 1735–1809), commonly known as Dirty Dick, was an 18th-century merchant who owned a hardware shop and warehouse in London, and is one person who is considered as a possible inspiration for Miss Havisham in Charles Dickens' Great Expectations after he refused to wash following the death of his fiancée on their wedding day.\nHe was a previous owner of a pub on Bishopsgate, in the City of London, which is named after him. History Bentley had been quite a dandy in his youth, but following the death of his fiancée on their wedding day he refused to",
"-20.17728508935852"
],
[
"making a costume and a Superhero identity for himself. Getting inspiration from his mother's favorite bird and his favorite folktale hero, Robin Hood, Dick chose the name \"Robin\", and he officially became Batman's sidekick, thus creating the Dynamic Duo.\nThe series also redefined the original Robin, Dick Grayson. While much of Dick's past remains the same, his Robin costume is modernized with short sleeves and long tights, exactly like Tim Drake's original Robin outfit but with a non-italicized \"R\" symbol. In addition, Dick is given a more serious and mature personality to match the tone of the series. The episode \"Batgirl",
"-20.163720520102345"
],
[
"inextricably associated with the name King Size Dick.\nAt the end of the 1970s, he joined the \"Formation Dick & Alex\", together with guitarist and songwriter Alex Parche. They played German rock music songs such as Schweine in weißen Westen (which translates to 'pigs in white vests'). Awards King Size Dick is the bearer of the 2002 Willi Ostermann medal, the highest official award of the Cologne Carnival. Origin of stage name While Ganss was stationed in Wales with the German armed forces, he was asked to perform locally at social events, such as birthdays, which were potluck. In Cologne, overweight",
"-20.012040533166328"
],
[
"Hævi Mætal og Hass Name \"Hævi Mætal og Hass\" is not correct Danish spelling, but it is pronounced like that if you speak with Copenhagen accent. When you say \"Heavy\" in Danish the \"ea\" sounds like an \"æ\". In correct Danish the title would be \"Heavy Metal og Hash\". Aldi Aldi is a German supermarket. The song is in German. Ticeman Control \"Ticeman\" is a word made up by the band members. It is a faux-Anglicization of the word \"tissemand\", a colloquial term for penis. Den Dystra Staden This song is not in Danish, but in Swedish.",
"-20.00324691373089"
],
[
"He's a Whore Lyrics The genesis of the song came from Nielsen coming up with the title and liking the idea and building the song around it. He liked the fact that the phrase \"he's a whore\" is not as obvious as if the title was \"She's a Whore,\" and that a song about a gigolo involves a sense of role reversal. The lyrics imply that the central character is an unattractive but wealthy woman. However, according to Nielsen, the song is not just about sex. Nielsen has stated that \"Whoring means so many different things,",
"-19.973772264649597"
],
[
"\"nowt\" (IPA://naʊt/, rhymes with out, \"nothing\") are used elsewhere in Northern England. Many words, however, appear to be used exclusively in Newcastle and the surrounding area, such as \"canny\" (a versatile word meaning \"good\", \"nice\" or \"very\"), \"hacky\" (\"dirty\"), \"netty\" (\"toilet\"), \"hoy\" (\"throw\", from the Dutch gooien, via West Frisian), \"hockle\" (\"spit\"). Nightlife Newcastle was in the top ten of the country's top night spots, and The Rough Guide to Britain placed Newcastle upon Tyne's nightlife as Great Britain's no. 1 tourist attraction. In the Tripadvisor Travellers' Choice Destination Awards for European Nightlife destinations, four of the UK's nightspots finished",
"-19.949678579765077"
],
[
"Dick Tracy Creation and early years Basing the character on U.S. federal agent Eliot Ness, Gould drafted an idea for a detective named \"Plainclothes Tracy\" and sent it to Joseph Medill Patterson of the Chicago Tribune New York News Syndicate. Patterson suggested changing the hero's name to Dick Tracy, and also put forward an opening storyline in which Tracy joined the police after his girlfriend's father was murdered by robbers. Gould agreed to these ideas, and Dick Tracy was first published on October 4, 1931. The strip was instantly popular, and was soon appearing in newspapers across the United States.",
"-19.880010502751247"
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[
"why Robin is all wet and he says it is because he has been thrown into the brook by the stranger on the bridge. The men want to punish the stranger, but Robin holds them back, saying he can join his band and learn how to shoot a bow and arrow. The stranger agrees and reveals himself as John Little. William Stutely decides to be Little John's \"Godfather\", and the men celebrate their new comrade by shooting a lot of fat doe for their meat, changing John Little's name by switching his Christian name and surname in a \"Baptismal\" ceremony,",
"-19.820851354726983"
],
[
"Uli M Schueppel Uli M Schueppel (born 7 May 1958 in Erbach, Germany as Ulf Schüppel) is a German director and documentary filmmaker. The \"M\" in the middle of the name is not an abbreviation of a name, but a reference to the Elvis Presley's song \"Trouble\": My middle name is misery. It is written without dot. Early childhood and youth Schueppel is the son of the visual artist and author Hem Schueppel and the educationalist Christine Schueppel, (born as Christine Irmer) and has a younger sister, Heike. The father was an oppositional political activivist in East",
"-19.779068291565636"
],
[
"face\", which suggested \"Rock\". It was \"Move It\" writer Ian Samwell who suggested the surname \"Richard\" as a tribute to Webb's musical hero Little Richard.\nBefore their first large-scale appearance, at the Regal Ballroom in Ripley, Derbyshire in 1958, they adopted the name \"Cliff Richard and the Drifters\". The four members were Harry Webb (by then going under the stage name \"Cliff Richard\"), Ian Samwell on guitar, Terry Smart on drums and Norman Mitham on guitar. None of the other three played with the later and better known Shadows, although Samwell wrote songs for Richard's later career.\nFor his debut session, Norrie",
"-19.705154728208072"
],
[
"character actor known for many roles in Western films. It was revealed in August 2009 by Toy Story 3 director Lee Unkrich that Woody's official last name is \"Pride\". Unkrich stated in his Twitter feed that \"Woody's actual full name is 'Woody Pride', and has been since the earliest days of developing the original Toy Story.\" Pullstring quotes Some of Woody's known pullstring quotes include \"Reach for the sky!\", \"This town ain't big enough for the two of us!\", \"You're my favorite Deputy!\", \"Somebody's poisoned the waterhole!\", and \"There's a snake in my boot!\". This last phrase is an old",
"-19.667699906898633"
],
[
"the character's name included \"Bill Barton\" and \"Rex Drake\". However, the production team finally settled on the more dynamic Dick Barton. After the series had been on the air for some time, the BBC (conscious that the biggest audience for the programme was schoolboys) wrote a strict code of what Dick and his chums could and couldn't do, one clause famously stating \"Sex plays no part in his adventures.\" Cancellation In 1951 The Archers was first broadcast at 11.45 am on the Light Programme. BBC management, led by drama head Val Gielgud, had never felt comfortable with the sensationalism",
"-19.648314418822338"
],
[
"It was in this series' episode Yogi's Heroes that Dick's full name was revealed; as the leader of an island named Dicaragua, he introduced himself as Richard Milhous Dastardly (an obvious play on former U.S. President Richard Milhous Nixon). One episode shows that Dastardly and Muttley are the greediest creatures in the world. Fender Bender 500 Dick Dastardly and Muttley were in the \"Fender Bender 500\" shorts on the early 1990s short-lived series Wake, Rattle, and Roll. In those segments, the duo once again appeared in a suped-up version of the Mean Machine as a monster truck called the Dirty",
"-19.47063837189853"
],
[
"success came in December 2006, when they collaborated with singer Justin Timberlake for the Digital Short \"Dick in a Box\", which stars Samberg and Timberlake as R&B-crooning balladeers who package their genitals as Christmas gifts. Taccone came up with the \"dick in a box\" premise after Michaels asked Samberg to write a sketch showcasing Timberlake's voice. Timberlake recalled that the musicians were \"laughing hysterically\" during its production, and that the \"delirium of no sleep\" contributed to the humor of the song. The online version of the short — which, like its predecessors, attracted millions of views on YouTube — was",
"-19.43226308035628"
],
[
"in 1867, Dick-a-Dick was introduced to Christianity by Lawrence and appeared strongly affected by the life of Jesus. He was not worried about the trip to England as he knew the captain had prayed for a safe arrival. Just before his death, he confessed his faith in Christianity and was baptised on 30 July 1870. Minutes before his death, Dick-a-Dick claimed to have seen the face of Jesus. Questions about Dick-a-Dick's life There are conflicting reports of the age of Dick-a-Dick and his date and place of death. While some sources give his date of death as 3 September 1870,",
"-19.331285660609865"
],
[
"leader and elder, with one settler family recalling that he was the traditional owner of the MacKenzie Springs and Bill's Gully hunting grounds of the Wimmera, and Dick-a-Dick was presented with an inscribed King plate by local European authorities.\nDick-a-Dick was known by a number of names throughout his life. In addition to his birth name, Djungadjinganook, and its spelling variants Jumgumjenanuke and Jungunjinuke, he was also known as King Billy, King Dick and Kennedy (in honour of an Edenhope policeman he admired). His descendants adopted Kennedy as their surname.\nHe died at the mission on 3 September 1870. While in Warrnambool",
"-19.308104835923587"
],
[
"Tom, Dick or Harry (song) Tom, Dick or Harry is a show tune from the Cole Porter musical, Kiss Me, Kate, introduced on Broadway on December 30, 1948 by Lisa Kirk (as Bianca); Harold Lang (as Lucentio); Edwin Clay (as Gremio); and Charles Wood (as Hortensio). In the 1953 Hollywood film version, \"Tom, Dick or Harry\" was performed by Ann Miller (as Bianca), Tommy Rall (as Lucentio), Bobby Van (as Gremio) and Bob Fosse (as Hortensio). Performance and release information In this song, during a musical performance of Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew (the subplot of Kate), three suitors (Gremio,",
"-19.302031318202353"
],
[
"I Love Dick (TV series) Plot Chris (Kathryn Hahn) is an unsuccessful New York City-based artist and filmmaker who accompanies her husband Sylvère (Griffin Dunne) to Marfa, Texas where Sylvère is taking up a research fellowship. Upon arrival in Marfa, Chris quickly becomes infatuated with Sylvère's fellowship sponsor Dick (Kevin Bacon). Her infatuation with Dick becomes articulated in un-delivered letters to him which are filled with unbounded sexually explicit desires. Her contentious and frustrating interactions with Dick as well as the writing of her confessional letters to him begin to affect her attitudes towards her marriage, work",
"-19.246024239746475"
],
[
"in Barney's middle name, which changed each time it was referenced. For example, both Barney and Andy are given different middle names in different episodes. In the episode \"Class Reunion\", Barney's middle name is Milton, though at other times he is called \"Bernard P. Fife\". In another episode, where he believes he is the descendant of Nathan Tibbs, a Mayberry Revolutionary hero, he says his name is \"Barney Tibbs Fife\". Andy jokingly says, \"I thought your middle name was Oliver.\" Another inconsistency is Barney's military service in WWII, which is not easily reconciled with his having graduated high school in",
"-19.239614319140856"
],
[
"After the song's release, so many people had misinterpreted the word as \"Bruce\" that Lynne actually began to sing the word as \"Bruce\" for fun at live shows.\nELO engineer Reinhold Mack remembers the genesis of the term differently, stating that Lynne was actually singing \"Bruce\" as a joke in advance of an Australian tour \"referring to how many Australian guys are called Bruce.\" Music video A music video for the song was produced, which showed video of the band performing the song interspersed with various animations relating to the song's subject matter, including big-bottomed majorettes and a pulsating neon frankfurter.",
"-19.15053016495949"
],
[
"of his own parents, Dick asks to become his aide. After extensive training, Dick becomes Robin. They start by disrupting Zucco's gambling and extortion rackets. They then successfully bait the riled Zucco into visiting a construction site, where they capture him.\nRobin's origin has a thematic connection to Batman's in that both see their parents killed by criminals, creating an urge to battle the criminal element. Bruce sees a chance to direct the anger and rage that Dick feels in a way that he himself cannot, thus creating a father/son bond and understanding between the two. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s,",
"-19.106393704599213"
],
[
"and Martha Wayne. When he gives the name \"Blake, John\" to a clerk holding a package that Bruce had left him, he is told there is nothing there for him. He hands over an ID and suggests they try his legal name, which is revealed to be Robin. The clerk gives him GPS coordinates and spelunking gear, before she tells him that he should use the name \"Robin\" more often. At the end of the film, Blake follows the coordinates, and finds the Batcave.\nGordon-Levitt has stated that the ending of The Dark Knight Rises is not",
"-19.099524509618277"
],
[
"Jack snipe Etymology The common name has been said to come from the Welsh word for a snipe, giach (pronounced with a hard g), but modern dictionaries say it comes from the masculine name Jack. Alfred Newton hypothesized that, \"It may be, as in Jackass, an indication of sex, for it is a popular belief that the Jack-Snipe is the male of the common species; or, again, it may refer to the comparatively small size of the bird, as the 'jack' in the game of bowls is the smallest of the balls used, and as fishermen call the smaller Pikes",
"-19.098196805234693"
],
[
"someone in authority rather mistakenly felt that \"batang berjuntai\" had phallic connotations (batang is Malay slang for \"penis\", and berjuntai translate directly as \"dangle\"). In fact the name referred to a literal \"dangling branch\" that was seen there when the town was first established; it was named by the resident British administrator.\nMany locals continue to use the old name, and outsiders unaware of the name change are often confused by the new signage.",
"-19.05360716094947"
],
[
"Dick Merrill Early years Born February 1, 1894 at Iuka, Mississippi, \"Dick\" Merrill was born into a family that prided itself as being descended from the famous frontier pioneer, Daniel Boone. Although his full name was Henry Tyndall, the name \"Dick\" was a childhood moniker that stuck with him for life. Brought up as a devout Catholic, he was a teetotaler in an age when the \"hard-drinking\" \"fun-loving\" aerial adventurer was seen as the norm. Considered very easy-going yet serious, his one foible, however, was that he was an inveterate gambler throughout his life.\nMerrill had from an early age been",
"-18.94778259409759"
],
[
"the \"Sexless Innkeeper.\" He elaborates with a poem set in a Dickensian version of Queens, where he was caught in a blizzard, walked a few blocks to an ugly woman's apartment, and feigned sleep to avoid sex. Ted is annoyed at the new nickname and constantly tells them that they're wrong.\nAs Barney and Robin leave for brunch with Lily and Marshall, Ted recites a poem of his own for Barney, telling the tale of a busty young blonde woman who was turned on by his professor persona. Barney is skeptical, but is left speechless when the young woman appears at",
"-18.937438278274385"
],
[
"Dyke (slang) The term dyke (or dike) is a slang noun meaning lesbian; it is also a slang adjective describing things associated with lesbianism. It originated as a homophobic and misogynistic slur for a masculine, butch, tomboyish, or androgynous female. While pejorative use of the word still exists, the term dyke has been reappropriated by out and proud lesbians as a word implying assertiveness and toughness, or simply as a neutral synonym for lesbian. Origins The origin of the term is obscure and many theories have been proposed. The Oxford English Dictionary notes the first attestation as Berrey and",
"-18.932217263360144"
],
[
"Dick, whom the town's sheriff deems to be a good role model. Dick allows Sebastian to break probation and asks him to join the Dandies, but only if he does everything on their terms. One day, Sebastian gives them a suspicious box full of guns, and soon breaks a club rule by firing another member's gun. Dick complains that Sebastian is \"ruining it for everyone.\" The group's sole female member, Susan, takes a shine to Sebastian and this threatens Dick. Freddie suggesting she's attracted to men with large penises.\nSebastian tells Dick that he and his friends carry guns because they're",
"-18.866187184039404"
],
[
" Long-time Simpsons writer and Futurama executive producer David X. Cohen changed his middle initial from S to X because there was already a David S. Cohen registered with the Writer's Guild of America. Julianne Moore was born Julie Anne Smith but found that all variations of that name were already used by other actors.\n(The rumor that Michael Keaton changed his surname because of an attraction to actress Diane Keaton is incorrect; he chose Keaton because of an affinity for the physical comedy of Buster Keaton.)\nA middle name may be adopted in preference to changing a name. In some cases,",
"-18.814434809616614"
],
[
"even terms. Dick, holding the stone, is ordered by his father to return him to his own body, but Dick refuses, and decides instead to become a man identical to how his father looked before the change. Mr Bultitude has to begin the new term at his son's boarding school, while Dick gets a chance to run his father's business in the City. In the end, both are restored to their own bodies, with a better understanding of each other. Play In 1883, playwright Edward Rose adapted the story as a stage play, also titled Vice Versa. Radio The BBC",
"-18.81371566294547"
],
[
"they seem to be. Dick's story is typically more personal because it is not about the invasion of a community, but of a family.\nThe Father-Thing is the US Underwood-Miller (1987) and UK title of the third collected volume of Dick's short stories, retitled Second Variety after \"Second Variety\" was moved from Volume 2 by Citadel.\nThe story was adapted for the 2017 TV series, Philip K. Dick's Electric Dreams, by writer-director Michael Dinner and starred Greg Kinnear as the Father.",
"-18.792755210158248"
],
[
"its bounds and infringing on people's privacy. Barely audible at the end of the song, Glenn Frey can be heard whispering \"Say Goodnight, Dick,\" a line made famous by Dan Rowan of Rowan and Martin but in this case referring to Richard Nixon's resignation. Nixon would indeed resign five months after the release of the album. Henley however judged the song they wrote a \"clumsy, incoherent attempt\" as they were still learning how to write. According to Henley, the song was supposed to be \"an R&B-type song\" but missed the mark.\nIn the liner notes, T.N.T.S. was credited for the",
"-18.776315913935832"
],
[
"\"junior\" among other names. Researcher Michael Tan notes that the euphemisms for the vagina are considered more vulgar than those for the penis, and as such are fewer; but noted among them are mani (peanut), bibingka and bulaklak (flower), \"pechay\", \"hiyas\", \"kipay\" and \"tilapia\". He posits patriarchal norms as the reason for this discrepancy. \nSuso is the term most often applied to the breasts, but it is not considered profane and has connotations of breastfeeding; boob, imported from English slang, is the most widely used term for breasts that might be considered impolite. Tagalog has no analog of the vulgar",
"-18.699171946609567"
],
[
"career for his ungovernable temper and violent cursing. This eventually earned him the nickname of ‘Mad Dick’ among his men, but he remained a popular and sought-after commander. Captain Graham Moore, the brother of Sir John Moore, described him on the eve of the Walcheren expedition as \none of those in our service whom I estimate the highest. I do not believe he has his fellow among the Admirals, unless it be Pellew, for ability, and it is not possible to have more zeal and gallantry.\n\nDespite the failure of the venture, he was later to declare that\nIt is my",
"-18.697711811785666"
],
[
"December 2010. Hampton Wick in popular culture In Cockney rhyming slang, \"Hampton Wick\" (often shortened to \"Hampton\") means \"dick\" or \"prick\", both of which are British vulgar slang names for the penis. Hence a character called Hugh Jampton in the 1950s BBC radio programme The Goon Show amongst many other similar examples. In the 2000s BBC TV series The Office, Tim Canterbury bemoans the quality of Slough's nightlife, with an Elizabethan-themed club memorably displaying a punning notice stating \"Don't get your Hampton Court\" in the men's toilets. \nHampton Wick was the setting for the 1970s Thames Television situation comedy George",
"-18.6969813459159"
],
[
"again. Dick and Mary are summarily rounded up by the Crutches and bundled off to the orphanage, where they manage to get the goods on the underhanded operation. Spanky has some funny scenes, including one wherein he refuses to take a dose of castor oil and instead pushes it into Mr. Crutch's mouth. During a sleepless night, Spanky helps Dick escape out the window. Dick runs to Mary's house, where he finds the lamp and wishes he was an adult again. He then returns to being an adult and leads Mr. Wade back to the orphanage, exposing the Crutches and",
"-18.604427538060918"
],
[
"Dick Nixon, man you get him on the phone and Dick suggests maybe getting like a mega-Dick to help out, but you know, you remember the time the King ate mega-Dick under the table at a 095 picnic\", and a parody commercial referencing a fictional monster truck called \"Big Peter! Formerly the Big Dick's Dog Wiener Mobile\". In January 2005, the FCC released a ruling that it would not fine broadcasters whose programs used \"dick\" on the air to refer to a person behaving contemptibly. Specifically, the FCC stated in its ruling:\nA number of complaints cite isolated uses of the",
"-18.59922193296461"
],
[
"referred to by many ridiculous names, including, but not limited to, \"Slab Bulkhead\", \"Bolt Vanderhuge\", \"Hack Blowfist\", \"Fridge Largemeat\", \"Big McLarge Huge\", \"Buff Drinklots\", \"Stomp Beefknob\", and \"Punt Speedchunk\". Ryder is also compared to Swedish actor Dolph Lundgren. Ryder's love interest, Lea Jansen, who in the movie appears to be much older than him despite being six years younger, is referred to as Lea's father (Commander Jansen)'s \"grandmadaughter\"; Commander Jansen is compared to Santa Claus and to God, due to his white hair and beard, while Captain Devers is compared to Sting and Kalgan is noted for his",
"-18.518479697526573"
],
[
"constituted copyright infringement. Origin of name Contrary to popular belief, the moniker \"Boys Don't Cry\" did not actually come from The Cure's song/album of the same name. Rather, the name has its origins in some whispered lyrics from fellow British band 10cc's hit song \"I'm Not in Love\" (specifically, \"be quiet... big boys don't cry\"). However, the band were evidently completely aware of (and perhaps amused by) the confusion surrounding their name, and they even included an instrumental bonus track titled \"The Cure\" on their second album as a joke. Recent times In 2009, Nick Richards and Brian Chatton teamed",
"-18.514677296738228"
],
[
"Dick says that it is beyond her ability and challenges her that he can do it better. Maisie soon departs for Paris to work under Kami for some months and Dick sees her off at the harbour. He finally convinces her to give him a kiss, making the red-haired girl furious. When he returns to his room, he discovers that Torpenhow has brought in a pretty young prostitute named Bessie whom he found collapsed in the hall. Taken by her face, Dick convinces the girl to return to his studio so that he can paint her in return for payment.",
"-18.51094724113318"
],
[
"he 'went \"stag\"', meaning he was without friends, or took the nickname from a well-known riverboat captain called \"Stack Lee\". John and Alan Lomax claimed that the nickname came from a riverboat owned by the Lee family of Memphis called the Stack Lee, which was known for its on-board prostitution. Lee Shelton's nickname was later corrupted into various other forms in the folk tradition.\nOn Christmas night in 1895, Shelton shot William \"Billy\" Lyons in a St. Louis saloon following a dispute. A story appearing in the St. Louis Globe-Democrat in 1895 read: \nWilliam Lyons, 25, a levee hand, was shot",
"-18.507327941413678"
],
[
"an acronym \"Gentlemen Only, Ladies Forbidden\". This is a false etymology, as acronyms being used as words is a fairly modern phenomenon, making the expression a backronym.\nJ. R. R. Tolkien, a professional philologist, nodded to the derivation from the Dutch word for club in his 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit. There he mentions (tongue-in-cheek) that the game of golf was invented when a club-wielding hobbit knocked the head off a goblin named Golfimbul, and the head sailed through the air and landed in a rabbit hole. Museums The history of golf is preserved and represented at several golf museums around",
"-18.50039176885366"
],
[
"Malakas Malakas (Greek: μαλάκας [maˈlakas]) is a commonly used profane Greek slang word, with a variety of different meanings, but literally meaning \"man who masturbates\". While it is typically used as an insult, with its literal equivalent in English being \"wanker\", the meaning varies depending on the tone and context used. It can be an exclamation of pleasure, an expression of dark horror, a cry of anger, a declaration of affection, and other different things. Common alternative meanings include \"asshole\", \"motherfucker\" \"jerk\" or \"idiot\", and the contrasting \"dude\", or \"mate\", depending on the context. It has been described as \"the",
"-18.48009308382882"
],
[
"saying that the phrase was originally made by Shakespeare. \"He did? Shucks!\" answers a disappointed Froggy.",
"-18.461588468960144"
],
[
"Andy Dick Early life and education Dick was born on December 21, 1965, in Charleston, South Carolina, as Andrew Thomlinson. He was adopted at birth by Allen and Sue Dick, and named Andrew Roane Dick. He was brought up Presbyterian. His father was in the Navy.\nAs a child, he spent time living with his family in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, and Yugoslavia before moving to Chicago in 1979. He attended Lassiter High School, which was being temporarily housed at George Walton Comprehensive High School in Cobb County, Georgia. Dick appeared in numerous theater productions during his high school year. He",
"-18.459020124069866"
],
[
"his relatives at some point, most notably Lorraine mistakenly thinking his name is Calvin Klein, due to it being Marty's brand of underwear. In the first film, Marty uses the alias of \"Darth Vader, an extraterrestrial from the Planet Vulcan\" while wearing a radiation suit in an attempt to coerce George into asking Lorraine out to the dance. In Part III, Marty claims to be \"Clint Eastwood\" when asked for a name first by Maggie McFly and later by Buford Tannen. In Back to the Future: The Game, he uses one of the three aliases; Sonny Crockett, Harry Callahan, and",
"-18.450869567606787"
],
[
"quickly. In The Jeffersons season 2 (1976) episode \"The Breakup: Part 2\", Mr. Bentley explains Cockney rhyming slang to George Jefferson, in that \"whistle and flute\" means \"suit\", \"apples and pears\" means \"stairs\", \"plates of meat\" means \"feet\".\nThe use of rhyming slang was also prominent in Mind Your Language (1977–79), Citizen Smith (1977–80), Minder (1979–94), Only Fools and Horses (1981–91), and EastEnders (1985-). Minder could be quite uncompromising in its use of obscure forms without any clarification. Thus the non-Cockney viewer was obliged to deduce that, say, \"iron\" was \"male homosexual\" ('iron'='iron hoof'='poof'). One episode in Series 5 of Steptoe",
"-18.444162391562713"
],
[
"\"Please tell me that is not your penis!\" Due to the hilarity of the dialogue, the filming of the scene took 3 takes. Fleming explained the decision to include the 'dick pic', \"It is a comedy story, but like all good comedy there's a truth at the core of it, and it is social commentary, that story. Many teens are doing stuff like this, and many parents are worried about it.\" The cliffhanger went viral and Fleming expressed apologies to Galvin for the dialogue, \"I think Michael now is going to have that line shouted at him across the street.",
"-18.418430579702544"
],
[
"Dickie makes the mistake of remembering his affair with Joyce as an amusing lark, and ends up on the floor of his office with Stephanie's hands around his throat, before her friends Connie and Lula pry her away. In a fit of indignation, Stephanie snatches a desk clock off Dickie's desk, declaring that it was a wedding present from her aunt.\nLater that evening, Stephanie's on-again/off-again boyfriend, detective Joe Morelli, is told that Dickie has disappeared, and there are signs that he has been abducted or murdered from his house. Because of her earlier altercation with Dickie, Morelli tells",
"-18.379389150781208"
],
[
"a television version in 1979. Dick Barton has also been adapted into a tongue-in-cheek stage play and a spoof radio comedy. Each version has featured the original's memorable signature tune, \"Devil's Galop\" by Charles Williams. Style The series was devised by producer Norman Collins. The scripts were written by Edward J. Mason and Geoffrey Webb. The programme gave rise to a popular catchphrase of the late 1940s \"With one bound Dick was free!\" which made light of the fact that no matter how dangerous the cliffhanging situation Dick found himself in every evening, he would always escape easily.\nEarly ideas for",
"-18.353484263787323"
],
[
"British slang and some strong language was removed. For example, Freak asks where the 'johns' are but you can clearly see his mouth says 'loo', which is a British slang term for toilet. Freak tells Eddie to distract McNiece, \"even if it means having sex with the bastard\" which is changed to \"slimeball\" on the US VHS. Most of Leon's dialogue appears to have been re-voiced and he appears considerably softer spoken in the US version.\nThe original BBC TV version has never seen a commercial release in the UK, and has almost zero presence online, suggesting that the world has",
"-18.32891878112605"
],
[
"will never call him a hero again. It’s a question of context\".\nIn July 2000, Kamiński used the word \"pedał\" (a derogatory Polish word for homosexual, usually translated into English as \"fag\" or \"queer\") in a TV interview to refer to gay rights campaigners. When asked by the reporter if such a term is offensive, his reply translates as: \"That's how people speak, what should I say? They are fags.\" In a 2009 interview with Iain Dale he admitted the word was offensive and that he would never use it again. He confirmed he has homosexual friends and stated that he",
"-18.326102380712655"
],
[
"changed the spelling to Fuess due to its difficult pronunciation for Americans. According to Fuess, he and his family pronounce their name Fease. Often times he would go by one his nicknames. Those he knew in high school and at Amherst College called him \"Dutch.\" At Phillips Academy he was known as either \"Jack\" or \"Claudie\" or once Headmaster \"B.D.\" (Bald Doctor). Someone even wrote the following poem titled \"Fuess Please\" in 1930 to illustrate the difficulty of his name:\nHe'll exclaim, \"Oh what's the use!\"\n\nWhen he hears you utter \"Fuess.\"\n\nAnd he'll like it even less\n\nIf",
"-18.251467655882152"
],
[
"ways, but Dick convinces Jason that they should meet the girls at Daytona Beach, Florida, because Dick wants to have sex with Lenore. The two go to a golf course, where Dick flirts with two women.\nAt Daytona Beach, they meet up with the girls and the girls' friends, Cody and Brah, with whom they compete in beer chugging. That night, a drunk Jason, wearing nothing but a Hornet fanny pack, parties and smokes crack cocaine that he gets from a drug dealer named Pam. He steals a motorcycle and wakes up the next day on the beach. During an awkward",
"-18.22080317554355"
],
[
"moaning, such as in their singles and \"Position #9\", similar to fellow Europop groups as E-Rotic, which often led to the songs becoming controversial. The first single \"Short Dick Man\", which involves a woman mocking the size of a man's penis, was later released in a clean version replacing the word \"dick\" with \"short\", with also a retitled censored title \"Short Short Man\". \"Lick It\" also had both edited and unedited versions released as well – the reason why 20 Fingers releases often had a Parental Advisory warning label. Their lyrics are sung in English, Spanish and Tagalog (\"Putang Ina",
"-18.211013383144746"
],
[
"in which has hip and finger stripes.\nSome versions of Dick's story as Nightwing do not make clear whether the public at large knows that the first Robin is now Nightwing, or whether he is simply an entirely new hero. A metafictional foreword (said to have been made by a future historian) to a trade paperback for \"A Death In The Family\" made the claim that the public at large always thought there was just one Robin. In versions that do address it, Dick and Bruce seem to want to spread the belief that Nightwing started his career as an adult,",
"-18.202563169983478"
],
[
"\"Jack and Jill\" was in use in England as early as the 16th century to indicate a boy and a girl. A comedy with the title Jack and Jill was performed at the Elizabethan court in 1567-68, and the phrase was used twice by Shakespeare: in A Midsummer Night's Dream, which contains the line, \"Jack shall have Jill; Nought shall go ill\" (III:ii:460-2), and in Love's Labour's Lost, which has the lines, \"Our wooing doth not end like an old play; Jack hath not Jill\" (V:ii:874–5). These lines suggest that it was a phrase which indicated a romantically attached couple,",
"-18.1670876941389"
],
[
"\"Tricky Dicky\" both in the show and the British press and become a prominent soap womanizer and villain for the two years he appeared; he had flings with various female characters, most notably Kathy Beale (Gillian Taylforth) and Bianca Jackson (Patsy Palmer).\nTricky Dicky has beed described as a \"lothario\", as well as \"corrupt, shifty and slimy as they come\". Author Kate Lock suggests that Tricky Dicky was aptly named, stating \"he was sly, underhand and ruthless, both in his business dealings [...] and with women.\" She adds that he was \"good-looking in an oily sort of way, but dropped his",
"-18.16615032160962"
],
[
"double-tracked with a low-pitched spoken voice — in a similar manner to his singing on the choruses of the song \"The Hero's Return\".\n\"Not Now John\" is notable for being one of the few Pink Floyd tracks to feature strong profanity, as the word \"fuck\" occurs in the album version of the song seven times: six times as part of the phrase \"fuck all that\", and near the end of the song in a \"Where's-the-bar?\" lyric, which is sung in Italian, Greek, French and finally English (with the English iteration being \"Oi — Where's the fucking bar, John?\"). The four iterations",
"-18.155621647585576"
],
[
"Good Dick Plot A video store clerk stalks, spies on and manipulates a reclusive woman, who often comes to the video store where he works to rent soft-core porn. Eventually, despite his strong optimism, her dislike of sex and resulting defensiveness drives them apart. It is revealed toward the end of the film that her dislike of both sex and relationships was fueled by sexual abuse at the hands of her father. The film ends with a confrontation with her father, and ultimately Ritter's character reuniting with her. Festivals and competitions The film competed in the Dramatic Competition at the",
"-18.140750268705233"
],
[
"Batman is entirely amicable. Dick passes the mantle of Robin over to Jason Todd voluntarily, in a memorable scene wherein he states that \"Robin will always be the second part of Batman and...\" Bruce gives every impression of being pleased with his ward's coming of age, and maintains this attitude until the post-Crisis retcon that rewrites the origin of Jason Todd and the circumstances of Dick's departure from the role.) Nightwing In pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity, the maturing Dick Grayson grows weary of his role as Batman's young sidekick. He renames himself Nightwing, recalling his adventure in the Kryptonian",
"-18.13311606217485"
],
[
"always follow a traditional verse-chorus structure such as in \"Short Dick Man\" or \"Putang Ina Mo\" (Tagalog for lit. \"You're Mother Is a Whore\") with minimalistic vocals and often use simple repeatings such as \"Bum, ba da da da da\" (\"Lick It\"), \"Barara bum bum bum\" (\"Sex Machine\"), \"Eeny, weeny, teeny, weeny\" or \"Don't, Don't, Don't, Do Do, Don't, Don't, Don't\" (\"Short Dick Man\"), \"Ay nako, putang ina mo!\"/\"Ina mo, ina mo, ina mo, ina mo\" (\"Putang Ina Mo\") which led the songs to high recognition. The lyrics were distinguished by their humorous or risque lyrics, often sexually explicit including",
"-18.108110453204517"
],
[
"Sloppy seconds Sloppy seconds (or slops in Australian slang) is a slang phrase for when a man has sexual intercourse with a female or male partner who already has received another man's penis in the relevant orifice and is therefore wet or \"sloppy\". The phrase buttered bun is sometimes used to refer to said orifice. The practice is also referred to as a \"wet deck\".\nThe term is used, by extension, to refer to any act of entering into a sexual relationship with a person who had previously been in a sexual relationship with someone else in one's peer group.",
"-18.097245197760458"
],
[
"of a ship, and when the last sailor climbed on board he would say, \"I'm alright Jack, pull up the ladder\". The use of the name \"Jack\" derives from Jack Tar, an archaic term for a British sailor. Another variant of the story depicts the origin of the phrase among sailors returning home from duty who, instead of being treated as brave heroes, were forced to fend for themselves in a dog-eat-dog society.\nIt was used in the title of the film I'm All Right Jack (1959) and appears in lyrics of popular song Which Side Are You On? (But it",
"-18.0838489926291"
],
[
"mile. If he was to have a relationship, he would give it everything. So because his commitments have been his career, his faith, and more latterly, tennis, he has given himself wholeheartedly to those three activities.\"\nRichard often declines discussion about close relationships and when asked about suggestions that he may be homosexual has stated categorically that he is not. When the suggestions were first put to him in the late 1970s, Richard responded by saying: \"It's untrue. People are very unfair with their criticism and their judgements. I've had girlfriends. But people seem to think that if a bloke doesn't",
"-18.073608442349723"
],
[
"man (Kerry Shale) in a red polo neck jumper who claims to be \"his very best friend\". In the fifth episode it transpires that the man, who identifies himself as Dick, is the personification of Mark's penis.\nThe final episode begins after Becky and Michael had slept together while house sitting for Tracy and Robert, and Michael hides in the bathroom when the latter couple return. Tracy phones a morning television phone-in show (hosted by Michael Thomas and Helen Atkinson-Wood, with appearances by Rachael Fielding and Jonathan Barlow), and when she realises that the show's divorce expert is hiding in her",
"-18.059907582528467"
]
] |
3xjyiy | How did a 32 year old Martin Shkreli get to have so much power at such a young age? | [
"The short answer is that he had a knack for biotech stocks. He self-taught himself biology and chemistry and was able to comprehend complicated papers and study results that most people in finance cannot understand without the help of expensive industry consultants. This can be very helpful in taking short position against stocks of drug companies that have failing products, which so many in biotech do. Very few drugs in development ultimately get FDA's approval. It can also help you assess what company is undervalued based on its drug portfolio. His knowledge, apparently, also allowed him to convince a lot of people to invest in his firms. Because they believed he really knew what he was talking about. It turns out that a lot of his investments, especially those made at his hedge funds, were simply too risky. He may have been cocky about his expertise and underestimated how much the biotech sector was influenced by other factors outside his control.",
"Powerful people have the ability to sell themselves as experts. They have big egos that project a presence people trust no matter how much they boast or lie. Which is why they tend to be the ones to get away with making money going bankrupt or with ponzi schemes or the superior natural leaders, culminating in a national chief who alone is capable of incarnating the group's destiny because of his perceived instincts over abstract and universal reason.",
"Well business overall is a people game. Those who are better at interacting with people who have money tend to do better. In terms of Martin Shkreli if you have been reading the news he ran a partial ponzi scheme. I feel he couldn't produce enough investors at a point to which he turned to price gouging for sufficient funding. Overall I feel anyone can be a CEO you just have to know people and recruit. Most people only seem to focus on the fact that they need to produce the funds to build a business when all you really need to do is prove to a rich person why they should invest with you and boom you can make any company you want. I'm not saying you could sell miracle aids curing chicken to someone but skillful people could make someone wealthy believe that your chicken can cure or significantly reduce your chances of getting aids, it would be a very worthy investment. It's a bad example but it still shows a point. Make people believe.",
"Serious question: how much trouble is this guy in? I mean, I know Reddit got excited when he got arrested but is he looking at a slap on the wrist or something more like Madoff got?",
"Step 1: layout your plan to the board of directors Step 2: Buy a ton of stocks in the company, close to 2 million shares. Step 3: Now that you have a big stake in the company the board will appoint you as CEO so you can execute your strategy. Step 4: Acquire the rights to a needed drug and raise its price. Step 5: Profit from the 2 million shares bought prior. & nbsp; Shkreli made close to 60 million in less than a month with this strategy on KBIO.",
"Anyone notice that he worked at Jim Cramer's firm; Cramer, Berkowitz and Company? You know.. that guy that Jon Stewart outed for his company training videos that showed him explaining to his employees how to pump and dump stock through the press and media to make a profit? URL_0 I wish the media would comment on Cramer's legacy of unethical behavior.",
"To be fair to him, he wasn't born into it. He's a complete bastard no doubt, but he did manage to get billions of dollars all by himself, which is pretty smart."
] | [
[
"on October 26, 2005, at the age of 50, almost two years after his father.",
"-23.340960580506362"
],
[
"1997. Aspects of Young's work are being developed by the Young Foundation, created from the merger of his Institute of Community Studies and his Mutual Aid Centre, under the direction of Geoff Mulgan.\nThroughout his life, and particularly in later life, Young was concerned for older people. In 1982 he co-founded the University of the Third Age with Peter Laslett and Eric Midwinter, and Linkage, bringing together older people without grandchildren and young people without grandparents. In 2001 he co-founded the charity Grandparents Plus to champion the role of the wider family in children's lives.\nAccording to his friend Eric Midwinter, \"All",
"-23.25069574607187"
],
[
"parents, including the mom of a 10-year-old who still spoon-fed him, the mom of an 8-year-old who bought him a skateboard but only let him \"ride\" it on the grass, and the mom of a 13-year-old who still took him into the ladies room. With humor, kindness, and some firmness, Skenazy separated the parents from their children and had the children do some tasks on their own, such as running an errand, or learning, at age 10, how to ride a bike. In the end, 12 of the 13 couples relaxed so much, that they became \"Free-Range Parents\" themselves. Now",
"-23.231483317853417"
],
[
"youngest person in the history of TDP to hold this position is Ram Mohan Naidu Kinjarapu, followed by Nara Lokesh, E. Peddireddy and M. A. Sharif.",
"-23.079302573547466"
],
[
"extremely shy young man, at age 17, he began studies at a Methodist college in Albion, Michigan, on the 50 dollars his parents could give him after selling a calf. He continued to work on the family farm in the summer, never stopping his studies which he carried on during the night. \nAlthough he was always a religious boy he had a defining experience of conversion at age 19, through the fiancée he was corresponding with, Lucy J. Glenn. Martin was converted at 19 through Lucy’s prayers and his mother’s example. Soon he received his call to preach. When he",
"-22.98288189608502"
],
[
"Alexander Hugh Macmillan Early life Macmillan was born in Canada. From an early age he had a deep interest in serving God. At age 16, he decided to be a preacher, attending a school away from home, but ceased his studies when he suffered a nervous breakdown. With financial aid from his father, he relocated to Boston, Massachusetts. There, he came in contact with the Bible Student movement. In about 1897, he obtained a copy of the book, The Plan of the Ages, the first of the six-volume series Millennial Dawn (later called Studies in the Scriptures), written by Charles",
"-22.981536417042662"
],
[
"of the church to take effective action, for ruining his life.\nIn 2019, The Observer reported that Tolkien had said, in a tape-recorded conversation with Carrie, that he was sexually abused by at least one of his father's friends as a child.",
"-22.955075344099896"
],
[
"prime minister successful at the subsequent election of party leader. Ages The youngest person to become prime minister was Chris Watson – 37, who was also 37 when he ceased being prime minister. The oldest person to become prime minister was John McEwen – 67 as an interim prime minister, otherwise William McMahon – 63. Robert Menzies was the oldest person to ever be prime minister, leaving office at 71 years old.",
"-22.95382991299266"
],
[
"Donald Gary Young Early life and education Young was born on July 11, 1949 and attended high school in Challis, Idaho. In his late teens, Young moved to Canada with the intention of homesteading in British Columbia. By Young's account, at the age of 24, he suffered a near-fatal logging accident, and had to use a wheelchair for a time, and he further claimed that while rehabilitating, he began to experiment with essential oils. \nIn 1980, Young enrolled in a therapeutic massage program at the “American Institute of Physiogenerology”; however, according to the Institute’s founder, Young left after attending only",
"-22.84415367746965"
],
[
"to gain access to young people within the Movement. Some notable cases are listed below.\nIn 2006, Alan Grant, a 42-year-old man who had held Scouting leadership positions in Scotland for more than 20 years, admitted to abusing two 15-year-old boys in his home in 2006. To entice the boys to visit his home, Grant had set up a “fake camp,” complete with fake parent authorization forms, and obtained the parents’ permission for the boys to attend. Instead, the boys were taken to his home and given alcohol before the abuse took place. He was sentenced to nine months",
"-22.791475438978523"
],
[
"position. The Moderate Youth League played a great part in this, lobbying for him inside the party and campaigning for him in the election. In 2002, Tove Lifvendahl became the first Youth League chairman to be elected to the national board of the party directly after resigning from the Moderate Youth League. Many former leaders left politics but gained prominence in other spheres of society, most of all in business.\nThe Moderate Youth League has around 9,500 members (2004/2005).",
"-22.772874083719216"
],
[
"Tabinshwehti Childhood and education The young prince was cared for by seven royal servants (two women and five men) throughout his childhood and youth. He grew up playing with children of his servants, including one Ye Htut, the eldest son of Mingyi Swe and his wet nurse Myo Myat. Ye Htut, who was three months older, would become Tabinshwehti's right-hand man.\nThe young crown prince grew up having to live up to a prophecy at his birth, which claimed that he would grow up to be a great warrior just like Minye Kyawswa. (According to the prophecy, Tabinshwehti was the reincarnation",
"-22.716438861592906"
],
[
"Lee Elder Background and family One of ten children, Elder was born in Dallas, Texas, to Charles and Almeta Elder. He was nine years old when his father was killed in Germany during World War II, and his mother died three months later. At the age of 12, Elder found himself moving from one ghetto to another before being sent to Los Angeles, California to live with his aunt. Elder frequently cut classes to work as a caddie, and after two years at Manual Arts High School he dropped out.\nElder met his future wife, Rose Harper, at a golf tournament",
"-22.646306730790457"
],
[
"destitute, earnestly devoted herself to rearing her children without assistance. This meant, however, that said children had to become as self-supporting as possible at a very early age.\nAt five years old, Samuel was placed on a small farm with an uncle who employed himself as a wood-chopper and made himself useful as best he could. Two years later, an aunt died, leaving him $150 to be inherited when he came of age and he went to live with his guardian, John Charles, a farmer near Millersville. It was in the seven years he lived there that he learned how to",
"-22.49859755198122"
],
[
"at the age of 56. He left behind his wife, Margaret, two daughters and two sons.",
"-22.453056357771857"
],
[
"is his father, who died at the age of 90, when Benkirane was 16. He is married to a party activist and has six children. His youngest daughter is tetraplegic.",
"-22.421678906179295"
],
[
"until age eleven, with some brief stays in rehabilitation centers invariably terminated by her family's poor financial situation. As she approached her teens, it became increasingly difficult for her mother and family to care for her. Her parents decided to send her to the Belchertown State School, an institution for the mentally and physically disabled. There, like many of the institution's patients, she was severely mistreated. She spent most of the next eight years lying in bed in a ward of schizophrenics, ministered to by overworked attendants who often force-fed her and assumed that as an imbecile she had no",
"-22.405548718379578"
],
[
"by her brothers as a toddler, but too young for them to play with. She always played with her make-believe friends and was a happy child. \nWhen she was six in June 29, 1949 her baby sister Emerald arrived, and Maria became the middle child over night. She was always a mature child but now she had to grow up really fast. Five children, three of them teenagers practically were too much for her mother. She became her mother’s helper assuming responsibilities being the oldest girl, house chores; cleaning, ironing, sweeping and dusting. She was doing the grocery shopping by",
"-22.29180008028925"
],
[
"He was sixty-eight years old in 1998.",
"-22.229683296092844"
],
[
"the same. When he was eleven, some of Haakon's friends provoked the king by asking him to give Haakon a region to govern. When Haakon was approached by the men and was urged to take up arms against Inge, he rejected it in part because of his young age and its bad prospects, as well as because he believed it would be morally wrong to fight Inge and thus split the birkebeiner. He instead said that he prayed that God would give him his share of his father's inheritance when the time was right. Succession struggle After King Inge's death",
"-22.21150522075095"
],
[
"but in middle school she was transferred to Ronson, a regional integration project, where she felt out of place. When it was time for high school, it was decided to send her to Ort Negev, a trade high school, where she was intended to learn to be a child caregiver. Even at her young age, she realized that all the Mizrahi youngsters were being sent to trade schools to learn to be hairdressers or electricians, while the Ashkenazi teens were sent to college preparatory schools. She decided not to cooperate, and dropped out of school at age 16. She eventually",
"-22.20179144392023"
],
[
"Neil Young Early years (1945–1966) Neil Young was born on November 12, 1945, in Toronto, Ontario. His father, Scott Alexander Young (1918–2005), was a journalist and sportswriter who also wrote fiction. His mother, Edna Blow Ragland \"Rassy\" Young (1918–1990) was a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution. Although Canadian, his mother had American and French ancestry. Young's parents married in 1940 in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and their first son, Robert \"Bob\" Young, was born in 1942. Shortly after Young's birth in 1945, his family moved to rural Omemee, Ontario, which Young later described fondly as a \"sleepy little place\".",
"-22.190080163942184"
],
[
"Lotor would likely have grown into a much better person.\nPrince Lotor's life is multiplied by Quintessence, allowing him to live for 10,000 years, due to being already conceived by the time his mother, Honerva, entered the rift on Daibazaal. Reception The character has praised for being a nuanced character.",
"-22.186106691427995"
],
[
"the age of 39, leaving behind his eldest child of 14 years, the 10-year-old Moishe, and the youngest only two. In 1940, Moishe entered the Toras Emes yeshiva in Stamford Hill, of which Moshe Schneider was the rosh yeshiva, where he would remain for ten years. He studied there with Bezalel Rakow, who was later to become the Gateshead Rov, Yitzchok Tuvia Weiss, his future colleague in the Edah HaChareidis, and future Olympia and York businessman Paul Reichmann.\nSternbuch's family fled London during World War II due to The Blitz. They moved to a small nearby village where he shared",
"-22.168426602729596"
],
[
"the first son. This affected him: thieves and other threats brought home to him the futility of the household life, and at the age of eighteen, he desired to be ordained as a monk. He had to take care of his family first though, and saved up money for them to be able to leave behind after he would become a monk. The biography of Wat Phra Dhammakaya says that he had to calculate the rate of inflation for this, and work harder than before, but finally managed to gather enough funds after four years.\nWhen Sodh was twenty-two years old,",
"-22.090996006969362"
],
[
"against the University Act of 1920. He dreamed of becoming a journalist and surprised the family by writing an article for the Union of Burma Boy Scouts magazine. When Thant was fourteen, his father died and a series of inheritance disputes forced Thant's mother, Nan Thaung, and her four children into difficult financial times.\nAfter the death of his father, Thant believed he would not be able to complete a four-year degree and instead worked for a two-year teaching certificate at Rangoon University in 1926. As the oldest son, he had to fulfill his filial duties and responsibilities of the family.",
"-22.080559765803628"
],
[
"including Prince Yi Seok, the younger half-brother of Prince Gap, and Princess Yi Hae-won, the eldest surviving member of the house. Also, according to present Korean law, the traditional adoption after death of a foster parent to continue the line has been outlawed by legislation as of 2004.\nAnother problem arises over whether Prince Won or his father Prince Gap is the senior member of the house. While the line of Prince Gang is the senior line following the death of Prince Gu, there are descendants of the elder sons of Prince Gang.",
"-22.02746581126121"
],
[
"to the village. One of the children stated that they had never been to school. None of the six adult children were in official records of births and citizens.\nThe 67-year old man has four more children, a total of ten children as of 2019. His eldest son was never a part of the same cult and the three eldest children of the nine he had with his second wife, fled the family home in 2011. Only the 6 youngest children remained in seclusion until 2019. The 67-year old man has extensive Facebook pages and his own website, but does not",
"-22.003792048519244"
],
[
"years later while Susan supported the family financially by working at a health insurance company. At first, Ulner was controlling but not particularly violent or abusive. According to Susan, he had a will to dominate and the power to brainwash. Her husband eventually isolated Susan from her family. However, due to her husband's proficiency at manipulation and control, and its gradual increase, Susan was slow to realize the high level of danger in which her husband's domineering behaviors placed her. After giving birth to their oldest children, a boy and a girl, Susan had to quit work and stay home",
"-21.970757934381254"
],
[
"Christopher Wylie Early life Wylie was born to parents Kevin Wylie and Joan Carruthers, a physician and a psychiatrist. He was raised in Victoria, British Columbia. As a child he was diagnosed with dyslexia and ADHD. After being abused at the age of 6 by \"a mentally unstable person\", he successfully sued the British Columbia Ministry of Education after a six-year legal battle, winning a settlement of $290,000 at the age of 14. He left school in 2005 at the age of 16 without a qualification, and when asked about his \"probable destiny\" on his school leaver's yearbook page, he",
"-21.93307556718355"
],
[
"25 February 1980 at the age of 73, leaving behind his wife and three sons.",
"-21.930231600563275"
],
[
"until he was in the place where he most wanted to be.\nWhen he was nearing his father's house, he opened the bundle. A great castle sprang up, and an irate giant demanded to know why he had put it there. It offered to put it back if the prince gave him his first son, when he reached seven years of age. Then the prince went out, and opened the bundle near his father's lands. He went into the castle, and found a pretty maid who was willing to be his wife. They had a son,",
"-21.897663264913717"
],
[
"Thor Nis Christiansen Early life Thor Nis Christiansen was born in Denmark, and immigrated to the United States with his parents when he was five years old. The family initially settled in Inglewood, California, and then moved to Solvang, where his father, Nis, ran a restaurant. Christiansen was a good student until his junior year of high school, when he began neglecting his schoolwork. He moved out of his parents' house, dropped out of school, and began working as a gas station attendant. During this time, Christiansen gained a great deal of weight, at one point weighing 275 pounds (125",
"-21.831557776604313"
],
[
"\"very, very slow\" learner; \"If I have to, I can write things down. But I don't like to\". By the time he was 12, Oldfield played the electric guitar and performed in local folk and youth clubs and dances, earning as much as £4 per gig. During a six-month break from music that Oldfield had around this time, he took up painting. In May 1968, when Oldfield turned fifteen, his school headmaster requested that he cut his long hair. Oldfield refused and left abruptly. He then decided to pursue music on a full time, professional basis. 1968–1972: Early career After",
"-21.810042480909033"
],
[
"however, at the age of 64. His eldest son, Sakai Tadayuki, died around the same time, and so the next oldest son, Sakai Tadakiyo succeeded his father.",
"-21.801868791153538"
],
[
"the age of 15 but the deal was unable to work out due to him been under age.",
"-21.775474044974544"
],
[
"age of three by her maternal grandmother. She would assist with getting the family's meal of rice and beans ready, and then spend the morning at a table with a primer. As a little girl, she often pretended to be a teacher to her dolls and stuffed animals, using a small blackboard and desk. She points to this early play-time as the root of her desire to be an educator.\nWhen she turned five years old, Cruzado began helping her grandfather on his coffee farm, spreading beans out to dry. She also began assisting her stepfather in the coffee mill where",
"-21.760968970746035"
],
[
"youngest uncle became a 49er after losing both his wife and infant son. His younger brother, Henry A. Strong, was a wildly successful businessman and philanthropist who served as Eastman Kodak's first president.\nHe graduated from Yale College in 1857, having had a religious conversion during his time in college. He began his theological studies at Rochester Theological Seminary and was awarded his D.D. in Germany. In August 1861 he was ordained pastor of First Baptist Church of Haverhill, Massachusetts. After his short pastorate in Haverhill, he went on in 1865 to become the pastor of First",
"-21.752411127119558"
],
[
"Jesse Fuller Early life Fuller was born in Jonesboro, Georgia, near Atlanta. He was sent by his mother to live with foster parents when he was a young child, in a rural setting where he was badly mistreated. Growing up, he worked at numerous jobs: grazing cows for ten cents a day; working in a barrel factory, a broom factory, and a rock quarry; working on a railroad and for a streetcar company; shining shoes; and even peddling hand-carved wooden snakes. By the age of 10, he was playing the guitar in two techniques, which he described as \"frailing\" and",
"-21.750697721377946"
],
[
"Kardinal Offishall Early life and career beginnings Harrow was born in Scarborough, Ontario, in Toronto's east end, and raised by Jamaican immigrant parents. From the ages of 2 to 13, he lived in the city's Flemingdon Park neighbourhood. He moved back to Scarborough for two years, before finally settling in Oakwood–Vaughan, in the city's west end. While in high school, he would throw parties at the Alexandra Park Community Centre. He also is a former York University student but did not complete his degree.\nHe started rapping at the age of eight and was winning competitions by the time he was",
"-21.73316884750966"
],
[
"the youngest child in his family by 12 years. He was baptized at age seven at a local Baptist church, after having a conviction of sin. He continued to feel distant from God, however, as he did not have the real experience with God that he had expected post-baptism. He remained hungry for spiritual encounters in his young age, even traveling to Charleston, Virginia, for a Presbyterian Church meeting. As a teen, he struggled with his relationship with churches and God, and began using tobacco.\nWhile in Kentucky for business, Garr met a preacher from the Holiness movement. Garr believed the",
"-21.730767678585835"
],
[
"Bruce Golding Biography He is the son of Tacius Golding and Enid Golding (née Bent), both teachers. Bruce was the third of four children: the second—the only girl—died shortly after birth. In 1949, when he was only two years old, his family moved to St. Faiths district near Browns Hall, St. Catherine, where he spent the next five years. In 1955, his mother accepted a teaching post at Alpha Academy in Kingston. This necessitated that the family relocate to Kingston.\nAs a child, Golding grew up in a political environment. He was only two years old in 1949 when his father",
"-21.720783520373516"
],
[
"credited his father as having taught him the game of football. His father became partially disabled later in his life and died following a brain tumour when Wesley was nine years of age.\nWesley has two children from different relationships, Yan and Maria Eduarda, both of whom he fathered as a teenager. He had his first child at the age of 14 and his second at the age of 16. As a sixteen year-old he worked in a factory sorting screws to support his family between football trials before his move to AS Trencin.",
"-21.71914286116953"
],
[
"give up any children. Despite being aged between 59 and 62 at the time of the Times interview, she was open to the prospect of more children, though she recognised that it would be a struggle: \"If God sends them to me, yes. But I'd like God to also consider me, now that I'm approaching old age.\" \nShe had tried birth control with an intrauterine device but it was not a success: \"I got pregnant anyway and nearly died ... I think it was a punishment from God for doing something I shouldn't.\"\nWhen Leontina's story became public she became something of",
"-21.69221008382374"
],
[
"Gavin Esler Early life Esler was born in Glasgow on 27 February 1953, the first son born to a manager of a building company. During his first weeks, he suffered from a condition that made him unable to digest milk and his parents feared for his life. He had an operation at just three weeks old. His family lived in Clydebank before they moved to Edinburgh, where he began his education at Duddingston Primary School before gaining a scholarship to George Heriot's School at the age of seven. \nHis Scottish childhood had a profound and long-lasting effect on him. His",
"-21.691678135248367"
],
[
"that she would not live to reach the age of two years; however, it was her younger sister, Sally, who died from the same disease before that age. As a child she was prone to getting severe chest infections, which occurred two or three times per year, sometimes requiring hospitalisation. Education Campbell went to a segregated school for disabled children where academic achievement was not the top priority. Her best friend, who had a hole in the heart, died at the age of 13 years. She left school at the age of 16 years with no qualifications, and hardly able",
"-21.680709758787998"
],
[
"to join what he described as \"The Council of Dads\" that would live on well after he was gone\".\nSteve Myall writing in The Daily Mirror said, \"Dying young and leaving your children to grow up without your love and guidance is a nightmare most parents dare not even contemplate. But that was the chilling prospect facing devoted 45-year-old father of two Bruce Feiler when he was told a seven-inch cancerous tumor was growing in his thigh. At the time his twin daughters Eden and Tybee were just three years old and the terror of facing his own death was overshadowed",
"-21.678839690983295"
],
[
"Jacoby Ellsbury Early life Ellsbury was born on September 11, 1983, to Jim and Margie Ellsbury, and is the eldest of four children. His mother is a Navajo, a descendant of 19th-century tribal leader Ganado Mucho. Her father Franklin McCabe was a silversmith and her mother a traditional rug weaver. His father, Jim Ellsbury, is of English and German descent. The Ellsburys lived on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation until they moved to Madras, Oregon, when he was in kindergarten. He was raised in the Mormon religion.\nIn Little League, Ellsbury often played with teammates up to three years older than",
"-21.67717837204691"
],
[
"child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the \"4-2-1 Problem\", this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If not for personal savings, pensions, or state welfare, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance. If for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue,",
"-21.670960299670696"
],
[
"H. R. Janardhana Iyengar Childhood and education Janardhana Iyengar was the eldest child of Haradanahalli Ramaswamy Iyengar and Janakamma. He had three younger sisters and two younger brothers. At age 18, he married 12-year-old Indiramma Srinivasa Iyengar of Kollegal. In 1927, when Iyengar was an engineering student, his father died from complications of carbuncle surgery. At this young age, he became the head of the family, and at the same time pursued the higher education that would lead to his accomplished career. In 1930, he obtained a degree in Engineering from the University of Mysore with",
"-21.63005182525376"
],
[
"initial education in order to relieve his parents of their economic burden. \nIn his late childhood and into his adolescence he endeavored to earn funds that would support his parents and siblings. From the age of 14 he dedicated himself to caring for livestock and other similar tasks. He frequented Marian shrines and had an ardent devotion to the Eucharist . By the age of twenty, he had saved eighty silver ducats and travelled back home to Murcia to help provide for his sister's impending marriage. En route home a group of thieves attacked him and stripped him of all",
"-21.562319844815647"
],
[
"age of 92, in 1996 and his wife died in 1994, at the age of 90.",
"-21.55444342715782"
],
[
"Rogers Neighborhood fame, Rohr was intensely aware of the importance of early childhood development. In 2004, he worked with the PNC Foundation to create Grow Up Great, a 10 year, $100 million early childhood learning initiative intended to help prepare underserved children from birth to age 5 for school and life. Compensation While CEO of PNC Financial Services Group in 2008, James E. Rohr earned a total compensation of $8,549,098, which included a base salary of $1,000,000, no cash bonus, stocks granted of $3,185,000, and options granted of $4,132,000. Criticism The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review newspaper began running \"The Jim Rohr",
"-21.547385629673954"
],
[
"would move on to someone else. Her wish was fulfilled when Philpott met Heather Kehoe, then aged 14, in Rainworth, Nottinghamshire; Philpott was 37. On her 16th birthday, Kehoe ran away from her parents to live with Philpott. She gave birth to two children, both boys, in quick succession, but Philpott beat Kehoe because he wanted a daughter. Kehoe described Philpott teaching his older sons to be violent towards her. Philpott wanted Kehoe to produce more children, but she did not conceive again. In 1991, he was given a two-year conditional discharge from the British Army for assault occasioning actual",
"-21.540902351916884"
],
[
"brother reached adolescence, Marybeth would tell him, \"You were the one they wanted, not me.\"\nHer father, Alton Lewis Roe, on completion of his active duty, worked as a press operator in a nearby General Electric facility. At the time, the facility was the area's largest employer. As an adult, Marybeth once claimed that when she was a child, her father abused her. During a police interview in 1986, she told one investigator that her father had beaten her and locked her in a closet. During court testimony, she denied that her father had bad intentions. \"My father hit me with",
"-21.539598959730938"
],
[
"from age 15 to age 20 as a result of her father's death.",
"-21.53193431822001"
],
[
"the time King's father died in 1930, when she was 14, the family had lost most of its money. Her older sisters supported her to stay at school until she finished, in 1932, which enabled her to get a good education. She would have liked to have gone on to university, possibly to study medicine, but, financially, that was out of the question.\nKing was 17 when Hitler came to power on 30 January 1933. Two of her older sisters, now married, decided to emigrate: one to Palestine, another to the US. By 1934, when she was 18, King was effectively",
"-21.523871760328802"
],
[
"young age of 33 and was succeeded by his eldest son Inoue Masamoto.",
"-21.522492889988825"
],
[
"and youngest child by 12 years, and particularly doted on by his older siblings and mother. From a young age, Alfred expressed a \"spiritual hunger\" and at age 7 he repented of his sin and began searching for God in his life, followed by baptism in the local Baptist church.\nAlfred Goodrich Garr met Lillian Anderson when they were in school at Ashbury College. They married and entered the ministry through the Methodist Church, and moved to California so Alfred could pastor an independent church, the Burning Bush Mission. It was at this time that the Azusa Street Revival broke out",
"-21.518625015523867"
],
[
"Shadow Children Inspiration and Development Margaret Peterson Haddix began writing Among the Hidden after discussions with her husband regarding if they wanted to have more than two children, which developed into conversations concerning overpopulation, the earth's limited resources, and China's One Child Policy. The conversations gradually led Haddix into creating Luke Garner, a twelve-year-old boy forced to live with strict controls and limited choices that result in him spending his life in hiding due to a government that said that he would not have the right to exist. Though Haddix had not intended to continue Among the Hidden,",
"-21.48904655041406"
],
[
"whom he had been \"spiritually married\" when the girl was 15 years old. The same jury sentenced Raymond Jessop to 10 years in prison and assessed a fine of $8,000.\nOn December 18, 2009, a Schleicher County, Texas jury found Allan Keate guilty of sexual assault of a child. Allan Keate fathered a child with a 15-year-old girl. According to documents admitted at trial, Keate had also given three of his own daughters away in “spiritual” or “celestial” marriage, two of them at 15 and one at 14, to older men. The youngest of the three went to Warren Jeffs. He",
"-21.48288480472911"
],
[
"some), sought the protection of his stepfather until her son, Du'gnechom, would be old enough to succeed his father. King Foudoup used this opportunity to reconcile posthumously with his son by fully supporting his wife and introducing her little son to the art of building royal power.\nDu'gnechom in turn, once he was a young adult, became leader of the camp set up by his father at Famleng and quickly developed the qualities of a great hunter and leader. He then married a young woman his mother had prepared for him who quickly gave him a son who he named Notouom.",
"-21.456348569980037"
],
[
"Linda Blair Early life The youngest of three children, Blair was born January 22, 1959 in St. Louis, Missouri, to James Frederick and Elinore (née Leitch) Blair. She has an older sister, Debbie, and an older brother, Jim. When Blair was two years old, her father, a Navy test pilot-turned-executive recruiter, took a job in New York City, and the family relocated to Westport, Connecticut. Her mother worked as a real estate agent in Westport.\nShe formally began her career as a child model at age five, appearing in Sears, J.C. Penney, and Macy's catalogues, and in over 70 commercials for",
"-21.45205984028871"
],
[
"was approaching age 56 when he predeceased his mother. Other survivors include siblings, his wife, and four sons.",
"-21.44520974403713"
],
[
"Sam Childers Early life Sam Childers was born in Grand Forks, North Dakota, the son of Paul Childers, an ironworker and former Marine. Childers had two older brothers, Paul Jr. and George. He also had a sister, Donna, who died of a heart problem before she was a year old. While he was growing up, his parents moved the family from place to place, following construction projects.\nIn the spring of 1974, shortly before Childers turned 12, his family moved to Grand Rapids, Minnesota. Going into seventh grade he discovered cigarettes, marijuana, alcohol and heroin, which led to many years of",
"-21.444289393373765"
],
[
"Personal life Young married his first wife, Margaret, when he was 19. The couple had a son and two daughters, and divorced in 1982. He also had a daughter with his second wife, Susan. Young married his third wife, Carmen, in 2003, having lived with her since 1989.\nAfter retiring from football Young had many different jobs, including removals, managing a sports shop, delivering milk, working in a supermarket, and selling insurance. In his spare time he maintained his fitness by playing badminton, and after winning local tournaments, played the sport for Cheshire. During much of this period he struggled financially,",
"-21.443746604956686"
],
[
"young, but another, Hama, inherited his father's talents and became prominent in his generation. One of his daughters was the wife of a scholar, Samuel b. Nadav by name. Another daughter died during Hanina's lifetime, but he shed no tears at her death, and when his wife expressed astonishment at his composure he told her that he feared the effects of tears on his sight.\nHe lived to be very old, and retained his youthful vigor to the last. He attributed his extraordinary vitality to the hot baths and the oil with which his mother had treated him in his youth.",
"-21.437464284244925"
],
[
"and Young failed to maintain his estate. Before his death, he became involved in a legal battle with former manager Martin Siskind. Young sued Siskind for mismanagement of funds. In response, Siskind successfully petitioned for Young to be declared mentally incompetent, and Young's affairs were placed in control of legal guardians. According to friends, Young was not incompetent and was left destitute by the procedures. Siskind stated that he and Young had settled the suit amicably and that Young retained ownership of 1,000 paintings and was financially stable.\nYoung suffered from diabetes, and toward the latter years of his life, he",
"-21.43672814360616"
],
[
"Stefan Löfven Early life and education Löfven was born 21 July 1957 in Aspudden, Stockholm. He was placed in an orphanage 10 months after his birth. Löfven was subsequently looked after by a foster family from Sunnersta, Sollefteå, where he grew up. According to the agreement with this family, his birth mother would regain custody of him when she was able to; however, this did not happen.\nHis foster father Ture Melander (1926–2003) was a lumberjack and later a factory worker, while his foster mother, Iris Melander (née Söderlund, born 1929), worked as an in-home caregiver. He studied at Sollefteå High",
"-21.433626234647818"
],
[
"age of 82 on June 30, 2007 at his home in Gates Mills, Ohio, a Cleveland suburb, after suffering from a variety of ailments. He is survived by his second wife, Kathryn; his first wife Patricia and their 13 children, Robert, Daniel, William, Martin, John, James, Thomas, Mary Brigid, Alice Marie, Edward, Patrica, Eileen and Catherine; 37 grandchildren, and 15 great-grand children; and two stepchildren from his second marriage.",
"-21.430276276245422"
],
[
"first Heir Male of I. S. when he shall Arrive to the Age of 21 Years\" so long as that first male heir of I. S. paid the sum of 40 pounds to each of I. S.'s daughters, designated \"A\" and \"B\". When the deviser died, I. S. only had the two daughters. Some time later, I. S. had a son, who reached the age of 21 years and paid his two sisters their 40 pounds each.\nThe issue before the court was whether the son of I. S. could take under the deviser's will. Dallas reported",
"-21.41304616170237"
],
[
"one of his stepmothers, Wilma, who beat all three boys (especially him). He said that his stepmother also punished him by forcing him to wear a dress in public. When he was 14 years old, he fought with her, knocking her down and choking her to keep her from killing him in retaliation. She left the family and never returned. His brother Jack later commented, \"She was a damn no-good woman\". Garner's last stepmother was Grace, whom he said he loved and called \"Mama Grace\", and felt that she was more of a mother to him than anyone else had",
"-21.41018502175575"
],
[
"grew older, he felt that he might have a religious calling. Despite their own faith, his parents initially opposed that step. As a result, at the age of 15 he was enrolled in a minor seminary in Nola, while at the same time, he began the study of law at the University of Naples Federico II. During this period, he came under the spiritual guidance of Alphonsus de Ligouri, the founder of the Redemptorists. By the time he had completed the seminary in 1762, his parents had relented in their opposition to his following a career in the Church. Barnabite",
"-21.39363303023856"
],
[
"his family were greatly reduced. Pittsinger early exhibited a disposition impulsive, daring, precocious; she cherished an unusual desire for knowledge of all kinds, and availed herself of all educational opportunities.\nAt the age of 14, she took charge of the house for her father, two brothers, and a sister, and walked 1 mile (1.6 km) to teach a school; and at the same time instructed at home a younger brother and sister. At 16, she was teacher of a school in western New York, composed mostly of boys much older than herself. During the three following years, her time was spent in",
"-21.39138540042859"
],
[
"he was 74 years old, one year after the death of his wife.",
"-21.371670656080823"
],
[
"Brigham Young Jr. Early life Young was born in Kirtland, Ohio, the son of Brigham Young and Mary Ann Angell. Young's twin sister, Mary, died at age seven from the effects of injuries received at age two in a wagon accident. At age twelve, Young drove an ox cart along the Mormon Trail, reaching Salt Lake City in 1848. Young served as a guard and scout in the following years, operating in Salt Lake Valley and the surrounding canyons.\nOn November 15, 1855, Young married Catherine Curtis Spencer, a daughter of Orson Spencer, with exactly the same name as her mother.\nIn",
"-21.371452292078175"
],
[
"Anita Mui 1963–1978: Early years Mui experienced much hardship in her childhood. She was the youngest daughter in a family of four children. Her elder sister, Ann Mui, was also a singer. The children were raised in a single-parent family. In some of her interviews, Mui mentioned that she had never met her father. This meant that she had to help provide for her siblings at an early age, dropping out of school at the age of 13 or 14. More hardship followed the family when the bar that her mother ran was destroyed by a fire. To earn a",
"-21.36927458952414"
],
[
"Children of All Ages, which featured in a special series on EWTN. The Scallons and their new label were sued in 2007 by Heart Beat Records for copyright violations on several of the albums they'd recently released.\nGill & Macmillan published her second autobiography in 2007. Her political career took centre stage in All Kinds of Everything. To coincide with the book launch, her first secular album since Forever Christmas a decade earlier, was released. A Thing Called Love was produced by her and her youngest brother Gerry, who also played guitar and keyboards, while her youngest son Robert played drums.\nIn",
"-21.36601378355408"
],
[
"Donald Neilson Early life Neilson, born Donald Nappey, was aged ten in January 1947 when his 33-year-old mother died from breast cancer. He was said to have had an unhappy childhood and was caught shopbreaking in 1948 but due to his age and circumstances was given a police caution or stern warning. He married 20-year-old Irene Tate in April 1955 at the age of 18. His wife persuaded him to leave the army where he was serving as a national serviceman in the King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry. \nTheir daughter, Kathryn, was born in 1960. Four years after his daughter's",
"-21.354002875144943"
],
[
"university student with his heart still in Narnia, though he had not been there since Prince Caspian, when he was 14 years old. In The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe A loyal and devoted big brother figure, Peter is the eldest of the four siblings. He tries his best to protect his siblings and to act like a responsible young adult. In the book, it is implied that he is more mature than his siblings because after their father was called out to fight in the war, Peter's mother told him to support his three siblings through the ordeal",
"-21.352156227330852"
],
[
"oldest of their daughters, Sophia, was sixteen years older, and the only surviving girl besides Caroline. She married when Caroline was five, meaning that the younger girl was tasked with much of the household drudgery. Caroline and the other children received a cursory education, learning to read and write and little more. Her father attempted to educate her at home, but his efforts were mostly successful with the boys.\nAt the age of ten, Caroline was struck with typhus, which stunted her growth, such that she never grew taller than 4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m). She suffered vision loss in her left eye",
"-21.347760990960523"
],
[
"he was seven months old.",
"-21.323200645230827"
],
[
"Robert Bruce King Early life and education King was born in 1940 in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. His father passed away when King was only ten, leaving his mother, Gladys, a widow at thirty-one. Gladys raised King and his two siblings while working in a kitchen at The Greenbrier resort, all the while instilling in them the importance of hard work and education. King and his sister would later endow a scholarship at West Virginia University in honor of their mother’s dedication to her children and their education.\nAfter receiving his Bachelor of Arts degree from West Virginia University in",
"-21.320771111553768"
],
[
"Grandma Prisbrey's Bottle Village Tressa \"Grandma\" Prisbrey Tressa Luella Schaefer was born in Easton, Minnesota in 1896. She attended school until the age of twelve and studied mostly politics in North Dakota. At the age of 15, Tressa married the ex-husband of her sister, Theodore Grinolds who was 37 years her senior (52 years old). The marriage with Theordore only lasted 14 years and within those years she bore seven children. After Theodore's passing at age 72, Tressa and her seven children moved up to Seattle where she married an unnamed and unemployed man. Their marriage was very short lived.",
"-21.30073364294367"
],
[
"where he stood until his death at age twenty-one in 1992. His offspring included Noalcoholic and Katies.",
"-21.293831348935782"
],
[
"Unlikely Brothers Summary John Prendergast, at twenty years old, decided to become a Big Brother to Michael Mattocks, a seven-year-old living in a crime-ridden neighborhood in Washington, DC. The book, co-authored by both, describes their different perspectives on their continuing relationship, shared over a period of more than 27 years.",
"-21.2912314448331"
],
[
"age 90 in 2007, and had four children: Heidi (born 1953), Rhett (1955–2005), Scott (born 1958), and Nicole (born 1959). The younger two children were born prematurely. Munsel and Schuler co-wrote a 2005 memoir of Schuler's life entitled The Diva & I. Munsel died on August 4, 2016, at her home in Schroon Lake, New York, aged 91.",
"-21.281143502215855"
],
[
"parents: his father in 1991 from brain and lung cancer, and his mother in January 1992 from stomach cancer.\nThese events were chronicled in his first book, the fictionalized A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius. At the time, Eggers was 21, and his younger brother, Christopher (\"Toph\"), was 8 years old. The two eldest siblings, Bill and Beth, were unable to commit to care for Toph; his older brother had a full-time job and his sister was enrolled in law school. As a result, Dave Eggers took the responsibility. He left the University of Illinois and moved to Berkeley, California, with",
"-21.268657947250176"
],
[
"by his wife and two young children, aged 12 and 18.",
"-21.26173462116276"
],
[
"his father sent him and older sister Eileen to an aunt's farm for a week. On the car ride back, he unceremoniously presented them with an article rehashing the gruesome details of that night and conveying the news of their mother's death.\"\nAged 16, Martin lied about his age and joined the Navy. \"I was a big kid for my age ... [then] they found out how old I really was and kicked me out\". He had been dating his future wife already and they were married July 21, 1956, when Martin was 19 years old. The union produced two daughters.\nHe",
"-21.25756884837756"
],
[
"Nazmiye Muslu Muratlı Early years Nazmiye Muslu was born in Konya in 1979. A paraplegic and dependent on wheelchair, she completed her primary education in her hometown.\nShe began powerlifting by chance through a friend, who insisted she come with her to the workouts. She abandoned the trainings in the beginnings since it was very hard for her. However, her mother and later her father convinced Nazmiye to resume the training activities. Career history Only three months after her beginning again with powerlifting, she was admitted to the national team, and was taken to the European championship held in Portugal without",
"-21.252413166395854"
],
[
"Clark Olofsson Early years Olofsson was born into a home where both parents were alcoholics. When he was eight years old, his mother became a single mother, taking care of Olofsson and his two younger sisters. Her problems led to the three children being placed in foster care. When his mother regained control of her life, and started working in a shop, the children were returned to her care and they moved to an apartment in Hisingen, Gothenburg. 1960s–80s For several petty crimes, sixteen-year-old Olofsson was placed in a behavioural institution for young offenders in 1963. Olofsson and two other",
"-21.24970632394252"
],
[
"He had to fend for himself as he was young for his age in every class. This according to him, developed his sense of independence. He lost his father at 22 and his grand-uncle moved his family to his home in Trichur (now Thrissur). A keen military cadet and a boxer at college, when he wanted to join the army as an engineer, his mother persuaded him to join the Tata Steel Technical Institute, Jamshedpur on a recommendation to the management by his uncle, who was a director with the Tatas, and from where he graduated in 1946, but soon",
"-21.237320410073153"
],
[
"Uwe Timm Life and work Uwe Timm was the youngest son in his family. His brother, 16 years his senior, was a soldier in the Waffen SS and died in Ukraine in 1943. Decades later, Uwe Timm approached his relationship with his father and brother in the critically acclaimed novel In my brother's shadow.\nAfter working as a furrier, Timm studied Philosophy and German in Munich and Paris, achieving a PhD in German literature in 1971 with his thesis: The Problem of Absurdity in the Works of Albert Camus. During his studies, Timm was engaged in leftist activities of the 1960s.",
"-21.227203459100565"
],
[
"father died; she was sent to live with her grandmother until she was fifteen. When she returned to her mother and siblings she was constantly required to give way to her elder sister Lai Ho. Under the perception that her mother favoured her sister, Hoe became disgruntled, showing her temper easily. In 1979 her mother brought Lai to Lim for treatment, and became convinced of Lim's powers by his \"needles and egg\" trick. Believing that Hoe's volatile temper could also be cured by Lim, the old woman brought her younger daughter to the medium. After",
"-21.219976073956786"
],
[
"December 25, 2005, at the age of 51. In addition to his wife and son, Steven was survived by two daughters, as well as his brother and mother.",
"-21.20647155019651"
],
[
"was adopted at age two by Gregory and Dawn King. His biological father had abandoned his wife, and his mother was a drug addict who failed to care for her son properly.\nKing was prescribed medication for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and, according to Gregory King, had been diagnosed with reactive attachment disorder, a condition in which a child fails to develop relationships with his or her caregivers. He was also forced to repeat the first grade. By the third grade, King began to be bullied by his fellow students due to his effeminacy and openness about being gay, having come",
"-21.198474775796058"
],
[
"He was 76 years old.",
"-21.197626241541002"
],
[
"Shimer was 10, and thereafter she was raised by her older sister.\nShimer was remembered as an extremely acute student: \"the mere consciousness of something unknown was sufficient incentive to arouse ambition to acquire.\" She began school near her parents' house at the age of two and half, quickly learning to read. At the age of six, she spent all of her saved allowance to buy a copy of Isaac Watts' The Improvement of the Mind from an itinerant bookseller. At the age of seven, she was briefly sent to a boarding school, but suffered from homesickness.\nShe was",
"-21.19682141841622"
],
[
"lived with her parents again. The next nine years were spent in and out of foster care and children's homes. During that time, she attended West Bridgford Comprehensive School and joined the Central Junior Television Workshop when she was 13, soon being offered small-screen roles in Soldier Soldier and Boon. Under the effects of drugs, she threatened an older girl who had been bullying her. She was convicted of making threats to kill and served 18 weeks in an attendance centre. Beginnings (1991–1998) After joining Central Junior Television Workshop at the age of 13, she was soon being offered small-screen",
"-21.189580848033074"
]
] |
7wde4o | How is a vending machine able to know the differences of how much a bill is? (like 1's, 5's, etc)? | [
"I actually know quite a bit about this. My best friend writes the code for the optics that go into machines lime this and a ATM's. Basically what happens is the US bills have water marks and other identifying features on them for safety. When you use a specific light they light up brightly. A photosensor is able to identify the image and thus the bill it is. A 1 has no mark. A 5 I think has Lincoln on it, a 10 is Hamilton and so on. So the computer matches it up with a portrait like a game of guess who and then identifies the bill that way. This is only one way. Some higher tech machines have more sophisticated means. Some include identifying the specific ink that's on the bill, identifying micro print and so on. It'll depend on the level of security required by the customer as to which programs get put where. For instance vending machines the risk of loss is relatively small. So a less advanced identifying algorithm is used. An ATM involves a high level of risk so an advanced algorithm would be used. So on and so forth. Edited ATM",
"Same way as you do, it looks at them. It looks at size and at the print. It has images of how they should look, and if it looks enough like one of those images, it accepts it.",
"So it seems newer machines work based off of image recognition, but how did older machines work, like from 30+ years ago?",
"To add to this, why does it seem like the readers haven't improved in decades? Seems like any wrinkle will get rejected. It hasn't learned how to accept a bill put it with Washington facing down?",
"The programming depends on the manufacturer, but most validators use a combination of optical scanning and magnetic signature. An LED shines light on the bill and a light sensor reads the reflection. Mars VN series validators were the first ones (that I'm aware of) that used a purely optical scan. (And a frequency coupled power supply, which was cool.) I spent 8 years repairing bill validators and coin changers for a living.",
"This has evolved over time. If anyone remembers the Jolly Roger cookbook from the 80s/90s you used to be able to tear off s little square part of bills on the bottom right (about an inch from the side). This would allow the machine to recognize the bill but kick it back at the last second due to the tear. You would get the item plus your bill back.",
"Old is weight, new ones lasers the material and size, very old sizes get split down as the holes make the small fall in a slot and the bigger to the latter slot etc, then a sensor sees one small, 3 big etc.",
"Current bill validator technology has come a long way from what it used to be. The BVs we use at work (I'm a slot technician at a casino) actually take a digital image of the bill and check it over thousands of points to ensure legitimacy. They store a digital image of the last bill in, bill history, acceptance rates, and other info. This results in a very very very high rate of bills being accepted even if they are in poor condition, while rejecting almost every counterfeit bill. The BV then sends the info of the amount to the CPU.",
"Tiny little bumps and markings are read by a laser in the ATM. Specifically the raised ink on the 5, and 10. The ATM \"reads\" it and recognizes it to be that of the correct denomination.",
"Follow up...before there were fancy LEDs and lasers and all the different kinds of bills...US money was basically all similar. How did those machines work?",
"The cheapest and most finicky method that I know of: The ink in US currency is metallic. When passed by a magnetic reading head, like the kind in a cassette player, the bill will create an electronic signal. Imagine this signal is a single song. In reality, if you played it, it would be like a “bzzzrrp” noise. Every denomination plays the same song. So all dollar bills play the “Washington” song and all fives play the “Lincoln”. So on and so forth. The vending machine has a chip in it that has a library of all these songs. Some only have one song saved (almost always for a dollar bill). So the machine will play the song, and then try to match the song it just heard to all the songs in the library. When it finds a close enough match, it’ll add the value linked to the song to the tally of money entered. Sometimes machines can only recognize the song from side a of the bill, and it’ll show you that you have to insert the bill face up. Some machines know both sides. Also, because bills get handled and bent up and disfigured, sometimes the song doesn’t play right and the vending machine can’t find a match. In these cases, the machine will spit the bill back out. This is my favorite method because it’s old, it’s cheap, it’s everywhere, and it’s REALLY cool. Newer methods are laser readers, photo readers, combinations of all the above...",
"There are a lot of ways, by width, length and weight are the more usual. New readers check the image of the bill and compare it with its database but also with all the measures mentioned before. Atms do the same when delivering money to keep count of everything.",
"I’d love to know how the ones from the 80s worked. Today I’m sure it’s digital image recognition, but what about back then?",
"you know the bad guys always ask how something works before they can figure a way out to scam the system."
] | [
[
"hand can count to twelve, and two hands can count to 144. Twelve dozen (12² = 144) are known as a gross; and twelve gross (12³ = 1,728, the duodecimal 1,000) are called a great gross, a term most often used when shipping or buying items in bulk. A great hundred, also known as a small gross, is 120 or ten dozen. \nA baker's dozen, also known as a big or long dozen, is 13. Varying by country, some products are packaged or sold by the dozen, often foodstuff (a dozen eggs). Dozen may also be used to express a",
"-25.998400560580194"
],
[
"cylindrical billets having 8% moisture weighing between 4.9 to 6 pounds (2.2 to 2.7 kg). The billets are sorted by weight after being weighed \"to the thousandth ounce\", and the slope of the grain is visually graded; billets with the straightest grain are reserved for MLB players.\nEach bat model can be manufactured using billets in a small range of weights (for example, the bat manufactured for Miguel Cabrera is made from billets between 5.380 to 5.420 pounds (2.440 to 2.458 kg), usually 5.400 pounds (2.449 kg)). After a final visual inspection, it is mounted into a wood tracer lathe, which in up to",
"-25.887690525327343"
],
[
"each of which is a 1 dollar coin or a package consisting of two or more smaller coins whose denominations total 1 dollar. They are also sorted in order of numismatic value. The coin collector then selects the least value N of them.\nNote that the time of the algorithm is linear in the number of coins. Reduction of length-limited Huffman coding to the coin collector's problem Let L be the maximum length any code word is permitted to have.\nLet p₁, …, pₙ be the frequencies of the\nsymbols of the alphabet to be encoded. We first sort the symbols so",
"-25.849753106129356"
],
[
"value of π. Taking a cubit to be about 18 inches and a handbreadth to be about 4 inches, the ratio of the described dimensions of the bowl differs from π by less than 1%.",
"-25.33917834039312"
],
[
"precise value equates to 36.5 0.1; 36.4 or 36.6 mL. Therefore, there are 3 significant figures can be read from the given graduated cylinder picture. Another example, if the reading is done and the value calculated is set to be 40.0 mL. The precise value would be 40.0 0.1; 40.1 or 39.9 mL.",
"-25.20279561841744"
],
[
"Where's Willy? Willy Index The \"Willy Index\" is a method of rating users based on how many bills they've entered and also by how many total hits they've had. The formula is as follows:\nBecause of the nature of square roots and natural logarithms, the higher a user's bills entered and hits are, the more of each are necessary to increase the score.",
"-25.038838291391585"
],
[
"the bits in the column by a third of the number of rows of summands. At worst, the reduction will be 2/3 the number of rows per round of reduction.\nThe following shows how the first round of reduction is performed. Note that all \"empty\" positions of the summands are considered to be zero (a . is used here as indicator of the \"assumed zero values\"). In each row, the top three bits are the three inputs to the full adder (two terms and carry-in). The sum is placed in the top bit of the column. ",
"-24.98052891372936"
],
[
"of different value. A sorter usually makes no attempt at counting, providing only collections of uncounted coins to be separately passed through a counter. Coin counter The phrase coin counter may refer to a device which both sorts and counts coins at the same time, or only counts presorted coins that are all the same size..\nA typical counter of presorted coins uses a bowl with flat spinning disc at the bottom to distribute coins around the bowl perimeter. An opening in the edge of the bowl is only wide enough to accept one coin at a time. Coins either pass",
"-24.977106382983038"
],
[
"Sorter came out in 1928. It had 12 pockets that could hold 80 cards. It could sort 150 cards per minute.\nThe Type 75, Model 1, 19??, 400 cards per minute\nThe Type 75, Model 2, 19??, 250 cards per minute",
"-24.91809459810611"
],
[
"the similarity between the shape of a sawbuck device and the Roman numeral X (10), which formerly appeared on $10 bills. A \"double sawbuck\" is a twenty dollar bill.",
"-24.88017138009309"
],
[
"$100. He also tells them that if both write down the same number, he will treat that number as the true dollar value of both suitcases and reimburse both travelers that amount. However, if one writes down a smaller number than the other, this smaller number will be taken as the true dollar value, and both travelers will receive that amount along with a bonus/malus: $2 extra will be paid to the traveler who wrote down the lower value and a $2 deduction will be taken from the person who wrote down the higher amount. The challenge is: what strategy",
"-24.781941643566824"
],
[
"be no smaller than .\nNext, we consider probability distributions and on . Distribution is the probability distribution of choosing the first bits in with probability given by , and the remaining bits uniformly at random. We have thus :\nWe thus have (a simple calculus trick shows this), thus distributions and can be distinguished by . Without loss of generality, we can assume that , with a polynomial.\nThis gives us a possible construction of a Turing machine solving the next-bit test : upon receiving the first bits of a sequence, pads",
"-24.68714902336069"
],
[
"as the basic word length because it gave the system a reasonable number range and precision for processing audio (sound), the 56000's main concern. 24 bits correspond to a large 144 dB dynamic range, sufficient in the 1980s when analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and digital-to-analog converters (DACs) rarely exceeded 20 bits. One example is ADSL applications, where filters typically require 20 bits of accuracy. The leftmost four bits are considered ample headroom for calculations.\nThe processor is capable of carrying out 16.5 Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS) at the maximum specified clock speed of 33 MHz., and has hardware support for block-floating",
"-24.523329889867455"
],
[
"packets whose sizes are the number of tails and the number of heads flipped, and use the same coin flip sequence to determine from which packet to pull each card of the shuffled deck.\nAnother alternative description is more abstract, but lends itself better to mathematical analysis. Generate a set of n values from the uniform continuous distribution on the unit interval, and place them in sorted order. Then the doubling map from the theory of dynamical systems maps this system of points to a permutation of the points in which the permuted ordering obeys the Gilbert–Shannon–Reeds model, and the",
"-24.445523398462683"
],
[
"3¼ inches, and a single 1/4 inch increment to 3½ inches. One aspect of this method of sizing is that the size increment between drill bits becomes larger as bit sizes get smaller: 100% for the step from 1/64th to 1/32nd, but a much smaller percentage between 1 47/64th and 1 3/4.\nDrill bit sizes are written as irreducible fractions. So, instead of 78/64 inch, or 1 14/64 inch, the size is noted as 1 7/32 inch.\nBelow is a chart providing the decimal-fraction equivalents that are most relevant to fractional-inch drill bit sizes (that is, 0 to 1 by 64ths). (Decimal places for .25, .5, and",
"-24.431523351930082"
],
[
"table contains a large variety of makes and models to choose from. If the point value of the vehicle is less than 500, additional points may be spent on performance parts, as long as the total point calculation of vehicle plus performance parts does not exceed 500. This point calculation excludes required safety equipment, as well as maintenance and replacement of wear items with OEM or OEM-equivalent parts. No credit is given toward the point calculation of the vehicle for selling removed parts. Vehicles with a point calculation in excess of 500 are allowed to compete",
"-24.37003498233389"
],
[
"is commonly calculated as the difference between wholesale price and retail price, as a percentage of wholesale. Other methods are also used.",
"-24.3413274717459"
],
[
"without a prefix or with SI unit prefixes other than deci; it is preferred, for example, to use hundredths of a decibel rather than millibels. Thus, five one-thousandths of a bel would normally be written '0.05 dB', and not '5 mB'.\nThe method of expressing a ratio as a level in decibels depends on whether the measured property is a power quantity or a root-power quantity; see Field, power, and root-power quantities for details. Properties The decibel is useful for representing large ratios and for simplifying representation of multiplied effects such as attenuation from multiple sources along a signal chain. Its",
"-24.30429102841299"
],
[
"percentage\n total(0.0){ }\nThe drawback to this is that it takes two steps to change the value of the created Bill object. The following shows creation and changing the values within the main program:\nBill cafe;cafe.tip = 0.10;cafe.total = 4.00;\nBy overloading the constructor, one could pass the tip and total as parameters at creation. This shows the overloaded constructor with two parameters. This overloaded constructor is placed in the class as well as the original constructor we used before. Which one gets used depends on the number of parameters provided when the new Bill object is created",
"-24.21495523909107"
],
[
"to shop online where most large cup sizes are readily available on certain sites. Others recommend rounding to the nearest whole number. Band measurement methods There are several possible methods for measuring the bust. Underbust +0 A measuring tape is pulled around the torso at the inframammary fold. The tape is then pulled tight while remaining horizontal and parallel to the floor. The measurement in inches is then rounded to the nearest even number for the band size. As of March 2018, Kohl's uses this method for its online fitting guide. Underbust +4 This method begins the same way as the",
"-24.093744461686583"
],
[
"writing paper, capacitors, and many other products are usually sold in only a few standard sizes.\nMany design procedures describe how to calculate an approximate value, and then \"round\" to some standard size using phrases such as \"round down to nearest standard value\", \"round up to nearest standard value\", or \"round to nearest standard value\".\nWhen a set of preferred values is equally spaced on a logarithmic scale, choosing the closest preferred value to any given value can be seen as a form of scaled rounding. Such rounded values can be directly calculated. Dithering and error diffusion When digitizing continuous signals, such",
"-24.073909151600674"
],
[
"chosen as 32, 40, 48, or 56 bits, with 56 bits being the standard value. Whatever the setting, long floating-point numbers still occupy 64 bits in memory (the first eight bits are the sign and the exponent); the setting only leads, when it was less than 56 bits, to long floating-point operations ignoring some of the least significant bits of these numbers. This provides an improvement in speed when greater precision is not needed.\nAn optional feature provides six external interrupt lines.\nThe direct word feature allows the transfer of a full 32-bit word of information between an external device and main storage.",
"-24.046474545612"
],
[
"the standard sizes, can take much longer delivery time, and are not desirable as inventory for the supply house or the machine shop (because the chance of selling or using any particular custom size is slim).\nSometimes it is necessary that the bar not be very much larger than the intended part, because the metallurgical properties of some metal alloys in some finishing processes may vary by how far inside the bar the metal lies. Thus an engineering drawing will specify a certain size (or a maximum size) that the bar may start out as. These specs face the aforementioned limitation",
"-23.98163695378753"
],
[
"prices are collected so as to reflect the shares of sales to consumers of the different outlet types covered, self-weighted elementary aggregate indices may be computed. Similarly, if the market shares of the different types of product represented by product types are known, even only approximately, the number of observed products to be priced for each of them can be made proportional to those shares. Reweighing Ideally, in computing an index, the weights would represent current annual expenditure patterns. In practice they necessarily reflect past using the most recent data available or, if they are not of high quality, some",
"-23.976895694388077"
],
[
"arose from non-contractual measurements, taken off drawings to assist tenderers in quoting lump sum prices.\nThere are different styles of bills of quantities, mainly the elemental BOQ and trade bills. Contingency sum A contingency sum is an item found within a bill of quantities (BoQ).\nThe item refers to unforeseeable cost likely to be incurred during the contract.\nThere are two types of contingency sum. The first refers to a specific item, e.g., \"additional alterations to services when installing said shower unit\", where an item for alterations to existing services is not contained within the BoQ but some work is envisaged.\nThe second type",
"-23.888137323549017"
],
[
"our prior beliefs that the smaller amount is any number x = 1,2, ... ; the summation over all values of x being equal to 1. It follows that given the amount a in Envelope A, the amount in Envelope B is certainly 2a if a is an odd number. However, if a is even, then the amount in Envelope B is 2a with probability , and a/2 with probability . If one would like to switch envelopes if the expectation value of what is in the other is larger than what we have in ours, then a simple calculation shows",
"-23.863452406483702"
],
[
"is the nominal size (the hole or slot size in standard manufacturing practice through which the shank of the screw can easily be pushed) and Y is the threads per inch (TPI). For sizes ¹⁄₄ inch and larger the size is given as a fraction; for sizes less than this an integer is used, ranging from 0 to 16. The integer sizes can be converted to the actual diameter by using the formula 0.060 + (0.013 × number). For example, a #4 screw is 0.060 + (0.013 × 4) = 0.060 + 0.052 = 0.112 inches in diameter. ",
"-23.841422282916028"
],
[
"with the 360/40, these were the two largest revenue producing System/360 models, accounting for over half the System/360 units sold. Models Four models of the 360/30 were initially offered. They vary by the amount of core memory with which the system was offered. The C30, D30, E30 and F30 were respectively configured with 8K, 16K, 32K and 64K of core memory.\nIt was little publicized that there were two versions of the Model 30, known (on the rare occasions when they were distinguished at all) as the 30-1 and the 30-2. The original 30-1 had a 2.0 microsecond storage cycle. Later,",
"-23.823345817858353"
],
[
"input and output. As in the Baby from which it was developed, and in contrast to the established mathematical convention, the machine's storage was arranged with the least significant digits to the left; thus a one was represented in five bits as \"10000\", rather than the more conventional \"00001\". Negative numbers were represented using two's complement, as most computers still do today. In that representation, the value of the most significant bit denotes the sign of a number; positive numbers have a zero in that position and negative numbers a one. Thus the range of numbers that could be held",
"-23.755399801884778"
],
[
"distribution of the sum is the convolution of the distributions of the individual random variables).",
"-23.719820739264833"
],
[
"sorted by numismatic value. He then packages the smallest denomination coins in pairs, starting from the pair of smallest total numismatic value. If there is one coin left over, it will be the coin of highest numismatic value of that denomination, and it is set aside and ignored henceforth. These packages are then merged into the list of coins of the next smallest denomination, again in order of numismatic value. The items in that list are then packaged in pairs, and merged into the next smallest list, and so forth.\nFinally, there is a list of items,",
"-23.66781333781546"
],
[
"the underlying hardware design, the unit octet was defined to explicitly denote a sequence of eight bits.\nComputers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally named \"words\". Like the byte, the number of bits in a word also varies with the hardware design, and is typically between 8 and 80 bits, or even more in some specialized computers. In the 21st century, retail personal or server computers have a word size of 32 or 64 bits.\nThe International System of Units defines a series of decimal prefixes for multiples of standardized units which are commonly also used with the bit and the",
"-23.665838859480573"
],
[
"of the data, we should expect that the following two properties hold, as much as made possible by the own nature of the data. First, the bins would have roughly the same size, because the entropies and are maximized by equal-sized binning. And second, each bin of X will roughly correspond to a bin in Y.\nBecause the variables X and Y are reals, it is almost always possible to create exactly one bin for each (x,y) datapoint, and that would yield a very high value of the MI. To avoid forming this kind of trivial partitioning, the authors",
"-23.64175458822865"
],
[
"of a large, heavy set of different size bits, as well as providing uncommon bit sizes. A ruler or vernier scale is usually provided to allow precise adjustment of the bit size.\nThese bits are available both in a version similar to an auger bit or brace bit, designed for low speed, high torque use with a brace or other hand drill (pictured to the right), or as a high speed, low torque bit meant for a power drill. While the shape of the cutting edges is different, and one uses screw threads and the other a twist bit for the",
"-23.593012767494656"
],
[
"in other words, pick a number so that there is no need to examine the remainders. Any number in one range of quotas will accomplish this, with the highest number in the range always being the same as the lowest number used by the D'Hondt method to award a seat (if it is used rather than the Jefferson method), and the lowest number in the range being the smallest number larger than the next number which would award a seat in the D'Hondt calculations.\nApplied to the above example of party lists, this range extends as integers from 20,001 to 25,000.",
"-23.44712456461275"
],
[
"needs to use some of his coin collection to buy something of cost N. He wishes to select a subset of coins from his collection of minimum numismatic value whose denominations total N.\nThe binary version of this problem is that all denominations are powers of 2, that is, 1, 1/2, 1/4, etc. dollars. Description of the package-merge algorithm Assume that the largest denomination is 1 dollar, and that N is an integer. (The algorithm works even if these assumptions do not hold, by trivial modifications.) The coin collector first separates his coins into lists, one for each denomination,",
"-23.446413493948057"
],
[
"of the multiplicand and, under it, the ones-digit of the multiplier. Find the product of these two digits: write this product under the line and in the ones-column. If the product has two digits, then write down only the ones-digit of the product. Write the \"carry digit\" as a superscript of the yet-unwritten digit in the next column and under the line: in this case the next column is the tens-column, so write the carry digit as the superscript of the yet-unwritten tens-digit of the product (under the line).\nIf both first and second number each have only one digit, then",
"-23.41031861701049"
],
[
".\nThe difference between the results for discrete and continuous variables may surprise many readers. Speaking intuitively, this is explained as follows. Let h be a small quantity and imagine that the amount of money we see when we look in Envelope A is rounded off in such a way that differences smaller than h are not noticeable, even though actually it varies continuously. The probability that the smaller amount of money is in an interval around a of length h, and Envelope A contains the smaller amount is approximately . The probability that the larger amount of money is in",
"-23.397724044974893"
],
[
"value of a good or service is included in the total output. This avoids an issue often called 'double counting', wherein the total value of a good is included several times in national output, by counting it repeatedly in several stages of production. In the example of meat production, the value of the good from the farm may be $10, then $30 from the butchers, and then $60 from the supermarket. The value that should be included in final national output should be $60, not the sum of all those numbers, $100. The values added at each stage",
"-23.395184438006254"
],
[
"worksheet also indicates the reel strip settings, number of coins that may be played, the payout schedule, the number of reels and other information descriptive of the particular type of slot machine.\nWeight count is an American term, referring to the dollar amount of coins or tokens removed from a slot machine's drop bucket or drop box and counted by the casino's hard count team through the use of a weigh scale.\nWild Symbol Wild symbols act like joker cards in a slot game. Basically, they substitute for all other symbols in the game, usually except for other special symbols, such as",
"-23.352258532773703"
],
[
"bits, such as a byte or word, is referred to, it is usually specified by a number from 0 upwards corresponding to its position within the byte or word. However, 0 can refer to either the most or least significant bit depending on the context. Other information units Similar to angular momentum and energy in physics; information-theoretic information and data storage size have the same dimensionality of units of measurement, but there is in general no meaning to adding, subtracting or otherwise combining the units mathematically.\nOther units of information, sometimes used in information theory, include the natural digit also called",
"-23.344052806234686"
],
[
"of 60,000 (00000–59999). Word size versus address size word size is a characteristic given to computer architecture. It denotes the number of bits that a CPU can process at one time. Modern processors, including embedded systems, usually have a word size of 8, 16, 24, 32 or 64 bits; most current general purpose computers use 32 or 64 bits. Many different sizes have been used historically, including 8, 9, 10, 12, 18, 24, 36, 39, 40, 48 and 60 bits.\nVery often, when referring to the word size of a modern computer, one is also describing the size of address space",
"-23.287873021006817"
],
[
"0 0\n 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0|0\n ------------------------------\n 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0\n ^ ^\nSo the carry-less product of a and b would be c = 101100011101100₂. For every bit set in the number a, the number b is shifted to the left as many bits as indicated by the position of the bit in a. All",
"-23.225721264316235"
],
[
"Units of paper quantity Various measures of paper quantity have been and are in use. Although there are no S.I. units such as quires and bales, there are ISO and DIN standards for the ream. Expressions used here include U.S. Customary units. Quire A quire of paper is a measure of paper quantity. The usual meaning is 25 sheets of the same size and quality: ¹⁄₂₀ of a ream of 500 sheets. Quires of 25 sheets are often used for machine-made paper, while quires of 24 sheets are often used for handmade or specialised paper of 480-sheet reams. (As",
"-23.19490449919249"
],
[
"be removed from this site\". George Score The \"George Score\" is a method of rating users based on how many bills they have entered, and by how many total hits they have had. The formula is as follows:\nThis logarithmic formula means the more bills a user enters and the more hits the user receives, the less the user's score increases for each entered bill or new hit. Thus, a user's score does not increase as quickly when the user has entered many bills. User ranking can decrease based on inactivity (failure to refresh the \"Your Bills\" report). Wattsburg Gary,",
"-23.19004185240192"
],
[
"is a very minor variation of the 1:24 scale, where many automobile plastic model kits are scaled at 1:25.\n1:24 is the largest of the traditional slot car sizes - and the earliest. Lionel's (USA) 1:24 electric autos of 1912-1916 became the first known commercial slot cars. In 1955, the Model Automobile Racing Association of Kalamazoo, Michigan, built the first track for electric rail-racing (the short-lived immediate predecessor to slot racing) in the US. Unlike the seminal Southport (UK) track that inspired it, the MARA table was designed for 1:24 as well as 1:32 competition. With that beginning, the US adopted",
"-23.094404488103464"
],
[
"devised a new format for storing real numbers in computers use a variable number of bits depending on the number of digits required, called unum number format. Normal formats store numbers as a fixed number of bits, for example 64 bits is usual for double-precision floating-point format numbers. This can allow them to be smaller than doubles for fast processing and also more precise or larger than the limits for double when desirable.",
"-23.088076370069757"
],
[
"× 35. Since the second \"digit\" is not less than the threshold value of 2, there is more to come. The weight for the third \"digit\" is the previous weight times 36 minus the new threshold value; 35 × 34. The third \"digit\" in this example is 0, which is less than 2, meaning that it is the last (most significant) part of the number. Therefore, \"kva\" represents the number (10 × 1) + (21 × 35) + (0 × 35 × 34) = 745.\nThe threshold itself is determined by an algorithm keeping it between 1 and 26",
"-23.069177938974462"
],
[
" Moreover, since the largest order is at most O(log n), these bits can be encoded in O(1) machine words, assuming a transdichotomous machine model.\nNote that O(1) machine words is not the same thing as one machine word. A 32-bit vector would only suffice for sizes less than L(32) = 7049155. A 64-bit vector will do for sizes less than L(64) = 34335360355129 ≈ 2⁴⁵. In general, it takes 1/log₂(φ) ≈ 1.44 bits of vector per bit of size.",
"-23.068915926967748"
],
[
"feet per minute (15 m/min) through 22 stations.\nThe time for one product to take shape can be represented by a simple function: t = (L + n⋅d) / V, where L is the length of the piece being formed, n is the number of forming stands, d is the distance between stands, and V is the velocity of the strip through the rolls.\nIn general, roll forming lines can run from 5 to 500 feet per minute (1.5 to 152.4 m/min) or higher, depending on the application. In some cases the limiting factor is the punching or cutoff applications.",
"-23.033966957824305"
],
[
"will have very different actual scales, but for the passenger automobiles in many die cast lines, 1:64 is a reasonable approximation. Brands of die-cast toys in and around this scale include Hot Wheels and Matchbox, Ertl, GreenLight, Auto World, Code 3, Johnny Lightning, and Jada Toys.\nOutside the USA brands like Maisto, Siku, Norev Mini Jet, Corgi, Tomica, Autoart, Edocar, Kyosho, Majorette, Schuco, Welly, and many others, are available in this scale. Slot Cars Small-scale slot cars are often sized to fit a standard motorized chassis, and therefore vary somewhat in scale.\nThe mechanisms have increased in size over the years to",
"-23.022688276309054"
],
[
"the number of bins the inserting candidate intersects. In practice delete is much slower than insert.\nLike a hash table, bin's efficiency depends a lot on the distribution of both location and size of candidates and queries. In general, the smaller the query rectangle, the more efficient the query. The bin's size should be such that it contains as few candidates as possible but large enough so that candidates do not span too many bins. If a candidate span many bins, a query has to skip this candidate over and over again after it is reported at the first bin of",
"-23.021685418556444"
],
[
"or 136-tonne capacity one).\nAlso, in a number of cases, multiple single-well cars (usually 3 or 5) are connected by drawbars and share a single reporting mark.\nOn both types of multiple-unit cars, the units are typically distinguished by letters, with the unit on one end being the \"A\" unit, and the unit on the other end being the \"B\" unit. Middle units are labeled starting with \"C\", and going up to \"E\" for five-unit cars starting from the \"A\" unit and increasing towards the \"B\" unit. Carrying capacity Double-stack cars come in a number of sizes, related to the standard",
"-22.99743712018244"
],
[
"as random numbers. Memory and variables The 35s provides 30k bytes of user memory, which is shared among data, stored equations, and programs.\nSince complex numbers and vectors of up to three elements can be stored as a single value, each data variable occupies 37 bytes, enough for a type indicator and three floating-point numbers.\nThe 26 alpha-labelled variables and the six statistics registers are permanently allocated; the rest of the memory space can be occupied by up to 801 more variables which can only be accessed indirectly. Indirect access to any variable is achieved by storing its sequence number (0 upwards)",
"-22.983838096493855"
],
[
".75 are shown to thousandths [.250, .500, .750], which is how machinists usually think about them [\"two-fifty\", \"five hundred\", \"seven-fifty\"]. Machinists generally truncate the decimals after thousandths; for example, a 27/64\" drill bit may be referred to in shop-floor speech as a \"four-twenty-one drill\".)\nCharts like this, printed at poster size, are widely posted on machine shop walls for handy reference by machinists as they work. For some tasks it is faster and less annoying to glance down a column of numbers on a poster than it is to punch calculator buttons or do penciled arithmetic. It is also true that",
"-22.97268217417877"
],
[
"not standardized and the actual sizes varied depending on the country of manufacture and date.\nThe size and proportions of a book will thus depend on the size of the original sheet of paper used in producing the book. For example, if a sheet 19 inches (480 mm) by 25 inches (640 mm) is used to print a quarto, the resulting book will be approximately 12 ¹⁄₂ inches (320 mm) tall and 9 ¹⁄₂ inches (240 mm) wide, before trimming. Because the size of paper used has differed over the years and localities, the sizes of books of the same format will also differ. A typical octavo",
"-22.96584620559588"
],
[
"can be combined into an existing table, or placed into a new table. Tables can be collected by the user onto single or multiple canvases. Whereas a typical Excel sheet has data strewn across it, a Numbers canvas could build the same output through smaller individual tables encompassing the same data. Formulas and functions Consider a simple spreadsheet being used to calculate the average value of all car sales in a month for a given year. The sheet might contain the month number or name in column A, the number of cars sold in column B, and the total income",
"-22.933050973311765"
],
[
"the same amount of information as one hexadecimal digit. Crumb A pair of two bits or a quarter byte was called a crumb, often used in early 8-bit computing (see Atari 2600, ZX Spectrum). It is now largely defunct. Word, block, and page Computers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally called words. The number of bits in a word is usually defined by the size of the registers in the computer's CPU, or by the number of data bits that are fetched from its main memory in a single operation. In the IA-32 architecture more",
"-22.93274025444407"
],
[
"the example above, then it would have to sell only 1000/(2.3 - 0.6)= 589 units to break even, rather than 715.\nTo make the results clearer, they can be graphed. To do this, draw the total cost curve (TC in the diagram), which shows the total cost associated with each possible level of output, the fixed cost curve (FC) which shows the costs that do not vary with output level, and finally the various total revenue lines (R1, R2, and R3), which show the total amount of revenue received at each output level, given the price you will be charging.\nThe break-even",
"-22.923196624207776"
],
[
"The carry-out is placed in the second row of the column to the left. The bottom bit is a single feed into an adder. The sum of this adder is placed in the third row of the column. Carry-out is ignored as it will always be zero, but by design it would be placed in the fourth row of the column to the left. For design, it is important to note that rows 1, 3, 5, ... (counting from the top) are filled with sums from the column itself. Rows 2, 4, 6, ... are",
"-22.922905609128065"
],
[
"letter through a slot, picks up pebble-like objects at secure grasp points, and scales her grip correctly to pick up Efron blocks (which match in surface area, texture, mass, and color, and differ only in length and width).\nAnd yet, Patient DF cannot judge the width of an object, such as a guitar pick, by using her thumb and forefinger to show how big it is. However, when asked to pick it up, her hand moves to the correct width. Her estimates (she is asked to put her thumb and forefinger the correct distance apart without moving to grasp the object)",
"-22.92088537942618"
],
[
"full adder that accepts two 1-bit terms and a carry-in bit. It produces a sum and a carry-out. The full adders are arranged such that the sum remains in the same column of summands, but the carry-out is shifted left. In each round of reduction, three bits in a single column are used as the two terms and carry-in for the full adder, producing a single sum bit for the column. This reduces the bits in the column by a factor of 3. However, the column to the right will shift over carry-out bits, increasing",
"-22.90668206239934"
],
[
"as the following illustrates:\nfunction max(int[] items) -> (int r)// Requires at least one element to compute maxrequires |items| > 0// (1) Result is not smaller than any elementensures all { i in 0..|items| | items[i] <= r }// (2) Result matches at least one elementensures some { i in 0..|items| | items[i] == r }:\n //\n nat i = 1\n int m = items[0]\n //\n while i < |items|\n // (1) No item seen so far is larger than m\n ",
"-22.901620390606695"
],
[
"than 1/2000 the magnitude of the stored value f(x), and the computed correction is more than ±1/1000 of a bit away from exactly half a bit (the difficult rounding case), then it is known whether the exact function value should be rounded up or down.\nThe technique provides an efficient way to compute the function value to within ±1/1000 least-significant bit, i.e. 10 extra bits of precision. If this approximation is more than ±1/1000 of a bit away from exactly midway between two representable values (which happens all but 2/1000 of the time, i.e. 99.8% of the time), then the",
"-22.868508110404946"
],
[
"the data at the top or the bottom end, typically an equal amount at each end and then taking the arithmetic mean of the remaining data. The number of values removed is indicated as a percentage of the total number of values. Mean of angles and cyclical quantities Angles, times of day, and other cyclical quantities require modular arithmetic to add and otherwise combine numbers. In all these situations, there will not be a unique mean. For example, the times an hour before and after midnight are equidistant to both midnight and noon. It is also possible that no mean",
"-22.866257174871862"
],
[
"data in the sheet was given a name, and could then be grouped into categories. Formulas were typed into a separate section, and referred to data through their range, not their physical position in the sheets. Views of the data, some of which looked like spreadsheets, others like charts, could be created dynamically and were not limited in number.\nTo illustrate the difference between Improv and other systems, consider the simple task of calculating the total sales for a product, given unit sales per month and unit prices. In a conventional spreadsheet the unit price would be typed into one set",
"-22.821367274504155"
],
[
"1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1\nThe top row shows the carry bits used. Instead of the standard carry from one column to the next, the lowest-ordered \"1\" with a \"1\" in the corresponding place value beneath it may be added and a \"1\" may be carried to one digit past the end of the series. The \"used\" numbers must be crossed off, since they are already added. Other long strings may likewise be",
"-22.807224763731938"
],
[
"than . Example For instance, suppose a value is measured experimentally in several trials as 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, and 50. The mean is 16.7 and the standard deviation 16.34. 50 differs from 16.7 by 33.3, slightly more than two standard deviations. The probability of taking data more than two standard deviations from the mean is roughly 0.05. Six measurements were taken, so the statistic value (data size multiplied by the probability) is 0.05×6 = 0.3. Because 0.3 < 0.5, according to Chauvenet's criterion, the measured value of 50 should be discarded (leaving a new mean of 10,",
"-22.769014854333363"
],
[
"at all. Most of the time, estimation cannot be executed due to the lack of supporting information either in the story description itself or directly from the Product Owner. Small Try to keep your PBI sizes to typically a few person-days and at most a few person-weeks (a good rule of thumb is that any single Product Backlog Item does not take more than 50% of an iteration; for example a single item won't take more than 5 days for a 2-week / 10 day sprint). Anything beyond that range should be considered too large to be estimated with a",
"-22.750841748551466"
],
[
"..., n−1}), where a 1-bit indicates the presence and a 0-bit the absence of a number in the set. This set data structure uses about n/w words of space, where w is the number of bits in each machine word. Whether the least significant bit (of the word) or the most significant bit indicates the smallest-index number is largely irrelevant, but the former tends to be preferred (on little-endian machines). More complex operations As with character strings it is straightforward to define length, substring, lexicographical compare, concatenation, reverse operations. The implementation of some of these operations is sensitive to endianness.",
"-22.74678130063694"
],
[
"Lot number A lot number is an identification number assigned to a particular quantity or lot of material from a single manufacturer. Lot numbers can typically be found on the outside of packaging. For cars, a lot number is combined with a serial number to form the Vehicle Identification Number.\nThe lot number enables tracing of the constituent parts or ingredients as well as labor and equipment records involved in the manufacturing of a product. This enables manufacturers and other entities to perform quality control checks, calculate expiration dates, and issue corrections or recall information to subsets of their production output.",
"-22.7427278906398"
],
[
"Where one number being multiplied is sufficiently small to be multiplied with ease by any single digit, the product can be calculated easily digit by digit from right to left. This is particularly easy for multiplication by 2 since the carry digit cannot be more than 1.\nFor example, to calculate 2 × 167:\n2×7=14, so the final digit is 4, with a 1 carried and added to the 2×6 = 12 to give 13, so the next digit is 3 with a 1 carried and added to the 2×1=2 to give 3. Thus, the product is 334. Multiplying by 5 To multiply",
"-22.717681204725523"
],
[
"Least count In metrology, the least count of a measuring instrument is the smallest change in the measured quantity that can be resolved on the instrument's scale. The least count is related to the precision of an instrument; an instrument that can measure smaller changes in a value relative to another instrument, has a smaller \"least count\" value and so is more precise. Any measurement made by the instrument can be considered repeatable to no less than the resolution of the least count. The least count of an instrument is inversely proportional to the precision of the instrument.\nFor example, a",
"-22.705348821618827"
],
[
"Peel P50 Statistics At 54 in (1,372 mm) long and 39 in (991 mm) wide and with an unladen weight of 59 kilograms (130 lb), the P50 holds the record as the smallest car ever to go into production. The Peel P50's diminutive size and width means that it can quite easily fit through doorways and enter buildings, as demonstrated by Jeremy Clarkson during a sequence on a 2008 episode of Top Gear, where a blue P50 was driven through the BBC's Television Centre. 1962–1966 The P50 used a 49 cc (3.0 cu in) DKW engine, which gave it a top speed of approximately 37 mph (60 km/h), and was",
"-22.701333300909027"
],
[
"in the larger scales, and currently 1:43 is largely used for toy or starter sets. Collectibles This scale is still popular, with many models now being made in China, but as time has passed, many new scales for diecast cars, both smaller (1:87, 1:64, and somewhere around 1:55), and larger (1:24, 1:18, and 1:12) have also competed, often more successfully in the toy and diecast market.\nOriginally meant as toys and accessories for rail layouts, more specialized and expensive limited edition handbuilt collectibles made in white metal or resin produced in more limited numbers have become available. This has occurred as",
"-22.69676891817653"
],
[
"other concerns when using the same methods of figuring costs, he can only conclude that his goods or his marketing, or both of them, are costing him too much. His next step, naturally, is to analyse closely the methods and conditions under which he is manufacturing and marketing his product, until he finds and corrects the inefficiencies which are handicapping him so seriously...\nIn their 1919 \"Cost Accounting\" Nicholson and Rohrbach expressed the idea, that \"if the accuracy of the cost estimate has been tested and the sales price of the product has been properly determined on the basis of the",
"-22.681487870635465"
],
[
"him correctly to keep Envelope A if its contents are larger than those of B, but to switch to Envelope B if A has smaller contents than B. Altogether, this means that he ends up with the envelope with the larger number with probability strictly larger than 1/2. To be precise, the probability that he ends with the \"winning envelope\" is 1/2 + P(Z falls between the two numbers)/2.\nIn practice, the number Z we have described could be determined to the necessary degree of accuracy as follows. Toss a fair coin many times, and convert the sequence of heads",
"-22.65684718871489"
],
[
"the number of units can vary from day to day, the average number of units must be calculated or estimated for a given month to obtain the most accurate possible ARPU figure for that month.\nAlso related is the ARPPU (Average Revenue Per Paying User), which is calculated by dividing up the revenue amongst the users who paid anything at all. That yields a figure that is significantly larger than ARPU. For example, in the case of a subscription game that has a free to play version, the ARPPU, measured by accounts, is the subscription price, diluted slightly by free trials.\nA",
"-22.654932670586277"
],
[
"a bin covers the range from 0.1 to 0.2, then when the user asks for all values less than 0.15, all rows that fall in the bin are possible hits and have to be checked to verify whether they are actually less than 0.15. The process of checking the base data is known as the candidate check. In most cases, the time used by the candidate check is significantly longer than the time needed to work with the bitmap index. Therefore, binned indexes exhibit irregular performance. They can be very fast for some queries, but much slower if the query",
"-22.647078409674577"
],
[
"an interval around a of length h corresponds to the smaller amount being in an interval of length h/2 around a/2. Hence the probability that the larger amount of money is in a small interval around a of length h and Envelope A contains the larger amount is approximately . Thus, given Envelope A contains an amount about equal to a, the probability it is the smaller of the two is roughly .\nIf the player only wants to end up with the larger amount of money, and does not care about expected amounts, then in the discrete case he should",
"-22.641191367292777"
],
[
"a yard (4.5 inches) was sometimes called a finger, but was more commonly referred to simply as an eighth of a yard, while the half-yard (18 inches) was called \"half a yard\".\nOther units related to the yard, but not specific to cloth measurement: two yards are a fathom, a quarter of a yard (when not referring to cloth) is a span.",
"-22.63921148236841"
],
[
"inch to the right, one has 10, one inch to the right of 10 one has 10×10 = 100, then 10×100 = 1000 = 10³, then 10×1000 = 10,000 = 10⁴, etc. Similarly, one inch to the left of 1, one has 1/10 = 10–1, then 1/100 = 10–2, etc.\nThis approach is useful, when one wants to represent, on the same figure, values with very different order of magnitude. For example, one requires a logarithmic scale for representing simultaneously the size of the different bodies that exist in the Universe, typically, a photon, an electron, an atom, a molecule, a",
"-22.631075439090637"
],
[
"1:64 scale Die-cast vehicles Many die cast automobiles and commercial vehicle models for collectors have been made to a strict scale of 1:64. However, for much of the die-cast toy market, 1:64 is only a nominal scale. Though collectors and manufacturers loosely describe popular lines of die-casts as 1:64, toy vehicles are usually made to \"box scale.\" This means that the size of the model is determined by the size of the standard packaging (formerly a cardstock box, now usually a clear blister-card). Models of a 1959 Cadillac and an Austin Mini-Cooper designed to fill up the same packaging space",
"-22.61407616327051"
],
[
"between the cup sizes is always one inch, or 2.54 cm. The difference between 2 band sizes is 2 inches or 5.08 cm.\nLeading brands and manufacturers including Panache, Bestform, Gossard, Freya, Curvy Kate, Bravissimo and Fantasie, which use the British standard band sizes 28-30-32-34-36-38-40-42-44, and so on. Cup sizes are designated by AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-FF-G-GG-H-HH-J-JJ-K-KK-L.\nHowever, some clothing retailers and mail order companies have their own house brands and use a custom sizing system. Marks and Spencers uses AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-GG-H-J, leaving out FF and HH. As a result, their J-Cup is equal to a British standard H-cup. Evans and ASDA sell bras (ASDA as part of their",
"-22.58549757822766"
],
[
"guess that 50 would be near the middle of the set after it is sorted. This approximate location is called a class. If numbered 1 to , the class of an item is the quantile, computed as:\n \nwhere is the input set. The range covered by every class is equal, except the last class which includes only the maximum(s). The classification ensures that every element in a class is greater than any element in a lower class. This partially orders the data and reduces the number of inversions. Insertion sort is then applied to the classified set. As long",
"-22.566439415124478"
],
[
"Consumer price index Calculating the CPI for multiple items Many but not all price indices are weighted averages using weights that sum to 1 or 100.\nExample: The prices of 85,000 items from 22,000 stores, and 35,000 rental units are added together and averaged. They are weighted this way: Housing: 41.4%, Food and Beverage: 17.4%, Transport: 17.0%, Medical Care: 6.9%, Other: 6.9%, Apparel: 6.0%, Entertainment: 4.4%. Taxes (43%) are not included in CPI computation.\nwhere the terms do not necessarily sum to 1 or 100. Weights and sub-indices By convention weights are fractions or ratios summing to one, as percentages summing",
"-22.541795903001912"
],
[
"five-percent or home-market-viability test. This test is applied globally by comparing the quantity sold of a like product on the domestic market with the quantity sold to the importing market.\nNormal value cannot be based on the price in the exporter's domestic market when there are no domestic sales. For example, if the products are only sold on the foreign market, the normal value will have to be determined on another basis. Additionally, some products may be sold on both markets but the quantity sold on the domestic market may be small compared to quantity sold on foreign market.",
"-22.528195112608955"
],
[
"to most common machines having 6 figure accuracy and a dynamic range of 10⁻³⁸ to 10⁺³⁸. This was achieved by using base 256 for the floating point format, rather than the more common base 2, and using six bytes for storing numbers, rather than the more common four. Five bytes stored the basic number, with the last byte storing the sign in the first bit, and the remaining seven bits storing the exponent. For example, π was stored as 3.14159265358.\nBenchmarks show that even though the NewBrain performed double accuracy calculations, it was one of the fastest 8-bit computers available for",
"-22.52558321649849"
],
[
"multiple of 5 is more \"convenient\" to measure or verify than one which is not. In addition, where operations involve the subdivision of quantities into two or more equal parts, any number that is highly divisible has an explicit advantage.\"",
"-22.525572264072252"
],
[
" As 5+9+4+2=20, the total mixture contains 5/20 of A (5 parts out of 20), 9/20 of B, 4/20 of C, and 2/20 of D. If we divide all numbers by the total and multiply by 100, we have converted to percentages: 25% A, 45% B, 20% C, and 10% D (equivalent to writing the ratio as 25∶45∶20∶10).\nIf the two or more ratio quantities encompass all of the quantities in a particular situation, it is said that \"the whole\" contains the sum of the parts: for example, a fruit basket containing two apples and three oranges and no other",
"-22.51965045928955"
],
[
"are available for each of the third, fourth, and fifth rows. Thus, the number of unique \"B\" (and \"I\", \"G\", and \"O\", respectively) columns is (15*14*13*12*11) = 360,360. The combinations of the \"N\" column differ due to the use of the free space. Therefore, it has only (15*14*13*12) = 32,760 unique combinations. The product of the five rows (360,360⁴ * 32,760) describes the total number of unique playing cards. That number is 552,446,474,061,128,648,601,600,000 simplified as 5.52x10²⁶ or 552 septillion.\nPrinting a complete set of Bingo cards is impossible for all practical purposes. If one trillion cards could be printed each second,",
"-22.479589157635928"
],
[
"a random rank, and so it is not guaranteed to be in the middle 50 percent. However, when we start from a random permutation, in each recursive call the pivot has a random rank in its list, and so it is in the middle 50 percent about half the time. That is good enough. Imagine that you flip a coin: heads means that the rank of the pivot is in the middle 50 percent, tail means that it isn't. Imagine that you are flipping a coin over and over until you get k heads. Although this could take a long",
"-22.461630382051226"
],
[
"of the quoted 400,000 digit capacity was in the form of reels of punched paper tape.\nAddition took 285 microseconds and multiplication 20 milliseconds, making arithmetic operations much faster than the Harvard Mark I. Data that had to be retrieved quickly was held in electronic circuits; the remainder was stored in relays and as holes in three continuous card-stock tapes that filled another wall. A chain hoist was needed to lift the heavy reels of paper into place. The machine read instructions or data from 30 paper tape readers connected to three punches, and another a table look-up unit consisted",
"-22.460112402564846"
],
[
"bob is 10p.\nThe introduction of decimal currency caused a new casual usage to emerge, where any value in pence is spoken using the suffix pee: e.g. \"twenty-three pee\" or, in the early years, \"two-and-a-half pee\" rather than the previous \"tuppence-ha'penny\". Amounts over a pound are normally spoken thus: \"five pounds forty\". A value with less than ten pence over the pound is sometimes spoken like this: \"one pound and a penny\", \"three pounds and fourpence\". The slang term \"bit\" has almost disappeared from use completely, although in Scotland a fifty pence is sometimes referred to as a \"ten bob bit\".",
"-22.42543246205605"
],
[
"of experimental error in measurements. Least count error The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least count. Measured values are good only up to this value. The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.\nIf we use a metre scale for measurement of length, it may have graduations at 1 mm division scale spacing or interval. A Vernier scale on caliper may have a least count of 0.1 mm while a micrometer may have a least count of 0.01 mm.\nThe least count error occurs with both systematic and random",
"-22.396479493239895"
],
[
"normally distributed variables is skewed, unless the means are much larger than the standard deviations. If the sample is large enough this will not be a problem, however determining when a sample is sufficiently large is somewhat subjective. Problems with the product of coefficients In some situations it is possible that (τ – τ’) ≠ (αβ). This occurs when the sample size is different in the models used to estimate the mediated effects. Suppose that the independent variable and the mediator are available from 200 cases, while the dependent variable is only available from 150 cases. This means that the",
"-22.388862451945897"
],
[
"might vary on basis of a broadsheet or a pullout, however in general stands at 4 cm width.\nNowadays, most newspapers and magazines have converted to a \"modular\" system that simplifies ad size and eliminates the need to figure out column inches. In a modular system ad sizes are represented by the amount of the total page the ad takes up. For example 1/2 page, 1/4 page, 1/8 page, etc. This has been a popular system among many newspapers because it simplifies the layout process (i.e. less ad sizes to fit in newspaper) and makes pricing much easier for",
"-22.37331551432726"
],
[
"other combination of the same length. A normal number can be thought of as an infinite sequence of coin flips (binary) or rolls of a die (base 6). Even though there will be sequences such as 10, 100, or more consecutive tails (binary) or fives (base 6) or even 10, 100, or more repetitions of a sequence such as tail-head (two consecutive coin flips) or 6-1 (two consecutive rolls of a die), there will also be equally many of any other sequence of equal length. No digit or sequence is \"favored\". \nA number is said to be absolutely normal if",
"-22.358071152411867"
],
[
"of the paper propose taking a number of bins for X and whose product is relatively small compared with the size N of the data sample. Concretely, they propose:\nIn some cases it is possible to achieve a good correspondence between and with numbers as low as and , while in other cases the number of bins required may be higher. The maximum for is determined by H(X), which is in turn determined by the number of bins in each axis, therefore, the mutual information value will be dependent on the number of bins selected",
"-22.35314223752357"
],
[
"a collection of 36: a–z and 0–9, representing 0–25 and 26–35 respectively. A digit lower than a threshold value marks that it is the most-significant digit, hence the end of the number. The threshold value depends on the position in the number. For example, if the threshold value for the first digit is b (i.e. 1) then a (i.e. 0) marks the end of the number (it has just one digit), so in numbers of more than one digit, range is only b–9 (1–35), therefore the weight b₁ is 35 instead of 36. Suppose the threshold values for the second",
"-22.344713096215855"
]
] |
2dv23y | Insane Clown Posse | [
"I'm not even trying to be funny, I would just honestly love to see someone try to explain that shit. Good luck to whoever takes this on.",
"Ok, so. I have met a few of these \"juggalos\" in my life, and lived with one for a while. As far as I understood when he explained it to me its kinda like a family that takes you in and takes care of you if you don't get along with your parents or don't fit in elsewhere or whatever. So basically its a group that kids join (that have too much anger towards their parents or teenage angst built up) so they can act like fools and do as they please straight into middle age and sometimes beyond. They are foolhardy and intense as well as crazy and short term thinkers. But they have a love for their own and will protect eachother. ELI5: Somewhere between a gang and a family of misfits and outcasts that like attention and bad music.",
"J and Shaggy aren't evangelical Christians in the sense that, say, Pat Robertson or Benny Hinn are or Jerry Falwell was. They seem to believe in the Christian perception of God without all the bullshit filler endorsing slavery, rape, etc. that the Bible contains. They believe in divine retribution, the afterlife, doing good by your fellow man, and all that jazz, but they framed it all in the form of the Dark Carnival mythos because, simply put, it's way more fucking entertaining. However, the problem with this is that they ain't exactly scholars (neither ever even got to 10th grade) or particularly deep storytellers. Around 2002, after they released \"The Wraith: Shangri-La\" & \"The Wraith: Hell's Pit\" (the finale to their Joker's Cards series), life was just so good for them and they were feeling so happy & blessed that they seemed to go off the deep end. The song \"Miracles\", with its infamous line about magnets, was the lowest point of that journey. Since then, they've dialed back the God talk and tried to get back to their schlocky, pulpy roots, but the non-Juggalo world doesn't really know it because they don't pay close enough attention.",
"Huh, well because they are ass backward morons? They dress as clowns, and the fans look like dumpster divers. The ones I have meet are not the slightest bit intelligent, and it seems more like a way to fit in with other simple minded morons. Lots of attention seeking, and a need to fit in. The need to fit in is a huge need (not want) for youth as a way to form ones identity (or realize what they are NOT). I was a punk once, and talk about not fitting in! I was the shittiest punker on the planet. Eventually I realized that I kinda got along with everybody, and didn't need to adhere to a clique. Some folks need that, and some folks identify with others who drink shit beer, threaten women with harm, and spit shock value for attention. They are not the only ones either, as hipsters, and the emo movement are equally disgusting in my opinion. I have a lot more respect for goths to be honest. I used to hate them, but seeing some of them still practice the style twenty years later is kinda cool. They know who they are, where as some of the cliques these days will fade away (remember grunge). Plus, that stupid \"ax man\" logo is a hop skip and jump away from the favorite of the 90's. You know what I am talking about, the stupid fuckin' \"no fear\" guy. I laugh when I see folks with that damn ax man tattoo.",
"You'd probably be better off asking for an explanation of Homestuck."
] | [
[
"Clown (comics) Publication history The first Clown first appeared in The Incredible Hulk #3 (September 1962), and was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko. Half-brother A new Clown appeared in Brand New Day as one of the villains in the bar. He was later sighted as a member of Hood's crime syndicate. Later, the Clown is contacted by Zodiac and Death Reaper, who offer him a spot on their rogue band of criminals. Together, they attack the Human Torch, hijack the Red Ronin to attack Times Square, and cause Norman Osborn a large amount of consternation. Clown, along with",
"-27.038504407566506"
],
[
"their stupidity\". Spin likened Insane Clown Posse's stage act to \"a sort of circus karaoke\" and portrayed the group's fans as overweight suburbanites. On the group's website, Bruce responded to the article by stating, \"I could give a fuck less\".\nAfter a show in Indianapolis, Insane Clown Posse's tour bus stopped at a Waffle House in Greenfield, Indiana. When a customer began to harass Spaniolo and Bruce, a fight broke out between the customer and all of the bands' members. Months later on June 4, 1998, Bruce and Utsler pleaded guilty to misdemeanor disorderly conduct charges (reduced from battery) in an",
"-26.553464755546884"
],
[
"new name: Insane Clown Posse. Upon returning home that night, Bruce had a dream in which spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him—an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group's Joker's Cards series. These stories each offer a specific lesson designed to change the \"evil ways\" of listeners before \"the end consumes us all.\" Insane Clown Posse has a dedicated following, often referred to by the group as Juggalos and Juggalettes.\nJohn Utsler left the group about a month before the release of Carnival of Carnage and Insane Clown Posse has since",
"-26.431813584116753"
],
[
"Cards series. These stories each offer a specific lesson designed to change the \"evil ways\" of listeners before \"the end consumes us all.\" Insane Clown Posse has a dedicated following, often referred to by the group as Juggalos and Juggalettes.\nJohn Utsler left the group in 1992, and Insane Clown Posse has since been composed of Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler, who perform under the respective personas of the murderous, wicked clowns Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo perform a style of hardcore hip hop known as horrorcore, and is known for its dark, violent lyrics and elaborate live",
"-26.31778419294278"
],
[
"been composed of Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler, who perform under the respective personas of the murderous, wicked clowns Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo performs a style of hardcore hip hop known as horrorcore, and is known for its dark, violent lyrics and elaborate live performances. Insane Clown Posse has earned two platinum and five gold albums. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the entire catalog of the group has sold 6.5 million units in the United States and Canada as of April 2007. Golden Goldies (1995) Golden Goldies was a comical group whose lyrics focused solely on gold.",
"-25.784978482945007"
],
[
"Insane Clown Posse 1985–94: Early history Joseph Bruce (Violent J) and Joseph Utsler (Shaggy 2 Dope) met in Oak Park, a suburb on the north border of Detroit, Michigan. Along with Utsler's brother, John, and friend, Lacy, they wrestled in backyard rings that they had built themselves. They also listened to hip hop music, including 3rd Bass, Beastie Boys, N.W.A and local rappers like Awesome Dre. In 1989, Joseph Bruce, as Jagged Joe, Joseph Utsler, as Kangol Joe, and John Utsler, as Master J, released the single titled \"Party at the Top of the Hill\" under the name of JJ",
"-25.63656056456057"
],
[
"their plans, and the final concept instead featured Insane Clown Posse performing actions which Joseph Bruce later described as \"[Some of] the stupidest thing[s] I had ever heard of.\" Because the group and the label were disappointed with the video, it was not publicly released at the time, although a snippet of it later appeared on Stranglemania in 1996 and finally the full video was released on Psychopathic: The Videos in 2007. Legacy Ringmaster's popularity enabled Insane Clown Posse to sell out larger nightclubs across their hometown of Detroit, Michigan such as St. Andrews Hall and the State Theatre. Because",
"-25.631686825916404"
],
[
"are fans of the hip hop group Insane Clown Posse. Members often have tattoos and wear face paint. The FBI has classified juggalos as a \"loosely organized hybrid gang\", and in 2011, the Justice Department's Gang Task Force said group members were \"forming more organized subsets and engaging in more gang-like criminal activity\".\nJason Webber, an organizer of the march and publicist for Insane Clown Posse's record label Psychopathic Records, said the government's labeling \"exposed law-abiding Juggalos to harassment and discrimination by police, employers and others\". March supporters claimed they were a nonviolent group who should not be compared to gangs",
"-25.599493107016315"
],
[
"Spaniolo, and Methric agreed on the band name Twiztid. The House of Horrors Tour thus featured Insane Clown Posse, with opening groups Twiztid, Myzery, and Psycho Realm. Legal troubles On November 16, 1997, Bruce was arrested on an aggravated battery charge after allegedly striking an audience member thirty times with his microphone at a concert in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Bruce was held for four hours before being released on $5,000 bail. The January 1998 issue of Spin magazine ran a four-page cartoon lampooning Insane Clown Posse and Juggalos, claiming that the group was offensive \"not for their obscenity, but for",
"-25.552309000049718"
],
[
"\"Spiral\" arc. This Clown's identity hasn't been revealed yet.\nDuring the \"Opening Salvo\" part of the Secret Empire storyline, Clown was with the Circus of Crime at the time when Baron Helmut Zemo recruited them to join the Army of Evil. Powers and abilities The first Clown has no superhuman powers but often uses his clown paraphernalia in attacking his victims, such as using his juggling balls and trick canes. As Griffin, he is a Harpy-like man (based on Betty Ross's Harpy mutation) with sharp claws and talons, and can spit a slimy corrosive venom. He is shown to be somewhat",
"-25.463272063654586"
],
[
"by taking bumps. Heyman also favored the idea of using Insane Clown Posse, because it was unlikely that anyone knew of the relationship the group had with Van Dam and Sabu. Heyman presented his idea to Bruce and Utsler, who agreed to participate. Insane Clown Posse opened the ECW program by performing songs and exciting the crowd. Then Van Dam and Sabu, the main villains at the time, attacked Bruce and Utsler. The top fan favorite, The Sandman, came in and saved them by chasing away Van Dam and Sabu with his signature Singapore cane. ICP's Strangle-Mania Live (1997) Being",
"-25.41172198211916"
],
[
"Clown Posse released a statement on the Robida attacks. The group's manager Alex Abbiss extended Bruce and Utsler's condolences and prayers to the families of the victims, stating that \"It's quite obvious that this guy had no clue what being a Juggalo is all about. If anyone knows anything at all about ICP, then you know that they have never, ever been down or will be down with any racist or bigotry bullshit\".\nOn October 21, 2006, Insane Clown Posse performed at one of twenty benefit shows organized by Myspace as part of the \"Rock for Darfur\" campaign to raise awareness",
"-25.38937499432359"
],
[
"their plans, and the final concept instead featured Insane Clown Posse performing actions which Joseph Bruce later described as \"[Some of] the stupidest thing[s] I had ever heard of.\" Because the group and the label were disappointed with the video, it was not publicly released at the time, although it later appeared on Psychopathic: The Videos in 2007.\nThe music video for the \"Slaughter House Mix\" was shot at the State Theatre during an actual Insane Clown Posse concert. The director of the video, former Cro-Mags rhythm guitarist Parris Mayhew, wanted Insane Clown Posse to perform the song several times in",
"-25.323252540809335"
],
[
"agreed. Several names were considered before Bruce recalled his dream of a clown running around in Delray, which became the inspiration for the group's new name: Insane Clown Posse. The other members agreed, deciding that they would take on this new genre and name, and would all don face paint due to the success of their former clown-painted hype man. Upon returning home that night, Bruce says he had a dream in which \"spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him\"—an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group's Joker's Cards series, beginning",
"-25.23672848514252"
],
[
"them anything that they're not claiming for themselves.\"\nIn 2011, Insane Clown Posse appeared on Attack of the Show! and refuted claims that they were a Christian band. Bruce explained that their Dark Carnival mythology \"comes from the basic principle of right and wrong, you know; evil and good. That’s all. We’re just trying to say that there’s bad guys out there and that there’s good guys out there [...] We were taught there’s a heaven and a hell, but that’s all we were taught. We weren’t taught about the [Ten] Commandments [... or] what’s in the Bible and all that.",
"-25.015460201655515"
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[
"a friend of the duo, Insane Clown Posse attended several shows. The group hung out backstage with their friends, and also began talking to and smoking with Robinson, eventually befriending him. Juggalo Championship Wrestling (1999–2012) In 1997, Robinson wrestled for Insane Clown Posse at the event ICP's Strangle-Mania Live. Two years later, he, 2 Tuff Tony, and Mad Man Pondo wrestled at the Dan Curtis Memorial, an independent wrestling booker who had recently worked for Insane Clown Posse. Several days after the event, Tony, Robinson, and Pondo were booked to wrestle for Insane Clown Posse's first Juggalo Championshit Wrestling show.",
"-24.88107248392771"
],
[
"\"Anti-Clown Army\" and students were later seen roaming the campus armed with baseball bats. North Carolina On September 4, children in a Winston-Salem neighborhood reported to the police about a person dressed as a clown trying to lure them into some woods. They described him as wearing white overalls and gloves, red shoes, and bushy, red hair. His face was described as white with a red nose. They claim that he offered them treats if they would go with him. According to police, an adult heard, but did not see, the clown.\nOn September 7, a witness reported seeing a person",
"-24.802492485527182"
],
[
"The Ringmaster (album) Background Following a dream by group member Joseph Bruce in which \"spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him\", Insane Clown Posse created the mythology of the Dark Carnival. The Carnival, a metaphoric limbo in which the lives of the dead await to be judged, was planned to be elaborated through a series of stories called Joker's Cards, each of which offers a specific lesson designed to change the \"evil ways\" of listeners before \"the end consumes us all.\"\nFollowing the release of the first Joker's Card, Carnival of Carnage, the group began to build a local following.",
"-24.766653864524415"
],
[
"Juggalo: Insane Clown Posse, Their Fans, and the World They Made About the book According to Miller's website, the book focuses on its dedicated fans, aka juggalos, who've been questionably labeled a gang by the F.B.I.. Here is a snippet of the book's description: \"The FBI is certain this family is dangerous. Come see how the FBI has again failed to shoot straight and enter the world of ICP, Juggalos and their endeavor to live free.\" About the Author Miller, a journalist and Edgar-nominated author, previously covered Insane Clown Posse in his Detroit Rock City (book) and various magazine features,",
"-24.61426975298673"
],
[
"Los Psycho Circus History Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (AAA) has a long history of using clown based ring characters ever since the company was founded in 1992, most famously the group known as Los Payasos (Spanish for \"The Clowns\") that existed until 1999. AAA later tried to promote other clown trios such as Payasos del Mal (\"Evil Clowns\") in 2007. It was not until AAA took the wrestler who had worked as Aliens, Kronus (son of Brazo de Plata) and a third wrestler whose previous identity has not been revealed and turned them into Los Psycho Circus. Aliens became",
"-24.465961322421208"
],
[
"images of the fool in myth and history, and ruminations on the mingling of ecstasy and dread in the Information Age, Dery asserts the evil clown is an icon of our times. Clowns are often depicted as murderous psychopaths at many American haunted houses.\nWolfgang M. Zucker points out the similarities between a clown's appearance and the cultural depictions of demons and other infernal creatures, noting \"[the clown's] chalk-white face in which the eyes almost disappear, while the mouth is enlarged\nto a ghoulish bigness, looks like the mask of death\".\nAccording to psychology professor Joseph Durwin at California State University, Northridge, young",
"-24.361396482316195"
],
[
"The clown knocks out the cashier and steals the handy supply of drugs and junk food while a woman (the cowgirl) stops for gas. The clown then ties the woman up while Fay stops for gas. As Fay searches the station for a clerk the clown rummages through her car, stealing her wallet, and then leaves in the cowgirl's truck, which later breaks down.\nAfter the clown takes a mysterious ride in the Devil Girl's flying vehicle, and Fay's car breaks down, both stop separately in an eerie, highly religious, nearby town. Fay takes a room in the local motel, using",
"-24.348454113716798"
],
[
"on the Insane Clown Posse song \"Ride the Tempest\", from their album The Tempest. He performs a carnival barker-style introduction to the song, featuring the signature laughter of his Sinister Minister gimmick.",
"-24.347682154242648"
],
[
"Posse. On September 25, Mike Awesome defeated Insane Clown Posse in a Handicap Hardcore match. Juggalo Championship Wrestling (1999–2006) On December 19, 1999, Bruce and Utsler created their own wrestling promotion, Juggalo Championshit Wrestling (now known as Juggalo Championship Wrestling). That night, the duo defeated the team of two Doink the Clowns to become the first ever JCW Tag Team Champions. The event was taped and released as JCW, Volume 1. Commentary was provided by Bruce and Utsler under their \"3D\" and \"Gweedo\" announcing personas. In 2000, Insane Clown Posse was involved in a rivalry with The Rainbow Coalition (Big",
"-24.331948737672064"
],
[
"gang called the Juggalo Killers, who knocked her unconscious before carving the letters \"JK\" into her chest, because they wanted to be the only group wearing Insane Clown Posse merchandise in their territory.\nIn 2012, a Juggalo gang member, who was wanted for violating probation, was placed on New Mexico's most wanted list.\nJuggalos in Oregon have been reported to have extorted homeless and homosexual individuals on the street with the threat of beatings.\nIn August 2013, a Juggalo street gang member was arrested on charges of attempted murder, battery with a deadly weapon and possession of a controlled substance for allegedly attacking",
"-24.244127011217643"
],
[
"Posse wherein spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him. The group decided to incorporate this dream into their band's newly created persona. The spirits are each revealed in a series of albums called the Six Joker's Cards. Each spirit relays a message through the use of a moral story.\nWith the advent of Insane Clown Posse's Second Deck (2009), the character Bang! Pow! Boom!, a new spirit in the Dark Carnival, was introduced. The character is a demon-like figure that Bruce describes as a \"continuous explosion that stomps his way through the crowd blowing [...] evil souls [...] to Hell\".",
"-24.235663032071898"
],
[
"unveiled in two separate seminars, The Wraith: Shangri-La and Hell's Pit, given by Violent J. The second seminar, detailing Insane Clown Posse's entire rise to fame, was captured on video and released with The Wraith: Shangri-La on DVD.\nA riot occurred after police tried to stop female attendees from showing their breasts. The police released tear gas and pepper balls into the surrounding crowd, causing mass confusion. Psychopathic Record employees Rob Bruce and Alex Abbiss negotiated with police, and the festival continued after airing out for 30 minutes. Expansion and development (2003–2006) In 2003, the Juggalo Gathering was held outdoors for",
"-24.19847945444053"
],
[
"manager, who established the Psychopathic Records record label with the group in 1991. Later that year the group released the self-produced EP titled Dog Beats. Insane Clown Posse (1991–present) In late 1991, Inner City Posse changed their style, look, and name. Joseph Bruce recalled a dream of a clown running around in Delray, which became the inspiration for the group's new name: Insane Clown Posse. Upon returning home that night, Bruce had a dream in which spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him—an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group's Joker's",
"-24.162282679404598"
],
[
"dark characters, complete with statements about the clowns \"rejoicing in the pain of others\" and \"Violence without measure\", a fabricated profile to help enhance their \"evil\" characters.\nThe team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star, Super Fly and Pegasso). Los Psycho Circus was physically larger than most of the AAA wrestlers and soon established themselves as a dominant force in the ring, booked to easily defeat a series of low card teams. While Los Psycho Circus was booked as Rudos (bad guys) they faced both tecnico",
"-24.137176193340565"
],
[
"three men who supposedly saw the clown. New Hampshire In Durham, New Hampshire, UNH College Students (University of New Hampshire) reported to the police that a person dressed as a creepy clown was roaming the campus. Police followed up the report claiming that the clown was found with no weapons except a megaphone. It is unknown why the clown had a megaphone. New Jersey On Monday, October 4, at around 10pm, a male in a clown mask carrying a plastic machete scared a woman at a Quick Chek convenience store in Parsippany. A second eyewitness also was scared by the",
"-24.108867047987587"
],
[
"a Don and co-owner of the label. Solo (1992-2006; 2012-Present) Bruce was included in Insane Clown Posse's debut album Carnival of Carnage in 1992. Taking the name Jumpsteady, he performed on the final track \"Taste\". He rapped about political and economical problems he had experienced first hand, such as the government's lack of consideration of the problems facing the ghetto, and their actions taken during Desert Storm. Soon after his appearance on the duo's next studio album Ringmaster, Jumpsteady took a leave from rapping.\nIn 1996 an ad for his debut EP The Chaos Theory was featured in Insane Clown Posse's",
"-24.02381247853191"
],
[
"Evil Clowns Referenced in We're All Devo, The Evil Clowns are Big Entertainment's \"mega-metal group\". Pictures of the lead singer, Numero Uno, allegedly consist of Mark Mothersbaugh's head pasted on the body of David Lee Roth. The Big Dirty Farmers The Big Dirty Farmers appeared in the only \"Club Devo\" animation for shockwave.com, performing the song \"It's All Good\". Skunk Man Fly Skunk Man Fly, featured in the Devo song \"Chango,\" were proposed for a later, unfinished installment of \"Club Devo\", but no material was recorded. The Sex Dolls The Sex Dolls were proposed for an unrealized installment of \"Club",
"-23.947353552321147"
],
[
"Clown and Murder Clown. Unlike previous Clown characters who wore fabric masks Los Psycho Circus wore rubber masks with more horrific, twisted facial expressions, inspired by the movie Killer Klowns from Outer Space. Zombie Clown's mask features rotting yellow teeth, skin blotches and a small blue tophat. The team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star, Super Fly and Pegasso). Los Psycho Circus was physically larger than most of the AAA wrestlers and soon established themselves as a dominant force in the ring as they began",
"-23.864713545219274"
],
[
"lake, but no evidence of clowns or clown paraphernalia was found.\nWhile some of these reports have been harmless, others reports have been more suspicious. In one instance, a woman reported a person in a clown costume was standing in her backyard and ran away as she took a picture. In one case, an individual had heard clanging chains and a banging noise at his front door. While other cases report a clown offering money or candy to children to follow the clown into the woods. South Dakota On October 4, a 19-year-old man in a clown costume was arrested on",
"-23.85497844632482"
],
[
"ignored, and Insane Clown Posse was never mentioned during the show. MTV later informed Island Records that the heads of the network must choose the band first before it can become eligible to be featured on TRL.\nBoth Bizaar and Bizzar received three-out-of-five-star ratings in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, the highest rating that the magazine ever gave to any Insane Clown Posse album.\nOn July 10, 2017 Richard Newton, a Boston area juggalo went to the Top 40 radio station Kiss 108 to make a request for the song \"My Axe\" in person, with an axe in hand and other",
"-23.808951283805072"
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[
"being a clown. It is now that she comes to the realization that it wasn't Sam who killed her child but the clown and that her memory was wrong. She agrees to help Sam, who has been present at the murders not as a perpetrator but as the hunter of the monster, known as the Hellbreed.\nMeanwhile, Detective Weiss has pulled up Alice's files and it is revealed that she has been committed to a mental institution in 1989. She escaped in 1995 and is still wanted by the authorities. Alice is handcuffed and taken to the institute. Outside they encounter",
"-23.801945874816738"
],
[
"\"Juggalo Street Fight\". Insane Clown Posse won against the team of Glen Gilbertti and Kid Kash on February 18. Two weeks later, Insane Clown Posse announced that they would take part in a \"Dark Carnival Match\" the next week against Glen Gilbertti and any partner he chooses. The following week, Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony took on Glen Gilbertti, Kid Kash, and David Young. \"The Alpha Male\" Monty Brown made his TNA return, and cost Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony the match. During their stint in TNA, Insane Clown Posse brought the company its largest paying",
"-23.727180042566033"
],
[
"the group's genesis, including Bruce's involvement in professional wrestling, the formation of group Inner City Posse with John and Joey Utlser, as well as establishing their record label Psychopathic Records. The book also discusses the beginnings of what would become Insane Clown Posse and the origins of the group's Dark Carnival mythology, and the albums inspired by it.\nThe book also documents the group's early struggles, personnel changes and the changing local Detroit music scene.\nThe book also focus their highly publicized falling-out with Hollywood Records and subsequent signing to Island Records, their eventual return to Psychopathic Records and the production of",
"-23.667398563928145"
],
[
"in an interview with faygoluvers.net, Insane Clown Posse announced that they are cutting ties with Twiztid and Majik Ninja Entertainment, as they have repeatedly declined invites to the Juggalo March On Washington, and the alternative to not march, going on a Wizard of the Hood Tour, which they also declined. Also in doing so, Insane Clown Posse stated that Psychopathic Records will stop reaching out to Twiztid and Majik Ninja Entertainment for Juggalo Day and the Gathering of the Juggalos. Also during the interview it was announced that new music will come from Insane Clown Posse, DJ Clay, Big Hoodoo,",
"-23.621165792865213"
],
[
"be harmless and were merely waving at passing cars.\nReports of clowns have also been made in the Kansas cities of Chanute, Pittsburg, and Parsons; however the Parsons report was later revealed to be a hoax. Kentucky On September 23, 20-year-old Jonathan Martin was arrested for wearing a hood or mask in a public place, disorderly conduct and two outstanding warrants for non-payment of fines and failure to appear in court. Martin was found in a full clown costume, lurking in wooded area near a Kentucky apartment block.\nOn October 1, a woman reported that while she was walking on a trail",
"-23.607722269836813"
],
[
"performances. Insane Clown Posse has earned two platinum and five gold albums. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the entire catalog of the group has sold 6.5 million units in the United States and Canada as of April 2007. Solo career (1994–present) In 1994, Utsler released his first solo album, Fuck Off!, containing only four tracks. His second planned solo album Shaggs The Clown, was never released due to sampling issues. After almost 12 years of promotion, Utsler released his second solo album, F.T.F.O. (Fuck The Fuck Off!), in 2006. During ICP's 2013 GOTJ seminar Shaggy and J stated that they were",
"-23.595950769013143"
],
[
"across a clown walking around on the dirt track they were going to bike on. The Clown appeared to be about Five-Eight and very skinny. The clown also was holding a mallet but was not threatening the boys since the clown had not seen them yet. At first the boys thought it was just a person walking until the got closer and saw that it was a clown. The clown did not see them until one of the boys asked the clown what it was doing from a far distance. The clown did not respond and started to chase the",
"-23.584539079194656"
],
[
"clown pranksters were reported in France, the United States and Germany, possibly inspired by American Horror Story: Freak Show.\nIn 2014, \"the Wasco clown\" attracted social media attention in California. Again this clown would shared similar resemblance to Pennywise, and it was revealed that the social media postings were part of a year-long photography project conducted by the artist's wife. In Bakersfield, California \"menacing\" clowns were reported, some with weapons. In July 2015, a \"creepy\" clown was seen around a local cemetery in Chicago and terrorizing anyone in the graveyard.\nThere was another burst of such sightings in 2016, including in Greenville,",
"-23.573446828057058"
],
[
"Flam, Bob, and Neil). That April, the duo teamed with Vampiro to defeat The Rainbow Coalition. They defeated the Coalition again when they teamed with Evil Dead later that year, and the match that was featured on JCW, Volume 2.\nIn 2003, Insane Clown Posse defended, and retained, their JCW Tag Team Championships against Kid Cock (a parody of Kid Rock) and Feminem (a parody of Eminem). The match was featured on JCW, Volume 3. At the 2006 Gathering of the Juggalos, Bruce, Nosawa, and Vampiro lost to Mad Man Pondo and The Headhunters, but defeated Pondo and Powers of Pain",
"-23.566560616716743"
],
[
"'petal' of the lotus,\" and it was announced that there would be six members. After switching between two different \"sixth members,\" Marz and Anybody Killa, Dark Lotus decided to keep the group to only five. On January 19, 2017 via an interview with faygoluvers.net, Insane Clown Posse announced that the group disbanded. Psychopathic Rydas (1999–present) Psychopathic Rydas formed in 1999, and consists of Psychopathic Records-associated rappers performing under alternate stage names in the style of mainstream gangsta rap. The group's current lineup consists of Bruce (Bullet), Utsler (Full Clip), Methric (Foe Foe), Spaniolo (Lil' Shank), Rouleau (Cell Block) and David",
"-23.55422558123246"
],
[
"known as Zombie Clown, Kronus became Psycho Clown and the third man became known as Killer Clown. Unlike previous clown characters who wore fabric masks Los Psycho Circus wore rubber masks with more horrific, twisted facial expressions, inspired by the movie Killer Klowns from Outer Space. Psycho Clown's mask features a foot high brightly colored Mohawk and a long plastic tongue, Zombie Clown's mask features rotting yellow teeth, skin blotches and a small blue tophat while Murder Clown's mask features vampire like fangs and a balding multicolored afro. Each of the wrestlers was given a backstory befitting their twisted and",
"-23.544749751046766"
],
[
"55-year-old man in a clown mask was arrested for menacing at Floyd Light Middle School in Portland. An assistant principal confronted the man, who then allegedly threatened to hurt him. The suspect is facing charges of menacing and disorderly conduct. There has been at least eight \"scary clown\" sightings, and police responding in some cases, in Douglas County since October 1, 2016. Pennsylvania On September 18, 2016, in State College, a person dressed as a clown was seen acting strangely at the parking lot of a YMCA early in the morning. In late September, reports stated that an individual dressed",
"-23.53223124615033"
],
[
"dressed as clowns were spotted in Belfast. On October 7, a school in Coleraine had closed its doors for a short time because of fears that people dressed as clowns were on their way to the school. On 7 October a clown threatened children with a knife in Riverside Park, Ballymoney, County Antrim. On Instagram an account called 'killerclownsballymoney' said a clown would be \"waiting at Ballymoney High school gates at 3:55 and on Mondays it'll be Dalriada at 2:40\". On social media, an image appeared of a clown stood outside Cullybackey College in the village of Cullybackey The police",
"-23.515188863657386"
],
[
"are explored in multiple Insane Clown Posse songs. Throughout their career, the group has used parables set within the Dark Carnival mythology to warn of the ultimate consequences of immoral behavior. Their 2002 album The Wraith: Shangri-La ended the first set of Joker Card albums and included the song The Unveiling, which explicitly revealed that the hidden message of ICP's music had always been to follow God. Joseph Bruce remarked that \"The ending of the Joker Cards, the way we looked at it, was death. Heaven and hell. That's up to each and every juggalo [to decide]\".\nSeveral journalists have commented",
"-23.511843461892568"
],
[
"that follows mimics and idolizes the music group, Insane Clown Posse. The music encourages and condones extreme acts of violence, which some Juggalos carry out. Juggalo members paint their faces black and white, dress in black clothing, attend raves together that often end violently, and consider themselves a family.\"\nHowever, some law enforcement officers have been firm in their assertion that Juggalos are a criminal group. Police watch commander Jay Mackanin of Citrus Heights has stated that, \"Juggalos are a gang. I know sometimes they say they're not, but they are.\"\nKelly Snyder, a former Drug Enforcement Administration officer who tracks Juggalo",
"-23.453241578492452"
],
[
"also recalls the 1980s clown sightings in various US cities, as well as providing a phone number, email address and information about a smartphone app that citizens can use to report suspicious behavior to authorities.\nThat same day the Bucks County Courier Times interviewed Joyce Meder, also known as \"Bubbles the Clown\" regarding the \"creepy clown\" phenomenon. Meder is an Abington, PA-based professional clown who provides entertainment for children. Describing herself as a \"happy\" and \"fun\" clown, Meder expressed disappointment over the recent clown scare, citing her newfound fears of possible run-ins with law enforcement when she is in public dressed",
"-23.445852503209608"
],
[
"commit his crimes while wearing his clown costume.\nThe modern stock character of the evil clown was popularized by Stephen King's novel It, published in 1986, which introduced the fear of an evil clown to a modern audience. In the novel, the eponymous character is a pan-dimensional monster which feeds mainly on children by luring them in the form of Pennywise the Dancing Clown and then assuming the shape of whatever the victim fears the most.\nThe evil clown archetype plays strongly off the sense of dislike it caused to inherent elements of coulrophobia; however, it has been suggested by Joseph Durwin",
"-23.429302502008795"
],
[
"became the company's logo.\nInner City Posse released their first professionally recorded album, Dog Beats, on the label later that year. Shortly after, the group underwent a change in style, look, and name to become Insane Clown Posse, and created the Dark Carnival concept that would be continued by much of the label's other artists for years to come. Esham and Kid Rock were paid to appear on the debut \"Insane Clown Posse\" album to increase the album's marketability. The group and their label began to gain moderate popularity in the Detroit area following the releases of Carnival of Carnage and",
"-23.418987267054035"
],
[
"Psycho Clown Biography The wrestler who would later become known as Psycho Clown was born on December 16, 1985, son of Luchador José Alvarado Nieves, better known under the ring names Brazo de Plata or Super Porky. He is one of Alvarado's six children and was the first of them to take up wrestling although he was later joined by at least one brother and two sisters. Independent circuit (2000–2003) He was not trained by his father or any of his uncles for his professional wrestling career, instead Memo Díaz was responsible for training the young Alvarado as well as",
"-23.410162358219168"
],
[
"Chris Benoit (song) Music and lyrics Inspiration for the song came from wrestler Chris Benoit, who murdered his wife and son before committing suicide. Insane Clown Posse broadly alluded to the murders in the song's lyrics, but the focus of the song is not the murders themselves, but of suddenly losing one's sanity, and eclipsing in violence. The song pertains to the album's overall concept, which \"teaches us to respect the life we've been given and do our best to avoid an early death.\" The song was remixed by Kuma for the remix album Mike E. Clark's Extra Pop Emporium.",
"-23.400800649484154"
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[
"the album. In June 2014 Psychopathic Records announced that Insane Clown Posse and Da Mafia 6ix were working on a collaboration album, and Insane Clown Posse posted pictures on their official instagram page of them and Da Mafia 6ix sitting around in Violent J's home studio. The album is scheduled to be released sometime in August 2014. A few days after Faygoluvers.net conducted the interview with Insane Clown Posse, Psychopathic Records, Insane Clown Posse, Twiztid and Blaze Ya Dead Homie released a picture of the Dark Lotus hand sign stating that all original members (Insane Clown Posse, Twiztid & Blaze",
"-23.383835829532472"
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[
"called Circus the Clown because he was an alcoholic like Maura. He stopped drinking for Annie, yet custody went to the mother.\nBack in the confessional, Circus tells the priest he sinned with Ondine the night before, and fears the good luck she brings, since he lost hope long ago. As he leaves, the unknown man approaches him about Ondine, Circus ignores him. Circus brings Annie back from dialysis, but is locked out since Maura and Alex are drinking in a pub. Annie asks to be left with them. Circus returns to find the caravan has been ransacked, and Ondine hiding",
"-23.371821614768123"
],
[
"Card in Insane Clown Posse's Dark Carnival concept album series. The Dark Carnival is a concept of the afterlife in which souls are sent to a form of limbo while waiting to be sent to heaven or hell based on their individual actions. These concepts are related by Insane Clown Posse in a series of albums called the six Joker's Cards. Each of the six Joker's Cards relate to a specific character — an entity of the Dark Carnival — that tries to \"save the human soul\" by showing the wicked inside of one's self.\nRiddle Box is one of several",
"-23.363316144037526"
],
[
"Curtis suggested that Insane Clown Posse start its own promotion while continuing with its music. He came to Bruce's house each night to discuss ideas about the promotion. Curtis convinced Bruce to coordinate another Strangle-Mania Live show, to be followed by an eighty-city \"Hellfire Wrestling\" tour. Curtis booked the talent and wrote the scripts. Strangle-Mania Live sold out the Majestic Theater in Detroit. Two days after the show, Curtis was found dead in his apartment, due to a sudden diabetic problem. The \"Hellfire Wrestling\" tour was subsequently canceled. World Championship Wrestling (1999–2000) Bruce then went on to wrestle a long",
"-23.35538152341178"
],
[
"wearing a clown mask and holding a chainsaw, scaring a woman and child. Iowa On October 11, an 18-year-old man with a clown mask was arrested for allegedly chasing two people with a metal baseball bat in Urbandale. Kansas On September 27, 2016, a person dressed as a clown was spotted creeping in the bushes near the intersection of 85th Street and Parallel Parkway in Kansas City, Kansas.\nOn October 1, 2016, in Topeka, a clown was spotted near the intersection of Southeast 37th Street and Southeast Adams Street. Again in Topeka, a few days later on the morning of October",
"-23.327529969988973"
],
[
"de Tabarin by Catulle Mendès and in Ruggero Leoncavallo's Pagliacci (accused of being a plagiarism of Mendès' piece), both works featuring murderous clowns as central characters.\nDuring the 1970s the National Lampoon published a series of mock comic books in the pages of the magazine, entitled \"Evil Clown\", which featured a malevolent titular character named Frenchy the Clown. During that decade, American serial killer and rapist John Wayne Gacy became known as the Killer Clown when arrested in 1978, after it was discovered he had performed as Pogo the Clown at children's parties and other events; however, Gacy did not actually",
"-23.304210813323152"
],
[
"to wrestle today in Juggalo Championship Wrestling as well as in various independent promotions.\nInsane Clown Posse gained fame for being both professional musicians and professional wrestlers. Overall, they are two-time JCW Tag Team Champions. Additionally, Bruce is a one-time JCW Tag Team Champion with 2 Tuff Tony, and Utsler is a one-time JCW Heavyweight Champion. Bruce and Utsler are also founding members of the Juggalo World Order.\nIn addition they were largely involved in Backyard Wrestling: Don't Try This at Home, where most of the wrestlers in the game were members of JCW.",
"-23.257796595513355"
],
[
"The King and the Clown Plot Set in the late 15th century during the reign of King Yeonsan, two male street clowns and tightrope walkers, Jangsaeng (Kam Woo-sung) and Gong-gil (Lee Joon-gi), are part of an entertainer troupe. The effeminate and beautiful Gong-gil specializes in female roles ; their manager prostitutes him to rich customers, and Jangsaeng is sickened by this practice. After Gong-gil kills the manager in defense of Jangsaeng, the pair flee to Seoul, where they form a new group with three other street performers.\nTogether the group comes up with a skit mocking some members of the royal court,",
"-23.239743919635657"
],
[
"Insane Clown Posse returned to Europe for a tour. The group released a three-disc compilation of their guest appearances with other artists called Featuring Freshness in November 2011. The compilation also included new songs with artists Paris, Cold 187um, and Tone Tone.\nAt the 2011 Detroit Music Awards, Insane Clown Posse received the Distinguished Achievement Award. In June, Insane Clown Posse issued a cease and desist notice to the Upright Citizens Brigade, threatening legal action over a planned performance, \"The Gathering of the Juggalos For A Mother Fucking Baby Funeral\". 2012–14: The Mighty Death Pop! Era At their 2010 Hallowicked concert,",
"-23.22678335168166"
],
[
"paid $1 million to purchase the Insane Clown Posse contract from Battery/Jive Records.\nThe expansion of the Juggalo fanbase into its own culture inspired Insane Clown Posse to write the songs \"What Is A Juggalo?\" and \"Down With The Clown\" for this album. Recording The group started recording The Great Milenko in 1996, and Violent J began thinking of a title for the album shortly after. Bruce later came up with the title The Great Milenko. Bruce also admitted that he had always liked the ring name of professional wrestler Dean Simon (\"Dean Malenko\"), because he felt that the name Malenko",
"-23.217513917043107"
],
[
"An evil clown has sabotaged the services and imprisoned the carnival manager. Shaggy and Scooby help the manager and rescue the others stranded in a lake. After trying out all the rides, Shaggy and Scooby find out that the clown has a prime interest in getting employment in the carnival but was immediately rejected by the manager and proceeded to capture him. Reception The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly scored the Genesis game a 7.625 out of 10. They particularly praised the game's strong similarity to the TV series, though two of them felt the game to be too",
"-23.178092671267223"
],
[
"Carnage. He leads \"the phantoms of the dead\" that take the form of the Carnival. The creatures fiercely tear doomed souls from their living bodies and drag them down into Hell. The album tells morality tales as the Ringmaster character takes the listener through exhibits of the Carnival, as in such songs as \"Murder Go Round\", \"Wagon Wagon\", and \"House of Mirrors.\" Release and promotion To help promote the album, Insane Clown Posse created the comic book Wicked Clownz featuring themselves and the Ringmaster character. The comic was written by Bruce, illustrated by Joseph Utsler, and printed in Canada. The",
"-23.170160887617385"
],
[
"reported sighting of people dressed as evil clowns was in Greenville, South Carolina, where a small boy spoke to his mother of a pair of clowns that had attempted to lure him away. After such an incident, a number of clowns have since been spotted in various American states including Florida, New York, Wisconsin and Kentucky, and subsequently in other Western countries, from August 2016. By October 2016, in the wake of hundreds of \"clown sightings\" across the United States and Canada, the phenomenon had spread from North America to Europe, Australasia and Latin America.\nSome explanations for the 2016 clown",
"-23.166574978992458"
],
[
"a sketch titled \"Kickspit Underground Rock Festival\", which parodied the Gathering of the Juggalos infomercial. Bruce stated that he was not offended by the parody, and that he thought that the sketch was \"hilarious\" and \"a humongous compliment\". On February 17, 2010, Psychopathic Records signed a contract with Universal Music Group's Fontana Distribution. On March 9, 2010, Insane Clown Posse were interviewed by Nightline journalist Martin Bashir. Bruce hated the segment, stating that Bashir took statements made by the duo out of context, pairing one of Bruce's responses with a different question than he had been asked.\nThe trailer for Big",
"-23.09229939314173"
],
[
"Murder Clown Los Psycho Circus In late 2007 AAA decided to repackage Aliens turning him into \"Zombie Clown\" and making him a part of Los Psycho Circus along with Psycho Clown and Monster Clown. Unlike previous Clown characters who wore fabric masks Los Psycho Circus wore rubber masks with more horrific, twisted facial expressions, inspired by the movie Killer Klowns from Outer Space. Zombie Clown's mask features rotting yellow teeth, skin blotches and a small blue tophat. The team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star,",
"-23.084624495182652"
],
[
"duo announced that they would face whoever Jeff Jarrett threw at them next in a \"Juggalo Street Fight\". Insane Clown Posse won against the team of Glen Gilbertti and Kid Kash on February 18. Two weeks later, Insane Clown Posse announced that they would take part in a \"Dark Carnival match\" the next week against Glen Gilbertti and any partner he chooses. The following week, Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony took on Glen Gilbertti, Kid Kash, and David Young. \"The Alpha Male\" Monty Brown made his TNA return, and cost Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony the",
"-23.062599483779195"
],
[
"Jester (Quality Comics) Powers and abilities The Jester has no superpowers, but is an Olympic-level athlete and a brilliant hand-to-hand combatant and in some later adventures is aided by a small flying sphere with a smiling face and handles on the side called \"Quinopolis\". He is also a skilled detective, trained in various techniques of police procedure. In other media A different version of The Jester appears in the 2010 film Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths, voiced by James Patrick Stuart, this version is a heroic version of the Joker from Earth-Three. He is a member of the Justice",
"-23.052980091604695"
],
[
"reported seeing a clown wearing a multi-colored wig, overalls, and a mask carrying what appeared to be a machete. Upon seeing the police car, the clown fled. His or her whereabouts remain unknown. Missouri One driver reported seeing a person dressed as a clown lurking around by Republic High School during the night in Republic, Missouri.\nPeople dressed as clowns have also been sighted in Platte City, Joplin and Neosho, Missouri. Clown related threats were also made in Blue Springs, Missouri. Clown sightings have also been reported in Clinton, Versailles and University of Missouri campus. Montana On October 12, a 15-year-old",
"-23.04261192836566"
],
[
"stint in World Championship Wrestling with Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo formed two stables. The first stable, The Dead Pool, consisted of Insane Clown Posse, Vampiro, and Raven; the second consisted of Insane Clown Posse, Vampiro, Great Muta, and Kiss Demon, known as The Dark Carnival.\nOn August 9, 1999, Insane Clown Posse made their WCW debut on Monday Nitro in a six-man tag team match. Insane Clown Posse and Vampiro defeated Lash LeRoux, Norman Smiley, and Prince Iaukea. At Road Wild 1999, Rey Mysterio, Jr., Billy Kidman, and Eddie Guerrero defeated Vampiro and Insane Clown Posse. Insane Clown Posse continued",
"-23.02237930856245"
],
[
"a clown calling himself \"HE who gets slapped\", the star attraction of a small circus near Paris. His act consists of his getting slapped every evening by other clowns, and includes Paul pretending to present in front of the Academy of Science.\nAnother of the performers is Bezano (John Gilbert), a daredevil horseback rider. Consuelo (Norma Shearer), the daughter of the impoverished Count Mancini, applies to join his act. Bezano falls in love with Consuelo, as does Paul. Consuelo and her father, however, are planning to restore the family's fortunes with a marriage to her father's wealthy friend.\nOne night, during HE's",
"-23.00363803235814"
],
[
"Rouleau. Each member was said to \"act as a 'petal' of the lotus,\" and it was announced that there would be six members. After switching between two different \"sixth members,\" Marz, and Anybody Killa, Dark Lotus decided to keep the group to only five. On January 19, 2017 via an interview with Faygoluvers, Insane Clown Posse announced that the group disbanded. Psychopathic Rydas (1999–present) Psychopathic Rydas formed in 1999, and consists of Psychopathic Records-associated rappers performing under alternate stage names in the style of mainstream gangsta rap. The group's current lineup consists of Bruce (Bullet), Utsler (Full Clip), Methric (Foe",
"-22.995913963386556"
],
[
"the man, blocking his path and then refused to move when asked, before the man chased the clown away. Devon and Cornwall Police were investigating the incident.\nOn October 9, a 30-year-old man dressed as a clown was arrested after chasing a woman through Eaton Park in Norwich, East Anglia.\nOn October 10, a gang of three people dressed as clowns were spotted in Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire. Kent Police reported there had been 59 clown-related incidents between October 7 and 10. On 11 October a teenage boy was hospitalized for a cut to his head after a clown threw a log",
"-22.922645199647377"
],
[
"incidents regarding people dressed as clowns, but no arrests were made.\nOn 10 October 2016, organizers of a Halloween haunted house attraction apologised after three people dressed as evil clowns and carrying imitation chainsaws frightened students in the grounds of Newpark Comprehensive School in Blackrock, Dublin. The clowns were said to be publicising the attraction and unaware that the grounds were private property. The attraction's spokesperson said it was \"'in no way linked' to the 'creepy clown' craze sweeping across the UK and US\". After the incident police said they are taking the clown craze seriously and reports will be investigated.",
"-22.88010919484077"
],
[
"Request Live (TRL) with requests for the video. While on their \"Bizaar Bizzar Tour\", Insane Clown Posse posted on its website that December 8 was the day for their fans request the video. Bruce and Utsler named that day \"The Mighty Day of Lienda,\" meaning \"The Mighty Day of All or Nothing\". On December 8, Rudy Hill, Robert Bruce, Tom Dub, and six other Psychopathic Records employees and friends drove down to New York City.\nThey were met by nearly 400 Insane Clown Posse fans standing outside in front of the TRL studio window, all with signs supporting the duo. Thirty",
"-22.822323542728554"
],
[
"of just come straight out and just speak straight out of religion\".\nIn an October 2010 article for The Guardian, Jon Ronson characterized the Insane Clown Posse as \"evangelical Christians\" who have \"only been pretending to be brutal and sadistic to trick their fans into believing in God\". In an interview with ICP conducted for the article, two of Ronson's queries referred parenthetically to ICP's \"Christian message\" and to the members' identities as \"[secret] Christians\". Several papers, including The Washington Post, published summaries of Ronson's claims.\nEight days after publication of the Guardian article, Joseph Bruce Tweeted \"I think [it's] crazy how",
"-22.80257618392352"
],
[
"are criminals and gang members, he does not believe that Juggalos as a whole constitute a gang.\nIn January 2014 Insane Clown Posse along with the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan filed suit again against the FBI. The suit aimed to have Juggalos no longer considered to be a gang and to have any \"criminal intelligence information\" about Juggalos destroyed. The suit was dismissed in July 2014, ruling that that band and its fans lack standing to bring the suit. The ACLU has stated that it intends to appeal the dismissal.\nIn September 2015, the U.S. Court of Appeals for",
"-22.794429235640564"
],
[
"Psycho Clown won his first singles title in AAA, when he defeated Chessman for the AAA Latin American Championship. He lost the title to Pentagón Jr. on July 3, 2016. On October 2, 2016, at Héroes Inmortales X, Monster and Murder Clown turned on Psycho Clown and formed a new partnership with his rival Pagano.\nOn August 26, 2017, Psycho Clown won Dr. Wagner Jr.'s mask in a Lucha de Apuestas at Triplemanía XXV.\nOn July 21, 2018, at AAA vs. Elite, Clown teamed up with El Hijo del Fantasma and Rey Wagner, representing AAA, as the trio lost to team \"Liga",
"-22.757073361732182"
],
[
"Guestella. 3D and Gweedo announced in an episode of SlamTV! that Insane Clown Posse had been stripped of the JCW Tag Team Championships due to them not defending the title. At the first annual Bloodymania, JCW's premier wrestling event, Insane Clown Posse teamed with Sabu to defeat Trent Acid and The Young Alter Boys w/ Annie Social the Nun.\nLater that night, Corporal Robinson, Scott Hall, and Violent J formed the Juggalo World Order (JWO). Shaggy 2 Dope, Nosawa, Kevin Nash, 2 Tuff Tony, and Sid Vicious later joined the group. On January 26, 2008, Bruce and Tony won the JCW",
"-22.7476390332522"
],
[
"in her room by a masked man and assumes it was the clown, due to the fact that she saw him outside of her window. The next night, the clown is back at the strip club, only to be kicked in the face by Fay and once again thrown out. Fay leaves in a rage to be picked up by the Devil Girl, and the two partake in sexual activities.\nThe Devil Girl then confronts the local preacher and accuses him of being a pervert by nature, which is later revealed to be true when Fay attempts to retrieve her ring",
"-22.736917154630646"
],
[
"Paste-Pot Pete, rob a bank during Red Ronin's rampage, with Clown executing the bound security guards. Clown is seen with Manslaughter Marsdale killing a large amount of H.A.M.M.E.R troops at an old S.H.I.E.L.D. barbershop base as Zodiac reveals the stolen Zodiac Key to an Agent Murphy.\nClown is revealed to not be Eliot Franklin, but his half-brother. The reason for this deception is unknown.\nBoomerang and Owl hire Clown onto the Sinister Sixteen, assembled to distract the Chameleon's forces while Boomerang steals from him. Unnamed A third Clown appeared as a member of the Circus of Crime at the time of the",
"-22.714795703752316"
],
[
"aware of a \"Jolly Joker\" clown club whose members would regularly perform at fund-raising events and parades in addition to voluntarily entertaining hospitalized children. In late 1975, Gacy joined the Jolly Jokers and created his own performance characters: \"Pogo the Clown\" and \"Patches the Clown.\" Gacy designed his own costumes and taught himself how to apply clown makeup, although some professional clowns noted the sharp corners Gacy painted at the edges of his mouth are contrary to the rounded borders that professional clowns normally employ, so as not to scare children. Gacy is known to have performed as Pogo or",
"-22.667807117060875"
],
[
"the most terrifying clown characters in film and television. In fact, it is \"widely considered the archetype of the [clown horror] genre,\" wrote Jessica Glenza. As The Atlantic summarized the terror of the performance and character, \"He speaks in a kind of singsongy, guttural growl, his teeth are sharp fangs, and the contrast between his comical yellow dungarees and his penchant for ripping off children’s limbs is fairly stark.\" Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins described it as \"the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours",
"-22.665736368857324"
],
[
"Death Racers Production In January 2008, it was announced that Insane Clown Posse and Twiztid had received a treatment for a low-budget horror film titled Road Rage, to be directed by Roy Knyrim of Sota Productions, who had previously directed J and Shaggy in The Chronicles of the Dark Carnival. It was stated that filming would take place over a two-week period in Los Angeles, California during the Spring of that year.\nIn March, a second announcement was made, stating that Insane Clown Posse would star in a film scheduled to begin production in the first week of May. Bruce and",
"-22.65660932521132"
],
[
"Fuck the World (Insane Clown Posse song) Background In 1996, Insane Clown Posse signed a contract with Disney-owned label Hollywood Records, which reportedly paid US$1 million to purchase their contract from Battery/Jive Records. Their album The Great Milenko, which featured guests Alice Cooper (on vocals), Steve Jones (on guitar), and Slash (on guitar), was recorded and released on June 25, 1997. However, just hours after the release, Hollywood Records pulled the album from stores nationwide, cancelled Insane Clown Posse's in-store signings and nationwide tour, pulled commercials for the album and the music video for \"Halls of Illusions\" from television, and dropped",
"-22.61502614683559"
],
[
"Leck mich im Arsch (Insane Clown Posse song) Background In August 2011, Insane Clown Posse was contacted by Jack White, who invited Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler to his mansion, because he wanted to collaborate with them. White played the track he was working on, an arrangement of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's \"Leck mich im Arsch\" with live instrumentation by JEFF the Brotherhood, for Bruce and Utsler and explained that the title of the track translated to \"Lick My Ass\".\nInsane Clown Posse were surprised that White wanted to work with them, and said that they had respect for White, who is",
"-22.599286279901207"
],
[
"shows DM Pranks \"pranking\" a victim dousing the area around his car with what appears to be gasoline. In the same video a clown set up large bottles on a dummy's head that he filled with fake blood and then hit them with a hammer to simulate a murder.\nThe video \"Killer Clown Returns Scare Prank!\" was posted on June 15, 2014 and has over 85 million views. It features a fake clown pranking passers by running after them with an iron hammer or a chainsaw.\nOn September 7, 2014, DM Pranks received the first significant success, with the video \"Killer Clown",
"-22.550261193719052"
],
[
"wearing clown masks. Both of the alleged robbers were armed with weapons, and a gun was fired once during one of the robberies, but no one was injured. The two were arrested for robbery. Arkansas People dressed as clowns were reported in Lowell near the elementary schools. A person dressed as a clown was arrested in Downtown Bentonville, Arkansas on October 5, 2016. California On October 4, people dressed as clowns threatened Fairfield, Sacramento, and Vallejo public school campuses. A clown sighting was reported in Temecula.\nOn October 5, a person dressed as a clown was accused of trying to kidnap",
"-22.530999319278635"
],
[
"Clown Posse to genuinely flip them over and begin throwing punches. Realizing that the match was getting too heated, McMahon ended the feud after that match. Bruce and Utsler were put into other matches along with The Oddities. Vince Russo told Bruce and Utsler to \"make it seem like you don't know anything about wrestling, and you guys keep choking and digging into their eyes\".\nDuring this time, Bruce and Utsler had no contract with WWF. They, however, did have an agreement that the WWF would occasionally play Insane Clown Posse commercials, and in return, Bruce and Utsler would wrestle for",
"-22.509992185339797"
],
[
"powerful animals, rodeo clowns are often injured seriously, and, sometimes, fatally. \nIn some venues, rodeo bullfighters still wear clown make-up and some may also provide traditional clowning entertainment for the crowd between rodeo events, often parodying aspects of cowboy culture. But most modern bullfighters no longer dress as clowns, though they still wear bright, loose-fitting clothing. At larger events in the USA, the job is split, a bullfighter (sometimes two or more) protects the riders from the bull, and a barrelman (sometimes one person, sometimes two) provide comic humor. Some barrelmen provide both comedy and support to bullfighters,",
"-22.49860738258576"
],
[
"(Laredo Kid, Super Fly and Aero Star) in a sub-three minute match which Los Psycho Circus dominated. In August, 2009 it was announced the Zombie Clown's name had been changed to Monster Clown and Killer Clown would be known as \"Murder Clown\" from that point forwards due to copyright problems with the original names. Los Psycho Circus kept their winning streak alive as they defeated La Yakuza (El Oriental, Kenzo Suzuki and Sugi San) in the opening match of the 2009 Verano de Escandalo. In the winter of 2009 Los Psycho Circus began siding with Cibernético in his feud with",
"-22.464903570125898"
],
[
"Brazo Jr., Super Brazo Jr., Robin, and a cousin who works as the second Brazo de Plata Jr. Psycho Clown is engaged and has a daughter. In April 2015, Psycho Clown got engaged to Zaraida Casas, the daughter of Negro Casas.\nOn May 19, 2017 footage emerged of a man believed to be an unmasked Psycho Clown and other members of the Alvarado family, including his brother José (Máximo Sexy) and cousins Felipe (La Máscara) and Robin, as well as his uncle Daniel Alvarado (Brazo de Platino), destroying an expensive car belonging to José Gutiérrez, better known as Último Guerrero.",
"-22.456441228508993"
],
[
"Clown (film) Production In November 2010, Jon Watts and Christopher D. Ford uploaded a fake trailer to YouTube that announced Eli Roth would produce the film; Roth was not involved at the time. Roth spoke about the film, saying: \"I loved how ballsy they were, issuing a trailer that said, 'From the Master of Horror, Eli Roth.' Some people thought I'd made the movie, or that it was another fake Grindhouse trailer... I really felt these guys deserved a shot, and that people are truly freaked out by evil clowns. It's new territory to make this a version of The",
"-22.44118901019101"
],
[
"face\". This natural dislike of clowns makes them effective in a literary or fictional context, as the antagonistic threat perceived in clowns is desirable in a villainous character.\nResearcher Ben Radford, who published Bad Clowns in 2016 and is regarded as an expert on the phenomenon, writes that looking throughout history clowns are seen as tricksters, fools, and more; however, they always are in control, speak their minds, and can get away with doing so. When writing the book Bad Clowns, Radford found that professional clowns are not generally fond of the bad-clown (or evil-clown) persona. They see them as \"the",
"-22.43603055982385"
],
[
"gang was ridiculed by the technology magazine Wired in a November 2011 article, with journalist Spencer Ackerman referring to previous scandals involving FBI harassment of Muslim-Americans.\nOn January 8, 2014, Insane Clown Posse along with the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan filed suit again against the FBI. The suit aims to have Juggalos no longer considered to be a gang and to have any \"criminal intelligence information\" about Juggalos destroyed. Gathering of the Juggalos The Gathering of the Juggalos (The Gathering or GOTJ) is an annual festival put on by Psychopathic Records, featuring performances by the entire label as well",
"-22.433004424376122"
],
[
"asked a judge to dismiss the lawsuit against them.\nIn an interview given in 2013, Shaggy 2 Dope of Insane Clown Posse addressed the Juggalo gang classification and the impending FBI lawsuit. He stated that at first he believed that the classification of Juggalos was \"pretty dope\" because it would afford the band a tougher image, but later changed his mind after realizing the negative repercussions of being labeled a gang, such as gang enhancements for Juggalos who commit crimes. He also expressed concern about innocent Juggalos being targeted in \"Shithole, Nebraska\" by MS-13 members. He argued that while some Juggalos",
"-22.428499283312703"
]
] |
6f733x | Given that polar bears have existed 600,000 years, they must have gone through periods warmer than today (prior to and after the ice age) and somehow survived. But today they are on the endangered species list due to expected climate changes. Are they really in danger? | [
"The issue is not actually the temperatures we are going to be changing to. It is the speed of the change. We have taken a warming process that would have taken up to 100,000 years or more and sped it up. Even if we have only made it 10 times faster some animals that could have adapted in 100,000 will not be able to adapt in 10,000. And odds are that the speed we have increased the change is far far faster so the chances of animals adapting is far lower. But with polar bears there does seem to be one kind of adaptation occurring. They are mating with Grizzly and Brown bear and having hybrids that are fertile.",
"Animal populations can adapt and evolve along with a changing environment if the change happens slow enough. Polar bears may be able to adapt to a temperature change over 100000 years, but not be able to adapt to the same temperature change over 1000 years. Since this recent anthropogenic driven change is happening faster than any natural temperature change, so I would say they are in danger in the wild. I guess we will be able to see them in zoos though.",
"There is wide scientific speculation about polar bears but the most common conclusion is that they have only been around for 150,000 years. If they are 150k then they have survived only one event of warming like we are currently undergoing. If they are 600k then only two events of current magnitude. Before large-scale encroachment & habitat destruction polar bears could migrate if they had to.",
"while your polar bear example is a good one - this is a major problem facing ALOT of wild animals. I don't want to sound like a doomsday soothsayer, but if humans keep breeding uncontrollably - there will come a time in the not too distant future when the only wild animals on earth will be humans and the farm animals and cattle used to feed those humans. It sounds crazy but it's alot closer than you think. For hundreds of thousands of years, there was a natural selection - survival of the fittest where the food chain was a natural process - but humans have banded together to become bigger/smarter/better weaponized to overcome all other predators, and have halted natural selection - to where now - it is humans - and whatever humans want to let live. If the elephants have valuable ivory - humans hunt them until they are nearly extinct or until the only elephants left are close to extinction. Its the same with the millions of fishes in the ocean and the corral reefs that provide their homes. Except instead of hunting/fishing them to extinction, the humans have polluted the earth and caused the earths temperature to rise so much - that the reefs are dying off, as well as the fishies that used to call those reefs home. Humans' un-controlled breeding without limits to the point of massive over-population is a much bigger issue than greenhouse gases, (and is the biggest cause of greenhouse gases) if you had a world full of 1 million people who wanted to run electricity full blast year round - no problem, they could burn coal and drive cars and throw their trash in landfills, or directly in the ocean and the impact would be minimal. but when you are talking 7.5 Billion people and increasing every single day - with longer life expectancy and no end in site - humans will continue to destroy the earth until there's nothing left for wild animals.",
"Over the period of about 1000 years, it is theorized that polar bears will [adapt into brown bears]( URL_0 ). We won't be alive to see if that happens, though."
] | [
[
"2080, they could disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic Archipelago. However, in the short term, some polar bear populations in historically colder regions of the Arctic may temporarily benefit from a milder climate, as multiyear ice that is too thick for seals to create breathing holes is replaced by thinner annual ice.\nPolar bears diverged from brown bears 400,000–600,000 years ago and have survived past periods of climate fluctuation. It has been claimed that polar bears will be able to adapt to terrestrial food sources as the sea ice",
"-34.368829866589294"
],
[
"The body condition of polar bears has declined during this period; the average weight of lone (and likely pregnant) female polar bears was approximately 290 kg (640 lb) in 1980 and 230 kg (510 lb) in 2004. Between 1987 and 2004, the Western Hudson Bay population declined by 22%, although the population was listed as \"stable\" as of 2017. As the climate change melts sea ice, the U.S. Geological Survey projects that two-thirds of polar bears will disappear by 2050.\nIn Alaska, the effects of sea ice shrinkage have contributed to higher mortality rates in polar bear cubs, and have led to changes in the",
"-33.88389945367817"
],
[
"for Conservation of Nature estimated that there are between 22,000 to 31,000 polar bears worldwide.\nAccording to a 2013 study in the journal Nature, global warming is increasingly affecting the planet more than in the past. Model suggestions say that Arctic sea ice is declining at a rate of 13 percent per decade. Scientists believed this climate change is the main reason for the aggressive behavior of the polar bears. Aftermath Polar bears don’t usually hunt humans, usually feeding on sea mammals, but a close encounter with them can result in serious injuries even death for people.\nThe local authorities have taken",
"-33.565656385894385"
],
[
"recorded. Polar bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases that may be caused by mites or other parasites. Life expectancy Polar bears rarely live beyond 25 years. The oldest wild bears on record died at age 32, whereas the oldest captive was a female who died in 1991, age 43. The causes of death in wild adult polar bears are poorly understood, as carcasses are rarely found in the species's frigid habitat. In the wild, old polar bears eventually become too weak to catch food, and gradually starve to death. Polar bears injured in fights or accidents may either",
"-33.41153267938353"
],
[
"more readily in a warmer climate.\nProblematic interactions between polar bears and humans, such as foraging by bears in garbage dumps, have historically been more prevalent in years when ice-floe breakup occurred early and local polar bears were relatively thin. Increased human-bear interactions, including fatal attacks on humans, are likely to increase as the sea ice shrinks and hungry bears try to find food on land.\nThe effects of climate change are most profound in the southern part of the polar bear's range, and this is indeed where significant degradation of local populations has been observed. The Western Hudson Bay subpopulation, in",
"-32.35193000885192"
],
[
"listing polar bears on the endangered-species list, its findings were contradicted by reports from the U.S. Geological Survey and other independent researchers, who concluded that man-made climate change was likely to devastate polar-bear populations by 2050. The paper was also criticized by an expert at the National Snow and Ice Data Center, who wrote that it \"doesn't measure up scientifically.\" A subsequent in depth international independent study, Re-Assessment of the Baffin Bay and Kane Basin Polar Bear Subpopulations: Final Report to the Canada-Greenland Joint Commission on Polar Bear has determined that polar bear populations are not declining overall and are",
"-31.83627353470365"
],
[
"Another concern is the spread of infectious diseases, such as brucellosis or phocine distemper virus, to previously untouched populations. This is a particular danger among marine mammals who were previously segregated by sea ice.\n3 April 2007, the National Wildlife Federation urged the United States Congress to place polar bears under the Endangered Species Act.\nFour months later, the United States Geological Survey completed a year-long study which concluded in part that the floating Arctic sea ice will continue its rapid shrinkage over the next 50 years, consequently wiping out much of the polar bear habitat. The bears would disappear from Alaska,",
"-31.55805705167586"
],
[
"area. Since 1981, the polar bear population has been declining. This is because global warming causes the ice to break up faster so the polar bears are going to the coasts when there are poor conditions. Conservation efforts Whoever owns the land is responsible or managing it. And the owners of the land differ between the Antarctic and Arctic and also within the polar regions. In the Arctic, there are six nations that own the land about 60°N. These nations include: Canada, Russia, Finland, USA, Denmark, Iceland and Norway. There have been international treaties set up so there are no",
"-31.519632456242107"
],
[
"a southern part of the range, also happens to be one of the best-studied polar bear subpopulations. This subpopulation feeds heavily on ringed seals in late spring, when newly weaned and easily hunted seal pups are abundant. The late spring hunting season ends for polar bears when the ice begins to melt and break up, and they fast or eat little during the summer until the sea freezes again.\nDue to warming air temperatures, ice-floe breakup in western Hudson Bay is currently occurring three weeks earlier than it did 30 years ago, reducing the duration of the polar bear feeding season.",
"-31.517248484015"
],
[
"for Conservation of Nature, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, United States Geological Survey and many leading polar bear biologists have expressed grave concerns about the impact of climate change, including the belief that the current warming trend imperils the survival of the polar bear.\nThe key danger posed by climate change is malnutrition or starvation due to habitat loss. Polar bears hunt seals from a platform of sea ice. Rising temperatures cause the sea ice to melt earlier in the year, driving the bears to shore before they have built sufficient fat reserves to survive the period of scarce food in the",
"-31.465048360238143"
],
[
"bears in the region for the last 25 years, and over that time, the animals have declined in number by a quarter. Each year the Arctic ice is also now melting three weeks earlier. The overall rate of glacier melt is accelerating: in southern Greenland, the amount of ice flowing into the sea has doubled in a decade, resulting in a rise of sea levels. This is exacerbated by the increase in temperatures, which causes oceans to expand. When Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans, the sea temperatures of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean were the highest ever",
"-31.37119778734632"
],
[
"occupy during this time, this includes the area with which they need to inhabit. However, fossils in this area did show a concentration of marine mammals, especially ringed seals, which are a common staple to polar bears diet. 2012 An international study led by Penn State University and the University of Buffalo has estimated that polar bears split from brown bears between 4 million and 5 million years ago. This would have been due to climate changes, which included ice ages. Hybrids have also been documented within the Northern Beaufort Sea of Arctic Canada. This is an area where the",
"-31.210384835663717"
],
[
"known for traveling in the region to den and give birth. Nearly 50 of these species migrate along the coast to the refuge in September. These bears extend more than 800 miles along the coast of Northern Alaska and Canada. Due to changes in climate, Polar bears are recorded to now spend more time on land waiting on new sea ice to form, as they depend on sea ice for much of their hunting. This limits their ability to hunt seals to build up fat for hibernation. Much controversial, the polar bears are widely affected by the climate change happening",
"-31.146921392617514"
],
[
"It is estimated that polar bears and brown bears began to interbreed again about 160,000 years ago. The study shows that previous estimates of polar bears only existing 600,000 years ago was wrong, and that they have in fact been around much longer – four to five million years ago. This research analysis in particular discovered more genetic similarities between the polar bears and ABC Islands brown bears. This indicates that the study of the ABC Islands bears is also important to understanding the evolution of the polar bear. 2011 A study on matrilineal polar bear hybridization in relationship to",
"-31.046926262788475"
],
[
"range of polar bears overlaps with the range of brown bears. Data was collected using the entire genome of three brown bears and one black bear in comparison to one modern polar bear and one polar bear remains estimated at 120,000 years old. Data shows that the brown bears and polar bears were isolated at the same time in which black bears became their own species. Brown bears and polar bears continued to remain isolated for a long period of time, theorized due to the presence of ice, before recent changes allowed polar bears and brown bears to interbreed again.",
"-30.84324138466036"
],
[
"2019 mass invasion of Russian polar bears Climate change effects Russia's World Wildlife Fund said \"Today, polar bears are entering human areas more frequently than in the past and climate change is the reason. Global warming is reducing sea-ice and this phenomenon forces polar bears to come to land in order to find new sources of food\". Liz Greengrass, a director at the UK animal conservation charity Born Free Foundation told to CNN that seals are the most popular food for polar bears, but global warming is shrinking their environment, so polar bears must change their food regime.\nThe International Union",
"-30.772352657746524"
],
[
"they use to hunt seals disappears. However, most polar bear biologists think that polar bears will be unable to completely offset the loss of calorie-rich seal blubber with terrestrial foods, and that they will be outcompeted by brown bears in this terrestrial niche, ultimately leading to a population decline. Controversy over species protection Warnings about the future of the polar bear are often contrasted with the fact that worldwide population estimates have increased over the past 50 years and are relatively stable today. Some estimates of the global population are around 5,000 to 10,000 in the early 1970s; other estimates",
"-30.760408782811282"
],
[
"bears found inland. Additionally, genetic tests have shown them to be more closely related to present-day polar bears than mainland bears. This evidence suggests that they may have inhabited the Archipelago for at least 40,000 years, with habitable refugia existent throughout this time.\nAnother species that might have made use of refugia during this time is the Chum salmon. It appears that the different groups of salmon that spawn on the Prince of Wales Island are more similar to one another than they are to salmon elsewhere in SE Alaska. This has been interpreted as meaning that Prince of Wales Island",
"-30.630194240016863"
],
[
"denning locations of pregnant females. In recent years, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, possibly resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005.\nA new development is that polar bears have begun ranging to new territory. While not unheard of but still uncommon, polar bears have been sighted increasingly in larger numbers ashore, staying on the mainland for longer periods of time during the summer months, particularly in North Canada, traveling farther inland. This may cause an increased reliance on terrestrial diets, such as goose eggs, waterfowl",
"-30.583933285466628"
],
[
"silty areas.\nMany marine mammals seasonally migrate. Annual ice contains areas of water that appear and disappear throughout the year as the weather changes, and seals migrate in response to these changes. In turn, polar bears must follow their prey. In Hudson Bay, James Bay, and some other areas, the ice melts completely each summer (an event often referred to as \"ice-floe breakup\"), forcing polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze-up. In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year-round. Seals may",
"-30.542418201628607"
],
[
"into and through the ice. Arctic sea ice Recent projections of sea ice loss suggest that the Arctic ocean will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078.\nModels showing decreasing sea ice also show a corresponding decrease in polar bear habitat. Some scientists see the polar bear as a species which will be affected first and most severely by global warming because it is a top-level predator in the Arctic, which is projected to warm more than the global average. Recent reports show polar bears resorting to cannibalism, and scientists state that these are the only",
"-30.382014438713668"
],
[
"infants, can also be disturbed by nearby oil exploration and development. Disturbance of these sensitive sites may trigger the mother to abandon her den prematurely, or abandon her litter altogether. Predictions Steven Amstrup and other U.S. Geological Survey scientists have predicted two-thirds of the world's polar bears may disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by climate change, though the validity of this study has been debated. The bears could disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By",
"-30.091162108117715"
],
[
"unclear, with estimations based on genetics and fossils ranging from 400,000 to 70,000 years ago, but most recent analysis has indicated that the polar bear split somewhere between 250,000 and 130,000 years ago. Under some definitions, the brown bear can be construed as the paraspecies for the polar bear.\nDNA analysis shows that, apart from recent human-caused population fragmentation, brown bears in North America are generally part of a single interconnected population system, with the exception of the population (or subspecies) in the Kodiak Archipelago, which has probably been isolated since the end of the last Ice Age. These data demonstrate",
"-30.07330831408035"
],
[
"larger due to the colder climate.\nCO₂ continued to fall and the climate continued to get colder. At 28.1 million years ago, the Gamburtsev and Transantarctic ice caps merged into a main central ice cap. At this point, ice was now covering a majority of the continent.\n28 million years ago was the time period in which the largest land mammal existed, the Paraceratherium.\nThe Dronning Maud ice cap merged with the main ice cap 27.9 million years ago. This was the formation of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.\n25 million years ago brought about the first deer. It also was the time period",
"-30.041592706053052"
],
[
"bears, two brown bears, and one black bear to gather ancestral alleles. Based on research using various simulation scenarios, the team concluded that the ABC Islands bears descended from polar bears that gradually converted into brown bears through hybridization of male brown bears dispersing from the Alaskan mainland. It is believed that the present polar bear DNA stems from a group of polar bears that were stranded in Southeast Alaska at the end of the last ice age, and the bears were stranded due to receding ice. This would happen with male brown bears swimming over to the islands and",
"-29.988660312257707"
],
[
"not available for polar bears and for some aquatic life. Biodiversity extinction Due to increase in ecological crisis, vast numbers of species are being annihilated. Every year between 17,000 and 100,000 species vanish from the planet. The speed in which species are becoming extinct is much faster than in the past. The previous mass extinction was caused by a meteor collision 66 million years ago.\nThe loss of new species in an ecosystem will eventually affect all living creatures. In the U.S. and Canada, there was a dramatic reduction of shark population along the U.S. east coast. Since then, there",
"-29.939894135168288"
],
[
"1999, November 2002, and April 2008. Polar bears continue to be listed as a species of special concern in Canada because of their sensitivity to overharvest and because of an expected range contraction caused by loss of Arctic sea ice.\nMore than 600 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate calculated by scientists to be unsustainable for some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed sport hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. The guiding of sport hunters provides meaningful employment and an important source",
"-29.93661641777726"
],
[
"expensive and not effective. Polar bears In December 2007, Palin wrote an opinion column in which she described her opposition to the listing of polar bears as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. In it she also stated that the polar bear population is more numerous now than 40 years ago and \"there is insufficient evidence of polar bears becoming extinct in the foreseeable future\". After Dirk Kempthorne, the Republican Secretary of the United States Department of the Interior listed the bear as threatened on May 14, 2008, Palin (representing the state of Alaska) sued the federal government,",
"-29.830524873919785"
],
[
"a further 52% decline in their range between 1920 and 1970. Grizzly bears managed to survive this last period of hunting only in remote wilderness areas larger than 26,000 km² (10,000 mi2). Overall, grizzly bears were eliminated from 98% of their original range in the contiguous United States during a 100-year period.\nPrior to Anglo-American colonization in 1820, black bears were widely distributed throughout all major eco-regions in Texas. The supply of both meat and fat lasted about a century after the first Anglo-American settlers arrived. However, after their value for grease and food had decreased, black bears continued to be pursued",
"-29.82154489122331"
],
[
"of the tusks of mastodons from the American Great Lakes region appears inconsistent with the climate change hypothesis. Over a span of several thousand years prior to their extinction in the area, the mastodons show a trend of declining age at maturation. This is the opposite of what one would expect if they were experiencing stresses from deteriorating environmental conditions, but is consistent with a reduction in intraspecific competition that would result from a population being reduced by human hunting. Increased temperature The most obvious change associated with the termination of an ice age is the increase in temperature. Between",
"-29.764002875890583"
],
[
"an average of approximately 1 per year during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.\nAccording to bear biologist Charles Jonkel, one reason for bear attacks is the lack of important foods such as huckleberry, buffalo berry, and white-bark pine nut. Winter freezes may be one reason for the food shortages. Polar bears Polar bear attacks on humans are extremely rare, and according to records by James Wilder, out of 73 fatal bear attacks between 1870 and 2014, only 20 have been the result of polar bears. Polar bear attacks can also happen in captivity. Sloth bears In some areas of India and",
"-29.72803907142952"
],
[
"highly disparate from those that continue today between brown bears and the Siberian tiger. Unlike most of these species, the brown bear was able to survive the Quaternary extinction event that concluded the Ice Age. Presumably, this was due to its greater dietary and habitat plasticity and its adoption of a more extensively herbivorous diet, as most temperate zone herbivores that may have provided meals for more specialized large land carnivores went extinct, as the warming climate killed off their food source.\nIt is likely that humans have caused the extinction and fragmentation of bear populations and their habitats since prehistoric",
"-29.714566324662883"
],
[
"Mammal Protection Act of 1972 afforded polar bears some protection in the United States. It banned hunting (except by indigenous subsistence hunters), banned importing of polar bear parts (except polar bear pelts taken legally in Canada), and banned the harassment of polar bears. On 15 May 2008, the United States Department of the Interior listed the polar bear as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act, citing the melting of Arctic sea ice as the primary threat to the polar bear. It banned all importing of polar bear trophies. Importing products made from polar bears had been prohibited from",
"-29.69902997207828"
],
[
"China, and date back about 500,000 years. It is known from mtDNA studies that during the Pleistocene ice age it was too cold for the brown bear to survive in Europe except in three places: Russia, Spain, and the Balkans.\nModern research has made it possible to track the origin of the subspecies. The species to which it belongs developed more than 500,000 years ago, and researchers have found that the Eurasian brown bear separated about 850,000 years ago, with one branch based in Western Europe and the other branch in Western Europe, Russia, Eastern Europe and Asia. Through research of",
"-29.571896931156516"
],
[
"bears from the sub-Arctic zone, from the Brooks Range to the Mackenzie Mountains, presumably because food becomes much sparser in such regions, although perhaps the most northerly recorded grizzly bears ever, in the Northwest Territories, was a large and healthy male weighing 320 kg (710 lb), more than twice as much as an average male weighs near the Arctic Circle. Data from Eurasia similarly indicates a diminished body mass in sub-Arctic brown bears, based on the weights of bears from northern Finland and Yakutia.\nHead-and-body length in grizzly bears averages from 1.8 to 2.13 m (5 ft 11 in to 7 ft 0 in) while in Eurasian brown",
"-29.47006072406657"
],
[
"Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears The Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears is a multilateral treaty signed in Oslo, November 15, 1973, by the five nations with the largest polar bear populations: Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), the United States, and the Soviet Union. This treaty was brought about due to increased hunting of polar bears during the 1960s and 1970s which led to polar bears being under severe survival pressure from hunters.\nThe agreement prohibits random, unregulated sport hunting of polar bears and outlaws hunting of polar bears from aircraft and icebreakers which have been the most",
"-29.39646396454191"
],
[
"rapidly diminishing, and the latest forecasts predict that the polar bear may be almost extinct in the wild 40 years from now.\nSiku's mother, Ilka, had no milk in her breasts for the third year running, and so the park decided to \"immobilize\" her. According to park manager Frank Vigh-Larsen, Siku weighed three pounds (1.8 kg) at birth, but grew within his first month to seven pounds' (3.2 kg) weight. Receiving insufficient milk from Ilka, Siku was revealed on surveillance video inside the bear cave to be \"moaning and being unruly all the time.\" At two days old, he",
"-29.39315331657417"
],
[
"clam bed they might revisit in another five years.\nThe two animals then take similar paths. They have to travel because shorter winters mean ice that freezes later and melts sooner, making it harder to survive and eat as the water of Arctic Ocean expands. Male polar bears pose a threat to both of the main creatures, as the cubs have to navigate around him and the walruses try to get away from being prey. After Nanu's brother dies, Nanu has to leave her mother earlier than is customary because of the changing climate conditions, but she still has trouble finding",
"-29.38097916415427"
],
[
"and \"there is insufficient evidence of polar bears becoming extinct in the foreseeable future.\" Alaskan state biologists and environmental groups disagreed with Palin's position. After Dirk Kempthorne, the Republican Secretary of the United States Department of the Interior listed the bear as threatened on May 14, 2008, Palin sued the federal government, claiming that the listing would adversely affect energy development in the bears' habitat off Alaska's northern and northwestern coasts, while again questioning the scientific basis for the listing.\nPalin claimed the scientists found no ill effects of global warming on the polar bear. Rick Steiner, a University",
"-29.37013228010619"
],
[
"mainland Australia, but long periods of cold and very dry weather. This dry weather during the last ice age may have killed off all the large diprotodonts.\nCritics point out a number of problems with this theory. First, large diprotodonts had already survived a long series of similar ice ages, and no particular reason is apparent that the most recent one should have achieved what all the previous ice ages had failed to do. Also, climate change apparently peaked 25,000 years after the extinctions. Finally, even during climatic extremes, some parts of the continent always remain relatively exempt; for example, the",
"-29.333873210824095"
],
[
"and the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Conservation status, threats, and controversies Polar bear population sizes and trends are difficult to estimate accurately because they occupy remote home ranges and exist at low population densities. Polar bear fieldwork can also be hazardous to researchers. As of 2015, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports that the global population of polar bears is 22,000 to 31,000, and the current population trend is unknown. Nevertheless, polar bears are listed as \"Vulnerable\" under criterion A3c, which indicates an expected population decrease of ≥30% over the next three generations (~34.5 years) due to",
"-29.321901597693795"
],
[
"a \"threatened\" species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. The FWS is concerned that climate change is or will place polar bears at risk of extinction. SCI/SCIF argued that the science cited by the FWS was speculative and incomplete at the time. Relatively healthy populations of polar bears exist in the areas where hunting is allowed and it said that sport hunting of these populations would provide funding for habitat and study as well as income for native populations. SCI stated, \"[...] [T]he U.S. decision to list will merely change the identity of those who hunt the animals from U.S.",
"-29.248203464288963"
],
[
"declared off limits. The killing of females and cubs was made illegal in 1965. Killing of polar bears decreased somewhat 25–30 years before the treaty. Despite this, the polar bear population continued to decline and by 1973, only around 1000 bears were left in Svalbard. Only with the passage of the treaty did they begin to recover. Russia The Soviet Union banned the harvest of polar bears in 1956; however, poaching continued and is estimated to pose a serious threat to the polar bear population. In recent years, polar bears have approached coastal villages in Chukotka more frequently due to",
"-29.169026354546077"
],
[
"They survived longer in this area, however, than in other parts of the eastern United States. Because of the high altitude the climate is cool and some animals are more similar to ones found about 1,600 miles (2,600 km) farther north in Canada. Many species found here are near their southernmost range. For example, the snowshoe hare found in Dolly Sods is usually found in Canada and Alaska and is adapted to snow conditions, with its large, hairy feet which allow it to run on the snow surface.\nBeaver — which were restored to the state after a period of extirpation —",
"-29.104209038661793"
],
[
"extent about 18,000 years ago and ending by about 10,000 years ago. During these ice ages, large areas of northern North America and Eurasia were covered by ice sheets similar to the one found today on Greenland; Arctic climate conditions would have extended much further south, and conditions in the present-day Arctic region were likely colder. Temperature proxies suggest that over the last 8000 years the climate has been stable, with globally averaged temperature variations of less than about 1 °C (34 °F); (see Paleoclimate). Global warming There are several reasons to expect that climate changes, from whatever cause, may be enhanced",
"-29.09400454866409"
],
[
"decline some 25,000 years before the species' extinction. Conflicts between bears and humans Brown bears usually avoid areas where extensive development or urbanization has occurred, unlike the smaller, more inoffensive American black bear which can adapt to peri-urban regions. Under many circumstances, extensive human development may cause brown bears to alter their home ranges. High road densities (both paved and gravel roads) are often associated with higher mortality, habitat avoidance and lower bear density. However, brown bears can easily lose their natural cautiousness upon being attracted to human-created food sources, such as garbage dumps, litter bins and dumpsters. Brown bears",
"-29.057559034670703"
],
[
"40 different species (gorillas, cheetahs, tigers, orangutans, snow leopards, and others) into the US for \"scientific research and incentive for propagation and survival of the species.\" Because the animals were to be hunted, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service denied the request. Polar bear imports In 1994, SCI successfully lobbied for a change in the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 to allow for the importation of previously banned sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the United States from Canada. In 2007, SCI testified at a U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service hearing opposing the proposed listing of polar bears as",
"-29.049599942518398"
],
[
"late summer and early fall. Reduction in sea-ice cover also forces bears to swim longer distances, which further depletes their energy stores and occasionally leads to drowning. Thinner sea ice tends to deform more easily, which appears to make it more difficult for polar bears to access seals. Insufficient nourishment leads to lower reproductive rates in adult females and lower survival rates in cubs and juvenile bears, in addition to poorer body condition in bears of all ages.\nIn addition to creating nutritional stress, a warming climate is expected to affect various other aspects of polar bear life: Changes in sea",
"-28.99863784108311"
],
[
"15,000 BP and 10,000 BP, a 6 °C increase in global mean annual temperatures occurred. This was generally thought to be the cause of the extinctions.\nAccording to this hypothesis, a temperature increase sufficient to melt the Wisconsin ice sheet could have placed enough thermal stress on cold-adapted mammals to cause them to die. Their heavy fur, which helps conserve body heat in the glacial cold, might have prevented the dumping of excess heat, causing the mammals to die of heat exhaustion. Large mammals, with their reduced surface area-to-volume ratio, would have fared worse than small mammals.\nA study covering the past 56,000",
"-28.972628255577547"
],
[
"groups and Canada's Inuit at opposing positions; the Nunavut government and many northern residents have condemned the U.S. initiative to list the polar bear under the Endangered Species Act. Many Inuit believe the polar bear population is increasing, and restrictions on commercial sport-hunting are likely to lead to a loss of income to their communities. Indigenous folklore For the indigenous peoples of the Arctic, polar bears have long played an important cultural and material role. Polar bear remains have been found at hunting sites dating to 2,500 to 3,000 years ago and 1,500-year-old cave paintings of polar bears have been",
"-28.961574854445644"
],
[
"\"decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat\". Risks to the polar bear include climate change, pollution in the form of toxic contaminants, conflicts with shipping, oil and gas exploration and development, and human-bear interactions including harvesting and possible stresses from recreational polar-bear watching.\nAccording to the World Wildlife Fund, the polar bear is important as an indicator of Arctic ecosystem health. Polar bears are studied to gain understanding of what is happening throughout the Arctic, because at-risk polar bears are often a sign of something wrong with the Arctic marine ecosystem. Climate change The International Union",
"-28.952775788930012"
],
[
"is thought to have split from other carnivorans about 38 million years ago. The subfamily Ursinae originated approximately 4.2 million years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130,000 to 110,000-year-old jaw bone, found on Prince Charles Foreland in 2004. Fossils show that between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago, the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear. Polar bears are thought to have diverged from a population of brown bears that became isolated during a period of glaciation in the Pleistocene from the eastern part of Siberia (from Kamchatka and the Kolym Peninsula).\nThe",
"-28.934183657052927"
],
[
"be the indirect result of the wide-scale extermination of large baleen whales in the Antarctic due to commercial whaling in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the subsequent increase in krill densities. Genetic evidence suggests that Weddell and crabeater seal populations may have increased in size during the Pleistocene. None of the four species is currently thought to be declining in numbers.",
"-28.88712692577974"
],
[
"Although many prior adverse practises are now banned, the issues surrounding past exploitation of animal resources in the Svalbard area remain a problem. With whale, seal and walrus populations are still far below than they were even two centuries ago (the average age of a Greenland whale). The population of polar bears are locally recovering from the major culls of the 1960s and 1970s that came about due to the availability of snow scooters; however, the polar bear remains threatened at a global level, due to unsustainable levels of killing by humans and marine water pollution. There are a wide",
"-28.86958610912552"
],
[
"habitat of the brown bear is increasing. The warming of that region has allowed the species to move farther north into what was once exclusively the domain of the polar bear (potentially another offshoot of a radiation of coastal brown bears). In non-Arctic areas, habitat loss is blamed as the leading cause of endangerment, followed by hunting. Conservation status While the brown bear's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions, it remains listed as a Least concern species by the IUCN, with a total population of approximately 200,000. As of 2012, this and the American black bear are",
"-28.843435113318264"
],
[
"populations which can have negative long-term effects. This isolation poses one of the greatest threats to the future survival of the grizzly bear in the contiguous United States. Although there is no record of their existence in the United States east of the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains regions (except for a relic population in the Ungava Peninsula which survived until the dawn of the 20th century) in human history, fossil records from Kentucky do in fact show that grizzly bears once roamed in eastern North America. Mexico Although many people believe some brown bears may be present in Mexico,",
"-28.779265567776747"
],
[
"polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze-up. In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year-round. Physical characteristics The only other bear similar in size to the polar bear is the Kodiak bear, which is a subspecies of brown bear. Adult male polar bears weigh 350–700 kg (772–1,543 lb) and measure 2.4–3 metres (7 ft 10 in–9 ft 10 in) in total length. Around the Beaufort Sea, however, mature males reportedly average 450 kg (992 lb). Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150–250 kg",
"-28.754645671593607"
],
[
"last ice age (approx. 18,000 years ago), the species migrated north in order to maintain its large populations. The organism's overwintering strategy gives it the ability to survive during long periods of food shortage, typical of temperate and high latitudes. During this six-month period of hibernation, many of these organisms will sink to depths from 500-2,500m in the ocean. They tend to remain at rest until the following spring when they awake and return to the surface waters. Many scientists believe that C. finmarchicus use this strategy as a survival method by reducing physiological costs and predation risk. This ability",
"-28.731123770121485"
],
[
"more, are a more formidable quarry. Although ungulates are not typical prey, the killing of one during the summer months can greatly increase the odds of survival during that lean period. Like the brown bear, most ungulate prey of polar bears is likely to be young, sickly or injured specimens rather than healthy adults. The polar bear's metabolism is specialized to require large amounts of fat from marine mammals, and it cannot derive sufficient caloric intake from terrestrial food.\nIn their southern range, especially near Hudson Bay and James Bay, Canadian polar bears endure all summer without sea ice to hunt",
"-28.686151589237852"
],
[
"is fierce, many do not breed until the age of eight or ten. A study in Hudson Bay indicated that both the reproductive success and the maternal weight of females peaked in their mid-teens.\nPolar bears appear to be less affected by infectious diseases and parasites than most terrestrial mammals. Polar bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism, although infections are usually not fatal. Only one case of a polar bear with rabies has been documented, even though polar bears frequently interact with Arctic foxes, which often carry rabies. Bacterial leptospirosis and Morbillivirus have been",
"-28.653619644697756"
],
[
"of previous interglacials, yet some of the same large mammals survived similar temperature increases. Therefore, warmer temperatures alone may not be a sufficient explanation.\nIn addition, numerous species such as mammoths on Wrangel Island and St. Paul Island survived in human-free refugia despite changes in climate. This would not be expected if climate change were responsible (unless their maritime climates offered some protection against climate change not afforded to coastal populations on the mainland). Under normal ecological assumptions island populations should be more vulnerable to extinction due to climate change because of small populations and an inability to migrate to more",
"-28.52758342825109"
],
[
"changed currents are expected to affect marine mammals by altering the distribution of important prey species, and changing the suitability of breeding sites and migratory routes. The Arctic food chain would be disrupted by the near extinction or migration of polar bears. Arctic sea ice is the polar bear's habitat. It has been declining at a rate of 13% per decade because the temperature is rising at twice the rate of the rest of the world. By the year 2050, up to two-thirds of the world's polar bears may vanish if the sea ice continues to melt at its current",
"-28.517753157182597"
],
[
"Hirnantian faunal stage that ended the long, stable greenhouse conditions typical of the Ordovician. The ice age was probably not as long-lasting as once thought; study of oxygen isotopes in fossil brachiopods shows that it was probably no longer than 0.5 to 1.5 million years. The event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000ppm to 4400ppm) which selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. As the southern supercontinent Gondwana drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it. Evidence of these ice caps have been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of",
"-28.48734221747145"
],
[
"were 20,000 to 40,000 during the 1980s. Current estimates put the global population at between 20,000 and 25,000 or 22,000 and 31,000.\nThere are several reasons for the apparent discordance between past and projected population trends: estimates from the 1950s and 1960s were based on stories from explorers and hunters rather than on scientific surveys. Second, controls of harvesting were introduced that allowed this previously overhunted species to recover. Third, the recent effects of climate change have affected sea ice abundance in different areas to varying degrees.\nDebate over the listing of the polar bear under endangered species legislation has put conservation",
"-28.482427899492905"
],
[
"Ecological crisis Crises caused by abiotic factors Climate change is starting to have major impacts on ecosystems. With global temperature rising, there is a decrease in snow-fall, and sea levels are rising. Ecosystems will change or evolve to cope with the increase in temperature. Consequently, many species are being driven out of their habitats.\nPolar bears are being threatened. They need ice for hunting seals, their primary prey. However, the ice caps are melting, making their hunting periods shorter each year. As a result, the polar bears are not developing enough fat for the winter; therefore, they are not able",
"-28.46560890204273"
],
[
"the species is sometimes found around sub-Arctic ice fields. This is indicated by brown bears in the Chukotka Peninsula on the Asian side of the Bering Strait, which are the only Asian brown bears to live year-round in lowland tundra like their North American cousins. Genetics relay that two separate radiations led to today's North American brown bears, one a coastal form that led to the Kodiak bear (from U. a. beringianus or a common ancestor) and one an interior form that led to the grizzly bear (from U. a. lasiotus or a common ancestor). In Arctic areas, the potential",
"-28.366918154410087"
],
[
"and increasing trade, dramatically increased the harvest of polar bears. However, since polar bear fur has always played a marginal commercial role, data on the historical harvest is fragmentary. It is known, for example, that already in the winter of 1784/1785 Russian Pomors on Spitsbergen harvested 150 polar bears in Magdalenefjorden. In the early 20th century, Norwegian hunters were harvesting 300 bears per year at the same location. Estimates of total historical harvest suggest that from the beginning of the 18th century, roughly 400 to 500 animals were being harvested annually in northern Eurasia, reaching a peak of 1,300 to",
"-28.346460110507905"
],
[
"between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and ice floes north, reinforcing the cooling. The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago.\nThe northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart. In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with",
"-28.32543541160703"
],
[
"the world's oceans.\nDuring this ice-house period (as scientists sometimes call periods of global cold weather and glaciation), surviving species began to adapt. Cold environment species replaced the warm environment species that had thrived during the previous hot period (hot-house to scientists).\nJust as the species were adapting, however, the climate changed again. During the latter part of the Hirnantian, temperatures rose, the glaciers melted, and sea level rose to the same or perhaps an even higher level than before the glaciation. The exposed shelves were flooded, resulting in additional extinctions among the fauna that had survived the first extinction event. Dating",
"-28.32256017839063"
],
[
"shortly after. Brown bear remains from the Pleistocene period are common in the British Isles, where it is thought they might have outcompeted cave bears (Ursus spelaeus). The species entered Alaska 100,000 years ago, though they did not move south until 13,000 years ago. It is speculated that brown bears were unable to migrate south until the extinction of the much larger giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus).\nSeveral paleontologists suggest the possibility of two separate brown bear migrations: inland brown bears, also known as grizzlies, are thought to stem from narrow-skulled bears which migrated from northern Siberia to central Alaska and",
"-28.230712342832703"
],
[
"to today's −9 °C, and the rest of the globe underwent a similar change. For perhaps the first time in its history, the planet had ice caps at both of its poles. A geologically rapid decrease in temperature between 49 and 47 million years ago, around the Azolla event, is evident: dropstones — which are taken as evidence for the presence of glaciers — are common in Arctic sediments thereafter. This is set against a backdrop of gradual, long-term cooling: it is not until 15 million years ago that evidence for widespread northern polar freezing is common. Alternative explanations While a verdant",
"-28.144799776782747"
],
[
"suggests that such events may have been more frequent in the United States during the late 1800s and early 1900s.\" A 2009 MIT study found that such events are increasing and may be caused by the rapid loss of the Arctic ice pack.\nSSW events of similar magnitude occurred in 1985 in North America, and in 2009 and 2010 in Europe. Canada As of February 27, Winnipeg was experiencing the second-coldest winter in 75 years, the coldest in 35 years and with snowfall total being 50 per cent more than normal. Saskatoon was experiencing the coldest winter in 18 years;",
"-28.13342297053896"
],
[
"200,000 seals in or adjacent to Alaska, are not in danger of becoming extinct, nor are they likely to become so in the \"foreseeable future\", even though global warming has caused a loss in arctic ice mass. The announcement stated: \"We do not predict the expected fluctuations in sea ice will affect them enough to warrant listing at this time.\"\n\nIn South Korea, spotted seals have been designated Natural Monument No. 331 and second-class endangered species. This is because the seals from South Korea travel to Dalian, China to breed every year where several thousands are harvested for their genitals and",
"-28.122583838237915"
],
[
"polar bears present in the Arctic and Sub Arctic. Although this predator factor is involved with more recent research, it does not necessarily mean this will be the outcome, considering the uncertainty in such projections. Overall, ringed seals populations will fluctuate regardless of each potential outcome and climate change is certain to affect not only the ringed seal but all Arctic and Sub Arctic animal populations.",
"-28.05580687755719"
],
[
"while males in captivity have been verified to live up to 47 years, with one captive male possibly attaining 50 years of age.\nWhile male bears potentially live longer in captivity, female grizzly bears have a greater annual survival rate than males within wild populations per a study done in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Annual mortality for bears of any age is estimated at around 10% in most protected areas; however, the average annual mortality rate rises to an estimated 38% in hunted populations. Around 13% to 44% of cubs die within their first year even in well-protected areas. Mortality rates",
"-27.978164796164492"
],
[
"bear seem to be most vulnerable to predatory attacks by brown bears when the latter species leaves hibernation sooner in early spring and ambushes the smaller ursids in their dens.\nThere has been a recent increase in interactions between brown bears and polar bears (Ursus maritimus), theorized to be caused by climate change. Brown bears have been seen moving increasingly northward into territories formerly claimed by polar bears. Despite averaging somewhat smaller sizes, brown bears tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses, and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens.\nLarge herbivores, such as moose, bison",
"-27.970710380817764"
],
[
"has a slightly positive trend over the last three decades (1979–2009). Historical cases Over the past several decades, Earth's polar ice caps have gained significant attention because of the alarming decrease in land and sea ice. NASA reports that since the late 1970s, the Arctic has lost an average of 20,800 square miles (53,900 square kilometers) of sea ice per year while the Antarctic has gained an average of 7,300 square miles (18,900 km²) of sea ice per year. At the same time, the Arctic has been losing around 50 cubic kilometers (gigatons) of land ice per year, almost entirely from",
"-27.964113592694048"
],
[
"years, the conservation of polar bears was the only subject in the entire Arctic that nations from both sides of the Iron Curtain could agree upon sufficiently to sign an agreement. Such was the intensity of human fascination with this magnificent predator, the only marine bear.\"\nAgreements have been made between countries to co-manage their shared polar bear subpopulations. After several years of negotiations, Russia and the United States signed an agreement in October 2000 to jointly set quotas for indigenous subsistence hunting in Alaska and Chukotka. The treaty was ratified in October 2007. In September 2015, the polar bear range",
"-27.925363674323307"
],
[
"1973, the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears was signed by all five nations whose territory is inhabited by polar bears: Canada, Denmark, Norway, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers, and conduct further research. The treaty allows hunting \"by local people using traditional methods\". Norway is the only country of the five in which all harvest of polar bears is banned. The agreement was a rare case of international cooperation during the Cold War. Biologist Ian Stirling commented, \"For many",
"-27.868991046882"
],
[
"the case of hybridization). Genomics studies of brown bears and polar bears have revealed that gene flow from polar bears into brown bears — but not the other way around — was widespread in time and space during the Pleistocene. Of particular note, the bears living on the islands of the Alexander Archipelago of southeast Alaska trace their maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA entirely to polar bears, but over 90% of their nuclear genome to brown bears. This appears to reflect a process in which a population of polar bears was left behind as the species retreated northwards at the end",
"-27.85923946031835"
],
[
"of the global population.\nThe range includes the territory of five nations: Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), Russia, the United States (Alaska) and Canada. These five nations are the signatories of the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, which mandates cooperation on research and conservation efforts throughout the polar bear's range. Bears sometimes swim to Iceland from Greenland—about 600 sightings since the country's settlement in the 9th century AD, and five in the 21st century as of 2016—and are always killed because of their danger, and the cost and difficulty of repatriation.\nModern methods of tracking polar bear populations have been",
"-27.85220053268131"
],
[
"sources of food. Beginning in December 2018 and coming to an apex in February 2019, a mass invasion of polar bears into the archipelago of Novaya Zemlya caused local authorities to declare a state of emergency. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes and public buildings and inhabited areas. Clathrate breakdown Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilize methane deposits on and near the shoreline, preventing the clathrate breaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into",
"-27.849034840437525"
],
[
"Tremarctos floridanus Environment T. floridanus was widely distributed south of the continental ice sheet, along the Gulf Coast through Florida, north to Tennessee, and across the southern United States to California.\nArctodus (3 million–11,000 years ago) was a contemporary and shared its habitat with T. floridanus. The closest living relative of the Florida cave bear is the spectacled bear of South America; they are classified together with the huge short-faced bears in the subfamily Tremarctinae. They became extinct at the end of the last ice age, 10,000 years ago (possibly as late as 8,000 years ago at Devil's Den in Florida),",
"-27.84439824090805"
],
[
"and Virginia, while distant relatives Bootherium and Euceratherium lived in the forests of the Southern United States and the western shrubland, respectively. Though they were always less common than other Ice Age megafauna, muskox abundance peaked during the Würm II glaciation 20,000 years ago and declined afterwards, especially during the Pleistocene/Holocene extinction event, where its range was greatly reduced and only the populations in North America survived. The last known muskox population in Europe died out in Sweden 9,000 years ago, and the last one in Asia, which lived on Siberia's Taymyr Peninsula, about 2,000 years ago.\nAfter the disappearance of",
"-27.83886169924517"
],
[
"to estimate a global population of polar bears as much of the range has been poorly studied; however, biologists use a working estimate of about 20–25,000 or 22–31,000 polar bears worldwide.\nThere are 19 generally recognized, discrete subpopulations, though polar bears are thought to exist only in low densities in the area of the Arctic Basin. The subpopulations display seasonal fidelity to particular areas, but DNA studies show that they are not reproductively isolated. The 13 North American subpopulations range from the Beaufort Sea south to Hudson Bay and east to Baffin Bay in western Greenland and account for about 54%",
"-27.834862246643752"
],
[
"temperatures caused by the high amounts of carbon dioxide and possibly methane greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This caused a lack of permanent ice coverage in the polar regions, though the carbon dioxide level dropped between 115 and 66 million years ago (mya), possibly allowing some permanent ice cover. It is possible that, throughout the Cretaceous, several small ice sheets developed. Increased tectonic activity, causing more geothermal heat, may have prevented glaciation and increased global temperatures. Temperatures may have been up to 15 °C (27 °F) warmer than they are in the modern age. Jurassic The landscape of the Middle Jurassic polar",
"-27.833877948112786"
],
[
"bears, reducing their numbers drastically. Because of this and the carrying capacity reduction due to habitat destruction has resulted in the recognition that the Japanese black bear is at a high risk of extinction. The species will likely be gone within the next 100 years at the rate they are currently declining.",
"-27.815594534156844"
],
[
"instances that they have observed of polar bears stalking and killing one another for food. Antarctica The Antarctic peninsula has lost a number of ice shelves recently. These are large areas of floating ice which are fed by glaciers. Many are the size of a small country. The sudden collapse of the Larsen B ice shelf in 2002 took 5 weeks or less and may have been due to global warming. Larsen B had previously been stable for up to 12,000 years.\nConcern has been expressed about the stability of the West Antarctic ice sheet. A collapse of",
"-27.808314502603025"
],
[
"increase in the total amount of saltwater present in these wetlands could prove to be problematic for many species. While some may simply have to migrate to other areas, smaller ecosystems within the wetlands could be destroyed which, once again, influences the animal food chain.\nPolar bears are animals that are specifically affected through the process of rising sea levels. Living near the Arctic region, polar bears find their food on ice caps and sheets of ice. As these sheets continue to become fewer in quantity, it is predicted that the polar bears will have a difficult time sustaining life and",
"-27.74917000811547"
],
[
"been used to track current climate patterns but also patterns over the past several thousands years from the traces of CO2 and CH4 found trapped in the ice. In the past decade, polar ice caps have shown their most rapid decline in size with no true sign of recovery. Josefino Comiso, a senior research scientist at NASA, found that the “rate of warming in the Arctic over the last 20 years is eight times the rate of warming over the last 100 years.” In September 2012, sea ice reached its smallest size ever. Journalist John Vidal stated that sea ice",
"-27.716330217197537"
],
[
"documented, two subspecies were identified: the American polar bear (Ursus maritimus maritimus) by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and the Siberian polar bear (Ursus maritimus marinus) by Peter Simon Pallas in 1776. This distinction has since been invalidated. One alleged fossil subspecies has been identified: Ursus maritimus tyrannus, which became extinct during the Pleistocene. U.m. tyrannus was significantly larger than the living subspecies. However, recent reanalysis of the fossil suggests that it was actually a brown bear. Population and distribution The polar bear is found in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses as far south as Newfoundland. Due to",
"-27.70282520429464"
],
[
"by polar bears, bear-destroyed supply caches and melting ice. As temperatures continued to rise, the remaining crews made several short trips of observation, noting the migratory birds and employing the returning vegetation as a cure for their persisting scurvy.\nBy early July 1854 Kane was considering the possibility of another winter locked in the ice measured against the fact that they were not provisioned for another year. The option of abandoning the Advance was considered dishonorable at best. Kane and five men undertook an attempt in a modified 23 feet (7.0 m) whaleboat to reach Beechey Island, where Kane, as part of",
"-27.66364296223037"
],
[
"eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued.\nAlthough a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a warm period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the Oligocene. The Miocene warming began 21 million years ago and continued until 14 million years ago, when global temperatures took a sharp drop—the Middle Miocene Climate Transition (MMCT). By 8 million years ago, temperatures dropped sharply once again, and the Antarctic ice sheet was already approaching its present-day size and thickness. Greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 7 to 8 million years ago,",
"-27.656398037914187"
],
[
"2.8 million years ago, the early ice age began with the icing of the North Pole, causing the distribution of Dioon to shrink very sharply.\nIn the Paleocene (55.8 - 65.5 ka) Dioon was next to Zamia and Anemia the only today neotropical genus that was still present in the flora of Alaska. During the Tertiary period, about 2.6 million years ago, Dioons died in almost all of North America with only a few relic collections remained in a small area in Central America, where today still the diversity center of the genus lies. A spread to South America was not",
"-27.654433179995976"
],
[
"European brown bear.\nIn the 1900s, bear populations had been decreasing because of increased hunting of bears for sustenance (done mostly by native peoples such as the Inupiat of Alaska and the Inuvialuit of Canada) and for trophy prizes. Polar bear skins became popular as a sign of wealth and prestige, especially in Europe during the Victorian era. Comparatively, the pelts of giant panda, were also highly valued, priced at around 176,000 U.S. dollars. Settlers, indigenous, villagers and farmers defended their families and livestock by killing the local predators, including bears. This practice is still in place where necessary and legal.",
"-27.62032009573886"
],
[
"The remains of polar bears have found in the stomachs of large Greenland sharks (Somniosus microcephalus), although it certainly cannot be ruled out that the bears were merely scavenged by this slow-moving, unusual shark. A rather unlikely killer of a grown polar bear has reportedly included a wolverine (Gulo gulo), anecedotely reported to have suffocated a bear in a zoo with a bite to the throat during a conflict. This report may well be dubious, however. Polar bears are sometimes the host of arctic mites such as Alaskozetes antarcticus. Long-distance swimming and diving Researchers tracked 52 sows in the southern",
"-27.610842642199714"
],
[
"about 10 thousand years ago near the end of the last Major Ice Age when the climate became more stable. However, abrupt climate change on the decade time scale has occurred regionally. Since civilization originated during a period of stable climate, a natural variation into a new climate regime (colder or hotter) could pose a threat to civilization.\nIn the history of the Earth, many ice ages are known to have occurred. An ice age would have a serious impact on civilization because vast areas of land (mainly in North America, Europe, and Asia) could become uninhabitable. Currently, the world is",
"-27.57225798914442"
],
[
"on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely independent regional climate changes rather than a globally synchronous increased glaciation. At most, there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period.\nSeveral causes have been proposed: cyclical lows in solar radiation, heightened volcanic activity, changes in the ocean circulation, variations in Earth's orbit and axial tilt (orbital forcing), inherent variability in global climate, and decreases in the human population (for example from the Black Death and the colonization of the Americas). Areas involved The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change",
"-27.561458872864023"
],
[
"went extinct at the end of the Pleistocene Era. In its much longer history in Eurasia, brown bears diverged from the two species of cave bear, the cave bear (U. spelaeus) and the Pleistocene small cave bear (U. rossicus), two species that it existed alongside in what is now Europe for the larger species and Central Asia and Siberia for the smaller species. The cave bears were similar in size to the larger forms of brown bear and polar bear alive today in terms of length, but were bulkier, with much higher-density skeletal remains and presumably rather heavier than the",
"-27.549061529902247"
],
[
"of Hudson Bay are ice-free for three weeks longer than they were thirty years ago, affecting polar bears, which prefer to hunt on sea ice. Species that rely on cold weather conditions such as gyrfalcons, and snowy owls that prey on lemmings that use the cold winter to their advantage may be hit hard. Marine invertebrates enjoy peak growth at the temperatures they have adapted to, regardless of how cold these may be, and cold-blooded animals found at greater latitudes and altitudes generally grow faster to compensate for the short growing season. Warmer-than-ideal conditions result in higher metabolism and consequent",
"-27.541443633148447"
]
] |